{"1": {"fulltext": "$m\\ngggs m\\nBam\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0H\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\nffiHH\\nam\\nI\\nC, i. sip t9r3i31^BnE^^^B9 MB^lSSStrafl\\ne B ^WlffWil i lilWil ffWWWBl\\n-HlraBMra\\nHllil ii\\n^^^ffiK Eh", "height": "4102", "width": "2854", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3975", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3975", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3967", "width": "2721", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nDEALING WITH\\nTHE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, THE HISTORY\\nOF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE\\nCHANGES THESE HAVE UNDERGONE, AND PRESENT\\nUSAGE RESPECTING FORMS IN DISPUTE\\nBY x\\nALONZO KEED, A.M.\\nformerly instructor in english grammar in the polytechnic institute,\\nBrooklyn; and one of the authors of reed and kellogg s\\ncomplete course in English\\nBRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.\\nDEAN OF THE FACULTY, AND PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND\\nLITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN AND\\nONE OF THE AUTHORS OF REED AND KELLOGG S\\nCOMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH\\nNEW YORK\\nMAYNARD, MERRILL, CO., PUBLISHERS\\n29, 31, 33 East 19th Street\\n1900", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "W7-\\nA COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH\\nREED S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach\\nthe correct spelling-, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common\\nin current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced, or\\nmisused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of word\\nanalysis. 188 pages, 12mo.\\nREED S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleas-\\ning, but methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical\\ngrammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen.\\nREED KELLOGG S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary\\nEnglish grammar, consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and\\nadapted to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen.\\nREED KELLOGG S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on\\nEnglish grammar and composition, in which the science of the language is made\\ntributary to the art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded,\\nand adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 3S6 pages, 16mo, cloth.\\nREED KELLOGG S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully\\ngraded and complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based\\non the natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to\\ncomplete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth.\\nREED KELLOGG S HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR. A work dealing with\\nthe science of the English language, the history of the parts of speech, the philoso-\\nphy of the changes these have undergone, and with present usage respecting forms\\nin dispute. 285 pages, 16mo, cloth.\\nKELLOGG REED S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin,\\nGreek, and Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred\\ncommon derivative words in English with a brief history of the English language.\\n122 pages, 16mo, cloth.\\nKELLOGG REED S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the\\ngrammatical changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on syno-\\nnyms, prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high\\nschools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth.\\nKELLOGG S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Eevised and enlarged edition.\\nSupplementing the development of tne science with exhaustive practice in compo-\\nsition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools, academies,\\nand lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth.\\nKELLOGG S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE, with copious\\nextracts from the leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as\\nto the method In which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth.\\nCopyright, 1900,\\nBy FRANCES M. REED and BRAINEED KELLOGG.\\nPEINTED AT THE NORWOOD PRESS, NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.", "height": "4049", "width": "2845", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nThis is a historical and scientific grammar. It has been\\nwritten to supplement Graded Lessons in English and\\nHigher Lessons in English, to help the student to a\\ntechnical knowledge of the language which they do not\\nattempt to give.\\nThe scope of the present work has forced us to pay far\\nless attention here to the sentence as a unit. We still\\nbelieve that a patient study of the sentence is essential\\nto an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech, to a\\ncorrect use of grammatical forms, and to an acquaintance\\nwith Jl general principles of discourse. We still believe\\nthat such study simplifies translation, and is the best logi-\\ncal discipline available for the student; that the greatest\\ngood to be attained through the study of English grammar\\nis not skill in parsing, but skill in composing and that the\\nthorough analysis of all kinds of sentences is, more than\\nany other one thing, helpful to the student in constructing\\nsuch sentences. This conviction is embodied in our former\\nworks.\\nBut marking time is not marching on. In Higher\\nLessons great emphasis is laid upon the sentence as the", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "4 PREFACE\\nunit of thought, and upon its rigorous analysis for the sake\\nof subsequent synthesis. This is ample reason for laying\\nlittle or no stress upon it in a treatise designed for the\\nstudent at a later stage of his linguistic training. The\\npurpose of this work neither requires nor permits us to\\nrepeat, except in brief review, matter so fully presented\\nin the preceding books.\\nThe purpose of this book has forced us to do wholly or\\nmore fully here what was left undone, or but partly done,\\nin our former books. In particular, it has forced us to pay\\ngreat attention to the growth of our alphabet from its\\nscanty beginnings to the development of words from\\nroots to the gains of our vocabulary to the influence of\\nthe Norman-French upon spelling and pronunciation, and\\nupon the structure of the sentence to the dropping of\\ninflections, and to the forms which those that survive have\\nassumed; to the terminology that historical continuity calls\\nfor and, in general, to the tracing of the parts of speech\\nfrom their sources down.\\nMore particularly, the purpose of this book has enforced\\nearnest attention to the philosophy of the subjunctive mode\\nand its employment in English; to the distinction between\\nthe essential and the incidental offices of tense to the\\nsequence of tenses to the classification of verbs and to\\nthe demand for a distinct name for the verb-forms in -ing\\nthat have a nounal nature.\\nFor any departure here from the method in which some", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PBEFACE 5\\nof these subjects were formerly presented, reasons are\\ngiven in the body of the work. The more significant of\\nthese changes in treatment were all distinctly foreshadowed\\nin Higher Lessons (Eevised Edition, 1896) as supple-\\nmentary to which this book may be used.\\nWe are most fortunate in having had for this treatise\\nour former critic, Professor Francis A. March, the eminent\\ngrammarian and philologist. What his work upon these\\npages, on their way through the press, has been, no one\\nneed be told.\\nA closing word is personal. One of the authors of this\\ngrammar, Alonzo Eeed, died as the book was approaching\\ncompletion. But he lived to write a portion of the text\\nand to criticise minutely the rest of it. His wisdom is\\napparent in the plan of the work and his ripe scholarship\\nis seen in every chapter of this, the last, effort of our joint\\nlabor.", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER I\\nPAGE\\nLetters Vowels and Consonants. Alphabets Our Eng-\\nlish and its Imperfections 13\\nCHAPTER II\\nWords Roots and Affixes. English Vocabulary and Effects\\nof the Norman Conquest upon it. Sounds of O.E.\\nLetters 24\\nCHAPTER HI\\nThe Simple Sentence. Subject and Predicate. Attribute\\nand Object Complement. Compound Parts. Kinds of\\nSentences 34\\nCHAPTER IV\\nThe Parts of Speech. Phrases. Same Words Many Parts\\nof Speech 45\\nCHAPTER V\\nThe Compound Sentence. The Complex Sentence. Clauses\\nIndependent, Adjective, Noun, and Adverb 56\\n7", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER VI\\nComplex Phrases and Clauses. Modifiers of Subject and of\\nPredicate. Object Direct, Passive, Factitive, Indirect,\\nand Cognate 64\\nCHAPTER VII\\nThe Noun. Derivation, Classification, and Modifications.\\nNumber. Plural Regular, Irregular, and Peculiar 73\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nThe Noun. Gender Feminine from Masculine. Person 85\\nCHAPTER IX\\nThe Noun. Case Nominative, Possessive, and Objective.\\nDeclension of O.E. and of Mn.E. Nouns 92\\nCHAPTER X\\nThe Pronoun. Personal Simple and Compound. De-\\nclension 108\\nCHAPTER XI\\nThe Pronoun. Interrogative and Relative 117\\nCHAPTER XII\\nThe Pronoun. Wrong Case-forms. Adjective Pronouns 126", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS 9\\nCHAPTER XIII\\nPAGE\\nThe Adjective. Functions, Classes, Comparison 134\\nCHAPTER XIV\\nThe Adjective. Which Comparison Gaining. Rules for\\nSpelling. The Articles A and The. Points of Agree-\\nment, of Disagreement 142\\nCHAPTER XV\\nThe Verb. Transitive and Intransitive. The Participle, the\\nInfinitive, the Nounal Verb 151\\nCHAPTER XVI\\nThe Verb. Voice Passive. How Formed and its Origin 161\\nCHAPTER XVII\\nThe Verb. Mode Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative 168\\nCHAPTER XVIII\\nThe Verb. Tense Offices Essential and Incidental. The\\nTenses, and their Sequence in Clauses, and with the\\nInfinitive, the Participle, and the Nounal Verb 177", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "10 CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER XIX\\nPAGE\\nThe Verb. Number and Person. Auxiliaries Roots,\\nMeanings, Endings, and Uses of. Shall and Will in the\\nFuture 189\\nCHAPTER XX\\nThe Verb. Strong Verbs List of, Stem, and Endings.\\nWeak and Strong distinguished 204\\nCHAPTER XXI\\nThe Verb. Weak Verbs, Regular. Weak Verbs, Irregular,\\nand List, Stem, and Endings. O.E. Conjugation 212\\nCHAPTER XXII\\nThe Verb. Mn.E. Conjugation of Be, Have, Drive, and\\nWalk, and of Verbs in the Passive. Mn.E. Verb\\nEndings 221\\nCHAPTER XXIII\\nThe Adverb. Uses Common and Exceptional. Derivation\\nand Composition. Adverb Phrases 237\\nCHAPTER XXIV\\nThe Adverb. Classification and Comparison. Use in\\nSentences 246", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS 11\\nCHAPTER XXV\\nPAGE\\nThe Preposition. Original Office. Classification. Exten-\\nsion of Meaning. As Adverbs 25 3\\nCHAPTER XXVI\\nThe Conjunction. Classification of Connectives. Derivation.\\nUse. Omission 264", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "NOTE TO THE TEACHEB,\\nThe historical part of this work is largely in foot-notes.\\nPresuming that the student is equal to what is there said,\\nwe have asked questions and given exercises upon these\\nnotes. But the most difficult of these, and the questions\\nupon them, should be omitted when the classes are not\\nreadv for them.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER I\\nLETTERS\\nWe are intelligent beings; we perceive, we know, we\\nthink. We are social beings as well we communicate our\\nthought. For this communication language is needed-\\nLanguage is chiefly verbal spoken words and written\\nwords. Spoken words are made up of sounds written words,\\nof characters representing the sounds.\\nSpoken words were used early, for men must early have\\nneeded words to aid gesture in the expression of wants;\\nwritten words, recording thought for the thinker s contem-\\nplation, or for transmission to others, came into being later.\\nEverything needful for spoken words the air, the lungs,\\nand the organs of the throat and mouth was at hand\\nthe characters used in writing, and the materials and instru-\\nments for making them had to be prepared.\\nThe importance of writing we appreciate; our remote\\nancestors did not and could not.\\nThe characters composing written words are called Letters.\\nThe letters of a language are its Alphabet.\\nVowels and Consonants. The sounds of words are pro-\\n13", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "14 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\nduced by air expelled from the lungs, and modified by the\\nlarynx, nose, palate, tongue, teeth, and lips. If the vocal\\ncords are kept apart, and the air passes through the\\nmouth or nostrils with little interference, we have simple\\nbreath; if the cords are brought together, and the expelled\\nair makes them vibrate, we have voice.\\nIf the mouth-passage is kept open and the voice rushes through\\nwithout audible friction, we have a vowel sound if the mouth-pas-\\nsage is narrowed, and the air, slightly voiced or wholly voiceless, is\\nimpeded so as to cause perceptible friction, or is completely stopped,\\nwe have a consonant sound.\\nVowels and Consonants are the terms ambiguously applied (1) to\\nthe sounds, and (2) to the letters representing the sounds.\\nIn producing the various sounds, the mouth-organs occupy different\\nrelative positions. At each, the mouth-passage takes a distinct shape\\nand, as the shape changes, the sound changes.\\nThis change of shape and of sound is seen especially in the produc-\\ntion of vowels. As the possible changes in the mouth-passage are\\nmany, the possible vowels are many even in English, where the\\nvowel sounds are numerous, we do not make all that we might.\\nVowels and consonants stand side by side in almost every word,\\nand in almost every syllable that is, so much of a word as is\\nuttered by a single impulse of the voice. The vowel is the tonic\\nelement of words spoken or sung.\\nThe Origin of Letters. The earliest kinds of writing\\nwere pictorial. Men tried to place before each other their\\nconceptions of things by rude pictures of them. These pic-\\ntures, called hieroglyphs, differed from our words (1) in\\nthat they had a natural connection resemblance with\\nvisible objects, while words have such connection only with", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "LETTERS 15\\nsounds; and (2) in that they represented things, and con-\\nceptions of things, without reference to their names, while\\nwords represent sounds, which may be the name of many\\nobjects. These hieroglyphs differed from our letters still\\nmore than from our words.\\nBy what steps these hieroglyphs became (1) the names\\nof the things they once pictured, (2) the syllables of the\\nnames, (3) the consonantal element of the syllables, and\\n(4) the separate vowels and consonants of the syllables,\\nis not fully known. But scholars agree that alphabets\\nhad their beginning in hieroglyphs, proper or symbolic,\\nand that these gradually lost their pictorial character\\nand became mere signs of speech-sounds genuine, if not\\nperfect, alphabets.\\nThe Primitive Sounds. A feature of our linguistic family\\nis, that everything in it has developed; words have come\\nfrom roots; complex sentences have grown from simple;\\ngrammar has added inflections; sounds, and the letters\\nrepresenting them, have increased.\\nThe scheme of articulations in the theoretic parent-speech of\\nthe Indo-Europeans contains but three vowels, 1 a, i, and u, with\\n1 Said by Professor Whitney, in 1867, in his Language and the Study of Language,\\nvirtually repeated in 1875 in his Life and Groicth of Language^ and, so far as known,\\nhis latest deliverance on this point.\\nProfessor Sievers, Eneyc. Britannica, Vol. XVIII., p. 788, says that the Aryan\\nhad five vocalic sounds \u00e2\u0080\u0094a, e, i, o, and u, besides diphthongs,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and more consonants\\nthan Professor Whitney allows.\\nIf Aryan here means Indo-European, as elsewhere in the article it does, the\\ndoctors disagree.", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "16 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nthe sounds of a, e, and oo in far, the, and boot; and but twelve\\nconsonants, b, d, g, h, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, and t the h not a\\nseparate letter but closely combining with t, d, p, g, and k.\\nThe oldest alphabet used by Indo-Europeans the Sanskrit\\nhas forty-seven letters, fourteen of them vowels, and thirty-three\\nconsonants.\\nThe Alphabets from which the English is derived. The\\nEnglish, alphabet came from the Latin; the Latin, from the\\nGreek the Greek, from the Phoenician and it is thought\\nthat the earlier forms of the Phoenician were devised by\\nthe Egyptians.\\nThe Phoenician Alphabet consisted of twenty-two charac-\\nters\u00e2\u0080\u0094all consonantal, though three of them could stand\\nfor the vowels a, i, and u. The Greeks borrowed most of\\nthese twenty-two, used many of them without material\\nchange of form or value, converted some into vowels,\\nadded others, and formed thus their alphabet of twenty-\\nfour letters. 1\\nThe Latin Alphabet was taken from the Greek used by\\nthe Greek colonists in Sicily and western Italy. In their\\nforms, its letters 2 do not differ greatly from the Greek;\\nin their names, they do.\\n1 In the Greek alphabet, says Professor Whitney, for the first time we find\\nrealized what we cannot but regard as the true ideal of a mode of writing namely,\\nthat it be simply a faithful representation of spoken speech, furnishing a visible sign for\\nevery audible sound that the voice utters, and not attempting to distinguish any class of\\nsounds as of more importance than any other.\\n2 By Greek and Latin letters we here mean only capital letters the small, or\\ncursive, letters are of mediaeval growth.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "LETTERS 17\\nAll but K of the fifteen characters for the original Indo-\\nEuropean articulations the Latin took from the Greek.\\nBy a slight diacritical mark, the old Latin C, which stood\\nfor the Greek k and g, was converted into G. C then\\nmarked the k-sound alone and G, the g-sound.\\nF is the old Greek digamma.\\nQ is a form of an old Phoenician letter used in early\\nGreek but dropped in later.\\nV is only another- form of U.\\nX was taken early from the Greek Y and Z, later.\\nThe vowels E and are from the Greek, and are both\\nPhoenician. E goes back to an Egyptian hieroglyph;\\ndoes not.\\nThe English Alphabet. The Greek K, rejected by the\\nRomans, has been restored to use in modern English.\\nJ is a recent variant of I. I and J were treated as\\nthe same letter as late as Todd s Johnson s Dictionary,\\n1818.\\nW double U or double V has come into English\\nsince 1066.\\nThe three letters K, J, and W plus the Latin twenty-\\nthree form the twenty-six in English.\\nThe oldest form of the English is Anglo-Saxon. The\\ncharacters first used by the Saxons were called runes. On\\nthe Christianization of the Saxons their alphabet perished\\nand the Latin was adopted. But to denote sounds not in\\nthe Latin that of th in thick and that of w two runes\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 2", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "18 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nwere retained. For the th in our that, the Saxons created\\na letter by crossing their d, making it fS.\\nThough this new Saxon alphabet was the one handed on\\nto us, not all of our letters are Saxon. We have seen that\\nJ and W are not and Q, V and Z are not.\\nTHE VOWELS OF OUR ALPHABET\\nThe great division of our letters is into Vowels and Con-\\nsonants. The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u the consonants are\\nthe remaining letters except w 1 and y.\\nThe International Dictionary assigns eight sounds to a,\\nfive to e three to i, four to o and six to u.\\nThe diacritical marks there given to the vowels and the key-words\\nillustrating the vowel sounds are these: a in ale, a in senate, a in\\ncare, in am, a in arm, a in ask, a in final, and a in all e in eve\\n(first e), e in event (first e), e in end, e in fern, and e in recent (sec-\\nond e) I in ice, I in idea, i in ill o in old, o in obey, 6 in orb, and 5\\nin odd ii in use, u in unite, u in rude, u in full, u in up, and u in urn.\\nClassification 2 of the Vowels. In forming the vowels\\nthere is always a place of constriction, where some part\\n1 Peile, Encyc. Britannica, p. 1, says, In sounding the i (the long e-sound) the\\ntongue is raised so as almost to touch the palate, the passage left being so close that, if\\nthe tongue -was suffered for a second to rest on the palate, there would be not i but y\\nand a similar relation exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by calling\\nw and y semivowels.\\n2 The material used in this classification of the vowels and consonants is largely\\ntaken from the exhaustive article, Guide to Pronunciation, in The International\\nDictionary.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "LETTERS 19\\nof the tongue comes almost into touch with the throat be-\\nhind or the mouth-roof above. This constriction divides the\\noral cavity into two connected cavities.\\nI. If this place is near the base of the tongue, we have\\nthe Open-throat Vowel a the primary 1 sound and its\\nvariant a.\\nII. If the constriction is made by arching up the tongue\\ntoward the hard palate, we have the Front Vowels, a, a, a, a,\\ne, I, u, and u.\\nIII. If the constriction is made by arching the tongue at\\nthe soft palate, the membranous curtain at the rear of the\\nmouth, we have the Back Vowels, a, o, 6, 6, u, and u.\\nIV. If the passage at the place of constriction is not, as\\nwith the front and back vowels it is, concave on the palate\\nand convex on the tongue, but concave on both, we have the\\nMixed Vowels, e, ii, and ii. 2\\nAny change in the vowel-chamber changes the sound.\\nIn forming I, for instance, the mouth is closing hence the\\ninitial and the final element of the sound are unlike. The\\n1 In forming this vowel, Peile says The whole channel from the glottis to\\nthe lips is thoroughly open. All vowels except a are pronounced with a cer-\\ntain contraction of the organs. It has absolutely no relation to any consonant\\nit is the one primary, essential vowel. The farther we trace back the history of the\\nlanguage the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one starting-\\npoint from which all other vowel-sound is derived.\\nSee also on this sound The Elements of English Pronunciation, second series of\\nProfessor Whitney s Oriental Linguistic Studies. Here, too, is Professor Whitney s\\ninstructive estimate of the percentages of the different sounds of the vowels and\\nconsonants used in our literature.\\n2 All that is here said of these vowel-sounds may easily be verified in making them.", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "20 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\nsound begins as that of a, or something near it, and ends\\nas that of I. It is not, then, a simple x sound.\\nTHE CONSONANTS OF OUR ALPHABET\\nClassification. I. Classifying Consonants with regard to\\nObstruction in the mouth, we have (1) those in which the\\nbreath is only checked, and (2) those in which it is stopped.\\nIn the (1) class, called continuous, fricative, are (a) the liquids,\\n1, m, n, and r, of which m and n are nasals, because the checked\\nbreath escapes through the nostrils (b) the sibilants, c soft (as in\\ncent), s, s z, as in is), s sh, as in sure), s zh, as in vision),\\nz, z zh, as in seizure), and x z) when beginning words (c) the\\nspirants, f, g soft (as in gin), j g soft), v, and w and y when con-\\nsonants.\\nIn the (2) class, called mutes, are b, c 3 hard (as in cat), d, g hard\\n(as in go), h, 2 k, p, q, 3 t, x 3 ks, as in ivax). The x gz, as in\\nexact), falls into both of these classes.\\nII. Classifying consonants with regard to Intonation,\\nwe have (1) voiced consonants, or sonants, subvocals; and\\n(2) voiceless consonants, or surds. 4\\n1 We call it a diphthong. The a. e, o, u, ou, (as in out), and oi (as in oil), also are diph-\\nthongs. In pronouncing a diphthong, the voice makes what is called a glide a transi-\\ntional sound produced by the change of the mouth-organs in passing (1) from the\\nbeginning to the end of a diphthong, (2) from consonant to vowel or from vowel to\\nconsonant in a syllable, or (3) from one component to the other of a double consonant.\\n2 The h is unique. It is made through a vowel-chamber for the following vowel,\\nand with some rustle all along the mouth-passage. It is usually called an aspirate.\\n3 The letters C, q, and x are superfluous. The sounds of C are those of k and 8\\nq k(qu kw); and x (1) (as in wax) =ks, (2) (as in exact) gz, and (3) when\\nbeginning words z.\\n4 Every surd except h bears a noteworthy relation to some sonant c soft to z, C\\nhard to g hard, f to v, k to g hard, p to b, q to g hard, S to z, s sh) to z zh), t", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "LETTERS 21\\nIn the (1) class, sonants, are b, d, g soft, g hard, j, 1, m, n, r,\\ns z), s zh), v, w when a consonant, x z), x gi), y when\\na consonant, z, and z zh).\\nIn the (2) class, surds, are c soft, c hard, f, h, k, p, q, s, s sh),\\nt, and x ks).\\nIII. Classifying consonants with regard to their Place of\\nArticulation, we have (1) those with this on the lips, and\\ncalled labials (2) those with this on or near the front upper\\nteeth, and called dentals (3) those with this at the hard\\npalate, and called palatals; and (4) those with this at the\\nroot of the tongue, and called gutturals.\\nIn the (1) class, labials, are b, m, p, and w when a consonant.\\nIn the (2) class, dentals, are c soft, d, n, r (as in string), s, s (=z),\\nt, x z), and z.\\nThe f and v, made by the under lip and the upper teeth, are a\\nunion of (1) and (2) and are called labio-dentals.\\nIn the (3) class, palatals, are g soft, j, 1, r (as in roar), s sh),\\ns zh), y when a consonant, and z zh).\\nIn the (4) class, gutturals, are c hard, g hard, k, q, x ks), and\\nx (=gz).\\nThe h has no fixed place of articulation the place varying with\\nthat of the letter to which it is joined. 1\\nto d, and x (=ks) to x gz). The mouth-organs are in the same position in making\\nthe letters of each pair the surd sound in any pair is the sonant sound in that pair\\nminus all intonation.\\n1 Thus far single consonants. A word respecting digraphs combinations, each,\\nof two consonants to express a single sound. The digraphs are ch, gh, ph, sh, th,\\nand ng.\\nThe digraph ch (as in church) is the surd corresponding to the sonant j, and is a\\ncontinuous, surd palatal; ch (as in machine) s (as in sure), and is classed with\\nit; and ch (as in chasm) k, and is classed with it.", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "22 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nTHE IMPERFECTION OF OUR ALPHABET\\nA perfect alphabet has as many letters as articulate\\nsounds, and each letter always stands for the same sound.\\nIn a language with such an alphabet, one knows from the\\nword as he hears it in what letters to write it and from\\nthe word as he sees it, with what sounds to pronounce\\nit. The English alphabet is both redundant and defective.\\nI. Redundant (1) in that c, q, and x have no sounds not repre-\\nsented by s, k, and g and j and z are duplicated by g soft and by s\\n(in is and vision).\\nRedundant (2) in that some letters, while having each a sound\\nexclusively its own, have also a sound or sounds in common. For\\ninstance, a and o, as in what and not, have o in common a and e,\\nas in say and prey, have a in common i and e, as in pique and eve,\\nhave e in common and o and u, (1) as in do and rude, have u in com-\\nmon; (2) as in wolf and /wZZ,.have u in common; and (3) as in son\\nand sun, have u in common.\\nRedundant (3) in that some, of its letters a, o, and u, etc. are\\nsometimes proper diphthongs, each a combination of two clearly\\npronounced vowel sounds^\\nII. Defective (1) in that it has twenty-four vowel sounds and only\\nfive letters to represent them; and (2) in that it sometimes takes two\\nletters to represent a single sound the th and the ng, for example.\\nThe gh (as in ghost) g hard, and the gh (as in cough) f and the two are\\nclassed with g hard and f.\\nThe ph (as in philosophy) f, and the ph (in diphthong, as pronounced by\\nsome) =s p and the two are classed with f and p.\\nThe sh (as in shine) s (as in sure), and is classed with it.\\nThe th (as in breath) is a continuous, surd lingua-dental, corresponding to\\nthe sonant lingua-dental th in breathe.\\nThe ng (as in breathing), is a continuous, sonant, nasal guttural.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "LETTERS 23\\nTHE SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Language Spoken and Written.\\nLetters and their Origin. The Alphabets from which the English\\ndescends. The Fourfold Classification of Vowels. The Threefold\\nClassification of Consonants. The Imperfections of our Alphabet.\\nQuestions. What is our need of language Relation of written\\nwords to spoken Which the earlier and why Letters, what\\nAn alphabet, what Difference between breath and voice between\\na vowel sound and a consonant Syllables, what Hieroglyphs,\\nwhat and how differing from words and letters What sounds\\nand letters in the primitive Indo-European Trace the succession\\nof alphabets. The peculiarity of the Phoenician The relation of\\nthe Greek to the Phoenician What English letters not in Latin\\nnot in Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxon characters called what\\nHow many sounds has each English vowel What is meant by\\nplace of constriction How do we have four classes of vowels?\\nGive, and justify, their names. What vowel sound is primary\\nWhat does Peile say of it A semivowel, what a diphthong a\\nglide Grouped with regard to obstruction, what are the two classes\\nof consonants Into what classes is one of these subdivided\\nGrouped in regard (1) to intonation, and (2) to place of articulation,\\nwhat classes are there What consonants are superfluous and\\nwhat letters do they duplicate What consonant is an aspirate\\nWhat is unchanged in forming the surds and the sonants pairing\\nthem In what respect do the surd and the sonant differ in sound\\nDigraphs, what Give and class them. A perfect alphabet, what\\nExercises. Give the various sounds of the several vowels, tell\\ninto which class (1) open throat, (2) front, (3) back, or (4) mixed\\neach falls. Give the sounds of the consonants, and justify the\\ndivision (1) into continuous and mute, (2) into sonants and surds,\\nand (3) into labials, dentals, palatals, and gutturals.", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nWORDS\\nThe First Language Used. In communication, verbal\\nlanguage is now mainly employed. But the cries and other\\nvocal sounds of the infant and the undeveloped man were\\naccompanied by a Natural Language of facial expression, of\\nattitude, and of gestures by the hands and arms and it\\nis thought that artificial language at first developed most\\nrapidly in signs addressed to the eye, or gesture language.\\nBut such language had its limitations it could not have\\nbeen used in the dark, when opaque objects or long distance\\nintervened, or when the hands were otherwise engaged.\\nThe superiority of the vocal muscles to all others for com-\\nmunicating thought was eventually seen, and the voice\\ncame to supersede in large measure all other agencies of\\nexpression. But gesture language, though supplanted, is\\nnot extinct; we resort to it now to reenforce verbal.\\nThe First Words. The first words connoted wants, as\\nhunger; and denoted things wanted, as food. Words\\ndenoting sensible things connote relations, actions, and\\nqualities. All that we know, and can tell, of external\\nthings even now, is their relations, actions, and qualities.\\nFurther, our ancestors could not have had for we our-\\n24", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "WORDS 25\\nselves have not words expressive each of all the acts or\\nqualities of material substances or of persons. Most words\\nare found to denote, etymologieally, only special features\\nof things. By association, many words have come to stand\\nfor things as wholes, for our complexes of ideas respect-\\ning things.\\nXow, whether the first words were (1) imitative, or\\n(2) expressive of the feelings aroused by things, or (3) utter-\\nances accompanying gestures to call attention to things, or\\n(4) originated in all these ways, it is reasonably certain\\nthat they were prevailingly monosyllabic such as we now\\nappropriately call roots. We do not come across these now\\nbecause they were spoken, and perished in the speaking;\\nnobody knows how long it was before spoken words were\\nfirst written, nor how long after words were written before\\nthose which have reached us were written.\\nWhen any one, recalling the vocal signs made in directing\\nhis attention to particular things, used these signs himself\\nfor like purposes, and was understood in their use, then\\nverbal language began. Using the vocal signs to denote the\\nthings, they could now speak of ,the things when away\\nfrom them and when gestures of direction could not be\\nmade.\\nRoots. In resolving Indo-European words into their\\nelements we come even yet upon what are evidently roots,\\nif not the primitive roots but the oldest Indo-European\\nlanguage is modern compared with primeval speech. These", "height": "4082", "width": "2747", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "26 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nroots are mostly monosyllabic though many of them are\\nstill further resolvable.\\nResolvable, for instance, may be separated into solv, re,\\nand able. Solv gives the word its fundamental meaning,\\nand gathers about itself, as nucleus, the modifying prefix\\nre l and the suffix able.\\nThe suffixes are divided into derivative 2 and inflectional 2\\nsuffixes the derivative being those that mark the part of\\nspeech to which the words having them belong; and the\\ninflectional being the terminations that denote the number,\\ncase, person, or other grammatical modification of the words\\nhaving them.\\nThe English Vocabulary Composite. The words in English\\nwere at first mostly of one stock. They were Anglo-Saxon,\\nand belonged to the Low German a branch of the Teu-\\n1 Max Miiller says, What we now call a noun was originally a kind of sentence,\\nconsisting of the root, and some so-called suffix which pointed to something of which\\nthat root was predicated.\\nProfessor Whitney says, The endings of declension and conjugation and the pre-\\nfixes and suffixes of derivation were originally independent elements, words which\\nwere first collocated with other words, and then entered into combination, and were\\nmore or less fused, with the latter, losing their primitive form and meaning, and be-\\ncoming mere signs of modification and relation hence the historically traceable begin-\\nnings of speech were simple roots not parts of speech even, and still less forms.\\nProfessor Otto Jespersen of Copenhagen, while, in his Progress of Language,\\nconceding that this is the theory prevalent among the leading linguists, and while con-\\nceding that some inflectional forms have arisen in this way, nevertheless says, But\\nwhen the inference is, that all flectional forms are to be explained in this manner, and\\nthat here we have the key to flexion in general, great exception may be taken.\\n2 Truths illustrates both classes of suffixes. The th is derivative, making a noun\\nout of the root tru and -s is inflectional, marking the plurality of the noun truth.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "WOBDS 27\\ntonic, or Germanic, member of the great Indo-European\\nfamily of languages. They formed the vocabulary of the\\ntribes that, in the fifth century, left their home on the coast\\nnorth of the Elbe, invaded Britain, subdued the Kelts\\ninhabiting the island, and settled there. They and their\\nlanguage came to be called Englisc, i English and the\\nisland, Engla land, England.\\nIn the eleventh century, these Anglo-Saxon, or English,\\nconquerors were in turn conquered by the Northmen, or\\nNormans, a Scandinavian people that early in the tenth\\ncentury had secured a footing about the mouth of the\\nSeine.\\nTheir language had been nearly like the English but\\nthey had learned French in Normandy. This was folk-\\nLatin sprinkled with a few Keltic and Teutonic words\\nas learned by the Kelts and Franks of Gaul from Roman\\nsoldiers and colonists settled among them. As the Nor-\\nmans spoke it, it was called Norman-French.\\nThere have been other infusions of Latin into English,\\nand infusions of languages other than Latin but only the\\nNorman-French concerns us here.\\nTHE EFFECTS OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST UPON OUR\\nVOCABULARY\\n1. It Brought New Words into English. These came\\n(1) to supply the demands of the blended peoples for terms\\nto denote things and express thoughts which the English", "height": "4008", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "28 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nbefore the Conquest did not have, and therefore had no\\nwords to denote.\\nThey came (2) to fill the gap caused by the loss of words\\nwhich the English before the Conquest did have, but, in\\nthe centuries of depression and degradation after the Con-\\nquest, had lost. 1\\nThey came (3) as contestants for the places already filled\\nby the O.E. words. In this contest they sometimes sup-\\nplanted the O.E. words oftener, they got a footing, and\\nshared the ground with the O.E. 2 words but oftener still\\nthey were unable to get even a footing in the language.\\n2. It Broke up the Habit of Compounding Words. Since\\nthe Conquest little attempt has been made to meet the\\ndemand for new words by compounding the old material.\\nWords still combine, but with an awkwardness that comes\\nfrom disuse of habit. Our words have lost the flexibility\\nthat distinguished them as it still distinguishes the\\nGerman.\\n3. It Changed the Order of Words in the Sentence. The\\nold German order is kept in this translation of a com-\\nplex sentence from the A.-S. Chronicle:\\n1 In The English Language, Professor Lounsbury estimates this loss at more than\\none-half of the O.E. vocabulary and Dr. J. A. H. Murray, Encyc. Britannica, Vol.\\nVIII., article English Language, says, The practical vocabulary shrank to a fraction\\nof its former extent.\\n2 It is customary to divide English into Periods, and to give separate names to the\\ndivisions. From 450 to 1100 or 1150, it is called Old English from 1100 or 1150 to 1500\\nor 1550, Middle English and from 1500 or 1550 on, Modern English respectively\\nabbreviated to O.E., M.E., and Mn.E.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "vroBDS 29\\nThey all against the king were fighting until they him slain had.\\nBut when we read Alfred or Wyclif or any contemporary\\ndi Chaucer, we see that the English had changed the\\nrerman order, and given proportion and unity to the\\nsentence; though we may not find the light and easy\\nmovement so characteristic of our modern prose.\\n4. It Changed the Spelling and the Sounds of O.E. Words.\\nThe changes in orthography and orthoepy have been\\nlostly along the lines of euphony. The law of phonetic\\nchange, illustrated here as elsewhere, is one springing out\\nof the tendency to do things with the least effort is the\\nlaw of economy.\\nO.E. Combinations. The O.E. combined c and n, h and t, c and g,\\nh and n, h and 1. h and r, w and r, and w and 1 Siscnaivan, 1 eahta,\\nlicgan, hnlgan, hlanc, hring, writan, sm wlanc; and then pronounced\\nboth consonants. During their long stay in France, the Normans\\nexchanged their own harsh speech for one more mellifluous and\\nwhen they united with the English, they would not, or could not,\\nutter such combinations. We owe it to them that we are not driven\\nto these arduous vocal feats. If such combinations exist to-day,\\nthe sound of both letters is changed, or one letter is silent.\\nThe change to greater ease is seen in both vowels and\\nconsonants, and consists oftentimes in bringing forward\\nthe place of constriction, or of mute closure.\\nVowels. O.E. a (our a) has changed (1) to our 6 ban, stan,\\nham becoming bone, stone, home; (2) to oe and oa (our o) da and\\netc becoming doe and oak; and (3) to 5 hat becoming hot.\\n1 For the pronunciation of these words, see table at the end of this chapter.", "height": "4008", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "30 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nO.E. o (our o) has changed to oo dom, blod, and god becoming\\ndoom, blood, and good. t\\nO.E. u (our u) has changed (1) to ou hus, rich, uncut! becoming\\nhouse, rough, and uncouth (2) to ow brun and nu becoming brown\\nand now and (3) to oo rum becoming room.\\nO.E. e (our a) has changed to ee med smdfet becoming meed and\\nfeet.\\nO.E. 3d (like first e in there) has changed (1) to ee, (2) to ea ee),\\nand (3) to ai grdedig, h(j 5, and hcer becoming greedy, heath, and\\nhair.\\nConsonants. The consonantal change effected by Nor-\\nman influence is the palatalization of the gutturals; when\\nnot palatalized, the guttural may drop out; when not\\ndropped, it may become silent, or turn to a vowel or semi-\\nvowel.\\nThe guttural g, initial, medial, and final, may (1) drop out\\n(2) change to y (3) to w (4) to i (5) to g soft genog and\\nstigel becoming enough and stile; geard, edge, and weg becoming\\nyard, eye, and way fugol and boga becoming fowl and bow regen\\nand hcegel becoming rain and hail; gim and gigant becoming gem\\nand giant.\\nThe guttural h may (1) drop out, (2) become gh (=f), and\\n(3) unite with g and the gh become silent seolh becoming seal;\\nruh and toll becoming rough and tough; and miht and niht be-\\ncoming might and night.\\nThe guttural c may change in sound (1) to the sibilant s and\\n(2) to the palatal ch ceder and circul becoming cedar and circle;\\nand cild and cin, child and chin.\\nThe guttural sc changes to the sibilant sh sceap and fisc becoming\\nsheep and fish.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "WORDS 31\\nSome changes have little to do with euphony that of hw to wh,\\ncw to qu, and c to k hivil, cwen, and cyning becoming while, queen,\\nand king. Letters have changed places bridd, forst, and fersc be-\\ncoming bird, frost, and fresh.\\nThe orthographic effects have not weakened the language as a\\nwhole, as they have in modern Greek, for example, in which six\\nof the old vowels and diphthongs have weakened to our ee.\\nThe strong back sounds have changed to middle the weak front\\ntones, to strong back diphthongs.\\n5. It has Stripped Words of their Inflections. O.E. (1) in-\\ndicated the number, case, and gender of nouns, pronouns,\\nand adjectives, and (2) marked the person, number, tense,\\nand mode of verbs by endings. 1 The grammatical relations\\nof these great parts of speech were shown by the termina-\\ntions ticketed upon them.\\nMn.E. indicates all these modifications and grammatical\\nrelations by separate words auxiliary verbs, adverbs, and\\nprepositions, by phrases, and by position in the sentence.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Natural Language. The First\\nWords. Roots. Prefixes. Suffixes. Composition of our English\\nVocabulary. Fivefold Effect of the Norman Conquest upon Early\\nEnglish Vocabulary.\\n1 What these inflectional endings were, when and in what order they fell away, and\\nwhat ones remain will be seen when the several parts of speech are taken up.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "32 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nQuestions. Natural language, what When first used Its\\nlimitations Use now What things first denoted by words What\\nproperties of things By association, words stand for what now\\nTheories respecting the origin of words Why unable to recover the\\nfirst words Verbal language began when Roots, what Most\\nwords composed of what Prefixes, what Suffixes, what Rela-\\ntion of both to the fundamental root Two kinds of suffixes The\\noffice of each Illustrate with truths. What does Whitney say of\\nthe fundamental root, and of prefixes and suffixes Wherein does\\nJespersen assent dissent Original element of our English vocabu-\\nlary, what The story of the Anglo-Saxon Conquest Of the Nor-\\nman Conquest Normans, who Norman-French, what What\\nthree things did Norman-French words come into English to do\\nWhat two of these did they do In what measure did they do the\\nthird The periods of English Names and abbreviations What per\\ncent of the O.E. words never came into M.E. and Mn.E. What O.E.\\nverbal habit did the invasion of Norman-French words affect and to\\nwhat extent? How affect the O.E. order of words? Illustrate.\\nHow affect the spelling and pronunciation of O.E. words What\\nO.E. combinations did these Norman-French words break up What\\nis true of such combinations as remain The change effected in both\\nvowels and consonants is of what kind Gutturals became what\\nWhen not palatalized, the guttural did what What consonant\\nchanges, having little to do with euphony, took place What effects\\nupon O.E. inflections did the Norman-French have How do we now\\nindicate the grammatical relations of words\\nExercises. Study the sounds of the O.E. letters in the following\\ntables, pronounce the O.E. words found on the preceding pages of\\nthis chapter, and verify what is there said of the changes in their\\nvowel and consonant sounds which O.E. words underwent in becom-\\ning Mn.E. changes mainly due to Norman-French influence. Look-\\ning to the key-words on the next page for the sounds of the italicized\\nletters in the list of O.E. examples, pronounce these letters and then\\nthe words containing them. The consonant sounds are given below.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "WORDS\\n33\\nAPPROXIMATE PRONUNCIATION OF THE OLD ENGLISH\\nALPHABET\\nVowels\\nO.E. VOWELS\\nkey- words\\nO. E, EXAMPLES\\na\\nfather,\\nbana, murderer.\\na\\nfar,\\nstan, stone.\\nglad,\\nhwa3t, what.\\nce\\nfare,\\nsee, sea.\\ne\\nmen,\\nweg, way.\\ne\\nale,\\nhe, he.\\ni\\nit,\\nszge, victory.\\ni\\neel,\\nwin, wine.\\nnot,\\nbonne, than.\\nno,\\nto, to.\\nu\\nMl,\\nsunn, son.\\nu\\nmoon,\\nwt, out.\\nTo make the vowel-chamber for y round the lips for u, and raise\\nthe tongue for i\\nfor\\ny prolong the sound of y.\\nConsonants\\nc like c in cat.\\ncw like qu in quite,\\ng like g in go.\\nh like h in he, when h is initial.\\nh like ch in loch (Scotch), when h is medial\\nor final.\\nlike v in over, when is between two sonants\\notherwise like our\\nng like ng in finder.\\ns like s in sing.\\nlike th in thing usually initial,\\nft like th in this usually medial or final.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 6", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nTHE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS\\nu Trees grow.\\nThese two words form a Sentence because they make com-\\nplete sense. In every sentence something is said about\\nsomething. When two x notions as of the things trees, and\\nthe action grow are brought together in the mind and a\\njudgment is reached that one belongs to the other, we have\\na thought. Here trees denotes the things thought about, and\\ngrow expresses what is thought about them.\\nDefinition. A Sentence is a group of words expressing a\\ncomplete thought.\\nThe word that denotes what we think of and speak of is\\ncalled the Subject; and the word that denotes what we\\nthink and say of the thing or things named by the subject\\nis called the Predicate.\\nDefinitions\\nThe Subject of a sentence names that of which something is\\nthought.\\n1 In logic, the expression of a though t^is said to have three parts. In Rain is fall-\\ning, rain is subject, falling is predicate, and is is the copula or link, joining the two\\nterms into a judgment expressed.\\nBut, as the copula is often united with the predicate as one word, it is regarded in\\ngrammar as forming a part of the predicate.\\n34", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 35\\nThe Predicate of a sentence expresses what is thought.\\nFew thoughts are expressed in sentences of two words\\neach. We describe more fully the thing thought of, and\\nexpress more fully what we think of it.\\nLarge trees grow here.\\nIn this sentence something is said not of all trees but of\\nthose only that have the quality expressed by large and\\nwhat is said of these trees is not that in a general sense they\\ngrow, but that they grow in a certain place denoted by here.\\nTrees of great size grow in California. 1\\nHere the group of words, of great size, does the work of\\nthe one word large, and in California does the work of\\nhere. Such groups are called Phrases (simple).\\nDefinition. A Phrase is a group of words denoting\\nrelated ideas* and having a distinct office, but not expressing\\na thought.\\nWords added to other words to make their meaning more\\ndefinite are said to modify them.\\nDefinition. A Modifier is a word or group of words\\njoined to some part of a sentence to qualify or limit the mean-\\ning.\\nIn each of the three sentences examined above, it is seen\\nthat the two essential words are trees and grow. The first\\nmay be called the Grammatical Subject the second, the\\nGrammatical Predicate.\\nModifiers are also called adjuncts, enlargements, extensions.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "36 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nThe grammatical subject with its modifiers may be called\\nthe Logical Subject, or the Modified Subject the grammatical\\npredicate with its modifiers, the Logical Predicate, or the\\nModified Predicate.\\nThe simple terms subject and predicate, as often used,\\nmean grammatical subject 1 and grammatical predicate.\\nThe grammatical predicate may consist of two or more\\nwords taken together, as\\nTrees have grown The trees will then have been destroyed\\nAround the grammatical subject and grammatical predi-\\ncate, as the two chief parts of every sentence, all the other\\nparts are grouped. In studying the subject, it is all-im-\\nportant then that we come to discern these two parts at a\\nglance we can then swiftly and intelligently deal with the\\nother words. 2\\nINCOMPLETE PREDICATES AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS\\nAttribute Complements\\nYou have learned that in every sentence something is\\nsaid about something you will understand therefore that\\n1 This subject is also called simple subject, base subject, and subject base.\\nThose who use the simple term subject to denote only the complete, or logical,\\nsubject can hardly be consistent when speaking of the agreement of a word with its\\nsubject, of the case of the subject, of modifiers of the subject, etc.\\nAs the work of grammatical analysis is prominently concerned with the two chief\\nwords of a sentence, it will be found convenient, in speaking of these, to use the\\nsimple terms subject and predicate.\\n2 The division of a sentence into the entire subject and the entire predicate, thus", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 37\\nthinking is directly concerned with things, and what be-\\nlongs to things their attributes. In\\nCorn grows\\nit is asseited that the action growing is an attribute of\\ncorn. Grows does two things here it expresses the attri-\\nbute and asserts it. In\\nCorn growing,\\ngrowing expresses the action but does not assert it does\\nnot show that a judgment has been reached. In\\nu Corn is growing,\\nthe asserting force is supplied by is.\\nActions are not the only attributes asserted of things we\\noften assert qualities, as\\nCorn is nutritious.\\nIs is here an incomplete predicate for, although it as-\\nserts, nutritious is needed to express the quality asserted of\\nTrees of a large size grow in California,\\nis advised as the first and simplest step in the analysis. When all the words are in\\ntheir natural order, this division is quite mechanical but when the words are arranged\\notherwise, as in\\nIn the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas,\\nDistant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand Pre\\nLay in the fruitful valley,\\nit becomes necessary first to find the two chief words, and then to group the modifying\\nwords on the basis of their relation to these. The first and simplest step thus becomes\\nthe final step.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "38 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\ncorn as its attribute. Nutritious completes the predicate\\nhence it may be a Complement. In\\nCorn is a cereal\\nall the qualities essential to the class, cereal, are here as-\\nserted of corn. Is is the incomplete predicate, and cereal is\\nthe complement. In\\nThe sky grows dark\\nthe quality darkness, not the action growing, is what\\nwe chiefly assert of the sky. Growing dark would express\\nthe complete attribute.\\nThese words that complete the predicate by helping to\\nexpress the attribute asserted of that which the subject\\nnames are called Attribute Complements, or Subjective Comple-\\nments.\\nDefinition. The Attribute, or Subjective, Complement of\\na sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject.\\nObject Complement or Object\\nA large class of predicate words require completions\\nquite different from those described above. In\\nA cat caught The officer held The man\\nseized He killed\\nit is plain that the predicates are incomplete, and that\\nthe names of the things on which action is exerted are\\nnecessary to make complete sense, as in", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 39\\nA cat caught a mouse The officer held the thief The\\nman seized a rope He killed a deer.\\nA word that completes the predicate by naming that on\\nwhich the action is exerted may be called the Object Comple-\\nment, 1 or simply the Object.\\nDefinition. The Object Complement of a sentence com-\\npletes the predicate, and names that which receives the act.\\nCOMPOUND SUBJECT, COMPOUND PREDICATE, AND\\nOTHER COMPOUND PARTS\\nWilliam and Mary reigned together. 2\\nThe two names, William and Mary, connected by and,\\nmake one subject one thing is asserted of the two persons.\\nThe tide ebbs and flows without cessation.\\nEbbs and floics, connected by and, make one predicate\\ntwo actions are jointly asserted of one thing.\\nTwo or more connected subjects, having the same predi-\\ncate, form a Compound Subject.\\nTwo or more connected predicates, having the same sub-\\nject, form a Compound Predicate.\\n1 The term complement is used in many text-books to denote only the Subjective,\\nor Attribute, complement.\\n2 Some authorities insist that all such sentences must be regarded as two simple\\nsentences contracted. Others admit that a simple sentence may have a compound sub-\\nject, but deny that it can have a compound predicate. Others allow a compound\\nsubject or a compound predicate when the parts are connected by and but not when\\nconnected by or or nor.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "40 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nBoth subject and predicate in the same sentence may be\\ncompound, as in\\nRobert and his friend read and discussed Dante.\\nThe (1) attribute complement and the (2) object may be\\ncompound, as in\\n(1) u He is true and good (2) We love truth and virtue\\nWord and phrase modifiers may be compound, as in\\n(1) The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by\\nexercise (2) u The Equinox occurs in March and in September.\\nPhrases thus connected form a Compound Phrase.\\nKINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO MEANING AND USE\\nA subject and a predicate may express (1) a direct asser-\\ntion, affirmative or negative (2) an inquiry (3) a command\\nor strong wish (4) an exclamation.\\nA sentence used to make a statement or declare a fact is\\nDeclarative, as\\nThe moon revolves around the earth lam going I am\\nnot going.\\nA sentence that expresses an inquiry is Interrogative.\\nThe question may be in the predicate itself, as\\n/she at home?\\nOr in the subject itself, as\\nWho is at home?", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PABTS 41\\nOr in some word joined to subject or predicate, as\\nWhich plan was adopted? Whom did you see? When\\ndid you meet What is your reason\\nWhen the interrogative word is in the predicate, the sub-\\nject is generally after the asserting word, and the sentence\\nis said to be inverted. 1\\nThe analysis of an interrogative sentence is the same\\nas that of the corresponding declarative, as\\n(1) Is he at home? He is at home. (2) What is your\\nreason? My reason is this. (3) Whom did you choose?\\nWe chose did choose) John.\\nA sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty\\nis Imperative, as\\nCome at once Help me. 2\\nA command may be expressed in a statement or a ques-\\ntion, as\\nThou shalt not steal You must go Will you leave the\\nroom instantly\\nA wish may be expressed so as to resemble an impera-\\ntive, as\\nPart 3 we in friendship Long live 3 the king!\\n1 The interrogative word, being- the most important in the mind of the speaker,\\nnaturally stands at the beginning of the sentence, an emphatic position.\\n2 The subject of an imperative sentence you or thou is regularly omitted. If\\nused, it follows the verb, as in Help thou me.\\n3 This use of a sentence to express a strong wish is called optative. We and\\nking, the subjects of part and live, are in the first and third persons.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "42 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe true imperative is always in the second person.\\nLet it be so, Be it so, and May it be so,\\ndo not differ much in meaning, but only the first is im-\\nperative; the subject of let being understood, while that\\nof be and may be is it.\\nA sentence that expresses sudden thought or strong\\nfeeling is exclamatory, as\\nWhat a happy creature Polly is! How unexpected this\\nhappiness to us\\nSuch sentences, introduced by the interrogative Jiovj and\\nwhat, were originally questions but the interrogative force\\nlias been lost, and they may be classed as exclamatory.\\nA sentence in the declarative, interrogative, or imperative\\nform may be exclamatory when uttered mainly to give\\nvent to feeling. The writer must determine when the\\nexclamation point should take the place of the period or\\nthe interrogation mark, as\\nIt is impossible Is it possible Think of the absurdity\\nof it\\nDefinitions\\nA Declarative Sentence is one that is used to affirm or deny.\\nAn Interrogative x Sentence is one that expresses a question.\\n1 When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence, it may be\\n(1) direct as, He asked me, What shall I dof or (2) indirect as, He asked\\nme what he should do. The capitalization and punctuation of the two are not\\nthe same as is seen.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PABTS 43\\nAn Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or\\nan entreaty.\\nAn Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden thought\\nor strong feeling.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. A Sentence. Its Parts Sub-\\nject and Predicate. Subject Grammatical and Logical. Predicate\\nGrammatical and Logical. A Phrase. A Modifier. Complements\\nAttribute and Object. Compound Parts of a Sentence Subject,\\nPredicate, and Word and Phrase Modifiers. Sentences Declarative,\\nInterrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory.\\nQuestions. What is a thought A sentence What two parts\\nof a sentence Define each. A copula and why grammar makes\\nit a part of the predicate What is a simple phrase A modifier\\nWhat other names for a modifier What is a grammatical subject\\nA grammatical predicate A logical, or modified, subject A logi-\\ncal, or modified, predicate What other names for a modified sub-\\nject Of how many words may a grammatical predicate consist\\nWhy important to detect the grammatical subject and the grammatical\\npredicate at a glance Why is it sometimes difficult to do this An\\nincomplete predicate, what What is that which completes such a\\npredicate called What two common kinds of complements are\\nthere Define and illustrate each. What is a compound subject\\nA compound predicate A compound word modifier A compound\\nphrase modifier Define and illustrate them all. Define and illus-\\ntrate a declarative sentence. Define and illustrate an interrogative\\nsentence. In what words may the question be Illustrate. What\\nis a direct question An indirect Illustrate. What difference in\\nthe capitalization of the two When is a sentence said to be\\ninverted Define and illustrate an imperative sentence. What", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "44 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nsentences other than imperative may express a command Illustrate.\\nHow may a true imperative sentence be known The subject of an\\nimperative sentence is what Is it usually expressed Define and\\nillustrate an exclamatory sentence. Such sentences, introduced by\\nhow or what, were once of what kind When do declarative, inter-\\nrogative, and imperative sentences become exclamatory The divi-\\nsion of sentences into these four kinds based upon what\\nExercises. (1) Robert and his friend read and discussed Dante\\nand Milton (2) He neither writes nor speaks like a native\\nEnglishman.\\nResolve (1) into eight separate sentences. Name its three com-\\npound parts. Dropping neither and nor from (2), resolve it into\\ntwo sentences. What part of (2) is compound Take the quotation\\nfrom Longfellow, foot-note, p. 37, and give (l)the logical and the\\ngrammatical subject of it (2) the logical and the grammatical predi-\\ncate of it (3) the single word modifiers in it (4) the simple phrase\\nmodifiers in it and tell (5) whether the predicate in it is incomplete\\nor not. Are those in (1) and (2) above incomplete or not", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nCLASSES OF WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH\\nWe have divided sentences into parts, and called these\\nthe Subject, the Predicate, the Complement, and the Modi-\\nfier, but we have not yet examined the offices of the\\nseparate words of those parts.\\nAll the words of our language are grouped into eight\\nclasses according to their different uses in the sentence\\nthese classes are called Parts of Speech.\\nMary s mother, the wife of the merchant, bought her daughter\\na house a few months ago My son, make wisdom the object\\nof your life, for it is the principal thing.\\nThe words italicized in these two sentences have dif-\\nferent offices (1) mother is subject, (2) house is object,\\n(3) Mary s is a possessive modifier of mother, (4) tuife is\\nexplanatory of mother, (5) merchant is chief word in a phrase,\\n(6) daughter is indirect object of an action, (7) months\\nhas an adverbial use, (8) son is independent by address,\\n(9) object is objective complement, and (10) thing is attribute\\ncomplement. But, while discharging each a special office,\\nthey all have one office they name persons and mere things.\\nA word used as a name is called a Noun.\\n45", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "46 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nThe subject is the chief name in any sentence; there\\ncan be no complete sentence without a name, or some\\nsubstitute for a name, used as subject.\\nI hear that you advised him to see her Who will go?\\nu The house which stood here was burned That is right.\\nThe words italicized in these sentences are not names,\\nbut they connote relations to the speaker, denote persons\\nand things, and stand for their names. I represents the\\nspeaker; you, the one spoken to; him and her, persons\\nunnamed here but previously mentioned; ivho stands for\\na name which the one addressed is asked to supply\\nwhich stands for house; and that, for the name of some-\\nthing which it points out.\\nA word that takes the place of a noun is called a\\nPronoun; and the word for which a pronoun stands is\\ncalled its Antecedent.\\nWe have seen that every sentence must contain an\\nasserting word.\\nThe word that expresses an assertion is called a Verb.\\nA verb may make a complete predicate, or it may\\nrequire some other word or words to complete it, as\\nGrass grows Grass is green.\\nA verb made up of two or more words may be called\\na Verb Phrase, as\\nThe house has just been built.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "CLASSES OF WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH 47\\nThere are verbal forms, usually classed with the verb,\\nthough they do not assert, as:\\n11 I went to see him The lady, seeing her danger, sprang\\nhack I hlame you for telling that.\\nTo see him is a phrase modifying ivent; seeing her\\ndanger is a phrase modifying lady and for telling that\\nis a phrase modifying blame. See is here an Infinitive;\\nseeing is a Participle; and telling is a Nounal Verb. The\\ninfinitive is usually preceded by to, and the participle\\nand the nounal verb generally end in -ing, -ed, or -en.\\nLike verbs, these words here express action and take\\nobjects but, unlike true verbs, they lack asserting force\\nsee, seeing, and telling here assert nothing.\\nA substantive 1 (or its equivalent) and a verb are the\\nessential parts of every sentence one naming the object\\nof thought, and the other telling what the thing named does\\nor is. All the other words of a sentence are joined directly\\nor indirectly to these important words.\\nIndeed, a substantive and a verb may make a sentence\\nwithout the help of other words, as:\\nRain falls Trees grow.\\nWe have seen that a pronoun may be substituted for a\\nnoun, but there is no substitute for a verb in the sentence.\\n1 A substantive is a noun or a pronoun representing something which has, or is\\nregarded as haying, an independent existence, and which can be made an object of\\nthought.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "48 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nA noun or a pronoun may by itself be the subject of a\\nsentence but, as you have learned, words are often joined\\nto the subject to describe more fully the person or thing\\nnamed, as in\\nTivo holiest old farmers were chosen Firm and fearless, he\\npressed forward.\\nOld and honest modify farmers by telling what kind of\\nfarmers are here spoken of, and two tells how many farmers\\nof this kind are spoken of. Firm and fearless express quali-\\nties of the person represented by he, and thus modify the\\npronoun.\\nA word modifying a noun or a pronoun is called an\\nAdjective.\\nHonest old farmers expresses the qualities that all\\nfarmers have plus those denoted by honest and old; but,\\nas there are some farmers not honest and old, honest old\\nfarmers applies to fewer persons than farmers does. The\\nadjective, then, increases the meaning, but decreases the appli-\\ncation, of the noun.\\nBut from the second example above it will be seen that\\nadjectives do not always limit the application of the word\\nthey modify. He refers to a particular person, and firm\\nand fearless simply call attention to some of his qualities.\\nJack has returned from a long ocean voyage.\\nLong and ocean tell the kind of voyage, and a tells how\\nmany. These three words modify voyage the principal", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "CLASSES OF WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH 49\\nword of a phrase. It will be seen, then, that a noun or a\\npronoun in any part of a sentence may take modifiers like\\nthose joined to the subject.\\nIt must be observed that a noun may be used like an\\nadjective without becoming an adjective, as in\\nJohn s friend Henry is expected to-morrow.\\nThe possessive John s tells whose friend is expected, and\\nthe explanatory Henry tells what friend. But John s and\\nHenry are not adjectives but nouns, for they name, and\\nthey may be modified as nouns are. In\\nMen of wisdom are respected,\\nof wisdom the adjective wise. Phrases then may be\\ni adjectival.\\nJust as adjectives are joined to a noun to describe the\\nthing named so words are joined to the verb to describe or\\nlimit the action expressed, as\\nHe made one foolish speech He once spoke foolishly.\\nHere once and foolishly modify the verb spoke in much the\\nsame way that one and foolish modify the noun speech; and\\nonce and foolishly limit the application of the verb as\\none and foolish limit the application of the noun. Once\\nspoke foolishly applies to one instance of the action, but\\nconveys more information respecting it than spoke does.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 4", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "50 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nThis kind of modifier, then, increases the meaning of the\\nverb, but decreases the application of it.\\n(1) u TVe commend it highly (2) It was a highly commend-\\nable act (8) He now writes much more legibly.\\nIn (1), highly, like foolishly above, modifies the verb in\\n(2), highly modifies the adjective commendable; in (3), now\\nand legibly modify the verb, more modifies legibly, and much\\nmodifies more.\\nWe have seen that our thoughts and words are con-\\ncerned with things and what belong to things namely,\\ntheir attributes that nouns name things 1 and that verbs\\nand adjectives express attributes of things.\\nJust as words that name things are put into a class so\\nwords that describe attributes are; and, as the verb ex-\\npresses the chief attribute, the words that describe attri-\\nbutes are called Adverbs, to verbs/ Since an adverb\\nexpresses an attribute of an attribute, a word modifying an\\nadjective or an adverb, as well as a verb, must be an adverb.\\nWe may therefore say that\\nA word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb,\\nis an adverb. In\\nLondonderry, situated on a famous bay, has had a history,\\nthe simple phrase, on a famous bay, modifying the modifier\\nsituated, performs the office of an adverb. There are, then,\\nadverb phrases as well as adjective phrases.\\n1 The word thing, used without an adjective, as mere, may designate all objects,\\nmaterial and immaterial persons even.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "CLASSES OF WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH 51\\nWe find some words that represent neither things nor\\ntheir attributes. They show the relations of things to\\nthings, and of things to actions and other attributes, as in\\nThe house by the river was lifted from its foundation and carried\\nacross the stream, which was yellow ivith the soil of the freshet.\\nBy shows the relation (nearness) of the house to the\\nriver from, the relation (separation) of the action of lifting\\nto the foundation across, the relation (direction) of the\\naction of carrying to the stream with, the relation (means)\\nof the attribute, or quality, yellow to the soil and of, the\\nrelation (possession) of soil to the freshet. Each word\\nby, from, across, icith, and of is the introductory and the\\nconnecting word of a phrase modifying a preceding word.\\nWords introducing phrase modifiers and showing the\\nrelation of things to things, and of things to actions, states,\\nand other attributes, are called Prepositions.\\nWe find another class of words whose chief office is to\\njoin two sentences into one, as in\\nLife is short and time is fleeting I go but I return We\\nshall not reap if we do not sow.\\nSome connecting words join two words or two phrases\\nthat have the same office in the sentence, as in\\nu Time and tide wait for no man He was born of poor but\\nindustrious parents j We hope to spend the winter in London or\\nin Paris.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "52 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nWords that connect words, phrases, or clauses are called\\nConjunctions. 1\\nAh this is indeed good news Hurrah our side has won\\nPshaw! what nonsense is this? Oh how he must have\\nsuffered!\\nAh, hurrah, pshaw, and oh belong neither to the subject\\nnor to the predicate. They merely accompany one or the\\nother to express strong feeling. Such words are called\\nInterjections because interjected, or thrown in. They form\\nthe eighth and last part of speech.\\nThe interjection does not enter into the structure of a\\nsimple sentence and help to form it it is therefore hardly\\nentitled to be called a part of speech. In connected dis-\\ncourse, it is a quasi-clause.\\nNouns and other parts of speech may be used independ-\\nently, like interjections, without becoming interjections,\\nas:\\nPeace peace with honor is now impossible.\\n1 Conjunctions and prepositions are alike in that they connect but even in this\\noffice they are unlike (1) in that conjunctions connect clauses, while prepositions do\\nnot (2) in that conjunctions connect coordinate whole phrases, while prepositions con-\\nnect only the principal word in a modifying, and hence subordinate, phrase to the word\\nmodified and (3) in that prepositions connect words by showing their relation in sense\\nor meaning. For example, in\\nThe body and the mind of a child must be trained by a teacher,\\nthe conjunction and connects the things, body and mind, as joint objects of training\\nwhile the preposition of connects the name child to the names body and mind, by\\nshowing the relation (possession) existing between the child and his body and mind\\nand the preposition by connects teacher to must be trained by showing the relation\\n(agency) between the teacher and the act.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "CLASSES OF WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH 53\\nThe eight parts of speech may, for a general view, be\\ngrouped thus\\n1. Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -the essential parts of a\\nsentence.\\n2. Adjectives and Adverbs modifiers.\\n3. Conjunctions and Prepositions connectives.\\n4. Interjections exclamations thrown in.\\nTHE SAME WORDS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH\\nThe definition of parts of speech implies that the same\\nwords, differently used, fall into different classes, as in\\n(1) You have found your equal They have equal shares,\\nTwo and two equal four (2) Throw a stone Stone the rep-\\ntile, He built a stone wall (3) That is a fact, That fact-\\nis not denied, The man that was chosen declined, That the\\nwhole equals the sum of all its parts is an axiom (4) Past follies\\nare forgotten, The past, at least, is secure, He rushed past the\\ngoal, The train swept past (5) He turned his back upon us,\\nCome back The back settlements, Back the wagon out.\\nDefinitions\\nA Noun is the name of anything.\\nA Pronoun is a word used for a noun.\\nA Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being.\\nAn Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun.\\nAn Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or\\nan adverb.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "54 HIGH school GBAMMAB\\nA Proposition is a word tli.it introduces a phrase modifier,\\nand shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the\\nword modified.\\nA Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or\\nclauses.\\nAn Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden\\nfooling.\\nThe Subdivisions, the Modifications, and the History of\\nbhese eight Parts of Speech will be found in bhe chapters\\nfollowing those thai eoinplote tlio treatment, of the sentence,\\nSU1MKCTS OF THI CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Tarts of SpeecL The Noun.\\nThe Pronoun, The Verb, The Adjective. The Adverb. The Prep-\\nosition, The Conjunction. The [nterjeotion. The Grouping of the\\nMight Classes. The same Words in Different (Masses.\\nQuestions.- (hi what basis are words grouped into classes called\\nparts of speech? What various oflicos in the sentenoe have nouns\\nBut what common oilice gives all nouns their name? What is the\\noffloe of a pronoun V Its antecedent, what? Office of the verb A\\nverb phrase, what What verb tonus \\\\o not assert? How distin-\\nguished from eaoh other? a substantive? A substantive and a verb\\nni;iy do what? Offioe o{ an adjective? Bffed o\\\\ an adjective upon\\nthe meaning of the word it. modifies? Upon the application illus-\\ntrate both. Does the adjective always do this? The part of speech\\nused Like an adjeotive, but not oneV Illustrate, show that a phraae\\nmay be adjectival. What part o\\\\ speech modifies the verb much as\\nthe adjective modifies the noun? [Uustrate. The pertinence of its\\nname? What besides verbs do adverbs modify? Illustrate. How", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "CLASSES OF WORDS PARTS OF SPEECH 55\\ndo we use the word thing, unmodified by an adjective, as mere? An\\nadverb phrase What part of speech expresses relations? Relations\\nbetween what Illustrate. Full office of the preposition What\\ndifferent things may conjunctions connect Illustrate. The three\\npoints in which, in the office of connecting, conjunctions and preposi-\\ntions differ Show that interjections do not enter the structure of the\\nsentence. Group the parts of speech according to the likeness of\\ntheir office. Show that the same words may be different parts\\nof speech. Define the eight parts of speech.\\nExercises. So far as you can, place in its proper part of speech, as\\nnoun, pronoun, verb, etc., every word used in the illustrative sen-\\ntences of this chapter.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nA COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE ONE\\nOF THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE\\nTHE COMPOUND SENTENCE\\nSentences, each complete in itself, may be linked together\\nto make a longer sentence, as\\n(1) The way was long, and the night was cold (2) Knowledge\\ncomes, but wisdom lingers (3) We must conquer our vicious\\nhabits, or they will conquer us.\\nEach of these sentences is made up of two distinct parts\\ncalled Clauses; and neither of these clauses, containing\\neach a subject and a predicate, is dependent upon the other\\nneither modifies, nor is modified by, the other.\\nSuch clauses are called Independent Clauses, and, when\\nunited, they form a Compound Sentence.\\nDefinitions\\nA Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its\\npredicate.\\nAn Independent, or Coordinate, Clause is one not dependent\\non another clause.\\nThe coordinate clauses in the first illustrative sentence\\n56", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 57\\nabove are in the same line of thought in the second, are in\\ncontrast in the third, in alternation.\\ni Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is\\nmaster of thee.\\nHere we see independent clauses joined in compound\\nsentences without a connecting word.\\nTHE COMPLEX SENTENCE\\nDependent Adjective Clause\\n(1) Wise men are respected (2) u Men of wisdom are re-\\nspected (3) Men who are wise are respected.\\nIf we apply the question, What kind of men? to these\\nsentences, the answer is (1) wise, (2) of wisdom, and (3)\\nivho are wise. It is evident that these three expressions\\ndo the same work that ivJio are wise, like ivise and of ivis-\\ndom, is a modifier of men. But who are wise, though con-\\ntaining a subject and a predicate, is neither a sentence nor\\nan independent clause for it does not make complete sense\\nand it cannot stand alone who referring to men in another\\nclause for its meaning.\\nIt is a clause and not a phrase, for it contains a subject\\nand a predicate. We call it a dependent clause.\\nIt here modifies the subject men of the other clause in\\nthe sentence. It might modify an object, as in\\nWe know men who are ivise.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "58 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\nOther words that introduce such clauses are which, that,\\nwhen, where, whereby, etc.\\nWlio are wise does the work of the adjective phrase of\\nwisdom, and of the adjective ivise. The dependent clause\\nivho are wise is, then, an adjective clause.\\nDependent ISTotjn Clause\\n(1) Wisdom is the principal thing (2) To be wise is the prin-\\ncipal thing (3) u TJiat we should be wise is the principal thing.\\nApply the question. What is the principal thing to these\\nsentences, and the answer is (1) wisdom, (2) to be wise, and\\n(3) that we should be wise. They all do the same work, that\\nof subject, hence a phrase or a dependent clause may be the\\nsubject of a sentence.\\nWe know that wisdom is the principal thing.\\nKnow is an incomplete predicate it is completed by the\\ndependent object clause that wisdom is the principal thing.\\nA dependent clause may be an object, or object complement.\\nOur belief is, that wisdom is the principal thing.\\nIs is an incomplete predicate; it is completed by the\\nattribute clause, that wisdom is the principal thing. A depend-\\nent clause may be an attribute complement.\\nIt is our belief that loisdom is the principal thing.\\nThe dependent clause, that wisdom is the principal thing,.\\ntells what is meant by it, explains it the subject of the", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PBEBICATE 59\\nindependent clause. A dependent clause may be explan-\\natory.\\nWhat is meant by Wisdom is the principal thing\\nHere the dependent clause has the grammatical force and\\noffice in the phrase, by wisdom is the principal thing, that\\nwisdom preceded by by (and modified by some explanatory\\nwords) would have that is, it is equivalent to the princi-\\npal word in a phrase. A dependent clause, then, may be\\nused as the principal term in a phrase.\\nIn the preceding chapter, we saw that these five offices of\\ndependent clauses are offices which nouns discharge. These\\nfive dependent clauses are therefore called noun clauses.\\nDependext Adverb Clause\\nHe came immediately Pie came ivhen he ivas called.\\nIn the first sentence, immediately modifies the predicate\\ncame by telling when he came by expressing time. The\\nsame work is done in the second sentence by the clause\\nwhen he teas called, A dependent clause, then, may express\\ntime.\\nAs, after, before, since, till, while, etc., are other words that\\nintroduce such clauses.\\nHe goes where he wishes to goV\\nHere the dependent clause, ivhere he ivishes to go, modifies\\nthe predicate goes by telling the place where he goes. A\\ndependent clause, then, may express place.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "60 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nWherever and where there are other words that\\nintroduce such clauses.\\nHe came because he was called. 11\\nHere the dependent clause modifies the predicate came by-\\ntelling the cause of his coining what made him come.\\nA dependent clause, then, may express cause.\\nAs, for, and since are other words that introduce such\\nclauses.\\nu He came because I saw him here.\\nHere the dependent clause tells, not the cause of his com-\\ning, but the cause of my knowing that he came it is my\\nevidence for what I assert. A dependent clause may express\\nevidence.\\nFor and since are other words that introduce such clauses.\\nHe will come if he is called.\\nHere the dependent clause modifies the predicate will\\ncome by telling the condition of his coming. A dependent\\nclause may express condition.\\nUnless meaning if not, and were and should, without\\nconnectives, are other words that introduce such clauses.\\nu He will not come although he is called.\\nHere the clause, although he is called, concedes that a cause\\nfor coming exists; but in the independent clause it is\\nasserted that, in spite of this cause, he will not come. A\\ndependent clause may express concession.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 61\\nIf meaning even if/ and though are other words that\\nintroduce such clauses.\\nHe came that he might see you.\\nHere the clause, that he might see you, tells the object, or\\npurpose, of his coming. A dependent clause may express\\npurpose.\\nIn order that and so that are other words that introduce\\nsuch clauses.\\nHe came as he was told to come, by rail.\\nHere the clause, as he was told to come, tells the manner of\\nhis coming. A dependent clause then may express manner.\\nAs so also introduces such clauses.\\nLincoln was as wise as he was good.\\nHere the clause, as he was good, modifies the first as a\\nmodifier of wise and tells the degree of Lincoln s wisdom.\\nA dependent clause then may express degree.\\nThe the and than are other words that introduce\\nsuch clauses.\\nIt was so cold that mercury froze.\\nHere the dependent clause, that mercury froze, measures\\nthe degree of the cold by giving the result of it. A de-\\npendent clause then may express result.\\nSo as also introduces such clauses.\\nIn the preceding chapter we saw that the part of speech\\nwhich, like these ten dependent clauses of time, place, cause,", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "62 HIGH SCHOOL G LJ8\\nracession, purpose, manner, degree, result,\\nlies a pi an adjective, or an ad\\\\ ailed an\\nadverb. .impendent clauses are adverb clauses then.\\ns i noNs\\nA Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb,\\nor a noun.\\nS L8SSD WITH RESPECT TO FORM\\nA Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and\\nte, either or both of which may be compound.\\nA Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more inde-\\npendent, or coordinate, clauses.\\nA Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent,\\nor principal, clause and one or more dependent clauses.\\nWe have seen that sentences, subjects and predic\\n\\\\nnpleir. d word and phrase modifiers\\nmay be compound. We now add tV\\nIndependent and dependent clauses may be compound, as in\\nWhen morning dawned They that\\ns torn and :ll mid it Who has not fa\\n:h in time\\nIf th i -ind the wind Motos, we shall set sail.\\nFHE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Clauses. Independent Clan\\nCorny ind S Clauses Adjective, Xoivn, and\\nAdverb. Compound", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE\\nQuestions. What, is a clause An independent ela i\\npoun thought w to\\nthat of the first joined l.\\njective clause what J.\\nify what word What words i\\nclauses Whi\\ne perform Jllus\\\\ ch a clause is fitly* De-\\nand illustrate the ten kinds of adi is\\nnet. ions or conjnnci rbs may each clause be Knt\\nand connected to the word it modi fie\\na simple tnpound With\\nect to what an ,-s thus classed\\nExercises. Write three compound A fence\\ning the clauses of the first yet connecting the clauses of the\\nand nor connecting the clauses of the third. Write three complex\\nea the adjective clauses of which shall be introdu\\ntha^ which, and where. Write ten complei\\nan adverb clause H; a time introduced by\\nplace clause introduced by v:hcr^ver ..troduced\\nby /or; 4 an evidence clause introduced by /or; (6) a condition\\nclause introduced by unless; rf jj a itroduced by\\n(7) a purpose clause introduced by so that (8) a manner ch\\nintroduced by as so (9) a degree clause introduced by tftaii\\nand (10) a result clause introduced by so as.", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nTHE SENTENCE {Completed)\\nWe have seen that sentences may be complex we now\\nadd that\\nPhrases may be complex, as in\\n(1) Two honest old men were chosen (2) u He writes now\\nmuch more legibly (3) The children of this country of ours\\nhave great advantages (4) Londonderry, situated in the north\\nof Ireland, has had a famous history.\\nIn (1), old modifies men, honest modifies old men, and two\\nmodifies honest old men; two honest old is a complex adjective\\nphrase made up of single word modifiers. In (2), the adverb\\nmore modifies the adverb legibly, and is in turn modified by\\nthe adverb much; much more legibly is a complex adverb\\nphrase made up of single word modifiers.\\nIn (3), country, the principal word of the prepositional\\nadjective phrase of this country is modified by another ad-\\njective phrase, of ours. The whole phrase, of this country\\nof ours, is a complex adjective phrase made up of two adjective\\nphrases, and modifies the noun children.\\nIn (4), the adjective situated, modifying Londonderry, is\\nitself modified by the simple adverb phrase in the north, the\\n64", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "THE SENTENCE 65\\nprincipal word of which, north, is modified by the adjective\\nphrase of Ireland, The whole phrase in the north of Ireland\\nis a complex adverb phrase made up of two phrases one\\nadverb and one adjective.\\nThe highly complex phrase, on a beautiful bay in the\\nnorth of Ireland, would contain two complex phrases on\\na beautiful bay in the north and in the north of Ireland.\\nA phrase composed of at least one word modified by\\nanother word or another phrase is called a Complex\\nP 1 rase.\\nSentences and phrases may be complex we now add that\\nClauses may be Complex, as in\\n(1) Hope thinks that nothing is difficult; despair tells us that\\ndifficulty is insurmountable (2) The Bible says that, if our right\\nl eye leads us into sin, we should pluck it out it says also that, if our\\nI right hand thus offends, we should cut it off (3) An untruth is\\n1 something not true, though the one who tells it believes that it is true\\na lie is something false, told, with intent to deceive, by one who knows\\nthat it is false (4) When the question was asked whether oysters\\nwere healthy or unhealthy during certain months, and a physician re-\\nplied, I never heard an oyster complain of an ache or an ail, he was\\nonly insisting on the difference which exists between the synonyms\\nhealthful and healthy (5) Wellington did not write as well after\\nthe battle of Waterloo as he wrote before, because his constant fear\\nwas, that what the conqueror of Napoleon said would be read by\\neverybody.\\nSentences (1), (2), and (3) are compound; and the two\\nindependent clauses in each, separated by the semicolon,\\nare complex.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 5", "height": "4032", "width": "2779", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "66 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nEach independent clause in (1) contains a noun clause beginning\\nwith that, and each noun clause is the object of a verb in the principal\\nclause of thinks in one, and of tells in the other.\\nEach independent clause in (2) contains a complex noun clause\\nbeginning with that, and each noun clause is the object of a verb in\\nthe principal clause of says in the one, and of says in the other.\\nThe first complex noun clause contains a condition clause, if sin,\\nmodifying should pluck the second complex noun clause contains a\\ncondition clause, if offends, modifying should cut.\\nThe first independent clause in (3) contains a complex concessive\\nclause, though true one, the subject of the leading part of this\\ncomplex clause, is modified by the adjective clause, who tells it; be-\\nlieves, the predicate, has as object the noun clause, that it is true one,\\nthe principal word in a prepositional phrase in the second independent\\nclause, is modified by a complex adjective clause, who false; and\\nknows, the predicate of the principal part of this clause, has as object\\nthe noun clause, that false.\\nSentences (4) and (5) are complex.\\nThe independent clause of (4) has he for subject, and was insisting\\nfor grammatical predicate was insisting is modified by the compound\\ntime clause, when ail, and connecting the two parts of this com-\\npound clause question, the subject of the first part, is modified by the\\nexplanatory noun clause, whether months, and of this clause oys-\\nters is subject, and were is grammatical predicate physician is subject\\nof the second part replied, the predicate, has for its object the noun\\nclause, ail and difference, the principal word of the prepo-\\nsitional phrase beginning with on, is modified by the adjective clause,\\nwhich healthy.\\nThe independent clause of (5) has Wellington for subject, and did\\nwrite for predicate the degree clause, as before, modifies the first\\nas the predicate, did write, is modified by the complex cause clause,\\nbecause everybody was, the predicate of the leading part of this", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "THE SENTENCE 67\\nclause, is completed by the complex attribute noun clause, that\\neverybody and ichat said is an adjective clause modifying the\\nomitted subject of would be read, zohat, the object of said, turning\\ninto some other word, as which, when the omitted subject, as that or\\nthing, of icould be read, is supplied.\\nIt is obvious that the real difficulties in writing, and in\\nanalyzing what others have written, are encountered in such\\nintricate sentences as these sentences scattered thickly-\\nover the pages of literature.\\nWHAT MAY BE THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE\\n1. A Noun may be the Subject of a sentence. The name\\n(1) of any material thing; (2) of any mental thing; (3) of\\na quality; (4) of an action; (5) of a person; (6) an adjec-\\ntive; and (7) an adverb, used as a noun; and (8) a word\\nas word, as:\\n(1) Frogs croak (2) The memory fails (3) The width is\\ngreat (4) Seeing is believing (5) Buskin is dead (6) The\\ngood are happy (7) Now is the time and (8) And is a con-\\njunction.\\n2. A Pronoun may be the Subject, as\\nThou art the man Who is the man? u That is mine.\\n3. The Infinitive Phrase, simple, or with added w^ords,\\nas:\\nTo see is to believe To tell lies is contemptible.\\n4. A Nounal Verb Phrase, as\\nTelling lies is contemptible.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "68 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\n5. Any Phrase, as\\nNow or never! roused all to action For me to do that\\nwould be wrong.\\n6. A Clause, (1) simple, (2) compound, or (3) complex, as\\n(1) That we obey is a duty (2) That we should obey and that\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0we should do it cheerfully are duties hard to learn (3) The labor\\n-we delight in physics pain is a saying of Shakespeare s.\\nMODIFIERS (OR ADJUNCTS) OF THE SUBJECT\\nA Modifier of the Subject may be (1) an adjective, alone\\nor with adverbial modifiers (2) a participle, alone or with\\nadded words (3) an infinitive phrase, simple or with added\\nwords; (4) a substantive in the possessive, alone or with\\nadjective modifiers; (5) a substantive explanatory, alone\\nor with adjective modifiers and (6) a prepositional phrase,\\nthe principal word of which is a substantive or a nounal\\nverb, as\\n(1) u Tower fid engines are built, Far more powerful engines are\\nbuilt (2) The train approaching is the Empire State Express,\\nThe engineer, seeing the danger in time, saved his train (3) The\\ntime to choose had come, The time to choose his calling had\\ncome (4) Father s advice was this, My good old father s\\nadvice was this (5) The English historian Macaulay wrote Lays\\nof Ancient Rome, Duncan, the trustful old king, went to Mac-\\nbeth s castle (6) No works of man 1 may rival thee, The\\nreasons for doing this immediately were given.\\n1 Phrases like this, introduced by of and equivalent to words in the possessive,\\n.are certainly adjectives in use. Phrases introduced by prepositions other than of", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "THE SENTENCE 69\\nMODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE\\nThe Predicate, simple or compound, may be modified\\n(1) by an adverb, alone or with adverbial modifiers (2) by\\na prepositional phrase -with, a substantive or a nounal verb\\nas principal word (3) by a substantive, unmodified or\\nmodified; (4) by an infinitive phrase, simple or with other\\nare general!}- adverbial, it is thought, though frequently joined to substantives and\\nclassed as adjective modifiers.\\nThe adverbial phrases are joined to substantives (1) through the omission of a\\nparticiple, or (2) through the verbal nature of the modified substantive, as:\\n(1) The accident (occurring) on Monday, The book (lying) under the paper,\\nA picture (painted) in water-colors (2) A peep into fairyland (peeped into\\nfairyland), 1 A struggle for life (struggled for life), Appointment to office\\n(appointed to office).\\nIt may be objected to this view of the adverbial nature of such phrases that\\nif we hold, as we do, that when and where clauses may be adjectival, as in\\nThe place where {\u00e2\u0080\u0094on which) you stand is holy ground Youth is the\\ntime ichen (=in which) the seeds of character are sown,\\nwe should allow when and where phrases to be adjectival, when following substan-\\ntives and apparently modifying them.\\n1 Adjectives, adverbs, participles, infinitives, and nounal verbs may have these\\ndifferent kinds of adverbial modifiers.\\nThough not here trying to classify adverbial words and phrases, we may say that\\nthey express the modifications of (1) time, (2) place, (3) manner, (4) degree, (5) cause,\\n(6) purpose, (T) condition, and (S) concession (all of which modifications are ex-\\npressed, as we have seen, by clauses), as:\\n(1) Come early, The lights shone at intervals That night they caught\\nnothing (2) He stopped there, He went to the woods, Which way did he\\ngo? (3) The wind blew furiously The rain fell in torrents (4) That is\\ngood enough, The wall is ten feet high, He was brave to temerity (5) Why\\nare you so still? He suffered from heat (6) He went there for his health\\n(7) Without help you won t succeed (S) Without help he did succeed.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "70 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB\\nwords; (5) by a substantive modified by a participle, and\\nforming with it an absolute phrase grammatically independ-\\nent, yet having the force of an adverb and (6) by an\\nadverb clause, as\\n(1) We travel rapidly We may travel much more rapidly\\n(2) We rested under a spreading oak I have heard of their\\nrunning away (3) They went home, They sailed three days\\n(4) I shall be glad to go I shall be pleased to see you at\\nany time (5) Our lessons being ended, we started for the\\nwoods and (6) When our lessons were ended, we started for\\nthe woods.\\nThe object may be classed with the modifiers of the\\npredicate; but so distinct are its functions from those of\\nother modifiers that it seems best to treat it separately.\\nTwo kinds of objects are commonly recognized the\\nDirect Object and the Indirect Object.\\n1. The Direct 1 Object may be (1) the Passive, or Suffer-\\ning, Object or (2) the Factitive Object.\\n1 When a direct object names the action, or a variety of the action expressed by\\nthe verb itself, it may be called a cognate object, as in\\nHe lived a useful life She sang- a song Trip it as you go.\\nSome grammarians mention the cognate object, give illustrations like those above\\nthat directly and obviously name the action denoted by the verb, and suggest that\\nit be treated as an adverbial adjunct.\\nOthers make it of much importance, extending its scope to include factitive\\nobjects, etc. This is a brief outline of their treatment of it\\nEvery verb contains a noun. This noun can always be expressed by a verbal\\nnoun, and often by a noun without a verbal ending, as\\n1", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "THE SENTENCE 71\\nThe Passive/ or Suffering, Object denotes that on which\\nthe action expressed by the verb is expended, as in\\nu He killed a bear She mailed a letter.\\nThe Factitive Object denotes the prodnct of the action\\nexpressed by the verb, as in\\n44 She made a cake ;t I wrote a letter.\\n2. The Indirect, 1 or Dative, Object denotes the one in-\\nterested in, and affected by, the action expressed by the\\nverb, as in\\nI gave him 2\\na i\\nvatch He p\\naid us\\nour wages/\\nVerb\\nVerbal Noun\\nXoun\\nlives\\nliving\\nlife\\nplays\\nplaying\\n(a) play\\ngives\\ngiving\\ngift\\nassert\\nasserting\\nassertion\\nThe cognate object is distinguished from other objects by the test question,\\nDoes it tell in what the contained noun consists The following examples illus-\\ntrate\\nI paid a dime (cog. obj.) I paid the servant (suf. obj.).\\nI painted the pictures (cog. obj.); I painted the door 1 (suf. obj.).\\nHe struck the 7wrse (suf. obj.) a blow (cog. obj.).\\nHe taught the boy (suf. obj.) music (cog. obj.).\\n1 Some grammarians extend the scope of the indirect object to include all\\ni adverbial expressions essential to the full expression of the verbal notion, as\\nI dealt with the grocer We longed for your return The accident\\ndeprived him of sight.\\nIt would seem that the sentences do not make complete sense without the help\\nof the italicized phrases.\\n2 When a preposition is placed before the substantive, it and the substantive\\nbecome an adverbial phrase; as, I gave a watch to him", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "72 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Complex Phrases three kinds.\\nComplex Clauses many kinds. What may be Subject of a Sentence\\nThe Modifiers of the Subject. The Modifiers of the Predicate. The\\nObject Direct, Indirect, Passive, Factitive, Cognate.\\nQuestions. What is a complex adjective phrase made up of\\nsimple word modifiers A complex adverb phrase of the same kind\\nIllustrate each. A complex adjective phrase made up of adjective\\nphrases A complex adverb phrase one adverb and one adjective\\nIllustrate each. Define a complex phrase. A complex clause. What\\nare the different kinds of complex clauses in the three compound and\\ntwo complex illustrative sentences of the chapter Of what clauses\\nis each complex clause in these sentences composed What names,\\nand what parts of speech used as nouns may be the subject of a\\nsentence What other things than nouns may be so used Illustrate.\\nWhat various modifiers may a subject have Illustrate. May other\\nnouns than the subject have the same? Phrases introduced by what\\npreposition are adjectival Phrases introduced by other prepositions\\nare joined to substantives through omission of what Through the\\nnature of what The predicate may be modified by what Illustrate.\\nAdverbs and adverb phrases may express what modifications Illus-\\ntrate. What besides the predicate may have adverbial modifiers\\nSubdivide the direct object. What do the passive, the factitive, and\\nthe indirect object each denote Some extend the cognate object to\\nmean what The indirect object to mean what Illustrate each\\nextension.\\nExercises. Classify as noun, pronoun, verb, etc., all the words in\\nthe five compound and complex illustrative sentences in this chapter.\\nFind in these sentences all the illustrations there of simple, compound,\\nand complex modifiers, and of other compound parts of the sentence.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nTHE NOUN\\nIn the expression of thought, the various words of a\\nsentence have diverse offices. Classifying words with re-\\ngard to their offices, we have the Parts of Speech. Of these\\nwe have seen that there are seven the Noun, the Pronoun,\\nthe Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, and the\\nConjunction eight if we add the Interjection.\\nThese parts of speech are not on the same footing as\\nrespects\\n1. Age. The adverb and the conjunction, at least, are\\nin their present forms later than the other parts of speech.\\n2. Origin. Although adjectives, adverbs, prepositions,\\nand conjunctions are known to have been formed in various\\nways, yet all these parts of speech may safely be regarded\\nas having originated in the declension of nouns and pro-\\nnouns. In this judgment of Wrightson s, philologers sub-\\nstantially agree.\\n3. Importance. We can express a thought with only a\\nverb to denote the action, and a noun or pronoun to denote\\nthe person or thing putting it forth.\\nThe Noun, the Name. This part of speech is called\\nnoun, not from any of its relations to other words in the\\n73", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "74 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nsentence, but because, whatever its relation, the noun al-\\nways names.\\nThe Derivation of rTouns. The roots from which nouns\\nare derived denote actions or qualities, and are called verbal,\\nor predicative, roots. 1\\nAbout this nucleus root, derivative affixes prefixes and\\nsuffixes gather, and form with it the base, or stem, of the\\nnoun. To this base are added the. inflectional suffixes to\\nindicate modifications, and the relations of the word to\\nother words in the sentence. About the root tru, for in-\\nstance, in\\nu Trw-th-s and un-tru-th-s were spoken We speak for tru-ih-\\nsake,\\ncluster the derivative affixes -th and un to form with it the\\nbase of the nouns truths and untruths; to truth and untruth\\nis added the inflectional suffix -s to indicate plurality and\\nto truth is appended the inflectional suffix s to express case\\nrelation to sake.\\n1 The root of a noun does not necessarily denote the most essential quality or action\\nof the thing named, only its most obtrusive. The sky, a shower, and scum, for in-\\nstance, have this noticeable, though accidental, feature they cover, hide, conceal. This\\nthe root sk*iof the nouns sky, shower (O.E. scur), and scum, and of the verb and\\nadjective obscure, signifies.\\nMarking at first a single quality or act of the object, the word comes, by association,\\nto denote the object having or exerting them all, to denote our complex idea of that\\nobject.\\nHerein proper nouns differ from common. However derived as Smith from\\nthe man s office of smoothing, or White from his color, or Florida from the flowers\\nfound there and however significant at first, the name soon ceases to denote action\\nor quality, and becomes really meaningless except as a designation.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN\\n75\\nInflectional suffixes abound in languages in the synthetic\\nstage of growth, and in some languages that, like ours, have\\nreached the analytic stage but, in analytic languages\\ngenerally, these suffixes have perished wholesale, and the\\nbase is left to do almost universal duty.\\nCLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS\\nCommon J\\nConcrete\\nAbstract x\\nIndividual, boy, book, thing, ship, man, wheat,\\niron, substance.\\nCollective, army, crowd, mob, fleet, jury, herd,\\nw flock.\\nwhiteness, vice, wisdom, existence, (the) sleep,\\nlength,\\nbeauty, (the) singing, humility, virtue, vanity,\\nugliness.\\n1 Plato, Sarah, Victoria, God, Saturn, France, Maine, Monday,\\nJune, Herbert Spencer, President McKinley, John Stuart\\nMill.\\nDefinitions\\nA Noun is the name of anything.\\nA Common Noun is the name which belongs to all things\\nof a class.\\nA Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual.\\nA Concrete Noun is the name of a thing belonging to a\\nclass and considered as having qualities.\\n1 By means of derivative suffixes, abstract nouns are made out of adjectives and\\nverbs as width from wide, rapidity from rapid, wickedness from wicked, impor-\\ntance from important, proof from prove, and existence from exist.\\nFor practical purposes, the division of nouns into common and proper is sufficient c", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "76 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nAn Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an act, or a\\nstate, considered apart from the concrete thing to which it\\nbelongs.\\nAn Individual Noun is the name of one thing of a class, or\\nof several things considered separately.\\nA Collective Noun is the name of several things of a class\\nconsidered together.\\nOld English is synthetic, that is, it expresses grammatical\\nrelations by inflections; Modern English is analytic, it lias\\nlost many of the O.E. inflections. It follows that many\\nof the meanings and uses of words formerly indicated by\\ninflection are not thus indicated now.\\nThe changes in the meaning and in the use of words,\\nwhether marked by changes of form or not, constitute\\ntheir Modifications,\\nDefinition. Modifications of the Parts of Speech are\\nchanges in their meaning and use, and in their form when\\nform is employed.\\nNouns and Pronouns have four Modifications Number,\\nGender, Person, and Case.\\nIn a minute subdivision, the classes overlap. Pluralizing the noun often effects this\\nas, beauty, beauties of the Court; license, licenses were granted. The article some-\\ntimes effects this as, youth, a youth, the youth; peerage, the peerage of England.\\nProper nouns are really concrete, the persons or things named by them have quali-\\nties. But if, as above, concrete nouns are restricted in their scope, the distinction\\nbetween proper nouns and concrete may be justified.\\nIndeed, in some real sense, proper nouns may fade into common and the distinction\\nbetween these two classes vanish; as, His Mondays are his busy days 1 The\\nBrowns were there He is the Solon of this age.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 77\\nNUMBER\\nDefinitions\\nNumber is that modification of a noun or pronoun which\\ndenotes one thing or more than one.\\nThe Singular Number denotes one thing.\\nThe Plural 1 Number denotes more than one thing.\\nMost nouns in English form their plural by adding -s or\\n-es to the singular. But, besides this regular way, there are\\nfour irregular ways.\\nRule. The Plural of Nouns is regularly 2 formed by\\nadding -s or -es to the Singular.\\n1 There was once a dual number traces of it are seen in the O.E. pronouns. Its\\nendings, according to Sayce, Encye. Br! tannic a. X., 40, were the primitive forms from\\ni which the plural endings were derived. Peile, Primer of Philology, says, though\\ndoubtfully, The dual forms are apparently later modifications of the plural.\\n2 This regular way of forming the plural and three of the irregular ways, have come\\nto us from O.E. Only masculine nouns in one of the two O.E. declensions see p.\\nform their plurals in -as, which weakened into -es, now usually shortened to -s.\\nIt is customary to ascribe to Norman-French influence the generalizing of this -s into\\ncur common plural sign. But Professor Jespersen, Progress in Language, objects\\n1) that the growth of a plural -s cannot be separated from that -S, in\\nwhich French influence is not claimed (2) that long before the Conquest the plural -s\\nextended to nouns with other plural endings (3) that -s became universal in the\\nth earlier than in the South, where French influence was strongest (4) that -s was\\nnot then used to the same extent as now as a French plural ending; and (5) that the\\nrman -S and the O.E. -es we: r four hundred years in English.\\nHe then adds A greater influence upon English than that exercised by the Galli-\\nI cized Normans, must be ascribed to the Danish Vikings, who. for such a long time,\\nwere acting a prominent part in Britain. As for the language, it should be borne\\nIin mind that the tongue spoken by the Danes was so nearly akin with the native dialects\\n[of English speech], that the two peoples could understand one another without much\\nI difficulty.\\nIn A-S., as in other Germanic tongues, the declension in -n was encroaching upon\\nthat in -s. Foreign influence turned the tables the Danes had no plurals in -s the\\nans had the -s plurals but no -n. Francis A. March.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "78 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nMost of the nouns coming under this rule add -s rather\\nthan -es the governing principle being that nouns ending\\nin a sound which unites with that of s add -s. To this rule\\nthere are exceptions\\nFirst Exception. Some nouns in o after a consonant add\\n-es, as\\nnegro, negroes echo, echoes motto, mottoes cargo, cargoes\\nvolcano, volcanoes calico, calicoes torpedo, torpedoes.\\nSecond Exception. Some nouns in f or fe add -es after\\nchanging the f to v, 1 as\\ncalf, calves leaf, leaves wolf, wolves knife, knives life, lives\\nwife, wives.\\nThird Exception. ISTouns in y after a consonant add -es\\nafter changing y into i, 2 as\\ncity, cities colloquy, colloquies 3 glory, glories spy, spies fancy,\\nfancies lady, ladies lily, lilies daisy, daisies vanity, vanities.\\nBut nouns in o or y after a vowel, some nouns in o after a\\nconsonant, and most nouns in f and fe follow the principle\\nabove, as\\n1 This change of the surd to the sonant in spelling suggests the tendency to this\\nchange in pronunciation when the spelling is unchanged as (1) of the surd th in\\noath, cloth, etc., to the sonant th in oaths, cloths, etc. (2) of the s-sound of the plural\\nending after a sonant to the z-sound, as in days, eggs, etc. and (3) of the s-sound in\\nthe noun grease to the z-sound in the verb grease and the adjective greasy.\\n2 Perhaps we should saj r that Mn.E. has in the singular changed the O.E. ending ie\\n(Jadie, glorie, fancie) toy. According to Mason, some writers retain the y in the\\nplural of proper names, as in the Henrys, the Jfarys, etc.\\n3 In qu, u is regarded as a consonant.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 79\\ncameo, cameos cuckoo, cuckoos trio, trios day, days chim-\\nney, chimneys piano, pianos tyro, tyros belief, beliefs roof,\\nroofs fife, fifes strife, strifes sofa, sofas.\\nWhen the singular ends in a sound that does not blend\\nwith that of s, -es is added as a distinct syllable, as\\nbox, boxes brush, brushes ditch, ditches gas, gases lens,\\nlenses topaz, topazes horse, 1 horses cage, cages prize, prizes\\nniche, niches.\\nFirst 2 Irregular Way of Forming the Plural Adding -en,\\nIn the four nouns\\nox, oxen child, children brother, brethren and brothers cow,\\nkine and cows.\\nSecond 2 Irregular Way Change of Internal Vowel. In\\nthe six nouns\\nfoot, feet goose, geese man, men tooth, teeth louse, lice\\nmouse, mice.\\nThird 2 Irregular Way Without Change from the Singular.\\nThese nouns illustrate the method\\n1 The final e in horse, cage, etc., is silent, hence the last sound is that of a conso-\\nnant. By Rule I. for spelling, p. 143, final e drops when -es is added.\\n2 Oxa, fot, and hus, chapter IX, give us the originals of our plurals (1) in -en,\\n(2) by change of vowel element, and (3) without change. Only ox of the O.E.\\nnouns in -an (-en) retains its old ending. Child has wholly deserted from the vowel\\ndeclension and brother and cow, partly. These three have double plurals en being\\nadded to the plural childer, O.E. cildru, to make children; to O.E. brether,\\nbrothru, to make brethren; and to cy, the O.E. plural of cu, to make kine.\\nIn fot, chapter IX, it is seen that e, now ee, is found only in the dative singular\\nand in the nominative and accusative plural. The dative was rarely used the nomi-", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "80 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB\\ndeer, grouse, gross, hose, sheep, swine, vermin.\\nFourth Irregular Method Foreign Plurals Retained.\\nHere are a few illustrations\\nanalysis, analyses beau, beaux or beaus datum, data focus,\\nfoci genus, genera madame, mesdames nebula, nebulse mon-\\nsieur, messieurs phenomenon, phenomena.\\nPECULIAR PLURALS\\n1. Some foreign nouns while keeping their old plurals\\nhave taken on English plurals. Often, while in this tran-\\nsitional state, these diverse forms have different meanings,\\nas\\ncherub, cherubim (mysterious winged beings) and cherubs (beau-\\ntiful children); genius, genii (spirits) and geniuses (men of genius);\\nindex, indices (signs in algebra) and indexes (tables of reference);\\nstamen, stamina (bones of bodies, vigor) and stamens (organs of\\nflowers).\\n2. Some nouns, not foreign, have two plurals with dif-\\nferent meanings, as\\nnative and accusative constantly. Fet being found almost exclusively in the plural,\\nand fot in the singular, the change of to e came to signify plurality, and the super-\\nfluous plural endings were dropped.\\nThis change of vowel was caused by an i in the endings of the three cases. The\\ntransition from o of the stem to i of the ending was harder for the mouth organs to\\nmake than that from e to i and so unconsciously speakers exchanged for e. Like\\nchanges were made in the other five nouns above.\\nThis change of a letter caused by one coming after it is variously called Vowel-\\nModification, Umlaut, and Mutation.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 81\\nbrother, brothers (by blood) and brethren (of the same society);\\ndie, dice (cubes for gaming) and dies (stamps for coining); foot, feet\\n(parts on the body) and foot (infantry); head, heads (parts of the\\nbody) and head (cattle) horse, horses (animals) and horse (cavalry)\\nsail, sails (pieces of canvas) and sail (vessels).\\n3. Some nouns have one plural with diverse meanings,\\nas:\\ncolor, colors (paints and flags) custom, customs (habits and reve-\\nnue duties); ground, grounds (lands and dregs); letter, letters (al-\\nphabet and literature); manner, manners (ways, behavior); moral,\\nmorals (teachings and character) pain, pains (sufferings and care)\\nspectacle, spectacles (shows a^id glasses).\\n4. Some words always plural in form and in mean-\\ning, as\\naborigines, annals, assets, lungs, mumps, nippers, pincers, scissors,\\nshears, snuffers, thanks, tongs, tidings, victuals, vitals.\\n5. Some words plural in form, but singular in meaning,\\nas:\\nacoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences\\nending in ics), amends, measles, news.\\n6. Some compound nouns vary the first word in the\\nplural, as\\na^s-de-camp, commanders-in-chief, courts-mdLTti l, fathers-in-law,\\nhangers-on, men-of-war.\\n7. Most compounds vary the last word in the plural, as\\nEnglislmen, ieWow-servants, goose-quills, hand/nZs, mantraps,\\npiano/or\u00c2\u00a3es, stepsons, toothbrushes.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 6", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "82 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\n8. Some compounds vary both parts, as\\nmen-children, men-servants, women-singers, women-servants.\\n9. Compounds consisting of a title and a proper name\\nvary either, as\\nthe Misses 1 Smith or the Miss Smiths; the Drs. Thomson or the\\nDr. Thomsons.\\n10. When used with two or more names the title is plural-\\nized, as:\\nDrs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Maynard, Merrill, Co., Generals\\nGrant and Lee.\\n11. Letters, figures, and other characters form the plural\\nwith the apostrophe and s, as\\na s, 2 s, s, i s, 9 s, x s, s, s.\\n12. Abstract nouns and names of materials generally have\\nno plurals; but they may have when they denote repeated\\nactions, varieties of qualities, kinds of the same material, or\\nthings made out of the material, as\\nloves, tremblings, vices, liberties, coffees, wines, oils, silks, tins,\\nirons.\\n13. The initial letter of a word is sometimes doubled to\\nform the abbreviation of the plural, as\\n1 If Mrs. is used, the name is varied as, the Mrs. C larks. In colloquial lan-\\nguage, it is usual to say, the Miss Smiths, the two Doctor Thomsons, etc., the\\nconstruction in the case of brothers, etc., being often evaded by saying the Smith\\nbrothers. The Misses Smith now sounds pedantic, and is liable to cause confusion\\nwith Mrs. SmitJi. \u00e2\u0080\u0094t.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 83\\nLL. in LL.B., in LL.D., and in LL.M., is for the plural of lex\\n(leges, legum), l laws I. is for line, and 11. for lines p. tor page, and\\npp. for pages; M. (or Mr.) for Mister, and JOf. (or Messieurs) for\\nthe plural Jftf. for manuscript, and Jf for manuscripts.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Parts of Speech not on the Same\\nFooting Wherein? Nouns Derivation, Classification, and Defini-\\ntions of. Number. Plural Regular way, and Irregular ways of\\nforming it. Peculiar Plurals.\\nQuestions. In what respects are the parts of speech not on the\\nsame footing Roots of nouns denote what Derivative affixes,\\nwhat Inflectional suffixes, what Base, or stem, what Illustrate\\nverbal, or predicative, roots with sku. Wherein do proper nouns now\\ndiffer from common? With truth and its changes illustrate root,\\nderivative prefixes and suffixes, and inflectional suffixes. Classify\\nand subclassify nouns, and illustrate the several classes. Show how\\nin a minute classification the classes overlap. From what, and with\\nwhat derivative suffixes, do abstract nouns come Define the several\\nclasses of nouns. A synthetic language, what An analytic, what\\nWhat are modifications of words What modifications have nouns\\nNumber, what Define the two numbers. What number has English\\nlost How is the plural regularly formed What two languages\\nwere influential in making the plural in -s common Give Jespersen s\\nreasons for making Danish the more influential of the two, and\\nMarch s remarks upon them. What is the principle governing in the\\nuse of -s rather than -es as plural ending Give and illustrate the\\nthree exceptions to this rule. When do we use -es Give and illus-\\ntrate the four irregular ways of forming the plural in English. What\\nones are of O.E. origin With O.E. oxa, fot, and hus, p. 93,\\nillustrate three. Show how, in fot and the other five nouns of its class", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "84 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nin English, a change of internal vowel came to be significant of\\nplurality. What is vowel-modification or umlaut or mutation Give\\nand illustrate the thirteen kinds of peculiar plurals.\\nExercises. Give the plural of boy, cage, and fox, and the reasons\\nfor the plural endings. Give the plural of volcano, life, and city, and\\nthe exceptions which govern these plurals. What tendency is illus-\\ntrated in the pronunciation of oaths and days What irregular ways\\nof forming the plural are illustrated in oxen, men, sheep, and data?\\nWhat difference in meaning between the plurals cherubim and\\ncherubs, brothers and brethren, sail and sails? Give the more com-\\nmon nouns that are always plural in form and in meaning, and those\\nthat are plural in form but singular in meaning compound nouns\\nwhose first word is pluralized whose last part is pluralized both of\\nwhose parts are pluralized. Illustrate the pluralizing of letters and\\nfigures. Give the abbreviations that double the initial or final letter\\nto form the plural.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nTHE NOUN Continued\\nGENDER\\nThe modification of a noun in English to denote the\\nsex of the object is called Gender. The name of a male\\nis of the Masculine Gender; that of a female is of the\\nFeminine Gender; that of a thing without sex is of the\\nNeuter Gender and that of a thing that may be of either\\nsex is of the Common Gender.\\nSex belongs to the object; gender, to the noun that\\nnames the object. In English, 1 gender follows sex; know-\\n1 In Latin and Greek, and in French, German, etc., gender is grammatical is\\nattributed to nouns without sole or supreme regard to the sex, or the lack of sex, of\\nthe objects named.\\nMarch and Sayce and Whitney recognize no signs set apart for gender in the\\ntheoretic parent-speech of the Indo-European but it is found established in the earliest\\nremains of languages.\\nIt is agreed that the masculine is the fundamental form, and that the feminine\\nfirst separated from it. Words possessing long vowels or liquids, or broadening and\\nprolonging the final vowel of the derivative or the declensional ending were thought\\nto represent feminine qualities, and were applied to females. Then other nouns with\\nsuch endings were classed with these as grammatically feminine, no matter which sex\\nthe objects were of, or whether of either. The neuter separated later, and was not so\\nthorough-going. It is a masculine with the activity left out, having no nominative\\n(actor s) case-sign or sign of counted individuals plural number.\\nIn O.E., gender was grammatical. In that vast decay and ruin of grammatical\\nforms which attended the elaboration of Mn.E. out of its Saxon and Norman elements,\\nthe distinctive suffixes of gender disappeared along with the rest. Since then\\ngender in English has followed sex.\\n85", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "86 HIGH school GRAMMAR\\ning the sex of the object, or its lack of sex, you know the\\ngender of the noun in English that names it.\\nDefinitions\\nGender is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which\\ndenotes sex.\\nThe Masculine Gender denotes the male sex.\\nThe Feminine Gender denotes the female sex.\\nThe Neuter Gender denotes the lack of sex.\\nNo English nouns now have distinctive neuter forms\\nbut the feminine of a few words is distinguished from\\nthe masculine\\nI. By a different ending of the words.\\nThe usual feminine ending, and the only one by which\\nnew feminines are formed, is -ess added (1) to the full\\nform of the masculine (2) to the masculine with the\\nvowel of the ending omitted (3) to the masculine with the\\nfull ending omitted; or (4) to the masculine with irregu-\\nlar changes, as\\n(1) count, countess; host, hostess; lion, lioness; prophet, proph-\\netess; shepherd, shepherdess; (2) actor, actress; benefactor, bene-\\nfactress hunter, 1 huntress preceptor, preceptress waiter, waitress\\n(3) negro, negress; governor, governess murderer, murderess j and\\n(4) duke, duchess emperor, empress lad, lass marquis, marchion-\\ness master, mistress.\\n1 -Er, originally masculine, now indicates the agent.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN\\nThe other feminine endings are -ster/ -en, -trix, -ine,\\n-ina, and -a., as\\nfox, vixen; executor, executrix; hero, heroine; czar, czarina;\\ndon, donna.\\nII. By different words in the compound names, as\\nbilly-goat, nanny-goat gentleman, gentlewoman grandfather,\\ngrandmother he-bear, .she-bear cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow land-\\nlord, landlady milkman, milkmaid merman, mermaid man-servant,\\nmaid-servant step-father, step-mother peacock, peahen.\\nIII. By words radically or wholly different, as\\nbachelor, maid 2 brother, sister; boy, girl 2 buck, doe; bull,\\ncow; drake, duck; earl, countess father, mother gander, goose 2\\nhusband, wife 2 king, queen 2 lord, lady; monk, nun; nephew,\\nniece ram, ewe sir, madam son, daughter steer, heifer stag,\\nhind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch 2\\nGender is chiefly important as involving the correct use\\nof the pronouns he, she, and it.\\nWhen a singular noun or pronoun is used for a person\\nof either sex, it is commonly represented by a masculine\\npronoun, as\\nEach visitor came in hi* carriage Every one has his fau\\n1 This gave way to -ess when used now it denotes the agent. /Soa^-str-ess and\\nseam-sti-e 8 have double feminine endings. Spinster, with meaning changed, still\\nkeeps the feminine force of -ster.\\n2 Many nouns have changed their meaning and their gender maid and ^VZonce\\nnamed persons of either .-.ex goo*e is of the common gender; wUeh was once applied\\nto males aUo. Wife and queen once moant uoman simply.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "88 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nThe names of animals are often used without regard to\\nreal sex the speaker employing he or she according as\\nthe animal is thought to have masculine or feminine\\ncharacteristics, but using he more frequently than she,\\nas:\\nThe grizzly bear is the most savage of his race The cat\\nsteals upon her prey The dog is faithful to his master.\\nThe neuter it is often used for animals undistinguished\\nfor masculine or feminine qualities, and for very young\\nchildren without regard to real sex, as\\nWhen the deer is alarmed, it makes two or three rapid bounds\\nThe little child reached out its hand.\\nInanimate things are often personified by the use of he\\nand she, as\\nThe oak shall send his roots abroad Truth gets well if she\\nis run over by a locomotive.\\nThe principle determining the gender in personification\\nis this if the thing is notable for strength, size, boldness,\\nor majesty, the masculine he is used if for grace, beauty,\\ntimidity, gentleness, or productiveness, the feminine she.\\nOnly in languages where, as in English, gender is no\\nlonger grammatical, is this figure, which adds interest to\\nthings and animation to style, possible.\\nNumber and gender are modifications affecting the\\nmeaning of nouns and pronouns number almost always\\nindicated by form; gender, sometimes. But there are", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 89\\nmodifications of nouns and pronouns that refer to rela-\\ntions namely, person and case.\\nThe person of nouns is not indicated by form, that of\\ncertain pronouns is one case of nouns is, all the cases of\\ncertain pronouns are.\\nPERSON\\n(1) 7, your friend, will answer that (2) You, my friend, may\\nanswer that (3) My friend has gone, he went yesterday.\\nI and friend in (1) denote the speaker yon and friend\\nin (2) denote the one spoken to friend and he in (3) denote\\nthe one spoken of. These three relations of nouns and\\npronouns to the discourse constitute the modification called\\nPerson.\\nI and friend are of the First Person you and friend\\nare of the Second Person friend and he are of the Third\\nPerson the pronouns changing to express the three per-\\nsons, but the noun friend remaining the same in form.\\nDefinitions\\nPerson is that modification of a noun or pronoun which\\ndenotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one 1 spoken of.\\nThe First Person denotes the one! speaking.\\nThe Second Person denotes the one 1 spoken to.\\nThe Third Person denotes the one 1 spoken of.\\n1 By one we mean a mere thing as well as a creature.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "90 high school grammar\\nWhen the subject of a sentence is of the first or of the\\nsecond person, it is, as we have just seen, a pronoun; a\\nnoun used as subject is always of the third person.\\nWe consider the person of a noun or pronoun because\\nverbs have inflections which must be made to agree with\\nthe persons of their subjects, as\\n44 1 read Thou read-est Heread-s. 1\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Gender Origin, Grammatical,\\nKinds, Definitions of. Feminine Nouns distinguished from Masculine.\\nFeminine Endings. Gender in Personification. Person.\\nQuestions. Define gender. How many genders Distinction\\nbetween sex and gender Grammatical gender, what When lost\\nin English Development of the feminine and neuter The three\\nways by which some feminines are distinguished from the masculines\\nIllustrate. Illustrate the changed stems to which -ess is added. Give\\nand illustrate the feminine endings. The two words with double\\nfeminine endings. Gender chiefly important for what When he\\nand when she used for names of animals and when it f What\\ngoverns the gender of the personifying pronoun What is person\\nThe three persons Definitions What part of speech is the sub-\\nject if of first or second person Of what person must the subject\\nbe if a noun The person of a noun or pronoun important, why\\nExercises. Form the feminine of host, actor, negro, duke,\\ngovernor, lad, master, executor, hero, gentleman, milkman, merman,\\n1 This -s is the almost invariable ending of the third person singular of the verb\\nexpressing present action or being.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 91\\nstep- father, bachelor, drake, earl, husband, lord, nephew, steer, uncle,\\nwizard. Insert the proper pronouns in these blanks\\n44 Belgium s capital had gathered there beauty and chiv-\\nalry The sparrow trills song The elephant is noted for\\nstrength The child was unconscious of danger\\n44 Every person has faults The wild beast from cover\\nsprang, the wild bird from grove The fox is noted for\\ncunning Truth is fearless, yet is meek Spring comes\\nforth to do work.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nTHE NOUN {Continued)\\nCASE\\nIf a slave s lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free.\\nIn this sentence the noun lungs represents something as\\nperforming an act; the noun air represents something as\\nreceiving an act and the noun slave s and the pronoun our\\nrepresent persons as possessing something.\\nThe different offices of nouns and pronouns in a sentence\\nconstitute the modification called Case. 1 Lungs and he,\\nused as subjects, are in the Nominative Case; air, used as\\nobject complement, is in the Objective Case and slave s and\\nour, used to denote possession, are in the Possessive Case.\\nThe only noun case with case-ending is the possessive.\\n1 The Latin casus means variation from the primary form, and strictly can be\\napplied only to the non-upright, or oblique cases.\\nIn our family there were eight cases the nominative, the accusative, the vocative,\\nthe genitive, the locative, the dative, the ablative, and the instrumental coming into\\nuse, it is thought, in the order here given. The nominative was subject the accusative,\\nobject the vocative, the form of address the genitive stood for the relations denoted\\nby our of; the locative, by in the dative, by to or for the ablative, by from and\\nthe instrumental, by with or oy. These cases were marked by inflections.\\nMany of them employed prepositions to help make their relations more definite. In\\ndifferent languages, in the same language, the same relations were often denoted by\\ndifferent cases. This and the tendency to simplification aided the prepositions in sup-\\nplanting some cases and in narrowing the scope of others.\\n92", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN\\n93\\nDefinitions\\nCase is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes\\nits office in the sentence.\\nDeclension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and\\npronouns in the two numbers.\\nMODERN ENGLISH NOUNS DECLINED\\nSING. PLUR. SING. PLUR.\\nNom. lord, lord-s, lady, ladi-es,\\nPos. lord- s, lord-s lady- s, ladi-es\\nObj. lord lord-s. lady ladi-es.\\nSING. PLUR.\\nman, men,\\nman- s, men- s,\\nman men.\\nMASCULINE\\nNom. hlaford, fot,\\nGen. hlaford-es, fot-es,\\nBat. hlaford-e, fet,\\nAce. hlaford fot\\nOLD ENGLISH NOUNS DECLINED\\nThe Vowel 1 Declension\\nSingular\\nFEMININE NEUTER\\ngif-u, bryd, scip, litis,\\ngif-e, bryd-e, scip-es, hus-es,\\ngif-e, bryd-e, scip-e, hfis-e,\\ngif-e bryd scip litis j\\nPlural\\nNom. hlaford-as, fet, gif-a(-e), bryd-a(-e), scip-u, has,\\nGen. hlaford-a, fot-a, gif-ena(-a), bryd-a, scip-a, htis-a,\\nBat. hlaford-um, fot-um, gif-um, bryd-um, scip-um, htis-um,\\nAce. hlaford-as. fet. gif-a(-e). bryd-a (-e). scip-u. hus.\\n1 Called voicel declension because of the vowel originally added to the radical syllable\\nto form the stem called consonant declension from the n-ending of the primitive stem.\\nWith an occasional exception, the nouns of the vowel declension are inflected as are\\nthe six above hlaford, lord fot, foot gifu, gift bryd, bride scip,", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "#4 HIGH SCHOOL GEAMMAB\\nThe Consonant Declension\\nSingular\\nPlural\\nNom.\\nox-a, 1\\nox-an,\\nGen.\\nox-an,\\nox-ena,\\nBat.\\nox-an,\\nox-um,\\nAce.\\nox-an\\nox-an.\\nRemarks. 1. The O.E. declensions above illustrate our ways of\\nforming the plural hlaford-as (-es, -s), the regular way; ox-an\\n(-en), the first irregular way fet (e our ee), the second and hus, the\\nthird.\\n2. They illustrate our possessive ending. The genitive -es of the\\nmasculine and neuter, vowel declension, is our s) the apostrophe\\nto be accounted for later.\\n3. They show that O.E. is highly inflected almost every case\\nhaving an ending, though not always one exclusively its own, and\\nalmost every case in the plural having a plural sign. Of these O.E.\\ninflections, only the plural -as and the genitive -es, both changed,\\nremain.\\n4. The endings disappeared in this way and order (1) -urn be-\\ncame -on (2) even before 1060, -a, -o, and -u weakened to obscure -e\\n(3) the final -n sloughed off and then (4) the -e final, except where,\\nas in house, horse, etc., the dative -e of hus, hors, etc., is retained\\nthroughout. During the M.E. period, these changes were completed,\\nleaving us only the -as and -es spoken of in 3.\\n5. This decay of inflections is explicable. The endings were un-\\naccented, and hence indistinctly pronounced. This merged the sound,\\nand then the form, of final -a, -o, and -u, into -e. Final unaccented\\nsyllables often drop off, especially when pronounced by those to\\nship and hus, house. The nouns of the consonant declension are inflected like\\noxa, ox, except that feminines have -e instead of -a in the nominative singular; and\\nthe neuters have -e instead of -a and -an in the nominative and accusative singular.\\n1 See p. 33 for the pronunciation of these O.E. words.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 95\\nwhom the language is not native. This happened to the Latin in\\nbecoming French; it happened to O.E. in becoming Mn.E. This\\ndropping was aided by the fact that in neither number were the\\nendings any longer significant of case different cases having the\\nsame ending, and some cases being without distinct functions.\\n6. But this decay was stubbornly resisted by the two -s-endings,\\nbecause they denote those syntactical relations which are most dis-\\ntinctive and indispensable in language. 7 French and Danish influ-\\nence helped to generalize these as our plural, and our possessive, sign\\nboth languages aiding to make universal in Mn.E. what was only\\npartial in O.E.\\nDEFINITIONS\\nThe Subject of a sentence names that of which something is\\nthought.\\nThe Attribute Complement of a sentence completes the pred-\\nicate and belongs to the subject.\\nCase is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes\\nits office in the sentence.\\nThe Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office\\nas subject or as attribute complement.\\nWhile case denotes the office of a substantive in the sen-\\ntence, not every office of it has a separate case. The nomi-\\nnative and the objective, especially, have each many offices.\\nTHE NOMINATIVE i CASE\\n1. The main office of the nominative case is as subject.\\nLungs and he, in the opening sentence of the chapter,\\nillustrate this office.\\n1 Nominative means naming, and every case of a noun names something. But the\\nchief office of the nominative is to name that of which something- is asserted.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "96 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\n2. A substantive used independently (1) by address,\\n(2) by exclamation, (3) by pleonasm, (4) in an absolute phrase\\nis said to be in the nominative case, as\\n(1) Cromwell, 1 1 charge thee, fling away ambition (2) Traitor\\nwho calls me this (3) u The smith, a mighty man is he (4) His\\nargument 2 finished, Mr. Webster stood for some minutes in silence\\nbefore the court.\\n3. A substantive used as explanatory modifier 3 explain-\\ning by adding another name of the thing is in the nom-\\ninative if the word it explains is, as\\nWashington, the father of his country, he, our first President, left\\nus his imperishable Farewell Address.\\n4. A substantive used as attribute complement 4 of a finite\\nverb a verb with mode, tense, number, and person is in\\nthe nominative case, as\\nu All attainable health is a duty all avoidable disease seems a sin. 1\\n5. A substantive used as attribute complement of a parti-\\nciple or of an infinitive is nominative if the substantive to\\nwhich it relates is, as\\n1 There being- in English no vocative case, or case of address, its office is taken by\\nthe nominative.\\n2 This absolute construction is expressed by different cases in different languages\\nby the genitive in Greek, the ablative in Latin, the dative in O.E. For the absolute\\nphrase as modifier, see chapter VI.\\ns if preferred, the explanatory modifier may be called an appositive, or a noun in\\napposition.\\n4 If preferred, subjective complement may be used instead of attribute com-\\nplement.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 97\\nChosen leader (or as leader) he at once took command Called\\nto be leader, he did not shrink from leading.\\n6. When the assumed subject of a participle is a possessive,\\nthe attribute complement is nominative, as\\nIts being he, the long-expected Bliicher, gave Wellington great\\njoy.\\n7. When the participle or infinitive is used without an\\nassumed subject, its attribute complement is nominative, as\\nBeing only a voter is not being a citizen To be he is to be a\\npatriot.\\nTHE POSSESSIVE CASE\\nOur possessive case of nouns, the only one with case-\\nending, succeeded to the O.E. genitive, but represents it\\ninadequately.\\nThe O.E. genitive denotes measure, material, separation,\\ntime, cause, means, manner, and partition, as well as pos-\\nsession it is even used with prepositions. The possess-\\nive case indicates possession principally. While theoretic-\\nally every noun has a possessive, in use the case is almost\\nrestricted 1 to nouns denoting persons, animals that may\\nbe said to possess, and things personified.\\n1 The exception consists chiefly of nouns indicating measure of some kind, princi-\\npally of time; as, day s journey a month s pay an hour s drive five\\nminutes 1 walk a week s work ten cents worth and a hair s breadth.\\nEven with nouns denoting- persons the idea of possession may be taken too literally.\\nIn John s being absent, Henry s neighbor, the man smaster, it is connec-\\ntion of some kind, rather than possession, that is implied. See Professor Hadley s\\nEnglish Possessive Case in Essays Philological and Critical.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 7", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "98 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nWhen the case inflection -es ceased to be a distinct syl-\\nlable, the e began to drop out, and the apostrophe 1 took its\\nplace. Subsequently the apostrophe was placed after the -s\\nof the possessive plural to distinguish this from the other\\ncases of the plural.\\nDefinition. The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun\\ndenotes its office as possessive modifier.\\nRule. The Possessive Case of nouns is formed in the singu-\\nlar, by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and s s) 2 in\\nthe plural, by adding the apostrophe only. 3\\nThe substantive in the possessive, like the substantive\\nexplanatory, modifies a noun, and so takes upon itself the\\n1 Whether to denote the omission of e, or to distinguish the possessive singular from\\nthe cases of the plural is not certain probably the latter.\\nBy the beginning of the eighteenth century, the use of the apostrophe was fully\\nestablished, Professor Lounsbury thinks. See his English Language, The Noun.\\n2 Some have thought this -s a remnant of his. Phrases like Mars his sword, the\\nprince his players, common in Old and in Middle English, give countenance to this\\nerror recently revived. But Professor Hadley, in the article English Possessive Case,\\nin his Essays Philological and Critical, has demonstrated that the O.E. termination\\n-es exists in our possessive ending to-day.\\nProfessor Jespersen s remarks are instructive. He holds that his was a species of\\nanacoluthon resulting from the speaker s beginning with some prominent word in\\nthought, whose construction he had not determined, so that a correcting pronoun in the\\npossessive was needed after it, especially if a clause or a long phrase followed the word,\\nas in It shall come to pass that the man ichom I shall choose, his rod shall bend\\nBut he, the chieftain of them all, his sword hangs rusting on the wall.\\nThen, when the pronoun immediately follows the antecedent; as, This misshapen\\nknave, his master, was a witch. The transition from this use of his to that in Mars\\nhis sword would be natural as also the supposed identification of S with his. In\\nother languages than English this form of expression is current.\\n3 The apostrophe and s s) are used after the few plurals not ending in -s men s,\\nchildren s, etc.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 99\\noffice of an adjective. But both name or denote things, and\\nboth are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs. They\\nrepresent the two kinds of noun modifiers (1) the possess-\\nive, and (2) the explanatory, or appositive.\\nTo avoid hissing sounds, the -s of the possessive singular\\nmay be omitted, as\\nConscience sake Goodness sake Achilles sword.\\nBut the -s is retained, and pronounced as es, when the ear\\nneeds its help to identify the words as possessives, as\\nMrs. Hemans s poetry James s hat Prince s estate.\\n1. When (1) several possessives modify the same word\\nand imply joint possession, the sign is added to the last\\nnoun only. But, (2) if they modify different nouns, ex-\\npressed or implied, or, while implying joint possession, they\\nI represent the possessors, (3) as separate, or (4) as mutually\\nopposed in all four cases the sign is added to each, as\\n(1) Mason and Dixon s line (2) u To cut your, John s, and\\neach other s throat (3) He was his father s, mother s, and sister s\\nfavorite (4) It was the servant s, as well as the master s, right.\\n2. When the word modified by the possessive is ex-\\npressed, the noun explanatory of the possessive does not\\ntake the possessive sign, as\\nI am not of Percy s 1 mind, the Hotspur 1 of the North, he that\\n1 In O.E., both these nouns would be in the genitive, as in On Uerod-es dagum,\\ncyning-es In Herod s, the king s days.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "100 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nkills me some six or seven dozen of Scots Thou fearest to meet\\nBaldens 1 voice, thy brother, whom through folly thou didst slay.\\n3. When the modified word is understood, then (1) the\\nexplanatory noun alone has the possessive sign, or (2) both\\nthe explanatory noun and the noun explained have it but\\n(3) only the noun explained has it if the explanatory noun\\nis modified by a phrase, as\\n(1) I left the book at Smith, the bookseller s (2) I left it at\\nSmith s, the bookseller s (3) I left it at Smith s, the bookseller in\\nHenry Street.\\n4. When a proper noun in the possessive is preceded by\\na title, only the noun takes the sign and this, whether\\nthe noun modified by the possessive is expressed or under-\\nstood, as\\nDuke John s cousin u My friend Moore s sake Left at\\nCaptain Moore s.\\n5. Compound nouns, and group-compounds treated as\\nsuch, add the sign to the last word only, as\\nHenry the Eighth s reign The Queen of Spain s throne\\nThe nian-of-war s sails The commander-in-c/u e/ s order. 2\\n1 Notice that this sentence from Matthew Arnold and the one below from Shake-\\nspeare show that a noun in the possessive may be the antecedent of a relative pro-\\nnoun As if it were Cain s jawbone that did the first murder. For the possessive\\nof pronouns so used, see p. 113, foot-note 2.\\n2 Such word-groups as Queen of Spain and man-of-war were once separable. Till\\nthe fifteenth century, Queen of Spain s throne would have been (the apostrophe\\napart) Queen s throne of Spain. We do not treat such groups quite as units now, we\\npluralize the first noun of the group instead of the last Queens of Spain, m e?t-of-war.\\nI. The plural sign varies in form, effect, and position. 1. Ordinarily it is (1) -s, as", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 101\\nThe possessive may be ambiguous (1) subjective, or\\nactive, (2) objective, or passive. In\\n(1) The pugilist* s blow was heavy (2) My present cost\\nless than yours\\n(1) may be said of the blow the pugilist gave or got,\\nand (2), of the gifts we sent or received.\\nThe preposition of with the objective may be used\\ninstead of the possessive. We may say\\nPaul s letters or The letters of Paul 1 Somebody else s\\nname or The name of somebody else A doctor of divinity s\\nin boys (2) sometimes it is -es, as in box-es (3) a vowel change, as in feet; (4) -en,\\nas in ox-en (5) wanting, as in sheep (6) almost anything, as in cherub-im, termi?i-i,\\nformul-dd, and dat-a.. 2. It often changes the stem of the noun, as in cit-i-es and\\nloa-v-es. 3. It is not stationary is added (1) to the first word of a compound, as in\\nfathers-in-law (2) to the second, as in maid-servants (3) belongs to both, as\\nin men-singer\u00e2\u0080\u0094 s.\\nII. But the possessive sign is always the same in form, effect, and place. 1. In\\nform, as in (1) boy- s, (2) box- s, (3) foot- s, (4) ox- s, (5) sheep-s, (6) seraph-s.\\n2. It. causes no change in the stem, as in city- s, loaf- s. If dropped in a few words,\\nas in conscience sake, the apostrophe remains to identify the case. We even extend\\nthe apostrophe to the possessive plural in s\\\\ as in boys and the s to plurals\\nnot in -s, as in men s. 3. The possessive sign is fixed in position. It stands\\nimmediately before the noun which the possessive modifies\u00e2\u0080\u0094 even when, as in some-\\nbody else-s and men-of-war- s, it is not annexed to that part which really names\\nthe possessor.\\nA sufficient reason for the inconstant position of the plural sign and the fixed form\\nand position of the possessive is this pluralizing a noun does not disturb its syntactical\\nrelations converting it into a possessive does and we must know not only the\\npossessive modifier but the word it modifies. Of this we are certain only when the\\ntwo words come together.\\nMany of the endings, offices, and positions of the O.E. genitive are now lost. Its\\nheir, the modern possessive, has one ending, one office, and one position.\\n1 But we would not say, This is the house of John. If we use an appositive,\\nhowever, we may say, This is the house of my nephew John.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "102 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nwife or The wife of a doctor of divinity Our all coming\\ntogether or The coming together of us all.\\nBut of and the objective may, like the possessive, be\\nambiguous. In\\n(1) The fear of the enemy (2) The care of his father\\n(3) The love of God,\\n(1) may mean the fear the enemy felt or the fear they\\ncaused (2) his care for his father or his father s care\\nfor him and (3) our love for God or God s love for us.\\nThe possessive has other equivalents than of with the\\nobjective. We may say\\nSome one else s mistake or A mistake made by some one\\nelse My wife s father s house or The house belonging to\\nmy wife s father Your love and his or The love you and he\\ncherish An hour s chat or A chat for an hour The\\nking s enemies or The enemies the king has.\\nOften, ambiguity is avoided by placing the assumed\\nsubject of the nounal verb in the possessive, as\\nThe writer s 1 being a scholar is not doubted No one ever\\nheard of the mail s having been beaten.\\nTHE OBJECTIVE CASE\\nJames seized.\\nHere the predicate does not completely assert the act\\nperformed. If we add a noun, and say\\nx The writer being a scholar is not doubted is ambiguous it may mean that be-\\ncause he is a scholar he is not doubted, or simply that his scholarship is not doubted.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 103\\nJames seized a rope,\\nwe complete the predicate by naming that which receives\\nthe act. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Comple-\\nment. As rope completes the expression of the act by\\nnaming the thing acted upon, the object, we call it the\\nObject Complement.\\nDefinition. The Object Complement of a sentence com-\\npletes the predicate, and names that which receives the act.\\nAll nouns and pronouns so used are in the Objective\\nCase.\\nConnected objects completing the same verb form a\\nCompound Object Complement, as:\\nJames saw hawks and mice and nimble, frolicsome squirrels.\\nI Prepositions in English are used with the objective case.\\n1 This case discharges some of the functions of the O.E.\\n1 genitive and all of the O.E. dative and accusative.\\nDefinition. The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun\\n1 denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word\\nin a prepositional phrase.\\nMany nouns in the objective case may follow (1) a\\nsingle preposition; and the same noun or nouns may fol-\\nlow (2) two prepositions or (3) a preposition and a transi-\\ntive verb, as\\n(1) Sanitary reform is a sacred crusade against dirt, degradation,\\ndisease, and death (2) Bryant s residence in the city had enlarged\\nhis knowledge of, and deepened his interest in, the ways and", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "104 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\ndoings of men (3) That which Wordsworth loved and aimed\\nat and sought to represent will always be to some the object of\\ngenuine dislike.\\nSome verbs take not only a direct object but an indirect,\\nor dative, object both in the Objective Case, as\\nShe gave 1 him a book The plumbers made l me a visit.\\nIn Latin and in O.E., the dative of the personal pronoun\\nwas sometimes almost redundant, and was called the Ethical\\nDative. Whenever this expletive use of the pronoun is\\nfound in M.E. and later, it is in the Objective Case, as\\nHe that kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots One\\nCoionna cuts me the throat of OrsinPs baker.\\nSome nouns denoting the time at or during which, denot-\\ning value, direction, distance, weight, quantity measure of\\nalmost any kind are used adverbially in the Objective Case\\nwithout a preposition, as\\nOne day, I stood some time scarcely twenty feet from the mother\\ncrow They went a part of the way home with him Wheat\\nweighs 2 sixty pounds a bushel It is worth five dollars a yard.\\n1 Some of the other verbs followed by indirect objects are buy, send, promise, ask,\\npay, bring, offer, permit, sell, tell, teach, show, and yield. With some of them, as\\nask, in I asked him a question, the indirect object sustains to the verb more of an\\nablative relation than a dative ask from rather than ask at.\\nIf we change the order of the two objects, a preposition must be supplied She\\ngave him money, She gave money to him but, when the indirect precedes the\\ndirect, no preposition is expressed or understood.\\n2 As Wrightson observes, some of these verbs have different meanings, and are\\nfollowed by different objects some adverbial and some direct; as, A barrel of\\nflour weighs 196 pounds and The grocer zoeighed the flour He measures five\\nfeet, nine inches and He measures the circumference of the tree The tub\\nholds five gallons and He holds the knife between his thumb and finger.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 105\\nCertain verbs, called factitives facere, to make be-\\ncause they express the idea of making, may be followed by\\na second object denoting that into which the verb converts\\nthe first. This factitive 1 verb may represent the making, as\\n(1) actual; (2) declared; or (3) only thought of. The second\\nobject, like the first, is in the Objective Case, and is called\\nthe Objective Complement. Some of the verbs so used are\\n(1) create, make, appoint, cause; (2) proclaim, prove, declare, name,\\ncall (3) choose, esteem, regard, consider, deem, think, as:\\n11 President Garfield made Lowell Minister to England We call\\nBenedict Arnold a traitor We regard, or consider, public office\\na public trust, or as a public trust.\\nDefinition. The Objective Complement completes the\\npredicate and belongs to the object complement.\\nA noun or pronoun explanatory of a noun in the objective\\ncase is itself in the objective, as\\nu They hanged Andre, him that was concerned in the Arnold treason.\\nA noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of an\\ninfinitive is in the objective if the word of which it is an\\nattribute is, as\\nThey proved the thief to be him that stands there.\\nIf the assumed subject of an infinitive is omitted when\\nit and the subject of the principal verb would denote the\\nsame person the attribute complement of the infinitive is\\nin the Objective Case, as\\nI wish (me or myself) to be him\\n1 For a fuller account of the factitive object and of the indirect, see chapter VI.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "106 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Case Declension Modern\\nEnglish and Old English. Remarks thereon. The Nominative Case\\nUses. The Possessive Case. Its Sign Position of. Objective\\nCase Offices.\\nQuestions. Case, what The cases, what Strictly applicable\\nonly to what The eight cases of our family of languages What\\npart of speech gradually supplanted some cases and narrowed\\nothers? Declension? Decline lord, lady, man. The two O.E.\\ndeclensions The O.E. noun endings disappeared how What ones\\ndoes Mn.E. retain? What footing did these have in O.E. What\\nlanguages helped to generalize these in Mn.E.? Definition of subject,\\nattribute complement, case, and nominative case. The seven uses of\\nthe nominative The main use, what The four uses of independ-\\nent substantives How is the absolute construction expressed in\\nother languages By what other names may explanatory modifier\\nand attribute complement be called? The O.E. genitive denotes\\nwhat The possessive case indicates what Almost restricted to\\nwhat nouns Exception The two accounts of the introduction of\\nthe apostrophe When fully established Extended to the possess-\\nive plural, why Definition of possessive case Rule for Why\\nthe possessive and the explanatory substantive not adjectives When\\nthe possessive ending -s omitted What error respecting this -s\\nJespersen s remarks upon it. With what possessive plurals is s used\\nGive the special cases requiring or forbidding the use of the possessive\\nsign. Show that in six ways the plural sign is not the same in what\\nways it changes the stem of the noun wherein it is not stationary.\\nShow that the possessive sign is always the same does not change\\nthe stem of the noun is fixed in position. Account for the inconstant\\nposition of the plural sign and the fixed position of the possessive sign.\\nShow that the possessive may be ambiguous. What may take its\\nplace? Show how the substitute may be ambiguous. What other", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN 107\\nsubstitutes may the possessive have Show how the possessive sign\\nmay often prevent ambiguity. What is a complement An object\\ncomplement A compound object complement The objective case\\nThe functions of what O.E. cases does the objective case discharge\\nA noun in the objective may follow what An indirect, or dative,\\nobject, what What verbs used with such objects The ethical\\ndative, what Nouns denoting what are adverbial The case of such\\nnouns, what Factitive verbs, what Objective complement, what\\nAfter what classes of verbs used When the explanatory noun in\\nthe objective case When the attribute complement\\nExercises. Study the table, p. 33, of O.E. sounds and pronounce\\nthe O.E. nouns of the paradigms, p. 93. Take hldford, scip, and\\noxa, and illustrate the disappearance of most O.E. noun endings, and\\nthe retention of those we keep. Explain the possessive sign in a\\nmonth s pay, a hair s breadth. Give the reasons for the possess-\\nive sign, and for the lack of it, in the italicized words of these expres-\\nsions Mason and Dixon s line His /over s, mother s, and sister s\\nfavorite I am not of Percy s mind, the Hotspur of the North\\nI left my watch at Smith s, the jeweler s I left it at Smith s,\\nthe jeweler on Henry Street My friend Moore s sake u At Captain\\nMoore s Henry the Eighth s reign. Show the ambiguity in My\\npresent cost less than yours The fear of the enemy The love\\nof God The writer being a scholar is not doubted. Illustrate,\\nwith your own sentences, the object complement, the dative object,\\nthe ethical dative, the objective complement, and nouns used adver-\\nbially in the objective case.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nTHE PRONOUN\\nPronouns are words that do substantially what nouns do\\nbut yet differ radically from them. Nouns are derived\\nfrom roots that express actions and qualities; pronouns,\\nfrom roots that denote relations. The roots of nouns seize\\nupon the features of things and name the things from\\nthem the roots of pronouns seize upon the relations of\\nthings and designate the things by them.\\nAccording as the speaker changes his relation to things,\\nor conceives their relation to each other to change, he may\\nsuccessively apply to them many of the pronouns.\\nEvery person may in succession be designated by I, or\\nyou, or one; every male, by he; every female, by she. To\\nthe same things, taken separately, we may, as their local\\nrelations shift, apply this, that, the former, the latter and\\nof them, taken in mass, we may say these, those, some, others,\\nthey, etc.\\nA pronoun may be so vague as to indicate any one or\\nnumber of a class, or a possible being or action, and at the\\nsame time so definite as to have another pronoun refer to it\\nfor its meaning and stand for it, as\\nThey that fly can fight again\\nWhich he can never do that s slain.\\n108", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 109\\nThough not naming, as nouns do, a pronoun may be used\\ninstead of a noun to designate anything; it is, therefore,\\nfitly called a pronoun.\\nDefinition. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun.\\nRemarks. While pronouns are substitutes for nouns, enabling us\\n(1) to speak of things whose names we do not know, or (2) knowing,\\nwe do not wish to tell (3) to avoid repetitions and (4) to speak with\\nbrevity yet to say of them that they are substitutes for nouns is to\\nsay little. 1\\n1. A difference between nouns and pronouns is implanted in their\\nvery roots. While in some sense nouns describe, pronouns merely\\npoint out. Gestures could take the place of many pronouns.\\n2. While some nouns, as man, thing, substance, are of general\\napplication, pronouns are still more so. Any person, even an animal\\nor a mere thing personified, may use I for himself, you for the one or\\nones addressed, and he, she, it, and they, for the person or persons, the\\nthing or things, spoken of; and all creatures and things, except the\\nspeaker and the one spoken to, are in this last class.\\n3. Pronouns tell little. Some betray the speaker s complete igno-\\nrance. In u Who went? Which of them did you see? the\\nquestioner is inquiring for whom who stands, and what the word\\n1 Some minor differences between nouns and pronouns are these 1. Our only\\nwords that retain grammatical gender are the pronouns he, she, and it.\\n2. Our only words that have distinctive nominative or objective forms are pro-\\nnouns\u00e2\u0080\u0094nominative I, we thou, ye, she, he, they, and who objective me, us, thee,\\nhim, her (possessive also), them, and whom.\\n3. Some words whose plurals are wholly unlike the corresponding cases of the\\nsingular are pronouns we and I, ye or you and thou, they and he, she, it.\\n4. Our only words whose possessives singular are irregular (1) in having no apos-\\ntrophe before the -s, or (2) in having- neither apostrophe nor -s, are pronouns his,\\nhers, its, ours, yours, and theirs my, mine, our, your, thy, thine, their, her.\\n5. Our only double possessives are pronouns hers, ours, theirs, yours.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "110 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nwhich denotes. To what does it refer in It snows u How is it\\nwith me when every noise appals me?\\n4. It is easy to find a name for a thing with qualities not easy to\\ncoin a word for a thing distinguished from other things by shifting\\nrelations. Consequently pronouns, when formed, abide. Many of\\nours survive in the several languages of our family a common in-\\nheritance from the primitive Indo-European.\\n5. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, as\\n(1) To live, that was all he asked (2) It is doubtful whether\\nMars is inhabited (3) He is wanting in taste, which means that\\nhe is uncultivated (4) Ought he to enlist I can t answer that.\\nThat in (1) stands for a phrase, and in (4) for a sentence. It and\\nwhich in (2) and (3) stand for clauses.\\n6. Retaining its office as connective, a pronoun, as which, may, as\\nan adjective, accompany its noun; as, I craved his pardon, which\\npardon he granted me.\\nCLASSES OF PRONOUNS\\nI, thou, you, he, she, and it words that by their form\\ndenote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of\\nare called Personal Pronouns. Adding self to certain cases\\nof these my, thy, him, her, and it and selves to other\\nforms, as our, your, and them, we have what are called Com-\\npound Personal Pronouns.\\nWho, which, and what, used in asking questions, are called\\nInterrogative Pronouns.\\nWho, which, ivhat, and that, introducing clauses, relating\\nto words in other clauses, and binding clauses together, are\\ncalled Relative Pronouns. Adding ever and soever to ivho,\\nwhich, and what, we have the Compound Relative Pronouns.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 111\\nWords that denote things by pointing them out, or by\\ntelling something of their number, order, or quantity, are\\ncalled Adjective Pronouns. The more common of these are\\nall, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter,\\nlittle, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, some,\\nsuch, that, these, this, 1 those, whole.\\nThe word, phrase, or clause in place of which a pronoun\\nis used is called an Antecedent.\\nDefinitions\\nA Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes\\nthe speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.\\nAn Interrogative Pronoun 2 is one with which a question is\\nasked.\\nA Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding\\nword or words and connects clauses.\\nAn Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of an\\nadjective and a noun.\\n1 This, that, these, and those are also called Demonstrative Pronouns.\\nAll, any, both, each, either, many, one, other, etc., are also called Indefinite\\nPronouns because they do not particularize as do the demonstratives.\\nEach other and one another are called Reciprocal Pronouns.\\nEach, either, and neither are also called Distributives.\\nBut that brave, good, etc., in the phrases, the brave, the good, etc., describe, we\\nshould call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives\\nmodifying nouns understood.\\n2 Interrogatives introducing indirect questions are noteasily distinguished from rela-\\ntives whose antecedents are suppressed. In I know who spoke and what he said,\\nwho spoke and what he said are indirect questions and who and what are inter\\nrogatives. In I saw what took place and what he did, what and what are\\nrelatives.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "112\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nFirst Person.\\nSING. PLU.\\nNom. I, we, 1\\n_ my or our or\\nPos\\nmine, 3 ours, 4\\nObj. me us.\\nDECLENSION OF PRONOUNS\\nPersonal Pronouns\\nSec. Person.\\nSec. Person old form\\nSING.\\nPLU.\\nSING.\\nPLU.\\nyou, 2\\nyou,\\nthou,\\nye or you,\\nyour or\\nyour or\\nthy or\\nyour or\\nyours,\\nyours,\\nthine,\\nyours,\\nyou;\\nyou.\\nthee\\nyou.\\n1 In strictness, we can hardly be the plural of I, for /does not admit of plurality.\\nWe 1+ you, 1+ he, etc.\\n2 A remarkable difference between the classical and the modern languages is seen in\\nthe pronoun of address the modern using the plural where the ancient and the O.E.\\nused the singular. In English, the plural began to supplant the singular during the\\nsecond half of the thirteenth century, and by the middle of the sixteenth it was the\\nstandard for polite conversation, thou being reserved for relatives, intimates, and\\ninferiors. Applied to strangers, thou was a term of insult. Elizabethan literature\\nis full of thou in these various uses. Down to the close of the eighteenth century,\\nthou was still used in addressing relatives and intimates, but is now restricted to\\nprayer and to poetry except in the language of the Quakers.\\n3 Mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs are used when the name of the\\nthing possessed is omitted; as, This book is mine or yours Hers or theirs\\nor ours is lost. Mine and thine were once used before a vowel sound; as,\\nThine enemy, Mine honor.\\nA friend of mine or of his, etc. presents a noteworthy idiom. Some suggest\\nthat of here is partitive, and that the expression is equal to A friend of my\\nfriends or of his friends, etc. But such idiomatic phrases as, This heart of\\nmine, That wife of yours, cannot thus be accounted for.\\nOthers suggest that 2 ossess na is understood after these possessives. Still\\nothers, that of marks identity, as in City of New York. Professor Hadley\\nremarks, We may regard the possessives, when thus used, as depending on a\\ngeneral indeterminate conception of that which is possessed the collective\\ntotality of the things possessed.\\nThis idiom enables us to make an important distinction that between A\\npicture of his and A picture of him. Nouns are used in the same way\\nThat house of my brother s, A poem of Pope s.\\n4 The -s in ours, yours, hers, and theirs, is the -s of his and its extended by\\nanalogy to our, your, her, and their, already possessive so that ours, yours, hers,\\nand theirs are double possessives.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN\\n113\\nThird Person Mas.\\nTfcird Pe?\\nson Fern.\\nThird Person Nent.\\nSING. PLU.\\nSING.\\nPLU.\\nSING. PLU.\\nNorn, he, they,\\nshe,\\nthey,\\nit, 1 they,\\nf their or\\nPos. his, 2 i _\\n(^theirs,\\nher or*\\nhers,\\ntheir or\\ntheirs,\\nf their or\\ntheirs,\\nObj. him them.\\nher\\nthem.*\\nit them.\\n1 Besides being a substitute for nouns, it has vague uses pointing forward\\nor backward to infinitives and other phrases and even to clauses; as, li is\\nsweet to live To live it is all I ask It is delightful, this living thus\\nThis life at home it is heaven It is known that he stole T/tatf s 2r^0\\nand you know it.\\n2 Both in prose and in poetry pronouns in the possessive may have pronouns\\nrelating to them as, Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another\\nGod I was a silent spectator while his body was laid here who more\\ndeeply than any other had penetrated the thinking of mankind Her worthiness\\nthat gave the ring.\\nThe noun in the possessive is sometimes so used, as in From the trees spun\\ndown the canker-worms upon each woman s bonnet, shawl, and gown, who\\nshook them off. See p. 100, foot-note 1.\\nThere is no reason why, if the meaning be kept clear, the antecedents of rela-\\ntive pronouns may not be in the possessive case as well as in any other. Usage\\ncertainly allows it.\\n3 Its is our only personal pronoun form not found in O.E. His was the genitive\\nof the masculine he and of the neuter hit, our it. But it came to be thought im-\\nproper to use his to denote inanimate things as well as animate. In the sixteenth\\nand seventeenth centuries, we see a growing sense of this impropriety of it, there-\\nof her, it, it own, and the are used in place of his as the possessive of it.\\nLong after its introduction in 1598, Lounsbury says many looked askance at\\nits because of the supposed grammatical blunder it contains the -t in its, like\\nthe -t in what and thai and the -d in Latin illud, quod, and id, being a nomina-\\ntive neuter ending, and the -s a possessive ending.\\nIn converting into good English what was at first rejected as a grammatical\\nmonstrosity the power of usage is here strikingly seen.\\n4 The three pronouns he, she, and it, distinct in the singular, are alike in the\\nplural. A number of persons may be of different sexes we may wish to speak of\\npersons and of mere things together. A plural pronoun form, having a common\\ngender, like they, their, and them, is convenient for this purpose.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 8", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "114 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nCOMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS\\nNom. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nora. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj.\\nSING. PLU. SING. PI^U. SING. PLU.\\nn himself 1\\nmyself l or) thyself or) I\\na ourselves. m yourselves, herself themselves,\\nourself 2 j yourself j\\nitself\\nThe compound personal pronouns have no possessives.\\nThey are not regularly used as subjects only (1) for\\nemphasis and (2) as reflexives, 3 as\\n(1) U I myself saw it (2) He found himself deserted by his\\nfriends.\\nOurself and we are used by rulers, editors, and others\\nto hide their individuality, and give authority to what\\nthey say. This use of the plural for the singular is\\nanalogous to its use in address.\\n1 Self and selves are added to the possessive of the first and second personal\\npronouns, and to the objective of the third.\\n2 While we use the plural you and your in addressing a single person, we\\nemploy the emphatic and reflexive singular yourself, not yourselves, in such ad-\\ndress. So, too, though our is plural, editors say ourself, not ourselves.\\n3 The O.E. had no reflexives; the ordinary personal pronouns were used instead.\\nWhen no obscurity would be caused we may do the same as, My uncle stopped a\\nminute to look about him They counted not their lives dear unto them The\\nyoung prince took upon Mm the obligations.\\nIn O.E., self strengthened the pronoun in any case, but always stood separate from\\nit. When strengthening the pronoun used as subject, the dative of the pronoun was\\nrepeated before self as, He (Mm) seZ/did it.\\nProfessor Sweet notices that him in He begged me to defend him for instance,\\nwould in Latin be the reflexive se. But we could not in English use the corresponding\\nreflexive himself, because the logical subject of to defend is me. We should have to\\nuse the misleading myself, if we used any reflexive. He therefore calls the Latin reflex-\\nives grammatical; and the English logical.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 115\\nSUBJECTS OE THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Pronouns Differences from\\nNouns. Classes of. Declension of Personal Pronouns Simple and\\nCompound.\\nQuestions. The radical difference between nouns and pronouns\\nWho in succession may be denoted by If By you By he and she f\\nIllustrate the indefiniteness and the deiiniteness at once of pronouns.\\nDefinition What four things do pronouns enable us to do What\\nare the six greater differences between nouns and pronouns? The\\nfive minor differences Give and define the several classes of pro-\\nnouns. How are the compound personal and relative pronouns\\nformed Give the personal pronouns the interrogative the rela-\\ntive and the more common of the adjective pronouns. Why are\\nnot brave and good, etc., in the phrases the brave, the good, etc.,\\nadjective pronouns What are they Illustrate the difficulty of dis-\\ntinguishing some interrogatives from relatives. Why is we, strictly\\nspeaking, not the plural of I? How came the plural pronoun to\\ndisplace the singular in address The difference between modern\\nand classical languages in the pronoun of address Ye in Chaucer\\nand in the 1611 version of the Bible You now Mine, ours,\\netc., how used Of mine, of his, etc., explain. Use of the idiom\\nEunctions of it History of its Force of usage seen in what\\nWhat three pronouns, diverse in the singular, are alike in the plural\\nWhat is gained by this likeness To what cases of the simple pro-\\nnouns is the self or selves added to form the compound Uses of\\nthese compounds To what use should they not be put What\\ncase do they lack While the plural you and your is used in address-\\ning a single person, what compound do we use In the editorial use\\nof the compound? When, in O.E., self strengthened the pronoun\\nused as subject, what case of the pronoun was repeated before self f\\nExercises. Decline the personal pronouns simple and compound.\\nIn what English words does grammatical gender survive Illustrate", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "116 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\npronouns standing for a phrase, a clause, a sentence. Name the only\\ndouble possessives in English. Name the demonstrative, the indefi-\\nnite, the reciprocal, and the distributive pronouns. Explain the -s\\nin ours, yours, hers, and theirs. Illustrate the various uses of it.\\nShow that a noun or pronoun in the possessive may have a pronoun\\nrelating to it. What words and phrases were resorted to to avoid the\\nuse of his with inanimate things? Illustrate the use of the simple\\npersonal pronouns as reflexives.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nTHE PRONOUN Continued)\\nDECLENSION OF O.E. PERSONAL PRONOUNS\\nSINGULAR\\nhe, he, neo, she, hit, it,\\nhis, hire, his,\\nhim, hire, him,\\nhine hi hit\\nNom.\\nic, I, 1 \u00c2\u00abu,\\nthou,\\nGen.\\nmln, Sin,\\nDat.\\nme, fie,\\nAce.\\nme(mec); fie^\\nPLURAL\\nec);\\nNom. we,\\nge,\\nGen. ure,\\neower\\nDat. us,\\neow,\\nAce. us(tisie). eow(eowic).\\nhi, hie,\\nhira,\\nhim,\\nhi, hie.\\nDECLENSION OF THE O.E. DEMONSTRATIVE SE,\\nthe, that.\\nSINGULAR\\nMAS.\\nFEM.\\nNEUT.\\nNom.\\nse,\\nseo,\\nSaet,\\nGen.\\nfises,\\nfiaere,\\nfiaes,\\nDat.\\nfisem, fiam,\\ntfsere,\\nfisem, fiam,\\nAce.\\nfione,\\n\u00c2\u00aba,\\nfiset,\\nInstr.\\n*y,\\nfieere,\\n\u00c2\u00aby;\\n117", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "118 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nPLURAL\\nNom. fta,\\nGen, ftsera, Sara,\\nDatt ftsem, ^am,\\nAce. fta.\\nA Comparison of our personal pronouns with these O.E.\\nforms shows\\n1. That all our pronoun forms of the first and second persons are\\nthose of the O.E. personal pronouns. capitalized to distinguish it\\nfrom the prefix i of the past participle, Professor Lounsbury says is\\nic minus c mine and thine are mln and filn plus e my and thy are\\nmm and (Sin minus n and with I changed to y and our, your, ye, and\\nyou are ure, ebwer, ge, and eow but slightly changed.\\n2. That he, his, him, her, and it, of the third personal pronouns,\\nare the O.E. personal forms he, his, him, hire, and hit but slightly\\nchanged. But she, they, their, and them are seo, fid, fiaira or fidra, and\\nfisem or fidm of the demonstrative se transferred and made personal\\nin Mn.E.\\n3. That the objective forms of our personal pronouns, except it,\\nare the O.E. dative forms. Our me, thee, him, her, us, and you are\\nnot the accusative mec, fiec, hine, hi, usic, and eowic, but the dative\\nme, fie, him, hire, us, and eow, four of which had, even in O.E.,\\nforced their way into the accusative, crowding mec, fiec, usic, and\\neowic into the second place. And when the plurals of the demonstra-\\ntive se supplanted those of the third personal pronouns, the dative\\nfi m, and not the accusative fid, gives us our objective them.\\n4. That you, the O.E. dative eow, has worked its way into the\\nnominative also, and has ousted ye 1 except in poetry and solemn\\n1 Ye is the exclusive form for the nominativ\u00c2\u00abe in Chaucer, and in the King- James\\nVersion of the Bible which, however, in this respect, as in others, reflects usage\\nolder than 1611. Shakespeare uses ye and you indiscriminately. You for ye is found\\nas early as the fifteenth century. You is now both nominative and objective.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 119\\naddress and that this same dative plural you has displaced the\\nnominative thou as well as the accusative thee.\\n5. That, but for the substitution of the second person plural for\\nthe singular, the dative singular thee 1 would have driven out the nom-\\ninative thou, as its prototype fie had driven out the accusative tSec.\\n6. That the demonstrative fioet is our demonstrative and relative\\nthat; and the instrumental fiy is our the in adverb clauses of degree,\\nas in Success is more certain the sooner we begin.\\nDECLENSION OF THE MN.E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS\\nSING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU.\\nNom. who, which, what,\\nPos. whose, [whose],\\nObj. whom. which. what.\\nDECLENSION OF THE O.E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS\\nNEUT.\\nhwset,\\nhwses,\\nhwsem, hwam,\\nhwset,\\nhwy.\\n1 The dative-nominative thee was rapidly establishing itself when checked by this\\nsubstitution. But it appears often when the second person singular is retained.\\nShakespeare frequently uses it, as in How agrees the devil and thee about thy soul\\nDoes it not, think st thee, stand it now upon\\nF. B. Gummere, Phil. Journal, Vol. IV, shows that euphony does not explain\\nthis use of thee. In Elizabethan literature, thee is common as a nominative it is\\nfound as late as Dryden and Pope. It ousted thou from the dialects. In the familiar\\nspeech of the Quakers, the dative-nominative thee is generally used for thou, and is\\nno more ungrammatical with them than is you for ye or thou with other people.\\nThe reasons given for this substitution of thee for thou are (1) the use of the ethical\\ndative, and (2) the use of the dative with impersonal verbs, as in me thinks, me\\nMAS. AND\\nFEM.\\nNom.\\nhwa, who,\\nGen.\\nhwaes,\\nDot.\\nhwgem,\\nhwam,\\nAce.\\nhwone.\\nInst.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "120 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nRemarks. 1. The same forms are used in the singular and the\\nplural and hwa and hwone who and whom are masculine or\\nfeminine.\\n2. Which, compounded of him -f lie, or hwy lie, cannot have a\\npossessive whose.\\n3. While theoretically the interrogative whose may, as in O.E., be\\nthe possessive of the neuter what, it is, in actual use, confined to per-\\nsons, and is the possessive of the interrogative icho only.\\n4. In the interrogatives, as in other words, the O.E. initial hw\\nappears in Mn.E. as wh, in spite of the fact that in pronunciation h\\nprecedes w.\\n5. As in personal pronouns so in the interrogative whom and\\nin the relative also the old dative in -m is our objective. But the\\naccusative what, like the accusative it, is our objective.\\n6. Our interrogative adverb, why, is the instrumental hwy and\\nhow is from the same root.\\n7. Which and what are interrogative adjectives as well as pro-\\nnouns as, What manner of man is this? Which offer did you\\naccept?\\nKELATIVE PRONOUNS\\nThe prime distinction of relative pronouns is not that\\nthey relate to other words, but that they relate to words in\\nother clauses, bind the clauses together, and at the same\\ntime indicate the subordinacy in thought of the clauses in\\nwhich they stand.\\nseems, if thee wel hadde liked. The dative being the only form of the pronoun\\nused with this verb, it came to be regarded as the proper form for subject when the\\nverb became personal.\\nMe for nominative is universal baby-talk, and is colloquial in idiom, as in Who\\nis there? Me. 19\\nOnly with the second personal pronoun plural, however, did the dative-nominative\\nget a firm hold.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 121\\n1. The O.E. demonstrative se, seo, cfwt, either alone or\\nalong with the indeclinable 2fe, was used as a relative. The\\ncet in its modern form that has been retained in this\\noffice, is our oldest relative pronoun, and is indeclinable\\nthroughout.\\n2. Our other relative pronouns ivho, which, and ivhat\\nare the interrogatives changed 1 to relatives. In this transi-\\ntion, which preceded ivho. They are declined like the inter-\\nrogatives, except that ivhich has a possessive whose. 2 This,\\nhowever, is not formed from the nominative but is ety-\\nmologically the possessive of ivhat turned over to ivhich.\\n3. The essential differences in use between ivho, which,\\nthat, and what, are these who, ivhich, and that once related\\nalike (1) to words denoting mere animals and things, and\\n(2) to words denoting persons; but which gradually drove\\nwho from the first office, and who and that drove 3 which\\nfrom the second. That still performs both offices, though,\\nunlike the other relatives, it cannot stand in the objective\\nafter a preposition, as\\nThe book that I asked for, not The book for that I asked.\\n1 In the order of growth, simple sentences containing- interrogatives naturally pre-\\ncede complex sentences, in which alone relatives are found.\\nThe metamorphosis is thus illustrated by Professor Whitney Who did it We\\nsaw the man is equal to We saw the man [of whom the inquiry was made] who\\ndid it, is equal to We saw the man who did it. Which barked? I see the\\ndog is equal to I see the dog which barked.\\n2 It is not true that this whose is rarely employed except in poetry it is in general\\nuse in prose. Those who regard good usage as a sufficient warrant may employ it freely.\\n3 This double displacement, beginning in the seventeenth century, is now complete.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "122 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nWhat l is used only of mere things, and then only when\\nthe antecedent is suppressed.\\nThe relative that is almost always restrictive 2 that is, it\\nintroduces a clause which, while adding to the meaning of\\nthe antecedent, narrows the application of it. Who and\\nwhich are prevailingly unrestrictive, but, like that, are\\nrestrictive 3 also.\\n4. Since who, which, and that are all eligible to restrictive\\nclauses, it is often, when the antecedent does not name both\\npersons and things, left to euphony to decide what relative\\nto use. It is thought that after same, very, all, the inter-\\nrogative who, the indefinite it, and adjectives in the super-\\nlative, that is preferable to who or which.\\n1 Doing duty for the antecedent also, this relative, like ivho and the old-fashioned\\nwhoso, in Who ehooseth uie must give and hazard all he hath, and Whoso mocketh\\nthe poor reproacheth his Maker, Professor Sweet calls a condensed relative. We\\nmay indeed say, What he needs that he should have.\\n2 Here is a restrictive clause Ice that is formed in March is porous. These are\\nunrestrictive: Ice, which is water frozen, forms at 32\u00c2\u00b0 Fahrenheit Columbus,\\nwho discovered America, in 1U92, died at Valladolid in 1506. The restrictive clause,\\nclosely connected with the rest of the sentence, is not set off by the comma the\\nunrestrictive clause, loosely connected, is. The unrestrictive relative is equal to and\\nhe, and she, and, it, or and they, and has a merely continuative force.\\n3 While, as Bain remarks, it might be a clear gain to confine who and which to\\nunrestrictive clauses, usage does not so confine them.\\nThe wide use of who and which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying\\nthat they occur after this, that, these, and those, and hence are used to avoid repetitions\\nof sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing who and which in re-\\nstrictive clauses, but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that who and which stand in such\\nclauses oftener without, than with, this, that, these, and those preceding them and\\n(2) that they stand thus oftener than that itself does. Which stands thus oftener\\nthan who does.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 123\\n5. The relative is often omitted when, if expressed, it\\nwould be in the objective/ as\\nThe men we have advised and the methods we have pursued\\nWe see it in the food he eats, the exercise he takes, the air he\\nbreathes.\\n6. Which points back to (1) infinitive and other phrases,\\nand (2) to clauses, as\\nThey intend to embark at once, which is the proper thing to do\\nHe proposed embarking at once, to which safety urged The\\nleaders are honest, which is a great deal.\\n7. Which and what point forward to clauses, as\\nAnd, which became him well, he confessed his fault What is\\nmore to the point, he told the truth.\\n8. Which and what, while connecting clauses, may be used\\nas adjectives, as\\nShe promised to go home; for which place 2 she soon set out\\nShe gathered together what stuff she had.\\n9. For which, with at, from, to, by, in, on, and upon, we\\nmay substitute when, where, whence, whither, whereby, where-\\nI in, whereon, and whereupon.\\nI\\nI 1 Its omission in the nominative was once common, as in I have a mind presages\\nme such thrift.\\n2 When so used, the noun that which modifies is repeated, in form or in substance\\ni as above from the leading clause. Used as an adjective or as a pronoun, which was\\npreceded by the as, He spied the roll, the which he hastily caught up Let\\ngentleness my strong enforcement be, in the ivhich hope I blush.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "124 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\n10. As x and but 2 are by some called relatives in such\\nsentences as these\\nHis conduct is not such as I admire There is no one but\\nknows it.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. The O.E. Personal Pronouns\\nand the Demonstrative. Six-fold Comparison of the O.E. with the\\nMn.E. Declension of the O.E. and Mn.E. Interrogates, and Remarks\\nthereon. Relative Pronouns Points thereon.\\nQuestions. Show that all of our Mn.E. personal pronoun forms are\\nO.E. personal or demonstrative forms slightly changed. Show that\\nall our objective personal forms, except it, are O.E. dative forms.\\nWhen was this substitution of case-forms begun What in O.E.\\nis our you What did it displace What in Mn.E. has you dis-\\nplaced But for the substitution of the plural pronoun for the\\nsingular in address, what would thee have displaced? The O.E.\\ndemonstrative Beet is what in Mn.E. The O.E. instrumental f5y is\\nwhat in Mn.E.? In Chaucer, and in the English Bible of 1611, ye is\\nused how In Shakespeare how You is now what How does\\nShakespeare frequently use thee What has Professor Gummere\\nshown respecting thee Reasons for the substitution of thee for thou\\nOnly with what personal pronoun did the dative-nominative get a\\nfooting Of what genders are the interrogative who and whom The\\ncomposition of which Can whose be the possessive of which f Our\\n1 Expanding- the illustrative sentence into His conduct is not such as that is\\nwhich I admire, as may be regarded as a conjunctive adverb.\\n2 But used after a negative, as here, may be expanded thus There is no one but\\n(=except) him who knows it, showing but to be a preposition.\\nBut xchat for but alone or but that should not be used to connect an adverb clause\\nas, He is not so bad but or but that (not but what) he might be worse.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 125\\ninterrogative whose is, in use, the possessive of what The O.E.\\ninitial hw is spelled how in Mn.E.? Is the modern spelling true to\\nthe pronunciation? Our objective ivhom is what case-form in O.E.\\nOur objective what and it are what O.E. case-forms Our interroga-\\ntive why and how what Which and what are used how The\\nprime distinctions of relative pronouns Our relative that is what in\\nO.E. Is it declinable in Mn.E. Its rank as to age Our relatives\\nwho, which, and what were originally what Explain their transition\\ninto relatives. Our relative whose from what How may it be used\\nnow What were, and what now are, the differences in use between\\nthe relatives who, ivhich, what, and that 9 What is the difference\\nbetween a restrictive and an unrestrictive clause What relative is\\nalmost always restrictive What other relatives may be When, in\\nrestrictive clauses, is that preferable to ivho and ivhich What governs\\nin the choice When is the relative often omitted Which may\\npoint back to what May point forward to what Which and\\nwhat, while connecting clauses, are sometimes what part of speech\\nWhat must be repeated in form or in substance when which is\\nso used For what words is the use of but what reprehensible\\nExercises. Decline the O.E. personal pronouns, and the demon-\\n1 strative se. Show from what in O.E. each of our personal pronouns\\nis derived. What does Professor Sweet call what When may what\\nhave an antecedent expressed Illustrate the position of such ante-\\ncedent. Illustrate the uses of the words that may take the place\\nof which with certain prepositions.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII\\nTHE PRONOUN Continued)\\nCOMPOUND KELATIVE PRONOUNS\\nSING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU.\\nNom. whoever, 1 whosoever, 1\\nPos. whosever, whosesoever,\\nObj. whomever. whomsoever.\\nWhichever and whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever have\\nno possessive, and are alike in nominative and objective.\\nWRONG CASE-FORMS\\nIn Elizabethan and later literature there is great con-\\nfusion in the case-forms of pronouns. These ungram-\\nmatical constructions may occur, it is thought, from eight\\ncauses\\n1. Attraction. The pronoun was often attracted into\\nthe case of the adjacent relative, expressed or under-\\nstood, as\\n1 Great care is needed in handling the forms of these pronouns. These sentences\\nby well-known authors do not contain the right forms: Poets may be permitted an\\nexecration or two. against whomsoever changes their words as well as against whom-\\nsoever moves their bones I shall want you to meet whosoever you like, and to be\\nfriendly with whomever pleases you The people elect whosoever they wish to be\\npresident.\\n126", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 127\\n11 1 have come to be known as her whom your uncle trusted\\nWhen him we serve s away I do not love the lord as he that s\\nsecond to thyself.\\n2. Euphony. It is difficult to pronounce m after d or t;\\nhence men avoid it by saying\\n44 All debts are closed between you and J No child but\\n3. Analogy. The influence of the stock-phrases, you\\nand I, he and i, so frequent in the nominative, keeps\\nin between you and 7/ especially since the you is not changed\\nin becoming objective.\\nA pronoun in the objective, properly used after as in\\nsuch sentences, as:\\nI obey my father as him that has a right to obedience,\\nmay lead to the misuse of the objective in such sentences as\\n44 You are not so good as me.\\n4. Separation. The word that should determine the\\ncase of the pronoun fails to do it because of its distance\\nfrom the pronoun, as\\n44 1 shall think the better of myself and thee during my life /for\\na valiant lion and thou for a true prince.\\n5. Vacillation. The writer begins with the pronoun in\\nthe objective, and afterward decides to end with a finite\\nverb instead of an infinitive, as\\n1 The expression Between you and I, which Dr. E. A. Abbott says was a regular\\nElizabethan idiom, Professor Sweet thinks is due to the grammatical reaction against\\ni what was regarded as the vulgarism of me in place of", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "128 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\n11 One whom all the world knew was so wronged (instead of to be\\nso wronged) u Whom do men say that lam f (instead of call me).\\n6. Confusion. The writer seems to be in doubt whether\\ncertain words as but, than, etc. ought to be regarded as\\nprepositions or as conjunctions, as\\n4 There is no one but he whose being I do fear He seems\\nmightier than them.\\n7. Anacoluthon. The construction changes, and thus\\nthrows the pronoun used out of syntax, as:\\nShe, Claudio, that you wronged, look you restore And he\\nmy husband best of all affects.\\n8. Position. 1 The subject usually standing before the\\nverb and the objective after it, the writer is unconsciously\\ninfluenced to such locutions as these\\nWho do you think I saw standing on deck It is me 2 He\\nthat men call a poet they listen to I ll tell you who time ambles\\nwithal, who time trots withal, toho etc.\\n1 Jespersen, from whom much of the above is condensed, thinks that position is re-\\nsponsible for the change of the O.E. dative absolute to the Mn.E. nominative absolute,\\nillustrated thus Him destroyed, all this will follow He destroyed, all, etc.\\n8 Professor Sweet thinks that me is used in It is me because of its analogy with\\nhe, she, and we in the corresponding assertions, It is he, It is she, It is we.\\nAlong with Ellis, Alford, and others, Sweet defends It is me claiming for it,\\nhowever, that it is colloquial only. One may easily satisfy himself that it is almost un-\\nknown in literature especially American. The grammarian may concede that it is\\nused in colloquial speech especially in England. So much authority the locution has;\\nno more, as yet, we think.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "THE PBONOUN 129\\nADJECTIVE PRONOUNS\\nAdjective pronouns are words that at one time modify\\nnouns at another, take the place of nouns.\\nAdjective pronouns are quite irregular differing from\\neach other in respect to Number, Case, and the use of the\\nArticles a and the.\\n1. Number. (1) The adjective pronouns another, each,\\neither, neither, etc. are used only in the singular; (2) both,\\nfew, and several are used only in the plural (3) all, any,\\nsome, such, etc. are used in both numbers (4) one and other\\nhave the regular plural ending -s (5) this and that, the\\nirregular vowel change plus e, seen in these 1 and those 1 and\\n(6) enough, none, some, such, and most of the others have\\nthe plural like the singular.\\nI 2. Case. (1) None, 2 some, this, that, and most of the re-\\nmainder have no possessive case and (2) another, former,\\nlatter, one, and other have a possessive, and form it with\\nan apostrophe before the -s.\\n3. The Articles. (1) Any, enough, none, this, that, 3 etc. take\\nneither a nor the; (2) all, one 3 same, etc., take only the; few\\n1 These and those are doublets varying forms of the plural of this. Skeat.\\nI 2 None ne an, not one, is no longer used with a noun like mine, ours, etc.,\\nI it is absolute, except in none other. JVo takes its place when the noun is expressed.\\n3 A candidate, thon, a contracted form of that one, has been proposed in order to\\nI meet our lack of a personal pronoun with a common gender. We now awkwardly use\\ntwo pronouns in such a sentence as this If you see John or Jane, tell him or her that\\nI am well or we inaccurately use only him or them, With this word we could say\\ni If you see John or Jane, tell thon {that one) that I am well Each boy and girl\\nmust learn thorCs lesson. Usage has not yet adopted the would-be pronoun, we hardly\\nneed say.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 9", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "130 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nand little take a, 1 but in taking it change from a negative\\nmeaning to a positive (4) many takes a 2 after it (5) all\\ntakes the after it only and (6) whole takes the before\\nit only.\\nThis points (1) back, and (2) forward, to an infinitive or\\nother phrase and to a clause, as\\nTo die for one s country this is a duty Living for one s\\ncountry this is as noble as dying for it The papers had been\\ndestroyed, but this could not be proved This is one s privilege to\\nserve others 1 Every man s duty includes this: care for his\\nbody This is one of the commandments l Honor thy father and\\nthy mother. 1\\nThat points back to an infinitive or other phrase and to a\\nclause, as\\nTo love one s enemies, that is a hard thing to do The\\nMohammedan made ivar upon the infidel that the Koran bade him\\ndo A stitch in time saves nine; that is a proverb of thrift.\\nWhen this and that, the one and the other, refer to things\\nalready mentioned, this refers to the last mentioned, and\\nthat to the first mentioned the one refers to the first men-\\ntioned, and the other to the last mentioned. The plurals\\nhave the same reference. To illustrate\\n1 To our great joy, a few of the crew were saved and a little of the cargo. Few,\\nlike many, is used of number; little, like much, of quantity.\\n2 Many man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann, Latin mul-\\ntus vir y and the like, until the thirteenth century when the article was inserted to\\nemphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number. Prof.F.A.\\nMarch.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 131\\nThe moon and the sun shine; this by its own light, that by\\nreflected light The moon and the sun shine the one, or the jor-\\nmer, by reflected light, the other, or the latter, by its own light.\\nThe indefinite adjective pronoun one has supplanted\\nthe O.E. man, and is now in general use. With the mean-\\ning of the French on (Lat. homo, man and of I, we, you,\\nthey, some people in English, one is a very convenient, all-\\nround word.\\nMany of the words set down as adjective pronouns are at\\ntimes used as adverbs all, enough, little, and much, and\\ntheir comparatives and superlatives less and least, more and\\nmost, none, some, etc., as\\nAll over, strong enough, little used, less worthy, least employed,\\nmuch in vogue, more enraged, most happy, none too soon, some 1\\ntwenty years ago, etc.\\nUsage is in favor of any one else s, no one else s, some-\\nbody else s, nobody else s, instead of any one s else, no one s\\nelse, etc., as\\nHe should have to go an\\\\l fight in some one else s quarrel.\\nThere is almost no authority for placing s upon one or\\nbody. The reason for attaching it to else was given, p. 101,\\nfoot-note.\\nOther Proscribed Pronomial Locutions are given below. 2\\n1 Some nearly, about, has been proscribed, but even in O.E. and all the way-\\ndown, some with numerals is common, as in Young published his Travels in\\nFrance some eighteen months after the Reflections. 1 1\\n2 In the nine following paragraphs we give alternative locutions only the second\\nof which in each paragraph is allowed by many grammarians and critics the first they", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "132 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Declension of the Compound\\nRelative Pronouns. The Eight possible Causes of wrong Case-Forms.\\nAdjective Pronouns Irregularity in Number, Case, and the Use of\\nthe Articles. Proscribed Pronominal Locutions.\\nQuestions. What, added to simple relative pronouns, makes them\\ncompound What ones are alike in nominative and objective and in\\nutterly condemn. We are able, on the warrant of usage, to say that both readings in\\neach paragraph are correct.\\n1. We may use each other with more than two we may use one another instead.\\nWe may say, All departments of thought illuminate each other or illuminate one\\nanother.\\n2. We may use one another with only two we may use each other instead. We\\nmay say, History and biography much resemble one another in the pages of Carlyle,\\nor much resemble each other.\\n8. We may use all, both, and tvhole with a preposition and a noun or pronoun fol-\\nlowing we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun or pronoun. We\\nmay say, The meaning of all of them, u Both of them, speak, The whole of\\nDaffydowndilly s life, or The meaning of them all, They both speak, DafFy-\\ndowndilly s whole life.\\n4. We may use the pronouns either and neither, as the conjunctions either and\\nneither, with more than two we may use any one and none instead. We may say,\\nEither of his four Pastorals, Neither of the three Competitors or Any one\\nof his four Pastorals, None or no one of the three Competitors.\\n5. We may use he or some other pronoun after the indefinite one we may repeat\\nthe one instead. We may say, One must feel intellectually secure before he can\\nventure to dress shabbily, or before one can venture, etc.\\n6. We may use no with the indefinite one we may use not instead. We may say,\\nNo one of these instructions did they change, or Not one of these, etc.\\n7. We may use such before an adjective and its noun we may use so instead. We\\nmay say, Such widely different ways, Such an abject lot, or Ways so widely\\ndifferent, So abject a lot.\\n8. We may use either in the sense of each we may use each instead. We may\\nsay, The chief officers of either army, or of each army.\\n9. We may use none in the plural we may use none in the singular. We may\\nsay, My right there are none to dispute, or there is none to dispute.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "THE PRONOUN 133\\nhaving no possessive? What are the liabilities to mistake in the\\nuse of these pronouns? Account for the mistakes in the use of\\ncase-forms of simple relatives. How does Jespersen account for the\\nchange of the O.E. dative to the Mn.E. nominative in absolute con-\\nstructions How does Professor Sweet account for the colloquial\\n1 use of me in It is me What authority can be given for that\\nlocution What are adjective pronouns Give some that are used\\ni only in the singular some used only in the plural some, in both\\nnumbers some, with the regular plural ending -s some with the\\nstem vowel changed in the plural and some with the plural like the\\n1 singular. Give some without possessive case and some with the pos-\\nsessive in s. Give some that take neither a nor the some that take\\nj only the some that take a with change from negative to positive one\\nJ that takes a after it only one that takes the after it only one that\\ntakes the before it only. These and those are what? None com-\\npounded of what and used how? For what is the candidate thon\\nj proposed Why proposed This points back and forward to what\\nThat, back to what? The distinction in reference between this and\\nj that, and between the one and the other. One has supplanted what\\nO.E. word? This indefinite adjective pronoun is used in place of\\nwhat French word? What English words? What adjective pro-\\nnouns are sometimes adverbs Which proper any one^s else or\\nu any one else^s f Refer to chapter IX, and give the reason for the\\nusage in respect to the place of this possessive sign. How may some\\nbe used Defend the nine other proscribed pronominal locutions.\\nExercises. Decline the compound relative pronouns. Illustrate\\nthe causes influencing the use of the wrong case-forms. Illustrate\\nthe use of this, that, of this and that, and of the one and the other.\\nIllustrate the use of both forms in each of the nine proscribed pro-\\nnominal locutions. What is the authority for both, and to what\\nrespect is this authority entitled", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nTHE ADJECTIVE\\nOrigin. None of the original words were exclusively\\nnouns or adjectives or verbs, but all of these indifferently.\\nLaying hold of certain qualities or actions of concrete-\\nthings, they became nouns or adjectives or verbs to suit\\nthe speaker s needs.\\nThe capacity of some words for these various duties\\nexists yet, as\\nMy love Love potion Hove.\\nNouns still pass 1 easily into adjectives, and adjectives\\ninto nouns, as\\nCotton cloth, Iron spoons The news is warlike Re-\\nspect your betters His superior summoned him The true\\nThe false The righteous, The wicked.\\nA Distinction between Adjectives and Nouns. That either\\npart of speech may become the other implies a distinction\\nbetween them. Nouns, as such, name; adjectives, as such,\\n1 Each part of speech, in passing- into the other, abandons its old modifications, and\\ndoes not assume all that belong- to the part it becomes. The noun leaves behind it its\\ncase and its plural sign, and does not take comparison the adjective loses its com-\\nparison, and does not adopt gender or necessarily the plural sign.\\nAs seen above, the or some pronoun in the possessive is used to convert an adjective\\ninto an abstract noun or into a concrete The true The righteous His\\nsuperior.\\n134", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE 135\\ndo not. Adjectives denote some quality or quantity, but\\ndenote it as belonging to, or existing in, a thing. If the\\nquality be considered apart from the thing, the word that\\ndenotes it names it, and is an abstract noun whiteness\\nnames what ivhite denotes.\\nIt follows, then, that as an adjective denotes some\\nproperty of a thing, it must be used with a word express-\\ning the thing a noun or a pronoun.\\nFunctions. Some adjectives denote the qualities of\\nthings some, the number of things some, the quantity\\nof things and some, the relations existing between things.\\nThese various offices are here illustrated\\nGood men Six marbles Much land This book.\\nThe quality, or property, denoted by an adjective may\\nbe assumed as belonging to the thing or it may be affirmed\\nas belonging to it. Adjectives assumed are closely attached\\nto their nouns, and immediately precede or follow 1 them;\\nadjectives asserted are in the predicate.\\nIn denoting quality, number, quantity, or relation, as-\\nsumed 2 adjectives lessen the things which their nouns\\n1 Professor Earle s remark, The French structure is still available when there\\nis a touch of humor or pathos, tells but a fraction of the truth. Balance, euphony,\\nrhythm, and emphasis, as well as humor or pathos, may draw the adjective after its\\nnoun.\\n2 An adjective modifying a proper noun or denoting a necessary quality does not\\nnarrow the scope Truthful George Washington and red blood equal in scope\\nGeorge Washington and blood.\\nThe asserted adjective is only unfolding what is implied in the noun, and therefore\\ndoes not restrict the application of the noun.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "136 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nname good men, six marbles, and this book do not apply\\nto as many men, marbles, and books as men, marbles, and\\nbook do, for these apply to all and of much land there is\\nless than there is of land, i.e. all land. In the language of\\nlogic, the adjective increases the intension of the noun, but\\ndecreases the extension.\\nAdjectives modify ntjuns by limiting their application\\nor scope.\\nClassification. To prescribe the number or the quantity\\nof things or to point out things by noting some quality of\\nthem or some relation which they bear, is to put bounds\\nabout the things to define them.\\nAdjectives that limit by denoting qualities are Descriptive\\nAdjectives those that limit by pointing out, or numbering,\\nthings, 2 or by denoting quantity, are Definitive 3 Adjectives.\\n1 Some adjectives modify not the simple noun but the noun already modified by\\nadjectives. In Every intelligent American citizen should vote, intelligent modifies\\ncitizen limited by American, and every modifies citizen limited by both American\\nand intelligent. Adjectives are not then always of the same rank. When a distinction\\nexists, it should be noted, for it determines the order of the adjectives and their\\npunctuation. In a series of unequal rank, those most closely modifying the noun\\nstand nearest to it, before or after, and no comma separates them.\\nAssumed adjectives have the force of clauses. (1) A selection of such as predispose\\nthe reader to the assertion following (2) a rigid limitation of the number chosen and\\n(3) a judicious placing of these if possible, the longest nearest the noun tell power-\\nfully upon the thought and its expression.\\n2 The definitive adjectives one, two, three, etc., and /n/, second, third, etc., are\\ncalled Numeral Adjectives. One, tivo, three, etc., are Cardinal numerals; Ji? i i,\\nsecond, third, etc., are Ordinal numerals.\\nThese numeral adjectives are often used as pronouns. When so used, we should\\ncall them adjective pronouns if their usual adjective function were not so much more\\npronounced than their pronominal.\\n3 In treating of adjective pronouns, we spoke of many definitive adjectives. We call", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE 137\\nDefinitions\\nAn Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun.\\nA Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by denoting quality.\\nA Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing out\\nor numbering, or by denoting quantity.\\nInflection. In O.E., the adjective is inflected its inflec-\\ntions changing with the change of the gender, the case, and\\nthe number of the noun it modifies.\\nAn O.E. noun has only one set of inflections, the vowel\\nor the consonant; an O.E. adjective has the three sets of\\nthe three genders in each declension. If not preceded by\\nthe definite article, or by a demonstrative, or a possessive,\\npronoun, the adjective takes the endings 1 of a pronoun;\\nthem adjective pronouns, rather than pronominal adjectives, because their pro-\\nnominal function seems so much more pronounced than their adjectival.\\nWhatever the etymology or the history of the words we call adjective pronouns,\\nvariously called by others, adjective pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and pronomi-\\nnal adjectives, we place no words in this class that are not used as adjectives and as\\npronouns. We therefore exclude from the list words that some include, such as, a,\\nalone, else, every, no, only, sundry, the, etc.\\nWe exclude from this class the interrogative and the relatives which and what, and\\nthe numerals one, two, first, second, etc., because, though complying with the condition\\nabove, the dominating interrogative and relative function of the two pronouns, and the\\nadjectival function of the numerals, compel another classification of them. Good\\nreasons must, of force, give place to better.\\nWherever the words classed as adjective pronouns are used as adjectives, they\\nshould be called adjectives.\\n1 The endings of these a.ljectives differ in these respects from those of the O.E.\\nnouns inflected on p. 93: that of the masculine accusative singular is -ne that of the\\nfeminine genitive and dative singular is -re that of the masculine and neuter dative\\nsingular is -um that of the nominative and accusative plural throughout is -e and\\nthat of the genitive plural throughout is -ra. These endings are nearly like those of the\\npronoun, p. 117, and justify the name pronominal given to adjectives when having\\nthese declensional endings.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "138 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\nif thus preceded, it takes the endings of the consonant 1\\ndeclension of nouns.\\nThese two diverse sets of declensional endings the one\\ncalled indefinite or pronominal, and the other definite 2 or\\nnominal were so confusing that, without either supplant-\\ning the other, both gave way.\\nThe only modification adjectives retain is comparison\\nin its three degrees Positive, Comparative, and Super-\\nlative.\\nComparison. 1. In -er and -est. In the Teutonic mem-\\nber of our family, the comparative of adjectives was usually\\nformed by adding -is or -6s to the positive the superlative,\\nby adding -ta to the comparative.\\nIn O.E., the s of the comparative -is or -os underwent rhotacism,\\nbecame r the s of the superlative -ista or -5sta did not. When now\\nthe i or the o of the comparative -is or -5s and of the superlative -ista\\nor -osta leveled to obscure e, and the a of the superlative, changed\\nto e, disappeared, the comparative and superlative endings became -er\\nand -est as they are to-day.\\nAdjectives Irregular in Comparison. There are adjectives\\n(1) whose different degrees are from different stems some\\n(2) whose positive or comparative is wanting; and some\\n(3) whose endings of comparison are peculiar. These in-\\nheritances of ours from O.E. are here grouped:\\n1 Except that the genitive plural ending is usually -ra instead of -ena.\\n2 The final -e in the definite form, and in the plural, of adjectives is a common sur-\\nvival in Chaucer. The -en in our olden is possibly a survival.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE\\n139\\nPOS.\\n(Aft),*\\nBad,\\nEvil, I\\n111, J\\nFar,\\nFore,\\nCOMP. SUPER.\\naftmost or\\nafter,\\naftermost.\\nworse, 3 worst.\\nfarthest or\\nfarther, 4\\nPOS. COMP.\\nless 3 or\\nLittle, 2\\nMany or\\nMuch,\\nNear,\\nlesser,\\nmore,\\nnearer, 3\\nOld,\\nSolder or\\nelder,\\nj farthermost.\\nforemost or\\nformer,\\nI first.\\n__. x _ _ (furthest or #rw.*\\\\ (outer or\\n(Forth), further, 4 1 m (Out), J\\nfurthermost. utter,\\nGood, better, best.\\nj hindmost 5 or Under,\\nj hindermost.\\nx inmost or\\n(In), mner,\\nHind, hinder,\\nLate,\\nf innermost,\\nj later or j latest or\\nlatter, last.\\n(UP),\\nTop,\\nupper,\\nSUPER.\\nleast.\\nmost.\\nnearest or\\nI next.\\noldest or\\nI eldest.\\noutmost or\\noutermost\\nutmost or\\nuttermost.\\nundermost.\\nj upmost or\\nj uppermost.\\ntopmost.\\n1 The words in curves are adverbs the adjectives having 1 no positive form.\\n2 For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size,\\nsmaller and smallest are substituted as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy.\\n3 It is thought that worse and less are comparatives of O.E wyrs and Ides. The -S\\nin worse and less did not become r that these adjectives are comparatives was there-\\nfore overlooked. Worser and lesser the one occasionally used, and the other more\\nfrequently are consequently double comparatives. Nearer is also near being a\\ncomparative of O.E. nedh.\\n4 In further and farther between which, Lounsbury says, No distinction in\\ngood usage exists as yet, an O.E. comparative suffix -ther is seen. Further and\\nfarther are in general not differentiated but further is preferred when\\nquantity or degree is implied. International Dictionary.\\n5 In hindmost, foremost, utmost, etc., an O.E. superlative suffix -m or -ma is\\nfound. This -m strengthened itself with the ordinary superlative ending -est the\\nvowel changing to through force of the adverb most. These adjectives are con-\\nsequently double superlatives.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "140 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nComparison. 2. By the Use of Adverbs. Norman -French\\ninfluence brought in a second method of comparison that\\nby the use of adverbs. 1 Those used in English are more\\nand most, 2 less and least, as\\nMore or less exemplary Most or least useful or awkward.\\nThis method was adopted for the sake of euphony, and\\nits use rests largely upon individual taste. Compounded\\nand polysyllabic adjectives, and adjectives ending in letters\\nthat do not blend musically with -er and -est, are those\\nwith which it is generally employed.\\n-Er and -est added to adjectives always denote increase;\\nthe second method, restricted to the use of the adverbs less\\nand least, is the one method available to denote decrease.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Adjectives Origin, Functions,\\nClassification, Inflection, Comparison in Two Ways.\\nQuestions. The original words used how at first The capacity of\\nsome words for various duties now Show how adjectives pass into\\nnouns, and nouns into adjectives, even now. In the transition, what\\ndoes each part of speech abandon What may the do to an adjective\\n1 Lounsbury says that in Aricren fiiwle, about 1220, one of the first recorded in-\\nstances of this comparison is found.\\n2 But note that these adverbs are compared in the old way. The O.E. superlative\\n-St is in most and least. The O.E. comparative -s, unchanged to r, is the final letter\\nof less; changed to r, it is the r in more. In this method of comparison, then, not\\nthe adjective, but the adverb modifying it, takes the O.E. endings -er and -est, with\\nthe vowel omitted.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE 141\\nA distinction between nouns and adjectives The several functions of\\nadjectives? The difference between an adjective assumed and an\\nadjective affirmed Adjectives modify nouns how What adjectives\\ndo not limit the scope of the noun What besides humor or pathos\\nmay draw the assumed adjective after its noun Assumed adjectives\\nhave the force of what What besides the simple noun may adjectives\\nmodify and what changes in punctuation result Classify adjec-\\ntives, and define them and their classes. Some definitives are called\\nwhat? What adjectives only are called by us adjective pronouns?\\nWhat inflections have O.E. adjectives What caused the dropping of\\nthese in M.E. What is meant by rhotacism In what ways is the\\ncomparison of some adjectives irregular Show how icorser, lesser,\\nand nearer are double comparatives. Explain the ending most in\\nhindmost, etc. The second method of comparison, what From\\nwhom borrowed? When is the first used? and when the second?\\nShow how the first is used even in the second. -Er and -est added\\nto adjectives denote what? What adverbs used to denote decrease\\nof quality?\\nExercises. Trace the development of -er and -est. Give the com-\\nparison of irregular adjectives. Illustrate the two methods of compari-\\nson, and tell when the second is used. What can you say of -ther and\\nof -m or -ma", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV\\nTHE ADJECTIVE\u00e2\u0080\u0094 {Completed)\\nThe form of the adjective expressing simple quality or\\nquantity is in the Positive 1 Degree; the form expressing\\nthem in a greater measure or in a less is in the Com-\\nparative 2 Degree; and the form expressing them in the\\ngreatest or in the least is in the Superlative 2 Degree.\\nDefinitions\\nComparison is a modification of the adjective (and the\\nadverb) to express the relative degree of the quality or\\nquantity in the things compared.\\nThe Positive Degree expresses simple quality or quantity.\\nThe Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less\\nmeasure of the quality or quantity.\\nThe Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least\\nmeasure of the quality or quantity.\\n1 Even the positive implies comparison. This orange is sweet means that it has\\nmore than the sweetness of ordinary oranges.\\n2 The comparative and the superlative express the measure relatively. This orange\\nis sweeter than that and This orange is the sweetest of all do not mean that this\\none is very sweet, but that it is sweeter than the other, than the others.\\nThe measure may be increased or decreased by other adverbs than more and most,\\n142", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE 143\\nEule. Adjectives and adverbs are compared by adding -er\\nto the positive to form the comparative, and -est to the positive\\nto form the superlative or by prefixing to the positive more\\nand most or /ess and /east.\\nEules for Spelling. In the comparative and the\\nsuperlative of adjectives, 1 the only principles regulating\\nour otherwise lawless orthography are seen.\\nRule I. Final e is dropped 2 before a suffix beginning with\\na vowel; as, large, larger.\\nEule II. Y after a consonant becomes 3 before a suffix\\nnot beginning with as, happy, happier.\\nEule III. In monosyllables and words accented on the last\\nsyllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles 4 before\\na suffix beginning with a vowel; as, red, redder.\\nWhich Method is Gaining. Comparison by the use of ad-\\nverbs has made such inroads upon the older method that\\nsome have predicted the extinction of the latter. But\\nless and least. We may say, very, rather, somewhat sweet far, still, much\\nsweeter, by far or much the sweetest.\\n1 These principles determine the spelling of other parts of speech the Noun and\\nthe Verb, for example\u00e2\u0080\u0094 as (1) horse, horses; live, living; (2) beauty, beauties;\\ndry, dried; and (3) hat, hatter infer, inferred. But they are oftenest illustrated\\nin the comparison of adjectives, and therefore are formulated here.\\n2 The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o as peace-\\nable, changeable, courageous (2) after o, as hoeing, shoeing and (3) when needed\\nto preserve the identity of the word, as singeing, dyeing.\\nThe retention of e in (1) prevents the change of c and g to their guttural sounds.\\n3 The y is retained in babyhood, and it does not change before s or in the plural of\\nproper nouns, as lady s, the Marys, the Henrys.\\n4 K and x are never doubled, as in look, looking one, oxen; and the s in gas is not\\ndoubled in gases.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "144 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nfamiliarity with the best English of to-day convinces one\\nthat usage is returning 1 to the older method.\\nSome Adjectives not Compared. Most definitive adjectives,\\nand many descriptive, are not compared their meaning\\nnot admitting increase or decrease. Yet some 2 of these,\\ntaken in less than their full signification, in the meaning\\nof nearer or nearest to the position, are compared.\\nDouble Comparatives and Superlatives. After the adop-\\ntion of the second method of comparison, it became the\\nfashion to use it to strengthen 3 the first. Double compara-\\ntives seem to have been more in vogue than double super-\\nlatives. It hardly need be said that we do not use these\\ndouble forms now.\\nFaulty Comparison. Care should be taken that the\\nthings compared are not (1) included 4 in classes to which\\n1 In Hawthorne, Whitney, M. Arnold, Henry Taylor, Lowell, Thackeray, Martineau,\\nBrowning, Hutton, Buskin, and a host of others, such forms as cheerfulest, beauti-\\nfulest, correcle8t, succincter, pitifulest, projitablest, distincter, cunninger, and\\nnakedest are not uncommon.\\n2 In our most reputable authors such words as straightest, chief est, directer,\\nsupremest, most exact, extremesi, divinest, more and as and so universal, and\\nperfectest are found.\\ns Lounsbury says that these double forms date from the fourteenth century, and\\nare most prevalent in the second half of the sixteenth and the first half of the\\nseventeenth.\\nIn King Lear, Shakespeare uses double comparatives more corrupter, more\\nharder, more heavier, etc. a dozen times, and such double superlatives as most\\nbest, most dearest, and most poorest.\\nBen Jonson calls these double forms a certain kind of English Atticism, or eloquent\\nphrase of speech.\\n4 These sentences wrongly include Solomon was the wisest, or the least wise, of\\n(1) any of, or (2) all of, his predecessors or contemporaries or successors or all other", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE 145\\nthey do not belong, or (2) excluded 1 from those to which\\nthey do. Of denotes inclusion than, exclusion.\\nComparative or Superlative with Two. While there is\\nrespectable authority for the use of the superlative with\\ntwo, good usage overwhelmingly favors the comparative\\ninstead, as\\nDora is the more thoughtful of the two Of his parents, the\\nmother was the younger.\\nFirst Three, or Three First Next Two, or Two Next.\\nThere is respectable authority for three first, two next, etc.,\\nbut usage overwhelmingly favors first three, next two, etc.,\\ninstead.\\nProscribed Adjective Locutions. Some critics, regardless of usage,\\ncondemn (1) such 2 before an adjective and its noun, and (2) a before\\na noun in the singular and one or two 3 after it.\\nThe Articles. Two adjectives an, or a, and the are\\nso common and have such varied and unique functions that\\nthey have secured a distinct name Articles. An from\\nO.E. an, i one shortened to a before a consonant sound,\\nkings The pulpit in the coming century is to meet the hardest task it has encoun-\\ntered.\\n1 These wrongly exclude Solomon was wiser or less wise than (1) any ancient\\nking, than (2) any of the ancient kings.\\n2 Expressions like these: such a beautiful soul such undying hatred\\nare as common in the best of literature as so beautiful a soul hatred so\\nundying alternative locations to which these critics would restrict us.\\n3 Phrases like a brief word or two an example or two are more frequent\\nthan one or two brief words one or two examples alternative locutions to\\nwhich these critics would restrict us.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 10", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "146 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nis called the indefinite article; and the from O.E. fie, a\\ncollateral form of the demonstrative se, is called the\\ndefinite article.\\nPoints of Agreement between A 1 and The: 1 1. Either of\\nthese may modify a noun in the singular\\nA man, a horse, an apple, an heir, a unicorn The man, the\\nhorse, the apple, the heir, the unicorn. 1\\n2. Either may modify every 2 noun in a series in order to\\nkeep the nouns distinct in meaning and coordinate in\\nrank\\nA boy should so arrange what he has to say that it should have\\na beginning, a middle, and an end The closeness, the spirit, the\\nstrength, and the simple beauty of his style are noteworthy.\\n3. Either may be used before each of two or more 3\\nadjectives modifying the same noun, when the qualities are\\nto be kept distinct and prominent\\n1 Of course we are not here speaking- (1) of the preposition a in He fasts a\\nFriday or (2) of the dialectic a, the worn-down form of have, as in She would a\\ncome or (3) of a, the corruption of he or she, as in One night a left home. And\\nwe have seen that the in such a sentence as, The more, the better, is not an article.\\n2 Through the omission of the article in such sentences, even the best of authors\\nsometimes slump together things they mean to keep apart, as in Who never had\\na taste or emotion or enjoyment The distinctions and analogies between the\\nverse and prose of the poet A forked bracket carries a larger and smaller\\npulley No greater difference between the older and newer nomenclature.\\n8 Care is needed that this use of the article be not mistaken for that in 4. The mistake\\nis impossible when the adjectives denote qualities that cannot co-exist, as in A cold\\nand a hot stove The definite and the indefinite article it is possible when\\nthe adjectives denote qualities that may co-exist.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "THE ADJECTIVE 147\\nAn observant, a thoughtful, and a very intelligent man is speak-\\ning Jeremy Taylor was the richest and the most captivating\\nrhetorician of his day.\\n4. Either may be used before each 1 of two or more\\nadjectives when modifying different nouns that are not all\\nexpressed\\nThe difference between a bad and a good man is this It can\\nnever reconcile the secular and the devout, the pagan and the Chris-\\ntian mind\\n5. Either may be used to make proper nouns common\\nA Daniel come to judgment He is the Solon of the Senate.\\n6. Neither is used before nouns 2 taken in their widest\\nsense\\nGold is costlier than silver Woman is the peer of man\\nOak is stronger than maple Truth in the end will vanquish\\nerror.\\nPoints of Distinction between A and The. 1. A is used\\nwith nouns in the singular only; the, with nouns in the\\nsingular or the plural\\nApeach but not a peaches) The peach, the peaches.\\n2. A is used with a concrete noun the, more frequently\\nthan a, with an abstract noun as well\\n1 See foot-note to 2, third and fourth sentences, for mistakes arising from the omis-\\nsion of the article in such sentences.\\n2 These sentences are incorrect This is a bad sort of a day What kind of a\\nman is he The anger is a short madness.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "148 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nArose (but not a sweetness of arose) The sweetness of a\\nrose, or of the rose.\\n3. A 1 distinguishes one individual from others; the, 1\\none class from others, as\\nA farmer is ploughing, and a blacksmith is shoeing a horse\\nThe farmer ploughs, and the blacksmith shoes horses.\\n4. A is indefinite, meaning i any one the is definite,\\nmeaning t that one/ as\\nHand me a, any, book Hand me the, that, book.\\n5. A may mean one/ each/ or every the is not\\nused so freely in such senses, as\\nBoth are of a (not the) length Sixty pounds to a (not\\nthe) man.\\n6. A can be used with few and little to convert negative\\nnotions into positive the cannot be used so, as\\nA few passengers and a little of the luggage (not the few and the\\nlittle) were lost.\\n7. The may be retrospective in its reference; a never\\nis, as\\n1 At times the articles approach so closely in force, or have so little force, that it\\nneeds deliberation to settle whether a should be used or the or neither a nor the. Who\\nsees a broad distinction between farmer uses a hoe, A blacksmith uses a\\nhammer and The farmer uses the hoe, The blacksmith uses the hammer\\nbetween The atmospheric pressure of 15 lbs. to a square inch and The atmos-\\npheric pressure of 15 lbs. to the square inch between She is down with a head-\\nache, She is down with the headache, and She is down with headache t\\nYet we may say that no two words in the language need more delicate handling.\\n1", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "THE ABJECTIVE 149\\nI found a cap and an oilskin cape the cap and the oilskin (not\\na cap and an oilskin) are yours.\\n8. The can change an adjective into an abstract noun or\\na concrete a cannot, as\\nWordsworth showed how deep down the pathetic and the tender\\n(not a pathetic and a tender) go in common life The gay (not a\\ngay) will laugh when thou art gone.\\n9. The may be used in place of his, its, or your a may\\nnot be, as\\nPlucked my nipple from his boneless gums and dashed the brains\\nout Such rebel blood that will not be thawed from the true\\nquality You shake the head.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Adjectives Degrees. Rules\\nfor Spelling. Which Method of Comparison Gaining. Faulty Com-\\nparison. Proscribed Adjective Locutions. The Articles Points of\\nAgreement and of Disagreement.\\nQuestions. Definition of comparison? Of the three degrees?\\nRules for forming the comparative and the superlative. What even\\ndoes the positive degree imply Show that the comparative and the\\nsuperlative do not express measure absolutely. By what adverbs other\\nthan more and most, less and least, may increase or decrease be\\nexpressed What other parts of speech than the adjective illustrate\\nthe rules for spelling Why are the rules given here Give the\\nexceptions to the rules. Give adjectives from modern authors show-\\ning that the method in -er, -est is gaining favor. Give some showing\\nthat comparison is not restricted to adjectives whose meaning admits", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "150 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nof increase or decrease. Double comparatives and superlatives, what\\nWhy used and when? The faulty comparisons fall under what two\\nheads Which degree, the comparative or the superlative, preferable\\nwith two Which preferred, first three or three first, etc. What\\nare the articles The derivation of each When an used and when\\na Give the six points of agreement between a and the. Give the\\nnine points of distinction between a and the.\\nExercises. Give the rules and the exceptions to them that account\\nfor the spelling of happiest, referred, gases, duties, shoeing, putting,\\noxen, dyeing, horses, loving, changeable, lady s, dried. In sentences\\nof your own illustrate (1) the points of agreement in the use of a and\\nthe (2) the points of disagreement and (3) give cases when a and\\nthe differ so little that either of them may be used or neither.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV\\nTHE VERB\\nA sentence has two great parts a subject and a predi-\\ncate. The subject names or denotes that of which the\\npredicate asserts something.\\nA sentence is framed to impart to hearer or reader some-\\nthing he is supposed not to know. This information is\\ncontained in the assertion made by the predicate and the\\npart of speech that makes the assertion is called a Verb.\\nThe verb has many inflections; and it is the part of\\nspeech in English whose inflections have undergone the\\ngreatest change. Grammar consists in large measure of\\nthe treatment of the verb.\\nDefinition. A Verb is a word that asserts 1 action, being,\\nor state of being.\\nIn the sentence\\nJohn limps,\\nthe verb limps asserts the act fully in\\nJohn strikes,\\n1 Asserts is here used to mean declare or question or wish or command or\\nexclaim or to unite in any way the verbal sign of action, being, or state with that of\\nthe actor.\\n151", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "152 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nsome word, as Peter, naming the receiver of the act,\\nmust be added to strikes to help it make a full assertion.\\nVerbs that represent the act as passing over from a\\ndoer to a receiver are called Transitive 1 Verbs; verbs (1)\\nthat do not so represent the act, and those (2) that\\nexpress mere being or state of being are Intransitive Verbs.\\nDefinitions\\nverbs classified with respect to meaning\\nA Transitive Verb is one that requires an object.\\nAn Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an\\nobject.\\nAll verbs, but not all of their forms, assert. Of the\\nforms that do not assert, one is\\nTHE PARTICIPLE\\nThe birds, singing their morning songs, wakened us.\\nHere singing expresses an action, but does not assert\\nit; the assertion is in wakened. But singing does more\\nthan express action, it modifies birds; hence it is not a\\n*If we say, Peter was struck by John, the verb is still transitive but Peter, the\\nname of the receiver, is here the subject, and not, as before, the object complement.\\nThe object of a transitive verb, then, the name of the receiver of the action, maybe the\\nobject complement, or it may be the subject.\\nA verb transitive in one connection may be intransitive in another; as, He\\nwrites a letter and He icrites rapidly The sun melts the snow, and The\\nsnow melts. The verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or plainly\\nunderstood.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 153\\nverb simply but an adjective as well. Having a dual\\nnature one part of it verbal and one adjectival sing-\\ning 1 is here a Participle. 2\\nDefinition. The Participle is a form of the verb that\\npartakes of the nature of an adjective, and expresses the\\naction or being as assumed.\\nRemarks. Participles are of the greatest service in enabling us\\n1. to slur the less important acts, and reserve the verb proper\\nfor the more important; as, Not .considering or knowing the\\ndifference in the money or the greater cheapness of the bread, I\\nJ asked for three-penny worth.\\n2. To abridge and solidify the sentence the participle or the\\nparticiple phrase taking the place of (1) an independent clause;\\nas, The fog settled down hiding everything from view (2) an\\nadjective clause; as, u The only argument known to avail with the\\neast wind is an overcoat and (3) an adverb clause of (a) time;\\nas, Writing, Johnson w r as a Latin slave conversing, he was a\\nSaxon prince (b) cause; as, The air here, robbed of oxygen\\nand loaded with carbonic gas, is unfit to breathe (c) evidence;\\nA preposition prefixed to an intransitive verb or following it may make it tran-\\nsitive. Stand or run are intransitive; but understand and overrun, in I under-\\nstand bow tbe enemy overran the territory, are transitive. Laugh and condole\\nare intransitive but laugh at and condole with, in He was laughed at and then\\ncondoled icah are transitive.\\n1 In The singing birds wakened us, singing is a pure adjective, it simply\\nmodifies birds; in The singing of the birds wakened us, singing is a pure noun.\\nIt is only the subject of wakened.\\n2 Besides the participle in -ing, there are those in -en or -n those in -ed, -d,\\ni or -t; and those without participial ending.\\nThis -ing is the O.E. ending -ende changed to -inde, -inge, -ing; so that the\\nparticiple has become the same in form as the O.E. verbal noun. The nd of the\\nO.E. ending is the nt of the Latin and of the Greek.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "154 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nas, Living fearlessly he must have lived aright (d) purpose;\\nas, The suppliants came seeking audience with the king (e) con-\\ndition as, Wishing to be well spoken of, we must not speak\\nwell of ourselves and concession; as, Nature, busied with\\ncares, yet finds something for her children to do.\\n3. To gather many things into the embrace of the sentence, yet\\nleaving it light and swift of movement; as, The crow sat with\\nher little ones on a bough and gasped for breath, holding her wings\\nhalf-spread, turning her head from side to side, and peering, for a\\nsight of us, into the shade below.\\n4. To diversify expression. The finite verb in the clause tends\\nto conclude the thought and gto drop it the participle sustains it.\\nA judicious blending of the two gives a pleasing variety. Their\\nunion in the illustrative sentence of 3 is an example.\\nThe participle with the noun in absolute phrases performs many\\nof the functions just named and illustrated.\\nTHE INFINITIVE\\nAnother form of the verb, expressing action or being\\nwithout asserting it, is the Infinitive called so because it\\nis not limited, as the finite forms are, to a subject control-\\nling its number and person. But the infinitive, like the\\nparticiple, may have an assumed subject a word denoting\\nthat to which the action or being expressed by this verb\\nbelongs.\\nIn English the infinitive is usually preceded by the\\npreposition to, 1 and forms with it an Infinitive Phrase. The\\n1 We do not regard to as part of the infinitive. Writers on language are generally\\nagreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 155\\ninfinitives commonly without to are those that follow\\nthe verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, 1 let, make, need, and see, and\\nthe auxiliary verbs can, may, must, shall, and will.\\nThe infinitive, like other forms of the verb, is followed\\nby the various complements, and has the syntax of a\\nnoun.\\nperforms its proper function as a preposition, meaning toward, for, etc. as, I am\\ninclined to believe I came to hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun,\\nthe to expresses no relation, we grant it seems merely to introduce the phrase. But,\\nwhen a word loses its proper function without taking on that of some other part of\\nspeech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions, For me to\\ndo this would be wrong Over the fence is out of danger, few grammarians would\\nhesitate to call for and over prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of\\nrelation.\\nWe cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as\\ndoes an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken toy Those who call it a part\\nof the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the preposition to (which they\\nhave said is not a preposition) placed before the infinitive, i.e. placed before that of\\nwhich it forms a part The fact also that infinitives are used without to, strengthens\\nour contention.\\nIn O.E., to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its\\nproper function as a preposition; as, nominative etan, to eat dative to etanne;\\naccusative etan. When the dative ending -ne was dropped, and the three forms were\\nalike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without\\nexpressing relation.\\nThis dative of the infinitive with to was used mainly to indicate purpose. When,\\nafter the dropping of the -ne ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the\\ninfinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place for before the to. And\\nfor to deck heaven s battlements. Greene. What went ye out for to see?\\nBible. Shut the gates for to preserve the town. King Henry VI, Part III.\\nThe -an ending of the O.E. infinitive, seen in et-dJO. above, has dropped off along\\nwith other O.E. inflections and we have now the simple form of the verb found in the\\nstem that seen in the first person indicative present, except in be.\\n1 When such of these verbs as can be used in the passive voice are so used, the\\ninfinitive following them takes the to; as, He icas heard to try, and was seen to\\nleap.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "156 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe infinitive phrase 1 may be used as an adjective modifier,\\nas:\\nThere is a time to weep as well as a time to rejoice.\\nThe infinitive phrase may be used as an adverb modifier,\\nas:\\nAnd fools who came to scoff 2 remained to pray.\\nThe infinitive phrase may be used as a noun as (1) sub-\\nject; (2) attribute complement; (3) object complement; (4)\\nobjective complement; (5) explanatory modifier; (6) principal\\nterm in a prepositional phrase and (7) may be independent,\\nas:\\n(1) and (2) There are but few people whom to know intimately is\\nto dislike thoroughly (3) The oriole loves to attach its nest to the\\nlithe branches of the tallest elms (4) He made me (to) wait\\n(5) It is the assassin s purpose to make sure work (6) Nothing\\nwas left to our fathers but to fight on to the end and (7) Robins\\nare feathered Pecksniffs, to be sure.\\nDefinition. The Infinitive is a form of the verb which\\nnames the action or being in a general way, without asserting it\\nof anything.\\n1 We are here speaking of the whole infinitive phrase and not of the verb alone\\nin it. Indeed, in those phrases where the to has its full prepositional force, the verb\\nperforms the office of the principal word in a prepositional phrase Time to weep\\nTime for tveeping Bread to sell Bread for sale I went to see I\\nwent for seeing.\\n2 The infinitive in the phrase expressing purpose is our substitute for the O.E. dative\\ninfinitive in -ne, which was preceded by to and called a Gerund. This infinitive of ours\\nis sometimes called a gerundial infinitive to distinguish it from those infinitives to\\nwhich the to was extended when the -ne of the O.E. dative was dropped.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 157\\nTHE NOUNAL VERB\\nAnother form of the verb does not assert. It is seen in\\nNext in rarity to catching a weasel asleep is seeing a partridge\\ndrum The stretching one s self out in a common car means a\\ncurling one s self up like a cat John s having gone away was the\\nsignal for my return.\\nIn (1) its endings, in being (2) transitive or intransitive,\\n(3) simple or compound, (4) active or passive, and in having\\n(5) a dual nature one part verbal this form of the verb\\nis like a participle; but in having a dual nature one part\\nInounal it is unlike a participle and like an infinitive.\\nDiversity of opinion concerning this form exists with\\njrespect to (1) some of its modifiers, and (2) its name. Some\\n(allow, while others deny, that a 1 and the 1 or a noun in the\\npossessive 2 may modify it; and some call it (1) an injini-\\nHive; 3 some, (2) a gerund; 3 others, (3) a verbal noun; 3 and\\n1 We concede that the use of a and the to modify this form is hardly colloquial, and\\nsavors of the old style, but we find such locutions too strongly intrenched in mod-\\nern usage to put them under ban. From abundant gleanings we select these, found in\\nH. Taylor, M. Arnold, Buskin, and Lowell: Kash were it and a tempting Provi-\\ndence should I proceed Not a making -war on them, not a leaving them out\\nThe wandering about The doing away with the qualification.\\n2 ~No one hesitates to use a pronoun in the possessive, as in His being a politician\\nharmed him but some hesitate to use a noun in the possessive, as in John s being\\na politician harmed him. Yet this s is often the only mark to distinguish the\\nnounal verb from the participle, and save the sentence from fatal ambiguity or sheer\\nnonsense. The man s being a liar is universally believed is an illustration.\\n3 It taxes credulity to believe that a simple O.E. Infinitive in -an only one form of\\nwhich followed a preposition, and that always to has developed into compound forms\\nactive and passive, that follow almost any preposition, and are modified by a and the\\nand by nouns and pronouns in the possessive.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "158 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nothers still, (4) a participle. For reasons given below, we\\ncall it a Nounal Verb.\\nDefinition. A Nounal Verb is a form of the verb partak-\\ning of the nature of a noun, and expressing action or being\\nwithout asserting it.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Verbs Transitive and Intran-\\nsitive, the Participle, the Infinitive, the Nounal Verb.\\nA Gerund in O.E. is a simple form of the verb in the active voice the dative\\ncase of the infinitive used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by to.\\nTo call these disputed forms Gerunds is to stretch this term unwarrantably, making\\nit cover words that sometimes (1) are highly compound sometimes (2) are in the\\npassive sometimes follow (3) other prepositions than to, and sometimes (4) no prepo-\\nsition sometimes are (5) subjects, and sometimes (6) objects sometimes are modified\\n(7) by a and by the, and sometimes (8) by nouns and pronouns in the possessive and\\ngenerally (9) do not indicate purpose at all.\\nTo call these words modernized forms of O.E. Verbal Nouns in -ung, -ing, en-\\ncounters the fact that such nouns were never compound and never had objects. These\\nwords are compound and have objects.\\nIt has been customary, and the custom still has followers, to call these words\\nParticiples a term appropriately denoting verbal forms dual in nature. But different\\nnames for the verbal forms one of whose natures is adjectival, and for those one of\\nwhose natures is nounal, are demanded. It seems reasonable, therefore, to restrict\\nthe name Participle to those words with a verb and an adjective nature, and to seek\\nanother name for those with a verb and a noun nature. Nounal Verb is such a\\nname.\\nTo call these forms in question Verbal Nouns is to classify them as nouns to call\\nthem Nounal Verbs is to class them, as grammarians almost universally do, with\\nverbs. Besides, the term Nounal Verb may help to distinguish between the true\\nrepresentatives of the old verbal nouns in -ung and the so-called gerunds or infini-\\ntives in -ing.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 159\\nQuestions. The two great parts of a sentence The information\\nimparted in which part A verb, what Difference between transi-\\ntive verbs and intransitive Definitions The object of a transitive\\nverb may be either what or what Must a verb transitive in one connec-\\ntion be so in another What may make an intransitive verb transitive\\nWhat forms of the verb do not assert The participle, what Its end-\\nings, what The O.E. present participle ending, what The nd of this\\nending, what How do participles enable us to slur the less important\\nacts expressed in the sentence What three kinds of clauses may\\nparticiples take the place of What diverse functions of the adverb\\nclause may the participle assume How may it aid in the movement\\nof the sentence How affect the expression In what phrases may\\nthe participle with its noun do the same What is the infinitive\\nIts assumed subject What preposition usually precedes it Reasons\\nfor calling this part of speech a preposition After what verbs is\\nthis to before the infinitive omitted? But with what voice of\\nsuch of these verbs as are transitive is the to used before the infini-\\ntive The to with the infinitive forms what Show the development\\nfrom O.E. of our to before the infinitive. In the stem of the\\nfirst person indicative present of what English verb do we not\\nfind the simple form of the verb What three parts of speech may\\nthe infinitive phrase be used as What seven offices of the noun may\\nthe infinitive phrase assume What is a gerundial infinitive What\\nis the nounal verb In what five particulars is it like a participle\\nIn what particulars is it unlike By what adjectives may it be modi-\\nfied By nouns and pronouns in what case One reason for the\\nnoun s being in the possessive before the nounal verb. By what other\\nnames is the nounal verb called by some grammarians Why should\\nit not be called an infinitive A gerund A verbal noun Why is\\nit thought better not to call it a participle Reasons for calling it\\na nounal verb.\\nExercises. In sentences of your own finding show how a verb\\ntransitive in one connection may be intransitive in another. How a\\npreposition prefixed to an intransitive verb or following it may make", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "160 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nit transitive. Give participles with their several endings and others\\nwithout ending. In sentences of your own finding illustrate the\\nseveral utilities of the participle in discourse. Give sentences where\\nthe to is omitted before the infinitive. Give sentences of your own\\nfinding, illustrating the seven noun uses of the infinitive phrase. Give\\na sentence showing the need of the s to distinguish the nounal verb\\nfrom the participle.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI\\nTHE VERB\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (Continued)\\nMODIFICATIONS\\nVekbs have five Modifications Voice, Mode, Tense, Number,\\nand Person.\\nVoice\\n11 John struck Peter M Peter was struck by John.\\nHere the same thing is said in two ways. Struck in the\\nfirst sentence shows that the subject names the actor; was\\nstruck in the second shows that the subject names the one\\nacted upon.\\nThese uses of the verb constitute the modification called\\nvoice. Struck is in the active voice was struck is in the\\npassive voice. The object complement of the verb in the\\nactive voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to\\nthe passive; hence only those verbs with an object trans-\\nitive verbs have voice.\\nDefinitions\\nVoice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows\\nwhether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 11 161", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "162 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe Active 1 Voice shows that the subject names the actor.\\nThe Passive 1 Voice shows that the subject names the one\\nacted upon.\\nBut this object need not be the object complement. The\\nindirect, or dative, object may be made the subject of a verb\\nin the passive voice, while the object complement is retained\\nafter the verb.\\nChange from the Active Voice to the Passive. There are\\ntwo ways in which the verb in such a sentence as\\nThey offered Caesar the crown,\\nmay be changed into the passive voice. We may (1) make\\nthe object complement crown the subject, and say\\nThe crown was offered Caesar\\nor (2) make the indirect object Ccesar the subject, and say\\nCcesar ivas offered the crown.\\nBoth are legitimate, though the second 2 is questioned.\\n1 The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent the\\npassive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent; as, Washington cap-\\ntured Cornwallis Cornwallis was captured by Washington. The passive voice\\nmay b* used also when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not\\ncare to name him, though known; as, Money is coined at the mints During\\nthe night, the shore was strewn with wrecks.\\n2 This seems to violate the analogies of language, but it is an English idiom estab-\\nlished by the best of usage. Here are a few illustrations from those we have gleaned,\\nalong with some from Matzner s list sentences from Shakespeare, Goldsmith, Cole-\\nridge, Hume, Macaulay, Fielding, Motley, Felton, and others", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 163\\nCrown in the second sentence is the object complement 1 of\\nwas offered a verb in the passive voice.\\nThe Passive How Formed. Except in the participle,\\nthe English verb, unlike the Latin and the Greek but\\nlike the German, has not and never had synthetic passive\\nforms. The passive of the verb is compounded of some\\nform of the verb be 2 and a past participle of a transitive\\nverb the first, the asserting word; the second, an attri-\\nbute complement.\\nI was promised a book I am not left one friend He was given reason\\nto regret it He was told that Congress had adjourned The wealthy refugees\\nwere positively denied admittance Had the Spartan been asked, \u00e2\u0080\u00a2What is\\nthe chief end of man t The merchant icaspaid thirty pounds I have been\\nspared the trouble We were shown a room You would be taught your\\nduty He was forbidden access to the sacrifices, and was refused the. protection\\nof law He was debarred all intercourse If I may be allowed a word.\\n1 It is called an adverbial modifier, a retained object, a noun without grammatical\\nconstruction. But the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is the same in\\nThey offered Caesar the crown and Caesar was offered the crown. If, in the first,\\ncrown is the object complement of the verb, why is it not in the second\\nIn O.E., the dative Coesare was placed first for emphasis; as, Coesare (to Caesar)\\nwas offered the crown and, when the dative ending -e dropped, Ccesar was taken\\nas subject, and the whole sentence remodeled in thought.\\nThe usage of the Latin is instructive Fuerant hoc rogali. Hoc, this, is the\\naccusative of fuerant rogati, they had been asked.\\n2 In O.E., weorfian as well as wesan or beon, be, was used to form the passive.\\nThe two verbs, vjeorfian and beon, had little distinction in meaning or use.\\nThis weorftan, become, befall, betide, be, is seen in Woe worth (be to) the\\nday And now worth (was) the mede (maid) y-maried the y in y-maried,\\nas in the modern but obsolete yclad, yclept, ydrad, being the form to which the\\nprefix ge of the O.E. participle reduced before being dropped.\\nThe abandonment of weorfian, as the asserting word in the passive, was accom-\\nplished in spite of the analogy of the German, whose passive always has werden, the\\ncorrelative of weorfian. It took place, Matzner and Professor Hadley think, through\\nthe influence of the French principle of formation.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "164 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nPeculiar Idiomatic Constructions. English enjoys peculiar\\nfreedom in forming its passives. A transitive verb x which,\\nin the active voice, is followed by an object complement and\\na prepositional phrase, may take, in the passive, the princi-\\npal word of the phrase for subject, and retain the complement\\nand the preposition to complete its meaning.\\nForms Liable to be Mistaken. An expression consisting of\\nan asserting word followed by an adjective complement,\\nor by a participle used adjectively, is easily mistaken 2 for a\\nverb in the passive voice.\\nThe Passive expressing Continuing Action. The past\\nparticiple joined to the forms of be usually represents\\nan action as complete. To indicate continuing action\\nin the passive voice it early became customary to use the\\n1 The logical distinction was lost sight of The anarchy was put an end to\\nSome of his characters have been found fault with.\\nIn analyzing the first sentence, for example, some would regard o/as an adverb relat-\\ning to was lost, and sight as a noun used adverbially to modify was lost some would\\ntreat sight as an object complement of was lost; and some would call was lost sight of\\na compound verb while others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not\\nchanged by a change of position, would analyze the expression as if arranged thus\\nSight of the logical distinction was lost.\\n2 In This coat is sometimes worn, is worn is a verb in the passive voice in\\nThis coat is badly worn, is worn is not a verb in the passive the incomplete pred-\\nicate is is completed by worn used as an adjective attribute complement.\\nThe liability to mistake is perhaps greatest with verbs of motion, as in The\\nmiddle of August is come Thou art fled to brutish beasts Sir Eoger is\\ngone out of the club They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, were slunk.\\nIn O.E., as in German, the perfect active has two forms, one with have, the other\\nwith am for intransitives as, He has a book bought. He is to Eome gone.\\nThe test of the passive voice is, that what is named by the subject is represented\\nas being acted upon, and that the verb is, or may be, followed by the preposition by\\nbefore the name of the agent.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "THE VEBB 165\\nverbal noun in -ung, -ing with the preposition on, M.E. in,\\nspelled later a. This a was afterward suppressed.\\nThe house is in building, u The house is a building, The\\nhouse is building,\\nexhibit the three ways successively taken to indicate\\naction as going on in the present passive.\\nNow when the O.E. participle ending -ende had at last\\nbecome -ing, the participle and the verbal noun, alike in\\nform, were confounded, and is building, in\\nThe house is building\\nwas regarded as is and the present participle of build.\\nBut this combination often ambiguous, as is seen later\\nis slowly yielding to a form consisting of being preceded\\n1 by some other form of be and followed by the past participle\\nof the verb used; as, is being built.\\nThe Origin of the Passive. It is thought that the com-\\nmon way of forming the passive in our family of languages\\ngrew out of a form originally reflexive. When, for\\nexample, one praises himself, then one is praised and it is\\nthought that the passive form,\\nHe is praised,\\ncould not have been used 1 till the reflexive,\\n1 This view is strengthened by the fact that the Greek has a third voice, called the\\nmiddle, to express reflexive action and that, in all but two tenses, the Greek passive\\nand middle are similar.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "166 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nHe praises himself\\nhad been domesticated. It seems but natural to make the\\nagent the source, or starting point, from which the action\\nproceeds.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Voice Change from Active to\\nPassive, Passive how Formed, Passive expressing Continuing Action,\\nOrigin of Passive.\\nQuestions. What is the active voice The passive What, in\\nthe active voice, becomes subject in the passive Hence only what\\nverbs have voice Definitions What besides object complement,\\nin the active, may become subject in the passive Active voice pre-\\nferred when Passive when Show that the indirect object of the\\nverb in the active voice may become subject in the passive voice, and\\nthe object complement in the active remain object complement in\\nthe passive. This object complement in the passive is called what by\\nsome The usage of the Latin, what How is the passive formed\\nin English What verbs in O.E. are used as our be is in the passive\\nWhence the y in yclept, etc. In spite of what analogy was weorfian\\nThe endings of the verb in the Greek middle are lengthened forms of the personal\\npronouns used in the active voice or they are double forms, in each of which the pro-\\nnoun is twice expressed as object and as subject.\\nThe passive in Latin often has a reflexive meaning doubtless a survival of the\\nGreek middle. Most of the Deponent Verbs passive in form, but not in meaning, as\\nuto-r, I use are reflexive, and correspond to the Greek verb in the middle.\\nWhile admitting that the Scandinavian passive is the active plus the reflexive pro-\\nnoun -sik, Jespersen does not regard the -r of the Latin passive in amo-T, amatu-i,\\netc., I am loved, He is loved as the -s of the reflexive pronoun se, self, 1\\nchanged, by rhotacism, into -r. But Professor Hadley says, It seems impossible to\\nexplain the Latin passive in any other way.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 167\\nabandoned for be in the passive Instance some peculiar idiomatic\\nconstructions in the passive. What forms liable to be mistaken\\nWith what verbs is the liability greatest How guarded against\\nThe test of the passive voice? How was continuing action in the\\npassive once indicated The preposition on or in reduced to what\\nand then dropped The is and the word in -ing then taken for\\nwhat This combination always unambiguous To what is it\\nyielding The passive grew out of a form originally what What\\nlight does the Greek throw upon this point The deponent verbs in\\nLatin The endings of the verb in the Greek middle voice are\\nwhat? What is Jespersen s admission respecting the Scandinavian\\npassive His view respecting the -r in the Latin amo-r, amatu-x\\n1 am loved, He is loved\\nExercises. Illustrate what is said of the frequent choice of the\\npassive voice of the change from the active to the passive of the\\nforms liable to be mistaken of the origin of the passive denoting\\ncontinuing action of the origin of the passive.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII\\nTHE VERB (Continued)\\nMODE\\nThere are three ways in which action or being is\\nasserted by the verb. If one says\\nJohn moves rapidly,\\nthe action is asserted as a fact not depending for its exist-\\nence npon one s thought concerning it. If he says\\nIf John move rapidly, he will reach the station in time,\\nthe action is asserted as a mere thought, without sugges-\\ntion that it is, or will become, an actual fact. If he says\\nJohn, move rapidly,\\nI\\nthe action is asserted not as a fact but as a command or an\\nexhortation which John is ordered or requested to convert\\ninto a fact.\\nThe manner in which action or being is asserted by the\\nverb constitutes the modification called Mode. In the first\\nquotation above, the verb is in the Indicative Mode; in the\\nsecond, in the Subjunctive Mode in the third, in the Impera-\\ntive Mode.\\n168", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 169\\nDefinitions\\nMode is that modification of the verb which denotes its man-\\nner of asserting action or being.\\nThe Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact. 1\\nThe Subjunctive 2 Mode asserts the action or being as a mere\\nthought or conception or supposition or wish.\\nThe Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com-\\nmand, an exhortation, or an entreaty.\\nTo these modes, a Potential has been added, in which the\\nauxiliaries can, could, may, might, should, and would assert\\npower, liberty, possibility, and necessity to do or to be.\\nBut, when I say\\nI could do it if I would,\\nmy ability is asserted as a thought whose translation into\\nfact depends upon my willingness, which in the second\\nclause is asserted as a mere conception and each verb is\\nclearly subjunctive. When I say\\n(1) I can do it, (2) I may do it, (3) I should do it,\\n1 In Are you going or You are going a fact is referred to the hearer for his\\nadmission or denial. In Who did it the fact that some person did it is asserted,\\nand the hearer is requested to name the person. It will thus be seen that the Indic-\\native Mode may be used in asking a question.\\n2 Called subjunctive, because commonly used in subjoined, or dependent, clauses\\nintroduced by if, lest, that, though, etc. The name is misleading. The subjunctive\\nis not always in a subjoined clause and not every subjoined clause contains a subjunc-\\ntive. Conceptual, Mason thinks, would be a better name.", "height": "4081", "width": "2763", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "1T0 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nnot the doing, but my (1) ability, (2) liberty, (3) obligation\\nto do, are asserted as facts and each verb seems to be\\nindicative. 1\\n1 In his English Grammar, Bain puts it thus\\nSuch forms as I may see, I can see, have sometimes been considered as a\\nvariety of mood, to which the name Potential is given. But there is no trace of any\\ninflection corresponding to this meaning, as we find with the subjunctive. Moreover,\\nsuch a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and subjunctive forms\\n1 may go, if I may go. And further, we might proceed to constitute other moods\\non the same analogy, as, for example, an obligatory mood I must go, or I ought\\nto go a mood of resolution I will go, you shall go a mood of gratification I\\nam delighted to go of depression I am grieved to go.\\nIt is necessary to say here that in an advanced work an author may properly dis-\\ncard a terminology permissible to him, and used, in a work more elementary.\\nHe maj% for instance, justify his use of a potential mode in an earlier treatise by\\nurging (1) that to assert power, etc., to do is not to assert doing either as a fact or as a\\nconception (2) that the mode for asserting power (potenlia) is not improperly poten-\\ntial (3) that one can do good work with good tools, whatever their names (4) that to\\ncall may, can, etc., potential, is the only disposition of them level to the youth s under-\\nstanding (5) that for the supreme purpose of use the pupil need master such subjunc-\\ntive forms only as are seen in If I 6 e, If I were, 1 If he teach (6) that, if the\\npotential be discarded, to settle when could, should, etc., assert facts and are indicative,\\nand when they assert conceptions and are subjunctive, is often difficult, if not impos-\\nsible and (7) that the pupil is disheartened by this needlessly created difficulty.\\nBut such considerations, justifying such a course in an earlier work, the author may\\nproperly brush aside when preparing a work more advanced more historical and\\nscientific. His purpose now is not what it was then he is writing for pupils able to\\nunderstand and stand the whole truth. The science, too, between whiles has pro-\\ngressed authorities have changed lights once followed may now mislead if not a\\nBourbon, his vision is keener and his horizon broader he must base his present work\\nupon principles then unknown, or purposely ignored if known.\\nAnd of principles that underlie modes there seems to be none more fundamental\\nand philosophical than this For asserting facts, the indicative is used for assert-\\ning mere conceptions, the subjunctive.\\nThese are the reasons for our use of the Potential in Graded Lessons and\\nHigher Lessons, and for our disuse of it in this treatise. We may summarize\\nthus: Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis rendering tempora freely.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 171\\nTHE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE\\nSubjunctive Forms. The subjunctive mode has no inflec-\\ntional endings. It omits the indicative -s from its third\\nperson singular active present it uses be in place of am, art,\\nis, and are; were in place of teas; and wert in place of wast.\\nThe Subjunctive in O.E. In O.E., the subjunctive is\\nused in simple sentences, and in the principal clauses of\\ncomplex sentences, to express (1) wish, (2) command, and\\n(3) direct questions; in (4) explanatory noun clauses, and\\n(5) object noun clauses containing an indirect question or\\nquotation in (6) indefinite adjective clauses and in adverb\\nclauses (7) of time, (8) place, (9) manner, (10) condition,\\n(11) concession, (12) purpose, and (13) result as in the\\nsentences below. 1\\nThe Decline of the Subjunctive. A noteworthy point\\nrespecting the subjunctive mode in English is its decline.\\n1 Wa la dhte ic geweald, Oh 1 that I had the power (2) and (6) Gehyre,\\nse fte earan hcebbe Bear, he who has ears (3) and (12) Hwaet do ic ftaet ic ece\\nlif hcebbe? What may I do that I may have eternal life? (4) Swylce ftaet is\\ngesewen gsethe where gewiss, It also is seen that he was certain (5) Geseoh $u,\\ncyning, hwilce fteos lar sle Thou sawest, O King, what kind of doctrine this is and\\n(5) Cwaedon hie ^aet him nasnig ma?g leofra ncere They said that no kinsman was\\ndearer to them (7) ^Er $iem fte Rome burg getimbred w ~re Before the City of\\nRome was built (8) Hafa bletsunge JS ir ftu. fere, Have a blessing wherever\\nthou mayest go (9) Do swa fte ^ynce, Do as seems best to thee (10) and\\n(13) Gif man sle dumb oftfte deaf geboren ftaet he ne moege his synna geandettan\\nIf one is born dumb or deaf so that he can not confess his sins and (11) Ne forseah\\nCrist his geongan cempan $eah he llchamlice on heora siege andweard nTZre Christ\\ndid not despise his young warriors, though he was not present in body at their\\nslaughter.", "height": "4122", "width": "2680", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "172 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe subjunctive be, were, and wert are disappearing, as is\\nthe form without -s in the third singular present active.\\nThis does not mean that the differences between the in-\\ndicative and the subjunctive are vanishing, but that we\\nare caring less than formerly for those subtile distinctions\\nwhich the subjunctive alone expresses, and are substituting\\nassertions of fact for assertions of what is merely conceived.\\n1. In (2) of the preceding foot-note, O.E. may use the subjunctive\\nor the imperative Mn.E. uses the imperative alone.\\n2. In (3), (4), (6), and (9), O.E. may use the indicative or the\\nsubjunctive Mn.E. uses the indicative alone.\\n3. In (1) and (11), O.E. uses the subjunctive alone; Mn.E. uses\\nthe subjunctive only in part.\\nAnd elsewhere along the line the subjunctive is retreating.\\nThe Uses of the Subjunctive in Modern English. The sub-\\njunctive is still used\\n1. In Simple Sentences expressing a wish (1) possible of\\nrealization, or (2) impossible. It may be used\\n2. In the Principal Clause of a complex sentence whose\\ndependent clause is (3) a condition, (4) a concession, or (5) an\\nexplanatory noun clause. It may be used\\n3. In a Noun Clause (6) explanatory, or consisting of an\\nindirect question used (7) as subject, or (8) as object comple-\\nment. It may be used\\n4. In an Adverb Clause (9) of time, (10) of concession, (11)\\nof purpose, (12) of condition of whose fulfillment the speaker\\nis certain, (13) of condition of whose non-fulfillment the", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE VEBB 173\\nspeaker is certain, (14) of condition of whose fulfillment or\\nnon-fulfillment the speaker is uncertain, and (15) generally,\\nin asserting anything hypothetically, as a mere supposition\\nor conception, as\\n(1) Thy kingdom come, God be with you good-bye\\n(2) Oh that I were President (3) and (13) I would not go if\\nI were you (4) and (10) u He would not have risen though an\\nangel had called him (5) and (6) It were better for him that a\\nmillstone were hanged about his neck (7) Whether it were a\\ndream or a reality was questioned (8) I know not whether there\\nbe any such (9) I will stay here till she return (10) Though\\nthe weather grow dark, we ll trim our broad sail as before (11)\\nTake care lest your speech betray you (12) If there be such a\\nthing as right, it will finally prevail (13) and (3) If he were here,\\nyou would not say that (14) If it rain to-morrow, the roads will\\nbe muddy (15) The ship leaps madly, as it were, from billow to\\nbillow.\\nRemarks. 1. In the kinds of clauses named and numbered\\nabove, the subjunctive may still be employed. But in most of them\\nthe indicative is now ordinarily used. It does not, however, discharge\\nthe office of the subjunctive, but gives instead an unmistakable color\\nof fact to the assertion.\\nWe may, for instance, substitute in (7), Whether it was in\\n(8), Whether there are in (9), Till she returns in (10),\\nThough the weather grows in (12), If there is and in (14),\\nIf it rains. Bat in these substitutes the nature of the original\\nassertions is changed.\\n2. Sentences (8), (9), (10), (12), and (14), whose subordinate\\nclauses are in the subjunctive, have their principal clauses in the\\nindicative sentences (3), (4), (6), and (13), whose subordinate\\nclauses are in the subjunctive, have their principal clauses also in\\nthe subjunctive. The mode of the principal clause is not then deter-", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "174 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nmined by that of the subordinate, but, as is that of the subordinate\\nitself, by the character of the assertion to be made.\\n3. May thy kingdom come u Thy kingdom come Oh!\\nthat I might be u Oh\\\\ that I were It would be better\\nIt were better Though the weather should grow dark\\nThough the weather grow dark If he could 6e If he\\nwere If it should rain If it ram.\\nIf the second members 1 of these equations are subjunctive, as all\\nallow, it would seem that the first must be.\\n4. In sentences with a condition the grand distinction between\\nthe indicative and the subjunctive is brilliantly illustrated. In (12)\\nand (13) above, the speaker s certainty respecting the condition\\ndoes not lead him to use the indicative, and in, If it is cloudy to-\\nnight, there will be no rain, the speaker s uncertainty respecting\\nthe condition 2 does not lead him to use the subjunctive. His state\\nof mind regarding the fulfillment of the condition has nothing to\\ndo in determining the mode he uses in the condition. If he\\nchooses to leave the condition open, putting it neither (1) as a fact,\\nthough he knows it is already fulfilled or will be, nor (2) as contrary\\nto fact, though he knows it is not fulfilled or will not be, he uses\\n1 In Should it rain, the roads will be muddy, rain, of the first clause, is an\\ninfinitive and so is be, of the second. But however thoroughly we may, as here,\\nanalyze periphrastic verb phrases, and determine the function of auxiliary, infinitive,\\nor participle in them, we must remember that the verb phrase as a whole has an\\noffice that, of this phrase, mode is as predicable as voice or tense or any other\\nmodification and that one mode is as predicable as another.\\n2 The subjunctive is more frequent in conditional clauses than elsewhere yet,\\nas we see above, it is not always used in them.\\nFrequently the condition is (1) entirely suppressed, or (2) only suggested by\\na single word or a phrase; as, (1) He would not hesitate to say that (if he\\nwere asked being suppressed); Then, or in that case if that were so I\\nwould spread my branches far around.\\nThe if may be omitted from condition clauses without affecting the mode as,\\nWere this so If this were so Had I known it If I had known\\nit Should we fail If we should fail.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 175\\nthe subjunctive. If, though uncertain of its fulfillment or non-\\nfulfillment, he chooses to speak of it as a fact, he uses the\\nindicative.\\n5. But for (1) the use of be, were, and ivert in place of other\\nforms of the substantive verb, and (2) the absence of ending in\\nthe present third singular of other verbs, the subjunctive has\\nnothing outward to distinguish it from the indicative. Knowing,\\nthen, that the subjunctive is waning, we doubtless often call forms\\nindicative that are really subjunctive.\\nTHE IMPEKATIVE MODE\\nThe Person, Number, and Tense of the Imperative. A\\nCommand or an entreaty is addressed to one or to more,\\nand therefore the imperative is always in the second per-\\nson, 1 singular or plural; and, though the act which it\\nenjoins can be performed only in time succeeding the\\ncommand, the tense used is the present.\\nThe indicative may take the place of the imperative,\\nas in\\nThou shalt not kill You shall go You must leave\\n11 Will you not go instantly?\\n1 From such forms as, Let us sing, Let them talk, some grammarians make a\\nfirst and a third person imperative. But us is not the subject of the verb phrase\\nlet-sing, and let is not of the first person. Us is the object complement of let, and\\nthe infinitive sing is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject.\\nSome would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as,\\nNow tread we a measure, Perish the thought. But the verbs here are in\\nthe subjunctive, though they simulate an imperative by using its order of words and\\nits vocal tone.\\nThe subject you or thou is, usually omitted with the imperative.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "176 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Mode the three Kinds. The\\nSubjunctive in O.E. and in Mn.E. Remarks on. The Imperative.\\nQuestions. Mode, what The three modes, what Subjunctive,\\nwhy called so A misnomer The so-called potential, needed The\\nunderlying principle of the indicative, what? Of the subjunctive,\\nwhat Has the subjunctive any inflectional ending What three\\nforms of the substantive verb does it use And for what indicative\\nforms? In what thirteen ways is the subjunctive used in O.E. In\\nwhat ones of these ways may the imperative or the indicative be used\\nin Mn.E.? Give the uses of the subjunctive in Mn.E. What mode is\\nordinarily employed in the kinds of clauses where the subjunctive might\\nbe used Does the substituted indicative discharge the exact office of\\nthe subjunctive What color does it give to the assertion Does the\\nmode in either the principal or the subordinate clause determine that\\nin the other clause What determines the mode in both What\\nsentences brilliantly illustrate the distinction in the use of the two\\nmodes Is the subjunctive always used in conditions When only\\nIs the condition ever entirely suppressed By what may it be only\\nsuggested Is the if always used in conditions What only that is\\noutward distinguishes the subjunctive What mistake are we liable\\ntherefore to make In what person is the imperative always used\\nIs the subject of the imperative usually expressed? A wish is ex-\\npressed in what mode? A sentence beginning with let is in what\\nmode\\nExercises. In sentences of your own coinage or finding exhibit all\\nthe uses of the subjunctive in Mn.E. See in how many of these thu\\nindicative may be substituted, and with what change in the nature of\\nthe assertion. Find sentences in which the. condition is entirely sup-\\npressed in which it is only suggested in which the if is omitted from\\nthe condition in which the indicative commands.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII\\nTHE VERB\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (Continued)\\nTENSE\\nt\\nThe Time of the Verb. The action or being expressed by\\nthe verb must be asserted as occurring in time\u00e2\u0080\u0094 time pres-\\nent, time past, or time future.\\nJ But, to express the time precisely, we have to assert of\\nsome things (1) their occurrence within a period of time\\nnow ending (2) their occurrence before some point of time\\nalready past or (3) their occurrence before some point of\\ntime yet future.\\nTense in its Essential Office of Time. The modification\\nimposed upon the verb by the time in which the verb repre-\\nsents the action or being as occurring is called Tense.\\nNo modification of the verb is more significant in Ger-\\n1 man the verb is even named Zeitwort, 6 time-word.\\nNames of the Tenses. There are in English six tenses\\n(1) the Present, (2) the Past, (3) the Future, (4) the Present\\nPerfect, (5) the Past Perfect, and (6) the Future Perfect\\nillustrated thus\\n(1) He walks (2) He walked (3) He will walk (4)\\nHe has walked (5) 4k He had walked (6) He will have\\nwalked.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 12 177", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "178 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe present, the past, and the future are simple tenses;\\nthe present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect\\nare compound tenses, each marking two phases of time\\nthat of time anterior, or preceding, along with that respec-\\ntively of time present, time past, time future.\\nTense in its Incidental Offices. The compound tenses, il-\\nlustrated in\\nHe has walked He had walked He will have walked,\\nassert the action as complete respectively in time present,\\npast, and future.\\nThe simple tenses, illustrated in\\nHe is walking He was walking He will be walking\\nand the compound tenses, illustrated in\\nu He has been walking He had been walking He will have\\nbeen walking\\nassert the act as incomplete, continuing, respectively in time\\npresent, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and\\nfuture perfect.\\nThe simple tenses, illustrated in\\nHe walks He walked He will walk,\\nassert the act neither as complete nor as incomplete but,\\nwith reference to completion, as neutral, or indefinite. 1\\n1 Professor Sweet speaks of another tense, illustrated in I knew how it would\\nturn out. The action is here represented as future with respect to the time expressed", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 179\\nDefinitions\\nTense is that modification of the verb which expresses the\\ntime of the action or being.\\nThe Present Tense expresses action or being as present.\\nThe Past Tense expresses action or being as past.\\nThe Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come.\\nThe Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as ended\\nat the present time.\\nThe Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as ended at\\nsome past time.\\nThe Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be\\nended at some future time.\\nThe participle, the infinitive, and the nounal verb forms\\nthat do not assert also have this modification of tense,\\nI though they are not used in all tenses.\\nThe participle is used in the present, past, and past perfect\\ntenses, as in\\nu Hearing a voice, he rose The voice heard was an enemy s\\nHaving heard it, he fled.\\nby knew; but not future measuring from the present as in I know how it will\\nturn out. He calls this tense future preterit.\\nIt is manifest that the completeness, the incompleteness, and the indefiniteness\\nof an act are not time distinctions. It happens that in one form of the compound\\ntenses the action or being is represented as complete and in the other, as continuous.\\nBut these tenses, as tenses, mark the time within which the action or being occurs.\\nThe same may be said of the incompleteness and of the indefiniteness of the action\\nasserted by the simple tenses illustrated above.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "180 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nDefinitions\\nThe Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing\\nat the time indicated by the predicate.\\nThe Past Participle denotes action or being as past or ended\\nat the time indicated by the predicate.\\nThe Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as ended\\nat a time previous to that indicated by the predicate.\\nThe infinitive is used in the present and in the present per-\\nfect, as\\n(To) ride is easier than (to) walk He is said (to) have walked\\na mile.\\nThe nounal verb is used (1) in the present and the past\\nperf ect, as\\n(1) Doing good is the surest way of getting good (2) I\\nremember his being appointed consul, u Brown s having been made\\nchairman prevented a quarrel.\\nUses of the Tenses\\nThe tenses are fluid in the expression of time denoting\\n(1) actions or states rigidly restricted in time to that which\\nthese tenses ordinarily denote, and (2) actions or states not\\nthus restricted.\\nThey express incidental phases of the action or being not\\nincluded in its time.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 181\\nThe Present Tense. The present tense expresses an\\naction (1) as happening l in present time (2) as continuing\\nin present time (3) as frequently repeated in present time\\nand (4) as habitual in present time. It expresses (5) what\\nwill take place in future time 2 and (6) what is true at all\\ntimes. It is nsed to picture vividly (7) what happened 3 in\\npast time and (8) what one imagines will happen in future\\ntime, as\\n(1) It snoivs (2) He lives with his mother (3) He\\nwrites home daily (4) My father goes to bed at nine (5) I\\nleave to-morrow and return on Monday (6) The sun rises in the\\neast and sets in the west (7) The fifth of September, 1774,\\ndaivns, the delegates to the first Continental Congress assemble, they\\nmarch along the street, and reach the threshold of this hall\\n(8) A field of the dead rashes red on my sight, and the clans of\\nCulloden are scattered in flight.\\nThe Past Tense. The past tense expresses past actions\\nor states (1) as momentary in duration and (2) as continu-\\nous, or customary. It expresses what one imagines might\\ntake place (3) in present time, and (4) in future time, as\\n1 Instead of the indefinite form of the present in (1) and (2), the continuing\\nform is frequent, as in It is snowing, He is Jiving with his mother. In\\nquestions, we employ the continuing form or use the auxiliary do, as in Is it\\nsnowing Does it, or does it not, snow Is he living Does he, or does he\\nnot, live with his mother\\n2 The present of be and an infinitive, with or without going, about, etc., are fre-\\nquently used in expressing what will occur in the future, as in He is going to\\nspeak He is about to speak He is to speak.\\n3 This is called the historical present.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "182 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\n(1) He paused, shook his head, started on, stopped, snuffed the\\ncandle, and shook his head again (2) He hoarded and saved and\\npinched and shaved, and the more he had the more he craved\\n(3) PFere he here, he would enjoy this (4) If I should go, you\\nwould miss me.\\nThe Future Tense. The future tense expresses an action\\nor state (1) in the unlimited future; (2) in the limited future;\\n(3) as habitual in the future, as\\n(1) I shall see you there (2) I shall see you before you\\ngo (3) An intelligent people will be a free people.\\nThe Present Perfect Tense. The present perfect ex-\\npresses an action as taking place (1) recently but within\\nthe period of time now ending; (2) long ago but within\\nthe period now ending; (3) frequently in the period now\\nending; (4) continuing in the period now ending; and to\\ntake place (5) in future time, as\\n(1) U I have eaten my dinner (2) Christ has taught us our\\nduty to our fellows (3) I have slept soundly every night\\n(4) u He has been principal of the school for years (5) When I\\nhave read the book, you may have it.\\nThe Past Perfect Tense. The past perfect expresses\\n(1) action or being as completed at some point in past time\\nand (2) in a condition clause it may express simple past\\ntime, as\\n(1) I had recited when you entered j (2) Had I known it, I\\nshould have called.\\nI", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 183\\nThe Future Perfect has only the function given it in the\\ndefinition.\\nTense Signs in English. In the past tense, indefinite\\nactive, we have what we may call a tense sign, or ending,\\nthe -ed seen in the preterit walk-ed. Not all verbs have\\nit, however some change their stem vowel to indicate past\\ntime, as drive to drove. The participles ending -ing, -en,\\nand -ed, seen in driv-ing, driv-en, and liv-ed., also are indica-\\ntive of time.\\nHow the Tenses are formed. Speaking generally, the\\nEnglish verb forms its compound tenses by the aid of\\nauxiliary verbs. These auxiliaries are be, 1 can, do, have,\\nmay, must, shall, and will in their various forms.\\nDefinition. Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the\\nconjugation of other verbs.\\nTHE SEQUENCE OF TENSES\\n1. In Clauses. The tenses of dependent clauses are in-\\nfluenced, some say determined, by those in the principal\\nclauses. The law expressing the sequence is this A\\npresent or a future tense in the principal clanse requires a\\npresent or a future in the dependent; a past tense in the\\nprincipal, a past in the dependent, as\\n1 These verbs aid in forming the tenses of other verbs, and so are auxiliary. As\\nto their present syntax in the verb phrases they help to make, it seems idle to\\nspeculate worse than useless, Wrightson says.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "184 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nHe writes that he is well or soon shall be I will go if I shall\\nthen fce alive and am allowed to go He enlisted because he was\\nforced to do so.\\nTo this rule there are two accepted limitations (1)\\nwhere the dependent clause expresses a universal truth, 1\\nand (2) where it contains a direct quotation, as\\n(1) He died in the faith that God is love Who says m or said,\\n4 1 am, was, and ever shall be a Whig f\\nBut the law, thus restricted, needs further limitations to\\naccount for the sequence in such sentences as these\\n(1) I hurt myself so badly that I am still lame and shall always\\nbe (2) He is unable to walk because he was born a cripple\\n(3) Though we had been enemies before, yet we are friends now\\n(4) I wish to see the man who would venture to say that (5)\\nThe duty is so clear that all should heed it (6) If wars were\\nbloody then, what are they now? (7) If wars are cruel now,\\nwhat were they then? (8) I learned, or had learned, before\\nyou told me, where he lives (9) No one that served under Wash-\\nington is now living (10) Many a year has passed since I saw\\nhim (11) It is hardly credible that with his pen, Scott paid off\\nthe firm s debt of $600,000 (12) It rained last night, for the\\nground is wet this morning.\\nIn the order of time, agencies of any kind naturally\\nprecede; consequences of any kind follow, and those of\\nwhich men ordinarily speak follow immediately or soon.\\n1 The tense in such a clause is usually present, as in the illustration. But, if the\\nspeaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the proposition, he may convert the\\nproposition into an indirect quotation in the past tense; as, He said that virtue\\nwas its own reward.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE VEBB 185\\nIf, then, in the principal clause we speak of an effect or a\\nresult as occurring in past time, in the dependent clause we\\nnaturally speak of the cause or condition of it as occurring\\nin time preceding that is, in past time also.\\nLimiting himself to a narrow time interval between the\\nactions asserted in the two clauses, the speaker conforms to\\nthe law for the sequence of tenses both verbs are in the\\nsame time.\\nBut he may wish (1) to extend the time interval, and\\nregard the consequences of preceding agencies as con-\\ntinuing down to the moment in which he is speaking or\\neven beyond it; or he may w4sh (2) to disregard the\\nnatural order of events, and, in the principal clause, speak\\nof something whose condition or reason or ground of infer-\\nence or of existence is, in the dependent clause, asserted\\nin the present or the future tense.\\nIn each of these cases, 1 the speaker transgresses the law\\nin (1) by using a present or a future tense in the principal\\nclause and a past tense in the dependent in (2) by using a\\npast tense in the principal clause, and a present or a future\\nin the dependent.\\n2. In the Infinitive. The present infinitive expresses an\\nact as (1) present, or (2) future and the present perfect ex-\\n1 These added limitations of the law cover its infractions illustrated in the\\nnumbered sentences above.\\nThose sentences containing would and should are perhaps only seeming infrac-\\ntions since, as Ave point out, in foot-note, p. 199, would and should, though\\npreterit in form, often have nothing of past time in them.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "186 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\npresses it as (3) finished at the time indicated by the priib\\ncipal verb, as\\nI am glad (1) to meet you, or (3) to have met you We hoped\\n(2) to see you there He would not have dared (2) to do that\\nShe meant or intended or expected (2) to go (not to have gone 1\\n3. In the Participle and the Nounal Verb. The present\\nparticiple expresses an act synchronous with that of the verb\\nwhose subject or object it modifies, as:\\nSeeing the dog, or being seen by him, the boy runs, ran, will\\nrun, etc.\\nThe past participle, unchanged in form, expresses an act\\n(1) continuous and so synchronous, with that of the verb or\\n(2) complete and hence preceding that of the verb, as\\n(1) Hated by every one, he, this morning, leaves, left, will leave,\\nhas left, etc. (2) Shot by a sportsman, the duck is being eaten,\\nwas eaten, will be eaten, etc.\\n1 I ought to have gone is exceptional. Ought has no past tense, and the present\\nperfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time.\\nOn the use of the present perfect infinitive to express future action, the Standard\\nDictionary says, The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of\\nhave with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future\\nact was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of. At-\\ntention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense forma-\\ntion and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, I meant to\\nhave visited Paris and to have returned to London before my father arrived from\\nAmerica, the past [present perfect] infinitive is necessary for the expression of\\nthe completion of the acts purposed. I meant to visit Paris and to return to London\\nbefore my father arrived from America, may convey suggestively the thought in-\\ntended but does not express it,", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 187\\nThe past perfect participle expresses the act as preceding\\nthat of the verb, as\\nu Having see?i or having been seeing the dog, or having been seen by\\nhim, the boy runs, ran, will run, 1 etc.\\nBetween the present and the past perfect of the nounal\\nj verb, usage makes little distinction. It allows us to say\\nC u After telling him, I came home or After having told him, I\\ncame home.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Tense, Tenses Essential and\\nIncidental Offices, Various Uses, Sequence with Indicative and Sub-\\njunctive Clauses, with Infinitives, Participles, and Nounal Verbs.\\nQuestions. The action or being expressed by the verb must be\\nin one or other of what three great divisions of time What necessity\\nfor a subdivision of these three in expressing time more precisely\\nTense, what Names of tenses The simple tenses The com-\\n_ pound These mark each what two phases of time The incidental\\noffices of tenses denoted by complete, continuing, and indefinite? Are\\nthese time distinctions What seventh tense does Professor Sweet\\nadd Definitions. In what tenses is the infinitive used The par-\\nticiple The nounal verb Give the various uses of the several\\ntenses. The continuing form in the present used instead of what\\nThe auxiliary do instead of what The historical present, what\\nI What are the tense signs in English Compound tenses formed\\nhow Definition of auxiliary verbs Name these. The law for\\nsequence of tenses Two accepted limitations As thus limited, why\\nstill too sweeping What limitations added Ground for them\\nWith respect to the time of the principal verb, the present infinitive", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "188 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\nexpresses the act in what time The present perfect, how With\\nreference to the principal verb, the present participle represents an\\nact how? The past participle, in what two ways? The past per-\\nfect participle, how What is said of the two tenses of the nounal\\nverb The remark made in the Standard Dictionary extends what\\nExercises. Give sentences of your own containing simple and\\ncompound tenses that illustrate incomplete, or continuing, action.\\nGive sentences of your own that contain compound tenses expressing\\ncomplete action. That contain simple tenses expressing indefinite\\naction. Give sentences of your own that illustrate the infinitive, the\\nparticiple, and the nounal verb in their several tenses. Give sentences\\nthat illustrate the fluid nature of the several tenses that require\\nadded limitations to the law for the sequence of tenses in clauses;\\nthat illustrate the tenses of infinitives and participles with reference\\nto that of the principal verb.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX\\nTHE VERB (Continued)\\nNUMBER AND PERSON\\nDefinition. The Number and Person of a verb are those\\nmodifications that show its agreement with the number and\\nperson of its subject.\\nRule. A Verb must agree with its subject in number and\\nperson.\\nIn the common style, most verbs have but the one dis-\\ntinguishing number and person ending -s, 1 found in the\\nthird singular present of the indicative beats, leads.\\nIn the solemn style, the second person singular has the\\nending -est, -st, or -t, as in walk-est, 7ia-st, wil-t; and the\\nthird has -eth, or -th, as in look-eth and clo-th.\\nThe rule is almost invariable as respects number when\\nthere is but one subject. If this is plural, the verb is\\nplural 2 if this is singular, the verb is singular.\\n1 See p. 231, for the ending -es, as in vex-es,jli-es, etc.\\nNeed and dare, when followed by an infinitive without to, are generally used\\ninstead of need-s and dare-s as He need not go He dare not go.\\n2 Plural nouns naming things taken as one whole take a verb in the singular as,\\nTen miles is a long walk Six months is what\\nA seeming exception, and the source of many mistakes, is found with nouns\\nplural in form, but singular as used as, His Lives of the Poets is (not are) John-\\n189", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "190 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nBut some cases where there are two or more singular\\nnominatives require special notice. In general we may-\\nsay that\\nTwo or more singular nominatives, connected by and,\\nrequire the verb to be plural.\\nExceptions to this rule occur (1) when the connected sub-\\njects name the same thing; (2) when the second subject is\\na synonym of the first and is added to emphasize it (3)\\nwhen the second is closely allied in meaning with the first;\\n(4) when the subjects form a climax; (5) when the subjects\\nfollow the verb, and emphasis is gained by making the verb\\nagree with the nearest (6) when an attribute noun or pro-\\nnoun precedes the verb and attracts the verb to agreement\\nwith it; and (7) when two or more subjects name two or\\nmore things taken as one whole, as\\n(1) My old friend and patron was there (2) The head and\\nfront of my offence is this (3) Anything and everything suggests\\nitself to him (4) His fortune, name, liberty, and very life was at\\nstake (5) His was the plan, the execution, and the success of the\\nattack (6) What is your name and station? and (7) Bread\\nand butter is nutritious.\\nson s best work Mathematics is (not are) an invigorating study The United\\nStates is (not are) respected abroad. News, measles, etc. are other nouns often\\nmisused as plurals.\\nAnother source of mistakes in the number of the verb is a noun in the plural or\\ntwo nouns in the singular, found in a prepositional phrase preceding the verb as,\\nThe captain, besides the passengers, was (not were) saved The son, in addition\\nto the daughter and mother, is (not are) sick The lieutenant, with many of his\\nsoldiers, was (not were) wounded.\\nThe mistake is made most frequently when with is used.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 191\\nSome seeming 1 exceptions to the rule occur where there\\nare obvious ellipses of the verb, as (1) when the second\\nsubject is used for emphasis; (2) when the subjects are\\nconnected by as ivell as, and (3) when the subjects\\nare individualized by eacJi, every, many a, no, or not; and\\n(4) when all the subjects follow the verb, as\\n(1) All this, and much besides, appears to forbid it (2) Time,\\nas well as thought, was needed (3) Each boy and each girl was\\nquestioned, Every man and woman was lost, Many a maid and\\nher lover laments that ride, No people and no tribe ever lacks that,\\nNot my head and not my heart consents (4) There was running\\nand leaping and shouting that day.\\nWhen one of the subjects is affirmative and the other\\nnegative, the verb agrees with the affirmative, as\\nStories, and not study, were preferred Hunting, and not\\nfishing and sailing, was his favorite sport.\\n1 Possibly some of these seeming- exceptions are only duplicates of the real ones\\nillustrated above. Possibly, too, both groups of illustrations do not exhibit all the\\nauthorized departures, or apparent departures, from the rule.\\nIn the third volume of the Journal of Philology, Fitzgerald Hall has collected\\nscores of sentences that really or apparently violate the rule. Some of them, not\\nalready accounted for, perhaps, may be, thus But in fearful truth the presence and\\nthe power of him is here (a common modifying phrase unifies the two subjects)\\n11 Great natural energy and generosity has been manifested (common modifying\\nadjectives unify the two subjects); There has been a simplicity and humility in\\nhis letters (failure to repeat, before humility, the distinguishing a unifies the two\\nsubjects); Already there appears a poverty of conception, a coarseness and\\nvulgarity in all the proceedings (euphony unconsciously influences the writer to add\\n-s sounded as z to appear, before the a).\\nThe rule we have been considering has certainly received a loose interpretation\\nfrom modern writers, and from earlier ones a looser still.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "192 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nWhen two or more subjects are connected by or or nor,\\nthe verb agrees in number with but one, and that the\\nnearest, as\\nNeither the pupils 1 nor the teacher 1 was satisfied Either\\nhe alone or they all are wrong.\\nA collective noun, singular 2 in form, has its verb (1)\\nin the singular when the collection is taken as a whole;\\n(2) in the plural when the individuals composing the col-\\nlection are thought of, as\\n(1) u The jury was composed of twelve farmers, The number\\npresent was not reported (2) The jury were not agreed, A\\nnumber are determined to go.\\nWhen one of two or more subjects connected by and\\nis of the first person, the verb is in the first person;\\nwhen one is of the second person and none is of the\\nfirst, the verb is in the second, as\\nu He and I 3 shall (not will) suffer for this How dost thou\\nand thy master agree\\n1 When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural generally stands next to\\nthe verb, however.\\n2 Sometimes a collective noun is preceded by a verb in the singular and followed by\\none in the plural as, Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound There is\\na generation that are pure in their own eyes.\\nWe may say, Three times four is twelve, because the expression Four\\n(thought of as a whole) taken three times is twelve. But it is more common, it is\\nthought, to use are.\\nThree times four are twelve three repetitions of four are twelve. Century\\nDictionary.\\n3 Except when confessing his fault, it is customary for the speaker who is using\\npronouns of the three persons to place first the pronoun of the second person, to place", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 193\\nA pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number,\\ngender, and person, as\\nI ivho am here Thou who writest He that speaks on\\nhis own account, and she ivho talks for herself They who plead\\nfor themselves. 1\\nTHE AUXILIARIES MEANINGS, ENDINGS, USES\\nBe. The substantive verb be has three roots (1) bhu\\n(Latin in-i, Greek phu-o) seen in be and been, and meaning\\nto grow (2) as (Latin s-wm, Greek es-mi) seen in am, art,\\nis, and are, and meaning to sit or to breathe the s\\nsyncopated in am, and changed by Werner s law to r in art\\nand are, and the a appearing as i in is; and (3) was or wes,\\nseen in ivas, ivast, were, and wert, and meaning to dwell\\nthe s changed to r in were and ivert.\\nThe concrete meanings of these roots have all faded out of\\nthe verb; it now signifies simple existence is oftenest\\nmerely a copula.\\nThe personal ending -m in a-m the only -m verb-ending\\nin English is the m of the first personal pronoun me;\\nthe -t of ar-t, was-t, and wer-t is the ft of %u, thou is is\\nthe root without ending and the -e of ar-e and wer-s the\\nonly indicative forms in English that cannot be used in the\\nsingular as well as in the plural is not derived from a\\nnext the pronoun of the third person, and to place last the pronoun referring- to him-\\nself. He follows the same order when using pronouns of hut two different persons\\nas, You and he and 7, you and he, you and 7, he and 7, are invited.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 13", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "194 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\npersonal pronoun, but is a vowel which originally con-\\nnected the stem to a personal pronoun which has dropped.\\nThe auxiliary be 1 in its various forms enters alone or\\nalong with other auxiliaries, into combination with the\\ninfinitive and with the participles of verbs to aid in con-\\njugation.\\nDo. Instead of the simple forms of a verb in the\\npresent and past tenses indefinite, do, do-st, do-es, and the\\nreduplicated di- and di-d-st are used with the present\\ninfinitive of the verb in (1) negative 2 and (2) interroga-\\ntive 2 sentences and (3) to express emphasis. 2 The form do\\nis used also (4) wdth the imperative 2 of a verb.\\nHave. The auxiliary have, ha(ve)~ t 9 ha(ye)- fea(ve)-th,\\nha(ve)- has lost its old concrete meaning of possession\\n1 Be is also an independent verb. Its full conjugation may be seen in chapter XXII.\\n2 As in (1) I do not look for him yet (2) What did you see (3) You say\\nhe does not resemble his father but I say he does (4) Do sit down and listen.\\nMason tells us that do is not thus used (1) when the subject is an interrogative\\npronoun, or (2) when the subject, or an adjective modifying it, is qualified by an inter-\\nrogative word. We say, Who or what men or how many men voted V (not did\\nvote).\\nStill, in poetry, we find such questions as, il What wound did ever heal but by\\ndegrees? The negative and emphatic did does not come under Mason s rule; as,\\nWho did not vote Who did vote\\nDo, independent, is in all its forms (1) an ordinary transitive verb meaning to\\n1 perform or (2) is used as a convenient substitute for any other verb, as\\n(1) He did his duty as a citizen (2) His face shines as does shines) the\\nmoon Proceeding, as it does (=proceeds) from the brain, the spinal marrow\\nextends downward through the back-bone.\\nGan, preterit of O.E. -ginnan, is used in Middle English with the force of did\\nemphatic, as in\\nShe kiste her sone, and after gan it blesse. Chaucer.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 195\\na meaning it retains as an independent, or notional, verb.\\nIn its early uses as an auxiliary with the past participle\\nof transitive verbs, it kept its meaning of possession, the\\nparticiple agreeing in gender, number, and case with the\\nobject complement of have. 1\\nThe idea of possession gradually fading out of have, the\\nverb became a mere formative element and the participle,\\nceasing to agree with the object, blended with have in a\\ncompound tense followed by the object. When this stage\\nwas reached, have was ready for use with the participles\\nof intransitives. Its use with them has increased, until\\nnow it has almost ousted be from such combinations 2 and\\ntaken its place.\\nThe auxiliary have, in its various forms, enters alone\\nor along with other auxiliaries, into combination with the\\n1 As in, Hie hi-ne ofslceg -en-ne 7ice/-d-on He hcef-6.-e fta wls-a.ii onfang-\\nen-e in which the -ne and -e show that in number, gender, and case, ofslcegen-\\nne, slain, and onfangen-Q, taken hold of, agree with hi-ne, him, and wis-an,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2matter object complements of Ace/ -don, hcef-de, had.\\nHave is an independent verb also. Its conjugation is given in chapter XXII.\\n2 The original O.E. present perfect, and past perfect auxiliaries used with tran-\\nsitive verbs were forms of habban, have those used with intransitives were\\nforms of beon, be. Habban encroached upon beon we have extended the\\nencroachment of have upon be. March allows that have with an intransitive does\\nnot bear analysis, but says, We do not want two tense signs for the same\\ntense. Be, which Whitney thinks would theoretically be more correct with\\nintransitives, has yielded; and have is the common auxiliary of these two tenses.\\nBut be is still sometimes used in these tenses with intransitive verbs of\\nmotion, rest, growth, and disappearance, as in The time is gone by When\\nthey were come out of the city The world is grown so bad What is\\nbecome of him The mountains are vanished The heathen are perished.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "196 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nparticiples of the verbs whose conjugation it is aiding\\nas may be seen in chapter XXII.\\nMust. The auxiliary must, the Mn.E. of the O.E.\\nmoste from motan, has but one form. It is always in-\\ndicative, and denotes (1) obligation 1 and (2) certainty. 1\\nIt is used with the present infinitive 1 of a verb to\\nform its present tense indefinite and with have and the\\npast participle 1 of a verb to form its present perfect\\ncomplete.\\nShall and Will. Shall, shal-t is the O.E. sc(e)al, from\\nsculan; and will, 2 wil-t is from O.E. willan. To form the\\nO.E. future of any verb these auxiliaries were used with\\nits present infinitive. Neither of these, etymologically,\\nexpressed futurity. Sculan 3 indicated debt, duty willan, 2.\\n1 As in (1) We must obey (2) He must have seen you.\\nSo mote it be, the old optative, is a familiar wish.\\n2 Our won t, will not, is a contraction of an old present form wol and not.\\nWilly-nilly will he, nill he whether he will or whether he nill (will not).\\nThe negative ne combines with many adverbs, pronouns, and interjections as in\\nn-ever, n-aught, n-either, n-ay, n-or, etc. and in O.E. and later, it united with\\nverbs, as in nam, nis, nas, nill, etc.\\n3 Why, in the absence of a real synthetic future tense, were not auxiliary verbs\\nchosen that signified futurity? Marsh ventures this reply To our rude ancestors\\nthe present was full of stern necessities the past, of hard and painfully\\nimpressed realities. The future was too doubtful to justify the employment of\\nwords implying prediction or even hope and they appropriated to it forms indica-\\ntive of a present purpose, determination, or duty, not of prophecy or of expectation.\\nMarch says, All times were at first expressed by the same verb form. In the\\nnext period, a second form was used for completed, or past, action, leaving the\\npresent and future the first form. Then in O.E., sculan and willan came in to\\nexpress various kinds of future action, and lastly became the common form for\\nsimple futures in Mn.E.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 197\\nwish, purpose, or determination. In Mn.E., shall and will\\nare used to express future action l or being, but with much\\nof their original signification still clinging to them.\\nShall and Will in the Future. In the three persons of\\nthe future, shall and will alternate. 2 Ordinarily used as\\nin\\nI shall walk You will walk He will walk,\\nshall and will foretell, and are simple future auxiliaries.\\nBut in\\nI will walk You shall walk He shall walk,\\nshall and will express the determination of the speaker, and\\ncannot properly be regarded simply as future auxiliaries. 3\\nArbitrary as the distinction between these auxiliaries in\\ni\\n1 0. F. Emerson, in History of the English Language, says, During the\\nMiddle English period, the future came to be regularly expressed by the auxiliary\\nshall. Toward the close of the same period, will was also used, along with shall,\\nin the first person, to express a promise or a threat. In the modern period, will\\ncame to be used in the second and third persons to express futurity.\\n2 The present distinction between shall and will in the different persons is not\\nestablished in O.E., nor in Scottish or Irish. In the simple future will has been\\nencroaching upon shall in America and has quite taken its place in the colloquial\\nspeech of all but Xew Englanders, and their descendants. F. A. March.\\nThis distinction between shall and will in the three persons Marsh condemns as\\nj a verbal quibble, serving no end but to embarrass and he predicts its speedy\\ndisappearance a prediction not yet fulfilled.\\nStill, in subordinate clauses introduced by as, if, though, till, unless, when, etc.,\\nor by a relative pronoun, the distinction is not rigidly observed. Here shall may\\nbe used in the three persons as, If you or I or any one shall break a moral\\nlaw, punishment will follow A free people is always prepared for whatever\\nshall occur If a man shall steal an ox, he shall restore him five oxen.\\n8 Mason says even, Thou shait not steal involves no prediction; it asserts a\\npresent obligation. Consequently, in this sentence we have not a future tense.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "198 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nthe three persons may seem, the change from shall in the\\nfirst person future to will in the second and in the third has\\na reason. It is the reason that accounts for the substitu-\\ntion of the plural you for the singular thou in addressing-\\none courtesy.\\nWill yet savors far too strongly of self-determination for\\nthe speaker s use in foretelling what he is to do hence he\\nuses shall, which still plainly implies external influence,\\ncompulsion of some kind, duty. But that which unfits ivill\\nand fits shall for the speaker s need in predicting his own\\nactions, fits will and unfits shall for forecasting the actions\\nof another the person spoken to or spoken of.\\nModesty leads the speaker to place himself under the\\ndetermination of some power outside of himself courtesy\\nleads him to leave others to their own determination. 1\\nBut such modesty and courtesy are laid aside when the\\nspeaker has to assert firm purpose respecting self, and\\nnecessity or promise respecting others. Here he resorts to\\nthe self-purposeful will in the first person and the compul-\\nsory shall in the second and third, as\\nI will not pay twenty-one shillings and sixpence, ship money\\nThou shalt not be as the hypocrites are He shall be paid.\\nThe auxiliary used in a question is that which, as indi-\\ncating prediction, purpose, or necessity, is expected in the\\nanswer, as\\n1 One may courteously avoid even the proper exercise of authority, and, assuming\\nhis servant s readiness to obey, may say, You will see that I am called.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 199\\nShall you pay I shall FR7? it rain It will 1\\n41 tffcaZZ he stay He shall TTOZ you go I tgfll.\\naS/mx^ and wiB are always in the indicative. Their use\\nwith the present infinitive and the participles of other\\nverbs in the future and future perfect tenses may be seen\\nin chapter XXII.\\nShould and Would. Shoul-d, shoul-d-e t, or shoul-d-st, is\\nthe preterit sceol-de the O.E. sc appearing here as else-\\nwhere as sh and woul-d, ivoul-d-e t, or woul-d-st, is the pre-\\nterit icol-de. Their use in the conjugation of other verbs\\nmay be seen in chapter XXII.\\nShould 2 and ivould are in the indicative when they aid\\nin asserting, as facts, obligation and intention; they are in\\n1 In speaking, as here, of something incapable of volition, there seems to be no\\ntrace of the original meaning of will, unless we regard the question and answer as\\ncontaining a species of personification.\\n2 Should and would, though preterit in form, do not always express the act as past.\\nIn He said he should soon go, He thought he would go, should and would\\nassert action future with respect to that of said and thought. In If I should refuse,\\nhe would be angry, Though he should be present, it would do no good, the sub-\\njunctive should and icould express mere conception without reference to past time.\\nIn (1) I should be unwilling to attempt that, and (2) You should stand up for\\nyour rights, should denotes (1) self -distrust, and (2) obligation, without refer-\\nence to past time.\\nWould is often used to soften the assertion, as in It would be well to ask, It\\nwould seem so.\\nThe auxiliaries shall, should, will, and would commonly express some imper-\\native or optative modification of the principal action such as is expressed in many\\nlanguages by modes. The nice distinctions of obligation, constraint, command,\\nintention, permission, and promise, varying as the clause is indicative, subjunctive,\\ninterrogative, responsive, conditional, and the like, are among the most difficult\\nobjects of study in language, and are generally left to special treatises. F. A.\\nMarch.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "200 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nthe subjunctive when they aid in asserting these as mere\\nconceptions.\\nThe principle that guides in the use of shall and will in\\nthe different persons guides in the use of should and would\\nin them. Just as we say-\\nHe thinks that I shall be lonely and that he will visit me,\\nso we say\\nHe thought that I should be lonely and that he would visit me.\\nMay and Might. May, may-est, or may-st is the O.E.\\nmceg the g becoming y; and migh-t, might-t-est, or\\nmight-t-st, is its preterit mih-te the h becoming gh.\\nThey are used to express (1) permission, (2) possibility\\nor liability, and (3) wish (this only in the subjunctive).\\nMay and might are in the indicative when they aid in\\nasserting something as a fact they are in the subjunctive\\nwhen they aid in asserting it as a mere conception.\\nWith what forms and in what tenses of the verb which\\nit is aiding to conjugate, may is found, is seen in chap-\\nter XXIL Might is used in the tenses where should and\\nwould are employed.\\n1 As in (1) You may go You might hand me that (2) We may die\\nto-night, You might slip on the ice (3) May you be happy, Oh! that I\\nmight Jiy away.\\nNote the delicate shades of meaning in auxiliaries", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 201\\nCan and Could. Can, 1 canst was once an independent\\nverb meaning 2 to know/ and had a past participle cufff\\nknown. It now asserts ability or power. Its preterit\\ncoul-d has dropped the n of can, and through the influence\\nof should and ivould has added an 1 in spelling but not\\nin sound.\\nCan is used in the indicative, and in tenses where the\\nindicative may is found. Could is indicative when it aids\\nin asserting something as a fact; it is subjunctive when it\\naids in asserting it as a mere conception. Could is found\\nin the tenses where should and would are used.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTEK, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Number and Person. Excep-\\ntions to the Rule for Number. Auxiliaries Roots, Meanings, End-\\nings, Uses. Encroachments of Have upon Be. Shall and Will m the\\nFuture.\\nQuestions. Definition of number and person? Rule? The one\\ndistinguishing number and person ending of verbs in the common\\nstyle The endings in the solemn style When is rule for the\\nagreement of verbs almost invariable When need and dare used\\ninstead of needs and dares f When do plural nouns take verbs in the\\nsingular What seeming exception to the rule is the source of many\\nmistakes? What exceptions to the rule that two or more nom-\\n1 Can, may, must, ought, shall, and will were originally past forms hence there\\nis no -S in the present indicative third singular.\\n2 This meaning is still seen in con and cunning, and in the cognate ken.\\n3 Still seen in uncouth, unknown, and hence awkward, boorish.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "202 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\ninatives in the singular, connected by and, require a plural verb,\\nare given What seeming exceptions to the rule, when these obvi-\\nous ellipses are given A collective noun, singular in form, has its\\nverb in the singular, when In the plural, when In what person is\\nthe verb when one of its subjects connected by and is of the first per-\\nson When one is of the second person and there is none of the first\\nA pronoun agrees with its antecedent in what? Which is common,\\nThree times four is twelve or three times four are twelve\\nThe order of pronouns in a sentence The roots, and the meanings of\\nthe roots, of be Its endings, what Its meaning now, what Is be\\never an independent verb The functions of do as auxiliary Of\\ndo, independent? Gan, once used how? What has the auxiliary\\nhave lost With what did the past participle used with have once\\nagree How came it to unite, as now, with have to form compound\\ntenses Upon what verb has have encroached What do March\\nand Whitney say of have and be Be still used with intransitive verbs\\ndenoting what? Must denotes what? Shall and will from verbs\\noriginally meaning what Neither implied what What is Marsh s\\nexplanation of the fact that our O.E. ancestors did not choose\\nauxiliaries implying futurity What is March s note In simple\\nprediction, what is the use of shall and will in the three persons?\\nHas the present distinction between them in these persons always\\nexisted? What is Marsh s prophecy respecting this distinction?\\nIn what clauses is the distinction ignored What is the use of shall\\nand will in the three persons when expressing the determination of\\nthe speaker? What has given rise to the distinction between shall\\nand will in these persons What parallel elsewhere What unfits\\nivill for use in the first person when the speaker is foretelling?\\nWhat fits shall for this office What fits will and unfits shall for\\nthis office in the second and third persons? What is laid aside\\nwhen the speaker has to assert firm purpose respecting himself,\\nand promise or necessity respecting others How then does he use\\nshall and will f How are these auxiliaries used in questions How\\nis the seeming exception to the use of will in Will it rain? ac-", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 203\\ncounted for? Shall and will always in what mode? Should and\\nwould express what When in the indicative When in the sub-\\njunctive Though preterit in form, do should and would always\\nexpress the action as past Would often used for what May and\\nmight express what When indicative When subjunctive Can\\nonce meant what? The original meaning of can still seen in what\\nwords What consonant has could dropped Both mean what\\nAre used how? What verbs have no -s in the third singular present\\nExercises. Give sentences in which one is liable to mistake nouns\\nplural in form only for real plurals. Illustrate the exceptions to the\\nrule requiring the plural with two or more singular subjects connected\\nby and. Give sentences illustrating the singular verb with a collect-\\nive noun singular in form the plural verb. Illustrate the several\\nuses of do, auxiliary of do, independent. Illustrate the uses of be\\nin compound tenses of shall and will in simple prediction of shall\\nand will in expressing determination of should and would when not\\nexpressing past time.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX\\nTHE VERB\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (Continued)\\nVERBS CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM\\nWith respect to meaning, verbs have been classed as\\ntransitive and intransitive. With respect to form, we classify\\nthem as strong and weak.\\nStrong Verbs. The verbs that we call strong owe their\\nvowel-change, seen in the past tense, to the primitive Indo-\\nEuropean method of expressing completed action that of\\ndoubling the stem syllable. In each verb, the two syllables\\nthe reduplicating and the reduplicated contracted in\\nO.E. into one syllable, in which the vowel element of the\\noriginal syllable was changed.\\nEew of the strong verbs now in English retain this re-\\nduplication but most of them, in passing from the present\\ntime to the past, underwent a vowel-change produced by\\nreduplication; and this vowel-change became significant of\\npast time.\\nVOWEL-CHANGES IN O.E. STRONG VERBS ILLUSTRATED\\nIn the columns below we exhibit the vowel-changes which\\nthe strong O.E. verbs that survive with us suffered in O.E.\\n204", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "THE VERB\\n205\\nchanges produced by reduplication, or by what may be\\ncalled vowel-variation changes which we have said came\\nto mark past time.\\nPRES. INF.\\nPAST TENSE SING. AND PLTJ.\\nPAST PART\\nbeat an, beat,\\nbeot and beoton,\\nbeaten.\\nbiddan, bid,\\nbsed and bsedon,\\nbeden.\\nblowan, blow,\\nbleow and bleowon,\\nblowen.\\ncrawan, crow,\\ncreow, creowon,\\nera wen.\\ncuman, come/\\ncom and comon,\\ncumen.\\ndrincan, drink,\\ndranc and druncon,\\ndruncen.\\netan, eat,\\nset and aiton,\\neten.\\nfeallan, fall,\\nfeoll and feollon,\\nfeallen.\\nfeohtan, fight,\\nfe^aht and fuhton,\\nfohten.\\nireosan, freeze,\\nfreas and fruron,\\nfroren.\\ngiefan, give,\\ngeaf and geafon,\\ngiefen.\\nhon, hang,\\nheng and hengon,\\nhangen.\\nridan, ride,\\nrad and ridon,\\nriden.\\nseon, see,\\nseah and sawon,\\nsawen.\\nslean, slay,\\nsloh and slogon,\\nslagen.\\nstelan, steal,\\nsta3l and stolon,\\nstolen.\\nswerian, swear, 1\\nswor and sworon,\\nsworen.\\nwacan, wake,\\nwoe and wocon,\\nwacen.\\nThe strong verbs now in English exhibit many vowel-\\nchanges in passing from what is now the present form to\\nthe preterit. As is seen in the column of strong verbs\\nbelow, these changes are of a to e, to o, to u, and to oo of\\nay to ew; of e to o; of ea to a and to o; of ee to aw and to\\no of i to a, to o, to ou, to u of ie to ay of o to a and to\\ne of oo to o of u to a and of y to ew. As above, vowel-\\nchanges in the participles sometimes attend.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "206 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nWeak Verbs. 1 The vowel-changes resulting from redupli-\\ncation were so various and confusing that another method\\nof indicating what is now the past tense was devised\\nthe addition of a syllable 2 to the stem of the present.\\nThis furnished a fixed model to which all new verbs have\\nconformed, and gave us the class of verbs called weak a\\nclass including so large a majority 3 of the verbs now in\\n1 Strong and weak were first applied by Grimm on the theory that verbs of the\\none conjugation expressed the idea of past time by a mere modification of their own\\nresources while those of the other had to call in the help of an additional\\nsyllable to achieve the same result. Professor Lounsbury.\\nStrong and Weak in conjugation mean that one class held strongly to the old\\nforms, the other weakened to a new form. F. A. March.\\nOld and New, used to characterize the two classes, explain themselves.\\n2 This syllable is generally believed to be a remnant of our did the reduplicated\\nform of do.\\nProfessor Whitney, Language and the Study of Language, says, We tamed\\nis in Moeso-Gothic [the oldest member of the Teutonic branch of our linguistic\\nfamily] tamidedum, which means not less evidently tame-did-we than the Anglo-\\nSaxon sothlice, soothly, truly, means in a sooth-like (truth-like) way. I loved is,\\nthen, originally Llove did, that is, J did love.\\nOf the full form -ed in use, the e is the connecting vowel to which the O.E. connect-\\nive o or ia was reduced, or is an e otherwise brought in and the d is what, it is\\nthought, remains of the did.\\n8 In O.E. there were about 300 simple strong verbs many of which compounded\\nwith prefixes. In capacity for compounding, O.E. strong verbs surpassed those in\\nMn.E. Lounsbury says of slandan that it combined with more than a dozen prefixes\\nour stand unites with only two with and under.\\nMany of these O.E. strong verbs perished during the centuries succeeding the\\nNorman Conquest and never entered Mn.E. and many have since gone over to the\\nweak class. Of the 300 in O.E. not 100 are left.\\nThe desertion from the strong to the weak was checked by the appearance of a\\nnative literature in the second half of the fourteenth century the time of Wyclif and\\nLangland and Chaucer and three centuries ago it stopped.\\nLounsbury says, Since the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1558-1603, our speech has\\nnot lost a single strong verb. What the language then had it has ever since retained.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 207\\nEnglish that it is popularly called regular, 1 in distinction\\nfrom the strong verbs called irregular. 1\\nAnother Distinction between the Two Classes of Verbs.\\nThat strong verbs indicate past time by vowel-change, and\\nweak verbs by adding a syllable, is the most vital distinction\\nbetween the two classes but not the only one the past\\nparticiple of strong verbs ends in -en that of weak verbs,\\nin -ed. 2\\nThe Principal Parts of a verb those parts from which\\nall the others are derived are the present indicative or\\ninfinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle.\\nIn the principal parts of the Mn.E. strong verbs below\\nare seen (1) the vowel-change by which the past tense is\\nindicated, (2) the other changes of the verb stem, and (3)\\nthe participle ending, changed or unchanged.\\nIn fact, the present disposition of the language is to cling firmly to the strong verbs it\\nalready possesses and even to extend their number.\\nAnd he instances verbs that wholly or in part have gone over from the weak to the\\nstrong shake, shine, strive, dig, etc.\\nBut new verbs, from whatever source they come, are weak. So that, while the\\nstrong are not deserting to the weak, the weak are gaining in number.\\n1 In a work following the development of the parts of speech from O.E. down, it\\nseems best to employ the terms strong and weak, now used in the historical and\\nscientific treatment of the English verb especially as, in speaking of those weak verbs\\nthat conform to the type, and of those that do not, we shall need the words regular and\\nirregular.\\n2 The losses that en and -ed sustained and the resulting irregularities of the parti-\\nciples will be given those of en at the end of this list of strong verbs, and those of\\n-ed at the end of the irregular weak verbs.\\nThis -ed is not the -ed of the past tense. The e is a connecting vowel, but the d is\\nthe t of a primitive suffix -ta, \u00e2\u0080\u0094as in Latin past participle ama-tas from amare,\\nto love transformed.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "208\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nLIST OF STRONG VERBS IN MODERN ENGLISH\\nPRESENT. FAST.\\n(a)bide, 1 abode,\\n(for)bear, {j^;.\\nbeat,\\n(be) gin, 3\\n(for) bid,\\nbind,\\nbite,\\nblow,\\nblow,\\nblossom\\nbreak,\\nchide,\\nchoose,\\ncling,\\n(be)come,\\ndig,\\nbeat,\\nf began,\\nbegun,*\\nPAST PART.\\nabode.\\nborne,\\nborn. 2\\nbeaten,\\nbegun.\\nbade,\\nIbid,\\nbidden,\\nbid.\\nbound,\\nbound.\\nbit,\\nbitten.\\nblew,\\nblown.\\nblew,\\nbroke,\\nbrake,*\\nchid,\\nchose,\\nclung,\\ncame,\\n/dug,\\nblown.\\nbroken.\\nchidden,\\nchid.\\nchosen.\\nclung.\\ncome.\\ndug,\\n{digged,* digged.*\\nPRESENT.\\ndraw,\\nPAST.\\ndrew,\\nPAST PART.\\ndrawn.\\ndrink,\\ni drunk,* drunk\\ndrive,\\ndrove,\\ndriven.\\neat,\\nate,\\neaten.\\n(be)fall,\\nfell,\\nfallen.\\nfight,\\nfought,\\nfought.\\nfind,\\nfound,\\nfound.\\nfling,\\nflung,\\nflung.\\nfly,\\nflew,\\nflown.\\nfreeze,\\nfroze,\\nfrozen.\\ngot,\\n/got,\\ngotten.\\n(for) give,\\ngave,\\ngiven.\\n(for) sake, 3 forsook,\\ngrind,\\ngrow,\\nhang,\\nheave,\\nground,\\ngrew,\\nforsaken.\\nground.\\ngrown.\\nhung, hung,\\nhanged, 5 hanged.\\nf hove, hove,\\nheaved, heaved.\\nForms starred are now rare archaic, poetic, or dialectic. The second forms of\\npreterits or participles are judged to be less common than the first.\\n1 Bide in the compound is a regular weak now it was strong in the O.E.\\n2 Born is the participle of bear, to bring forth. The participle of forbear, like\\nthat of bear, to carry, ends in e.\\n3 Begin and forsake are the only compounds in the list without simple forms in\\nEnglish.\\n4 Used in begotten and forgotten got is in England the more common participle of\\nget; gotten is more common in America, and is sometimes ignorantly called an\\nAmericanism.\\nB Hanged and all italicized forms are those of regular weak verbs. Hang, hanged\\nput to death by hanging.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "THE VERB\\n209\\nPAST.\\nhid,\\nheld,\\nknew,\\nlay,\\nrove,\\nrode,\\nrang,\\nrose,\\nran,\\nsaw,\\nf seethed,\\nsod,*\\nPAST PART.\\nf hidden,\\n(hid.\\nf held,\\n\\\\holden.*\\nknown.\\nlain.\\nrove.\\nridden.\\nrung.\\nrisen.\\nrun.\\nseen.\\nsodden,\\nseethed.\\nshook, shaken.\\nsheared, shorn,\\nshore,* sheared.\\nshone, shone.\\nshot, shot.\\nf shrank, shrunk,\\nshrunk,* shrunken.\\nj shrived, shrived,\\n(he) speak,\\nshrove,\\nf sang,\\nsung,*\\nsank,\\nsat,\\nslew,\\nslid,\\nslung,\\nslunk,\\nsmote,\\nf spoke,\\nspak\\nshriven.\\nsung.\\nsunk.\\nsat.\\nslain.\\nJ slidden,\\nslid.\\nslung.\\nslunk.\\nsmitten.\\nspoken.\\nPRESENT.\\nspin,\\nspring,\\nPAST.\\nspun,\\nPAST PART.\\nspun.\\n^f }stand,stood,\\n(sprang\\n(sprung,* b P run o-\\nstave,\\nsteal,\\nstick,\\nsting,\\nstink,\\nstride,\\nstrike,\\nstring,\\nstrive,\\nf stove,\\nX staved,\\nstole,\\nstuck,\\nstung,\\nf stank,\\nX stunk,*\\nstrode,\\nstood.\\nstove,\\nstaved.\\nstolen.\\nstuck.\\nstung.\\nstunk.\\nstridden.\\nstruck J stmck\\nstruct, j stricken#\\nstrung, strung,\\nstrove, striven.\\n(for) swear, swore, sworn,\\nswum.\\nf swam,\\nswim,\\nswum,\\nswing,\\nswung.\\ntaken.\\ntorn.\\nswung,\\nunder take, took,\\ntear, tore,\\nthrive i throve thriven,\\ntnnve, thrived, thrived.\\nthrow, threw, thrown.\\ntread, trod(e), trodden.\\nw f waked, ivaked,\\n(a) wake, j woke woke\\nwear,\\nweave,\\nwin,\\nwind,\\nwring,\\nwrite,\\nwore,\\nwove,\\nwon,\\nwound,\\nwrung,\\nwrote,\\nworn.\\nwoven.\\nwon.\\nwound.\\nwrung.\\nwritten.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 14", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "210 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe Preterit, or Past Stems, of the Strong Verbs. (1)\\nFor a summary of the vowel-changes in the preterit illus-\\ntrated above, see p. 205 (2) in beat, bit, chid, hid, etc., there\\nis no vowel-change in the stem (3) in stood the n of the\\npresent stand is forced out (4) in struck there is a c not\\nfound in strike and (5) in sang and sung, sprang and\\nsprung, swam and swum, we have double forms one from\\neach number in the O.E.\\nThe Participle Stem. (1) Sometimes this is like the\\npresent stem, as in driven, fallen, run, and seen; (2) some-\\ntimes, like the past, as in found, held, spoken, and stuck; and\\n(3) sometimes different from either, as in flown and sunk.\\nThe Participle Ending. (1) Sometimes the full, regular\\nsyllable -en is used, as in beaten, ridden, shrunken, and\\nsmitten doubling the consonant or not, according to Eule\\nIII, and exceptions, p. 143 (2) sometimes the e of -en is\\ndropped, as in known, slain, and torn; (3) sometimes this e\\nis dropped, and an e added to the n, as in borne; (4) some-\\ntimes the -en is dropped, as in fought, bound, stuck, and\\nstrung; and (5) sometimes the -en is retained in one form\\nand dropped in another, as in hidden and hid, gotten and got,\\nshrunken and shrunk.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Strong Verbs Vowel Changes\\nin O.E. Weak Verbs. Distinctions. List of Strong Verbs in\\nMn.E. their Preterit Stem, and Participle Stems and Endings.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "THE VERB 211\\nQuestions. Verbs are classed as transitive and intransitive with\\nregard to what As strong and weak Some strong verbs owe their\\nvowel-change in passing from the present to the past tense, to what\\nMost strong verbs underwent what In the O.E. list of strong verbs\\ngiven, these vowel-changes are from what to what In the Mn.E.\\nstrong verbs, these changes are from what to what Why are the\\ntwo lists of verbs called strong and weak Which is the older class\\nWeak verbs form their preterit how The added syllable, -ed\\nbelieved to be what What is the e of that syllable, and what the\\nd How many strong verbs in O.E. How many in Mn.E.\\nAccount for the difference. For what are the terms regular and\\nirregular reserved Any losses of strong verbs since 1600 How\\nare weak verbs gaining in number What, besides the vowel-\\nchange in strong verbs and the added -ed in weak, is a distinction\\nbetween the two classes The participle ending -ed of weak verbs,\\nwhat The principal parts of a verb, what What in the list of\\nMn.E. strong verbs is shown? The difference between bom and\\nborne 9 What is said of begin and forsake When two forms of\\nthe verb in the past tense, or of participles, are given in the list, .which\\nis the more common Forms in italics are what The regular parti-\\nciple of get is what The more common now in England is what\\nHanged means what In what strong verbs is there no vowel-\\nchange seen now in the preterit What changes in the preterit stem\\nare noted The participle stem is sometimes like what At other\\ntimes is like what Examples of difference from both What is\\nthe full participle ending of strong verbs In what ways may this\\nfull ending be affected\\nExercises. Pick out of the list verbs that illustrate all the vowel-\\nchanges spoken of p. 205. Pick out the verbs whose participle stem is\\nlike the present like the past like neither. Pick out the verbs\\nwhose participle endings are changed in any way from -en. Give the\\nprincipal parts of the remaining verbs.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXI\\nTHE VERB (Continued)\\nWeak Verbs. Regular. The regular weak verbs form\\ntheir past tense by adding -ed 1 to the present. They add\\nalso an -ed to form the past participle the e final of the\\npresent stem and of the participle, if either stem ends in e,\\nfurnishing the e of the -ed.\\nSome of the verbs, like cleave, adhere/ climb, crow, and\\nhelp, were strong verbs once but have gone over to the\\nweak, though an occasional strong preterit, clave, clomb,\\ncrew, or holp is still found in poetry.\\nSome of these verbs, like (en)grave, hew, lade, mow, rive,\\nshape, shave, sow, swell, and wax, were strong verbs once but\\nhave gone over to the weak, though their strong participles,\\ngraven, hewn, laden, mown, riven, shapen, shaven, sown, swol-\\nlen, and waxen are used along with the weak.\\nOthers of these verbs, like saw, show, and strew or strow,\\nwere never strong but have taken on strong participles, as\\nsawn, shown, and strewn or strown, sometimes used instead\\nof the weak.\\n1 The added -ed of the regular weak verb is pronounced (1) after t and d as a dis-\\ntinct syllable as in greeted, hated, heated, lifted, wended; (2) after a sonant as\\nd as in dazed, drowned, loved, seemed; and (3) after a surd (except t) as t as in\\nforcedi fixed, kissed, looked, mixed, passed, reached, stretched, thanked, tossed.\\n212", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "THE VERB\\n213\\nStill, as these and all such verbs are prevailingly weak\\nand regular, we class them so and pass the whole list by\\nwithout further comment.\\nWeak Verbs Irregular. In the principal parts of the\\nirregular weak verbs below are seen the changes undergone\\n(1) by the preterit and participle stems; (2) by the added\\n-ed of the preterit and (3) by the added -ed of the participle.\\nLIST OF THE IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS IN ENGLISH\\nPRESENT\\nPAST PAST PART.\\nPRESENT\\nPAST\\nPAST PART.\\nbend,\\nf bent,\\nX bended, 1\\nbent,\\nbended.\\nburn,\\nJ burnt,\\nX burned,\\nburnt,\\nburned.\\n(be)reave,\\n2 bereft,\\nbereft.\\nburst,\\nburst,\\nburst.\\n(be) seech,\\n3 besought,\\nbesought.\\nbuy,\\nbought,\\nbought.\\nbet,\\nf bet,\\nX betted,\\nbet,\\nbetted.\\ncan, 4\\ncast,\\ncould,\\ncast,\\ncast.\\nbleed,\\nbled,\\nbled.\\ncatch,\\ncaught,\\ncaught.\\nblend,\\nJ blended,\\nblent,\\nblended,\\nblent.\\ncleave,\\n4 split\\nr cleft,\\nclove,\\nclave,*\\ncleft,\\ncloven,\\ncleaved.\\nbless,\\nblessed,\\nX blest,\\nblessed,\\nblest.\\nclothe,\\nJ clothed,\\nX clad,s\\nclothed,\\nclad.\\nbreed,\\nbred,\\nbred.\\ncost,\\ncost,\\ncost.\\nbring,\\nbrought,\\nbrought.\\ncreep,\\ncrept,\\ncrept.\\nbuild,\\nf built,\\nX builded,\\nbuilt,\\nbuilded.\\ncurse,\\nf cursed,\\nX curst,\\ncursed,\\ncurst.\\nForms starred are rare archaic, poetic, or dialectic.\\n1 Forms in italics are regular they precede the Roman when thought to be more\\ncommon. Verbs in both italics and Roman are redundant.\\n2 The simple verb reave is rare.\\n8 The obsolete seech is from the Southern dialect seek, is from the Northern.\\n4 Can, may, must, ought, shall, and will are defective lacking some parts.\\n5 Clad, O.E. clce^an, clwfide; whence cladde, clad. Clothe is from cld^ian.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "214\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nPRESENT\\nPAST\\nPAST PART.\\nPRESENT\\nPAST\\nPAST PART.\\ncut,\\ndare, 1\\ncut,\\nf durst,\\nX dared,\\ncut.\\ndared.\\nlean,\\nleap,\\nf leaned,\\nX leant,\\nf leaped,\\nX leapt,\\nleaned,\\nleant.\\nleaped,\\ndeal,\\ndealt,\\ndealt.\\nleapt.\\ndip,\\nf dipped,\\ndipt,\\ndipped,\\ndipt.\\nlearn,\\nf learned,\\nX learnt,\\nlearned,\\nlearnt.\\ndo,\\ndid,\\ndone.\\nleave,\\nleft,\\nleft.\\nJ dreamt,\\ndreamed,\\nT dressed,\\ndrest,\\ndreamt,\\nlend,\\nlent,\\nlent.\\ndream,\\ndreamed,\\ndressed,\\nlight, 3\\nlighted,\\nI lit,\\nlighted,\\nlit.\\ndress,\\ndrest.\\nlose,\\nlost,\\nlost.\\ndwell,\\nJ dwelt,\\nX divelled,\\ndwelt,\\nmake,\\nmade,\\nmade.\\ndwelled.\\nmay,\\nmight.\\nfeed,\\nfed,\\nfed.\\nmean,\\nmeant,\\nmeant.\\nfeel,\\nfelt,\\nfelt.\\nmeet,\\nmet,\\nmet.\\nflee,\\nfled,\\nfled.\\nmust.\\ngild,\\nf qilded,\\nI gilt,\\ngilded,\\ngilt.\\nought.\\npay,\\npaid,\\npaid\\ngird,\\nf girded,\\nX girt,\\ngirded,\\ngirt.\\npen,\\n4 confine\\nf penned,\\nX pent,\\npenned,\\npent.\\nhave, 2\\nhad,\\nhad.\\nplead,\\n(pleaded,\\nX plead,\\npleaded,\\nhear,\\nheard,\\nheard.\\nplead.\\nhit,\\nhit,\\nhit.\\nput,\\nput,\\nput.\\nhurt,\\nhurt,\\nhurt.\\nquit,\\nread,\\nf quit,\\nquitted,\\nread,\\nquit,\\nkeep,\\nkept,\\nkept.\\nquitted.\\nread.\\nkneel,\\nf knelt,\\nX kneeled,\\nknelt,\\nkneeled.\\nrend,\\nrent,\\nrent.\\nknit,\\nj knit,\\nX knitted,\\nknit,\\nknitted.\\nrid,\\nsay,\\nrid,\\nsaid,\\nrid.\\nsaid.\\nlay,\\nlaid,\\nlaid.\\nseek,\\nsought,\\nsought.\\nlead,\\nled,\\nled.\\nsell,\\nsold,\\nsold.\\n1 These are the parts of dare, to venture dare, to provoke, is regular.\\n2 {Be)have is regular.\\n3 (A)light is regular,", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "THE VEBB\\n215\\nPRESENT\\nsend,\\n(be) set,\\nshall,\\nshed,\\nshoe,\\nshred,\\nshut,\\nsleep,\\nslit,\\nsmell,\\nspeed,\\nspell,\\nspend,\\nspill,\\nPAST\\nsent,\\nset,\\nshould.\\nshed,\\nshod,\\nshred,\\nshut,\\nslept,\\nr slit,\\nslitted,\\nf smelled,\\nsmelt,\\nJ sped,\\nspeeded,\\nspelt,\\nspent,\\nspilled,\\nspilt,\\nPAST PART.\\nsent,\\nset.\\nshed.\\nshod.\\nshred.\\nshut.\\nslept.\\nslit,\\nslilted.\\nsmelled,\\nsmelt.\\nsped,\\nspeeded.\\nspelled,\\nspelt.\\nspent.\\nspilled,\\nspilt.\\nspit, 1\\nsplit,\\nspoil,\\nspread,\\nstay, 2\\nsweat,\\nsweep,\\nteach,\\n(fore) tell,\\nthink,\\nthrust,\\nwet,\\nwill,\\nwork,\\nPAST\\nf spit,\\nspat,*\\nsplit,\\nf spoiled,\\nspoilt,\\nspread,\\nf stayed,\\nstaid,\\nf sweat,\\nsweated,\\nswept,\\ntaught,\\ntold,\\nthought,\\nthrust,\\nf wet,\\nwetted,\\nwould.\\nf worked,\\nwrought,\\nPAST PART.\\nspit,\\nspitten.*\\nsplit.\\nspoilt.\\nspread.\\nstayed,\\nstaid.\\nsweat,\\nsweated.\\nswept.\\ntaught.\\ntold.\\nthought.\\nthrust.\\nwet.\\nworked,\\nwrought\\nChanges in the Preterit 3 Stems of Weak Irregular Verbs.\\n1. Vowel variation. The vowel element of the present\\nmay change in the past. But this change is not, as in\\nstrong verbs it is, a tense sign.\\nAn a and an o in the present stem may expand into a diph-\\n1 Spit, to transfix, is regular.\\n2 Stay, the nautical term, is regular.\\n3 The changes of preterit and of participle stems are alike, except in do, did, done.\\nMany of the changes of stem and of ending began in O.E. especially (1) the\\nvowel variation and the consonant changes illustrated in caught, brought, thought,\\netc. (2) the omission of e from both preterit and participle ending; (3) the change of\\n-d to -t and (4) the dropping of the consonant after stems ending in d or t.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "216 HIGH SCHOOL GEAMMAB\\nthong in the past, as in the preterit caught and wrought;\\n(2) a and i may change to a diphthong, as in could and\\nbrought; (3) a, e, and o may change to other single vowels,\\nas in might, durst, sold, and did (4) ea may contract to e, as\\nin led; (5) an e of ee may drop, as in fed (6) final y may\\nchange to i, with or without change of vowel sound, as in\\nsaid and paid; (7) final e may drop, as in shod; and (8) uy\\nmay change to ou, as in bought.\\n2. Consonant Change. 1 Of the O.E. preterit stem,\\nthe h (into which the c of the present secan, seek thencan,\\nthink tWcan, teach and wyrcan, work the ch of\\ncachen, catch the eg of byegan, buy and the ng of\\nbringan, bring were converted) becomes gh in our preter-\\nits sought, thought, taught, wrought, caught, bought, and\\nbrought; (2) v may change to f, as in the preterit left;\\n(3) k in make is dropped from the preterit made,; (4) final\\nd, ght, 1, s, and th may give way before the past tense sign,\\nas in bent, lit, told, blest, and clad; and (5) the consonant and\\nthe vowel element may change places, as in wrought\\nChanges in the Tense Sign -ed of irregular weak preterits\\nand in the -ed of their participles. (1) The e of the -ed\\ndrops out and only -d remains, as in heard, sold, etc. (2) -d\\nchanges to -t, as dwelt, sent, etc. and (3) the consonant\\ndrops after final d or t of stem affecting, or not affecting,\\nthe pronunciation as in read and in cast, shed, put, etc.\\nl Many of these changes are due, it is thought, to bad spelling.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "THE VEBB\\n217\\nAnomalous Verbs\\nBe and Go. The principal parts of be and of go are from different\\nstems, and the verbs cannot be classed as strong or as weak. These\\nparts are (1) be, toas, and been; (2) go, went, and gone.\\nThe preterit of be does not add to the present the past tense sign\\nof a weak verb namely -ed or some form of it; the preterit of go\\nadds it as -t, not, however, to go but to the present of the regular\\nweak verb wend.\\nThe participles return to the first stem. Been is the dialectic\\nparticiple beon gone has the strong participle ending.\\nDefinitions\\nConjugation is the Regular Arrangement of all the Forms of\\nthe Verb.\\nSynopsis is the Regular Arrangement of the Forms of one\\nnumber and person in all the modes and tenses.\\nO.E., or Anglo-Saxon, Conjugation or Strong and Weak\\nVerbs in the Present, Active Voice\\nIndicative\\nSubjunctive\\nSINGULAR\\nSINGULAR\\n1. (ic) sing-e, (we) sing-aft,\\n2. (ftu) sing-est, (ge) sing-aft,\\n3. (he) sing-eft (hi) sing-aft.\\n(ic) sing-e, (we) sing-en,\\n(ftu) sing-e, (ge) sing-en,\\n(he) sing-e (hi) sing-en.\\nIMPERATIVE SING.\\nsing.\\nIMPERATIVE PLU.\\nsing-aft.\\nINFINITIVE PARTICIPLE\\nsing-an. sing-ende.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "218\\nHIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nConjugation\\nof Strong Verbs, Past Tense,\\nActive\\nIndicative\\nSubjunctive\\nSINGULA!\\n1. (ic) sang,\\nsung-e,\\n2. (M) sung-e,\\nsung-e,\\n3. (he) sang;\\nsung-e\\nPLURAL\\n1. (we) sung-on, sung-en,\\n2. (ge) sung-on, sung-en,\\n3. (hi) sung-on. sung-en.\\nparticiple\\nsung-en.\\nof Weak Verbs, Past Tense,\\nActive\\nIndicative\\nSubjunctive\\nSINGULAR\\n(ic) er-ed-e plough, er-ed-e,\\n(M) er-ed-est, er-ed-e.\\n(he) er-ed-e; er-ed-e;\\nPLURAL\\n(we) er-ed-on,\\ner-ed-en,\\n(ge) er-ed-on,\\ner-ed-en,\\n(hi) er-ed-on.\\ner-ed-en.\\nPARTICIPLE\\ner-ed.\\nRemarks on the O.E. Conjugation. 1. The ending of the im-\\nperative singular of some weak verbs is -e and of some is -a. But\\nif these divergencies from the conjugation of strong verbs are dis-\\nregarded, the inflections of the strong and the weak verbs in the\\npresent are the same.\\n2. All tenses but the present and the past are compound, and\\nare alike in O.E. and in Mn.E. In studying the O.E. verb-endings,\\nwe may restrict ourselves, then, to the present and past tenses.\\n3. The -ed in the past tense endings of weak verbs excepted,\\n(1) the past indicative plural endings of strong verbs and of weak\\nare alike (2) the past subjunctive singular endings of strong verbs\\nand of weak are alike and (3) the past subjunctive plural endings\\nof strong verbs and of weak are alike.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "THE VEBB 219\\n4. The vowel-change indicating the past tense of strong verbs\\nis often, as in singan, double, one form in the first and the third\\nperson singular indicative and the other in the second person sin-\\ngular and the three persons plural indicative, in the subjunctive\\nthroughout, and in the participle. These two stems in O.E. account\\nfor the two forms of our preterit as drank and drunk, sang and\\nsung still found in some strong verbs.\\n5. Most of the O.E. verb-endings have disappeared. (1) The\\nvowels softened to e (2) the n J final, and then (3) the e 1 final,\\ndropped (4) the -a3 of the plural indicative, softening to e3,\\nchanged to -en, whose letters vanished in the order just given, or to\\ns (as in the third singular), which has dropped; and (5) the 3 of\\ni the plural imperative gave way, and then the vowel preceding it.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Weak Verbs Regular and\\nIrregular. Changes in Stem and Endings. The Anomalous Verbs\\nBe and Go. O.E. Conjugation of Verbs in Present and Past. Re-\\nmarks thereon.\\nQuestions. Regular weak verbs add what to the present to make\\nthe past To make the participle What changes may this ending\\nundergo What happens to e final of the stem when the past is\\nformed Some verbs, now weak, use what strong forms Others,\\nwhat Some, never strong, have taken on what What three things\\nare seen in the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs in the list\\nWhat are redundant verbs What verbs are defective In these\\nirregular weak verbs, what vowel changes are seen Seen where\\nIs this vowel change a tense sign What consonant changes in the\\n1 (1) In what forms of the verb IL and e are kept, (2) what endings other than\\nthose in n and e are kept, and (3) how these have changed will all be given when\\nthe Mn.E, verb is conjugated.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "220 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\npreterits, sought, thought, taught, wrought, caught, bought, and\\nbrought? In left, made, bent, lit, told, blest, clad, and wrought? What\\nchanges of stem and ending began in O.E.? What changes in the -ed\\nof preterits and participles The principal parts of be and go\\nExplain the preterits. Conjugation, what Synopsis, what The\\nendings of the O.E. present in the two conjugations, the strong and\\nthe weak, differ only in what Why limit our study of O.E. verb-\\nendings to the present and the past tense In what three particulars\\nare strong and weak verb-endings in the past alike Explain our\\nredundant past forms drank and drunk, sang and sung. What O.E.\\nverb-endings have disappeared and in what manner and order\\nExercises. Give the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs.\\nGive the endings present and past of the O.E. conjugations.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXII\\nTHE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION\\nTHE VERB BE\\nIndicative Mode\\nPresent Tense Simple Form\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) a-m, (We) ar-e,\\n2 f (You) ar-e, (Y\\nZ \\\\(Thou) ar-t, Yon) ar_e\\n3. (He) is (They) ar-e.\\nPresent Tense Compound, or Potential, Form\\n(In the indicative, may, can, or must helps to assert, as a fact, one s\\npermission, power, or obligation to do and, in the passive voice, to\\nundergo what is denoted by the principal verb.)\\n1 1. (I) may, can, or must be, (We) may, can, or must be,\\n2 f (You) may, can, or must be, (Y b\\n(Thou) may-st, can-st, or must be, t l0U J ma can mufet be\\n3. (He) may, can, or must be (They) may, can, or must be.\\nPast Tense Simple Form\\n1. (I) was, 0^ 7 e) wer-e,\\n2 J You wer e rYou^i wer e\\n(Thou) was-t, t You J wei_e\\n3. (He) was (They) wer-e.\\n221", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "222 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nPast Tense\\nCompound, or Potential, Porm\\n(In the indicative, might, could, would, or should helps to assert, as\\na fact, the possibility of one s doing, or one s power or intention or\\nobligation to do and in the passive voice, to undergo what is\\ndenoted by the principal verb).\\n1 m migh-t, coul-d, h w f migh-t, coul-d h\\nx W woul-d, or shoul-d J X woul-d, or shoul-d J De\\nYou^ mi S h t coul d X be\\nv n woul-d, or shoul-d/ rY f migh-t, coul-d, be\\nn^n^ J migh-t-st, coul-d-st, 1 I woul-d, or shoul-d\\nt inou X woul-d-st, or shoul-d-st De\\nHe i g^ com d I he f Thev^i m^ 11 com d I be\\n6 e; woul-d, or shoul-d De iney woul-d, or shoul-d De\\nFuture Tense\\nSimple Prediction\\nSINGULAR PLURAL\\n1. (I) shall be, (We) shall be,\\nf (You) will be, /v N in\\n2 i(Thou)wil-tbe, (You) will be,\\n3. (He) will be (They) will be.\\nExpressing Determination, and Promise also\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) will be, (We) will be,\\no i You shall be, fY\\nJ X (Thou) shal-t be, ^\u00c2\u00b0u; sna11 De\\n3. (He) shall be (They) shall be.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION\\n223\\nIndicative Mode\\nPresent Perfect Tense\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) have been, (We) have been,\\no J (You) have been, (y\\n(Thou) ha-st been, ou nave been\\n3. (He) ha-s been (They) have been.\\n(For the office of the auxiliaries may, can, and must see present\\ntense compound form above).\\n1. (I) may, can, or must have\\nbeen\\nEtc.\\n(We) may, can, or must have\\nbeen.\\nEtc.\\nPast Perfect Tense\\n1. (I) ha-d been,\\nQ f (You) ha-d been,\\n1. 1\\n(We) ha-d been,\\n(Thou) ha-d-st been, You ha d been\\n3. (He) ha-d been (They) ha-d been.\\n(Eor the office of the auxiliaries might, could, would, and should\\nsee past tense compound form above.)\\ni. (i)\\nmigh-t,\\nmigh-t,\\ncoul-d,\\ncoul-d,\\nwoul-d,\\nhave been\\n(We)-\\nwoul-d,\\nhave been.\\nor\\nor\\nshoul-d,\\nshcul-d,\\nEtc.\\nEtc.\\nFuture Perfect Simple Prediction\\n1. (I) shall have been, (We) shall have been,\\nf (You) will have been, /v N Urtrt\\n2 (Thou) wil-t have been, You wl11 have been\\n3. (He) will have been\\n(They) will have been.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "224 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nSubjunctive Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nSimple Form Compound Form\\nsingular plural singular plural\\n1. (I) be, (We) be, 1. (I) may be, (We) may be,\\n2 f (You) be, (Y 2 f (You) may be, ry\\nz t (Thou) be, t 10U J De (Thou) may-stbe, t You may be\\n3. (He) be; (They) be. 3. (He) may be (They) may be.\\n(For the offices in the subjunctive of be or of any other principal\\nverb see pp. 172-175.)\\nSubjunctive Mode\\nPast Tense Simple Form\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) wer-e, (We) wer-e,\\n3. (He) wer-e (They) wer-e.\\nPast Tense Compound Form\\n(In (1) simple sentences, might, could, and would help in the\\nsubjunctive to express wish. In (2) the principal clause of a\\nsentence containing a clause of time, concession, purpose, or condition,\\nand (3) in such adverb clauses introduced by till, lest, though, that,\\netc., might, could, would, and should help in the subjunctive to\\nassert, as a conception, the possibility of one s doing, or one s power,\\nintention, or obligation to do and, in the passive voice, to undergo\\nwhat is denoted by the principal verb).\\n1 (Vs migk-t coul-d, h (W migh-t, coul-d, b\\nl w \\\\woul-d, or shoul-dj De e) woul-d, or shoul-d| De\\nEtc. Etc.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 225\\nPresent Perfect Tense\\n1. (I) have been,\\n2 f (You) have been,\\n(Thou) have been,\\n3. (He) have been\\n(We) have been,\\n(You) have been,\\n(They) have been.\\n(In the subjunctive, may helps in simple sentences (1) to express a\\nwish, and in adverb clauses of condition, purpose, and concession,\\nintroduced by if, that, lest, it helps to assert, as a conception, one s\\npermission to do and in the passive voice, to undergo what is\\ndenoted by the principal verb.)\\n1. (I) may have been\\nEtc.\\n(We) may have been.\\nEtc.\\nPast Perfect Tense\\n1. (I) ha-d been,\\no f (You) ha-d been,\\nI (Thou) ha-d-st been,\\n3. (He) ha-d been\\n1. (I)\\nf migh-t,\\ncoul-d,\\nwoul-d,\\nor\\nshoul-d\\nEtc.\\nhave been\\n(We) ha-d been,\\n(You) ha-d been,\\n(They) ha-d been.\\nmigh-t,\\ncoul-d,\\n(We) W oul-d, I- have been.\\nor\\nshoul-d\\nEtc.\\nImperative Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nsingular\\n2. Be (you or thou)\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 15\\nPLURAL\\nBe (you or ye).", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "226\\nHIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nInfinitives\\nPRESENT\\nTENSE\\npresent\\nperfect tense\\n(To)\\nbe.\\n(To)\\nParticiples\\nhave been.\\nPRESENT\\npast\\nPAST PERFECT\\nBe-ing.\\nBeen.\\nNounal Verbs\\nHav-ing been.\\nBe-ing.\\nHav-\\ning been.\\nCONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE\\nIndicative Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nPast Tense\\nsingular\\n1. (I) have,\\nQ (You) have,\\nZt (Thou) ha-st,\\n3. (He) ha-s;\\nSimple Form\\nplural singular\\n(We) have, (I) ha-d,\\nrYou^ have (You ha d\\ntiou; nave, Tho u) ha-d-st,\\n(They) have. (He) ha-d\\nPLURAL\\n(We) ha-d,\\n(You) ha-d,\\n(They) ha-d.\\nSubjunctive Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nPast Tense\\nsingular\\n1. (I) have,\\n2 f (You) have,\\ndm (Thou) have,\\n3. (He) have\\nSimple Form\\nplural singular plural\\n(We) have, 1. (I) ha-d, (We) ha-d,\\n(You) have, 2. jS^^t, (You) ha-d,\\n(They) have. 3. (He) ha-d (They) ha-d.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 227\\nFURTHER CONJUGATION OF HAVE\\nIndicative and Subjunctive Modes\\nThe Conjugation of Have in the Present and the Past\\nIndicative and Subjunctive compound form, and in the\\nremaining tenses of both modes simple and compound forms,\\nis effected by substituting the infinitive have for be, and\\nthe participle had for been, in the corresponding tenses,\\nmodes, and forms of the conjugation of Be.\\nOTHER FORMS OF HAVE\\nIf have be substituted for be, having for being, and had\\nfor been, in the imperative, infinitives, participles, and\\nnounal verbs of the Conjugation of Be, we have the corres-\\nponding forms of Have.\\nCONJUGATION OF THE STRONG VERB DRIVE\\nIndicative Mode\\nPresent Tense Past Tense\\nSimple Form\\nsingular plural singular plural\\n1. (I) drive, (We) drive, 1. (I) drove, (We) drove,\\n2 f (You) drive, (y 2 r (You) drove, (y\\nr (Thou) driv-est, ou) anve Z (Thou) drov-est, ou) arove\\n3. (He) drive-s (They) drive. 3. (He) drove (They) drove.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "228 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nSubjunctive Mode\\nPresent Tense Past Tense\\nSimple Form\\n1. (I) drive, (We) drive, 1. (I) drove, (We) drove,\\nf (You) drive, (y f (You) drove, (Y\\n(Thou) drive, ou anve (Thou) drov-est, lou) arove\\n3. (He) drive (They) drive. 3. (He drove (They) drove.\\nCONJUGATION OF THE WEAK VERB WALK\\nIndicative Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nSimple Form\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) walk, (We) walk,\\n3. (He) walk-s (They) walk.\\nPast Tense\\nSimple Form\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) walk-ed, (We) walk-ed,\\n2. i I 0U wal e (You) walk-ed,\\n(Thou) walk-ed-est, v J\\n3. (He) walk-ed (They) walk-ed.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 229\\nSubjunctive Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nSimple Form\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) walk, (We) walk,\\n2 f (You) walk, (Y\\n2 (Thou) walk, t*\u00c2\u00b0u) walK\\n3. (He) walk (They) walk.\\nPast Tense\\nSimple Form\\nsingular plural\\n1. (I) walk-ed, (We) walk-ed,\\n2 f (You) walk-ed, (Y walk ed\\nA (Thou) walk-ed-est, Y ou; walK ea,\\n3. (He) walk-ed (They) walk-ed.\\nFURTHER CONJUGATION OF DRIVE AND WALK\\nIndicative and Subjunctive Modes\\nThe Conjugation of Drive or Walk in the Present and the\\nPast Indicative and Subjunctive compound form, and in the\\nremaining tenses of both modes simple and compound forms,\\nis effected by substituting the infinitive drive or walk for be,\\nand the participle driv-en or walk-ed for been, in the corre-\\nsponding tenses, modes, and forms of the Conjugation of Be.\\nThat of other verbs is the same.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "230 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nImperative Mode\\nPresent Tense\\nSINGULAR PLURAL\\n2. Drive (you or thou) Drive (you or ye).\\n2. Walk (you or thou) Walk (you or ye).\\nInfinitives\\nPresent Tense Present Perfect Tense\\n(To) drive. (To) have driv-en.\\n(To) walk. (To) have walk-ed.\\nParticiples\\nPresent Past Past Perfect\\nDriv-ing. Driv-en. Hav-ing driv-en.\\nWalk-ing. Walk-ed. Hav-ing walk-ed.\\nNounal Verbs\\nDriv-ing. Hav-ing driv-en.\\nWalk-ing. Hav-ing walk-ed.\\nThe Verb-endings Now in English. The -m in am is a\\nprimitive Indo-European ending, and the -e in ar-e is Scandi-\\nnavian. The O.E. terminations are (1) the e in wer-e; (2)\\nthe -est, -st, or -t of the second person singular, as in walk-est,\\nmay-st, and shal-t (3) the 3 1 of the third singular present\\n1 This ending became -S first in the Northern Dialect it was used there in the\\nplural also, is found in the plural in Shakespeare, as in My old bones aches\\n41 His tear 8 runs down his beard.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 231\\nindicative, changed to -s, as in fights, changed to -es 1 after\\na guttural, a palatal, a sibilant, an o, and a y preceded by a\\nconsonant, as in fioc-es, pinch-es, Mss-es, clo-es, and cri-es (4)\\nthe -ed, -d, -t of the past tense of weak verbs, and (5)\\nthe -ed, -d, -t of the past participle weak, as in walk-ed, to!-\\nand leap-t (6) the -en, -n of the past participle strong, as\\nin brok-en and draw-n and (7) the -ende of the present\\nparticiple changed to -ing, as in walk-mg.\\nSome verb-endings are double the past tense ending\\n-ed plus a personal ending as in migh-t-st, lov-ed-est.\\nTHE CONJUGATION OF VERBS WHEN DENOTING CON-\\nTINUING ACTION\\nThe conjugation above is that of verbs in the present\\nand the past and the future, indefinite; 2 and in the present\\nperfect and the past perfect and the future perfect,\\ncomplete. 2\\nTheir conjugation, when denoting action continuing, is\\neffected by adding their present participle to the several\\nforms of the substantive verb Be.\\nA synopsis in the first person singular, and the impera-\\ntive, the infinitive, the participle, and the nounal verb, are\\nhere given\\n1 The e in -es is the connective e in O.E. e 3. This -eth, -th, used only in poetry\\nand in solemn style, is the invariable ending in the King James Version of the Bible.\\nFor a full account of the incidental offices of the tenses, as indicated by\\nindefinite, complete, etc., see p. 178,", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "232 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe Indicative. (I) am driving (I) may, can, or must be driv-\\ning (I) was driving (I) might, could, would, or should be driving\\n(I) shall be driving (I) have been driving (I) may, can, or must\\nhave been driving (I) had been driving and (I) might, could, would,\\nor should have been driving. The Subjunctive. (I) be driving (I)\\nmay be driving (I) were driving (I) might, could, would, or should\\nbe driving (I) have been driving (I) may have been driving (I) had\\nbeen driving and (I) might, could, would, or should have been\\ndriving. Imperative. Be (you or thou) driving; be (you or ye)\\ndriving. Infinitives. (To) be driving and (to) have been driving.\\nParticiples. Being driving been driving and having been driving.\\nNounal Verbs. Being driving; having been driving.\\nThe Conjugation of the Verb with the Auxiliary Do. It\\nwas said, p. 194, that do, do-st, do-es, di- and di-d-st are\\nused with the present infinitive of a verb to help conjugate\\nthe verb in negative and interrogative sentences, and in those\\nwhose action is to be made emphatic, as in,\\n(I) do love, etc. (I) do not love, etc. do (I) love etc. do (I)\\nnot love etc. (I) did love, etc. (I) did not love, etc. did (I)\\nlove etc. did (I) not love etc.\\nCONJUGATION OF VERBS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE\\nThe conjugation of a verb, strong or weak, in the Passive\\nVoice is effected by adding its past participle to all the forms\\nof fie.\\nNeglecting some auxiliaries and forms that only repeat,\\nwe illustrate:\\nAm chosen may be chosen was chosen might be chosen shall be\\nchosen will be chosen have been chosen may have been chosen had", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 233\\nbeen chosen might have been chosen be chosen (to) be chosen\\n(to) have been chosen; being chosen; chosen; having been chosen.\\nThe forms just given are those of the passive voice in\\nthe simple tenses 1 indefinite, and in the compound 1 tenses\\ncomplete.\\nFor the passive denoting continuing action, a conjugation 2\\nhas long been in use, consisting of the forms of be plus\\nthe present participle of the verb used, as\\nThe house is building The wood was burning,\\nprecisely the conjugation of these verbs in the active voice\\nwhen denoting continuing action.\\nISTo ambiguity can arise from this sameness so long as the\\nverb, as used, is unmistakably active or passive but when,\\nJ as used, it is one whose subject may name both the doer\\nand the receiver of the act, the sentence is ambiguous, as\\nThe chicken is eating M The boy is whipping.\\nWhile there was but a single form to denote one as\\nacting and as acted upon, these sentences would not tell\\nj whether the chicken was alive and eating, or dead and\\n1 being eaten whether the boy was whipping somebody, or\\nwas being whipped by him.\\nA century ago there crept into use a new and unambigu-\\n1 For the tenses called simple, and those called compound, see p. 178.\\n2 For the origin of this, see pp. 164, 165.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "234 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nous form for the passive denoting continuing action a\\nphrase consisting of the forms of be in the present and the\\npast, plus the participle being and the past participle of\\nthe verb used, as:\\nThe chicken is being eaten The boy was being whipped.\\nWe say in the present and the past, for this conjugation\\nis confined to these tenses. Though firmly resisted, this\\nneologism has won its way into good usage even with\\nverbs where the old form would be unambiguous.\\nProscribed Verb Locutions. We are told (1) that after an auxil-\\niary the principal verb must be repeated, unless the exact form of\\nit already employed may be used with the auxiliary (2) that\\nbetween auxiliaries no adverb should be placed (3) that do may\\nbe substituted for transitive verbs only (4) that the nounal verb\\nin the present should not follow after and that we must avoid\\n(5) the neologism described above (6) the idiom can help, seen in\\nI can t help thinking (7) I am mistaken for I mistake (8) con-\\nsider, for think, deem (9) grow, to express decrease (10) would\\ninstead of should in softened assertion (11) get, unless to express\\nattainment by exertion, and (12) had rather, had better, with the\\ninfinitive, instead of would rather, would better.\\nUsage approves the locutions here condemned, employing those\\nproscribed in (2), (4), (5), (7), (8), (11), and (12) far more com-\\nmonly than the alternative expressions there given or suggested.\\nWe illustrate. 1\\n1 (1) No one knows that better than I do He saw it, but I could not, I\\nhave never read them my sermon, and I don t know that I shall (2) The principle\\nmay easily be traced, It will not be suppressed, Can hardly have been\\nlearned (3) Nothing worse happens to you than does to all (4) So, after", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 235\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. The Conjugation of Be; of\\nHave; of Drive; of Walk. Verb-endings now in English. Conju-\\ngation of Verbs when denoting Continuing Action with the\\nauxiliary Do; in the Passive Voice. Passive denoting Continuing\\nAction. Proscribed Verb Locutions.\\nwaiting a minute, I began again (5) A field was being got ready for turnips\\n(6) He s a free-trader because he can t help it (T) I think he must be mistaken\\n(8) Curious, that we always consider solemnity essential to the idea of a future life\\n(9) Did you ever hear of a man s growing lean by reading Romeo and Juliet\\n(10) It would seem so (11) Get wet, got well, got sick, got tired,\\ngot dingy by use, etc. get become; You ve got to learn get and have\\nexpress necessity Knowledge that has got itself taught got is causative As we\\ngel on in years get denotes passive movement (12) I had rather be a kitten\\nand cry mew, They had better confine themselves to plain English.\\nForms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel John-\\nson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of would or should, as the case may\\ndemand, for had but had rather and had belter are thoroughly established English\\nidioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. I\\nwould- rather not go is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the\\nelement of choice, or will, in the matter but, in all ordinary cases, I had rather not\\ngo has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood.\\nIf, for You had better stay at home, we substitute, You should better stay at\\nhome, an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place\\nto that of obligation. Standard Dictionary.\\nIn the analysis of I had rather go, had is the predicate verb, the infinitive go is\\nthe objective complement, and the adjective rather completes had and belongs to go,\\ni.e. is objective complement. Had should hold or regard) is treated as a past\\nsubjunctive. Rather is the comparative of the old adjective rathe, early, from which\\ncomes the idea of preference. The expression means, I should hold going prefer-\\nable.\\nThe expressions, You had better stay, I had as lief not be, are similar in\\nconstruction to I had rather go. I had sooner go is condemned by grammarians\\nbecause sooner is never an adjective. If sooner is here allowed as an idiom, it is a\\nmodifier of had. The expression equals, I should more willingly have going.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "236 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nQuestions. In what modes are may, can, and must used? They\\nhelp to assert what in the indicative, active and passive In the\\nsubjunctive, active and passive In what modes are might, could,\\nwould, and should used Conjugate have in the present and the\\npast, simple form, indicative and subjunctive. The further conjuga-\\ntion of have is effected how Conjugate drive and ivalk in the\\npresent and the past, simple form, indicative and subjunctive. The\\nfurther conjugation of drive and walk is effected how The -m in\\nam from what The -e in are The O.E. terminations retained in\\nMn.E. are what And have changed from what When is -es, rather\\nthan -s, the third singular present indicative ending The O.E.\\n-eth, -th used now only where Invariably used in what common\\nbook How is the conjugation of verbs when denoting continuing\\naction effected Give a synopsis in the first person singular indica-\\ntive of drive, when denoting continuing action. The conjugation of\\na verb, strong or weak, in the passive voice of the simple tenses indefi-\\nnite and the compound tenses complete, is effected how The old\\nfashion of conjugating a verb in the passive when denoting continuing\\naction is what How did it originate This conjugation is precisely\\nwhat other When only could ambiguity arise from this sameness\\nWhat has arisen to prevent this ambiguity The new form consists\\nof what Is limited to what two tenses What is said of this\\nneologism What are the proscribed verb locutions? Which\\nones of these are more common than the alternative expressions\\nprescribed What of had rather and had better\\nExercises. Conjugate be throughout have throughout drive and\\nwalk, in active voice, throughout in simple tenses indefinite, com-\\npound tenses complete, and simple and compound continuing. Conju-\\ngate drive in the passive voice. Illustrate the ambiguity of be with\\nthe present participle active of a verb, when the verb is one whose\\nsubject may be the doer or the receiver of the act. Give and illustrate\\nthe several uses of get*", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIII\\nTHE ADVERB\\nAdverbs Uses. There are words that modify verbs,\\nand hence are called Adverbs, as in\\nHe ran swiftly She ivalked thither u They stay late. 1\\nThe acts expressed by ran and ivalked, and the state\\ndenoted by stay, are here limited by swiftly, thither, and late,\\nadverbs of manner, place, and time.\\nSome adverbs modify adjectives affect the degree of the\\nquality or the measure of the quantity denoted by them\\nand some modify adverbs themselves. Adverbs, then, modify\\nverbs and the modifiers of nouns and of verbs. 1\\nWe said that adjectives modify nouns by lessening the\\nnumber or quantity of the things named. What effect ad-\\nverbs have upon the scope of the words they modify\\ndepends upon the signification of the adverbs. In\\nu The soil is wonderfully fertile He wanted less spacious\\ngrounds,\\n1 Adverbs, then, are preeminently the modifiers in sentences. Those that qualify\\nverbs are more numerous and more frequently used than those that qualify adjectives\\nor adverbs. Upon adverbs and their equivalents we largely rely in expressing delicate\\nshades of meaning, in making subtile distinctions of thought.\\n237", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "238 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nthe quality denoted by fertile is increased by wonderfully,\\nand the quantity denoted by spacious is decreased by\\nless. In\\nHe admires her very much How seldom have you slept here\\nthe act asserted by admires is intensified by rawc7i, and the\\nmeasure of much is increased by very; the state expressed\\nby have slept is narrowed by seldom; while the infrequency\\nimplied in seldom is only sought by the interrogative how.\\nExceptional Uses of Adverbs. 1. Some adverbs may\\nmodify some prepositions, 1 as\\nThis is just within the line I went far beyond the limit.\\n2. Adverbs may modify a phrase, 1 as\\n44 Only by eternal vigilance is liberty preserved.\\n3. Adverbs may modify clauses and sentences, as\\n14 She sat, simply because she could not stand 1 Undoubtedly two\\nand two are four.\\n4. Adverbs may modify nouns, 2 as\\n1 Many prepositions, as we shall see, were once adverbs hence adverbs may\\nmodify them. Such phrases as those above are adverbial hence adverbs may modify\\nthem.\\n2 Such nouns as journey, arrival, flight, and stay, in these and similar expres-\\nsions, have lingering in them a verbal force hence adverbs may modify them.\\nIn yours truly, yours your friend and yours truly your true friend.\\nThe contained noun is unexpressed and, as Wrightson would say, its attribute true\\ncan appear only as an adverb truly.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 239\\nHis journey thence was eventful u His arrival there was in the\\nnick of time u The soul in its flight upward 1 My stay abroad\\nwas pleasant.\\n5. Some adverbs are independent, as\\nThere are evils to be overcome Now, that is hardly fair.\\n6. Adverbs may be used as nouns/ as\\nSince when was this doctrine taught? A scholar seeks the\\nwhy and the wherefore of everything Before now 1 By then.\\n7. Adverbs may connect clauses, as\\n11 A true soldier goes where and when he is ordered.\\n8. Some adverbs are interrogative, as\\nHow, tohen, where t and ivhy is this to be done\\nDERIVATION OP ADVERBS\\nWe saw that adjectives are inflected in O.E. as nouns are.\\nI. Some Adverbs are derived from Adjectives. 1. From\\nthe O.E. genitive, with the ending -s, sometimes modified,\\nas\\nbackwards, else, forwards, once, twice, unawares, etc.\\n1 When, in since when, what time now, in before now, this time\\nand then, in by then, that time hence the when, now, and then are nouns, and\\nin the objective. The makes nouns of why and wherefore in the sentence above.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "240 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\n2. From the O.E. dative with the ending -e dropped, so\\nthat the adverb and the adjective are the same in form,\\nas:\\nbright, clean, dear, deep, even, fair, fast, full, hard, high, ill, long,\\nloud, near, right, slow, soft, still, wide, etc.\\n3. From the O.E. accusative, with ending dropped, as\\nall, enough, ere, homeward, upward, etc.\\n4. By adding to an adjective the ending -ly, 1 from O.E.\\nlic-e, an ending so common added even to words already\\nadverbs that it is regarded as the normal adverbial end-\\ning, as\\nably, bitterly, certainly, frequently, hardly, lastly, scarcely,\\nshortly, 2 etc.\\nII. Some Adverbs come from Nouns. 1. From the geni-\\ntive, as\\nalways, betimes, needs, lengthways, now-a-days, 3 whilst, etc.\\n2. From the dative, as\\npiecemeal, whilom, 4 etc.\\n1 Our like, as an independent word, and as adjective ending in godlike, godly, etc.,\\nis from the same O.E. adjective gellc, like. Likely like like. Lic-Q is an\\ninstrumental case in like manner ably in an able manner.\\n2 In England, shortly is often used as we use briefly. This use of it, in its old\\nChaucerian sense, is almost unknown on this side of the water. With us it means\\nsoon, presently, or curtly.\\n3 This a, like the introductory a in abed, abroad, afar, ahead, amid, anon,\\napiece, asleep, away, and awry, is the O.E. on, in or on. The a in apace,\\napart, and perhaps in agog is the French a, the Latin ad.\\nLate and like as adjectives and as adverbs retain the -e seldom retains the\\nadjective dative ending -um (om) and whilom, the noun ending.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 241\\n3. From the accusative/ as\\nmeantime, midway, straightway, yesterday, etc.\\nIII. Some Adverbs come from O.E. Pronouns. 1. Prom\\nthe third personal pronoun he\\nhence, here, hither.\\n2. From the demonstrative pronoun ftmt and ties\\nthe (as in the sooner the better), then, thence, there, thither, thus.\\n3. From the interrogative pronoun hwa, hwcet:\\nhow, what, 1 when, whence, where, whither, why.\\nIV. Some Adverbs are compounded of Two Parts of\\nSpeech. 1. Adjective and noun, as:\\nalway, meanwhile, midway, yesterday, etc.\\n2. Adjective and adverb, as\\nalso, anywhere, as, 2 everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, etc.\\n3. Preposition and adjective, as\\nafar, afresh, anew, anon, amid, awry, 3 etc.\\n1 What, meaning partly, as in What with the weather and what with the diet,\\nhe fell sick.\\n2 As, O.E. ealswd, is our also a doublet of it the al(=eal, all, strength-\\nening so.\\n3 We still use, without compounding, the preposition and the adjective as, at all,\\nat best, for lost, for worse, in brief, in full, in future, in general, in particular,\\nin short, in vain, of late, etc. There is here an evident ellipsis of the nouns.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 16", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "242 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR\\n4. Preposition and noun, as\\nabed, aboard, agog, ahead, apace, apart, apiece, asleep, away,\\nbesides, forsooth, overboard, perchance, to-day, to-morrow, etc.\\n5. Adverb and adverb, as\\nhowever, whenever, wherever, etc.\\n6. Adverb and preposition, as\\nforever, hereafter, hereby, herein, thereat, thereby, therefore,\\nwhereat, whereby, wherein, etc.\\n7. Adverb and noun, as\\nnanght, no, not, 1 nought, 1 etc.\\n1 Not is an abbreviation of nought or naught and naught is from O.E. naioiht\\nne a wiht not a whit. In English, as in other languages, a negative may be\\nstrengthened by a noun, as in not a oit not jot. Compare Lat. nihil ne\\nhilum not a straw French ne pas, ne point, not a step, not a point.\\nThe added noun may even crowd out the real negative, and take upon itself the office\\nof negation, ae in pas de tout, not at all. A general linguistic fact is here illus-\\ntrated.\\nThe negative particle in our language is simply the consonant n. In Saxon it\\nexisted as a word ne bat we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which\\nenters into many words, as into no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never.\\nEarle.\\nIt may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns,\\nverbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in our language, negation is more frequently ex-\\npressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech than by all other\\nparts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to\\nsay, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not\\nto be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what\\nis said consists of denial is taken up in telling, not what is true of things, but what is\\nnot true of them or in telling indirectly what is true of them.\\nThe adjective no is an abbreviation of none; the adverb no =ne a not\\never. Yes is from gea swa or from ged sie (a subjunctive of the O.E. verb\\nbeon, to be If from the first pair, it means Yea so if from the second,", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 243\\n8. Many Parts of Speech, as\\naltogether, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc.\\nAdverbial Phrases. Colloquial speech and literature\\nabound in expressions adverbial in force, each made up of\\ntwo or more words, one of which is usually a preposition.\\nIn some of these, words are used in a figurative sense;\\nsome have become idioms expressions peculiar to the\\nlanguage but often illogical in sense.\\nA few of the more frequent adverbial phrases are given\\nbelow. 1\\nj Yea, so be it. No and yes, used in answering questions, are sometimes called\\nindependent adverbs. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer, but\\ncontained in the question as, Did you see him No I did no {not) see him.\\nWill you go? Fes. The force of yes may be illustrated by substituting cer-\\ntainly. Will you go Certainly Certainly I will go, or I will certainly go.\\nAs no and yes represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called sentence-\\nwords.\\nAn obsolete distinction between yea and yes and between nay and no is perhaps\\nworth recalling. In answer to such a question as, Did he walk? yea or nay was\\nused in answer to Did he not walk yes or no. Tyndale s failure to observe this\\n1 l distinction is urged by Sir Thomas More as proof that Tyndale was incompetent to\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0j translate the Bible into English.\\n1 Above all, after all, all in all, at a loss, at all, at all events, at any rate, at best, at\\nheart, at fault, at first sight, at hand, at last, at least, at length, at most, at once, at\\none, at random, at that, at the best, at the most, at times, back and forth, by and by,\\n1 by heart, by no means, by the bye, by the way, day by day, for a while, for all that, for\\ncertain, for example, for good, for granted, for instance, for long, for lost, for once, for\\nthat matter, for the most part, for the present, for the time, from time to time, hand\\nin hand, here and there, in a word, in brief, in general, in fact, in full, in future, in other\\nwords, in part, in particular, in short, in spite of, in the first place, in the main, in\\ntruth, in vain, in view-, more and more, more or less, no doubt, no matter, none the\\nless, of a truth, of course, on hand, on foot, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the\\nother hand, on the whole, once for all, once in a while, one by one, over and above, side\\nby side, step by step, to and fro, to the full, under the circumstances, under way.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "244 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nProscribed Adverbial Locutions. Some critics, in disregard of\\nProfessor Lounsbury s admirable dictum, Purism is not purity,\\ncondemn such adverbs and adverb phrases as these\\nAs (after a negative), at all, at best, at length at last /row\\nthence, from whence, here (after verbs of motion), just (to express\\ntime), quite very so (after an affirmative), there (after verbs of\\nmotion), and whether or no (instead of not). 1\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Adverbs Uses, Common and\\nExceptional, Derivation. Adverb Phrases. Proscribed Adverb\\nLocutions.\\nQuestions. Why called adverbs? What besides verbs do they\\nmodify Adverbs preeminently what Their effect upon the scope\\nof the words they modify Illustrate. Why may adverbs modify\\nprepositions? Why nouns like journey, stay, flight, etc.? Why\\nphrases Clauses Illustrate, and account for, their use as nouns.\\nFrom what 0. E. cases of adjectives are adverbs derived The com-\\n1 As after a negative is less common than so so after an affirmative is less common\\nthan as; from thence and from whence are not so often seen as thence and whence;\\nhere and there are less frequent with verbs of motion than are hither and thither and\\nwhether or not is found oftener than whether or no. Still these proscribed expres-\\nsions occur too frequently to be put under ban.\\nAt all may be scooped up by the handful at best is oftener used than the correla-\\ntive phrase, at the best; at length, meaning at \\\\ast,\\\\just as an adverb of time, and\\nquite, in the sense of very, appear on almost every page of literature.\\nAs and so, after negatives, connote different ideas. In John is not as tall as\\nJames, there is no implication that the speaker regards either John or James as tall;\\nthere is merely a comparison of their heights. But, if one says, John is not so tall as\\nJames, though the so is not emphasized, there is understood usually to be a reference,\\nmore or less distinct, to something uncommon in the height of James, as compared\\nwith that of other men, or of other boys of his age. Standard Dictionary.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 245\\nmon adverb ending? Derived from what? The om in seldom and\\nwhilom from what From what cases of nouns are adverbs derived\\nIllustrate. From what classes of pronouns? Illustrate. Some ad-\\nverbs are what parts of speech coupled Illustrate. What is the\\ngeneral negative seen in not What is the noun Give other nega-\\ntives containing nouns. What may the noun do to the negative in\\nsuch combination The component parts of no and yes f What are\\nthese two sometimes called Some of the more common adverb\\nphrases Lounsbury s admirable dictum\\nExercises. Give the list of adverbs that have the same form as\\nadjectives. The lists of adverbs derived from the pronouns, O.E.,\\nhe, ficet, dcs, hwa, and hivcet. The uses of adverbs and adverb phrases\\nproscribed by purists, but approved by usage. The distinction made\\nby the Standard Dictionary between John is not as tall as James,\\nand u John is not so tall as James.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXIV\\nTHE ADVERB {Co ntinued)\\nCLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS AND ADVERB PHRASES\\nI. Classified according to their Office. Some adverbs and\\nadverb phrases perform the single office of modifying verbs,\\nadjectives, or adverbs. These are called Simple Adverbs.\\nThe great mass of adverbs and adverb phrases fall into\\nthis class.\\nBut just as participles have two natures and offices, a\\nverbal and an adjectival; as nounal verbs have two, a\\nverbal and a nounal; as relative pronouns have two,\\na nounal and a conjunctive so some adverbs and adverb\\nphrases have two, an adverbial and a conjunctive. These\\nare called Conjunctive Adverbs and Adverb Phrases.\\nThe Conjunctive Adverbs and Phrases connecting Coordinate\\nClauses are\\naccordingly, also, besides, consequently, else, furthermore, hence,\\nhowever, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, notwithstanding, now, on\\nthe contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, so, still, then, thence, yet.\\nThe Conjunctive Adverbs connecting Subordinate Clauses l to\\nPrincipal are\\n1 Mason impliedly restricts the modifying 1 force of a conjunctive adverb to the verb,\\nadjective, or adverb in its own clause. Accordingly, also, hence, now, so, still,\\nyet, etc. connecting coordinate clauses are restricted as Mason asserts. But (1) the\\n246", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 247\\nafter, as, before, ere, how, however, since, than, that, the the,\\ntill, until, when, whence, whenever, where, whereby, wherein, wher-\\never, while, whilst, and why.\\nII. Classified according to their Meaning. Classified thus,\\nadverbs are easily grouped under time, place, degree, man-\\nner, and cause. We give only a few common illustrations\\nof each class.\\n1. Adverbs of Time. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Present, forthwith, immediately, instantly,\\nJ now, to-day.\\nPast, ago, already, before, heretofore, hitherto, lately, since, then,\\nyesterday.\\nFuture, afterwards, by and by, directly, 1 hereafter, henceforth,\\n3 soon, to-morrow.\\nDuration, always, ever, incessantly, never, perpetually, still,\\nwhile.\\nFrequency, again, daily, frequently, often, once, periodically,\\nrarely, seldom, sometimes.\\n2. Adverbs of Place. Rest in, above, below, elsewhere, here,\\nJ near, there, where, yonder.\\nMotion from, away, back, hence, thence, whence.\\nMotion towards, forward, hither, onward, thither, whither.\\n3. Adverbs of Degree, all, almost, as, as as, easily, enough, far,\\nconjunctive adverbs ichen, where, wherein, whereby, and why, when introducing\\nadjective clauses and having the office of relative pronouns, and (2) conjunctive adverbs,\\nlike as, ere, since, than, when, connecting subordinate clauses of time, place, degree,\\nand manner to principal clauses, modify or describe or limit words in those clauses\\nas well as words in their own.\\n1 Directly as soon as, is not employed by American writers or speakers. But\\nvery many English authors would say with Newman, Directly they are loved for\\ntheir own sake, they return to their original dust.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "248 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nhardly, 1 just, least, less, little, more, most, much, nearly, only, per-\\nfectly, quite, scarcely, so, 2 than, 3 the the, too, very. 4\\n4. Adverbs of Manner, as, as so, fast, like, long, no, not, so, 2\\nthus, well, and most adverbs in -ly.\\n5. Adverbs of Cause, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, whence,\\nwherefore, why.\\nTwo Negative Adverbs in the Same Assertion. In O.E. and\\nin M.E., two, or more than two, negative adverbs in the\\nsame assertion strengthen 5 the negation; in Mn.E. two\\n1 English writers often use hardly in the sense of harshly, with severity as,\\nThe prisoner was hardly treated. Americans use it in the sense of scarcely, with\\ndifficulty as, He was hardly able to walk.\\n2 So, as an adverb of degree, more frequently as an adverb of manner, is often a com-\\npendious substitute for a phrase or a clause as, Half a dozen or so There was\\nno one to enforce the law and enforce order, since the Emperor was too weak to do\\nso It is not yet all it might be or all it should be, but we mean to make it so.\\n3 The conjunctive force of than is now prominent, but than is from then. He is\\ntaller than I He is taller then next to him) am I, Whitney says. Mason and\\nWest say that than (O.E. panne) originally meant when; and that therefore He is\\ntaller than I He is taller when I am tall. Mason adds that to regard than as\\nequivalent to then inverts the logical order of the ideas, making the comparative\\ndegree itself the standard of comparison.\\n4 Very modifies adjectives, participles used as adjectives, and adverbs, but not\\nverbs. Some think that such expressions as, He is very pleased are creeping into\\nfavor but they are not in general use, not even in occasional use, among the best\\nEnglish and American writers.\\n6 The stock illustration from Chaucer is, He never e yit no vileinye ne sayde in all\\nhis lyf unto no maner wight. The change is credited to the influence of the Latin\\nconstruction favored by Milton and the Latinists of his day.\\nIn a compound assertion, usage is about equally divided on this point whether to\\nuse nor, and thus repea* the negation in the preceding not, no, or other negative, or to\\nemploy or, and allow the not, no, or other word, to make all parts of the assertion\\nnegative. We have the best of authority for both locutions as, Our healing is not in\\nthe storm or in the whirlwind It is not in monarchies or aristocracies or democ-\\nracies They had no horses nor oxen nor carts The world will very Utile", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 249\\nnegatives in the same assertion neutralize each other and\\nleave the assertion affirmative, as\\nu This is not 2in\\\\ike\\\\y Unbelief is not the supreme end sought.\\nComparison of Adverbs. Adverbs, like adjectives, have\\na single modification, comparison, though, from their\\nnature, few except those of degree and manner receive it.\\nOf the common adverbs of time and of place that are com-\\npared, we may mention\\nfrequently, lately, often, rarely, seldom, soon, and far and near.\\nSome adverbs, like often and soon, and those that are\\n1 derived from adjectives and are the same in form (see\\np. 240, I. 2), take the -er and -est to denote increase; but\\nmost of those subject to comparison prefix more and most\\nto denote this. All of them, like adjectives, prefix less and\\nleast to express diminution.\\nAdverbs Irregular in Comparison. Some adverbs, like\\nadjectives, form degrees from different stems there is one,\\nj at least, whose positive and superlative are now obsolete;\\ni and there are some whose endings of comparison are pecul-\\niar. These inheritances from O.E. are here grouped\\nnote, nor long remember, what we say here. Possibly the negation is strengthened\\nby the repetition.\\nOf course, nor must be used after neither, as in Who neither turned nor looked\\nat him nor spoke.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "250\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nCOMP.\\nbadly,\\nill,\\nworse,\\nworst.\\nfar,\\nfarther,\\nfarthest.\\nforth,\\nfurther,\\nfurthest.\\nPOS.\\nCOMP.\\nSUPER.\\nlittle,\\nless,\\nleast.\\nmuch,\\nmore,\\nmost.\\nrather, 1\\nwell,\\nbetter,\\nbest.\\nAdverbs, and their Number and Place in Sentences. The\\nadverbs and adverb phrases used (1) should fitly 2 express\\nthe modification intended; (2) should be few 3 rather than\\nmany and (3) should be so placed 4 that no reasonable\\ndoubt can arise as to what they were meant to modify\\nplaced, consequently, as near as possible to the words they\\nmodify, regard being had to euphony and to the rights of\\nother words.\\nSeldom should an adverb stand between to 5 and its\\ninfinitive.\\n1 Bather in the sense of someivhat is not a comparative in force.\\n2 Adverbs that fill the mouth or the ear, but are meaningless because general and\\nindefinite, easily impose upon the speaker or writer. Shots that do not hit the mark\\n6well the roar but waste the ammunition.\\n8 Facility in the use of adverbs is not always felicity. Better to leave the appetite\\nunsatisfied than to clog it. If one is to lean either way, let it be to the side of paucity.\\nThe parts of a sentence should not be disjointed or misjointed, but should cohere\\neach part attached to that to which it belongs. The difficulty of proper position is great\\nonly is seldom in place, and phrases are proverbial stragglers.\\nThe following misplaced adverbs and adverb (and adjective) phrases illustrate the\\npoint: There have been things they called comic operas by the dozen I should\\nlike to come very much He finds himself in possession only of a jumbled\\ncollection of synonyms Every schoolboy has known who Brutus was any\\ntim,e these fifteen hundred years An effect of which the loss would make the\\nEnglish language ^oorer 1 More effective than that of a perhaps cleverer man.\\n5 Cleft or split infinitives infinitives separated by adverbs from their to are\\nfound in English all the way down FitzEdward Hall and others have shown this\\nBut there is no doubt that usage is against adverbs being thus sandwiched. Our", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "THE ADVERB 251\\nWhether Adverb or Adjective. It is asked whether^ after\\nappear, arrive, come, feel, grow, hang, keep, look, shine, sit,\\nsmell, stand, taste, etc., one should use 1 an adverb or an\\nadjective. The only guide seems to be this If the word\\nis to modify the subject, 2 use an adjective; if to modify the\\nverb, an adverb.\\nThis rule forces one to determine which office the word is to have 3\\nwhen used with such verbs.\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Adverbs Classified according to\\nOffice and Meaning. Comparison of Adverbs. Number and Place in\\nSentences. When an Adjective to be Used and when an Adverb.\\nbest writers seldom place adverbs there and only when there is a felicitous coherence\\nof adverb and verb, like that of a happy compound.\\nDo not use the split infinitive unless you have a valid reason for it. Old examples\\ncan be quoted in some numbers, yet it never was a genuine colloquialism, but only an\\nartificial scholasm. Earle.\\nWhether to place the adverb before the to or after the infinitive is a question to be\\nsettled by clearness, by regard for the right to position other words have, and by the ear.\\n1 Certain adverbs and adjectives, see p. 240, I. 2, are alike in form. What to call\\nthem in parsing, often troubles one when they stand after the verbs above.\\n2 We saw, foot-note 2, p. 238, that a noun with a verb lingering in it may be modi-\\nfied by an adverb. We are speaking now of nouns with special verbs.\\n3 To aid in determining this, we may say that when the intransitive verbs appear,\\narrive, come, grow, look, sit, stand, etc. and feel, hang, keep, shine, smell, taste,\\netc. used intransitively express not so much action as state, and state with the\\ngeneral meaning of being or seeming or becoming, the word to be used should modify\\nthe subject, be an adjective; if action is uppermost in the verb, the word should\\nmodify the verb, be an adverb. These sentences from the Standard Dictionary\\nillustrate both points\\nThe decision appears (apparently is) unjust The ship appeared (came into\\nview) suddenly and The physician felt the pulse carefully (in a careful manner),\\nand observed that the patient s hand felt cold (was cold to the touch).", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "252 EIOR school QRAMMAE\\nQuestions. -What are simple adverbs P Conjunctive adverbs and\\nphrases? Wluili subdivisions i other parts of speeoh have double\\noflices? What do conjunctive adverbs connect? Wherein Mason\\nwrong, by Implication at Least P Wherein right? Adverbs \u00c2\u00bbr time\\nand plaoe subdivisible Into what? Directly and hardly used how\\nin England? So a compendious substitute tor what? Very may\\nmodify what? May not modify what? in O.B. and M.E., two\\nor more negatives do what P in Mn.E., what? Usage says what re-\\nspecting nor to repeat the negative of :i preceding not or not Some.\\nadverbs whose comparative and superlative are not Erom the positive.\\nstem; some whose comparative and superlative endings are peculiar j\\none used only in the eoinp.i.mii ve What is s;iid of the Choi06 ol\\nadverbs? Of the number used P Theirplaceln thesentence? What\\nadverb often out of place? What adverb phrases? An adverb\\nshould seldom he phi.eed where? What does ii:;;rr say of the u deft\\nInfinitive What governs the placingof the adverb modifying the\\nInfinitive? After what verbs may there bo doubt whether t use\\nadjectives adverbs? What Is to guide? What may aid In de-\\ntermining the office of the word to be used? What words whose\\nsyntax may trouble us in parsing?\\nExercises. Write some sentences, eaoh with a clause of plaoe or\\ntime or degree or manner, Introduced i y an adverb modifying words\\nin both olauses. Some with a negative followed by or, and some\\nwith a negative strengthened by nor\u00c2\u00bb Some Illustrating the varied\\nplacing of the adverb with the infinitive. Correct the faults of posi-\\ntion in loot note I, p. B50. Write sentences where theadjeotive Ls the\\nproper word after appear^ come, grow^ look, shine, smell, and\\ntaste I Mini some where Uie ;idverb is I. he proper word after these\\nverbs.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXV\\nTHE PREPOSITION\\nDerivation and Name. \u00c2\u00bbM08t of the English preposition:;\\nworn earlier adverbs. 1 They got their name from l ein#\\nplaced before one of the words whose relations they expressed.\\nTheir Original Office. Stems, like those of pronoun:;, were\\nused (1) to express the relations existing between tin-.\\nactions 9 indicated by verbs and the thin denoted by\\nnouns; used (2) to make clearer the relations between things\\nand qualities of things on the one, hand, and things on the\\nother.\\nti in Sanskrit, the oldest extant writing of the Cndo Europeans, these\\nstems are found (1) as Independent word::, (2) as prefixes of verbs,\\nami as (;aH ;-emliii ik.iih; CI; ami (2) calkd preposition,*,\\nand (8) case endings. When the Independent words express the rela\\ni,i ins of a verb, adjective, or adverb, iii a general way, without a limit\\nin ooun, they are called adverbi.\\nti in Sanskrit there are twenty-one prepositional stems which some\\ntimes combine with verbs, nine which never combine, and many\\n1 M 1 1 1 prtpOfltiOM ill u. I .i :i l.\u00c2\u00abil,, i:i.lly whmi not. followed y\\nnoun:..\\ni That prepositions uiisted In oxpropwlng rohiHoriH relAtlom registered In the\\nn-line ,,l noun i:t:,r.-n in ;i llml. vvi III l i 0 i n I. v i I. I lw UI16 |\u00c2\u00bbm-|.o i\\nm followed i y Doom with different omc ending\\n258", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "254 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nadverbial forms with case-endings, which are used as prepositions.\\nF. A. March.\\nClassification. The classification of prepositions is into\\nSimple and Compound.\\n1. Simple. The simple prepositions all in O.E., though\\ntill was borrowed from the Norse are\\nafter, at, by, ere, for (fore), from, in, of (off), on, over, through,\\ntill, to, under, up, and with.\\nII. Compound. 1. Prepositions with O.E. Adverb Prefixes\\nand Suffixes. The adverb prefixes are\\nin, un, unto, and up.\\nThe suffixed adverbs are\\nseftan, after, foran, fore, geond, across, hindan, i after, innan,\\n4 in, neoftan, below, titan, upward, titan or tit, out, and weard,\\n4 tendency to.\\nThe simple prepositions a, on/ be, by/ on, through, till,\\nto, under, and with combine with the suffixes and prefixes\\nabove to form the prepositions,\\nabaft, 1 afore, before, beyond, behind, into, within, beneath, under-\\nneath, above, 1 about, 1 but, throughout, without, until, unto, upon,\\ntoward, and towards.\\n2. Prepositions with O.E. Noun or Adjective Suffixes. The\\nnoun and adjective suffixes are\\n1 The prepositions tt, on, and be, by, are found in abaft and about and above.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE PREPOSITION 255\\nboard, croix, cross, dun, hill, gean, contrary to, gemang,\\ncrowd, lang, long, louh, low, middan, middle, round, slant,\\nstride, sld, side, tweon and tweoh, double, ftain, that, tfweorh,\\ncrooked.\\nThe simple prepositions a, i on/ a, of V or i off/ a, over\\nagainst/ be, i by/ combine with the suffixes above to form\\nthe prepositions,\\naboard, across, adown 1 (down), against, among and amongst,\\nalong, 1 below, amid and amidst, around (round), aslant, astride,\\nbeside and besides, between and betwixt, and athwart. Since sr5,\\nafter, and $am.\\nRelations expressed by Case-endings. The objects first\\nknown were external, and the knowledge of them was\\nlargely knowledge of their space relations. The relations\\nexpressed most frequently in case-endings, except the\\nnominative, the dative, and the genitive in part, were\\nno doubt space relations.\\n1 The a in adown is the a of that in along is a in Latin ante.\\nBating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, past, pending, re-\\ni garding, respecting, saving, and touching are still participles in form and sometimes\\ni are such in use. But often the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they\\nI express mere relations.\\nExcept and save, in such a sentence as, All except (or save) him were lost,\\nare usually classed with prepositions.\\nThe phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of {by cause of),\\nfrom among, from between, from tinder, instead of (in stead of), out of, over\\nagainst, and round about may be called compound prepositions. But from in these\\ncompounds; as, He crawled from under the ruins, really introduces a phrase\\nthe principal term of which is the phrase that foWows from.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "256 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nThe locative case-ending signified in a place the dative, inclination\\ntoward something in space the personal relation between a giver and\\na receiver the prevailing one the ablative, motion from a place the\\naccusative, reaching an object in space and the instrumental, personal\\nrelation between an intelligent actor and his instrument, adjacency or\\naccompaniment in space.\\nAs man has extended his sphere of thought and action, the mental\\nand personal relations have come to be expressed most frequently, and\\nthe spatial have become less prominent. The dative prevailingly ex-\\npresses purpose or result rather than inclination toward the ablative,\\norigin, cause, agency, rather than movement from the instrumental,\\nmeans and manner rather than accompaniment.\\nRelations expressed by Prepositions. Stating definitely\\nand emphatically particular relations, of the class expressed\\nby case-endings, prepositions gradually assumed the offices 1\\nof such endings and so displaced these inflections. In\\nEnglish, the displacement is almost total.\\nThe development of prepositions in meaning and in office\\nmay be sought, then, along lines traceable in the develop-\\nment of case-endings. Almost all prepositions, whether\\nsimple or compound, like case-endings, originally expressed\\nspace relations. By metaphor and other figurative exten-\\nsion, these prepositions have been stretched to express rela-\\ntions of time, cause, manner, etc., and these in all their\\nminute subdivisions and distinctions. We are now pre-\\npared for the\\ni Wrightson says, Called in at first merely to assist the failing cases, the preposi-\\ntions have so nearly replaced them that we may speak of prepositions as case equiv-\\nalents.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE PREPOSITION 257\\nDefinition. A Preposition is a word that introduces a\\nphrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its prin-\\ncipal word to the word modified,\\nIt may be instructive to see some of the extensions of\\nmeaning that a few prepositions have added to their\\noriginal space significations. We do not know the order\\nof these extensions.\\nAfter. Place Subsequent, U B stands after A Pursuit, He\\nstrayed after a squirrel Time Subsequent, The evil that men do\\nlives after them Aim, Strive after clearness Imitation, Prints\\nafter the old masters Accord, A man after my own heart\\nReference, He had no heart to ask after any more friends Con-\\ncession, After all, he died poor Cause, After the recognition he\\nwas happy.\\nAt. Dccupancy of place, At the center Nearness, A peri at\\nthe gate Motion toward, The dog sprang at the man Time,\\nHe will go at ten Occasion, At the word he rose Degree,\\nAt least State, At peace Price, Papers at a cent apiece\\nAccord, By land or by water, at your choice Manner, He spoke\\nat a venture Instrument, He lost money at cards Cause, At\\nthy rebuke they fled.\\nBy. Proximity, He dwells by the bridge Place where,\\nMoving accidents by flood and by field Via, We went to\\nBuffalo by Albany Passing without touching, They pass by me\\nas the idle wind Time, Twas sad by fits, by starts twas wild\\nAgent, A novel by Scott Manner, They marched by twos\\nAdjuration, But by the shades beneath us and by the gods above\\nAccord, Noon by the north clock, noon by the east Instrument,\\nDied by the sword Measure, Older by fifteen years Per-\\nmission, By your gracious patience I will speak Means, Grows\\nby what it feeds on Cause, By whom we live and move and have\\nour being.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 17", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "258 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nFor (fore). Movement toward, u He sailed for Europe Dura-\\ntion, U A prisoner for life Behalf of, I bring fresh showers for\\nthe thirsting flowers Exchange, He would give all he had for\\nlife Substitution, u Will he for a fish give him a serpent? Pur-\\npose, These things are written for our instruction Concession,\\nFor all that, it is very dark here Respect to, The sweetest flower\\nfor scent that blows Attribute, Feet that might have served for\\nshovels Cause, They cannot see the end for the process.\\nFrom. Separation, Anything so overdone is from the purpose\\nof playing Movement away, He went from door to door Time,\\n44 From my youth up Reason, Kings will be tyrants from policy\\nwhen subjects are rebels from principle Means, U I cannot judge\\nthe liquor from the lees Source, Religions are obsolete when lives\\ndo not proceed from them Cause, u Brave from habit.\\nIn. Inclusion, In the room Duration, In a lifetime\\nMaterial, Paid in gold Occasion, Greatly to find quarrel in a\\nstraw when honor s at the stake Manner, I said in my haste all\\nmen are liars Means, In the tranquil grazing of cattle I am\\ncarried back to my youth Conformity with, In my judgment\\nthis cannot last Respect to, First in war and first in peace\\nAuthority, Against this bill I protest in the name of the Irish\\npeople Reference, I don t believe in principle, but oh I do in\\ninterest.\\nOf (off). Distance, He stopped short of the goal Quality,\\n44 The man of wisdom is the man of years Source, Defects of\\ndoubt and taints of blood Material, A bridge of ice Identity,\\n44 The kingdom of Kent Possession, The house of Shakespeare\\nAgency, Loved of none Respect to, The dread of common-\\nplace has lain heavily on Tennyson Connection, The top of the\\nhill Partition, One of the books Cause, He died of con-\\nsumption.\\nOn. Superposition, He lay on the floor Direction, The\\nhouse fronts on the river Pursuit, They are on his tracks\\nNearness, The fleet is on the French coast Motion to, And they", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE PREPOSITION 259\\nfell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine Time, On that fateful\\nday of Waterloo Respect to, On their own merits modest men\\nare dumb Reason, He prided himself on his good looks State,\\n11 Fickle reason is like a drunken man ow horseback Adjuration,\\nTell me on thy life Reference, A lecture on Burke Cause,\\nOn his father s death he became insane.\\nOver. Position above, Ample folds as they float over the sea\\nand over the land Motion above and across, Over earth and ocean,\\nwith gentle motion, this pilot is guiding me Motion on and across,\\nThe trail of the serpent is over them all Measure, Over 10,000\\nbushels Duration, Ice kept over summer Superiority, They\\npassed it over the veto Means, lie wearied himself over his\\nbooks Cause, He grieved over her death.\\nThrough. Passage from limit to limit, He went through the\\ntunnel Duration, She lived through the year Means, The\\nbuilding is lighted through the dome Agency, He casteth\\nout devils through Beelzebub Cause, He died through over-\\nexertion.\\nTo. Movement reaching its object, If the hill will not come to\\nMahomet, Mahomet will go to the hill Direction toward, Spires\\nwhose silent fingers point to heaven Degree, Brave to temerity\\nExtent, To the number of thirty Accord, Nerves that had long\\nbeen strong to the music of battle Accompaniment, We dance\\nto music Addition, For those of old, and the late dignities heaped\\nup to them Comparison, All that tread the globe are but a hand-\\nful to the tribes that slumber in its bosom Possession, It is an\\nattribute to God himself Purpose, He went to see his mother.\\nIt is seen that there are myriad relations to be expressed\\nin speech. There are but few cases in any synthetic lan-\\nguage to express these. By the use of these relational\\nwords, the prepositions, an analytic tongue like ours be-\\ncomes exact, sjjecific, and definite, and can express finer", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "260 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nch\\ndistinctions of thought than can a synthetic language which\\ndepends upon cases for this service. 1\\nProscribed Prepositional Locutions. We are forbidden to use (1)\\nbetween, 2 with more than two things (2) around, 3 with verbs of\\nmotion; (3) o/, 4 after all, both, whole; (4) differ with, 5 rather than\\ndiffer from and (5) we are enjoined not to end 6 a sentence with a\\npreposition.\\n1 As prepositions present the relation from the verb side and case-endings from the\\nnoun side, a goodly number of both, as in Sanskrit and Greek, would seem to promise\\nmost but the distinctions become too fine, and the machinery too complex, for folk-\\nspeech or world-speech. 1 F. A. March.\\n2 We observe that between is not restricted to two. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Imperial Dictionary.\\nIn all senses between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than\\ntwo. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many sur-\\nrounding things severally and individually among expressing a relation to them\\ncollectively and vaguely we should not say, The choice lies among the three candi-\\ndates, or to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower. The New\\nEnglish Dictionary.\\nWe have collected hundreds of sentences like this from Peile Etymologically\\nthere is no difference between adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions sentences\\nin which between is used by good writers with three or more. But guard against such\\nexpressions as, between each page a choice between one of several.\\n3 After verbs of motion around is used almost as often as round.\\n4 Such expressions as, All of the men, Both of the boys, The whole of the\\nfarm, are not as common as All the men, Both the boys The whole farm\\nbut they are found by scores in almost every author.\\n5 Differ with is reserved for have a difference with, expressing conflicting\\nopinion to. Say, Washington differed from Hamilton in temperament, but he did\\nnot differ with him in political theory. Standard Dictionary.\\n6 A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence with, we are told.\\nOf this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Pro-\\nfessor Austin Phelps says, A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word and\\nhe quotes a burst of feeling from Eufus Choate which ends thus Never, so long as\\nthere is left of Plymouth Kock a piece large enough to make a gunflint of I This,\\nProfessor Phelps says, is purest idiomatic English. He adds, The old Scotch\\ninterrogative? What /or? is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech.\\nEven the to of the infinitive phrase frequently ends a colloquial sentence.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE PREPOSITION 261\\nThe Use of Prepositions. Care should be taken l (1) in\\nthe choice of prepositions, since they affect large fragments\\nof sentences phrases simple, compound, and complex\\n(2) though apt, they should not be used needlessly; 2 and\\n(3) should not be omitted 3 when needed.\\nPrepositions used as Adverbs. When the preposition\\n1 To illustrate beside by the side of; besides in addition to, as in Besides\\ngiving him money, I stood beside him in his sickness.\\nIn denotes rest or motion in one place or condition into, change from one to\\nanother as, When one is outside of a place he may get into it, but he cannot do\\nanything in it until he has got into it.\\nIn, not at, before names of countries, or of villages looked on as territory at before\\nnames of cities regarded as points as, We landed at New York, in the United\\nStates We live in HoboTcen\\nWhen the motion is to the upper surface of an object above, upon, not on, is used\\nas, The cat jumped upon his shoulder.\\nNot He fell onto or on to the rocks, but He fell on or upon the rocks.\\nWe compare one thing with another to note agreement or difference we compare\\none thing to another which we believe it to resemble. Standard Dictionary*\\nNot different to in respect of in regard of but different from, in\\nrespect to in regard to in American usage, at least.\\n2 At, for, in, of, and to are needless here: I graduated at 18 years old A\\nson of five years of age He lives near to the church Where are you going\\nto? It is to you to whom they owe this More than you think for Keep off\\nof the grass In so far as he can, he will.\\n3 Of is needed in (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) below in, in (6) from, in (7) and (8)\\nand at, in (9): (1) He remained outside the house (2) The tree is inside the\\nfence (3) It is the size of an egg (4) What use is this to him (5) I am\\nunworthy your regard (6) There is no use going home (7) He was prevented\\ngoing (8) He was banished the country (9) They laughed at what they smiled\\nbefore.\\nSpeaking generally, a preposition should be used when it will make the thought\\nclearer hence it should be repeated before successive adjectives, nouns, and infinitives\\nwhen the qualities or objects or acts are to be kept distinct and coordinate, as in, Both\\nof kindred and of alien blood The rule holds in literature and in life With\\nmen and with money I wish to see and to hear you.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "262 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAE\\nfollows a verb or a term retaining a verb force, and does\\nnot itself introduce a phrase containing a noun or pronoun,\\nthe word may be regarded as an adverb, as\\nHe rode past Looking beyond, he saw the hills The\\nclimb up was painful The growth above was abnormal.\\nBut, if not preceded by a term that an adverb can modify,\\nand not itself introducing a full phrase, we may supply the\\nomitted noun or pronoun, and regard the word as a\\npreposition, as\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0The sky above {us); The earth beneath (our feet) The\\nriver beyond (th t field) The room within (the house).\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Prepositions Simple and\\nCompound. Relations expressed by Case-endings, by Prepositions.\\nExtension of Meaning of Prepositions. Proscribed Prepositional\\nLocutions.\\nQuestions. Prepositions originally what Their name from\\nwhat Their original office, what Name the simple prepositions in\\nEnglish. The O.E. adverb prefixes, what The O.E. adverb suffixes,\\nwhat What prepositions combine with these, and form what The\\nO.E. noun and adjective suffixes, what What prepositions combine\\nwith these, and form what What participles now used as preposi-\\ntions What phrases now compound prepositions What objects\\nfirst known Knowledge of these largely of what The relations\\nexpressed by case-endings largely what originally The several case-\\nendings significant originally each of what space relation Gradually", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "THE PREPOSITION 263\\nthey came to signify what relations developed out of space relations\\nHow came prepositions to displace the oblique case-inflections In\\nwhat language is the displacement almost complete Wrightson says\\nwe may call prepositions what Along what lines may the develop-\\nment of prepositions be sought What has extended prepositions to\\nexpress relations of time, cause, manner, etc., etc.? Definition of\\nprepositions By the use of prepositions analytic languages may do\\nwhat What use of (1) between, (2) around after verbs of motion,\\n(3) of after all, both, whole, is proscribed? What do the purists say\\nof differ with, and of a preposition ending a sentence? What has\\nusage to say on these points In using prepositions, care should be\\nexercised in what three respects Illustrate. When should preposi-\\ntions be repeated When do prepositions become adverbs\\nExercises. With after, at, by, far, from, in, of, on, over, through,\\nand to, illustrate some of the more important extensions of preposi-\\ntions in use. Illustrate the proscribed prepositional locutions and\\ndefend them. In sentences of your own illustrate the fine distinctions\\nbetween besides and beside, in and into, in and at, on and upon, with\\nand to. Illustrate the need of repeating the prepositions.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVI\\nTHE CONJUNCTION\\nThe parts of a sentence that unite to form compounds are\\n(1) individual words, and groups of words called (2) phrases\\nand (3) clauses. The parts that are complex are (1) phrases\\nand (2) clauses.\\nThe compound and the complex parts require connecting.\\nConjunctions, which connect them, are derived from other\\nparts of speech largely from prepositions.\\nDefinition. A Conjunction is a word used to connect\\nwords, 1 phrases, and clauses. 2\\nAll conjunctions are connectives, but not all connectives\\nare conjunctions in addition to their office as adverbs and\\npronouns, conjunctive adverbs 3 and relative pronouns con-\\nnect. At least, then, three parts of speech connect, but only\\nconjunctions merely connect.\\nThe connectives that are conjunctions are\\nx And, as, as well as, but, and or, in such offices as they have in John and James\\nare brothers Cromwell s rule as Protector began in 1653 He as well as I\\nheard it; He was poor but prospering Mahomet or Mohammed died in 632,\\nconnect individual words and more frequently than the others.\\n2 In continuous discourse sentences and even paragraphs are connected by and\\nand but chiefly.\\n8 Conjunctive adverbial phrases, also the relative which, used as adjective, also.\\n264", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE CONJUNCTION 265\\nalbeit, although (though), and, as well as, because, both and, but,\\nexcept, 1 for, if, in case that, in order that, lest, nor, on condition\\nthat, or, either or, neither nor, so that, provided, provided that,\\nunless, whereas, whether.\\ntThe connectives that are conjunctive adverbs are\\naccordingly, after, also, before, besides, consequently, else, ere,\\nfurthermore, hence, how, however, likewise, moreover, nevertheless,\\nnotwithstanding, now, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise,\\nso, still, than, then, therefore, till, until, when, whence, whenever,\\nwhere, wherever, whereby, wherein, whilst, why, yet.\\nThe connectives that are relative pronouns are\\nwhat, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever.\\nThe connectives that are conjunctions and connective\\nadverbs are\\nas, since, while.\\nThe connective that is a conjunction, a conjunctive adverb,\\nand a relative pronoun is\\nthat.\\nAll connectives are (1) coordinate, 2 joining parts of equal\\nrank or (2) subordinate, joining parts of unequal rank\\ni clauses 3 fully expressed or elliptical.\\n1 Many conjunctives and conjunctive adverbs but, except, for, before, etc. are\\nprepositions also. Their transition into connectives is said to have been caused by the\\nomission of that, which in O.E. followed them when introducing clauses. The drop-\\nping of that devolved its office upon the prepositions and made them connectives.\\n2 This division of connectives into coordinate and subordinate is fundamental. It\\nconcerns the mutual relation of the thoughts contained in clauses.\\n3 Two clauses of unequal rank are joined by a subordinate connective two clauses\\nindependent or equally dependent, by a coordinate connective.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "266 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\n1. Coordinate connectives. 1 1. Copulative. (1) The copu-\\nlative conjunctions are\\nand, both and, as well as.\\nThe copulative conjunctive adverbs are\\naccordingly, also, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, more-\\nover, now, so, then, therefore, thereupon, wherefore, whereupon.\\n2. Adversative. (1) The adversative conjunctions are\\nbut, whereas.\\n(2) The adversative conjunctive adverbs are\\nhowever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the\\nother hand, still, yet.\\n3. Alternative. (1) The alternative conjunctions are\\nneither, nor, or, either or, neither nor.\\n1 The division of coordinate connectives into (1) copulative joining parts in the\\nsame line of thought; (2) adversative joining parts contrasted in meaning; and (3)\\nalternative joining parts so as to offer a choice, is helpful, though less so than\\nthe division of all connectives into coordinate and subordinate. It concerns the mutual\\nrelation, not of all clauses, but of clauses (1) independent or (2) equally dependent.\\nSome copulative connectives join clauses that sustain to each other more than the\\nrelation of mere agreement in thought the second is (1) a sequence from the first,\\n(2) a consequence of it, or (3) a result.\\nThe sequential clause, according to Wrightson, in some indefinite way follows\\non something just said as, The father promised, whereupon she grew cheerful.\\nThe consequential clauses state the logical conclusion from something just said J\\nas, The ice has melted, therefore we cannot skate.\\nThe resultant clause states the accidental outcome of something just said; as,\\nHis father gave him money, and so he got drunk.\\nThe same authority classes so, so then, then, therefore, and whereupon as sequen-\\ntial accordingly, consequently, hence, thence, therefore, whence, and whereupon\\nas consequential and, thus, so, so that, and and so as resultant.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "THE CONJUNCTION 267\\n(2) The alternative conjunctive adverbs are\\nelse, otherwise.\\nII. Subordinate Connectives. 1. Of Adjective Clauses.\\n(1) Conjunctive adverbs are\\nwhen, where, whereby, wherein, why.\\n(2) The relative pronouns are\\nthat, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever.\\n2. Of Adverb Clauses. (1) The conjunctive adverbs of\\ntime are\\nafter, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while,\\nwhilst.\\nI\\n(2) The conjunctive adverbs of place are\\nwhence, where, wherever.\\n(3) The conjunctive adverbs of degree are\\nas, than, that, the the.\\n(4) The conjunctive adverb of manner is\\nas.\\n(5) The conjunctions of real cause are\\nas, because, for, since, that, whereas.\\n(6) The conjunctions of evidence are\\nbecause, for, since.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "268 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\n(7) The conjunctions of purpose are\\nin order that, lest, that, so that.\\n(8) The conjunctions of condition are\\nexcept, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided\\nthat, unless.\\n(9) The conjunctions of concession are\\nalbeit, although, if, notwithstanding, though, whether.\\n(10) The conjunctive adverb of concession is\\nhowever.\\n(11) The relative pronouns of concession are\\nwhatever, whichever, whoever.\\n3. Of Noun Clauses. (1) The conjunctions are\\nif, lest, that, whether.\\n(2) The conjunctive adverbs are\\nhow, when, whence, where, why.\\n(3) The pronouns (used interrogatively) are\\nwhat, which, who.\\nDefinitions\\nCoordinate conjunctions are those used to connect words,\\nphrases, and clauses of equal rank.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "THE CONJUNCTION 269\\nSubordinate 1 conjunctions are those used to connect clauses\\nof unequal rank.\\nDerivation of Conjunctions. Some conjunctions are\\nsimple others, compound all, originally other parts of\\nspeech. The derivation of the more common and impor-\\ntant of the connectives is given below. 2\\n1 The division of subordinate connectives into those introducing (1) adjective clauses\\n(2) adverb clauses and (3) noun clauses and the subdivision of those introducing the\\nnine kinds of adverb clauses are useful to the student, because several of these con-\\nnectives are used with clauses diverse in the relation of their thoughts. The division\\nand the subdivision concern the several kinds of subordinacy in which the thought of\\none clause may stand to that of another and show the imperative need of the proper\\nintroductory connective to herald it.\\n2 Albeit= all-he-it, is a sentence in one word.\\nAlso all and so, is from the O.E. adjective eal, all, and adverb swa, so.\\nAlthough ail-though the though from the O.E. adverb fiedh, nevertheless/\\nAnd, once a preposition meaning against, as in the prefixes a and an of along and\\nanswer, became a copulative conjunction, and subsequently took on a cona*itional\\nforce. When, as in Shakespeare, its if sense had become dim, and (reduced to an)\\nadded if to express condition. Its an form and its sense are now obsolete.\\nAs is a contraction of also.\\nBecause is by cause.\\nBoth and either in the correlatives both and, either or are the adjective pro-\\nnouns.\\nBut is from the O.E. butan, be Man, by the outside, beyond.\\nExcept, ex caj ere, to take out.\\nZest is from O.E. fty lass fte the instrumental case of the demonstrative, an ad-\\njective in the comparative, and the indeclinable relative. At the dropping of fty, Ices\\n$e contracted into lesthe, teste, lest.\\nNeither and nor contain the negative particle ne.\\nOr is a contraction of other.\\nThen is the same word as than O.E. T aivne.\\nThat, originally a demonstrative pronoun, changed into a connective in some such\\nway as this He lives, I know that I know that [namely] he lives I know\\nthat he lives.\\nUnless, on {in) less.\\nWhether is the O.E. interrogative hwwfter, which of two.\\nWhile is the O.E. noun hwil, time.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "270 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB\\nProscribed Locutions. We are told (1) that whether must not be\\nused with more than two (2) that whether must not be repeated in\\nthe sentence (3) that if must not take the place of whether before an\\nobject noun clause (4) that either and neither must not connect more\\nthan two and (5) that between other and than words must not inter-\\nvene. The locutions here proscribed, though not so common as the\\nalternative ones prescribed, are abundantly sanctioned by good usage.\\nWe illustrate below. 1\\nCare in the Use of Connectives. As conjunctions and\\nother connectives introduce phrases and clauses, much care\\nis needed in their selection and use a wrong connective,\\nor the right one in the wrong place, throws from the track\\na large fraction of the thought. This need is accented by\\nthe fact that several connectives of the subordinate class\\nintroduce each many clauses of diverse force, for example\\nas, 2 if, 2 since, when, and that. 3\\n1 Whether has slipped the etymological leash that held it to two (1) as, He does\\nnot know whether it is an angel or a woman or a mermaid whether may be used\\nwith one as, There is a different and sterner path I know not whether there be\\nany now qualified to teach it (2) whether may be used more than once in a sentence\\nas, Whether some one element shall absorb the rest, or whether all shall contribute.\\n(3) Whether may take if as a substitute, especially after the verbs ash, doubt, know,\\nsee, and tell as, Ask any honest robin if he ever ate anything less ascetic than the\\nfrugal berry of the juniper. (4) The conjunctions either and neither are everywhere\\nfound with three or more as, I cannot verify it either by touch or taste or smell or\\nhearing or sight Bryant s career had neither rise nor height nor decline\\n(5) Other and than are often separated by intervening words as, Some other pur-\\npose than that.\\n2 As if and as though (a clause in each is supposed) are both common, but as if\\nfar more common than as though.\\n8 That before a noun object clause is frequently omitted its omission is to its use\\nabout as one to four.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "THE CONJUNCTION 271\\nSome errors in their choice and use are illustrated and\\ncorrected below. 1\\nBut that, 2 But, and That. The use of but that is so peculiar\\nand the use of but and that so various as to deserve separate\\ntreatment in the paragraphs below. 3\\n1 Seldom, if (not or) ever, is time perfectly employed. Falstaff was not only\\n(not not only Falstaff was) witty, but the cause of wit in others. N~ot only\\nmidges (not midges not only) annoy, but flies and mosquitoes also. The charm of\\nTennyson, which (not and which) he has even in excess, is delicacy. Try to (not\\nand) be punctual. Give me neither poverty nor (not or) riches. The prayer of\\nAgur was, Give me neither (not neither gimme) poverty nor riches. I can-\\nnot see either (not neither) the island or the mainland. I don t know that (not as)\\nhe said so. A bank-bill is nothing- else than (not but) a promissory note. Spain\\ncould not do otherwise than (not but) surrender. He no sooner saw me than (not\\nbut) he left. James is taller than George t but not so stout (not taller, but not so\\nstout, as George). James is not so stout as George, but taller (not not so stout,\\nbut taller, than George). TJiough (not if) no absolute victory be possible, a hard\\nfight is sure to bring- some success. I went after or because I was told to go\\n{since, meaning either time or cause, would be ambiguous). When (not while) I\\narrived, and while (not when) I was there, B was present. No one denies that (not\\nbut that or but ichat) two and two are four. Who doubts that (not but that or but\\nwhat) there is a God\\n2 But that, when it can be used, gives to the sentence a meaning which that does\\nnot give. I do not fear but that he will go, expresses my belief that he will go I\\ndo not fear that he will go, expresses my belief that he will not go. But that is inad-\\nmissible after negative words doubt, deny, etc., when these are preceded by a\\nnegative, or by words implying a negative because the sentence would contain a neg-\\native verb, a negative preceding the verb, and a negative in the but following it. The\\nmeaning of such a sentence as, No one denies but that two and two are four is the\\naffirmative Every one believes that two and two are four but, though two negatives\\naffirm, three do not.\\n3 But is (1) a preposition No one knows it but me (2) an adjective Man\\nis but a shadow (3) an adverb\u00e2\u0080\u0094 But one man escaped (4) an adversative con-\\njunction Man proposes, but God disposes (5) a subordinate conjunction Not\\na hair falls but (unless) God knows it (6) a conjunctive adverb No man is so\\nbad but he has some good in him.", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "272 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nOmission of Conjunctions. Often the connectives are\\nomitted the mere position of the words, phrases, and\\nclauses shows their connection. Their use may contribute\\nsmoothness 1 to the sentence; their omission, brevity and\\nforce. Their use or their omission sometimes affects the\\ngrammatical relation of the clauses connected. 2\\nInterjections\\nFor all we have to say of this part of speech, the student\\nis referred to chapter IV.\\nThat is (1) a conjunction of real cause I rejoice not that ye were made sorry\\nbut that ye sorrowed to repentance (2) a conjunction of purpose We sleep that\\nthe body may recruit (3) a conjunction introducing a noun clause We believe\\nthat we are immortal (4) a conjunctive adverb No one is so wise that he never\\ndoes a foolish thing- (5) a relative pronoun Ice that forms in March is porous\\n(6) an adjective pronoun That is slate (7) an adjective That rock is slate.\\nThan is not a preposition yet in such a sentence as, Than tohom no man is\\nbetter able to speak in every land, it is followed by the objective case of who used\\nidiomatically, we may suppose, for the nominative.\\n1 Omit conjunctions from this sentence: And the rain descended and the floods\\ncame and the winds blew and beat upon that house and it fell and great was the fall\\nof it, and note the loss of smoothness.\\n2 Take these six sentences for illustration: (1) The weather is warm and moist,\\nthe harvest is promising. (2) Paradise Lost is a monumental poem, it brought\\nMilton and his heirs only eighteen pounds (3) Take the color from the rose, it would\\nstill be a beautiful flower. (4) Are you in want? Draw upon me. (5) Take\\naway the grandeur of his cause, Washington is only a rebel. (6) It is raining, I hear\\nthe drops pattering upon the roof.\\nIf sentence (1) began with because; (2) and (3), with though; (4) and (5), with if;\\nand the second clause of (6), with for, the clauses thus introduced would become\\ndependent that of (1) would be a cause clause; those of (2) and (3), concessive\\nclauses those of (4) and (5), condition clauses that of (6), a clause of evidence. The\\ngrammatical relation of each of the six clauses to the other in the sentence would then\\ntally with its logical relation to it.", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "THE CONJUNCTION 273\\nSUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND\\nEXERCISES UPON THEM\\nSubjects for Topical Recitation. Conjunctions. Connectives\\nCoordinate, Subordinate. Derivation. Proscribed Locutions. The\\nUse of Connectives. But, That, and But that. Conjunctions Omitted.\\nQuestions. What parts of a sentence may be compound? Com-\\nplex? Conjunctions, what? What classes of other parts of speech\\nconnect? What one part of speech connects simply? Give some\\nconnectives that are conjunctions. What conjunctions may join\\nindividual words What conjunctive phrase What conjunctions\\nmay join sentences and paragraphs Give connectives that are prep-\\nositions also. What ones are conjunctive adverbs What ones are\\nrelative pronouns? One that may be a conjunction, a conjunctive\\nadverb, or a relative pronoun. Into what two great classes may con-\\nnectives be divided? The importance of the division. Coordinate\\nconnectives join what different parts of a sentence? Subordinate,\\nwhat only Must the clauses which coordinate connectives join\\nbe independent Of what rank must the clauses be which subordinate\\nconnectives join Coordinate connectives divided into what These\\nsub-classes join clauses whose thought is in what three different lines\\nThis threefold division of coordinate connectives less important than\\nwhat? Why? What does Wrightson call sequential clauses, con-\\nsequential, resultant What three kinds of subordinate clauses may\\nsubordinate connectives introduce What kinds of adverb clauses\\nWhy is a knowledge of this serviceable The composition of albeit,\\nalso, although, because, but, except, and lest What is said of and f\\nThe reason for unusual care in the use of conjunctions The several\\nuses of but Of that f Of but that f What may the use of conjunc-\\ntions give to the sentence The omission\\nExercises. Illustrate the proscribed locutions. Sentences with,\\nand without, conjunctions, Illustrate the several uses of but, that,\\nand but that. Illustrate the effect which the use and the omission of\\nconjunctions have upon the grammatical relation of clauses.\\nH. SCH. GRAM. 18", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nA, or an, uses 145-149\\nA and the, uses distinguished 147-149\\nA (icord) or two, etc 145 (note)\\nAbsolute phrase TO, 96, 123 (note)\\nAdjective an, defined.. .48, 49, 58, 134-137\\nr affirmed, assumed 135\\napt, number, place,\\n136 (note)\\ndefinitive (nu-\\nmeral),\\nclasses,-! 136 note? 13T\\ndescriptive,\\n136, 137\\nadjectives\\nnot com-\\npared, 144 note\\ndefinition of, 142\\ndegrees of,\\n138, 142\\ndouble,\\n144 note\\nfaulty,\\ncompari- J 144 note,\\nson, 145 note\\nform gaining, 143\\nin er and est,\\n138, 140\\nirregular,\\n138, 139 note\\nrule for 143\\nwith adverbs,\\n140 note\\nwith two 145\\ndjectives,\\nAdjectives,\\nf functions of. 135, 136\\nnot always limiting,\\n48, 135 (note)\\nnumeral j cardinal, 136 (note)\\nordinal, 136 (note)\\nO.E. inflection of... 137, 138\\norigin of 134\\nproper order of,\\n135 note, 136 (note)\\nused as nouns,\\n111 (note), 134 note\\nwhether adj. or adv.,\\n251 note\\nconnectives of 53\\nadjectives 58\\nindependent clauses,\\n122 (note)\\nphrases 57, 58\\nmodifying omitted\\nwords 122 note\\nrestrictive and unre-\\nstrictive 122 note\\nunrestrictive, punctua-\\ntion 122 (note)\\nwhat 58\\nAdjective Complement distinguished\\nfrom adverb modifier 251 note\\nAdjective\\nClauses,\\nAdjective Modifiers, nouns as\\n99\\nAdverb an, defined 49, 50. 53\\n275", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "276\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nAdverbs,\\napt ones 250 note\\nas nouns 239 note\\nclassified 246-248\\ncomparison 249, 250\\nderivation 239-242\\nindependent 239\\ninterrogative 239\\nirregular comparison of,\\n249, 250\\nlike adjectives. ..251 note\\nf clauses 238\\nmodi- J phrases 238\\nfying 1 prepositions 238\\nsentences 238\\nnegation repeated or not,\\n248 note\\nnot used for adjectives,\\n251 note\\nnot used needlessly,\\n250 note\\nof negation 248 note\\nposition of 250 note\\nwith connective force.. 239\\nAdverb Clause, illustrated.. .59, 62, 65, 66\\ncause 60\\nconcession 60\\ncondition 60\\ndegree 61\\nAdverb J evidence 60\\nClauses, manner 61\\nplace 59\\npurpose 61\\nresult 61\\ntime 59\\nAdverb Modifiers nouns as 104\\nAdversative Connectives, list 261\\nAdversative, meaning of 266 (note)\\nA few, a Utile, vs. few and Utile 148\\nAgree\\nment\\nAlpha-\\nbet,\\nEng-\\nlish,\\nof pronoun with antecedent, 193\\nof verb with subject,\\n189-193 notes\\ncomposed of what 13\\nconsonants 20, 21\\ndefective 22\\nderivation 16-18\\nredundant 22\\nvowels 18, 19\\nperfect one what 22\\nAlternative Connectives, list. .266, 26T\\nAlternative, meaning of 266 (note)\\nAntecedent 46, 110, 111\\nAny body (or one) else s 131\\nApostrophe the 98 note\\nAppositive 99\\nclasses I definite 146\\nclasses,-; indefinite H6\\nerrors in use of,\\n146 (note), 147 (note)\\nArticles, hardly distinguished,\\n148 (note)\\nrepeated when 146, 147\\nuses of a, or an, and the,\\n147-149\\nrelative pronoun 124 note\\nAs, with clauses of degree, manner, 61\\nwith variety of clauses 267\\nAs 7 so 61\\nAs it were, mode 173\\nAspirate 20 (note)\\nAssumed Subject, what 154\\nAttribute Complement 95\\nAuxiliary j defined 183\\nVerbs, 1 discussion of 193-201\\nBase, or Stem 74\\nBe, and conjugation, 193, 194, 217, 221-226\\nBeside and besides distinguished,\\n261 (note)\\nBest of the two 145\\nBeUceen with three or more 260 (note)\\nBreath 14\\nadversative conjunction, 271 (note)\\na preposition, 124 (note), 271 (note)\\nvarious uses of 271 (note)\\nwith or without that. 271 (note)\\nwith ichat incorrect for but\\nthat or but, 124 (note), 271 (note)\\nBut,", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n277\\nCase,\\nCan and could 201 notes\\ndefined 92 note, 98\\nnominative case 95-97\\nobjective case 102-105\\nO.E. case and number end-\\nings dropped how 94\\nO.E. genitive 9T\\nof attrib. comp 96, 97\\nof explanatory modifier 96\\nof noun or pronoun independ-\\nent 96\\nof noun or pronoun used ad-\\nverbially 104\\nof objective complement 105\\npossessive 97-102\\ndefinitions of 95, 98, 103\\nin O.E 93,94\\nold number of 92 (note)\\nrelations of 255, 256\\nerrors in 126-128\\nfive pronouns have three,\\n112, 113, 119\\nnouns have two 93\\nonly eight nominative, 109 (note)\\nonly seven objective, 109 (note)\\nCause, adverbs of 69 (note), 248\\nClause a, what 56\\ndependent 57-62\\nclasses, KC KPf\\nindependent, 56, 57\\ncomplex and compound,\\n62, 65-67\\nradjective 57, 53\\nCases,\\nCase\\nForms,\\nClauses,\\ndepe t nd adverb 59-62\\nent I noun 58,59\\ninde- f in alternation,\\npendent J 56, 57\\n(the j in contrast.. 56, 57\\nthought), tin same line, 56, 57\\nCollective defined 76\\nNouns, J of what number 192\\nr adjectives without it 144\\nI definition of 142\\ndegree used with two. 145\\nj degrees of, defined 142\\nt, double, origin of. 144 note\\nCompari-\\nson,\\nCompari-\\nson,\\nComple-\\nments,\\nfaulty, 144 note, 145 note\\nforms of.. 138, 140\\nirregular 138, 139\\nwhen adverb used 140\\nwhich form gaining 143\\nComplement, what 103\\nattribute 36-38, 40\\n(subjective) 38\\ncompound 40\\nobject 38, 39\\nobjective 105\\nComplex Sentence, what... 57-62, 65, 66\\nCompound Object Complement 103\\nCompound Personal Pronouns, 114 notes\\nCompound Predicate, defined 39\\nCompound Relative Pronouns 126\\nCompound Sentence, what.. 56, 57, 65, 66\\nCompound Subject, defined 39\\nCondition Clauses without conjunc-\\ntion 174 (note)\\ndefinition of 217\\nforms active 221-234\\nforms passive 232-234\\nof O.E 217,218\\nremarks on 218, 219\\nConjunction a, what 52 note, 54, 264\\nf coordinate 268\\nClaSSeS, 1 subordinate... 269\\nadversative,\\n266 note\\nalternative,\\n266 note\\nconnect senten-\\nces and para-\\ngraphs, 264 (note)\\ncopulative,\\n266 note\\nConjunctive j offices of 265-268\\nAdverbs, 1 what 246\\ncare in the use of 270\\nadversative,\\n266 note\\nalternative,\\n266 note, 267\\ncopulative,\\n266 note\\nConjuga-\\ntion,\\nConjunc-\\ntions,\\ncoor-\\ndinate,\\nConnect-\\nives,\\ncoor-\\ndinate,\\nI", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "278\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB\\nConnect\\nives,\\nsubor-\\ndinate,\\nConsonants\\n(classes of),\\nerrors in use of 271 (note)\\nof adjective\\nclauses 267\\nof adverb\\nclauses... 267,268\\nof noun clauses, 268\\ndentals 21\\nfricatives 20\\ngutturals 21\\nlabials 21\\nmutes 20\\npalatals 21\\nsonants 20, 21 note\\nsurds 20, 21 note\\nCoordinate Conjunctions 266, 268\\nCopulative, meaning of 266 (note)\\nCopula, what 34 (note)\\nD of the ed in past tense 206 (note)\\nD of the ed of past participles .207 (note)\\nDare, without s form 189 (note)\\nDative for Nominative. .118, 119 (note)\\nDeclarative Sentence, defined 42\\ndefined 93\\nMn.E. O.E. nouns. 93, 94\\nDeclen- of interrogative pronouns. 119\\nsion, I of personal pronouns,\\n112, 113, 114\\nof relative pronouns 121, 126\\nDegree, adverbs of 247, 248\\nDigraphs 21 (note)\\nDiminution, degrees of 142 note\\nDiphthongs 20 (note)\\nDo 194 note, 232\\nDrive, conjugation 227-230\\nError of his for s 98 (note)\\nEthical Dative 104\\nEvidence distinguished from Cause 60\\nExclam-\\natory\\nSentences,\\nExplanatory Modifier 49, 59, 68, 99\\ndefinition of 43\\norder of words in 42\\nFactitive Verbs 105\\nFew, a 130 note\\nGender,\\nFirst two, etc 145\\nFor to 155 (note)\\ndefined 85, 86\\nderivation 85 (note)\\nfeminine from masculine, 86. 87\\ngrammatical 85 (note)\\nof names of animals 88\\nused in personification 88\\nGenders, the three defined 86\\nGender Forms 86, 87\\nGerund 156 (note), 158 (note)\\nGet 235 (note)\\nGlide 20 (note)\\nGo, anomalous 217\\nHad better, rather, sooner 235 (note)\\nauxiliary 194-196 n otes\\n1 conjugation 226, 227\\nHers, ours, etc 112 (note)\\nHieroglyphs 14, 15\\nf for even if, although 61\\nJ for whether 270 (note)\\nJ omission of 174 (note)\\nvariety of uses 268\\nImperative Mode 168, 169, 175\\nImperative j definition of 41, 43\\nSentence, 1 order of words in. 41 (note)\\nIn and into distinguished 261 (note)\\nIn case that 268\\nindependent J d f f -56, 57\\nClauses, J\u00c2\u00bb^ed without conjunc-\\ntion 57\\nIndicative Mode 168, 169, 170 note\\nIndirect or Dative Object. .71 note,\\n104, 162, 163 (note)\\nassumed subject 154\\ndefinition of 156\\nold dative of 155 (note)\\ntenses of 180\\nwhy called infinitive. 154\\nafter a preposition. 156\\nas adjective modifier. 156\\nas adverb modifier 156\\nas attribute comple-\\nment 156\\nInfinitive\\n(the),\\nInfinitive\\nPhrase,", "height": "4058", "width": "2755", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n279\\nInfinitive\\nPhrase,\\nInterrogative\\nPronouns,\\nInterrogative\\nSentences,\\nA\\n{de\\nde\\nlis\\nas explanatory modi-\\nfier 156\\nas object complement. 156\\nas objective comple-\\nment 156\\nas subject 156\\ncleft or split 250 (note)\\nI- independent 156\\nIn order that 268\\nInterjection an defined 52, 54\\ndeclension 119\\ndefinition Ill\\nlist 110\\ndefinition of 40, 42\\norder of words in,\\n41 note\\nIntransitive Verbs, definition 152\\nf for a clause 110\\nidiomatic use of 110, 128 (note)\\nuse for animals and children 88\\nt vague uses 113 (note)\\nIt is me, him, etc 128 (note)\\nIts and they 113 (note)\\nr made up of words 13\\nLanguage, natural 24\\nword 13\\nLast two, etc 145\\nLess, the final s of, and lesser.. .139 (note)\\nj composition of 269 (note)\\nLest various uses of 268\\nconsonants 14, 18-21\\norigin of 14, 15\\nvowels 14,18,19\\nLetters,\\nMany a, explanation of 130 (note)\\nManner, adverbs of 248\\nMasculine Pronoun, use of 88\\nMay and might 200 note\\nM.E. personal pronouns from 118\\nMine, thine, of thine, etc 112 (note)\\nMode, what 163\\ne C imperative, 168\\nModes, Classes, indicative.. 168\\nI L subjunctive, 168\\nModes,\\ndefinitions of 169\\nimperative, no 2d and\\n3d persons .175 note\\nindicative, uses 168, 169\\n(note), 173, 174 (note)\\npotential disused 169, 170\\nnote\\nsubjunctive 168-175\\nModifications, definition 76\\nModifiers, J definition 35\\ndifferent rank .136 (note)\\nMust 196 note\\nN, ne, the negative particle 242 (note)\\nNatural Language 24\\nNearer, double comparative 139 (note)\\nNeed, without s form 189 (note)\\nNegation by adverbs 242 (note)\\nNegatives, double 248 note\\nNo and yes 242 (note)\\nNo body (or one) else s 131\\nNominative Forms, eight 109 (note)\\nNone 129 (note)\\nNoun a, definition 45, 53\\ndefinition 158\\nlike a participle 157\\nmodified how. .157 note\\nreasons for name,\\n158 (note)\\ntenses of 180\\nunlike a participle 157\\nabstract 75, 76\\nas adjective modifiers, 98, 99\\nas adverb modifiers 104\\ncases of 92-105\\nclasses of 75\\ncollective 75, 76\\ncommon and proper,\\n74 (note), 75, 76 note\\ndeclension .93, 94\\nderivation of 74 note\\ngender of 85-88\\nnumber, kinds of 77\\noffices c/ 45\\nperson of .89,90\\nroots of 74 note\\nNounal\\nVerb,\\nNouns,", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "280\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nNoun\\nClauses,\\nNoun\\nModifier,\\nNumber,\\nNouns and pronouns in the possessive,\\nas antecedents.. 100 (note), 113 (note)\\nas attribute complement, 58\\nas explanatory modifier. 59\\nas object complement 58\\nas principal term of prep-\\nositional phrase 59\\nas subject 58\\nconnectives of 268\\nc explanatory (a p p o s i\\ntive) 45,99\\nI possessive 45, 99\\ndefinition of 77\\ndual 77 (note)\\nplu., hist., 77 (note)\\nplu. excep. 78\\nkinds, plu. irreg. ..79, 80\\nplu. reg. 77, 78\\nplu. pecul... 80-83\\nsingular 77\\nof verbs shows what 189\\n(cognate 70 (note)\\ndirect 70\\nindirect, or dative, 71 note, 104\\npassive, factitive 71\\nObject, indirect, made subject,\\n162, 163 (note)\\nObject and Object Complement distin-\\nguished 152 (note)\\nbecoming subject 161\\ncompound 103\\nObject Com- j definition of 103\\nplement, retained after verb in\\npassive,\\n162, 163 note\\nObjective c an infinitive phrase, 156\\nComplement, definition 105\\nObjective Forms, seven 109 (note)\\nn j in place of possessive sign 101\\nnot alwavs indicating possession, 102\\nOf mine, etc 112 (note)\\nOn condition that 268\\nOught i 186\\nParti-\\nciples,\\nadjectival 152, 153\\nagreement in O.E 195 note\\nas attribute complements. 154\\nas prepositions 255 (note)\\ndefinition of .152, 153, 180\\nendings 153 (note)\\nforms of 179, 180\\nin independent phrases 70, 96\\nsubstitute for clauses.. .153, 154\\ntenses of 179\\nuse 153,154\\nParts of Speech 45, 73\\nPassive Voice, idiomatic constructions,\\n164 note\\nPeriods of English 28 (note)\\nr forms .89, 110, 112, 113\\n_ of a noun or pronoun 89, 90\\nPerSOn of avert,.... 90\\nwhy regarded in grammar, 90\\nPersonification 88\\nPersons the three defined 89\\nPhrase a, defined 35\\nf absolute 70, 96, 128 (note)\\nadjective 49, 68 (note)\\nadverb, 50, 69 (note), 243 note\\ncomplex 64, 65\\ncompound 40\\ninfinitive 67-69\\ninterchange with clauses 58\\ninterchange with words 57\\nprepositional,\\n68 note, 69 note\\nused independently. 156\\nverb 44, 67\\nPlace, adverbs of 247\\nPlural Number. 77-83\\ndouble 79 (note)\\nending, origin 77 (note)\\nforeign forms of 80\\nformed irregularly 79\\nformed regularly 77, 78\\nform same as singular 79\\nforms of verbs 193, 230\\nforms treated as singular. 81\\nno form for 82\\nnouns originally singular. 82\\nPhrases,\\nPlural,", "height": "4099", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n281\\nPlural,\\nPosses-\\nsive\\nEnding,\\nof compound words 81, 82\\nof letters, figures, etc 82\\nof proper names 82 note\\nsign varies 101 (note)\\nsome words always 81\\ntwo forms with different\\nmeaning 80, 81\\nwithout singular of like\\nmeaning 81\\nadded to explanatory word, 100\\nambiguity avoided by 102\\nattached to the adjective. 131\\nconfined to what 97 note\\nerror respecting 98 (note)\\ninvariable 101 (note)\\nof compound names 100\\nof for 101\\norigin of 98\\nwhen omitted 99\\ni, when pronounced es 99\\nadjective what 135\\na verb or contains one 46\\ncompound 39, 40\\ndefinition of 35\\ngrammatical 36\\nmodified, or logical 36\\nmodified by what 69, 70\\nnoun what 96\\nof two or more words 46\\nPreposition a, defined,\\n51, 52 (note), 54, 256, 257\\nbecoming adverbs 261, 262\\nclassified 254, 255\\nderivative 253\\ndistinguished 261 (note)\\nending a sentence. 260 note\\nending in ing .255 (note)\\nerrors in use of 261 (note)\\nin Sanskrit 253\\nmeaning extended 257-259\\nneeded, needless 261 note\\noriginal office 253\\ntwo before a noun 103\\nwith verb before a noun 103\\nPredi-\\ncate,\\nPreposi-\\ntions,\\nr defined 46, 53, 108, 109\\nPronoun the, -J differs from a noun,\\nI 109 note, 110\\nagreement 193\\nantecedent of 110\\nnom. and obj. forms. .109 (note)\\nf adj Ill, 129-131\\nint., 110,111,119,120\\nper 110-114\\n[rel., 110, 111, 120-123\\ndeclension of.. 112-114, 119, 126\\ndeclension of O.E 117-119\\ndenote relations 108\\ndivision of adj Ill (note)\\nnumber 77\\nvagueness of 108, 109\\nPro-\\nnouns,\\nclasses,\\nPronouns\\n(Adjec-\\ntive),\\na(word) or two, etc., 145 (note)\\nall, both, and whole be-\\nfore of 132 (note)\\nany body (or one) else s,\\netc 131\\ndeclension of 129\\ndefinition of Ill\\ndemonstrative 111 (note)\\ndistributive Ill (note)\\neach other, with two or\\nmore 132 (note)\\neither, neither, with two\\nor more 132 (note)\\neither for each 132 (note)\\nfirst tico, last three, etc.. 145\\nhe, etc. after indefinite\\none 132 (note)\\nindefinite Ill (note)\\nnone in both numbers,\\n132 (note)\\nno with one 132 (note)\\nother and than, words\\nbetween 270 (note)\\npartial list of Ill\\nreciprocal Ill (note)\\nsuch or so with adjectives,\\n132 (note), 145 (note)", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "282\\nPronouns\\n(Interroga-\\ntive)\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR\\nPronouns\\n(Personal),\\nbecame relative 121 note\\ndeclension 119\\ndefinition Ill\\nlist 110\\ncompound 114 note\\ndeclension 112, 113\\ndefinition Ill\\nits, history of 113 (note)\\nmine, etc 112 (note)\\norder of 192 (note)\\nours, yours, etc.,\\ndouble possessives,\\n112 (note)\\nremarks on 109, 110\\nthee for thou 119 (note)\\nuse of compound, 114 note\\nwe hardly plural of 7,\\n112 (note)\\nwe instead of 1 114\\nyou for thou 112 (note)\\nL you for ye 118 (note)\\ncompound 126\\ndeclension 121\\ndefinition Ill\\ndiscriminated in use 121, 122\\nomitted when 123\\nprime distinction of 120\\nsubstitutes for which. 123\\nthat restrictive 122\\nthat for who and which, 122\\nwho and which restric-\\ntive and unrestrictive,\\n122 note\\nwith omitted anteced-\\nl ents 122 note\\nQuestion, direct and indirect 42 (note)\\nQuestions 23, 32, 43, 44, 54, 55, 63, 72,\\n83, 84, 90, 106, 107, 115, 116, 124, 125, 132,\\n133, 140, 141, 149, 150, 159, 160, 166, 167,\\n176, 187, 188, 201, 202, 203, 211, 219, 220,\\n235, 236, 244, 245, 251, 252, 261, 263, 273.\\nRestrictive and Unrestrictive\\nclauses 122 (note)\\nResult, clauses of 61\\nPronouns\\n(Relative),\\nI 1\\nr\\nRhotacism 138, 166 (note)\\nRoots 25, 26, 74 note\\nRunes 17\\nSelf and selves 114 (notes)\\nSemivowels 18 (note)\\nSentence a, defined 34\\nr complex... 62, 66, 67\\nform, compound, 62, 65, 66\\nL simple 62\\nSentences J f declarative 40, 42\\n(classed), (mean- exclamatory.. 42, 43\\ning, imperative .41, 43\\ninterrogative,\\n40, 42 note\\nf clauses 183,185\\nSequence nfinitive m\\nm I participle 186, 187\\nTenses, F _\u00e2\u0080\u00a2 iQI _\\nI nounal verb 187\\nShall and will 196-199 notes\\nShould and would 199 note, 200\\nSince, various uses of 267\\nSingular Number 77\\nSo, compendious 248 (note)\\nSome 4 about 131 (note)\\nSome body (or one) else s 131\\nr of English letters 18-21\\nSounds, of O.E. letters 33\\nl the primitive 15, 16\\nSpelling, rules for 143\\nI account of 204, 205\\ninflections of 230,231\\nlist of 208,209\\npersistence of 206 (note)\\nassumed, what 154\\ncompound 39, 40\\ndefined 34\\nSubject, grammatical 36\\nmay be what 67, 68\\nmodified, or logical 37\\nmodified by what 68\\ndefinition of 169\\nSubjunc- disappearing 171, 172\\ntive i frequent in 174 note\\nMode, uses of 172-175\\nk uses in O.E 171 note", "height": "4099", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n288\\nTense,\\nSubordinate Conjunctions 268, 269\\nSubordinate Connectives 26T, 268\\nSubstantive a 47 note\\nSuffixes 26, 74, 75\\nSyllable a 14\\nSynopsis, what 217, 231, 232\\ndefined 177, 179\\nessential office 177\\nfuture, how used 182\\nincidental offices, 178, 179 (note)\\npast, how used 181\\npast perfect, how used 182\\npresent, how used 181\\npresent perfect, how used,\\n182, 186 (note)\\nsigns in English 183\\ncompound 178\\ndefined 179\\nfluid in time 180\\nsimple 178\\nI sequence of 183-186\\nafter comparatives. .248 note\\nerrors in use of 271 (note)\\nfrom what 248 (note)\\nI. in degree clause 61, 267\\nThan whom 272 (note)\\nThat, various uses 272 (note)\\nThai and this, reference 130\\nwith cause clause,\\n267, 272 (note)\\nwith noun clause,\\n268, 270 (note), 272 (note)\\nwith purpose clause,\\n268, 272 (note)\\nadv., degree clause,\\n267, 272 (note)\\ndistinguished from who\\nand ivhich 122\\nfor who and which 121\\ngenerally restrictive 122\\npreposition follows 121\\nThe one, th e other 130\\nThe, uses of 146-149, 239 (note)\\nwith clauses 61\\nnot the article, 146 (note), 241\\nTenses,\\nThan,\\nThat\\n(Conj.),\\nThat, conj.\\nThat\\n(Rel. Pr.),\\nThe.\\ntheV\\nh\\nVerb Be,\\nVerbs\\n(classes),\\nform,\\nThis, these, and those 129 note, 130\\nThon, a candidate 129 (note)\\nThought a 34\\nconstruction of,\\n154 (note), 155 (note)\\nTo with expressing relation 154 (note)\\ninfini- no part of 155 (note)\\ntive, omitted 155 note\\nposition of 251 (note)\\nwithout relation 155 (note)\\nTransitive definition of 152\\nVerbs, conjugated passively, 232-234\\nUmlaut 80 (note)\\nUnless if not) 60\\nVerba, defined 46, 53, 151\\nan auxiliary 193, 194\\nconjugation of 221-226\\nendings 193\\nroots of 193\\nVerb Phrase 46\\nj strong 204-210\\n1 weak, 206, 207, 212-216\\nintransitive... 152\\nmeaMng l transitive 152\\nagreement 189-193 notes\\na modern passive form,\\n164, 165, 233, 234\\nauxiliary 193-201\\nchanging their voice,\\n162, 163 (note)\\nconjugated in continuing\\nform 231, 232\\nconjugated interrogatively. 232\\nconjugated negatively 232\\nVerbs, conjugated passively... 232-234\\nconjugation of 221-234\\nconjugation of O.E 217, 218\\ndefective 213 (note)\\ndeponent 166 (note)\\nendings in Eng 230, 231\\nforms not asserting, 152, 155, 157\\ninflections of 230, 231\\nC definition 152\\nmade transitive,\\nll52 (note), 153 (note)\\nintran-\\nsitive,", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "284\\nHIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB\\nVerbs,\\nstrong,\\nmode, defined 168, 169\\nnumber forms 189, 230, 281\\nnumber of, defined 189\\npassive form compound, 232-234\\nperson forms 189, 230, 231\\nperson of 189\\nprincipal parts 207\\nredundant 213 (note)\\naccount of 204\\nlist 208, 209\\nO.E., examples\\nof 205\\norigin of 204\\nparticiple end-\\ning 210\\nparticiple stem, 210\\npast stem 210\\npersistence,\\n206 (note)\\nprincipal parts, 207\\nstrong and weak distinguished,\\n207\\nsubjunctive fading 171, 172\\ntense 177-187\\nthe e and the d of past tense,\\n206 (note)\\nthe e and the d of past parti-\\nciple 207 (note)\\ndefinition of 152\\ntransi\\nsively 232-234\\ntive, eon J u o ated P as\\n1\\ndefinition 212\\nweak 1\\nincreasing,\\n(regular), 1\\n207 (note)\\n1\\norigin of 206\\nr changes of ed.. 216\\nconsonant\\nweak\\nchange 216\\n(irregular),\\nlist of 213-215\\nvowel change,\\nL 215, 216\\nVerbs\\n(agree-\\nment),\\nerrors in 189 190 (notes)\\nexceptions to rule 190\\nseeming exceptions 191\\nwith and in what 189\\nwith collective noun 192\\nwith subjects connected by\\nand 190\\nwith subjects connected by\\nor or nor 192\\nwith subjects emphatically\\ndistinguished 190, 191\\nwith subjects following 191\\nwith subjects naming same\\nthing 190\\nwith subjects one affirma-\\ntive and one negative 191\\nwith subjects preceded by\\neach, every, etc 191\\nwith subjects varying in\\nperson 192\\nwith verbs 248 (note)\\nVocabulary\\nMn.E 26-28 note\\nO.E., five effects of Nor-\\nman Conquest upon, 27-31\\nVoice the 14\\nVoice, defined 161\\ndative object in passive,\\n162, 163 (note)\\ndefined 162\\npassive, expressing continu-\\ning action 164, 165\\npassive, formed how 163\\npassive, formed in O.E.,\\nVoices, J 163 vnote)\\npassive, origin,\\n165 (note), 166 (note)\\npassive, test of 164 (note)\\npassive, with object,\\n162, 163 (note)\\npeculiar passives 164 note\\nuses of 162 (note)", "height": "4099", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n285\\nVowels,\\n(back 19\\nfront 19\\nmixed 19\\nopen throat 19\\nsounds of 18\\nwhat 14, 18\\nWalk, conjugation 228-230\\nr account of 206, 20T, 213\\nincreasing 207 (note)\\nI inflections of 230, 231\\ncondensed relative 122 (note)\\nmisuse for that 271 (note)\\nuses of 121, 123, 241 (note)\\nk without antecedent 122\\nconjunctive adverb 267, 268\\nconnecting various clauses,\\n267, 268\\nin adjective clauses, 69 (note), 267\\nnoun 239 (note)\\n{conjunctive adverb 267\\nconnecting various clauses.. 267\\nin adjective clauses, 69 (note), 267\\nWeak\\nVerbs,\\nWhat,\\nWhen,\\nWhether,\\nrepeated 270 (note)\\ni with more than two, 270 (note)\\nWhether or no 244 (note)\\nan adjective 120, 123\\nan interrogative pronoun,\\n119, 120\\nWhich, a relative pronoun 121-123\\nclause as antecedent 123\\ncomposition of 120\\ndeclension 119\\nI in restrictive clauses, 120 note\\nin unrestrictive clauses,\\n120 note\\nwho and which or that 122\\nWhile, connecting clauses 265, 267\\nWhose, relative 121 note\\nWill and would 196-200 notes\\nWords\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2I\\n:en words, what 13\\nwritten words, what 13\\nWorth, a verb 163 (note)\\nWorser, double comparative 139 (note)\\nWrong Case-forms, why 126-128\\nTe US (note)\\nYes and no 242 (note)", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "ui\\n6", "height": "4099", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process\\nNeutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide\\nTreatment Date: Oct. 2006\\nPreservationTechnologies\\nA WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION\\n1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive\\nCranberry Township, PA 16066\\n(724) 779-21 1 1", "height": "4099", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4081", "width": "2688", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "IflH", "height": "4099", "width": "2804", "jp2-path": "highschoolgramma00reed_0294.jp2"}}