$m gggs | m | Bam ■H ■a ffiHH am I C, i. sip"-* >•<*♦• ' t9r3i31^BnE^^^B9 MB^lSSStrafl e& B ^WlffWil i lilWil ffWWWBl -HlraBMra Hllil ii ^^^ffiK Eh HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR DEALING WITH THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, THE HISTORY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH, THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CHANGES THESE HAVE UNDERGONE, AND PRESENT USAGE RESPECTING FORMS IN DISPUTE BY x ALONZO KEED, A.M. formerly instructor in english grammar in the polytechnic institute, Brooklyn; and one of the authors of reed and kellogg's "complete course in English'* BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D. DEAN OF THE FACULTY, AND PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN ; AND ONE OF THE AUTHORS OF REED AND KELLOGG'S "COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH" NEW YORK MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO., PUBLISHERS 29, 31, & 33 East 19th Street 1900 W7- % A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH REED'S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach the correct spelling-, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common in current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced, or misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of word analysis. 188 pages, 12mo. REED'S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleas- ing, but methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen. REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary English grammar, consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and adapted to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen. REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on English grammar and composition, in which the science of the language is made tributary to the art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, and adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 3S6 pages, 16mo, cloth. REED & KELLOGG'S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully graded and complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based on the natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth. REED & KELLOGG'S HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR. A work dealing with the science of the English language, the history of the parts of speech, the philoso- phy of the changes these have undergone, and with present usage respecting forms in dispute. 285 pages, 16mo, cloth. KELLOGG & REED'S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, Greek, and Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred common derivative words in English ; with a brief history of the English language. 122 pages, 16mo, cloth. KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the grammatical changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on syno- nyms, prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth. KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Eevised and enlarged edition. Supplementing the development of tne science with exhaustive practice in compo- sition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools, academies, and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth. KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE, with copious extracts from the leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as to the method In which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth. Copyright, 1900, By FRANCES M. REED and BRAINEED KELLOGG. PEINTED AT THE NORWOOD PRESS, NORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A. PREFACE This is a historical and scientific grammar. It has been written to supplement "Graded Lessons in English" and "Higher Lessons in English," — to help the student to a technical knowledge of the language which they do not attempt to give. The scope of the present work has forced us to pay far less attention here to the sentence as a unit. We still believe that a patient study of the sentence is essential to an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech, to a correct use of grammatical forms, and to an acquaintance with Jl general principles of discourse. We still believe that such study simplifies translation, and is the best logi- cal discipline available for the student; that the greatest good to be attained through the study of English grammar is not skill in parsing, but skill in composing ; and that the thorough analysis of all kinds of sentences is, more than any other one thing, helpful to the student in constructing such sentences. This conviction is embodied in our former works. But marking time is not marching on. In "Higher Lessons " great emphasis is laid upon the sentence as the 4 PREFACE unit of thought, and upon its rigorous analysis for the sake of subsequent synthesis. This is ample reason for laying little or no stress upon it in a treatise designed for the student at a later stage of his linguistic training. The purpose of this work neither requires nor permits us to repeat, except in brief review, matter so fully presented in the preceding books. The purpose of this book has forced us to do wholly or more fully here what was left undone, or but partly done, in our former books. In particular, it has forced us to pay great attention to the growth of our alphabet from its scanty beginnings ; to the development of words from roots ; to the gains of our vocabulary ; to the influence of the Norman-French upon spelling and pronunciation, and upon the structure of the sentence ; to the dropping of inflections, and to the forms which those that survive have assumed; to the terminology that historical continuity calls for ; and, in general, to the tracing of the parts of speech from their sources down. More particularly, the purpose of this book has enforced earnest attention to the philosophy of the subjunctive mode and its employment in English; to the distinction between the essential and the incidental offices of tense ; to the sequence of tenses ; to the classification of verbs ; and to the demand for a distinct name for the verb-forms in -ing that have a nounal nature. For any departure here from the method in which some PBEFACE 5 of these subjects were formerly presented, reasons are given in the body of the work. The more significant of these changes in treatment were all distinctly foreshadowed in " Higher Lessons " (Eevised Edition, 1896) — as supple- mentary to which this book may be used. We are most fortunate in having had for this treatise our former critic, Professor Francis A. March, the eminent grammarian and philologist. What his work upon these pages, on their way through the press, has been, no one need be told. A closing word is personal. One of the authors of this grammar, Alonzo Eeed, died as the book was approaching completion. But he lived to write a portion of the text and to criticise minutely the rest of it. His wisdom is apparent in the plan of the work ; and his ripe scholarship is seen in every chapter of this, the last, effort of our joint labor. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE Letters — Vowels and Consonants. Alphabets — Our Eng- lish and its Imperfections 13 CHAPTER II Words — Roots and Affixes. English Vocabulary and Effects of the Norman Conquest upon it. Sounds of O.E. Letters ... 24 CHAPTER HI The Simple Sentence. Subject and Predicate. Attribute and Object Complement. Compound Parts. Kinds of Sentences . 34 CHAPTER IV The Parts of Speech. Phrases. Same Words Many Parts of Speech ... 45 CHAPTER V The Compound Sentence. The Complex Sentence. Clauses — Independent, Adjective, Noun, and Adverb . • 56 7 CONTENTS CHAPTER VI Complex Phrases and Clauses. Modifiers of Subject and of Predicate. Object — Direct, Passive, Factitive, Indirect, and Cognate 64 CHAPTER VII The Noun. Derivation, Classification, and Modifications. Number. Plural — Regular, Irregular, and Peculiar . 73 CHAPTER VIII The Noun. Gender — Feminine from Masculine. Person . 85 CHAPTER IX The Noun. Case — Nominative, Possessive, and Objective. Declension of O.E. and of Mn.E. Nouns .... 92 CHAPTER X The Pronoun. Personal — Simple and Compound. De- clension 108 CHAPTER XI The Pronoun. Interrogative and Relative .... 117 CHAPTER XII The Pronoun. Wrong Case-forms. Adjective Pronouns . 126 CONTENTS 9 CHAPTER XIII PAGE The Adjective. Functions, Classes, Comparison . . . 134 CHAPTER XIV The Adjective. Which Comparison Gaining. Rules for Spelling. The Articles A and The. Points of Agree- ment, of Disagreement 142 CHAPTER XV The Verb. Transitive and Intransitive. The Participle, the Infinitive, the Nounal Verb 151 CHAPTER XVI The Verb. Voice — Passive. How Formed and its Origin . 161 CHAPTER XVII The Verb. Mode — Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative 168 CHAPTER XVIII The Verb. Tense — Offices Essential and Incidental. The Tenses, and their Sequence in Clauses, and with the Infinitive, the Participle, and the Nounal Verb . . 177 10 CONTENTS CHAPTER XIX PAGE The Verb. Number and Person. Auxiliaries — Roots, Meanings, Endings, and Uses of. Shall and Will in the Future 189 CHAPTER XX The Verb. Strong Verbs — List of, Stem, and Endings. Weak and Strong distinguished 204 CHAPTER XXI The Verb. Weak Verbs, Regular. Weak Verbs, Irregular, and List, Stem, and Endings. O.E. Conjugation . . 212 CHAPTER XXII The Verb. Mn.E. Conjugation of Be, Have, Drive, and Walk, and of Verbs in the Passive. Mn.E. Verb Endings 221 CHAPTER XXIII The Adverb. Uses — Common and Exceptional. Derivation and Composition. Adverb Phrases 237 CHAPTER XXIV The Adverb. Classification and Comparison. Use in Sentences 246 CONTENTS 11 CHAPTER XXV PAGE The Preposition. Original Office. Classification. Exten- sion of Meaning. As Adverbs 25 3 CHAPTER XXVI The Conjunction. Classification of Connectives. Derivation. Use. Omission 264 NOTE TO THE TEACHEB, The historical part of this work is largely in foot-notes. Presuming that the student is equal to what is there said, we have asked questions and given exercises upon these notes. But the most difficult of these, and the questions upon them, should be omitted when the classes are not readv for them. CHAPTER I LETTERS We are intelligent beings; we perceive, we know, we think. We are social beings as well ; we communicate our thought. For this communication language is needed- Language is chiefly verbal — spoken words and written words. Spoken words are made up of sounds ; written words, of characters representing the sounds. Spoken words were used early, for men must early have needed words to aid gesture in the expression of wants; written words, recording thought for the thinker's contem- plation, or for transmission to others, came into being later. Everything needful for spoken words — the air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat and mouth — was at hand ; the characters used in writing, and the materials and instru- ments for making them had to be prepared. The importance of writing we appreciate; our remote ancestors did not and could not. The characters composing written words are called Letters. The letters of a language are its Alphabet. Vowels and Consonants. — The sounds of words are pro- 13 14 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR duced by air expelled from the lungs, and modified by the larynx, nose, palate, tongue, teeth, and lips. If the vocal cords are kept apart, and the air passes through the mouth or nostrils with little interference, we have simple breath; if the cords are brought together, and the expelled air makes them vibrate, we have voice. If the mouth-passage is kept open and the voice rushes through without audible friction, we have a vowel sound ; if the mouth-pas- sage is narrowed, and the air, slightly voiced or wholly voiceless, is impeded so as to cause perceptible friction, or is completely stopped, we have a consonant sound. Vowels and Consonants are the terms ambiguously applied (1) to the sounds, and (2) to the letters representing the sounds. In producing the various sounds, the mouth-organs occupy different relative positions. At each, the mouth-passage takes a distinct shape ; and, as the shape changes, the sound changes. This change of shape and of sound is seen especially in the produc- tion of vowels. As the possible changes in the mouth-passage are many, the possible vowels are many ; even in English, where the vowel sounds are numerous, we do not make all that we might. Vowels and consonants stand side by side in almost every word, and in almost every syllable — that is, so much of a word as is uttered by a single impulse of the voice. The vowel is the tonic element of words spoken or sung. The Origin of Letters. — The earliest kinds of writing were pictorial. Men tried to place before each other their conceptions of things by rude pictures of them. These pic- tures, called hieroglyphs, differed from our words (1) in that they had a natural connection — resemblance — with visible objects, while words have such connection only with LETTERS 15 sounds; and (2) in that they represented things, and con- ceptions of things, without reference to their names, while words represent sounds, which may be the name of many objects. These hieroglyphs differed from our letters still more than from our words. By what steps these hieroglyphs became (1) the names of the things they once pictured, (2) the syllables of the names, (3) the consonantal element of the syllables, and (4) the separate vowels and consonants of the syllables, is not fully known. But scholars agree that alphabets had their beginning in hieroglyphs, proper or symbolic, and that these gradually lost their pictorial character and became mere signs of speech-sounds — genuine, if not perfect, alphabets. The Primitive Sounds. — A feature of our linguistic family is, that everything in it has developed; words have come from roots; complex sentences have grown from simple; grammar has added inflections; sounds, and the letters representing them, have increased. The scheme of articulations in the theoretic parent-speech of the Indo-Europeans contains but three vowels, 1 a, i, and u, with 1 Said by Professor Whitney, in 1867, in his Language and the Study of Language, virtually repeated in 1875 in his Life and Groicth of Language^ and, so far as known, his latest deliverance on this point. Professor Sievers, Eneyc. Britannica, Vol. XVIII., p. 788, says that the Aryan had five vocalic sounds —a, e, i, o, and u, besides diphthongs,— and more consonants than Professor Whitney allows. If Aryan here means Indo-European, as elsewhere in the article it does, the "doctors disagree." 16 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR the sounds of a, e, and oo in far, the, and boot; and but twelve consonants, b, d, g, h, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, and t — the h not a separate letter but closely combining with t, d, p, g, and k. The oldest alphabet used by Indo-Europeans — the Sanskrit — has forty-seven letters, fourteen of them vowels, and thirty-three consonants. The Alphabets from which the English is derived. — The English, alphabet came from the Latin; the Latin, from the Greek ; the Greek, from the Phoenician ; and it is thought that the earlier forms of the Phoenician were devised by the Egyptians. The Phoenician Alphabet consisted of twenty-two charac- ters—all consonantal, though three of them could stand for the vowels a, i, and u. The Greeks borrowed most of these twenty-two, used many of them without material change of form or value, converted some into vowels, added others, and formed thus their alphabet of twenty- four letters. 1 The Latin Alphabet was taken from the Greek used by the Greek colonists in Sicily and western Italy. In their forms, its letters 2 do not differ greatly from the Greek; in their names, they do. 1 " In the Greek alphabet," says Professor Whitney, "for the first time ... we find realized what we cannot but regard as the true ideal of a mode of writing — namely, that it be simply a faithful representation of spoken speech, furnishing a visible sign for every audible sound that the voice utters, and not attempting to distinguish any class of sounds as of more importance than any other." 2 By Greek and Latin letters we here mean only capital letters ; the small, or cursive, letters are of mediaeval growth. LETTERS 17 All but K of the fifteen characters for the original Indo- European "articulations" the Latin took from the Greek. By a slight diacritical mark, the old Latin C, which stood for the Greek k and g, was converted into G. C then marked the k-sound alone ; and G, the g-sound. F is the old Greek digamma. Q is a form of an old Phoenician letter used in early Greek but dropped in later. V is only another- form of U. X was taken early from the Greek ; Y and Z, later. The vowels E and are from the Greek, and are both Phoenician. E goes back to an Egyptian hieroglyph; does not. The English Alphabet. — The Greek K, rejected by the Romans, has been restored to use in modern English. J is a recent variant of I. I and J were treated as the same letter as late as Todd's Johnson's Dictionary, 1818. W — double U or double V — has come into English since 1066. The three letters — K, J, and W — plus the Latin twenty- three form the twenty-six in English. The oldest form of the English is Anglo-Saxon. The characters first used by the Saxons were called runes. On the Christianization of the Saxons their alphabet perished and the Latin was adopted. But to denote sounds not in the Latin — that of th in thick and that of w — two runes H. SCH. GRAM. — 2 18 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR were retained. For the th in our that, the Saxons created a letter by crossing their d, making it fS. Though this new Saxon alphabet was the one handed on to us, not all of our letters are Saxon. We have seen that J and W are not ; and Q, V ; and Z are not. THE VOWELS OF OUR ALPHABET The great division of our letters is into Vowels and Con- sonants. The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u ; the consonants are the remaining letters except w 1 and y. The International Dictionary assigns eight sounds to a, five to e ? three to i, four to o ; and six to u. The diacritical marks there given to the vowels and the key-words illustrating the vowel sounds are these: a in ale, a in senate, a in care, & in am, a in arm, a in ask, a in final, and a in all ; e in eve (first e), e in event (first e), e in end, e in fern, and e in recent (sec- ond e) ; I in ice, I in idea, i in ill ; o in old, o in obey, 6 in orb, and 5 in odd ; ii in use, u in unite, u in rude, u in full, u in up, and u in urn. Classification 2 of the Vowels. — In forming the vowels there is always a " place of constriction," where some part 1 Peile, Encyc. Britannica, p. 1, says, "In sounding the i (the long e-sound) the tongue is raised so as almost to touch the palate, the passage left being so close that, if the tongue -was suffered for a second to rest on the palate, there would be not i but y ; and a similar relation exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by calling w and y semivowels." 2 The material used in this classification of the vowels and consonants is largely taken from the exhaustive article, Guide to Pronunciation, in The International Dictionary. LETTERS 19 of the tongue comes almost into touch with the throat be- hind or the mouth-roof above. This constriction divides the oral cavity into two connected cavities. I. If this place is near the base of the tongue, we have the Open-throat Vowel a — the primary 1 sound — and its variant a. II. If the constriction is made by arching up the tongue toward the hard palate, we have the Front Vowels, a, a, a, a, e, I, u, and u. III. If the constriction is made by arching the tongue at the soft palate, the membranous curtain at the rear of the mouth, we have the Back Vowels, a, o, 6, 6, u, and u. IV. If the passage at the place of constriction is not, as with the front and back vowels it is, concave on the palate and convex on the tongue, but concave on both, we have the Mixed Vowels, e, ii, and ii. 2 Any change in the vowel-chamber changes the sound. In forming I, for instance, the mouth is closing ; hence the initial and the final element of the sound are unlike. The 1 In forming this vowel, Peile says : "The whole channel from the glottis . .-. to the lips ... is thoroughly open. All vowels except a are pronounced with a cer- tain contraction of the organs. . . . It has absolutely no relation to any consonant ; it is the one primary, essential vowel. The farther we trace back the history of the language . . . the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one starting- point from which all other vowel-sound is derived." See also on this sound The Elements of English Pronunciation, second series of Professor Whitney's Oriental Linguistic Studies. Here, too, is Professor Whitney's instructive estimate of the percentages of the different sounds of the vowels and consonants used in our literature. 2 All that is here said of these vowel-sounds may easily be verified in making them. 20 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR sound begins as that of a, or something near it, and ends as that of I. It is not, then, a simple x sound. THE CONSONANTS OF OUR ALPHABET Classification. — I. Classifying Consonants with regard to Obstruction in the mouth, we have (1) those in which the breath is only checked, and (2) those in which it is stopped. In the (1) class, called continuous, fricative, are (a) the liquids, 1, m, n, and r, — of which m and n are nasals, because the checked breath escapes through the nostrils ; (b) the sibilants, c soft (as in cent), s, s (= z, as in is), s (= sh, as in sure), s (= zh, as in vision), z, z ( = zh, as in seizure), and x (= z) when beginning words ; (c) the spirants, f, g soft (as in gin), j (= g soft), v, and w and y when con- sonants. In the (2) class, called mutes, are b, c 3 hard (as in cat), d, g hard (as in go), h, 2 k, p, q, 3 t, x 3 (= ks, as in ivax). The x (= gz, as in exact), falls into both of these classes. II. Classifying consonants with regard to Intonation, we have (1) voiced consonants, or sonants, subvocals; and (2) voiceless consonants, or surds. 4 1 We call it a diphthong. The a. e, o, u, ou, (as in out), and oi (as in oil), also are diph- thongs. In pronouncing a diphthong, the voice makes what is called a glide — a transi- tional sound produced by the change of the mouth-organs in passing (1) from the beginning to the end of a diphthong, (2) from consonant to vowel or from vowel to consonant in a syllable, or (3) from one component to the other of a double consonant. 2 The h is unique. It is made through a vowel-chamber for the following vowel, and with some rustle all along the mouth-passage. It is usually called an aspirate. 3 The letters C, q, and x are superfluous. The sounds of C are those of k and 8 ; q = k(qu = kw); and x (1) (as in wax) =ks, (2) (as in exact) = gz, and (3) when beginning words = z. 4 Every surd except h bears a noteworthy relation to some sonant — c soft to z, C hard to g hard, f to v, k to g hard, p to b, q to g hard, S to z, s (= sh) to z (= zh), t LETTERS 21 In the (1) class, sonants, are b, d, g soft, g hard, j, 1, m, n, r, s (= z), s (= zh), v, w when a consonant, x (= z), x ( = gi), y when a consonant, z, and z ( = zh). In the (2) class, surds, are c soft, c hard, f, h, k, p, q, s, s (= sh), t, and x (= ks). III. Classifying consonants with regard to their Place of Articulation, we have (1) those with this on the lips, and called labials ; (2) those with this on or near the front upper teeth, and called dentals ; (3) those with this at the hard palate, and called palatals; and (4) those with this at the root of the tongue, and called gutturals. In the (1) class, labials, are b, m, p, and w when a consonant. In the (2) class, dentals, are c soft, d, n, r (as in string), s, s (=z), t, x (= z), and z. The f and v, made by the under lip and the upper teeth, are a union of (1) and (2) and are called labio-dentals. In the (3) class, palatals, are g soft, j, 1, r (as in roar), s (= sh), s (= zh), y when a consonant, and z ( = zh). In the (4) class, gutturals, are c hard, g hard, k, q, x (= ks), and x (=gz). The h has no fixed place of articulation — the place varying with that of the letter to which it is joined. 1 to d, and x (=ks) to x (= gz). The mouth-organs are in the same position in making the letters of each pair ; the surd sound in any pair is the sonant sound in that pair minus all intonation. 1 Thus far single consonants. A word respecting digraphs — combinations, each, of two consonants to express a single sound. The digraphs are ch, gh, ph, sh, th, and ng. The digraph ch (as in church) is the surd corresponding to the sonant j, and is a continuous, surd palatal; ch (as in machine) = s (as in sure), and is classed with it; and ch (as in chasm) = k, and is classed with it. 22 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR THE IMPERFECTION OF OUR ALPHABET A perfect alphabet has as many letters as articulate sounds, and each letter always stands for the same sound. In a language with such an alphabet, one knows from the word as he hears it in what letters to write it ; and from the word as he sees it, with what sounds to pronounce it. The English alphabet is both redundant and defective. I. Redundant (1) in that c, q, and x have no sounds not repre- sented by s, k, and g ; and j and z are duplicated by g soft and by s (in is and vision). Redundant (2) in that some letters, while having each a sound exclusively its own, have also a sound or sounds in common. For instance, a and o, as in what and not, have o in common ; a and e, as in say and prey, have a in common ; i and e, as in pique and eve, have e in common ; and o and u, (1) as in do and rude, have u in com- mon; (2) as in wolf and /wZZ,.have u in common; and (3) as in son and sun, have u in common. Redundant (3) in that some, of its letters — a, o, and u, etc. — are sometimes proper diphthongs, each a combination of two clearly pronounced vowel sounds^ II. Defective (1) in that it has twenty-four vowel sounds and only five letters to represent them; and (2) in that it sometimes takes two letters to represent a single sound — the th and the ng, for example. The gh (as in ghost) = g hard, and the gh (as in cough) = f ; and the two are classed with g hard and f. The ph (as in philosophy) = f, and the ph (in diphthong, as pronounced by some) =s p ; and the two are classed with f and p. The sh (as in shine) = s (as in sure), and is classed with it. The th (as in breath) is a continuous, surd lingua-dental, corresponding to the sonant lingua-dental th in breathe. The ng (as in breathing), is a continuous, sonant, nasal guttural. LETTERS 23 THE SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Language — Spoken and Written. Letters and their Origin. The Alphabets from which the English descends. The Fourfold Classification of Vowels. The Threefold Classification of Consonants. The Imperfections of our Alphabet. Questions. — What is our need of language ? Relation of written words to spoken ? Which the earlier and why ? Letters, what ? An alphabet, what ? Difference between breath and voice ? between a vowel sound and a consonant ? Syllables, what ? Hieroglyphs, what ? and how differing from words and letters ? What sounds and letters in the primitive Indo-European ? Trace the succession of alphabets. The peculiarity of the Phoenician ? The relation of the Greek to the Phoenician ? What English letters not in Latin ? not in Anglo-Saxon ? The Anglo-Saxon characters called what ? How many sounds has each English vowel ? What is meant by " place of constriction"? How do we have four classes of vowels? Give, and justify, their names. What vowel sound is primary ? What does Peile say of it ? A semivowel, what ? a diphthong ? a glide ? Grouped with regard to obstruction, what are the two classes of consonants ? Into what classes is one of these subdivided ? Grouped in regard (1) to intonation, and (2) to place of articulation, what classes are there ? What consonants are superfluous ? and what letters do they duplicate ? What consonant is an aspirate ? What is unchanged in forming the surds and the sonants pairing them ? In what respect do the surd and the sonant differ in sound ? Digraphs, what ? Give and class them. A perfect alphabet, what ? Exercises. — Give the various sounds of the several vowels, tell into which class — (1) open throat, (2) front, (3) back, or (4) mixed — each falls. Give the sounds of the consonants, and justify the division (1) into continuous and mute, (2) into sonants and surds, and (3) into labials, dentals, palatals, and gutturals. CHAPTER II WORDS The First Language Used. — In communication, verbal language is now mainly employed. But the cries and other vocal sounds of the infant and the undeveloped man were accompanied by a Natural Language of facial expression, of attitude, and of gestures by the hands and arms ; and it is thought that artificial language at first developed most rapidly in signs addressed to the eye, or gesture language. But such language had its limitations — it could not have been used in the dark, when opaque objects or long distance intervened, or when the hands were otherwise engaged. The superiority of the vocal muscles to all others for com- municating thought was eventually seen, and the voice came to supersede in large measure all other agencies of expression. But gesture language, though supplanted, is not extinct; we resort to it now to reenforce verbal. The First Words. — The first words connoted wants, as hunger; and denoted things wanted, as food. Words denoting sensible things connote relations, actions, and qualities. All that we know, and can tell, of external things even now, is their relations, actions, and qualities. Further, our ancestors could not have had — for we our- 24 WORDS 25 selves have not — words expressive each of all the acts or qualities of material substances or of persons. Most words are found to denote, etymologieally, only special features of things. By association, many words have come to stand for things as wholes, for our complexes of ideas respect- ing things. Xow, whether the first words were (1) imitative, or (2) expressive of the feelings aroused by things, or (3) utter- ances accompanying gestures to call attention to things, or (4) originated in all these ways, it is reasonably certain that they were prevailingly monosyllabic — such as we now appropriately call roots. We do not come across these now because they were spoken, and perished in the speaking; nobody knows how long it was before spoken words were first written, nor how long after words were written before those which have reached us were written. When any one, recalling the vocal signs made in directing his attention to particular things, used these signs himself for like purposes, and was understood in their use, then verbal language began. Using the vocal signs to denote the things, they could now speak of ,the things when away from them and when gestures of direction could not be made. Roots. — In resolving Indo-European words into their elements we come even yet upon what are evidently roots, if not the primitive roots ; but the oldest Indo-European language is modern compared with primeval speech. These 26 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB roots are mostly monosyllabic though many of them are still further resolvable. Resolvable, for instance, may be separated into solv, re, and able. Solv gives the word its fundamental meaning, and gathers about itself, as nucleus, the modifying prefix re l and the suffix able. The suffixes are divided into derivative 2 and inflectional 2 suffixes — the derivative being those that mark the part of speech to which the words having them belong; and the inflectional being the terminations that denote the number, case, person, or other grammatical modification of the words having them. The English Vocabulary Composite. — The words in English were at first mostly of one stock. They were Anglo-Saxon, and belonged to the Low German — a branch of the Teu- 1 Max Miiller says, " What we now call a noun was originally a kind of sentence, consisting of the root, and some so-called suffix which pointed to something of which that root was predicated." Professor Whitney says, "The endings of declension and conjugation and the pre- fixes and suffixes of derivation were originally independent elements, words which were first collocated with other words, and then entered into combination, and were more or less fused, with the latter, losing their primitive form and meaning, and be- coming mere signs of modification and relation ; hence the historically traceable begin- nings of speech were simple roots — not parts of speech even, and still less forms." Professor Otto Jespersen of Copenhagen, while, in his Progress of Language, conceding that this is the theory prevalent among the leading linguists, and while con- ceding'that some inflectional forms have arisen in this way, nevertheless says, "But when the inference is, that all flectional forms are to be explained in this manner, and that here we have the key to flexion in general, great exception may be taken." 2 Truths illustrates both classes of suffixes. The th is derivative, making a noun out of the root tru ; and -s is inflectional, marking the plurality of the noun truth. WOBDS 27 tonic, or Germanic, member of the great Indo-European family of languages. They formed the vocabulary of the tribes that, in the fifth century, left their home on the coast north of the Elbe, invaded Britain, subdued the Kelts inhabiting the island, and settled there. They and their language came to be called Englisc, i English ' ; and the island, Engla land, 'England.' In the eleventh century, these Anglo-Saxon, or English, conquerors were in turn conquered by the Northmen, or Normans, a Scandinavian people that early in the tenth century had secured a footing about the mouth of the Seine. Their language had been nearly like the English but they had learned French in Normandy. This was folk- Latin — sprinkled with a few Keltic and Teutonic words — as learned by the Kelts and Franks of Gaul from Roman soldiers and colonists settled among them. As the Nor- mans spoke it, it was called Norman-French. There have been other infusions of Latin into English, and infusions of languages other than Latin ; but only the Norman-French concerns us here. THE EFFECTS OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST UPON OUR VOCABULARY 1. It Brought New Words into English. — These came (1) to supply the demands of the blended peoples for terms to denote things and express thoughts which the English 28 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR before the Conquest did not have, and therefore had no words to denote. They came (2) to fill the gap caused by the loss of words which the English before the Conquest did have, but, in the centuries of depression and degradation after the Con- quest, had lost. 1 They came (3) as contestants for the places already filled by the O.E. words. In this contest they sometimes sup- planted the O.E. words ; oftener, they got a footing, and shared the ground with the O.E. 2 words ; but oftener still they were unable to get even a footing in the language. 2. It Broke up the Habit of Compounding Words. — Since the Conquest little attempt has been made like th in thing — usually initial, ft like th in this — usually medial or final. H. SCH. GRAM. 6 CHAPTER III THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS u Trees grow." These two words form a Sentence because they make com- plete sense. In every sentence something is said about something. When two x notions — as of the things trees, and the action grow — are brought together in the mind and a judgment is reached that one belongs to the other, we have a thought. Here trees denotes the things thought about, and grow expresses what is thought about them. Definition. — A Sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. The word that denotes what we think of and speak of is called the Subject; and the word that denotes what we think and say of the thing or things named by the subject is called the Predicate. Definitions The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought. 1 In logic, the expression of a though t^is said to have three parts. In " Rain is fall- ing," rain is subject, falling is predicate, and is is the copula or link, joining the two terms into a judgment expressed. But, as the copula is often united with the predicate as one word, it is regarded in grammar as forming a part of the predicate. 34 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 35 The Predicate of a sentence expresses what is thought. Few thoughts are expressed in sentences of two words each. We describe more fully the thing thought of, and express more fully what we think of it. " Large trees grow here." In this sentence something is said not of all trees but of those only that have the quality expressed by large ; and what is said of these trees is not that in a general sense they grow, but that they grow in a certain place denoted by here. "Trees of great size grow in California.' 1 '' Here the group of words, of great size, does the work of the one word large, and in California does the work of here. Such groups are called Phrases (simple). Definition. — A Phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas* and having a distinct office, but not expressing a thought. Words added to other words to make their meaning more definite are said to modify them. Definition. — A Modifier * is a word or group of words joined to some part of a sentence to qualify or limit the mean- ing. In each of the three sentences examined above, it is seen that the two essential words are trees and grow. The first may be called the Grammatical Subject ; the second, the Grammatical Predicate. Modifiers are also called adjuncts, enlargements, extensions. 36 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB The grammatical subject with its modifiers may be called the Logical Subject, or the Modified Subject ; the grammatical predicate with its modifiers, the Logical Predicate, or the Modified Predicate. The simple terms subject and predicate, as often used, mean grammatical subject 1 and grammatical predicate. The grammatical predicate may consist of two or more words taken together, as : — " Trees have grown " ; " The trees will then have been destroyed" Around the grammatical subject and grammatical predi- cate, as the two chief parts of every sentence, all the other parts are grouped. In studying the subject, it is all-im- portant then that we come to discern these two parts at a glance ; we can then swiftly and intelligently deal with the other words. 2 INCOMPLETE PREDICATES AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS Attribute Complements You have learned that in every sentence something is said about something ; you will understand therefore that 1 This subject is also called simple subject, base subject, and subject base. Those who use the simple term subject to denote only the complete, or logical, subject can hardly be consistent when speaking of the agreement of a word with its subject, of the case of the subject, of modifiers of the subject, etc. As the work of grammatical analysis is prominently concerned with the two chief words of a sentence, it will be found convenient, in speaking of these, to use the simple terms subject and predicate. 2 The division of a sentence into the entire subject and the entire predicate, thus : — THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 37 thinking is directly concerned with things, and what be- longs to things — their attributes. In " Corn grows" it is asseited that the action growing is an attribute of corn. Grows does two things here — it expresses the attri- bute and asserts it. In " Corn growing," growing expresses the action but does not assert ; it does not show that a judgment has been reached. In u Corn is growing," the asserting force is supplied by is. Actions are not the only attributes asserted of things ; we often assert qualities, as : — " Corn is nutritious." Is is here an incomplete predicate ; for, although it as- serts, nutritious is needed to express the quality asserted of " Trees of a large size | grow in California," is advised as " the first and simplest step " in the analysis. When all the words are in their natural order, this division is quite mechanical ; but when the words are arranged otherwise, as in " In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand Pre Lay in the fruitful valley," it becomes necessary first to find the two chief words, and then to group the modifying words on the basis of their relation to these. The first and simplest step thus becomes the final step. 38 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR corn as its attribute. Nutritious completes the predicate ; hence it may be a Complement. In " Corn is a cereal" all the qualities essential to the class, cereal, are here as- serted of corn. Is is the incomplete predicate, and cereal is the complement. In " The sky grows dark" the quality darkness, not the action growing, is what we chiefly assert of the sky. Growing dark would express the complete attribute. These words that complete the predicate by helping to express the attribute asserted of that which the subject names are called Attribute Complements, or Subjective Comple- ments. Definition. — The Attribute, or Subjective, Complement of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. Object Complement or Object A large class of predicate words require completions quite different from those described above. In "A cat caught . . ."; "The officer held . . ." ; "The man seized . . ." ; "He killed .'..." it is plain that the predicates are incomplete, and that the names of the things on which action is exerted are necessary to make complete sense, as in THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 39 "A cat caught a mouse" ; "The officer held the thief" ; "The man seized a rope " ; "He killed a deer." A word that completes the predicate by naming that on which the action is exerted may be called the Object Comple- ment, 1 or simply the Object. Definition. — The Object Complement of a sentence com- pletes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. COMPOUND SUBJECT, COMPOUND PREDICATE, AND OTHER COMPOUND PARTS " William and Mary reigned together." 2 The two names, William and Mary, connected by and, make one subject — one thing is asserted of the two persons. " The tide ebbs and flows without cessation." Ebbs and floics, connected by and, make one predicate — two actions are jointly asserted of one thing. Two or more connected subjects, having the same predi- cate, form a Compound Subject. Two or more connected predicates, having the same sub- ject, form a Compound Predicate. 1 The term complement is used in many text-books to denote only the Subjective, or Attribute, complement. 2 Some authorities insist that all such sentences must be regarded as two simple sentences contracted. Others admit that a simple sentence may have a compound sub- ject, but deny that it can have a compound predicate. Others allow a compound subject or a compound predicate when the parts are connected by and but not when connected by or or nor. 40 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Both subject and predicate in the same sentence may be compound, as in " Robert and his friend read and discussed Dante." The (1) attribute complement and the (2) object may be compound, as in (1) u He is true and good" ; (2) " We love truth and virtue" Word and phrase modifiers may be compound, as in (1) The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by "exercise" ; (2) u The Equinox occurs in March and in September." Phrases thus connected form a Compound Phrase. KINDS OF SENTENCES AS TO MEANING AND USE A subject and a predicate may express (1) a direct asser- tion, affirmative or negative ; (2) an inquiry ; (3) a command or strong wish ; (4) an exclamation. A sentence used to make a statement or declare a fact is Declarative, as : — "The moon revolves around the earth" ; "lam going" ; "I am not going." A sentence that expresses an inquiry is Interrogative. The question may be in the predicate itself, as : — "/she at home?" Or in the subject itself, as : — " Who is at home?" THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PABTS 41 Or in some word joined to subject or predicate, as : — "Which plan was adopted?" " Whom did you see?" " When did you meet ? " " What is your reason ? " When the interrogative word is in the predicate, the sub- ject is generally after the asserting word, and the sentence is said to be inverted. 1 The analysis of an interrogative sentence is the same as that of the corresponding declarative, as : — (1) "Is he at home?" "He is at home." (2) "What is your reason?" "My reason is this." (3) "Whom did you choose?" "We chose (= did choose) John." A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is Imperative, as : — " Come at once " ; " Help me." 2 A command may be expressed in a statement or a ques- tion, as : — "Thou shalt not steal " ; "You must go " ; " Will you leave the room instantly ? " A wish may be expressed so as to resemble an impera- tive, as : — "Part 3 we in friendship" ; "Long live 3 the king!" 1 The interrogative word, being- the most important in the mind of the speaker, naturally stands at the beginning of the sentence, an emphatic position. 2 The subject of an imperative sentence — you or thou — is regularly omitted. If used, it follows the verb, as in "Help thou me." 3 This use of a sentence to express a strong wish is called optative. We and king, the subjects of part and live, are in the first and third persons. 42 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The true imperative is always in the second person. "Let it be so," " Be it so," and "May it be so," do not differ much in meaning, but only the first is im- perative; the subject of let being understood, while that of be and may be is it. A sentence that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling is exclamatory, as : — "What a happy creature Polly is!" "How unexpected this happiness to us !" Such sentences, introduced by the interrogative Jiovj and what, were originally questions ; but the interrogative force lias been lost, and they may be classed as exclamatory. A sentence in the declarative, interrogative, or imperative form may be exclamatory when uttered mainly to give vent to feeling. The writer must determine when the exclamation point should take the place of the period or the interrogation mark, as : — " It is impossible ! " " Is it possible ! " " Think of the absurdity of it ! " Definitions A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to affirm or deny. An Interrogative x Sentence is one that expresses a question. 1 When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence, it may be (1) direct ; as, " He asked me, ' What shall I dof " or (2) indirect ; as, " He asked me what he should do." The capitalization and punctuation of the two are not the same — as is seen. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PABTS 43 An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — A Sentence. Its Parts — Sub- ject and Predicate. Subject — Grammatical and Logical. Predicate — Grammatical and Logical. A Phrase. A Modifier. Complements — Attribute and Object. Compound Parts of a Sentence — Subject, Predicate, and Word and Phrase Modifiers. Sentences — Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. Questions. — What is a thought ? A sentence ? What two parts of a sentence ? Define each. A copula ? and why grammar makes it a part of the predicate ? What is a simple phrase ? A modifier ? What other names for a modifier ? What is a grammatical subject ? A grammatical predicate ? A logical, or modified, subject ? A logi- cal, or modified, predicate ? What other names for a modified sub- ject ? Of how many words may a grammatical predicate consist ? Why important to detect the grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate at a glance ? Why is it sometimes difficult to do this ? An incomplete predicate, what ? What is that which completes such a predicate called ? What two common kinds of complements are there ? Define and illustrate each. What is a compound subject ? A compound predicate ? A compound word modifier ? A compound phrase modifier ? Define and illustrate them all. Define and illus- trate a declarative sentence. Define and illustrate an interrogative sentence. In what words may the question be ? Illustrate. What is a direct question ? An indirect ? Illustrate. What difference in the capitalization of the two ? When is a sentence said to be inverted ? Define and illustrate an imperative sentence. What 44 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR sentences other than imperative may express a command ? Illustrate. How may a true imperative sentence be known ? The subject of an imperative sentence is what ? Is it usually expressed ? Define and illustrate an exclamatory sentence. Such sentences, introduced by how or what, were once of what kind ? When do declarative, inter- rogative, and imperative sentences become exclamatory ? The divi- sion of sentences into these four kinds based upon what ? Exercises. — (1) "Robert and his friend read and discussed Dante and Milton"; (2) " He neither writes nor speaks like a native Englishman." Resolve (1) into eight separate sentences. Name its three com- pound parts. Dropping neither and nor from (2), resolve it into two sentences. What part of (2) is compound ? Take the quotation from Longfellow, foot-note, p. 37, and give (l)the logical and the grammatical subject of it ; (2) the logical and the grammatical predi- cate of it ; (3) the single word modifiers in it ; (4) the simple phrase modifiers in it ; and tell (5) whether the predicate in it is incomplete or not. Are those in (1) and (2) above incomplete or not ? CHAPTER IV CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH We have divided sentences into parts, and called these the Subject, the Predicate, the Complement, and the Modi- fier, but we have not yet examined the offices of the separate words of those parts. All the words of our language are grouped into eight classes according to their different uses in the sentence — these classes are called Parts of Speech. "Mary's mother, the wife of the merchant, bought her daughter a house a few months ago" ; "My son, make wisdom the object of your life, for it is the principal thing." The words italicized in these two sentences have dif- ferent offices — (1) mother is subject, (2) house is object, (3) Mary's is a possessive modifier of mother, (4) tuife is explanatory of mother, (5) merchant is chief word in a phrase, (6) daughter is indirect object of an action, (7) months has an adverbial use, (8) son is independent by address, (9) object is objective complement, and (10) thing is attribute complement. But, while discharging each a special office, they all have one office — they name persons and mere things. A word used as a name is called a Noun. 45 46 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB The subject is the chief name in any sentence; there can be no complete sentence without a name, or some substitute for a name, used as subject. " I hear that you advised him to see her" ; " Who will go?" u The house which stood here was burned" ; " That is right." The words italicized in these sentences are not names, but they connote relations to the speaker, denote persons and things, and stand for their names. I represents the speaker; you, the one spoken to; him and her, persons unnamed here but previously mentioned; ivho stands for a name which the one addressed is asked to supply ; which stands for house; and that, for the name of some- thing which it points out. A word that takes the place of a noun is called a Pronoun; and the word for which a pronoun stands is called its Antecedent. We have seen that every sentence must contain an asserting word. The word that expresses an assertion is called a Verb. A verb may make a complete predicate, or it may require some other word or words to complete it, as : — " Grass grows" ; " Grass is green." A verb made up of two or more words may be called a Verb Phrase, as : — "The house has just been built." CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 47 There are verbal forms, usually classed with the verb, though they do not assert, as: — 11 I went to see him"; "The lady, seeing her danger, sprang hack" ; "I hlame you for telling that." To see him is a phrase modifying ivent; seeing her danger is a phrase modifying lady ; and for telling that is a phrase modifying blame. See is here an Infinitive; seeing is a Participle; and telling is a Nounal Verb. The infinitive is usually preceded by to, and the participle and the nounal verb generally end in -ing, -ed, or -en. Like verbs, these words here express action and take objects ; but, unlike true verbs, they lack asserting force — see, seeing, and telling here assert nothing. A substantive 1 (or its equivalent) and a verb are the essential parts of every sentence — one naming the object of thought, and the other telling what the thing named does or is. All the other words of a sentence are joined directly or indirectly to these important words. Indeed, a substantive and a verb may make a sentence without the help of other words, as: — "Rain falls" ; " Trees grow." We have seen that a pronoun may be substituted for a noun, but there is no substitute for a verb in the sentence. 1 A substantive is a noun or a pronoun representing something which has, or is regarded as haying, an independent existence, and which can be made an object of thought. 48 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB A noun or a pronoun may by itself be the subject of a sentence ; but, as you have learned, words are often joined to the subject to describe more fully the person or thing named, as in "Tivo holiest old farmers were chosen" ; "Firm and fearless, he pressed forward." Old and honest modify farmers by telling what kind of farmers are here spoken of, and two tells how many farmers of this kind are spoken of. Firm and fearless express quali- ties of the person represented by he, and thus modify the pronoun. A word modifying a noun or a pronoun is called an Adjective. Honest old farmers expresses the qualities that all farmers have plus those denoted by honest and old; but, as there are some farmers not honest and old, honest old farmers applies to fewer persons than farmers does. The adjective, then, increases the meaning, but decreases the appli- cation, of the noun. But from the second example above it will be seen that adjectives do not always limit the application of the word they modify. He refers to a particular person, and firm and fearless simply call attention to some of his qualities. " Jack has returned from a long ocean voyage." Long and ocean tell the kind of voyage, and a tells how many. These three words modify voyage — the principal CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 49 word of a phrase. It will be seen, then, that a noun or a pronoun in any part of a sentence may take modifiers like those joined to the subject. It must be observed that a noun may be used like an adjective without becoming an adjective, as in " John's friend Henry is expected to-morrow." The possessive John's tells whose friend is expected, and the explanatory Henry tells what friend. But John's and Henry are not adjectives but nouns, for they name, and they may be modified as nouns are. In "Men of wisdom are respected," of wisdom = the adjective wise. Phrases then may be i adjectival. Just as adjectives are joined to a noun to describe the thing named so words are joined to the verb to describe or limit the action expressed, as : — " He made one foolish speech "; "He once spoke foolishly.'" Here once and foolishly modify the verb spoke in much the same way that one and foolish modify the noun speech; and once and foolishly limit the application of the verb as one and foolish limit the application of the noun. Once spoke foolishly applies to one instance of the action, but conveys more information respecting it than spoke does. H. SCH. GRAM. — 4 50 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB This kind of modifier, then, increases the meaning of the verb, but decreases the application of it. (1) u TVe commend it highly'''' ; (2) "It was a highly commend- able act" ; (8) " He now writes much more legibly.'''' In (1), highly, like foolishly above, modifies the verb ; in (2), highly modifies the adjective commendable; in (3), now and legibly modify the verb, more modifies legibly, and much modifies more. We have seen that our thoughts and words are con- cerned with things and what belong to things — namely, their attributes ; that nouns name things ; 1 and that verbs and adjectives express attributes of things. Just as words that name things are put into a class so words that describe attributes are; and, as the verb ex- presses the chief attribute, the words that describe attri- butes are called Adverbs, 'to verbs/ Since an adverb expresses an attribute of an attribute, a word modifying an adjective or an adverb, as well as a verb, must be an adverb. We may therefore say that A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is an adverb. In " Londonderry, situated on a famous bay, has had a history," the simple phrase, on a famous bay, modifying the modifier situated, performs the office of an adverb. There are, then, adverb phrases as well as adjective phrases. 1 The word thing, used without an adjective, as mere, may designate all objects, material and immaterial — persons even. CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 51 We find some words that represent neither things nor their attributes. They show the relations of things to things, and of things to actions and other attributes, as in " The house by the river was lifted from its foundation and carried across the stream, which was yellow ivith the soil of the freshet." By shows the relation (nearness) of the house to the river ; from, the relation (separation) of the action of lifting to the foundation ; across, the relation (direction) of the action of carrying to the stream ; with, the relation (means) of the attribute, or quality, yellow to the soil ; and of, the relation (possession) of soil to the freshet. Each word — by, from, across, icith, and of — is the introductory and the connecting word of a phrase modifying a preceding word. "Words introducing phrase modifiers and showing the relation of things to things, and of things to actions, states, and other attributes, are called Prepositions. We find another class of words whose chief office is to join two sentences into one, as in " Life is short and time is fleeting"; " I go but I return " ; " We shall not reap if we do not sow." Some connecting words join two words or two phrases that have the same office in the sentence, as in u Time and tide wait for no man"; "He was born of poor but industrious parents " j " We hope to spend the winter in London or in Paris." 52 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses are called Conjunctions. 1 " Ah ! this is indeed good news " ; " Hurrah ! our side has won " ; "Pshaw! what nonsense is this?" " Oh ! how he must have suffered! " Ah, hurrah, pshaw, and oh belong neither to the subject nor to the predicate. They merely accompany one or the other to express strong feeling. Such words are called Interjections because interjected, or thrown in. They form the eighth and last part of speech. The interjection does not enter into the structure of a simple sentence and help to form it ; it is therefore hardly entitled to be called a part of speech. In connected dis- course, it is a quasi-clause. Nouns and other parts of speech may be used independ- ently, like interjections, without becoming interjections, as: — " Peace ! peace with honor is now impossible." 1 Conjunctions and prepositions are alike in that they connect ; but even in this office they are unlike (1) in that conjunctions connect clauses, while prepositions do not ; (2) in that conjunctions connect coordinate whole phrases, while prepositions con- nect only the principal word in a modifying, and hence subordinate, phrase to the word modified ; and (3) in that prepositions connect words by showing their relation in sense or meaning. For example, in " The body and the mind of a child must be trained by a teacher," the conjunction and connects the things, body and mind, as joint objects of training ; while the preposition of connects the name child to the names body and mind, by showing the relation (possession) existing between the child and his body and mind ; and the preposition by connects teacher to must be trained by showing the relation (agency) between the teacher and the act. CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 53 The eight parts of speech may, for a general view, be grouped thus : — 1. Nouns, Pronouns, and Verbs— -the essential parts of a sentence. 2. Adjectives and Adverbs — modifiers. 3. Conjunctions and Prepositions — connectives. 4. Interjections — exclamations thrown in. THE SAME WORDS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH The definition of parts of speech implies that the same words, differently used, fall into different classes, as in (1) "You have found your equal" "They have equal shares,' * " Two and two equal four" ; (2) " Throw a stone" " Stone the rep- tile," "He built a stone wall" ; (3) " That is a fact," " That fact- is not denied," "The man that was chosen declined," "That the whole equals the sum of all its parts is an axiom " ; (4) " Past follies are forgotten," "The past, at least, is secure," "He rushed past the goal," " The train swept past" ; (5) " He turned his back upon us," " Come back" " The back settlements," " Back the wagon out." Definitions A Noun is the name of anything. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being. An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 54 HIGH school GBAMMAB A Proposition is a word tli.it introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden fooling. The Subdivisions, the Modifications, and the History of bhese eight Parts of Speech will be found in bhe chapters following those thai eoinplote tlio treatment, of the sentence, SU1MKCTS OF THI CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Tarts of SpeecL The Noun. The Pronoun, The Verb, The Adjective. The Adverb. The Prep- osition, The Conjunction. The [nterjeotion. The Grouping of the Might Classes. The same Words in Different (Masses. Questions.- (hi what basis are words grouped into classes called parts of speech? What various oflicos in the sentenoe have nouns'/ But what common oilice gives all nouns their name? What is the offloe of a pronoun V Its antecedent, what? Office of the verb ? A verb phrase, what ? What verb tonus <\o not assert? How distin- guished from eaoh other? a substantive? A substantive and a verb ni;iy do what? Offioe o{ an adjective? Bffed o\' an adjective upon the meaning of the word it. modifies? Upon the application ? illus- trate both. Does the adjective always do this? The part of speech used Like an adjeotive, but not oneV Illustrate, show that a phraae may be adjectival. What part o\' speech modifies the verb much as the adjective modifies the noun? [Uustrate. The pertinence of its name? What besides verbs do adverbs modify? Illustrate. How CLASSES OF WORDS — PARTS OF SPEECH 55 do we use the word thing, unmodified by an adjective, as mere? An adverb phrase ? What part of speech expresses relations? Relations between what ? Illustrate. Full office of the preposition ? What different things may conjunctions connect ? Illustrate. The three points in which, in the office of connecting, conjunctions and preposi- tions differ ? Show that interjections do not enter the structure of the sentence. Group the parts of speech according to the likeness of their office. Show that the same words may be different parts of speech. Define the eight parts of speech. Exercises. — So far as you can, place in its proper part of speech, as noun, pronoun, verb, etc., every word used in the illustrative sen- tences of this chapter. CHAPTER V A COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE ONE OF THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE THE COMPOUND SENTENCE Sentences, each complete in itself, may be linked together to make a longer sentence, as : — (1) " The way was long, and the night was cold " ; (2) " Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers"; (3) "We must conquer our vicious habits, or they will conquer us." Each of these sentences is made up of two distinct parts called Clauses; and neither of these clauses, containing each a subject and a predicate, is dependent upon the other — neither modifies, nor is modified by, the other. Such clauses are called Independent Clauses, and, when united, they form a Compound Sentence. Definitions A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate. An Independent, or Coordinate, Clause is one not dependent on another clause. The coordinate clauses in the first illustrative sentence 56 COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 57 above are in the same line of thought ; in the second, are in contrast ; in the third, in alternation. i 'Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of thee." Here we see independent clauses joined in compound sentences without a connecting word. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE Dependent Adjective Clause (1) " Wise men are respected"; (2) u Men of wisdom are re- spected" ; (3) "Men who are wise are respected." If we apply the question, What kind of men? to these sentences, the answer is (1) wise, (2) of wisdom, and (3) ivho are wise. It is evident that these three expressions do the same work — that ivJio are wise, like ivise and of ivis- dom, is a modifier of men. But who are wise, though con- taining a subject and a predicate, is neither a sentence nor an independent clause ; for it does not make complete sense and it cannot stand alone — who referring to men in another clause for its meaning. It is a clause and not a phrase, for it contains a subject and a predicate. We call it a dependent clause. It here modifies the subject men of the other clause in the sentence. It might modify an object, as in " We know men who are ivise." 58 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR Other words that introduce such clauses are which, that, when, where, whereby, etc. Wlio are wise does the work of the adjective phrase of wisdom, and of the adjective ivise. The dependent clause ivho are wise is, then, an adjective clause. Dependent ISTotjn Clause (1) " Wisdom is the principal thing" ; (2) " To be wise is the prin- cipal thing" ; (3) u TJiat we should be wise is the principal thing." Apply the question. What is the principal thing ? to these sentences, and the answer is (1) wisdom, (2) to be wise, and (3) that we should be wise. They all do the same work, that of subject, hence a phrase or a dependent clause may be the subject of a sentence. " We know that wisdom is the principal thing." Know is an incomplete predicate ; it is completed by the dependent object clause that wisdom is the principal thing. A dependent clause may be an object, or object complement. "Our belief is, that wisdom is the principal thing." Is is an incomplete predicate; it is completed by the attribute clause, that wisdom is the principal thing. A depend- ent clause may be an attribute complement. " It is our belief that loisdom is the principal thing." The dependent clause, that wisdom is the principal thing,. tells what is meant by it, explains it — the subject of the COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PBEBICATE 59 independent clause. A dependent clause may be explan- atory. " What is meant by ' Wisdom is the principal thing '?" Here the dependent clause has the grammatical force and office in the phrase, by wisdom is the principal thing, that wisdom preceded by by (and modified by some explanatory words) would have — that is, it is equivalent to the princi- pal word in a phrase. A dependent clause, then, may be used as the principal term in a phrase. In the preceding chapter, we saw that these five offices of dependent clauses are offices which nouns discharge. These five dependent clauses are therefore called noun clauses. Dependext Adverb Clause " He came immediately " ; "Pie came ivhen he ivas called." In the first sentence, immediately modifies the predicate came by telling when he came — by expressing time. The same work is done in the second sentence by the clause when he teas called, A dependent clause, then, may express time. As, after, before, since, till, while, etc., are other words that introduce such clauses. " He goes where he wishes to goV Here the dependent clause, ivhere he ivishes to go, modifies the predicate goes by telling the place where he goes. A dependent clause, then, may express place. 60 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Wherever and where . . there are other words that introduce such clauses. " He came because he was called. 11 Here the dependent clause modifies the predicate came by- telling the cause of his coining — what made him come. A dependent clause, then, may express cause. As, for, and since are other words that introduce such clauses. u He came because I saw him here." Here the dependent clause tells, not the cause of his com- ing, but the cause of my knowing that he came ; it is my evidence for what I assert. A dependent clause may express evidence. For and since are other words that introduce such clauses. " He will come if he is called." Here the dependent clause modifies the predicate will come by telling the condition of his coming. A dependent clause may express condition. Unless meaning 'if not,' and were and should, without connectives, are other words that introduce such clauses. u He will not come although he is called." Here the clause, although he is called, concedes that a cause for coming exists; but in the independent clause it is asserted that, in spite of this cause, he will not come. A dependent clause may express concession. COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 61 If meaning 'even if/ and though are other words that introduce such clauses. " He came that he might see you." Here the clause, that he might see you, tells the object, or purpose, of his coming. A dependent clause may express purpose. In order that and so that are other words that introduce such clauses. " He came as he was told to come, by rail." Here the clause, as he was told to come, tells the manner of his coming. A dependent clause then may express manner. As ... so also introduces such clauses. " Lincoln was as wise as he was good." Here the clause, as he was good, modifies the first as — a modifier of wise — and tells the degree of Lincoln's wisdom. A dependent clause then may express degree. The . . . the and than are other words that introduce such clauses. " It was so cold that mercury froze." Here the dependent clause, that mercury froze, measures the degree of the cold by giving the result of it. A de- pendent clause then may express result. So ... as also introduces such clauses. In the preceding chapter we saw that the part of speech which, like these ten dependent clauses of time, place, cause, 62 HIGH SCHOOL G LJ8 racession, purpose, manner, degree, result, lies a pi . an adjective, or an ad\ ailed an adverb. .impendent clauses are adverb clauses then. s i noNs A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. S \ .. \ L8SSD WITH RESPECT TO FORM A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and te, either or both of which may be compound. A Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more inde- pendent, or coordinate, clauses. A Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent, or principal, clause and one or more dependent clauses. We have seen that sentences, subjects and predic \nnpleir. d word and phrase modifiers may be compound. We now add tV Independent and dependent clauses may be compound, as in •• When morning dawned : . •• They that s torn and . :ll mid it " ; "Who has not fa :h in time *• If th<: i -ind the wind Motos, we shall set sail." FHE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Clauses. Independent Clan Corny ind S Clauses — Adjective, Xoivn, and Adverb. Compound ( COMBINATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE Questions. — What, is a clause ? An independent ela i poun< thought >w to that of the first ? . joined l. jective clause = what ? J. ify what word ? What words i clauses ? Whi e perform ? Jllus\ ch a clause is fitly* De- and illustrate the ten kinds of adi is — net. ions or conjnnci >rbs — may each clause be Knt and connected to the word it modi fie a simple tnpound :-. With ect to what an ,-s thus classed ? Exercises. — Write three compound A fence ing the clauses of the first ; yet connecting the clauses of the and nor connecting the clauses of the third. Write three complex ea the adjective clauses of which shall be introdu tha^ which, and where. Write ten complei an adverb clause — H; a time introduced by place clause introduced by v:hcr^ver ..troduced by /or; '4 ; an evidence clause introduced by /or; (6) a condition clause introduced by unless; rf jj a itroduced by ?/; (7) a purpose clause introduced by so that ; (8) a manner ch introduced by as . . . so ; (9) a degree clause introduced by tftaii ; and (10) a result clause introduced by so . . . as. CHAPTER VI THE SENTENCE {Completed) We have seen that sentences may be complex ; we now add that Phrases may be complex, as in (1) Two honest old men were chosen"; (2) u He writes now much more legibly" ; (3) " The children of this country of ours have great advantages"; (4) "Londonderry, situated in the north of Ireland, has had a famous history." In (1), old modifies men, honest modifies old men, and two modifies honest old men; two honest old is a complex adjective phrase made up of single word modifiers. In (2), the adverb more modifies the adverb legibly, and is in turn modified by the adverb much; much more legibly is a complex adverb phrase made up of single word modifiers. In (3), country, the principal word of the prepositional adjective phrase of this country is modified by another ad- jective phrase, of ours. The whole phrase, of this country of ours, is a complex adjective phrase made up of two adjective phrases, and modifies the noun children. In (4), the adjective situated, modifying Londonderry, is itself modified by the simple adverb phrase in the north, the 64 THE SENTENCE 65 principal word of which, north, is modified by the adjective phrase of Ireland, The whole phrase in the north of Ireland is a complex adverb phrase made up of two phrases — one adverb and one adjective. The highly complex phrase, on a beautiful bay in the north of Ireland, would contain two complex phrases — on a beautiful bay in the north and in the north of Ireland. A phrase composed of at least one word modified by another word or another phrase is called a Complex P 1 rase. Sentences and phrases may be complex ; we now add that Clauses may be Complex, as in (1) "Hope thinks that nothing is difficult; despair tells us that difficulty is insurmountable " ; (2) "The Bible says that, if our right l eye leads us into sin, we should pluck it out ; it says also that, if our I right hand thus offends, we should cut it off" ; (3) "An untruth is 1 something not true, though the one who tells it believes that it is true ; a lie is something false, told, with intent to deceive, by one who knows that it is false " ; (4) " When the question was asked whether oysters were healthy or unhealthy during certain months, and a physician re- plied, ' I never heard an oyster complain of an ache or an ail,' he was only insisting on the difference which exists between the synonyms healthful and healthy " ; (5) " Wellington did not write as well after the battle of Waterloo as he wrote before, because his constant fear was, that what the conqueror of Napoleon said would be read by everybody." Sentences (1), (2), and (3) are compound; and the two independent clauses in each, separated by the semicolon, are complex. H. SCH. GRAM. — 5 66 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Each independent clause in (1) contains a noun clause beginning with that, and each noun clause is the object of a verb in the principal clause — of thinks in one, and of tells in the other. Each independent clause in (2) contains a complex noun clause beginning with that, and each noun clause is the object of a verb in the principal clause — of says in the one, and of says in the other. The first complex noun clause contains a condition clause, if . . . sin, modifying should pluck ; the second complex noun clause contains a condition clause, if . . . offends, modifying should cut. The first independent clause in (3) contains a complex concessive clause, though . . . true ; one, the subject of the leading part of this complex clause, is modified by the adjective clause, who tells it; be- lieves, the predicate, has as object the noun clause, that it is true ; one, the principal word in a prepositional phrase in the second independent clause, is modified by a complex adjective clause, who . . . false; and knows, the predicate of the principal part of this clause, has as object the noun clause, that . . . false. Sentences (4) and (5) are complex. The independent clause of (4) has he for subject, and was insisting for grammatical predicate ; was insisting is modified by the compound time clause, when . . . ail, — and connecting the two parts of this com- pound clause ; question, the subject of the first part, is modified by the explanatory noun clause, whether . . . months, and of this clause oys- ters is subject, and were is grammatical predicate ; physician is subject of the second part ; replied, the predicate, has for its object the noun clause, / . . . ail ; and difference, the principal word of the prepo- sitional phrase beginning with on, is modified by the adjective clause, which . . . healthy. The independent clause of (5) has Wellington for subject, and did write for predicate ; the degree clause, as . . . before, modifies the first as ; the predicate, did write, is modified by the complex cause clause, because . . . everybody ; was, the predicate of the leading part of this THE SENTENCE 67 clause, is completed by the complex attribute noun clause, that . . . everybody ; and ichat . . . said is an adjective clause modifying the omitted subject of would be read, — zohat, the object of said, turning into some other word, as which, when the omitted subject, as that or thing, of icould be read, is supplied. It is obvious that the real difficulties in writing, and in analyzing what others have written, are encountered in such intricate sentences as these — sentences scattered thickly- over the pages of literature. WHAT MAY BE THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE 1. A Noun may be the Subject of a sentence. The name (1) of any material thing; (2) of any mental thing; (3) of a quality; (4) of an action; (5) of a person; (6) an adjec- tive; and (7) an adverb, used as a noun; and (8) a word as word, as: — (1) "Frogs croak"; (2) "The memory fails" ; (3) " The width is great " ; (4) " Seeing is believing " ; (5) " Buskin is dead " ; (6) "The good are happy " ; (7) " Now is the time " ; and (8) "And is a con- junction." 2. A Pronoun may be the Subject, as : — " Thou art the man" ; " Who is the man?" u That is mine." 3. The Infinitive Phrase, simple, or with added w^ords, as: — " To see is to believe" ; "To tell lies is contemptible. 4. A Nounal Verb Phrase, as : — " Telling lies is contemptible." 68 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 5. Any Phrase, as : — " ' Now or never!' roused all to action"; " For me to do that would be wrong." 6. A Clause, (1) simple, (2) compound, or (3) complex, as : — (1) " That we obey is a duty " ; (2) "That we should obey and that ■we should do it cheerfully are duties hard to learn" ; (3) " ' The labor -we delight in physics pain' is a saying of Shakespeare's." MODIFIERS (OR ADJUNCTS) OF THE SUBJECT A Modifier of the Subject may be (1) an adjective, alone or with adverbial modifiers ; (2) a participle, alone or with added words ; (3) an infinitive phrase, simple or with added words; (4) a substantive in the possessive, alone or with adjective modifiers; (5) a substantive explanatory, alone or with adjective modifiers ; and (6) a prepositional phrase, the principal word of which is a substantive or a nounal verb, as : — (1) u Tower fid engines are built," "Far more powerful engines are built" ; (2) "The train approaching is the Empire State Express," "The engineer, seeing the danger in time, saved his train" ; (3) The time to choose had come," "The time to choose his calling had come"; (4) "Father's advice was this," "My good old father's advice was this " ; (5) " The English historian Macaulay wrote ' Lays of Ancient Rome,'" "Duncan, the trustful old king, went to Mac- beth's castle"; (6) "No works of man 1 may rival thee," "The reasons for doing this immediately were given." 1 Phrases like this, introduced by of and equivalent to words in the possessive, .are certainly adjectives in use. Phrases introduced by prepositions other than of THE SENTENCE 69 MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE The Predicate, simple or compound, may be modified (1) by an adverb, alone or with adverbial modifiers ; * (2) by a prepositional phrase -with, a substantive or a nounal verb as principal word ; (3) by a substantive, unmodified or modified; (4) by an infinitive phrase, simple or with other are general!}- adverbial, it is thought, though frequently joined to substantives and classed as adjective modifiers. The adverbial phrases are joined to substantives (1) through the omission of a participle, or (2) through the verbal nature of the modified substantive, as: — (1) "The accident (occurring) on Monday," "The book (lying) under the paper," "A picture (painted) in water-colors"; (2) " A peep into fairyland (peeped into fairyland), 1 ' "A struggle for life" (struggled for life), "Appointment to office" (appointed to office). It may be objected to this view of the adverbial nature of such phrases that if we hold, as we do, that when and where clauses may be adjectival, as in "The place where {—on which) you stand is holy ground"; "Youth is the time ichen (=in which) the seeds of character are sown," we should allow when and where phrases to be adjectival, when following substan- tives and apparently modifying them. 1 Adjectives, adverbs, participles, infinitives, and nounal verbs may have these different kinds of adverbial modifiers. Though not here trying to classify adverbial words and phrases, we may say that they express the modifications of (1) time, (2) place, (3) manner, (4) degree, (5) cause, (6) purpose, (T) condition, and (S) concession (all of which modifications are ex- pressed, as we have seen, by clauses), as: — (1) "Come early,"'' "The lights shone at intervals" "That night they caught nothing"; (2) "He stopped there,"'' "He went to the woods," "Which way did he go?" (3) "The wind blew furiously" "The rain fell in torrents'' ; (4) "That is good enough," "The wall is ten feet high," " He was brave to temerity" ; (5) Why are you so still?" "He suffered from heat" ; (6) " He went there for his health" ; (7) " Without help you won't succeed" ; (S) " Without help he did succeed." 70 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB words; (5) by a substantive modified by a participle, and forming with it an absolute phrase grammatically independ- ent, yet having the force of an adverb ; and (6) by an adverb clause, as : — (1) "We travel rapidly" "We may travel much more rapidly" ; (2) "We rested under a spreading oak" "I have heard of their running away" ; (3) They went home," "They sailed three days" ; (4) "I shall be glad to go" "I shall be pleased to see you at any time"; (5) '•''Our lessons being ended, we started for the woods"; and (6) "When our lessons were ended, we started for the woods." The object may be classed with the modifiers of the predicate; but so distinct are its functions from those of other modifiers that it seems best to treat it separately. Two kinds of objects are commonly recognized — the Direct Object and the Indirect Object. 1. The Direct 1 Object may be (1) the Passive, or Suffer- ing, Object or (2) the Factitive Object. 1 When a direct object names the action, or a variety of the action expressed by the verb itself, it may be called a cognate object, as in "He lived a useful life"; "She sang- a song" ; "Trip it as you go. " Some grammarians mention the cognate object, give illustrations like those above that directly and obviously name the action denoted by the verb, and suggest that it be treated as an adverbial adjunct. Others make it of much importance, extending its scope to include factitive objects, etc. This is a brief outline of their treatment of it : — Every verb contains a noun. This noun can always be expressed by a verbal noun, and often by a noun without a verbal ending, as : — 1 THE SENTENCE 71 The Passive/ or Suffering, Object denotes that on which the action expressed by the verb is expended, as in u He killed a bear'''' ; " She mailed a letter." The Factitive Object denotes the prodnct of the action expressed by the verb, as in 44 She made a cake" ; ;t I wrote a letter." 2. The Indirect, 1 or Dative, Object denotes the one in- terested in, and affected by, the action expressed by the verb, as in " I gave him 2 a i vatch" ; "He p aid us our wages/' Verb Verbal Noun Xoun lives living life plays playing (a) play gives giving gift assert asserting assertion The cognate object is distinguished from other objects by the test question, Does it tell in what the contained noun consists ? The following examples illus- trate : — "I paid a dime''' (cog. obj.) ; "I paid the servant" (suf. obj.). "I painted the pictures" (cog. obj.); "I painted the door'' 1 (suf. obj.). "He struck the 7wrse (suf. obj.) a blow (cog. obj.). "He taught the boy (suf. obj.) music (cog. obj.). 1 Some grammarians extend the scope of the indirect object to include all i adverbial expressions essential to the full expression of the verbal notion, as : — "I dealt with the grocer"; ""We longed for your return'''; "The accident deprived him of sight." It would seem that the sentences do not make complete sense without the help of the italicized phrases. 2 When a preposition is placed before the substantive, it and the substantive become an adverbial phrase; as, "I gave a watch to him" 72 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Complex Phrases — three kinds. Complex Clauses — many kinds. What may be Subject of a Sentence ? The Modifiers of the Subject. The Modifiers of the Predicate. The Object — Direct, Indirect, Passive, Factitive, Cognate. Questions. — What is a complex adjective phrase made up of simple word modifiers ? A complex adverb phrase of the same kind ? Illustrate each. A complex adjective phrase made up of adjective phrases ? A complex adverb phrase — one adverb and one adjective ? Illustrate each. Define a complex phrase. A complex clause. What are the different kinds of complex clauses in the three compound and two complex illustrative sentences of the chapter ? Of what clauses is each complex clause in these sentences composed ? What names, and what parts of speech used as nouns may be the subject of a sentence ? What other things than nouns may be so used ? Illustrate. What various modifiers may a subject have ? Illustrate. May other nouns than the subject have the same? Phrases introduced by what preposition are adjectival ? Phrases introduced by other prepositions are joined to substantives through omission of what ? Through the nature of what ? The predicate may be modified by what ? Illustrate. Adverbs and adverb phrases may express what modifications ? Illus- trate. What besides the predicate may have adverbial modifiers ? Subdivide the direct object. What do the passive, the factitive, and the indirect object each denote ? Some extend the cognate object to mean what ? The indirect object to mean what ? Illustrate each extension. Exercises. — Classify as noun, pronoun, verb, etc., all the words in the five compound and complex illustrative sentences in this chapter. Find in these sentences all the illustrations there of simple, compound, and complex modifiers, and of other compound parts of the sentence. CHAPTER VII THE NOUN In the expression of thought, the various words of a sentence have diverse offices. Classifying words with re- gard to their offices, we have the Parts of Speech. Of these we have seen that there are seven — the Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, and the Conjunction — eight if we add the Interjection. These parts of speech are not on the same footing as respects 1. Age. — The adverb and the conjunction, at least, are in their present forms later than the other parts of speech. 2. Origin. — " Although adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are known to have been formed in various ways, yet all these parts of speech may safely be regarded as having originated in the declension of nouns and pro- nouns." In this judgment of Wrightson's, philologers sub- stantially agree. 3. Importance. — We can express a thought with only a verb to denote the action, and a noun or pronoun to denote the person or thing putting it forth. The Noun, the Name. — This part of speech is called noun, not from any of its relations to other words in the 73 74 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR sentence, but because, whatever its relation, the noun al- ways names. • The Derivation of rTouns. — The roots from which nouns are derived denote actions or qualities, and are called verbal, or predicative, roots. 1 About this nucleus root, derivative affixes — prefixes and suffixes — gather, and form with it the base, or stem, of the noun. To this base are added the. inflectional suffixes to indicate modifications, and the relations of the word to other words in the sentence. About the root tru, for in- stance, in u Trw-th-s and un-tru-th-s were spoken" ; " We speak for tru-ih-' > & sake," cluster the derivative affixes -th and un to form with it the base of the nouns truths and untruths; to truth and untruth is added the inflectional suffix -s to indicate plurality ; and to truth is appended the inflectional suffix - ? s to express case relation to sake. 1 The root of a noun does not necessarily denote the most essential quality or action of the thing named, only its most obtrusive. The sky, a shower, and scum, for in- stance, have this noticeable, though accidental, feature ; they cover, hide, conceal. This the root sk*iof the nouns sky, shower (O.E. scur), and scum, and of the verb and adjective obscure, signifies. Marking at first a single quality or act of the object, the word comes, by association, to denote the object having or exerting them all, to denote our complex idea of that object. Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived — as Smith from the man's office of smoothing, or White from his color, or Florida from the flowers found there — and however significant at first, the name soon ceases to denote action or quality, and becomes really meaningless except as a designation. THE NOUN 75 Inflectional suffixes abound in languages in the synthetic stage of growth, and in some languages that, like ours, have reached the analytic stage ; but, in analytic languages generally, these " suffixes have perished wholesale, and the base is left to do almost universal duty." CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS Common J Concrete Abstract x /'Individual, boy, book, thing, ship, man, wheat, iron, substance. Collective, army, crowd, mob, fleet, jury, herd, w flock. 'whiteness, vice, wisdom, existence, (the) sleep, length, beauty, (the) singing, humility, virtue, vanity, ugliness. • 1 Plato, Sarah, Victoria, God, Saturn, France, Maine, Monday, June, Herbert Spencer, President McKinley, John Stuart Mill. Definitions A Noun is the name of anything. A Common Noun is the name which belongs to all things of a class. A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual. A Concrete Noun is the name of a thing belonging to a class and considered as having qualities. 1 By means of derivative suffixes, abstract nouns are made out of adjectives and verbs ; as width from wide, rapidity from rapid, wickedness from wicked, impor- tance from important, proof from prove, and existence from exist. For practical purposes, the division of nouns into common and proper is sufficient c 76 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an act, or a state, considered apart from the concrete thing to which it belongs. An Individual Noun is the name of one thing of a class, or of several things considered separately. A Collective Noun is the name of several things of a class considered together. Old English is synthetic, that is, it expresses grammatical relations by inflections; Modern English is analytic, it lias lost many of the O.E. inflections. It follows that many of the meanings and uses of words formerly indicated by inflection are not thus indicated now. The changes in the meaning and in the use of words, whether marked by changes of form or not, constitute their Modifications, Definition. — Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their meaning and use, and in their form when form is employed. Nouns and Pronouns have four Modifications — Number, Gender, Person, and Case. In a minute subdivision, the classes overlap. Pluralizing the noun often effects this ; as, beauty, beauties of the Court; license, licenses were granted. The article some- times effects this ; as, youth, a youth, the youth; peerage, the peerage of England. Proper nouns are really concrete, the persons or things named by them have quali- ties. But if, as above, concrete nouns are restricted in their scope, the distinction between proper nouns and concrete may be justified. Indeed, in some real sense, proper nouns may fade into common and the distinction between these two classes vanish; as, "His Mondays are his busy days' 1 ; "The Browns were there " ; " He is the Solon of this age." THE NOUN 77 NUMBER Definitions Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one. The Singular Number denotes one thing. The Plural 1 Number denotes more than one thing. Most nouns in English form their plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. But, besides this regular way, there are four irregular ways. Rule. — The Plural of Nouns is regularly 2 formed by adding -s or -es to the Singular. 1 There was once a dual number ; traces of it are seen in the O.E. pronouns. Its endings, according to Sayce, Encye. Br! tannic a. X., 40, were the primitive forms from i which the plural endings were derived. Peile, Primer of Philology, says, though doubtfully, "The dual forms are apparently later modifications of the plural." 2 This regular way of forming the plural and three of the irregular ways, have come to us from O.E. Only masculine nouns in one of the two O.E. declensions — see p. — form their plurals in -as, which weakened into -es, now usually shortened to -s. It is customary to ascribe to Norman-French influence the generalizing of this -s into cur common plural sign. But Professor Jespersen, Progress in Language, objects <1) that the growth of a plural -s cannot be separated from that -S, in which French influence is not claimed ; (2) that long before the Conquest the plural -s extended to nouns with other plural endings ; (3) that -s became universal in the th earlier than in the South, where French influence was strongest ; (4) that -s was not then used to the same extent as now as a French plural ending; and (5) that the rman -S and the O.E. -es we: r four hundred years in English. He then adds : "A greater influence upon English than that exercised by the Galli- I cized Normans, must be ascribed to the Danish Vikings, who. for such a long time, were acting a prominent part in Britain. ... As for the language, it should be borne Iin mind that the tongue spoken by the Danes was so nearly akin with the native dialects [of English speech], that the two peoples could understand one another without much I difficulty. *' " In A-S., as in other Germanic tongues, the declension in -n was encroaching upon that in -s. Foreign influence turned the tables ; the Danes had no plurals in -s : the ans had the -s plurals but no -n." — Francis A. March. 78 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Most of the nouns coming under this' rule add -s rather than -es — the governing principle being that nouns ending in a sound which unites with that of s add -s. To this rule there are exceptions : — First Exception. — Some nouns in o after a consonant add -es, as : — negro, negroes ; echo, echoes ; motto, mottoes ; cargo, cargoes ; volcano, volcanoes ; calico, calicoes ; torpedo, torpedoes. Second Exception. — Some nouns in f or fe add -es after changing the f to v, 1 as : — calf, calves ; leaf, leaves ; wolf, wolves ; knife, knives ; life, lives ; wife, wives. Third Exception. — ISTouns in y after a consonant add -es after changing y into i, 2 as : — city, cities ; colloquy, colloquies 3 ; glory, glories ; spy, spies ; fancy, fancies ; lady, ladies ; lily, lilies ; daisy, daisies ; vanity, vanities. But nouns in o or y after a vowel, some nouns in o after a consonant, and most nouns in f and fe follow the principle above, as : — 1 This change of the surd to the sonant in spelling suggests the tendency to this change in pronunciation when the spelling is unchanged — as (1) of the surd th in oath, cloth, etc., to the sonant th in oaths, cloths, etc. ; (2) of the s-sound of the plural ending after a sonant to the z-sound, as in days, eggs, etc. ; and (3) of the s-sound in the noun grease to the z-sound in the verb grease and the adjective greasy. 2 Perhaps we should saj r that Mn.E. has in the singular changed the O.E. ending ie (Jadie, glorie, fancie) toy. According to Mason, some writers retain the y in the plural of proper names, as in the Henrys, the Jfarys, etc. 3 In qu, u is regarded as a consonant. THE NOUN 79 cameo, cameos ; cuckoo, cuckoos ; trio, trios ; day, days ; chim- ney, chimneys ; piano, pianos ; tyro, tyros ; belief, beliefs ; roof, roofs ; fife, fifes ; strife, strifes ; sofa, sofas. When the singular ends in a sound that does not blend with that of s, -es is added as a distinct syllable, as : — box, boxes ; brush, brushes ; ditch, ditches ; gas, gases ; lens, lenses ; topaz, topazes ; horse, 1 horses ; cage, cages ; prize, prizes ; niche, niches. First 2 Irregular Way of Forming the Plural — Adding -en, — In the four nouns : — ox, oxen ; child, children ; brother, brethren and brothers ; cow, kine and cows. Second 2 Irregular Way — Change of Internal Vowel. — In the six nouns : — foot, feet ; goose, geese ; man, men ; tooth, teeth ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice. Third 2 Irregular Way — Without Change from the Singular. — These nouns illustrate the method : — 1 The final e in horse, cage, etc., is silent, hence the last sound is that of a conso- nant. By Rule I. for spelling, p. 143, final e drops when -es is added. 2 Oxa, fot, and hus, chapter IX, give us the originals of our plurals (1) in -en, (2) by change of vowel element, and (3) without change. Only ox of the O.E. nouns in -an (-en) retains its old ending. Child has wholly deserted from the vowel declension ; and brother and cow, partly. These three have double plurals — en being added to the plural childer, O.E. cildru, to make children; to O.E. brether, brothru, to make brethren; and to cy, the O.E. plural of cu, to make kine. In fot, chapter IX, it is seen that e, now ee, is found only in the dative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural. The dative was rarely used ; the nomi- 80 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB deer, grouse, gross, hose, sheep, swine, vermin. Fourth Irregular Method — Foreign Plurals Retained. Here are a few illustrations : — analysis, analyses ; beau, beaux or beaus ; datum, data ; focus, foci ; genus, genera ; madame, mesdames ; nebula, nebulse ; mon- sieur, messieurs ; phenomenon, phenomena. PECULIAR PLURALS 1. Some foreign nouns while keeping their old plurals have taken on English plurals. Often, while in this tran- sitional state, these diverse forms have different meanings, as : — cherub, cherubim (mysterious winged beings) and cherubs (beau- tiful children); genius, genii (spirits) and geniuses (men of genius); index, indices (signs in algebra) and indexes (tables of reference); stamen, stamina (bones of bodies, vigor) and stamens (organs of flowers). 2. Some nouns, not foreign, have two plurals with dif- ferent meanings, as : — native and accusative constantly. Fet being found almost exclusively in the plural, and fot in the singular, the change of to e came to signify plurality, and the super- fluous plural endings were dropped. This change of vowel was caused by an i in the endings of the three cases. The transition from o of the stem to i of the ending was harder for the mouth organs to make than that from e to i ; and so unconsciously speakers exchanged for e. Like changes were made in the other five nouns above. This change of a letter caused by one coming after it is variously called Vowel- Modification, Umlaut, and Mutation. THE NOUN 81 brother, brothers (by blood) and brethren (of the same society); die, dice (cubes for gaming) and dies (stamps for coining); foot, feet (parts on the body) and foot (infantry); head, heads (parts of the body) and head (cattle) ; horse, horses (animals) and horse (cavalry) ; sail, sails (pieces of canvas) and sail (vessels). 3. Some nouns have one plural with diverse meanings, as: — color, colors (paints and flags) ; custom, customs (habits and reve- nue duties); ground, grounds (lands and dregs); letter, letters (al- phabet and literature); manner, manners (ways, behavior); moral, morals (teachings and character) ; pain, pains (sufferings and care) ; spectacle, spectacles (shows a^id glasses). 4. Some words always plural in form and in mean- ing, as : — aborigines, annals, assets, lungs, mumps, nippers, pincers, scissors, shears, snuffers, thanks, tongs, tidings, victuals, vitals. 5. Some words plural in form, but singular in meaning, as: — acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences ending in ics), amends, measles, news. 6. Some compound nouns vary the first word in the plural, as : — a^s-de-camp, commanders-in-chief, courts-mdLTti&l, fathers-in-law, hangers-on, men-of-war. 7. Most compounds vary the last word in the plural, as : — Englislmen, ieWow-servants, goose-quills, hand/nZs, mantraps, piano/or£es, stepsons, toothbrushes. H. SCH. GRAM. 6 82 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 8. Some compounds vary both parts, as : — men-children, men-servants, women-singers, women-servants. 9. Compounds consisting of a title and a proper name vary either, as : — the Misses 1 Smith or the Miss Smiths; the Drs. Thomson or the Dr. Thomsons. 10. When used with two or more names the title is plural- ized, as: — Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Maynard, Merrill, & Co., Generals Grant and Lee. 11. Letters, figures, and other characters form the plural with the apostrophe and s, as : — a's, 2's, ■ — 's, i's, 9's, x 's, +'s, £'s. 12. Abstract nouns and names of materials generally have no plurals; but they may have when they denote repeated actions, varieties of qualities, kinds of the same material, or things made out of the material, as : — loves, tremblings, vices, liberties, coffees, wines, oils, silks, tins, irons. 13. The initial letter of a word is sometimes doubled to form the abbreviation of the plural, as : — 1 If Mrs. is used, the name is varied ; as, the Mrs. C larks. " In colloquial lan- guage, it is usual to say, the Miss Smiths, the two Doctor Thomsons, etc., — the construction in the case of brothers, etc., being often evaded by saying the Smith brothers. The Misses Smith now sounds pedantic, and is liable to cause confusion with Mrs. SmitJi." —t. THE NOUN 83 LL. in LL.B., in LL.D., and in LL.M., is for the plural of lex (leges, legum), l laws ' ; I. is for line, and 11. for lines ; p. tor page, and pp. for pages; M. (or Mr.) for Mister, and JOf. (or Messieurs) for the plural ; Jftf. for manuscript, and Jf #& for manuscripts. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Parts of Speech not on the Same Footing — Wherein? Nouns — Derivation, Classification, and Defini- tions of. Number. Plural — Regular way, and Irregular ways of forming it. Peculiar Plurals. Questions. — In what respects are the parts of speech not on the same footing ? Roots of nouns denote what ? Derivative affixes, what ? Inflectional suffixes, what ? Base, or stem, what ? Illustrate verbal, or predicative, roots with sku. Wherein do proper nouns now differ from common? With truth and its changes illustrate root, derivative prefixes and suffixes, and inflectional suffixes. Classify and subclassify nouns, and illustrate the several classes. Show how in a minute classification the classes overlap. From what, and with what derivative suffixes, do abstract nouns come ? Define the several classes of nouns. A synthetic language, what ? An analytic, what ? What are modifications of words ? What modifications have nouns ? Number, what ? Define the two numbers. What number has English lost ? How is the plural regularly formed ? What two languages were influential in making the plural in -s common ? Give Jespersen's reasons for making Danish the more influential of the two, and March's remarks upon them. What is the principle governing in the use of -s rather than -es as plural ending ? Give and illustrate the three exceptions to this rule. When do we use -es ? Give and illus- trate the four irregular ways of forming the plural in English. What ones are of O.E. origin ? With O.E. oxa, fot, and hus, p. 93, illustrate three. Show how, in fot and the other five nouns of its class 84 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR in English, a change of internal vowel came to be significant of plurality. What is vowel-modification or umlaut or mutation ? Give and illustrate the thirteen kinds of peculiar plurals. Exercises. — Give the plural of boy, cage, and fox, and the reasons for the plural endings. Give the plural of volcano, life, and city, and the exceptions which govern these plurals. What tendency is illus- trated in the pronunciation of oaths and days ? What irregular ways of forming the plural are illustrated in oxen, men, sheep, and data? What difference in meaning between the plurals cherubim and cherubs, brothers and brethren, sail and sails? Give the more com- mon nouns that are always plural in form and in meaning, and those that are plural in form but singular in meaning ; compound nouns whose first word is pluralized ; whose last part is pluralized ; both of whose parts are pluralized. Illustrate the pluralizing of letters and figures. Give the abbreviations that double the initial or final letter to form the plural. CHAPTER VIII THE NOUN — ( Continued') GENDER The modification of a noun in English to denote the sex of the object is called Gender. The name of a male is of the Masculine Gender; that of a female is of the Feminine Gender; that of a thing without sex is of the Neuter Gender ; and that of a thing that may be of either sex is of the Common Gender. Sex belongs to the object; gender, to the noun that names the object. In English, 1 gender follows sex; know- 1 In Latin and Greek, and in French, German, etc., gender is grammatical — is attributed to nouns without sole or supreme regard to the sex, or the lack of sex, of the objects named. March and Sayce and Whitney recognize no signs set apart for gender in the theoretic parent-speech of the Indo-European ; but it is found established in the earliest remains of languages. It is agreed that the masculine is the fundamental form, and that the feminine first separated from it. Words possessing long vowels or liquids, or broadening and prolonging the final vowel of the derivative or the declensional ending were thought to represent feminine qualities, and were applied to females. Then other nouns with such endings were classed with these as grammatically feminine, no matter which sex the objects were of, or whether of either. The neuter separated later, and "was not so thorough-going." It is a masculine with the activity left out, having no nominative (actor's) case-sign or sign of counted individuals — plural number. In O.E., gender was grammatical. "In that vast decay and ruin of grammatical forms which attended the elaboration of Mn.E. out of its Saxon and Norman elements, the distinctive suffixes of gender disappeared along with the rest." Since then gender in English has followed sex. 85 86 HIGH school GRAMMAR ing the sex of the object, or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the noun in English that names it. Definitions Gender is that modification of a noun or a pronoun which denotes sex. The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex. The Neuter Gender denotes the lack of sex. No English nouns now have distinctive neuter forms ; but the feminine of a few words is distinguished from the masculine : — I. By a different ending of the words. The usual feminine ending, and the only one by which new feminines are formed, is -ess — added (1) to the full form of the masculine ; (2) to the masculine with the vowel of the ending omitted ; (3) to the masculine with the full ending omitted; or (4) to the masculine with irregu- lar changes, as : — (1) count, countess; host, hostess; lion, lioness; prophet, proph- etess; shepherd, shepherdess; (2) actor, actress; benefactor, bene- factress ; hunter, 1 huntress ; preceptor, preceptress ; waiter, waitress ; (3) negro, negress; governor, governess ; murderer, murderess j and (4) duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; marquis, marchion- ess ; master, mistress. 1 -Er, originally masculine, now indicates the agent. THE NOUN The other feminine endings are -ster/ -en, -trix, -ine, -ina, and -a., as : — fox, vixen; executor, executrix; hero, heroine; czar, czarina; don, donna. II. By different words in the compound names, as : — billy-goat, nanny-goat ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; grandfather, grandmother ; he-bear, .she-bear ; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow ; land- lord, landlady ; milkman, milkmaid ; merman, mermaid ; man-servant, maid-servant ; step-father, step-mother ; peacock, peahen. III. By words radically or wholly different, as : — bachelor, maid 2 ; brother, sister; boy, girl 2 ; buck, doe; bull, cow; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, mother ; gander, goose 2 ; husband, wife 2 ; king, queen 2 ; lord, lady; monk, nun; nephew, niece ; ram, ewe ; sir, madam ; son, daughter ; steer, heifer ; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch 2 . Gender is chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns he, she, and it. When a singular noun or pronoun is used for a person of either' sex, it is commonly represented by a masculine pronoun, as : — "Each visitor came in hi* carriage *' ; "Every one has his fau". 1 This gave way to -ess ; when used now it denotes the agent. /Soa^-str-ess and seam-sti-e&8 have double feminine endings. Spinster, with meaning changed, still keeps the feminine force of -ster. 2 Many nouns have changed their meaning and their gender — maid and ^VZonce named persons of either .-.ex : goo*e is of the common gender; wUeh was once applied to males aUo. Wife and queen once moant uoman simply. 88 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB The names of animals are often used without regard to real sex — the speaker employing he or she according as the animal is thought to have masculine or feminine characteristics, but using he more frequently than she, as: — "The grizzly bear is the most savage of his race"; " The cat steals upon her prey" ; "The dog is faithful to his master." The neuter it is often used for animals undistinguished for masculine or feminine qualities, and for very young children without regard to real sex, as : — " When the deer is alarmed, it makes two or three rapid bounds" ; "The little child reached out its hand." Inanimate things are often personified by the use of he and she, as : — "The oak shall send his roots abroad" ; " Truth gets well if she is run over by a locomotive." The principle determining the gender in personification is this : if the thing is notable for strength, size, boldness, or majesty, the masculine he is used ; if for grace, beauty, timidity, gentleness, or productiveness, the feminine she. Only in languages where, as in English, gender is no longer grammatical, is this figure, which adds interest to things and animation to style, possible. Number and gender are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns — number almost always indicated by form; gender, sometimes. But there are THE NOUN 89 modifications of nouns and pronouns that refer to rela- tions ; namely, person and case. The person of nouns is not indicated by form, that of certain pronouns is ; one case of nouns is, all the cases of certain pronouns are. PERSON (1) "7, your friend, will answer that" ; (2) You, my friend, may answer that" ; (3) My friend has gone, he went yesterday." I and friend in (1) denote the speaker ; yon and friend in (2) denote the one spoken to ; friend and he in (3) denote the one spoken of. These three relations of nouns and pronouns to the discourse constitute the modification called Person. I and friend are of the First Person ; you and friend are of the Second Person ; friend and he are of the Third Person — the pronouns changing to express the three per- sons, but the noun friend remaining the same in form. Definitions Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one 1 spoken of. The First Person denotes the one! speaking. The Second Person denotes the one 1 spoken to. The Third Person denotes the one 1 spoken of. 1 By one we mean a mere thing as well as a creature. 90 high school grammar When the subject of a sentence is of the first or of the second person, it is, as we have just seen, a pronoun; a noun used as subject is always of the third person. We consider the person of a noun or pronoun because verbs have inflections which must be made to agree with the persons of their subjects, as : — 44 1 read"; "Thou read-est" ; "Heread-s." 1 SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Gender — Origin, Grammatical, Kinds, Definitions of. Feminine Nouns distinguished from Masculine. Feminine Endings. Gender in Personification. Person. Questions. — Define gender. How many genders ? Distinction between sex and gender ? Grammatical gender, what ? When lost in English ? Development of the feminine and neuter ? The three ways by which some feminines are distinguished from the masculines ? Illustrate. Illustrate the changed stems to which -ess is added. Give and illustrate the feminine endings. The two words with double feminine endings. Gender chiefly important for what ? When he and when she used for names of animals ? and when it f What governs the gender of the personifying pronoun ? What is person ? The three persons ? Definitions ? What part of speech is the sub- ject if of first or second person ? Of what person must the subject be if a noun ? The person of a noun or pronoun important, why ? Exercises. — Form the feminine of host, actor, negro, duke, governor, lad, master, executor, hero, gentleman, milkman, merman, 1 This -s is the almost invariable ending of the third person singular of the verb expressing present action or being. THE NOUN 91 step- father, bachelor, drake, earl, husband, lord, nephew, steer, uncle, wizard. Insert the proper pronouns in these blanks : — 44 Belgium's capital had gathered there beauty and chiv- alry"; " The sparrow trills song"; "The elephant is noted for strength"; "The child was unconscious of danger"; 44 Every person has faults " ; "The wild beast from cover sprang, the wild bird from grove " ; " The fox is noted for cunning"; " Truth is fearless, yet is meek"; " Spring comes forth to do work." CHAPTER IX THE NOUN — {Continued) CASE "If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free." In this sentence the noun lungs represents something as performing an act; the noun air represents something as receiving an act ; and the noun slave's and the pronoun our represent persons as possessing something. The different offices of nouns and pronouns in a sentence constitute the modification called Case. 1 Lungs and he, used as subjects, are in the Nominative Case; air, used as object complement, is in the Objective Case ; and slave's and our, used to denote possession, are in the Possessive Case. The only noun case with case-ending is the possessive. 1 The Latin casus means variation from the primary form, and strictly can be applied only to the non-upright, or oblique cases. In our family there were eight cases — the nominative, the accusative, the vocative, the genitive, the locative, the dative, the ablative, and the instrumental — coming into use, it is thought, in the order here given. The nominative was subject ; the accusative, object ; the vocative, the form of address ; the genitive stood for the relations denoted by our of; the locative, by in ; the dative, by to or for ; the ablative, by from ; and the instrumental, by with or oy. These cases were marked by inflections. Many of them employed prepositions to help make their relations more definite. In different languages, in the same language, the same relations were often denoted by different cases. This and the tendency to simplification aided the prepositions in sup- planting some cases and in narrowing the scope of others. 92 THE NOUN 93 Definitions Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence. Declension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers. MODERN ENGLISH NOUNS DECLINED SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. Nom. lord, lord-s, lady, ladi-es, Pos. lord-'s, lord-s', lady-'s, ladi-es', Obj. lord ; lord-s. lady ; ladi-es. SING. PLUR. man, men, man-'s, men-'s, man ; men. MASCULINE Nom. hlaford, fot, Gen. hlaford-es, fot-es, Bat. hlaford-e, fet, Ace. hlaford : fot : OLD ENGLISH NOUNS DECLINED The Vowel 1 Declension Singular FEMININE NEUTER gif-u, bryd, scip, litis, gif-e, bryd-e, scip-es, hus-es, gif-e, bryd-e, scip-e, hfis-e, gif-e ; bryd ; scip ; litis j Plural Nom. hlaford-as, fet, gif-a(-e), bryd-a(-e), scip-u, has, Gen. hlaford-a, fot-a, gif-ena(-a), bryd-a, scip-a, htis-a, Bat. hlaford-um, fot-um, gif-um, bryd-um, scip-um, htis-um, Ace. hlaford-as. fet. gif-a(-e). bryd-a (-e). scip-u. hus. 1 Called voicel declension because of the vowel originally added to the radical syllable to form the stem ; called consonant declension from the n-ending of the primitive stem. With an occasional exception, the nouns of the vowel declension are inflected as are the six above : hlaford, ' lord ' ; fot, ' foot ' ; gifu, ' gift ' ; bryd, ' bride ' ; scip, #4 HIGH SCHOOL GEAMMAB The Consonant Declension Singular Plural Nom. ox-a, 1 ox-an, Gen. ox-an, ox-ena, Bat. ox-an, ox-um, Ace. ox-an ; ox-an. Remarks. — 1. The O.E. declensions above illustrate our ways of forming the plural — hlaford-as (-es, -s), the regular way; ox-an (-en), the first irregular way ; fet (e our ee), the second ; and hus, the third. 2. They illustrate our possessive ending. The genitive -es of the masculine and neuter, vowel declension, is our (-'s) — the apostrophe to be accounted for later. 3. They show that O.E. is highly inflected — almost every case having an ending, though not always one exclusively its own, and almost every case in the plural having a plural sign. Of these O.E. inflections, only the plural -as and the genitive -es, both changed, remain. 4. The endings disappeared in this way and order : (1) -urn be- came -on ; (2) even before 1060, -a, -o, and -u weakened to obscure -e ; (3) the final -n sloughed off ; and then (4) the -e final, except where, as in house, horse, etc., the dative -e of hus, hors, etc., is retained throughout. During the M.E. period, these changes were completed, leaving us only the -as and -es spoken of in 3. 5. This decay of inflections is explicable. The endings were un- accented, and hence indistinctly pronounced. This merged the sound, and then the form, of final -a, -o, and -u, into -e. Final unaccented syllables often drop off, especially when pronounced by those to 'ship'; and hus, 'house.' The nouns of the consonant declension are inflected like oxa, ' ox,' except that feminines have -e instead of -a in the nominative singular; and the neuters have -e instead of -a and -an in the nominative and accusative singular. 1 See p. 33 for the pronunciation of these O.E. words. THE NOUN 95 whom the language is not native. This happened to the Latin in becoming French; it happened to O.E. in becoming Mn.E. This dropping was aided by the fact that in neither number were the endings any longer significant of case — different cases having the same ending, and some cases being without distinct functions. 6. But this decay was stubbornly resisted by the two -s-endings, because they denote " those syntactical relations which are most dis- tinctive and indispensable in language. 7 ' French and Danish influ- ence helped to generalize these as our plural, and our possessive, sign — both languages aiding to make universal in Mn.E. what was only partial in O.E. DEFINITIONS The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought. The Attribute Complement of a sentence completes the pred- icate and belongs to the subject. Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence. The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement. While case denotes the office of a substantive in the sen- tence, not every office of it has a separate case. The nomi- native and the objective, especially, have each many offices. THE NOMINATIVE i CASE 1. The main office of the nominative case is as subject. Lungs and he, in the opening sentence of the chapter, illustrate this office. 1 Nominative means naming, and every case of a noun names something. But the chief office of the nominative is to name that of which something- is asserted. 96 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 2. A substantive used independently — (1) by address, (2) by exclamation, (3) by pleonasm, (4) in an absolute phrase — is said to be in the nominative case, as : — (1) " Cromwell, 1 1 charge thee, fling away ambition " ; (2) "Traitor ! who calls me this ? " (3) u The smith, a mighty man is he " ; (4) " His argument 2 finished, Mr. Webster stood for some minutes in silence before the court." 3. A substantive used as explanatory modifier 3 — explain- ing by adding another name of the thing — is in the nom- inative if the word it explains is, as : — " Washington, the father of his country, he, our first President, left us his imperishable Farewell Address." 4. A substantive used as attribute complement 4 of a finite verb — a verb with mode, tense, number, and person — is in the nominative case, as : — u All attainable health is a duty ; all avoidable disease seems a sin.'' 1 5. A substantive used as attribute complement of a parti- ciple or of an infinitive is nominative if the substantive to which it relates is, as : — 1 There being- in English no vocative case, or case of address, its office is taken by the nominative. 2 This absolute construction is expressed by different cases in different languages — by the genitive in Greek, the ablative in Latin, the dative in O.E. For the absolute phrase as modifier, see chapter VI. s if preferred, the explanatory modifier may be called an appositive, or a noun in apposition. 4 If preferred, subjective complement may be used instead of attribute com- plement. THE NOUN 97 " Chosen leader (or as leader) he at once took command "; " Called to be leader, he did not shrink from leading." 6. When the assumed subject of a participle is a possessive, the attribute complement is nominative, as : — "Its being he, the long-expected Bliicher, gave Wellington great joy." 7. When the participle or infinitive is used without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is nominative, as : — " Being only a voter is not being a citizen" ; " To be he is to be a patriot." THE POSSESSIVE CASE Our possessive case of nouns, the only one with case- ending, succeeded to the O.E. genitive, but represents it inadequately. The O.E. genitive denotes measure, material, separation, time, cause, means, manner, and partition, as well as pos- session — it is even used with prepositions. The possess- ive case indicates possession principally. While theoretic- ally every noun has a possessive, in use the case is almost restricted 1 to nouns denoting persons, animals that may be said to possess, and things personified. 1 The exception consists chiefly of nouns indicating measure of some kind, princi- pally of time; as, "day's journey" ; "a month's pay"; "an hour's drive" ; "five minutes' 1 walk" ; "a week's work" ; "ten cents' worth" ; and "a hair's breadth." Even with nouns denoting- persons the idea of possession may be taken too literally. In "John's being absent," "Henry's neighbor," "the man'smaster," it is connec- tion of some kind, rather than possession, that is implied. See Professor Hadley's English Possessive Case in Essays Philological and Critical. H. SCH. GRAM. 7 98 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR When the case inflection -es ceased to be a distinct syl- lable, the e began to drop out, and the apostrophe 1 took its place. Subsequently the apostrophe was placed after the -s of the possessive plural to distinguish this from the other cases of the plural. Definition. — The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier. Rule. — The Possessive Case of nouns is formed in the singu- lar, by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and s ('s) 2 ; in the plural, by adding the apostrophe (') only. 3 The substantive in the possessive, like the substantive explanatory, modifies a noun, and so takes upon itself the 1 Whether to denote the omission of e, or to distinguish the possessive singular from the cases of the plural is not certain — probably the latter. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the use of the apostrophe was fully established, Professor Lounsbury thinks. See his English Language, The Noun. 2 Some have thought this -s a remnant of his. Phrases like " Mars his sword," " the prince his players," common in Old and in Middle English, give countenance to this error recently revived. But Professor Hadley, in the article English Possessive Case, in his Essays Philological and Critical, has demonstrated that the O.E. termination -es exists in our possessive ending to-day. Professor Jespersen's remarks are instructive. He holds that his was a species of anacoluthon resulting from the speaker's beginning with some prominent word in thought, whose construction he had not determined, so that a correcting pronoun in the possessive was needed after it, especially if a clause or a long phrase followed the word, as in " It shall come to pass that the man ichom I shall choose, his rod shall bend "; " But he, the chieftain of them all, his sword hangs rusting on the wall." Then, when the pronoun immediately follows the antecedent; as, "This misshapen knave, his master, was a witch." The transition from this use of his to that in " Mars his sword " would be natural — as also the supposed identification of ->S with his. In other languages than English this form of expression is current. 3 The apostrophe and s ('s) are used after the few plurals not ending in -s — men's, children's, etc. THE NOUN 99 office of an adjective. But both name or denote things, and both are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs. They represent the two kinds of noun modifiers — (1) the possess- ive, and (2) the explanatory, or appositive. To avoid hissing sounds, the -s of the possessive singular : may be omitted, as : — " Conscience' sake " ; " Goodness' sake " ; " Achilles' sword. " But the -s is retained, and pronounced as es, when the ear needs its help to identify the words as possessives, as : — " Mrs. Hemans's poetry " ; " James's hat " ; " Prince's estate." 1. When (1) several possessives modify the same word and imply joint possession, the sign is added to the last \ noun only. But, (2) if they modify different nouns, ex- pressed or implied, or, while implying joint possession, they I represent the possessors, (3) as separate, or (4) as mutually opposed — in all four cases the sign is added to each, as : — (1) " Mason and Dixon's line"; (2) u To cut your, John's, and each other's throat" ; (3) " He was his father's, mother's, and sister's favorite " ; (4) " It was the servant's, as well as the master's, right. 2. When the word modified by the possessive is ex- ! pressed, the noun explanatory of the possessive does not take the possessive sign, as : — "I am not of Percy's 1 mind, the Hotspur 1 of the North, he that 1 In O.E., both these nouns would be in the genitive, as in "On Uerod-es dagum, cyning-es" — 'In Herod's, the king's days.' 100 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots " ; " Thou fearest to meet Baldens 1 voice, thy brother, whom through folly thou didst slay." 3. When the modified word is understood, then (1) the explanatory noun alone has the possessive sign, or (2) both the explanatory noun and the noun explained have it ; but (3) only the noun explained has it if the explanatory noun is modified by a phrase, as : — (1) " I left the book at Smith, the bookseller's " ; (2) " I left it at Smith's, the bookseller's " ; (3) " I left it at Smith's, the bookseller in Henry Street." 4. When a proper noun in the possessive is preceded by a title, only the noun takes the sign — and this, whether the noun modified by the possessive is expressed or under- stood, as : — "Duke John's cousin"; u My friend Moore's sake"; "Left at Captain Moore's." 5. Compound nouns, and group-compounds treated as such, add the sign to the last word only, as : — "Henry the Eighth's reign"; "The Queen of Spain's throne" ; "The nian-of-war's sails" ; "The commander-in-c/u'e/'s order." 2 1 Notice that this sentence from Matthew Arnold and the one below from Shake- speare show that a noun in the possessive may be the antecedent of a relative pro- noun — " As if it were Cain's jawbone that did the first murder." For the possessive of pronouns so used, see p. 113, foot-note 2. 2 Such word-groups as Queen of Spain and man-of-war were once separable. Till the fifteenth century, Queen of Spain's throne would have been (the apostrophe apart) Queen's throne of Spain. We do not treat such groups quite as units now, we pluralize the first noun of the group instead of the last — Queens of Spain, m e?t-of-war. I. The plural sign varies in form, effect, and position. 1. Ordinarily it is (1) -s, as THE NOUN 101 The possessive may be ambiguous — (1) subjective, or active, (2) objective, or passive. In (1) "The pugilist* s blow was heavy"; (2) "My present cost less than yours" (1) may be said of the blow the pugilist gave or got, and (2), of the gifts we sent or received. The preposition of with the objective may be used instead of the possessive. We may say "Paul's letters" or "The letters of Paul" 1 ; "Somebody else's name" or "The name of somebody else"; "A doctor of divinity's in boys ; (2) sometimes it is -es, as in box-es ; (3) a vowel change, as in feet; (4) -en, as in ox-en ; (5) wanting, as in sheep ; (6) almost anything, as in cherub-im, termi?i-i, formul-dd, and dat-a.. 2. It often changes the stem of the noun, as in cit-i-es and loa-v-es. 3. It is not stationary — is added (1) to the first word of a compound, as in fathers-in-law ; (2) to the second, as in maid-servants ; (3) belongs to both, as in men-singer— s. II. But the possessive sign is always the same in form, effect, and place. 1. In form, as in (1) boy-'s, (2) box-'s, (3) foot-'s, (4) ox-'s, (5) sheep-s, (6) seraph-s. 2. It. causes no change in the stem, as in city-'s, loaf-'s. If dropped in a few words, as in conscience'' sake, the apostrophe remains to identify the case. We even extend the apostrophe to the possessive plural in s\ as in boys'; and the -'s to plurals not in -s, as in men's. 3. The possessive sign is fixed in position. It stands immediately before the noun which the possessive modifies— even when, as in some- body else-s and men-of-war-' s, it is not annexed to that part which really names the possessor. A sufficient reason for the inconstant position of the plural sign and the fixed form and position of the possessive is this : pluralizing a noun does not disturb its syntactical relations ; converting it into a possessive does ; and we must know not only the possessive modifier but the word it modifies. Of this we are certain only when the two words come together. Many of the endings, offices, and positions of the O.E. genitive are now lost. Its heir, the modern possessive, has one ending, one office, and one position. 1 But we would not say, " This is the house of John." If we use an appositive, however, we may say, "This is the house of my nephew John." 102 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR wife" or "The wife of a doctor of divinity"; "Our all coming together" or "The coming together of us all." But of and the objective may, like the possessive, be ambiguous. In (1) "The fear of the enemy''' ; (2) "The care of his father"; (3) "The love of God," (1) may mean the fear the enemy felt or the fear they caused ; (2) his care for his father or his father's care for him ; and (3) our love for God or God's love for us. The possessive has other equivalents than of with the objective. We may say "Some one else's mistake" or " A mistake made by some one else" ; "My wife's father's house" or "The house belonging to my wife's father" ; Your love and his" or "The love you and he cherish"; "An hour's chat" or "A chat for an hour" ; "The king's enemies" or "The enemies the king has." Often, ambiguity is avoided by placing the assumed subject of the nounal verb in the possessive, as : — "The writer's 1 being a scholar is not doubted"; "No one ever heard of the mail's having been beaten." THE OBJECTIVE CASE " James seized." Here the predicate does not completely assert the act performed. If we add a noun, and say / x " The writer being a scholar is not doubted " is ambiguous ; it may mean that be- cause he is a scholar he is not doubted, or simply that his scholarship is not doubted. THE NOUN 103 " James seized a rope," we complete the predicate by naming that which receives the act. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Comple- ment. As rope completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon, — the object, — we call it the Object Complement. Definition. — The Object Complement of a sentence com- pletes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. All nouns and pronouns so used are in the Objective Case. Connected objects completing the same verb form a Compound Object Complement, as: — " James saw hawks and mice and nimble, frolicsome squirrels." I Prepositions in English are used with the objective case. 1 This case discharges some of the functions of the O.E. 1 genitive and all of the O.E. dative and accusative. Definition. — The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun 1 denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase. Many nouns in the objective case may follow (1) a ; single preposition; and the same noun or nouns may fol- , low (2) two prepositions or (3) a preposition and a transi- tive verb, as : — - (1) " Sanitary reform is a sacred crusade against dirt, degradation, disease, and death'" ; (2) "Bryant's residence in the city had enlarged | his knowledge of, and deepened his interest in, the ways and 104 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR doings of men"; (3) "That which Wordsworth loved and aimed at and sought to represent will always be to some the object of genuine dislike." Some verbs take not only a direct object but an indirect, or dative, object — both in the Objective Case, as : — " She gave 1 him a book " ; " The plumbers made l me a visit." In Latin and in O.E., the dative of the personal pronoun was sometimes almost redundant, and was called the Ethical Dative. Whenever this expletive use of the pronoun is found in M.E. and later, it is in the Objective Case, as : — "He that kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots"; " One Coionna cuts me the throat of OrsinPs baker." Some nouns denoting the time at or during which, denot- ing value, direction, distance, weight, quantity — measure of almost any kind — are used adverbially in the Objective Case without a preposition, as : — " One day, I stood some time scarcely twenty feet from the mother crow" ; " They went a part of the way home with him" ; " Wheat weighs 2 sixty pounds a bushel "; "It is worth five dollars a yard." 1 Some of the other verbs followed by indirect objects are buy, send, promise, ask, pay, bring, offer, permit, sell, tell, teach, show, and yield. With some of them, as ask, in " I asked him a question," the indirect object sustains to the verb more of an ablative relation than a dative — ask from rather than ask at. If we change the order of the two objects, a preposition must be supplied — "She gave him money," " She gave money to him " ; but, when the indirect precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood. 2 As Wrightson observes, some of these verbs have different meanings, and are followed by different objects — some adverbial and some direct; as, " A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds " and " The grocer zoeighed the flour " / " He measures five feet, nine inches" and " He measures the circumference of the tree" ; "The tub holds five gallons " and " He holds the knife between his thumb and finger." THE NOUN 105 Certain verbs, called factitives — facere, to 'make' — be- cause they express the idea of making, may be followed by a second object denoting that into which the verb converts the first. This factitive 1 verb may represent the making, as (1) actual; (2) declared; or (3) only thought of. The second object, like the first, is in the Objective Case, and is called the Objective Complement. Some of the verbs so used are : — (1) create, make, appoint, cause; (2) proclaim, prove, declare, name, call ; (3) choose, esteem, regard, consider, deem, think, as: — 11 President Garfield made Lowell Minister to England " ; We call Benedict Arnold a traitor"; "We regard, or consider, public office a public trust, or as a public trust." Definition. — The Objective Complement completes the predicate and belongs to the object complement. A noun or pronoun explanatory of a noun in the objective case is itself in the objective, as : — u They hanged Andre, him that was concerned in the Arnold treason." A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective if the word of which it is an attribute is, as : — "They proved the thief to be him that stands there." If the assumed subject of an infinitive is omitted — when it and the subject of the principal verb would denote the same person — the attribute complement of the infinitive is in the Objective Case, as : — "I wish (me or myself) to be him" 1 For a fuller account of the factitive object and of the indirect, see chapter VI. 106 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Case — Declension — Modern English and Old English. Remarks thereon. The Nominative Case — Uses. The Possessive Case. Its Sign — Position of. Objective Case — Offices. Questions. — Case, what ? The cases, what ? Strictly applicable only to what ? The eight cases of our family of languages ? What part of speech gradually supplanted some cases and narrowed others? Declension? Decline lord, lady, man. The two O.E. declensions ? The O.E. noun endings disappeared how ? What ones does Mn.E. retain? What footing did these have in O.E. ? What languages helped to generalize these in Mn.E.? Definition of subject, attribute complement, case, and nominative case. The seven uses of the nominative ? The main use, what ? The four uses of independ- ent substantives ? How is the absolute construction expressed in other languages ? By what other names may explanatory modifier and attribute complement be called? The O.E. genitive denotes what ? The possessive case indicates what ? Almost restricted to what nouns ? Exception ? The two accounts of the introduction of the apostrophe ? When fully established ? Extended to the possess- ive plural, why ? Definition of possessive case ? Rule for ? Why the possessive and the explanatory substantive not adjectives ? When the possessive ending -s omitted ? What error respecting this -s ? Jespersen's remarks upon it. With what possessive plurals is -'s used ? Give the special cases requiring or forbidding the use of the possessive sign. Show that in six ways the plural sign is not the same ; in what ways it changes the stem of the noun ; wherein it is not stationary. Show that the possessive sign is always the same ; does not change the stem of the noun ; is fixed in position. Account for the inconstant position of the plural sign and the fixed position of the possessive sign. Show that the possessive may be ambiguous. What may take its place? Show how the substitute may be ambiguous. What other THE NOUN 107 substitutes may the possessive have ? Show how the possessive sign may often prevent ambiguity. What is a complement ? An object complement ? A compound object complement ? The objective case ? The functions of what O.E. cases does the objective case discharge ? A noun in the objective may follow what ? An indirect, or dative, object, what ? What verbs used with such objects ? The ethical dative, what ? Nouns denoting what are adverbial ? The case of such nouns, what ? Factitive verbs, what ? Objective complement, what ? After what classes of verbs used ? When the explanatory noun in the objective case ? When the attribute complement ? Exercises. — Study the table, p. 33, of O.E. sounds and pronounce the O.E. nouns of the paradigms, p. 93. Take hldford, scip, and oxa, and illustrate the disappearance of most O.E. noun endings, and the retention of those we keep. Explain the possessive sign in"a month's pay," " a hair's breadth." Give the reasons for the possess- ive sign, and for the lack of it, in the italicized words of these expres- sions : "Mason and Dixon's line "; " His /over's, mother's, and sister's favorite"; "I am not of Percy's mind, the Hotspur of the North"; "I left my watch at Smith's, the jeweler's" ; " I left it at Smith's, the jeweler on Henry Street ; " My friend Moore's sake " ; u At Captain Moore's " ; " Henry the Eighth's reign." Show the ambiguity in "My present cost less than yours " ; " The fear of the enemy "; " The love of God" ; "The writer being a scholar is not doubted." Illustrate, with your own sentences, the object complement, the dative object, the ethical dative, the objective complement, and nouns used adver- bially in the objective case. CHAPTER X THE PRONOUN Pronouns are words that do substantially what nouns do but yet differ radically from them. Nouns are derived from roots that express actions and qualities; pronouns, from roots that denote relations. The roots of nouns seize upon the features of things and name the things from them ; the roots of pronouns seize upon the relations of things and designate the things by them. According as the speaker changes his relation to things, or conceives their relation to each other to change, he may successively apply to them many of the pronouns. Every person may in succession be designated by I, or you, or one; every male, by he; every female, by she. To the same things, taken separately, we may, as their local relations shift, apply this, that, the former, the latter ; and of them, taken in mass, we may say these, those, some, others, they, etc. A pronoun may be so vague as to indicate any one or number of a class, or a possible being or action, and at the same time so definite as to have another pronoun refer to it for its meaning and stand for it, as : — " They that fly can fight again ; Which he can never do that's slain." 108 THE PRONOUN 109 Though not naming, as nouns do, a pronoun may be used instead of a noun to designate anything; it is, therefore, fitly called a pronoun. Definition. — A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. Remarks. — While pronouns are substitutes for nouns, enabling us (1) to speak of things whose names we do not know, or (2) knowing, we do not wish to tell ; (3) to avoid repetitions ; and (4) to speak with brevity ; yet to say of them that they are substitutes for nouns is to say little. 1 1. A difference between nouns and pronouns is implanted in their very roots. While in some sense nouns describe, pronouns merely point out. Gestures could take the place of many pronouns. 2. While some nouns, as man, thing, substance, are of general application, pronouns are still more so. Any person, even an animal or a mere thing personified, may use I for himself, you for the one or ones addressed, and he, she, it, and they, for the person or persons, the thing or things, spoken of; and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one spoken to, are in this last class. 3. Pronouns tell little. Some betray the speaker's complete igno- rance. In u Who went?" " Which of them did you see?" the questioner is inquiring for whom who stands, and what the word 1 Some minor differences between nouns and pronouns are these : 1. Our only words that retain grammatical gender are the pronouns he, she, and it. 2. Our only words that have distinctive nominative or objective forms are pro- nouns—nominative I, we thou, ye, she, he, they, and who ; objective me, us, thee, him, her (possessive also), them, and whom. 3. Some words whose plurals are wholly unlike the corresponding cases of the singular are pronouns — we and I, ye or you and thou, they and he, she, it. 4. Our only words whose possessives singular are irregular (1) in having no apos- trophe before the -s, or (2) in having- neither apostrophe nor -s, are pronouns — his, hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs ; my, mine, our, your, thy, thine, their, her. 5. Our only double possessives are pronouns — hers, ours, theirs, yours. 110 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB which denotes. To what does it refer in "It snows" ; u How is it with me when every noise appals me?" 4. It is easy to find a name for a thing with qualities ; not easy to coin a word for a thing distinguished from other things by shifting relations. Consequently pronouns, when formed, abide. Many of ours survive in the several languages of our family — a common in- heritance from the primitive Indo-European. 5. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, as : — (1) " To live, that was all he asked" ; (2) "It is doubtful whether Mars is inhabited" ; (3) "He is wanting in taste, which means that he is uncultivated" ; (4) " Ought he to enlist ? I can't answer that." That in (1) stands for a phrase, and in (4) for a sentence. It and which in (2) and (3) stand for clauses. 6. Retaining its office as connective, a pronoun, as which, may, as an adjective, accompany its noun; as, "I craved his pardon, which pardon he granted me." CLASSES OF PRONOUNS I, thou, you, he, she, and it — words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of — are called Personal Pronouns. Adding self to certain cases of these — my, thy, him, her, and it — and selves to other forms, as our, your, and them, we have what are called Com- pound Personal Pronouns. Who, which, and what, used in asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns. Who, which, ivhat, and that, introducing clauses, relating to words in other clauses, and binding clauses together, are called Relative Pronouns. Adding ever and soever to ivho, which, and what, we have the Compound Relative Pronouns. THE PRONOUN 111 Words that denote things by pointing them out, or by telling something of their number, order, or quantity, are called Adjective Pronouns. The more common of these are all, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, some, such, that, these, this, 1 those, whole. The word, phrase, or clause in place of which a pronoun is used is called an Antecedent. Definitions A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. An Interrogative Pronoun 2 is one with which a question is asked. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words and connects clauses. An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of an adjective and a noun. 1 This, that, these, and those are also called Demonstrative Pronouns. All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other, etc., are also called Indefinite Pronouns because they do not particularize as do the demonstratives. Each other and one another are called Reciprocal Pronouns. Each, either, and neither are also called Distributives. But that brave, good, etc., in the phrases, the brave, the good, etc., describe, we should call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns understood. 2 Interrogatives introducing indirect questions are noteasily distinguished from rela- tives whose antecedents are suppressed. In " I know who spoke and what he said," who spoke and what he said are indirect questions and who and what are inter - rogatives. In "I saw what took place and what he did," what and what are relatives. 112 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR First Person. SING. PLU. Nom. I, we, 1 _ ( my or our or Pos \ ■ « ^ mine, 3 ours, 4 Obj. me ; us. DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns Sec. Person. Sec. Person — old form SING. PLU. SING. PLU. you, 2 you, thou, ye or you, your or your or thy or your or yours, yours, thine, yours, you; you. thee ; you. 1 In strictness, we can hardly be the plural of I, for /does not admit of plurality. We = 1+ you, 1+ he, etc. 2 A remarkable difference between the classical and the modern languages is seen in the pronoun of address — the modern using the plural where the ancient and the O.E. used the singular. In English, the plural began to supplant the singular during the second half of the thirteenth century, and by the middle of the sixteenth it was the standard for polite conversation, thou being reserved for relatives, intimates, and inferiors. Applied to strangers, thou was a term of insult. Elizabethan literature is full of thou in these various uses. Down to the close of the eighteenth century, thou was still used in addressing relatives and intimates, but is now restricted to prayer and to poetry — except in the language of the Quakers. 3 Mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, "This book is mine or yours'''' ; "Hers or theirs or ours is lost." Mine and thine were once used before a vowel sound; as, " Thine enemy," "Mine honor." "A friend of mine or of his,'''' etc. presents a noteworthy idiom. Some suggest that of here is partitive, and that the expression is equal to " A friend of my friends or of his friends," etc. But such idiomatic phrases as, "This heart of mine,'''' "That wife of yours,'''' cannot thus be accounted for. Others suggest that 2 :>ossess ^ na is understood after these possessives. Still others, that of marks identity, as in "City of New York." Professor Hadley remarks, "We may regard the possessives, when thus used, as depending on a general indeterminate conception of that which is possessed . . . the collective totality " of the things possessed. This idiom enables us to make an important distinction — that between "A picture of his" and "A picture of him." Nouns are used in the same way — "That house of my brother's," "A poem of Pope's." 4 The -s in ours, yours, hers, and theirs, is the -s of his and its extended by analogy to our, your, her, and their, already possessive — so that ours, yours, hers, and theirs are double possessives. THE PRONOUN 113 Third Person Mas. Tfcird Pe? 'son Fern. Third Person Nent. SING. PLU. SING. PLU. SING. PLU. Norn, he, they, she, they, it, 1 they, . f their or Pos. his, 2 i _ . (^theirs, her or* hers, their or theirs, . „ f their or ^ theirs, Obj. him ; them. her ; them.* it ; them. 1 Besides being a substitute for nouns, it has vague uses — pointing forward or backward to infinitives and other phrases and even to clauses; as, "li is sweet to live" ; " To live — it is all I ask"; "It is delightful, this living thus" ; " This life at home — it is heaven" ; "It is known that he stole" ; " T/tatf ?'s 2r^0 and you know it." 2 Both in prose and in poetry pronouns in the possessive may have pronouns relating to them ; as, " Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another God"; "I was a silent spectator while his body was laid here . . . who more deeply than any other had penetrated the thinking of mankind"; "Her worthiness that gave the ring." The noun in the possessive is sometimes so used, as in "From the trees spun down the canker-worms . . . upon each woman'' s bonnet, shawl, and gown, who shook them off." See p. 100, foot-note 1. There is no reason why, if the meaning be kept clear, the antecedents of rela- tive pronouns may not be in the possessive case as well as in any other. Usage certainly allows it. 3 Its is our only personal pronoun form not found in O.E. His was the genitive of the masculine he and of the neuter hit, our it. But it came to be thought im- proper to use his to denote inanimate things as well as animate. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we see a growing sense of this impropriety — of it, there- of her, it, it own, and the are used in place of his as the possessive of it. Long after its introduction — in 1598, Lounsbury says — many looked askance at its because of the supposed grammatical blunder it contains — the -t in its, like the -t in what and thai and the -d in Latin illud, quod, and id, being a nomina- tive neuter ending, and the -s a possessive ending. In converting into good English what was at first rejected as a grammatical monstrosity the power of usage is here strikingly seen. 4 The three pronouns he, she, and it, distinct in the singular, are alike in the plural. A number of persons may be of different sexes ; we may wish to speak of persons and of mere things together. A plural pronoun form, having a common gender, like they, their, and them, is convenient for this purpose. H. SCH. GRAM. 8 114 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nora. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. Nom. Obj. SING. PLU. SING. PI^U. SING. PLU. n ,. , . , himself : 1 myself l or) . thyself or) . , ,„ I , , „ a )■ ourselves. , m [ yourselves, herself ; } themselves, ourself ; 2 j yourself ; j itself ; The compound personal pronouns have no possessives. They are not regularly used as subjects — only (1) for emphasis and (2) as reflexives, 3 as : — (1) U I myself saw it"; (2) "He found himself deserted by his friends." Ourself and we are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their individuality, and give authority to what they say. This use of the plural for the singular is analogous to its use in address. 1 Self and selves are added to the possessive of the first and second personal pronouns, and to the objective of the third. 2 While we use the plural you and your in addressing a single person, we employ the emphatic and reflexive singular yourself, not yourselves, in such ad- dress. So, too, though our is plural, editors say ourself, not ourselves. 3 The O.E. had no reflexives; the ordinary personal pronouns were used instead. When no obscurity would be caused we may do the same ; as, " My uncle stopped a minute to look about him"; "They counted not their lives dear unto them "/ "The young prince took upon Mm the obligations." In O.E., self strengthened the pronoun in any case, but always stood separate from it. When strengthening the pronoun used as subject, the dative of the pronoun was repeated before self ; as, " He (Mm) seZ/did it." Professor Sweet notices that him in " He begged me to defend him" for instance, would in Latin be the reflexive se. But we could not in English use the corresponding reflexive himself, because the logical subject of to defend is me. We should have to use the misleading myself, if we used any reflexive. He therefore calls the Latin reflex- ives grammatical; and the English logical. THE PRONOUN 115 SUBJECTS OE THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Pronouns — Differences from Nouns. Classes of. Declension of Personal Pronouns — Simple and Compound. Questions. — The radical difference between nouns and pronouns ? Who in succession may be denoted by If By you ? By he and she f Illustrate the indefiniteness and the deiiniteness at once of pronouns. Definition ? What four things do pronouns enable us to do ? What are the six greater differences between nouns and pronouns? The five minor differences ? Give and define the several classes of pro- nouns. How are the compound personal and relative pronouns formed ? Give the personal pronouns ; the interrogative ; the rela- tive ; and the more common of the adjective pronouns. Why are not brave and good, etc., in the phrases the brave, the good, etc., adjective pronouns ? What are they ? Illustrate the difficulty of dis- tinguishing some interrogatives from relatives. Why is we, strictly speaking, not the plural of I? How came the plural pronoun to displace the singular in address ? The difference between modern and classical languages in the pronoun of address ? Ye in Chaucer and in the 1611 version of the Bible ? You now ? Mine, ours, etc., how used ? Of mine, of his, etc., explain. Use of the idiom ? Eunctions of it ? History of its ? Force of usage seen in what ? What three pronouns, diverse in the singular, are alike in the plural ? What is gained by this likeness ? To what cases of the simple pro- nouns is the self or selves added to form the compound ? Uses of these compounds ? To what use should they not be put ? What case do they lack ? While the plural you and your is used in address- ing a single person, what compound do we use ? In the editorial use of the compound? When, in O.E., self strengthened the pronoun used as subject, what case of the pronoun was repeated before self f Exercises. — Decline the personal pronouns — simple and compound. In what English words does grammatical gender survive ? Illustrate 116 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR pronouns standing for a phrase, a clause, a sentence. Name the only double possessives in English. Name the demonstrative, the indefi- nite, the reciprocal, and the distributive pronouns. Explain the -s in ours, yours, hers, and theirs. Illustrate the various uses of it. Show that a noun or pronoun in the possessive may have a pronoun relating to it. What words and phrases were resorted to to avoid the use of his with inanimate things? Illustrate the use of the simple personal pronouns as reflexives. CHAPTER XI THE PRONOUN — ( Continued) DECLENSION OF O.E. PERSONAL PRONOUNS SINGULAR he, 'he,' neo, 'she,' hit, 'it,' his, hire, his, him, hire, him, hine ; hi ; hit ; Nom. ic, 'I, 1 «u, thou,' Gen. mln, 'Sin, Dat. me, • fie, Ace. me(mec); fie^ PLURAL ec); Nom. we, ge, Gen. ure, eower Dat. us, eow, Ace. us(tisie). eow(eowic). hi, hie, hira, him, hi, hie. DECLENSION OF THE O.E. DEMONSTRATIVE SE, 'the,' 'that.' SINGULAR MAS. FEM. NEUT. Nom. se, seo, Saet, Gen. fises, fiaere, fiaes, Dat. fisem, fiam, tfsere, fisem, fiam, Ace. fione, «a, fiset, Instr. *y, fieere, «y; 117 118 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR PLURAL Nom. fta, Gen, ftsera, 'Sara, Datt ftsem, ^am, Ace. fta. A Comparison of our personal pronouns with these O.E. forms shows 1. That all our pronoun forms of the first and second persons are those of the O.E. personal pronouns. / — capitalized to distinguish it from the prefix i of the past participle, Professor Lounsbury says — is ic minus c ; mine and thine are mln and filn plus e ; my and thy are mm and (Sin minus n and with I changed to y ; and our, your, ye, and you are ure, ebwer, ge, and eow but slightly changed. 2. That he, his, him, her, and it, of the third personal pronouns, are the O.E. personal forms he, his, him, hire, and hit but slightly changed. But she, they, their, and them are seo, fid, fiaira or fidra, and fisem or fidm of the demonstrative se — transferred and made personal in Mn.E. 3. That the objective forms of our personal pronouns, except it, are the O.E. dative forms. Our me, thee, him, her, us, and you are not the accusative mec, fiec, hine, hi, usic, and eowic, but the dative me, fie, him, hire, us, and eow, — four of which had, even in O.E., forced their way into the accusative, crowding mec, fiec, usic, and eowic into the second place. And when the plurals of the demonstra- tive se supplanted those of the third personal pronouns, the dative fi&m, and not the accusative fid, gives us our objective them. 4. That you, the O.E. dative eow, has worked its way into the nominative also, and has ousted ye 1 except in poetry and solemn 1 Ye is the exclusive form for the nominativ«e in Chaucer, and in the King- James Version of the Bible — which, however, in this respect, as in others, reflects usage older than 1611. Shakespeare uses ye and you indiscriminately. You for ye is found as early as the fifteenth century. You is now both nominative and objective. THE PRONOUN 119 address ; and that this same dative plural you has displaced the nominative thou as well as the accusative thee. 5. That, but for the substitution of the second person plural for the singular, the dative singular thee 1 would have driven out the nom- inative thou, as its prototype fie had driven out the accusative tSec. 6. That the demonstrative fioet is our demonstrative and relative that; and the instrumental fiy is our the in adverb clauses of degree, as in " Success is more certain the sooner we begin." DECLENSION OF THE MN.E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. Nom. who, which, what, Pos. whose, , [whose], Obj. whom. which. what. DECLENSION OF THE O.E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS NEUT. hwset, hwses, hwsem, hwam, hwset, hwy. 1 The dative-nominative thee was rapidly establishing itself when checked by this substitution. But it appears often when the second person singular is retained. Shakespeare frequently uses it, as in " How agrees the devil and thee about thy soul ? " " Does it not, think' 'st thee, stand it now upon ? " F. B. Gummere, Phil. Journal, Vol. IV, shows that euphony does not explain this use of thee. In Elizabethan literature, thee is common as a nominative ; it is found as late as Dryden and Pope. It ousted thou from the dialects. In the familiar speech of the Quakers, the dative-nominative thee is generally used for thou, and is no more ungrammatical with them than is you for ye or thou with other people. The reasons given for this substitution of thee for thou are (1) the use of the ethical dative, and (2) the use of the dative with impersonal verbs, as in "me thinks," " me MAS. AND FEM. Nom. hwa, 'who,' Gen. hwaes, Dot. hwgem, hwam, Ace. hwone. Inst. 120 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Remarks. — 1. The same forms are used in the singular and the plural ; and hwa and hwone — who and whom — are masculine or feminine. 2. Which, compounded of him -f lie, or hwy + lie, cannot have a possessive whose. 3. While theoretically the interrogative whose may, as in O.E., be the possessive of the neuter what, it is, in actual use, confined to per- sons, and is the possessive of the interrogative icho only. 4. In the interrogatives, as in other words, the O.E. initial hw appears in Mn.E. as wh, in spite of the fact that in pronunciation h precedes w. 5. As in personal pronouns so in the interrogative whom — and in the relative also — the old dative in -m is our objective. But the accusative what, like the accusative it, is our objective. 6. Our interrogative adverb, why, is the instrumental hwy ; and how is from the same root. 7. Which and what are interrogative adjectives as well as pro- nouns ; as, "What manner of man is this?" " Which offer did you accept?" KELATIVE PRONOUNS The prime distinction of relative pronouns is not that they relate to other words, but that they relate to words in other clauses, bind the clauses together, and at the same time indicate the subordinacy in thought of the clauses in which they stand. seems," "if thee wel hadde liked." The dative being the only form of the pronoun used with this verb, it came to be regarded as the proper form for subject when the verb became personal. „ Me for nominative is universal baby-talk, and is colloquial in idiom, as in "Who is there?" "Me. 19 Only with the second personal pronoun plural, however, did the dative-nominative get a firm hold. THE PRONOUN 121 1. The O.E. demonstrative se, seo, cfwt, either alone or along with the indeclinable 2fe, was used as a relative. The &cet — in its modern form that — has been retained in this office, is our oldest relative pronoun, and is indeclinable throughout. 2. Our other relative pronouns — ivho, which, and ivhat — are the interrogatives changed 1 to relatives. In this transi- tion, which preceded ivho. They are declined like the inter- rogatives, except that ivhich has a possessive whose. 2 This, however, is not formed from the nominative ; but is ety- mologically the possessive of ivhat turned over to ivhich. 3. The essential differences in use between ivho, which, that, and what, are these : who, ivhich, and that once related alike (1) to words denoting mere animals and things, and (2) to words denoting persons; but which gradually drove who from the first office, and who and that drove 3 which from the second. That still performs both offices, though, unlike the other relatives, it cannot stand in the objective after a preposition, as : — " The book that I asked for," not " The book for that I asked." 1 In the order of growth, simple sentences containing- interrogatives naturally pre- cede complex sentences, in which alone relatives are found. The metamorphosis is thus illustrated by Professor Whitney : " Who did it ? " " We saw the man" is equal to "We saw the man [of whom the inquiry was made] who did it," is equal to "We saw the man who did it." "Which barked?" "I see the dog " is equal to " I see the dog which barked." 2 It is not true that this whose is rarely employed except in poetry ; it is in general use in prose. Those who regard good usage as a sufficient warrant may employ it freely. 3 This double displacement, beginning in the seventeenth century, is now complete. 122 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR What l is used only of mere things, and then only when the antecedent is suppressed. The relative that is almost always restrictive ; 2 that is, it introduces a clause which, while adding to the meaning of the antecedent, narrows the application of it. Who and which are prevailingly unrestrictive, but, like that, are restrictive 3 also. 4. Since who, which, and that are all eligible to restrictive clauses, it is often, when the antecedent does not name both persons and things, left to euphony to decide what relative to use. It is thought that after same, very, all, the inter- rogative who, the indefinite it, and adjectives in the super- lative, that is preferable to who or which. 1 Doing duty for the antecedent also, this relative, like ivho and the old-fashioned whoso, in " Who ehooseth uie must give and hazard all he hath," and " Whoso mocketh the poor reproacheth his Maker," Professor Sweet calls a condensed relative. We may indeed say, " What he needs that he should have." 2 Here is a restrictive clause : " Ice that is formed in March is porous." These are unrestrictive: "Ice, which is water frozen, forms at 32° Fahrenheit"; "Columbus, who discovered America, in 1U92, died at Valladolid in 1506." The restrictive clause, closely connected with the rest of the sentence, is not set off by the comma ; the unrestrictive clause, loosely connected, is. The unrestrictive relative is equal to and he, and she, and, it, or and they, and "has a merely continuative force." 3 While, as Bain remarks, it might "be a clear gain" to confine who and which to unrestrictive clauses, usage does not so confine them. The wide use of who and which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after this, that, these, and those, and hence are used to avoid repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing who and which in re- strictive clauses, but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that who and which stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, this, that, these, and those preceding them ; and (2) that they stand thus oftener than that itself does. Which stands thus oftener than who does. THE PRONOUN 123 5. The relative is often omitted when, if expressed, it would be in the objective/ as : — " The men we have advised and the methods we have pursued" ; "We see it in the food he eats, the exercise he takes, the air he breathes." 6. Which points back to (1) infinitive and other phrases, and (2) to clauses, as : — " They intend to embark at once, which is the proper thing to do " ; "He proposed embarking at once, to which safety urged"; "The leaders are honest, which is a great deal." 7. Which and what point forward to clauses, as : — "And, which became him well, he confessed his fault" ; " What is more to the point, he told the truth.'''' 8. Which and what, while connecting clauses, may be used as adjectives, as : — "She promised to go home; for which place 2 she soon set out" ; \ " She gathered together what stuff she had." 9. For which, with at, from, to, by, in, on, and upon, we may substitute when, where, whence, whither, whereby, where- I in, whereon, and whereupon. I I 1 Its omission in the nominative was once common, as in " I have a mind presages me such thrift." 2 When so used, the noun that which modifies is repeated, in form or in substance — i as above — from the leading clause. Used as an adjective or as a pronoun, which was ' preceded by the ; as, "He spied the roll, the which he hastily caught up"; "Let gentleness my strong enforcement be, in the ivhich hope I blush." 124 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 10. As x and but 2 are by some called relatives in such sentences as these : — "His conduct is not such as I admire"; " There is no one but knows it." SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — The O.E. Personal Pronouns and the Demonstrative. Six-fold Comparison of the O.E. with the Mn.E. Declension of the O.E. and Mn.E. Interrogates, and Remarks thereon. Relative Pronouns — Points thereon. Questions. — Show that all of our Mn.E. personal pronoun forms are O.E. personal or demonstrative forms slightly changed. Show that all our objective personal forms, except it, are O.E. dative forms. When was this substitution of case-forms begun ? What in O.E. is our you ? What did it displace ? What in Mn.E. has you dis- placed ? But for the substitution of the plural pronoun for the singular in address, what would thee have displaced? The O.E. demonstrative Beet is what in Mn.E. ? The O.E. instrumental f5y is what in Mn.E.? In Chaucer, and in the English Bible of 1611, ye is used how ? In Shakespeare how ? You is now what ? How does Shakespeare frequently use thee ? What has Professor Gummere shown respecting thee ? Reasons for the substitution of thee for thou ? Only with what personal pronoun did the dative-nominative get a footing ? Of what genders are the interrogative who and whom ? The composition of which ? Can whose be the possessive of which f Our 1 Expanding- the illustrative sentence into " His conduct is not such as that is which I admire," as may be regarded as a conjunctive adverb. 2 But used after a negative, as here, may be expanded thus : " There is no one but (=except) him who knows it," showing but to be a preposition. But xchat for but alone or but that should not be used to connect an adverb clause ; as, " He is not so bad but or but that (not but what) he might be worse." THE PRONOUN 125 interrogative whose is, in use, the possessive of what ? The O.E. initial hw is spelled how in Mn.E.? Is the modern spelling true to the pronunciation? Our objective ivhom is what case-form in O.E. ? Our objective what and it are what O.E. case-forms ? Our interroga- tive why and how what ? Which and what are used how ? The prime distinctions of relative pronouns ? Our relative that is what in O.E. ? Is it declinable in Mn.E. ? Its rank as to age ? Our relatives who, which, and what were originally what ? Explain their transition into relatives. Our relative whose from what ? How may it be used now ? What were, and what now are, the differences in use between the relatives who, ivhich, what, and that 9 What is the difference between a restrictive and an unrestrictive clause ? What relative is almost always restrictive ? What other relatives may be ? When, in restrictive clauses, is that preferable to ivho and ivhich ? What governs in the choice ? When is the relative often omitted ? Which may point back to what ? May point forward to what ? Which and what, while connecting clauses, are sometimes what part of speech ? \ What must be repeated — in form or in substance — when which is so used ? For what words is the use of but what reprehensible ? Exercises. — Decline the O.E. personal pronouns, and the demon- 1 strative se. Show from what in O.E. each of our personal pronouns is derived. What does Professor Sweet call what ? When may what have an antecedent expressed ? Illustrate the position of such ante- cedent. Illustrate the uses of the words that may take the place of which with certain prepositions. CHAPTER XII THE PRONOUN — ( Continued) COMPOUND KELATIVE PRONOUNS SING. AND PLU. SING. AND PLU. Nom. whoever, 1 whosoever, 1 Pos. whosever, whosesoever, Obj. whomever. whomsoever. Whichever and whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever have no possessive, and are alike in nominative and objective. WRONG CASE-FORMS In Elizabethan and later literature there is great con- fusion in the case-forms of pronouns. These ungram- matical constructions may occur, it is thought, from eight causes : — 1. Attraction. — The pronoun was often attracted into the case of the adjacent relative, expressed or under- stood, as : — 1 Great care is needed in handling the forms of these pronouns. These sentences by well-known authors do not contain the right forms: "Poets may be permitted an execration or two. against whomsoever changes their words as well as against whom- soever moves their bones " ; "I shall want you to meet whosoever you like, and to be friendly with whomever pleases you" ; "The people elect whosoever they wish to be president." 126 THE PRONOUN 127 11 1 have come to be known as her whom your uncle trusted " ; " When him we serve's away " ; "I do not love the lord as he that's second to thyself." 2. Euphony. — It is difficult to pronounce m after d or t; hence men avoid it by saying 44 All debts are closed between you and J" ; " No child but /." 3. Analogy. — The influence of the stock-phrases, you and I, he and i, so frequent in the nominative, keeps / in between you and 7/ especially since the you is not changed in becoming objective. A pronoun in the objective, properly used after as in ■ such sentences, as: — "I obey my father as him that has a right to obedience," may lead to the misuse of the objective in such sentences as 44 You are not so good as me." 4. Separation. — The word that should determine the case of the pronoun fails to do it because of its distance from the pronoun, as : — 44 1 shall think the better of myself and thee during my life ; /for a valiant lion and thou for a true prince." 5. Vacillation. — The writer begins with the pronoun in the objective, and afterward decides to end with a finite verb instead of an infinitive, as : — 1 The expression " Between you and I," which Dr. E. A. Abbott says was a regular Elizabethan idiom, Professor Sweet thinks is due to the grammatical reaction against i what was regarded as the vulgarism of me in place of /. 128 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR 11 One whom all the world knew was so wronged" (instead of to be so wronged) ; u Whom do men say that lam f" (instead of call me). 6. Confusion. — The writer seems to be in doubt whether certain words as but, than, etc. ought to be regarded as prepositions or as conjunctions, as : — 4 'There is no one but he whose being I do fear"; "He seems mightier than them." 7. Anacoluthon. — The construction changes, and thus throws the pronoun used out of syntax, as: — " She, Claudio, that you wronged, look you restore" ; "And he my husband best of all affects." 8. Position. 1 — The subject usually standing before the verb and the objective after it, the writer is unconsciously influenced to such locutions as these : — " Who do you think I saw standing on deck ? " " It is me " ; 2 "He that men call a poet they listen to"; "I'll tell you who time ambles withal, who time trots withal, toho" etc. 1 Jespersen, from whom much of the above is condensed, thinks that position is re- sponsible for the change of the O.E. dative absolute to the Mn.E. nominative absolute, illustrated thus : "Him destroyed, all this will follow " = "He destroyed, all," etc. 8 Professor Sweet thinks that me is used in " It is me " because of its analogy with he, she, and we in the corresponding assertions, " It is he," " It is she," " It is we." Along with Ellis, Alford, and others, Sweet defends "It is me" — claiming for it, however, that it is colloquial only. One may easily satisfy himself that it is almost un- known in literature — especially American. The grammarian may concede that it is used in colloquial speech — especially in England. So much authority the locution has; no more, as yet, we think. THE PBONOUN 129 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS Adjective pronouns are words that at one time modify nouns ; at another, take the place of nouns. Adjective pronouns are quite irregular — differing from each other in respect to Number, Case, and the use of the Articles a and the. 1. Number. — (1) The adjective pronouns another, each, either, neither, etc. are used only in the singular; (2) both, few, and several are used only in the plural ; (3) all, any, some, such, etc. are used in both numbers ; (4) one and other ; have the regular plural ending -s ; (5) this and that, the irregular vowel change plus e, seen in these 1 and those 1 ; and (6) enough, none, some, such, and most of the others have the plural like the singular. I 2. Case. — (1) None, 2 some, this, that, and most of the re- mainder have no possessive case ; and (2) another, former, | latter, one, and other have a possessive, and form it with an apostrophe before the -s. 3. The Articles. — (1) Any, enough, none, this, that, 3 etc. take neither a nor the; (2) all, one 3 same, etc., take only the; few 1 " These and those are doublets — varying forms of the plural of this." — Skeat. I 2 None = ne + an, ' not one,' is no longer used with a noun ; like mine, ours, etc., I it is absolute, except in none other. JVo takes its place when the noun is expressed. 3 A candidate, thon, a contracted form of that one, has been proposed in order to I meet our lack of a personal pronoun with a common gender. We now awkwardly use two pronouns in such a sentence as this : " If you see John or Jane, tell him or her that • I am well " ; or we inaccurately use only him or them, With this word we could say : i " If you see John or Jane, tell thon {that one) that I am well " ; " Each boy and girl must learn thorCs lesson." Usage has not yet adopted the would-be pronoun, we hardly need say. H. SCH. GRAM. 9 130 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR and little take a, 1 but in taking it change from a negative meaning to a positive ; (4) many takes a 2 after it ; (5) all takes the after it only ; and (6) whole takes the before it only. This points (1) back, and (2) forward, to an infinitive or other phrase and to a clause, as : — "To die for one's country — this is a duty " ; "Living for one's country — this is as noble as dying for it"; "The papers had been destroyed, but this could not be proved " ; "This is one's privilege : to serve others 1 ''; "Every man's duty includes this: care for his body" ; "This is one of the commandments : l Honor thy father and thy mother.' 1 " That points back to an infinitive or other phrase and to a clause, as : — "To love one's enemies, that is a hard thing to do"; "The Mohammedan made ivar upon the infidel ; that the Koran bade him do" ; "A stitch in time saves nine; that is a proverb of thrift." When this and that, the one and the other, refer to things already mentioned, this refers to the last mentioned, and that to the first mentioned ; the one refers to the first men- tioned, and the other to the last mentioned. The plurals have the same reference. To illustrate : — 1 "To our great joy, a few of the crew were saved and a little of the cargo." Few, like many, is used of number; little, like much, of quantity. 2 " Many man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann, Latin mul- tus vir y and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number." — Prof.F.A. March. THE PRONOUN 131 "The moon and the sun shine; this by its own light, that by reflected light " ; " The moon and the sun shine ; the one, or the jor- mer, by reflected light, the other, or the latter, by its own light." The indefinite adjective pronoun one has supplanted the O.E. man, and is now in general use. With the mean- ing of the French on (Lat. homo, ' man ' ), and of I, we, you, they, some people in English, one is a very convenient, all- round word. Many of the words set down as adjective pronouns are at times used as adverbs — all, enough, little, and much, and their comparatives and superlatives less and least, more and most, none, some, etc., as : — All over, strong enough, little used, less worthy, least employed, much in vogue, more enraged, most happy, none too soon, some 1 twenty years ago, etc. Usage is in favor of any one else's, no one else's, some- body else's, nobody else's, instead of any one's else, no one's else, etc., as : — " He should have to go an\l fight in some one else's quarrel." There is almost no authority for placing -'s upon one or body. The reason for attaching it to else was given, p. 101, foot-note. Other Proscribed Pronomial Locutions are given below. 2 1 Some = ' nearly,' 'about,' has been proscribed, but even in O.E. and all the way- down, some with numerals is common, as in " Young published his Travels in France some eighteen months after the Reflections.' 1 ' 1 2 In the nine following paragraphs we give alternative locutions — only the second of which in each paragraph is allowed by many grammarians and critics ; the first they 132 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Declension of the Compound Relative Pronouns. The Eight possible Causes of wrong Case-Forms. Adjective Pronouns — Irregularity in Number, Case, and the Use of the Articles. Proscribed Pronominal Locutions. Questions. — What, added to simple relative pronouns, makes them compound ? What ones are alike in nominative and objective and in utterly condemn. We are able, on the warrant of usage, to say that both readings in each paragraph are correct. 1. We may use each other with more than two ; we may use one another instead. We may say, " All departments of thought illuminate each other" or "illuminate one another.'''' 2. We may use one another with only two ; we may use each other instead. We may say, " History and biography much resemble one another in the pages of Carlyle," or "much resemble each other." 8. We may use all, both, and tvhole with a preposition and a noun or pronoun fol- lowing ; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun or pronoun. We may say, "The meaning of all of them," u Both of them, speak," "The whole of Daffydowndilly's life," or " The meaning of them all," " They both speak," "DafFy- downdilly's whole life." 4. We may use the pronouns either and neither, as the conjunctions either and neither, with more than two ; we may use any one and none instead. We may say, " Either of his four Pastorals," '■''Neither of the three Competitors" or "Any one of his four Pastorals," "None or no one of the three Competitors." 5. We may use he or some other pronoun after the indefinite one ; we may repeat the one instead. We may say, " One must feel intellectually secure before he can venture to dress shabbily," or " before one can venture," etc. 6. We may use no with the indefinite one ; we may use not instead. We may say, " No one of these instructions did they change," or " Not one of these," etc. 7. We may use such before an adjective and its noun ; we may use so instead. We may say, " Such widely different ways," " Such an abject lot," or " Ways so widely different," " So abject a lot." 8. We may use either in the sense of each ; we may use each instead. We may say, "The chief officers of either army," or " of each army." 9. We may use none in the plural ; we may use none in the singular. We may say, " My right there are none to dispute," or " there is none to dispute." THE PRONOUN 133 having no possessive? What are the liabilities to mistake in the use of these pronouns? Account for the mistakes in the use of case-forms of simple relatives. How does Jespersen account for the change of the O.E. dative to the Mn.E. nominative in absolute con- structions ? How does Professor Sweet account for the colloquial 1 use of me in "It is me"? What authority can be given for that locution ? What are adjective pronouns ? Give some that are used i only in the singular ; some used only in the plural ; some, in both numbers ; some, with the regular plural ending -s ; some with the stem vowel changed in the plural ; and some with the plural like the 1 singular. Give some without possessive case ; and some with the pos- sessive in -'s. Give some that take neither a nor the ; some that take j only the ; some that take a with change from negative to positive ; one J that takes a after it only ; one that takes the after it only ; one that takes the before it only. These and those are what? None com- pounded of what and used how? For what is the candidate thon j proposed ? Why proposed ? This points back and forward to what ? That, back to what? The distinction in reference between this and j that, and between the one and the other. One has supplanted what O.E. word? This indefinite adjective pronoun is used in place of what French word? What English words? What adjective pro- nouns are sometimes adverbs ? Which proper — " any one^s else " or u any one else^s " f Refer to chapter IX, and give the reason for the usage in respect to the place of this possessive sign. How may some be used ? Defend the nine other proscribed pronominal locutions. Exercises. — Decline the compound relative pronouns. Illustrate the causes influencing the use of the wrong case-forms. Illustrate the use of this, that, of this and that, and of the one and the other. Illustrate the use of both forms in each of the nine proscribed pro- nominal locutions. What is the authority for both, and to what respect is this authority entitled ? CHAPTER XIII THE ADJECTIVE Origin. — None of the original words were exclusively nouns or adjectives or verbs, but all of these indifferently. Laying hold of certain qualities or actions of concrete- things, they became nouns or adjectives or verbs to suit the speaker's needs. The capacity of some words for these various duties exists yet, as : — " My love"; "Love potion" ; "Hove." Nouns still pass 1 easily into adjectives, and adjectives into nouns, as : — "Cotton cloth," "Iron spoons"; "The news is warlike"; " Re- spect your betters" ; "His superior summoned him"; " The true" "The false" ; "The righteous," " The wicked." A Distinction between Adjectives and Nouns. — That either part of speech may become the other implies a distinction between them. Nouns, as such, name; adjectives, as such, 1 Each part of speech, in passing- into the other, abandons its old modifications, and does not assume all that belong- to the part it becomes. The noun leaves behind it its case and its plural sign, and does not take comparison ; the adjective loses its com- parison, and does not adopt gender or necessarily the plural sign. As seen above, the or some pronoun in the possessive is used to convert an adjective into an abstract noun or into a concrete — " The true" " The righteous" " His superior." 134 THE ABJECTIVE 135 do not. Adjectives denote some quality or quantity, but denote it as belonging to, or existing in, a thing. If the quality be considered apart from the thing, the word that denotes it names it, and is an abstract noun — whiteness names what ivhite denotes. It follows, then, that as an adjective denotes some property of a thing, it must be used with a word express- ing the thing — a noun or a pronoun. Functions. — Some adjectives denote the qualities of things ; some, the number of things ; some, the quantity of things ; and some, the relations existing between things. These various offices are here illustrated : — " Good men " ; " Six marbles " ; " Much land " ; " This book." The quality, or property, denoted by an adjective may be assumed as belonging to the thing or it may be affirmed as belonging to it. Adjectives assumed are closely attached to their nouns, and immediately precede or follow 1 them; adjectives asserted are in the predicate. In denoting quality, number, quantity, or relation, as- sumed 2 adjectives lessen the things which their nouns 1 Professor Earle's remark, "The French structure is still available when there is a touch of humor or pathos," tells but a fraction of the truth. Balance, euphony, rhythm, and emphasis, as well as humor or pathos, may draw the adjective after its noun. 2 An adjective modifying a proper noun or denoting a necessary quality does not narrow the scope — Truthful George Washington and red blood equal in scope George Washington and blood. The asserted adjective is only unfolding what is implied in the noun, and therefore does not restrict the application of the noun. 136 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR name — good men, six marbles, and this book do not apply to as many men, marbles, and books as men, marbles, and book do, for these apply to all ; and of much land there is less than there is of land, i.e. all land. In the language of logic, the adjective increases the intension of the noun, but decreases the extension. Adjectives modify * ntjuns by limiting their application or scope. Classification. — To prescribe the number or the quantity of things or to point out things by noting some quality of them or some relation which they bear, is to put bounds about the things — to define them. Adjectives that limit by denoting qualities are Descriptive Adjectives ; those that limit by pointing out, or numbering, things, 2 or by denoting quantity, are Definitive 3 Adjectives. 1 Some adjectives modify not the simple noun but the noun already modified by adjectives. In "Every intelligent American citizen should vote," intelligent modifies citizen limited by American, and every modifies citizen limited by both American and intelligent. Adjectives are not then always of the same rank. When a distinction exists, it should be noted, for it determines the order of the adjectives and their punctuation. In a series of unequal rank, those most closely modifying the noun stand nearest to it, before or after, and no comma separates them. Assumed adjectives have the force of clauses. (1) A selection of such as predispose the reader to the assertion following ; (2) a rigid limitation of the number chosen ; and (3) a judicious placing of these — if possible, the longest nearest the noun — tell power- fully upon the thought and its expression. 2 The definitive adjectives one, two, three, etc., and /n/, second, third, etc., are called Numeral Adjectives. One, tivo, three, etc., are Cardinal numerals; Ji?'i>i, second, third, etc., are Ordinal numerals. These numeral adjectives are often used as pronouns. When so used, we should call them adjective pronouns if their usual adjective function were not so much more pronounced than their pronominal. 3 In treating of adjective pronouns, we spoke of many definitive adjectives. We call THE ABJECTIVE 137 Definitions An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. A Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by denoting quality. A Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing out or numbering, or by denoting quantity. Inflection. — In O.E., the adjective is inflected — its inflec- tions changing with the change of the gender, the case, and the number of the noun it modifies. An O.E. noun has only one set of inflections, the vowel or the consonant; an O.E. adjective has the three sets of the three genders in each declension. If not preceded by the definite article, or by a demonstrative, or a possessive, pronoun, the adjective takes the endings 1 of a pronoun; them adjective pronouns, rather than pronominal adjectives, because their pro- nominal function seems so much more pronounced than their adjectival. Whatever the etymology or the history of the words we call adjective pronouns, — variously called by others, adjective pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and pronomi- nal adjectives, — we place no words in this class that are not used as adjectives and as pronouns. We therefore exclude from the list words that some include, such as, a, alone, else, every, no, only, sundry, the, etc. We exclude from this class the interrogative and the relatives which and what, and the numerals one, two, first, second, etc., because, though complying with the condition above, the dominating interrogative and relative function of the two pronouns, and the adjectival function of the numerals, compel another classification of them. " Good reasons must, of force, give place to better." Wherever the words classed as adjective pronouns are used as adjectives, they should be called adjectives. 1 The endings of these a.ljectives differ in these respects from those of the O.E. nouns inflected on p. 93: that of the masculine accusative singular is -ne ; that of the feminine genitive and dative singular is -re ; that of the masculine and neuter dative singular is -um ; that of the nominative and accusative plural throughout is -e ; and that of the genitive plural throughout is -ra. These endings are nearly like those of the pronoun, p. 117, and justify the name pronominal given to adjectives when having these declensional endings. 138 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR if thus preceded, it takes the endings of the consonant 1 declension of nouns. These two diverse sets of declensional endings — the one called indefinite or pronominal, and the other definite 2 or nominal — were so confusing that, without either supplant- ing the other, both gave way. The only modification adjectives retain is comparison in its three degrees — Positive, Comparative, and Super- lative. Comparison. — 1. In -er and -est. In the Teutonic mem- ber of our family, the comparative of adjectives was usually formed by adding -is or -6s to the positive ; the superlative, by adding -ta to the comparative. In O.E., the s of the comparative -is or -os underwent rhotacism, became r ; the s of the superlative -ista or -5sta did not. When now the i or the o of the comparative -is or -5s and of the superlative -ista or -osta leveled to obscure e, and the a of the superlative, changed to e, disappeared, the comparative and superlative endings became -er and -est — as they are to-day. Adjectives Irregular in Comparison. — There are adjectives (1) whose different degrees are from different stems ; some (2) whose positive or comparative is wanting; and some (3) whose endings of comparison are peculiar. These in- heritances of ours from O.E. are here grouped: — 1 Except that the genitive plural ending is usually -ra instead of -ena. 2 The final -e in the definite form, and in the plural, of adjectives is a common sur- vival in Chaucer. The -en in our olden is possibly a survival. THE ABJECTIVE 139 POS. (Aft),* Bad, ) Evil, I 111, J Far, Fore, COMP. SUPER. ( aftmost or after, < „ ( aftermost. worse, 3 worst. . \ farthest or farther, 4 POS. COMP. ( less 3 or Little, 2 Many or Much, Near, ( lesser, more, nearer, 3 Old, Solder or elder, j farthermost. ( foremost or former, ■< „ I first. __. , x _ _ . (furthest or #rw.*\ (outer or (Forth), further, 4 1 m , (Out), J ( furthermost. ( utter, Good, better, best. j hindmost 5 or Under, -, j hindermost. „, x . \ inmost or (In), mner, < . Hind, hinder, Late, f innermost, j later or j latest or ( latter, ( last. (UP), Top, upper, SUPER. least. most. ( nearest or I next. ( oldest or I eldest. outmost or outermost ; utmost or „ uttermost. undermost. j upmost or j uppermost. topmost. 1 The words in curves are adverbs — the adjectives having 1 no positive form. 2 For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, smaller and smallest are substituted ; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy. 3 It is thought that worse and less are comparatives of O.E wyrs and Ides. The -S in worse and less did not become r ; that these adjectives are comparatives was there- fore overlooked. Worser and lesser — the one occasionally used, and the other more frequently — are consequently double comparatives. Nearer is also — near being a comparative of O.E. nedh. 4 In further and farther — between which, Lounsbury says, "No distinction in good usage exists as yet," — an O.E. comparative suffix -ther is seen. "Further and farther are in general not differentiated . . . but further is preferred . . . when . . . quantity or degree is implied." — International Dictionary. 5 In hindmost, foremost, utmost, etc., an O.E. superlative suffix -m or -ma is found. This -m strengthened itself with the ordinary superlative ending -est — the vowel changing to through force of the adverb most. These adjectives are con- sequently double superlatives. 140 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Comparison. — 2. By the Use of Adverbs. Norman -French influence brought in a second method of comparison — that by the use of adverbs. 1 Those used in English are more and most, 2 less and least, as : — "More or less exemplary " ; "Most or least useful or awkward." This method was adopted for the sake of euphony, and its use rests largely upon individual taste. Compounded and polysyllabic adjectives, and adjectives ending in letters that do not blend musically with -er and -est, are those with which it is generally employed. -Er and -est added to adjectives always denote increase; the second method, restricted to the use of the adverbs less and least, is the one method available to denote decrease. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adjectives — Origin, Functions, Classification, Inflection, Comparison in Two Ways. Questions. — The original words used how at first ? The capacity of some words for various duties now ? Show how adjectives pass into nouns, and nouns into adjectives, even now. In the transition, what does each part of speech abandon ? What may the do to an adjective ? 1 Lounsbury says that in Aricren fiiwle, about 1220, one of the first recorded in- stances of this comparison is found. 2 But note that these adverbs are compared in the old way. The O.E. superlative -St is in most and least. The O.E. comparative -s, unchanged to r, is the final letter of less; changed to r, it is the r in more. In this method of comparison, then, not the adjective, but the adverb modifying it, takes the O.E. endings -er and -est, with the vowel omitted. THE ABJECTIVE 141 A distinction between nouns and adjectives ? The several functions of adjectives? The difference between an adjective assumed and an adjective affirmed ? Adjectives modify nouns how ? What adjectives do not limit the scope of the noun ? What besides humor or pathos may draw the assumed adjective after its noun ? Assumed adjectives have the force of what ? What besides the simple noun may adjectives modify ? and what changes in punctuation result ? Classify adjec- tives, and define them and their classes. Some definitives are called what? What adjectives only are called by us adjective pronouns? What inflections have O.E. adjectives ? What caused the dropping of these in M.E. ? What is meant by rhotacism ? In what ways is the comparison of some adjectives irregular ? Show how icorser, lesser, and nearer are double comparatives. Explain the ending most in hindmost, etc. The second method of comparison, what ? From whom borrowed? When is the first used? and when the second? Show how the first is used even in the second. -Er and -est added to adjectives denote what? What adverbs used to denote decrease of quality? Exercises. — Trace the development of -er and -est. Give the com- parison of irregular adjectives. Illustrate the two methods of compari- son, and tell when the second is used. What can you say of -ther and of -m or -ma ? CHAPTER XIV THE ADJECTIVE— {Completed) The form of the adjective expressing simple quality or quantity is in the Positive 1 Degree; the form expressing them in a greater measure or in a less is in the Com- parative 2 Degree; and the form expressing them in the greatest or in the least is in the Superlative 2 Degree. Definitions Comparison is a modification of the adjective (and the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality or quantity in the things compared. The Positive Degree expresses simple quality or quantity. The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less measure of the quality or quantity. The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least measure of the quality or quantity. 1 Even the positive implies comparison. " This orange is sweet " means that it has more than the sweetness of ordinary oranges. 2 The comparative and the superlative express the measure relatively. "This orange is sweeter than that " and "This orange is the sweetest of all " do not mean that this one is very sweet, but that it is sweeter than the other, than the others. The measure may be increased or decreased by other adverbs than more and most, 142 THE ABJECTIVE 143 Eule. — Adjectives and adverbs are compared by adding -er to the positive to form the comparative, and -est to the positive to form the superlative ; or by prefixing to the positive more and most or /ess and /east. Eules for Spelling. — In the comparative and the superlative of adjectives, 1 the only principles regulating our otherwise lawless orthography are seen. Rule I. — Final e is dropped 2 before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, large, larger. Eule II. — Y after a consonant becomes / 3 before a suffix not beginning with /; as, happy, happier. Eule III. — In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles 4 before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, red, redder. Which Method is Gaining. — Comparison by the use of ad- verbs has made such inroads upon the older method that some have predicted the extinction of the latter. But less and least. We may say, " very, rather, somewhat sweet " ; "far, still, much sweeter," "by far or much the sweetest." 1 These principles determine the spelling of other parts of speech — the Noun and the Verb, for example— as (1) horse, horses; live, living; (2) beauty, beauties; dry, dried; and (3) hat, hatter ; infer, inferred. But they are oftenest illustrated in the comparison of adjectives, and therefore are formulated here. 2 The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o ; as peace- able, changeable, courageous ; (2) after o, as hoeing, shoeing ; and (3) when needed to preserve the identity of the word, as singeing, dyeing. The retention of e in (1) prevents the change of c and g to their guttural sounds. 3 The y is retained in babyhood, and it does not change before -'s or in the plural of proper nouns, as lady's, the Marys, the Henrys. 4 K and x are never doubled, as in look, looking ; one, oxen; and the s in gas is not doubled in gases. 144 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB familiarity with the best English of to-day convinces one that usage is returning 1 to the older method. Some Adjectives not Compared. — Most definitive adjectives, and many descriptive, are not compared — their meaning not admitting increase or decrease. Yet some 2 of these, taken in less than their full signification, in the meaning of nearer or nearest to the position, are compared. Double Comparatives and Superlatives. — After the adop- tion of the second method of comparison, it became the fashion to use it to strengthen 3 the first. Double compara- tives seem to have been more in vogue than double super- latives. It hardly need be said that we do not use these double forms now. Faulty Comparison. — Care should be taken that the things compared are not (1) included 4 in classes to which 1 In Hawthorne, Whitney, M. Arnold, Henry Taylor, Lowell, Thackeray, Martineau, Browning, Hutton, Buskin, and a host of others, such forms as cheerfulest, beauti- fulest, correcle8t, succincter, pitifulest, projitablest, distincter, cunninger, and nakedest are not uncommon. 2 In our most reputable authors such words as straightest, chief est, directer, supremest, most exact, extremesi, divinest, more and as and so universal, and perfectest are found. s Lounsbury says that these double forms date from the fourteenth century, and are most prevalent in the second half of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth. In King Lear, Shakespeare uses double comparatives — more corrupter, more harder, more heavier, etc. — a dozen times, and such double superlatives as most best, most dearest, and most poorest. Ben Jonson calls these double forms " a certain kind of English Atticism, or eloquent phrase of speech." 4 These sentences wrongly include : " Solomon was the wisest, or the least wise, of (1) any of, or (2) all of, his predecessors or contemporaries or successors or all other THE ABJECTIVE 145 they do not belong, or (2) excluded 1 from those to which they do. Of denotes inclusion ; than, exclusion. Comparative or Superlative with Two. — While there is respectable authority for the use of the superlative with two, good usage overwhelmingly favors the comparative instead, as : — "Dora is the more thoughtful of the two"; " Of his parents, the mother was the younger." First Three, or Three First ; Next Two, or Two Next. — There is respectable authority for three first, two next, etc., but usage overwhelmingly favors first three, next two, etc., instead. Proscribed Adjective Locutions. — Some critics, regardless of usage, condemn (1) such 2 before an adjective and its noun, and (2) a before a noun in the singular and one or two 3 after it. The Articles. — Two adjectives — an, or a, and the — are so common and have such varied and unique functions that they have secured a distinct name — Articles. An — from O.E. an, i one ' — shortened to a before a consonant sound, kings " ; " The pulpit in the coming century is to meet the hardest task it has encoun- tered." 1 These wrongly exclude : " Solomon was wiser or less wise than (1) any ancient king, than (2) any of the ancient kings." 2 Expressions like these: "such a beautiful soul" "such undying hatred" are as common in the best of literature as "so beautiful a soul" "hatred so undying " — alternative locations to which these critics would restrict us. 3 Phrases like "a brief word or two" "an example or two" are more frequent than "one or two brief words" "one or two examples" — alternative locutions to which these critics would restrict us. H. SCH. GRAM. 10 146 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB is called the indefinite article; and the — from O.E. fie, a collateral form of the demonstrative se, — is called the definite article. Points of Agreement between A 1 and The: 1 — 1. Either of these may modify a noun in the singular : — "A man, a horse, an apple, an heir, a unicorn "; " The man, the horse, the apple, the heir, the unicorn.'' 1 2. Either may modify every 2 noun in a series in order to keep the nouns distinct in meaning and coordinate in rank : — " A boy should so arrange what he has to say that it should have a beginning, a middle, and an end" ; " The closeness, the spirit, the strength, and the simple beauty of his style are noteworthy." 3. Either may be used before each of two or more 3 adjectives modifying the same noun, when the qualities are to be kept distinct and prominent : — 1 Of course we are not here speaking- (1) of the preposition a in ' He fasts a Friday"; or (2) of the dialectic a, the worn-down form of have, as in " She would a come"; or (3) of a, the corruption of he or she, as in "One night a left home." And we have seen that the in such a sentence as, " The more, the better," is not an article. 2 Through the omission of the article in such sentences, even the best of authors sometimes slump together things they mean to keep apart, as in "Who never had a taste or emotion or enjoyment "; " The distinctions and analogies between the verse and prose of the poet"; "A forked bracket carries a larger and smaller pulley " ; " No greater difference between the older and newer nomenclature." 8 Care is needed that this use of the article be not mistaken for that in 4. The mistake is impossible when the adjectives denote qualities that cannot co-exist, as in "A cold and a hot stove" ; " The definite and the indefinite article " ; it is possible when the adjectives denote qualities that may co-exist. THE ADJECTIVE 147 " An observant, a thoughtful, and a very intelligent man is speak- ing" ; " Jeremy Taylor was the richest and the most captivating rhetorician of his day." 4. Either may be used before each 1 of two or more adjectives when modifying different nouns that are not all expressed : — " The difference between a bad and a good man is this " ; "It can never reconcile the secular and the devout, the pagan and the Chris- tian mind" 5. Either may be used to make proper nouns common : — "A Daniel come to judgment ! " " He is the Solon of the Senate." 6. Neither is used before nouns 2 taken in their widest sense : — " Gold is costlier than silver" ; "Woman is the peer of man"; " Oak is stronger than maple " ; " Truth in the end will vanquish error." Points of Distinction between A and The. — 1. A is used with nouns in the singular only; the, with nouns in the singular or the plural : — " Apeach" ( but not a peaches) ; " The peach, the peaches." 2. A is used with a concrete noun ; the, more frequently than a, with an abstract noun as well : — 1 See foot-note to 2, third and fourth sentences, for mistakes arising from the omis- sion of the article in such sentences. 2 These sentences are incorrect : " This is a bad sort of a day "; " What kind of a man is he ? " "The anger is a short madness." 148 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR "Arose" (but not a sweetness of arose) ; " The sweetness of a rose, or of the rose.'''' 3. A 1 distinguishes one individual from others; the, 1 one class from others, as : — " A farmer is ploughing, and a blacksmith is shoeing a horse " ; " The farmer ploughs, and the blacksmith shoes horses." 4. A is indefinite, meaning i any one ' ; the is definite, meaning t that one/ as : — "Hand me a, 'any,' book"; "Hand me the, 'that,' book." 5. A may mean 'one/ 'each/ or 'every'; the is not used so freely in such senses, as : — "Both are of a (not the) length"; "Sixty pounds to a (not the) man." 6. A can be used with few and little to convert negative notions into positive ; the cannot be used so, as : — " A few passengers and a little of the luggage (not the few and the little) were lost." 7. The may be retrospective in its reference; a never is, as : — 1 At times the articles approach so closely in force, or have so little force, that it needs deliberation to settle whether a should be used or the or neither a nor the. Who sees a broad distinction between " farmer uses a hoe," "A blacksmith uses a hammer ," and "The farmer uses the hoe," "The blacksmith uses the hammer'''' ? between "The atmospheric pressure of 15 lbs. to a square inch" and "The atmos- pheric pressure of 15 lbs. to the square inch " ? between " She is down with a head- ache, " " She is down with the headache, " and " She is down with headache " t Yet we may say that no two words in the language need more delicate handling. 1 THE ABJECTIVE 149 "I found a cap and an oilskin cape ; the cap and the oilskin (not a cap and an oilskin) are yours." 8. The can change an adjective into an abstract noun or a concrete ; a cannot, as : — " Wordsworth showed how deep down the pathetic and the tender (not a pathetic and a tender) go in common life " ; " The gay (not a gay) will laugh when thou art gone." 9. The may be used in place of his, its, or your ; a may not be, as : — ' ' Plucked my nipple from his boneless gums and dashed the brains out" ; "Such rebel blood that will not be thawed from the true quality " ; "You shake the head." SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adjectives — Degrees. Rules for Spelling. Which Method of Comparison Gaining. Faulty Com- parison. Proscribed Adjective Locutions. The Articles — Points of Agreement and of Disagreement. Questions. — Definition of comparison? Of the three degrees? Rules for forming the comparative and the superlative. What even does the positive degree imply ? Show that the comparative and the superlative do not express measure absolutely. By what adverbs other than more and most, less and least, may increase or decrease be expressed ? What other parts of speech than the adjective illustrate the rules for spelling ? Why are the rules given here ? Give the exceptions to the rules. Give adjectives from modern authors show- ing that the method in -er, -est is gaining favor. Give some showing that comparison is not restricted to adjectives whose meaning admits 150 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR of increase or decrease. Double comparatives and superlatives, what ? Why used and when? The faulty comparisons fall under what two heads ? Which degree, the comparative or the superlative, preferable with two ? Which preferred, first three or three first, etc. ? What are the articles ? The derivation of each ? When an used and when a ? Give the six points of agreement between a and the. Give the nine points of distinction between a and the. Exercises. — Give the rules and the exceptions to them that account for the spelling of happiest, referred, gases, duties, shoeing, putting, oxen, dyeing, horses, loving, changeable, lady's, dried. In sentences of your own illustrate (1) the points of agreement in the use of a and the ; (2) the points of disagreement ; and (3) give cases when a and the differ so little that either of them may be used or neither. CHAPTER XV THE VERB - A sentence has two great parts — a subject and a predi- cate. The subject names or denotes that of which the predicate asserts something. A sentence is framed to impart to hearer or reader some- thing he is supposed not to know. This information is contained in the assertion made by the predicate ; and the part of speech that makes the assertion is called a Verb. The verb has many inflections; and it is the part of speech in English whose inflections have undergone the greatest change. Grammar consists in large measure of the treatment of the verb. Definition. — A Verb is a word that asserts 1 action, being, or state of being. In the sentence "John limps," the verb limps asserts the act fully ; in " John strikes," 1 Asserts is here used to mean declare or question or wish or command or exclaim or to unite in any way the verbal sign of action, being, or state with that of the actor. 151 152 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR some word, as Peter, naming the receiver of the act, must be added to strikes to help it make a full assertion. Verbs that represent the act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called Transitive 1 Verbs; verbs (1) that do not so represent the act, and those (2) that express mere being or state of being are Intransitive Verbs. Definitions verbs classified with respect to meaning A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object. All verbs, but not all of their forms, assert. Of the forms that do not assert, one is THE PARTICIPLE "The birds, singing their morning songs, wakened us." Here singing expresses an action, but does not assert it; the assertion is in wakened. But singing does more than express action, it modifies birds; hence it is not a *If we say, " Peter was struck by John," the verb is still transitive ; but Peter, the name of the receiver, is here the subject, and not, as before, the object complement. The object of a transitive verb, then, the name of the receiver of the action, maybe the object complement, or it may be the subject. A verb transitive in one connection may be intransitive in another; as, "He writes a letter" and "He icrites rapidly" ; "The sun melts the snow," and "The snow melts." The verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or plainly understood. THE VERB 153 verb simply but an adjective as well. Having a dual nature — one part of it verbal and one adjectival — sing- ing 1 is here a Participle. 2 Definition. — The Participle is a form of the verb that partakes of the nature of an adjective, and expresses the action or being as assumed. Remarks. — Participles are of the greatest service in enabling us — 1. to slur the less important acts, and reserve the verb proper for the more important; as, "Not .considering or knowing the difference in the money or the greater cheapness of the bread, I J asked for three-penny worth." 2. To abridge and solidify the sentence — the participle or the participle phrase taking the place of (1) an independent clause; as, "The fog settled down hiding everything from view"; (2) an adjective clause; as, u The only argument known to avail with the east wind is an overcoat" ; and (3) an adverb clause of (a) time; as, " Writing, Johnson w r as a Latin slave ; conversing, he was a Saxon prince"; (b) cause; as, "The air here, robbed of oxygen and loaded with carbonic gas, is unfit to breathe"; (c) evidence; A preposition prefixed to an intransitive verb or following it may make it tran- sitive. Stand or run are intransitive; but understand and overrun, in "I under- stand bow tbe enemy overran the territory," are transitive. Laugh and condole are intransitive ; but laugh at and condole with, in " He was laughed at and then condoled icah" are transitive. 1 In "The singing birds wakened us," singing is a pure adjective, it simply modifies birds; in "The singing of the birds wakened us," singing is a pure noun. It is only the subject of wakened. 2 Besides the participle in -ing, there are those in -en or -n ; those in -ed, -d, i or -t; and those without participial ending. This -ing is the O.E. ending -ende changed to -inde, -inge, -ing; so that the participle has become the same in form as the O.E. verbal noun. The nd of the O.E. ending is the nt of the Latin and of the Greek. 154 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR as, "Living fearlessly he must have lived aright"; (d) purpose; as, "The suppliants came seeking audience with the king" ; (e) con- dition ; as, " Wishing to be well spoken of, we must not speak well of ourselves"; and (/) concession; as, "Nature, busied with cares, yet finds something for her children to do." 3. To gather many things into the embrace of the sentence, yet leaving it light and swift of movement; as, "The crow sat with her little ones on a bough and gasped for breath, holding her wings half-spread, turning her head from side to side, and peering, for a sight of us, into the shade below." 4. To diversify expression. The finite verb in the clause tends to conclude the thought and gto drop it ; the participle sustains it. A judicious blending of the two gives a pleasing variety. Their union in the illustrative sentence of 3 is an example. The participle with the noun in absolute phrases performs many of the functions just named and illustrated. THE INFINITIVE Another form of the verb, expressing action or being without asserting it, is the Infinitive — called so because it is not limited, as the finite forms are, to a subject control- ling its number and person. But the infinitive, like the participle, may have an assumed subject — a word denoting that to which the action or being expressed by this verb belongs. In English the infinitive is usually preceded by the preposition to, 1 and forms with it an Infinitive Phrase. The 1 We do not regard to as part of the infinitive. Writers on language are generally agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it THE VERB 155 infinitives commonly without to are those that follow the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, 1 let, make, need, and see, and the auxiliary verbs can, may, must, shall, and will. The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, is followed by the various complements, and has the syntax of a noun. performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning toward, for, etc. ; as, "I am inclined to believe " ; "I came to hear." When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation, we grant ; it seems merely to introduce the phrase. But, when a word loses its proper function without taking on that of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions, '■''For me to do this would be wrong " ; " Over the fence is out of danger," few grammarians would hesitate to call for and over prepositions, though they have no antecedent term of relation. We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in " He was spoken toy Those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the "preposition to " (which they have said is not a preposition) "placed before the infinitive," i.e. placed before that of which it forms a part ! The fact also that infinitives are used without to, strengthens our contention. In O.E., to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its proper function as a preposition; as, nominative etan, to 'eat'; dative to etanne; accusative etan. When the dative ending -ne was dropped, and the three forms were alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing relation. This dative of the infinitive with to was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, after the dropping of the -ne ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place for before the to. " And for to deck heaven's battlements." — Greene. "What went ye out for to see?" — Bible. " Shut the gates for to preserve the town." — King Henry VI, Part III. The -an ending of the O.E. infinitive, seen in et-dJO. above, has dropped off along with other O.E. inflections ; and we have now the simple form of the verb found in the stem — that seen in the first person indicative present, except in be. 1 When such of these verbs as can be used in the passive voice are so used, the infinitive following them takes the to; as, "He icas heard to try, and was seen to leap.'"' 156 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The infinitive phrase 1 may be used as an adjective modifier, as: — " There is a time to weep as well as a time to rejoice." The infinitive phrase may be used as an adverb modifier, as: — " And fools who came to scoff' 2 remained to pray." The infinitive phrase may be used as a noun — as (1) sub- ject; (2) attribute complement; (3) object complement; (4) objective complement; (5) explanatory modifier; (6) principal term in a prepositional phrase ; and (7) may be independent, as: — (1) and (2) "There are but few people whom to know intimately is to dislike thoroughly " ; (3) " The oriole loves to attach its nest to the lithe branches of the tallest elms" ; (4) " He made me (to) wait" ; (5) " It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work" ; (6) " Nothing was left to our fathers but to fight on to the end" ; and (7) " Robins are feathered Pecksniffs, to be sure." Definition. — The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything. 1 We are here speaking of the whole infinitive phrase and not of the verb alone in it. Indeed, in those phrases where the to has its full prepositional force, the verb performs the office of the principal word in a prepositional phrase — " Time to weep " = *' Time for tveeping " ; "Bread to sell" = "Bread for sale" ; "I went to see"="I went for seeing." 2 The infinitive in the phrase expressing purpose is our substitute for the O.E. dative infinitive in -ne, which was preceded by to and called a Gerund. This infinitive of ours is sometimes called a gerundial infinitive to distinguish it from those infinitives to which the to was extended when the -ne of the O.E. dative was dropped. THE VERB 157 THE NOUNAL VERB Another form of the verb does not assert. It is seen in "Next in rarity to catching a weasel asleep is seeing a partridge drum"; "The stretching one's self out in a common car means a curling one's self up like a cat " ; "John's having gone away was the signal for my return." In (1) its endings, in being (2) transitive or intransitive, (3) simple or compound, (4) active or passive, and in having (5) a dual nature — one part verbal — this form of the verb is like a participle; but in having a dual nature one part Inounal it is unlike a participle and like an infinitive. Diversity" of opinion concerning this form exists with jrespect to (1) some of its modifiers, and (2) its name. Some (allow, while others deny, that a 1 and the 1 or a noun in the ] possessive 2 may modify it; and some call it (1) an injini- Hive; 3 some, (2) a gerund; 3 others, (3) a verbal noun; 3 and ! 1 We concede that the use of a and the to modify this form is hardly colloquial, and savors of the "old style," but we find such locutions too strongly intrenched in mod- ern usage to put them under ban. From abundant gleanings we select these, found in H. Taylor, M. Arnold, Buskin, and Lowell: "Kash were it and a tempting Provi- dence should I proceed" ; "Not a making -war on them, not a leaving them out" ; | The wandering about" ; " The doing away with the qualification." 2 ~No one hesitates to use a pronoun in the possessive, as in " His being a politician harmed him " ; but some hesitate to use a noun in the possessive, as in " John's being a politician harmed him." Yet this -'s is often the "only mark to distinguish the nounal verb from the participle, and save the sentence from fatal ambiguity or sheer nonsense. "The man's being a liar is universally believed " is an illustration. 3 It taxes credulity to believe that a simple O.E. Infinitive in -an — only one form of which followed a preposition, and that always to — has developed into compound forms active and passive, that follow almost any preposition, and are modified by a and the and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive. 158 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR others still, (4) a participle. For reasons given below, we call it a Nounal Verb. Definition. — A Nounal Verb is a form of the verb partak- ing of the nature of a noun, and expressing action or being without asserting it. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Verbs — Transitive and Intran- sitive, the Participle, the Infinitive, the Nounal Verb. A Gerund in O.E. is a simple form of the verb in the active voice — the dative case of the infinitive — used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by to. To call these disputed forms Gerunds is to stretch this term unwarrantably, making it cover words that sometimes (1) are highly compound ; sometimes (2) are in the passive ; sometimes follow (3) other prepositions than to, and sometimes (4) no prepo- sition ; sometimes are (5) subjects, and sometimes (6) objects ; sometimes are modified (7) by a and by the, and sometimes (8) by nouns and pronouns in the possessive ; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose at all. To call these words modernized forms of O.E. Verbal Nouns in -ung, -ing, en- counters the fact that such nouns were never compound and never had objects. These words are compound and have objects. It has been customary, and the custom still has followers, to call these words Participles — a term appropriately denoting verbal forms dual in nature. But different names for the verbal forms one of whose natures is adjectival, and for those one of whose natures is nounal, are demanded. It seems reasonable, therefore, to restrict the name Participle to those words with a verb and an adjective nature, and to seek another name for those with a verb and a noun nature. Nounal Verb is such a name. To call these forms in question Verbal Nouns is to classify them as nouns : to call them Nounal Verbs is to class them, as grammarians almost universally do, with verbs. Besides, the term Nounal Verb may help to distinguish between the true representatives of the old verbal nouns in -ung and the so-called gerunds or infini- tives in -ing. THE VERB 159 Questions. — The two great parts of a sentence ? The information imparted in which part ? A verb, what ? Difference between transi- tive verbs and intransitive ? Definitions ? The object of a transitive verb may be either what or what ? Must a verb transitive in one connec- tion be so in another ? What may make an intransitive verb transitive ? What forms of the verb do not assert ? The participle, what ? Its end- ings, what ? The O.E. present participle ending, what ? The nd of this ending, what ? How do participles enable us to slur the less important acts expressed in the sentence ? What three kinds of clauses may participles take the place of ? What diverse functions of the adverb clause may the participle assume ? How may it aid in the movement of the sentence ? How affect the expression ? In what phrases may the participle with its noun do the same ? What is the infinitive ? Its assumed subject ? What preposition usually precedes it ? Reasons - for calling this part of speech a preposition ? After what verbs is this to before the infinitive omitted? But with what voice of such of these verbs as are transitive is the to used before the infini- tive ? The to with the infinitive forms what ? Show the development from O.E. of our to before the infinitive. In the stem of the first person indicative present of what English verb do we not find the simple form of the verb ? What three parts of speech may the infinitive phrase be used as ? What seven offices of the noun may the infinitive phrase assume ? What is a gerundial infinitive ? What is the nounal verb ? In what five particulars is it like a participle ? In what particulars is it unlike ? By what adjectives may it be modi- fied ? By nouns and pronouns in what case ? One reason for the noun's being in the possessive before the nounal verb. By what other names is the nounal verb called by some grammarians ? Why should it not be called an infinitive ? A gerund ? A verbal noun ? Why is it thought better not to call it a participle ? Reasons for calling it a nounal verb. Exercises. — In sentences of your own finding show how a verb transitive in one connection may be intransitive in another. How a preposition prefixed to an intransitive verb or following it may make 160 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR it transitive. Give participles with their several endings and others without ending. In sentences of your own finding illustrate the several utilities of the participle in discourse. Give sentences where the to is omitted before the infinitive. Give sentences of your own finding, illustrating the seven noun uses of the infinitive phrase. Give a sentence showing the need of the -'s to distinguish the nounal verb from the participle. CHAPTER XVI THE VERB— (Continued) MODIFICATIONS Vekbs have five Modifications — Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, and Person. Voice 11 John struck Peter M ; " Peter was struck by John." Here the same thing is said in two ways. Struck in the first sentence shows that the subject names the actor; was struck in the second shows that the subject names the one acted upon. These uses of the verb constitute the modification called voice. Struck is in the active voice ; was struck is in the passive voice. The object complement of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive; hence only those verbs with an object — trans- itive verbs — have voice. Definitions Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. H. SCH. GRAM. — 11 161 162 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The Active 1 Voice shows that the subject names the actor. The Passive 1 Voice shows that the subject names the one acted upon. But this object need not be the object complement. The indirect, or dative, object may be made the subject of a verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after the verb. Change from the Active Voice to the Passive. — There are two ways in which the verb in such a sentence as "They offered Caesar the crown," may be changed into the passive voice. We may (1) make the object complement crown the subject, and say " The crown was offered Caesar " ; or (2) make the indirect object Ccesar the subject, and say " Ccesar ivas offered the crown." Both are legitimate, though the second 2 is questioned. 1 The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent ; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent; as, "Washington cap- tured Cornwallis " ; " Cornwallis was captured by Washington." The passive voice may b* used also when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name him, though known; as, "Money is coined at the mints"; "During the night, the shore was strewn with wrecks." 2 This seems to violate the analogies of language, but it is an English idiom estab- lished by the best of usage. Here are a few illustrations from those we have gleaned, along with some from Matzner's list — sentences from Shakespeare, Goldsmith, Cole- ridge, Hume, Macaulay, Fielding, Motley, Felton, and others : — THE VERB 163 Crown in the second sentence is the object complement 1 of was offered — a verb in the passive voice. The Passive — How Formed. — Except in the participle, the English verb, unlike the Latin and the Greek but like the German, has not and never had synthetic passive forms. The passive of the verb is compounded of some form of the verb be 2 and a past participle of a transitive * verb — the first, the asserting word; the second, an attri- bute complement. " I was promised a book " ; " I am not left one friend " ; " He was given reason to regret it " ; " He was told that Congress had adjourned " ; " The wealthy refugees ■' were positively denied admittance" ; "Had the Spartan been asked, '•What is the chief end of man t ' " " The merchant icaspaid thirty pounds " ; " I have been spared the trouble" ; "We were shown a room"; "You would be taught your duty " ; " He was forbidden access to the sacrifices, and was refused the. protection of law " ; "He was debarred all intercourse " ; " If I may be allowed a word." 1 It is called an adverbial modifier, a retained object, a noun without grammatical construction. But the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is the same in , " They offered Caesar the crown " and " Caesar was offered the crown." If, in the first, crown is the object complement of the verb, why is it not in the second ? In O.E., the dative Coesare was placed first for emphasis; as, " Coesare (to Caesar) was offered the crown " ; and, when the dative ending -e dropped, Ccesar was taken as subject, and the whole sentence remodeled in thought. The usage of the Latin is instructive — " Fuerant hoc rogali." Hoc, ' this,' is the accusative of fuerant rogati, ' they had been asked.' 2 In O.E., weorfian as well as wesan or beon, 'be,' was used to form the passive. The two verbs, vjeorfian and beon, had little distinction in meaning or use. This weorftan, 'become,' 'befall,' * betide,' 'be,' is seen in " Woe worth (be to) the day"; "And now worth (was) the mede (maid) y-maried" — the y in y-maried, as in the modern but obsolete yclad, yclept, ydrad, being the form to which the prefix ge of the O.E. participle reduced before being dropped. The abandonment of weorfian, as the asserting word in the passive, was accom- plished in spite of the analogy of the German, whose passive always has werden, the correlative of weorfian. It took place, Matzner and Professor Hadley think, through the " influence of the French principle of formation." 164 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Peculiar Idiomatic Constructions. — English enjoys peculiar freedom in forming its passives. A transitive verb x which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, may take, in the passive, the princi- pal word of the phrase for subject, and retain the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning. Forms Liable to be Mistaken. — An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjective complement, or by a participle used adjectively, is easily mistaken 2 for a verb in the passive voice. The Passive expressing Continuing Action. — The past participle joined to the forms of be usually represents an action as complete. To indicate continuing action in the passive voice it early became customary to use the 1 " The logical distinction was lost sight of" ; " The anarchy was put an end to " ; " Some of his characters have been found fault with." In analyzing the first sentence, for example, some would regard o/as an adverb relat- ing to was lost, and sight as a noun used adverbially to modify was lost ; some would treat sight as an object complement of was lost; and some would call was lost sight of a compound verb ; while others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not changed by a change of position, would analyze the expression as if arranged thus : " Sight of the logical distinction was lost." 2 In "This coat is sometimes worn,'''' is worn is a verb in the passive voice ; in " This coat is badly worn," is worn is not a verb in the passive ; the incomplete pred- icate is is completed by worn used as an adjective attribute complement. The liability to mistake is perhaps greatest with verbs of motion, as in "The middle of August is come" ; "Thou art fled to brutish beasts " ; "Sir Eoger is gone out of the club "; " They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, were slunk. ." In O.E., as in German, the perfect active has two forms, one with have, the other with am for intransitives ; as, " He has a book bought." " He is to Eome gone." The test of the passive voice is, that what is named by the subject is represented as being acted upon, and that the verb is, or may be, followed by the preposition by before the name of the agent. THE VEBB 165 verbal noun in -ung, -ing with the preposition on, M.E. in, spelled later a. This a was afterward suppressed. "The house is in building," u The house is a building," "The house is building," exhibit the three ways successively taken to indicate action as going on in the present passive. Now when the O.E. participle ending -ende had at last become -ing, the participle and the verbal noun, alike in form, were confounded, and is building, in "The house is building" was regarded as is and the present participle of build. But this combination — often ambiguous, as is seen later — is slowly yielding to a form consisting of being preceded 1 by some other form of be and followed by the past participle of the verb used; as, is being built. The Origin of the Passive. — It is thought that the com- mon way of forming the passive in our family of languages grew out of a form originally reflexive. When, for example, one praises himself, then one is praised ; and it is thought that the passive form, " He is praised," could not have been used 1 till the reflexive, 1 This view is strengthened by the fact that the Greek has a third voice, called the middle, to express reflexive action ; and that, in all but two tenses, the Greek passive and middle are similar. 166 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR " He praises himself" had been domesticated. It seems but natural to make the agent " the source, or starting point, from which the action proceeds." SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Voice — Change from Active to Passive, Passive how Formed, Passive expressing Continuing Action, Origin of Passive. Questions. — What is the active voice ? The passive ? What, in the active voice, becomes subject in the passive ? Hence only what verbs have voice ? Definitions ? What besides object complement, in the active, may become subject in the passive ? Active voice pre- ferred when ? Passive when ? Show that the indirect object of the verb in the active voice may become subject in the passive voice, and the object complement in the active remain object complement in the passive. This object complement in the passive is called what by some ? The usage of the Latin, what ? How is the passive formed in English ? What verbs in O.E. are used as our be is in the passive ? Whence the y in yclept, etc. ? In spite of what analogy was weorfian The endings of the verb in the Greek middle are lengthened forms of the personal pronouns used in the active voice ; or they are double forms, in each of which the pro- noun is twice expressed — as object and as subject. The passive in Latin often has a reflexive meaning — doubtless a survival of the Greek middle. Most of the Deponent Verbs — passive in form, but not in meaning, as uto-r, ' I use ' — are reflexive, and correspond to the Greek verb in the middle. While admitting that the Scandinavian passive is the active plus the reflexive pro- noun -sik, Jespersen does not regard the -r of the Latin passive — in amo-T, amatu-i, etc., 'I am loved,' 'He is loved' — as the -s of the reflexive pronoun se, 'self, 1 changed, by rhotacism, into -r. But Professor Hadley says, " It seems impossible to explain the Latin passive in any other way." THE VERB 167 abandoned for be in the passive ? Instance some peculiar idiomatic constructions in the passive. What forms liable to be mistaken ? With what verbs is the liability greatest ? How guarded against ? The test of the passive voice? How was continuing action in the passive once indicated ? The preposition on or in reduced to what and then dropped ? The is and the word in -ing then taken for what ? This combination always unambiguous ? To what is it yielding ? The passive grew out of a form originally what ? What light does the Greek throw upon this point ? The deponent verbs in Latin ? The endings of the verb in the Greek middle voice are what? What is Jespersen's admission respecting the Scandinavian passive ? His view respecting the -r in the Latin amo-r, amatu-x — ' 1 am loved,' ' He is loved ' ? Exercises. — Illustrate what is said of the frequent choice of the passive voice ; of the change from the active to the passive ; of the forms liable to be mistaken ; of the origin of the passive denoting continuing action ; of the origin of the passive. CHAPTER XVII THE VERB — (Continued) MODE There are three ways in which action or being is asserted by the verb. If one says " John moves rapidly," the action is asserted as a fact not depending for its exist- ence npon one's thought concerning it. If he says " If John move rapidly, he will reach the station in time," the action is asserted as a mere thought, without sugges- tion that it is, or will become, an actual fact. If he says " John, move rapidly," I the action is asserted not as a fact but as a command or an exhortation which John is ordered or requested to convert into a fact. The manner in which action or being is asserted by the verb constitutes the modification called Mode. In the first quotation above, the verb is in the Indicative Mode; in the second, in the Subjunctive Mode ; in the third, in the Impera- tive Mode. 168 THE VERB 169 Definitions Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes its man- ner of asserting action or being. The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact. 1 The Subjunctive 2 Mode asserts the action or being as a mere thought or conception or supposition or wish. The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- mand, an exhortation, or an entreaty. To these modes, a Potential has been added, in which the auxiliaries can, could, may, might, should, and would assert power, liberty, possibility, and necessity to do or to be. But, when I say "I could do it if I would," my ability is asserted as a thought whose translation into fact depends upon my willingness, which in the second clause is asserted as a mere conception — and each verb is clearly subjunctive. When I say (1) "I can do it," (2) "I may do it," (3) "I should do it," 1 In " Are you going ? " or " You are going ? " a fact is referred to the hearer for his admission or denial. In " Who did it ? " the fact that some person did it is asserted, and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will thus be seen that the Indic- ative Mode may be used in asking a question. 2 Called subjunctive, because commonly used in subjoined, or dependent, clauses — introduced by if, lest, that, though, etc. The name is misleading. The subjunctive is not always in a subjoined clause ; and not every subjoined clause contains a subjunc- tive. Conceptual, Mason thinks, would be a better name. 1T0 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR not the doing, but my (1) ability, (2) liberty, (3) obligation to do, are asserted as facts — and each verb seems to be indicative. 1 1 In his English Grammar, Bain puts it thus : — " Such forms as ' I may see,' I can see,' have sometimes been considered as a variety of mood, to which the name ' Potential ' is given. But there is no trace of any inflection corresponding to this meaning, as we find with the subjunctive. Moreover, such a mood would have itself to be subdivided into indicative and subjunctive forms : * 1 may go,' 'if I may go.' And further, we might proceed to constitute other moods on the same analogy, as, for example, an obligatory mood — ' I must go,' or ' I ought to go ' ; a mood of resolution — ' I will go, you shall go ' ; a mood of gratification — ' I am delighted to go ' ; of depression — ' I am grieved to go.' " It is necessary to say here that in an advanced work an author may properly dis- card a terminology permissible to him, and used, in a work more elementary. He maj% for instance, justify his use of a potential mode in an earlier treatise by urging (1) that to assert power, etc., to do is not to assert doing either as a fact or as a conception ; (2) that the mode for asserting power (potenlia) is not improperly poten- tial ; (3) that one can do good work with good tools, whatever their names ; (4) that to call may, can, etc., potential, is the only disposition of them level to the youth's under- standing ; (5) that for the supreme purpose of use the pupil need master such subjunc- tive forms only as are seen in " If I 6 e," " If I were,' 1 '' " If he teach " ; (6) that, if the potential be discarded, to settle when could, should, etc., assert facts and are indicative, and when they assert conceptions and are subjunctive, is often difficult, if not impos- sible ; and (7) that the pupil is disheartened by this needlessly created difficulty. But such considerations, justifying such a course in an earlier work, the author may properly brush aside when preparing a work more advanced — more historical and scientific. His purpose now is not what it was then ; he is writing for pupils able to understand and stand the whole truth. The science, too, between whiles has pro- gressed ; authorities have changed ; lights once followed may now mislead ; if not a Bourbon, his vision is keener and his horizon broader ; he must base his present work upon principles then unknown, or purposely ignored if known. And of principles that underlie modes there seems to be none more fundamental and philosophical than this : For asserting facts, the indicative is used ; for assert- ing mere conceptions, the subjunctive. These are the reasons for our use of the Potential in Graded Lessons and Higher Lessons, and for our disuse of it in this treatise. We may summarize thus: Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis — rendering tempora freely. THE VERB 171 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Subjunctive Forms. — The subjunctive mode has no inflec- tional endings. It omits the indicative -s from its third person singular active present ; it uses be in place of am, art, is, and are; were in place of teas; and wert in place of wast. The Subjunctive in O.E. — In O.E., the subjunctive is used in simple sentences, and in the principal clauses of complex sentences, to express (1) wish, (2) command, and (3) direct questions; in (4) explanatory noun clauses, and (5) object noun clauses containing an indirect question or quotation ; in (6) indefinite adjective clauses ; and in adverb clauses (7) of time, (8) place, (9) manner, (10) condition, (11) concession, (12) purpose, and (13) result — as in the sentences below. 1 The Decline of the Subjunctive. — A noteworthy point respecting the subjunctive mode in English is its decline. 1 "Wa la ! dhte ic geweald," " Oh 1 that I had the power" ; (2) and (6) "Gehyre, se fte earan hcebbe" " Bear, he who has ears " ; (3) and (12) " Hwaet do ic ftaet ic ece lif hcebbe?" "What may I do that I may have eternal life?" (4) " Swylce ftaet is gesewen "gsethe where gewiss," " It also is seen that he was certain " ; (5) " Geseoh $u, cyning, hwilce fteos lar sle" " Thou sawest, O King, what kind of doctrine this is" and (5) " Cwaedon hie ^aet him nasnig ma?g leofra ncere" " They said that no kinsman was dearer to them " ; (7) "^Er $iem fte Rome burg getimbred w<~re" " Before the City of Rome was built"; (8) ** Hafa bletsunge JS&ir ftu. fere," "Have a blessing wherever thou mayest go"; (9) "Do swa fte ^ynce," "Do as seems best to thee" ; (10) and (13) " Gif man sle dumb oftfte deaf geboren ftaet he ne moege his synna geandettan" " If one is born dumb or deaf so that he can not confess his sins "; and (11) " Ne forseah Crist his geongan cempan $eah he llchamlice on heora siege andweard nTZre" " Christ did not despise his young warriors, though he was not present in body at their slaughter." 172 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The subjunctive be, were, and wert are disappearing, as is the form without -s in the third singular present active. This does not mean that the differences between the in- dicative and the subjunctive are vanishing, but that we are caring less than formerly for those subtile distinctions which the subjunctive alone expresses, and are substituting assertions of fact for assertions of what is merely conceived. 1. In (2) of the preceding foot-note, O.E. may use the subjunctive or the imperative ; Mn.E. uses the imperative alone. 2. In (3), (4), (6), and (9), O.E. may use the indicative or the subjunctive ; Mn.E. uses the indicative alone. 3. In (1) and (11), O.E. uses the subjunctive alone; Mn.E. uses the subjunctive only in part. And elsewhere along the line the subjunctive is retreating. The Uses of the Subjunctive in Modern English. — The sub- junctive is still used 1. In Simple Sentences expressing a wish (1) possible of realization, or (2) impossible. It may be used 2. In the Principal Clause of a complex sentence whose dependent clause is (3) a condition, (4) a concession, or (5) an explanatory noun clause. It may be used 3. In a Noun Clause (6) explanatory, or consisting of an indirect question used (7) as subject, or (8) as object comple- ment. It may be used 4. In an Adverb Clause (9) of time, (10) of concession, (11) of purpose, (12) of condition of whose fulfillment the speaker is certain, (13) of condition of whose non-fulfillment the THE VEBB 173 speaker is certain, (14) of condition of whose fulfillment or non-fulfillment the speaker is uncertain, and (15) generally, in asserting anything hypothetically, as a mere supposition or conception, as : — (1) "Thy kingdom come," "God be with you" = ' good-bye' ; (2) "Oh ! that I were President'' ; (3) and (13) "I would not go if I were you" ; (4) and (10) u He would not have risen though an angel had called him" ; (5) and (6) "It were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck"; (7) "Whether it were a dream or a reality was questioned" ; (8) " I know not whether there be any such " ; (9) "I will stay here till she return " ; (10) " Though the weather grow dark, we'll trim our broad sail as before" ; (11) "Take care lest your speech betray you"; (12) "If there be such a thing as right, it will finally prevail" ; (13) and (3) " If he were here, you would not say that" ; (14) "If it rain to-morrow, the roads will be muddy " ; (15) " The ship leaps madly, as it were, from billow to billow." Remarks. — 1. In the kinds of clauses named and numbered above, the subjunctive may still be employed. But in most of them the indicative is now ordinarily used. It does not, however, discharge the office of the subjunctive, but gives instead an unmistakable color of fact to the assertion. We may, for instance, substitute in (7), "Whether it was" ; in (8), " Whether there are" ; in (9), "Till she returns"; in (10), "Though the weather grows"; in (12), "If there is" ; and in (14), "If it rains." Bat in these substitutes the nature of the original assertions is changed. 2. Sentences (8), (9), (10), (12), and (14), whose subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive, have their principal clauses in the indicative ; sentences (3), (4), (6), and (13), whose subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive, have their principal clauses also in the subjunctive. The mode of the principal clause is not then deter- 174 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR mined by that of the subordinate, but, as is that of the subordinate itself, by the character of the assertion to be made. 3. "May thy kingdom come" = u Thy kingdom come"; "Oh! that I might be" = u Oh\ that I were"; " It would be better " = "It were better"; "Though the weather should grow dark" — "Though the weather grow dark"; "If he could 6e" = "If he were" ; "If it should rain" = " If it ram." If the second members 1 of these equations are subjunctive, as all allow, it would seem that the first must be. 4. In sentences with a condition the grand distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive is brilliantly illustrated. In (12) and (13) above, the speaker's certainty respecting the condition does not lead him to use the indicative, and in, "If it is cloudy to- night, there will be no rain," the speaker's uncertainty respecting the condition 2 does not lead him to use the subjunctive. His state of mind regarding the fulfillment of the condition has nothing to do in determining the mode he uses in the condition. If he chooses to leave the condition open, putting it neither (1) as a fact, though he knows it is already fulfilled or will be, nor (2) as contrary to fact, though he knows it is not fulfilled or will not be, he uses 1 In " Should it rain, the roads will be muddy," rain, of the first clause, is an infinitive ; and so is be, of the second. But however thoroughly we may, as here, analyze periphrastic verb phrases, and determine the function of auxiliary, infinitive, or participle in them, we must remember that the verb phrase as a whole has an office ; that, of this phrase, mode is as predicable as voice or tense or any other modification ; and that one mode is as predicable as another. 2 The subjunctive is more frequent in conditional clauses than elsewhere ; yet, as we see above, it is not always used in them. Frequently the condition is (1) entirely suppressed, or (2) only suggested by a single word or a phrase; as, (1) "He would not hesitate to say that" (if he were asked being suppressed); "Then, or in that case (='if that were so'), I would spread my branches far around." The if may be omitted from condition clauses without affecting the mode ; as, "Were this so " = " If this were so"; "Had I known it" — "If I had known it " ; " Should we fail" = " If we should fail." THE VERB 175 the subjunctive. If, though uncertain of its fulfillment or non- fulfillment, he chooses to speak of it as a fact, he uses the indicative. 5. But for (1) the use of be, were, and ivert in place of other forms of the substantive verb, and (2) the absence of ending in the present third singular of other verbs, the subjunctive has nothing outward to distinguish it from the indicative. Knowing, then, that the subjunctive is waning, we doubtless often call forms indicative that are really subjunctive. THE IMPEKATIVE MODE The Person, Number, and Tense of the Imperative. — A 'Command or an entreaty is addressed to one or to more, and therefore the imperative is always in the second per- son, 1 singular or plural; and, though the act which it enjoins can be performed only in time succeeding the command, the tense used is the present. The indicative may take the place of the imperative, as in "Thou shalt not kill"; "You shall go" ; "You must leave" ; 11 Will you not go instantly?" 1 From such forms as, "Let us sing,''' "Let them talk,'''' some grammarians make a first and a third person imperative. But us is not the subject of the verb phrase let-sing, and let is not of the first person. Us is the object complement of let, and the infinitive sing is the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject. Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as, "Now tread we a measure," "Perish the thought. ,, But the verbs here are in the subjunctive, though they simulate an imperative by using its order of words and its vocal tone. The subject — you or thou — is, usually omitted with the imperative. 176 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Mode — the three Kinds. The Subjunctive — in O.E. and in Mn.E. Remarks on. The Imperative. Questions. — Mode, what ? The three modes, what ? Subjunctive, why called so ? A misnomer ? The so-called potential, needed ? The underlying principle of the indicative, what? Of the subjunctive, what ? Has the subjunctive any inflectional ending ? What three forms of the substantive verb does it use ? And for what indicative forms? In what thirteen ways is the subjunctive used in O.E. ? In what ones of these ways may the imperative or the indicative be used in Mn.E.? Give the uses of the subjunctive in Mn.E. What mode is ordinarily employed in the kinds of clauses where the subjunctive might be used ? Does the substituted indicative discharge the exact office of the subjunctive ? What color does it give to the assertion ? Does the mode in either the principal or the subordinate clause determine that in the other clause ? What determines the mode in both ? What sentences brilliantly illustrate the distinction in the use of the two modes ? Is the subjunctive always used in conditions ? When only ? Is the condition ever entirely suppressed ? By what may it be only suggested ? Is the if always used in conditions ? What only that is outward distinguishes the subjunctive ? What mistake are we liable therefore to make ? In what person is the imperative always used ? Is the subject of the imperative usually expressed? A wish is ex- pressed in what mode? A sentence beginning with let is in what mode ? Exercises. — In sentences of your own coinage or finding exhibit all the uses of the subjunctive in Mn.E. See in how many of these thu indicative may be substituted, and with what change in the nature of the assertion. Find sentences in which the. condition is entirely sup- pressed ; in which it is only suggested ; in which the if is omitted from the condition ; in which the indicative commands. CHAPTER XVIII THE VERB— (Continued) TENSE t The Time of the Verb. — The action or being expressed by ' the verb must be asserted as occurring in time— time pres- ent, time past, or time future. J * But, to express the time precisely, we have to assert of some things (1) their occurrence within a period of time " now ending ; (2) their occurrence before some point of time ', already past ; or (3) their occurrence before some point of ■ time yet future. Tense — in its Essential Office of Time. — The modification imposed upon the verb by the time in which the verb repre- sents the action or being as occurring is called Tense. No modification of the verb is more significant ; in Ger- 1 man the verb is even named Zeitwort, 6 time-word.' Names of the Tenses. — There are in English six tenses — ] (1) the Present, (2) the Past, (3) the Future, (4) the Present Perfect, (5) the Past Perfect, and (6) the Future Perfect — ! illustrated thus : — (1) "He walks" ; (2) "He walked"; (3) "He will walk"; (4) "He has walked"; (5) 4k He had walked"; (6) "He will have walked. ' ' H. SCH. GRAM. 12 177 178 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The present, the past, and the future are simple tenses; the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect are compound tenses, each marking two phases of time — that of time anterior, or preceding, along with that respec- tively of time present, time past, time future. Tense — in its Incidental Offices. — The compound tenses, il- lustrated in " He has walked" ; " He had walked" ; " He will have walked," assert the action as complete respectively in time present, past, and future. The simple tenses, illustrated in " He is walking " ; "He was walking " / " He will be walking" ; and the compound tenses, illustrated in u He has been walking " ; " He had been walking " ; " He will have been walking " assert the act as incomplete, continuing, respectively in time present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. The simple tenses, illustrated in " He walks " ; " He walked " ; " He will walk," assert the act neither as complete nor as incomplete ; but, with reference to completion, as neutral, or indefinite. 1 1 Professor Sweet speaks of another tense, illustrated in " I knew how it would turn out." The action is here represented as future with respect to the time expressed THE VERB 179 Definitions Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being. The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as ended at the present time. The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as ended at ! some past time. The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be ended at some future time. The participle, the infinitive, and the nounal verb — forms | that do not assert — also have this modification of tense, I though they are not used in all tenses. The participle is used in the present, past, and past perfect tenses, as in u Hearing a voice, he rose " ; " The voice heard was an enemy's " ; " Having heard it, he fled." by knew; but not future measuring from the present — as in "I know how it will turn out." He calls this tense future preterit. It is manifest that the completeness, the incompleteness, and the indefiniteness of an act are not time distinctions. It happens that in one form of the compound tenses the action or being is represented as complete ; and in the other, as continuous. But these tenses, as tenses, mark the time within which the action or being occurs. The same may be said of the incompleteness and of the indefiniteness of the action asserted by the simple tenses — illustrated above. 180 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Definitions The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate. The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or ended at the time indicated by the predicate. The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as ended at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. The infinitive is used in the present and in the present per- fect, as : — "(To) ride is easier than (to) walk " ; " He is said (to) have walked a mile." The nounal verb is used (1) in the present and the past perf ect, as : — (1) "Doing good is the surest way of getting good"; (2) "I remember his being appointed consul," u Brown's having been made chairman prevented a quarrel." Uses of the Tenses The tenses are fluid in the expression of time — denoting (1) actions or states rigidly restricted in time to that which these tenses ordinarily denote, and (2) actions or states not thus restricted. They express incidental phases of the action or being not included in its time. THE VERB 181 The Present Tense. — The present tense expresses an action (1) as happening l in present time ; (2) as continuing in present time ; (3) as frequently repeated in present time ; and (4) as habitual in present time. It expresses (5) what will take place in future time ; 2 and (6) what is true at all times. It is nsed to picture vividly (7) what happened 3 in past time ; and (8) what one imagines will happen in future time, as : — (1) "It snoivs"; (2) " He lives with his mother"; (3) "He writes home daily " ; (4) " My father goes to bed at nine " ; (5) "I leave to-morrow and return on Monday " ; (6) " The sun rises in the east and sets in the west" ; (7) " The fifth of September, 1774, daivns, the delegates to the first Continental Congress assemble, they march along the street, and reach the threshold of this hall"; (8) "A field of the dead rashes red on my sight, and the clans of Culloden are scattered in flight." The Past Tense. — The past tense expresses past actions or states (1) as momentary in duration ; and (2) as continu- ous, or customary. It expresses what one imagines might take place (3) in present time, and (4) in future time, as : — 1 Instead of the indefinite form of the present in (1) and (2), the continuing form is frequent, as in "It is snowing," "He is Jiving with his mother." In questions, we employ the continuing form or use the auxiliary do, as in " Is it snowing ? " " Does it, or does it not, snow ? " "Is he living ? " " Does he, or does he not, live with his mother ? " 2 The present of be and an infinitive, with or without going, about, etc., are fre- quently used in expressing what will occur in the future, as in "He is going to speak "; " He is about to speak "; " He is to speak." 3 This is called the historical present. 182 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR (1) " He paused, shook his head, started on, stopped, snuffed the candle, and shook his head again "•; (2) " He hoarded and saved and pinched and shaved, and the more he had the more he craved" ; (3) " PFere he here, he would enjoy this" ; (4) " If I should go, you would miss me." The Future Tense. — The future tense expresses an action or state (1) in the unlimited future; (2) in the limited future; (3) as habitual in the future, as : — (1) "I shall see you there"; (2) "I shall see you before you go" ; (3) "An intelligent people will be a free people." The Present Perfect Tense. — The present perfect ex- presses an action as taking place (1) recently but within the period of time now ending; (2) long ago but within the period now ending; (3) frequently in the period now ending; (4) continuing in the period now ending; and to take place (5) in future time, as : — (1) U I have eaten my dinner"; (2) "Christ has taught us our duty to our fellows"; (3) "I have slept soundly every night " ; (4) u He has been principal of the school for years " ; (5) " When I have read the book, you may have it." The Past Perfect Tense. — The past perfect expresses (1) action or being as completed at some point in past time ; and (2) in a condition clause it may express simple past time, as : — (1) "I had recited when you entered" j (2) "Had I known it, I should have called." I THE VERB 183 The Future Perfect has only the function given it in the definition. Tense Signs in English. — In the past tense, indefinite active, we have what we may call a tense sign, or ending, — the -ed — seen in the preterit walk-ed. Not all verbs have it, however ; some change their stem vowel to indicate past time, as drive to drove. The participles ending -ing, -en, and -ed, seen in driv-ing, driv-en, and liv-ed., also are indica- tive of time. How the Tenses are formed. — Speaking generally, the English verb forms its compound tenses by the aid of auxiliary verbs. These auxiliaries are be, 1 can, do, have, may, must, shall, and will in their various forms. Definition. — Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs. * THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES 1. In Clauses. — The tenses of dependent clauses are in- fluenced, some say determined, by those in the principal clauses. The law expressing the sequence is this : A present or a future tense in the principal clanse requires a present or a future in the dependent; a past tense in the principal, a past in the dependent, as : — 1 These verbs aid in forming the tenses of other verbs, and so are auxiliary. As to their present syntax in the verb phrases they help to make, it seems idle to speculate — " worse than useless," Wrightson says. 184 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR " He writes that he is well or soon shall be" ; "I will go if I shall then fce alive and am allowed to go" ; He enlisted because he was forced to do so." To this rule there are two accepted limitations — (1) where the dependent clause expresses a universal truth, 1 and (2) where it contains a direct quotation, as : — (1) " He died in the faith that God is love " ; " Who says m or said, 4 1 am, was, and ever shall be a Whig ' f " But the law, thus restricted, needs further limitations to account for the sequence in such sentences as these : — (1) " I hurt myself so badly that I am still lame and shall always be" ; (2) "He is unable to walk because he was born a cripple" ; (3) " Though we had been enemies before, yet we are friends now " ; (4) "I wish to see the man who would venture to say that" ; (5) " The duty is so clear that all should heed it" ; (6) "If wars were bloody then, what are they now?" (7) "If wars are cruel now, what were they then?" (8) "I learned, or had learned, before you told me, where he lives " ; (9) "No one that served under Wash- ington is now living" ; (10) " Many a year has passed since I saw him" ; (11) "It is hardly credible that with his pen, Scott paid off the firm's debt of $600,000"; (12) "It rained last night, for the ground is wet this morning." In the order of time, agencies of any kind naturally precede; consequences of any kind follow, and those of which men ordinarily speak follow immediately or soon. 1 The tense in such a clause is usually present, as in the illustration. But, if the speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the proposition, he may convert the proposition into an indirect quotation in the past tense; as, "He said that virtue was its own reward." THE VEBB 185 If, then, in the principal clause we speak of an effect or a result as occurring in past time, in the dependent clause we naturally speak of the cause or condition of it as occurring in time preceding — that is, in past time also. Limiting himself to a narrow time interval between the actions asserted in the two clauses, the speaker conforms to the law for the sequence of tenses — both verbs are in the same time. But he may wish (1) to extend the time interval, and regard the consequences of preceding agencies as con- tinuing down to the moment in which he is speaking or even beyond it; or he may w4sh (2) to disregard the natural order of events, and, in the principal clause, speak of something whose condition or reason or ground of infer- ence or of existence is, in the dependent clause, asserted in the present or the future tense. In each of these cases, 1 the speaker transgresses the law — in (1) by using a present or a future tense in the principal clause and a past tense in the dependent ; in (2) by using a past tense in the principal clause, and a present or a future in the dependent. 2. In the Infinitive. — The present infinitive expresses an act as (1) present, or (2) future — and the present perfect ex- 1 These added limitations of the law cover its infractions illustrated in the numbered sentences above. Those sentences containing would and should are perhaps only seeming infrac- tions ; since, as Ave point out, in foot-note, p. 199, would and should, though preterit in form, often have nothing of past time in them. 186 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB presses it as (3) finished — at the time indicated by the priib cipal verb, as : — " I am glad (1) to meet you, or (3) to have met you" ; "We hoped (2) to see you there" ; "He would not have dared (2) to do that" • " She meant or intended or expected (2) to go" (not to have gone 1 ). 3. In the Participle and the Nounal Verb. — The present participle expresses an act synchronous with that of the verb whose subject or object it modifies, as: — " Seeing the dog, or being seen by him, the boy runs, ran, will run," etc. The past participle, unchanged in form, expresses an act (1) continuous and so synchronous, with that of the verb ; or (2) complete and hence preceding that of the verb, as : — (1) " Hated by every one, he, this morning, leaves, left, will leave, has left," etc. ; (2) " Shot by a sportsman, the duck is being eaten, was eaten, will be eaten," etc. 1 " I ought to have gone " is exceptional. Ought has no past tense, and the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time. On the use of the present perfect infinitive to express future action, the Standard Dictionary says, "The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of have with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of. At- tention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense forma- tion and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, ' I meant to have visited Paris and to have returned to London before my father arrived from America,' the past [present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed. ' I meant to visit Paris and to return to London before my father arrived from America,' may convey suggestively the thought in- tended but does not express it," THE VERB 187 The past perfect participle expresses the act as preceding that of the verb, as : — u Having see?i or having been seeing the dog, or having been seen by him, the boy runs, ran, will run, 1 ' etc. Between the present and the past perfect of the nounal j verb, usage makes little distinction. It allows us to say C u After telling him, I came home" ; or "After having told him, I came home." SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Tense, Tenses — Essential and Incidental Offices, Various Uses, Sequence with Indicative and Sub- junctive Clauses, with Infinitives, Participles, and Nounal Verbs. Questions. — The action or being expressed by the verb must be in one or other of what three great divisions of time ? What necessity for a subdivision of these three in expressing time more precisely ? Tense, what ? Names of tenses ? The simple tenses ? The com- _ pound ? These mark each what two phases of time ? The incidental offices of tenses denoted by complete, continuing, and indefinite? Are these time distinctions ? What seventh tense does Professor Sweet add ? Definitions. In what tenses is the infinitive used ? The par- ticiple ? The nounal verb ? Give the various uses of the several ' tenses. The continuing form in the present used instead of what ? The auxiliary do instead of what ? The historical present, what ? I What are the tense signs in English ? Compound tenses formed \ how ? Definition of auxiliary verbs ? Name these. The law for ' sequence of tenses ? Two accepted limitations ? As thus limited, why still too sweeping ? What limitations added ? Ground for them ? ' With respect to the time of the principal verb, the present infinitive 188 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR expresses the act in what time ? The present perfect, how ? With reference to the principal verb, the present participle represents an act how? The past participle, in what two ways? The past per- fect participle, how ? What is said of the two tenses of the nounal verb ? The remark made in the Standard Dictionary extends what ? Exercises. — Give sentences of your own containing simple and compound tenses that illustrate incomplete, or continuing, action. Give sentences of your own that contain compound tenses expressing complete action. That contain simple tenses expressing indefinite action. Give sentences of your own that illustrate the infinitive, the participle, and the nounal verb in their several tenses. Give sentences that illustrate the fluid nature of the several tenses ; that require added limitations to the law for the sequence of tenses in clauses; that illustrate the tenses of infinitives and participles with reference to that of the principal verb. CHAPTER XIX THE VERB — (Continued) NUMBER AND PERSON Definition. — The Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject. Rule. — A Verb must agree with its subject in number and person. In the common style, most verbs have but the one dis- tinguishing number and person ending -s, 1 found in the third singular present of the indicative — beats, leads. In the solemn style, the second person singular has the ending -est, -st, or -t, as in walk-est, 7ia-st, wil-t; and the third has -eth, or -th, as in look-eth and clo-th. The rule is almost invariable as respects number when there is but one subject. If this is plural, the verb is plural ; 2 if this is singular, the verb is singular. 1 See p. 231, for the ending -es, as in vex-es,jli-es, etc. Need and dare, when followed by an infinitive without to, are generally used instead of need-s and dare-s ; as " He need not go " ; " He dare not go." 2 Plural nouns naming things taken as one whole take a verb in the singular : as, " Ten miles is a long walk " ; " Six months is what ? " A seeming exception, and the source of many mistakes, is found with nouns plural in form, but singular as used ; as, "His Lives of the Poets is (not are) John- 189 190 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR But some cases where there are two or more singular nominatives require special notice. In general we may- say that Two or more singular nominatives, connected by and, require the verb to be plural. Exceptions to this rule occur (1) when the connected sub- jects name the same thing; (2) when the second subject is a synonym of the first and is added to emphasize it ; (3) when the second is closely allied in meaning with the first; (4) when the subjects form a climax; (5) when the subjects follow the verb, and emphasis is gained by making the verb agree with the nearest ; (6) when an attribute noun or pro- noun precedes the verb and attracts the verb to agreement with it; and (7) when two or more subjects name two or more things taken as one whole, as : — (1) "My old friend and patron was there" ; (2) "The head and front of my offence is this" ; (3) "Anything and everything suggests itself to him " ; (4) " His fortune, name, liberty, and very life was at stake " ; (5) " His was the plan, the execution, and the success of the attack" ; (6) " What is your name and station?" and (7) "Bread , and butter is nutritious." son's best work " ; " Mathematics is (not are) an invigorating study " ; " The United States is (not are) respected abroad." News, measles, etc. are other nouns often misused as plurals. Another source of mistakes in the number of the verb is a noun in the plural or two nouns in the singular, found in a prepositional phrase preceding the verb ; as, "The captain, besides the passengers, was (not were) saved " ; "The son, in addition to the daughter and mother, is (not are) sick" ; "The lieutenant, with many of his soldiers, was (not were) wounded." The mistake is made most frequently when with is used. THE VERB 191 Some seeming 1 exceptions to the rule occur where there are obvious ellipses of the verb, as (1) when the second subject is used for emphasis; (2) when the subjects are connected by as ivell as, 'and'; (3) when the subjects are individualized by eacJi, every, many a, no, or not; and (4) when all the subjects follow the verb, as : — (1) " All this, and much besides, appears to forbid it " ; (2) " Time, as well as thought, was needed" ; (3) " Each boy and each girl was questioned," '•''Every man and woman was lost," " Many a maid and her lover laments that ride," "No people and no tribe ever lacks that," " Not my head and not my heart consents " ; (4) " There was running and leaping and shouting that day." When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative, as : — "Stories, and not study, were preferred"; "Hunting, and not fishing and sailing, was his favorite sport." 1 Possibly some of these seeming- exceptions are only duplicates of the real ones illustrated above. Possibly, too, both groups of illustrations do not exhibit all the authorized departures, or apparent departures, from the rule. In the third volume of the Journal of Philology, Fitzgerald Hall has collected scores of sentences that really or apparently violate the rule. Some of them, not already accounted for, perhaps, may be, thus : " But in fearful truth the presence and the power of him is here " (a common modifying phrase unifies the two subjects) ; 11 Great natural energy and generosity has been manifested" (common modifying adjectives unify the two subjects); "There has been a simplicity and humility in his letters" (failure to repeat, before humility, the distinguishing a unifies the two subjects); "Already there appears a poverty of conception, a coarseness and vulgarity in all the proceedings " (euphony unconsciously influences the writer to add -s — sounded as z — to appear, before the a). The rule we have been considering has certainly received a loose interpretation from modern writers, and from earlier ones a looser still. 192 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB When two or more subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb agrees in number with but one, and that the nearest, as : — " Neither the pupils 1 nor the teacher 1 was satisfied"; "Either he alone or they all are wrong." A collective noun, singular 2 in form, has its verb (1) in the singular when the collection is taken as a whole; (2) in the plural when the individuals composing the col- lection are thought of, as : — (1) u The jury was composed of twelve farmers," "The number present was not reported"; (2) "The jury were not agreed," "A number are determined to go." When one of two or more subjects connected by and is of the first person, the verb is in the first person; when one is of the second person and none is of the first, the verb is in the second, as : — u He and I 3 shall (not will) suffer for this"; " How dost thou and thy master agree ? " 1 When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural generally stands next to the verb, however. 2 Sometimes a collective noun is preceded by a verb in the singular and followed by one in the plural ; as, " Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound " ; " There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes." We may say, "Three times four is twelve," because the expression = " Four (thought of as a whole) taken three times is twelve." But it is more common, it is thought, to use are. "Three times four are twelve = three repetitions of four are twelve." — Century Dictionary. 3 Except when confessing his fault, it is customary for the speaker who is using pronouns of the three persons to place first the pronoun of the second person, to place THE VERB 193 A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person, as : — " I ivho am here" ; "Thou who writest" ; " He that speaks on his own account, and she ivho talks for herself'' ; " They who plead for themselves.' 1 '' THE AUXILIARIES — MEANINGS, ENDINGS, USES Be. — The substantive verb be has three roots — (1) bhu (Latin in-i, Greek phu-o) seen in be and been, and meaning to ' grow ' ; (2) as (Latin s-wm, Greek es-mi) seen in am, art, is, and are, and meaning to 'sit' or to 'breathe' — the s syncopated in am, and changed by Werner's law to r in art and are, and the a appearing as i in is; and (3) was or wes, seen in ivas, ivast, were, and wert, and meaning to ' dwell ' — the s changed to r in were and ivert. The concrete meanings of these roots have all faded out of the verb; it now signifies simple existence — is oftenest merely a copula. The personal ending -m in a-m — the only -m verb-ending in English — is the m of the first personal pronoun me; the -t of ar-t, was-t, and wer-t is the ft of %u, 'thou'; is is the root without ending ; and the -e of ar-e and wer-s — the only indicative forms in English that cannot be used in the singular as well as in the plural — is not derived from a next the pronoun of the third person, and to place last the pronoun referring- to him- self. He follows the same order when using pronouns of hut two different persons ; as, " You and he and 7, you and he, you and 7, he and 7, are invited." H. SCH. GRAM. 13 194 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR personal pronoun, but is a vowel which originally con- nected the stem to a personal pronoun which has dropped. The auxiliary be 1 in its various forms enters alone or along with other auxiliaries, into combination with the infinitive and with the participles of verbs to aid in con- jugation. Do. — Instead of the simple forms of a verb in the present and past tenses indefinite, do, do-st, do-es, and the reduplicated di-& and di-d-st are used with the present infinitive of the verb in (1) negative 2 and (2) interroga- tive 2 sentences ; and (3) to express emphasis. 2 The form do is used also (4) wdth the imperative 2 of a verb. Have. — The auxiliary have, ha(ve)~&t 9 ha(ye)-&, fea(ve)-th, ha(ve)-&, has lost its old concrete meaning of possession — 1 Be is also an independent verb. Its full conjugation may be seen in chapter XXII. 2 As in (1) " I do not look for him yet" ; (2) " What did you see ? " (3) " You say he does not resemble his father but I say he does " ; (4) " Do sit down and listen. Mason tells us that do is not thus used (1) when the subject is an interrogative pronoun, or (2) when the subject, or an adjective modifying it, is qualified by an inter- rogative word. We say, " Who or what men or how many men voted V (not did vote). Still, in poetry, we find such questions as, il What wound did ever heal but by degrees?" The negative and emphatic did does not come under Mason's rule; as, " Who did not vote ? " " Who did vote ?" Do, independent, is in all its forms (1) an ordinary transitive verb meaning to 1 perform ' ; or (2) is used as a convenient substitute for any other verb, as : — (1) "He did his duty as a citizen " ; (2) "His face shines as does (= shines) the moon"; "Proceeding, as it does (=proceeds) from the brain, the spinal marrow extends downward through the back-bone." Gan, preterit of O.E. -ginnan, is used in Middle English with the force of did emphatic, as in " She kiste her sone, and after gan it blesse." — Chaucer. THE VERB 195 a meaning it retains as an independent, or notional, verb. In its early uses as an auxiliary with the past participle of transitive verbs, it kept its meaning of possession, the participle agreeing in gender, number, and case with the object complement of have. 1 The idea of possession gradually fading out of have, the verb became a mere formative element ; and the participle, ceasing to agree with the object, blended with have in a compound tense followed by the object. When this stage was reached, have was ready for use with the participles of intransitives. Its use with them has increased, until now it has almost ousted be from such combinations 2 and ? taken its place. The auxiliary have, in its various forms, enters alone or along with other auxiliaries, into combination with the 1 As in, "Hie hi-ne ofslceg -en-ne 7ice/-d-on " ; "He hcef-6.-e fta wls-a.ii onfang- en-e" — in which the -ne and -e show that in number, gender, and case, ofslcegen- ne, 'slain,' and onfangen-Q, 'taken hold of,' agree with hi-ne, 'him,' and wis-an, •matter' — object complements of Ace/'-don, hcef-de, 'had.' Have is an independent verb also. Its conjugation is given in chapter XXII. 2 The original O.E. present perfect, and past perfect auxiliaries used with tran- sitive verbs were forms of habban, 'have'; those used with intransitives were forms of beon, 'be.' Habban encroached upon beon ; we have extended the encroachment of have upon be. March allows that " have with an intransitive does not bear analysis," but says, "We do not want two tense signs for the same tense." Be, which Whitney thinks "would theoretically be more correct" with intransitives, has yielded; and have is the common auxiliary of these two tenses. But be is still sometimes used in these tenses with intransitive verbs of motion, rest, growth, and disappearance, as in "The time is gone by " ; "When they were come out of the city"; "The world is grown so bad"; "What is become of him ? " " The mountains are vanished " ; " The heathen are perished.''' 196 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR participles of the verbs whose conjugation it is aiding — as may be seen in chapter XXII. Must. — The auxiliary must, the Mn.E. of the O.E. moste from motan, has but one form. It is always in- dicative, and denotes (1) obligation 1 and (2) certainty. 1 It is used with the present infinitive 1 of a verb to form its present tense indefinite ; and with have and the past participle 1 of a verb to form its present perfect complete. Shall and Will. — Shall, shal-t is the O.E. sc(e)al, from sculan; and will, 2 wil-t is from O.E. willan. To form the O.E. future of any verb these auxiliaries were used with its present infinitive. Neither of these, etymologically, expressed futurity. Sculan 3 indicated debt, duty ; willan, 2. 1 As in (1) "We must obey"; (2) "He must have seen you." " So mote it be," the old optative, is a familiar wish. 2 Our won't, ' will not,' is a contraction of an old present form wol and not. Willy-nilly = 'will he, nill he' = 'whether he will or whether he nill' (will not). The negative ne combines with many adverbs, pronouns, and interjections as in n-ever, n-aught, n-either, n-ay, n-or, etc. ; and in O.E. and later, it united with verbs, as in nam, nis, nas, nill, etc. 3 Why, in the absence of a real synthetic future tense, were not auxiliary verbs chosen that signified futurity? Marsh ventures this reply : "To our rude ancestors . . . the present was full of stern necessities ; the past, of hard and painfully impressed realities. The future was too doubtful to justify the employment of words implying prediction or even hope ; and they appropriated to it forms indica- tive of a present purpose, determination, or duty, not of prophecy or of expectation." March says, " All times were at first expressed by the same verb form. In the next period, a second form was used for completed, or past, action, leaving the present and future the first form. Then in O.E., sculan and willan came in to express various kinds of future action, and lastly became the common form for simple futures in Mn.E." THE VERB 197 wish, purpose, or determination. In Mn.E., shall and will are used to express future action l or being, but with much of their original signification still clinging to them. Shall and Will in the Future. — In the three persons of the future, shall and will alternate. 2 Ordinarily used as in "I shall walk"; " You will walk"; "He will walk," shall and will foretell, and are simple future auxiliaries. But in "I will walk"; "You shall walk"; " He shall walk," : shall and will express the determination of the speaker, and • cannot properly be regarded simply as future auxiliaries. 3 Arbitrary as the distinction between these auxiliaries in i 1 0. F. Emerson, in History of the English Language, says, "During the Middle English period, the future came to be regularly expressed by the auxiliary shall. Toward the close of the same period, will was also used, along with shall, in the first person, to express a promise or a threat. In the modern period, will . . . came to be used in the second and third persons to express futurity." 2 "The present distinction between shall and will in the different persons is not established in O.E., nor in Scottish or Irish. In the simple future will has been encroaching upon shall in America ; and has quite taken its place in the colloquial speech of all but Xew Englanders, and their descendants." — F. A. March. This distinction between shall and will in the three persons Marsh condemns as j "a verbal quibble, serving no end but to embarrass"; and he predicts its speedy disappearance — a prediction not yet fulfilled. Still, in subordinate clauses introduced by as, if, though, till, unless, when, etc., or by a relative pronoun, the distinction is not rigidly observed. Here shall may be used in the three persons ; as, " If you or I or any one shall break a moral law, punishment will follow"; "A free people is always prepared for whatever shall occur"; " If a man shall steal an ox, he shall restore him five oxen." 8 Mason says even, "'Thou shait not steal' involves no prediction; it asserts a present obligation. Consequently, in this sentence we have not a future tense." 198 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR the three persons may seem, the change from shall in the first person future to will in the second and in the third has a reason. It is the reason that accounts for the substitu- tion of the plural you for the singular thou in addressing- one — courtesy. Will yet savors far too strongly of self-determination for the speaker's use in foretelling what he is to do ; hence he uses shall, which still plainly implies external influence, compulsion of some kind, duty. But that which unfits ivill and fits shall for the speaker's need in predicting his own actions, fits will and unfits shall for forecasting the actions of another — the person spoken to or spoken of. Modesty leads the speaker to place himself under the determination of some power outside of himself ; courtesy leads him to leave others to their own determination. 1 But such modesty and courtesy are laid aside when the speaker has to assert firm purpose respecting self, and necessity or promise respecting others. Here he resorts to the self-purposeful will in the first person and the compul- sory shall in the second and third, as : — " I will not pay twenty-one shillings and sixpence, ship money " ; " Thou shalt not be as the hypocrites are " ; "He shall be paid." The auxiliary used in a question is that which, as indi- cating prediction, purpose, or necessity, is expected in the answer, as : — 1 One may courteously avoid even the proper exercise of authority, and, assuming his servant's readiness to obey, may say, " You will see that I am called." THE VERB 199 " Shall you pay ? " "I shall " ; " FR7? * it rain ? " "It will 1 " ; 41 tffcaZZ he stay ? " "He shall "; " TTOZ you go ? " "I tgfll." aS/mx^ and wiB are always in the indicative. Their use with the present infinitive and the participles of other verbs in the future and future perfect tenses may be seen in chapter XXII. Should and Would. — - Shoul-d, shoul-d-e&t, or shoul-d-st, is the preterit sceol-de — the O.E. sc appearing here as else- where as sh ; and woul-d, ivoul-d-e&t, or woul-d-st, is the pre- terit icol-de. Their use in the conjugation of other verbs may be seen in chapter XXII. Should 2 and ivould are in the indicative when they aid in asserting, as facts, obligation and intention; they are in 1 In speaking, as here, of something incapable of volition, there seems to be no trace of the original meaning of will, unless we regard the question and answer as containing a species of personification. 2 Should and would, though preterit in form, do not always express the act as past. In ''He said he should soon go," "He thought he would go," should and would assert action future with respect to that of said and thought. In " If I should refuse, he would be angry," " Though he should be present, it would do no good," the sub- junctive should and icould express mere conception without reference to past time. In (1) "I should be unwilling to attempt that," and (2) " You should stand up for your rights," should denotes (1) self -distrust, and (2) obligation, without refer- ence to past time. Would is often used to soften the assertion, as in " It would be well to ask," " It would seem so." "The auxiliaries shall, should, will, and would commonly express some imper- ative or optative modification of the principal action — such as is expressed in many languages by modes. The nice distinctions of obligation, constraint, command, intention, permission, and promise, varying as the clause is indicative, subjunctive, interrogative, responsive, conditional, and the like, are among the most difficult objects of study in language, and are generally left to special treatises." — F. A. March. 200 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB the subjunctive when they aid in asserting these as mere conceptions. The principle that guides in the use of shall and will in the different persons guides in the use of should and would in them. Just as we say- He thinks that I shall be lonely and that he will visit me," so we say " He thought that I should be lonely and that he would visit me." May and Might. — May, may-est, or may-st is the O.E. mceg — the g becoming y; — and migh-t, might-t-est, or might-t-st, is its preterit mih-te — the h becoming gh. They are used to express * (1) permission, (2) possibility or liability, and (3) wish (this only in the subjunctive). May and might are in the indicative when they aid in asserting something as a fact : they are in the subjunctive when they aid in asserting it as a mere conception. With what forms and in what tenses of the verb which it is aiding to conjugate, may is found, is seen in chap- ter XXIL Might is used in the tenses where should and would are employed. 1 As in (1) "You may go" "You might hand me that"; (2) "We may die to-night," "You might slip on the ice" ; (3) '"''May you be happy," "Oh! that I might Jiy away." Note the delicate shades of meaning in auxiliaries ! THE VERB 201 Can and Could. — Can, 1 canst was once an independent verb meaning 2 to 'know/ and had a past participle cufff ' known.' It now asserts ability or power. Its preterit coul-d has dropped the n of can, and through the influence of should and ivould has added an 1 in spelling but not in sound. Can is used in the indicative, and in tenses where the indicative may is found. Could is indicative when it aids in asserting something as a fact; it is subjunctive when it aids in asserting it as a mere conception. Could is found ! in the tenses where should and would are used. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTEK, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Number and Person. Excep- tions to the Rule for Number. Auxiliaries — Roots, Meanings, End- ings, Uses. Encroachments of Have upon Be. Shall and Will m the Future. Questions. — Definition of number and person? Rule? The one distinguishing number and person ending of verbs in the common style ? The endings in the solemn style ? When is rule for the agreement of verbs almost invariable ? When need and dare used instead of needs and dares f When do plural nouns take verbs in the singular ? What seeming exception to the rule is the source of many mistakes? What exceptions to the rule that two or more nom- 1 Can, may, must, ought, shall, and will were originally past forms ; hence there is no -S in the present indicative third singular. 2 This meaning is still seen in con and cunning, and in the cognate ken. 3 Still seen in uncouth, ' unknown,' and hence ' awkward,' ' boorish.' 202 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB inatives in the singular, connected by and, require a plural verb, are given ? What seeming exceptions to the rule, when these obvi- ous ellipses are given ? A collective noun, singular in form, has its verb in the singular, when ? In the plural, when ? In what person is the verb when one of its subjects connected by and is of the first per- son ? When one is of the second person and there is none of the first ? A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in what? Which is common, " Three times four is twelve" or "three times four are twelve" ? The order of pronouns in a sentence ? The roots, and the meanings of the roots, of be ? Its endings, what ? Its meaning now, what ? Is be ever an independent verb ? The functions of do as auxiliary ? Of do, independent? Gan, once used how? What has the auxiliary have lost ? With what did the past participle used with have once agree ? How came it to unite, as now, with have to form compound tenses ? Upon what verb has have encroached ? What do March and Whitney say of have and be ? Be still used with intransitive verbs denoting what? Must denotes what? Shall and will from verbs originally meaning what ? Neither implied what ? What is Marsh's explanation of the fact that our O.E. ancestors did not choose auxiliaries implying futurity ? What is March's note ? In simple prediction, what is the use of shall and will in the three persons? Has the present distinction between them in these persons always existed? What is Marsh's prophecy respecting this distinction? In what clauses is the distinction ignored ? What is the use of shall and will in the three persons when expressing the determination of the speaker? What has given rise to the distinction between shall and will in these persons ? What parallel elsewhere ? What unfits ivill for use in the first person when the speaker is foretelling? What fits shall for this office ? What fits will and unfits shall for this office in the second and third persons? What is laid aside when the speaker has to assert firm purpose respecting himself, and promise or necessity respecting others ? How then does he use shall and will f How are these auxiliaries used in questions ? How is the seeming exception to the use of will in " Will it rain?" ac- THE VERB 203 counted for? Shall and will always in what mode? Should and would express what ? When in the indicative ? When in the sub- junctive ? Though preterit in form, do should and would always express the action as past ? Would often used for what ? May and might express what ? When indicative ? When subjunctive ? Can once meant what? The original meaning of can still seen in what words ? What consonant has could dropped ? Both mean what ? Are used how? What verbs have no -s in the third singular present ? Exercises. — Give sentences in which one is liable to mistake nouns plural in form only for real plurals. Illustrate the exceptions to the rule requiring the plural with two or more singular subjects connected by and. Give sentences illustrating the singular verb with a collect- ive noun singular in form ; the plural verb. Illustrate the several uses of do, auxiliary ; of do, independent. Illustrate the uses of be in compound tenses ; of shall and will in simple prediction ; of shall and will in expressing determination ; of should and would when not expressing past time. CHAPTER XX THE VERB— (Continued) VERBS CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM With respect to meaning, verbs have been classed as transitive and intransitive. With respect to form, we classify them as strong and weak. Strong Verbs. — The verbs that we call strong owe their vowel-change, seen in the past tense, to the primitive Indo- European method of expressing completed action — that of doubling the stem syllable. In each verb, the two syllables — the reduplicating and the reduplicated — contracted in O.E. into one syllable, in which the vowel element of the original syllable was changed. Eew of the strong verbs now in English retain this re- duplication ; but most of them, in passing from the present time to the past, underwent a vowel-change produced by reduplication; and this vowel-change became significant of past time. VOWEL-CHANGES IN O.E. STRONG VERBS ILLUSTRATED In the columns below we exhibit the vowel-changes which the strong O.E. verbs that survive with us suffered in O.E. 204 THE VERB 205 — changes produced by reduplication, or by what may be called vowel-variation — changes which we have said came to mark past time. PRES. INF. PAST TENSE SING. AND PLTJ. PAST PART beat an, 'beat,' beot and beoton, beaten. biddan, 'bid,' bsed and bsedon, beden. blowan, ' blow,' bleow and bleowon, blowen. crawan, 'crow,' creow, creowon, era wen. cuman, 'come/ com and comon, cumen. drincan, ' drink, dranc and druncon, druncen. etan, 'eat,' set and aiton, eten. feallan, 'fall,' feoll and feollon, feallen. feohtan, 'fight,' fe^aht and fuhton, fohten. ireosan, ' freeze,' freas and fruron, froren. giefan, 'give,' geaf and geafon, giefen. hon, 'hang,' heng and hengon, hangen. ridan, 'ride,' rad and ridon, riden. seon, 'see,' seah and sawon, sawen. slean, ' slay,' sloh and slogon, slagen. stelan, 'steal,' sta3l and stolon, stolen. swerian, ' swear, 1 swor and sworon, sworen. wacan, 'wake,' woe and wocon, wacen. The strong verbs now in English exhibit many vowel- changes in passing from what is now the present form to the preterit. As is seen in the column of strong verbs below, these changes are of a to e, to o, to u, and to oo ; of ay to ew; of e to o; of ea to a and to o; of ee to aw and to o ; of i to a, to o, to ou, to u ; of ie to ay ; of o to a and to e ; of oo to o ; of u to a ; and of y to ew. As above, vowel- changes in the participles sometimes attend. 206 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Weak Verbs. 1 — The vowel-changes resulting from redupli- cation were so various and confusing that another method of indicating what is now the past tense was devised — the addition of a syllable 2 to the stem of the present. This furnished a fixed model to which all new verbs have conformed, and gave us the class of verbs called weak — a class including so large a majority 3 of the verbs now in 1 " Strong and weak were first applied by Grimm on the theory that verbs of the one conjugation expressed the idea of past time by a mere modification of their own resources . . . while those of the other had to call in the help of an additional syllable to achieve the same result." — Professor Lounsbury. " Strong and Weak in conjugation mean that one class held strongly to the old forms, the other weakened to a new form." — F. A. March. Old and New, used to characterize the two classes, explain themselves. 2 This syllable is generally believed to be a remnant of our did — the reduplicated form of do. Professor Whitney, Language and the Study of Language, says, " We tamed is in Moeso-Gothic [the oldest member of the Teutonic branch of our linguistic family] tamidedum, which means not less evidently tame-did-we than the Anglo- Saxon sothlice, ' soothly,' * truly,' means 'in a sooth-like (truth-like) way.' I loved is, then, originally Llove did, that is, J did love." Of the full form -ed in use, the e is the connecting vowel to which the O.E. connect- ive o or ia was reduced, or is an e otherwise brought in ; and the d is what, it is thought, remains of the did. 8 In O.E. there were about 300 simple strong verbs — many of which compounded with prefixes. In capacity for compounding, O.E. strong verbs surpassed those in Mn.E. Lounsbury says of slandan that it combined with more than a dozen prefixes ; our stand unites with only two — with and under. Many of these O.E. strong verbs perished during the centuries succeeding the Norman Conquest and never entered Mn.E. ; and many have since gone over to the weak class. Of the 300 in O.E. not 100 are left. The desertion from the strong to the weak was checked by the appearance of a native literature in the second half of the fourteenth century — the time of Wyclif and Langland and Chaucer — and three centuries ago it stopped. Lounsbury says, " Since the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1558-1603, our speech has not lost a single strong verb. What the language then had it has ever since retained. THE VERB 207 English that it is popularly called regular, 1 in distinction from the strong verbs called irregular. 1 Another Distinction between the Two Classes of Verbs. — That strong verbs indicate past time by vowel-change, and weak verbs by adding a syllable, is the most vital distinction between the two classes but not the only one — the past participle of strong verbs ends in -en ; that of weak verbs, in -ed. 2 The Principal Parts of a verb — those parts from which all the others are derived — are the present indicative or infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle. In the principal parts of the Mn.E. strong verbs below are seen (1) the vowel-change by which the past tense is indicated, (2) the other changes of the verb stem, and (3) the participle ending, changed or unchanged. In fact, the present disposition of the language is to cling firmly to the strong verbs it already possesses . . . and even to extend their number." And he instances verbs that wholly or in part have gone over from the weak to the strong — shake, shine, strive, dig, etc. But new verbs, from whatever source they come, are weak. So that, while the strong are not deserting to the weak, the weak are gaining in number. 1 In a work following the development of the parts of speech from O.E. down, it seems best to employ the terms strong and weak, now used in the historical and scientific treatment of the English verb ; especially as, in speaking of those weak verbs that conform to the type, and of those that do not, we shall need the words regular and irregular. 2 The losses that en and -ed sustained and the resulting irregularities of the parti- ciples will be given — those of en at the end of this list of strong verbs, and those of -ed at the end of the irregular weak verbs. This -ed is not the -ed of the past tense. The e is a connecting vowel, but the d is the t of a primitive suffix -ta, —as in Latin past participle ama-tas — from amare, to ' love ' — transformed. 208 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR LIST OF STRONG VERBS IN MODERN ENGLISH PRESENT. FAST. (a)bide, 1 abode, (for)bear, {j^;. beat, (be) gin, 3 (for) bid, bind, bite, blow, blow, ' blossom ' break, chide, choose, cling, (be)come, dig, beat, f began, \ begun,* PAST PART. abode. borne, born. 2 beaten, begun. / bade, Ibid, bidden, bid. bound, bound. bit, bitten. blew, blown. blew, / broke, \ brake,* chid, chose, clung, came, /dug, blown. broken. / chidden, \ chid. chosen. clung. come. dug, {digged,* digged.* PRESENT. draw, PAST. drew, PAST PART. drawn. drink, i drunk,* drunk - drive, drove, driven. eat, ate, eaten. (be)fall, fell, fallen. fight, fought, fought. find, found, found. fling, flung, flung. fly, flew, flown. freeze, froze, frozen. &}**> got, /got, \ gotten.' (for) give, gave, given. (for) sake, 3 forsook, grind, grow, hang, heave, ground, grew, forsaken. ground. grown. ( hung, hung, \ hanged, 5 hanged. f hove, hove, \ heaved, heaved. * Forms starred are now rare — archaic, poetic, or dialectic. The second forms of preterits or participles are judged to be less common than the first. 1 Bide in the compound is a regular weak now ; it was strong in the O.E. 2 Born is the participle of bear, to 'bring forth.' The participle of forbear, like that of bear, to ' carry,' ends in e. 3 Begin and forsake are the only compounds in the list without simple forms in English. 4 Used in begotten and forgotten ; got is in England the more common participle of get; gotten is more common in America, and is sometimes ignorantly called an Americanism. B Hanged and all italicized forms are those of regular weak verbs. Hang, hanged = put to death by ' hanging.' THE VERB 209 PAST. hid, held, knew, lay, rove, rode, rang, rose, ran, saw, f seethed, \ sod,* PAST PART. f hidden, (hid. f held, \holden.* known. lain. rove. ridden. rung. risen. run. seen. sodden, seethed. shook, shaken. / sheared, shorn, \ shore,* sheared. shone, shone. shot, shot. f shrank, shrunk, \ shrunk,* shrunken. j shrived, shrived, (he) speak, \ shrove, f sang, \ sung,* sank, sat, slew, slid, slung, slunk, smote, f spoke, \ spak shriven. sung. sunk. sat. slain. J slidden, \ slid. slung. slunk. smitten. spoken. PRESENT. spin, spring, PAST. spun, PAST PART. spun. ^f }stand,stood, (sprang (sprung,* b P run o- stave, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, string, strive, f stove, X staved, stole, stuck, stung, f stank, X stunk,* strode, stood. stove, staved. stolen. stuck. stung. stunk. stridden. struck J stmck > struct, j stricken# strung, strung, strove, striven. (for) swear, swore, sworn, swum. f swam, swim, -< ' \ swum, swing, swung. taken. torn. swung, under } take, took, tear, tore, thrive i throve ' thriven, tnnve, ^ thrived, thrived. throw, threw, thrown. tread, trod(e), trodden. / \ w f waked, ivaked, (a) wake, j woke / woke / wear, weave, win, wind, wring, write, wore, wove, won, wound, wrung, wrote, worn. woven. won. wound. wrung. written. H. SCH. GRAM. — 14 210 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The Preterit, or Past Stems, of the Strong Verbs. — (1) For a summary of the vowel-changes in the preterit illus- trated above, see p. 205 ; (2) in beat, bit, chid, hid, etc., there is no vowel-change in the stem ; (3) in stood the n of the present stand is forced out ; (4) in struck there is a c not found in strike ; and (5) in sang and sung, sprang and sprung, swam and swum, we have double forms — one from each number in the O.E. The Participle Stem. — (1) Sometimes this is like the present stem, as in driven, fallen, run, and seen; (2) some- times, like the past, as in found, held, spoken, and stuck; and (3) sometimes different from either, as in flown and sunk. The Participle Ending. — (1) Sometimes the full, regular syllable -en is used, as in beaten, ridden, shrunken, and smitten — doubling the consonant or not, according to Eule III, and exceptions, p. 143 ; (2) sometimes the e of -en is dropped, as in known, slain, and torn; (3) sometimes this e is dropped, and an e added to the n, as in borne; (4) some- times the -en is dropped, as in fought, bound, stuck, and strung; and (5) sometimes the -en is retained in one form and dropped in another, as in hidden and hid, gotten and got, shrunken and shrunk. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Strong Verbs — Vowel Changes in O.E. Weak Verbs. Distinctions. List of Strong Verbs in Mn.E. — their Preterit Stem, and Participle Stems and Endings. THE VERB 211 Questions. — Verbs are classed as transitive and intransitive with regard to what ? As strong and weak ? Some strong verbs owe their vowel-change in passing from the present to the past tense, to what ? Most strong verbs underwent what ? In the O.E. list of strong verbs given, these vowel-changes are from what to what ? In the Mn.E. strong verbs, these changes are from what to what ? Why are the two lists of verbs called strong and weak ? Which is the older class ? Weak verbs form their preterit how ? The added syllable, -ed believed to be what ? What is the e of that syllable, and what the d ? How many strong verbs in O.E. ? How many in Mn.E. ? Account for the difference. For what are the terms regular and irregular reserved ? Any losses of strong verbs since 1600 ? How are weak verbs gaining in number ? What, besides the vowel- change in strong verbs and the added -ed in weak, is a distinction between the two classes ? The participle ending -ed of weak verbs, what ? The principal parts of a verb, what ? What in the list of Mn.E. strong verbs is shown? The difference between bom and borne 9 What is said of begin and forsake ? When two forms of the verb in the past tense, or of participles, are given in the list, .which is the more common ? Forms in italics are what ? The regular parti- ciple of get is what ? The more common now in England is what ? Hanged means what ? In what strong verbs is there no vowel- change seen now in the preterit ? What changes in the preterit stem are noted ? The participle stem is sometimes like what ? At other times is like what ? Examples of difference from both ? What is the full participle ending of strong verbs ? In what ways may this full ending be affected ? Exercises. — Pick out of the list verbs that illustrate all the vowel- changes spoken of p. 205. Pick out the verbs whose participle stem is like the present ; like the past ; like neither. Pick out the verbs whose participle endings are changed in any way from -en. Give the principal parts of the remaining verbs. CHAPTER XXI THE VERB — (Continued) Weak Verbs. — Regular. — The regular weak verbs form their past tense by adding -ed 1 to the' present. They add also an -ed to form the past participle — the e final of the present stem and of the participle, if either stem ends in e, furnishing the e of the -ed. Some of the verbs, like cleave, ( adhere/ climb, crow, and help, were strong verbs once but have gone over to the weak, though an occasional strong preterit, clave, clomb, crew, or holp is still found in poetry. Some of these verbs, like (en)grave, hew, lade, mow, rive, shape, shave, sow, swell, and wax, were strong verbs once but have gone over to the weak, though their strong participles, graven, hewn, laden, mown, riven, shapen, shaven, sown, swol- len, and waxen are used along with the weak. Others of these verbs, like saw, show, and strew or strow, were never strong but have taken on strong participles, as sawn, shown, and strewn or strown, sometimes used instead of the weak. 1 The added -ed of the regular weak verb is pronounced (1) after t and d as a dis- tinct syllable — as in greeted, hated, heated, lifted, wended; (2) after a sonant as d — as in dazed, drowned, loved, seemed; and (3) after a surd (except t) as t — as in forcedi fixed, kissed, looked, mixed, passed, reached, stretched, thanked, tossed. 212 THE VERB 213 Still, as these and all such verbs are prevailingly weak and regular, we class them so and pass the whole list by without further comment. Weak Verbs — Irregular. — In the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs below are seen the changes undergone (1) by the preterit and participle stems; (2) by the added -ed of the preterit ; and (3) by the added -ed of the participle. LIST OF THE IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS IN ENGLISH PRESENT PAST PAST PART. PRESENT PAST PAST PART. bend, f bent, X bended, 1 bent, bended. burn, J burnt, X burned, burnt, burned. (be)reave, , 2 bereft, bereft. burst, burst, burst. (be) seech, , 3 besought, besought. buy, bought, bought. bet, f bet, X betted, bet, betted. can, 4 cast, could, cast, cast. bleed, bled, bled. catch, caught, caught. blend, J blended, \ blent, blended, blent. cleave, 4 split ' r cleft, < clove, (. clave,* cleft, cloven, cleaved. bless, / blessed, X blest, blessed, blest. clothe, J clothed, X clad,s clothed, clad. breed, bred, bred. cost, cost, cost. bring, brought, brought. creep, crept, crept. build, f built, X builded, built, builded. curse, f cursed, X curst, cursed, curst. * Forms starred are rare — archaic, poetic, or dialectic. 1 Forms in italics are regular ; they precede the Roman when thought to be more common. Verbs in both italics and Roman are redundant. 2 The simple verb reave is rare. 8 The obsolete seech is from the Southern dialect ; seek, is from the Northern. 4 Can, may, must, ought, shall, and will are defective — lacking some parts. 5 Clad, O.E. clce^an, clwfide; whence cladde, clad. Clothe is from cld^ian. 214 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR PRESENT PAST PAST PART. PRESENT PAST PAST PART. cut, dare, 1 cut, f durst, X dared, cut. dared. lean, leap, f leaned, X leant, f leaped, X leapt, leaned, leant. leaped, deal, dealt, dealt. leapt. dip, f dipped, \ dipt, dipped, dipt. learn, f learned, X learnt, learned, learnt. do, did, done. leave, left, left. J dreamt, \ dreamed, T dressed, \ drest, dreamt, lend, lent, lent. dream, dreamed, dressed, light, 3 ( lighted, I lit, lighted, lit. dress, drest. lose, lost, lost. dwell, J dwelt, X divelled, dwelt, make, made, made. dwelled. may, might. feed, fed, fed. mean, meant, meant. feel, felt, felt. meet, met, met. flee, fled, fled. must. gild, f qilded, I gilt, gilded, gilt. ought. pay, paid, paid gird, f girded, X girt, girded, girt. pen, 4 confine ' f penned, X pent, penned, pent. have, 2 had, had. plead, (pleaded, X plead, pleaded, hear, heard, heard. plead. hit, hit, hit. put, put, put. hurt, hurt, hurt. quit, read, f quit, \ quitted, read, quit, keep, kept, kept. quitted. read. kneel, f knelt, X kneeled, knelt, kneeled. rend, rent, rent. knit, j knit, X knitted, knit, knitted. rid, say, rid, said, rid. said. lay, laid, laid. seek, sought, sought. lead, led, led. sell, sold, sold. 1 These are the parts of dare, to ' venture ' ; dare, to ' provoke,' is regular. 2 {Be)have is regular. 3 (A)light is regular, THE VEBB 215 PRESENT send, (be) set, shall, shed, shoe, shred, shut, sleep, slit, smell, speed, spell, spend, spill, PAST sent, set, should. shed, shod, shred, shut, slept, r slit, \ slitted, f smelled, \ smelt, J sped, \ speeded, \ spelt, spent, ( spilled, \ spilt, PAST PART. sent, set. shed. shod. shred. shut. slept. slit, slilted. smelled, smelt. sped, speeded. spelled, spelt. spent. spilled, spilt. spit, 1 split, spoil, spread, stay, 2 sweat, sweep, teach, (fore) tell, think, thrust, wet, will, work, PAST f spit, \ spat,* split, f spoiled, \ spoilt, spread, f stayed, \ staid, f sweat, \ sweated, swept, taught, told, thought, thrust, f wet, \ wetted, would. f worked, \ wrought, PAST PART. spit, spitten.* split. spoilt. spread. stayed, staid. sweat, sweated. swept. taught. told. thought. thrust. wet. worked, wrought Changes in the Preterit 3 Stems of Weak Irregular Verbs. — 1. Vowel variation. The vowel element of the present may change in the past. But this change is not, as in strong verbs it is, a tense sign. An a and an o in the present stem may expand into a diph- 1 Spit, to ' transfix,' is regular. 2 Stay, the nautical term, is regular. 3 The changes of preterit and of participle stems are alike, except in do, did, done. Many of the changes of stem and of ending began in O.E. — especially (1) the vowel variation and the consonant changes illustrated in caught, brought, thought, etc. ; (2) the omission of e from both preterit and participle ending; (3) the change of -d to -t ; and (4) the dropping of the consonant after stems ending in d or t. 216 HIGH SCHOOL GEAMMAB thong in the past, as in the preterit caught and wrought; (2) a and i may change to a diphthong, as in could and brought; (3) a, e, and o may change to other single vowels, as in might, durst, sold, and did ; (4) ea may contract to e, as in led; (5) an e of ee may drop, as in fed ; (6) final y may change to i, with or without change of vowel sound, as in said and paid; (7) final e may drop, as in shod; and (8) uy may change to ou, as in bought. 2. Consonant Change. 1 —^) Of the O.E. preterit stem, the h (into which the c of the present secan, ' seek ', thencan, ' think', tWcan, 'teach', and wyrcan, 'work', the ch of cachen, 'catch', the eg of byegan, 'buy', and the ng of bringan, ' bring ', were converted) becomes gh in our preter- its sought, thought, taught, wrought, caught, bought, and brought; (2) v may change to f, as in the preterit left; (3) k in make is dropped from the preterit made,; (4) final d, ght, 1, s, and th may give way before the past tense sign, as in bent, lit, told, blest, and clad; and (5) the consonant and the vowel element may change places, as in wrought Changes in the Tense Sign -ed of irregular weak preterits and in the -ed of their participles. — (1) The e of the -ed drops out and only -d remains, as in heard, sold, etc. ; (2) -d changes to -t, as dwelt, sent, etc. ; and (3) the consonant drops after final d or t of stem — affecting, or not affecting, the pronunciation — as in read and in cast, shed, put, etc. l Many of these changes are due, it is thought, to bad spelling. THE VEBB 217 Anomalous Verbs Be and Go. — The principal parts of be and of go are from different stems, and the verbs cannot be classed as strong or as weak. These parts are (1) be, toas, and been; (2) go, went, and gone. The preterit of be does not add to the present the past tense sign of a weak verb — namely -ed or some form of it; the preterit of go adds it as -t, not, however, to go but to the present of the regular weak verb wend. The participles return to the first stem. Been is the dialectic participle beon ; gone has the strong participle ending. Definitions Conjugation is the Regular Arrangement of all the Forms of | the Verb. Synopsis is the Regular Arrangement of the Forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses. O.E., or Anglo-Saxon, Conjugation or Strong and Weak Verbs in the Present, Active Voice Indicative Subjunctive SINGULAR SINGULAR 1. (ic) sing-e, (we) sing-aft, 2. (ftu) sing-est, (ge) sing-aft, 3. (he) sing-eft ; (hi) sing-aft. (ic) sing-e, (we) sing-en, (ftu) sing-e, (ge) sing-en, (he) sing-e ; (hi) sing-en. IMPERATIVE SING. sing. IMPERATIVE PLU. sing-aft. INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE sing-an. sing-ende. 218 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Conjugation of Strong Verbs, Past Tense, Active Indicative Subjunctive SINGULA! 1. (ic) sang, sung-e, 2. (M) sung-e, sung-e, 3. (he) sang; sung-e ; PLURAL 1. (we) sung-on, sung-en, 2. (ge) sung-on, sung-en, 3. (hi) sung-on. sung-en. participle sung-en. of Weak Verbs, Past Tense, Active Indicative Subjunctive SINGULAR (ic) er-ed-e 'plough,' er-ed-e, (M) er-ed-est, er-ed-e. (he) er-ed-e; er-ed-e; PLURAL (we) er-ed-on, er-ed-en, (ge) er-ed-on, er-ed-en, (hi) er-ed-on. er-ed-en. PARTICIPLE er-ed. Remarks on the O.E. Conjugation. — 1. The ending of the im- perative singular of some weak verbs is -e and of some is -a. But if these divergencies from the conjugation of strong verbs are dis- regarded, the inflections of the strong and the weak verbs in the present are the same. 2. All tenses but the present and the past are compound, and are alike in O.E. and in Mn.E. In studying the O.E. verb-endings, we may restrict ourselves, then, to the present and past tenses. 3. The -ed in the past tense endings of weak verbs excepted, (1) the past indicative plural endings of strong verbs and of weak are alike ; (2) the past subjunctive singular endings of strong verbs and of weak are alike ; and (3) the past subjunctive plural endings of strong verbs and of weak are alike. THE VEBB 219 4. The vowel-change indicating the past tense of strong verbs is often, as in singan, double, one form in the first and the third person singular indicative ; and the other in the second person sin- gular and the three persons plural indicative, in the subjunctive throughout, and in the participle. These two stems in O.E. account for the two forms of our preterit — as drank and drunk, sang and sung — still found in some strong verbs. 5. Most of the O.E. verb-endings have disappeared. (1) The vowels softened to e ; (2) the n J final, and then (3) the e 1 final, dropped ; (4) the -a3 of the plural indicative, softening to e3, changed to -en, whose letters vanished in the order just given, or to s (as in the third singular), which has dropped; and (5) the 3 of i the plural imperative gave way, and then the vowel preceding it. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Weak Verbs — Regular and Irregular. Changes in Stem and Endings. The Anomalous Verbs Be and Go. O.E. Conjugation of Verbs in Present and Past. Re- marks thereon. Questions. — Regular weak verbs add what to the present to make the past ? To make the participle ? What changes may this ending undergo ? What happens to e final of the stem when the past is formed ? Some verbs, now weak, use what strong forms ? Others, what ? Some, never strong, have taken on what ? What three things are seen in the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs in the list ? What are redundant verbs ? What verbs are defective ? In these irregular weak verbs, what vowel changes are seen ? Seen where ? Is this vowel change a tense sign ? What consonant changes in the 1 (1) In what forms of the verb IL and e are kept, (2) what endings other than those in n and e are kept, and (3) how these have changed will all be given when the Mn.E, verb is conjugated. 220 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR preterits, sought, thought, taught, wrought, caught, bought, and brought? In left, made, bent, lit, told, blest, clad, and wrought? What changes of stem and ending began in O.E.? What changes in the -ed of preterits and participles ? The principal parts of be and go ? Explain the preterits. Conjugation, what ? Synopsis, what ? The endings of the O.E. present in the two conjugations, the strong and the weak, differ only in what ? Why limit our study of O.E. verb- endings to the present and the past tense ? In what three particulars are strong and weak verb-endings in the past alike ? Explain our redundant past forms drank and drunk, sang and sung. What O.E. verb-endings have disappeared and in what manner and order ? Exercises. — Give the principal parts of the irregular weak verbs. Give the endings — present and past — of the O.E. conjugations. CHAPTER XXII THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION THE VERB BE Indicative Mode Present Tense — Simple Form singular plural 1. (I) a-m, (We) ar-e, 2 f (You) ar-e, (Y . Z - \(Thou) ar-t, ^ Yon) ar_e ' 3. (He) is ; (They) ar-e. Present Tense — Compound, or Potential, Form (In the indicative, may, can, or must helps to assert, as a fact, one's permission, power, or obligation to do — and, in the passive voice, to undergo — what is denoted by the principal verb.) 1 1. (I) may, can, or must be, (We) may, can, or must be, 2 f (You) may, can, or must be, (Y . b "' \ (Thou) may-st, can-st, or must be, t l0U J ma ^ can > °* mufet be > 3. (He) may, can, or must be ; (They) may, can, or must be. Past Tense — Simple Form 1. (I) was, 0^ 7 e) wer-e, 2 J ( You ) wer " e > rYou^i wer e *' \ (Thou) was-t, t You J wei_e ' 3. (He) was ; (They) wer-e. 221 222 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Past Tense Compound, or Potential, Porm (In the indicative, might, could, would, or should helps to assert, as a fact, the possibility of one's doing, or one's power or intention or obligation to do — and in the passive voice, to undergo — what is denoted by the principal verb). 1 m / migh-t, coul-d, \ h , w . f migh-t, coul-d \ h x ' W \ woul-d, or shoul-d J ' ^ } X woul-d, or shoul-d J De ' ( You^ / mi S h - t ' coul - d X be v n woul-d, or shoul-d/ ' rY . f migh-t, coul-d, \ be ' n^n^ J migh-t-st, coul-d-st, 1 ^ ; I woul-d, or shoul-d / ' t inou ; X woul-d-st, or shoul-d-st / De ' <* ( He i / ""g^ com " d ' I he • f Thev^i / m^ 11 "*' com " d ^ I be 6 ' ^ e; \ woul-d, or shoul-d / De ' ^ iney ; \ woul-d, or shoul-d / De ' Future Tense Simple Prediction SINGULAR PLURAL 1. (I) shall be, (We) shall be, f (You) will be, /v ^ N . in , . 2 'i(Thou)wil-tbe, (You) will be, 3. (He) will be ; (They) will be. Expressing Determination, and Promise also singular plural 1. (I) will be, (We) will be, o i ( You ) shall be, fY . , « , J ' X (Thou) shal-t be, <^°u; sna11 De ' 3. (He) shall be ; (They) shall be. THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 223 Indicative Mode Present Perfect Tense singular plural 1. (I) have been, (We) have been, o J (You) have been, (y . , , *' \ (Thou) ha-st been, *> * ou >> nave been ' 3. (He) ha-s been ; (They) have been. (For the office of the auxiliaries may, can, and must see present tense compound form above). 1. (I) may, can, or must have been ; Etc. (We) may, can, or must have been. Etc. Past Perfect Tense 1. (I) ha-d been, Q f (You) ha-d been, 1. 1 ,— (We) ha-d been, (Thou) ha-d-st been, ( You ) ha " d been - 3. (He) ha-d been ; (They) ha-d been. (Eor the office of the auxiliaries might, could, would, and should see past tense compound form above.) i. (i) migh-t, migh-t, coul-d, coul-d, , woul-d, - have been ; (We)- woul-d, have been. or or shoul-d, shcul-d, Etc. Etc. Future Perfect — Simple Prediction 1. (I) shall have been, (We) shall have been, f (You) will have been, /v N .« . „„„ Urtrt „ 2 - { (Thou) wil-t have been, ( You ) wl11 have been ' 3. (He) will have been ; (They) will have been. 224 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Subjunctive Mode Present Tense Simple Form Compound Form singular plural singular plural 1. (I) be, (We) be, 1. (I) may be, (We) may be, 2 f (You) be, (Y . , 2 f (You) may be, ry , z * t (Thou) be, t 10U J De ' ^ \ (Thou) may-stbe, t You ) may be ' 3. (He) be; (They) be. 3. (He) may be : (They) may be. (For the offices in the subjunctive of be or of any other principal verb see pp. 172-175.) Subjunctive Mode Past Tense — Simple Form singular plural 1. (I) wer-e, (We) wer-e, 3. (He) wer-e ; (They) wer-e. Past Tense — Compound Form (In (1) simple sentences, might, could, and would help in the subjunctive to express wish. In (2) the principal clause of a sentence containing a clause of time, concession, purpose, or condition, and (3) in such adverb clauses introduced by till, lest, though, that, etc., might, could, would, and should help in the subjunctive to assert, as a conception, the possibility of one's doing, or one's power, intention, or obligation to do — and, in the passive voice, to undergo — what is denoted by the principal verb). 1 (Vs / migk-t' coul-d, \ h . (W <. / migh-t, coul-d, \ b l ' w \woul-d, or shoul-dj De > ^ e) \ woul-d, or shoul-d| De * Etc. Etc. THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 225 Present Perfect Tense 1. (I) have been, 2 f (You) have been, " \ (Thou) have been, 3. (He) have been ; (We) have been, (You) have been, (They) have been. (In the subjunctive, may helps in simple sentences (1) to express a wish, and in adverb clauses of condition, purpose, and concession, introduced by if, that, lest, it helps to assert, as a conception, one's permission to do — and in the passive voice, to undergo — what is denoted by the principal verb.) 1. (I) may have been ; Etc. (We) may have been. Etc. Past Perfect Tense 1. (I) ha-d been, o f (You) ha-d been, ' I (Thou) ha-d-st been, 3. (He) ha-d been ; 1. (I) f migh-t, coul-d, woul-d, or > shoul-d Etc. have been ; (We) ha-d been, (You) ha-d been, (They) ha-d been. ' migh-t, coul-d, (We) \ W oul-d, I- have been. or . shoul-d Etc. Imperative Mode Present Tense singular 2. Be (you or thou) ; H. SCH. GRAM. — 15 PLURAL Be (you or ye). 226 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Infinitives PRESENT TENSE present perfect tense (To) be. (To) Participles have been. PRESENT past PAST PERFECT Be-ing. Been. Nounal Verbs Hav-ing been. Be-ing. Hav- ing been. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE Indicative Mode Present Tense Past Tense singular 1. (I) have, Q / (You) have, Zt \ (Thou) ha-st, 3. (He) ha-s; Simple Form plural singular (We) have, (I) ha-d, rYou^ have (You ) ha " d ' tiou; nave, ( Tho u) ha-d-st, (They) have. (He) ha-d ; PLURAL (We) ha-d, (You) ha-d, (They) ha-d. Subjunctive Mode Present Tense Past Tense singular 1. (I) have, 2 f (You) have, dm \ (Thou) have, 3. (He) have ; Simple Form plural singular plural (We) have, 1. (I) ha-d, (We) ha-d, (You) have, 2. { jS^^t, (You) ha-d, (They) have. 3. (He) ha-d ; (They) ha-d. THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 227 FURTHER CONJUGATION OF HAVE Indicative and Subjunctive Modes The Conjugation of Have in the Present and the Past Indicative and Subjunctive compound form, and in the remaining tenses of both modes simple and compound forms, is effected by substituting the infinitive have for be, and the participle had for been, in the corresponding tenses, modes, and forms of the conjugation of Be. OTHER FORMS OF HAVE If have be substituted for be, having for being, and had for been, in the imperative, infinitives, participles, and nounal verbs of the Conjugation of Be, we have the corres- ponding forms of Have. CONJUGATION OF THE STRONG VERB DRIVE Indicative Mode Present Tense Past Tense Simple Form singular plural singular plural 1. (I) drive, (We) drive, 1. (I) drove, (We) drove, 2 f (You) drive, (y . , . 2 r (You) drove, (y . , r \ (Thou) driv-est, ^ * ou) anve ' Z ' \ (Thou) drov-est, ^ * ou) arove ' 3. (He) drive-s ; (They) drive. 3. (He) drove ; (They) drove. 228 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Subjunctive Mode Present Tense Past Tense Simple Form 1. (I) drive, (We) drive, 1. (I) drove, (We) drove, ( f (You) drive, (y . , . „ f (You) drove, (Y . , * \ (Thou) drive, ^ ou ^ anve ' *' \ (Thou) drov-est, ^ lou) arove ' 3. (He) drive ; (They) drive. 3. (He drove ; (They) drove. CONJUGATION OF THE WEAK VERB WALK Indicative Mode Present Tense Simple Form singular plural 1. (I) walk, (We) walk, 3. (He) walk-s ; (They) walk. Past Tense Simple Form singular plural 1. (I) walk-ed, (We) walk-ed, 2. i , ( I 0U \ wal ^ e ^' ♦ (You) walk-ed, \ (Thou) walk-ed-est, v J ' 3. (He) walk-ed ; (They) walk-ed. THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 229 Subjunctive Mode Present Tense Simple Form singular plural 1. (I) walk, (We) walk, 2 f (You) walk, (Y . ,, 2 - \ (Thou) walk, t*°u) walK ' 3. (He) walk ; (They) walk. Past Tense Simple Form singular plural 1. (I) walk-ed, (We) walk-ed, 2 f (You) walk-ed, (Y , walk „ ed A \ (Thou) walk-ed-est, ^ Y ou; walK ea, 3. (He) walk-ed ; (They) walk-ed. FURTHER CONJUGATION OF DRIVE AND WALK Indicative and Subjunctive Modes The Conjugation of Drive or Walk in the Present and the Past Indicative and Subjunctive compound form, and in the remaining tenses of both modes simple and compound forms, is effected by substituting the infinitive drive or walk for be, and the participle driv-en or walk-ed for been, in the corre- sponding tenses, modes, and forms of the Conjugation of Be. That of other verbs is the same. 230 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Imperative Mode Present Tense SINGULAR PLURAL 2. Drive (you or thou) ; Drive (you or ye). 2. Walk (you or thou) ; Walk (you or ye). Infinitives Present Tense Present Perfect Tense (To) drive. (To) have driv-en. (To) walk. (To) have walk-ed. Participles Present Past Past Perfect Driv-ing. Driv-en. Hav-ing driv-en. Walk-ing. Walk-ed. Hav-ing walk-ed. Nounal Verbs Driv-ing. Hav-ing driv-en. Walk-ing. Hav-ing walk-ed. The Verb-endings Now in English. — The -m in am is a primitive Indo-European ending, and the -e in ar-e is Scandi- navian. The O.E. terminations are (1) the e in wer-e; (2) the -est, -st, or -t of the second person singular, as in walk-est, may-st, and shal-t ; (3) the 3 1 of the third singular present 1 This ending became -S first in the Northern Dialect ; it was used there in the plural also, — is found in the plural in Shakespeare, as in "My old bones aches" } 41 His tear 8 runs down his beard." THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 231 indicative, changed to -s, as in fights, changed to -es 1 after a guttural, a palatal, a sibilant, an o, and a y preceded by a consonant, as in fioc-es, pinch-es, Mss-es, clo-es, and cri-es ; (4) the -ed, -d, -t of the past tense of weak verbs, and (5) the -ed, -d, -t of the past participle weak, as in walk-ed, to!-&, and leap-t ; (6) the -en, -n of the past participle strong, as in brok-en and draw-n ; and (7) the -ende of the present participle changed to -ing, as in walk-mg. Some verb-endings are double — the past tense ending -ed plus a personal ending — as in migh-t-st, lov-ed-est. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS WHEN DENOTING CON- TINUING ACTION The conjugation above is that of verbs in the present and the past and the future, indefinite; 2 and in the present perfect and the past perfect and the future perfect, complete. 2 Their conjugation, when denoting action continuing, is effected by adding their present participle to the several forms of the substantive verb Be. A synopsis in the first person singular, and the impera- tive, the infinitive, the participle, and the nounal verb, are here given : — 1 The e in -es is the connective e in O.E. e<3. This -eth, -th, used only in poetry and in solemn style, is the invariable ending in the King James Version of the Bible. * For a full account of the incidental offices of the tenses, as indicated by indefinite, complete, etc., see p. 178, 232 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The Indicative. — (I) am driving ; (I) may, can, or must be driv- ing ; (I) was driving ; (I) might, could, would, or should be driving ; (I) shall be driving ; (I) have been driving ; (I) may, can, or must have been driving ; (I) had been driving ; and (I) might, could, would, or should have been driving. The Subjunctive. — (I) be driving ; (I) may be driving ; (I) were driving ; (I) might, could, would, or should be driving ; (I) have been driving ; (I) may have been driving ; (I) had been driving ; and (I) might, could, would, or should have been driving. Imperative. — Be (you or thou) driving; be (you or ye) driving. Infinitives. — (To) be driving ; and (to) have been driving. Participles. — Being driving ; been driving ; and having been driving. Nounal Verbs. — Being driving; having been driving. The Conjugation of the Verb with the Auxiliary Do. — It was said, p. 194, that do, do-st, do-es, di-&, and di-d-st are used with the present infinitive of a verb to help conjugate the verb in negative and interrogative sentences, and in those whose action is to be made emphatic, as in, (I) do love, etc. ; (I) do not love, etc. ; do (I) love ? etc. ; do (I) not love ? etc. ; (I) did love, etc. ; (I) did not love, etc. ; did (I) love ? etc. ; did (I) not love ? etc. CONJUGATION OF VERBS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE The conjugation of a verb, strong or weak, in the Passive Voice is effected by adding its past participle to all the forms of fie. Neglecting some auxiliaries and forms that only repeat, we illustrate: — Am chosen ; may be chosen ; was chosen ; might be chosen ; shall be chosen ; will be chosen ; have been chosen ; may have been chosen ; had THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 233 been chosen ; might have been chosen ; be chosen ; (to) be chosen ; (to) have been chosen; being chosen; chosen; having been chosen. The forms just given are those of the passive voice in the simple tenses 1 indefinite, and in the compound 1 tenses complete. For the passive denoting continuing action, a conjugation 2 has long been in use, consisting of the forms of be plus the present participle of the verb used, as : — " The house is building " ; " The wood was burning," ; precisely the conjugation of these verbs in the active voice when denoting continuing action. ISTo ambiguity can arise from this sameness so long as the ' verb, as used, is unmistakably active or passive ; but when, J as used, it is one whose subject may name both the doer and the receiver of the act, the sentence is ambiguous, as : — " The chicken is eating " ; M The boy is whipping.' ' While there was but a single form to denote one as acting and as acted upon, these sentences would not tell j whether the chicken was alive and eating, or dead and 1 being eaten ; whether the boy was whipping somebody, or ; was being whipped by him. A century ago there crept into use a new and unambigu- 1 For the tenses called simple, and those called compound, see p. 178. 2 For the origin of this, see pp. 164, 165. 234 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR ous form for the passive denoting continuing action — a phrase consisting of the forms of be in the present and the past, plus the participle being and the past participle of the verb used, as: — " The chicken is being eaten " ; " The boy was being whipped." We say in the present and the past, for this conjugation is confined to these tenses. Though firmly resisted, this " neologism " has won its way into good usage even with verbs where the old form would be unambiguous. Proscribed Verb Locutions. — We are told (1) that after an auxil- iary the principal verb must be repeated, unless the exact form of it already employed may be used with the auxiliary ; (2) that between auxiliaries no adverb should be placed ; (3) that do may be substituted for transitive verbs only ; (4) that the nounal verb in the present should not follow after ; and that we must avoid (5) the neologism described above ; (6) the idiom can help, seen in I can't help thinking ; (7) I am mistaken for I mistake ; (8) con- sider, for think, deem ; (9) grow, to express decrease ; (10) would instead of should in softened assertion ; (11) get, unless to express attainment by exertion, and (12) had rather, had better, with the infinitive, instead of would rather, would better. Usage approves the locutions here condemned, employing those proscribed in (2), (4), (5), (7), (8), (11), and (12) far more com- monly than the alternative expressions there given or suggested. We illustrate. 1 1 (1) "No one knows that better than I do" "He saw it, but I could not," "I have never read them my sermon, and I don't know that I shall" ; (2) " The principle may easily be traced," "It will not be suppressed," "Can hardly have been learned"; (3) "Nothing worse happens to you than does to all"; (4) "So, after THE MODERN ENGLISH CONJUGATION 235 SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — The Conjugation of Be; of Have; of Drive; of Walk. Verb-endings now in English. Conju- gation of Verbs when denoting Continuing Action ; with the auxiliary Do; in the Passive Voice. Passive denoting Continuing Action. Proscribed Verb Locutions. waiting a minute, I began again " ; (5) " A field was being got ready for turnips" ; (6) " He's a free-trader because he can't help it " ; (T) " I think he must be mistaken " ; (8) " Curious, that we always consider solemnity essential to the idea of a future life " ; (9) "Did you ever hear of a man's growing lean by reading Romeo and Juliet ?" (10) "It would seem so" ; (11) " Get wet," "got well," "got sick," " got tired," "got dingy by use," etc. — get = become; "You've got to learn" — get and have express necessity ; " Knowledge that has got itself taught " — got is causative ; " As we gel on in years " — get denotes passive movement ; (12) " I had rather be a kitten and cry mew," " They had better confine themselves to plain English." "Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel John- son, the critics insisting upon the substitution of would or should, as the case may demand, for had ; but had rather and had belter are thoroughly established English idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. ' I would- rather not go ' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of choice, or will, in the matter ; but, in all ordinary cases, 'I had rather not go ' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood. " If, for ' You had better stay at home,' we substitute, ' You should better stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation." — Standard Dictionary. In the analysis of " I had rather go," had is the predicate verb, the infinitive go is the objective complement, and the adjective rather completes had and belongs to go, i.e. is objective complement. Had (= should hold or regard) is treated as a past subjunctive. Rather is the comparative of the old adjective rathe, 'early,' from which comes the idea of preference. The expression means, " I should hold going prefer- able." The expressions, "You had better stay," "I had as lief not be," are similar in construction to " I had rather go." " I had sooner go " is condemned by grammarians because sooner is never an adjective. If sooner is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of had. The expression equals, " I should more willingly have going." 236 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Questions. — In what modes are may, can, and must used? They help to assert what in the indicative, active and passive ? In the subjunctive, active and passive ? In what modes are might, could, would, and should used ? Conjugate have in the present and the past, simple form, indicative and subjunctive. The further conjuga- tion of have is effected how ? Conjugate drive and ivalk in the present and the past, simple form, indicative and subjunctive. The further conjugation of drive and walk is effected how ? The -m in am from what ? The -e in are ? The O.E. terminations retained in Mn.E. are what ? And have changed from what ? When is -es, rather than -s, the third singular present indicative ending ? The O.E. -eth, -th used now only where ? Invariably used in what common book ? How is the conjugation of verbs when denoting continuing action effected ? Give a synopsis in the first person singular indica- tive of drive, when denoting continuing action. The conjugation of a verb, strong or weak, in the passive voice of the simple tenses indefi- nite and the compound tenses complete, is effected how ? The old fashion of conjugating a verb in the passive when denoting continuing action is what ? How did it originate ? This conjugation is precisely what other ? When only could ambiguity arise from this sameness ? What has arisen to prevent this ambiguity ? The new form consists of what ? Is limited to what two tenses ? What is said of this " neologism " ? What are the proscribed verb locutions? Which ones of these are more common than the alternative expressions prescribed ? What of had rather and had better ? Exercises. — Conjugate be throughout ; have throughout ; drive and walk, in active voice, throughout — in simple tenses indefinite, com- pound tenses complete, and simple and compound continuing. Conju- gate drive in the passive voice. Illustrate the ambiguity of be with the present participle active of a verb, when the verb is one whose subject may be the doer or the receiver of the act. Give and illustrate the several uses of get* CHAPTER XXIII THE ADVERB Adverbs — Uses. — There are words that modify verbs, and hence are called Adverbs, as in " He ran swiftly " ; " She ivalked thither " ; u They stay late.'' 1 The acts expressed by ran and ivalked, and the state denoted by stay, are here limited by swiftly, thither, and late, adverbs of manner, place, and time. Some adverbs modify adjectives — affect the degree of the quality or the measure of the quantity denoted by them ; and some modify adverbs themselves. Adverbs, then, modify verbs and the modifiers of nouns and of verbs. 1 We said that adjectives modify nouns by lessening the number or quantity of the things named. What effect ad- verbs have upon the scope of the words they modify depends upon the signification of the adverbs. In u The soil is wonderfully fertile" ; "He wanted less spacious grounds," 1 Adverbs, then, are preeminently the modifiers in sentences. Those that qualify verbs are more numerous and more frequently used than those that qualify adjectives or adverbs. Upon adverbs and their equivalents we largely rely in expressing delicate shades of meaning, in making subtile distinctions of thought. 237 238 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR the quality denoted by fertile is increased by wonderfully, and the quantity denoted by spacious is decreased by less. In " He admires her very much " ; "How seldom have you slept here ? " the act asserted by admires is intensified by rawc7i, and the measure of much is increased by very; the state expressed by have slept is narrowed by seldom; while the infrequency implied in seldom is only sought by the interrogative how. Exceptional Uses of Adverbs. — 1. Some adverbs may modify some prepositions, 1 as : — "This is just within the line " ; "I went far beyond the limit." 2. Adverbs may modify a phrase, 1 as : — 44 Only by eternal vigilance is liberty preserved." 3. Adverbs may modify clauses and sentences, as : — 14 She sat, simply because she could not stand 1 '' ; " Undoubtedly two and two are four." 4. Adverbs may modify nouns, 2 as : — 1 Many prepositions, as we shall see, were once adverbs ; hence adverbs may modify them. Such phrases as those above are adverbial ; hence adverbs may modify them. 2 Such nouns as journey, arrival, flight, and stay, in these and similar expres- sions, have lingering in them a verbal force ; hence adverbs may modify them. In "yours truly," yours =' your friend'; and yours truly ='your true friend.' The contained noun is unexpressed ; and, as Wrightson would say, its attribute true can appear only as an adverb truly. THE ADVERB 239 " His journey thence was eventful " ; u His arrival there was in the nick of time"; u The soul in its flight upward'' 1 ; "My stay abroad was pleasant." 5. Some adverbs are independent, as : — " There are evils to be overcome " ; "Now, that is hardly fair." 6. Adverbs may be used as nouns/ as : — " Since when was this doctrine taught?" "A scholar seeks the why and the wherefore of everything " ; " Before now 1 '' ; "By then." 7. Adverbs may connect clauses, as : — 11 A true soldier goes where and when he is ordered." 8. Some adverbs are interrogative, as : — " How, tohen, where t and ivhy is this to be done ? " DERIVATION OP ADVERBS We saw that adjectives are inflected in O.E. as nouns are. I. Some Adverbs are derived from Adjectives. — 1. From the O.E. genitive, with the ending -s, sometimes modified, as : — backwards, else, forwards, once, twice, unawares, etc. 1 When, in "since when," = 'what time' ; now, in "before now," = ' this time'; and then, in "by then," = ' that time ' ; hence the when, now, and then are nouns, and in the objective. The makes nouns of why and wherefore in the sentence above. 240 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 2. From the O.E. dative with the ending -e dropped, so that the adverb and the adjective are the same in form, as: — bright, clean, dear, deep, even, fair, fast, full, hard, high, ill, long, loud, near, right, slow, soft, still, wide, etc. 3. From the O.E. accusative, with ending dropped, as : — all, enough, ere, homeward, upward, etc. 4. By adding to an adjective the ending -ly, 1 from O.E. lic-e, an ending so common — added even to words already adverbs — that it is regarded as the normal adverbial end- ing, as : — ably, bitterly, certainly, frequently, hardly, lastly, scarcely, shortly, 2 etc. II. Some Adverbs come from Nouns. — 1. From the geni- tive, as : — always, betimes, needs, lengthways, now-a-days, 3 whilst, etc. 2. From the dative, as : — piecemeal, whilom, 4 etc. 1 Our like, as an independent word, and as adjective ending in godlike, godly, etc., is from the same O.E. adjective gellc, 'like.' Likely — like + like. Lic-Q is an instrumental case = in like manner ; ably = in an able manner. 2 In England, shortly is often used as we use briefly. This use of it, in its old Chaucerian sense, is almost unknown on this side of the water. With us it means 'soon,' 'presently,' or 'curtly.' 3 This a, like the introductory a in abed, abroad, afar, ahead, amid, anon, apiece, asleep, away, and awry, is the O.E. on, 'in' or 'on.' The a in apace, apart, and perhaps in agog is the French a, the Latin ad. * Late and like as adjectives and as adverbs retain the -e ; seldom retains the adjective dative ending -um (om) ; and whilom, the noun ending. THE ADVERB 241 3. From the accusative/ as : — meantime, midway, straightway, yesterday, etc. III. Some Adverbs come from O.E. Pronouns. — 1. Prom the third personal pronoun he : — hence, here, hither. 2. From the demonstrative pronoun ftmt and ties : — the (as in the sooner the better), then, thence, there, thither, thus. 3. From the interrogative pronoun hwa, hwcet: — how, what, 1 when, whence, where, whither, why. IV. Some Adverbs are compounded of Two Parts of Speech. — 1. Adjective and noun, as: — alway, meanwhile, midway, yesterday, etc. 2. Adjective and adverb, as : — also, anywhere, as, 2 everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, etc. 3. Preposition and adjective, as : — afar, afresh, anew, anon, amid, awry, 3 etc. 1 What, meaning partly, as in " What with the weather and what with the diet, he fell sick." 2 As, O.E. ealswd, is our also — a doublet of it — the al(=eal, 'all,') strength- ening so. 3 We still use, without compounding, the preposition and the adjective ; as, at all, at best, for lost, for worse, in brief, in full, in future, in general, in particular, in short, in vain, of late, etc. There is here an evident ellipsis of the nouns. H. SCH. GRAM. 16 242 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAR 4. Preposition and noun, as : — abed, aboard, agog, ahead, apace, apart, apiece, asleep, away, besides, forsooth, overboard, perchance, to-day, to-morrow, etc. 5. Adverb and adverb, as : — however, whenever, wherever, etc. 6. Adverb and preposition, as : — forever, hereafter, hereby, herein, thereat, thereby, therefore, whereat, whereby, wherein, etc. 7. Adverb and noun, as : — nanght, no, not, 1 nought, 1 etc. 1 Not is an abbreviation of nought or naught ; and naught is from O.E. naioiht — ne + a + wiht — ' not a whit.' In English, as in other languages, a negative may be strengthened by a noun, as in "not a oit" "not & jot." Compare Lat. nihil — ne + hilum — 'not a straw'; French ne pas, ne point, 'not a step,' 'not a point.' The added noun may even crowd out the real negative, and take upon itself the office of negation, ae in pas de tout, 'not at all.' A general linguistic fact is here illus- trated. "The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant n. In Saxon it existed as a word ne ; bat we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which enters into many words, as into no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never." — Earle. It may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in our language, negation is more frequently ex- pressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech — than by all other parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial — is taken up in telling, not what is true of things, but what is not true of them ; or in telling indirectly what is true of them. The adjective no is an abbreviation of none; the adverb no =ne + a . = 'not ever.' Yes is from gea + swa or from ged + sie (a subjunctive of the O.E. verb beon, to ' be '). If from the first pair, it means ' Yea so ' ; if from the second, THE ADVERB 243 8. Many Parts of Speech, as : — altogether, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc. Adverbial Phrases. — Colloquial speech and literature abound in expressions adverbial in force, each made up of two or more words, one of which is usually a preposition. In some of these, words are used in a figurative sense; some have become idioms — expressions peculiar to the language but often illogical in sense. A few of the more frequent adverbial phrases are given below. 1 j * Yea, so be it.' No and yes, used in answering questions, are sometimes called independent adverbs. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer, but contained in the question ; as, " Did you see him ? " " No " = I did no {not) see him. "Will you go?" "Fes." The force of yes may be illustrated by substituting cer- tainly. " Will you go ? " ''''Certainly " = Certainly I will go, or I will certainly go. As no and yes represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called sentence- words. An obsolete distinction between yea and yes and between nay and no is perhaps worth recalling. In answer to such a question as, "Did he walk?" yea or nay was used ; in answer to " Did he not walk ? " yes or no. Tyndale's failure to observe this 1 : l distinction is urged by Sir Thomas More as proof that Tyndale was incompetent to ■j translate the Bible into English. 1 Above all, after all, all in all, at a loss, at all, at all events, at any rate, at best, at heart, at fault, at first sight, at hand, at last, at least, at length, at most, at once, at one, at random, at that, at the best, at the most, at times, back and forth, by and by, 1 by heart, by no means, by the bye, by the way, day by day, for a while, for all that, for • certain, for example, for good, for granted, for instance, for long, for lost, for once, for that matter, for the most part, for the present, for the time, from time to time, hand in hand, here and there, in a word, in brief, in general, in fact, in full, in future, in other words, in part, in particular, in short, in spite of, in the first place, in the main, in truth, in vain, in view-, more and more, more or less, no doubt, no matter, none the less, of a truth, of course, on hand, on foot, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the whole, once for all, once in a while, one by one, over and above, side by side, step by step, to and fro, to the full, under the circumstances, under way. 244 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Proscribed Adverbial Locutions. — Some critics, in disregard of Professor Lounsbury's admirable dictum, " Purism is not purity," condemn such adverbs and adverb phrases as these : — As (after a negative), at all, at best, at length ( = 'at last'), /row thence, from whence, here (after verbs of motion), just (to express time), quite (== 'very'), so (after an affirmative), there (after verbs of motion), and whether or no (instead of not). 1 SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adverbs — Uses, Common and Exceptional, Derivation. Adverb Phrases. Proscribed Adverb Locutions. Questions. — Why called adverbs? What besides verbs do they modify ? Adverbs preeminently what ? Their effect upon the scope of the words they modify ? Illustrate. Why may adverbs modify prepositions? Why nouns like journey, stay, flight, etc.? Why phrases ? Clauses ? Illustrate, and account for, their use as nouns. From what 0. E. cases of adjectives are adverbs derived ? The com- 1 As after a negative is less common than so ; so after an affirmative is less common than as; from thence and from whence are not so often seen as thence and whence; here and there are less frequent with verbs of motion than are hither and thither ; and whether or not is found oftener than whether or no. Still these proscribed expres- sions occur too frequently to be put under ban. At all may be scooped up by the handful ; at best is oftener used than the correla- tive phrase, at the best; at length, meaning 'at \ast,\just as an adverb of time, and quite, in the sense of 'very,' appear on almost every page of literature. As and so, after negatives, connote different ideas. "In 'John is not as tall as James,' there is no implication that the speaker regards either John or James as tall; there is merely a comparison of their heights. But, if one says, ' John is not so tall as James,' though the so is not emphasized, there is understood usually to be a reference, more or less distinct, to something uncommon in the height of James, as compared with that of other men, or of other boys of his age."— Standard Dictionary. THE ADVERB 245 mon adverb ending? Derived from what? The om in seldom and whilom from what ? From what cases of nouns are adverbs derived ? Illustrate. From what classes of pronouns? Illustrate. Some ad- verbs are what parts of speech coupled ? Illustrate. What is the general negative seen in not ? What is the noun ? Give other nega- tives containing nouns. What may the noun do to the negative in such combination ? The component parts of no and yes f What are these two sometimes called ? Some of the more common adverb phrases ? Lounsbury's admirable dictum ? Exercises. — Give the list of adverbs that have the same form as adjectives. The lists of adverbs derived from the pronouns, O.E., he, ficet, dcs, hwa, and hivcet. The uses of adverbs and adverb phrases proscribed by purists, but approved by usage. The distinction made by the Standard Dictionary between " John is not as tall as James," and u John is not so tall as James.' ' CHAPTER XXIV THE ADVERB — {Co ntinued) CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS AND ADVERB PHRASES I. Classified according to their Office. — Some adverbs and adverb phrases perform the single office of modifying verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. These are called Simple Adverbs. The great mass of adverbs and adverb phrases fall into this class. But just as participles have two natures and offices, a verbal and an adjectival; as nounal verbs have two, a verbal and a nounal; as relative pronouns have two, a nounal and a conjunctive ; — so some adverbs and adverb phrases have two, an adverbial and a conjunctive. These are called Conjunctive Adverbs and Adverb Phrases. The Conjunctive Adverbs and Phrases connecting Coordinate Clauses are accordingly, also, besides, consequently, else, furthermore, hence, however, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, notwithstanding, now, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, so, still, then, thence, yet. The Conjunctive Adverbs connecting Subordinate Clauses l to Principal are 1 Mason impliedly restricts the modifying 1 force of a conjunctive adverb to the verb, adjective, or adverb in its own clause. Accordingly, also, hence, now, so, still, yet, etc. connecting coordinate clauses are restricted as Mason asserts. But (1) the 246 THE ADVERB 247 after, as, before, ere, how, however, since, than, that, the — the, till, until, when, whence, whenever, where, whereby, wherein, wher- ever, while, whilst, and why. II. Classified according to their Meaning. — Classified thus, adverbs are easily grouped under time, place, degree, man- ner, and cause. We give only a few common illustrations of each class. 1. Adverbs of Time. —Present, forthwith, immediately, instantly, J now, to-day. Past, ago, already, before, heretofore, hitherto, lately, since, then, yesterday. Future, afterwards, by and by, directly, 1 hereafter, henceforth, 3' soon, to-morrow. Duration, always, ever, incessantly, never, perpetually, still, while. Frequency, again, daily, frequently, often, once, periodically, rarely, seldom, sometimes. 2. Adverbs of Place. — Rest in, above, below, elsewhere, here, J near, there, where, yonder. Motion from, away, back, hence, thence, whence. Motion towards, forward, hither, onward, thither, whither. 3. Adverbs of Degree, all, almost, as, as — as, easily, enough, far, conjunctive adverbs ichen, where, wherein, whereby, and why, when introducing adjective clauses and having the office of relative pronouns, and (2) conjunctive adverbs, like as, ere, since, than, when, connecting subordinate clauses of time, place, degree, and manner to principal clauses, modify or describe or limit words in those clauses as well as words in their own. 1 Directly = ' as soon as,' is not employed by American writers or speakers. But very many English authors would say with Newman, "Directly they are loved for their own sake, they return to their original dust." 248 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB hardly, 1 just, least, less, little, more, most, much, nearly, only, per- fectly, quite, scarcely, so, 2 than, 3 the — the, too, very. 4 4. Adverbs of Manner, as, as — so, fast, like, long, no, not, so, 2 thus, well, and most adverbs in -ly. 5. Adverbs of Cause, consequently, hence, therefore, thus, whence, wherefore, why. Two Negative Adverbs in the Same Assertion. — In O.E. and in M.E., two, or more than two, negative adverbs in the same assertion strengthen 5 the negation; in Mn.E. two 1 English writers often use hardly in the sense of harshly, with severity ; as, " The prisoner was hardly treated." Americans use it in the sense of scarcely, with difficulty ; as, " He was hardly able to walk." 2 So, as an adverb of degree, more frequently as an adverb of manner, is often a com- pendious substitute for a phrase or a clause ; as, " Half a dozen or so " ; " There was no one to enforce the law and enforce order, since the Emperor was too weak to do so " ; " It is not yet all it might be or all it should be, but we mean to make it so." 3 The conjunctive force of than is now prominent, but than is from then. "He is taller than I " = " He is taller then (= next to him) am I," Whitney says. Mason and West say that than (O.E. panne) originally meant when; and that therefore "He is taller than I " = "He is taller when I am tall." Mason adds that to regard than as equivalent to then "inverts the logical order of the ideas, making the comparative degree itself the standard of comparison." 4 Very modifies adjectives, participles used as adjectives, and adverbs, but not verbs. Some think that such expressions as, " He is very pleased " are creeping into favor ; but they are not in general use, not even in occasional use, among the best English and American writers. 6 The stock illustration from Chaucer is, " He never e yit no vileinye ne sayde in all his lyf unto no maner wight." The change is credited to the influence of the Latin construction — favored by Milton and the Latinists of his day. In a compound assertion, usage is about equally divided on this point : whether to use nor, and thus repea* the negation in the preceding not, no, or other negative, or to employ or, and allow the not, no, or other word, to make all parts of the assertion negative. We have the best of authority for both locutions ; as, " Our healing is not in the storm or in the whirlwind " ; "It is not in monarchies or aristocracies or democ- racies " ; "They had no horses nor oxen nor carts" ; "The world will very Utile THE ADVERB 249 negatives in the same assertion neutralize each other and leave the assertion affirmative, as : — u This is not 2in\ike\y " ; " Unbelief is not the supreme end sought." Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs, like adjectives, have a single modification, — comparison, — though, from their nature, few except those of degree and manner receive it. Of the common adverbs of time and of place that are com- pared, we may mention frequently, lately, often, rarely, seldom, soon, and far and near. Some adverbs, like often and soon, and those that are 1 derived from adjectives and are the same in form (see [ p. 240, I. 2), take the -er and -est to denote increase; but most of those subject to comparison prefix more and most to denote this. All of them, like adjectives, prefix less and ; least to express diminution. Adverbs Irregular in Comparison. — Some adverbs, like adjectives, form degrees from different stems ; there is one, j at least, whose positive and superlative are now obsolete; i and there are some whose endings of comparison are pecul- : iar. These inheritances from O.E. are here grouped : — note, nor long remember, what we say here." Possibly the negation is strengthened by the repetition. Of course, nor must be used after neither, as in " Who neither turned nor looked at him nor spoke. " 250 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR COMP. badly, \ ill, | worse, worst. far, farther, farthest. forth, further, furthest. POS. COMP. SUPER. little, less, least. much, more, most. > rather, 1 . well, better, best. Adverbs, and their Number and Place in Sentences. — The adverbs and adverb phrases used (1) should fitly 2 express the modification intended; (2) should be few 3 rather than many ; and (3) should be so placed 4 that no reasonable doubt can arise as to what they were meant to modify — placed, consequently, as near as possible to the words they modify, regard being had to euphony and to the rights of other words. Seldom should an adverb stand between to 5 and its infinitive. 1 Bather in the sense of someivhat is not a comparative in force. 2 Adverbs that fill the mouth or the ear, but are meaningless because general and indefinite, easily impose upon the speaker or writer. Shots that do not hit the mark 6well the roar but waste the ammunition. 8 Facility in the use of adverbs is not always felicity. Better to leave the appetite unsatisfied than to clog it. If one is to lean either way, let it be to the side of paucity. * The parts of a sentence should not be disjointed or misjointed, but should cohere — each part attached to that to which it belongs. The difficulty of proper position is great — only is seldom in place, and phrases are proverbial stragglers. The following misplaced adverbs and adverb (and adjective) phrases illustrate the point: "There have been things they called comic operas by the dozen " ; "I should like to come very much " ; " He finds himself in possession only of a jumbled collection of synonyms " ; " Every schoolboy . . . has known who Brutus was any tim,e these fifteen hundred years " ; " An effect of which the loss would make the English language ^oorer 1 ' ; " More effective than that of a perhaps cleverer man." 5 " Cleft or split infinitives " — infinitives separated by adverbs from their to — are found in English all the way down ; FitzEdward Hall and others have shown this But there is no doubt that usage is against adverbs' being thus sandwiched. Our THE ADVERB 251 Whether Adverb or Adjective. — It is asked whether^ after appear, arrive, come, feel, grow, hang, keep, look, shine, sit, smell, stand, taste, etc., one should use 1 an adverb or an adjective. The only guide seems to be this : If the word is to modify the subject, 2 use an adjective; if to modify the verb, an adverb. This rule forces one to determine which office the word is to have 3 when used with such verbs. SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Adverbs Classified according to Office and Meaning. Comparison of Adverbs. Number and Place in Sentences. When an Adjective to be Used and when an Adverb. best writers seldom place adverbs there ; and only when there is a felicitous coherence of adverb and verb, like that of a happy compound. " Do not use the split infinitive unless you have a valid reason for it. Old examples can be quoted in some numbers, yet it never was a genuine colloquialism, but only an artificial scholasm." — Earle. Whether to place the adverb before the to or after the infinitive is a question to be settled by clearness, by regard for the right to position other words have, and by the ear. 1 Certain adverbs and adjectives, see p. 240, I. 2, are alike in form. What to call them in parsing, often troubles one when they stand after the verbs above. 2 We saw, foot-note 2, p. 238, that a noun with a verb lingering in it may be modi- fied by an adverb. We are speaking now of nouns with special verbs. 3 To aid in determining this, we may say that when the intransitive verbs appear, arrive, come, grow, look, sit, stand, etc. — and feel, hang, keep, shine, smell, taste, etc. used intransitively — express not so much action as state, and state with the general meaning of being or seeming or becoming, the word to be used should modify the subject, be an adjective; if action is uppermost in the verb, the word should modify the verb, be an adverb. These sentences from the Standard Dictionary illustrate both points : — "The decision appears (apparently is) unjust ",* "The ship appeared (came into view) suddenly " ; and " The physician felt the pulse carefully (in a careful manner), and observed that the patient's hand felt cold (was cold to the touch)." 252 EIOR school QRAMMAE Questions. -What are simple adverbs P Conjunctive adverbs and phrases? Wluili subdivisions <>i" other parts of speeoh have double oflices? What do conjunctive adverbs connect? Wherein Mason wrong, by Implication at Least P Wherein right? Adverbs <»r time and plaoe subdivisible Into what? Directly and hardly used how in England? So a compendious substitute tor what? Very may modify what? May not modify what? in O.B. and M.E., two or more negatives do what P in Mn.E., what? Usage says what re- specting nor to repeat the negative of :i preceding not or not Some. adverbs whose comparative and superlative are not Erom the positive. stem; some whose comparative and superlative endings are peculiar j one used only in the eoinp.i.mii ve ? What is s;iid of the Choi06 ol adverbs? Of the number used P Theirplaceln thesentence? What adverb often out of place? What adverb phrases? An adverb should seldom he phi.eed where? What does ii:;;rr say of the u deft Infinitive"? What governs the placingof the adverb modifying the Infinitive? After what verbs may there bo doubt whether t<> use adjectives <>■• adverbs? What Is to guide? What may aid In de- termining the office of the word to be used? What words whose syntax may trouble us in parsing? Exercises. — Write some sentences, eaoh with a clause of plaoe or time or degree or manner, Introduced i>y an adverb modifying words in both olauses. Some with a negative followed by or, and some with a negative strengthened by nor» Some Illustrating the varied placing of the adverb with the infinitive. Correct the faults of posi- tion in loot note I, p. B50. Write sentences where theadjeotive Ls the proper word after appear^ come, /'■<■/, grow^ look, shine, smell, and taste I Mini some where Uie ;idverb is I. he proper word after these verbs. CHAPTER XXV THE PREPOSITION Derivation and Name. »M08t of the English preposition:; worn earlier adverbs. 1 They got their name from l>ein# placed before one of the words whose relations they expressed. Their Original Office. Stems, like those of pronoun:;, were used (1) to express the relations existing between tin-. actions 9 indicated by verbs and the thin",;; denoted by nouns; used (2) to make clearer the relations between things and qualities of things on the one, hand, and things on the other. ti in Sanskrit, the oldest extant writing of the Cndo Europeans, these stems are found (1) as Independent word::, (2) as prefixes of verbs, ami (■'>) as (;aH<;-emliii": ; «>!' ik.iih; CI; ami (2) calkd preposition,*, and (8) case endings. When the Independent words express the rela i,i ins of a verb, adjective, or adverb, iii a general way, without a limit in", ooun, they are called adverbi. ti in Sanskrit there are twenty-one prepositional stems which some times combine with verbs, nine which never combine, and many 1 M ; 1 1 1 ;, prtpOfltiOM ■>!'■ 'ill u. ''I .i :i'l.«il,, <■ •[»< ■<'i:i.lly whmi not. followed \>y noun:.. i That prepositions uiisted In oxpropwlng rohiHoriH relAtlom registered In the n-line . ,,l' noun :, i:t:,r.-n in |,||<- |';i<| llml. vvi III y Doom with different omc ending 258 254 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR adverbial forms with case-endings, which are used as prepositions." — F. A. March. Classification. — The classification of prepositions is into Simple and Compound. 1. Simple. — The simple prepositions — all in O.E., though till was borrowed from the Norse — are after, at, by, ere, for (fore), from, in, of (off), on, over, through, till, to, under, up, and with. II. Compound. — 1. Prepositions with O.E. Adverb Prefixes and Suffixes. The adverb prefixes are in, un, 'unto,' and up. The suffixed adverbs are seftan, ' after,' foran, ' fore,' geond, 'across,' hindan, i after,' innan, 4 in,' neoftan, ' below,' titan, 'upward,' titan or tit, ' out,' and weard, 4 tendency to.' The simple prepositions a, 'on/ be, 'by/ on, through, till, to, under, and with combine with the suffixes and prefixes above to form the prepositions, abaft, 1 afore, before, beyond, behind, into, within, beneath, under- neath, above, 1 about, 1 but, throughout, without, until, unto, upon, toward, and towards. 2. Prepositions with O.E. Noun or Adjective Suffixes. — The noun and adjective suffixes are 1 The prepositions tt, ' on,' and be, ' by,' are found in abaft and about and above. THE PREPOSITION 255 board, croix, 'cross,' dun, 'hill,' gean, 'contrary to,' gemang, 'crowd,' lang, 'long,' louh, 'low,' middan, 'middle,' round, slant, stride, sld, 'side,' tweon and tweoh, 'double,' ftain, 'that,' tfweorh, ' crooked.' The simple prepositions a, i on/ a, ' of V or i off/ a, ' over against/ be, i by/ combine with the suffixes above to form the prepositions, aboard, across, adown 1 (down), against, among and amongst, along, 1 below, amid and amidst, around (round), aslant, astride, beside and besides, between and betwixt, and athwart. Since = sr5, ' after,' and $am. Relations expressed by Case-endings. — The objects first known were external, and the knowledge of them was largely knowledge of their space relations. The relations expressed most frequently in case-endings, except the nominative, the dative, — and the genitive in part, — were no doubt space relations. 1 The a in adown is the a ' of ' ; that in along is a in Latin ante. Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, past, pending, re- i garding, respecting, saving, and touching are still participles in form and sometimes i are such in use. But often the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they I express mere relations. Except and save, in such a sentence as, "All except (or save) him were lost," are usually classed with prepositions. The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of {by cause of), from among, from between, from tinder, instead of (in stead of), out of, over against, and round about may be called compound prepositions. But from in these compounds; as, "He crawled from under the ruins," really introduces a phrase the principal term of which is the phrase that foWows from. 256 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR The locative case-ending signified in a place ; the dative, inclination toward something in space — the personal relation between a giver and a receiver the prevailing one ; the ablative, motion from a place ; the accusative, reaching an object in space ; and the instrumental, personal relation between an intelligent actor and his instrument, adjacency or accompaniment in space. As man has extended his sphere of thought and action, the mental and personal relations have come to be expressed most frequently, and the spatial have become less prominent. The dative prevailingly ex- presses purpose or result rather than inclination toward ; the ablative, origin, cause, agency, rather than movement from ; the instrumental, means and manner rather than accompaniment. Relations expressed by Prepositions. — Stating definitely and emphatically particular relations, of the class expressed by case-endings, prepositions gradually assumed the offices 1 of such endings and so displaced these inflections. In English, the displacement is almost total. The development of prepositions in meaning and in office may be sought, then, along lines traceable in the develop- ment of case-endings. Almost all prepositions, whether simple or compound, like case-endings, originally expressed space relations. By metaphor and other figurative exten- sion, these prepositions have been stretched to express rela- tions of time, cause, manner, etc., and these in all their minute subdivisions and distinctions. We are now pre- pared for the i Wrightson says, "Called in at first merely to assist the failing cases, the preposi- tions have so nearly replaced them that we may speak of prepositions as case equiv- alents." THE PREPOSITION 257 Definition. — A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its prin- cipal word to the word modified, It may be instructive to see some of the extensions of meaning that a few prepositions have added to their original space significations. We do not know the order of these extensions. After. — Place Subsequent, U B stands after A"; Pursuit, "He strayed after a squirrel " ; Time Subsequent, " The evil that men do lives after them " ; Aim, " Strive after clearness" ; Imitation, "Prints after the old masters"; Accord, "A man after my own heart"; Reference, " He had no heart to ask after any more friends" ; Con- cession, " After all, he died poor " ; Cause, " After the recognition he was happy." At. — Dccupancy of place, " At the center " ; Nearness, " A peri at the gate" ; Motion toward, "The dog sprang at the man"; Time, "He will go at ten" ; Occasion, "At the word he rose" ; Degree, "At least " ; State, " At peace " ; Price, " Papers at a cent apiece " ; Accord, ' ' By land or by water, at your choice ' ' ; Manner, ' ' He spoke at a venture " ; Instrument, " He lost money at cards " ; Cause, " At thy rebuke they fled. ' ' By. — Proximity, " He dwells by the bridge " ; Place where, "Moving accidents by flood and by field"; Via, "We went to Buffalo by Albany" ; Passing without touching, "They pass by me as the idle wind " ; Time, " 'Twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild " Agent, "A novel by Scott"; Manner, "They marched by twos" Adjuration, "But by the shades beneath us and by the gods above " Accord, "Noon by the north clock, noon by the east" ; Instrument, "Died by the sword"; Measure, "Older by fifteen years"; Per- mission, " By your gracious patience I will speak " ; Means, " Grows by what it feeds on " ; Cause, " By whom we live and move and have our being." H. SCH. GRAM. 17 258 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR For (fore). — Movement toward, u He sailed for Europe " ; Dura- tion, U A prisoner for life" ; Behalf of, "I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers" ; Exchange, " He would give all he had for life" ; Substitution, u Will he for a fish give him a serpent?" Pur- pose, " These things are written for our instruction"; Concession, " For all that, it is very dark here " ; Respect to, " The sweetest flower for scent that blows" ; Attribute, " Feet that might have served for shovels" ; Cause, " They cannot see the end for the process." From. — Separation, " Anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing " ; Movement away, " He went from door to door" ; Time, 44 From my youth up " ; Reason, " Kings will be tyrants from policy when subjects are rebels from principle"; Means, U I cannot judge the liquor from the lees " ; Source, " Religions are obsolete when lives do not proceed from them " ; Cause, u Brave from habit." In. — Inclusion, "In the room"; Duration, "In a lifetime"; Material, "Paid in gold " ; Occasion, "Greatly to find quarrel in a straw when honor's at the stake" ; Manner, "I said in my haste all men are liars"; Means, "In the tranquil grazing of cattle I am carried back to my youth"; Conformity with, "In my judgment this cannot last" ; Respect to, "First in war and first in peace" ; Authority, " Against this bill I protest in the name of the Irish people" ; Reference, "I don't believe in principle, but oh ! I do in interest." Of (off). — Distance, "He stopped short of the goal"; Quality, 44 The man of wisdom is the man of years" ; Source, ''Defects of doubt and taints of blood " ; Material, " A bridge of ice " ; Identity, 44 The kingdom of Kent " ; Possession, " The house of Shakespeare " ; Agency, " Loved of none" ; Respect to, "The dread of common- place has lain heavily on Tennyson" ; Connection, "The top of the hill"; Partition, "One of the books"; Cause, "He died of con- sumption." On. — Superposition, "He lay on the floor"; Direction, "The house fronts on the river"; Pursuit, "They are on his tracks". Nearness, " The fleet is on the French coast " ; Motion to, " And they THE PREPOSITION 259 fell on Sir Launfal as snows on the brine"; Time, " On that fateful day of Waterloo" ; Respect to, "On their own merits modest men are dumb" ; Reason, " He prided himself on his good looks" ; State, 11 Fickle reason is like a drunken man ow horseback" ; Adjuration, "Tell me on thy life"; Reference, "A lecture on Burke " ; Cause, " On his father's death he became insane." Over. — Position above, "Ample folds as they float over the sea and over the land" ; Motion above and across, " Over earth and ocean, with gentle motion, this pilot is guiding me" ; Motion on and across, "The trail of the serpent is over them all" ; Measure, " Over 10,000 bushels"; Duration, " Ice kept over summer"; Superiority, "They passed it over the veto"; Means, "lie wearied himself over his books" ; Cause, " He grieved over her death." Through. — Passage from limit to limit, "He went through the tunnel"; Duration, "She lived through the year"; Means, "The building is lighted through the dome " ; Agency, " He casteth out devils through Beelzebub"; Cause, "He died through over- exertion." To. — Movement reaching its object, "If the hill will not come to Mahomet, Mahomet will go to the hill" ; Direction toward, "Spires whose silent fingers point to heaven " ; Degree, " Brave to temerity " ; Extent, " To the number of thirty " ; Accord, " Nerves that had long been strong to the music of battle" ; Accompaniment, "We dance to music " ; Addition, " For those of old, and the late dignities heaped up to them " ; Comparison, " All that tread the globe are but a hand- ful to the tribes that slumber in its bosom" ; Possession, "It is an attribute to God himself " ; Purpose, " He went to see his mother." It is seen that there are myriad relations to be expressed in speech. There are but few cases in any synthetic lan- guage to express these. By the use of these relational words, the prepositions, an analytic tongue like ours be- comes exact, sjjecific, and definite, and can express finer 260 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR ch distinctions of thought than can a synthetic language which depends upon cases for this service. 1 Proscribed Prepositional Locutions. — We are forbidden to use (1) between, 2 with more than two things ; (2) around, 3 with verbs of motion; (3) o/, 4 after all, both, whole; (4) differ with, 5 rather than differ from ; and (5) we are enjoined not to end 6 a sentence with a preposition. 1 " As prepositions present the relation from the verb side and case-endings from the noun side, a goodly number of both, as in Sanskrit and Greek, would seem to promise most ; but the distinctions become too fine, and the machinery too complex, for folk- speech or world-speech. 1 ' — F. A. March. 2 "We observe that between is not restricted to two." —Imperial Dictionary. "In all senses between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many sur- rounding things severally and individually — among expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely ; we should not say, ' The choice lies among the three candi- dates,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'" — The New English Dictionary. We have collected hundreds of sentences like this from Peile : " Etymologically there is no difference between adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions " — sentences in which between is used by good writers with three or more. But guard against such expressions as, " between each page " ; "a choice between one of several." 3 After verbs of motion around is used almost as often as round. 4 Such expressions as, "All of the men," "Both of the boys," " The whole of the farm," are not as common as "All the men," "Both the boys" " The whole farm"; but they are found by scores in almost every author. 5 "Differ with is . . . reserved for 'have a difference with,' expressing conflicting opinion to. Say, ' Washington differed from Hamilton in temperament, but he did not differ with him in political theory.' " — Standard Dictionary. 6 " A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence with," we are told. Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Pro- fessor Austin Phelps says, " A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word " ; and he quotes a burst of feeling from Eufus Choate which ends thus : " Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Kock a piece large enough to make a gunflint of I" " This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative? 'What /or?' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech." Even the to of the infinitive phrase frequently ends a colloquial sentence. THE PREPOSITION 261 The Use of Prepositions. — Care should be taken l (1) in the choice of prepositions, since they affect large fragments of sentences — phrases simple, compound, and complex ; (2) though apt, they should not be used needlessly; 2 and (3) should not be omitted 3 when needed. Prepositions used as Adverbs. — When the preposition 1 To illustrate — beside = by the side of; besides = in addition to, as in " Besides giving him money, I stood beside him in his sickness." In denotes rest or motion in one place or condition ; into, change from one to another ; as, " When one is outside of a place he may get into it, but he cannot do anything in it until he has got into it." In, not at, before names of countries, or of villages looked on as territory ; at before names of cities regarded as points ; as, " We landed at New York, in the United States " ; "We live in HoboTcen" When the motion is to the upper surface of an object above, upon, not on, is used ; as, " The cat jumped upon his shoulder." Not " He fell onto or on to the rocks," but " He fell on or upon the rocks." '* We compare one thing with another to note agreement or difference ; we compare one thing to another which we believe it to resemble." — Standard Dictionary* Not "different to" "in respect of" "in regard of"; but "different from," "in respect to" "in regard to" — in American usage, at least. 2 At, for, in, of, and to are needless here: "I graduated at 18 years old"; "A son of five years of age" ; "He lives near to the church" ; "Where are you going to?" " It is to you to whom they owe this " ; " More than you think for " ; " Keep off of the grass " ; " In so far as he can, he will." 3 Of is needed in (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) below ; in, in (6) ; from, in (7) and (8) ; and at, in (9): (1) "He remained outside the house" ; (2) "The tree is inside the fence" ; (3) "It is the size of an egg" ; (4) "What use is this to him ?" (5) " I am unworthy your regard " ; (6) " There is no use going home " ; (7) " He was prevented going " ; (8) " He was banished the country " ; (9) " They laughed at what they smiled before." Speaking generally, a preposition should be used when it will make the thought clearer ; hence it should be repeated before successive adjectives, nouns, and infinitives when the qualities or objects or acts are to be kept distinct and coordinate, as in, " Both of kindred and of alien blood " ; " The rule holds in literature and in life" ; "With men and with money " ; "I wish to see and to hear you." 262 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAE follows a verb or a term retaining a verb force, and does not itself introduce a phrase containing a noun or pronoun, the word may be regarded as an adverb, as : — "He rode past" ; "Looking beyond, he saw the hills"; "The climb up was painful " ; " The growth above was abnormal." But, if not preceded by a term that an adverb can modify, and not itself introducing a full phrase, we may supply the omitted noun or pronoun, and regard the word as a preposition, as : — "■The sky above" {us); "The earth beneath" (our feet) ; "The river beyond" (th&t field) ; " The room within " (the house). SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Prepositions — Simple and Compound. Relations expressed by Case-endings, by Prepositions. Extension of Meaning of Prepositions. Proscribed Prepositional Locutions. Questions. — Prepositions originally what ? Their name from what ? Their original office, what ? Name the simple prepositions in English. The O.E. adverb prefixes, what ? The O.E. adverb suffixes, what ? What prepositions combine with these, and form what ? The O.E. noun and adjective suffixes, what ? What prepositions combine with these, and form what ? What participles now used as preposi- tions ? What phrases now compound prepositions ? What objects first known ? Knowledge of these largely of what ? The relations expressed by case-endings largely what originally ? The several case- endings significant originally each of what space relation ? Gradually THE PREPOSITION 263 they came to signify what relations developed out of space relations ? How came prepositions to displace the oblique case-inflections ? In what language is the displacement almost complete ? Wrightson says we may call prepositions what ? Along what lines may the develop- ment of prepositions be sought ? What has extended prepositions to express relations of time, cause, manner, etc., etc.? Definition of prepositions ? By the use of prepositions analytic languages may do what ? What use of (1) between, (2) around after verbs of motion, (3) of after all, both, whole, is proscribed? What do the purists say of differ with, and of a preposition ending a sentence? What has usage to say on these points ? In using prepositions, care should be exercised in what three respects ? Illustrate. When should preposi- tions be repeated ? When do prepositions become adverbs ? Exercises. — With after, at, by, far, from, in, of, on, over, through, and to, illustrate some of the more important extensions of preposi- tions in use. Illustrate the proscribed prepositional locutions and defend them. In sentences of your own illustrate the fine distinctions between besides and beside, in and into, in and at, on and upon, with and to. Illustrate the need of repeating the prepositions. CHAPTER XXVI THE CONJUNCTION The parts of a sentence that unite to form compounds are (1) individual words, and groups of words called (2) phrases and (3) clauses. The parts that are complex are (1) phrases and (2) clauses. The compound and the complex parts require connecting. Conjunctions, which connect them, are derived from other parts of speech — largely from prepositions. Definition. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 1 phrases, and clauses. 2 All conjunctions are connectives, but not all connectives are conjunctions ; in addition to their office as adverbs and pronouns, conjunctive adverbs 3 and relative pronouns con- nect. At least, then, three parts of speech connect, but only conjunctions merely connect. The connectives that are conjunctions are x And, as, as well as, but, and or, in such offices as they have in " John and James are brothers"; "Cromwell's rule as Protector began in 1653"; " He as well as I heard it;" "He was poor but prospering"; " Mahomet or Mohammed died in 632," connect individual words — and more frequently than the others. 2 In continuous discourse sentences and even paragraphs are connected — by and and but chiefly. 8 Conjunctive adverbial phrases, also ; the relative which, used as adjective, also. 264 THE CONJUNCTION 265 albeit, although (though), and, as well as, because, both — and, but, except, 1 for, if, in case that, in order that, lest, nor, on condition that, or, either — or, neither — nor, so that, provided, provided that, unless, whereas, whether. tThe connectives that are conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, after, also, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, furthermore, hence, how, however, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, notwithstanding, now, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, so, still, than, then, therefore, till, until, when, whence, whenever, where, wherever, whereby, wherein, whilst, why, yet. The connectives that are relative pronouns are what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever. The connectives that are conjunctions and connective , adverbs are as, since, while. The connective that is a conjunction, a conjunctive adverb, and a relative pronoun is that. All connectives are (1) coordinate, 2 joining parts of equal rank ; or (2) subordinate, joining parts of unequal rank — i clauses 3 fully expressed or elliptical. 1 Many conjunctives and conjunctive adverbs — but, except, for, before, etc. — are ' prepositions also. Their transition into connectives is said to have been caused by the omission of that, which in O.E. followed them when introducing clauses. The drop- ping of that devolved its office upon the prepositions and made them connectives. 2 This division of connectives into coordinate and subordinate is fundamental. It concerns the mutual relation of the thoughts contained in clauses. 3 Two clauses of unequal rank are joined by a subordinate connective ; two clauses independent or equally dependent, by a coordinate connective. 266 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB 1. Coordinate connectives. 1 — 1. Copulative. (1) The copu- lative conjunctions are and, both — and, as well as. The copulative conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, also, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, more- over, now, so, then, therefore, thereupon, wherefore, whereupon. 2. Adversative. — (1) The adversative conjunctions are but, whereas. (2) The adversative conjunctive adverbs are however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, yet. 3. Alternative. — (1) The alternative conjunctions are neither, nor, or, either — or, neither — nor. 1 The division of coordinate connectives into (1) copulative — joining parts in the same line of thought; (2) adversative — joining parts contrasted in meaning; and (3) alternative — joining parts so as to offer a choice, is helpful, though less so than the division of all connectives into coordinate and subordinate. It concerns the mutual relation, not of all clauses, but of clauses (1) independent or (2) equally dependent. Some copulative connectives join clauses that sustain to each other more than the relation of mere agreement in thought ; the second is (1) a sequence from the first, (2) a consequence of it, or (3) a result. The sequential clause, according to Wrightson, " in some indefinite way follows on something just said " ; as, " The father promised, whereupon she grew cheerful." The consequential clauses " state the logical conclusion from something just said >J ; as, " The ice has melted, therefore we cannot skate.'''' The resultant clause "states the accidental outcome" of something just said; as, " His father gave him money, and so he got drunk." The same authority classes so, so then, then, therefore, and whereupon as sequen- tial ; accordingly, consequently, hence, thence, therefore, whence, and whereupon as consequential ; and, thus, so, so that, and and so as resultant. THE CONJUNCTION 267 (2) The alternative conjunctive adverbs are else, otherwise. II. Subordinate Connectives. — 1. Of Adjective Clauses. (1) Conjunctive adverbs are when, where, whereby, wherein, why. (2) The relative pronouns are that, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever. 2. Of Adverb Clauses. (1) The conjunctive adverbs of time are after, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, whilst. I (2) The conjunctive adverbs of place are whence, where, wherever. (3) The conjunctive adverbs of degree are as, than, that, the — the. (4) The conjunctive adverb of manner is as. (5) The conjunctions of real cause are as, because, for, since, that, whereas. (6) The conjunctions of evidence are because, for, since. 268 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB (7) The conjunctions of purpose are in order that, lest, that, so that. (8) The conjunctions of condition are except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, unless. (9) The conjunctions of concession are albeit, although, if, notwithstanding, though, whether. (10) The conjunctive adverb of concession is however. (11) The relative pronouns of concession are whatever, whichever, whoever. 3. Of Noun Clauses. (1) The conjunctions are if, lest, that, whether. (2) The conjunctive adverbs are how, when, whence, where, why. (3) The pronouns (used interrogatively) are what, which, who. Definitions Coordinate conjunctions are those used to connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank. THE CONJUNCTION 269 Subordinate 1 conjunctions are those used to connect clauses of unequal rank. Derivation of Conjunctions. — Some conjunctions are simple ; others, compound ; all, originally other parts of speech. The derivation of the more common and impor- tant of the connectives is given below. 2 1 The division of subordinate connectives into those introducing (1) adjective clauses ; (2) adverb clauses ; and (3) noun clauses ; and the subdivision of those introducing the nine kinds of adverb clauses are useful to the student, because several of these con- nectives are used with clauses diverse in the relation of their thoughts. The division and the subdivision concern the several kinds of subordinacy in which the thought of one clause may stand to that of another and show the imperative need of the proper introductory connective to herald it. 2 Albeit= all-he-it, is a sentence in one word. Also = all and so, is from the O.E. adjective eal, ' all,' and adverb swa, ' so.' Although = ail-though — the though from the O.E. adverb fiedh, 'nevertheless/ And, once a preposition meaning against, as in the prefixes a and an of along and answer, became a copulative conjunction, and subsequently took on a cona*itional force. When, as in Shakespeare, its if sense had become dim, and (reduced to an) added if to express condition. Its an form and its */: sense are now obsolete. As is a contraction of also. Because is by + cause. Both and either in the correlatives both — and, either — or are the adjective pro- nouns. But is from the O.E. butan, be + Man, ' by the outside,' 'beyond.' Except, ex + caj>ere, ' to take out.' Zest is from O.E. fty lass fte — the instrumental case of the demonstrative, an ad- jective in the comparative, and the indeclinable relative. At the dropping of fty, Ices $e contracted into lesthe, teste, lest. Neither and nor contain the negative particle ne. Or is a contraction of other. Then is the same word as than — O.E. T&aivne. That, originally a demonstrative pronoun, changed into a connective in some such way as this : " He lives, I know that " ; "I know that [namely] he lives " ; "I know that he lives." Unless, on {in) + less. Whether is the O.E. interrogative hwwfter, ' which of two.' While is the O.E. noun hwil, ' time.' 270 HIGH SCHOOL GBAMMAB Proscribed Locutions. — We are told (1) that whether must not be used with more than two ; (2) that whether must not be repeated in the sentence ; (3) that if must not take the place of whether before an object noun clause ; (4) that either and neither must not connect more than two ; and (5) that between other and than words must not inter- vene. The locutions here proscribed, though not so common as the alternative ones prescribed, are abundantly sanctioned by good usage. We illustrate below. 1 Care in the Use of Connectives. — As conjunctions and other connectives introduce phrases and clauses, much care is needed in their selection and use — a wrong connective, or the right one in the wrong place, throws from the track a large fraction of the thought. This need is accented by the fact that several connectives of the subordinate class introduce each many clauses of diverse force, for example — as, 2 if, 2 since, when, and that. 3 1 Whether has slipped the etymological leash that held it to two ; (1) as, " He does not know whether it is an angel or a woman or a mermaid "; whether may be used with one ; as, " There is a different and sterner path ; I know not whether there be any now qualified to teach it " ; (2) whether may be used more than once in a sentence ; as, " Whether some one element shall absorb the rest, or whether all shall contribute." (3) Whether may take if as a substitute, especially after the verbs ash, doubt, know, see, and tell ; as, "Ask any honest robin if he ever ate anything less ascetic than the frugal berry of the juniper." (4) The conjunctions either and neither are everywhere found with three or more ; as, "I cannot verify it either by touch or taste or smell or hearing or sight" ; "Bryant's career had neither rise nor height nor decline" (5) Other and than are often separated by intervening words ; as, "Some other pur- pose than that." 2 As if and as though (a clause in each is supposed) are both common, but as if far more common than as though. 8 That before a noun object clause is frequently omitted — its omission is to its use about as one to four. THE CONJUNCTION 271 Some errors in their choice and use are illustrated and corrected below. 1 But that, 2 But, and That. — The use of but that is so peculiar and the use of but and that so various as to deserve separate treatment in the paragraphs below. 3 1 " Seldom, if '(not or) ever, is time perfectly employed." " Falstaff was not only (not not only Falstaff was) witty, but the cause of wit in others." " N~ot only midges (not midges not only) annoy, but flies and mosquitoes also." " The charm of Tennyson, which (not and which) he has even in excess, is delicacy." " Try to (not and) be punctual." " Give me neither poverty nor (not or) riches." " The prayer of Agur was, ' Give me neither (not neither gimme) poverty nor riches. ' " "I can- not see either (not neither) the island or the mainland." " I don't know that (not as) he said so." " A bank-bill is nothing- else than (not but) a promissory note." " Spain could not do otherwise than (not but) surrender." "He no sooner saw me than (not but) he left." " James is taller than George t but not so stout" (not taller, but not so stout, as George). "James is not so stout as George, but taller" (not not so stout, but taller, than George). " TJiough (not if) no absolute victory be possible, a hard fight is sure to bring- some success." "I went after or because I was told to go" {since, meaning either time or cause, would be ambiguous). " When (not while) I arrived, and while (not when) I was there, B was present." " No one denies that (not but that or but ichat) two and two are four." " Who doubts that (not but that or but what) there is a God ? " 2 But that, when it can be used, gives to the sentence a meaning which that does not give. " I do not fear but that he will go," expresses my belief that he will go ; "I do not fear that he will go," expresses my belief that he will not go. But that is inad- missible after negative words — doubt, deny, etc., — when these are preceded by a negative, or by words implying a negative — because the sentence would contain a neg- ative verb, a negative preceding the verb, and a negative in the but following it. The meaning of such a sentence as, "No one denies but that two and two are four" is the affirmative " Every one believes that two and two are four " ; but, though two negatives affirm, three do not. 3 But is (1) a preposition — " No one knows it but me " ; (2) an adjective — " Man is but a shadow " ; (3) an adverb— " But one man escaped " ; (4) an adversative con- junction — " Man proposes, but God disposes "; (5) a subordinate conjunction — " Not a hair falls but (unless) God knows it" ; (6) a conjunctive adverb — "No man is so bad but he has some good in him." 272 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Omission of Conjunctions. — Often the connectives are omitted ; the mere position of the words, phrases, and clauses shows their connection. Their use may contribute smoothness 1 to the sentence; their omission, brevity and force. Their use or their omission sometimes affects the grammatical relation of the clauses connected. 2 Interjections For all we have to say of this part of speech, the student is referred to chapter IV. That is (1) a conjunction of real cause — "I rejoice not that ye were made sorry but that ye sorrowed to repentance " ; (2) a conjunction of purpose — " We sleep that the body may recruit" ; (3) a conjunction introducing a noun clause — " We believe that we are immortal" ; (4) a conjunctive adverb — " No one is so wise that he never does a foolish thing- " ; (5) a relative pronoun — " Ice that forms in March is porous " ; (6) an adjective pronoun — " That is slate " ; (7) an adjective — " That rock is slate." Than is not a preposition ; yet in such a sentence as, " Than tohom no man is better able to speak in every land," it is followed by the objective case of who used idiomatically, we may suppose, for the nominative. 1 Omit conjunctions from this sentence: "And the rain descended and the floods came and the winds blew and beat upon that house and it fell and great was the fall of it," and note the loss of smoothness. 2 Take these six sentences for illustration: (1) " The weather is warm and moist, the harvest is promising." (2) "Paradise Lost is a monumental poem, it brought Milton and his heirs only eighteen pounds ! " (3) " Take the color from the rose, it would still be a beautiful flower." (4) "Are you in want? Draw upon me." (5) "Take away the grandeur of his cause, Washington is only a rebel." (6) " It is raining, I hear the drops pattering upon the roof." If sentence (1) began with because; (2) and (3), with though; (4) and (5), with if; and the second clause of (6), with for, the clauses thus introduced would become dependent — that of (1) would be a cause clause; those of (2) and (3), concessive clauses ; those of (4) and (5), condition clauses ; that of (6), a clause of evidence. The grammatical relation of each of the six clauses to the other in the sentence would then tally with its logical relation to it. THE CONJUNCTION 273 SUBJECTS OF THE CHAPTER, AND QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES UPON THEM Subjects for Topical Recitation. — Conjunctions. Connectives — Coordinate, Subordinate. Derivation. Proscribed Locutions. The Use of Connectives. But, That, and But that. Conjunctions Omitted. Questions. — What parts of a sentence may be compound? Com- plex? Conjunctions, what? What classes of other parts of speech connect? What one part of speech connects simply? Give some connectives that are conjunctions. What conjunctions may join individual words ? What conjunctive phrase ? What conjunctions may join sentences and paragraphs ? Give connectives that are prep- ositions also. What ones are conjunctive adverbs ? What ones are relative pronouns? One that may be a conjunction, a conjunctive adverb, or a relative pronoun. Into what two great classes may con- nectives be divided? The importance of the division. Coordinate connectives join what different parts of a sentence? Subordinate, what only ? Must the clauses which coordinate connectives join be independent ? Of what rank must the clauses be which subordinate connectives join ? Coordinate connectives divided into what ? These sub-classes join clauses whose thought is in what three different lines ? This threefold division of coordinate connectives less important than what? Why? What does Wrightson call sequential clauses, con- sequential, resultant ? What three kinds of subordinate clauses may subordinate connectives introduce ? What kinds of adverb clauses ? Why is a knowledge of this serviceable ? The composition of albeit, also, although, because, but, except, and lest ? What is said of and f The reason for unusual care in the use of conjunctions ? The several uses of but ? Of that f Of but that f What may the use of conjunc- tions give to the sentence ? The omission ? Exercises. — Illustrate the proscribed locutions. Sentences with, and without, conjunctions, Illustrate the several uses of but, that, and but that. Illustrate the effect which the use and the omission of conjunctions have upon the grammatical relation of clauses. H. SCH. GRAM. — 18 INDEX A, or an, uses 145-149 A and the, uses distinguished 147-149 A (icord) or two, etc 145 (note) Absolute phrase TO, 96, 123 (note) Adjective an, defined.. .48, 49, 58, 134-137 r affirmed, assumed 135 apt, number, place, 136 (note) definitive (nu- meral), classes,-! 136 & note? 13T descriptive, 136, 137 adjectives not com- pared, 144 & note definition of, 142 degrees of, 138, 142 double, 144 & note faulty, compari- J 144 & note, son, 145 & note form gaining, 143 in er and est, 138, 140 irregular, 138, 139 & note rule for 143 with adverbs, 140 & note with two . . . 145 djectives, Adjectives, - f functions of. 135, 136 not always limiting, 48, 135 (note) numeral j cardinal, 136 (note) ( ordinal, 136 (note) O.E. inflection of... 137, 138 origin of 134 proper order of, 135 & note, 136 (note) used as nouns, 111 (note), 134 & note whether adj. or adv., 251 & note connectives of 53 = adjectives 58 = independent clauses, 122 (note) = phrases 57, 58 modifying omitted words 122 & note restrictive and unre- strictive 122 & note unrestrictive, punctua- tion 122 (note) what 58 Adjective Complement distinguished from adverb modifier 251 & note Adjective Clauses, Adjective Modifiers, nouns as . 99 Adverb an, defined 49, 50. 53 275 276 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Adverbs, apt ones 250 & note as nouns 239 & note classified 246-248 comparison 249, 250 derivation 239-242 independent 239 interrogative 239 irregular comparison of, 249, 250 like adjectives. ..251 & note f clauses 238 modi- J phrases 238 fying 1 prepositions . . . 238 [ sentences 238 negation repeated or not, 248 & note not used for adjectives, 251 & note not used needlessly, 250 & note of negation 248 & note position of 250 & note with connective force.. 239 Adverb Clause, illustrated.. .59, 62, 65, 66 cause 60 concession 60 condition 60 degree 61 Adverb J evidence 60 Clauses, | manner 61 place 59 purpose 61 result 61 time 59 Adverb Modifiers , nouns as 104 Adversative Connectives, list 261 Adversative, meaning of 266 (note) A few, a Utile, vs. few and Utile 148 Agree ment :{ Alpha- bet, Eng- lish, of pronoun with antecedent, 193 of verb with subject, 189-193 & notes composed of what 13 consonants 20, 21 defective 22 derivation 16-18 redundant 22 vowels 18, 19 perfect one what 22 Alternative Connectives, list. . . .266, 26T Alternative, meaning of 266 (note) Antecedent 46, 110, 111 Any body (or one) else's 131 Apostrophe the 98 & note Appositive 99 classes I definite 146 classes,-; indefinite H6 errors in use of, 146 (note), 147 (note) Articles, ■{ hardly distinguished, 148 (note) repeated when 146, 147 uses of a, or an, and the, 147-149 relative pronoun 124 & note As, ■{ with clauses of degree, manner, 61 with variety of clauses 267 As . 7 . so 61 As it were, mode 173 Aspirate 20 (note) Assumed Subject, what 154 Attribute Complement 95 Auxiliary j defined 183 Verbs, 1 discussion of 193-201 Base, or Stem 74 Be, and conjugation, 193, 194, 217, 221-226 Beside and besides distinguished, 261 (note) Best of the two 145 BeUceen with three or more 260 (note) Breath 14 adversative conjunction, 271 (note) a preposition, 124 (note), 271 (note) various uses of 271 (note) with or without that. .. 271 (note) with ichat incorrect for but that or but, 124 (note), 271 (note) But, INDEX 277 Case, Can and could 201 & notes defined 92 & note, 98 nominative case 95-97 objective case 102-105 O.E. case and number end- ings dropped how .. 94 O.E. genitive 9T of attrib. comp 96, 97 of explanatory modifier 96 of noun or pronoun independ- ent 96 of noun or pronoun used ad- verbially 104 of objective complement 105 possessive 97-102 definitions of 95, 98, 103 in O.E 93,94 old number of — 92 (note) relations of 255, 256 errors in 126-128 five pronouns have three, 112, 113, 119 nouns have two 93 only eight nominative, 109 (note) only seven objective, 109 (note) Cause, adverbs of 69 (note), 248 Clause a, what 56 ( dependent . . . 57-62 classes, \ . * , , KC KPf [ independent, 56, 57 complex and compound, 62, 65-67 radjective 57, 53 Cases, Case Forms, Clauses, depe t nd " \ adverb 59-62 ent ' I noun 58,59 inde- f in alternation, pendent J 56, 57 (the j in contrast.. 56, 57 thought), tin same line, 56, 57 Collective \ defined 76 Nouns, J of what number 192 r adjectives without it 144 I definition of 142 ■\ degree used with two. . . 145 j degrees of, defined 142 t, double, origin of. . 144 & note Compari- son, Compari- son, Comple- ments, faulty, 144 & note, 145 & note forms of.. 138, 140 irregular 138, 139 when adverb used 140 which form gaining 143 Complement, what 103 attribute 36-38, 40 (subjective) 38 compound 40 object 38, 39 objective 105 Complex Sentence, what... 57-62, 65, 66 Compound Object Complement 103 Compound Personal Pronouns, 114 & notes Compound Predicate, defined 39 Compound Relative Pronouns 126 Compound Sentence, what.. 56, 57, 65, 66 Compound Subject, defined 39 Condition Clauses without conjunc- tion 174 (note) definition of 217 forms active 221-234 forms passive 232-234 of O.E 217,218 remarks on 218, 219 Conjunction a, what — 52 & note, 54, 264 f coordinate . . . 268 ClaSSeS, 1 subordinate... 269 adversative, 266 & note alternative, 266 & note connect senten- ces and para- graphs, 264 (note) copulative, 266 & note Conjunctive j offices of 265-268 Adverbs, 1 what 246 care in the use of 270 adversative, 266 & note alternative, 266 & note, 267 copulative, 266 & note Conjuga- tion, Conjunc- tions, coor- dinate, Connect- ives, coor- dinate, I 278 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB Connect ives, subor- dinate, Consonants (classes of), errors in use of 271 (note) of adjective clauses 267 of adverb clauses... 267,268 of noun clauses, 268 dentals 21 fricatives 20 gutturals 21 labials 21 mutes 20 palatals 21 sonants 20, 21 & note surds 20, 21 & note Coordinate Conjunctions 266, 268 Copulative, meaning of 266 (note) Copula, what 34 (note) D of the ed in past tense 206 (note) D of the ed of past participles . .207 (note) Dare, without s form 189 (note) Dative for Nominative. . . .118, 119 (note) Declarative Sentence, defined 42 defined 93 Mn.E. & O.E. nouns. ... 93, 94 Declen- of interrogative pronouns. . 119 sion, I of personal pronouns, 112, 113, 114 of relative pronouns 121, 126 Degree, adverbs of 247, 248 Digraphs 21 (note) Diminution, degrees of 142 & note Diphthongs 20 (note) Do 194 & note, 232 Drive, conjugation 227-230 Error of his for s 98 (note) Ethical Dative 104 Evidence distinguished from Cause . . 60 Exclam- atory Sentences, Explanatory Modifier 49, 59, 68, 99 definition of 43 order of words in 42 Factitive Verbs 105 Few, a 130 & note Gender, First two, etc 145 For to 155 (note) defined 85, 86 derivation 85 (note) feminine from masculine, 86. 87 grammatical 85 (note) of names of animals 88 used in personification 88 Genders, the three defined 86 Gender Forms 86, 87 Gerund 156 (note), 158 (note) Get 235 (note) Glide 20 (note) Go, anomalous 217 Had better, rather, sooner 235 (note) ( auxiliary 194-196 & n otes ' 1 conjugation 226, 227 Hers, ours, etc 112 (note) Hieroglyphs 14, 15 f for even if, although 61 J for whether 270 (note) *'' J omission of 174 (note) [ variety of uses 268 Imperative Mode 168, 169, 175 Imperative j definition of 41, 43 Sentence, 1 order of words in. . 41 (note) In and into distinguished 261 (note) In case that 268 independent J d f "f>? »'• •••■••• -56, 57 Clauses, J»^ed without conjunc- ^ tion 57 Indicative Mode 168, 169, 170 & note Indirect or Dative Object. .71 & note, 104, 162, 163 (note) assumed subject 154 definition of 156 old dative of 155 (note) tenses of 180 why called infinitive. . . 154 ' after a preposition. 156 as adjective modifier. . . 156 as adverb modifier 156 as attribute comple- ment 156 Infinitive (the), Infinitive Phrase, INDEX 279 Infinitive Phrase, Interrogative Pronouns, Interrogative Sentences, A {de de lis as explanatory modi- fier 156 as object complement. . 156 as objective comple- ment 156 as subject 156 cleft or split 250 (note) I- independent 156 In order that 268 Interjection an , defined 52, 54 declension 119 definition Ill list 110 definition of 40, 42 order of words in, 41 & note Intransitive Verbs, definition 152 f for a clause 110 idiomatic use of 110, 128 (note) use for animals and children ... 88 t vague uses 113 (note) It is me, him, etc 128 (note) Its and they 113 (note) r made up of words 13 Language, \ natural 24 ^ word 13 Last two, etc 145 Less, the final s of, and lesser.. .139 (note) j composition of 269 (note) Lest > \ various uses of 268 consonants 14, 18-21 origin of 14, 15 vowels 14,18,19 Letters, - Many a, explanation of 130 (note) Manner, adverbs of 248 Masculine Pronoun, use of 88 May and might 200 & note M.E. personal pronouns from 118 Mine, thine, of thine, etc 112 (note) Mode, what 163 e C imperative, 168 Modes, \ Classes, \ indicative.. 168 I L subjunctive, 168 Modes, definitions of 169 imperative, no 2d and 3d persons .. .175 & note indicative, uses — 168, 169 (note), 173, 174 (note) potential disused . . 169, 170 & note subjunctive 168-175 Modifications, definition 76 Modifiers, J definition 35 ( different rank . . .136 (note) Must 196 & note N, ne, the negative particle 242 (note) Natural Language 24 Nearer, double comparative • . . 139 (note) Need, without s form 189 (note) Negation by adverbs 242 (note) Negatives, double 248 & note No and yes 242 (note) No body (or one) else's 131 Nominative Forms, eight 109 (note) None 129 (note) Noun a, definition 45, 53 definition 158 like a participle 157 modified how. . .157 & note reasons for name, 158 (note) tenses of 180 unlike a participle 157 abstract 75, 76 as adjective modifiers, 98, 99 as adverb modifiers 104 cases of 92-105 classes of 75 collective 75, 76 common and proper, 74 (note), 75, 76 & note declension .93, 94 derivation of 74 & note gender of 85-88 number, kinds of 77 offices c/ 45 person of .89,90 roots of 74 & note Nounal Verb, Nouns, 280 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Noun Clauses, Noun Modifier, Number, Nouns and pronouns in the possessive, as antecedents.. 100 (note), 113 (note) ' as attribute complement, 58 as explanatory modifier. 59 as object complement ... 58 as principal term of prep- ositional phrase 59 as subject 58 connectives of 268 c explanatory (a p p o s i - \ tive) 45,99 I possessive 45, 99 ' definition of 77 ' dual 77 (note) plu., hist., 77 (note) plu. excep. .. 78 kinds, \ plu. irreg. ..79, 80 plu. reg. ... 77, 78 plu. pecul... 80-83 singular 77 of verbs shows what 189 (cognate 70 (note) direct .. 70 indirect, or dative, 71 ¬e, 104 passive, factitive 71 Object, indirect, made subject, 162, 163 (note) Object and Object Complement distin- guished 152 (note) becoming subject ... 161 compound 103 Object Com- j definition of 103 plement, retained after verb in passive, 162, 163 & note Objective c an infinitive phrase, 156 Complement, \ definition 105 Objective Forms, seven 109 (note) n j in place of possessive sign 101 ' ' / not alwavs indicating possession, 102 Of mine, etc 112 (note) On condition that 268 Ought . . i 186 Parti- ciples, adjectival ; 152, 153 agreement in O.E 195 & note as attribute complements. .. 154 as prepositions 255 (note) definition of .152, 153, 180 endings 153 (note) forms of 179, 180 in independent phrases ... 70, 96 substitute for clauses.. .153, 154 tenses of 179 use 153,154 Parts of Speech 45, 73 Passive Voice, idiomatic constructions, 164 & note Periods of English 28 (note) r forms .89, 110, 112, 113 _ of a noun or pronoun 89, 90 PerSOn> of avert,.... 90 [ why regarded in grammar, 90 Personification 88 Persons , the three defined 89 Phrase a, defined 35 f absolute 70, 96, 128 (note) adjective 49, 68 (note) adverb, 50, 69 (note), 243 & note complex 64, 65 compound 40 infinitive 67-69 interchange with clauses . . 58 interchange with words ... 57 prepositional, 68 & note, 69 & note used independently. 156 verb 44, 67 Place, adverbs of 247 Plural Number. 77-83 double 79 (note) ending, origin 77 (note) foreign forms of 80 formed irregularly 79 formed regularly 77, 78 form same as singular 79 forms of verbs 193, 230 forms treated as singular. . . 81 no form for 82 ; nouns originally singular. . . 82 Phrases, Plural, INDEX 281 Plural, Posses- sive Ending, of compound words 81, 82 of letters, figures, etc 82 of proper names 82 & note sign varies 101 (note) some words always 81 two forms with different meaning 80, 81 without singular of like * meaning 81 ' added to explanatory word, 100 ambiguity avoided by 102 attached to the adjective. . . 131 confined to what 97 & note error respecting 98 (note) invariable 101 (note) of compound names , 100 of for 101 origin of 98 when omitted 99 i, when pronounced es 99 adjective what 135 a verb or contains one 46 compound 39, 40 definition of 35 grammatical 36 modified, or logical 36 modified by what 69, 70 noun what 96 of two or more words 46 Preposition a, defined, 51, 52 (note), 54, 256, 257 ' becoming adverbs 261, 262 classified 254, 255 derivative 253 distinguished 261 (note) ending a sentence. . 260 & note ending in ing .255 (note) errors in use of 261 (note) in Sanskrit 253 meaning extended 257-259 needed, needless 261 & note original office 253 two before a noun 103 with verb before a noun . . . 103 Predi- cate, Preposi- tions, r defined 46, 53, 108, 109 Pronoun the, -J differs from a noun, I 109 & note, 110 ' agreement 193 antecedent of 110 nom. and obj. forms. .109 (note) f adj . . . . Ill, 129-131 int., 110,111,119,120 per 110-114 [rel., 110, 111, 120-123 declension of.. 112-114, 119, 126 declension of O.E 117-119 denote relations 108 division of adj Ill (note) number 77 „ vagueness of 108, 109 Pro- nouns, classes, ■ Pronouns (Adjec- tive), a(word) or two, etc., 145 (note) all, both, and whole be- fore of 132 (note) any body (or one) else's, etc 131 declension of 129 definition of Ill demonstrative 111 (note) distributive Ill (note) each other, with two or more 132 (note) either, neither, with two or more 132 (note) either for each 132 (note) first tico, last three, etc.. 145 he, etc. after indefinite one 132 (note) indefinite Ill (note) none in both numbers, 132 (note) no with one 132 (note) other and than, words between .- 270 (note) partial list of Ill reciprocal Ill (note) such or so with adjectives, 132 (note), 145 (note) 282 Pronouns (Interroga- tive) , HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAR Pronouns (Personal), became relative . . 121 & note declension 119 definition Ill list 110 compound 114 & note declension 112, 113 definition Ill its, history of 113 (note) mine, etc 112 (note) order of 192 (note) ours, yours, etc., double possessives, 112 (note) remarks on 109, 110 thee for thou . . . 119 (note) use of compound, 114 & note we hardly plural of 7, 112 (note) we instead of 1 114 you for thou 112 (note) L you for ye 118 (note) " compound 126 declension 121 definition Ill discriminated in use 121, 122 omitted when 123 prime distinction of 120 substitutes for which. . . 123 that restrictive 122 that for who and which, 122 who and which restric- tive and unrestrictive, 122 & note with omitted anteced- l ents 122 & note Question, direct and indirect 42 (note) Questions 23, 32, 43, 44, 54, 55, 63, 72, 83, 84, 90, 106, 107, 115, 116, 124, 125, 132, 133, 140, 141, 149, 150, 159, 160, 166, 167, 176, 187, 188, 201, 202, 203, 211, 219, 220, 235, 236, 244, 245, 251, 252, 261, 263, 273. Restrictive and Unrestrictive clauses 122 (note) Result, clauses of 61 Pronouns (Relative), • I 1 r Rhotacism 138, 166 (note) Roots 25, 26, 74 & note Runes 17 Self and selves 114 (notes) Semivowels 18 (note) Sentence a, defined 34 r complex... 62, 66, 67 form, \ compound, 62, 65, 66 L simple 62 Sentences J . f declarative ... 40, 42 (classed), (mean- exclamatory.. 42, 43 ing, \ imperative . . .41, 43 interrogative, 40, 42 & note f clauses 183,185 Sequence . nfinitive ^ m m ° I participle 186, 187 Tenses, F * _• iQI _ I nounal verb 187 Shall and will 196-199 & notes Should and would 199 & note, 200 Since, various uses of 267 Singular Number 77 So, compendious 248 (note) Some = 4 about ' 131 (note) Some body (or one) else's 131 r of English letters 18-21 Sounds, \ of O.E. letters 33 l the primitive 15, 16 Spelling, rules for 143 I account of 204, 205 inflections of 230,231 list of 208,209 persistence of 206 (note) assumed, what 154 compound 39, 40 defined 34 Subject, \ grammatical 36 may be what 67, 68 modified, or logical 37 , modified by what 68 'definition of '. 169 Subjunc- disappearing 171, 172 tive i frequent in 174 & note Mode, uses of 172-175 k uses in O.E , . 171 & note INDEX 288 Tense, Subordinate Conjunctions 268, 269 Subordinate Connectives 26T, 268 Substantive a 47 & note Suffixes 26, 74, 75 Syllable a 14 Synopsis, what 217, 231, 232 defined 177, 179 essential office 177 future, how used 182 incidental offices, 178, 179 (note) past, how used 181 past perfect, how used 182 present, how used .... 181 present perfect, how used, 182, 186 (note) signs in English 183 ' compound 178 defined 179 fluid in time 180 simple 178 I sequence of 183-186 after comparatives. .248 & note errors in use of 271 (note) from what 248 (note) I. in degree clause 61, 267 Than whom 272 (note) That, various uses 272 (note) Thai and this, reference 130 with cause clause, 267, 272 (note) with noun clause, 268, 270 (note), 272 (note) with purpose clause, 268, 272 (note) adv., degree clause, 267, 272 (note) distinguished from who and ivhich 122 for who and which 121 generally restrictive 122 preposition follows 121 The one, th e other 130 The, uses of 146-149, 239 (note) with clauses 61 not the article, 146 (note), 241 Tenses, - Than, That (Conj.), That, conj. That (Rel. Pr.), The. theV h Verb Be, - Verbs (classes), form, This, these, and those 129 & note, 130 Thon, a candidate 129 (note) Thought a 34 ' construction of, 154 (note), 155 (note) To with expressing relation . . 154 (note) infini- \ no part of 155 (note) tive, omitted 155 & note position of 251 (note) ; without relation 155 (note) Transitive \ definition of 152 Verbs, \ conjugated passively, 232-234 Umlaut 80 (note) Unless (= if not) 60 Verba, defined 46, 53, 151 ' an auxiliary 193, 194 conjugation of 221-226 endings 193 roots of 193 Verb Phrase 46 j strong ....... 204-210 1 weak, 206, 207, 212-216 ( intransitive... 152 meaMng 'l transitive 152 agreement 189-193 & notes a modern passive form, 164, 165, 233, 234 auxiliary 193-201 changing their voice, 162, 163 (note) conjugated in continuing form 231, 232 conjugated interrogatively. . 232 conjugated negatively 232 Verbs, \ conjugated passively... 232-234 conjugation of 221-234 conjugation of O.E .... 217, 218 defective 213 (note) deponent 166 (note) endings in Eng 230, 231 forms not asserting, 152, 155, 157 inflections of 230, 231 C definition 152 \ made transitive, ll52 (note), 153 (note) intran- sitive, 284 HIGH SCHOOL GRAMMAB Verbs, strong, ' mode, defined 168, 169 number forms 189, 230, 281 number of, defined 189 passive form compound, 232-234 person forms 189, 230, 231 person of 189 principal parts 207 redundant 213 (note) account of 204 list 208, 209 O.E., examples of 205 origin of 204 participle end- ing 210 participle stem, 210 past stem 210 persistence, 206 (note) . principal parts, 207 strong and weak distinguished, 207 subjunctive fading 171, 172 tense 177-187 the e and the d of past tense, 206 (note) the e and the d of past parti- ciple 207 (note) / definition of . . . . 152 transi sively .... 232-234 tive, ) eon J u o ated P as " 1 ' definition ..... 212 weak 1 increasing, (regular), 1 207 (note) 1 , origin of 206 r changes of ed.. 216 consonant weak change 216 (irregular), list of 213-215 vowel change, L 215, 216 Verbs (agree- ment), ' errors in 189 & 190 (notes) exceptions to rule 190 seeming exceptions 191 with and in what 189 with collective noun ...... 192 with subjects connected by and 190 with subjects connected by or or nor '. 192 with subjects emphatically distinguished 190, 191 with subjects following 191 with subjects naming same thing 190 with subjects one affirma- tive and one negative 191 with subjects preceded by each, every, etc 191 with subjects varying in person 192 with verbs 248 (note) Vocabulary •{ Mn.E 26-28 & note O.E., five effects of Nor- man Conquest upon, 27-31 Voice the 14 Voice, defined 161 dative object in passive, 162, 163 (note) defined 162 passive, expressing continu- ing action 164, 165 passive, formed how 163 passive, formed in O.E., Voices, J 163 vnote) passive, origin, 165 (note), 166 (note) passive, test of 164 (note) passive, with object, 162, 163 (note) peculiar passives — 164 & note uses of 162 (note) INDEX 285 Vowels, (back 19 front 19 mixed 19 open throat 19 sounds of 18 what 14, 18 Walk, conjugation 228-230 r account of 206, 20T, 213 \ increasing 207 (note) I inflections of 230, 231 ' condensed relative . . . 122 (note) misuse for that 271 (note) uses of 121, 123, 241 (note) k without antecedent 122 ' conjunctive adverb 267, 268 connecting various clauses, 267, 268 in adjective clauses, 69 (note), 267 , noun 239 (note) {conjunctive adverb 267 connecting various clauses.. 267 in adjective clauses, 69 (note), 267 Weak Verbs, What, When, Whether, | repeated 270 (note) i with more than two, 270 (note) Whether or no 244 (note) 'an adjective 120, 123 an interrogative pronoun, 119, 120 Which, \ a relative pronoun 121-123 clause as antecedent 123 composition of 120 . declension 119 I in restrictive clauses, 120 & note in unrestrictive clauses, 120 & note who and which or that 122 While, connecting clauses 265, 267 Whose, relative 121 & note Will and would 196-200 & notes Words •I :en words, what 13 written words, what 13 Worth, a verb 163 (note) Worser, double comparative . . . 139 (note) Wrong Case-forms, why 126-128 Te US (note) Yes and no 242 (note) / ui •*, * 6 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724) 779-21 1 1 ■ IflH