{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4069", "width": "2588", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Book _\\nGopightN _\u00e2\u0080\u009e _", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS\\nOLD TALES AND SUPERSTITIONS INTERPRETED\\nBY COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY\\nBY\\n1\\nJOHN FISKE\\nLa mythologie, cette science toute nouvelle, qui nous fait suivre les\\ncroyances de nos peres, depuis le berceau du monde jusqu aux supersti-\\ntions dc nos campagnes. Edmond Scherer\\nHOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY\\n1900", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "WESfl ECE1VED\\nLibre ry of c\\nOff.- c \u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00bbre\u00c2\u00bbn\\nof Co\u00e2\u0080\u009e tltit9\\nCopyright, IS72,\\nBx JAMES R. OSGOOD CO.\\nCopyright, 1900,\\nBy JOHN FISKE.\\nAll rights reserved.\\nTWENTY-SIXTH IMPRESSION.\\nThe Riverside Press, Cambridge, 3fnss., U. S. A.\\nPrinted by H. O. Houghton Company.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "TO\\nMY DEAR FRIEND,\\nWILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS,\\nIN REMEMBRANCE OF PLEASANT AUTUMN EVENINGS SPENT AMONG\\nWEREWOLVES AND TROLLS AND NIXIES,\\nE tolitcate\\nTHIS RECORD OF OUR ADVENTURES.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nIN publishing this somewhat rambling and unsystem-\\natic series of papers, in which I have endeavoured to\\ntouch briefly upon a great many of the most important\\npoints in the study of mythology, I think it right to ob-\\nserve that, in order to avoid confusing the reader with\\nintricate discussions, I have sometimes cut the matter\\nshort, expressing myself with dogmatic definiteness where\\na sceptical vagueness might perhaps have seemed more be-\\ncoming. In treating of popular legends and superstitions,\\nthe paths of inquiry are circuitous enough, and seldom\\ncan we reach a satisfactory conclusion until we have\\ntravelled all the way around Eobin Hood s barn and back\\nagain. I am sure that the reader would not have thanked\\nme for obstructing these crooked lanes with the thorns\\nand brambles of philological and antiquarian discussion,\\nto such an extent as perhaps to make him despair of ever\\nreaching the high road. I have not attempted to review,\\notherwise than incidentally, the works of Grimm, Muller,\\nKuhn, Breal, Dasent, and Tylor nor can I pretend to\\nhave added anything of consequence, save now and then\\nsome bit of explanatory comment, to the results obtained\\nby the labour of these scholars but it has rather been my", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi\\nPREFACE.\\naim to present these results in such a way as to awaken\\ngeneral interest in them. And accordingly, in dealing\\nwith a subject which depends upon philology almost as\\nmuch as astronomy depends upon mathematics, I have\\nomitted philological considerations wherever it has been\\npossible to do so. Nevertheless, I believe that nothing\\nhas been advanced as established which is not now gen-\\nerally admitted by scholars, and that nothing has been\\nadvanced as probable for which due evidence cannot be\\nproduced. Yet among many points which are proved,\\nand many others which are probable, there must always\\nremain many other facts of which we cannot feel sure\\nthat our own explanation is the true one; and the\\nstudent who endeavours to fathom the primitive thoughts\\nof mankind, as enshrined in mythology, will do well to\\nbear in mind the modest words of Jacob Grimm, him-\\nself the greatest scholar and thinker who has ever dealt\\nwith this class of subjects, I shall indeed interpret all\\nthat I can, but I cannot interpret all that I should like.\\nPetersham, September 6, 1872.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nPage\\nI. The Origins of Folk-Lore 1\\nII. The Descent of Fire 37\\nIII. Werewolves and Swan-Maidens 69\\nIY. Light and Darkness 104\\nV. Myths of the Barbaric World 141\\nYI. Juventus Mtjndi 174\\nVII. The Primeval Ghost- World 209\\nNote 241\\nIndex 243", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nI\\nTHE OKIGINS OF FOLK-LOBE.\\nFEW mediaeval heroes are so widely known as William\\nTell. His exploits have been celebrated by one of\\nthe greatest poets and one of the most popular musicians\\nof modern times. They are doubtless familiar to many\\nwho have never heard of Stauffacher or Winkelried, who\\nare quite ignorant of the prowess of Eoland, and to whom\\nArthur and Lancelot, nay, even Charlemagne, are but\\nempty names.\\nNevertheless, in spite of his vast reputation, it is very\\nlikely that no such person as William Tell ever existed,\\nand it is certain that the story of his shooting the apple\\nfrom his son s head has no historical value whatever.\\nIn spite of the wrath of unlearned but patriotic Swiss,\\nespecially of those of the cicerone class, this conclusion\\nis forced upon us as soon as we begin to study the\\nlegend in accordance with the canons of modern histori-\\ncal criticism. It is useless to point to Tell s lime-tree,\\nstanding to-day in the centre of the market-place at\\nAltdorf, or to quote for our confusion his crossbow pre-\\nserved in the arsenal at Zurich, as unimpeachable wit-\\nnesses to the truth of the story. It is in vain that we\\nare told, The bricks are alive to this day to testify to it\\n1 A", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "2\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ntherefore, deny it not. These proofs are not more valid\\nthan the handkerchief of St. Veronica, or the fragments\\nof the true cross. For if relics are to be received as\\nevidence, we must needs admit the truth of every miracle\\nnarrated by the Bollandists.\\nThe earliest work which makes any allusion to the\\nadventures of William Tell is the chronicle of the\\nyounger Melchior Euss, written in 1482. As the shoot-\\ning of the apple was supposed to have taken place in\\n1296, this leaves an interval of one hundred and eighty-\\nsix years, during which neither a Tell, nor a William,\\nnor the apple, nor the cruelty of Gessler, received any\\nmention. It may also be observed, parenthetically, that\\nthe charters of Kussenach, when examined, show that\\nno man by the name of Gessler ever ruled there. The\\nchroniclers of the fifteenth century, Faber and Hammer-\\nlin, who minutely describe the tyrannical acts by which\\nthe Duke of Austria goaded the Swiss to rebellion, do\\nnot once mention Tell s name, or betray the slightest\\nacquaintance with his exploits or with his existence. In\\nthe Zurich chronicle of 1479 he is not alluded to. But\\nwe have still better negative evidence. John of Winter-\\nthiir, one of the best chroniclers of the Middle Ages, was\\nliving at the time of the battle of Morgarten (1315), at\\nwhich his father was present. He tells us how, on the\\nevening of that dreadful day, he saw Duke Leopold him-\\nself in his flight from the fatal field, half dead with fear.\\nHe describes, with the loving minuteness of a contem-\\nporary, all the incidents of the Swiss revolution, but\\nnowhere does he say a word about William Tell. This\\nis sufficiently conclusive. These mediseval chroniclers,\\nwho never failed to go out of their way after a bit of the\\nepigrammatic and marvellous, who thought far more of a\\npointed story than of historical credibility, would never", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n3\\nhave kept silent about the adventures of Tell, if they had\\nknown anything about them.\\nAfter this, it is not surprising to find that no two\\nauthors who describe the deeds of William Tell agree in\\nthe details of topography and chronology. Such discrep-\\nancies never fail to confront us when we leave the solid\\nground of history and begin to deal with floating legends.\\nYet, if the story be not historical, what could have been\\nits origin To answer this question we must consider-\\nably expand the discussion.\\nThe first author of any celebrity who doubted the\\nstory of William Tell was Guillimann, in his work on\\nSwiss Antiquities, published in 1598. He calls the story\\na pure fable, but, nevertheless, eating his words, concludes\\nby proclaiming his belief in it, because the tale is so pop-\\nular Undoubtedly he acted a wise part for, in 1760,\\nas we are told, Uriel Freudenberger was condemned by\\nthe canton of Uri to be burnt alive, for publishing his\\nopinion that the legend of Tell had a Danish origin.*\\nThe bold heretic was substantially right, however, like\\nso many other heretics, earlier and later. The Danish\\naccount of Tell is given as follows, by Saxo Grammat-\\nicus\\nA certain Palnatoki, for some time among King Har-\\nold s body-guard, had made his bravery odious to very\\nmany of his fellow-soldiers by the zeal with which he\\nsurpassed them in the discharge of his duty. This man\\nonce, when talking tipsily over his cups, had boasted that\\nhe was so skilled an archer that he could hit the smallest\\napple placed a long way off on a wand at the first shot\\nwhich talk, caught up at first by the ears of backbiters,\\nsoon came to the hearing of the king. Now, mark how\\nthe wickedness of the king turned the confidence of the\\nSee Delepierre, Historical Difficulties, p. 75.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "4\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nsire to the peril of the son, by commanding that this\\ndearest pledge of his life should be placed instead of the\\nwand, with a threat that, unless the author of this prom-\\nise could strike off the apple at the first night of the\\narrow, he should pay the penalty of his empty boasting\\nby the loss of his head. The king s command forced the\\nsoldier to perform more than he had promised, and what\\nhe had said, reported by the tongues of slanderers, bound\\nhim to accomplish what he had not said. Yet did not\\nhis sterling courage, though caught in the snare of slan-\\nder, suffer him to lay aside his firmness of heart nay, he\\naccepted the trial the more readily because it was hard.\\nSo Palnatoki warned the boy urgently when he took his\\nstand to await the coming of the hurtling arrow with\\ncalm ears and unbent head, lest, by a slight turn of his\\nbody, he should defeat the practised skill of the bowman\\nand, taking further counsel to prevent his fear, he turned\\naway his face, lest he should be scared at the sight of the\\nweapon. Then, taking three arrows from the quiver, he\\nstruck the mark given him with the first he fitted to the\\nstring But Palnatoki, when asked by the king why\\nhe had taken more arrows from the quiver, when it had\\nbeen settled that he should only try the fortune of the\\nbow once, made answer, That I might avenge on thee\\nthe swerving of the first by the points of the rest, lest\\nperchance my innocence might have been punished, while\\nyour violence escaped scot-free.\\nThis ruthless king is none other than the famous Har-\\nold Blue-tooth, and the occurrence is placed by Saxo in\\nthe year 950. But the story appears not only in Den-\\nmark, but in England, in Norway, in Finland and Kussia,\\nand in Persia, and there is some reason for supposing that\\nit was known in India. In Norway we have the adven-\\nSaxo Grammaticus, Bk. X. p. 166, ed. Frankf. 1576.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n5\\ntures of Pansa the Splay-footed, and of Hemingr, a\\nvassal of Harold Hardrada, who invaded England in\\n1066. In Iceland there is the kindred legend of Egil,\\nbrother of Wayland Smith, the Norse Vulcan. In Eng-\\nland there is the ballad of William of Cloudeslee, which\\nsupplied Scott with many details of the archery scene\\nin Ivanhoe. Here, says the dauntless bowman,\\nI have a sonne seven years old\\nHee is to me full deere\\nI will tye him to a stake\\nAll shall see him that bee here\\nAnd lay an apple upon his head,\\nAnd goe six paces him froe,\\nAnd I myself with a broad arrowe\\nShall cleave the apple in towe.\\nIn the Malleus Maleficarum a similar story is told of\\nPuncher, a famous magician on the Upper Ehine. The\\ngreat ethnologist Castren dug up the same legend in Fin-\\nland. It is common, as Dr. Dasent observes, to the Turks\\nand Mongolians and a legend of the wild Samoyeds,\\nwho never heard of Tell or saw a book in their lives,\\nrelates it, chapter and verse, of one of their marksmen.\\nFinally, in the Persian poem of Farid-Uddin Attar, born\\nin 1119, we read a story of a prince who shoots an apple\\nfrom the head of a beloved page. In all these stories,\\nnames and motives of course differ but all contain the\\nsame essential incidents. It is always an unerring archer\\nwho, at the capricious command of a tyrant, shoots from\\nthe head of some one dear to him a small object, be it an\\napple, a nut, or a piece of coin. The archer always pro-\\nvides himself with a second arrow, and, when questioned\\nas to the use he intended to make of his extra weapon,\\nthe invariable reply is, To kill thee, tyrant, had I slain\\nmy son. Now, when a marvellous occurrence is said to\\nhave happened everywhere, we may feel sure that it", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "6\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nnever happened anywhere. Popular fancies propagate\\nthemselves indefinitely, but historical events, especially\\nthe striking and dramatic ones, are rarely repeated. The\\nfacts here collected lead inevitably to the conclusion\\nthat the Tell myth was known, in its general features, to\\nour Aryan ancestors, before ever they left their primitive\\ndwelling-place in Central Asia.\\nIt may, indeed, be urged that some one of these won-\\nderful marksmen may really have existed and have per-\\nformed the feat recorded in the legend and that his true\\nstory, carried about by hearsay tradition from one coun-\\ntry to another and from age to age, may have formed the\\ntheme for all the variations above mentioned, just as the\\nfables of La Fontaine were patterned after those of ^Esop\\nand Phsedrus, and just as many of Chaucer s tales were\\nconsciously adopted from Boccaccio. No doubt there has\\nbeen a good deal of borrowing and lending among the\\nlegends of different peoples, as well as among the words\\nof different languages and possibly even some pictur-\\nesque fragment of early history may have now and then\\nbeen carried about the world in this manner. But as the\\nphilologist can with almost unerring certainty distinguish\\nbetween the native and the imported words in any Aryan\\nlanguage, by examining their phonetic peculiarities, so\\nthe student of popular traditions, though working with\\nfar less perfect instruments, can safely assert, with refer-\\nence to a vast number of legends, that they cannot have\\nbeen obtained by any process of conscious borrowing.\\nThe difficulties inseparable from any such hypothesis\\nwill become more and more apparent as we proceed to\\nexamine a few other stories current in different portions\\nof the Aryan domain.\\nAs the Swiss must give up his Tell, so must the Welsh-\\nman be deprived of his brave dog Gellert, over whose", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n7\\niel fate I confess to having shed more tears than I\\nuld regard as well bestowed upon the misfortunes of\\nny a human hero of romance. Every one knows how\\ndear old brute killed the wolf which had come to\\ndevour Llewellyn s child, and how the prince, returning\\nhome and finding the cradle upset and the dog s mouth\\ndripping blood, hastily slew his benefactor, before the cry\\nof the child from behind the cradle and the sight of the\\nwolf s body had rectified his error. To this day the vis-\\nitor to Snowdon is told the touching story, and shown\\nthe place, called Beth-Gellert,* where the dog s grave is\\nstill to be seen. Nevertheless, the story occurs in the\\nfireside lore of nearly every Aryan people. Under the\\nGellert-form it started in the Panchatantra, a collection\\nof Sanskrit fables and it has even been discovered in a\\nChinese work which dates from A. D. 668. Usually the\\nhero is a dog, but sometimes a falcon, an ichneumon, an\\ninsect, or even a man. In Egypt it takes the following\\ncomical shape A Wali once smashed a pot full of herbs\\nwhich a cook had prepared. The exasperated cook\\nthrashed the well-intentioned but unfortunate Wali within\\nan inch of his life, and when he returned, exhausted with\\nhis efforts at belabouring the man, to examine the broken\\npot, he discovered amongst the herbs a poisonous snake. -f*\\nNow this story of the Wali is as manifestly identical\\nwith the legend of Gellert as the English word father is\\nwith the Latin pater but as no one would maintain\\nAccording to Mr. Isaac Taylor, the name is really derived from St.\\nCelert, a Welsh saint of the fifth century, to whom the church of Llan-\\ngeller is consecrated. (Words and Places, p. 339.)\\nt Compare Krilof s story of the Gnat and the Shepherd, in Mr. Eals-\\nton s excellent version, Krilof and his Fables, p. 170. Many parallel\\nexamples are cited by Mr. Baring- Gould, Curious Myths, Yol. I. pp.\\n126-136. See also the story of Folliculus, Swan, Gesta Romanorum,\\nad. Wright, Vol. I. p. lxxxii.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "8\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthat the word father is in any sense derived from pater,\\nso it would be impossible to represent either the Welsh\\nor the Egyptian legend as a copy of the other. Obviously\\nthe conclusion is forced upon us that the stories, like the\\nwords, are related collaterally, having descended from a\\ncommon ancestral legend, or having been suggested by\\none and the same primeval idea.\\nClosely connected with the Gellert myth are the stories\\nof Faithful John and of Eama and Luxman. In the\\nGerman story, Faithful John accompanies the prince, his\\nmaster, on a journey in quest of a beautiful maiden,\\nwhom he wishes to make his bride. As they are carry-\\ning her home across the seas, Faithful John hears some\\ncrows, whose language he understands, foretelling three\\ndangers impending over the prince, from which his friend\\ncan save him only by sacrificing his own life. As soon\\nas they land, a horse will spring toward the king, which,\\nif he mounts it, will bear him away from his bride for-\\never but whoever shoots the horse, and tells the king\\nthe reason, will be turned into stone from toe to knee.\\nThen, before the wedding a bridal garment will lie be-\\nfore the king, which, if he puts it on, will burn him like\\nthe Nessos-shirt of Herakles; but whoever throws the\\nshirt into the fire and tells the king the reason, will be\\nturned into stone from knee to heart. Finally, during\\nthe wedding-festivities, the queen will suddenly fall in a\\nswoon, and unless some one takes three drops of blood\\nfrom her right breast she will die but whoever does so,\\nand tells the king the reason, will be turned into stone\\nfrom head to foot. Thus forewarned, Faithful John saves\\nhis master from all these dangers but the king misinter-\\nprets his motive in bleeding his wife, and orders him to\\nbe hanged. On the scaffold he tells his story, and while\\nthe king humbles himself in an agony of remorse, his\\nnoble friend is turned into stone.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LOBE.\\n9\\nIn the South Indian tale Luxman accompanies Bama,\\nwho is carrying home his bride. Luxman overhears two\\nowls talking about the perils that await his master and\\nmistress. First he saves them from being crushed by\\nthe falling limb of a banyan-tree, and then he drags them\\naway from an arch which immediately after gives way.\\nBy and by, as they rest under a tree, the king falls\\nasleep. A cobra creeps up to the queen, and Luxman\\nkills it with his sword; but, as the owls had foretold,\\na drop of the cobra s blood falls on the queen s forehead.\\nAs Luxman licks off the blood, the king starts up, and,\\nthinking that his vizier is kissing his wife, upbraids him\\nwith his ingratitude, whereupon Luxman, through grief\\nat this unkind interpretation of his conduct, is turned\\ninto stone.*\\nFor further illustration we may refer to the Norse tale\\nof the Giant who had no Heart in his Body, as related\\nby Dr. Dasent. This burly magician having turned six\\nbrothers with their wives into stone, the seventh brother\\nthe crafty Boots or many-witted Odysseus of European\\nfolk-lore sets out to obtain vengeance if not reparation\\nfor the evil done to his kith and kin. On the way he\\nshows the kindness of his nature by rescuing from de-\\nstruction a raven, a salmon, and a wolf. The grateful\\nwolf carries him on his back to the giant s castle, where\\nthe lovely princess whom the monster keeps in irksome\\nbondage promises to act, in behalf of Boots, the part of\\nDelilah, and to find out, if possible, where her lord keeps\\nhis heart. The giant, like the Jewish hero, finally suc-\\ncumbs to feminine blandishments. Far, far away in a\\nlake lies an island on that island stands a church in\\nthat church is a well; in that well swims a duck; in\\nthat duck there is an egg and in that egg there lies my\\nSee Cox, Mythology of the Aryan Nations, Yol. I. pp. 145-149.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "10\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nheart, you darling. Boots, thus instructed, rides on the\\nwolf s back to the island the raven flies to the top of the\\nsteeple and gets the church-keys the salmon dives to\\nthe bottom of the well, and brings up the egg from the\\nplace where the duck had dropped it; and so Boots\\nbecomes master of the situation. As he squeezes the\\negg, the giant, in mortal terror, begs and prays for his\\nlife, which Boots promises to spare on condition that his\\nbrothers and their brides should be released from their\\nenchantment. But when all has been duly effected, the\\ntreacherous youth squeezes the egg in two, and the giant\\ninstantly bursts.\\nThe same story has lately been found in Southern\\nIndia, and is published in Miss Frere s remarkable collec-\\ntion of tales entitled Old Deccan Days. In the Hindu\\nversion the seven daughters of a rajah, with their hus-\\nbands, are transformed into stone by the great magician\\nPunchkin, all save the youngest daughter, whom\\nPunchkin keeps shut up in a tower until by threats\\nor coaxing he may prevail upon her to marry him. But\\nthe captive princess leaves a son at home in the cradle,\\nwho grows up to manhood unmolested, and finally under-\\ntakes the rescue of his family. After long and weary\\nwanderings he finds his mother shut up in Punchkin s\\ntower, and persuades her to play the part of the princess\\nin the Norse legend. The trick is equally successful\\nHundreds of thousands of miles away there lies a deso-\\nlate c juntry covered with thick jungle. In the midst of\\nthe jungle grows a circle of palm-trees, and in the centre\\nof the circle stand six jars full of water, piled one above\\nanother below the sixth jar is a small cage which con-\\ntains a little green parrot on the life of the parrot de-\\npends my life, and if the parrot is killed I must die.\\nThe same incident occurs in the Arabian story of Seyf-el-Mulook", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE. II\\nThe young prince finds the place guarded by a host of\\ndragons, but some eaglets whom he has saved from a\\ndevouring serpent in the course of his journey take him\\non their crossed wings and carry him to the place where\\nthe jars are standing. He instantly overturns the jars,\\nand seizing the parrot, obtains from the terrified magi-\\ncian full reparation. As soon as his own friends and\\na stately procession of other royal or noble victims have\\nbeen set at liberty, he proceeds to pull the parrot to\\npieces. As the wings and legs come away, so tumble off\\nthe arms and legs of the magician and finally as the\\nprince wrings the bird s neck, Punchkin twists his own\\nhead round and dies.\\nThe story is also told in the highlands of Scotland, and\\nsome portions of it will be recognized by the reader as\\nincidents in the Arabian tale of the Princess Parizade.\\nThe union of close correspondence in conception with\\nmanifest independence in the management of the details\\nof these stories is striking enough, but it is a phenomenon\\nwith which we become quite familiar as we proceed in\\nthe study of Aryan popular literature. The legend of\\nthe Master Thief is no less remarkable than that of\\nPunchkin. In the Scandinavian tale the Thief, wishing\\nto get possession of a farmers ox, carefully hangs him-\\nself to a tree by the roadside. The farmer, passing by\\nwith his ox, is indeed struck by the sight of the dangling\\nand Bedeea-el-Jemal, where the Jinni s soul is enclosed in the crop of a\\nsparrow, and the sparrow imprisoned in a small box, and this enclosed\\nin another small box, and this again in seven other boxes, which are put\\ninto seven chests, contained in a coffer of marble, which is sunk in the\\nocean that surrounds the world. Seyf-el-Mulook raises the coffer by\\nthe aid of Suleyman s seal-ring, and having extricated the sparrow,\\nstrangles it, whereupon the Jinni s body is converted into a heap of\\nblack ashes, and Seyf-el-Mulook escapes with the maiden D61et-Kha-\\ntoon. See Lane s Arabian Nights, Yol. III. p. 316.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "12 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nbody, but thinks it none of his business, and does not stop\\nto interfere. No sooner has he passed than the Thief lets\\nhimself down, and running swiftly along a by-path, hangs\\nhimself with equal precaution to a second tree. This\\ntime the farmer is astonished and puzzled but when for\\nthe third time he meets the same unwonted spectacle,\\nthinking that three suicides in one morning are too much\\nfor easy credence, he leaves his ox and runs back to see\\nwhether the other two bodies are really where he thought\\nhe saw them. While he is framing hypotheses of witch-\\ncraft by which to explain the phenomenon, the Thief gets\\naway with the ox. In the Hitopadesa the story receives\\na finer point. A Brahman, who had vowed a sacrifice,\\nwent to the market to buy a goat. Three thieves saw\\nhim, and wanted to get hold of the goat. They stationed\\nthemselves at intervals on the high road. When the\\nBrahman, who carried the goat on his back, approached\\nthe first thief, the thief said, Brahman, why do you carry\\na dog on your back The Brahman replied, It is not\\na dog, it is a goat. A little while after he was accosted\\nby the second thief, who said, Brahman, why do you\\ncarry a dog on your back The Brahman felt per-\\nplexed, put the goat down, examined it, took it up again,\\nand walked on. Soon after he was stopped by the third\\nthief, who said, Brahman, why do you carry a dog on\\nyour back Then the Brahman was frightened, threw\\ndown the goat, and walked home to perform his ablutions\\nfor having touched an unclean animal. The thieves took\\nthe goat and ate it. The adroitness of the Norse King\\nin The Three Princesses of Whiteland shows but poor-\\nly in comparison with the keen psychological insight and\\ncynical sarcasm of these Hindu sharpers. In the course\\nof his travels this prince met three brothers fighting on\\na lonely moor. They had been fighting for a hundred", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n13\\nyears about the possession of a hat, a cloak, and a pair\\nof boots, which would make the wearer invisible, and\\nconvey him instantly whithersoever he might wish to\\ngo. The King consents to act as umpire, provided he\\nmay once try the virtue of the magic garments but once\\nclothed in them, of course he disappears, leaving the\\ncombatants to sit down and suck their thumbs. Now in\\nthe Sea of Streams of Story, written in the twelfth\\ncentury by Somadeva of Cashmere, the Indian King\\nPutraka, wandering in the Vindhya Mountains, similarly\\ndiscomfits two brothers who are quarrelling over a pair\\nof shoes, which are like the sandals of Hermes, and a\\nbowl which has the same virtue as Aladdin s lamp.\\nWhy don t you run a race for them suggests Putraka\\nand, as the two blockheads start furiously off, he quietly\\npicks up the bowl, ties on the shoes, and flies away\\nIt is unnecessary to cite further illustrations. The\\ntales here quoted are fair samples of the remarkable cor-\\nrespondence which holds good through all the various\\nsections of Aryan folk-lore. The hypothesis of lateral\\ndiffusion, as we may call it, manifestly fails to explain\\ncoincidences which are maintained on such an immense\\nscale. It is quite credible that one nation may have\\nborrowed from another a solitary legend of an archer who\\nperforms the feats of Tell and Palnatoki but it is utterly\\nincredible that ten thousand stories, constituting the en-\\ntire mass of household mythology throughout a dozen\\nseparate nations, should have been handed from one to\\nanother in this way. No one would venture to suggest\\nthat the old grannies of Iceland and Norway, to whom\\nWe owe such stories as the Master Thief and the Princesses\\nof Whiteland, had ever read Somadeva or heard of the\\nThe same incident is repeated in the story of Hassan of El- Basrah.\\nSee Lane s Arabian Nights, Vol. Ill p. 452.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "14\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\ntreasures of Bhampsinitos. A large proportion of the\\ntales with which we are dealing were utterly unknown\\nto literature until they were taken down by Grimm and\\nFrere and Castren and Campbell, from the lips of igno-\\nrant peasants, nurses, or house-servants, in Germany and\\nHindustan, in Siberia and Scotland. Yet, as Mr. Cox\\nobserves, these old men and women, sitting by the chim-\\nney-corner and somewhat timidly recounting to the lit-\\nerary explorer the stories which they had learned in child-\\nhood from their own nurses and grandmas, reproduce the\\nmost subtle tons of thought and expression, and an end-\\nless series of complicated narratives, in which the order\\nof incidents and the words of the speakers are preserved\\nwith a fidelity nowhere paralleled in the oral tradition\\nof historical events. It may safely be said that no series\\nof stories introduced in the form of translations from\\nother languages could ever thus have filtered down into\\nthe lowest strata of society, and thence have sprung up\\nagain, like Antaios, with greater energy and heightened\\nbeauty. There is indeed no alternative for us but to\\nadmit that these fireside tales have been handed down\\nfrom parent to child for more than a hundred genera-\\ntions that the primitive Aryan cottager, as he took his\\nevening meal of yava and sipped his fermented mead,\\nlistened with his children to the stories of Boots and\\nCinderella and the Master Thief, in the days when the\\nsquat Laplander was master of Europe and the dark-\\nskinned Sudra was as yet unmolested in the Punjab.\\nOnly such community of origin can explain the commu-\\nnity in character between the stories told by the Aryan s\\ndescendants, from the jungles of Ceylon to the highlands\\nof Scotland.\\nThis conclusion essentially modifies our view of the\\norigin and growth of a legend like that of William Tell", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "TEE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\nIS\\nThe case of the Tell legend is radically different from the\\ncase of the blindness of Belisarius or the burning of the\\nAlexandrian library by order of Omar. The latter are\\nisolated stories or beliefs the former is one of a family\\nof stories or beliefs. The latter are untrustworthy tradi-\\ntions of doubtful events Tmt in dealing with the former,\\nwe are face to face with a myth.\\nWhat, then, is a myth The theory of Euhemeros,\\nwhich was so fashionable a century ago, in the days of\\nthe Abbe* Banier, has long since been so utterly aban-\\ndoned that to refute it now is but to slay the slain. The\\npeculiarity of this theory was that it cut away all the\\nextraordinary features of a given myth, wherein dwelt its\\ninmost significance, and to the dull and useless residuum\\naccorded the dignity of primeval history. In this way\\nthe myth was lost without compensation, and the stu-\\ndent, in seeking good digestible bread, found but the\\nhardest of pebbles. Considered merely as a pretty story,\\nthe legend of the golden fruit watched by the dragon in\\nthe garden of the Hesperides is not without its value.\\nBut what merit can there be in the gratuitous statement\\nwhich, degrading the grand Doric hero to a level with\\nany vulgar fruit-stealer, makes Herakles break a close\\nwith force and arms, and carry off a crop of oranges\\nwhich had been guarded by mastiffs It is still worse\\nwhen we come to the more homely folk-lore with which\\nthe student of mythology now has to deal. The theo-\\nries of Banier, which limped and stumbled awkwardly\\nenough when it was only a question of Hermes and\\nMinos and Odin, have fallen never to rise again since\\nthe problems of Punchkin and Cinderella and the Blue\\nBelt have begun to demand solution. The conclusion has\\nbeen gradually forced upon the student, that the marvel-\\nlous portion of these old stories is no illegitimate excres-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "1 6 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ncence, but was rather the pith and centre of the whole,*\\nin days when there was no supernatural, because it had\\nnot yet been discovered that there was such a thing as\\nnature. The religious myths of antiquity and the fire-\\nside legends of ancient and modern times have their\\ncommon root in the mental habits of primeval humanity.\\nThey are the earliest recorded utterances of men con-\\ncerning the visible phenomena of the world into which\\nthey were born.\\nThat prosaic and coldly rational temper with which\\nmodern men are wont to regard natural phenomena was\\nin early times unknown. We have come to regard all\\nevents as taking place regularly, in strict conformity to\\nlaw whatever our official theories may be, we instinc-\\ntively take this view of things. But our primitive ances-\\ntors knew nothing about laws of nature, nothing about\\nphysical forces, nothing about the relations of cause and\\neffect, nothing about the necessary regularity of things.\\nThere was a time in the history of mankind when these\\nthings had never been inquired into, and when no gener-\\nalizations about them had been framed, tested, or estab-\\nlished. There was no conception of an order of nature,\\nand therefore no distinct conception of a supernatural\\norder of things. There was no belief in miracles as\\ninfractions of natural laws, but there was a belief in the\\noccurrence of wonderful events too mighty to have been\\nbrought about by ordinary means. There was an unlim-\\nited capacity for believing and fancying, because fancy\\nand belief had not yet been checked and headed off in\\nvarious directions by established rules of experience.\\nPhysical science is a very late acquisition of the human\\nmind, but we are already sufficiently imbued with it to\\nKetrancher le merveilleux d un mythe, c est le supprimer.\\nBreal, Hercule et Cacus, p. 50.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\nbe almost completely disabled from comprehending the\\nthoughts of our ancestors. How Finn cosmogonists\\ncould have believed the earth and heaven to be made out\\nof a severed egg, the upper concave shell representing\\nheaven, the yolk being earth, and the crystal surround-\\ning fluid the circumambient ocean, is to us incomprehen-\\nsible and yet it remains a fact that they did so regard\\nthem. How the Scandinavians could have supposed the\\nmountains to be the mouldering bones of a mighty Jotun,\\nand the earth to be his festering flesh, we cannot con-\\nceive yet such a theory was solemnly taught and\\naccepted. How the ancient Indians could regard the\\nrain-clouds as cows with full udders milked by the winds\\nof heaven is beyond our comprehension, and yet their\\nVeda contains indisputable testimony to the fact that\\nthey were so regarded. We have only to read Mr.\\nBaring-Gould s book of Curious Myths, from which I\\nhave just quoted, or to dip into Mr. Thorpe s treatise on\\nNorthern Mythology, to realize how vast is the differ-\\nence between our stand-point and that from which, in\\nthe later Middle Ages, our immediate forefathers re-\\ngarded things. The frightful superstition of werewolves\\nis a good instance. In those days it was firmly believed\\nthat men could be, and were in the habit of being, trans-\\nformed into wolves. It was believed that women might\\nbring forth snakes or poodle-dogs. It was believed that\\nif a man had his side pierced in battle, you could cure\\nhim by nursing the sword which inflicted the wound.\\nAs late as 1600 a German writer would illustrate a\\nthunder-storm destroying a crop of corn by a picture of a\\ndragon devouring the produce of the field with his flam-\\ning tongue and iron teeth.\\nNow if such was the condition of the human intellect\\nonly three or four centuries ago, what must it have been", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "iS\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nin that dark antiquity when not even the crudest gener-\\nalizations of Greek or of Oriental science had been\\nreached The same mighty power of imagination which\\nnow, restrained and guided by scientific principles, leads\\nus to discoveries and inventions, must then have wildly\\nrun riot in mythologic fictions whereby to explain the\\nphenomena of nature. Knowing nothing whatever of\\nphysical forces, of the blind steadiness with which a\\ngiven effect invariably follows its cause, the men of pri-\\nmeval antiquity could interpret the actions of nature\\nonly after the analogy of their own actions. The only\\nforce they knew was the force of which they were directly\\nconscious, the force of will. Accordingly, they imag-\\nined all the outward world to be endowed with volition,\\nand to be directed by it. They personified everything,\\nsky, clouds, thunder, sun, moon, ocean, earthquake,\\nwhirlwind.* The comparatively enlightened Athenians\\nof the age of Perikles addressed the sky as a person, and\\nprayed to it to rain upon their gardens. And for calling\\nthe moon a mass of dead matter, Anaxagoras came near\\nlosing his life. To the ancients the moon was not a life-\\nless ball of stones and clods it was the horned huntress,\\nArtemis, coursing through the upper ether, or bathing\\nherself in the clear lake or it was Aphrodite, protectress\\nof lovers, born of the sea-foam in the East near Cyprus.\\nThe clouds were no bodies of vaporized water they were\\nTTo distinction between the animate and inanimate is made in the\\nlanguages of the Esquimaux, the Choctaws, the Muskoghee, and the\\nCaddo. Only the Iroquois, Cherokee, and the Algonquin-Lenape have\\nit, so far as is known, and with them it is partial. According to the\\nFijians, vegetables and stones, nay, even tools and weapons, pots and\\ncanoes, have souls that are immortal, and that, like the souls of men,\\npass on at last to Mbulu, the abode of departed spirits. M Lennan,\\nThe Worship of Animals and Plants, Fortnightlv Review, Yol. XII. p.\\n416.\\nt Marcus Aurelius, V. 7.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE. 1 9\\ncows with swelling udders, driven to the milking by\\nHermes, the summer wind; or great sheep with moist\\nfleeces, slain by the unerring arrows of Bellerophon, the\\nsun or swan-maidens, flitting across the firmament,\\nValkyries hovering over the battle-field to receive the\\nsouls of falling heroes or, again, they were mighty\\nmountains piled one above another, in whose cavernous\\nrecesses the divining- wand of the storm-god Thor revealed\\nhidden treasures. The yellow-haired sun, Phoibos, drove\\nwesterly all day in his flaming chariot or perhaps, as\\nMeleagros, retired for a while in disgust from the sight\\nof men; wedded at eventide the violet light (Oinone,\\nIole), which he had forsaken in the morning sank, as\\nHerakles, upon a blazing funeral-pyre, or, like Agamem-\\nnon, perished in a blood-stained bath or, as the fish-god,\\nDagon, swam nightly through the subterranean waters,\\nto appear eastward again at daybreak. Sometimes\\nPhaethon, his rash, inexperienced son, would take the\\nreins and drive the solar chariot too near the earth, caus-\\ning the fruits to perish, and the grass to wither, and the\\nwells to dry up. Sometimes, too, the great all-seeing\\ndivinity, in his wrath at the impiety of men, would shoot\\ndown his scorching arrows, causing pestilence to spread\\nover the land. Still other conceptions clustered around\\nthe sun. Now it was the wonderful treasure-house, into\\nwhich no one could look and live and again it was Ixion\\nhimself, bound on the fiery wheel in punishment for vio-\\nlence offered to Here, the queen of the blue air.\\nThis theory of ancient mythology is not only beautiful\\nand plausible, it is, in its essential points, demonstrated.\\nIt stands on as firm a foundation as Grimm s law in\\nphilology, or the undulatory theory in molecular physics.\\nIt is philology which has here enabled us to read the\\nprimitive thoughts of mankind. A large number of the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "20\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nnames of Greek gods and heroes have no meaning in the\\nGreek language but these names occur also in Sanskrit,\\nwith plain physical meanings. In the Veda we find\\nZeus or Jupiter (Dyaus-pitar) meaning the sky, and\\nSarameias or Hermes, meaning the breeze of a summer\\nmorning. We find Athene (Ahana), meaning the light\\nof daybreak and we are thus enabled to understand why\\nthe Greek described her as sprung from the forehead of\\nZeus. There too we find Helena (Sarama), the fickle\\ntwilight, whom the Panis, or night-demons, who serve as\\nthe prototypes of the Hellenic Paris, strive to seduce\\nfrom her allegiance to the solar monarch. Even Achilleus\\n(Aharyu) again confronts us, with his captive Briseis (Bri-\\nsaya s offspring) and the fierce Kerberos (Qarvara) barks\\non Yedic ground in strict conformity to the laws of pho-\\nnetics.* Now, when the Hindu talked about Father\\nDyaus, or the sleek kine of Siva, he thought of the per-\\nsonified sky and clouds he had not outgrown the primi-\\ntive mental habits of the race. But the Greek, in whose\\nlanguage these physical meanings were lost, had long\\nbefore the Homeric epoch come to regard Zeus and\\nHermes, Athene, Helena, Paris, and Achilleus, as mere\\npersons, and in most cases the originals of his myths were\\ncompletely forgotten. In the Vedas the Trojan War is\\ncarried on in the sky, between the bright deities and the\\ndemons of night but the Greek poet, influenced perhaps\\nby some dim historical tradition, has located the contest\\non the shore of the Hellespont, and in his mind the\\nSome of these etymologies are attacked by Mr. Mahaffy in his Pro-\\nlegomena to Ancient History, p. 49. After long consideration I am\\nstill disposed to follow Max Mliller in adopting them, with the possible\\nexception of Achilleus. With Mr. Mahaffy s suggestion (p. 52) that\\nmany of the Homeric legends may have clustered arpund some his-\\ntorical basis, I fully agree as will appear, further on, from my paper\\non Juventus Mundi.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n21\\nactors, though superhuman, are still completely anthro-\\npomorphic. Of the true origin of his epic story he knew\\nas little as Euhemeros, or Lord Bacon, or the Abbe\\nBanier.\\nAfter these illustrations, we shall run no risk of being\\nmisunderstood when we define a myth as, in its origin,\\nan explanation, by the uncivilized mind, of some natural\\nphenomenon not an allegory, not an esoteric symbol,\\nfor the ingenuity is wasted which strives to detect in\\nmyths the remnants of a refined primeval science, but\\nan explanation. Primitive men had no profound science\\nto perpetuate by means of allegory, nor were they such\\nsorry pedants as to talk in riddles when plain language\\nwould serve their purpose. Their minds, we may be sure,\\nworked like our own, and when they spoke of the far-\\ndarting sun-god, they meant just what they said, save\\nthat where we propound a scientific theorem, they con-\\nstructed a myth.* A thing is said to be explained when\\nit is classified with other things with which we are al-\\nready acquainted. That is the only kind of explanation\\nof which the highest science is capable. We explain the\\norigin, progress, and ending of a thunder-storm, when we\\nclassify the phenomena presented by it along with other\\nmore familiar phenomena of vaporization and condensa-\\ntion. But the primitive man explained the same thing\\nto his own satisfaction when he had classified it along\\nwith the well-known phenomena of human volition, by\\nconstructing a theory of a great black dragon pierced by\\nLes facultes qui engendrent la mythologie sont les memes que\\ncelles qui engendront la philosophie, et ce n est pas sans raison que\\nl lnde et la Grece nous presentent le phenomene de la plus riche my-\\nthologie a cote de la plus profonde metaphysique. La conception de\\nla multiplicite dansj- univers, c est le polytheisme chez les peuples en-\\nfants c est la science chez les peuples arrives a l age mur. Kenan,\\nHist, des Langues Semitiques, Tom. I. p, 9.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "22\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthe unerring arrows of a heavenly archer. We consider\\nthe nature of the stars to a certain extent explained when\\nthey are classified as suns but the Mohammedan com-\\npiler of the Mishkat-ul-Ma sabih was content to ex-\\nplain them as missiles useful for stoning the Devil Now,\\nas soon as the old Greek, forgetting the source of his\\nconception, began to talk of a human Oidipous slaying a\\nleonine Sphinx, and as soon as the Mussulman began, if\\nhe ever did, to tell his children how the Devil once got\\na good pelting with golden bullets, then both the one and\\nthe other were talking pure mythology.\\nWe are justified, accordingly, in distinguishing between\\na myth and a legend. Though the words are etymologi-\\ncally parallel, and though in ordinary discourse we may\\nuse them interchangeably, yet when strict accuracy is\\nrequired, it is well to keep them separate. And it is\\nperhaps needless, save for the sake of completeness, to\\nsay that both are to be distinguished from stories which\\nhave been designedly fabricated. The distinction may\\noccasionally be subtle, but is usually broad enough.\\nThus, the story that Philip II. murdered his wife Eliza-\\nbeth, is a misrepresentation but the story that the same\\nElizabeth was culpably enamoured of her step-son Don\\nCarlos, is a legend. The story that Queen Eleanor saved\\nthe life of her husband, Edward I., by sucking a wound\\nmade in his arm by a poisoned arrow, is a legend but\\nthe story that Hercules killed a great robber, Cacus, who\\nhad stolen his cattle, conceals a physical meaning, and is\\na myth. While a legend is usually confined to one or\\ntwo localities, and is told of not more than one or two\\npersons, it is characteristic of a myth that it is spread, in\\none form or another, over a large part of the earth, the\\nleading incidents remaining constant, while the names\\nand often the motives vary with each locality. This is", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n23\\npartly due to the immense antiquity of myths, dating as\\nthey do from a period when many nations, now widely\\nseparated, had not yet ceased to form one people. Thus,\\nmany elements of, the myth of the Trojan War are to be\\nfound in the Kig-Veda and the myth of St. George and\\nthe Dragon is found in all the Aryan nations. But we\\nmust not always infer that myths have a common descent,\\nmerely because they resemble each other. We must re-\\nmember that the proceedings of the uncultivated mind\\nare more or less alike in all latitudes, and that the same\\nphenomenon might in various places independently give\\nrise to similar stories.* The myth of Jack and the Bean-\\nstalk is found not only among people of Aryan descent,\\nbut also among the Zulus of South Africa, and again\\namong the American Indians. Whenever we can trace\\na story in this way from one end of the world to the\\nother, or through a whole family of kindred nations, we\\nare pretty safe in assuming that we are dealing with a\\ntrue myth, and not with a mere legend.\\nApplying these considerations to the Tell myth, we at\\nonce obtain a valid explanation of its origin. The con-\\nception of infallible skill in archery, which underlies such\\na great variety of myths and popular fairy-tales, is origi-\\nnally derived from the inevitable victory of the sun over\\nhis enemies, the, demons of night, winter, and tempest.\\nArrows and spears which never miss their mark, swords\\nfrom whose blow no armour can protect, are invariably\\nthe weapons of solar divinities or heroes. The shafts of\\nBellerophon never fail to slay the black demon of the\\nrain-cloud, and the bolt of Phoibos Chrysaor deals sure\\ndestruction to the serpent of winter. Odysseus, warring\\nagainst the impious night-heroes, who have endeavoured\\nCases coming under this head are discussed further on, in my paper\\non Myths of the Barbaric World.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "24\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthroughout ten long years or hours of darkness to seduce\\nfrom her allegiance his twilight-bride, the weaver of the\\nnever-finished web of violet clouds, Odysseus, stripped\\nof his beggar s raiment and endowed with fresh youth\\nand beauty by the dawn-goddess, Athene, engages in\\nno doubtful conflict as he raises the bow which none but\\nhimself can bend. Nor is there less virtue in the spear\\nof Achilleus, in the swords of Perseus and Sigurd, in\\nRoland s stout blade Durandal, or in the brand Excali-\\nbur, with which Sir Bedivere was so loath to part. All\\nthese are solar weapons, and so, too, are the arrows of\\nTell and Palnatoki, Egil and Hemingr, and William of\\nCloudeslee, whose surname proclaims him an inhabitant\\nof the Phaiakian land. William Tell, whether of Cloud-\\nland or of Altdorf, is the last reflection of the beneficent\\ndivinity of daytime and summer, constrained for a while\\nto obey the caprice of the powers of cold and darkness,\\nas Apollo served Laomedon, and Herakles did the bid-\\nding of Eurystheus. His solar character is well pre-\\nserved, even in the sequel of the Swiss legend, in which\\nhe appears no less skilful as a steersman than as an\\narcher, and in which, after traversing, like Dagon, the\\ntempestuous sea of night, he leaps at daybreak in re-\\ngained freedom upon the land, and strikes down the\\noppressor who has held him in bondage.\\nBut the sun, though ever victorious in open contest\\nwith his enemies, is nevertheless not invulnerable. At\\ntimes he succumbs to treachery, is bound by the frost-\\ngiants, or slain by the demons of darkness. The poisoned\\nshirt of the cloud-fiend Nessos is fatal even to the mighty\\nHerakles, and the prowess of Siegfried at last fails to\\nsave him from the craft of Hagen. In Achilleus and\\nMeleagros we see the unhappy solar hero doomed to toil\\nfor the profit of others, and to be cut off by an untimely", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n25\\ndeath. The more fortunate Odysseus, who lives to a ripe\\nold age, and triumphs again and again over all the powers\\nof darkness, must nevertheless yield to the craving desire\\nto visit new cities and look upon new works of strange\\nmen, until at last he is swallowed up in the western sea.\\nThat the unrivalled navigator of the celestial ocean should\\ndisappear beneath the western waves is as intelligible as\\nit is that the horned Venus or Astarte should rise from\\nthe sea in the far east. It is perhaps less obvious that\\nwinter should be so frequently symbolized as a thorn or\\nsharp instrument. Achilleus dies by an arrow-wound in\\nthe heel the thigh of Adonis is pierced by the boar s\\ntusk, while Odysseus escapes with an ugly scar, which\\nafterwards secures his recognition by his old servant, the\\ndawn-nymph Eurykleia Sigurd is slain by a thorn, and\\nBalder by a sharp sprig of mistletoe and in the myth\\nof the Sleeping Beauty, the earth-goddess sinks into her\\nlong winter sleep when pricked by the point of the spin-\\ndle. In her cosmic palace, all is locked in icy repose,\\nnaught thriving save the ivy which defies the cold, until\\nthe kiss of the golden-haired sun-god reawakens life and\\nactivity.\\nThe wintry sleep of nature is symbolized in innumer-\\nable stories of spell-bound maidens and fair-featured\\nyouths, saints, martyrs, and heroes. Sometimes it is the\\nsun, sometimes the earth, that is supposed to slumber.\\nAmong the American Indians the sun-god Michabo is\\nsaid to sleep through the winter months; and at the\\ntime of the falling leaves, by way of composing himself\\nfor his nap, he fills his great pipe and divinely smokes\\nthe blue clouds, gently floating over the landscape, fill\\nthe air with the haze of Indian summer. In the Greek\\nmyth the shepherd Endymion preserves his freshness in\\na perennial slumber. The German Siegfried, pierced by\\n2", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "26 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthe thorn of winter, is sleeping until he shall be again\\ncalled forth to fight. In Switzerland, by the Vierwald-\\nstattersee, three Tells are awaiting the hour when their\\ncountry shall again need to be delivered from the oppres-\\nsor. Charlemagne is reposing in the Untersberg, sword\\nin hand, waiting for the coming of Antichrist; Olger\\nDanske similarly dreams away his time in Avallon and\\nin a lofty mountain in Thuringia, the great Emperor\\nFrederic Barbarossa slumbers with his knights around\\nhim, until the time comes for him to sally forth and raise\\nGermany to the first rank among the kingdoms of the\\nworld. The same story is told of Olaf Tryggvesson, of\\nDon Sebastian of Portugal, and of the Moorish King\\nBoabdil. The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, having taken\\nrefuge in a cave from the persecutions of the heathen\\nDecius, slept one hundred and sixty-four years, and\\nawoke to find a Christian emperor on the throne. The\\nmonk of Hildesheim, in the legend so beautifully ren-\\ndered by Longfellow, doubting how with God a thousand\\nyears ago could be as yesterday, listened three minutes\\nentranced by the singing of a bird in the forest, and\\nfound, on waking from his revery, that a thousand years\\nhad flown. To the same family of legends belong the\\nnotion that St. John is sleeping at Ephesus until the last\\ndays of the world; the myth of the enchanter Merlin,\\nspell-bound by Vivien the story of the Cretan philoso-\\npher Epimenides, who dozed away fifty-seven years\\nin a cave and Eip Van Winkle s nap in the Cats-\\nkills*\\nWe might go on almost indefinitely citing household\\ntales of wonderful sleepers but, on the principle of the\\nA collection of these interesting legends may be found in Baring-\\nGould s Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, of which work this papei\\nwas originally a review.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n27\\nassociation of opposites, we are here reminded of sundry-\\ncases of marvellous life and wakefulness, illustrated in\\nthe Wandering Jew the dancers of Kolbeck Joseph of\\nArimathsea with the Holy Grail; the Wild Huntsman,\\nwho to all eternity chases the red deer the Captain of\\nthe Phantom Ship the classic Tithonos and the Man in\\nthe Moon.\\nThe lunar spots have afforded a rich subject for the\\nplay of human fancy. Plutarch wrote a treatise on\\nthem, but the myth-makers had been before him.\\nEvery one, says Mr. Baring-Gould, knows that\\nthe moon is inhabited by a man with a bundle of\\nsticks on his back, who has been exiled thither for\\nmany centuries, and who is so far off that he is beyond\\nthe reach of death. He has once visited this earth, if\\nthe nursery rhyme is to be credited when it asserts that\\nThe Man in the Moon\\nCame down too soon\\nAnd asked his way to Norwich\\nbut whether he ever reached that city the same authority\\ndoes not state. Dante calls him Cain Chaucer has him\\nput up there as a punishment for theft, and gives him a\\nthorn-bush to carry Shakespeare also loads him with\\nthe thorns, but by way of compensation gives him a dog\\nfor a companion. Ordinarily, however, his offence is\\nstated to have been, not stealing, but Sabbath-breaking,\\nan idea derived from the Old Testament. Like the\\nman mentioned in the Book of Numbers, he is caught\\ngathering sticks on the Sabbath and, as an example to\\nmankind, he is condemned to stand forever in the moon,\\nwith his bundle on his back. Instead of a dog, one Ger-\\nman version places with him a woman, whose crime was\\nchurning butter on Sunday. She carries her butter-tub\\nand this brings us to Mother Goose again", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "28\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nJack and Jill went np the Mil\\nTo get a pail of water.\\nJack fell down and broke his crown,\\nAnd Jill came tumbling after.\\nThis may read like mere nonsense but there is a point\\nof view from which it may be safely said that there is\\nvery little absolute nonsense in the world. The story of\\nJack and Jill is a venerable one. In Icelandic mythology\\nwe read that Jack and Jill were two children whom the\\nmoon once kidnapped and carried np to heaven. They\\nhad been drawing water in a bucket, which they were\\ncarrying by means of a pole placed across their shoulders\\nand in this attitude they have stood to the present day\\nin the moon. Even now this explanation of the moon-\\nspots is to be heard from the mouths of Swedish peasants.\\nThey fall away one after the other, as the moon wanes,\\nand their water-pail symbolizes the supposed connection\\nof the moon with rain-storms. Other forms of the myth\\noccur in Sanskrit.\\nThe moon-goddess, or Aphrodite, of the ancient Ger-\\nmans, was called Horsel, or Ursula, who figures in\\nChristian mediaeval mythology as a persecuted saint,\\nattended by a troop of eleven thousand virgins, who all\\nsuffer martyrdom as they journey from England to Co-\\nlogne. The meaning of the myth is obvious. In German\\nmythology, England is the Phaiakian land of clouds and\\nphantoms; the succuhus, leaving her lover before day-\\nbreak, excuses herself on the plea that her mother is\\ncalling her in England. The companions of Ursula\\nare the pure stars, who leave the cloudland and suffer\\nmartyrdom as they approach the regions of day. In the\\nChristian tradition, Ursula is the pure Artemis but, in\\nSee Procopius, De Bello Gothico, IV. 20 Villemarque, Barzas\\nBreiz, I. 136. As a child I was instructed by an old nurse that Va?\\nDiemen s Land is the home of ghosts and departed spirits.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n29\\naccordance with her ancient character, she is likewise the\\nsensual Aphrodite, who haunts the Yenusberg and this\\nbrings us to the story of Tannhauser.\\nThe Horselberg, or mountain of Venus, lies in Thu-\\nringia, between Eisenach and Gotha. High up on its\\nslope yawns a cavern, the Hbrselloch, or cave of Venus,\\nwithin which is heard a muffled roar, as of subterranean\\nwater. From this cave, in old times, the frightened in-\\nhabitants of the neighbouring valley would hear at night\\nwild moans and cries issuing, mingled with peals of\\ndemon-like laughter. Here it was believed that Venus\\nheld her court and there were not a few who declared\\nthat they had seen fair forms of female beauty beckoning\\nthem from the mouth of the chasm. Tannhauser was\\na Frankish knight and famous minnesinger, who, trav-\\nelling at twilight past the Horselberg, saw a white\\nglimmering figure of matchless beauty standing before\\nhim and beckoning him to her. Leaving his horse, he\\nwent up to meet her, whom he knew to be none other\\nthan Venus. He descended to her palace in the heart of\\nthe mountain, and there passed seven years in careless\\nrevelry. Then, stricken with remorse and yearning for\\nanother glimpse of the pure light of day, he called in\\nagony upon the Virgin Mother, who took compassion on\\nhim and released him. He sought a village church, and\\nto priest after priest confessed his sin, without obtaining\\nabsolution, until finally he had recourse to the Pope. But\\nthe holy father, horrified at the enormity of his misdoing,\\ndeclared that guilt such as his could never be remitted\\nsooner should the staff in his hand grow green and blos-\\nsom. Then Tannhauser, full of despair and with his\\nsoul darkened, went away, and returned to the only\\nasylum open to him, the Venusberg. But lo three days\\nBaring-Gould, Curious Myths, Vol. I. p. 197.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "30\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nafter he had gone, Pope Urban discovered that his pas-\\ntoral staff had put forth buds and had burst into flower.\\nThen he sent messengers after Tannhauser, and they\\nreached the Horsel vale to hear that a wayworn man,\\nwith haggard brow and bowed head, had just entered the\\nHorselloch. Since then Tannhauser has not been seen.\\n(p. 201.)\\nAs Mr. Baring-Gould rightly observes, this sad legend,\\nin its Christianized form, is doubtless descriptive of the\\nstruggle between the new and the old faiths. The knight-\\nly Tannhauser, satiated with pagan sensuality, turns to\\nChristianity for relief, but, repelled by the hypocrisy,\\npride, and lack of sympathy of its ministers, gives up in\\ndespair, and returns to drown his anxieties in his old\\ndebauchery.\\nBut this is not the primitive form of the myth, which\\nrecurs in the folk-lore of every people of Aryan descent.\\nWho, indeed, can read it without being at once reminded\\nof Thomas of Erceldoune (or Hbrsel-hill), entranced by\\nthe sorceress of the Eilden of the nightly visits of Xunia\\nto the grove of the nymph Egeria of Odysseus held cap-\\ntive by the Lady Kalypso and, last but not least, of the\\ndelightful Arabian tale of Prince Ahmed and the Peri\\nBanou On his westward journey, Odysseus is ensnared\\nand kept in temporary bondage by the amorous nymph\\nof darkness, Kalypso (fcaXvTTTco, to veil or cover). So the\\nzone of the moon-goddess Aphrodite inveigles all-seeing\\nZeus to treacherous slumber on Mount Ida and by a\\nsimilar sorcery Tasso s great hero is lulled in unseemly\\nidleness in Armida s golden paradise, at the western verge\\nof the world. The disappearance of Tannhauser behind\\nthe moonlit cliff, lured by Venus Ursula, the pale goddess\\nof night, is a precisely parallel circumstance.\\nBut solar and lunar phenomena are by no means the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n31\\nonly sources of popular mythology. Opposite my writ-\\ning-table hangs a quaint German picture, illustrating\\nGoethe s ballad of the Erlking, in which the whole\\nwild pathos of the story is compressed into one supreme\\nmoment we see the fearful, half-gliding rush of the Erl-\\nking, his long, spectral arms outstretched to grasp the\\nchild, the frantic gallop of the horse, the alarmed father\\nclasping his darling to his bosom in convulsive embrace,\\nthe siren-like elves hovering overhead, to lure the little\\nsoul with their weird harps. There can be no better\\nillustration than is furnished by this terrible scene of the\\nmagic power of mythology to invest the simplest physical\\nphenomena with the most intense human interest; for\\nthe true significance of the whole picture is contained in\\nthe father s address to his child,\\nSei ruhig, bleibe ruhig, mein Kind\\nIn diirren Blattern sauselt der Wind.\\nThe story of the Piper of Hamelin, well known in the\\nversion of Eobert Browning, leads to the same conclusion.\\nIn 1284 the good people of Hamelin could obtain no rest,\\nnight or day, by reason of the direful host of rats which\\ninfested their town. One day came a strange man in a\\nbunting-suit, and offered for five hundred guilders to rid\\nthe town of the vermin. The people agreed whereupon\\nthe man took out a pipe and piped, and instantly all the\\nrats in town, in an army which blackened the face of the\\nearth, came forth from their haunts, and followed the\\npiper until he piped them to the river Weser, where they\\nall jumped in and were drowned. But as soon as the\\ntorment was gone, the townsfolk refused to pay the piper,\\non the ground that he was evidently a wizard. He went\\naway, vowing vengeance, and on St. John s day reap-\\npeared, and putting his pipe to his mouth blew a dif-\\nferent air. Whereat all the little, plump, rosy-cheeked,", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "32\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ngolden-haired children came merrily running after him,\\ntheir parents standing aghast, not knowing what to do,\\nwhile he led them up a hill in the neighbourhood. A door\\nopened in the mountain-side, through which he led them\\nin, and they never were seen again save one lame boy,\\nwho hobbled not fast enough to get in before the door\\nshut, and who lamented for the rest of his life that he\\nhad not been able to share the rare luck of his comrades.\\nIn the street through which this procession passed no\\nmusic was ever afterwards allowed to be played. For a\\nlong time the town dated its public documents from this\\nfearful calamity, and many authorities have treated it as\\nan historical event.* Similar stories are told of other\\ntowns in Germany, and, strange to say, in remote Abys-\\nsinia also. Wesleyan peasants in England believe that\\nangels pipe to children who are about to die; and in\\nScandinavia, youths are said to have been enticed away\\nby the songs of elf-maidens. In Greece, the sirens by\\ntheir magic lay allured voyagers to destruction; and\\nOrpheus caused the trees and dumb beasts to follow him.\\nHere we reach the explanation. For Orpheus is the\\nwind sighing through untold acres of pine forest. The\\npiper is no other than the wind, and the ancients held\\nthat in the wind were the souls of the dead. To this day\\nthe English peasantry believe that they hear the wail of\\nthe spirits of unbaptized children, as the gale sweeps\\npast their cottage doors. The Greek Hermes resulted\\nfrom the fusion of two deities. He is the sun and also\\nthe wind and in the latter capacity he bears away the\\nsouls of the dead. So the Norse Odin, who like Hermes\\nfulfils a double function, is supposed to rush at night\\nover the tree-tops, accompanied by the scudding train\\nof brave men s spirits. And readers of recent French\\nHence perhaps the adage, Always remember to pay the piper.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n33\\nliterature cannot fail to remember Erckmann-Chatrian s\\nterrible story of the wild huntsman Vittikab, and how he\\nsped through the forest, carrying away a young girl s\\nsoul.\\nThus, as Tannhauser is the Northern Ulysses, so is\\nGoethe s Erlking none other than the Piper of Hamelin.\\nAnd the piper, in turn, is the classic Hermes or Orpheus,\\nthe counterpart of the Finnish Wainamoinen and the\\nSanskrit Gunadhya. His wonderful pipe is the horn of\\nOberon, the lyre of Apollo (who, like the piper, was a\\nrat-killer), the harp stolen by Jack when he climbed\\nthe bean-stalk to the ogre s castle.* And the father, in\\nGoethe s ballad, is no more than right when he assures\\nhis child that the siren voice which tempts him is but\\nthe rustle of the wind among the dried leaves; for from\\nsuch a simple class of phenomena arose this entire fam-\\nily of charming legends.\\nBut why does the piper, who is a leader of souls (Psy-\\nchopompos), also draw rats after him In answering this\\nwe shall have occasion to note that the ancients by no\\nmeans shared that curious prejudice against the brute\\ncreation which is indulged in by modern anti-Darwin-\\nians. In many countries, rats and mice have been re-\\ngarded as sacred animals; but in Germany they were\\nthought to represent the human soul. One story out of\\na hundred must suffice to illustrate this. In Thuringia,\\nat Saalfeld, a servant-girl fell asleep whilst her compan-\\nions were shelling nuts. They observed a little red\\nmouse creep from her mouth and run out of the window.\\nAnd it reappears as the mysterious lyre of the Gaelic musician,\\nwho\\nCould harp a fish out o the water,\\nOr bluid out of a stane,\\nOr milk out of a maiden s breast,\\nThat bairns had never nane.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "34\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nOne of the fellows present shook the sleeper, but could\\nriot wake her, so he moved her to another place. Pres-\\nently the mouse ran back to the former place and dashed\\nabout, seeking the girl not finding her, it vanished at\\nthe same moment the girl died. This completes the\\nexplanation of the piper, and it also furnishes the key to\\nthe horrible story of Bishop Hatto. I\\nThis wicked prelate lived on the bank of the Rhine,\\nin the middle of which stream he possessed a tower, now\\npointed out to travellers as the Mouse Tower. In the\\nyear 970 there was a dreadful famine, and people came\\nfrom far and near craving sustenance out of the Bishop s\\nample and well-filled granaries. Well, he told them all\\nto go into the barn, and when they had got in there, as\\nmany as could stand, he set fire to the barn and burnt\\nthem all up, and went home to eat a merry supper. But\\nwhen he arose next morning, he heard that an army of\\nrats had eaten all the corn in his granaries, and was now\\nadvancing to storm the palace. Looking from his win-\\ndow, he saw the roads and fields dark with them, as they\\ncame with fell purpose straight toward his mansion. In\\nfrenzied terror he took his boat and rowed out to the\\ntower in the river. But it was of no use down into the\\nwater marched the rats, and swam across, and scaled the\\nwalls, and gnawed through the stones, and came swarm-\\nmg m about the shrieking Bishop, and ate him up flesh\\nbones, and all Now, bearing in mind what was said\\nabove, there can be no doubt that these rats were the\\nsouls of those whom the Bishop had murdered. There\\nare many versions of the story in different Teutonic\\ncountries, and in some of them the avenging rats or mice\\nissue dnectly, by a strange metamorphosis, from the\\ncorpses of the victims. St. Gertrude, moreover, the\\nBaring-Gould, Curious Myths, Vol. II. p. 159.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE.\\n35\\nheathen Holda, was symbolized as a mouse, and was said\\nto lead an army of mice she was the receiver of chil-\\ndren s souls. Odin, also, in his character of a Psycho-\\npompos, was followed by a host of rats.*\\nAs the souls of the departed are symbolized as rats, so\\nis the psychopomp himself often figured as a dog. Sara-\\nmeias, the Vedic counterpart of Hermes and Odin, some-\\ntimes appears invested with canine attributes and count-\\nless other examples go to show that by the early Aryan\\nmind the howling wind was conceived as a great dog or\\nwolf. As the fearful beast was heard speeding by the\\nwindows or over the house-top, the inmates trembled, for\\nnone knew but his own soul might forthwith be required\\nof him. Hence, to this day, among ignorant people, the\\nhowling of a dog under the window is supposed to por-\\ntend a death in the family. It is the fleet greyhound of\\nHermes, come to escort the soul to the river Styx.-)-\\nBut the wind-god is not always so terrible. Nothing\\ncan be more transparent than the phraseology of the\\nHomeric Hymn, in which Hermes is described as acquir-\\ning the strength of a giant while yet a babe in the cradle,\\nas sallying out and stealing the cattle (clouds) of Apollo,\\nand driving them helter-skelter in various directions, then\\nas crawling through the keyhole, and with a mocking\\nlaugh shrinking into his cradle. He is the Master Thief,\\nwho can steal the burgomaster s horse from under him\\nand his wife s mantle from off her back, the prototype\\nnot only of the crafty architect of Ehampsinitos, but even\\nof the ungrateful slave who robs Sancho of his mule in\\nthe Sierra Morena. He furnishes in part the conceptions\\nPerhaps we may trace back to this source the frantic terror which\\nIrish servant-girls often manifest at sight of a mouse.\\nIn Persia a dog is brought to the bedside of the person who is\\niying, in order that the soul may be sure of a prompt escort. The\\ncame custom exists in India. Breal, Hercule et Cacus, p. 123.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "36\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nof Boots and Keynard he is the prototype of Paul Pry\\nand peeping Tom of Coventry; and in virtue of his\\nability to contract or expand himself at pleasure, he is\\nboth the Devil in the Norse Tale,* whom the lad per-\\nsuades to enter a walnut, and the Arabian Efreet, whom\\nthe fisherman releases from the bottle.\\nThe very interesting series of myths and popular super-\\nstitions suggested by the storm-cloud and the lightning\\nmust be reserved for a future occasion. When carefully\\nexamined, they will richly illustrate the conclusion which\\nis the result of the present inquiry, that the marvellous\\ntales and quaint superstitions current in every Aryan\\nhousehold have a common origin with the classic legends\\nof gods and heroes, which formerly were alone thought\\nworthy of the student s serious attention. These stories\\nsome of them familiar to us in infancy, others the\\ndelight of our maturer years constitute the debris, or\\nalluvium, brought down by the stream of tradition from\\nthe distant highlands of ancient mythology.\\nThe Devil, who is proverbially active in a gale of wind, is none\\nother than Hermes.\\nSeptember, 1870.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "TEE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n37\\nII.\\nTHE DESCENT OF FIEE.\\nIN the course of my last summer s vacation, which was\\nspent at a small inland village, I came upon an un-\\nexpected illustration of the tenacity with which con-\\nceptions descended from prehistoric antiquity have\\nnow and then kept their hold upon life. While sit-\\nting one evening under the trees by the roadside, my\\nattention was called to the unusual conduct of half a\\ndozen men and boys who were standing opposite. An\\nelderly man was moving slowly up and down the road,\\nholding with both hands a forked twig of hazel, shaped\\nlike the letter Y inverted. With his palms turned up-\\nward, he held in each hand a branch of the twig in such\\na way that the shank pointed upward but every few\\nmoments, as he halted over a certain spot, the twig would\\ngradually bend downwards until it had assumed the like-\\nness of a Y in its natural position, where it would remain\\npointing to something in the ground beneath. One by\\none the bystanders proceeded to try the experiment, but\\nwith no variation in the result. Something in the ground\\nseemed to fascinate the bit of hazel, for it could not pass\\nover that spot without bending down and pointing to it.\\nMy thoughts reverted at once to J acques Aymar and\\nDousterswivel, as I perceived that these men were\\nengaged in sorcery. During the long drought more than\\nhalf the wells in the village had become dry, and here\\nwas an attempt to make good the loss by the aid of the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "3 8 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ngod Thor. These men were seeking water with a divin-\\ning-rod. Here, alive before my eyes, was a superstitious\\nobservance, which I had supposed long since dead and\\nforgotten by all men except students interested in my-\\nthology.\\nAs I crossed the road to take part in the ceremony a\\nfarmer s boy came up, stoutly affirming his incredulity,\\nand offering to show the company how he could carry\\nthe rod motionless across the charmed spot. But when\\nhe came to take the weird twig he trembled with an ill-\\ndefined feeling of insecurity as to the soundness of his\\nconclusions, and when he stood over the supposed rivulet\\nthe rod bent in spite of him, as was not so very strange.\\nFor, with all his vague scepticism, the honest lad had not,\\nand could not be supposed to have, the foi scientifique of\\nwhich Littre speaks.*\\nII faut que la cceur devienne ancien parmi les aneiennes choses,\\net la plenitude de l histoire ne se devoile qu a celui qui descend, ainsj\\ndispose, dans le passe. Mais il faut que l esprit demeure moderne, et\\nn oublie jamais qu il n y a pour lui d autre foi que la foi scientifique.\\nLittb\u00c2\u00a3.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n39\\nHereupon I requested leave to try the rod but some-\\nthing in my manner seemed at once to excite the suspi-\\ncion and scorn of the sorcerer. Yes, take it/ said he,\\nwith uncalled-for vehemence, but you can t stop it;\\nthere s water below here, and you can t help its bending,\\nif you break your back trying to hold it. So he gave\\nme the twig, and awaited, with a smile which was meant\\nto express withering sarcasm, the discomfiture of the sup-\\nposed scoffer. But when I proceeded to walk four or\\nfive times across the mysterious place, the rod pointing\\nsteadfastly toward the zenith all the while, our friend\\nbecame grave and began to philosophize. Well, said\\nhe, you see, your temperament is peculiar the condi-\\ntions ain t favourable in your case there are some people\\nwho never can work these things. But there s water\\nbelow here, for all that, as you 11 find, if you dig for it\\nthere s nothing like a hazel-rod for finding out water.\\nVery true there are some persons who never can make\\nsuch things work who somehow always encounter un-\\nfavourable conditions when they wish to test the mar-\\nvellous powers of a clairvoyant; who never can make\\nPlanchette move in conformity to the requirements of\\nany known alphabet who never see ghosts, and never\\nhave presentiments, save such as are obviously due to\\nassociation of ideas. The ill-success of these persons is\\ncommonly ascribed to their lack of faith; but, in the major-\\nity of cases, it might be more truly referred to the strength\\nof their faith, faith in the constancy of nature, and in\\nthe adequacy of ordinary human experience as inter-\\npreted by science.* La foi scientifique is an excellent\\npreventive against that obscure, though not uncommon,\\nFor an admirable example of scientific self-analysis tracing one of\\nthese illusions to its psychological sources, see the account of Dr. Laza-\\nrus, in Taine, De 1 Intelligence, Yol. I. pp. 121 125.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "40\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nkind of self-deception which enables wooden tripods to\\nwrite and tables to tip and hazel-twigs to twist upside-\\ndown, without the conscious intervention of the per-\\nformer. It was this kind of faith, no doubt, which caused\\nthe discomfiture of Jacques Aymar on his visit to Paris,*\\nand which has in late years prevented persons from ob-\\ntaining the handsome prize offered by the French Acad-\\nemy for the first authentic case of clairvoyance.\\nBut our village friend, though perhaps constructively\\nright in his philosophizing, was certainly very defective\\nin his acquaintance with the time-honoured art of rhab-\\ndomancy. Had he extended his inquiries so as to cover\\nthe field of Indo-European tradition, he would have\\nlearned that the mountain-ash, the mistletoe, the white\\nand black thorn, the Hindu asvattha, and several other\\nwoods, are quite as efficient as the hazel for the purpose\\nof detecting water in times of drought and in due course\\nof time he would have perceived that the divining-rod\\nitself is but one among a large class of things to which\\npopular belief has ascribed, along with other talismanic\\nproperties, the power of opening the ground or cleaving\\nrocks, in order to reveal hidden treasures. Leaving him\\nin peace, then, with his bit of forked hazel, to seek for\\ncooling springs in some future thirsty season, let us en-\\ndeavour to elucidate the origin of this curious supersti-\\ntion.\\nThe detection of subterranean water is by no means\\nthe only use to which the divining-rod has been put.\\nAmong the ancient Frisians it was regularly used for the\\ndetection of criminals and the reputation of Jacques\\nSee the story of Aymar in Baring-Gould, Curious Myths, Vol. I.\\npp. 57-77. The learned author attributes the discomfiture to the un-\\ncongenial Parisian environment which is a style of reasoning much like\\nthat of my village sorcerer, I fear.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n41\\nAymar was won by his discovery of the perpetrator of a\\nhorrible murder at Lyons. Throughout Europe it has\\nbeen used from time immemorial by miners for ascertain-\\ning the position of veins of metal and in the days when\\ntalents were wrapped in napkins and buried in the field,\\ninstead of being exposed to the risks of financial specula-\\ntion, the divining-rod was employed by persons covetous\\nof their neighbours wealth. If Boulatruelle had lived\\nin the sixteenth century, he would have taken a forked\\nstick of hazel when he went to search for the buried\\ntreasures of Jean Valjean. It has also been applied to\\nthe cure of disease, and has been kept in households, like\\na wizard s charm, to insure general good-fortune and im-\\nmunity from disaster.\\nAs we follow the conception further into the elf-land\\nof popular tradition, we come upon a rod which not only\\npoints out the situation of hidden treasure, but even splits\\nopen the ground and reveals the mineral wealth contained\\ntherein. In German legend, a shepherd, who was driv-\\ning his flock over the Ilsenstein, having stopped to rest,\\nleaning on his staff, the mountain suddenly opened, for\\nthere was a springwort in his staff without his knowing\\nit, and the princess [Use] stood before him. She bade\\nhim follow her, and when he was inside the mountain\\nshe told him to take as much gold as he pleased. The\\nshepherd filled all his pockets, and was going away, when\\nthe princess called after him, Forget not the best. So,\\nthinking she meant that he had not taken enough, he\\nfilled his hat also but what she meant was his staff with\\nthe springwort, which he had laid against the wall as\\nsoon as he stepped in. But now, just as he was going\\nout at the opening, the rock suddenly slammed together\\nand cut him in two.\\nKelly, Indo-European Folk-Lore, p. 177.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "42\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nHere the rod derives its marvellous properties from the\\nenclosed springwort, but in many cases a leaf or flowei\\nis itself competent to open the hillside. The little blue\\nflower, forget-me-not, about which so many sentimental\\nassociations have clustered, owes its name to the legends\\ntold of its talismanic virtues.*)- A man, travelling on a\\nlonely mountain, picks up a little blue flower and sticks\\nit in his hat. Forthwith an iron door opens, showing up\\na lighted passage-way, through which the man advances\\ninto a magnificent hall, where rubies and diamonds and\\nall other kinds of gems are lying piled in great heaps on\\nthe floor. As he eagerly fills his pockets his hat drops\\nfrom his head, and when he turns to go out the little\\nflower calls after him, Forget me not He turns back\\nand looks around, but is too bewildered with his good\\nfortune to think of his bare head or of the luck-flower\\nwhich he has let fall. He selects several more of the\\nfinest jewels he can find, and again starts to go out but\\nas he passes through the door the mountain closes amid\\nthe crashing of thunder, and cuts off one of his heels.\\nAlone, in the gloom of the forest, he searches in vain for\\nthe mysterious door it has disappeared forever, and the\\ntraveller goes on his way, thankful, let us hope, that he\\nhas fared no worse.\\nSometimes it is a white lady, like the Princess Use,\\nwho invites the finder of the luck-flower to help himself\\nto her treasures, and who utters the enigmatical warning.\\nThe mountain where the event occurred may be found\\nalmost anywhere in Germany, and one just like it stood\\nin Persia, in the golden prime of Haroun Airaschid. In\\nthe story of the Forty Thieves, the mere name of the\\nplant sesame serves as a talisman to open and shut the\\nt The story of the luck-flower is well told in verse by Mr. Baring-\\nGould, in his Silver Store, p. 115, seq.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n43\\nsecret door which leads into the robbers cavern; and\\nwhen the avaricious Cassim Baba, absorbed in the con-\\ntemplation of the bags of gold and bales of rich merchan-\\ndise, forgets the magic formula, he meets no better fat\\nthan the shepherd of the Ilsenstein. In the story of\\nPrince Ahmed, it is an enchanted arrow which guides\\nthe young adventurer through the hillside to the grotto\\nof the Peri Banou. In the tale of Baba Abdallah, it is an\\nointment rubbed on the eyelid which reveals at a single\\nglance all the treasures hidden in the bowels of the earth.\\nThe ancient Eomans also had their rock-breaking plant,\\ncalled Saxifraga, or sassafras. And the further we\\npenetrate into this charmed circle of traditions the more\\n.evident does it appear that the power of cleaving rocks\\nor shattering hard substances enters, as a primitive ele-\\nment, into the conception of these treasure-showing talis-\\nmans. Mr. Baring-Gould has given an excellent account\\nof the rabbinical legends concerning the wonderful scha-\\nmir, by the aid of which Solomon was said to have built\\nhis temple. From Asmodeus, prince of the Jann, Bena-\\niah, the son of Jehoiada, wrested the secret of a worm no\\nbigger than a barley-corn, which could split the hardest\\nsubstance. This worm was called schamir. If Solomon\\ndesired to possess himself of the worm, he must find the\\nnest of the moor-hen, and cover it with a plate of glass,\\nso that the mother bird could not get at her young with-\\nout breaking the glass. She would seek schamir for the\\npurpose, and the worm must be obtained from her. As\\nthe Jewish king did need the worm in order to hew the\\nstones for that temple which was to be built without\\nsound of hammer, or axe, or any tool of iron,* he sent\\nBenaiah to obtain it. According to another account,\\nschamir was a mystic stone which enabled Solomon to\\n1 Kings vi. 7.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "44\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\npenetrate the earth in search of mineral wealth. Di-\\nrected by a Jinni, the wise king covered a raven s eggs\\nwith a plate of crystal, and thus obtained schamir which\\nthe bird brought in order to break the plate.*\\nIn these traditions, which may possibly be of Aryan\\ndescent, due to the prolonged intercourse between the\\nJews and the Persians, a new feature is added to those\\nbefore enumerated the rock-splitting talisman is always\\nfound in the possession of a bird. The same feature in\\nthe myth reappears on Aryan soil. The springwort,\\nwhose marvellous powers we have noticed in the case of\\nthe Ilsenstein shepherd, is obtained, according to Pliny,\\nby stopping up the hole in a tree where a woodpecker\\nkeeps its young. The bird flies away, and presently re-\\nturns with the springwort, which it applies to the plug,\\ncausing it to shoot out with a loud explosion. The same\\naccount is given in German folk-lore. Elsewhere, as in\\nIceland, Normandy, and ancient Greece, the bird is an\\neagle, a swallow, an ostrich, or a hoopoe.\\nIn the Icelandic and Pomeranian myths the schamir,\\nor raven -stone, also renders its possessor invisible,\\na property which it shares with one of the treasure-find-\\ning plants, the fern.-)- In this respect it resembles the\\nring of Gyges, as in its divining and rock-splitting quali-\\nties it resembles that other ring which the African magi-\\nCompare the Mussulman account of the building of the temple, in\\nBaring-Gould, Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets, pp. 337? 338.\\nAnd see the story of Diocletian s ostrich, Swan, Gesta Romanorum, ed.\\nWright, Vol. I. p. lxiv. See also the pretty story of the knight un-\\njustly imprisoned, id. p. cii.\\nWe have the receipt of fern-seed. We walk invisible.\\nShakespeare, Henry IY. See Ralston, Songs of the Russian People,\\np. 98.\\nAccording to one North German tradition, the luck-flower also wiU\\nmake its finder invisible at pleasure. But, as the myth shrewdly adds,\\nit is absolutely essential that the flower be found by accident he who", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n45\\ncian gave to Aladdin, to enable him to descend into the\\ncavern where stood the wonderful lamp.\\nIn the North of Europe schamir appears strangely and\\ngrotesquely metamorphosed. The hand of a man that\\nhas been hanged, when dried and prepared with certain\\nweird unguents and set on fire, is known as the Hand\\nof Glory and as it not only bursts open all safe-locks,\\nbut also lulls to sleep all persons within the circle of its\\ninfluence, it is of course invaluable to thieves and burg-\\nlars. I quote the following story from Thorpe s North-\\nern Mythology Two fellows once came to Huy, who\\npretended to be exceedingly fatigued, and when they had\\nsupped would not retire to a sleeping-room, but begged\\ntheir host would allow them to take a nap on the hearth.\\nBut the maid-servant, who did not like the looks of the\\ntwo guests, remained by the kitchen door and peeped\\nthrough a chink, when she saw that one of them drew a\\nthief s hand from his pocket, the fingers of which, after\\nhaving rubbed them with an ointment, he lighted, and\\nthey all burned except one. Again they held this finger\\nto the fire, but still it would not burn, at which they\\nappeared much surprised, and one said, There must\\nsurely be some one in the house who is not yet asleep.\\nThey then hung the hand with its four burning fingers by\\nthe chimney, and went out to call their associates. But\\nthe maid followed them instantly and made the door\\nfast, then ran up stairs, where the landlord slept, that\\nshe might wake him, but was unable, notwithstanding\\nall her shaking and calling. In the mean time the\\nthieves had returned and were endeavouring to enter the\\nseeks for it never finds it Thus all cavils are skilfully forestalled, even\\nif not satisfactorily disposed of. The same kind of reasoning is favoured\\nby our modern dealers in mystery somehow the conditions always\\nare askew whenever a scientific observer wishes to test their pretensions.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "4 6\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nhouse by a window, but the maid cast them down from\\nthe ladder. They then took a different course, and would\\nhave forced an entrance, had it not occurred to the maid\\nthat the burning fingers might probably be the cause of\\nher master s profound sleep. Impressed with this idea\\nshe ran to the kitchen and blew them out, when the\\nmaster and his men-servants instantly awoke, and soon\\ndrove away the robbers. The same event is said to have\\noccurred at Stainmore in England and Torquemada re-\\nlates of Mexican thieves that they carry with them the\\nleft hand of a woman who has died in her first childbed,\\nbefore which talisman all bolts yield and all opposition\\nis benumbed. In 1831 some Irish thieves attempted to\\ncommit a robbery on the estate of Mr. Naper, of Lough-\\ncrew, county Meath. They entered the house armed\\nwith a dead man s hand with a lighted candle in it,\\nbelieving in the superstitious notion that a candle placed\\nin a dead man s hand will not be seen by any but those\\nby whom it is used and also that if a candle in a dead\\nhand be introduced into a house, it will prevent those\\nwho may be asleep from awaking. The inmates, how-\\never, were alarmed, and the robbers fled, leaving the hand\\nbehind them.\\nIn the Middle Ages the hand of glory was used, just\\nlike the divining-rod, for the detection of buried treasures.\\nHere, then, we have a large and motley group of\\nobjects the forked rod of ash or hazel, the springwort\\nand the luck-flower, leaves, worms, stones, rings, and\\ndead men s hands which are for the most part compe-\\ntent to open the way into cavernous rocks, and which\\nall agree in pointing out hidden wealth. We find, more-\\nover, that many of these charmed objects are carried\\nabout by birds, and that some of them possess, in addi-\\nHenderson, Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties of England, p. 2C2.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n47\\ntion to their generic properties, the specific power of\\nbenumbing people s senses. What, now, is the common\\norigin of this whole group of superstitions And since\\nmythology has been shown to be the result of primeval\\nattempts to explain the phenomena of nature, what natu-\\nral phenomenon could ever have given rise to so many\\nseemingly wanton conceptions Hopeless as the prob-\\nlem may at first sight seem, it has nevertheless been\\nsolved. In his great treatise on The Descent of Fire,\\nDr. Kuhn has shown that all these legends and traditions\\nare descended from primitive myths explanatory of the\\nlightning and the storm-cloud.*\\nTo us, who are nourished from childhood on the truths\\nrevealed by science, the sky is known to be merely an\\noptical appearance due to the partial absorption of the\\nsolar rays in passing through a thick stratum of atmos-\\npheric air the clouds are known to be large masses of\\nwatery vapour, which descend in rain-drops when suffi-\\nciently condensed and the lightning is known to be a\\nflash of light accompanying an electric discharge. But\\nthese conceptions are extremely recondite, and have been\\nattained only through centuries of philosophizing and\\nafter careful observation and laborious experiment. To\\nthe untaught mind of a child or of an uncivilized man, it\\nseems far more natural and plausible to regard the sky as\\na solid dome of blue crystal, the clouds as snowy moun-\\ntains, or perhaps even as giants or angels, the lightning\\nas a flashing dart or a fiery serpent. In point of fact,\\nwe find that the conceptions actually entertained are\\noften far more grotesque than these. I can recollect once\\nframing the hypothesis that the flaming clouds of sunset\\nwere transient apparitions, vouchsafed us by way of warn-\\nKuhn, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Gottertranks. Berlin,\\n1859.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "4 8\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ning, of that burning Calvinistic hell with which my\\nchildish imagination had been unwisely terrified and I\\nhave known of a four-year-old boy who thought that the\\nsnowy clouds of noonday were the white robes of the\\nangels hung out to dry in the sun.f My little daughter\\nis anxious to know whether it is necessary to take a bal-\\nloon in order to get to the place where God lives, or\\nwhether the same end can be accomplished by going to\\nthe horizon and crawling up the sky J the Mohamme-\\ndan of old was working at the same problem when he\\ncalled the rainbow the bridge Es-Sirat, over which souls\\nmust pass on their way to heaven. According to the\\nancient Jew, the sky was a solid plate, hammered out by\\nthe gods, and spread over the earth in order to keep up\\nthe ocean overhead but the plate was full of little\\nwindows, which were opened whenever it became neces-\\nsary to let the rain come through. With equal plausi-\\nbility the Greek represented the rainy sky as a sieve in\\nwhich the daughters of Danaos were vainly trying to draw\\nSaga me forwhan byth seo sunne read on sefen Ic the secge,\\nforthon heo locath on helle. Tell me, why is the sun red at even\\nI tell thee, because she looketh on hell. Thorpe, Analecta Anglo-\\nSaxonica, p. 115, apud Tylor, Primitive Culture, Vol. II. p. 63. Bar-\\nbaric thought had partly anticipated my childish theory.\\nStill in North Germany does the peasant say of thunder, that the\\nangels are playing skittles aloft, and of the snow, that they are shaking\\nup the feather-beds in heaven. Baring-Gould, Book of Werewolves,\\np. 172.\\nThe Polynesians imagine that the sky descends at the horizon\\nand encloses the earth. Hence they call foreigners papalangi, or heav-\\nen-bursters, as having broken in from another world outside. Max\\nMidler, Chips, II. 268.\\nWay-yo hmer helohim j^hi raquia n h b e -thok ham-mayim wihi\\nmavdil beyn mayim la-mayim. And said the gods, let there be a ham-\\nmered plate in the midst of the waters, and let it be dividing between\\nwaters and waters. Genesis i. 6.\\nGenesis vii. 11.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE. 49\\nwater while to the Hindu the rain-clouds were celestial\\ncattle milked by the wind-god. In primitive Aryan lore,\\nthe sky itself was a blue sea, and the clouds were ships sail-\\ning over it and an English legend tells how one of these\\nships once caught its anchor on a gravestone in the\\nchurchyard, to the great astonishment of the people who\\nwere coming out of church. Charon s ferry-boat was one\\nof these vessels, and another was Odin s golden ship, in\\nwhich the souls of slain heroes were conveyed to Val-\\nhalla. Hence it was once the Scandinavian practice to\\nbury the dead in boats and in Altmark a penny is still\\nplaced in the mouth of the corpse, that it may have the\\nmeans of paying its fare to the ghostly ferryman.* In\\nsuch a vessel drifted the Lady of Shalott on her fatal\\nvoyage and of similar nature was the dusky barge,\\ndark as a funeral-scarf from stem to stern, in which\\nArthur was received by the black-hooded queens.-f-\\nBut the fact that a natural phenomenon was explained\\nin one way did not hinder it from being explained in a\\ndozen other ways. The fact that the sun was generally\\nregarded as an all-conquering hero did not prevent its\\nSee Kelly, Indo-European Folk-Lore, p. 120 who states also that\\nin Bengal the Garrows burn their dead in a small boat, placed on top of\\nthe funeral-pile.\\nIn their character of cows, also, the clouds were regarded as psycho-\\npomps and hence it is still a popular superstition that a cow breaking\\ninto the yard foretokens a death in the family.\\nt The sun-god Freyr had a cloud-ship called Skithblathnir, which\\nis thus described in Dasent s Prose Edda She is so great, that all the\\niEsir, with their weapons and war-gear, may find room on board her\\nbut when there is no need of faring on the sea in her, she is made\\nwith so much craft that Freyr may fold her together like a cloth, and\\nkeep her in his bag. This same virtue was possessed by the fairy\\npavilion which the Peri Banou gave to Ahmed the cloud which is no\\nbigger than a man s hand may soon overspread the whole heaven, and\\nshade the Sultan s army from the solar rays.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "5o\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nbeing called an egg, an apple, or a frog squatting on the\\nwaters, or Ixion s wheel, or the eye of Polyphemos, or\\nthe stone of Sisyphos, which was no sooner pushed up to\\nthe zenith than it rolled down to the horizon. So the\\nsky was not only a crystal dome, or a celestial ocean, but\\nit was also the Aleian land through which Bellerophon\\nwandered, the country of the Lotos-eaters, or again the\\nrealm of the Graiai beyond the twilight and finally it\\nwas personified and worshipped as Dyaus or Yaruna,\\nthe Vedic prototypes of the Greek Zeus and Ouranos.\\nThe clouds, too, had many other representatives besides\\nships and cows. In a future paper it will be shown that\\nthey were sometimes regarded as angels or houris at\\npresent it more nearly concerns us to know that they\\nappear, throughout all Aryan mythology, under the form\\nof birds. It used to be a matter of hopeless wonder to\\nme that Aladdin s innocent request for a roc s egg to\\nhang in the dome of his palace should have been re-\\ngarded as a crime worthy of punishment by the loss of\\nthe wonderful lamp the obscurest part of the whole\\naffair being perhaps the Jinni s passionate allusion to the\\negg as his master Wretch dost thou command me to\\nbring thee my master, and hang him up in the midst of\\nthis vaulted dome But the incident is to some extent\\ncleared of its mystery when we learn that the roc s egg is\\nthe bright sun, and that the roc itself is the rushing storm-\\ncloud which, in the tale of Sindbad, haunts the sparkling\\nstarry firmament, symbolized as a valley of diamonds\\nEuhemerism has done its best with this bird, representing it as an\\nimmense vulture or condor or as a reminiscence of the extinct dodo.\\nBut a Chinese myth, cited by Klaproth, well preserves its true character\\nwhen it describes it as a bird which in flying obscures the sun, and of\\nwhose quills are made water-tuns See Nouveau Journal Asiatique,\\nTom. XII. p. 235. The big bird in the Norse tale of the Blue Belt\\nbelongs to the same species.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n51\\nAccording to one Arabic authority, the length of its wings\\nis ten thousand fathoms. But in European tradition it\\ndwindles from these huge dimensions to the size of an ea-\\ngle, a raven, or a woodpecker. Among the birds enumera-\\nted by Kuhn and others as representing the storm-cloud\\nare likewise the wren or kinglet (French roitelet) the\\nowl, sacred to Athene the cuckoo, stork, and sparrow\\nand the red-breasted robin, whose name Eobert was\\noriginally an epithet of the lightning-god Thor. In cer-\\ntain parts of France it is still believed that the robbing\\nof a wren s nest will render the culprit liable to be struck\\nby lightning. The same belief was formerly entertained\\nin Teutonic countries with respect to the robin and I\\nsuppose that from this superstition is descended the prev-\\nalent notion, which I often encountered in childhood,\\nthat there is something peculiarly wicked in killing\\nrobins.\\nNow, as the raven or woodpecker, in the various myths\\nof schamir, is the dark storm-cloud, so the rock-splitting\\nworm or plant or pebble which the bird carries in its\\nbeak and lets fall to the ground is nothing more or less\\nthan the flash of lightning carried and dropped by the\\ncloud. If the cloud was supposed to be a great bird,\\nthe lightnings were regarded as writhing worms or ser-\\npents in its beak. These fiery serpents, eXuclai ypa/jL-\\nfioei8co (frepo/uLevoi,, are believed in to this day by the\\nCanadian Indians, who call the thunder their hissing.\\nBut these are not the only mythical conceptions which\\nare to be found wrapped up in the various myths of\\nschamir and the divining-rod. The persons who told\\nthese stories were not weaving ingenious allegories about\\nthunder-storms they were telling stories, or giving utter-\\nBaring-Gould, Curious Myths, Vol. II. p. 146. Compare Tylor,\\nPrimitive Culture, Vol. II. p. 237, seq.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "52\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nance to superstitions, of which the original meaning was\\nforgotten. The old grannies who, along with a stoical\\nindifference to the fate of quails and partridges, used to\\nimpress upon me the wickedness of killing robins, did\\nnot add that I should be struck by lightning if I failed\\nto heed their admonitions. They had never heard that\\nthe robin was the bird of Thor they merely rehearsed\\nthe remnant of the superstition which had survived to\\ntheir own times, while the essential part of it had long\\nsince faded from recollection. The reason for regarding\\na robin s life as more sacred than a partridge s had been\\nforgotten; but it left behind, as was natural, a vague\\nrecognition of that mythical sanctity. The primitive\\nmeaning of a myth fades away as inevitably as the\\nprimitive meaning of a word or phrase and the rabbins\\nwho told of a worm which shatters rocks no more\\nthought of the writhing thunderbolts than the modern\\nreader thinks of oyster-shells when he sees the word\\nostracism, or consciously breathes a prayer as he writes\\nthe phrase good bye. It is only in its callow infancy that\\nthe full force of a myth is felt, and its period of luxuriant\\ndevelopment dates from the time when its physical sig-\\nnificance is lost or obscured. It was because the Greek\\nhad forgotten that Zeus meant the bright sky, that he\\ncould make him king over an anthropomorphic Olympos.\\nThe Hindu Dyaus, who carried his significance in his\\nname as plainly as the Greek Helios, never attained such\\nan exalted position he yielded to deities of less obvious\\npedigree, such as Brahma and Vishnu.\\nSince, therefore, the myth-tellers recounted merely the\\nwonderful stories which their own nurses and grandmas\\nhad told them, and had no intention of weaving subtle\\nallegories or wrapping up a physical truth in mystic\\nemblems, it follows that they were not bound to avoid", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE. 53\\nincongruities or to preserve a philosophical symmetry in\\ntheir narratives. In the great majority of complex\\nmyths, no such symmetry is to be found. A score of\\ndifferent mythical conceptions would get wrought into\\nthe same story, and the attempt to pull them apart and\\nconstruct a single harmonious system of conceptions out\\nof the pieces must often end in ingenious absurdity. If\\nOdysseus is unquestionably the sun, so is the eye of\\nPolyphemos, which Odysseus puts out.* But the Greek\\npoet knew nothing of the incongruity, for he was think-\\ning only of a superhuman hero freeing himself from a\\ngiant cannibal he knew nothing of Sanskrit, or of\\ncomparative mythology, and the sources of his myths\\nwere as completely hidden from his view as the sources\\nof the Nile.\\nWe need not be surprised, then, to find that in one\\nversion of the schamir-myth the cloud is the bird which\\ncarries the worm, while in another version the cloud is\\nthe rock or mountain which the talisman cleaves open\\nnor need we wonder at it, if we find stories in which the\\ntwo conceptions are mingled together without regard to\\nan incongruity which in the mind of the myth-teller no\\nlonger exists.*)*\\nIn early Aryan mythology there is nothing by which\\nIf Polyphemos s eye be the sun, then Odysseus, the solar hero,\\nextinguishes himself, a very primitive instance of suicide. Mahaffy,\\nProlegomena, p. 57. See also Brown, Poseidon, pp. 39, 40. This\\nobjection would be relevant only in case Homer were supposed to be\\nconstructing an allegory with entire knowledge of its meaning. It has\\nno validity whatever when we recollect that Homer could have known\\nnothing of the incongruity.\\nt The Sanskrit myth-teller indeed mixes up his materials in a way\\nwhich seems ludicrous to a Western reader. He describes Indra (the\\nsun-god) as not only cleaving the cloud-mountains with his sword, but\\nalso cutting off their wings and hurling them from the sky. See Burnouf,\\nBhagavata Purana, VI. 12, 26.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "54\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthe clouds are more frequently represented than by rocks\\nor mountains. Such were the Symplegades, which,\\ncharmed by the harp of the wind-god Orpheus, parted to\\nmake way for the talking ship Argo, with its crew of\\nsolar heroes.* Such, too, were the mountains Ossa and\\nPelion, which the giants piled up one upon another in\\ntheir impious assault upon Zeus, the lord of the bright\\nsky. As Mr. Baring-Gould observes The ancient Aryan\\nhad the same name for cloud and mountain. To him the\\npiles of vapour on the horizon were so like Alpine ranges,\\nthat he had but one word whereby to designate both.f\\nThese great mountains of heaven were opened by the\\nlightning. In the sudden flash he beheld the dazzling\\nsplendour within, but only for a moment, and then, with\\na crash, the celestial rocks closed again. Believing these\\nvaporous piles to contain resplendent treasures of which\\npartial glimpse was obtained by mortals in a momentary\\ngleam, tales were speedily formed, relating the adventures\\nof some who had succeeded in entering these treasure-\\nmountains.\\nThis sudden flash is the smiting of the cloud-rock by\\nthe arrow of Ahmed, the resistless hammer of Thor, the\\nspear of Odin, the trident of Poseidon, or the rod of\\nHermes. The forked streak of light is the archetype of\\nthe divining-rod in its oldest form, that in which it\\nMr. Tylor offers a different, and possibly a better, explanation of\\nthe Symplegades as the gates of Night through which the solar ship,\\nhaving passed successfully once, may henceforth pass forever. See the\\ndetails of the evidence in his Primitive Culture, I. 315.\\nThe Sanskrit parvata, a bulging or inflated body, means both\\ncloud and mountain. In the Edda, too, the rocks, said to\\nhave been fashioned out of Ymir s bones, are supposed to be intended\\nfor clouds. In Old Norse Klakkr means both cloud and rock nay, the\\nEnglish word cloud itself has been identified with the Anglo-Saxon\\ndud, rock. See Justi, Orient und Occident, Vol. II. p. 62. Max\\nMiiller, Rig- Veda, Vol. I. p. 44.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE. 55\\nnot only indicates the hidden treasures, but, like the staff\\nof the Ilsenstein shepherd, bursts open the enchanted\\ncrypt and reveals them to the astonished wayfarer. Hence\\nthe one thing essential to the divining-rod, from whatever\\ntree it be chosen, is that it shall be forked.\\nIt is not difficult to comprehend the reasons which led\\nthe ancients to speak of the lightning as a worm, serpent,\\ntrident, arrow, or forked wand; but when we inquire\\nwhy it was sometimes symbolized as a flower or leaf, or\\nwhen we seek to ascertain why certain trees, such as the\\nash, hazel, white-thorn, and mistletoe, were supposed to\\nbe in a certain sense embodiments of it, we are entering\\nupon a subject too complicated to be satisfactorily treated\\nwithin the limits of the present paper. It has been said\\nthat the point of resemblance between a cow and a\\ncomet, that both have tails, was quite enough for the\\nprimitive word-maker it was certainly enough for the\\nprimitive myth-teller.* Sometimes the pinnate shape\\nof a leaf, the forking of a branch, the tri-cleft corolla, or\\neven the red colour of a flower, seems to have been\\nsufficient to determine the association of ideas. The\\nHindu commentators of the Veda certainly lay great\\nstress on the fact that the palasa, one of their lightning-\\ntrees, is trident-leaved. The mistletoe branch is forked,\\nlike a wish-bone,-f- and so is the stem which bears the\\nIn accordance with the mediaeval doctrine of signatures, it was\\nmaintained that the hard, stony seeds of the Gromwell must he good\\nfor gravel, and the knotty tubers of scrophularia for scrofulous glands\\nwhile the scaly pappus of scaliosa showed it to he a specific in leprous\\ndiseases, the spotted leaves of pulmonaria that it was a sovereign remedy\\nfor tuberculous lungs, and the growth of saxifrage in the fissures of\\nrocks that it would disintegrate stone in the bladder. Prior, Popular\\nNames of British Plants, Introd., p. xiv. See also Chapiel, La Doctrine\\ndes Signatures. Paris, 1866.\\nIndeed, the wish-bone, or forked clavicle of a fowl, itself belongs\\nto the same family of talismans as the divining-rod.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "56\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nforget-me-not or wild scorpion grass. So too the leaves\\nof the Hindu ficus religiosa resemble long spear-heads.*\\nBut in many cases it is impossible for us to determine\\nwith confidence the reasons which may have guided\\nprimitive men in their choice of talismanic plants. In\\nthe case of some of these stories, it would no doubt be\\nwasting ingenuity to attempt to assign a mythical origin\\nfor each point of detail. The ointment of the dervise,\\nfor instance, in the Arabian tale, has probably no special\\nmythical significance, but was rather suggested by the\\nexigencies of the story, in an age when the old mythol-\\nogies were so far disintegrated and mingled together that\\nany one talisman would serve as well as another the\\npurposes of the narrator. But the Hghtning-plants of\\nIndo-European folk-lore cannot be thus summarily dis-\\nposed of for however difficult it may be for us to per-\\nceive any connection between them and the celestial\\nphenomena which they represent, the myths concerning\\nthem are so numerous and explicit as to render it certain\\nthat some such connection was imagined by the myth-\\nmakers. The superstition concerning the hand of glory\\nis not so hard to interpret. In the mythology of the\\nFinns, the storm-cloud is a black man with a bright\\ncopper hand and in Hindustan, Indra Savitar, the deity\\nwho slays the demon of the cloud, is golden-handed.\\nThe selection of the hand of a man who has been hanged\\nis probably due to the superstition which regarded the\\nstorm-god Odin as peculiarly the lord of the gallows.\\nThe ash, on the other hand, has been from time immemorial used\\nfo\u00c2\u00bb spears in many parts of the Aryan domain. The word cesc meant,\\nin Anglo-Saxon, indifferently ash-tree, or spear and the same is,\\nor has been, true of the French fresne and the Greek ^eAt a. The root\\nof cesc appears in the Sanskrit as, to throw or lance, whence ds^\\na bow, and asand, an arrow. See Pictet, Origines Indo-Eura\\npeennes, I. 222.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n57\\nThe man who is raised upon the gallows is placed directly\\nin the track of the wild huntsman, who comes with his\\nhounds to carry off the victim and hence the notion,\\nwhich, according to Mr. Kelly, is very common in\\nGermany and not extinct in England, that every suicide\\nby hanging is followed by a storm.\\nThe paths of comparative mythology are devious, but\\nwe have now pursued them long enough, I believe, to\\nhave arrived at a tolerably clear understanding of the\\noriginal nature of the divining-rod. Its power of reveal-\\ning treasures has been sufficiently explained; and its\\naffinity for water results so obviously from the character\\nof the lightning-myth as to need no further comment.\\nBut its power of detecting criminals still remains to be\\naccounted for.\\nIn Greek mythology, the being which detects and pun-\\nishes crime is the Erinys, the prototype of the Latin\\nFury, figured by late writers as a horrible monster with\\nserpent locks. But this is a degradation of the original\\nconception. The name Erinys did not originally mean\\nFury, and it cannot be explained from Greek sources\\nalone. It appears in Sanskrit as Saranyu, a word which\\nsignifies the light of morning creeping over the sky.\\nAnd thus we are led to the startling conclusion that, as\\nthe light of morning reveals the evil deeds done under\\nthe cover of night, so the lovely Dawn, or Erinys, came\\nto be regarded under one aspect as the terrible detector\\nand avenger of iniquity. Yet startling as the conclusion\\nis, it is based on established laws of phonetic change, and\\ncannot be gainsaid.\\nBut what has the avenging daybreak to do with the\\nlightning and the divining-rod To the modern mind\\nthe association is not an obvious one: in antiquity it\\nwas otherwise. Myths of the daybreak and myths of the\\n3*", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "58\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nlightning often resemble each other so closely that, ex-\\ncept by a delicate philological analysis, it is difficult, to\\ndistinguish the one from the other. The reason is obvi-\\nous. In each case the phenomenon to be explained is\\nthe struggle between the day-god and one of the demons\\nof darkness. There is essentially no distinction to the\\nmind of the primitive man between the Panis, who steal\\nIndra s bright cows and keep them in a dark cavern all\\nnight, and the throttling snake Ahi or Echidna, who im-\\nprisons the waters in the stronghold of the thunder-cloud\\nand covers the earth with a short-lived darkness. And\\nso the poisoned arrows of Bellerophon, which slay the\\nstorm-dragon, differ in no essential respect from the\\nshafts with which Odysseus slaughters the night-demons\\nwho have for ten long hours beset his mansion. Thus\\nthe divining-rod, representing as it does the weapon of\\nthe god of day, comes legitimately enough by its func-\\ntion of detecting and avenging crime.\\nBut the lightning not only reveals strange treasures\\nand gives water to the thirsty land and makes plain what\\nis doing under cover of darkness it also sometimes kills,\\nbenumbs, or paralyzes. Thus the head of the Gorgon\\nMedusa turns into stone those who look upon it. Thus\\nthe ointment of the dervise, in the tale of Baba Abdallah,\\nnot only reveals all the treasures of the earth, but in-\\nstantly thereafter blinds the unhappy man who tests its\\npowers. And thus the hand of glory, which bursts open\\nbars and bolts, benumbs also those who happen to be\\nnear it. Indeed, few of the favoured mortals who were\\nallowed to visit the caverns opened by sesame or the\\nluck-flower, escaped without disaster. The monkish tale\\nof The Clerk and the Image, in which the primeval\\nmythical features are curiously distorted, well illustrates\\nthis point.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n59\\nIn the city of Eome there formerly stood an image\\nwith its right hand extended and on its forefinger the\\nwords strike here. Many wise men pnzzled in vain\\nover the meaning of the inscription but at last a cer-\\ntain priest observed that whenever the sun shone on the\\nfigure, the shadow of the finger was discernible on the\\nground at a little distance from the statue. Having\\nmarked the spot, he waited until midnight, and then\\nbegan to dig. At last his spade struck upon something\\nhard. It was a trap-door, below which a flight of marble\\nsteps descended into a spacious hall, where many men\\nwere sitting in solemn silence amid piles of gold and\\ndiamonds and long rows of enamelled vases. Beyond\\nthis he found another room, a gyncecium filled with beau-\\ntiful women reclining on richly embroidered sofas yet\\nhere, too, all was profound silence. A superb banqueting-\\nhall next met his astonished gaze then a silent kitchen\\nthen granaries loaded with forage then a stable crowded\\nwith motionless horses. The whole place was brilliantly\\nlighted by a carbuncle which was suspended in one cor-\\nner of the reception-room and opposite stood an archer,\\nwith his bow and arrow raised, in the act of taking aim\\nat the jewel. As the priest passed back through this\\nhall, he saw a diamond-hilted knife lying on a marble\\ntable and wishing to carry away something wherewith\\nto accredit his story, he reached out his hand to take it\\nbut no sooner had he touched it than all was dark. The\\narcher had shot with his arrow, the bright jewel was\\nshivered into a thousand pieces, the staircase had fled,\\nand the priest found himself buried alive.*\\nCompare Spenser s story of Sir Guyon, m the Faery Queen, where,\\nhowever, the knight fares better than this poor priest. Usually these\\nlightning-caverns were like Ixion s treasure-house, into which none\\nmight look and live. This conception is the foundation of part of the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "6o\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nUsually, however, though the lightning is wont to\\nstrike dead, with its basilisk glance, those who rashly\\nenter its mysterious caverns, it is regarded rather as a\\nbenefactor than as a destroyer. The feelings with which\\nthe myth-making age contemplated the thunder-shower\\nas it revived the earth paralyzed by a long drought, are\\nshown in the myth of Oidipous. The Sphinx, whose\\nname signifies the one who binds, is the demon who\\nsits on the cloud-rock and imprisons the rain, muttering\\ndark sayings which none but the all-knowing sun may\\nunderstand. The flash of solar light which causes the\\nmonster to fling herself down from the cliff with a fear-\\nful roar, restores the land to prosperity. But besides\\nthis, the association of the thunder-storm with the ap-\\nproach of summer has produced many myths in which\\nthe lightning is symbolized as the life-renewing wand of\\nthe victorious sun-god. Hence the use of the divining-\\nrod in the cure of disease and hence the large family of\\nschamir-myths in which the dead are restored to life by\\nleaves or herbs. In Grimm s tale of the Three Snake\\nLeaves, a prince is buried alive (like Sindbad) with his\\ndead wife, and seeing a snake approaching her body, he\\ncuts it in three pieces. Presently another snake, crawl-\\ning from the corner, saw the other lying dead, and going\\naway soon returned with three green leaves in its mouth\\nthen laying the parts of the body together so as to join,\\nit put one leaf on each wound, and the dead snake was\\nalive again. The prince, applying the leaves to his wife s\\nbody, restores her also to life. In the Greek story,\\ntold by iElian and Apollodoros, Polyidos is shut up with\\nthe corpse of Glaukos, which he is ordered to restore to\\nstory of Blue-Beard and of the Arabian tale of the third one-eyed Cal-\\nender.\\nGox, Mythology of the Aryan Nations, Yol. I. p. 161.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n6l\\nlife. He kills a dragon which is approaching the body,\\nbut is presently astonished at seeing another dragon come\\nwith a blade of grass and place it upon its dead compan-\\nion, which instantly rises from the ground. Polyidos\\ntakes the same blade of grass, and with it resuscitates\\nGlaukos. The same incident occurs in the Hindu story\\nof Panch Phul Eanee, and in Fouque s Sir Elidoc,\\nwhich is founded on a Breton legend.\\nWe need not wonder, then, at the extraordinary thera^\\npeutic properties which are in all Aryan folk-lore as-\\ncribed to the various lightning-plants. In Sweden sani-\\ntary amulets are made of mistletoe-twigs, and the plant\\nis supposed to be a specific against epilepsy and an anti-\\ndote for poisons. In Cornwall children are passed through\\nholes in ash-trees in order to cure them of hernia. Ash\\nrods are used in some parts of England for the cure of\\ndiseased sheep, cows, and horses and in particular they\\nare supposed to neutralize the venom of serpents. The\\nnotion that snakes are afraid of an ash-tree is not extinct\\neven in the United States. The other day I was told,\\nnot by an old granny, but by a man fairly educated and\\nendowed with a very unusual amount of good common-\\nsense, that a rattlesnake will sooner go through fire than\\ncreep over ash leaves or into the shadow of an ash-tree.\\nExactly the same statement is made by Pliny, who adds\\nthat if you draw a circle with an ash rod around the spot\\nof ground on which a snake is lying, the animal must die\\nof starvation, being as effectually imprisoned as Ugolino\\nin the dungeon at Pisa. In Cornwall it is believed that\\na blow from an ash stick will instantly kill any serpent.\\nThe ash shares this virtue with the hazel and fern. A\\nSwedish peasant will tell you that snakes may be de-\\nprived of their venom by a touch with a hazel wand;\\nand when an ancient Greek had occasion to make his", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "62\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nbed in the woods, he selected fern leaves if possible, in\\nthe belief that the smell of them would drive away poi-\\nsonous animals.*\\nBut the beneficent character of the lightning appears\\nstill more clearly in another class of myths. To the prim-\\nitive man the shaft of light coming down from heaven was\\ntypical of the original descent of fire for the benefit and\\nimprovement of the human race. The Sioux Indians ac-\\ncount for the origin of fire by a myth of unmistakable kin-\\nship they say that their first ancestor obtained his fire\\nfrom the sparks which a friendly panther struck from the\\nrocks as he scampered up a stony hill. This panther\\nis obviously the counterpart of the Aryan bird which\\ndrops schamir. But the Aryan imagination hit upon a\\nfar more remarkable conception. The ancient Hindus\\nobtained fire by a process similar to that employed by\\nCount Eumford in his experiments on the generation of\\nheat by friction. They first wound a couple of cords\\naround a pointed stick in such a way that the unwinding\\nof the one would wind up the other, and then, placing\\nthe point of the stick against a circular disk of wood,\\ntwirled it rapidly by alternate pulls on the two strings.\\nThis instrument is called a chark, and is still used in\\nSouth Africa, J in Australia, in Sumatra, and among the\\nVeddahs of Ceylon. The Eussians found it in Kamt-\\nchatka and it was formerly employed in America, from\\nLabrador to the Straits of Magellan. The Hindus\\nKelly, Indo-European Folk-Lore, pp. 147, 183, 186, 193.\\nt Brinton, Myths of the New World, p. 151.\\nJ Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, I. 173, Note 12.\\nTylor, Early History of Mankind, p. 238 Primitive Culture, Vol.\\nII. p. 254 Darwin, Naturalist s Voyage, p. 409.\\nJacky s next proceeding was to get some dry sticks and wood, and\\nprepare a fire, which, to George s astonishment, he lighted thus. He\\ngot a block of wood, in the middle of which he made a hole then he", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n63\\nchurned milk by a similar process and in order to\\nexplain the thunder-storm, a Sanskrit poem tells how\\nonce upon a time the Devas, or gods, and their oppo-\\nnents, the Asuras, made a truce, and joined together in\\nchurning the ocean to procure amrita, the drink of im-\\nmortality. They took Mount Mandara for a churning-\\nstick, and, wrapping the great serpent Sesha round it for\\na rope, they made the mountain spin round to and fro,\\nthe Devas pulling at the serpent s tail, and the Asuras at\\nits head. In this myth the churning-stick, with its\\nflying serpent-cords, is the lightning, and the amrita, or\\ndrink of immortality, is simply the rain-water, which in\\nAryan folk-lore possesses the same healing virtues as the\\nlightning. In Sclavonic myths it is the water of life\\nwhich restores the dead earth, a water brought by a bird\\nfrom the depths of a gloomy cave. It is the celestial\\nsoma or mead which Indra loves to drink it is the am-\\nbrosial nectar of the Olympian gods it is the charmed\\nwater which in the Arabian Mghts restores tu human\\nshape the victims of wicked sorcerers and it is the elixir\\nof life which mediaeval philosophers tried to discover, and\\nin quest of which Ponce de Leon traversed the wilds of\\nFlorida.\u00c2\u00a7\\ncut and pointed a long stick, and inserting the point into the block,\\nworked it round between his palms for some time and with increasing\\nrapidity. Presently there came a smell of burning wood, and soon after\\nit burst into a flame at the point of contact. Jacky cut slices of shark\\nand roasted them. Eeade, Never too Late to Mend, chap, xxxviii.\\nThe production of fire by the drill is often called churning, e. g.\\nHe took the uvati [chark], and sat down and churned it, and kindled\\nafire. Callaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, I. 174.\\nt Kelly, Indo-European Folk-Lore, p. 39. Burnouf, Bhagavata Pu\u00c2\u00ab\\nrana, VIII. 6, 32.\\nBaring-Gould, Curious Myths, p. 149.\\nIt is also the regenerating water of baptism, and the holy water\\nof the Roman Catholic.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "6 4\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nThe most interesting point in this Hindu myth is the\\nname of the peaked mountain Mandara, or Manthara,\\nwhich the gods and devils took for their churning-stick.\\nThe word means a churning-stick, and it appears also,\\nwith a prefixed preposition, in the name of the fire-drill,\\npramantha. Now Kuhn has proved that this name, pra-\\nmantha, is etymologically identical with Prometheus, the\\nname of the beneficent Titan, who stole fire from heaven\\nand bestowed it upon mankind as the richest of boons.\\nThis sublime personage was originally nothing but the\\ncelestial drill which churns fire out of the clouds but\\nthe Greeks had so entirely forgotten his origin that they\\ninterpreted his name as meaning the one who thinks\\nbeforehand, and accredited him with a brother, Epime-\\ntheus, or the one who thinks too late. The Greeks had\\nadopted another name, trypanon, for their fire-drill, and\\nthus the primitive character of Prometheus became ob-\\nscured.\\nI have said above that it was regarded as absolutely\\nessential that the divining-rod should be forked. To\\nthis rule, however, there was one exception, and if any\\nfurther evidence be needed to convince the most scepti-\\ncal that the divining-rod is nothing but a symbol of the\\nlightning, that exception will furnish such evidence. For\\nthis exceptional kind of divining-rod was made of a\\npointed stick rotating in a block of wood, and it was the\\npresence of hidden water or treasure which was supposed\\nto excite the rotatory motion.\\nIn the myths relating to Prometheus, the lightning-god\\nappears as the originator of civilization, sometimes as the\\ncreator of the human race, and always as its friend,* suf-\\nIn the Vedas the rain-god Soma, originally the personification of\\nthe sacrificial amhrosia, is the deity who imparts to men life, knowledge,\\nand happiness. See Breal, Hercnle et Cacus, p. 85. Tylor, Primitive\\nCulture, Vol. II. p. 277-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n65\\nfering in its behalf the most fearful tortures at the hands\\nof the jealous Zeus. In one story he creates man by\\nmaking a clay image and infusing into it a spark of the\\nfire which he had brought from heaven in another story\\nhe is himself the first man. In the Peloponnesian myth\\nPhoroneus, who is Prometheus under another name, is the\\nfirst man, and his mother was an ash-tree. In Norse\\nmythology, also, the gods were said to have made the\\nfirst man out of the ash-tree Yggdrasil. The association\\nof the heavenly fire with the life-giving forces of nature\\nis very common in the myths of both hemispheres, and\\nin view of the facts already cited it need not surprise us.\\nHence the Hindu Agni and the Norse Thor were patrons\\nof marriage, and in Norway, the most lucky day on which\\nto be married is still supposed to be Thursday, which in\\nold times was the day of the fire-god.* Hence the light-\\nning-plants have divers virtues in matters pertaining to\\nmarriage. The Eomans made their wedding torches of\\nwhitethorn hazel-nuts are still used all over Europe in\\ndivinations relating to the future lover or sweetheart f\\nand under a mistletoe bough it is allowable for a gentle-\\nman to kiss a lady. A vast number of kindred supersti-\\ntions are described by Mr. Kelly, to whom I am indebted\\nfor many of these examples.\\n\u00c2\u00a5e may, perhaps, see here the reason for making the Greek fire-god\\nHephaistos the husband of Aphrodite.\\nOur country maidens are well aware that triple leaves plucked at\\nhazard from the common ash are worn in the breast, for the purpose of\\ncausing prophetic dreams respecting a dilatory lover. The leaves of the\\nyellow trefoil are supposed to possess similar virtues. Harland and\\nWilkinson, Lancashire Folk-Lore, p. 20.\\nX In Peru, a mighty and far- worshipped deity was Catequil, the\\nthunder-god, he who in thunder-flash and clap hurls from his\\nsling the small, round, smooth thunder-stones, treasured in the villages\\nas fire-fetishes and charms to kindle the flames of love. Tylor, op. cit.\\nVol. II. p. 239.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "66\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nThus we reach at last the completed conception of the\\ndivining-rod, or as it is called in this sense the wish-rod,\\nwith its kindred talismans, from Aladdin s lamp and the\\npurse of Bedreddin Hassan, to the Sangreal, the philoso-\\npher s stone, and the goblets of Oberon and Tristram.\\nThese symbols of the reproductive energies of nature,\\nwhich give to the possessor every good and perfect gift,\\nillustrate the uncurbed belief in the power of wish which\\nthe ancient man shared with modern children. In the\\nNorse story of Frodi s quern, the myth assumes a whim-\\nsical shape. The prose Edda tells of a primeval age of\\ngold, when everybody had whatever he wanted. This\\nwas because the giant Frodi had a mill which ground out\\npeace and plenty and abundance of gold withal, so that\\nit lay about the roads like pebbles. Through the inex-\\ncusable avarice of Frodi, this wonderful implement was\\nlost to the world. For he kept his maid-servants work-\\ning at the mill until they got out of patience, and began\\nto make it grind out hatred and war. Then came a\\nmighty sea-rover by night and slew Frodi and carried\\naway the maids and the quern. When he got well out\\nto sea, he told them to grind out salt, and so they did\\nwith a vengeance. They ground the ship full of salt and\\nsank it, and so the quern was lost forever, but the sea\\nremains salt unto this day.\\nMr. Kelly rightly identifies Frodi with the sun-god Fro\\nor Freyr, and observes that the magic mill is only an-\\nother form of the fire-churn, or chark. According to\\nanother version the quern is still grinding away and\\nkeeping the sea salt, and over the place where it lies\\nthere is a prodigious whirlpool or maelstrom which sucks\\ndown ships.\\nIn its completed shape, the lightning- wand is the ca-\\nduceus, or rod of Hermes. I observed, in the preceding", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE DESCENT OF FIRE.\\n6 7\\npaper, that in the Greek conception of Hermes there\\nhave been fused together the attributes of two deities\\nwho were originally distinct. The Hermes of the Ho-\\nmeric Hymn is a wind-god but the later Hermes Ago-\\nraios, the patron of gymnasia, the mutilation of whose\\nstatues caused such terrible excitement in Athens during\\nthe Peloponnesian War, is a very different personage.\\nHe is a fire-god, invested with many solar attributes, and\\nrepresents the quickening forces of nature. In this ca-\\npacity the invention of fire was ascribed to him as well\\nas to Prometheus he was said to be the friend of man-\\nkind, and was surnamed Ploutodotes, or the giver of\\nwealth.\\nThe Norse wind-god Odin has in like manner acquired\\nseveral of the attributes of Freyr and Thor.* His light-\\nning-spear, which is borrowed from Thor, appears by a\\ncomical metamorphosis as a wish-rod which will admin-\\nister a sound thrashing to the enemies of its possessor.\\nHaving cut a hazel stick, you have only to lay down an\\nold coat, name your intended victim, wish he was there,\\nand whack away he will howl with pain at every blow.\\nThis wonderful cudgel appears in Dasent s tale of The\\nLad who went to the North Wind, with which we may\\nconclude this discussion. The story is told, with little\\nvariation, in Hindustan, Germany, and Scandinavia.\\nThe North Wind, representing the mischievous Hermes,\\nonce blew away a poor woman s meal. So her boy went\\nto the North Wind and demanded his rights for the meal\\nhis mother had lost. I have n t got your meal, said\\nthe Wind, but here s a tablecloth which will cover\\nitself with an excellent dinner whenever you tell it to.\\nIn Polynesia, the great deity Maui adds a new complication to his\\nenigmatic solar-celestial character by appearing as a wind-god. Tylor,\\nop. cit. Vol. II. p. 242.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "68\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nSo the lad took the cloth and started for home. At night-\\nfall he stopped at an inn, spread his cloth on the table,\\nand ordered it to cover itself with good things, and so it\\ndid. But the landlord, who thought it would be money\\nin his pocket to have such a cloth, stole it after the boy\\nhad gone to bed, and substituted another just like it in\\nappearance. Next day the boy went home in great glee\\nto show off for his mother s astonishment what the North\\nWind had given him, but all the dinner he got that day\\nwas what the old woman cooked for him. In his despair\\nhe went back to the North Wind and called him a liar,\\nand again demanded his rights for the meal he had lost.\\nI have n t got your meal, said the Wind, but here s a\\nram which will drop money out of its fleece whenever\\nyou tell it to. So the lad travelled home, stopping over\\nnight at the same inn, and when he got home he found\\nhimself with a ram which did n t drop coins out of its\\nfleece. A third time he visited the North Wind, and\\nobtained a bag with a stick in it which, at the word of\\ncommand, would jump out of the bag and lay on until\\ntold to stop. Guessing how matters stood as to his cloth\\nand ram, he turned in at the same tavern, and going to\\na bench lay down as if to sleep. The landlord thought\\nthat a stick carried about in a bag must be worth some-\\nthing, and so he stole quietly up to the bag, meaning to\\nget the stick out and change it. But just as he got\\nwithin whacking distance, the boy gave the word, and\\nout jumped the stick and beat the thief until he prom-\\nised to give back the ram and the tablecloth. And so\\nthe boy got his rights for the meal which the North\\nWind had blown away.\\nOctober, 1870.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 69\\nIII.\\nWEEEWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS.\\nIT is related by Ovid that Lykaon, king of Arkadia,\\nonce invited Zeus to dinner, and served up for him\\na dish of human flesh, in order to test the god s omni-\\nscience. But the trick miserably failed, and the impious\\nmonarch received the punishment which his crime had\\nmerited. He was transformed into a wolf, that he might\\nhenceforth feed upon the viands with which he had dared\\nto pollute the table of the king of Olympos. From that\\ntime forth, according to Pliny, a noble Arkadian was each\\nyear, on the festival of Zeus Lykaios, led to the margin\\nof a certain lake. Hanging his clothes upon a tree, he\\nthen plunged into the water and became a wolf. Eor the\\nspace of nine years he roamed about the adjacent woods,\\nand then, if he had not tasted human flesh during all this\\ntime, he was allowed to swim back to the place where\\nhis clothes were hanging, put them on, and return to his\\nnatural form. It is further related of a certain Demai-\\nnetos, that, having once been present at a human sacrifice\\nto Zeus Lykaios, he ate of the flesh, and was transformed\\ninto a wolf for a term of ten years.*\\nThese and other similar mythical germs were devel-\\noped by the mediaeval imagination into the horrible\\nsuperstition of werewolves.\\nA werewolf, or loup-garou,f was a person who had the\\nCompare Plato, Republic, VIII. 15.\\nf Wer e- wolf man-wolf, wer meaning man. Garou is a Gallic\\ncorruption of werewolf, so that loup-garou is a tautological expression.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "7o\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\npower of transforming himself into a wolf, being en-\\ndowed, while in the lupine state, with the intelligence\\nof a man, the ferocity of a wolf, and the irresistible\\nstrength of a demon. The ancients believed in the exist-\\nence of such persons but in the Middle Ages the meta-\\nmorphosis was supposed to be a phenomenon of daily\\noccurrence, and even at the present day, in secluded por-\\ntions of Europe, the superstition is still cherished by\\npeasants. The belief, moreover, is supported by a vast\\namount of evidence, which can neither be argued nor\\npooh-poohed into insignificance. It is the business of\\nthe comparative mythologist to trace the pedigree of the\\nideas from which such a conception may have sprung\\nwhile to the critical historian belongs the task of ascer-\\ntaining and classifying the actual facts which this par-\\nticular conception was used to interpret.\\nThe mediaeval belief in werewolves is especially adapted\\nto illustrate the complicated manner in which divers\\nmythical conceptions and misunderstood natural occur-\\nrences will combine to generate a long-enduring super-\\nstition. Mr. Cox, indeed, would have us believe that the\\nwhole notion arose from an unintentional play upon\\nwords; but the careful survey of the field, which has\\nbeen taken by Hertz and Baring-Gould, leads to the con-\\nclusion that many other circumstances have been at work.\\nThe delusion, though doubtless purely mythical in its\\norigin, nevertheless presents in its developed state a curi-\\nous mixture of mythical and historical elements.\\nWith regard to the Arkadian legend, taken by itself,\\nMr. Cox is probably right. The story seems to belong\\nto that large class of myths which have been devised in\\norder to explain the meaning of equivocal words whose\\ntrue significance has been forgotten. The epithet Lykaios,\\nas applied to Zeus, had originally no reference to wolves", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. fl\\nit means the bright one/ and gave rise to lycanthropic\\nlegends only because of the similarity in sound between\\nthe names for wolf and brightness. Aryan mythol-\\nogy furnishes numerous other instances of this confu-\\nsion. The solar deity, Phoibos Lykegenes, was originally\\nthe offspring of light but popular etymology made a\\nkind of werewolf of him by interpreting his name as the\\nwolf-born. The name of the hero Autolykos means\\nsimply the self-luminous but it was more frequently\\ninterpreted as meaning a very wolf/ in allusion to the\\nsupposed character of its possessor. Bazra, the name of\\nthe citadel of Carthage, was the Punic word for for-\\ntress but the Greeks confounded it with byrsa, a hide,\\nand hence the story of the ox-hides cut into strips by\\nDido in order to measure the area of the place to be forti-\\nfied. The old theory that the Irish were Phoenicians had\\na similar origin. The name Fena, used to designate the\\nold Scoti or Irish, is the plural of Fion, fair, seen in\\nthe name of the hero Fion Gall, or Fingal but the\\nmonkish chroniclers identified Fena with Phoinix, whence\\narose the myth and by a like misunderstanding of the\\nepithet Miledh, or warrior, applied to Fion by the\\nGaelic bards, there was generated a mythical hero, Mile-\\nsius, and the soubriquet Milesian, colloquially employed\\nin speaking of the Irish.* So the Franks explained the\\nname of the town Daras, in Mesopotamia, by the story\\nthat the Emperor Justinian once addressed the chief mag-\\nistrate with the exclamation, daras, thou shalt give f\\nthe Greek chronicler, Malalas, who spells the name Doras,\\ninforms us with equal complacency that it was the place\\nwhere Alexander overcame Codomannus with 6pv, the\\nspear. A certain passage in the Alps is called Scaletta,\\nMeyer, in Bunsen s Philosophy of Universal History, Vol* I# p\u00c2\u00bb 151*\\nt Aimoin, De Gestis Francorum, II. 5.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "72\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nfrom its resemblance to a staircase but according to a\\nlocal tradition it owes its name to the bleaching skeletons\\nof a company of Moors who were destroyed there in the\\neighth century, while attempting to penetrate into North-\\nern Italy. The name of Antwerp denotes the town built\\nat a wharf but it sounds very much like the Flemish\\nhandt werjpen, hand-throwing hence arose the legend\\nof the giant who cut off the hands of those who passed\\nhis castle without paying him black-mail, and threw them\\ninto the Scheldt. In the myth of Bishop Hatto, related\\nin a previous paper, the Mause-thurm is a corruption of\\nmaut-thurm it means customs-tower, and has nothing\\nto do with mice or rats. Doubtless this etymology was\\nthe cause of the floating myth getting fastened to this\\nparticular place that it did not give rise to the myth\\nitself is shown by the existence of the same tale in other\\nplaces. Somewhere in England there is a place called\\nChateau Vert the peasantry have corrupted it into Shot-\\nover, and say that it has borne that name ever since\\nLittle John shot over a high hill in the neighbourhood.-|*\\nLatium means the flat land but, according to Virgil,\\nit is the place where Saturn once hid (latuisset) from the\\nwrath of his usurping son Jupiter. J\\nTaylor, Words and Places, p. 393.\\nt Very similar to this is the etymological confusion upon which is\\nbased the myth of the confusion of tongues in the eleventh chapter\\nof Genesis. The name Babel is really Bab-Il, or the gate of God\\nbut the Hebrew writer erroneously derives the word from the root SS|\\nbalal, to confuse and hence arises the mythical explanation,\\nthat Babel was a place where human speech became confused. See Eaw-\\nlinson, in Smith s Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I. p. 149 Renan, His-\\ntoire des Langues Semitiques, Vol. I. p. 32 Donaldson, New Cratylus,\\np. 74, note Colenso on the Pentateuch, Vol. IV. p. 268.\\nVirg. Mu. VIII. 322. With Latium compare irkaris, Skr. prath\\n(to spread out), Eng. flat. Ferrar, Comparative Grammar of Greek,\\nLatin, and Sanskrit, Vol. I. p. 31.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 73\\nIt was in this way that the constellation of the Great\\nBear received its name. The Greek word arhtos, answer-\\ning to the Sanskrit riksha, meant originally any bright\\nobject, and was applied to the bear for what reason it\\nwould not be easy to state and to that constellation\\nwhich was most conspicuous in the latitude of the early\\nhome of the Aryans. When the Greeks had long forgot-\\nten why these stars were called arktoi, they symbolized\\nthem as a Great Bear fixed in the sky. So that, as Max\\nMuller observes, the name of the Arctic regions rests\\non a misunderstanding of a name framed thousands of\\nyears ago in Central Asia, and the surprise with which\\nmany a thoughtful observer has looked at these seven\\nbright stars, wondering why they were ever called the\\nBear, is removed by a reference to the early annals of\\nhuman speech. Among the Algonquins the sun-god\\nMichabo was represented as a hare, his name being com-\\npounded of michi, great, and wabos, a hare yet\\nwabos also meant white, so that the god was doubtless\\noriginally called simply the Great White One. The\\nsame naive process has made bears of the Arkadians,\\nwhose name, like that of the Lykians, merely signified\\nthat they were children of light and the metamor-\\nphosis of Kallisto, mother of Arkas, into a bear, and of\\nLykaon into a wolf, rests apparently upon no other foun-\\ndation than an erroneous etymology. Originally Lykaon\\nwas neither man nor wolf he was but another form of\\nPhoibos Lykegenes, the light-born sun, and, as Mr. Cox\\nhas shown, his legend is but a variation of that of Tanta-\\nlos, who in time of drought offers to Zeus the flesh of his\\nown offspring, the withered fruits, and is punished for\\nhis impiety.\\nIt seems to me, however, that this explanation, though\\nvalid as far as it goes, is inadequate to explain all the\\n4", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "74\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nfeatures of the werewolf superstition, or to account for its\\npresence in all Aryan countries and among many peoples\\nwho are not of Aryan origin. There can be no doubt\\nthat the myth-makers transformed Lykaon into a wolf\\nbecause of his unlucky name because what really meant\\nbright man seemed to them to mean wolf-man but\\nit has by no means been proved that a similar equivoca-\\ntion occurred in the case of all the primitive Aryan were-\\nwolves, nor has it been shown to be probable that among\\neach people the being with the uncanny name got thus\\naccidentally confounded with the particular beast most\\ndreaded by that people. Etymology alone does not ex-\\nplain the fact that while Gaul has been the favourite\\nhaunt of the raan-wolf, Scandinavia has been preferred\\nby the man-bear, and Hindustan by the man-tiger. To\\naccount for such a widespread phenomenon we must seek\\na more general cause.\\nNothing is more strikingly characteristic of primitive\\nthinking than the close community of nature which it\\nassumes between man and brute. The doctrine of me-\\ntempsychosis, which is found in some shape or other all\\nover the world, implies a fundamental identity between\\nthe two the Hindu is taught to respect the flocks brows-\\ning in the meadow, and will on no account lift his hand\\nagainst a cow, for who knows but it may be his own\\ngrandmother The recent researches of Mr. M Lerman\\nand Mr. Herbert Spencer have served to connect this\\nfeeling with the primeval worship of ancestors and with\\nthe savage customs of totemism.*\\nThe worship of ancestors seems to have been every-\\nM Lennan, The Worship of Animals and Plants, Fortnightly\\nEeview, N. S. Vol. VI. pp. 407-427, 562-582, Vol. VII. pp. 194-216;\\nSpencer, The Origin of Animal Worship, Id. Vol. VII. pp. 535-550,\\nreprinted in his Recent Discussions in Science, etc., pp. 31-56.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS.\\n75\\nwhere the oldest systematized form of fetichistic religion.\\nThe reverence paid to the chieftain of the tribe while\\nliving was continued and exaggerated after his death.\\nThe uncivilized man is everywhere incapable of grasping\\nthe idea of death as it is apprehended by civilized peo-\\nple. He cannot understand that a man should pass away\\nso as to be no longer capable of communicating with his\\nfellows. The image of his dead chief or comrade remains\\nin his mind, and the savage s philosophic realism far sur-\\npasses that of the most extravagant mediaeval schoolmen\\nto him the persistence of the idea implies the persistence\\nof the reality. The dead man, accordingly, is not really\\ndead he has thrown off his body like a husk, yet still\\nretains his old appearance, and often shows himself to\\nhis old friends, especially after nightfall. He is no doubt\\npossessed of more extensive powers than before his trans-\\nformation,* and may very likely have a share in regulat-\\ning the weather, granting or withholding rain. There-\\nfore, argues the uncivilized mind, he is to be cajoled and\\npropitiated more sedulously now than before his strange\\ntransformation.\\nThis kind of worship still maintains a languid exist-\\nence as the state religion of China, and it still exists as a\\nThus is explained the singular conduct of the Hindu, who slays\\nhimself before his enemy s door, in order to acquire greater power of\\ninjuring him. A certain Brahman, on whose lands a Kshatriya raja\\nhad built a house, ripped himself up in revenge, and became a demon of\\nthe kind called Brahmadasyu, who has been ever since the terror of the\\nwhole country, and is the most common village-deity in Kharakpur.\\nToward the close of the last century there were two Brahmans, out of\\nwhose house a man had wrongfully, as they thought, taken forty rupees\\nwhereupon one of the Brahmans proceeded to cut off his own mother s\\nhead, with the professed view, entertained by both mother and son, that\\nher spirit, excited by the beating of a large drum during forty days,\\nmight haunt, torment, and pursue to death the taker of their money and\\nthose concerned with him. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Vol. II. p. 103.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "7 6\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nportion of Brahmanism but in the Vedic religion it is\\nto be seen in all its vigour and in all its naive simplicity.\\nAccording to the ancient Aryan, the Pitris, or Fathers\\n(Lat. patres), live in the sky along with Yama, the great\\noriginal Pitri of mankind. This first man came down\\nfrom heaven in the lightning, and back to heaven both\\nhimself and all his offspring must have gone. There\\nthey distribute light unto men below, and they shine\\nthemselves as stars and hence the Christianized Ger-\\nman peasant, fifty centuries later, tells his children that\\nthe stars are angels eyes, and the English cottager im-\\npresses it on the youthful mind that it is wicked to\\npoint at the stars, though why he cannot telL But\\nthe Pitris are not stars only, nor do they content them-\\nselves with idly looking down on the affairs of men, after\\nthe fashion of the laissez-faire divinities of Lucretius.\\nThey are, on the contrary, very busy with the weather\\nthey send rain, thunder, and lightning and they espe-\\ncially delight in rushing over the housetops in a great\\ngale of wind, led on by their chief, the mysterious hunts-\\nman, Hermes or Odin.\\nIt has been elsewhere shown that the howling dog, or\\nwish-hound of Hermes, whose appearance under the win-\\ndows of a sick person is such an alarming portent, is\\nmerely the tempest personified. Throughout all Aryan\\nmythology the souls of the dead are supposed to ride on\\nthe night-wind, with their howling dogs, gathering into\\ntheir throng the souls of those just dying as they pass by\\ntheir houses.* Sometimes the whole complex conception\\nis wrapped up in the notion of a single dog, the messen-\\nger of the god of shades, who comes to summon the de-\\nHence, in many parts of Europe, it is still customary to open the\\nwindows when a person dies, in order that the soul may not be hindered\\nin joining the mystic cavalcade.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 77\\nparting soul. Sometimes, instead of a dog, we have a\\ngreat ravening wolf who comes to devour its victim and\\nextinguish the sunlight of life, as that old wolf of the\\ntribe of Fenrir devoured little Eed Kiding-Hood with her\\nrobe of scarlet twilight.* Thus we arrive at a true were-\\nwolf myth. The storm-wind, or howling Eakshasa\\nof Hindu folk-lore, is a great misshapen giant with red\\nbeard and red hair, with pointed protruding teeth, ready to\\nlacerate and devour human flesh his body is covered with\\ncoarse, bristling hair, his huge mouth is open, he looks\\nfrom side to side as he walks, lusting after the flesh and\\nblood of men, to satisfy his raging hunger and quench\\nhis consuming thirst. Towards nightfall his strength in-\\ncreases manifold he can change his shape at will he\\nhaunts the woods, and roams howling through the\\njungle. f\\nNow if the storm- wind is a host of Pitris, or one great\\nPitri who appears as a fearful giant, and is also a pack of\\nwolves or wish-hounds, or a single savage dog or wolf,\\nthe inference is obvious to the mythopceic mind that men\\nThe story of little Eed Kiding-Hood is mutilated in the English\\nversion, but known more perfectly by old wives in Germany, who can\\ntell that the lovely little maid in her shining red satin cloak was swal-\\nlowed with her grandmother by the wolf, till they both came out safe\\nand sound when the hunter cut open the sleeping beast. Tylor, Primi-\\ntive Culture, I. 307, where also see the kindred Russian story of Vasi-\\nlissa the Beautiful. Compare the case of Tom Thumb, who was swal-\\nlowed by the cow and came out unhurt the story of Saktideva swal-\\nlowed by the fish and cut out again, in Somadeva Bhatta, II. 118-184;\\nand the story of Jonah swallowed by the whale, in the Old Testament.\\nAll these are different versions of the same myth, and refer to the alter-\\nnate swallowing up and casting forth of Day by Night, which is com-\\nmonly personified as a wolf, and now and then as a great fish. Com-\\npare Grimm s story of the Wolf and Seven Kids, Tylor, loc. cit., and\\nsee Early History of Mankind, p. 337 Hardy, Manual of Budhism,\\np. 501.\\nt Baring-Gould, Book of Werewolves, p. 178 Muir, Sanskrit Texts,\\nII. 435.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "78\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nmay become wolves, at least after death. And to the\\nuncivilized thinker this inference is strengthened, as Mr.\\nSpencer has shown, by evidence registered on his own\\ntribal totem or heraldic emblem. The bears and lions\\nand leopards of heraldry are the degenerate descendants\\nof the totem of savagery which designated the tribe by a\\nbeast-symbol. To the untutored mind there is every-\\nthing in a name and the descendant of Brown Bear or\\nYellow Tiger or Silver Hyaena cannot be pronounced un-\\nfaithful to his own style of philosophizing, if he regards\\nhis ancestors, who career about his hut in the darkness\\nof night, as belonging to whatever order of beasts his\\ntotem associations may suggest.\\nThus we not only see a ray of light thrown on the sub-\\nject of metempsychosis, but we get a glimpse of the\\ncurious process by which the intensely realistic mind of\\nantiquity arrived at the notion that men could be trans-\\nformed into beasts. For the belief that the soul can\\ntemporarily quit the body during lifetime has been uni-\\nversally entertained and from the conception of wolf-\\nlike ghosts it was but a short step to the conception of\\ncorporeal werewolves. In the Middle Ages the phe-\\nnomena of trance and catalepsy were cited in proof of the\\ntheory that the soul can leave the body and afterwards\\nreturn to it. Hence it was very difficult for a person\\naccused of witchcraft to prove an alibi; for to any\\namount of evidence showing that the body was inno-\\ncently reposing at home and in bed, the rejoinder was\\nobvious that the soul may nevertheless have been in at-\\ntendance at the witches Sabbath or busied in maiming a\\nneighbour s cattle. According to one mediaeval notion,\\nthe soul of the werewolf quit its human body, which re-\\nmained in a trance until its return.*\\nIn those days even an after-dinner nap seems to have been thought\\nuncanny. See Dasent, Burnt Njal, I. xxi.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 79\\nThe mythological basis of the werewolf superstition is\\nnow, I believe, sufficiently indicated. The belief, how-\\never, did not reach its complete development, or acquire\\nits most horrible features, until the pagan habits of\\nthought which had originated it were modified by con-\\ntact with Christian theology. To the ancient there was\\nnothing necessarily diabolical in the transformation of a\\nman into a beast. But Christianity, which retained such\\na host of pagan conceptions under such strange disguises,\\nwhich degraded the All-father Odin into the ogre of\\nthe castle to which Jack climbed on his bean-stalk, and\\nwhich blended the beneficent lightning-god Thor and the\\nmischievous Hermes and the faun-like Pan into the gro-\\ntesque Teutonic Devil, did not fail to impart a new and\\nfearful character to the belief in werewolves. Lycan-\\nthropy became regarded as a species of witchcraft the\\nwerewolf was supposed to have obtained his peculiar\\npowers through the favour or connivance of the Devil\\nand hundreds of persons were burned alive or broken on\\nthe wheel for having availed themselves of the privilege\\nof beast-metamorphosis. The superstition, thus widely\\nextended and greatly intensified, was confirmed by many\\nsingular phenomena which cannot be omitted from any\\nthorough discussion of the nature and causes of lycan-\\nthropy.\\nThe first of these phenomena is the Berserker insanity,\\ncharacteristic of Scandinavia, but not unknown in other\\ncountries. In times when killing one s enemies often\\nformed a part of the necessary business of life, persons\\nwere frequently found who killed for the mere love of\\nthe thing with whom slaughter was an end desirable in\\nitself, not merely a means to a desirable end. What the\\nmiser is in an age which worships mammon, such was\\nthe Berserker in an age when the current idea of heaven", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "8o\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nwas that of a place where people could hack each other to\\npieces through all eternity, and when the man who refused\\na challenge was punished with confiscation of his estates.\\nWith these Northmen, in the ninth century, the chief\\nbusiness and amusement in life was to set sail for some\\npleasant country, like Spain or France, and make all the\\ncoasts and navigable rivers hideous with rapine and mas-\\nsacre. When at home, in the intervals between their\\nfreebooting expeditions, they were liable to become pos-\\nsessed by a strange homicidal madness, during which they\\nwould array themselves in the skins of wolves or bears,\\nand sally forth by night to crack the backbones, smash\\nthe skulls, and sometimes to drink with fiendish glee the\\nblood of unwary travellers or loiterers. These fits of\\nmadness were usually followed by periods of utter ex-\\nhaustion and nervous depression.*\\nSuch, according to the unanimous testimony of histo-\\nrians, was the celebrated Berserker rage, not peculiar\\nto the Northland, although there most conspicuously\\nmanifested. Taking now a step in advance, we find that\\nin comparatively civilized countries there have been\\nmany cases of monstrous homicidal insanity. The two\\nmost celebrated cases, among those collected by Mr. Bar-\\ning-Gould, are those of the Marechal de Eetz, in 1440,\\nand of Elizabeth, a Hungarian countess, in the seven-\\nteenth century. The Countess Elizabeth enticed young\\ngirls into her palace on divers pretexts, and then coolly\\nmurdered them, for the purpose of bathing in their blood.\\nThe spectacle of human suffering became at last such\\nSee Dasent, Burnt Njal, Vol. I. p. xxii. Grettis Saga, by Mag-\\nrmsson and Morris, chap. xix. Viga Glum s Saga, by Sir Edmund\\nHead, p. 13, note, wbere the Berserkers are said to have maddened\\nthemselves with drugs. Dasent compares them with the Malays, who\\nwork themselves into a frenzy by means of arrack, or hasheesh, and run\\namuck.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 8 1\\na delight to her, that she would apply with her own\\nhands the most excruciating tortures, relishing the\\nshrieks of her victims as the epicure relishes each sip\\nof his old Chateau Margaux. In this way she is\\nsaid to have murdered six hundred and fifty persons\\nbefore her evil career was brought to an end; though,\\nwhen one recollects the famous men in buckram and the\\nnotorious trio of crows, one is inclined to strike off a\\ncipher, and regard sixty-five as a sufficiently imposing\\nand far less improbable number. But the case of the\\nMare*chal de Eetz is still more frightful. A marshal of\\nFrance, a scholarly man, a patriot, and a man of holy life,\\nhe became suddenly possessed by an uncontrollable desire\\nto murder children. During seven years he continued to\\ninveigle little boys and girls into his castle, at the rate\\nof about two each week, and then put them to death in\\nvarious ways, that he might witness their agonies and\\nbathe in their blood experiencing after each occasion\\nthe most dreadful remorse, but led on by an irresistible\\ncraving to repeat the crime. When this unparalleled ini-\\nquity was finally brought to light, the castle was found\\nto contain bins full of children s bones. The horrible\\ndetails of the trial are to be found in the histories of\\nFrance by Michelet and Martin.\\nGoing a step further, we find cases in which the pro-\\npensity to murder has been accompanied by cannibalism.\\nIn 1598 a tailor of Chalons was sentenced by the par-\\nliament of Paris to be burned alive for lycanthropy.\\nThis wretched man had decoyed children into his shop,\\nor attacked them in the gloaming when they strayed in\\nthe woods, had torn them with his teeth and killed them,\\nafter which he seems calmly to have dressed their flesh\\nas ordinary meat, and to have eaten it with a great relish.\\nThe number of little innocents whom he destroyed is un-\\n4* r", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "82\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nknown. A whole caskful of bones was discovered in his\\nhouse. About 1850 a beggar in the village of Polomyia,\\nin Galicia, was proved to have killed and eaten fourteen\\nchildren. A house had one day caught fire and burnt to\\nthe ground, roasting one of the inmates, who was unable\\nto escape. The beggar passed by soon after, and, as he was\\nsuffering from excessive hunger, could not resist the temp-\\ntation of making a meal off the charred body. From that\\nmoment he was tormented by a craving for human flesh.\\nHe met a little orphan girl, about nine years old, and giv-\\ning her a pinchbeck ring told her to seek for others like\\nit under a tree in the neighbouring wood. She was slain,\\ncarried to the beggar s hovel, and eaten. In the course\\nof three years thirteen other children mysteriously dis-\\nappeared, but no one knew whom to suspect. At last an\\ninnkeeper missed a pair of ducks, and having no good\\nopinion of this beggar s honesty, went unexpectedly to\\nhis cabin, burst suddenly in at the door, and to his hor-\\nror found him in the act of hiding under his cloak a\\nsevered head a bowl of fresh blood stood under the\\noven, and pieces of a thigh were cooking over the fire.*(*\\nThis occurred only about twenty years ago, and the\\ncriminal, though ruled by an insane appetite, is not\\nknown to have been subject to any mental delusion.\\nBut there have been a great many similar cases, in which\\nthe homicidal or cannibal craving has been accompanied\\nby genuine hallucination. Forms of insanity in which\\nthe afflicted persons imagine themselves to be brute ani-\\nmals are not perhaps very common, but they are not un-\\nknown. I once knew a poor demented old man who\\nbelieved himself to be a horse, and would stand by the\\nhour together before a manger, nibbling hay, or deluding\\nBaring- Gould, Werewolves, p. 81.\\nBaring- Gould, op. cit. chap. xiv.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN MAIDENS.\\n83\\nhimself with the pretence of so doing. Many of the\\ncannibals whose cases are related by Mr. Baring-Gould,\\nin his chapter of horrors, actually believed themselves\\nto have been transformed into wolves or other wild ani-\\nmals. Jean Grenier was a boy of thirteen, partially\\nidiotic, and of strongly marked canine physiognomy his\\njaws were large and projected forward, and his canine\\nteeth were unnaturally long, so as to protrude beyond the\\nlower lip. He believed himself to be a werewolf. One\\nevening, meeting half a dozen young girls, he scared\\nthem out of their wits by telling them that as soon as\\nthe sun had set he would turn into a wolf and eat them\\nforsupper. A few days later, one little girl, having gone\\nout at nightfall to look after the sheep, was attacked by\\nsome creature which in her terror she mistook for a wolf,\\nbut which afterwards proved to be none other than Jean\\nGrenier. She beat him off with her sheep-staff, and fled\\nhome. As several children had mysteriously disappeared\\nfrom the neighbourhood, Grenier was at once suspected.\\nBeing brought before the parliament of Bordeaux, he\\nstated that two years ago he had met the Devil one night\\nin the woods and had signed a compact with him and\\nreceived from him a wolf-skin. Since then he had\\nroamed about as a wolf after dark, resuming his human\\nshape by daylight. He had killed and eaten several\\nchildren whom he had found alone in the fields, and on\\none occasion he had entered a house while the family\\nwere out and taken the baby from its cradle. A careful\\ninvestigation proved the truth of these statements, so far\\nas the cannibalism was concerned. There is no doubt\\nthat the missing children were eaten by Jean Grenier,\\nand there is no doubt that in his own mind the half-\\nwitted boy was firmly convinced that he was a wolf.\\nHere the lycanthropy was complete.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "8 4\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nIn the year 1598, in a wild and unfrequented spot\\nnear Caude, some countrymen came one day upon the\\ncorpse of a boy of fifteen, horribly mutilated and bespat-\\ntered with blood. As the men approached, two wolves,\\nwhich had been rending the body, bounded away into\\nthe thicket. The men gave chase immediately, following\\ntheir bloody tracks till they lost them when, suddenly\\ncrouching among the bushes, his teeth chattering with\\nfear, they found a man half naked, with long hair and\\nbeard, and with his hands dyed in blood. His nails were\\nlong as claws, and were clotted with fresh gore and shreds\\nof human flesh.\\nThis man, Jacques Eoulet, was a poor, half-witted\\ncreature under the dominion of a cannibal appetite. He\\nwas employed in tearing to pieces the corpse of the boy\\nwhen these countrymen came up. Whether there were\\nany wolves in the case, except what the excited imagina-\\ntions of the men may have conjured up, I will not pre-\\nsume to determine but it is certain that Eoulet sup-\\nposed himself to be a wolf, and killed and ate several\\npersons under the influence of the delusion. He was\\nsentenced to death, but the parliament of Paris reversed\\nthe sentence, and charitably shut him up in a madhouse.\\nThe annals of the Middle Ages furnish many cases\\nsimilar to these of Grenier and Eoulet. Their share in\\nmaintaining the werewolf superstition is undeniable\\nbut modern science finds in them nothing that cannot be\\nreadily explained. That stupendous process of breeding,\\nwhich we call civilization, has been for long ages strength-\\nening those kindly social feelings by the possession of\\nwhich we are chiefly distinguished from the brutes, leav-\\ning our primitive bestial impulses to die for want of\\nexercise, or checking in every possible way their furthei\\nBaring-Gould, op. cit. p. 82.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS.\\n85\\nexpansion by legislative enactments. But this process,\\nwhich is transforming us from savages into civilized\\nmen, is a very slow one and now and then there occur\\ncases of what physiologists call atavism, or reversion to\\nan ancestral type of character. Now and then persons\\nare born, in civilized countries, whose intellectual powers\\nare on a level with those of the most degraded Austra-\\nlian savage, and these we call idiots. And now and\\nthen persons are born possessed of the bestial appetites\\nand cravings of primitive man, his fiendish cruelty and\\nhis liking for human flesh. Modern physiology knows\\nhow to classify and explain these abnormal cases, but\\nto the unscientific mediaeval mind they were explicable\\nonly on the hypothesis of a diabolical metamorphosis.\\nAnd there is nothing strange in the fact that, in an age\\nwhen the prevailing habits of thought rendered the\\ntransformation of men into beasts an easily admissible\\nnotion, these monsters of cruelty and depraved appetite\\nshould have been regarded as capable of taking on bestial\\nforms. Nor is it strange that the hallucination under\\nwhich these unfortunate wretches laboured should have\\ntaken such a shape as to account to their feeble intelli-\\ngence for the existence of the appetites which they were\\nconscious of not sharing with their neighbours and con-\\ntemporaries. If a myth is a piece of unscientific philoso-\\nphizing, it must sometimes be applied to the explanation\\nof obscure psychological as well as of physical phenom-\\nena. Where the modern calmly taps his forehead and\\nsays, Arrested development, the terrified ancient made\\nthe sign of the cross and cried, Werewolf.\\nWe shall be assisted in this explanation by turning\\naside for a moment to examine the wild superstitions\\nabout changelings, which contributed, along with so\\nmany others, to make the lives of our ancestors anxious", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "86\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nand miserable. These superstitions were for the most\\npart attempts to explain the phenomena of insanity,\\nepilepsy, and other obscure nervous diseases. A man\\nwho has hitherto enjoyed perfect health, and whose ac-\\ntions have been consistent and rational, suddenly loses\\nall self-control and seems actuated by a will foreign to\\nhimself. Modern science possesses the key to this phe-\\nnomenon but in former times it was explicable only on\\nthe hypothesis that a demon had entered the body of the\\nlunatic, or else that the fairies had stolen the real man\\nand substituted for him a diabolical phantom exactly like\\nhim in stature and features. Hence the numerous le-\\ngends of changelings, some of which are very curious.\\nIn Irish folk-lore we find the story of one Eickard, sur-\\nnamed the Eake, from his worthless character. A good-\\nnatured, idle fellow, he spent all his evenings in dancing,\\nan accomplishment in which no one in the village\\ncould rival him. One night, in the midst of a lively reel,\\nhe fell down in a fit. He s struck with a fairy-dart,\\nexclaimed all the friends, and they carried him home and\\nnursed him but his face grew so thin and his manner\\nso morose that by and by all began to suspect that the\\ntrue Eickard was gone and a changeling put in his place.\\nEickard, with all his accomplishments, was no musician\\nand so, in order to put the matter to a crucial test, a bag-\\npipe was left in the room by the side of his bed. The\\ntrick succeeded. One hot summer s day, when all were\\nsupposed to be in the field making hay, some members\\nof the family secreted in a clothes-press saw the bedroom\\ndoor open a little way, and a lean, foxy face, with a pair\\nof deep-sunken eyes, peer anxiously about the premises.\\nHaving satisfied itself that the coast was clear, the face\\nwithdrew, the door was closed, and presently such ravish-\\ning strains of music were heard as never proceeded from", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 87\\na bagpipe before or since that day. Soon was heard the\\nrustle of innumerable fairies, come to dance to the\\nchangeling s music. Then the fairy-man of the vil-\\nlage, who was keeping watch with the family, heated a\\npair of tongs red-hot, and with deafening shouts all\\nburst at once into the sick-chamber. The music had\\nceased and the room was empty, but in at the window\\nglared a fiendish face, with such fearful looks of hatred,\\nthat for a moment all stood motionless with terror. But\\nwhen the fairy-man, recovering himself, advanced with\\nthe hot tongs to pinch its nose, it vanished with an un-\\nearthly yell, and there on the bed was Eickard, safe and\\nsound, and cured of his epilepsy.*\\nComparing this legend with numerous others relating\\nto changelings, and stripping off the fantastic garb of\\nfairy-lore with which popular imagination has invested\\nthem, it seems impossible to doubt that they have arisen\\nfrom myths devised for the purpose of explaining the\\nobscure phenomena of mental disease. If this be so,\\nthey afford an excellent collateral illustration of the be-\\nlief in werewolves. The same mental habits which led\\nmen to regard the insane or epileptic person as a change-\\nling, and which allowed them to explain catalepsy as the\\ntemporary departure of a witch s soul from its body,\\nwould enable them to attribute a wolf s nature to the\\nmaniac or idiot with cannibal appetites. And when the\\nmyth-forming process had got thus far, it would not stop\\nshort of assigning to the unfortunate wretch a tangible\\nlupine body for all ancient mythology teemed with pre-\\ncedents for such a transformation.\\nIt remains for us to sum up, to tie into a bunch the\\nkeys which have helped us to penetrate into the secret\\ncauses of the werewolf superstition In a previous\\nKennedy, Fictions of the Irish Celts, p. 90.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "88\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\npaper we saw what a host of myths, fairy-tales, and\\nsuperstitious observances have sprung from attempts to\\ninterpret one simple natural phenomenon, the descent\\nof fire from the clouds. Here, on the other hand, we see\\nwhat a heterogeneous multitude of mythical elements\\nmay combine to build up in course of time a single enor-\\nmous superstition, and we see how curiously fact and\\nfancy have co-operated in keeping the superstition from\\nfalling. In the first place the worship of dead ancestors\\nwith wolf totems originated the notion of the transforma-\\ntion of men into divine or superhuman wolves and this\\nnotion was confirmed by the ambiguous explanation of\\nthe storm-wind as the rushing of a troop of dead men s\\nsouls or as the howling of wolf-like monsters. Mediaeval\\nChristianity retained these conceptions, merely changing\\nthe superhuman wolves into evil demons and finally the\\noccurrence of cases of Berserker madness and cannibal-\\nism, accompanied by lycanthropic hallucinations, being\\ninterpreted as due to such demoniacal metamorphosis,\\ngave rise to the werewolf superstition of the Middle\\nAges. The etymological proceedings, to which Mr. Cox\\nwould incontinently ascribe the origin of the entire\\nsuperstition, seemed to me to have played a very subor-\\ndinate part in the matter. To suppose that Jean Grenier\\nimagined himself to be a wolf, because the Greek word\\nfor wolf sounded like the word for light, and thus gave\\nrise to the story of a light-deity who became a wolf,\\nseems to me quite inadmissible. Yet as far as such ver-\\nbal equivocations may have prevailed, they doubtless\\nhelped to sustain the delusion.\\nThus we need no longer regard our werewolf as an\\ninexplicable creature of undetermined pedigree. But any\\naccount of him would be quite imperfect which should\\nomit all consideration of the methods by which his", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 89\\nchange of form was accomplished. By the ancient\\nEomans the werewolf was commonly called a skin-\\nchanger or turn-coat (versipellis), and similar epithets\\nwere applied to him in the Middle Ages The mediaeval\\ntheory was that, while the werewolf kept his human form,\\nhis hair grew inwards when he wished to become a wolf,\\nhe simply turned himself inside out. In many trials on\\nrecord, the prisoners were closely interrogated as to how\\nthis inversion might be accomplished but I am not aware\\nthat any one of them ever gave a satisfactory answer.\\nAt the moment of change their memories seem to have\\nbecome temporarily befogged. Now and then a poor\\nwretch had his arms and legs cut off, or was partially\\nflayed, in order that the ingrowing hair might be de-\\ntected.* Another theory was, that the possessed person\\nhad merely to put on a wolf s skin, in order to assume\\ninstantly the lupine form and character and in this may\\nperhaps be seen a vague reminiscence of the alleged fact\\nthat Berserkers were in the habit of haunting the woods\\nby night, clothed in the hides of wolves or bears.-|- Such\\nEn 1541, a Padoue, dit Wier, un homme qui se croyait change en\\nloup courait la campagne, attaquant et mettant a mort ceux qu il rencon-\\ntrait. Apres bien des difficultes, on parvint s emparer de lui. II dit\\nen confidence a ceux qui l arreterent Je suis vraiment un loup, et si\\nma peau ne parait pas etre celle d un loup, c est parce qu elle est retour-\\nnee et que les poils sont en dedans. Pour s assurer du fait, on coupa\\nle malheureux aux differentes parties du corps, on lui emporta les bras\\net les jambes. Taine, De 1 Intelligence, Tom. II. p. 203. See the\\naccount of Slavonic werewolves in Ealston, Songs of the Russian Peo-\\nple, pp. 404-418.\\nMr. Cox, whose scepticism on obscure points in history rather sur-\\npasses that of Sir G. C. Lewis, dismisses with a sneer the subject of the\\nBerserker madness, observing that the unanimous testimony of the\\nNorse historians is worth as much and as little as the convictions of\\nGlanvil and Hale on the reality of witchcraft. I have not the special\\nknowledge requisite for pronouncing an opinion on this point, but Mr.\\nCox s ordinary methods of disposing of such questions are not such as", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "90\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\na wolfskin was kept by the boy Grenier. Koulet, on the\\nother hand, confessed to using a magic salve or ointment.\\nA fourth method of becoming a werewolf was to obtain\\na girdle, usually made of human skin. Several cases are\\nrelated in Thorpe s Northern Mythology. One hot day\\nin harvest-time some reapers lay down to sleep in the\\nshade when one of them, who could not sleep, saw the\\nman next him arise quietly and gird him with a strap,\\nwhereupon he instantly vanished, and a wolf jumped up\\nfrom among the sleepers and ran off across the fields.\\nAnother man, who possessed such a girdle, once went\\naway from home without remembering to lock it up.\\nHis little son climbed up to the cupboard and got it, and\\nas he proceeded to buckle it around his waist, he became\\ninstantly transformed into a strange-looking beast. Just\\nthen his father came in, and seizing the girdle restored\\nthe child to his natural shape. The boy said that no\\nsooner had he buckled it on than he was tormented with\\na raging hunger.\\nSometimes the werewolf transformation led to unlucky\\naccidents. At Caseburg, as a man and his wife were\\nmaking hay, the woman threw down her pitchfork and\\nwent away, telling her husband that if a wild beast\\nshould come to him during her absence he must throw\\nhis hat at it. Presently a she-wolf rushed towards him.\\nThe man threw his hat at it, but a boy came up from\\nanother part of the field and stabbed the animal with\\nhis pitchfork, whereupon it vanished, and the woman s\\ndead body lay at his feet.\\nA parallel legend shows that this woman wished to\\nto make one feel obliged to accept his bare assertion, unaccompanied by\\ncritical arguments. The madness of the bearsarks may, no doubt, be\\nthe same thing as the frenzy of Herakles but something more than\\nmere dogmatism is needed to prove it.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 91\\nhave the hat thrown at her, in order that she might be\\nhenceforth free from her liability to become a werewolf.\\nA man was one night returning with his wife from a\\nmerry-making when he felt the change coming on Giv-\\ning his wife the reins, he jumped from the wagon, telling\\nher to strike with her apron at any animal which might\\ncome to her. In a few moments a wolf ran up to the\\nside of the vehicle, and, as the woman struck out with\\nher apron, it bit off a piece and ran away. Presently\\nthe man returned with the piece of apron in his mouth,\\nand consoled his terrified wife with the information that\\nthe enchantment had left him forever.\\nA terrible case at a village in Auvergne has found its\\nway into the annals of witchcraft. A gentleman while\\nhunting was suddenly attacked by a savage wolf of mon-\\nstrous size. Impenetrable by his shot, the beast made a\\nspring upon the helpless huntsman, who in the struggle\\nluckily, or unluckily for the unfortunate lady, contrived\\nto cut off one of its fore-paws. This trophy he placed\\nin his pocket, and made the best of his way homewards\\nin safety. On the road he met a friend, to whom he\\nexhibited a bleeding paw, or rather (as it now appeared)\\na woman s hand, upon which was a wedding-ring. His\\nwife s ring was at once recognized by the other. His\\nsuspicions aroused, he immediately went in search of his\\nwife, who was found sitting by the fire in the kitchen,\\nher arm hidden beneath her apron, when the husband,\\nseizing her by the arm, found his terrible suspicions veri-\\nfied. The bleeding stump was there, evidently just fresh\\nfrom the wound. She was given into custody, and in\\nthe event was burned at Eiom, in presence of thousands\\nof spectators.\\nWilliams, Superstitions 01 Witchcraft, p. 179. See a parallel case of a\\ncat-woman, in Thorpe s Northern Mythology, II. 26. Certain witches", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "9 2\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nSometimes a werewolf was cured merely by recogniz-\\ning him while in his brute shape. A Swedish legend\\ntells of a cottager who, on entering the forest one day\\nwithout recollecting to say his Pater Noster, got into the\\npower of a Troll, who changed him into a wolf. For\\nmany years his wife mourned him as dead. But one\\nChristmas eve the old Troll, disguised as a beggar-\\nwoman, came to the house for alms and being taken in\\nand kindly treated, told the woman that her husband\\nmight very likely appear to her in wolf-shape. Going at\\nnight to the pantry to lay aside a joint of meat for to-\\nmorrow s dinner, she saw a wolf standing with its paws\\non the window-sill, looking wistfully in at her. Ah,\\ndearest, said she, if I knew that thou wert really my\\nhusband, I would give thee a bone. Whereupon the\\nwolf-skin fell off, and her husband stood before her in\\nthe same old clothes which he had on the day that the\\nTroll got hold of him.\\nIn Denmark it was believed that if a woman were to\\ncreep through a colt s placental membrane stretched be-\\ntween four sticks, she would for the rest of her life bring\\nforth children without pain or illness but all the boys\\nwould in such case be werewolves, and all the girls\\nMoras, or nightmares. In this grotesque superstition\\nappears that curious kinship between the werewolf and\\nthe wife or maiden of supernatural race, which serves\\nadmirably to illustrate the nature of both conceptions,\\nand the elucidation of which shall occupy us throughout\\nthe remainder of this paper.\\nat Thurso for a long time tormented an honest fellow under the usual\\nform of cats, till one night he put them to flight with his broadsword,\\nand cut off the leg of one less nimble than the rest taking it up, to his\\namazement he found it to be a woman s leg, and next morning he discov-\\nered the old hag its owner with but one leg left. Tylor, Primitive\\nCulture, I. 283.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 93\\nIt is, perhaps, needless to state that in the personality\\nof the nightmare, or Mara, there was nothing equine.\\nThe Mara was a female demon,* who would come at\\nnight and torment men or women by crouching on their\\nchests or stomachs and stopping their respiration. The\\nscene is well enough represented in Fuseli s picture,\\nthough the frenzied-looking horse which there accom-\\npanies the demon has no place in the original supersti-\\ntion. A Netherlandish story illustrates the character of\\nthe Mara. Two young men were in love with the same\\ndamsel. One of them, being tormented every night by\\na Mara, sought advice from his rival, and it was a treach-\\nerous counsel that he got. Hold a sharp knife with the\\npoint towards your breast, and you 11 never see the Mara\\nagain, said this false friend. The lad thanked him, but\\nwhen he lay down to rest he thought it as well to be on\\nthe safe side, and so held the knife handle downward.\\nSo when the Mara came, instead of forcing the blade into\\nhis breast, she cut herself badly, and fled howling and\\nlet us hope, though the legend here leaves us in the dark,\\nthat this poor youth, who is said to have been the come-\\nlier of the two, revenged himself on his malicious rival\\nby marrying the young lady.\\nBut the Mara sometimes appeared in less revolting\\nshape, and became the mistress or even the wife of some\\nmortal man to whom she happened to take a fancy. In\\nsuch cases she would vanish on being recognized. There\\nis a well-told monkish tale of a pious knight who, jour-\\nneying one day through the forest, found a beautiful lady\\nstripped naked and tied to a tree, her back all covered\\nwith deep gashes streaming with blood, from a flogging\\nThe mare in nightmare means spirit, elf, or nymph compare\\nAnglo-Saxon wudumcere (wood-mare) echo. Tylor, Primitive Cul-\\nture, Vol. II. p. 173.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "94\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nwhich some bandits had given her. Of course he took\\nher home to his castle and married her, and for a while\\nthey lived very happily together, and the fame of the\\nlady s beauty was so great that kings and emperors held\\ntournaments in honor of her. But this pious knight\\nused to go to mass every Sunday, and greatly was he\\nscandalized when he found that his wife would never\\nstay to assist in the Credo, but would always get up and\\nwalk out of church just as the choir struck up. All\\nher husband s coaxing was of no use threats and en-\\ntreaties were alike powerless even to elicit an explana-\\ntion of this strange conduct. At last the good man de-\\ntermined to use force and so one Sunday, as the lady\\ngot up to go out, according to custom, he seized her by\\nthe arm and sternly commanded her to remain. Her\\nwhole frame was suddenly convulsed, and her dark eyes\\ngleamed with weird, unearthly brilliancy. The services\\npaused for a moment, and all eyes were turned toward\\nthe knight and his lady. In God s name, tell me what\\nthou art, shouted the knight and instantly, says the\\nchronicler, the bodily form of the lady melted away,\\nand was seen no more whilst, with a cry of anguish and\\nof terror, an evil spirit of monstrous form rose from the\\nground, clave the chapel roof asunder, and disappeared in\\nthe air.\\nIn a Danish legend, the Mara betrays her affinity to\\nthe Mxies, or Swan-maidens. A peasant discovered that\\nhis sweetheart was in the habit of coming to him by\\nnight as a Mara. He kept strict watch until he dis-\\ncovered her creeping into the room through a small\\nknot-hole in the door. Next day he made a peg, and\\nafter she had come to him, drove in the peg so that she\\nwas unable to escape. They were married and lived to-\\ngether many years but one night it happened that the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 95\\nman, joking with his wife about the way in which he had\\nsecured her, drew the peg from the knot-hole, that she\\nmight see how she had entered his room. As she peeped\\nthrough, she became suddenly quite small, passed out,\\nand was never seen again.\\nThe well-known pathological phenomena of nightmare\\nere sufficient to account for the mediseval theory of a\\nfiend who sits upon one s bosom and hinders respiration\\nbut as we compare these various legends relating to the\\nMara, we see that a more recondite explanation is needed\\nto account for all her peculiarities. Indigestion may\\ninterfere with our breathing, but it does not make beau-\\ntiful women crawl through keyholes, nor does it bring\\nwives from the spirit-world. The Mara belongs to an\\nancient family, and in passing from the regions of monk-\\nish superstition to those of pure mythology we find that,\\nlike her kinsman the werewolf, she had once seen better\\ndays. Christianity made a demon of the Mara, and adopted\\nthe theory that Satan employed these seductive creatures\\nas agents for ruining human souls. Such is the character\\nof the knight s wife, in the monkish legend just cited. But\\nin the Danish tale the Mara appears as one of that large\\nfamily of supernatural wives who are permitted to live\\nwith mortal men under certain conditions, but who are\\ncompelled to flee away when these conditions are broken,\\nas is always sure to be the case. The eldest and one of\\nthe loveliest of this family is the Hindu nymph Urvasi,\\nwhose love adventures with Pururavas are narrated in the\\nPuranas, and form the subject of the well-known and\\nexquisite Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa. Urvasi is allowed\\nto live with Pururavas so long as she does not see him\\nundressed. But one night her kinsmen, the Gandharvas,\\nor cloud-demons, vexed at her long absence from heaven,\\nresolved to get her away from her mortal companion.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "9 6\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nThey stole a pet lamb which had been tied at the foot of\\nher couch, whereat she bitterly upbraided her husband.\\nIn rage and mortification, Pururavas sprang up without\\nthrowing on his tunic, and grasping his sword sought the\\nrobber. Then the wicked Gandharvas sent a flash of\\nlightning, and Urvasi, seeing her naked husband, instantly\\nvanished.\\nThe different versions of this legend, which have been\\nelaborately analyzed by comparative mythologists, leave\\nno doubt that Urvasi is one of the dawn-nymphs or\\nbright fleecy clouds of early morning, which vanish as\\nthe splendour of the sun is unveiled. We saw, in the\\npreceding paper, that the ancient Aryans regarded the\\nsky as a sea or great lake, and that the clouds were ex-\\nplained variously as Phaiakian ships with bird-like beaks\\nsailing over this lake, or as bright birds of divers shapes\\nand hues. The light fleecy cirrhi were regarded as mer-\\nmaids, or as swans, or as maidens with swan s plumage.\\nIn Sanskrit they are called Apsaras, or those who move\\nin the water, and the Elves and Maras of Teutonic my-\\nthology have the same- significance. Urvasi appears in\\none legend as a bird and a South German prescription\\nfor getting rid of the Mara asserts that if she be wrapped\\nup in the bedclothes and firmly held, a white dove will\\nforthwith fly from the room, leaving the bedclothes\\nempty.*\\nIn the story of Melusina the cloud-maiden appears as\\na kind of mermaid, but in other respects the legend re-\\nsembles that of Urvasi. Eaymond, Count de la Foret,\\nof Poitou, having by an accident killed his patron and\\nbenefactor during a hunting excursion, fled in terror and\\nSee Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feiiers, p. 91 Weber, Indische Studien,\\nI. 197 Wolf, Beitrage zur deutschen Mythologie, II. 233 281\\nMiiller, Chips, II. 114 128.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 97\\ndespair into the deep recesses of the forest. All the\\nafternoon and evening he wandered through the thick\\ndark woods, until at midnight he came upon a strange\\nscene. All at once the boughs of the trees became less\\ninterlaced, and the trunks fewer; next moment his\\nhorse, crashing through the shrubs, brought him out on\\na pleasant glade, white with rime, and illumined by the\\nnew moon in the midst bubbled up a limpid fountain,\\nand flowed away over a pebbly-floor with a soothing mur-\\nmur. Near the fountain-head sat three maidens in glim-\\nmering white dresses, with long waving golden hair, and\\nfaces of inexpressible beauty. One of them advanced\\nto meet Eaymond, and according to all mythological\\nprecedent, they were betrothed before daybreak. In due\\ntime the fountain-nymph f became Countess de la Foret,\\nbut her husband was given to understand that all her\\nSaturdays would be passed in strictest seclusion, upon\\nwhich he must never dare to intrude, under penalty of\\nlosing her forever. For many years all went well, save\\nthat the fair Melusina s children were, without excep-\\ntion, misshapen or disfigured. But after a while this\\nstrange weekly seclusion got bruited about all over the\\nneighbourhood, and people shook their heads and looked\\ngrave about it. So many gossiping tales came to the\\nCount s ears, that he began to grow anxious and suspi-\\ncious, and at last he determined to know the worst. He\\nwent one Saturday to Melusina s private apartments, and\\ngoing through one empty room after another, at last came\\nto a locked door which opened into a bath looking\\nthrough a keyhole, there he saw the Countess transformed\\nfrom the waist downwards into a fish, disporting herself\\nBaring-Gould, Curious Myths, II. 207.\\nThe word nymph itself means cloud-maiden, as is illustrated by\\nthe kinship between the Greek v^fi^yj and the Latin nubes.\\n5 Q", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "9 8\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nlike a mermaid in the water. Of course he could not\\nkeep the secret, but when some time afterwards they\\nquarrelled, must needs address her as a vile serpent,\\ncontaminator of his honourable race. So she disap-\\npeared through the window, but ever afterward hovered\\nabout her husband s castle of Lusignan, like a Banshee,\\nwhenever one of its lords was about to die.\\nThe well-known story of Undine is similar to that of\\nMelusina, save that the naiad s desire to obtain a human\\nsoul is a conception foreign to the spirit of the myth,\\nand marks the degradation which Christianity had in-\\nflicted upon the denizens of fairy-land. In one of\\nDasent s tales the water-maiden is replaced by a kind\\nof werewolf. A white bear marries a young girl, but\\nassumes the human shape at night. She is never to\\nlook upon him in his human shape, but how could a\\nyoung bride be expected to obey such an injunction as\\nthat She lights a candle while he is sleeping, and dis-\\ncovers the handsomest prince in the world unluckily she\\ndrops tallow on his shirt, and that tells the story. But\\nshe is more fortunate than poor Eaymond, for after a\\ntiresome journey to the land east of the sun and west\\nof the moon, and an arduous washing-match with a par-\\ncel of ugly Trolls, she washes out the spots, and ends her\\nhusband s enchantment.*\\nIn the majority of these legends, however, the Apsa-\\nras, or cloud-maiden, has a shirt of swan s feathers which\\nplays the same part as the wolfskin cape or girdle of the\\nwerewolf. If you could get hold of a werewolf s sack\\nand burn it, a permanent cure was effected. ~No dangei\\nof a relapse, unless the Devil furnished him with a new\\nwolfskin. So the swan-maiden kept her human form, as\\nThis is substantially identical with the stories of Beauty and th\u00c2\u00ab\\nBeast, Eros and Psyche, Gandharba Sena, etc.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 99\\nlong as she was deprived of her tunic of feathers. Indo-\\nEuropean folk-lore teems with stories of swan-maidens\\nforcibly wooed and won by mortals who had stolen their\\nclothes. A man travelling along the road passes by a\\nlake where several lovely girls are bathing their dresses,\\nmade of feathers curiously and daintily woven, lie on the\\nshore. He approaches the place cautiously and steals\\none of these dresses.* When the girls have finished\\ntheir bathing, they all come and get their dresses and\\nswim away as swans but the one whose dress is stolen\\nmust needs stay on shore and marry the thief. It is\\nneedless to add that they live happily together for many\\nyears, or that finally the good man accidentally leaves\\nthe cupboard door unlocked, whereupon his wife gets back\\nher swan-shirt and flies away from him, never to return.\\nBut it is not always a shirt of feathers. In one German\\nstory, a nobleman hunting deer finds a maiden bathing\\nin a clear pool in the forest. He runs stealthily up to\\nher and seizes her necklace, at which she loses the\\npower to flee. They are married, and she bears seven\\nsons at once, all of whom have gold chains about their\\nnecks, and are able to transform themselves into swans\\nwhenever they like. A Flemish legend tells of three\\nNixies, or water-sprites, who came out of the Meuse one\\nautumn evening, and helped the villagers celebrate the\\nend of the vintage. Such graceful dancers had never\\nbeen seen in Flanders, and they could sing as well as\\nthey could dance. As the night was warm, one of them\\ntook off her gloves and gave them to her partner to hold\\nfor her. When the clock struck twelve the other two\\nThe feather-dress reappears in the Arabian story of Hassan of El-\\nBasrah, who by stealing it secures possession of the Jinniya. See Lane s\\nArabian Nights, Vol. III. p. 380. Ralston, Songs of the Russian Peo-\\nple, p. 179.\\nL.ofC.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "IOO\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nstarted off in hot haste, and then there was a hue and\\ncry for gloves. The lad would keep them as love-tokens,\\nand so the poor Xixie had to go home without them;\\nbut she must have died on the way, for next morn-\\ning the waters of the Meuse were blood-red, and those\\ndamsels never returned.\\nIn the Faro Islands it is believed that seals cast off\\ntheir skins every ninth night, assume human forms, and\\nsing and dance like men and women until daybreak,\\nwhen they resume their skins and their seal natures.\\nOf course a man once found and hid one of these seal-\\nskins, and so got a mermaid for a wife and of course she\\nrecovered the skin and escaped.* On the coasts of Ire-\\nland it is supposed to be quite an ordinary thing for\\nyoung sea-fairies to get human husbands in this way;\\nthe brazen things even come to shore on purpose, and\\nleave their red caps lying around for young men to pick\\nup but it behooves the husband to keep a strict watch\\nover the red cap, if he would not see his children left\\nmotherless.\\nThis mermaid s cap has contributed its quota to the\\nsuperstitions of witchcraft. An Irish story tells how Eed\\nJames was aroused from sleep one night by noises in the\\nkitchen. Going down to the door, he saw a lot of old\\nwomen drinking punch around the fireplace, and laugh-\\ning and joking with his housekeeper. When the punch-\\nbowl was empty, they all put on red caps, and singing\\nBy yarrow and rue,\\nAnd my red cap too,\\nHie me over to England,\\nthey flew up chimney. So Jimmy burst into the room,\\nand seized the housekeeper s cap, and went along with\\nThorpe, Northern Mythology, III. 173 Kennedy, Fictions of the\\nIrish Celts, p. 123.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 10 1\\nthem. They flew across the sea to a castle in Eng-\\nland, passed through the keyholes from room to room\\nand into the cellar, where they had a famous carouse.\\nUnluckily Jimmy, being unused to such good cheer, got\\ndrunk, and forgot to put on his cap when the others did.\\nSo next morning the lord s butler found him dead-drunk\\non the cellar floor, surrounded by empty casks. He was\\nsentenced to be hung without any trial worth speaking\\nof; but as he was carted to the gallows an old woman\\ncried out, Ach, Jimmy alanna Would you be afther\\ndyin in a strange land without your red birredh The\\nlord made no objections, and so the red cap was brought\\nand put on him. Accordingly when Jimmy had got to\\nthe gallows and was making his last speech for the edi-\\nfication of the spectators, he unexpectedly and somewhat\\nirrelevantly exclaimed, By yarrow and rue, etc., and\\nwas off like a rocket, shooting through the blue air en\\nroute for old Ireland.*\\nIn another Irish legend an enchanted ass comes into\\nthe kitchen of a great house every night, and washes the\\ndishes and scours the tins, so that the servants lead an\\neasy life of it. After a while in their exuberant grati-\\ntude they offer him any present for which he may feel\\ninclined to ask. He desires only an ould coat, to keep\\nthe chill off of him these could nights but as soon as\\nhe gets into the coat he resumes his human form and bids\\nthem good by, and thenceforth they may wash their own\\ndishes and scour their own tins, for all him.\\nBut we are diverging from the subject of swan-maid-\\nens, and are in danger of losing ourselves in that laby-\\nrinth of popular fancies which is more intricate than any\\nthat Daidalos ever planned. The significance of all these\\nsealskins and feather-dresses and mermaid caps and were-\\nKennedy, Fictions of the Irish Celts, p. 168.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "102\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nwolf-girdles may best be sought in the etymology of words\\nlike the German leichnam, in which the body is described\\nas a garment of flesh for the soul.* In the naive phi-\\nlosophy of primitive thinkers, the soul, in passing from\\none visible shape to another, had only to put on the out-\\nward integument of the creature in which it wished to\\nincarnate itself. With respect to the mode of metamor-\\nphosis, there is little difference between the werewolf and\\nthe swan-maiden and the similarity is no less striking\\nbetween the genesis of the two conceptions. The origi-\\nnal werewolf is the night-wind, regarded now as a man-\\nlike deity and now as a howling lupine fiend and the\\noriginal swan-maiden is the light fleecy cloud, regarded\\neither as a woman-like goddess or as a bird swimming in\\nthe sky sea. The one conception has been productive of\\nlittle else but horrors the other has given rise to a great\\nvariety of fanciful creations, from the treacherous mer-\\nmaid and the fiendish nightmare to the gentle Undine,\\nthe charming Nausikaa, and the stately Muse of classic\\nantiquity.\\nWe have seen that the original werewolf, howling in\\nthe wintry blast, is a kind of psychopomp, or leader of\\ndeparted souls he is the wild ancestor of the death-dog,\\nwhose voice under the window of a sick-chamber is even\\nnow a sound of ill-omen. The swan-maiden has also\\nbeen supposed to summon the dying to her home in the\\nPhaiakian land. The Valkyries, with their shirts of swan-\\nplumage, who hovered over Scandinavian battle-fields to\\nreceive the souls of falling heroes, were identical with\\nthe Hindu Apsaras and the Houris of the Mussulman\\nbelong to the same family. Even for the angels,\\nwomen with large wings, who are seen in popular pictures\\nbearing mortals on high towards heaven, we can hardly\\nBaring-Gould, Book of Werewolves, p. 163.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. 103\\nclaim a different kinship. Melusina, when she leaves\\nthe castle of Lusignan, becomes a Banshee and it has\\nbeen a common superstition among sailors, that the\\nappearance of a mermaid, with her comb and looking-\\nglass, foretokens shipwreck, with the loss of all on\\nboard.\\nOctober, 1870.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "104\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nIV.\\nLIGHT AND DAEKNESS.\\nHEX Maitland blasphemously asserted that God\\nt V was but a Bogie of the nursery, he unwittingly\\nmade a remark as suggestive in point of philology as it\\nwas crude and repulsive in its atheism. When examined\\nwith the lenses of linguistic science, the Bogie or\\nBug-a-boo or Bugbear of nursery lore turns out\\nto be identical, not only with the fairy Puck, whom\\nShakespeare has immortalized, but also with the Sla-\\nvonic Bog and the Baga of the Cuneiform Inscrip-\\ntions, both of which are names for the Supreme Being.\\nIf we proceed further, and inquire after the ancestral\\nform of these epithets, so strangely incongruous in\\ntheir significations, we shall find it in the Old Aryan\\nBhaga, which reappears unchanged in the Sanskrit of\\nthe Vedas, and has left a memento of itself in the sur-\\nname of the Phrygian Zeus Bagaios. It seems origi-\\nnally to have denoted either the unclouded sun or the\\nsky of noonday illumined by the solar rays. In Sayana s\\ncommentary on the Eig-Veda, Bhaga is enumerated among\\nthe seven (or eight) sons of Aditi, the boundless Orient\\nand he is elsewhere described as the lord of life, the giver\\nof bread, and the bringer of happiness.*\\nThus the same name which, to the Vedic poet, to the\\nPersian of the time of Xerxes, and to the modern Eus-\\nMuir s Sanskrit Texts, Vol. IV. p. 12 MtQler, Kig-Veda Sanhita,\\nVol. I. pp. 230 251 Tick, Woerterbuch der Indogermanischen Grand-\\nsprache, p. 124, v. Bhaga.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n105\\nsian, suggests the supreme majesty of deity, is in English\\nassociated with an ugly and ludicrous fiend, closely akin\\nto that grotesque Northern Devil of whom Southey was\\nunable to think without laughing. Such is the irony of\\nfate toward a deposed deity. The German name for idol\\nAbgott, that is, ex-god, or dethroned god sums\\nup in a single etymology the history of the havoc wrought\\nby monotheism among the ancient symbols of deity. In\\nthe hospitable Pantheon of the Greeks and Eomans a\\nniche was always in readiness for every new divinity\\nwho could produce respectable credentials but the tri-\\numph of monotheism converted the stately mansion into\\na Pandemonium peopled with fiends. To the monotheist\\nan ex-god was simply a devilish deceiver of mankind\\nwhom the true God had succeeded in vanquishing and\\nthus the word demon, which to the ancient meant a di-\\nvine or semi-divine being, came to be applied to fiends\\nexclusively. Thus the Teutonic races, who preserved the\\nname of their highest divinity, Odin, originally, Guo-\\ndan, by which to designate the God of the Christian,*\\nwere unable to regard the Bog of ancient tradition as\\nanything but an ex-god, or vanquished demon.\\nThe most striking illustration of this process is to be\\nfound in the word devil itself. To a reader unfamiliar\\nwith the endless tricks which language delights in play-\\ning, it may seem shocking to be told that the Gypsies\\nuse the word devil as the name of God. This, however,\\nIn the North American Review, October, 1869, p. 354, I have col-\\nlected a number of facts which seem to me to prove beyond question that\\nthe name God is derived from Guodan, the original form of Odin, the\\nsupreme deity of our Pagan forefathers. The case is exactly parallel to\\nthat of the French Dfcu, which is descended from the Deus of the pagan\\nRoman.\\nSee Pott, Die Zigeuner, II. 311 Kuhn, Beitrage, I. 147. Yet\\nin the worship of dewel by the Gypsies is to be found the element of", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "106 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nis not because these people have made the archfiend an\\nobject of worship, but because the Gypsy language, de-\\nscending directly from the Sanskrit, has retained in its\\nprimitive exalted sense a word which the English language\\nhas received only in its debased and perverted sense.\\nThe Teutonic words devil, teufel, diuval, djofull, djevful,\\nmay all be traced back to the Zend dev* a name in which\\nis implicitly contained the record of the oldest monothe-\\nistic revolution known to history. The influence of the\\nso-called Zoroastrian reform upon the long-subsequent\\ndevelopment of Christianity will receive further notice\\nin the course of this paper for the present it is enough\\nto know that it furnished for all Christendom the name\\nby which it designates the author of evil. To the Parsee\\nfollower of Zarathustra the name of the Devil has very\\nnearly the same signification as to the Christian yet, as\\nGrimm has shown, it is nothing else than a corruption\\nof deva, the Sanskrit name for God. When Zarathustra\\noverthrew the primeval Aryan nature- worship in Bactria,\\nthis name met the same evil fate which in early Christian\\ntimes overtook the word demon, and from a symbol of\\nreverence became henceforth a symbol of detestation.*)*\\nBut throughout the rest of the Aryan world it achieved\\ndiabolism invariably present in barbaric worship. Dewel, the great\\ngod in heaven (dewa, deus), is rather feared than loved by these weather-\\nbeaten outcasts, for he harms them on their wanderings with his thun-\\nder and lightning, his snow and rain, and his stars interfere with their\\ndark doings. Therefore they curse him foully when misfortune falls on\\nthem and when a child dies, they say that Dewel has eaten it. Tylor,\\nPrimitive Culture, Vol. II. p. 248.\\nSee Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, 939.\\nt The Buddhistic as well as the Zarathustrian reformation degraded\\nthe Vedic gods into demons. In Buddhism we find these ancient de-\\nvas, Indra and the rest, carried about at shows, as servants of Buddha,\\n*cs goblins, or fabulous heroes. Max Miiller, Chips, I. 25. This is like\\nlie Christian change of Odin into an ogre, and of Thor into the Devil.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n107\\na nobler career, producing the Greek theos, the Lithuanian\\ndiewas, the Latin deus, and hence the modern French\\nJDieu, all meaning God.\\nIf we trace back this remarkable word to its primitive\\nsource in that once lost but now partially recovered moth-\\ner-tongue from which all our Aryan languages are de-\\nscended, we find a root div or dyu, meaning to shine.\\nFrom the first-mentioned form comes deva, with its nu-\\nmerous progeny of good and evil appellatives from the\\nlatter is derived the name of Dyaus, with its brethren,\\nZeus and Jupiter. In Sanskrit dyu, as a noun, means\\nsky and day and there are many passages in the\\nEig-Veda where the character of the god Dyaus, as the\\npersonification of the sky or the brightness of the ethereal\\nheavens, is unmistakably apparent. This key unlocks\\nfor us one of the secrets of Greek mythology. So long\\nas there was for Zeus no better etymology than that\\nwhich assigned it to the root zen, to live, there was\\nlittle hope of understanding the nature of Zeus. But\\nwhen we learn that Zeus is identical with Dyaus, the\\nbright sky, we are enabled to understand Horace s ex-\\npression, sub Jove frigido, and the prayer of the Athe-\\nnians, Eain, rain, dear Zeus, on the land of the Atheni-\\nans, and on the fields. f Such expressions as these were\\nretained by the Greeks and Eomans long after they had\\nforgotten that their supreme deity was once the sky. Yet\\neven the Brahman, from whose mind the physical signifi-\\nTieis Ala Zijva 81 bv tfjv ael ird Ti rocs \u00c2\u00a3Qxnv virdpxei. Plato,\\nKratylos, p. 396, A., with Stallbaum s note. See also Proklos, Comm.\\nad Timseum, II. p. 226, Schneider and compare Pseudo-Aristotle, De\\nMundo, p. 401, a, 15, who adopts the etymology 8i 8v fw/xev. See also\\nDiogenes Laertius, VII. 147.\\nEi xv Ad-qvalwv, \u00c2\u00a7crov, daov, 3 f l\\\\e ZeO, Kara, ttjs dpoijpas t v Adv r\\nvalwv Kal tG v irefowv. Marcus Aurelius, v. 7 5e 5 pa Zei s avvex^.\\nHorn. Iliad, xii. 25 cf. Petronius Arbiter, Sat. xliv.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "108 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ncance of the god s name never wholly disappeared, could\\nspeak of him as Father Dyaus, the great Pitri, or ances-\\ntor of gods and men and in this reverential name Dyaus\\npitar may be seen the exact equivalent of the Eoman s\\nJupiter, or Jove the Father. The same root can be fol-\\nlowed into Old German, where Zio is the god of day\\nand into Anglo-Saxon, where Tiwsdaeg, or the day of\\nZeus, is the ancestral form of Tuesday.\\nThus we again reach the same results which were ob-\\ntained from the examination of the name Ehaga. These\\nvarious names for the supreme Aryan god, which without\\nthe help afforded by the Yedas could never have been\\ninterpreted, are seen to have been originally applied to\\nthe sun-illumined firmament. Countless other examples,\\nwhen similarly analyzed, show that the earliest Aryan\\nconception of a Divine Power, nourishing man and sus-\\ntaining the universe, was suggested by the light of the\\nmighty Sun who, as modern science has shown, is the\\noriginator of all life and motion upon the globe, and\\nwhom the ancients delighted to believe the source, not\\nonly of the golden light, but of everything that is\\nbright, joy-giving, and pure. Nevertheless, in accepting\\nthis conclusion as well established by linguistic science,\\nwe must be on our guard against an error into which\\nwriters on mythology are very liable to fall. Neither\\nsky nor sun nor light of day, neither Zeus nor Apollo,\\nneither Dyaus nor Indra, was ever worshipped by the\\nancient Aryan in anything like a monotheistic sense.\\nTo interpret Zeus or Jupiter as originally the supreme\\nAryan god, and to regard classic paganism as one of the\\ndegraded remnants of a primeval monotheism, is to sin\\nagainst the canons of a sound inductive philosophy.\\nII Sol, dell aurea luce eterno fonte. Tasso, Gerusalemme, XV.\\n47 cf. Dante, Paradiso, X. 28.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS. IO9\\nPhilology itself teaches us that this could not have been\\nso. Father Dyaus was originally the bright sky and\\nnothing more. Although his name became generalized,\\nin the classic languages, into deus, or God, it is quite\\ncertain that in early days, before the Aryan separation,\\nit had acquired no such exalted significance. It was\\nonly in Greece and Borne or, we may say, among the\\nstill united Italo-Hellenic tribes that Jupiter-Zeus\\nattained a pre-eminence over all other deities. The\\npeople of Iran quite rejected him, the Teutons preferred\\nThor and Odin, and in India he was superseded, first by\\nIndra, afterwards by Brahma and Yishnu. We need\\nnot, therefore, look for a single supreme divinity among\\nthe old Aryans nor may we expect to find any sense,\\nactive or dormant, of monotheism in the primitive intel-\\nligence of uncivilized men.* The whole fabric of com-\\nparative mythology, as at present constituted, and as\\ndescribed above, in the first of these papers, rests upon\\nthe postulate that the earliest religion was pure fetichism.\\nIn the unsystematic nature-worship of the old Aryans\\nthe gods are presented to us only as vague powers, with\\ntheir nature and attributes dimly defined, and their rela-\\ntions to each other fluctuating and often contradictory.\\nThere is no theogony, no regular subordination of one\\ndeity to another. The same pair of divinities appear\\nnow as father and daughter, now as brother and sister,\\nThe Aryans were, however, doubtless better off than the tribes of\\nNorth America. In no Indian language could the early missionaries\\nfind a word to express the idea of God. Manitou and OM meant any-\\nthing endowed with supernatural powers, from a snake-skin or a greasy\\nIndian conjurer up to Manabozho and Jouskeha. The priests were\\nforced to use a circumlocution, the great chief of men, or he who\\nlives in the sky. Parkman, Jesuits in North America, p. lxxix.\\nThe Algonquins used no oaths, for their language supplied none\\ndoubtless because their mythology had no beings sufficiently distinct to\\nswear by. Ibid, p. 31.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "no\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nnow as husband and wife; and again they quite lose\\ntheir personality, and are represented as mere natural\\nphenomena. As Muller observes, The poets of the\\nVeda indulged freely in theogonic speculations without\\nbeing frightened by any contradictions. They knew of\\nIndra as the greatest of gods, they knew of Agni as the\\ngod of gods, they knew of Varuna as the ruler of all but\\nthey were by no means startled at the idea that their\\nIndra had a mother, or that their Agni [Latin ignis] was\\nborn like a babe from the friction of two fire-sticks, or\\nthat Varuna and his brother Mitra were nursed in the\\nlap of Aditi. Thus we have seen Bhaga, the day-\\nlight, represented as the offspring of Aditi, the boundless\\nOrient; but he had several brothers, and among them\\nwere Mitra, the sun, Varuna, the overarching firmament,\\nand Vivasvat, the vivifying sun. Manifestly we have\\nhere but so many different names for what is at bottom\\none and the same conception. The common element\\nwhich, in Dyaus and Varuna, in Bhaga and Indra, was\\nmade an object of worship, is the brightness, warmth,\\nand life of day, as contrasted with the darkness, cold, and\\nseeming death of the night-time. And this common\\nelement was personified in as many different ways as\\nthe unrestrained fancy of the ancient worshipper saw fit\\nto devise.*|-\\nThus we begin to see why a few simple objects, like\\nthe sun, the sky, the dawn, and the night, should be repre-\\nsented in mythology by such a host of gods, goddesses,\\nand heroes. For at one time the Sun is represented as\\nthe conqueror of hydras and dragons who hide away from\\nmen the golden treasures of light and warmth, and at\\nanother time he is represented as a weary voyager trav-\\nMuller, Rig-Veda-Sanliita, I. 230.\\nf Compare the remarks of Breal, Hercule et Cacus, p. 13.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\nIll\\nersing the sky-sea amid many perils, with the steadfast\\npurpose of returning to his western home and his twi-\\nlight bride hence the different conceptions of Herakles,\\nBellerophon, and Odysseus. Now he is represented as\\nthe son of the Dawn, and again, with equal propriety, as\\nthe son of the Night, and the fickle lover of the Dawn\\nhence we have, on the one hand, stories of a virgin\\nmother who dies in giving birth to a hero, and, on the\\nother hand, stories of a beautiful maiden who is forsaken\\nand perhaps cruelly slain by her treacherous lover. In-\\ndeed, the Sun s adventures with so many dawn-maidens\\nhave given him quite a bad character, and the legends\\nare numerous in which he appears as the prototype of\\nDon Juan. Yet again his separation from the bride\\nof his youth is described as due to no fault of his own,\\nbut to a resistless decree of fate, which hurries him away,\\nas Aineias was compelled to abandon Dido. Or, accord-\\ning to a third and equally plausible notion, he is a hero\\nof ascetic virtues, and the dawn-maiden is a wicked\\nenchantress, daughter of the sensual Aphrodite, who\\nvainly endeavours to seduce him. In the story of Odys-\\nseus these various conceptions are blended together.\\nWhen enticed by artful women,* he yields for a while\\nto the temptation; but by and by his longing to see\\nPenelope takes him homeward, albeit with a record\\nwhich Penelope might not altogether have liked. Again,\\nthough the Sun, always roaming with a hungry heart,\\nIt should be borne in mind, however, that one of the women who\\ntempt Odysseus is not a dawn-maiden, but a goddess of darkness\\nKalypso answers to Yenus-Ursula in the myth of Tannhauser. Kirke,\\non the other hand, seems to be a dawn-maiden, like Medeia, whom she\\nresembles. In her the wisdom of the dawn-goddess Athene, the loftiest\\nof Greek divinities, becomes degraded into the art of an enchantress.\\nShe reappears, in the Arabian Nights, as the wicked Queen Labe, whose\\nsorcery none of her lovers can baffle, save Beder, king of Persia.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "112\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nhas seen many cities and customs of strange men, he is\\nnevertheless confined to a single path, a circumstance\\nwhich seems to have occasioned much speculation in the\\nprimeval mind. Garcilaso de la Vega relates of a certain\\nPeruvian Inca, who seems to have been an infidel\\nwith reference to the orthodox mythology of his day,\\nthat he thought the Sun was not such a mighty god after\\nall for if he were, he would wander about the heavens\\nat random instead of going forever, like a horse in a\\ntreadmill, along the same course. The American Indians\\nexplained this circumstance by myths which told how\\nthe Sun was once caught and tied with a chain which\\nwould only let him swing a little way to one side or the\\nother. The ancient Aryan developed the nobler myth of\\nthe labours of Herakles, performed in obedience to the\\nbidding of Eurystheus. Again, the Sun must needs\\ndestroy its parents, the Night and the Dawn; and\\naccordingly his parents, forewarned by prophecy, expose\\nhim in infancy, or order him to be put to death but his\\ntragic destiny never fails to be accomplished to the letter.\\nAnd again the Sun, who engages in quarrels not his own,\\nis sometimes represented as retiring moodily from the\\nsight of men\u00e2\u0080\u009e like Achilleus and Meleagros he is short-\\nlived and ill-fated, born to do much good and to be\\nrepaid with ingratitude his life depends on the duration\\nof a burning brand, and when that is extinguished he\\nmust die.\\nThe myth of the great Theban hero, Oidipous, well\\nillustrates the multiplicity of conceptions which clustered\\nabout the daily career of the solar orb. His father, Laios,\\nhad been warned by the Delphic oracle that he was in\\ndanger of death from his own son. The newly born\\nOidipous was therefore exposed on the hillside but, like\\nEomulus and Eemus, and all infants similarly situated", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n3\\nin legend, was duly rescued. He was taken to Corinth,\\nwhere he grew up to manhood. Journeying once to\\nThebes, he got into a quarrel with an old man whom he\\nmet on the road, and slew him, who was none other than\\nhis father, Laios. Eeaching Thebes, he found the city\\nharassed by the Sphinx, who afflicted the land with\\ndrought until she should receive an answer to her riddles.\\nOidipous destroyed the monster by solving her dark say-\\nings, and as a reward received the kingdom, with his own\\nmother, Iokaste, as his bride. Then the Erinyes has-\\ntened the discovery of these dark deeds Iokaste died in\\nher bridal chamber and Oidipous, having blinded himself,\\nfled to the grove of the Eumenides, near Athens, where,\\namid flashing lightning and peals of thunder, he died.\\nOidipous is the Sun. Like all the solar heroes, from\\nHerakles and Perseus to Sigurd and William Tell, he\\nperforms his marvellous deeds at the behest of others.\\nHis father, Laios, is none other than the Vedic Dasyu,\\nthe night-demon who is sure to be destroyed by his solar\\noffspring. In the evening, Oidipous is united to the\\nDawn, the mother who had borne him at daybreak and\\nhere the original story doubtless ended. In the Vedic\\nhymns we find Indra, the Sun, born of Dahana (Daphne),\\nthe Dawn, whom he afterwards, in the evening twilight,\\nmarries. To the Indian mind the story was here com-\\nplete; but the Greeks had forgotten and outgrown the\\nprimitive signification of the myth. To them Oidipous\\nand Iokaste were human, or at least anthropomorphic\\nbeings and a marriage between them was a fearful crime\\nwhich called for bitter expiation. Thus the latter part\\nof the story arose in the effort to satisfy a moral feeling.\\nAs the name of Laios denotes the dark night, so, like\\nIole, Oinone, and Iamos, the word Iokaste signifies the\\ndelicate violet tints of the morning and evening clouda\\nH", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "H4\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nOidipous was exposed, like Paris upon Ida (a Vedic\\nword meaning the earth because the sunlight in the\\nmorning lies upon the hillside.* He is borne on to the\\ndestruction of his father and the incestuous marriage\\nwith his mother by an irresistible Moira, or Fate; the\\nsun cannot but slay the darkness and hasten to the couch\\nof the violet twilight.-f- The Sphinx is the storm-demon\\nwho sits on the cloud-rock and imprisons the rain she\\nis the same as Medusa, Ahi, or Echidna, and Chimaira,\\nand is akin to the throttling snakes of darkness which\\nthe jealous Here sent to destroy Herakles in his cradle.\\nThe idea was not derived from Egypt, but the Greeks, on\\nfinding Egyptian figures resembling their conception of\\nthe Sphinx, called them by the same name. The omni-\\nscient Sun comprehends the sense of her dark mutterings,\\nand destroys her, as Indra slays Vritra, bringing down\\nrain upon the parched earth. The Erinyes, who bring to\\nlight the crimes of Oidipous, have been explained, in a\\nprevious paper, as the personification of daylight, which\\nreveals the evil deeds done under the cover of night.\\nThe grove of the Erinyes, like the garden of the Hyper-\\nboreans, represents the fairy network of clouds, which\\nare the first to receive and the last to lose the light\\nof the sun in the morning and in the evening hence,\\nalthough Oidipous dies in a thunder-storm, yet the\\nEumenides are kind to him, and his last hour is one of\\nThe Persian Cyrus is an historical personage but the story of his\\nperils in infancy belongs to solar mythology as much as the stories of\\nthe magic sleep of Charlemagne and Barbarossa. His grandfather,\\nAstyages, is purely a mythical creation, his name being identical with\\nthat of the night-demon, Azidahaka, who appears in the Shah-Nameh\\nas the biting serpent Zohak. See Cox, Mythology of the Aryan Nations,\\nII. 358.\\nt In mediaeval legend this resistless Moira is transformed into the\\ncurse which prevents the Wandering Jew from resting until the day of\\njudgment.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n5\\ndeep peace and tranquillity. To the last remains with\\nhim his daughter Antigone, she who is born opposite,\\nthe pale light which springs up opposite to the setting\\nsun.\\nThese examples show that a story-root may be as\\nprolific of heterogeneous offspring as a word-root. Just\\nas we find the root speck, to look, begetting words so\\nvarious as sceptic, bishop, speculate, conspicuous, species,\\nand spice, we must expect to find a simple representation\\nof the diurnal course of the sun, like those lyrically given\\nin the Veda, branching off into stories as diversified as\\nthose of Oidipous, Herakles, Odysseus, and Siegfried.\\nIn fact, the types upon which stories are constructed are\\nwonderfully few. Some clever playwright I believe\\nit was Scribe has said that there are only seven pos-\\nsible dramatic situations; that is, all the plays in the\\nworld may be classed with some one of seven arche-\\ntypal dramas.-f* If this be true, the astonishing complex-\\nity of mythology taken in the concrete, as compared\\nwith its extreme simplicity when analyzed, need not sur-\\nprise us.\\nThe extreme limits of divergence between stories\\ndescended from a common root are probably reached in\\nthe myths of light and darkness with which the present\\ndiscussion is mainly concerned. The subject will be\\nbest elucidated by taking a single one of these myths\\nand following its various fortunes through different\\nregions of the Aryan world. The myth of Hercules and\\nCox, Manual of Mythology, p. 134.\\nIn his interesting appendix to Henderson s Folk Lore of the ^Northern\\nCounties of England, Mr. Baring-Gould has made an ingenious and\\npraiseworthy attempt to reduce the entire existing mass of household\\nlegends to about fifty story-roots and his list, though both redundant\\nand defective, is nevertheless, as an empirical classification, very instruc-\\ntive.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "Il6 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nCacus has been treated by M. Breal in an essay which is\\none of the most valuable contributions ever made to the\\nstudy of comparative mythology; and while following\\nhis footsteps our task will be an easy one.\\nThe battle between Hercules and Cacus, although one\\nof the oldest of the traditions common to the whole\\nIndo-European race, appears in Italy as a purely local\\nlegend, and is narrated as such by Virgil, in the eighth\\nbook of the iEneid by Livy, at the beginning of his his-\\ntory and by Propertius and Ovid. Hercules, journeying\\nthrough Italy after his victory over Geryon, stops to rest\\nby the bank of the Tiber. While he is taking his repose,\\nthe three-headed monster Cacus, a son of Vulcan and a\\nformidable brigand, comes and steals his cattle, and drags\\nthem tail-foremost to a secret cavern in the rocks. But\\nthe lowing of the cows arouses Hercules, and he runs\\ntoward the cavern where the robber, already frightened,\\nhas taken refuge. Armed with a huge flinty rock, he\\nbreaks open the entrance of the cavern, and confronts\\nthe demon within, who vomits forth flames at him and\\nroars like the thunder in the storm-cloud. After a short\\ncombat, his hideous body falls at the feet of the invincible\\nhero, who erects on the spot an altar to Jupiter Inventor,\\nin commemoration of the recovery of his cattle. Ancient\\nEome teemed with reminiscences of this event, which\\nLivy regarded as first in the long series of the exploits\\nof his countrymen. The place where Hercules pastured\\nhis oxen was known long after as the Forum Boarium\\nnear it the Porta Trigemina preserved the recollection of\\nthe monster s triple head and in the time of Diodorus\\nSiculus sight-seers were shown the cavern of Cacus on\\nthe slope of the Aventine. Every tenth day the earlier\\ngenerations of Romans celebrated the victory with solemn\\nsacrifices at the Ara Maxima and on days of triumph", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n117\\nthe fortunate general deposited there a tithe of his booty,\\nto be distributed among the citizens.\\nIn this famous myth, however, the god Hercules did\\nnot originally figure. The Latin Hercules was an essen-\\ntially peaceful and domestic deity, watching over house-\\nholds and enclosures, and nearly akin to Terminus and\\nthe Penates. He does not appear to have been a solar\\ndivinity at all. But the purely accidental resemblance\\nof his name to that of the Greek deity Herakles,* and\\nthe manifest identity of the Gacus-myth with the story\\nof the victory of Herakles over Geryon, led to the substi-\\ntution of Hercules for the original hero of the legend,\\nwho was none other than Jupiter, called by his Sabine\\nname Sancus. Now Johannes Lydus informs us that, in\\nSabine, Sancus signified the sky, a meaning which we\\nhave already seen to belong to the name Jupiter. The\\nsame substitution of the Greek hero for the Eoman\\ndivinity led to the alteration of the name of the demon\\novercome by his thunderbolts. The corrupted title Cacus\\nwas supposed to be identical with the Greek word kakos,\\nmeaning evil, and the corruption was suggested by the\\nepithet of Herakles, Alexikakos, or the averter of ill.\\nOriginally, however, the name was Ccecius, he who\\nThere is nothing in common between the names Hercules and\\nHerakles. The latter is a compound, formed like Themistokles the\\nformer is a simple derivative from the root of hercere, to enclose. If\\nHerakles had any equivalent in Latin, it would necessarily begin with\\nS, and not with H, as septa corresponds to frrra, sequor to ^irofiai, etc.\\nIt should be noted, however, that Mommsen, in the fourth edition of\\nhis History, abandons this view, and observes Auch der griechische\\nHerakles ist frtih als Herclus, Hercoles, Hercules in Italien einheimisch\\nund dort in eigenthumlicher Weise aufgefasst worden, wie es scheint\\nzun achst als Gott des gewagten Gewinns und der ausserordentlichen\\nVermbgensvermehrung. Romische Geschichte, I. 181. One would\\ngladly learn Mommsen s reasons for recurring to this apparently less\\ndefensible opinion.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "Il8 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nblinds or darkens, and it corresponds literally to the\\nname of the Greek demon Kaikias, whom an old proverb,\\npreserv ed by Aulus Gellius, describes as a stealer of the\\nclouds.*\\nThus the significance of the myth becomes apparent.\\nThe three-headed Cacus is seen to be a near kinsman of\\nGeryon s three-headed dog Orthros, and of the three-\\nheaded Kerberos, the hell-hound who guards the dark\\nregions below the horizon. He is the original werewolf\\nor Bakshasa, the fiend of the storm who steals the bright\\ncattle of Helios, and hides them in the black cavernous\\nrock, from which they are afterwards rescued by the\\nschamir or lightning-stone of the solar hero. The phys-\\nical character of the myth is apparent even in the\\ndescription of Virgil, which reads wonderfully like a\\nYedic hymn in celebration of the exploits of Indra. But\\nwhen we turn to the Yeda itself, we find the correctness\\nof the interpretation demonstrated again and again, with\\ninexhaustible prodigality of evidence. Here we encoun-\\nter again the three-headed Orthros under the identical\\ntitle of Vritra, he who shrouds or envelops, called\\nalso Qushna, he who parches, Pani, the robber, and\\nAhi, the strangler. In many hymns of the Rig-Veda\\nthe story is told over and over, like a musical theme\\narranged with variations. Indra, the god of light, is a\\nherdsman who tends a herd of bright golden or violet-\\ncoloured cattle. Vritra, a snake-like monster with three\\nheads, steals them and hides them in a cavern, but Indra\\nslays him as Jupiter slew Caecius, and the cows are\\nrecovered. The language of the myth is so significant,\\nthat the Hindu commentators of the Veda have them-\\nselves given explanations of it similar to those proposed\\nFor the relations between Sancus and Herakles, see Prellei^\\nRomische Mythologie, p. 635 Volliner, Mythologie, p. 970.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\nIIQ\\nby modem philologists. To them the legend never\\nbecame devoid of sense, as the myth of Geryon appeared\\nto Greek scholars like Apollodoros.*\\nThese celestial cattle, with their resplendent coats of\\npurple and gold, are the clouds lit up by the solar rays\\nbut the demon who steals them is not always the fiend\\nof the storm, acting in that capacity. They are stolen\\nevery night by Vritra the concealer, and Csecius the\\ndarkener, and Indra is obliged to spend hours in looking\\nfor them, sending Sarama, the inconstant twilight, to\\nnegotiate for their recovery. Between the storm-myth\\nand the myth of night and morning the resemblance is\\nsometimes so close as to confuse the interpretation of the\\ntwo. Many legends which Max Mliller explains as\\nmyths of the victory of day over night are explained by\\nDr. Kuhn as storm-myths and the disagreement between\\ntwo such powerful champions would be a standing\\nreproach to what is rather prematurely called the science\\nof comparative mythology, were it not easy to show that\\nthe difference is merely apparent and non-essential. It\\nis the old story of the shield with two sides and a com-\\nparison of the ideas fundamental to these myths will\\nshow that there is no valid ground for disagreement in\\nthe interpretation of them. The myths of schamir and\\nthe divining-rod, analyzed in a previous paper, explain\\nthe rending of the thunder-cloud and the procuring of\\nwater without especial reference to any struggle between\\nopposing divinities. But in the myth of Hercules and\\nCacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar\\ngod over the robber who steals the light. Now whether\\nthe robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra\\nhas gone to sleep, or boldly rears his black form against\\nthe sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread\\nBumouf, Bhlgavata-Purana, III. p. lxxxvi Br il, op. cit. p. 98.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "120\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nover the earth, would make little difference to the framers\\nof the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same\\nthing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly.\\nWhy, then, should the primitive thinker have made a\\ndistinction between the darkening of the sky caused by\\nblack clouds and that caused by the rotation of the\\nearth? He had no more conception of the scientific\\nexplanation of these phenomena than the chicken has\\nof the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it\\nwas enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen,\\nin the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the\\nsame demon was to blame for both robberies.\\nThe Veda itself sustains this view. It is certain that\\nthe victory of Indra over Vritra is essentially the same\\nas his victory over the Panis. Vritra, the storm-fiend, is\\nhimself called one of the Panis yet the latter are uni-\\nformly represented as night-demons. They steal Indra s\\ngolden cattle and drive them by circuitous paths to a\\ndark hiding-place near the eastern horizon. Indra sends\\nthe dawn-nymph, Sarama, to search for them, but as she\\ncomes within sight of the dark stable, the Panis try to\\ncoax her to stay with them Let us make thee our\\nsister, do not go away again we will give thee part of\\nthe cows, darling. According to the text of this\\nhymn, she scorns their solicitations, but elsewhere the\\nfickle dawn-nymph is said to coquet with the powers\\nof darkness. She does not care for their cows, but will\\ntake a drink of milk, if they will be so good as to get it\\nfor her. Then she goes back and tells Indra that she\\ncannot find the cows. He kicks her with his foot, and\\nshe runs back to the Panis, followed by the god, who\\nsmites them all with his unerring arrows and recovers\\nthe stolen light. From such a simple beginning as this\\nMax Miiller, Science of Language, II 484.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n121\\nhas been deduced the Greek myth of the faithlessness of\\nHelen*\\nThese night-demons, the Panis, though not apparently-\\nregarded with any strong feeling of moral condemnation,\\nare nevertheless hated and dreaded as the authors of\\ncalamity. They not only steal the daylight, but they\\nparch the earth and wither the fruits, and they slay\\nvegetation during the winter months. As Ccecius, the\\ndarkener, became ultimately changed into Cacus, the\\nevil one, so the name of Vritra, the concealer,\\nthe most famous of the Panis, was gradually generalized\\nuntil it came to mean enemy, like the English word\\nfiend, and began to be applied indiscriminately to any\\nkind of evil spirit. In one place he is called Adeva, the\\nenemy of the gods, an epithet exactly equivalent to\\nthe Persian dev.\\nIn the Zendavesta the myth of Hercules and Cacus\\nhas given rise to a vast system of theology. The fiendish\\nPanis are concentrated in Ahriman or Anro-mainyas,\\nwhose name signifies the spirit of darkness, and who\\ncarries on a perpetual warfare against Ormuzd or Ahura-\\nmazda, who is described by his ordinary surname, Spento-\\nmainyas, as the spirit of light. The ancient polytheism\\nhere gives place to a refined dualism, not very different\\nfrom what in many Christian sects has passed current as\\nmonotheism. Ahriman is the archfiend, who struggles\\nwith Ormuzd, not for the possession of a herd of perisha-\\nble cattle, but for the dominion of the universe. Ormuzd\\ncreates the world pure and beautiful, but Ahriman comes\\nAs Max Miiller observes, apart from all mythological considera-\\ntions, Saramd in Sanskrit is the same word as Helena in Greek.\\nOp. cit. p. 490. The names correspond phonetically letter for letter, as\\nSurya corresponds to Helios, SdramSyas to Hermeias, and Aharyu to\\nAchilleus. Miiller has plausibly suggested that Paris similarly answers\\nto the Panis.\\n6", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "122\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nafter him and creates everything that is evil in it. He\\nnot only keeps the earth covered with darkness during\\nhalf of the day, and withholds the rain and destroys the\\ncrops, but he is the author of all evil thoughts and the\\ninstigator of all wicked actions. Like his progenitor\\nVritra and his offspring Satan, he is represented under\\nthe form of a serpent and the destruction which ulti-\\nmately awaits these demons is also in reserve for him.\\nEventually there is to be a day of reckoning, when Ahri-\\nman will be bound in chains and rendered powerless, or\\nwhen, according to another account, he will be converted\\nto righteousness, as Burns hoped and Origen believed\\nwould be the case with Satan.\\nThis dualism of the ancient Persians has exerted a\\npowerful influence upon the development of Christian\\ntheology. The very idea of an archfiend Satan, which\\nChristianity received from Judaism, seems either to have\\nbeen suggested by the Persian Ahriman, or at least to\\nhave derived its principal characteristics from that\\nsource. There is no evidence that the J ews, previous to\\nthe Babylonish captivity, possessed the conception of a\\nDevil as the author of all evil. In the earlier books of\\nthe Old Testament Jehovah is represented as dispensing\\nwith his own hand the good and the evil, like the Zeus\\nof the Iliad.* The story of the serpent in Eden an\\nAryan story in every particular, which has crept into the\\nPentateuch is not once alluded to in the Old Testa-\\nment; and the notion of Satan as the author of evil\\nappears only in the later books, composed after the J ews\\nhad come into close contact with Persian ideas. In the\\nI create evil, Isaiah xlv. 7 Shall there be evil in the city,\\nand the Lord hath not done it Amos iii. 6; cf. Iliad, xxiv. 527, and\\ncontrast 2 Samuel xxiv. 1 with 1 Chronicles xxi. 1.\\nNor is there any ground for believing that the serpent in the Eden-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n123\\nBook of Job, as Be* ville observes, Satan is still a mem-\\nber of the celestial court, being one of the sons of the\\nElohim, but having as his special office the continual\\naccusation of men, and having become so suspicious by\\nhis practice as public accuser, that he believes in the\\nvirtue of no one, and always presupposes interested\\nmotives for the purest manifestations of human piety.\\nIn this way the character of this angel became injured,\\nand he became more and more an object of dread and\\ndislike to men, until the later Jews ascribed to him all\\nthe attributes of Ahriman, and in this singularly altered\\nshape he passed into Christian theology. Between the\\nSatan of the Book of Job and the mediaeval Devil the\\nmetamorphosis is as great as that which degraded the\\nstern Erinys, who brings evil deeds to light, into the\\ndemon-like Fury who torments wrong-doers in Tartarus\\nand, making allowance for difference of circumstances,\\nthe process of degradation has been very nearly the same\\nin the two cases.\\nThe mediaeval conception of the Devil is a grotesque\\ncompound of elements derived from all the systems of\\npagan mythology which Christianity superseded. He is\\nprimarily a rebellious angel, expelled from heaven along\\nwith his followers, like the giants who attempted to scale\\nOlympos, and like the impious Efreets of Arabian legend\\nwho revolted against the beneficent rule of Solomon. As\\nthe serpent prince of the outer darkness, he retains the\\nold characteristics of Vritra, Ahi, Typhon, and Echidna.\\nmyth is intended for Satan. The identification is entirely the work of\\nmodern dogmatic theology, and is due, naturally enough, to the habit,\\nso common alike among theologians and laymen, of reasoning about the\\nBible as if it were a single book, and not a collection of writings of dif-\\nferent ages and of very different degrees of historic authenticity. In a\\nfuture work, entitled Aryana Yaedjo, I hope to examine, at con-\\nsiderable length, this interesting myth of the garden of Eden.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "124\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nAs the black dog which appears behind the stove in Dr.\\nFaust s study, he is the classic hell-hound Kerberos, the\\nVedic Qarvara. From the sylvan deity Pan he gets his\\ngoat-like body, his horns and cloven hoofs. Like the\\nwind-god Orpheus, to whose music the trees bent their\\nheads to listen, he is an unrivalled player on the bagpipes.\\nLike those other wind-gods the psychopomp Hermes and(\\nthe wild huntsman Odin, he is the prince of the powers\\nof the air his flight through the midnight sky, attended\\nby his troop of witches mounted on their brooms, which\\nsometimes break the boughs and sweep the leaves from\\nthe trees, is the same as the furious chase of the Erlking\\nOdin or the Burckar Vittikab. He is Dionysos, who\\ncauses red wine to flow from the dry wood, alike on the\\ndeck of the Tyrrhenian pirate-ship and in Auerbach s\\ncellar at Leipzig. He is Wayland, the smith, a skilful\\nworker in metals and a wonderful architect, like the classic\\nfire-god Hephaistos or Vulcan and, like Hephaistos, he\\nis lame from the effects of his fall from heaven. From\\nthe lightning-god Thor he obtains his red beard, his\\npitchfork, and his power over thunderbolts and, like\\nthat ancient deity, he is in the habit of beating his wife\\nbehind the door when the rain falls during sunshine.\\nFinally, he takes a hint from Poseidon and from the\\nswan-maidens, and appears as a water-imp or Mxy\\n(whence probably his name of Old Nick), and as the\\nDavy (deva) whose locker is situated at the bottom\\nof the sea.*\\nAccording to the Scotch divines of the seventeenth\\ncentury, the Devil is a learned scholar and profound\\nthinker. Having profited by six thousand years of in-\\nFor further particulars see Cox, Mythology of the Aryan Nations,\\nVol. II. pp. 358, 366 to which I am indebted for several of the details\\nhere given. Compare Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, I. 661, seq.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS. 12$\\ntense study and meditation, he has all science, philoso-\\nphy, and theology at his tongue s end and, as his skill\\nhas increased with age, he is far more than a match for\\nmortals in cunning.* Such, however, is not the view\\ntaken by mediaeval mythology, which usually represents\\nhis stupidity as equalling his malignity. The victory of\\nHercules over Cacus is repeated in a hundred mediaeval\\nlegends in which the Devil is overreached and made a\\nlaughing-stock. The germ of this notion may be found\\nin the blinding of Polyphemos by Odysseus, which is it-\\nself a victory of the sun-hero over the night-demon, and\\nwhich curiously reappears in a Middle-Age story narrated\\nby Mr. Cox. The Devil asks a man who is moulding\\nbuttons what he may be doing and when the man an-\\nswers that he is moulding eyes, asks him further whether\\nhe can give him a pair of new eyes. He is told to come\\nagain another day and when he makes his appearance\\naccordingly, the man tells him that the operation cannot\\nbe performed rightly unless he is first tightly bound with\\nhis back fastened to a bench. While he is thus pinioned\\nhe asks the man s name. The reply is Issi himself\\nWhen the lead is melted, the Devil opens his eyes wide\\nto receive the deadly stream. As soon as he is blinded,\\nhe starts up in agony, bearing away the bench to which\\nhe had been bound and when some workpeople in the\\nfields ask him who had thus treated him, his answer is,\\nIssi teggi Self did it With a laugh they bid him\\nlie on the bed which he has made selbst gethan, selbst\\nhabe. The Devil died of his new eyes, and was never\\nseen again.\\nMany amusing passages from Scotch theologians are cited in Buckle s\\nHistory of Civilization, Vol. II. p. 368. The same belief is implied in\\nthe quaint monkish tale of Celestinus and the Miller s Horse. See\\nTales from the Gesta Eomanorum, p. 134.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "126\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nIn his attempts to obtain human souls the Devil is\\nfrequently foiled by the superior cunning of mortals.\\nOnce, he agreed to build a house for a peasant in ex-\\nchange for the peasant s soul but if the house were not\\nfinished before cockcrow, the contract was to be null and\\nvoid. Just as the Devil was putting on the last tile the\\nman imitated a cockcrow and waked up all the roosters\\nin the neighbourhood, so that the fiend had his labour for\\nhis pains. A merchant of Louvain once sold himself to\\nthe Devil, who heaped upon him all manner of riches\\nfor seven years, and then came to get him. The mer-\\nchant took the Devil in a friendly manner by the hand\\nand, as it was just evening, said, Wife, bring a light\\nquickly for the gentleman. That is not at all neces-\\nsary, said the Devil I am merely come to fetch you.\\nYes, yes, that I know very well, said the merchant,\\nonly just grant me the time till this little candle-end is\\nburnt out, as I have a few letters to sign and to put on\\nmy coat Very well, said the Devil, but only till the\\ncandle is burnt out. Good, said the merchant, and\\ngoing into the next room, ordered the maid-servant to\\nplace a large cask full of water close to a very deep pit\\nthat was dug in the garden. The men-servants also car-\\nried, each of them, a cask to the spot and when all was\\ndone, they were ordered each to take a shovel, and stand\\nround the pit. The merchant then returned to the Devil,\\nwho seeing that not more than about an inch of candle\\nremained, said, laughing, Now get yourself ready, it will\\nsoon be burnt out. 1 That I see, and am content but I\\nshall hold you to your word, and stay till it is burnt.\\nOf course, answered the Devil I stick to my word.\\nIt is dark in the next room, continued the merchant,\\nbut I must find the great book with clasps, so let me\\njust take the light for one moment. Certainly, said the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n12/\\nDevil, but I 11 go with you. He did so, and the mer-\\nchant s trepidation was now on the increase. When in\\nthe next room he said on a sudden, Ah, now I know,\\nthe key is in the garden door. And with these words he\\nran out with the light into the garden, and before the\\nDevil could overtake him, threw it into the pit, and the\\nmen and the maids poured water upon it, and then filled\\nup the hole with earth. Now came the Devil into the\\ngarden and asked, Well, did you get the key and how\\nis it with the candle where is it The candle said\\nthe merchant. Yes, the candle. Ha, ha, ha it is not\\nyet burnt out/ answered the merchant, laughing, and\\nwill not be burnt out for the next fifty years it lies\\nthere a hundred fathoms deep in the earth. When the\\nDevil heard this he screamed awfully, and went off with\\na most intolerable stench.\\nOne day a fowler, who was a terrible bungler and\\ncould n t hit a bird at a dozen paces, sold his soul to the\\nDevil in order to become a Freischutz. The fiend was to\\ncome for him in seven years, but must be always able to\\nname the animal at which he was shooting, otherwise the\\ncompact was to be nullified. After that day the fowler\\nnever missed his aim, and never did a fowler command\\nsuch wages. When the seven years were out the fowler\\ntold all these things to his wife, and the twain hit upon\\nan expedient for cheating the Devil. The woman\\nstripped herself, daubed her whole body with molasses,\\nand rolled herself up in a feather-bed, cut open for this\\npurpose. Then she hopped and skipped about the field\\nwhere her husband stood parleying with Old Nick.\\ni( There s a shot for you, fire away, said the Devil. Of\\ncourse I 11 fire, but do you first tell me what kind of a\\nbird it is else our agreement is cancelled, Old Boy.\\nThorpe, Northern Mythology, Vol. II. p. 258.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "128\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nThere was no help for it the Devil had to own himself\\nnonplussed, and off he fled, with a whiff of brimstone\\nwhich nearly suffocated the Freischiitz and his good\\nwoman.*\\nIn the legend of Gambrinus, the fiend is still more in-\\ngloriously defeated. Gambrinus was a fiddler, who, be-\\ning jilted by his sweetheart, went out into the woods to\\nhang himself. As he was sitting on the bough, with the\\ncord about his neck, preparatory to taking the fatal\\nplunge, suddenly a tall man in a green coat appeared\\nbefore him, and offered his services. He might become\\nas wealthy as he liked, and make his sweetheart burst\\nwith vexation at her own folly, but in thirty years he\\nmust give up his soul to Beelzebub. The bargain was\\nstruck, for Gambrinus thought thirty years a long time\\nto enjoy one s self in, and perhaps the Devil might get\\nhim in any event as well be hung for a sheep as for a\\nlamb. Aided by Satan, he invented chiming-bells and\\nlager-beer, for both of which achievements his name is\\nheld in grateful remembrance by the Teuton. No sooner\\nhad the Holy Eoman Emperor quaffed a gallon or two of\\nthe new beverage than he made Gambrinus Duke of\\nBrabant and Count of Flanders, and then it was the\\nfiddler s turn to laugh at the discomfiture of his old\\nsweetheart. Gambrinus kept clear of women, says the\\nlegend, and so lived in peace. For thirty years he sat\\nbeneath his belfry with the chimes, meditatively drink-\\ning beer with his nobles and burghers around him. Then\\nBeelzebub sent Jocko, one of his imps, with orders to\\nThorpe, Northern Mythology, Vol. II. p. 259. In the Norse story\\nof Not a Pin to choose between them, the old woman is in doubt as\\nto her own identity, on waking up after the butcher has dipped her in a\\ntar-barrel and rolled her on a heap of feathers and when Tray barks at\\nher, her perplexity is as great as the Devil s when fooled by the Frei\u00c2\u00ab\\nichutz. See Dasent, Norse Tales, p. 199.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n129\\nbring back Gambrirms before midnight. But Jocko was,\\nlike Swiveller s Marchioness, ignorant of the taste of beer,\\nnever having drunk of it even in a sip, and the Flemish\\nschoppen were too much for him. He fell into a drunken\\nsleep, and did not wake up until noon next day, at which\\nhe was so mortified that he had not the face to go back\\nto hell at all. So Gambrinus lived on tranquilly for a\\ncentury or two, and drank so much beer that he turned\\ninto a beer-barrel.*\\nThe character of gullibility attributed to the Devil in\\nthese legends is probably derived from the Trolls, or\\nnight-folk, of Northern mythology. In most respects\\nthe Trolls resemble the Teutonic elves and fairies, and\\nthe Jinn or Efreets of the Arabian Nights but their\\npedigree is less honourable. The fairies, or White\\nLadies, were not originally spirits of darkness, but were\\nnearly akin to the swan-maidens, dawn-nymphs, and\\ndryads, and though their wrath was to be dreaded, they\\nwere not malignant by nature. Christianity, having no\\nplace for such beings, degraded them into something like\\nimps the most charitable theory being that they were\\nangels who had remained neutral during Satan s rebel-\\nlion, in punishment for which Michael expelled them\\nfrom heaven, but has left their ultimate fate unannounced\\nuntil the day of judgment. The Jinn appear to have been\\nsimilarly degraded on the rise of Mohammedanism. But\\nthe Trolls were always imps of darkness. They are de-\\nscended from the Jotuns, or Frost-Giants of Northern\\npaganism, and they correspond to the Panis, or night-\\ndemons of the Veda. In many Norse tales they are said\\nto burst when they see the risen sun.-f- They eat human\\nflesh, are ignorant of the simplest arts, and live in the\\nSee Deulin, Coxites d un Buveur de Biere, pp. 3 29.\\nt Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse, No. III. and No. XLII.\\n6* 1", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "130\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ndeepest recesses of the forest or in caverns on the hill\\nside, where the sunlight never penetrates. Some of thes\\ncharacteristics may very likely have been suggested b\\nreminiscences of the primeval Lapps, from whom the\\nAryan invaders wrested the dominion of Europe.* In\\nsome legends the Trolls are represented as an ancient\\nrace of beings now superseded by the human race.\\nWhat sort of an earth-worm is this said one Giant\\nto another, when they met a man as they walked.\\nThese are the earth-worms that will one day eat us up,\\nbrother, answered the other and soon both Giants left\\nthat part of Germany. See what pretty playthings,\\nmother cries the Giant s daughter, as she unties her\\napron, and shows her a plough, and horses, and a peasant.\\nBack with them this instant, cries the mother in wrath,\\n1 and put them down as carefully as you can, for these\\nplaythings can do our race great harm, and when these\\ncome we must budge. Very naturally the primitive\\nTeuton, possessing already the conception of night-de-\\nmons, would apply it to these men of the woods whom even\\nto this day his uneducated descendants believe to be sor-\\ncerers, able to turn men into wolves. But whatever con-\\ntributions historical fact may have added to his character,\\nthe Troll is originally a creation of mythology, like Poly-\\nphemos, whom he resembles in his uncouth person, his\\ncannibal appetite, and his lack of wit. His ready gulli-\\nbility is shown in the story of Boots who ate a Match\\nwith the Troll. Boots, the brother of Cinderella, and\\nthe counterpart alike of Jack the Giant-killer, and of\\nOdysseus, is the youngest of three brothers who go into\\na forest to cut wood. The Troll appears and threatens to\\nkill any one who dares to meddle with his timber. The\\nSee Dasent s Introduction, p. cxxxix Campbell, Tales of the West\\nHighlands, Vol. IV. p. 344 and Williams, Indian Epic Poetry, p. 10.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n131\\nelder brothers flee, but Boots puts on a bold face. He\\npulled a cheese out of his scrip and squeezed it till the\\nwhey began to spurt out. Hold your tongue, you dirty\\nTroll/ said he, or I 11 squeeze you as I squeeze this\\nstone. So the Troll grew timid and begged to be spared\\nand Boots let him off on condition that he would hew all\\nday with him. They worked till nightfall, and the Troll s\\ngiant strength accomplished wonders. Then Boots went\\nhome with the Troll, having arranged that he should get\\nthe water while his host made the fire. When they\\nreached the hut there were two enormous iron pails, so\\nheavy that none but a Troll could lift them, but Boots\\nwas not to be frightened. Bah said he. Do you\\nsuppose I am going to get water in those paltry hand-\\nbasins Hold on till I go and get the spring itself\\ndear said the Troll, I d rather not do you make\\nthe fire, and 1 11 get the water. Then when the soup\\nwas made, Boots challenged his new friend to an eating-\\nmatch and tying his scrip in front of him, proceeded to\\npour soup into it by the ladleful. By and by the giant\\nthrew down his spoon in despair, and owned himself con-\\nquered. No, no don t give it up yet, said Boots, just\\ncut a hole in your stomach like this, and you can eat for-\\never. And suiting the action to the words, he ripped\\nopen his scrip. So the silly Troll cut himself open and\\ndied, and Boots carried off all his gold and silver.\\nOnce there was a Troll whose name was Wind-and-\\nA Leopard was returning home from hunting on one occasion,\\nwhen he lighted on the kraal of a Ram. Now the Leopard had never\\nseen a Ram before, and accordingly, approaching submissively, he said,\\nGood day, friend what may your name be The other, in his gruff\\nvoice, and striking his breast with his forefoot, said, lama Ram who\\nare you? A Leopard, answered the other, more dead than alive\\nand then, taking leave of the Ram, he ran home as fast as he could.\\nBleek, Hottentot Fables, p. 24.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "132\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nWeather, and Saint Olaf hired him to build a church.\\nIf the church were completed within a certain specified\\ntime, the Troll was to get possession of Saint Olaf. The\\nsaint then planned such a stupendous edifice that he\\nthought the giant would be forever building it but the\\nwork went on briskly, and at the appointed day nothing\\nremained but to finish the point of the spire. In his\\nconsternation Olaf rushed about until he passed by the\\nTroll s den, when he heard the giantess telling her chil-\\ndren that their father, Wind-and- Weather, was finishing\\nhis church, and would be home to-morrow with Saint\\nOlaf. So the saint ran back to the church and bawled\\nout, Hold on, Wind-and- Weather, your spire is crook-\\ned Then the giant tumbled down from the roof and\\nbroke into a thousand pieces. As in the cases of the\\nMara and the werewolf, the enchantment was at an end\\nas soon as the enchanter was called by name.\\nThese Trolls, like the Arabian Efreets, had an ugly\\nhabit of carrying off beautiful princesses. This is strictly\\nin keeping with their character as night-demons, or Panis.\\nIn the stories of Punchkin and the Heartless Giant, the\\nnight-demon carries off the dawn-maiden after having\\nturned into stone her solar brethren. But Boots, or In-\\ndra, in search of his kinsfolk, by and by arrives at the\\nTroll s castle, and then the dawn-nymph, true to her\\nfickle character, cajoles the Giant and enables Boots to\\ndestroy him. In the famous myth which serves as the\\nbasis for the Yolsunga Saga and the Mbelungenlied, the\\ndragon Pamir steals the Valkyrie Brynhild and keeps\\nher shut up in a castle on the Glistening Heath, until\\nsome champion shall be found powerful enough to rescue\\nher. The castle is as hard to enter as that of the Sleep-\\ning Beauty but Sigurd, the Northern Achilleus, riding\\non his deathless horse, and wielding his resistless sword", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n133\\nGram, forces his way in, slays Fafnir, and recovers the\\nValkyrie.\\nIn the preceding paper the Valkyries were shown to\\nbelong to the class of cloud-maidens and between the\\ntale of Sigurd and that of Hercules and Cacus there is\\nno difference, save that the bright sunlit clouds which are\\nrepresented in the one as cows are in the other repre-\\nsented as maidens. In the myth of the Argonauts they\\nreappear as the Golden Fleece, carried to the far east by\\nPhrixos and Helle, who are themselves Mblungs, or\\nChildren of the Mist (Nephele), and there guarded by\\na dragon. In all these myths a treasure is stolen by a\\nfiend of darkness, and recovered by a hero of light, who\\nslays the demon. And remembering what Scribe said\\nabout the fewness of dramatic types I believe we are\\nwarranted in asserting that all the stories of lovely\\nwomen held in bondage by monsters, and rescued by\\nheroes who perform wonderful tasks, such as Don Quixote\\nburned to achieve, are derived ultimately from solar\\nmyths, like the myth of Sigurd and Brynhild. I do not\\nmean to say that the story-tellers who beguiled their\\ntime in stringing together the incidents which make up\\nthese legends were conscious of their solar character.\\nThey did not go to work, with malice prepense, to weave\\nallegories and apologues. The Greeks who first told the\\nstory of Perseus and Andromeda, the Arabians who de-\\nvised the tale of Codadad and his brethren, the Flemings\\nwho listened over their beer-mugs to the adventures of\\nCulotte-Verte, were not thinking of sun-gods or dawn-\\nmaidens, or night-demons and no theory of mythology\\ncan be sound which implies such an extravagance. Most\\nof these stories have lived on the lips of the common\\npeople; and illiterate persons are not in the habit of\\nallegorizing in the style of mediaeval monks or rabbinical", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "134\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ncommentators. But what has been amply demonstrated\\nis, that the sun and the clouds, the light and the dark-\\nness, were once supposed to be actuated by wills analo-\\ngous to the human will that they were personified and\\nworshipped or propitiated by sacrifice and that their\\ndoings were described in language which applied so well\\nto the deeds of human or quasi-human beings that in\\ncourse of time its primitive purport faded from recollec-\\ntion. No competent scholar now doubts that the myths\\nof the Yeda and the Edda originated in this way, for\\nphilology itself shows that the names employed in them\\nare the names of the great phenomena of nature. And\\nwhen once a few striking stories had thus arisen, when\\nonce it had been told how Indra smote the Panis, and\\nhow Sigurd rescued Brynhild, and how Odysseus blinded\\nthe Kyklops, then certain mythic or dramatic types\\nhad been called into existence and to these types, pre-\\nserved in the popular imagination, future stories would\\ninevitably conform. We need, therefore, have no hesita-\\ntion in admitting a common origin for the vanquished\\nPanis and the outwitted Troll or Devil we may securely\\ncompare the legends of St. George and Jack the Giant-\\nkiller with the myth of Indra slaying Vritra we may\\nsee in the invincible Sigurd the prototype of many a\\ndoughty knight-errant of romance; and we may learn\\nanew the lesson, taught with fresh emphasis by modern\\nscholarship, that in the deepest sense there is nothing\\nnew under the sun.\\nI am the more explicit on this point, because it seems\\nto me that the unguarded language of many students of\\nmythology is liable to give rise to misapprehensions, and\\nto discredit both the method which they employ and the\\nresults which they have obtained. If we were to give\\nfull weight to the statements which are sometimes made,", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n135\\nwe should perforce believe that primitive men had noth-\\ning to do bat to ponder about the sun and the clouds, and\\nto worry themselves over the disappearance of daylight.\\nBut there is nothing in the scientific interpretation of\\nmyths which obliges us to go any such length. I do not\\nsuppose that any ancient Aryan, possessed of good di-\\ngestive powers and endowed with sound common-sense,\\never lay awake half the night wondering whether the\\nsun would come back again.* The child and the savage\\nbelieve of necessity that the future will resemble the\\npast, and it is only philosophy which raises doubts on\\nthe subject.-)- The predominance of solar legends in\\nmost systems of mythology is not due to the lack of\\nthat Titanic assurance with which we say, the sun must\\nrise nor again to the fact that the phenomena of day\\nand night are the most striking phenomena in nature.\\nEclipses and earthquakes and floods are phenomena of\\nthe most terrible and astounding kind, and they have\\nall generated myths yet their contributions to folk-lore\\nare scanty compared with those furnished by the strife\\nbetween the day-god and his enemies. The sun-myths\\nhave been so prolific because the dramatic types to which\\nthey have given rise are of surpassing human interest.\\nThe dragon who swallows the sun is no doubt a fearful\\npersonage but the hero who toils for others, who slays\\nhydra-headed monsters, and dries the tears of fair-haired\\nI agree, most heartily, with Mr. Mahaffy s remarks, Prolegomena\\nto Ancient History, p. 69.\\nSir George Grey once told some Australian natives about the coun-\\ntries within the arctic circle where during part of the year the sun never\\nsets. Their astonishment now knew no bounds. Ah that must be\\nanother sun, not the same as the one we see here, said an old man and\\nin spite of all my arguments to the contrary, the others adopted this\\nopinion. Grey s Journals, I. 293, cited in Tylor, Early History of\\nMankind, p. 301.\\nMax Muller, Chips, II. 96.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "136 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ndamsels, and achieves success in spite of incredible obsta-\\ncles, is a being with whom we can all sympathize, and of\\nwhom we never weary of hearing.\\nWith many of these legends which present the myth\\nof light and darkness in its most attractive form, the\\nreader is already acquainted, and it is needless to retail\\nstories which have been told over and over again in books\\nwhich every one is presumed to have read. I will con-\\ntent myself with a weird Irish legend, narrated by Mr.\\nPatrick Kennedy,* in which we here and there catch\\nglimpses of the primitive mythical symbols, as fragments\\nof gold are seen gleaming through the crystal of quartz.\\nLong before the Danes ever came to Ireland, there died\\nat Muskerry a Sculloge, or country farmer, who by dint\\nof hard work and close economy had amassed enormous\\nwealth. His only son did not resemble him. When the\\nyoung Sculloge looked about the house, the day after his\\nfather s death, and saw the big chests full of gold and\\nsilver, and the cupboards shining with piles of sovereigns,\\nand the old stockings stuffed with large and small coin,\\nhe said to himself, u Bedad, how shall I ever be able to\\nspend the likes 0 that And so he drank, and gam-\\nbled, and wasted his time in hunting and horse-racing,\\nuntil after a while he found the chests empty and the\\ncupboards poverty-stricken, and the stockings lean and\\npenniless. Then he mortgaged his farm-house and gam-\\nbled away all the money he got for it, and then he be-\\nthought him that a few hundred pounds might be raised\\non his mill. But when he went to look at it, he found\\nthe dam broken, and scarcely a thimbleful of water in\\nthe mill-race, and the wheel rotten, and the thatch of the\\nhouse all gone, and the upper millstone lying flat on the\\nlower one, and a coat of dust and mould over every-\\nFictions of the Irish Celts, pp. 255-270.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n137\\nthing. So lie made up his mind to borrow a horse and\\ntake one more hunt to-morrow and then reform his hab-\\nits.\\nAs he was returning late in the evening from this fare-\\nwell hunt, passing through a lonely glen he came upon\\nan old man playing backgammon, betting on his left hand\\nagainst his right, and crying and cursing because the\\nright would win. Come and bet with me, said he to\\nSculloge. Faith, I have but a sixpence in the world,\\nwas the reply but, if you like, I H wager that on the\\nright. Done, said the old man who was a Druid\\nif you win I 11 give you a hundred guineas. So the\\ngame was played, and the old man, whose right hand was\\nalways the winner, paid over the guineas and told Scul-\\nloge to go to the Devil with them.\\nInstead of following this bit of advice, however, the\\nyoung farmer went home and began to pay his debts, and\\nnext week he went to the glen and won another game,\\nand made the Druid rebuild his mill. So Sculloge be-\\ncame prosperous again, and by and by he tried his luck a\\nthird time, and won a game played for a beautiful wife.\\nThe Druid sent her to his house the next morning before\\nhe was out of bed, and his servants came knocking at the\\ndoor and crying, Wake up wake up Master Scul-\\nloge, there s a young lady here to see you. Bedad, it s\\nthe vanithee herself, said Sculloge and getting up in\\na hurry, he spent three quarters of an hour in dressing\\nhimself. At last he Went down stairs, and there on the\\nsofa was the prettiest lady ever seen in Ireland Natu-\\nrally, Sculloge s heart beat fast and his voice trembled, as\\nhe begged the lady s pardon for this Druidic style of\\nwooing, and besought her not to feel obliged to stay with\\nhim unless she really liked him. But the young lady,\\nA corruption of Gaelic bhan a teaigh, lady of the house.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "138\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nwho was a king s daughter from a far country, was won-\\ndrously charmed with the handsome farmer, and so weD\\ndid they get along that the priest was sent for without\\nfurther delay, and they were married before sundown.\\nSabina was the vanithee s name and she warned her\\nhusband to have no more dealings with Lassa Buaicht,\\nthe old man of the glen. So for a while all went happily,\\nand the Druidic bride was as good as she was beautiful.\\nBut by and by Sculloge began to think he was not earn-\\ning money fast enough. He could not bear to see his\\nwife s white hands soiled with work and thought it\\nwould be a fine thing if he could only afford to keep a\\nfew more servants, and drive about with Sabina in an\\nelegant carriage, and see her clothed in silk and adorned\\nwith jewels.\\nI will play one more game and set the stakes high,\\nsaid Sculloge to himself one evening, as he sat pondering\\nover these things and so, without consulting Sabina, he\\nstole away to the glen, and played a game for ten thou-\\nsand guineas. But the evil Druid was now ready to\\npounce on his prey, and he did not play as of old. Scul-\\nloge broke into a cold sweat with agony and terror as he\\nsaw the left hand win Then the face of Lassa Buaicht\\ngrew dark and stern, and he laid on Sculloge the curse\\nwhich is laid upon the solar hero in misfortune, that he\\nshould never sleep twice under the same roof, or ascend\\nthe couch of the dawn-nymph, his wife, until he should\\nhave procured and brought to him the sword of light.\\nWhen Sculloge reached home, more dead than alive, he\\nsaw that his wife knew all. Bitterly they wept together,\\nbut she told him that with courage all might be set right.\\nShe gave him a Druidic horse, which bore him swiftly\\nover land and sea, like the enchanted steed of the Arabian\\nNights, until he reached the castle of his wife s father,", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "LIGHT AND DARKNESS.\\n139\\nwho, as Sculloge now learned, was a good Druid, the\\nbrother of the evil Lassa Buaicht. This good Druid told\\nhim that the sword of light was kept by a third brother,\\nthe powerful magician, Fiach O Duda, who dwelt in an\\nenchanted castle, which many brave heroes had tried to\\nenter, but the dark sorcerer had slain them all. Three\\nhigh walls surrounded the castle, and many had scaled\\nthe first of these, but none had ever returned alive. But\\nSculloge was not to be daunted, and, taking from his\\nfather-in-law a black steed, he set out for the fortress of\\nFiach O Duda. Over the first high wall nimbly leaped\\nthe magic horse, and Sculloge called aloud on the Druid\\nto come out and surrender his sword. Then came out a\\ntall, dark man, with coal-black eyes and hair and melan-\\ncholy visage, and made a furious sweep at Sculloge with\\nthe flaming blade. But the Druidic beast sprang back\\nover the wall in the twinkling of an eye and rescued his\\nrider, leaving, however, his tail behind in the court-yard.\\nThen Sculloge returned in triumph to his father-in-law s\\npalace, and the night was spent in feasting and revelry.\\nNext day Sculloge rode out on a white horse, and when\\nhe got to Fiach s castle, he saw the first wall lying in\\nrubbish. He leaped the second, and the same scene\\noccurred as the day before, save that the horse escaped\\nunharmed.\\nThe third day Sculloge went out on foot, with a harp\\nlike that of Orpheus in his hand, and as he swept its\\nstrings the grass bent to listen and the trees bowed their\\nheads. The castle walls all lay in ruins, and Sculloge\\nmade his way unhindered to the upper room, where Fiach\\nlay in Druidic slumber, lulled by the harp. He seized\\nthe sword of light, which was hung by the chimney\\nsheathed in a dark scabbard, and making the best of his\\nway back to the good king s palace, mounted his wife s", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "140\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nsteed, and scoured over land and sea until he found him-\\nself in the gloomy glen where Lassa Buaicht was still dy-\\ning and cursing and betting on his left hand against his\\nright.\\nHere, treacherous fiend, take your sword of light\\nshouted Sculloge in tones of thunder and as he drew it\\nfrom its sheath the whole valley was lighted up as with\\nthe morning sun, and next moment the head of the\\nwretched Druid was lying at his feet, and his sweet\\nwife, who had come to meet him, was laughing and\\ncrying in his arms.\\nNovember, 1870.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. 141\\nV.\\nMYTHS OF THE BAEBAEIC WOELD.\\nTHE theory of mythology set forth in the four preced-\\ning papers, and illustrated by the examination of\\nnumerous myths relating to the lightning, the storm-\\nwind, the clouds, and the sunlight, was originally framed\\nwith reference solely to the mythic and legendary lore of\\nthe Aryan world. The phonetic identity of the names\\nof many Western gods and heroes with the names of\\nthose Vedic divinities which are obviously the personifi-\\ncations of natural phenomena, suggested the theory which\\nphilosophical considerations had already foreshadowed in\\nthe works of Hume and Comte, and which the exhaustive\\nanalysis of Greek, Hindu, Keltic, and Teutonic legends\\nhas amply confirmed. Let us now, before proceeding to\\nthe consideration of barbaric folk-lore, briefly recapitulate\\nthe results obtained by modern scholarship working strict-\\nly within the limits of the Aryan domain.\\nIn the first place, it has been proved once for all that\\nthe languages spoken by the Hindus, Persians, Greeks,\\nEomans, Kelts, Slaves, and Teutons are all descended\\nfrom a single ancestral language, the Old Aryan, in the\\nsame sense that French, Italian, and Spanish are de-\\nscended from the Latin. And from this undisputed fact-\\nit is an inevitable inference that these various races con-\\ntain, along with other elements, a race-element in com-\\nmon, due to their Aryan pedigree. That the Indo-Euro-\\npean races are wholly Aryan is very improbable, for in\\nevery case the countries overrun by them were occupied", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "142\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nby inferior races, whose blood must have mingled in vary-\\ning degrees with that of their conquerors but that every\\nIndo-European people is in great part descended from a\\ncommon Aryan stock is not open to question.\\nIn the second place, along with a common fund of\\nmoral and religious ideas and of legal and ceremonial ob-\\nservances, we find these kindred peoples possessed of a\\ncommon fund of myths, superstitions, proverbs, popular\\npoetry, and household legends. The Hindu mother\\namuses her child with fairy-tales which often correspond,\\neven in minor incidents, with stories in Scottish or\\nScandinavian nurseries and she tells them in words\\nwhich are phonetically akin to words in Swedish and\\nGaelic. No doubt many of these stories might have\\nbeen devised in a dozen different places independently\\nof each other and no doubt many of them have been\\ntransmitted laterally from one people to another but a\\ncareful examination shows that such cannot have been\\nthe case with the great majority of legends and beliefs.\\nThe agreement between two such stories, for instance, as\\nthose of Faithful J ohn and Eama and Luxman is so close\\nas to make it incredible that they should have been in-\\ndependently fabricated, while the points of difference are\\nso important as to make it extremely improbable that the\\none was ever copied from the other. Besides which, the\\nessential identity of such myths as those of Sigurd and\\nTheseus, or of Helena and Sarama, carries us back histor-\\nically to a time when the scattered Indo-European tribes\\nhad not yet begun to hold commercial and intellectual\\nintercourse with each other, and consequently could not\\nhave interchanged their epic materials or their household\\nstories. We are therefore driven to the conclusion\\nwhich, startling as it may seem, is after all the most\\nnatural and plausible one that can be stated that the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. 1 43\\nAryan nations, which have inherited from a common an-\\ncestral stock their languages and their customs, have in-\\nherited also from the same common original their fireside\\nlegends. They have preserved Cinderella and Pimchkin\\njust as they have preserved the words for father and\\nmother, ten and twenty and the former case, though;\\nmore imposing to the imagination, is scientifically no\\nless intelligible than the latter.\\nThirdly, it has been shown that these venerable tales\\nmay be grouped in a few pretty well defined classes and\\nthat the archetypal myth of each class the primitive\\nstory in conformity to which countless subsequent tales\\nhave been generated was originally a mere description\\nof physical phenomena, couched in the poetic diction of\\nan age when everything was personified, because all nat-\\nural phenomena were supposed to be due to the direct\\nworkings of a volition like that of which men were con-\\nscious within themselves. Thus we are led to the strik-\\ning conclusion that mythology has had a common root,\\nboth with science and with religious philosophy. The\\nmyth of Indra conquering Vritra was one of the theo-\\nrems of primitive Aryan science it was a provisional\\nexplanation of the thunder-storm, satisfactory enough\\nuntil extended observation and reflection supplied a bet-\\nter one. It also contained the germs of a theology for\\nthe life-giving solar light furnished an important part of\\nthe primeval conception of deity. And finally, it became\\nthe fruitful parent of countless myths, whether embod-\\nied in the stately epics of Homer and the bards of the\\nNibelungenlied, or in the humbler legends of St. George\\nand William Tell and the ubiquitous Boots.\\nSuch is the theory which was suggested half a century\\nago by the researches of Jacob Grimm, and which, so far\\nas concerns the mythology of the Aryan race, is now", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "144\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nvictorious along the whole line. It remains for us to\\ntest the universality of the general principles upon which\\nit is founded, by a brief analysis of sundry legends and\\nsuperstitions of the barbaric world. Since the fetichistic\\nhabit of explaining the outward phenomena of nature\\nafter the analogy of the inward phenomena of conscious\\nintelligence is not a habit peculiar to our Aryan ances-\\ntors, but is, as psychology shows, the inevitable result of\\nthe conditions under which uncivilized thinking pro-\\nceeds, we may expect to find the barbaric mind personi-\\nfying the powers of nature and making myths about their\\noperations the whole world over. And we need not be\\nsurprised if we find in the resulting mythologic structures\\na strong resemblance to the familiar creations of the\\nAryan intelligence. In point of fact, we shall often be\\ncalled upon to note such resemblance and it accordingly\\nbehooves us at the outset to inquire how far a similarity\\nbetween mythical tales shall be taken as evidence of a\\ncommon traditional origin, and how far it may be inter-\\npreted as due merely to the similar workings of the un-\\ntrained intelligence in all ages and countries.\\nAnalogies drawn from the comparison of languages\\nwill here be of service to us, if used discreetly other-\\nwise they are likely to bewilder far more than to en-\\nlighten us. A theorem which Max Muller has laid down\\nfor our guidance in this kind of investigation furnishes\\nus with an excellent example of the tricks which a\\nsuperficial analogy may play even with the trained\\nscholar, when temporarily off his guard. Actuated by a\\npraiseworthy desire to raise the study of myths to some-\\nthing like the high level of scientific accuracy already\\nattained by the study of words, Max Muller endeavours\\nto introduce one of the most useful canons of philology\\ninto a department of inquiry where its introduction", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n145\\ncould only work the most hopeless confusion. One of\\nthe earliest lessons to be learned by the scientific stu-\\ndent of linguistics is the uselessness of comparing to-\\ngether directly the words contained in derivative lan-\\nguages. For example, you might set the English twelve\\nside by side with the Latin duodecim, and then stare at\\nthe two words to all eternity without any hope of reach-\\ning a conclusion, good or bad, about either of them\\nleast of all would you suspect that they are descended\\nfrom the same radical. But if you take each word by\\nitself and trace it back to its primitive shape, explaining\\nevery change of every letter as you go, you will at last\\nreach the old Aryan dvadakan, which is the parent of\\nboth these strangely metamorphosed words.* Nor will it\\ndo, on the other hand, to trust to verbal similarity with-\\nout a historical inquiry into the origin of such similarity.\\nEven in the same language two words of quite different\\norigin may get their corners rubbed off till they look as\\nlike one another as two pebbles. The French words souris,\\na mouse, and souris, a smile, are spelled exactly\\nalike but the one comes from Latin sorex and the other\\nfrom Latin subridere.\\nNow Max Muller tells us that this principle, which is\\nindispensable in the study of words, is equally indispen-\\nsable in the study of myths.-f* That is, you must not\\nrashly pronounce the Norse story of the Heartless Giant\\nidentical with the Hindu story of Punchkin, although the\\ntwo correspond in every essential incident. In both\\nlegends a magician turns several members of the same\\nfamily into stone the youngest member of the family\\ncomes to the rescue, and on the way saves the lives of\\nFor the analysis of twelve, see my essay on The Genesis of Lan\u00c2\u00ab\\nguage, North American Keview, October 1869, p. 320.\\nChips from a German Workshop, Vol. II. p. 246.\\n7 J", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "146 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nsundry grateful beasts arrived at the magician s castle,\\nlie finds a captive princess ready to accept his love and\\nto play the part of Delilah to the enchanter. In both\\nstories the enchanter s life depends on the integrity of\\nsomething which is elaborately hidden in a far-distant\\nisland, but which the fortunate youth, instructed by the\\nartful princess and assisted by his menagerie of grateful\\nbeasts, succeeds in obtaining. In both stories the youth\\nuses his advantage to free all his friends from their en-\\nchantment, and then proceeds to destroy the villain who\\nwrought all this wickedness. Yet, in spite of this agree-\\nment, Max Muller, if I understand him aright, would not\\nhave us infer the identity of the two stories until we have\\ntaken each one separately and ascertained its primitive\\nmythical significance. Otherwise, for aught we can tell,\\nthe resemblance may be purely accidental, like that of\\nthe French words for mouse and smile.\\nA little reflection, however, will relieve us from this\\nperplexity, and assure us that the alleged analogy be-\\ntween the comparison of words and the comparison of\\nstories is utterly superficial. The transformations of\\nwords which are often astounding enough depend\\nupon a few well-established physiological principles of\\nutterance and since philology has learned to rely upon\\nthese principles, it has become nearly as sure in its\\nmethods and results as one of the so-called exact\\nsciences. Folly enough is doubtless committed within\\nits precincts by writers who venture there without the\\nlaborious preparation which this science, more than al-\\nmost any other, demands. But the proceedings of the\\ntrained philologist are no more arbitrary than those of\\nthe trained astronomer. And though the former may\\nseem to be straining at a gnat and swallowing a camel\\nwhen he coolly tells you that violin and fiddle are the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n147\\nsame word, while English care and Latin cur a have\\nnothing to do with each other, he is nevertheless no\\nmore indulging in guess-work than the astronomer who\\nconfesses his ignorance as to the habitability of Venus\\nwhile asserting his knowledge of the existence of hydro-\\ngen in the atmosphere of Sirius. To cite one example\\nout of a hundred, every philologist knows that s may\\nbecome r, and that the broad a-sound may dwindle into\\nthe closer o-sound but when you adduce some plausible\\netymology based on the assumption that r has changed\\ninto s, or into a, apart from the demonstrable influence\\nof some adjacent letter, the philologist will shake his\\nhead.\\nNow in the study of stories there are no such simple\\nrules all cut and dried for us to go by. There is no uni-\\nform psychological principle which determines that the\\nthree-headed snake in one story shall become a three-\\nheaded man in the next. There is no Grimm s Law in\\nmythology which decides that a Hindu magician shall\\nalways correspond to a Norwegian Troll or a Keltic\\nDruid. The laws of association of ideas are not so\\nsimple in application as the laws of utterance. In short,\\nthe study of myths, though it can be made sufficiently\\nscientific in its methods and results, does not constitute\\na science by itself, like philology. It stands on a footing\\nsimilar to that occupied by physical geography, or what\\nthe Germans call earth-knowledge. No one denies that\\nall the changes going on over the earth s surface conform\\nto physical laws but then no one pretends that there is\\nany single proximate principle which governs all the\\nphenomena of rain-fall, of soil-crumbling, of magnetic\\nvariation, and of the distribution of plants and animals.\\nAll these things are explained by principles obtained from\\nthe various sciences of physics, chemistry, geology, and", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "148\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nphysiology. And in just the same way the development\\nand distribution of stories is explained by the help of\\ndivers resources contributed by philology, psychology,\\nand history. There is therefore no real analogy between\\nthe cases cited by Max Muller. Two unrelated words\\nmay be ground into exactly the same shape, just as\\npebble from the North Sea may be undistinguishabl\\nfrom another pebble on the beach of the Adriatic but\\ntwo stories like those of Punchkin and the Hearties\\nGiant are no more likely to arise independently of eac\\nother than two coral reefs on opposite sides of the glob\\nare likely to develop into exactly similar islands.\\nShall we then say boldly, that close similarity betwee\\nlegends is proof of kinship, and go our way without fur\\nther misgivings Unfortunately we cannot dispose of\\nthe matter in quite so summary a fashion for it remains\\nto decide what kind and degree of similarity shall be con-\\nsidered satisfactory evidence of kinship. And it is just\\nhere that doctors may disagree. Here is the point at\\nwhich our science betrays its weakness as compared\\nwith the sister study of philology. Before we can de-\\ncide with confidence in any case, a great mass of evi-\\ndence must be brought into court. So long as we re-\\nmained on Aryan ground, all went smoothly enough,\\nbecause all the external evidence was in our favour. We\\nknew at the outset, that the Aryans inherit a common\\nlanguage and a common civilization, and therefore we\\nfound no difficulty in accepting the conclusion that they\\nhave inherited, among other things, a common stock of\\nlegends. In the barbaric world it is quite otherwise.\\nPhilology does not pronounce in favour of a common\\norigin for all barbaric culture, such as it is. The notion\\nof a single primitive language, standing in the same rela-\\ntion to all existing dialects as the relation of old Aryan", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. 149\\nto Latin and English, or that of old Semitic to Hebrew\\nand Arabic, was a notion suited only to the infancy of\\nlinguistic science. As the case now stands, it is certain\\nthat all the languages actually existing cannot be referred\\nto a common ancestor, and it is altogether probable that\\nthere never was any such common ancestor. I am not\\nnow referring to the question of the unity of the human\\nrace. That question lies entirely outside the sphere of\\nphilology. The science of language has nothing to do\\nwith skulls or complexions, and no comparison of words\\ncan tell us whether the black men are brethren of the\\nwhite men, or whether yellow and red men have a com-\\nmon pedigree these questions belong to comparative\\nphysiology. But the science of language can and does\\ntell us that a certain amount of civilization is requisite\\nfor the production of a language sufficiently durable and\\nwide-spread to give birth to numerous mutually resem-\\nbling offspring. Barbaric languages are neither wide-\\nspread nor durable. Among savages each little group of\\nfamilies has its own dialect, and coins its own expressions\\nat pleasure and in the course of two or three gener-\\nations a dialect gets so strangely altered as virtually to\\nlose its identity. Even numerals and personal pronouns,\\nwhich the Aryan has preserved for fifty centuries, get\\nlost every few years in Polynesia. Since the time of\\nCaptain Cook the Tahitian language has thrown away\\nfive out of its ten simple numerals, and replaced them\\nby brand-new ones and on the Amazon you may acquire\\na fluent command of some Indian dialect, and then, com-\\ning back after twenty years, find yourself worse off than\\nEip Van Winkle, and your learning all antiquated and\\nuseless. How absurd, therefore, to suppose that primeval\\nsavages originated a language which has held its own\\nlike the old Aryan, and become the prolific mother of the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "f 50 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthree or four thousand dialects now in existence Before\\na durable language can arise, there must be an aggrega-\\ntion of numerous tribes into a people, so that there may\\nbe need of communication on a large scale, and so that\\ntradition may be strengthened. Wherever mankind have\\nassociated in nations, permanent languages have arisen,\\nand their derivative dialects bear the conspicuous marks\\nof kinship but where mankind have remained in their\\nprimitive savage isolation, their languages have remained\\nsporadic and transitory, incapable of organic develop-\\nment, and showing no traces of a kinship which never\\nexisted.\\nThe bearing of these considerations upon the origin\\nand diffusion of barbaric myths is obvious. The devel-\\nopment of a common stock of legends is, of course, im-\\npossible, save where there is a common language; and\\nthus philology pronounces against the kinship of bar-\\nbaric myths with each other and with similar myths of\\nthe Aryan and Semitic worlds. Similar stories told in\\nGreece and Norway are likely to have a common pedi-\\ngree, because the persons who have preserved them in\\nrecollection speak a common language and have inherited\\nthe same civilization. But similar stories told in Lab-\\nrador and South Africa are not likely to be genealogi-\\ncally related, because it is altogether probable that the\\nEsquimaux and the Zulu had acquired their present race\\ncharacteristics before either of them possessed a language\\nor a culture sufficient for the production of myths. Ac-\\ncording to the nature and extent of the similarity, it\\nmust be decided whether such stories have been carried\\nabout from one part of the world to another, or have\\neen independently originated in many different places.\\nHere the methods of philology suggest a rule which\\nwill often be found useful. In comparing the vocabula*", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF TEE BARBARIC WORLD. 151\\nries of different languages, those words which directly\\nimitate natural sounds such as whiz, crash, crackle\\nare not admitted as evidence of kinship between the\\nlanguages in which they occur. Eesemblances between\\nsuch words are obviously no proof of a common ancestry\\nand they are often met with in languages which have\\ndemonstrably had no connection with each other. So in\\nmythology, where we find two stories of which the primi-\\ntive character is perfectly transparent, we need have no\\ndifficulty in supposing them to have originated inde-\\npendently. The myth of Jack and his Beanstalk is\\nfound all over the world but the idea of a country\\nabove the sky, to which persons might gain access by\\nclimbing, is one which could hardly fail to occur to every\\nbarbarian. Among the American tribes, as well as\\namong the Aryans, the rainbow and the Milky-Way\\nhave contributed the idea of a Bridge of the Dead, over\\nwhich souls must pass on the way to the other world.\\nIn South Africa, as well as in Germany, the habits of the\\nfox and of his brother the jackal have given rise to fables\\nin which brute force is overcome by cunning. In many\\nparts of the world we find curiously similar stories de-\\nvised to account for the stumpy tails of the bear and\\nhysena, the hairless tail of the rat, and the blindness of\\nthe mole. And in all countries may be found the be-\\nliefs that men may be changed into beasts, or plants, or\\nstones; that the sun is in some way tethered or con-\\nstrained to follow a certain course that the storm-cloud\\nis a ravenous dragon and that there are talismans which\\nwill reveal hidden treasures. All these conceptions are\\nso obvious to the uncivilized intelligence, that stories\\nfounded upon them need not be supposed to have a com-\\nmon origin, unless there turns out to be a striking simi-\\nlarity among their minor details. On the other hand,", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "152\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthe numerous myths of an all-destroying deluge have\\ndoubtless arisen partly from reminiscences of actually\\noccurring local inundations, and partly from the fact\\nthat the Scriptural account of a deluge has been carried\\nall over the world by Catholic and Protestant mission-\\naries.*\\nBy way of illustrating these principles, let us now cite\\na few of the American myths so carefully collected by\\nDr. Brinton in his admirable treatise. We shall not find\\nin the mythology of the New World the wealth of wit\\nand imagination which has so long delighted us in the\\nstories of Herakles, Perseus, Hermes, Sigurd, and Indra.\\nThe mythic lore of the American Indians is compara-\\ntively scanty and prosaic, as befits the product of a lower\\ngrade of culture and a more meagre intellect. Not only\\nare the personages less characteristically pourtrayed, but\\nthere is a continual tendency to extravagance, the sure\\nindex of an inferior imagination. Nevertheless, after\\nmaking due allowances for differences in the artistic\\nmethod of treatment, there is between the mythologies\\nof the Old and the New Worlds a fundamental resem-\\nblance. We come upon solar myths and myths of the\\nstorm curiously blended with culture-myths, as in the\\ncases of Hermes, Prometheus, and Kadmos. The Amer-\\nican parallels to these are to be found in the stories of\\nMichabo, Viracocha, Ioskeha, and Quetzalcoatl. As\\nelsewhere the world over, so in America, many tribes had\\nto tell of an august character, who taught them\\nwhat they knew, the tillage of the soil, the properties\\nof plants, the art of picture-writing, the secrets of magic\\nwho founded their institutions and established their re-\\nligions who governed them long with glory abroad and\\nFor various legends of a deluge, see Baring-Gould, Legends of ths\\nPatriarchs and Prophets, pp. 85 106.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n153\\npeace at home and finally did not die, but, like Frederic\\nBarbarossa, Charlemagne, King Arthur, and all great\\nheroes, vanished mysteriously, and still lives somewhere,\\nready at the right moment to return to his beloved peo-\\nple and lead them to victory and happiness. Every\\none is familiar with the numerous legends of white-\\nskinned, full-bearded heroes, like the mild Quetzalcoatl,\\nwho in times long previous to Columbus came from the far\\nEast to impart the rudiments of civilization and religion\\nto the red men. By those who first heard these stories\\nthey were supposed, with naive Euhemerism, to refer to\\npre-Columbian visits of Europeans to this continent, like\\nthat of the Northmen in the tenth century. But a sci-\\nentific study of the subject has dissipated such notions.\\nThese legends are far too numerous, they are too similar\\nto each other, they are too manifestly symbolical, to admit\\nof any such interpretation. By comparing them care-\\nfully with each other, and with correlative myths of the\\nOld World, their true character soon becomes apparent.\\nOne of the most widely famous of these culture-heroes\\nwas Manabozho or Michabo, the Great Hare. With en-\\ntire unanimity, says Dr. Brinton, the various branches\\nof the Algonquin race, the Powhatans of Virginia, the\\nLenni Lenape of the Delaware, the warlike hordes of\\nNew England, the Ottawas of the far North, and the\\nWestern tribes, perhaps without exception, spoke of\\nthis chimerical beast, as one of the old missionaries\\ncalls it, as their common ancestor. The totem, or clan,\\nwhich bore his name was looked up to with peculiar\\nrespect. Not only was Michabo the ruler and guardian\\nof these numerous tribes, he was the founder of their\\nreligious rites, the inventor of picture-writing, the ruler\\nof the weather, the creator and preserver of earth and\\nBrinton, Myths of the New World, p. 160.\\n7*", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "154\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nheaven. From a grain of sand brought from the bot-\\ntom of the primeval ocean he fashioned the habitable\\nland, and set it floating on the waters till it grew to such\\na size that a strong young wolf, running constantly, died\\nof old age ere he reached its limits. He was also, like\\nNimrod, a mighty hunter. One of his footsteps meas-\\nured eight leagues, the Great Lakes were the beaver-dams\\nhe built, and when the cataracts impeded his progress he\\ntore them away with his hands. Sometimes he was\\nsaid to dwell in the skies with his brother, the Snow, or,\\nlike many great spirits, to have built his wigwam in the\\nfar North on some floe of ice in the Arctic Ocean\\nBut in the oldest accounts of the missionaries he was\\nalleged to reside toward the East and in the holy for-\\nmulas of the meda craft, when the winds are invoked to\\nthe medicine lodge, the East is summoned in his name,\\nthe door opens in that direction, and there, at the edge\\nof the earth where the sun rises, on the shore of the infi-\\nnite ocean that surrounds the land, he has his house, and\\nsends the luminaries forth on their daily journeys.\\nErom such accounts as this we see that Michabo was no\\nmore a wise instructor and legislator than Minos or Kad-\\nmos. Like these heroes, he is a personification of the\\nsolar life-giving power, which daily comes forth from its\\nhome in the east, making the earth to rejoice. The ety-\\nmology of his name confirms the otherwise clear indica-\\ntions of the legend itself. It is compounded of michi,\\ngreat, and wabos, which means alike hare and\\nwhite. Dialectic forms in Algonquin for white are\\nwabi, wape, wampi, etc. for morning, wapan, tvapanch,\\nopah; for east, vjapa, wanbun, etc.; for day, wompan,\\noppan for light, oppung So that Michabo is the\\nGreat White One, the God of the Dawn and the East\\nBrinton, op. cit. p. 163.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. 155\\nAnd the etymological confusion, by virtue of which he\\nacquired his soubriquet of the Great Hare, affords a\\ncurious parallel to what has often happened in Aryan\\nand Semitic mythology, as we saw when discussing the\\nsubject of werewolves.\\nKeeping in mind this solar character of Michabo, let\\nus note how full of meaning are the myths concerning\\nhim. In the first cycle of these legends, he is grandson\\nof the Moon, his father is the West Wind, and his mother,\\na maiden, dies in giving him birth at the moment of con-\\nception. For the Moon is the goddess of night the\\nDawn is her daughter, who brings forth the Morning,\\nand perishes herself in the act and the West, the spirit\\nof darkness, as the East is of light, precedes, and as it\\nwere begets the latter, as the evening does the morning.\\nStraightway, however, continues the legend, the son\\nsought the unnatural father to revenge the death of\\nhis mother, and then commenced a long and desperate\\nstruggle. It began on the mountains. The West was\\nforced to give ground. Manabozho drove him across\\nrivers and over mountains and lakes, and at last he came\\nto the brink of this world. Hold, cried he, my son,\\nyou know my power, and that it is impossible to kill me.\\nWhat is this but the diurnal combat of light and dark-\\nness, carried on from what time the jocund morn stands\\ntiptoe on the misty mountain-tops, across the wide world\\nto the sunset, the struggle that knows no end, for both,\\nthe opponents are immortal\\nEven the Veda nowhere affords a more transparent\\nnarrative than this. The Iroquois tradition is very simi-\\nlar. In it appear twin brothers,f born of a virgin mother,\\nBrinton, op. cit. p. 167.\\nCorresponding, in various degrees, to the Asvins, the Dioskouroi,\\nand the brothers True and Untrue of Norse mythology.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "i 5 6\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ndaughter of the Moon, who died in giving them life. Their\\nnames, Ioskeha and Tawiskara, signify in the Oneida dia-\\nlect the White One and the Dark One. Under the influ-\\nence of Christian ideas the contest between the brothers\\nhas been made to assume a moral character, like the\\nstrife between Ormuzd and Ahriman. But no such in-\\ntention appears in the original myth, and Dr. Brinton\\nhas shown that none of the American tribes had any con-\\nception of a Devil. When the quarrel came to blows,\\nthe dark brother was signally discomfited and the vic-\\ntorious Ioskeha, returning to his grandmother, estab-\\nlished his lodge in the far East, on the borders of the\\nGreat Ocean, whence the sun comes. In time he became\\nthe father of mankind, and special guardian of the Iro-\\nquois. He caused the earth to bring forth, he stocked\\nthe woods with game, and taught his children the use of\\nfire. He it was who watched and watered their crops\\nand, indeed, without his aid, says the old missionary,\\nquite out of patience with their puerilities, they think\\nthey could not boil a pot. There was more in it than\\npoor Brebeuf thought, as we are forcibly reminded by\\nrecent discoveries in physical science. Even civilized\\nmen would find it difficult to boil a pot without the aid\\nof solar energy. Call him what we will,- Ioskeha,\\nMichabo, or Phoibos, the beneficent Sun is the master\\nand sustainer of us all and if we were to relapse into\\nheathenism, like Erckmann-Chatrian s innkeeper, we could\\nnot do better than to select him as our chief object of\\nworship.\\nThe same principles by which these simple cases are\\\\\\nexplained furnish also the key to the more complicated\\nmythology of Mexico and Peru. Like the deities just\\ndiscussed, Yiracocha, the supreme god of the Quichuas,\\nrises from the bosom of Lake Titicaca and journeys west?", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n157\\nward, slaying with his lightnings the creatures who op-\\npose him, until he finally disappears in the Western\\nOcean. Like Aphrodite, he bears in his name the evi-\\ndence of his origin, Viracocha signifying foam of the\\nsea and hence the White One (I aitoe), the god of\\nlight rising white on the horizon, like the foam on the\\nsurface of the waves. The Aymaras spoke of their origi-\\nnal ancestors as white and to this day, as Dr. Brinton\\ninforms us, the Peruvians call a white man Viracocha.\\nThe myth of Quetzalcoatl is of precisely the same charac-\\nter. All these solar heroes present in most of their quali-\\nties and achievements a striking likeness to those of the\\nOld World. They combine the attributes of Apollo,\\nHerakles, and Hermes. Like Herakles, they journey\\nfrom east to west, smiting the powers of darkness, storm,\\nand winter with the thunderbolts of Zeus or the unerring\\narrows of Phoibos, and sinking in a blaze of glory on\\nthe western verge of the world, where the waves meet\\nthe firmament. Or like Hermes, in a second cycle of\\nlegends, they rise with the soft breezes of a summer morn-\\ning, driving before them the bright celestial cattle whose\\nudders are heavy with refreshing rain, fanning the flames\\nwhich devour the forests, blustering at the doors of wig-\\nwams, and escaping with weird laughter through vents\\nand crevices. The white skins and flowing beards of\\nthese American heroes may be aptly compared to the fair\\nfaces and long golden locks of their Hellenic compeers.\\nYellow hair was in all probability as rare in Greece as a\\nfull beard in Peru or Mexico but in each case the de-\\nscription suits the solar character of the hero. One\\nimportant class of incidents, however is apparently quite\\nabsent from the American legends. We frequently see\\nthe Dawn described as a virgin mother who dies in giv-\\ning birth to the Day but nowhere do we remember see-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "i 5 8\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ning her pictured as a lovely or valiant or crafty maiden,\\nardently wooed, but speedily forsaken by her solar lover.\\nPerhaps in no respect is the superior richness and beauty\\nof the Aryan myths more manifest than in this. Bryn-\\nhild, Urvasi, Medeia, Ariadne, Oinone, and countless other\\nkindred heroines, with their brilliant legends, could not\\nbe spared from the mythology of our ancestors without\\nleaving it meagre indeed. These were the materials\\nwhich Kalidasa, the Attic dramatists, and the bards of\\nthe Mbelungen found ready, awaiting their artistic treat-\\nment. But the mythology of the New World, with all\\nits pretty and agreeable nawete, affords hardly enough,\\neither of variety in situation or of complexity in motive,\\nfor a grand epic or a genuine tragedy.\\nBut little reflection is needed to assure us that the\\nimagination of the barbarian, who either carries away his\\nwife by brute force or buys her from her relatives as he\\nwould buy a cow, could never have originated legends in\\nwhich maidens are lovingly solicited, or in which their\\nfavour is won by the performance of deeds of valour.\\nThese stories owe their existence to the romantic turn of\\nmind which has always characterized the Aryan, whose\\ncivilization, even in the times before the dispersion of his\\nrace, was sufficiently advanced to allow of his entertain-\\ning such comparatively exalted conceptions of the rela-\\ntions between men and women. The absence of these\\nmyths from barbaric folk-lore is, therefore, just what\\nmight be expected but it is a fact which militates\\nagainst any possible hypothesis of the common origin\\nof Aryan and barbaric mythology. If there were any\\ngenetic relationship between Sigurd and Ioskeha, be-\\ntween Herakles and Michabo, it would be hard to tell\\nwhy Brynhild and Iole should have disappeared entirely\\nfrom one whole group of legends, while retained, in some", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n159\\nform or other, throughout the whole of the other group.\\nOn the other hand, the resemblances above noticed be-\\ntween Aryan and American mythology fall very far short\\nof the resemblances between the stories told in different\\nparts of the Aryan domain. No barbaric legend, of genu-\\nine barbaric growth, has yet been cited which resembles\\nany Aryan legend as the story of Punchkin resembles the\\nstory of the Heartless Giant. The myths of Michabo and\\nViracocha are direct copies, so to speak, of natural phe-\\nnomena, just as imitative words are direct copies of natu-\\nral sounds. Neither the Eedskin nor the Indo-European\\nhad any choice as to the main features of the career of\\nhis solar divinity. He must be born of the Night, or\\nof the Dawn, must travel westward, must slay harass-\\ning demons. Eliminatiog these points of likeness, the\\nresemblance between the Aryan and barbaric legends is\\nat once at an end. Such an identity in point of details\\nas that between the wooden horse which enters Ilion, and\\nthe horse which bears Sigurd into the place where Bryn-\\nhild is imprisoned, and the Druidic steed which leaps\\nwith Sculloge over the walls of Fiach s enchanted castle,\\nis, I believe, nowhere to be found aftel we leave Indo-\\nEuropean territory.\\nOur conclusion, therefore, must be, that while the\\nlegends of the Aryan and the non- Aryan worlds contain\\ncommon mythical elements, the legends themselves are\\nnot of common origin. The fact that certain mythical\\nideas are possessed alike by different races, shows that in(\\neach case a similar human intelligence has been at work\\nexplaining similar phenomena but in order to prove a\\nfamily relationship between the culture of these differ-\\nent races, we need something more than this. We need\\nto prove not only a community of mythical ideas, but\\nalso a community between the stories based upon these", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "l60 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nideas. We must show not only that Michabo is like\\nHerakles in those striking features which the contempla-\\ntion of solar phenomena would necessarily suggest to the\\nimagination of the primitive myth-maker, but also that\\nthe two characters are similarly conceived, and that the\\ntwo careers agree in seemingly arbitrary points of detail,\\nas is the case in the stories of Punchkin and the Heart-\\nless Giant. The mere fact that solar heroes, all over the\\nworld, travel in a certain path and slay imps of darkness\\nis of great value as throwing light upon primeval habits\\nof thought, but it is of no value as evidence for or against\\nan alleged co mm unity of civilization between different\\nraces. The same is true of the sacredness universally\\nattached to certain numbers. Dr. Brinton s opinion that\\nthe sanctity of the number four in nearly all systems of\\nmythology is due to a primitive worship of the cardinal\\npoints, becomes very probable when we recollect that the\\nsimilar pre-eminence of seven is almost demonstrably con-\\nnected with the adoration of the sun, moon, and five vis-\\nible planets, which has left its record in the structure and\\nnomenclature of the Aryan and Semitic week.*\\nIn view of these considerations, the comparison of bar-\\nbaric myths with each other and with the legends of the\\nAryan world becomes doubly interesting, as illustrating\\nthe similarity in the workings of the untrained intelli-\\ngence the world over. In our first paper we saw how the\\nmoon-spots have been variously explained by Indo-Euro-\\npeans, as a man with a thorn-bush or as two children\\nbearing a bucket of water on a pole. In Ceylon it is\\nSee Humboldt s Kosmos, Tom. III. pp. 469 476. A fetichistic\\nregard for the cardinal points has not always been absent from the minds\\nof persons instructed in a higher theology as witness a well-known\\npassage in Irenaeus, and also the custom, well-nigh universal in Europe,\\nof building Christian churches in a line east and west.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIO WORLD. l6l\\nsaid that as Sakyamuni was one day wandering half\\nstarved in the forest, a pious hare met him, and offered\\nitself to him to be slain and cooked for dinner where-\\nupon the holy Buddha set it on high in the moon, that\\nfuture generations of men might see it and marvel at its\\npiety. In the Samoan Islands these dark patches are\\nsupposed to be portions of a woman s figure. A certain\\nwoman was once hammering something with a mallet,\\nwhen the moon arose, looking so much like a bread-fruit\\nthat the woman asked it to come down and let her child\\neat off a piece of it but the moon, enraged at the insult,\\ngobbled up woman, mallet, and child, and there, in the\\nmoon s belly, you may still behold them. According to\\nthe Hottentots, the Moon once sent the Hare to inform\\nmen that as she died away and rose again, so should men\\ndie and again come to life. But the stupid Hare forgot\\nche purport of the message, and, coming down to the earth,\\nproclaimed it far and wide that though the Moon was in-\\nvariably resuscitated whenever she died, mankind, on the\\nother hand, should die and go to the Devil. When the\\nsilly brute returned to the lunar country and told what\\nhe had done, the Moon was so angry that she took up an\\naxe and aimed a blow at his head to split it. But the\\naxe missed and only cut his lip open and that was the\\norigin of the hare-lip. Maddened by the pain and the\\ninsult, the Hare flew at the Moon and almost scratched\\nher eyes out and to this day she bears on her face the\\nmarks of the Hare s claws.*\\nAgain, every reader of the classics knows how Selene\\ncast Endymion into a profound slumber because he re-\\nfused her love, and how at sundown she used to come\\nBleek, Hottentot Fables and Tales, p. 72. Compare the Fiji story\\nof Ra Vula, the Moon, and Ra Kalavo, the Rat, in Tylor, Primitive\\nCulture, I. 321.\\nK", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nand stand above him on the Latmian hill, and watch him\\nas he lay asleep on the marble steps of a temple half\\nhidden among drooping elm-trees, over which clambered\\nvines heavy with dark blue grapes. This represents the\\nrising moon looking down on the setting sun in Labra-\\ndor a similar phenomenon has suggested a somewhat dif-\\nferent story. Among the Esquimaux the Sun is a maiden\\nand the Moon is her brother, who is overcome by a wick-\\ned passion for her. Once, as this girl was at a dancing-\\nparty in a friend s hut, some one came up and took hold\\nof her by the shoulders and shook her, which is (accord-\\ning to the legend) the Esquimaux manner of declaring\\none s love. She could not tell who it was in the dark,\\nand so she dipped her hand in some soot and smeared\\none of his cheeks with it. When a light was struck in\\nthe hut, she saw, to her dismay, that it was her brother,\\nand, without waiting to learn any more, she took to her\\nheels. He started in hot pursuit, and so they ran till\\nthey got to the end of the world, the jumping-off\\nplace, when they both jumped into the sky. There\\nthe Moon still chases his sister, the Sun and every now\\nand then he turns his sooty cheek toward the earth, when\\nhe becomes so dark that you cannot see him.*\\nAnother story, which I cite from Mr. Tylor, shows that\\nMalays, as well as Indo-Europeans, have conceived of the\\nclouds as swan-maidens. In the island of Celebes it is\\nsaid that K seven heavenly nymphs came down from the\\nsky to bathe, and they were seen by Kasimbaha, who\\nthought first that they were white doves, but in the bath\\nhe saw that they were women. Then he stole one of the\\nthin robes that gave the nymphs their power of flying,\\nand so he caught Utahagi, the one whose robe he had\\nstolen, and took her for his wife, and she bore him a son\\nTylor, Early History of Mankind, p. 327.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. 1 63\\nNow she was called Utahagi from a single white hair she\\nhad, which was endowed with magic power, and this hair\\nher husband pulled out. As soon as he had done it,\\nthere arose a great storm, and Utahagi went up to\\nheaven. The child cried for its mother, and Kasim-\\nbaha was in great grief, and cast about how he should\\nfollow Utahagi up into the sky. Here we pass to the\\nmyth of Jack and the Beanstalk. A rat gnawed the\\nthorns off the rattans, and Kasimbaha clambered up by\\nthem with his son upon his back, till he came to heaven.\\nThere a little bird showed him the house of Utahagi, and\\nafter various adventures he took up his abode among the\\ngods.\\nIn Siberia we find a legend of swan-maidens, which\\nalso reminds us of the story of the Heartless Giant. A\\ncertain Samojed once went out to catch foxes, and found\\nseven maidens swimming in a lake surrounded by gloomy\\npine-trees, while their feather dresses lay on the shore.\\nHe crept up and stole one of these dresses, and by and\\nby the swan-maiden came to him shivering with cold and\\npromising to become his wife if he would only give her\\nback her garment of feathers. The ungallant fellow,\\nhowever, did not care for a wife, but a little revenge was\\nnot unsuited to his way of thinking. There were seven\\nrobbers who used to prowl about the neighbourhood, and\\nwho, when they got home, finding their hearts in the\\nway, used to hang them up on some pegs in the tent.\\nOne of these robbers had killed the Samojed s mother\\nand so he promised to return the swan-maiden s dress\\nafter she should have procured for him these seven hearts.\\nSo she stole the hearts, and the Samojed smashed six of\\nthem, and then woke up the seventh robber, and told him\\nto restore his mother to life, on pain of instant death.\\nTylor, op. cit, p. 346.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "164\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nThen the robber produced a purse containing the old\\nwoman s soul, and going to the graveyard shook it over\\nher bones, and she revived at once. Then the Samojed\\nsmashed the seventh heart, and the robber died and so\\nthe swan-maiden got back her plumage and new away\\nrejoicing.*\\nSwan-maidens are also, according to Mr. Baring-Gould,\\nfound among the Minussinian Tartars. But there the;\\nappear as foul demons, like the Greek Harpies, who de\\nlight in drinking the blood of men slain in battle. Ther\\nare forty of them, who darken the whole firmament i\\ntheir flight but sometimes they all coalesce into one grea\\nblack storm-fiend, who rages for blood, like a werewolf.\\nIn South Africa we find the werewolf himself. -f* A\\ncertain Hottentot was once travelling with a Bushwoman\\nand her child, when they perceived at a distance a troop\\nof wild horses. The man, being hungry, asked the\\nwoman to turn herself into a lioness and catch one of\\nthese horses, that they might eat of it whereupon the\\nwoman set down her child, and taking off a sort of petti-\\ncoat made of human skin became instantly transformed\\ninto a lioness, which rushed across the plain, struck down\\na wild horse and lapped its blood. The man climbed a\\ntree in terror, and conjured his companion to resume her\\nnatural shape. Then the lioness came back, and putting\\non the skirt made of human skin reappeared as a woman,\\nand took up her child, and the two friends resumed their\\njourney after making a meal of the horse s flesh.J\\nBaring-Gould, Curious Myths, IT. 299-302.\\nSpeaking of beliefs in the Malay Archipelago, Mr. Wallace says\\nIt is universally believed in Lombock that some men have the power\\nto turn themselves into crocodiles, which they do for the sake of devour-\\ning their enemies, and many strange tales are told of such transforma-\\ntions. Wallace, Malay Archipelago, Vol. I. p. 251.\\nJ Bleek, Hottentot Fables and Tales, p. 58.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\nI6 5\\nThe werewolf also appears in North America, duly\\nfurnished with Ms wolf-skin sack but neither in Amer-\\nica nor in Africa is he the genuine European werewolf,\\ninspired by a diabolic frenzy, and ravening for human\\nflesh. The barbaric myths testify to the belief that men\\ncan be changed into beasts or have in some cases de-\\nscended from beast ancestors, but the application of this\\nbelief to the explanation of abnormal cannibal cravings\\nseems to have been confined to Europe. The werewolf\\nof the Middle Ages was not merely a transformed man,\\nhe was an insane cannibal, whose monstrous appetite,\\ndue to the machinations of the Devil, showed its power\\nover his physical organism by changing the shape of it.\\nThe barbaric werewolf is the product of a lower and\\nsimpler kind of thinking. There is no diabolism about\\nhim for barbaric races, while believing in the existence\\nof hurtful and malicious fiends, have not a sufficiently\\nvivid sense of moral abnormity to form the conception\\nof diabolism. And the cannibal craving, which to the\\nmediaeval European was a phenomenon so strange as to\\ndemand a mythological explanation, would not impress\\nthe barbarian as either very exceptional or very blame-\\nworthy.\\nIn the folk-lore of the Zulus, one of the most quick-\\nwitted and intelligent of African races, the cannibal pos-\\nsesses many features in common with the Scandinavian\\nTroll, who also has a liking for human flesh. As we saw\\nin the preceding paper, the Troll has very likely derived\\nsome of his characteristics from reminiscences of the\\nbarbarous races who preceded the Aryans in Central and\\nNorthern Europe. In like manner the long-haired can-\\nnibal of Zulu nursery literature, who is always repre-\\nsented as belonging to a distinct race, has been supposed\\nto be explained by the existence of inferior races con-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "i66\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nquered and displaced by the Zulus. Nevertheless, as\\nDr. Callaway observes, neither the long-haired mountain\\ncannibals of Western Africa, nor the Fulahs, nor the\\ntribes of Eghedal described by Barth, can be considered\\nas answering to the description of long-haired as given\\nin the Zulu legends of cannibals neither could they\\npossibly have formed their historical basis It is\\nperfectly clear that the cannibals of the Zulu legends are\\nnot common men; they are magnified into giants and\\nmagicians they are remarkably swift and enduring\\nfierce and terrible warriors. Very probably they may\\nhave a mythical origin in modes of thought akin to those\\nwhich begot the Panis of the Veda and the Northern\\nTrolls. The parallelism is perhaps the most remarkable\\none which can be found in comparing barbaric with\\nAryan folk-lore. Like the Panis and Trolls, the canni-\\nbals are represented as the foes of the solar hero Uthla-\\nkanyana, who is almost as great a traveller as Odysseus,\\nand whose presence of mind amid trying circumstances\\nis not to be surpassed by that of the incomparable Boots.\\nUthlakanyana is as precocious as Herakles or Hermes.\\nHe speaks before he is born, and no sooner has he en-\\ntered the world than he begins to outwit other people\\nand get possession of their property. He works bitter\\nruin for the cannibals, who, with all their strength and\\nfleetness, are no better endowed with quick wit than the\\nTrolls, whom Boots invariably victimizes. On one of his\\njourneys, Uthlakanyana fell in with a cannibaL Their\\ngreetings were cordial enough, and they ate a bit of leop-\\nard together, and began to build a house, and killed a\\ncouple of cows, but the cannibal s cow was lean, while\\nUthlakany ana s was fat. Then the crafty traveller, fear-\\ning that his companion might insist upon having the fat\\ncow, turned and said, Let the house be thatched now;", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "1\\nMYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. l6?\\nthen we can eat our meat. You see the sky, that we\\nshall get wet. The cannibal said, You are right, child\\nof my sister you are a man indeed in saying, let us\\nthatch the house, for we shall get wet. Uthlakanyana\\nsaid, Do you do it then; I will go inside, and push the\\nthatching-needle for you, in the house. The cannibal\\nwent up. His hair was very, very long. Uthlakanyana\\nwent inside and pushed the needle for him. He thatched\\nin the hair of the cannibal, tying it very tightly he\\nknotted it into the thatch constantly, taking it by sep-\\narate locks and fastening it firmly, that it might be tightly\\nfastened to the house. Then the rogue went outside\\nand began to eat of the cow which was roasted. The\\ncannibal said, What are you about, child of my sister\\nLet us just finish the house afterwards we can do that\\nwe will do it together. Uthlakanyana replied, Come\\ndown then. I cannot go into the house any more. The\\nthatching is finished. The cannibal assented. When\\nhe thought he was going to quit the house, he was un-\\nable to quit it. He cried out saying, Child of my sister,\\nhow have you managed your thatching Uthlakanyana\\nsaid, See to it yourself. I have thatched well, for I shall\\nnot have any dispute. Now I am about to eat in peace\\nI no longer dispute with anybody, for I am now alone\\nwith my cow. So the cannibal cried and raved and\\nappealed in vain to Uthlakanyana s sense of justice, until\\nby and by the sky came with hailstones and lightning.\\nUthlakanyana took all the meat into the house he\\nstayed in the house and lit a fire. It hailed and rained.\\nThe cannibal cried on the top of the house he was\\nstruck with the hailstones, and died there on the house.\\nIt cleared. Uthlakanyana went out and said, Uncle,\\njust come down, and come to me. It has become clear.\\nIt no longer rains, and there is no more hail, neither is", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthere any more lightning. Why are you silent? So\\nUthlakanyana ate his cow alone, until he had finished it.\\nHe then went on his way.\\nIn another Zulu legend, a girl is stolen by cannibals,\\nand shut up in the rock Itshe-likantunjambili, which, like\\nthe rock of the Forty Thieves, opens and shuts at the\\ncommand of those who understand its secret. She gets\\npossession of the secret and escapes, and when the mon,\\nsters pursue her she throws on the ground a calabash ful)\\nof sesame, which they stop to eat. At last, getting tired\\nof running, she climbs a tree, and there she finds her\\nbrother, who, warned by a dream, has come out to look\\nfor her. They ascend the tree together until they come\\nto a beautiful country well stocked with fat oxen. They\\nkill an ox, and while its flesh is roasting they amuse them-\\nselves by making a stout thong of its hide. By and by\\none of the cannibals, smelling the cooking meat, comes\\nto the foot of the tree, and looking up discovers the boy\\nand girl in the sky-country They invite him up there\\nto share in their feast, and throw him an end of the\\nthong by which to climb up. When the cannibal is\\ndangling midway between earth and heaven, they let go\\nthe rope, and down he falls with a terrible crash.-)*\\nIn this story the enchanted rock opened by a talis-\\nmanic formula brings us again into contact with Indo-\\nEuropean folk-lore. And that the conception has in both\\ncases been suggested by the same natural phenomenon is\\nrendered probable by another Zulu tale, in which the\\ncannibal s cave is opened by a swallow which flies in the\\nair. Here we have the elements of a genuine lightning-\\nCallaway, Zulu Nursery Tales, pp. 27 30.\\nt Callaway, op. cit. pp. 142-152 cf. a similar story in which the\\nlion is fooled by the jackal. Bleek, op. cit. p. 7. I omit the sequel\\nof the tale.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "MYTES OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. 169\\nmyth. We see that among these African barbarians, as\\nwell as among our own forefathers, the clouds have been\\nconceived as birds carrying the lightning which can cleave\\nthe rocks. In America we find the same notion prevalent.\\nThe Dakotahs explain the thunder as the sound of the\\ncloud-bird flapping his wings/ and the Caribs describe\\nthe lightning as a poisoned dart which the bird blows\\nthrough a hollow reed, after the Carib style of shooting.*\\nOn the other hand, the Kamtchatkans know nothing of a\\ncloud-bird, but explain the lightning as something anal-\\nogous to the flames of a volcano. The Kamtchatkans\\nsay that when the mountain goblins have got their stoves\\nwell heated up, they throw overboard, with true barbaric\\nshiftlessness, all the brands not needed for immediate use,\\nwhich makes a volcanic eruption. So when it is summer\\non earth, it is winter in heaven and the gods, after heat-\\ning up their stoves, throw away their spare kindling-\\nwood, which makes the lightning.-f-\\nWhen treating of Indo-European solar myths, we saw\\nthe unvarying, unresting course of the sun variously\\nexplained as due to the subjection of Herakles to Eurys-\\ntheus, to the anger of Poseidon at Odysseus, or to the curse\\nlaid upon the Wandering Jew. The barbaric mind has\\nworked at the same problem but the explanations\\nwhich it has given are more childlike and more gro-\\ntesque. A Polynesian myth tells how the Sun used to race\\nthrough the sky so fast that men could not get enough\\ndaylight to hunt game for their subsistence. By and by\\nan inventive genius, named Maui, conceived the idea of\\ncatching the Sun in a noose and making him go more\\ndeliberately. He plaited ropes and made a strong net,\\nand, arming himself with the jawbone of his ancestress,\\nMuri-ranga-whenua, called together all his brethren, and\\nBrinton, op. cit. p. 104. t Tylor, op. cit. p. 320.\\n8", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthey journeyed to the place where the Sun rises, and\\nthere spread the net. When the Sun came up, he stuck\\nhis head and fore-paws into the net, and while the broth-\\ners tightened the ropes so that they cut him and made\\nhim scream for mercy, Maui beat him with the jawbone\\nuntil he became so weak that ever since he has only been\\nable to crawl through the sky. According to another\\nPolynesian myth, there was once a grumbling Eadical,\\nwho never could be satisfied with the way in which\\nthings are managed on this earth. This bold Eadical set\\nout to build a stone house which should last forever but\\nthe days were so short and the stones so heavy that he\\ndespaired of ever accomplishing his project. One night,\\nas he lay awake thinking the matter over, it occurred to\\nhim that if he could catch the Sun in a net, he could\\nhave as much daylight as was needful in order to finish\\nhis house. So he borrowed a noose from the god Itu,\\nand, it being autumn, when the Sun gets sleepy and stu- J\\npid, he easily caught the luminary. The Sun cried till\\nhis tears made a great freshet which nearly drowned the\\nisland but it was of no use there he is tethered to this\\nday.\\nSimilar stories are met with in North America. A j\\nDog-Eib Indian once chased a squirrel up a tree until he\\nreached the sky. There he set a snare for the squirrel\\nand climbed down again. Next day the Sun was caught\\nin the snare, and night came on at once. That is to say,\\nthe sun was eclipsed. Something wrong up there, |j]\\nthought the Indian, I must have caught the Sun and\\nso he sent up ever so many animals to release the captive. jj\\nThey were all burned to ashes, but at last the mole,\\ngoing up and burrowing out through the ground of the\\nsky, succeeded in gnawing asunder the cords of the\\nsnare. Just as it thrust its head out through the peBmg", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n171\\nmade in the sky-ground, it received a flash of light\\nwhich put its eyes out, and that is why the mole is blind.\\nThe Sun got away, but has ever since travelled more de-\\nliberately.*\\nThese sun-myths, many more of which are to be found\\ncollected in Mr. Tylor s excellent treatise on The Early\\nHistory of Mankind, well illustrate both the similarity\\nand the diversity of the results obtained by the primitive\\nmind, in different times and countries, when engaged\\nupon similar problems. No one would think of referring\\nthese stories to a common traditional origin with the\\nmyths of Herakles and Odysseus; yet both classes of\\ntales were devised to explain the same phenomenon.\\nBoth to the Aryan and to the Polynesian the steadfast\\nbut deliberate journey of the sun through the firmament\\nwas a strange circumstance which called for explanation\\nbut while the meagre intelligence of the barbarian could\\nonly attain to the quaint conception of a man throwing\\na noose over the sun s head, the rich imagination of the\\nIndo-European created the noble picture of Herakles\\ndoomed to serve the son of Sthenelos, in accordance with\\nthe resistless decree of fate.\\nAnother world-wide myth, which shows how similar\\nare the mental habits of uncivilized men, is the myth of\\nthe tortoise. The Hindu notion of a great tortoise that\\nlies beneath the earth and keeps it from falling is famil-\\niar to every reader. According to one account, this tor-\\ntoise, swimming in the primeval ocean, bears the earth\\non his back but by and by, when the gods get ready to\\ndestroy mankind, the tortoise will grow weary and sink\\nunder his load, and then the earth will be overwhelmed\\nby a deluge. Another legend tells us that when the gods\\nand demons took Mount Mandara for a churning-stick\\nTylor, op. cit. pp. 338 343.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "172\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nand churned the ocean to make ambrosia, the god Vishnu\\ntook on the form of a tortoise and lay at the bottom of\\nthe sea, as a pivot for the whirling mountain to rest\\nupon. But these versions of the myth are not primitive.\\nIn the original conception the world is itself a gigantic\\ntortoise swimming in a boundless ocean the flat surface\\nof the earth is the lower plate which covers the reptile s\\nbelly; the rounded shell which covers his back is the\\nsky and the human race lives and moves and has its\\nbeing inside of the tortoise. Now, as Mr. Tylor has\\npointed out, many tribes of Eedskins hold substantially\\nthe same theory of the universe. They regard the tor-\\ntoise as the symbol of the world, and address it as the\\nmother of mankind. Once, before the earth was made,\\nthe king of heaven quarrelled with his wife, and gave\\nher such a terrible kick that she fell down into the\\nsea. Fortunately a tortoise received her on his back,\\nand proceeded to raise up the earth, upon which the\\nheavenly woman became the mother of mankind. These\\nfirst men had white faces, and they used to dig in the\\nground to catch badgers. One day a zealous burrower\\nthrust his knife too far and stabbed the tortoise, which\\nimmediately sank into the sea and drowned all the\\nhuman race save one man.* In Finnish mythology the\\nworld is not a tortoise, but it is an egg, of which the\\nwhite part is the ocean, the yolk is the earth, and the\\narched shell is the sky. In India this is the mundane\\negg of Brahma and it reappears among the Yorubas as\\na pair of calabashes put together like oyster-shells, one\\nmaking a dome over the other. In Zulu-land the earth\\nis a huge beast called Usilosimapundu, whose face is a\\nrock, and whose mouth is very large and broad and red\\nin some countries which were on his body it was win*\\nTylor, op. cit. p. 336.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD.\\n173\\nto, and in others it was early harvest. Many broad\\nrivers flow over his back, and he is covered with forests\\nand hills, as is indicated in his name, which means the\\nrugose or knotty-backed beast. In this group of con-\\nceptions may be seen the origin of Sindbad s great fish,\\nwhich lay still so long that sand and clay gradually ac-\\ncumulated upon its back, and at last it became covered\\nwith trees. And lastly, passing from barbaric folk-lore\\nand from the Arabian Nights to the highest level of Indo-\\nEuropean intelligence, do we not find both Plato and\\nKepler amusing themselves with speculations in which\\nthe earth figures as a stupendous animal\\nNovember, 1870.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "174\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nVI.\\nJUVEOTUS MUM)I\\nTWELVE years ago, when, in concluding his Studies\\non Homer and the Homeric Age, Mr. Gladstone\\napplied to himself the warning addressed by Agamemnon\\nto the priest of Apollo, Let not Nemesis catch me by the\\nswift ships,\\nrj vvv hrjBvvovr, rj varepov avBis lovra\\nhe would seem to have intended it as a last farewell to\\nclassical studies. Yet, whatever his intentions may have\\nbeen, they have yielded to the sweet desire of revisiting\\nfamiliar ground, a desire as strong in the breast of the\\nclassical scholar as was the yearning which led Odysseus\\nto reject the proffered gift of immortality, so that he\\nmight but once more behold the wreathed smoke curl-\\ning about the roofs of his native Ithaka. In this new\\ntreatise, on the Youth of the World, Mr. Gladstone\\ndiscusses the same questions which were treated in his\\nearlier work and the main conclusions reached in the\\nStudies on Homer are here so little modified with refer-\\nence to the recent progress of archaeological inquiries,\\nthat the book can hardly be said to have had any other\\nreason for appearing, save the desire of loitering by the\\nships of the Argives, and of returning thither as often as\\npossible.\\nJuventus Mnndi. The Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. By the\\nRt. Hon, William Ewart Gladstone. Boston Little, Brown, Co.\\n1869.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\n175\\nThe title selected by Mr. Gladstone for his new work\\nis either a very appropriate one or a strange misnomer,\\naccording to the point of view from which it is regarded.\\nSuch being the case, we might readily acquiesce in its\\nuse, and pass it by without comment, trusting that the\\nauthor understood himself when he adopted it, were it\\nnot that by incidental references, and especially by his\\nallusions to the legendary literature of the Jews, Mr.\\nGladstone shows that he means more by the title than it\\ncan fairly be made to express. An author who seeks to\\ndetermine prehistoric events by references to Kadmos,\\nand Danaos, and Abraham, is at once liable to the sus-\\npicion of holding very inadequate views as to the char-\\nacter of the epoch which may properly be termed the\\nyouth of the world. Often in reading Mr. Gladstone\\nwe are reminded of Eenan s strange suggestion that an\\nexploration of the Hindu Kush territory, whence prob-\\nably came the primitive Aryans, might throw some new\\nlight on the origin of language. Nothing could well be\\nmore futile. The primitive Aryan language has already\\nbeen partly reconstructed for us its grammatical forms\\nand syntactic devices are becoming familiar to scholars\\none great philologist has even composed a tale in it yet\\nin studying this long-buried dialect we are not much\\nnearer the first beginnings of human speech than in\\nstudying the Greek of Homer, the Sanskrit of the Vedas,\\nor the Umbrian of the Iguvine Inscriptions. The Aryan\\nmother-tongue had passed into the last of the three stages\\nof linguistic growth long before the break-up of the\\ntribal communities in Aryana-vaedjo, and at that early\\ndate presented a less primitive structure than is to be\\nseen in the Chinese or the Mongolian of our own times.\\nSo the state of society depicted in the Homeric poems,\\nand well illustrated by Mr. Gladstone, is many degrees", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "176\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nless primitive than that which is revealed to us by the\\narchaeological researches either of Pictet and Windisch-\\nmann, or of Tylor, Lubbock, and M Lennan. We shall\\ngather evidences of this as we proceed. Meanwhile let\\nus remember that at least eleven thousand years before\\nthe Homeric age men lived in communities, and manu-\\nfactured pottery on the banks of the Nile; and let us\\nnot leave wholly out of sight that more distant period,\\nperhaps a million years ago, when sparse tribes of savage\\nmen, contemporaneous with the mammoths of Siberia\\nand the cave-tigers of Britain, struggled against the in-\\ntense cold of the glacial winters.\\nNevertheless, though the Homeric age appears to be a\\nlate one when considered with reference to the whole\\ncareer of the human race, there is a point of view from\\nwhich it may be justly regarded as the youth of the\\nworld. However long man may have existed upon the\\nearth, he becomes thoroughly and distinctly human in\\nthe eyes of the historian only at the epoch at which he\\nbegan to create for himself a literature. As far back as\\nwe can trace the progress of the human race continuously\\nby means of the written word, so far do we feel a true\\nhistorical interest in its fortunes, and pursue our studies\\nwith a sympathy which the mere lapse of time is pow-\\nerless to impair. But the primeval man, whose history\\nnever has been and never will be written, whose career\\non the earth, dateless and chartless, can be dimly re-\\nvealed to us only by palaeontology, excites in us a very\\ndifferent feeling. Though with the keenest interest we\\nransack every nook and corner of the earth s surface for\\ninformation about him, we are all the while aware that\\nwhat we are studying is human zoology and not history.\\nOur Neanderthal man is a specimen, not a character. We\\ncannot ask him the Homeric question, what is his name,", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDL\\n177\\nwho were his parents, and how did he get where we\\nfound him. His language has died with him, and he can\\nrender no account of himself. We can only regard him\\nspecifically as Homo Anthropos, a creature of bigger brain\\nthan his congener Homo Pithekos, and of vastly greater\\npromise. But this, we say, is physical science, and not\\nhistory.\\nFor the historian, therefore, who studies man in his\\nvarious social relations, the youth of the world is the\\nperiod at which literature begins. We regard the history\\nof the western world as beginning about the tenth cen-\\ntury before the Christian era, because at that date we\\nfind literature, in Greece and Palestine, beginning to\\nthrow direct light upon the social and intellectual condi-\\ntion of a portion of mankind. That great empires, rich\\nin historical interest and in materials for sociological\\ngeneralizations, had existed for centuries before that\\ndate, in Egypt and Assyria, we do not doubt, since they\\nappear at the dawn of history with all the marks of great\\nantiquity; but the only steady historical light thrown\\nupon them shines from the pages of Greek and Hebrew\\nauthors, and these know them only in their latest period.\\nFor information concerning their early careers we must\\nlook, not to history, but to linguistic archaeology, a science\\nwhich can help us to general results, but cannot enable\\nus to fix dates, save in the crudest manner.\\nWe mention the tenth century before Christ as the\\nearliest period at which we can begin to study human\\nsociety in general and Greek society in particular, through\\nthe medium of literature. But, strictly speaking, the\\nepoch in question is one which cannot be fixed with\\naccuracy. The earliest ascertainable date in Greek\\nhistory is that of the Olympiad of Koroibos, B. C. 776.\\nThere is no doubt that the Homeric poems were written\\n8* L", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "i;8\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nbefore this date, and that Homer is therefore strictly\\nprehistoric. Had this fact been duly realized by those\\nscholars who have not attempted to deny it, a vast\\namount of profitless discussion might have been avoided.\\nSooner or later, as Grote says, the lesson must be learnt,\\nhard and painful though it be, that no imaginable reach\\nof critical acumen will of itself enable us to discriminate\\nfancy from reality, in the absence of a tolerable stock of\\nevidence. We do not know who Homer was; we do\\nnot know where or when he lived and in all probability\\nwe shall never know. The data for settling the question\\nare not now accessible, and it is not likely that they will\\never be discovered. Even in early antiquity the question\\nwas wrapped in an obscurity as deep as that which\\nshrouds it to-day. The case between the seven or eight\\ncities which claimed to be the birthplace of the poet,\\nand which Welcker has so ably discussed, cannot be\\ndecided. The feebleness of the evidence brought into\\ncourt may be judged from the fact that the claims of\\nChios and the story of the poet s blindness rest alike\\nupon a doubtful allusion in the Hymn to Apollo, which\\nThukydides (III. 104) accepted as authentic. The ma-\\njority of modern critics have consoled themselves with the\\nvague conclusion that, as between the two great divisions\\nof the early Greek world, Homer at least belonged to\\nthe Asiatic. But Mr. Gladstone has shown good reasons\\nfor doubting this opinion. He has pointed out several\\ninstances in which the poems seem to betray a closer\\ntopographical acquaintance with European than with\\nAsiatic Greece, and concludes that Athens and Argos\\nhave at least as good a claim to Homer as Chios or\\nSmyrna.\\nIt is far more desirable that we should form an approx-\\nimate opinion as to the date of the Homeric poems, than", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\n1 79\\nthat we should seek to determine the exact locality in\\nwhich they originated. Yet the one question is hardly\\nless obscure than the other. Different writers of antiq-\\nuity assigned eight different epochs to Homer, of which\\nthe earliest is separated from the most recent by an in-\\nterval of four hundred and sixty years, a period as\\nlong as that which separates the Black Prince from the\\nDuke of Wellington, or the age of Perikles from the\\nChristian era. While Theopompos quite preposterously\\nbrings him down as late as the twenty-third Olympiad,\\nKrates removes him to the twelfth century B. C. The\\ndate ordinarily accepted by modern critics is the one\\nassigned by Herodotos, 880 B. C. Yet Mr. Gladstone\\nshows reasons, which appear to me convincing, for doubt-\\ning or rejecting this date.\\nI refer to the much-abused legend of the Children of\\nHerakles, which seems capable of yielding an item of\\ntrustworthy testimony, provided it be circumspectly dealt\\nwith. I differ from Mr. Gladstone in not regarding the\\nlegend as historical in its present shape. In my appre-\\nhension, Hyllos and Oxylos, as historical personages, have\\nno value whatever and I faithfully follow Mr. Grote, in\\nrefusing to accept any date earlier than the Olympiad of\\nKoroibos. The tale of the Eeturn of the Herakleids\\nis undoubtedly as unworthy of credit as the legend of\\nHengst and Horsa yet, like the latter, it doubtless em-\\nbodies a historical occurrence. One cannot approve, as\\nscholarlike or philosophical, the scepticism of Mr. Cox,\\nwho can see in the whole narrative nothing but a solar\\nmyth. There certainly was a time when the Dorian\\ntribes described in the legend as the allies of the\\nChildren of Herakles conquered Peloponnesos and that\\ntime was certainly subsequent to the composition of the\\nHomeric poems. It is incredible that the Iliad and the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "180 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nOdyssey should ignore the existence of Dorians in Pelo-\\nponnesos, if there were Dorians not only dwelling but\\nruling there at the time when the poems were written.\\nThe poems are very accurate and rigorously consistent\\nin their use of ethnical appellatives; and their author,\\nin speaking of Achaians and Argives, is as evidently\\nalluding to peoples directly known to him, as is Shake-\\nspeare when he mentions Danes and Scotchmen. Now\\nHomer knows Achaians, Argives, and Pelasgians dwell-\\ning in Peloponnesos and he knows Dorians also, but\\nonly as a people inhabiting Crete. (Odyss. XIX. 175.)\\nWith Homer, moreover, the Hellenes are not the Greeks\\nin general, but only a people dwelling in the north, in\\nThessaly. When these poems were written, Greece was\\nnot known as Hellas, but as Achaia, the whole country\\ntaking its name from the Achaians, the dominant race in\\nPeloponnesos. Now at the beginning of the truly his-\\ntorical period, in the eighth century B. C., all this is\\nchanged. The Greeks as a people are called Hellenes\\nthe Dorians rule in Peloponnesos, while their lands are\\ntilled by Argive Helots and the Achaians appear only\\nas an insignificant people occupying the southern shore\\nof the Corinthian Gulf. How this change took place we\\ncannot tell. The explanation of it can never be obtained\\nfrom history, though some light may perhaps be thrown\\nupon it by linguistic archaeology. But at all events it\\nwas a great change, and could not have taken place in a\\nmoment. It is fair to suppose that the Helleno-Dorian\\nconquest must have begun at least a century before the\\nfirst Olympiad for otherwise the geographical limits\\nof the various Greek races would not have been so com-\\npletely established as we find them to have been at that\\ndate. The Greeks, indeed, supposed it to have begun at\\nleast three centuries earlier, but it is impossible to collect", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDT. l8l\\nevidence which will either refute or establish that opin-\\nion. For our purposes it is enough to know that the con-\\nquest could not have taken place later than 900 B. C.\\nand if this be the case, the minimum date for the com-\\nposition of the Homeric poems must be the tenth century\\nbefore Christ; which is, in fact, the date assigned by\\nAristotle. Thus far, and no farther, I believe it possible\\nto go with safety. Whether the poems were composed in\\nthe tenth, eleventh, or twelfth century cannot be deter-\\nmined. We are justified only in placing them far enc\\nback to allow the Helleno-Dorian conquest to inter 1\\nbetween their composition and the beginning of reco\\nhistory. The tenth century B. C. is the latest date which\\nwill account for all the phenomena involved in the case,\\nand with this result we must be satisfied. Even on this\\nshowing, the Iliad and Odyssey appear as the oldest ex-\\nisting specimens of Aryan literature, save perhaps the\\nhymns of the Big- Veda and the sacred books of the\\nAvesta.\\nThe apparent difficulty of preserving such long poems\\nfor three or four centuries without the aid of writing may\\nseem at first sight to justify the hypothesis of Wolf, that\\nthey are mere collections of ancient ballads, like those\\nwhich make up the Mahabharata, preserved in the\\nmemories of a dozen or twenty bards, and first arranged\\nunder the orders of Peisistratos. But on a careful ex-\\namination this hypothesis is seen to raise more difficul-\\nties than it solves. What was there in the position of\\nPeisistratos, or of Athens itself in the sixth century\\nB. C, so authoritative as to compel all Greeks to recog-\\nnize the recension then and there made of their revered\\npoet Besides which the celebrated ordinance of Solon\\nrespecting the rhapsodes at the Panathenaia obliges us\\nto infer the existence of written manuscripts of Homer", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nprevious to 550 B. C. As Mr. Grote well observes, the\\ninterference of Peisistratos presupposes a certain fore-\\nknown and ancient aggregate, the main lineaments of\\nwhich were familiar to the Grecian public, although\\nmany of the rhapsodes in their practice may have de-\\nviated from it both by omission and interpolation. In\\ncorrecting the Athenian recitations conformably with\\nsuch understood general type, Peisistratos might hope\\nboth to procure respect for Athens and to constitute a\\nfashion for the rest of Greece. But this step of collect-\\ning the torn body of sacred Homer is something gener-\\nically different from the composition of a new Iliad out\\nof pre-existing songs the former is as easy, suitable, and\\npromising as the latter is violent and gratuitous.\\nAs for Wolf s objection, that the Iliad and Odyssey are\\ntoo long to have been preserved by memory, it may be\\nmet by a simple denial. It is a strange objection indeed,\\ncoming ^rom a man of Wolf s retentive memory. I do\\nnot see how the acquisition of the two poems can be\\nJec as such a very arduous task and if literature\\nscanty now as in Greek antiquity, there are\\nmany scholars who would long since have had\\nthem at their tongues end. Sir G. C. Lewis, with but\\nlittle conscious effort, managed to carry in his head a\\nvery considerable portion of Greek and Latin classic\\nliterature and Mebuhr (who once restored from recol-\\nlection a book of accounts which had been accidentally\\ndestroyed) was in the habit of referring to book and\\nchapter of an ancient author without consulting his\\nnotes. Nay, there is Professor Sophocles, of Harvard\\nUniversity, who, if you suddenly stop and interrogate\\nhim in the street, will tell you just how many times any\\ngiven Greek word occurs in Thukydides, or in iEschylos,\\nHist. Greece, Vol. II. p. 208.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\n183\\nor in Plato, and will obligingly rehearse for you the con-\\ntext. If all extant copies of the Homeric poems were\\nto be gathered together and burnt up to-day, like Don\\nQuixote s library, or like those Arabic manuscripts of\\nwhich Cardinal Ximenes made a bonfire in the streets\\nof Granada, the poems could very likely be reproduced\\nand orally transmitted for several generations and much\\neasier must it have been for the Greeks to preserve these\\nbooks, which their imagination invested with a quasi-\\nsanctity, and which constituted the greater part of the\\nliterary furniture of their minds. In Xenophon s time\\nthere were educated gentlemen at Athens who could re-\\npeat both Iliad and Odyssey verbatim. (Xenoph. Sym-\\npos., III. 5.) Besides this, we know that at Chios there\\nwas a company of bards, known as Homerids, whose\\nbusiness it was to recite these poems from memory and\\nfrom the edicts of Solon and the Sikyonian Kleisthenes\\n(Herod., V. 67), we may infer that the case was the same\\nin other parts of Greece. Passages from the Iliad used\\nto be sung at the Pythian festivals, to the accompani-\\nment of the harp (Athenseus, XIV. 638), and in at least\\ntwo of the Ionic islands of the iEgsean there were regular\\ncompetitive exhibitions by trained young men, at which\\nprizes were given to the best reciter. The difficulty of\\npreserving the poems, under such circumstances, becomes\\nvery insignificant and the Wolfian argument quite van-\\nishes when we reflect that it would have been no easier\\nto preserve a dozen or twenty short poems than two long\\nones. Nay, the coherent, orderly arrangement of the\\nIliad and Odyssey would make them even easier to re-\\nmember than a group of short rhapsodies not consecu-\\ntively arranged.\\nWhen we come to interrogate the poems themselves,\\nWe find in them quite convincing evidence that they", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "1 84 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nwere originally composed for the ear alone, and without\\nreference to manuscript assistance. They abound in\\ncatchwords, and in verbal repetitions. The Catalogue\\nof Ships, as Mr. Gladstone has acutely observed, is\\narranged in well-defined sections, in such a way that the\\nend of each section suggests the beginning of the next\\none. It resembles the versus memoriales found in old-\\nfashioned grammars. But the most convincing proof of\\nall is to be found in the changes which Greek pronuncia-\\ntion went through between the ages of Homer and\\nPeisistratos. At the time when these poems were com-\\nposed, the digamma (or w) was an effective consonant,\\nand figured as such in the structure of the verse at the\\ntime when they were committed to writing, it had ceased\\nto be pronounced, and therefore never found a place in\\nany of the manuscripts, insomuch that the Alexan-\\ndrian critics, though they knew of its existence in the\\nmuch later poems of Alkaios and Sappho, never recog-\\nnized it in Homer. The hiatus, and the various perplex-\\nities of metre, occasioned by the loss of the digamma,\\nwere corrected by different grammatical stratagems. But\\nthe whole history of this lost letter is very curious, and\\nis rendered intelligible only by the supposition that the\\nIliad and Odyssey belonged for a wide space of time to\\nthe memory, the voice, and the ear exclusively.\\nMany of these facts are of course fully recognized by\\nthe Wolfians but the inference drawn from them, that\\nthe Homeric poems began to exist in a piecemeal con-\\ndition, is, as we have seen, unnecessary. These poems\\nmay indeed be compared, in a certain sense, with the\\nearly sacred and epic literature of the Jews, Indians, and\\nTeutons. But if we assign a plurality of composers to\\nthe Psalms and Pentateuch, the Mahabharata, the Vedas,\\nGrote, Hist. Greece, Vol. II. p. 198.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI. 1 85\\nand the Edda, we do so because of internal evidence\\nfurnished by the books themselves, and not because\\nthese books could not have been preserved by oral tra-\\ndition. Is there, then, in the Homeric poems any such\\ninternal evidence of dual or plural origin as is furnished\\nby the interlaced Elohistic and Jehovistic documents of\\nthe Pentateuch A careful investigation will show that\\nthere is not. Any scholar who has given some attention\\nto the subject can readily distinguish the Elohistic from\\nthe Jehovistic portions of the Pentateuch and, save in\\nthe case of a few sporadic verses, most Biblical critics\\ncoincide in the separation which they make between the\\ntwo. But the attempts which have been made to break\\nup the Iliad and Odyssey have resulted in no such har-\\nmonious agreement. There are as many systems as there\\nare critics, and naturally enough. For the Iliad and the\\nOdyssey are as much alike as two peas, and the resem-\\nblance which holds between the two holds also between\\nthe different parts of each poem. From the appearance\\nof the injured Chryses in the Grecian camp down to the\\nintervention of Athene on the field of contest at Ithaka,\\nWe find in each book and in each paragraph the same\\nstyle, the same peculiarities of expression, the same habits\\nof thought, the same quite unique manifestations of the\\nfaculty of observation. Now if the style were common-\\nplace, the observation slovenly, or the thought trivial, as\\nis wont to be the case in ballad-literature, this argument\\nfrom similarity might not carry with it much conviction.\\nBut when we reflect that throughout the whole course\\nof human history no other works, save the best tragedies\\nof Shakespeare, have ever been written which for com-\\nbined keenness of observation, elevation of thought, and\\nsublimity of style can compare with the Homeric poems,\\nwe must admit that the argument has very great weight", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "1 86 MYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nindeed. Let us take, for example, the sixth and twenty\\nfourth books of the Iliad. According to the theory of\\nLachmann, the most eminent champion of the Wolfian\\nhypothesis, these are by different authors. Human speech\\nhas perhaps never been brought so near to the limit of\\nits capacity of expressing deep emotion as in the scene\\nbetween Priam and Achi Ileus in the twenty-fourth book\\nwhile the interview between Hektor and Andromache in\\nthe sixth similarly wellnigh exhausts the power of lan-\\nguage. !N ow, the literary critic has a right to ask whether\\nit is probable that two such passages, agreeing perfectly\\nin turn of expression, and alike exhibiting the same un-\\napproachable degree of excellence, could have been pro-\\nduced by two different authors. And the physiologist\\nwith some inward misgivings suggested by Mr. Gal-\\nton s theory that the Greeks surpassed us in genius even\\nas we surpass the negroes has a right to ask whether\\nit is in the natural course of things for two such wonder-\\nful poets, strangely agreeing in their minutest psycho-\\nlogical characteristics, to be produced at the same time.\\nAnd the difficulty thus raised becomes overwhelming\\nft-hen we reflect that it is the coexistence of not two\\nonly, but at least twenty such geniuses which the AVolf-\\nian hypothesis requires us to account for. That theory\\nworked very well as long as scholars thoughtlessly as-\\nsumed that the Iliad and Odyssey were analogous to\\nballad poetry. But, except in the simplicity of the prim-\\nitive diction, there is no such analogy. The power and\\nbeauty of the Iliad are never so hopelessly lost as when\\nit is rendered into the style of a modern ballad. One\\nmight as well attempt to preserve the grandeur of the\\ntriumphant close of Milton s Lycidas by turning it into\\nthe light Anacreontics of the ode to Eros stung by a\\nBee. The peculiarity of the Homeric poetry, which", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\ndefies translation, is its union of the simplicity charac-\\nteristic of an early age with a sustained elevation of style,\\nwhich can be explained only as due to individual genius.\\nThe same conclusion is forced upon us when we ex-\\namine the artistic structure of these poems. With regard\\nto the Odyssey in particular, Mr. Grote has elaborately\\nshown that its structure is so thoroughly integral, that no\\nconsiderable portion could be subtracted without con-\\nverting the poem into a more or less admirable fragment.\\nThe Iliad stands in a somewhat different position. There\\nare unmistakable peculiarities in its structure, which\\nhave led even Mr. Grote, who utterly rejects the Wolf-\\nian hypothesis, to regard it as made up of two poems\\nalthough he inclines to the belief that the later poem\\nwas grafted upon the earlier by its own author, by way\\nof further elucidation and expansion just as Goethe, in\\nhis old age, added a new part to Faust. According to\\nMr. Grote, the Iliad, as originally conceived, was properly\\nan Achilleis its design being, as indicated in the opening\\nlines of the poem, to depict the wrath of Achilleus and\\nthe unutterable woes which it entailed upon the Greeks.\\nThe plot of this primitive Achilleis is entirely contained\\nin Books I., VIII., and XI. -XXII. and, in Mr. Grote s\\nopinion, the remaining books injure the symmetry of this\\nplot by unnecessarily prolonging the duration of the\\nWrath, while the embassy to Achilleus, in the ninth book,\\nunduly anticipates the conduct of Agamemnon in the\\nnineteenth, and is therefore, as a piece of bungling work,\\nto be referred to the hands of an inferior interpolator.\\nMr. Grote thinks it probable that these books, with the\\nexception of the ninth, were subsequently added by the\\npoet, with a view to enlarging the original Achilleis into\\na real Iliad, describing the war of the Greeks against\\nTroy. With reference to this hypothesis, I gladly admit", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "i88\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthat Mr. Grote is, of all men now living, the one best\\nentitled to a reverential hearing on almost any point\\nconnected with Greek antiquity. Nevertheless it seems\\nto me that his theory rests solely upon imagined difficul-\\nties which have no real existence. I doubt if any scholar,\\nreading the Iliad ever so much, would ever be struck by\\nthese alleged inconsistencies of structure, unless they\\nwere suggested by some a priori theory. And I fear\\nthat the Wolfian theory, in spite of Mr. Grote s emphatic\\nrejection of it, is responsible for some of these over-refined\\ncriticisms. Even as it stands, the Iliad is not an account\\nof the war against Troy. It begins in the tenth year of the\\nsiege, and it does not continue to the capture of the city.\\nIt is simply occupied with an episode in the war, with\\nthe wrath of Achilleus and its consequences, according\\nto the plan marked out in the opening lines. The sup-\\nposed additions, therefore, though they may have given\\nto the poem a somewhat wider scope, have not at any\\nrate changed its primitive character of an Achilleis. To\\nmy mind they seem even called for by the original\\nconception of the consequences of the wrath. To\\nhave inserted the battle at the ships, in which Sarpedon\\nbreaks down the wall of the Greeks, immediately after\\nthe occurrences of the first book, would have been too\\nabrupt altogether. Zeus, after his reluctant promise to\\nThetis, must not be expected so suddenly to exhibit such\\nfell determination. And after the long series of books\\ndescribing the valorous deeds of Aias, Diomedes, Aga-\\nmemnon, Odysseus, and Menelaos, the powerful interven-\\ntion of Achilleus appears in far grander proportions than\\nwould otherwise be possible. As for the embassy to\\nAchilleus, in the ninth book, I am unable to see how the\\nfinal reconciliation with Agamemnon would be complete\\nwithout it. As Mr. Gladstone well observes, what Achil-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\nlens wants is not restitution, but apology; and Aga-\\nmemnon offers no apology until the nineteenth book. In\\nhis answer to the ambassadors, Achilleus scornfully re-\\njects the proposals which imply that the mere return of\\nBriseis will satisfy his righteous resentment, unless it be\\naccompanied with that public humiliation to which cir-\\ncumstances have not yet compelled the leader of the\\nGreeks to subject himself. Achilleus is not to be bought\\nor cajoled. Even the extreme distress of the Greeks in\\nthe thirteenth book does not prevail upon him nor is\\nthere anything in the poem to show that he ever would\\nhave laid aside his wrath, had not the death of Patroklos\\nsupplied him with a new and wholly unforeseen motive.\\nIt seems to me that his entrance into the battle after the\\ndeath of his friend would lose half its poetic effect, were\\nit not preceded by some such scene as that in the ninth\\nbook, in which he is represented as deaf to all ordinary\\ninducements. As for the two concluding books, which\\nMr. Grote is inclined to regard as a subsequent addition,\\nnot necessitated by the plan of the poem, I am at a loss\\nto see how the poem can be considered complete without\\nthem. To leave the bodies of Patroklos and Hektor\\nunburied would be in the highest degree shocking to\\nGreek religious feelings. Eemembering the sentence in-\\ncurred, in far less superstitious times, by the generals at\\nArginusai, it is impossible to believe that any conclusion\\nwhich left Patroklos s manes unpropitiated, and the mu-\\ntilated corpse of Hektor unransomed, could have satisfied\\neither the poet or his hearers. For further particulars I\\nmust refer the reader to the excellent criticisms of Mr.\\nGladstone, and also to the article on Greek History and\\nLegend in the second volume of Mr. Mill s Disserta-\\ntions and Discussions. A careful study of the arguments\\nof these writers, and, above all, a thorough and independent", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "190 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nexamination of the Iliad itself, will, I believe, convince the\\nstudent that this great poem is from beginning to end the\\nconsistent production of a single author.\\nThe arguments of those who would attribute the Iliad\\nand Odyssey, taken as wholes, to two different authors,\\nrest chiefly upon some apparent discrepancies in the\\nmythology of the two poems but many of these diffi-\\nculties have been completely solved by the recent pro-\\ngress of the science of comparative mythology. Thus,\\nfor example, the fact that, in the Iliad, Hephaistos is called\\nthe husband of Charis, while in the Odyssey he is called\\nthe husband of Aphrodite, has been cited even by Mr.\\nGrote as evidence that the two poems are not by the\\nsame author. It seems to me that one such discrepancy,\\nin the midst of complete general agreement, would be\\nmuch better explained as Cervantes explained his own\\ninconsistency with reference to the stealing of Sancho s\\nmule, in the twenty-second chapter of Don Quixote.\\nBut there is no discrepancy. Aphrodite, though originally\\nthe moon-goddess, like the German Horsel, had before\\nHomer s time acquired many of the attributes of the\\ndawn-goddess Athene, while her lunar characteristics had\\nbeen to a great extent transferred to Artemis and Per-\\nsephone. In her renovated character, as goddess of the\\ndawn, Aphrodite became identified with Charis, who\\nappears in the Eig-Veda as dawn-goddess. In the post-\\nHomeric mythology, the two were again separated, and\\nCharis, becoming divided in personality, appears as the\\nCharites, or Graces, who were supposed to be constant\\nattendants of Aphrodite. But in the Homeric poems\\nthe two are still identical, and either Charis or Aphrodite\\nmay be called the wife of the fire-god, without incon-\\nsistency.\\nThus to sum up, I believe that Mr. Gladstone is quite", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI. 191\\nright in maintaining that both the Iliad and Odyssey are,\\nfrom beginning to end, with the exception of a few in-\\nsignificant interpolations, the work of a single author,\\nwhom we have no ground for calling by any other name\\nthan that of Homer. I believe, moreover, that this\\nauthor lived before the beginning of authentic history,\\nand that we can determine neither his age nor his coun-\\ntry with precision. We can only decide that he was a\\nGreek who lived at some time previous to the year 900 B.C.\\nHere, however, I must begin to part company with\\nMr. Gladstone, and shall henceforth unfortunately have\\nfrequent occasion to differ from him on points of funda-\\nmental importance. For Mr. Gladstone not only regards\\nthe Homeric age as strictly within the limits of authentic\\nhistory, but he even goes much further than this. He\\nwould not only fix the date of Homer positively in the\\ntwelfth century B. C, but he regards the Trojan war as a\\npurely historical event, of which Homer is the authentic\\nhistorian and the probable eye-witness. Nay, he even\\ntakes the word of the poet as proof conclusive of the\\nhistorical character of events happening several genera-\\ntions before the Troika, according to the legendary chro-\\nnology. He not only regards Agamemnon, Achilleus, and\\nParis as actual personages, but he ascribes the same re-\\nality to characters like Danaos, Kadmos, and Perseus, and\\ntalks of the Pelopid and Aiolid dynasties, and the empire\\nof Minos, with as much confidence as if he were dealing\\nwith Karlings or Capetians, or with the epoch of the\\nCrusades.\\nIt is disheartening, at the present day, and after so much\\nhas been finally settled by writers like Grote, Mommsen,\\nand Sir G. C. Lewis, to come upon such views in the\\nwork of a man of scholarship and intelligence. One\\nbegins to wonder how many more times it will be neces-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "192\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nsary to prove that dates and events are of no historical\\nvalue, unless attested by nearly contemporary evidence.\\nPausanias and Plutarch were able men no doubt, and\\nThukydides was a profound historian but what these\\nwriters thought of the Herakleid invasion, the age of\\nHomer, and the war of Troy, can have no great weight\\nwith the critical historian, since even in the time of\\nThukydides these events were as completely obscured by\\nlapse of time as they are now. There is no literary Greek\\nhistory before the age of Hekataios and Herodotos, three\\ncenturies subsequent to the first recorded Olympiad. A\\nportion of this period is satisfactorily covered by inscrip-\\ntions, but even these fail us before we get within a cent-\\nury of this earliest ascertainable date. Even the career\\nof the lawgiver Lykourgos, which seems to belong to\\nthe commencement of the eighth century B. C, presents\\nus, from lack of anything like contemporary records,\\nwith many insoluble problems. The Helleno-Dorian\\nconquest, as we have seen, must have occurred at some\\ntime or other but it evidently did not occur within two\\ncenturies of the earliest known inscription, and it is\\ntherefore folly to imagine that we can determine its date\\nor ascertain the circumstances which attended it. An-\\nterior to this event there is but one fact in Greek an-\\ntiquity directly known to us, the existence of the\\nHomeric poems. The belief that there was a Trojan war\\nrests exclusively upon the contents of those poems there\\nis no other independent testimony to it whatever. But\\nthe Homeric poems are of no value as testimony to the\\ntruth of the statements contained in them, unless it can\\nbe proved that their author was either contemporary with\\nthe Troika, or else derived his information from contem-\\nporary witnesses. This can never be proved. To assume,\\nas Mr. Gladstone does, that Homer lived within fifty", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\n1 93\\nyears after the Troika, is to make a purely gratuitous\\nassumption. For aught the wisest historian can tell, the\\ninterval may have been five hundred years, or a thousand.\\nIndeed the Iliad itself expressly declares that it is deal-\\ning with an ancient state of things which no longer ex-\\nists. It is difficult to see what else can be meant by the\\nstatement that the heroes of the Troika belong to an\\norder of men no longer seen upon the earth. (Iliad, Y. 304.)\\nMost assuredly Achilleus the son of Thetis, and Sarpedon\\nthe son of Zeus, and Helena the daughter of Zeus, are no\\nordinary mortals, such as might have been seen and con-\\nversed with by the poet s grandfather. They belong to\\nan inferior order of gods, according to the peculiar an-\\nthropomorphism of the Greeks, in which deity and hu-\\nmanity are so closely mingled that it is difficult to tell\\nwhere the one begins and the other ends. Diomedes,\\nsingle-handed, vanquishes not only the gentle Aphrodite,\\nbut even the god of battles himself, the terrible Ares.\\nNestor quaffs lightly from a goblet which, we are told,\\nnot two men among the poet s contemporaries could by\\ntheir united exertions raise and place upon a table. Aias\\nand Hektor and Aineias hurl enormous masses of rock as\\neasily as an ordinary man would throw a pebble. All this\\nshows that the poet, in his naive way, conceiving of these\\nheroes as personages of a remote past, was endeavouring\\nas far as possible to ascribe to them the attributes of\\nsuperior beings. If all that were divine, marvellous, or\\nsuperhuman were to be left out of the poems, the sup-\\nposed historical residue would hardly be worth the trou-\\nble of saving. As Mr. Cox well observes, It is of the\\nvery essence of the narrative that Paris, who has deserted\\nOinone, the child of the stream Kebren, and before\\nwhom Here, Athene, and Aphrodite had appeared as\\nclaimants for the golden apple, steals from Sparta the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "194\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nbeautiful sister of the Dioskouroi that the chiefs are\\nsummoned together for no other purpose than to avenge\\nher woes and wrongs that Achilleus, the son of the sea-\\nnymph Thetis, the wielder of invincible weapons and the\\nlord of undying horses, goes to fight in a quarrel which\\nis not his own that his wrath is roused because he is\\nrobbed of the maiden Briseis, and that henceforth he\\ntakes no part in the strife until his friend Patroklos has\\nbeen slain that then he puts on the new armour which\\nThetis brings to him from the anvil of Hephaistos, and\\ngoes forth to win the victory. The details are throughout\\nof the same nature. Achilleus sees and converses with\\nAthene Aphrodite is wounded by Diomedes, and Sleep\\nand Death bear away the lifeless Sarpedon on their\\nnoiseless wings to the far-off land of light. In view of\\nall this it is evident that Homer was not describing, like\\na salaried historiographer, the state of things which existed\\nin the time of his father or grandfather. To his mind\\nthe occurrences which he described were those of a re-\\nmote, a wonderful, a semi-divine past.\\nThis conclusion, which I have thus far supported\\nmerely by reference to the Iliad itself, becomes irresist-\\nible as soon as we take into account the results obtained\\nduring the past thirty years by the science of compara-\\ntive mythology. As long as our view was restricted to\\nGreece, it was perhaps excusable that Achilleus and\\nParis should be taken for exaggerated copies of actual\\npersons. Since the day when Grimm laid the founda-\\ntions of the science of mythology, all this has been\\nchanged. It is now held that Achilleus and Paris and\\nHelena are to be found, not only in the Iliad, but also in\\nthe Eig-Veda, and therefore, as mythical conceptions,\\ndate, not from Homer, but from a period preceding the\\ndispersion of the Aryan nations. The tale of the Wrath", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDL 1 95\\nof Achilleus, far from originating with Homer, far from\\nbeing recorded by the author of the Iliad as by an eye-\\nwitness, must have been known in its essential features\\nin Aryana-vaedjo, at that remote epoch when the Indian,\\nthe Greek, and the Teuton were as yet one and the\\nsame. For the story has been retained by the three races\\nalike, in all its principal features though the Veda has\\nleft it in the sky where it originally belonged, while the\\nIliad and the Mbelungenlied have brought it down to\\nearth, the one locating it in Asia Minor, and the other in\\nNorthwestern Europe.*\\nFor the precise extent to which I would indorse the theory that the\\nIliad-myth is an account of the victory of light over darkness, let me refer\\nto what I have said above on p. 134. I do not suppose that the struggle\\nbetween light and darkness was Homer s subject in the Iliad any more\\nthan it was Shakespeare s subject in Hamlet. Homer s subject was\\nthe wrath of the Greek hero, as Shakespeare s subject was the vengeance\\nof the Danish prince. Nevertheless, the story of Hamlet, when traced\\nback to its Norse original, is unmistakably the story of the quarrel be-\\ntween summer and winter and the moody prince is as much a solar\\nhero as Odin himself. See Simrock, Die Quellen des Shakespeare, I.\\n127-133. Of course Shakespeare knew nothing of this, as Homer knew\\nnothing of the origin of his Achilleus. The two stories, therefore, are\\nnot to be taken as sun-myths in their present form. They are the off-\\nspring of other stories which were sun-myths they are stories which\\nconform to the sun-myth type after the manner above illustrated in the\\npaper on Light and Darkness. [Hence there is nothing unintelligible\\nin the inconsistency which seems to puzzle Max Miiller (Science of\\nLanguage, 6th ed. Vol. II. p. 516, note 20) of investing Paris with\\nmany of the characteristics of the children of light. Supposing, as we\\nmust, that the primitive sense of the Iliad-myth had as entirely disap-\\npeared in the Homeric age, as the primitive sense of the Hamlet-myth\\nhad disappeared in the times of Elizabeth, the fit ground for wonder is\\nthat such inconsistencies are not more numerous.] The physical theory\\nof myths will be properly presented and comprehended, only when it is\\nunderstood that we accept the physical derivation of such stories as the\\nIliad-myth in much the same way that we are bound to accept the phys-\\nical etymologies of such words as soul, consider, truth, convince, deliber-\\nate, and the like. The late Dr. Gibbs of Yale College, in his Philo-\\nlogical Studies, a little book which I used to read with delight when", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nIn the Eig-Veda the Panis are the genii of night and\\nwinter, corresponding to the Mbelungs, or Children of\\nthe Mist, in the Teutonic legend, and to the children of\\nISTephele (cloud) in the Greek myth of the Golden Fleece.\\nThe Panis steal the cattle of the Sun (Indra, Helios,\\nHerakles), and carry them by an unknown route to a\\ndark cave eastward. Sarama, the creeping Dawn, is sent\\nby Indra to find and recover them. The Panis then\\ntamper with Sarama, and try their best to induce her to\\nbetray her solar lord. For a while she is prevailed upon\\nto dally with them yet she ultimately returns to give\\nIndra the information needful in order that he might\\nconquer the Panis, just as Helena, in the slightly altered\\nversion, ultimately returns to her western home, carry-\\ning with her the treasures (jcTr\\\\^aTa t Iliad, II. 285) of\\nwhich Paris had robbed Menelaos. But, before the bright\\nIndra and his solar heroes can reconquer their treasures\\nthey must take captive the offspring of Brisaya, the\\nviolet light of morning. Thus Achilleus, answering to\\nthe solar champion Aharyu, takes captive the daughter\\nof Brises. But as the sun must always be parted from\\nthe morning-light, to return to it again just before set-\\nting, so Achilleus loses Briseis, and regains her only just\\nbefore his final struggle. In similar wise Herakles is\\nparted from Iole the violet one and Sigurd from\\nBrynhild. In sullen wrath the hero retires from the\\nconflict, and his Myrmidons are no longer seen on the\\nbattle-field, as the sun hides behind the dark cloud and\\nhis rays no longer appear about him. Yet toward the\\na boy, describes such etymologies as faded metaphors. In similar\\nwise, while refraining from characterizing the Iliad or the tragedy of\\nHamlet any more than I would characterize Le Juif Errant by Sue,\\nor La Maison Forestttre by Erckmann-Chatrian as nature-myths, I\\nwould at the same time consider these poems well described as embody-\\ning faded nature-myths.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDL\\n197\\nevening, as Briseis returns, he appears in his might,\\nclothed in the dazzling armour wrought for him by the\\nfire-god Hephaistos, and with his invincible spear slays\\nthe great storm-cloud, which during his absence had\\nwellnigh prevailed over the champions of the daylight.\\nBut his triumph is short-lived for having trampled on\\nthe clouds that had opposed him, while yet crimsoned\\nwith the fierce carnage, the sharp arrow of the night-\\ndemon Paris slays him at the Western Gates. We have\\nnot space to go into further details. In Mr. Cox s\\nMythology of the Aryan Nations, and Tales of An-\\ncient Greece, the reader will find the entire contents of\\nthe Iliad and Odyssey thus minutely illustrated by com-\\nparison with the Veda, the Edda, and the Lay of the\\nMbelungs.\\nAncient as the Homeric poems undoubtedly are, they\\nare modern in comparison with the tale of Achilleus\\nand Helena, as here unfolded. The date of the en-\\ntrance of the Greeks into Europe will perhaps never\\nbe determined but I do not see how any competent\\nscholar can well place it at less than eight hundred\\nor a thousand years before the time of Homer. Be-\\ntween the two epochs the Greek, Latin, Umbrian, and\\nKeltic languages had time to acquire distinct individual-\\nities. Ear earlier, therefore, than the Homeric juventus\\nmundi was that youth of the world, in which the\\nAryan forefathers, knowing no abstract terms, and pos-\\nsessing no philosophy but fetichism, deliberately spoke\\nof the Sun, and the Dawn, and the Clouds, as persons or\\nas animals. The Veda, though composed much later\\nthan this, perhaps as late as the Iliad, nevertheless\\npreserves the record of the mental life of this period.\\nThe Vedic poet is still dimly aware that Sarama is the\\nfickle twilight, and the Panis the night-demons who strive", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nto coax her from her allegiance to the day-god. He\\nkeeps the scene of action in the sky. But the Homeric\\nGreek had long since forgotten that Helena and Paris\\nwere anything more than semi-divine mortals, the daugh-\\nter of Zeus and the son of the Zeus-descended Priam.\\nThe Hindu understood that Dyaus the bright one\\nmeant the sky, and Sarama the creeping one the\\ndawn, and spoke significantly when he called the latter\\nthe daughter of the formei. But the Greek could not\\nknow that Zeus was derived from a root div, to shine,\\nor that Helena belonged to a root sar, to creep. Pho-\\nnetic change thus helped him to rise from fetichism to\\npolytheism. His nature-gods became thoroughly anthro-\\npomorphic and he probably no more remembered that\\nAchilleus originally signified the sun, than we remember\\nthat the word God, which we use to denote the most vast\\nof conceptions, originally meant simply the Storm-wind.\\nIndeed, when the fetichistic tendency led the Greek\\nagain to personify the powers of nature, he had recourse\\nto new names formed from his own language. Thus, be-\\nside Apollo we have Helios Selene beside Artemis and\\nPersephone; Eos beside Athene; Gaia beside Demeter.\\nAs a further consequence of this decomposition and new\\ndevelopment of the old Aryan mythology, we find, as\\nmight be expected, that the Homeric poems are not\\nalways consistent in their use of their mythic materials.\\nThus, Paris, the night-demon, is to Max Miiller s per-\\nplexity invested with many of the attributes of the\\nbright solar heroes. Like Perseus, Oidipous, Eomulus,\\nand Cyrus, he is doomed to bring ruin on his parents\\nlike them he is exposed in his infancy on the hillside,\\nand rescued by a shepherd. All the solar heroes begin\\nlife in this way. Whether, like Apollo, born of the\\ndark night (Leto), or like Oidipous, of the violet dawn", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDL\\n199\\n(Iokaste), they are alike destined to bring destruction on\\ntheir parents, as the night and the dawn are both de-\\nstroyed by the sun. The exposure of the child in infancy\\nrepresents the long rays of the morning-sun resting on\\nthe hillside. Then Paris forsakes Oinone the wine-\\ncoloured one but meets her again at the gloaming\\nwhen she lays herself by his side amid the crimson\\nflames of the funeral pyre. Sarpedon also, a solar hero,\\nis made to fight on the side of the Mblungs or Trojans,\\nattended by his friend Glaukos the brilliant one\\nThey command the Lykians, or children of light and\\nwith them comes also Memnon, son of the Dawn, from\\nthe fiery land of the Aithiopes, the favourite haunt of\\nZeus and the gods of Olympos.\\nThe Iliad-myth must therefore have been current\\nmany ages before the Greeks inhabited Greece, long be-\\nfore there was any Ilion to be conquered. Nevertheless,\\nthis does not forbid the supposition that the legend, as\\nwe have it, may have been formed by the crystallization\\nof mythical conceptions about a nucleus of genuine\\ntradition. In this view I am upheld by a most sagacious\\nand accurate scholar, Mr. E. A. Freeman, who finds in\\nCarlovingian romance an excellent illustration of the\\nproblem before us.\\nThe Charlemagne of romance is a mythical personage.\\nHe is supposed to have been a Frenchman, at a time\\nwhen neither the French nation nor the French language\\ncan properly be said to have existed and he is repre-\\nsented as a doughty crusader, although crusading was\\nnot thought of until long after the Karolingian era. The\\nlegendary deeds of Charlemagne are not conformed to\\nthe ordinary rules of geography and chronology. He is\\na myth, and, what is more, he is a solar myth, an\\navatar, or at least a representative, of Odin in his solar", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "200\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ncapacity. If in his case legend were not controlled and\\nrectified by history, he would be for us as unreal as\\nAgamemnon.\\nHistory, however, tells us that there was an Emperor\\nKarl, German in race, name, and language, who was one\\nof the two or three greatest men of action that the world\\nhas ever seen, and who in the ninth century ruled over all\\nWestern Europe. To the historic Karl corresponds in\\nmany particulars the mythical Charlemagne. The legend\\nhas preserved the fact, which without the information\\nsupplied by history we might perhaps set down as a\\nfiction, that there was a time when Germany, Gaul, Italy,\\nand part of Spain formed a single empire. And, as Mr.\\nFreeman has well observed, the mythical crusades of\\nCharlemagne are good evidence that there were crusades,\\nalthough the real Karl had nothing whatever to do with\\none.\\nNow the case of Agamemnon may be much like that\\nof Charlemagne, except that we no longer have history\\nto help us in rectifying the legend. The Iliad preserves\\nthe tradition of a time when a large portion of the islands\\nand mainland of Greece were at least partially subject\\nto a common suzerain and, as Mr. Ereeman has again\\nshrewdly suggested, the assignment of a place like\\nMykenai, instead of Athens or Sparta or Argos, as the\\nseat of the suzerainty, is strong evidence of the trust-\\nworthiness of the tradition. It appears to show that the\\nlegend was constrained by some remembered fact, instead\\nof being guided by general probability. Charlemagne s\\nseat of government has been transferred in romance from\\nAachen to Paris had it really been at Pari?,, says Mr.\\nFreeman, no one would have thought of transferring it to\\nAachen. Moreover, the story of Agamemnon, though\\nuncontrolled by historic records, is here at least sup-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\n201\\nported by archseologic remains, which prcwe Mykenai to\\nhave been at some time or other a place of great con-\\nsequence. Then, as to the Trojan war, we know that the\\nGreeks several times crossed the iEgaean and colonized\\na large part of the seacoast of Asia Minor. In order to\\ndo this it was necessary to oust from their homes many\\nwarlike communities of Lydians and Bithynians, and we\\nmay be sure that this was not done without prolonged\\nfighting. There may very probably have been now and\\nthen a levy en masse in prehistoric Greece, as there was\\nin mediseval Europe and whether the great suzerain at\\nMykenai ever attended one or not, legend would be sure\\nto send him on such an expedition, as it afterwards sent\\nCharlemagne on a crusade.\\nIt is therefore quite possible that Agamemnon and\\nMenelaos may represent dimly remembered sovereigns or\\nheroes, with their characters and actions distorted to suit\\nthe exigencies of a narrative founded upon a solar myth.\\nThe character of the Nibelungenlied here well illustrates\\nthat of the Iliad. Siegfried and Brunhild, Hagen and\\nGunther, seem to be mere personifications of physical\\nphenomena but Etzel and Dietrich are none other than\\nAttila and Theodoric surrounded with mythical attri-\\nbutes; and even the conception of Brunhild has been\\nsupposed to contain elements derived from the traditional\\nrecollection of the historical Brunehault. When, therefore,\\nAchiileus is said, like a true sun-god, to have died by a\\nwound from a sharp instrument in the only vulnerable\\npart of his body, we may reply that the legendary Char-\\nlemagne conducts himself in many respects like a solar\\ndeity. If Odysseus detained by Kalypso represents the\\nsun ensnared and held captive by the pale goddess of\\nnight, the legend of Frederic Barbarossa asleep in a\\nThuringian mountain embodies a portion of a kindred\\n9*", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "202\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nconception. We know that Charlemagne and Frederic\\nhave been substituted for Odin we may suspect that\\nwith the mythical impersonations of Achilleus and Odys-\\nseus some traditional figures may be blended. We should\\nremember that in early times the solar-myth was a sort\\nof type after which all wonderful stories would be pat-\\nterned, and that to such a type tradition also would be\\nmade to conform.\\nIn suggesting this view, we are not opening the door to\\nEuhemerism. If there is any one conclusion concern-\\ning the Homeric poems which the labours of a whole\\ngeneration of scholars may be said to have satisfactorily\\nestablished, it is this, that no trustworthy history can be\\nobtained from either the Iliad or the Odyssey merely by\\nsifting out the mythical element. Even if the poems\\ncontain the faint reminiscence of an actual event, that\\nevent is inextricably wrapped up in mythical phraseology,\\nso that by no cunning of the scholar can it be construed\\ninto history. In view of this it is quite useless for Mr.\\nGladstone to attempt to base historical conclusions upon\\nthe fact that Helena is always called Argive Helen, or\\nto draw ethnological inferences from the circumstances\\nthat Menelaos, Achilleus, and the rest of the Greek heroes,\\nhave yellow hair, while the Trojans are never so described.\\nThe Argos of the myth is not the city of Peloponnesos,\\nthough doubtless so construed even in Homer s time. It\\nis the bright land where Zeus resides, and the epithet\\nis applied to his wife Here and his daughter Helena, as\\nwell as to the dog of Odysseus, who reappears with Sara-\\nmeyas in the Veda. As for yellow hair, there is no evi-\\ndence that Greeks have ever commonly possessed it but\\nno other colour would do for a solar hero, and it accord-\\ningly characterizes the entire company of them, wherever\\nfound, while for the Trojans, or children of night, it is\\nnot required.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNBL\\n203\\nA wider acquaintance with the results which have been\\nobtained during the past thirty years by the comparative\\nstudy of languages and mythologies would have led Mr.\\nGladstone to reconsider many of his views concerning\\nthe Homeric poems, and might perhaps have led him to\\ncut out half or two thirds of his book as hopelessly\\nantiquated. The chapter on the divinities of Olympos\\nwould certainly have had to be rewritten, and the ridic-\\nulous theory of a primeval revelation abandoned. One\\ncan hardly preserve one s gravity when Mr. Gladstone\\nderives Apollo from the Hebrew Messiah, and Athene\\nfrom the Logos. To accredit Homer with an acquaintance\\nwith the doctrine of the Logos, which did not exist until\\nthe time of Philo, and did not receive its authorized\\nChristian form until the middle of the second century\\nafter Christ, is certainly a strange proceeding. We shall\\nnext perhaps be invited to believe that the authors of\\nthe Yolsunga Saga obtained the conception of Sigurd\\nfrom the Thirty-Mne Articles. It is true that these\\ndeities, Athene and Apollo, are wiser, purer, and more\\ndignified, on the whole, than any of the other divinities\\nof the Homeric Olympos. They alone, as Mr. Gladstone\\ntruly observes, are never deceived or frustrated. For all\\nHellas, Apollo was the interpreter of futurity, and in the\\nmaid Athene we have perhaps the highest conception of\\ndeity to which the Greek mind had attained in the early\\ntimes. In the Veda, Athene is nothing but the dawn;\\nbut in the Greek mythology, while the merely sensuous\\nglories of daybreak are assigned to Eos, Athene becomes\\nthe impersonation of the illuminating and knowledge-\\ngiving light of the sky. As the dawn, she is daughter\\nof Zeus, the sky, and in mythic language springs from\\nhis forehead; but, according to the Greek conception,\\nthis imagery signifies that she shares, more than any", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "204\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nother deity, in the boundless wisdom of Zeus. The\\nknowledge of Apollo, on the other hand, is the peculiar\\nprivilege of the sun, who, from his lofty position, sees\\neverything that takes place upon the earth. Even the\\nsecondary divinity Helios possesses this prerogative to a\\ncertain extent.\\nNext to a Hebrew, Mr. Gladstone prefers a Phoenician\\nancestry for the Greek divinities. But the same lack of\\nacquaintance with the old Aryan mythology vitiates all\\nhis conclusions. No doubt the Greek mythology is in\\nsome particulars tinged with Phoenician conceptions.\\nAphrodite was originally a purely Greek divinity, but in\\ncourse of time she acquired some of the attributes of the\\nSemitic Astarte, and was hardly improved by the change.\\nAdonis is simply a Semitic divinity, imported into Greece.\\nBut the same cannot be proved of Poseidon far less\\nof Hermes, who is identical with the Yedic Sarameyas,\\nthe rising wind, the son of Sarama the dawn, the lying,\\ntricksome wind-god, who invented music, and conducts\\nthe souls of dead men to the house of Hades, even as his\\ncounterpart the Norse Odin rushes over the tree-tops\\nleading the host of the departed. When one sees Iris,\\nthe messenger of Zeus, referred to a Hebrew original,\\nbecause of Jehovah s promise to Noah, one is at a loss to\\nunderstand the relationship between the two conceptions.\\nNothing could be more natural to the Greeks than to call\\nI have no opinion as to the nationality of the Earth-shaker, and,\\nregarding the etymology of his name, I believe we can hardly do better\\nthan acknowledge, with Mr. Cox, that it is unknown. It may well be\\ndoubted, however, whether much good is likely to come of comparisons\\nbetween Poseidon, Dagon, Oannes, and Noah, or of distinctions between\\nthe children of Shem and the children of Ham. See Brown s Poseidon\\na Link between Semite, Hamite, and Aryan, London, 1872, a book\\nwhich is open to several of the criticisms here directed against Mr. Glad-\\nstone s manner of theorizing.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDL\\n205\\nthe rainbow the messenger of the sky-god to earth-dwell-\\ning men to call it a token set in the sky by Jehovah, as\\nthe Hebrews did, was a very different thing. We may\\nadmit the very close resemblance between the myth of\\nBellerophon and Anteia, and that of Joseph and Zuleikha\\nbut the fact that the Greek story is explicable from Aryan\\nantecedents, while the Hebrew story is isolated, might\\nperhaps suggest the inference that the Hebrews were the\\nborrowers, as they undoubtedly were in the case of the\\nmyth of Eden. Lastly, to conclude that Helios is an\\nEastern deity, because he reigns in the East over Thrina-\\nkia, is wholly unwarranted. Is not Helios pure Greek for\\nthe sun and where should his sacred island be placed,\\nif not in the East As for his oxen, which wrought such\\ndire destruction to the comrades of Odysseus, and which\\nseem to Mr. Gladstone so anomalous, they are those very\\nsame unhappy cattle, the clouds, which were stolen by\\nthe storm-demon Cacus and the wind-deity Hermes, and\\nwhich furnished endless material for legends to the poets\\nof the Yeda.\\nBut the whole subject of comparative mythology seems\\nto be terra incognita to Mr. Gladstone. He pursues the\\neven tenour of his way in utter disregard of Grimm, and\\nKuhn, and Breal, and Dasent, and Burnouf. He takes\\nno note of the Eig-Veda, nor does he seem to realize that\\nthere was ever a time when the ancestors of the Greeks\\nand Hindus worshipped the same gods. Two or three\\ntimes he cites Max Muller, but makes no use of the\\ncopious data which might be gathered from him. The\\nonly work which seems really to have attracted his at-\\ntention is M. Jacolliot s very discreditable performance\\ncalled The Bible in India. Mr. Gladstone does not,\\nindeed, unreservedly approve of this book but neither\\ndoes he appear to suspect that it is a disgraceful piece of", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "206\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\ncharlatanry, written by a man ignorant of the very rudi-\\nments of the subject which he professes to handle.\\nMr. Gladstone is equally out of his depth when he\\ncomes to treat purely philological questions. Of the\\nscience of philology, as based upon established laws of\\nphonetic change, he seems to have no knowledge what-\\never. He seems to think that two words are sufficiently\\nproved to be connected when they are seen to resemble\\neach other in spelling or in sound. Thus he quotes approv-\\ningly a derivation of the name Tliemis from an assumed\\nverb them, to speak, whereas it is notoriously derived\\nfrom tIOtj/m, as statute comes ultimately from stare. His\\nreference of hieros, a priest, and geron, an old man,\\nto the same root, is utterly baseless the one is the San-\\nskrit ishiras, a powerful man, the other is the Sanskrit\\njaran, an old man. The lists of words on pages 96\\n100 are disfigured by many such errors and indeed the\\nwhole purpose for which they are given shows how sadly\\nMr. Gladstone s philology is in arrears. The theory of\\nMebuhr that the words common to Greek and Latin,\\nmostly descriptive of peaceful occupations, are Pelasgian\\nwas serviceable enough in its day, but is now rendered\\nwholly antiquated by the discovery that such words are\\nAryan, in the widest sense. The Pelasgian theory works\\nvery smoothly so long as we only compare the Greek\\nwith the Latin words, as, for instance, \u00c2\u00a3uydv with ju-\\ngum but when we add the English yoke and the San-\\nskrit yugam, it is evident that we have got far out of the\\nrange of the Pelasgoi. But what shall we say when we\\nfind Mr. Gladstone citing the Latin thalamus in sup-\\nport of this antiquated theory Doubtless the word tha-\\nlamus is, or should be, significative of peaceful occupa-\\ntions but it is not a Latin word at all, except by\\nadoption. One might as well cite the word ensemble to", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "JUVENTUS MUNDI.\\n207\\nprove the original identity or kinship between English\\nand French.\\nWhen Mr. Gladstone, leaving the dangerous ground of\\npure and applied philology, confines himself to illustrat-\\ning the contents of the Homeric poems, he is always ex-\\ncellent. His chapter on the Outer Geography of the\\nOdyssey is exceedingly interesting showing as it does\\nhow much may be obtained from the patient and atten-\\ntive study of even a single author. Mr. Gladstone s\\nknowledge of the surface of the Iliad and Odyssey, so\\nto speak, is extensive and accurate. It is when he\\nattempts to penetrate beneath the surface and survey the\\ntreasures hidden in the bowels of the earth, that he\\nshows himself unprovided with the talisman of the wise\\ndervise, which alone can unlock those mysteries. But\\nmodern philology is an exacting science to approach its\\nhigher problems requires an amount of preparation suf-\\nficient to terrify at the outset all but the boldest and a\\nman who has had to regulate taxation, and make out\\nfinancial statements, and lead a political party in a great\\nnation, may well be excused for ignorance of philology.\\nIt is difficult enough for those who have little else to do\\nbut to pore over treatises on phonetics, and thumb their\\nlexicons, to keep fully abreast with the latest views in\\nlinguistics. In matters of detail one can hardly ever\\nbroach a new hypothesis without misgivings lest some-\\nbody, in some weekly journal published in Germany,\\nmay just have anticipated and refuted it. Yet while Mr.\\nGladstone may be excused for being unsound in philol-\\nogy, it is far less excusable that he should sit down to\\nwrite a book about Homer, abounding in philological\\nstatements, without the slightest knowledge of what has\\nbeen achieved in that science for several years past. In\\nspite of all drawbacks, however, his book shows an abid-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "208\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ning taste for scholarly pursuits, and therefore deserves a\\ncertain kind of praise. I hope, though just now the\\nidea savours of the ludicrous, that the day may some\\ntime arrive when our Congressmen and Secretaries of the\\nTreasury will spend their vacations in writing books\\nabout Greek antiquities, or in illustrating the meaning\\nof Homeric phrases.\\nJuly, 1870.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "TUB PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n209\\nVII.\\nTHE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WOKLD.\\nNO earnest student of human culture can as yet have\\nforgotten or wholly outlived the feeling of delight\\nawak3ned by the first perusal of Max Muller s brilliant\\nEssay on Comparative Mythology, a work in which\\nthe scientific principles of myth-interpretation, though\\nnot newly announced, were at least brought home to the\\nreader with such an amount of fresh and striking con-\\ncrete illustration as they had not before received. Yet\\nit must have occurred to more than one reader that, while\\nthe analyses of myths contained in this noble essay are\\nin the main sound in principle and correct in detail,\\nnevertheless the author s theory of the genesis of myth\\nis expressed, and most likely conceived, in a way that is\\nvery suggestive of carelessness and fallacy. There are\\nobvious reasons for doubting whether the existence of\\nmythology can be due to any disease, abnormity, or\\nhypertrophy of metaphor in language and the criticism\\nat once arises, that with the myth-makers it was not so\\nmuch the character of the expression which originated the\\nthought, as it was the thought which gave character to the\\nexpression. It is not that the early Aryans were myth-\\nmakers because their language abounded in metaphor it\\nis that the Aryan mother-tongue abounded in metaphor\\nbecause the men and women who spoke it were myth-\\nmakers. And they were myth-makers because they had\\nnothing but the phenomena of human will and effort\\nwith which to compare objective phenomena. Therefore\\nN", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "2IO\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nit was that they spoke of the sun as an unwearied voy-\\nager or a matchless archer, and classified inanimate no\\nless than animate objects as masculine and feminine.\\nMax Muller s way of stating his theory, both in this Essay\\nand in his later Lectures, affords one among several in-\\nstances of the curious manner in which he combines a\\nmarvellous penetration into the significance of details with\\na certain looseness of general conception.* The princi-\\nples of philological interpretation are an indispensable\\naid to us in detecting the hidden meaning of many a\\nlegend in which the powers of nature are represented in\\nthe guise of living and thinking persons but before we can\\nget at the secret of the myth-making tendency itself, we\\nmust leave philology and enter upon a psychological\\nstudy. We must inquire into the characteristics of that\\nprimitive style of thinking to which it seemed quite\\nnatural that the sun should be an unerring archer, and\\nthe thunder-cloud a black demon or gigantic robber find-\\nThe expression that the Erinys, Saranyu, the Dawn, finds out the\\ncriminal, was originally quite free from mythology it meant no more,\\nthan that crime would he brought to light some day or other. It became\\nmythological, however, as soon as the etymological meaning of Erinys\\nwas forgotten, and as soon as the Dawn, a portion of time, assumed the\\nrank of a personal being. Science of Language, 6th edition, II. 615.\\nThis paragraph, in which the italicizing is mine, contains Max Muller s\\ntheory in a nutshell. It seems to me wholly at variance with the facts\\nof history. The facts concerning primitive culture which are to be cited\\nin this paper will show that the case is just the other way. Instead of\\nthe expression Erinys finds the criminal being originally a metaphor,\\nit was originally a literal statement of what was believed to be fact.\\nThe Dawn (not a portion of time, but the rosy flush of the morn-\\ning sky) was originally regarded as a real person. Primitive men, strictly\\nspeaking, do not talk in metaphors they believe in the literal truth of\\ntheir similes and personifications, from which, by survival in culture, our\\npoetic metaphors are lineally descended. Homer s allusion to a rolling\\nstone as itraifiepos or yearning (to keep on rolling), is to us a mere\\nfigurative expression but to the savage it is the description of a fact.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n211\\ning his richly merited doom at the hands of the indignant\\nLord of Light.\\nAmono: recent treatises which have dealt with this\\ninteresting problem, we shall find it advantageous to\\ngive especial attention to Mr. Tylor s Primitive Cult-\\nure, one of the few erudite works which are at once\\ntruly great and thoroughly entertaining. The learning\\ndisplayed in it would do credit to a German specialist,\\nboth for extent and for minuteness, while the orderly ar-\\nrangement of the arguments and the elegant lucidity of\\nthe style are such as we are accustomed to expect from\\nFrench essay- writers. And what is still more admirable\\nis the way in which the enthusiasm characteristic of\\na genial and original speculator is tempered by the\\npatience and caution of a cool-headed critic. Patience\\nand caution are nowhere more needed than in writers\\nwho deal with mythology and with primitive religious\\nideas but these qualities are too seldom found in com-\\nbination with the speculative boldness which is required\\nwhen fresh theories are to be framed or new paths of\\ninvestigation opened. The state of mind in which the\\nexplaining powers of a favourite theory are fondly con-\\ntemplated is, to some extent, antagonistic to the state of\\nmind in which facts are seen, with the eye of impartial\\ncriticism, in all their obstinate and uncompromising real-\\nity. To be able to preserve the balance between the two\\nopposing tendencies is to give evidence of the most con-\\nsummate scientific training. It is from the want of such\\na balance that the recent great work of Mr. Cox is at\\ntimes so unsatisfactory. It may, I fear, seem ill-natured\\nto say so, but the eagerness with which Mr. Cox waylays\\nPrimitive Culture Eesearches into the Development of Mythology,\\nPhilosophy, Eeligion, Art, and Custom. By Edward B. Tylor. 2 vols,\\n8vo. London. 1871.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "212\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nevery available illustration of the physical theory of the\\norigin of myths has now and then the curious effect of\\nweakening the reader s conviction of the soundness of\\nthe theory. For my own part, though by no means in-\\nclined to waver in adherence to a doctrine once adopted\\non good grounds, I never felt so much like rebelling\\nagainst the mythologic supremacy of the Sun and the\\nDawn as when reading Mr. Cox s volumes. That Mr.\\nTylor, while defending the same fundamental theory,\\nawakens no such rebellious feelings, is due to his clear\\nperception and realization of the fact that it is impossible\\nto generalize in a single formula such many-sided corre-\\nspondences as those which primitive poetry and philosophy\\nhave discerned between the life of man and the life of\\noutward nature. Whoso goes roaming up and down the\\nelf-land of popular fancies, with sole intent to resolve\\neach episode of myth into some answering physical event,\\nhis only criterion being outward resemblance, cannot be\\ntrusted in his conclusions, since wherever he turns for\\nevidence he is sure to find something that can be made\\nto serve as such. As Mr. Tylor observes, no household\\nlegend or nursery rhyme is safe from his hermeneutics.\\nShould he, for instance, demand as his property the\\nnursery Song of Sixpence, his claim would be easily\\nestablished, obviously the four-and-twenty blackbirds\\nare the four-and-twenty hours, and the pie that holds\\nthem is the underlying earth covered with the overarch-\\ning sky, how true a touch of nature it is that when the\\npie is opened, that is, when day breaks, the birds begin\\nto sing the King is the Sun, and his counting out his\\nmoney is pouring out the sunshine, the golden shower of\\nDanae; the Queen is the Moon, and her transparent\\nhoney the moonlight the Maid is the c rosy-fingered\\nDawn, who rises before the Sun, her master, and hangs", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n213\\nout the clouds, his clothes, across the sky the particular\\nblackbird, who so tragically ends the tale by snipping off\\nher nose, is the hour of sunrise. In all this interpreta-\\ntion there is no a priori improbability, save, perhaps, in\\nits unbroken symmetry and completeness. That some\\npoints, at least, of the story are thus derived from antique\\ninterpretations of physical events, is in harmony with all\\nthat we know concerning nursery rhymes. In short, the\\ntime-honoured rhyme really wants but one thing to\\nprove it a sun-myth, that one thing being a proof by\\nsome argument more valid than analogy. The character\\nof the argument which is lacking may be illustrated by\\na reference to the rhyme about Jack and Jill, explained\\nsome time since in the paper on The Origins of Folk-\\nLore. If the argument be thought valid which shows\\nthese ill-fated children to be the spots on the moon, it is\\nbecause the proof consists, not in the analogy, which is\\nin this case not especially obvious, but in the fact that\\nin the Edda, and among ignorant Swedish peasants of\\nour own day, the story of Jack and Jill is actually given\\nas an explanation of the moon-spots. To the neglect of\\nthis distinction between what is plausible and what is\\nsupported by direct evidence, is due much of the crude\\nspeculation which encumbers the study of myths.\\nIt is when Mr. Tylor merges the study of mythology\\ninto the wider inquiry into the characteristic features of\\nthe mode of thinking in which myths originated, that we\\ncan best appreciate the practical value of that union of\\nspeculative boldness and critical sobriety which every-\\nwhere distinguishes him. It is pleasant to meet with a\\nwriter who can treat of primitive religious ideas without\\nlosing his head over allegory and symbolism, and who\\nduly realizes the fact that a savage is not a rabbinical\\ncommentator, or a cabalist, or a Eosicrucian, but a plain", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "214\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nman who draws conclusions like ourselves, though with\\nfeeble intelligence and scanty knowledge. The mystic\\nallegory with which such modern writers as Lord Bacon\\nhave invested the myths of antiquity is no part of their\\noriginal clothing, but is rather the late product of a style\\nof reasoning from analogy quite similar to that which we\\nshall perceive to have guided the myth-makers in their\\nprimitive constructions. The myths and customs and\\nbeliefs which, in an advanced stage of culture, seem\\nmeaningless save when characterized by some quaintly\\nwrought device of symbolic explanation, did not seem\\nmeaningless in the lower culture which gave birth to\\nthem. Myths, like words, survive their primitive mean-\\nings. In the early stage the myth is part and parcel of\\nthe current mode of philosophizing the explanation\\nwhich it offers is, for the time, the natural one, the one\\nwhich would most readily occur to any one thinking on\\nthe theme with which the myth is concerned. But by\\nand by the mode of philosophizing has changed expla-\\nnations which formerly seemed quite obvious no longer\\noccur to any one, but the myth has acquired an indepen-\\ndent substantive existence, and continues to be handed\\ndown from parents to children as something true, though\\nno one can tell why it is true. Lastly, the myth itself\\ngradually fades from remembrance, often leaving behind\\nit some utterly unintelligible custom or seemingly absurd\\nsuperstitious notion. For example, to recur to an illus-\\ntration already cited in a previous paper, it is still\\nbelieved here and there by some venerable granny that it\\nis wicked to kill robins; but he who should attribute\\nthe belief to the old granny s refined sympathy with all\\nsentient existence, would be making one of the blun-\\nders which are always committed by those who reason\\na priori about historical matters without following the", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. 21$\\nhistorical method. At an earlier date the superstition\\nexisted in the shape of a belief that the killing of a\\nrobin portends some calamity in a still earlier form the\\ncalamity is specified as death and again, still earlier, as\\ndeath by lightning. Another step backward reveals that\\nthe dread sanctity of the robin is owing to the fact that\\nhe is the bird of Thor, the lightning god and finally we\\nreach that primitive stage of philosophizing in which the\\nlightning is explained as a red bird dropping from its\\nbeak a worm which cleaveth the rocks. Again, the belief\\nthat some harm is sure to come to him who saves the life\\nof a drowning man, is unintelligible until it is regarded\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2as a case of survival in culture. In the older form of the\\nsuperstition it is held that the rescuer will sooner or later\\nbe drowned himself and thus we pass to the fetichistic\\ninterpretation of drowning as the seizing of the unfortu-\\nnate person by the water-spirit or nixy, who is naturally\\nangry at being deprived of his victim, and henceforth\\nbears a special grudge against the bold mortal who has\\nthus dared to frustrate him.\\nThe interpretation of the lightning as a red bird, and\\nof drowning as the work of a smiling but treacherous\\nfiend, are parts of that primitive philosophy of nature in\\nwhich all forces objectively existing are conceived as\\nidentical with the force subjectively known as volition.\\nIt is this philosophy, currently known as fetichism, but\\ntreated by Mr. Tylor under the somewhat more compre-\\nhensive name of animism, which we must now consider\\nin a few of its most conspicuous exemplifications. When\\nwe have properly characterized some of the processes\\nwhich the untrained mind habitually goes through, we\\nshall have incidentally arrived at a fair solution of the\\ngenesis of mythology.\\nLet us first note the ease with which the barbaric or", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "216\\nMFTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nuncultivated mind reaches all manner of apparently fan-\\nciful conclusions through reckless reasoning from analogy.\\nIt is through the operation of certain laws of ideal as-\\nsociation that all human thinking, that of the highest as\\nwell as that of the lowest minds, is conducted the dis-\\ncovery of the law of gravitation, as well as the invention\\nof such a superstition as the Hand of Glory, is at bottom\\nbut a case of association of ideas. The difference between\\nthe scientific and the mythologic inference consists solely\\nin the number of checks which in the former case combine\\nto prevent any other than the true conclusion from being\\nframed into a proposition to which the mind assents.\\nCountless accumulated experiences have taught the modern\\nthat there are many associations of ideas which do not\\ncorrespond to any actual connection of cause and effect in\\nthe world of phenomena and he has learned accordingly\\nto apply to his newly framed notions the rigid test of ver-\\nification. Besides which the same accumulation of ex-\\nperiences has built up an organized structure of ideal asso-\\nciations into which only the less extravagant newly framed\\nnotions have any chance of fitting. The primitive man, or\\nthe modern savage who is to some extent his counterpart,\\nmust reason without the aid of these multifarious checks.\\nThat immense mass of associations which answer to what\\nare called physical laws, and which in the mind of the\\ncivilized modern have become almost organic, have not\\nbeen formed in the mind of the savage nor has he\\nlearned the necessity of experimentally testing any of\\nhis newly framed notions, save perhaps a few of the\\ncommonest. Consequently there is nothing but super-\\nficial analogy to guide the course of his thought hither\\nor thither, and the conclusions at which he arrives will\\nbe determined by associations of ideas occurring appar-\\nently at haphazard. Hence the quaint or grotesque fan-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n217\\ncies with which European and barbaric folk-lore is filled,\\nin the framing of which the myth-maker was but reason-\\ning according to the best methods at his command. To\\nthis simplest class, in which the association of ideas is\\ndetermined by mere analogy, belong such cases as that\\nof the Zulu, who chews a piece of wood in order to soften\\nthe heart of the man with whom he is about to trade\\nfor cows, or the Hessian lad who thinks he may escape\\nthe conscription by carrying a baby-girl s cap in his\\npocket, a symbolic way of repudiating manhood.\\nA similar style of thinking underlies the mediaeval\\nnecromancer s practice of making a waxen image of his\\nenemy and shooting at it with arrows, in order to bring\\nabout the enemy s death as also the case of the magic\\nrod, mentioned in a previous paper, by means of which\\na sound thrashing can be administered to an absent foe\\nthrough the medium of an old coat which is imagined to\\ncover him. The principle involved here is one which is\\ndoubtless familiar to most children, and is closely akin to\\nthat which Irving so amusingly illustrates in his doughty\\ngeneral who struts through a field of cabbages or corn-\\nstalks, smiting them to earth with his cane, and\\nimagining himself a hero of chivalry conquering single-\\nhanded a host of caitiff ruffians. Of like origin are the\\nfancies that the breaking of a mirror heralds a death in\\nthe family, probably because of the destruction of the\\nreflected human image that the hair of the dog that\\nbit you will prevent hydrophobia if laid upon the\\nwound or that the tears shed by human victims, sacri-\\nficed to mother earth, will bring down showers upon the\\nland. Mr. Tylor cites Lord Chesterfield s remark, that\\nthe king had been ill, and that people generally expected\\nthe illness to be fatal, because the oldest lion in the\\nTylor, op. cit. L 107.\\n10", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "218\\nMYTHS AXD MYTH-MAKERS.\\nTower, about the kings age, had just died. So wild\\nand capricious is the human mind, observes the elegant\\nletter-writer. But indeed, as Mr. Tylor justly remarks,\\nthe thought was neither wild nor capricious it was\\nsimply such an argument from analogy as the educated\\nworld has at length painfully learned to be worthless, but\\nwhich, it is not too much to declare, would to this day\\ncarry considerable weight to the minds of four fifths of the\\nhuman race. Upon such symbolism are based most of\\nthe practices of divination and the great pseudo-science\\nof astrology. It is an old story, that when two brothers\\nwere once taken ill together, Hippokrates, the physician,\\nconcluded from the coincidence that they were twins, but\\nPoseiclonios, the astrologer, considered rather that they\\nwere born under the same constellation; we may add\\nthat either argument would be thought reasonable by a\\nsavage. So when a Maori fortress is attacked, the be-\\nsiegers and besieged look to see if Yenus is near the\\nmoon. The moon represents the fortress; and if it\\nappears below the companion planet, the besiegers will\\ncarry the day, otherwise they will be repulsed. Equally\\nprimitive and childlike was Eousseau s train of thought\\non the memorable day at Les Charmettes when, being\\ndistressed with doubts as to the safety of his soul, he\\nsought to determine the point by throwing a stone at a\\ntree. Hit, sign of salvation miss, sign of damnation\\nThe tree being a large one and very near at hand, the\\nresult of the experiment was reassuring, and the young\\nphilosopher walked away without further misgivings con-\\ncerning this momentous question.*\\nWhen the savage, whose highest intellectual efforts\\nresult only in speculations of this childlike character, is\\nRousseau, Confessions, I. vi. For farther illustration, see especially\\nthe note on the doctrine of signatures, supra, p. 55.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n219\\nconfronted with the phenomena of dreams, it is easy to\\nsee what he will make of them. His practical knowledge\\nof psychology is too limited to admit of his distinguish-\\ning between the solidity of waking experience and what\\nwe may call the unsubstantialness of the dream. He\\nmay, indeed, have learned that the dream is not to be\\nrelied on for telling the truth the Zulu, for example,\\nhas even reached the perverse triumph of critical logic\\nachieved by our own Aryan ancestors in the saying that\\ndreams go by contraries. But the Zulu has not learned,\\nnor had the primeval Aryan learned, to disregard the\\nutterances of the dream as being purely subjective phe-\\nnomena. To the mind as yet untouched by modern cult-\\nure, the visions seen and the voices heard in sleep possess\\nas much objective reality as the gestures and shouts of\\nwaking hours. When the savage relates his dream, he\\ntells how he saw certain dogs, dead warriors, or demons\\nlast night, the implication being that the things seen\\nwere objects external to himself. As Mr. Spencer ob-\\nserves, his rude language fails to state the difference\\nbetween seeing and dreaming that he saw, doing and\\ndreaming that he did. From this inadequacy of his\\nlanguage it not only results that he cannot truly represent\\nthis difference to others, but also that he cannot truly\\nrepresent it to himself. Hence in the absence of an\\nalternative interpretation, his belief, and that of those to\\nwhom he tells his adventures, is that his other self has\\nbeen away and came back when he awoke. And this\\nbelief, which we find among various existing savage\\ntribes, we equally find in the traditions of the early\\ncivilized races.\\nLet us consider, for a moment, this assumption of the\\nSpencer, Eecent Discussions in Science, etc., p. 36, The Origin of\\nAnimal Worship.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "220\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nother self, for upon this is based the great mass of crude\\ninference which constitutes the primitive man s philoso-\\nphy of nature. The hypothesis of the other self, which\\nserves to account for the savage s wanderings during\\nsleep in strange lands and among strange people, serves\\nalso to account for the presence in his dreams of parents,\\ncomrades, or enemies, known to be dead and buried. The\\nother self of the dreamer meets and converses with the\\nother selves of his dead brethren, joins with them in the\\nhunt, or sits down with them to the wild cannibal ban-\\nquet. Thus arises the belief in an ever-present world of\\nsouls or ghosts, a belief which the entire experience of\\nuncivilized man goes to strengthen and expand. The\\nexistence of some tribe or tribes of savages wholly desti-\\ntute of religious belief has often been hastily asserted\\nand as often called in question. But there is no question\\nthat, while many savages are unable to frame a concep-\\ntion so general as that of godhood, on the other hand no\\ntribe has ever been found so low in the scale of intel-\\nligence as not to have framed the conception of ghosts or\\nspiritual personalities, capable of being angered, propi-\\ntiated, or conjured with. Indeed it is not improbable\\na priori that the original inference involved in the notion\\nof the other self may be sufficiently simple and obvious\\nto fall within the capacity of animals even less intel-\\nligent than uncivilized man. An authentic case is on\\nrecord of a Skye terrier who, being accustomed to obtain\\nfavours from his master by sitting on his haunches, will\\nalso sit before his pet india-rubber ball placed on the\\nchimney-piece, evidently beseeching it to jump down\\nand play with him.* Such a fact as this is quite in\\nSee Nature, Vol. VI. p. 262, August 1, 1872. The circumstances\\nnarrated are such as to exclude the supposition that the sitting up is in-\\ntended to attract the master s attention. The dog has frequently beea", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n221\\nharmony with Auguste Comte s suggestion that such in-\\ntelligent animals as dogs, apes, and elephants may be\\ncapable of forming a few fetichistic notions. The be-\\nhaviour of the terrier here rests upon the assumption\\nthat the ball is open to the same sort of entreaty which\\nprevails with the master which implies, not that the\\nwistful brute accredits the ball with a soul, but that in\\nhis mind the distinction between life pud inanimate\\nexistence has never been thoroughly established. Just\\nthis confusion between things living and things not liv-\\ning is present throughout the whole philosophy of feti-\\nchism and the confusion between things seen and things\\ndreamed, which suggests the notion of another self, be-\\nlongs to this same twilight stage of intelligence in which\\nprimeval man has not yet clearly demonstrated his im-\\nmeasurable superiority to the brutes.*\\nseen trying to soften the heart of the ball, while observed unawares by\\nhis master.\\nWe would, however, commend to Mr. Fiske s attention Mr. Mark\\nTwain s dog, who could n t be depended on for a special providence,\\nas being nearer to the actual dog of every-day life than is the Skye ter-\\nrier mentioned by a certain correspondent of Nature, to whose letter\\nMr. Fiske refers. The terrier is held to have had a few fetichistic no-\\ntions, because he was found standing up on his hind legs in front of a\\nmantel-piece, upon which lay an india-rubber ball with which he wished\\nto play, but which he could not reach, and which, says the letter- writer,\\nhe was evidently beseeching to come down and play with him. We\\nconsider it more reasonable to suppose that a dog who had been drilled\\ninto a belief that standing upon his hind legs was very pleasing to his\\nmaster, and who, therefore, had accustomed himself to stand on his\\nhind legs whenever he desired anything, and whose usual way of get-\\nting what he desired was to induce somebody to get it for him, may\\nhave stood up in front of the mantel-piece rather from force of habit and\\neagerness of desire than because he had any fetichistic notions, or ex-\\npected the india-rubber ball to listen to his supplications. We admit,\\nhowever, to avoid polemical controversy, that in matter of religion the\\ndog is capable of anything. The Nation, Vol. XV. p. 284, October\\n1, 1872. To be sure, I do not know for certain what was going on in", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "222\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nThe conception of a soul or other self, capable of going\\naway from the body and returning to it, receives decisive\\nconfirmation from the phenomena of fainting, trance,\\ncatalepsy, and ecstasy,* which occur less rarely among\\nsavages, owing to their irregular mode of life, than\\namong civilized men. Further verification, observes\\nMr. Spencer, is afforded by every epileptic subject, into\\nwhose body, during the absence of the other self, some\\nenemy has entered for how else does it happen that the\\nother self on returning denies all knowledge of what his\\nbody has been doing And this supposition, that the\\nbody has been possessed by some other being, is con-\\nfirmed by the phenomena of somnambulism and insan-\\nthe dog s mind and so, letting both explanations stand, I will only add\\nanother fact of similar import. The tendency in savages to imagine\\nthat natural objects and agencies are animated by spiritual or living\\nessences is perhaps illustrated by a little fact which I once noticed\\nmy dog, a full-grown and very sensible animal, was lying on the lawn\\nduring a hot and still day but at a little distance a slight breeze occa-\\nsionally moved an open parasol, which would have been wholly disre-\\ngarded by the dog, had any one stood near it. As it was, every time\\nthat the parasol slightly moved, the dog growled fiercely and barked.\\nHe must, I think, have reasoned to himself, in a rapid and unconscious\\nmanner, that movement without any apparent cause indicated the pres-\\nence of some strange living agent, and no stranger had a right to be on\\nhis territory. Darwin, Descent of Man, Vol. T. p. 64. Without in-\\nsisting upon all the details of this explanation, one may readily grant, I\\nthink, that in the dog, as in the savage, there is an undisturbed associ-\\nation between motion and a living motor agency and that out of a\\nmultitude of just such associations common to both, the savage, with his\\ngreater generalizing power, frames a truly fetichistic conception.\\nNote the fetichism wrapped up in the etymologies of these Greek\\nwords. Catalepsy, /cardA^i/as, a seizing of the body by some spirit or\\ndemon, who holds it rigid. Ecstasy, ^Kcrraais, a displacement or re-\\nmoval of the soul from the body, into which the demon enters and\\ncauses strange laughing, crying, or contortions. It is not metaphor,\\nbut the literal belief in a ghost-world, which has given rise to such\\nwords as these, and to such expressions as a man beside himself or\\ntransported.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. 22$\\nity. Still further, as Mr. Spencer points out, when we\\nrecollect that savages are very generally unwilling to\\nhave their portraits taken, lest a portion of themselves\\nshould get carried off and be exposed to foul play,* we\\nSomething akin to the savage s belief in the animation of pictures\\nmay be seen in young children. I have often been asked by my three-\\nyear-old boy, whether the dog in a certain picture would bite him if he\\nwere to go near it and I can remember that, in my own childhood,\\nwhen reading a book about insects, which had the formidable likeness\\nof a spider stamped on the centre of the cover, I was always uneasy lest\\nmy finger should come in contact with the dreaded thing as I held the\\nbook.\\nWith the savage s unwillingness to have his portrait taken, lest it fall\\ninto the hands of some enemy who may injure him by conjuring with\\nit, may be compared the reluctance which he often shows toward telling\\nhis name, or mentioning the name of his friend, or king, or tutelar\\nghost-deity. In fetichistic thought, the name is an entity mysteriously\\nassociated with its owner, and it is not well to run the risk of its get-\\nting into hostile hands. Along with this caution goes the similarly\\noriginated fear that the person whose name is spoken may resent such\\nmeddling with his personality. For the latter reason the Dayak will\\nnot allude by name to the small-pox, but will call it the chief or\\njungle-leaves the Laplander speaks of the bear as the old man\\nwith the fur coat in Annam the tiger is called grandfather or\\nLord while in more civilized communities such sayings are current\\nas talk of the Devil, and he will appear, with which we may also\\ncompare such expressions as Eurnenides or gracious ones for the\\nFuries, and other like euphemisms. Indeed, the maxim nil mortuis\\nnisi bonum had most likely at one time a fetichistic flavour.\\nIn various islands of the Pacific, for both the reasons above specified, the\\nname of the reigning chief is so rigorously tabu, that common words\\nand even syllables resembling that name in sound must be omitted from\\nthe language. In New Zealand, where a chief s name was Maripi, or\\nknife, it became necessary to call knives nekra and in Tahiti, fetu,\\nstar, had to be changed into fetia, and tui, to strike, became tiai,\\netc., because the king s name was Tu. Curious freaks are played with\\nthe languages of these islands by this ever-recurring necessity. Among\\nthe Kafirs the women have come to speak a different dialect from the\\nmen, because words resembling the names of their lords or male rela-\\ntives are in like manner tabu. The student of human culture will\\ntrace among such primeval notions the origin of the Jew s unwillingness", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "224\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nmust readily admit that the weird reflection of the person\\nand imitation of the gestures in rivers or still woodland\\npools will go far to intensify the belief in the other self.\\nLess frequent but uniform confirmation is to be found in\\nechoes, which in Europe within two centuries have been\\ncommonly interpreted as the voices of mocking fiends or\\nwood-nymphs, and which the savage might well regard\\nas the utterances of his other self.\\nChamisso s well-known tale of Peter Schlemihl belongs\\nto a widely diffused family of legends, which show that a\\nman s shadow has been generally regarded not only as an\\nentity, but as a sort of spiritual attendant of the body,\\nwhich under certain circumstances it may permanently\\nforsake. It is in strict accordance with this idea that\\nnot only in the classic languages, but in various barbaric\\ntongues, the word for shadow expresses also the soul\\nor other self. Tasmanians, Algonquins, Central- Ameri-\\ncans, Abipones, Basutos, and Zulus are cited by Mr. Tylor\\nas thus implicitly asserting the identity of the shadow\\nwith the ghost or phantasm seen in dreams the Basutos\\ngoing so far as to think that if a man walks on the\\nriver-bank, a crocodile may seize his shadow in the water\\nand draw him in. Among the Algonquins a sick person\\nis supposed to have his shadow or other self temporarily\\ndetached from his body, and the convalescent is at times\\nreproached for exposing himself before his shadow was\\nsafely settled down in him. If the sick man has been\\nto pronounce the name of Jehovah. and hence we may perhaps have\\nbefore us the ultimate source of the horror with which the Hebraizing\\nPuritan regards such forms of light swearing Mon Dieu, etc.\\nas are still tolerated on the continent of Europe, but have disappeared\\nfrom good society in Puritanic England and America. The reader in-\\nterested in this group of ideas and customs may consult Tylor, Early\\nHistory of Mankind, pp. 142, 363 Max Miiller, Science of Language,\\n6th edition, Yol. II. p. 37 Mackay, Religious Development of the\\nGreeks and Hebrews, Yol. I. p. 146.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. 22$\\nplunged into stupor, it is because his other self has\\ntravelled away as far as the brink of the river of death,\\nbut not being allowed to cross has come back and re-\\nentered him. And acting upon a similar notion the ail-\\ning Fiji will sometimes lie down and raise a hue and cry\\nfor his soul to be brought back. Thus, continues Mr.\\nTylor, in various countries the bringing back of lost\\nsouls becomes a regular part of the sorcerer s or priest s\\nprofession. On Aryan soil we find the notion of a\\ntemporary departure of the soul surviving to a late date\\nin the theory that the witch may attend the infernal Sab-\\nbath while her earthly tabernacle is quietly sleeping at\\nhome. The primeval conception reappears, clothed in\\nbitterest sarcasm, in Dante s reference to his living con-\\ntemporaries whose souls he met with in the vaults of\\nhell, while their bodies were still walking about on the\\nearth, inhabited by devils.\\nThe theory which identifies the soul with the shadow,\\nand supposes the shadow to depart with the sickness and\\ndeath of the body, would seem liable to be attended with\\nsome difficulties in the way of verification, even to the\\ndim intelligence of the savage. But the propriety of\\nidentifying soul and breath is borne out by all primeval\\nexperience. The breath, which really quits the body at\\nits decease, has furnished the chief name for the soul,\\nnot only to the Hebrew, the Sanskrit, and the classic\\ntongues not only to German and English, where geist,\\nand ghost, according to Max Mtiller, have the meaning of\\nbreath, and are akin to such words as gas, gust, and\\ngeyser but also to numerous barbaric languages. Among\\nTylor, Primitive Culture, I. 394. The Zulus hold that a dead\\nbody can cast no shadow, because that appurtenance departed from it at\\nthe close of life. Hardwick, Traditions, Superstitions, and Folk-Lore,\\np. 123.\\n10* O", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "226\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nthe natives of Nicaragua and California, in Java and in\\nWest Australia, the soul is described as the air or breeze\\nwhich passes in and out through the nostrils and mouth\\nand the Greenlanders, according to Cranz, reckon two\\nseparate souls, the breath and the shadow. Among the\\nSeminoles of Florida, when a woman died in childbirth,\\nthe infant was held over her face to receive her parting\\nspirit, and thus acquire strength and knowledge for iU\\nfuture use Their state of mind is kept up to this\\nday among Tyrolese peasants, who can still fancy a good\\nman s soul to issue from his mouth at death like a little\\nwhite cloud. It is kept up, too, in Lancashire, where a\\nwell-known witch died a few years since but before she\\ncould shuffle off this mortal coil she must needs trans-\\nfer her familiar spirit to some trusty successor. An in-\\ntimate acquaintance from a neighbouring township was\\nconsequently sent for in all haste, and on her arrival was\\nimmediately closeted with her dying friend. What\\npassed between them has never fully transpired, but it is\\nconfidently affirmed that at the close of the interview\\nthis associate received the witch s last breath into her mouth\\nand with it her familiar spirit. The dreaded woman\\nthus ceased to exist, but her powers for good or evil were\\ntransferred to her companion and on passing along the\\nroad from Burnley to Blackburn we can point out a farm-\\nhouse at no great distance with whose thrifty matron no\\nneighbouring farmer will yet dare to quarrel.\\nOf the theory of embodiment there will be occasion to\\nspeak further on. At present let us not pass over the\\nfact that the other self is not only conceived as shadow\\nor breath, which can at times quit the body during life,\\nbut is also supposed to become temporarily embodied in\\nTylor, op. cit. I. 391.\\nt Harland and Wilkinson, Lancashire Folk-Lore, 1867, p. 210.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n227\\nthe visible form of some bird or beast. In discussing\\nelsewhere the myth of Bishop Hatto, we saw that the\\nsoul is sometimes represented in the form of a rat or\\nmouse and in treating of werewolves we noticed the\\nbelief that the spirits of dead ancestors, borne along in\\nthe night- wind, have taken on the semblance of howling\\ndogs or wolves. Consistent with these quaint ideas are\\nceremonies in vogue in China of bringing home in a\\ncock (live or artificial) the spirit of a man deceased in a\\ndistant place, and of enticing into a sick man s coat the\\ndeparting spirit which has already left his body and so\\nconveying it back. In CastreVs great work on Fin-\\nnish mythology, we find the story of the giant who could\\nnot be killed because he kept his soul hidden in a twelve-\\nheaded snake which he carried in a bag as he rode on\\nhorseback only when the secret was discovered and the\\nsnake carefully killed, did the giant yield up his life. In\\nthis Finnish legend we have one of the thousand phases of\\nthe story of the Giant who had no Heart in his Body, but\\nwhose heart was concealed, for safe keeping, in a duck s\\negg, or in a pigeon, carefully disposed in some belfry at the\\nworld s end a million miles away, or encased in a well-\\nnigh infinite series of Chinese boxes.*)* Since, in spite\\nof all these precautions, the poor giant s heart invariably\\ncame to grief, we need not wonder at the Karen super-\\nstition that the soul is in danger when it quits the body\\nTylor, op. cit. II. 139.\\nIn Eussia the souls of the dead are supposed to be embodied in\\npigeons or crows. Thus when the Deacon Theodore and his three\\nschismatic brethren were burnt in 1681, the souls of the martyrs, as the\\nOld Believers affirm, appeared in the air as pigeons. In Volhynia\\ndead children are supposed to come back in the spring to their native\\nvillage under the semblance of swallows and other small birds, and to\\nseek by soft twittering or song to console their sorrowing parents.\\nEalston, Songs of the Kussian People, p. 118.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "228\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\non its excursions, as exemplified in countless Indo-Euro-\\npean stories of the accidental killing of the weird mouse\\nor pigeon which embodies the wandering spirit. Con-\\nversely it is heid that the detachment of the other self\\nis fraught with danger to the self which remains. In the\\nphilosophy of wraiths and fetches, the appearance\\nof a double, like that which troubled Mistress Affery in\\nher waking dreams of Mr. Flintwinch, has been from\\ntime out of mind a signal of alarm. In New Zealand\\nit is ominous to see the figure of an absent person, for if\\nit be shadowy and the face not visible, his death may\\nerelong be expected, but if the face be seen he is dead\\nalready. A party of Maoris (one of whom told the\\nstory) were seated round a fire in the open air, when\\nthere appeared, seen only by two of them, the figure of a\\nrelative, left ill at home they exclaimed, the figure van-\\nished, and on the return of the party it appeared that the\\nsick man had died about the time of the vision. The\\nbelief in wraiths has survived into modern times, and now\\nand then appears in the records of that remnant of pri-\\nmeval philosophy known as spiritualism, as, for exam-\\nple, in the case of the lady who thought she saw her\\nown father look in at the church-window at the moment\\nhe was dying in his own house.\\nThe belief in the death-fetch, like the doctrine\\nwhich identifies soul with shadow, is instructive as show-\\ning that in barbaric thought the other self is supposed to\\nresemble the material self with which it has customarily\\nbeen associated. In various savage superstitions the min-\\nute resemblance of soul to body is forcibly stated. The\\nAustralian, for instance, not content with slaying his ene-\\nmy, cuts off the right thumb of the corpse, so that the de-\\nparted soul may be incapacitated from throwing a spear.\\nTylor, op. cit. I. 404.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\nEven the half-civilized Chinese prefer crucifixion to de-\\ncapitation, that their souls may not wander headless\\nabout the spirit- world.* Thus we see how far removed\\nfrom the Christian doctrine of souls is the primeval theory\\nof the soul or other self that figures in dreamland. So\\ngrossly materialistic is the primitive conception that the\\nsavage who cherishes it will bore holes in the coffin of\\nhis dead friend, so that the soul may again have a chance,\\nif it likes, to revisit the body. To this day, among the\\npeasants in some parts of Northern Europe, when Odin,\\nthe spectral hunter, rides by attended by his furious host,\\nthe windows in every sick-room are opened, in order\\nthat the soul, if it chooses to depart, may not be hindered\\nfrom joining in the headlong chase. And so, adds Mr.\\nTylor, after the Indians of North America had spent a\\nriotous night in singeing an unfortunate captive to death\\nwith firebrands, they would howl like the fiends they\\nwere, and beat the air with brushwood, to drive away the\\ndistressed and revengeful ghost. With a kindlier feeling^\\nthe Congo negroes abstained for a whole year after a death\\nfrom sweeping the house, lest the dust should injure the\\ndelicate substance of the ghost and even now, it re-\\nmains a German peasant saying that it is wrong to slam\\na door, lest one should pinch a soul in it. Dante s ex-\\nperience with the ghosts in hell and purgatory, who were\\nastonished at his weighing down the boat in which they\\nwere carried, is belied by the sweet German notion that\\nthe dead mother s coming back in the night to suckle the\\nTylor, op. cit. I. 407.\\nTylor, op. cit. I. 410. In the next stage of survival this belief\\nwill take the shape that it is wrong to slam a door, no reason being as-\\nsigned and in the succeeding stage, when the child asks why it is naughty\\nto slam a door, he will be told, because it is an evidence of bad temper.\\nThus do old-world fancies disappear before the inroads of the practical\\nsense.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "230 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nbaby she lias left on earth may be known by the hollow\\npressed down in the bed where she lay. Almost univer-\\nsally ghosts, however impervious to thrust of sword or\\nshot of pistol, can eat and drink like Squire Westerns.\\nAnd lastly, we have the grotesque conception of souls\\nsufficiently material to be killed over again, as in the\\ncase of the negro widows who, wishing to marry a second\\ntime, will go and duck themselves in the pond, in order\\nto drown the souls of their departed husbands, which are\\nsupposed to cling about their necks while, according to\\nthe Fiji theory, the ghost of every dead warrior must go\\nthrough a terrible fight with Samu and his brethren, in\\nwhich, if he succeeds, he will enter Paradise, but if he\\nfails he will be killed over again and finally eaten by the\\ndreaded Samu and his unearthly company.\\nFrom the conception of souls embodied in beast-forms,\\nas above illustrated, it is not a wide step to the concep-\\ntion of beast-souls which, like human souls, survive the\\ndeath of the tangible body. The wide-spread supersti-\\ntions concerning werewolves and swan-maidens, and the\\nhardly less general belief in metempsychosis, show that\\nprimitive culture has not arrived at the distinction at-\\ntained by modern philosophy between the immortal man\\nand the soulless brute. Still more direct evidence is fur-\\nnished by sundry savage customs. The Kafir who has\\nkilled an elephant will cry that he did n t mean to do it,\\nand, lest the elephant s soul should still seek vengeance,\\nhe will cut off and bury the trunk, so that the mighty\\nbeast may go crippled to the spirit-land. In like manner,\\nthe Samoyeds, after shooting a bear, will gather about\\nthe body offering excuses and laying the blame on the\\nKussians and the American redskin will even put the\\npipe of peace into the dead animal s mouth, and beseech\\nhim to forgive the deed. In Assam it is believed that", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. 23 1\\nthe ghosts of slain animals will become in the next world\\nthe property of the hunter who kills them and the\\nKamtchadales expressly declare that all animals, even\\nflies and bngs, will live after death, a belief, which, in\\nour own day, has been indorsed on philosophical grounds\\nby an eminent living naturalist.* The Greenlanders, too,\\ngive evidence of the same belief by supposing that when\\nafter an exhausting fever the patient comes up in unpre-\\ncedented health and vigour, it is because he has lost his\\nformer soul and had it replaced by that of a young child\\nor a reindeer. In a recent work in which the crudest\\nfancies of primeval savagery are thinly disguised in a\\njargon learned from the superficial reading of modern\\nbooks of science, M. Figuier maintains that human souls\\nare for the most part the surviving souls of deceased ani-\\nmals in general, the souls of precocious musical children\\nlike Mozart come from nightingales, while the souls of\\ngreat architects have passed into them from beavers, etc.,\\netc. f\\nThe practice of begging pardon of the animal one has\\njust slain is in some parts of the world extended to the\\ncase of plants. When the Talein offers a prayer to the\\ntree which he is about to cut down, it is obviously be-\\ncause he regards the tree as endowed with a soul or ghost\\nwhich in the next life may need to be propitiated. And\\nthe doctrine of transmigration distinctly includes plants\\nalong with animals among the future existences into\\nwhich the human soul may pass.\\nAs plants, like animals, manifest phenomena of life,\\nthough to a much less conspicuous degree, it is not in-\\ncomprehensible that the savage should attribute souls to\\nthem. But the primitive process of anthropomorphisa-\\nAgassiz, Essay on Classification, pp. 97 99.\\nFiguier, The To-morrow of Death, p. 247.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "232\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\ntion does not end here. Not only the horse and dog, the\\nbamboo, and the oak-tree, but even lifeless objects, such\\nas the hatchet, or bow and arrows, or food and drink of\\nthe dead man, possess other selves which pass into the\\nworld of ghosts. Fijis and other contemporary savages,\\nwhen questioned, expressly declare that this is their be-\\nlief. If an axe or a chisel is worn out or broken up,\\naway flies its soul for the service of the gods. The\\nAlgonquins told Charlevoix that since hatchets and ket-\\ntles have shadows, no less than men and women, it fol-\\nlows, of course, that these shadows (or souls) must pass\\nalong with human shadows (or souls) into the spirit-land.\\nIn this we see how simple and consistent is the logic\\nwhich guides the savage, and how inevitable is the genesis\\nof the great mass of beliefs, to our minds so arbitrary\\nand grotesque, which prevail throughout the barbaric\\nworld. However absurd the belief that pots and kettles\\nhave souls may seem to us, it is nevertheless the only\\nbelief which can be held consistently by the savage to\\nwhom pots and kettles, no less than human friends or\\nenemies, may appear in his dreams who sees them fol-\\nlowed by shadows as they are moved about who hears\\ntheir voices, dull or ringing, when they are struck and\\nwho watches their doubles fantastically dancing in the\\nwater as they are carried across the stream.* To minds,\\neven in civilized countries, which are unused to the\\nsevere training of science, no stronger evidence can be\\nalleged than what is called the evidence of the senses\\nfor it is only long familiarity with science which teaches\\nHere, as usually, the doctrine of metempsychosis comes in to com-\\nplete the proof. Mr. Darwin saw two Malay women in Keeling Island,\\nwho had a wooden spoon dressed in clothes like a doll this spoon had\\nbeen carried to the grave of a dead man, and becoming inspired at full\\nmoon, in fact lunatic, it danced about convulsively like a table or a hat\\nat a modern spirit -stance. Tylor, op. cit. II. 139.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\nus that the evidence of the senses is trustworthy only in\\nso far as it is correctly interpreted by reason. For the\\ntruth of his belief in the ghosts of men and beasts, trees\\nand axes, the savage has undeniably the evidence of his\\nsenses which have so often seen, heard, and handled\\nthese other selves.\\nThe funeral ceremonies of uncultured races freshly\\nillustrate this crude philosophy, and receive fresh illus-\\ntration from it. On the primitive belief in the ghostly\\nsurvival of persons and objects rests the almost universal\\ncustom of sacrificing the wives, servants, horses, and dogs\\nof the departed chief of the tribe, as well as of presenting\\nat his shrine sacred offerings of food, ornaments, weapons,\\nand money. Among the Kayans the slaves who are killed\\nat their master s tomb are enjoined to take great care of\\ntheir master s ghost, to wash and shampoo it, and to nurse\\nit when sick. Other savages think that all whom they\\nkill in this world shall attend them as slaves after death,\\nand for this reason the thrifty Dayaks of Borneo until\\nlately would not allow their young men to marry until\\nthey had acquired some post mortem property by procur-\\ning at least one human head. It is hardly necessary to\\ndo more than allude to the Fiji custom of strangling all\\nthe wives of the deceased at his funeral, or to the equally\\nwell-known Hindu rite of suttee. Though, as Wilson\\nhas shown, the latter rite is not supported by any genuine\\nVedic authority, but only by a shameless Brahmanic cor-\\nruption of the sacred text, Mr. Tylor is nevertheless quite\\nright in arguing that unless the horrible custom had re-\\nceived the sanction of a public opinion bequeathed from\\npre- Vedic times, the Brahmans would have had no motive\\nfor fraudulently reviving it and this opinion is virtually\\nestablished by the fact of the prevalence of widow sacri-\\nfice among Gauls, Scandinavians, Slaves, and other Euro-", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "234\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\npean Aryans.* Though under English rule the rite has\\nbeen forcibly suppressed, yet the archaic sentiments\\nwhich so long maintained it are not yet extinct. Within\\nthe present year there has appeared in the newspapers a\\nnot improbable story of a beautiful and accomplished\\nHindu lady who, having become the wife of a wealthy\\nEnglishman, and after living several years in England\\namid the influences of modern society, nevertheless went\\noff and privately burned herself to death soon after her\\nhusband s decease.\\nThe reader who thinks it far-fetched to interpret funeral\\nofferings of food, weapons, ornaments, or money, on the\\ntheory of object-souls, will probably suggest that such\\nofferings may be mere memorials of affection or esteem\\nfor the dead man. Such, indeed, they have come to be\\nin many countries after surviving the phase of culture in\\nwhich they originated but there is ample evidence to\\nshow that at the outset they were presented in the belief\\nthat their ghosts would be eaten or otherwise employed\\nby the ghost of the dead man. The stout club which is\\nburied with the dead Fiji sends its soul along with him\\nthat he may be able to defend himself against the hostile\\nghosts which will lie in ambush for him on the road to\\nMbulu, seeking to kill and eat him. Sometimes the club\\nis afterwards removed from the grave as of no further use,\\nsince its ghost is all that the dead man needs. In like\\nmanner, as the Greeks gave the dead man the obolus\\nfor Charon s toll, and the old Prussians furnished him\\nwith spending money, to buy refreshment on his weary\\njourney, so to this day German peasants bury a corpse\\nwith money in his mouth or hand, and this is also said\\nto be one of the regular ceremonies of an Irish wake.\\nOf similar purport were the funeral feasts and oblations\\nTylor, op. cit. I. 414-422.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. 235\\nof food in Greece and Italy, the rice-cakes made with\\nghee destined for the Hindu sojourning in Yama s king-\\ndom, and the meat and gruel offered by the Chinaman to\\nthe manes of his ancestors. Many travellers have de-\\nscribed the imagination with which the Chinese make\\nsuch offerings. It is that the spirits of the dead consume\\nthe impalpable essence of the food, leaving behind its\\ncoarse material substance, wherefore the dutiful sacrificers,\\nhaving set out sumptuous feasts for ancestral souls, allow\\nthem a proper time to satisfy their appetite, and then\\nfall to themselves. So in the Homeric sacrifice to the\\ngods, after the deity has smelled the sweet savour and\\nconsumed the curling steam that rises ghost-like from\\nthe roasting viands, the assembled warriors devour the\\nremains.\\nThus far the course of fetichistic thought which we\\nhave traced out, with Mr. Tylor s aid, is such as is not\\nalways obvious to the modern inquirer without consider-\\nable concrete illustration. The remainder of the process,\\nresulting in that systematic and complete anthropomor-\\nphisation of nature which has given rise to mythology,\\nmay be more succinctly described. Gathering together\\nthe conclusions already obtained, we find that daily or\\nfrequent experience of the phenomena of shadows and\\ndreams has combined with less frequent experience of the\\nphenomena of trance, ecstasy, and insanity, to generate\\nin the mind of uncultured man the notion of a twofold\\nexistence appertaining alike to all animate or inanimate\\nobjects as all alike possess material bodies, so all alike\\npossess ghosts or souls. JSTow when the theory of object-\\nsouls is expanded into a general doctrine of spirits, the\\nTylor, op. cit. I. 435, 446 II. 30, 36.\\nAccording to the Karens, blindness occurs when the soul of tlie eye\\nis eaten by demons. Id., II. 353.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "236 MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nphilosophic scheme of animism is completed. Once ha-\\nbituated to the conception of souls of knives and tobacco-\\npipes passing to the land of ghosts, the savage cannot avoid\\ncarrying the interpretation still further, so that wind and\\nwater, fire and storm, are accredited with indwelling\\nspirits akin by nature to the soul which inhabits the\\nhuman frame. That the mighty spirit or demon by whose\\nimpelling will the trees are rooted up and the storm-\\nclouds driven across the sky should resemble a freed\\nhuman soul, is a natural inference, since uncultured man\\nhas not attained to the conception of physical force act-\\ning in accordance with uniform methods, and hence all\\nevents are to his mind the manifestations of capricious\\nvolition. If the fire burns down his hut, it is because the\\nfire is a person with a soul, and is angry with him, and\\nneeds to be coaxed into a kindlier mood by means of\\nprayer or sacrifice. Thus the savage has a priori no\\nalternative but to regard fire-soul as something akin to\\nhuman-soul; and in point of fact we find that savage\\nphilosophy makes no distinction between the human\\nghost and the elemental demon or deity. This is suffi-\\nciently proved by the universal prevalence of the worship\\nof ancestors. The essential principle of manes-worship\\nis that the tribal chief or patriarch, who has governed the\\ncommunity during life, continues also to govern it after\\ndeath, assisting it in its warfare with hostile tribes,\\nrewarding brave warriors, and punishing traitors and\\ncowards. Thus from the conception of the living king\\nwe pass to the notion of what Mr. Spencer calls the\\ngod-king, and thence to the rudimentary notion of deity.\\nAmong such higher savages as the Zulus, the doctrine of\\ndivine ancestors has been developed to the extent of rec-\\nognizing a first ancestor, the Great Father, Unkulunkulu,\\nwho made the world. But in the stratum of savage", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD.\\n237\\nthought in which barbaric or Aryan folk-lore is for the\\nmost part based, we find no such exalted speculation.\\nThe ancestors of the rude Veddas and of the Guinea\\nnegroes, the Hindu pitris (patres, fathers and the\\nEoman manes have become elemental deities which send\\nrain or sunshine, health or sickness, plenty or famine, and\\nto which their living offspring appeal for guidance amid\\nthe vicissitudes of life The theory of embodiment,\\nalready alluded to, shows how thoroughly the demons\\nwhich cause disease are identified with human and object\\nsouls. In Australasia it is a dead man s ghost which\\ncreeps up into the liver of the impious wretch who has\\nventured to pronounce his name while conversely in the\\nwell-known European theory of demoniacal possession,\\nit is a fairy from elf-land, or an imp from hell, which has\\nentered the body of the sufferer. In the close kinship,\\nmoreover, between disease-possession and oracle-posses-\\nsion, where the body of the Pythia, or the medicine-man,\\nis placed under the direct control of some great deity ,f\\nThe following citation is interesting as an illustration of the direct-\\nness of descent from heathen manes-worship to Christian saint-worship\\nIt is well known that Romulus, mindful of his own adventurous in-\\nfancy, became after death a Roman deity, propitious to the health and\\nsafety of young children, so that nurses and mothers would carry sickly\\ninfants to present them in his little round temple at the foot of the Pal-\\natine. In after ages the temple was replaced by the church of St. Theo-\\ndoras, and there Dr. Conyers Middleton, who drew public attention to\\nits curious history, used to look in and see ten or a dozen women, each\\nwith a sick child in her lap, sitting in silent reverence before the altar of\\nthe saint. The ceremony of blessing children, especially after vaccina-\\ntion, may still be seen there on Thursday mornings. Op. cit. II. 111.\\nWant of space prevents me from remarking at length upon Mr.\\nTylor s admirable treatment of the phenomena of oracular inspiration.\\nAttention should be called, however, to the brilliant explanation of the\\nimportance accorded by all religions to the rite of fasting. Prolonged\\nabstinence from food tends to bring on a mental state which is favour-\\nable to visions. The savage priest or medicine-man qualities himself for", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "238\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.\\nwe may see how by insensible transitions the conception\\nof the human ghost passes into tne conception of the\\nspiritual numen, or divinity.\\nTo pursue this line of inquiry through the countless\\nnymphs and dryads and nixies of the higher nature- wor-\\nship up to the Olympian divinities of classic polytheism,\\nwould be to enter upon the history of religious belief, and\\nin so doing to lose sight of our present purpose, which has\\nmerely been to show by what mental process the myth-\\nmaker can speak of natural objects in language which\\nimplies that they are animated persons. Brief as our\\naccount of this process has been, I believe that enough has\\nbeen said, not only to reveal the inadequacy of purely\\nphilological solutions (like those contained in Max Miil-\\nler s famous Essay) to explain the growth of myths, but\\nalso to exhibit the vast importance for this purpose of\\nthe kind of psychological inquiry into the mental habits\\nof savages which Mr. Tylor has so ably conducted.\\nIndeed, however lacking we may still be in points of de-\\ntail, I think we have already reached a very satisfactory\\nexplanation of the genesis of mythology. Since the essen-\\ntial characteristic of a myth is that it is an attempt to\\nexplain some natural phenomenon by endowing with\\nhuman feelings and capacities the senseless factors in the\\nphenomenon, and since it has here been shown how un-\\ncultured man, by the best use he can make of his rude\\ncommon sense, must inevitably come, and has invariably\\ncome, to regard all objects as endowed with souls, and all\\nnature as peopled with supra-human entities shaped after\\nthe general pattern of the human soul, I am inclined to\\nsuspect that we have got very near to the root of the\\nthe performance of his duties by fasting, and where this is not sufficient,\\noften uses intoxicating drugs whence the sacredness of the hasheesh, as\\nalso of the Yedic soma-juice. The practice of fasting among civilized\\npeoples is an instance of survival.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. 239\\nwhole matter. We can certainly find no difficulty in\\nseeing why a water-spout should be described in the\\nArabian Nights as a living demon The sea became\\ntroubled before them, and there arose from it a black\\npillar, ascending towards the sky, and approaching the\\nmeadow, and behold it was a Jinni, of gigantic stat-\\nure. We can see why the Moslem camel-driver should\\nfind it most natural to regard the whirling simoom as a\\nmalignant Jinni we may understand how it is that the\\nPersian sees in bodily shape the scarlet fever as a\\nblushing maid with locks of flame and cheeks all rosy\\nred and we need not consider it strange that the pri-\\nmeval Aryan should have regarded the sun as a voyager, a\\nclimber, or an archer, and the clouds as cows driven by\\nthe wind-god Hermes to their milking. The identifica-\\ntion of William Tell with the sun becomes thoroughly\\nintelligible nor can we be longer surprised at the con-\\nception of the howling night-wind as a ravenous wolf.\\nWhen pots and kettles are thought to have souls that\\nlive hereafter, there is no difficulty in understanding how\\nthe blue sky can have been regarded as the sire of gods\\nand men. And thus, as the elves and bogarts of popular\\nlore are in many cases descended from ancient divinities\\nof Olympos and Valhalla, so these in turn must acknowl-\\nedge their ancestors in the shadowy denizens of the prime-\\nval ghost- world.\\nAugust, 1872.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "NOTE.\\nThe following are some of the modern works most likely to be of use\\nto the reader who is interested in the legend of William Tell.\\nHisely, J. J. Dissertatio historica inauguralis de Gulielmo Tellio,\\netc. Groningfe, 1824.\\nIdeler, J. L. Die Sage von dem Schuss des Tell. Berlin, 1836.\\nHausser, L. Die Sage voni Tell auf s Neue kritisch untersucht. Hei-\\ndelberg, 1840.\\nHisely, J. J. Recherches critiques sur l histoire de Guillaume Tell.\\nLausanne, 1843.\\nLiebenau, H. Die Tell-Sage zu dem Jahre 1230 historiseh nach\\nneuesten Quellen. Aarau, 1864.\\nVischer, W. Die Sage von der Befreiung der Waldstatte, etc.\\nNebst einer Beilage das alteste Tellenschauspiel. Leipzig, 1867.\\nBordier, H. L. Le Griitli et Guillaume Tell, ou defense de la tra-\\ndition vulgaire sur les origines de la confederation suisse. Geneve\\net Bale, 1869.\\nThe same. La querelle sur les traditions concernant l origine de la\\nconfederation suisse. Geneve et Bale, 1869.\\nRilliet, A. Les origines de la confederation suisse histoire et\\nlegende. 2 e ed., revue et corrigee. Geneve et Bale, 1869.\\nThe same. Lettre a M. Henri Bordier a propos de sa defense de la\\ntradition vulgaire sur les origines de la confederation suisse. Gen-\\neve et Bale, 1869.\\nHungerbuhler, H. Etude critique sur les traditions relatives aux\\norigines de la confederation suisse. Geneve et Bale, 1869.\\nMeyer, Karl. Die Tellsage. [In Bartsch, Germanistisehe Studien,\\n1.159-170.] Wien, 1872.\\nSee also the articles by M. Seherer, in Le Temps, 18 Feb., 1868\\nby M. Reuss, in the Revue critique d histoire, 1868 by M. de Wiss, in\\nthe Journal de Geneve, 7 July, 1868 also Revue critique, 17 July,\\n1869 Journal de Geneve, 24 Oct., 1868 Gazette de Lausanne, feuille-\\nton litteraire, 2-5 Nov., 1868, Les origines de la confederation\\nsuisse, par M. Secretan Edinburgh Review, Jan., 1869, The Legend\\nof Tell and Riitli.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nA.\\nAbgott, 105.\\nAchaians, 180.\\nAchilleis, Mr. Grote s theory of, 187.\\nAchilleus, 20, 24, 112, 187, seq.\\nAdeva, 121.\\nAditi, 104, 110.\\nAdonis, 25, 204.\\nAgamemnon, 19, 187, seq., 200.\\nAgassiz, his belief in the immortality\\nof lower animals, 231.\\nAgni, 110.\\nAhana, 20.\\nAharyu, 20, 121, 196.\\nAhi, 58, 114, 118.\\nAhmed and the Peri Banou, 30, 43, 49.\\nAhriman, 121.\\nAhuramazda, 121.\\nAias, 193.\\nAineias, 193.\\nAithiopes, 199.\\nAladdin s ring, 45 his request for a\\nroc s egg to hang in the dome of his\\npalace, 50.\\nAleian land, 50.\\nAlexandrian library, 15.\\nAlexikakos, 117.\\nAllegorical interpretations of myths\\ninadequate, 21, 214.\\nAmbrosia, 63.\\nAmerican culture-myths, 152 sun-\\ncatcher myth, 170 tortoise myth,\\n172.\\nAmrita, 63.\\nAnalogical reasoning among savages,\\nexamples of, 217.\\nAnimism, 215.\\nAnro-mainyas, 121.\\nAnteia, 205.\\nAntigone, 115.\\nAntiquity of man, 176.\\nAntwerp, 71.\\nAphrodite, 18, 28, 30, 190, 204.\\nApollo and the Messiah, 203.\\nApsaras, 96.\\nArabian Nights, 11, 13, 36, 43, 50, 99,\\n111, 239.\\nArgive as an epithet, 202.\\nArgonauts, 133.\\nArkadians, 73.\\nArktos, 73.\\nArmida s gardens, 30.\\nArtemis, 18, 28, 190.\\nAryan immigration into Europe, 197.\\nAsh-tree dreaded by venomous snakes,\\n61.\\nAss delivered from enchantment by\\nold coat, 101.\\nAssociation of ideas variously illus-\\ntrated in scientific and in barbaric\\nthought, 216.\\nAstarte, 25, 204.\\nAstyages, 114.\\nAthene, 20 compared by Mr. Glad-\\nstone to the Logos, 203.\\nAuerbach s cellar, 124.\\nAutolykos, 71.\\nAymar, Jacques, 38, 40.\\nAzidahaka, 114.\\nB.\\nBaba Abdallah, 43.\\nBabel, 72.\\nBaga, 104.\\nBagaios, epithet of Zeus, 104.\\nBalder, 25.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "244\\nINDEX.\\nBanier, Abbe, 15.\\nBarbaric and Aryan myths, 149.\\nBarbarossa, 26, 201.\\nBaring-Gould, 7, 17, 26, 29, 40, 43, 51,\\n80, seq.\\nBazra, 71.\\nBelisarius, 15.\\nBellerophon, 19, 205.\\nBenaiab the son of Jehoiada, 43.\\nBerserkir madness, 79, 89.\\nBeth-Gellert, 7.\\nBhaga, 104.\\nBishop Hatto, 34, 72, 227.\\nBlue-beard, 60.\\nBoabdil, 26.\\nBog, Bogie, 104.\\nBoots, 9 his eating-match with the\\nTroll, 131.\\nBrahman and goat, 12.\\nBreal, Michel, 116.\\nBridge of souls, 48.\\nBridge of the dead, 151.\\nBrisaya, 20, 196.\\nBriseis, 20, 196.\\nBrunehault, 201.\\nBrynhild, 132.\\nBug-a-boo and Bugbear, 104.\\nByrsa, 71.\\nc.\\nCacus, 117, 121.\\nCsecius, 117, 121.\\nCannibalism, abnormal tailor of\\nChalons, 81 beggar of Polomyia,\\n82 Jean Grenier, 83 Jacques\\nEoulet, 84.\\nCannibals (in Zulu folk-lore) and\\nTrolls, 165.\\nCardinal points, 160.\\nCarib lightning-myth, 169.\\nCarvara, 20, 124.\\nCassim Baba, 43.\\nCat- woman, 91.\\nCatalepsy, 78, 222.\\nCatequil the thunder-god, 65.\\nCattle of Helios, 116, 119.\\nCelestinus and the Miller s Horse, 125.\\nChalons, tailor of, 81.\\nChangelings, 86.\\nCharis and Charites, 190.\\nChark, 62.\\nCharlemagne, 26, 199, seq.\\nCharon s ferry-boat, 49; obolus in\\nfuneral rites, 234.\\nCnateau Vert, 72.\\nChesterfield, Lord, his remark about\\nthe capriciousness of the human\\nmind, 218.\\nChimaira, 114.\\nClerk and Image, 59.\\nCloud-maidens, 96.\\nClouds as cows, 19, 49 as birds, 50\\nas mountains or rocks, 54.\\nCows as psychopomps, 49.\\nCox, G. W., 9, 14, 89, 193, 197, 211.\\nCreation of man, 65.\\nCushna, 118.\\nCyrus, legend of his infancy, 114.\\nD.\\nDagon, 19, 24.\\nDahana, 113.\\nDancers of Kolbeck, 27.\\nDanish legend of Tell, 3.\\nDaphne, 113.\\nDaras, 71.\\nDasyu, 113.\\nDavy s locker, 124.\\nDawn as detector of crimes, 57, 210.\\nDay swallowed by Night, 77.\\nDeath misinterpreted by savages, 75.\\nDemoniacal possession, 237.\\nDeva, 107.\\nDevil and walnut, 36 etymology of,\\n106 in mediaeval mythology, 123-\\n129 a profound scholar according\\nto Scotch divines, 124 blinded like\\nPolyphemos, 125 his gullibility,\\n125, seq.\\nDewel, Gypsy name for God, 105.\\nDido and the ox-hides, 71 abandoned\\nby Aineias, 111.\\nDietrich, 201.\\nDiocletian s ostrich, 44.\\nDiomedes, 193.\\nDionysos, 124.\\nDivining-rod, 37, 55, 64.\\nDog howling under the window, 35, 76.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n245\\nDogs, how far capable of fetichistic\\nnotions, 221.\\nDon Carlos, 22.\\nDorians in Peloponnesos, 180.\\nDonster swivel, 37.\\nDreams, primitive philosophy of, 219.\\nDrowning man ought not to be res-\\ncued, 215.\\nDurandal, 24.\\nDyaus, or Dyaus-pitar t 20, 50, 52, 107,\\n108.\\nE.\\nEast of the sun and west of the moon,\\n98.\\nEchidna, 58, 114.\\nEchoes fetichistically explained, 224.\\nEcstasy, 222.\\nEden-myth, 122.\\nEfreets, 123.\\nEgeria, 30.\\nEgil, 5, 24.\\nEleanor, wife of Edward I., 22.\\nEleven thousand virgins, 28.\\nElixir of life, 63.\\nElizabeth, Hungarian countess, 80.\\nElizabeth, wife of Philip II. 22.\\nElves, 96.\\nEmbodiment, theory of, 226,\\nEndymion, 25, 161.\\nEngland,the land of ghosts, 28.\\nEos, 198.\\nEpimenides, 26.\\nEpimetheus, 64.\\nErceldoune, Thomas of, 30.\\nErinys, 57, 114, 123, 210.\\nErlking, 31, seq.\\nErotic virtues of lightning-plants, 65.\\nEs-Sirat, 48.\\nEsquimaux moon-myth, 162.\\nEtymological myths, 70.\\nEtzel, 201.\\nEuhemeros, 15.\\nEumenides, 223.\\nEuphemisms for dreaded beings, 223.\\nEurykleia, 25.\\nEurystheus, 112, 169.\\nEvil, Jewish conception of, 122.\\nExcalibur, 24. t\\nF.\\nFafnir, 132.\\nFairies degraded by Christianity, 129.\\nFaithful John, 9, 142.\\nFarid-Uddin Attar, 5.\\nFasting, origin of the practice in\\nsavage philosophy, 237.\\nFaust, black dog which appeared in\\nhis study, 124.\\nFeather-dresses, 98.\\nFena and Phoinix, 71.\\nFenrir, 77.\\nFern-seed, 44.\\nFetches, 228.\\nFiguier, Louis, his fancies concerning\\nmetempsychosis, 231.\\nFiji theory of souls, 18 of the second\\ndeath, 230.\\nFingal, 71.\\nFish, in the tale of Sindbad, 172.\\nFisherman and Efreet, 36.\\nFoi scientijique, 39.\\nFolliculus, 7.\\nForget-me-not, 42.\\nForty Thieves, 42.\\nFour a sacred number, 160.\\nFreeman, E. A., his view of the Trojan\\nWar, 199, seq.\\nFreischutz and Devil, 127.\\nFrere s Old Deccan Days, 10.\\nFreudenberger, Uriel, 3.\\nFrodi and his quern, 66.\\nFuneral sacrifices illustrating theory\\nof object-souls, 233.\\nFuries, 57, 123.\\nGr.\\nGaia, 198.\\nGambrinus, 128.\\nGandharvas, 95.\\nGarcilaso de la Vega, 112.\\nGellert, 6.\\nGertrude, 34.\\nGessler, 2.\\nGesta Komanorum, 7, 44, 94, 125.\\nGhost, geist, etymology of, 225.\\nGiant who had no Heart in his Body,\\n9, 132, 146, 163, 227.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "246\\nINDEX.\\nGiants or Trolls as uncivilized prehis-\\ntoric Europeans, 130.\\nGladstone, W. E., his Juvenilis\\nMundi, 174, seq. maintains the\\nunity of the Homeric poems, 181,\\nseq. his uncritical views of ancient\\nhistory and legend, 191 his ig-\\nnorance of comparative mythology,\\n203 unsoundness of his philology,\\n206.\\nGlaukos, 199.\\nGlaukos and Polyidos, 60.\\nGlistening Heath, 132.\\nGnat and Shepherd, 7.\\nGod, etymology of, 105, 198.\\nGolden Fleece, 133.\\nGorgon s head, 58.\\nGraiai, 50.\\nGrateful beasts 9.\\nGreat Bear, 73.\\nGrenier Jean, 83, 90.\\nGrote, G. his theory of the structure\\nof the Iliad, 187.\\nGuilliman, his work on Swiss antiqui-\\nties, 3.\\nGunadhya, 33.\\nGuodan, 105.\\nGyges, ring of, 44.\\nH.\\nHagen, 24.\\nHair of werewolf growing inward, 89.\\nHamelin, piper of, 31.\\nHamlet, 195.\\nHand of glory, 45, 56.\\nHare-hp, 161.\\nHarold Bine-tooth, 4.\\nHarold Hardrada, 5.\\nHarpies and swan-maidens, 164.\\nHassan of El-Basrah, 13.\\nHatto (Bishop), 34, 72, 227.\\nHeartless Giant, 9, 132, 146, 163, 227.\\nHektor, 189.\\nHelena, 20, 121, 196.\\nHelios, oxen of, 205.\\nHeUenes, 180.\\nHemingr, 5, 24.\\nHephaistos and Aphrodite, 65, 190\\nand Devil, 124.\\nHerakleids, legend of, 179, 192.\\nHerakles, 15, 24, 112, 169.\\nHerakles and Geryon, 117.\\nHeraldic emblems, 78.\\nHercules and Cacus, 22, 116, seq.\\nHere, 19.\\nHermes, 19, 20, 32, 35, 67, 124, 204.\\nHesperides, 15.\\nHildesheim, monk of, 26.\\nHindu practice of self-immolation for\\npurposes of revenge, 75.\\nHistoric period, beginning of, 177.\\nHitopadesa, 12.\\nHolda, 35.\\nHoly water, 63.\\nHomer, birthplace of, 178.\\nHomeric poems, date of, 179 Woman\\nhypothesis, 181 unity of style, 185\\nnot analogous to ballad poetry, 186\\nartistic structure, 187 unhistorical\\ncharacter, 191.\\nHomerids, 183.\\nHorsel, 28.\\nHorselberg, 29.\\nHouris, 102.\\nHyperboreans, garden of, 114.\\nL\\nIda, 114.\\nIliad, its structure, according to Grote,\\n187.\\nIlsenstein shepherd, 41.\\nIndian summer, myth of, 25.\\nIndra, 109, seq., 196.\\nIndra Savitar, 56.\\nInvisibility from use of talismans, 44.\\nIokaste, Iole, and Iamos, 113.\\nIole, 19, 196.\\nIoskeha, 156.\\nIris, 204.\\nItshe-likantunjambili, 168.\\nIxion, 19, 50.\\nJ.\\nJack and Jill, 28, 213.\\nJack and the Beanstalk, 23, 33, 79,\\n151, 163, 168.\\nJack the Giant-killer, 130.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n247\\nJacolliot, Bible in India, 205.\\nJewish notion of the firmament, 48.\\nJinn, 129, 239.\\nJonah and the whale, 77.\\nJoseph of Arimathaea, 27.\\nJoseph and Zuleikha, 205.\\nJotuns, 129.\\nJupiter, 20, 108, 117.\\nK.\\nKaikias, 117.\\nKalypso, 30, 111.\\nKamtchatkan lightning-myth, 169.\\nKarl the Great, 200.\\nKasimbaha, 163.\\nKelly, W. K., on lightning-myths, 49,\\n62, 66.\\nKennedy, P., his Irish legends, 86, 101,\\n136.\\nKerberos, 20, 124.\\nKinships among barbaric myths, 150.\\nKirke, 111.\\nKorpibos, Olympiad of, 177.\\nKrilof s Fables, 7.\\nKuhn s Descent of Fire, 47 his\\ntheory of myths not incompatible\\nwith Max Midler s, 119.\\nL.\\nLabe, Queen, 111.\\nLad who went to the North Wind, 67.\\nLady of Shalott, 49.\\nLaios, 112.\\nLancashire witch bequeaths her soul\\nto a friend, 226.\\nLapps as giants or Trolls, 130.\\nLatium, 72.\\nLeichnam, 102.\\nLeopard and Ram, 131.\\nLeto, 198.\\nLightning-birds, 51, 168.\\nLightning-myths in barbaric folk-lore,\\n168, seq.\\nLightning-plants, 40, 44, 55, 61.\\nLlangeller, 7.\\nLotos-eaters, 50.\\nLoup-garou, 69.\\nLuck-flower, 43.\\nLykaon, 69.\\nLykegenes, 71.\\nLykians, 73, 199.\\nM.\\nMaitland, blasphemous remark of, 104.\\nMalay swan-maidens, 162.\\nMalleus Maleftcarum, 5.\\nMan in the Moon, 27.\\nManabozho, 153.\\nMandara, or Manthara, 63, 171.\\nManes-worship, 74, 236.\\nMaori divination with Venus and moon,\\n218.\\nMara, 93, seq.\\nMarechal de Retz, 80.\\nMaster Thief, 11, 35.\\nMaui, 67, 169.\\nMax Midler, his theory of mythology\\ninadequate, 135, 210.\\nMedeia, 111.\\nMedusa, 58, 114.\\nMeleagros, 19, 24, 112.\\nMelusina, 96.\\nMemnon, 199.\\nMerchant of Louvain and DevU, 126.\\nMerlin, 26.\\nMermaid s cap, 100.\\nMermaids foretokening shipwreck, 103.\\nMetempsychosis, 74, 230, seq.\\nMice and rats as souls, 33.\\nMichabo, 25, 73, 153.\\nMilesian, soubriquet for the Irish, 71.\\nMilky Way, 151.\\nMirror, when broken, portends a death\\nin the family, 217.\\nMishkat-ul-Masabih, 22.\\nMitra, 110.\\nMoon and hare, 161.\\nMoon-myths among barbarians, 161.\\nMoon-spots, 27.\\nMother Goose, 27.\\nMouse Tower, maut-thurm, 34, 72.\\nMuri-ranga-whenua, 169.\\nMykenai, its ancient supremacy in\\nGreece, 200.\\nMyth, definition of, 21, seq.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "248\\nINDEX.\\nN.\\nNames, savages unwilling to tell\\nthem, 223.\\nNausikaa, 102.\\nNecklace of swan-maiden, 99.\\nNectar, 63.\\nNephele, 133, 196.\\nNessos-shirt, 24.\\nNestor, 193.\\nNibelungenlied, 132 as illustrating\\nIliad, 201.\\nNibelungs, 196.\\nNick, as epithet of the Devil, 124.\\nNiebuhr s views concerning words\\ncommon to Greek and Latin, 206.\\nNight-and-morning-myth resembles\\nstorm-myth, 119.\\nNight-folk, 129.\\nNightmare, 93.\\nNixy and her glove, 99.\\nNot a Pin to choose between them,\\n128.\\nNuma, 30.\\nNymph, 97.\\no.\\nOberon, horn of, 33.\\nOdin, 32, 35, 67, 105, 124 his gold-\\nen ship, 49 his magic cudgel, 67,\\n217.\\nOdin, lord of the gallows, 56.\\nOdysseus, 23, 25, 30, 53, 111.\\nOidipous, 22, 60, 112.\\nOinone, 19, 113.\\nOlaf, Saint, 132.\\nOlaf Tryggvesson, 26.\\nOlger Danske, 26.\\nOlympiad of Koroibos, 177.\\nOmar, 15.\\nOracle-possession, 237.\\nOrmuzd, 121.\\nOrpheus, 32, 124.\\nOrthros, 118.\\nOssa and Pelion, 54.\\nOther self, primitive doctrine of,\\n219, seq.\\nP.\\nPalmatoki, 3, 24.\\nPan, his relationship to the Devil\\n124.\\nPanch Phul Ranee, 61.\\nPanchatantra, 7.\\nPanis, 20, 58, 118, 120, 196.\\nParis, 20, 193; invested with solar\\nattributes, 195, 198.\\nParizade, 11.\\nPatroklos, 189.\\nPaul Pry, 36.\\nPavilion given by the Peri Banou\\nto Ahmed, 49.\\nPeisistratos, his recension of Homer,\\n181.\\nPelasgian theory of Niebuhr, 206.\\nPenelope, 24, 111.\\nPermanence in language and cul-\\nture, conditions essential to, 149.\\nPeter Schlemihl, 224.\\nPhaethon, 19.\\nPhilip II., 22.\\nPhilological method, how far use-\\nful in the study of myths, 144,\\nseq.\\nPhoenician origin of the Irish, 71.\\nPhoibos, 19.\\nPhoibos Lykegenes, 71.\\nPhoroneus, 65.\\nPhrixos and Helle, 133.\\nPictures, animation of, 223.\\nPiper of Hamelin, 31.\\nPitris, 76, 237.\\nPliny s account of springwort, 44.\\nPolomyia, cannibal beggar of, 82.\\nPolynesian sun-myth, 170.\\nPolyphemos, his one eye, 50, 53 his\\nblinding, 125.\\nPoseidon, 204.\\nPramantha, 64.\\nPrimeval philosophy, 16, 18, 21, 47,\\n216.\\nPrincesses carried off by Trolls and\\nEfreets, 132.\\nPrometheus, 64.\\nPuncher, 5.\\nPunchkin, 10, 132, 146.\\nPutraka, 13.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n249\\nQ.\\nQuetzalcoatl, 157.\\nR.\\nRain-water, mythical conception of,\\n63.\\nRainbow, 151, 204.\\nRakshasa, 77.\\nRama and Luxman, 9, 142.\\nRattlesnakes afraid of ash-trees, 61.\\nRed James, 100.\\nRed Riding Hood, 77.\\nRenan, E., his suggestion that an ex-\\nploration of the Hindu Kush might\\nthrow light on the origin of lan-\\nguage, 175.\\nRetz, Marechal de, 80.\\nRhampsinitos, 14.\\nRickard the Rake, 86.\\nRiksha, 73.\\nRip van Winkle, 26.\\nRobin red-breast, 71 wickedness of\\nkilling robins, 51, 214.\\nRoc s egg, 50.\\nRomulus as guardian of children, 237.\\nRoulet, Jacques, 84, 90.\\nRousseau, J. J., his method of inquir-\\ning into the safety of his soul, 218.\\ns.\\nSacrifices, 233.\\nSaktideva, 77.\\nSamu and his brethren, 230.\\nSancus, 117.\\nSanskrit names of Greek deities, 20.\\nSarama, 20, 119, seq., 196.\\nSarameias, 20, 204.\\nSaranyu, 57, 210.\\nSarpedon, 193, 199.\\nSassafras, 43.\\nSatan, 122.\\nSaxo Grammaticus. 3.\\nScaletta, 71.\\nScarlet fever, in Persian folk-lore, 239.\\nSchamir, 43, 51.\\nScribe, his remark about the possible\\n11*\\nnumber of dramatic situations, 115,\\n133.\\nSculloge of Muskerry, 136-140.\\nSea of Streams of Story, 13.\\nSeal-women, 100.\\nSebastian of Portugal, 26.\\nSelene, 198 and Endymion, 161.\\nSerpent in Eden, 122.\\nSerpent s venom neutralized by ash-\\ntree, 61.\\nSesame, 42, 168.\\nSeven Sleepers, 26.\\nSeyf-el-Mulook, 10.\\nShotover, 72.\\nSiberian swan-maidens, 163.\\nSiegfried, 24.\\nSieve of the Daughters of Danaos, 48.\\nSignatures, doctrine of, 55.\\nSigurd, 24, 132.\\nSimoom, 239.\\nSindbad, his great fish, 172.\\nSioux, lightning-myth, 62.\\nSir Elidoc, 61.\\nSir Guyon, 59.\\nSirens, 32.\\nSisyphos and his stone, 50.\\nSkin-changers, 89.\\nSkithblathnir, 49.\\nSky descending at horizon, 48.\\nSky-sea, 49.\\nSkye-terrier and ball, 220.\\nSlamming door, 229.\\nSleeping Beauty, 25.\\nSnake leaves, 60.\\nSnake of darkness, 114.\\nSolomon, 43.\\nSoma, 63.\\nSomadeva, 13, 77.\\nSong of sixpence, 212.\\nSoul, quitting body during lifetime,\\n78 as shadow, 224 as breath, 225,\\nseq. resemblance to body, 228, seq.\\nkilled over again, 230 souls of\\nbeasts, 230 of plants, 231 of in-\\nanimate objects, 232.\\nSpencer, Herbert, on totemism, 74\\non the doctrine of ghosts, 222.\\nSpento-mainyas, 121.\\nSphinx, 22, 60, 114.\\nSpirits, doctrine of, 225, seq.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "250\\nINDEX.\\nSt. George and the Dragon, 23.\\nSt. John s sleep at Ephesus, 26.\\nStars as missiles for stoning the Devil,\\n22 as angels eyes, 76 as pitris,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a276.\\nStorm-myth, resemblance to dawn-\\nmyth, 119.\\nStory -roots, 115.\\nSuccubus, monkish tale of, 94.\\nSun as prototype of Don Juan, 111.\\nSun-catcher-myths, 112, 169.\\nSun-myths, 23 why they are so nu-\\nmerous, 134.\\nSun-worship, 108.\\nSunset-clouds representing hell, 48.\\nSuttee, not sustained by Vedic author-\\nity, 233 remarkable case of, in\\nEngland, 234.\\nSwan-maiden as psychopomp, 102.\\nSwearing, Puritan horror of, 224.\\nSymplegades, 54.\\nT.\\nTannhauser, 29.\\nTantalos, 73.\\nTawiskara, 156.\\nTell, William, 1-6, 15, 24, 239, 241.\\nTe pi and Ukuhlonipa, or tabuing of\\nchief s name, 223.\\nThemis, 206.\\nThor, 19, 65, 124.\\nThree Princesses of Whiteland, 12.\\nThree Tells of Kiitli, 26.\\nTithonos, 27.\\nTom of Coventry, 36.\\nTom Thumb, 77.\\nTortoise supporting world, 171.\\nTotemism, 74.\\nTrance, 78.\\nTrolls, 129, seq.\\nTrojan War, 20 elements of the myth\\nfound in the Vedas, 20, 120, 194\\nhow far a sun-myth, 195 how far a\\ngenuine tradition, 199, seq.\\nTuesday, etymology of, 108.\\nXT.\\nUndine, 98.\\nUnity of human culture, 149.\\nUnkulunkulu, 236.\\nUrsula, 28.\\nUrvasi and Pururavas, 95.\\nUsilosimapundu, 172.\\nUtahagi, 163.\\nUthlakanyana, 166.\\nV.\\nValkyries, 19, 102.\\nValley of diamonds, 50.\\nVan Diemen s Land, the home of\\nghosts, 28.\\nVaruna, 50, 110.\\nVasilissa the Beautiful, 77.\\nVenus, 25.\\nVenusberg, 29.\\nViracocha, 156.\\nVittikab, 33, 124.\\nVivasvat, 110.\\nVivien, 26.\\nVolsunga Saga, 132.\\nVritra, 114, 118, 120.\\nVulcan, 124.\\nW.\\nWainamoinen, 33.\\nWali and cook, 7.\\nWandering Jew, 27, 114.\\nWaterspout, 239.\\nWaxen image, necromancy with, 217.\\nWayland Smith, 5, 124.\\nWerewolf, etymology of, 69 hallu-\\ncination, 85 summary of the super-\\nstition, 88 enchantment variously\\ncured, 90, 92 in South Africa, 164.\\nWerewolves and witchcraft, 79, 91 in\\nAryan and barbaric folk-lore, con-\\ntrasted, 165.\\nWhite bear as bridegroom, 98.\\nWhy the sea is salt, 66.\\nWild Huntsman, 27, 33, 76.\\nWilliam of Cloudeslee, 5, 24.\\nWind-and-Weather, 132.\\nWindows opened to let souls pass out,\\n76, 229.\\nWinterthur, John of, 2.\\nWishbone, 55.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nWishrod, 66.\\nWolf of darkness, 77.\\nWolf girdle, 90.\\nWolfskin, 89.\\nWolfian hypothesis, 181.\\nWorld-tortoise, 171.\\nWraiths, 228.\\nY.\\nYama, 76.\\nYarrow and rue, 100.\\nYellow hair of solar heroes, 202.\\nYggdrasil, 65.\\nYouth of the World, 175.\\nZ.\\nZendavesta, 121.\\nZens, 20 etymology of, 107.\\nZens Lykaios, 69.\\nZio, 108.\\nZohak, 114.\\nZulu folk-lore, 165-169.\\nTHE END.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "CIVIL GOVERNMENT EST THE\\nUNITED STATES\\nConsidered with some liefer ence to its Origins. With Questions\\non the Text by Frank A. Hill, and Bibliographical Notes by\\nMr. Fiske. Crown 8vo, $1.00, net.\\nIt is most admirable, alike in plan and execution, and will do\\na vast amount of good in teaching- our people the principles and\\nforms of our civil institutions. Moses Coit Tyler, Professor\\nof American Constitutional History and Law, Cornell University.\\nOUTLINES OF COSMIC\\nPHILOSOPHY\\nBased on the Doctrine of Evolution, with Criticisms on the Posi-\\ntive Philosophy. In two volumes, 8vo, $6.00.\\nYou must allow me to thank you for the very great interest\\nwith which I have at last slowly read the whole of your work.\\nI never in my life read so lucid an expositor (and therefore\\nthinker) as you are and I think that I understand nearly the\\nwhole, though perhaps less clearly about cosmic theism and caus\u00c2\u00ab\\nation than other parts. Charles Darwin.\\nThis work of Mr. Fiske s may be not unfairly designated the\\nmost important contribution yet made by America to philosophi-\\ncal literature. The Academy (London).\\nDARWINISM, AND OTHER\\nESSAYS\\nCrown 8vo, gilt top, $2.00.\\nIf ever there was a spirit thoroughly invigorated by the joy\\nof right understanding, it is that of the author of these pieces.\\nNo less confident and serene than his acceptance of the ut-\\nmost logical results of recent scientific discovery is Mr. Fiske s\\nassurance that the foundations of spiritual truths, so called, can-\\nnot possibly be shaken thereby. The Atlantic Monthly (Boston).\\nTHE UNSEEN WORLD\\nAnd Other Essays. Crown 8vo, gilt top, $2.00.\\nTo each study the writer seems to have brought, besides an\\nexcellent quality of discriminating judgment, full and fresh spe-\\ncial knowledge, that enables him to supply much information on\\nthe subject, whatever it may be, that is not to be found in the\\nvolume he is noticing. Boston Advertiser.\\nEXCUKSIONS OF AN\\nEVOLUTIONIST\\nCrown 8vo, gilt top, $2.00.\\nAmong our thoughtful essayists there are none more brilliant\\nthan Mr. John Fiske. His pure style suits his clear thought.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "He does not write unless he has something to say and when he\\ndoes write, he shows not only that he has thoroughly acquainted\\nhimself with the subject, hut that he has to a rare degree the art\\nof so massing his matter as to bring out the true value of the\\nleading points in artistic relief. The same qualities appear to\\ngood advantage in his new volume, which contains his later essays\\non his favorite subject of evolution. The Nation (New York).\\nMYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS\\nOld Tales and Superstitions interpreted by Comparative My-\\nthology. Crown 8vo, gilt top, $2.00.\\nMr. Fiske has given us a book which is at once sensible and\\nattractive, on a subject about which much is written that is\\ncrotchety or tedious. W. E. S. Ralston, in The Athenozum\\n(London).\\nTHE DESTINY OE MAN\\nViewed in the Light of His Origin. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00.\\nOne is charmed by the directness and clearness of his style, his\\nsimple and pure English, and his evident knowledge of his sub-\\nject. Of one thing we may be sure that none are leading\\nus more surely or rapidly to the full truth than men like the\\nauthor of this little book, who reverently study the works of\\nGod for the lessons which He would teach his children. Chris-\\ntian Union (New York).\\nTHE IDEA OE GOD\\nAs Affected by Modern Knowledge. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00.\\nThe vigor, the earnestness, the honesty, and the freedom from\\ncant and subtlety in his writings are exceedingly refreshing. He\\nis a scholar, a critic, and a thinker of the first order. Christian\\nRegister (Boston).\\nTHROUGH NATURE TO GOD\\n16mo, gilt top, $1.00.\\nContents The Mystery of Evil The Cosmic Roots of Love\\nand Self-Sacrifice The Everlasting Reality of Religion.\\nThis book discusses, in Mr. Fiske s large and luminous way, the\\nimportant subjects indicated in the contents. It falls in the same\\ngroup with his Idea of God and Destiny of Man, which\\nhave been an inspiration and a source of strength and light to\\na multitude of readers.\\nFor sale by all Booksellers. Sent by mail, postpaid, on\\nreceipt of price by the Publishers,\\nHOUGHTON, MIFFLIN CO.\\n4 Park Street, Boston} 11 East 17th Street, New York.", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3555", "width": "2167", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4034", "width": "2518", "jp2-path": "mythsmythmakers00fisk_0274.jp2"}}