{"1": {"fulltext": "ANATOMY\\nHYSIOLOGY\\nND\\nHYGIENE\\nALKER\\n1\\nWHMIHMI", "height": "3561", "width": "2442", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nCliap._.\u00e2\u0080\u009e_ Copyright No.\\nShelf__-_lii_i_.^\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3521", "width": "2393", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3519", "width": "2343", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY\\nAND HYGIENE\\nBY\\nJEROME* WALKER, M.D.\\nLECTURER UPON ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE AT\\nTHE GIRLS HIGH SCHOOL AND THE COMMERCIAL\\nHIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN\\nNEW EDITION, ENTIRELY REWRITTEN\\nWITH ORIGINAL AND CAREFULLY SELECTED ILLUSTRATIONS\\nBoston\\nALLYN AND BACON\\n190", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "1089/\\nLibrary of Con--;\\nTWO CtPtES ^CCElv^n\\nJUN 25 1900\\nCopyright witty\\nsecond copv.\\norder division,\\nJUN 36 19 00\\n63964\\nCOPYRIGHT, 1883, BY A. LOVELL CO.\\nCOPYRIGHT, 1900, BY JEROME WALKER.\\nNorinooti {Stress\\nJ. S. Cushing Co. Berwick Smith\\nNorwood Mass. U.S.A.", "height": "3523", "width": "2343", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "PREFACE TO EEVISED EDITION.\\nThe call for a new edition of the Anatomy, Physi-\\nology, and Hygiene has afforded opportunity for a\\nthorough revision of the text, and for the addition of\\nthirty-three new illustrations and other important ma-\\nterial.\\nScientists and experienced teachers have been freely\\nconsulted, and the book as revised represents the results\\nof important modern research in the subjects treated.\\nGreat care has been exercised to insure accuracy of\\nstatement. The laws of the various States governing the\\npresentation of the effects of alcohol and narcotics have\\nbeen complied with.\\nAttention is directed to the prominence given to\\nhygiene. The study of human anatomy and physiology\\nis of little real value unless it leads to practical sugges-\\ntions for the preservation of health.\\nIf the pupil is not obliged to memorize the contents of\\nthe book in detail, but merely to grasp the salient points\\nof the text, and carefully to read the footnotes and appen-\\ndix in connection with it, he will not find it difficult\\nto acquire knowledge which will be to him both a\\npleasure and a gain.\\niii", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "iv PREFACE.\\nThe services of Professor At water, Dr. T. D. Cr others,\\nDr. Eliza Mosher, Dr. E. H. Bartley, Dr. T. R. French,\\nDr. A. Mathewson, Dr. R. L. Dickinson, Dr. J. Scott\\nWood, Dr. J. C. Shaw, and others, in the revision of\\nvarious portions of the manuscript or in other ways, are\\ngratefully acknowledged.\\nJ. W.\\nBrooklyn, May, 1900.", "height": "3540", "width": "2343", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nI. The Human Body. General Facts 1\\nII. Bones and Joints .29\\nIII. The Skeleton 41\\nIV. Muscles. Fat 52\\nV. Muscular Exercise 68\\nVI. The Skin and Kidneys 77\\nVII. Bathing 91\\nVIII. Clothing .99\\nIX. Digestion. The Conversion of Food into Tissues 110\\nX. The Circulation. Blood. Lymph 143\\nXL Food. Dietetics 173\\nXII. Foods 207\\nXIII. Respiration. Animal Heat 227\\nXIV. Air. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Ventilation. Light 247\\nXV. The Nervous System 271\\nXVI. Nervous System {continued). Reflex Action.\\nNervous Energy 300\\nXVII. Sensations. The Senses: Touch, Taste, and\\nSmell 313\\nXVIII. Sight 327\\nXIX. Hearing 351\\nXX. The Voice 363\\nEmergencies 376\\nAppendix 117\\nv", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3521", "width": "2328", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nTHE HUMAN BODY. -GENERAL PACTS-\\n1. Scope of Study. The study now to be pursued is\\nprimarily that of Health. It includes a consideration:\\n1, of Human Anatomy} or a description of the form,\\nstructure, and location of the various parts of the human\\nbody 2, of Human Physiology, which treats of the uses\\nor functions of these parts 3, of Hygiene, which treats\\n1 The word Anatomy is derived from the Greek avarofxr), and signifies\\nthe act of cutting up, or dissection. Anatomical knowledge has been ob-\\ntained by the dissection of bodies of the animal kingdom. The study of\\nthe general appearance and mutual relations of the bones, muscles, nerves,\\nblood-vessels, and other parts is sometimes called general or gross\\nanatomy, to distinguish it from the study, by means of the microscope,\\nof minute anatomy, i.e. Histology.\\nThe word Physiology is derived from the Greek cpv rio\\\\6yia, and signi-\\nfies, literally, talk about Nature. It is now confined to a description of\\nthe phenomena, the aggregate of which constitutes life. Physiological\\nknowledge has been obtained by closely observing the actions of the vari-\\nous parts of living bodies in a state of health, and by operations upon\\nliving animals.\\nThe word Hygiene, from the Greek i/yleta, health, refers particularly\\nto the health of man, both individually and in relation to the community.\\nThe application of health laws to individuals is known as individual\\nhygiene, and to communities as public hygiene, sanitation, or\\npreventive medicine.\\n1", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "2 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nof the preservation and improvement of the health of\\nindividuals and communities.\\n2. General Arrangement of the Human Body. The human\\nbody is capable of more varied work than that of any\\nother animal, and has therefore a more complicated struc-\\nture. The head, neck, trunk, and limbs are composed\\nof many parts, differing from each other in structure\\nand in the specific work that they do. but all working\\ntogether to maintain the life and energy of the body.\\nEach of these parts is composed of structural elements\\ncalled cells. 1 Cells united or interwoven in various ways\\nform tissues. Tissues variously combined form organs,\\nwhich have specific duties to perform. For example, the\\nheart is an organ of circulation, a muscle is an organ of\\nmotion.\\nThe body has been likened to a house; its organs, to the\\nfloors, doors, windows, and walls; its tissues, to the stone,\\nwood, glass, mortar, and other building materials. It has\\nalso been likened to a machine. But it differs from these\\nin many ways, chiefly in the possession of life and the\\nassociation with its tissues of fluids, which afford moisture,\\nnourishment, and lubrication, and carry from the body\\nwaste material, which, if retained, would prove poisonous.\\nAmong such fluids are the tears, blood, perspiration, and\\nfluids in joints and other closed cavities.\\n3. Cells. In all the higher forms of life, whether of\\nplants or of animals, every part of the body is composed\\nprincipally of cells. 2 These are minute structures, visible\\n1 From the Latin cello., a closet or storeroom.\\n2 Each cell may be likened to a soldier, an organ to a brigade, the\\nnervous system to headquarters and field telegraph, the digestive and cir-\\nculatory systems to the commissary department of an army.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nonly by means of the microscope, vast in number and of\\ngreat variety of form and struc-\\nture but they all conform to a\\ncharacteristic type, and are held\\ntogether by a delicate connecting\\nmaterial. Some of these cells are\\nround, as in the blood; some flat\\nand thin, as in the outer layer of\\nthe skin some elongated, like\\nthe fibres in the muscles. Still\\nothers, which line portions of vari-\\nous channels like the windpipe,\\nhave hair-like threads, known as\\nciliae} projecting from one end.\\nFig. 1.\\nDiagram of a Cell.\\nNucleus.\\nNucleolus.\\nProtoplasm or cell body.\\nD. Cell wall, so called.\\nW\\n(J (g)\\n1. Spheroidal.\\n2. Polyhedral.\\n8. Blood cells\\nFig. 2.\\nVarious Forms of Cells.\\n4. Scaly.\\n5. Columnar.\\nCaudate.\\n7. Fusiform (fibres).\\nS. Ciliated.\\n9. Stellate.\\nFrom the Latin, meaning eyelashes. 1", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "4 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nCells are masses of protoplasm 1 containing a nucleus, 2\\nand this sometimes contains a nucleolus 3\\nProtoplasm is generally considered to be a viscid,\\ntranslucent, granular substance, often forming a network\\nor sponge-like structure extending through the cell bod}\\nThe cell generally contains also other substances, such as\\nfood granules, pigment bodies, drops of oil and water, and\\nexcretory matters, or material to be thrown out. Pro-\\ntoplasm, deprived of its nucleus, may live for a time, and\\nbe able to move, but it has lost the power of taking into\\nitself food for its growth and repair. The nucleus is for\\nthis reason, among others, considered as the controlling\\ncentre of cell activity, and hence a primary factor in the\\ngrowth, development, and transmission of specific qualities\\nfrom cell to cell, and so from one generation to another.\\n4. Cell Life. The various functions of the body, both\\nin health and disease, are but the outward expressions of\\ncell activity. The cell is not only a unit of structure, but\\nalso a unit of function. 4 The lowest forms of life, as the\\namoeba, consist of a single cell, which does all the work\\nof the body hence they are spoken of as unicellular.\\n1 From the Greek irpwros, first, 7 irxda/na, material. It has also\\nbeen called bioplasm, i.e. life material.\\n2 Latin, nucleus, kernel.\\n3 The living cell is not, as the word implies, a hollow chamber, sur-\\nrounded by solid walls. Whenever cells are said to have walls,\\nprobably there is only a condensation of the outer layers of protoplasm.\\nProf. E. B. Wilson, Ph.D., The Cell, in Development and Inheritance.\\n4 It is the cell to which the consideration of every bodily function,\\nsooner or later, drives us. In the muscle cell lies the riddle of the heart-\\nbeat, or of muscular contraction in the gland cell are the causes of\\nsecretion in the epithelial cell, in the white blood cell, lies the problem\\nof the absorption of food and the secrets of the mind are slumbering in\\nthe ganglion cell. Wilson.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 5\\nIn the hydra, the common fresh-water polyp of our ponds\\nand marshes, there are a number of cells and a division\\nof work among them, a specialization of function.\\nHigher still, where structure and function are intricate,\\ncells are grouped together into colonies, or aggrega-\\ntions constituting organs.\\n5. The Division of Labor. Multi-cellular organisms, by\\ndividing the labor, cause more and better work to be\\ndone in the maintenance of life, just as in a well-organ-\\nized community one set of persons acts as policemen,\\nanother distributes the mail, another cleans the street,\\nand another teaches in the schools, all working together\\nfor the common good. Over this community is placed\\none or more persons, whose business it is to see that har-\\nmony prevails and that the public welfare is upheld for\\nwhat is best for the community as a whole is best for the\\nindividuals that compose the community.\\nA similar condition exists in the body with regard to\\nphysiological labor. Every cell and organ has a special\\nwork to do, and is constructed with reference to that\\nwork, but each one relies on the others for mutual sup-\\nport. And Avhat is best for the body as a whole is best\\nfor each part of it. The red blood cells carry food and\\noxygen to all the tissues the muscle cells cause motion\\nthe gland cells secrete, or accumulate, material to moisten\\nor lubricate other cells excrete, or get rid of, waste\\nmaterial; and over all preside the brain cells, to regulate\\nand harmonize functions, and to receive messages from\\nboth inside and outside the body. This specialization of\\nfunction is called differentiation.\\n6. Phases of Life. The human body, like thai of the\\nlower animals, begins in a microscopic cell and passes", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "6 THE HUMAX BODY. GEXERAL FACTS.\\nthrough the various stages of birth, growth, develop-\\nment, decline, and death. This is also true, to a large\\nextent, of each part of the body and of its structural\\nelements. When cells have completed their allotted work\\nthey degenerate and die, and are cast out of the body by\\nthe skin, lungs, bowels, or kidneys. This is local death,\\nas distinguished from death of the entire body, or gen-\\neral death. The entire life of cells is probably measured\\nby days. Hence there is constant death of individual\\ncells in the body, as well as constant birth. Continued\\nactivity of parts of the body is accomplished by cell\\nreproduction or proliferation. Cells produce other cells\\nFig. 3.\\nCell Division Various Stages.\\nsimilar to themselves, mainly by what is known as cell\\ndivision, i.e. each cell divides into two, which are like\\nthe parent cell, and these two into four, and so on. In-\\ndefinite multiplication of cells and consequent undue\\nenlargement of parts of the body is prevented by some\\nof the cells failing to divide, either as the result of injury\\nor disease.\\nSo intimately are the internal parts of the body related\\nto one another, that if one weakens or dies, others are\\nalmost sure to do likewise. This chain of vital connec-\\ntions constitutes the so-called circle of life.\\nMan and other living organisms closely resemble each\\nother in their birth, decline, and death but the capacity", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 7\\nwhich man possesses for development, especially of the\\nbrain, is the marked distinction between human beings\\nand the lower animals.\\n7. The Work of Life. The pervading influence or\\ninherent power that we call life (about which we know\\nlittle except as to its effects) enables the living body to\\nassert its needs through its various parts. Thus, if it\\nneeds nourishment, it calls for food through the stomach\\nby means of the sensation of hunger when it needs air,\\nthe lungs make known a desire for breathing. If the\\nstrength of this pervading influence is diminished, im-\\npaired health results if it ceases, death follows.\\nThe way in which the specific duty or function of an\\norgan is performed is known as a process for example,\\nthe respiratory process, the digestive process. All of the\\nprocesses carried on in the living body are essentially\\nvital processes, since they cannot be performed except\\nduring life. But they are frequently grouped as follows\\n1. Chemical processes, such as the transformation of ma-\\nterial into carbon dioxide, water, etc. 2. Mechanical pro-\\ncesses, such as the grinding of food in the mouth and the\\nmotion of the muscles of the stomach in the digestion of\\nfood. 3. Vital processes, or those often considered most\\nnecessary to the maintenance of life, such as breathing,\\ndigestion, and the circulation of blood.\\nLiving bodies are constantly forming complex substances\\nfrom simpler ones, thus storing energy and building up\\nliving material. They are also constantly taking oxygon\\nfrom the food and the atmosphere, and transforming com-\\nplex substances into simpler compounds, of which the sim-\\nplest and final ones are water and carbon dioxide, which\\npass out of the body as excretions. This breaking down oi", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "8 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\ncomplex substances is called oxidation. It sets free a\\ncertain amount of energy.\\nThe combined effect of the different kinds of work\\nperformed by the cells is to maintain the balance of the\\nbody, i.e. the proper relation between repair and waste,\\nbetween income and outgo, which constitutes health or\\nwholeness. The various changes necessary to accomplish\\nthis are grouped together as metabolism.\\n8. Properties of Living Matter. Living things have the\\npower of reproduction, by which the species is continued.\\nThey have the power of assimilation, i.e. of appropriating\\nfrom their food the materials needed for the sustenance\\nand building up of their various portions. The cells of\\nour bodies take from the nourishing blood the particles\\nthey individually need. For example, muscle cells assimi-\\nlate material for muscle bone cells, material for bone,\\nand so on. With assimilation comes the power to grow\\nor increase in size, to develop or increase in capability,\\nand then to reproduce. Living things are also excitable,\\ni.e. they each in its own peculiar manner respond\\nto external impressions, such as cold, heat, a blow, or\\nnervous force. These excitants are spoken of as stimuli.\\nSome cells when stimulated secrete, others excrete, while\\nin others the protoplasm alters its form. Certain cells\\nin our bodies, like some of the one-cell forms of animal\\nlife, have the power of moving from place to place by\\nthe alternate protrusion and retraction of various por-\\ntions of their protoplasm. Movements of this sort are\\ncalled amoeboid movements, since they resemble those\\nof the amoeba. They enable the lymph cells and the\\nwhite blood cells to pass, through the thin walls of the\\nvessels in which they float, into surrounding tissues.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\n9\\nSuch migration is known as diapedesis, 1 and the cells\\nengaged in it are emigrant or migratory cells. Disease\\nsometimes spreads from one tissue to another by means of\\nthese cells.\\ne?\\nFig. 4.\\nAmoeboid Movements.\\nAnother form of motion inherent in certain cells is the\\nciliary^ the waving to and fro by means of ciliae. Mus-\\ncular motion, through the alternate contraction and relax-\\nation of muscular fibres, is also a property possessed by\\nmany living things.\\n9. Membranes. Fibrous, sheet-like tissues, which cover\\ncertain organs and connect certain parts of the body, are\\ncalled membranes. Some membranes, placed as partitions\\nbetween two fluids or gases, permit them to mingle. This\\nprocess is known as osmosis. The passage of the fluid\\nor gas inward is endosmosis outward, exosmosis. The\\nabsorption of a fluid by a cell or membrane is imbibition.\\nOsmosis is illustrated in the changes which occur in the\\nbreathed air during respiration* imbibition, in the trans-\\nformation of food into blood.\\n1 Greek, 5ia, through, itvidav, to leap. 1", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "10 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\n10. The Tissues. The tissues of the body may 1:\\nclassified as supporting tissues and active tissues. The foi\\nmer include bone and cartilage, which provide a strong\\nframework for the body. They also include connective\\ntissue, which in some parts of the body is delicate and\\nelastic, and in others is fibrous and strong. In the\\nmeshes of the connective tissue are fat, lymph, and other\\nmaterials used for the ordinary nutrition of the body,\\nor stored up for emergencies.\\nConnective tissue, 1 as the name implies, connects and\\nholds in place the various organs of the body. It so\\nclosely covers, or is so interwoven with, all the textures\\nof the body that, if all other tissues could be removed and\\nthe connective only be left in normal position, we should\\nhave an almost exact model of the various organs in the\\nbody, even to their minutest structure. What connective\\ntissue is will be best understood if we compare it with\\nthe inside of an orange after the juice has been sucked\\nout. As motion is necessary to life, it will be appreciated\\nhow thickening of the connective tissue, which sometimes\\nresults from disease, will impair the motion and conse-\\nquent health of parts. One of the evil effects of alco-\\nholic drinks is a thickening of the connective tissue,\\nespecially in the liver and brain.\\nThe active tissues of the body, such as muscles and\\nnerves, are those that perform its activities. Among\\nthem is a group known as the epithelial, 2 comprising\\nmainly the outer skin and the lining of cavities and\\ncanals, and intimately concerned in secretion and excre-\\ntion.\\n1 The various kinds of connective tissue are the areolar, fibrous,\\nelastic, adipose, retiforin, and lymphoid. For one form, see Fig. 34.\\n2 Classified as simple, pavement, ciliated, and lining.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 11\\n11. Value of Health. Health enables one to do the best\\nwork that he is capable of. It also brings so many\\ncharms and such great blessings, it is indeed a pity so\\nfew possess it. Health means a clear skin, a bright eye,\\na firm step, erect carriage, graceful movements, great\\npowers of endurance, and the cheerful temper that waits\\non good digestion.\\nDisease not only causes misery, but is expensive, as it\\ninterferes with the earning capacity of the person afflicted,\\nand necessarily makes an increase in expenditure. Health\\nboards find their most energetic opponents among the\\nbadly housed, the poorly fed, and those ignorant of hy-\\ngiene (a). 1 Public health is public wealth. National,\\nstate, city, and town boards of health and other sanitary or-\\nganizations should be heartily supported, as their object is\\nto prevent the spread of disease and to lessen the rate of\\nmortality Much good has been accomplished by these\\nassociations in the past, much more may be done in the\\nfuture. Sanitation has lessened the virulence or stopped\\nthe ravages of epidemics of typhoid fever, smallpox, and\\ndiphtheria, has improved the quarters on shipboard\\ndevoted to immigrants, and thus has prevented much\\nsickness and many deaths. It has cut down the death\\nrate of armies and public institutions over one-half.\\nExperience shows that usually, where sanitation is not\\nor can not be enforced, more soldiers die in wars from\\nsickness than from injuries inflicted by the enemy (5).\\nIt will be a matter of interest to notice the increase in\\nhealthfulness in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine\\nIslands, when civic and personal cleanliness, the prompt\\nremoval of sewage and other waste material, the isolation\\n1 (6), etc., in the text refer to the Appendix.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "12 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nand proper care of cases of contagious and infectious\\ndiseases, and the prevention of overcrowding in dwellings\\nbecome the rule, not the exception.\\n12. Animal Heat. In-order to perform efficiently its\\nvarious processes, the body must have a pervading tem-\\nperature, just as ordinary machinery requires a certain\\namount of warmth to make it work well. This tempera-\\ntare of the body is known as the vital or animal heat.\\nAnimals having a temperature generally higher than that\\nof the surrounding atmosphere, as in man, quadrupeds,\\nand birds, are known as warm-blooded animals while\\nfishes and reptiles are called cold-blooded animals, their\\ntemperature varying but little from that of the air or\\nwater in which they live. The tender ature of man in\\nhealth is 98^\u00c2\u00b0 to 99\u00c2\u00b0 F. When it is higher than this\\npoint, especially if above 102\u00c2\u00b0, as in fever, the condition\\nindicates that certain tissues are being consumed by too\\nrapid functional activity. A temperature of 105\u00c2\u00b0 gener-\\nall} marks a severe attack of some disease, and a tempera-\\nture of 110\u00c2\u00b0 to 112\u00c2\u00b0 is very quickly fatal, unless it yields\\nto medical treatment. In starvation and great prostra-\\ntion the temperature is usually below the normal point\\nif below 92\u00c2\u00b0. the probability of recovery is small. The\\nprincipal danger in high and low temperatures is from\\nan accumulation of poisonous products. The balance\\nof the body is lost. 1\\nThough the average normal temperature, as ascertained\\nby the thermometer, is about 98J\u00c2\u00b0 F., the general tem-\\n1 Animal temperature is usually ascertained by means of a thermome-\\nter made for that purpose, known as a medical, or clinical, ther-\\nmometer. When in use, the bulb of the instrument is generally placed\\nin the armpit or under the tongue, the lips being closed to exclude air.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 13\\nperature of the interior of the body is about 100\u00c2\u00b0, the\\ntemperature of different parts of the body varying some-\\nwhat. In the skin and lungs, by reason of the contact of\\nair and the vaporization of water, the blood is cooled a\\nlittle, and the animal temperature is slightly diminished.\\nOn the other hand, the temperature is raised in the mus-\\ncles and glandular organs, especially daring their func-\\ntional activity, and, above all, in the liver. The lowest\\nbody temperature in a day is usually early in the morning,\\nfrom 2 to 6 o clock the highest, from 5 to 8 p.m. Young\\nchildren have the highest normal temperature, and old\\npeople the lowest. The ordinary tests of life are the\\npower to assimilate food and air, the power to move or\\nto be aroused, and the possession of animal heat. When\\nthe heart ceases to beat and breathing stops and heat\\nleaves the body, a person is said to be dead. Instances\\nare on record where life has been restored by the applica-\\ntion of heat to the body, both externally and internally,\\nby the use of stimulants, and by arousing the circulation\\nand the action of the lungs by means of electricity and\\nby the practice of artificial respiration. 1\\n13. Sources and Loss of Heat. Some heat enters the\\nbody with food, some by radiation from the sun and from\\nfires. It is also produced in the body by the oxidation of\\nits substances, by the transformation of food, by muscular\\naction, and by other manifestations of animal life in short,\\nby cell activity. The production of heat in living organ-\\nisms is in proportion to the activity of their internal\\nchanges. When produced, it is carried through the body\\nby the blood, and is also distributed by direct conduction\\n1 Sec Emergencies, p. 384, as to artificial respiration.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "14 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nfrom one part to another near by. It is controlled by a\\nnervous mechanism in the brain.\\nHeat escapes from the body 1, from the surface of the\\nskin, by radiation, conduction, and convection; 2, as latent\\nheat in the watery vapor escaping through the skin and\\nlungs 3, through the material excreted from the kidneys\\nand bowels.\\n14. Chemical Composition of the Body. The chemical\\nconstituents of the body are only nineteen 1 in number,\\nand are, for the most part, found in the tissues in various\\ncombinations. These may be divided into inorganic (i.e.\\nnot being or having been living organisms) and organic.\\nInorganic Constituents. The most important inorganic\\nconstituents of the body are water and common salt, these\\nbeing found in all its tissues and fluids. Phosphate and\\ncarbonate of lime (calcium phosphate and calcium carbon-\\nate) form a large portion of the bones and teeth while\\nfree hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) is found in the\\ngastric juice, the digestive secretion of the stomach.\\nOrganic Constituents. There are three principal classes\\nof organic constituents, viz. proteids 2 (or albuminous sab-\\nstances), carbohydrates, and fats.\\nProteids are complex compounds of nitrogen, carbon,\\nhydrogen, and oxygen, with sometimes a small percentage\\nof sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. They are the most\\nimportant organic chemical compounds, as there is reason\\nto believe they form the principal basis of living proto-\\n1 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine,\\niodine, fluorine, silicon, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, lithium,\\niron, and usually traces of manganese, copper, and lead.\\n2 From the fact that proteids are the only substances that contain\\nnitrogen, they are sometimes called nitrogenous substances.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 15\\nplasm in all its forms. They are not found in the hair,\\nnails, or teeth. Sometimes they are called albuminous\\nsubstances, because they resemble the white of eggs, which\\nis largely albumin dissolved in water. The most im-\\nportant proteids in the body are serum albumin in the\\nblood fibrin, which forms in blood when it clots myosin\\nin muscles, which after death coagulates, causing the\\nstiffening of the body known as rigor mortis and\\ncasein in milk, which forms the principal ingredient of\\ncheese.\\nCarbohydrates, or saccharids, consist of carbon, hydro-\\ngen, and oxygen (the last two in proportion necessary to\\nform water), and belong to the same class of substances\\nas sugar and starch. The principal carbohydrates in the\\nbody are glycogen (or so-called animal starch), stored up\\nin the liver and muscles, glucose or grape sugar, and lactose\\nor milk sugar.\\nFats, also, consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.\\nThe principal fats in the body (differing from each other\\nmainly in their consistency) are palmitin, stearin, and\\nolein.\\n15. Bacteria. Certain parasitic unicellular micro-\\norganisms, known as microbes, 1 but more commonly called\\nbacteria, 2 frequently enter the body with food or air.\\nThey differ much as to mobility and shape. Some of\\nthem (micrococci) are spheroidal, some (bacilli) are rod-\\nshaped, and others (spirilll) spiral-shaped. They propa-\\ngate by cell division, and very rapidly, if they find\\nagreeable food and sufficient heat and moisture. It is\\n1 Greek, (UKp6s, little, |3fos, life, minute living bodies.\\n2 Greek, Pcikttjplov (singular), a staff, a very common form of\\nmicro-organism. Some bacteria are less than J, 00 of an inch in size", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "16\\nTHE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nestimated that a single bacterium in suitable locality, if\\nunhindered, will in one day increase to several millions.\\nMost of the bacteria which enter the body are harmless,\\nas they thrive only on dead material. Many of them are\\ndestroyed by the acid secretion of the stomach, unless that\\norgan is diseased or very much disordered, or has its inner\\nFig. 5\\n1. Consumption bacilli.\\n2. Pneumonia micrococci\\n3. Diphtheria bacilli.\\nVarious Bacteria, Much Enlarged.\\n4. Influenza bacilli.\\n5. Typhoid fever bacilli.\\n6. Cholera spirilli.\\nsurface wounded. In health, certain white blood cells\\nalso have the property of destroying bacteria. Some-\\ntimes, however, bacteria enter the body through open\\nwounds, or with the food, or in other ways, and hinder the\\nwork of tissue cells or clestro}* them, feeding upon their\\nalbuminous substances, and producing poisonous products\\nknown as i^omaines 1 and toxins. 2 These bacteria are\\n1 Greek, tttC^o., a dead body. 2 Greek, to^kov, arrow poison.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACfS. 17\\nmore active than the harmless varieties, and are known as\\ndisease germs. 1 Diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, erysip-\\nelas, consumption (tuberculosis), lockjaw, and the grippe\\nare diseases caused and spread by disease germs, and so\\nare called communicable or infectious diseases. The prin-\\ncipal danger from these diseases is the contamination of\\nthe blood by the poisons developed through the activity\\nof disease germs, and the consequent overpowering of the\\nvital processes. If we do not allow ourselves to run down\\nin health, if we keep ourselves and all about us clean, if\\nwe do not partake of food which contains ptomaines or\\npoisonous bacteria, we shall be likely to escape the ravages\\nof disease germs.\\nSome infectious diseases, such as cholera and yellow\\nfever, derived from putrefactive sources, are known as\\nfilth diseases. Flies sometimes carry germs of typhoid\\nfever from one person to another. It is estimated that\\nmore than one-third of all the deaths that occur are from\\ninfectious and contagions diseases. The spread of such\\ndiseases may usually be prevented by proper sanitary pre-\\ncautions.\\n16. Contagious Diseases. These are certain infectious\\ndiseases that are conveyed from one individual to another,\\nand are believed to be bacterial in origin. Such diseases\\nare measles, scarlet fever, mumps, whooping cough, and\\nsmall-pox. Nurses in charge of cases of contagious and\\ninfectious diseases should keep themselves and their cloth-\\ning clean, as well as the patient and the room, should have\\nplenty of sleep and food, and should exercise daily in the\\nopen air.\\n1 Germs seeds.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "18 THE HUMAN BODY. GEXERAL FACTS.\\n17. Immunity from Infectious Diseases. Some infectious\\ndiseases, such as yellow fever or scarlet fever, are not\\nlikely to attack a person a second time, and one who\\nhas had any of these is said to be immune. During the\\nSpanish-American war, a regiment of yellow fever im-\\nmunes was sent to the city of Santiago, in Cuba, to do\\nguard duty, as }^ellow fever was prevalent there, and it\\nwas thought best not to expose troops not immune to\\nth\u00c2\u00ab danger of infection.\\nFrom a very early period, in India and China, the virus\\nor infectious material of small-pox was injected into the\\nblood of those who had come in contact with persons\\nafflicted with that disease. This injection produced a\\nmodified small-pox, much less dangerous than the original\\ndisease. This operation is known as inoculation, and was\\nintroduced into Europe in 1717. Later, Dr. Edward\\nJenner, of London, noticed that cows were subject to an\\neruptive disease similar to small-pox. This was known\\nas cow-pox, or kine-pox. Injecting into the human\\nsystem some of the clear fluid (serum) from the pocks, or\\neruptive points, upon the cow, he succeeded in exempting\\nfrom small-pox the persons treated, or in modifying the\\ndisease. But as the serum of cow-pox was not easily\\nobtained, he used serum from a person inoculated with\\ncow-pox, with good results. This is vaccination, and was\\nfirst tried by Jenner in 1776. The modified disease pro-\\nduced is known as vaccinia, and will give immunity from\\nsmall-pox for ten to twelve years, as a rule. Vaccination\\nat present is mainly accomplished by means of bovine\\nlymph, or serum from healthy calves which have been\\nvaccinated, rather than by the use of virus from the\\nvaccinated spot on a human being.\\nIn 1885, Louis Pasteur performed a series of inocula-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 19\\ntions upon rabbits, using the diluted poison of rabies, or\\nhydrophobia. As a result he obtained a material which,\\nwhen introduced into the human system by inoculation,\\nrenders harmless the bite of a mad dog.\\nGood results have also been obtained by the inocula-\\ntion of the attenuated or weakened virus of cholera, the\\nplague, and other infectious diseases.\\nWithin the last few years it has been shown that if the\\ntoxins of diphtheria are injected into the blood of a healthy\\nhorse, in small quantity and from time to time, for weeks\\nor months, that the horse, notwithstanding the poison,\\nremains well. It is believed that a new substance has\\nthus been formed in its blood, to which the name antitoxin\\n(i.e. opposed to poison) has been given for if serum\\nobtained by the coagulation of blood drawn from the\\nhorse is injected into a person having diphtheria, it tends\\nto overcome the germs of the disease and cause a cure,\\nrendering the person immune for a considerable time.\\nThis is the antitoxin treatment of disease it has also been\\nused satisfactorily in poisoning from snake bites.\\n18. Nature and Specific Effects of Alcohol. Alcohol is\\njustly responsible for many acute and chronic ailments,\\nand for much of the misery, crime, and moral degrada-\\ntion that afflict mankind. The form in which it is com-\\nmonly used is ethylic alcohol, or spirits of wine. This\\nis a chemical combination of oxygen, carbon, and hydro-\\ngen, and is usually obtained by the action of a peculiar\\nferment (yeast) upon the saccharine substances in fruits,\\ncereals, and other materials. Other varieties of alcohol\\n(amylic, etc.) form fusel oils, which are very poisonous\\noily liquids, sometimes found in the poorer and cheaper\\nkinds of alcoholic liquors. They arc more pronounced", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "20 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nin their immediate effects, especially upon the nervous\\nsystem, than is ordinary alcohol. The liquors which con-\\ntain them frequently produce a brutal frenzy, and a\\ntendency to murder and other heinous crimes.\\nEthylic, or ordinary, alcohol is never used by itself as\\na beverage, except by the most degraded of drunkards.\\nSometimes it is used deliberately as a poison, 1 Largely\\ndiluted with water, it is used at times by physicians as\\na medicine, in the place of alcoholics, or alcoholic liquors,\\nwhich are mixtures of alcohol, water, and flavoring sub-\\nstances or extracts.\\nPure alcohol is a colorless, limpid liquid, with a sharp,\\nburning taste and an intense affinity for water. It is\\nmainly used to dissolve resins, essential oils, and medicinal\\nextracts, in the manufacture of perfumes, essences, and\\nmedicines. Applied to albuminous animal tissues, it ab-\\nstracts water from them, and so hardens them and inter-\\nferes with their pliability that they perform their functions\\nwith difficulty. The local action of commercial alcohol\\n(a liquid consisting of from 53 to 94 per cent alcohol,\\nand the remainder water) is similar to that of pure alco-\\nhol, but less severe. 2\\n19. General Effects of Alcohol. The effects of alcohol\\ntaken internally vary according to the quantity con-\\nsumed, the degree of dilution, and the constitution of\\n1 There is no recognized legal definition of a poison, but Quain s\\nDictionary of Medicine defines it as any substance which when intro-\\nduced into the system, or applied externally, injures health or destroys\\nlife, irrespective of mechanical means or direct thermal changes.\\n2 The practice of preserving anatomical and other specimens in alcohol\\nhas been largely discontinued, owing to the hardening and distorting\\neffects of the alcohol upon the specimens.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 21\\nthe consumer. 1 In small quantities, the effects are tem-\\nporary stimulation or excitation, followed by depression,\\nwhen taken in quantities beyond what for each individual\\nmay be termed his physiological limit. The heart beats\\nmore rapidly, the flow of blood is increased there is a tem-\\nporary increase in animal heat and in mental activity.\\nIn larger amounts, it produces acute alcoholism, i.e.\\ndrunkenness, or intoxication, and acts principally upon\\nthe nervous system, deadening sensibility, perverting the\\nreason, inducing irregular muscular action, flushing the\\nface, and interfering with speech. Thus used, it is a\\nparalyzer and depressant. In still larger amounts, it is a\\nnarcotic poison, 2 producing stupor, coma, convulsions, and\\neven death.\\nThe habit of drinking, or the repeated use of alcohol,\\ni.e. chronic alcoholism, has been shown, by investigations\\nmade within the last few years in Europe and this country,\\nto affect the cellular protoplasm. Alcohol, so used, by\\nproducing inflammatory action, destroys the usefulness of\\nmany cells in the body, the most vulnerable being the\\nnerve cells, or those having the most complex functions.\\nIt disturbs the relations between the normal income and\\noutgo of the body, by substituting hardened (fibroid)\\nmaterial for the delicate protoplasm of cells. It delays\\noxidation, especially of fats, which accumulate in undue\\namount, particularly in the liver cells. This is especially\\ntrue of the habitual use of ale, beer, and oilier malt liquors.\\nProfessor Conn says: 3 To state that alcohol in any\\nquantity is safe is a woful misinterpretation. No one ran\\n1 Some physiologists consider alcohol as always injurious, and hence\\ndesignate it as a poison.\\n2 Persons so poisoned are often spoken o\\\\ as dead drunk. 1\\na The Christian Advocate, July L3, L899.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "22 THE HUMAN BODY. GEXERAL FACTS.\\nyet state at what point the secondary injurious effects\\nbegin, and no one can state what is a small and what a\\nlarge dose. Further than this, it is certain that as com-\\nmonly used by the American people it is not used in\\nquantities so small that its secondary abnormal effects are\\nnot produced. As commonly used by our people its action\\nbecomes abnormal, and there is thus considerable justifica-\\ntion for the name of poison which is applied to it.\\nAlcohol is not used as a food. It is used always for its\\ninfluence upon the nervous system, and one of the well-\\nknown results is that, at least among Americans, the use\\nof alcohol in small amounts is almost sure to pass speedily\\ninto its use in larger quantities. When used in quantities\\nsufficient to produce a flushed skin, it is pretty safe to\\nsay that its secondary abnormal effects have begun.\\n20. Alcoholics comprise, principally, malt liquors (ale,\\nbeer, porter, and stout) wines of various kinds and dis-\\ntilled liquors, or spirits (whiskey, rum, gin, and brandy).\\nThere are also other powerful alcoholics, such as the\\ncordials and liqueurs, and milder ones, such as fermented\\ncider, kumyss, and beers made from roots. All of these\\nfluids contain alcohol in varying amounts. Those which\\ncontain the least i.e. from 1 to 9 per cent are\\nkumyss, 1 cider, beers, ales, and light wines, such as claret;\\nheavier wines, such as sherry and port, contain 17 to 20\\nper cent; wines which have been fortified, i.e. had\\nspirits added, have as high as 35 per cent while spirits\\ncontain 50 per cent or more.\\nMalt liquors are made from grain (principally barley),\\ngerminated by heat and moisture. then known as malt,\\n1 Kumyss, as used in this country, is fermented cows milk, and con-\\ntains from 1 to 2i per cent of alcohol.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 23\\nto which is added water, yeast, and flavoring substances.\\nWhile it is true that the malt, together with some of the\\nnourishing elements of the barley or other grain, if used\\noccasionally, acts as a tonic, the world abounds in other\\nsubstances that tone up the system, and which are not\\nlikely to be followed by depression or degenerative pro-\\ncesses. Habitual drinkers of malt liquors, imbibing as\\nthey do considerable alcohol and very much water, are\\nlikely to become bloated from the thinning of their blood,\\nto accumulate unhealthy fat, to become logy and stupid,\\nand to be more susceptible to diseases.\\nWines result from the fermentation of the sugary juices\\nof crushed or broken fruit by contact with bacteria in the\\nair and on the skins of the fruit. Like the juice of apples\\n(cider), wines at first contain but little, if any, alcohol,\\nand are sweet but as fermentation proceeds, their\\ncharacter is changed. Old cider, which contains consider-\\nable alcohol, and is known as hard, is as intoxicating as\\nsome of the spirits. Light wines, ordinary cider, ginger\\nbeer, and similar drinks act as excitants of the nervous\\nsystem. Frequent resort to them induces artificial tastes\\nand appetites, and a desire for the stronger stimulation\\nthat heavy wines and spirits afford. In France, which\\na few years ago was considered a pattern for the use of\\nlight wines, alcoholism has become very common, so that\\nthe government is investigating the ravages caused by\\nalcohol.\\nSpirits are distilled from wines, fermented molasses, fer-\\nmented juice of the sugar-cane, malt, cider, fruit juices, or\\nother materials. Cordials and liqueurs are spirits mixed\\nwith syrup and flavoring essences. These alcoholics tend\\nto impair the functional activity of cells, and to cause\\nthickening and contraction of the connective tissue of the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "24 THE HUMAN BODY, GENERAL FACTS.\\nliver, kidneys, and brain. A great and unnatural craving\\nis often generated by their repeated use, so that men will\\ndrink with avidity alcohol in which are decomposing\\nmaterials, or the bitterest substances, such as quinine, or\\nwill drain at one gulp the vilest and strongest liquor,\\nwithout any attempt at dilution.\\n21. General Facts as to Alcohol and Alcoholics.\\nFirst. Pure alcohol is a powerful poison.\\nSecond. The tendency of alcohol in alcoholic liquids,\\nif they are used repeatedly and for a considerable time,\\nis to act as poison, viz. to inflame, impair, or destroy cell\\nprotoplasm; to harden and shrink albuminous tissues; to\\nproduce an undue amount of fat, some of which replaces\\nmuscular tissue, as in the heart; to subtract heat from the\\nbody; and to depress nervous energy.\\nThird. Alcoholics are not needed by persons in health,\\nand when used medicinally should be prescribed by phy-\\nsicians only, as are other potent remedies or drugs, such\\nas opium. The practice of resorting to alcoholics for the\\nrelief of slight ailments is apt to end in drunkenness.\\nFourth. Their use, even in moderate amount, b}^ per-\\nsons of a nervous temperament, or in whom there may be\\nan hereditary tendency to the drink habit, is likely to\\nbe followed by an intense craving for them. No one,\\nwhatever his temperament may be, can tell, when he\\nbegins to use them, whether or not he will succumb to\\ntheir influence. Alcohol is a thing the use of which\\ncarries with it the temptation to abuse.\\nFifth. Even persons with strong powers of self-control\\nare not safe from the danger of forming the alcoholic ap-\\npetite, for alcohol possesses the power of very frequently\\nimpairing that function of the mind known as self-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 25\\nrestraint. The man with weak will power is readily over-\\ncome by this insidious adversary. Unfortunately, persons\\nwith strong self-control, who do not themselves drink to\\nexcess, may cause those of weak will to drink immod-\\nerately, by associating with them and drinking in their\\npresence. 1\\n22. Tobacco is another substance which is largely used\\nand also abused. Its moderate use may not apparently\\naffect certain adults unpleasantly, 2 but the moderate use\\nis apt to become immoderate. For persons of a nervous\\ntemperament it is usually harmful. The young should\\nnever use it, as their tissues are more delicate than those\\nof adults, and their power of resisting the evil effects of\\nall such agents is much less. It has been truly said,\\nthere is no such thing as moderation in cigarette\\nsmoking.\\nThe active ingredient of tobacco, nicotine, like\\nalcohol, has a subtle power. It tends to induce the to-\\nbacco habit. This subtle power of arousing an appetite\\nor intense desire for the substance used is peculiar also\\nto other drugs, such as opium, chloral, and cocaine. No\\nsuch appetite is ever aroused by the use of water, milk,\\ncocoa, or any complete food.\\n1 It is stated that Dr. Woolsey, formerly president of Yale College,\\nmade the following reply to the question, If a young man should come\\nto you for advice as to the use of wine, what would you say to him\\nI should tell him not to allow himself to have any drinking habits\\nI should not advise him to pledge himself not to drink, but to abstain from\\nprinciple. It is not necessary to regard drinking a glass of wine as a sin\\nin itself, but every young man should see that it is better for himself, and\\nespecially for weak associates who may be under his influence, to use no\\nstrong drink, and therefore he should decide not to indulge.\\n2 Experience has shown that, under certain circumstances, as with\\noverworked and tired soldiers on a march, it arouses their dormant energies.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "26 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nThe habitual use of tobacco is likely to produce an\\nirritable condition of the heart and brain, to destroy the\\nappetite, to decrease the digestive secretions, and to seri-\\nously impair the health. It is a pity that boys think it\\nmanly to smoke and that students allow themselves to be\\ngreatly influenced by the custom of their fellows. It is\\na deplorable fact that cigarette smoking is increasing,\\nowing to the cheapness of cigarettes and their open sale.\\nWithin the last few years, murders and other heinous\\ncrimes have been committed by boys and young men, so-\\ncalled degenerates, the victims of confirmed cigarette\\nsmoking. The report of a special navy medical board, to\\nthe superintendent of the United States Naval Academy, 1\\nOn the Use of Tobacco by the Cadets, states that\\nEven when used in small amount, the capacity for study\\nand application is lessened by headache, confusion of\\nintellect, loss of memory, impaired power of attention,\\nlassitude, indisposition to muscular effort, nausea, want of\\nappetite, dyspepsia, palpitation, tremulousness, disturbed\\nsleep, impaired vision, etc.\\nIt is no uncommon practice for young men who\\nsmoke cigarettes habitually, to consume from eight to\\ntwelve in an hour, and to keep this up for four or five\\nhours daily. The total quantity of tobacco may not seem\\nlarge, but, beyond question, the volume of smoke to\\nwhich the breath organs of the smoker are exposed and\\nthe characteristics of that smoke as regards the propor-\\ntion of nicotine introduced into the system combine to\\nulace the organism very fully under the influence of the\\ntobacco. A considerable number of cases have been\\nbrought under our notice during the last few months, in\\n1 December 3, 1875.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS. 27\\nwhich youths and young men who have not yet completed\\nthe full term of physical development have had their\\nhealth seriously impaired by the practice of smoking\\ncigarettes almost incessantly. It is well that the facts\\nshould be known, as the impression evidently prevails\\nthat any number of these little whiffs must needs be\\nperfectly innocuous, whereas they often do infinite harm.\\nA pulse-tracing, made after the subject has smoked a\\ndozen cigarettes, will, as a rule, be natter and more indic-\\native of depression than one taken after the smoking of\\ncigars. 1\\n23. Opium, Cocaine, etc. Other substances besides alco-\\nhol and tobacco that are largely used for their exciting\\nor their narcotic 2 effects are opium, cocaine, caffeine, coca,\\nand the betel nut. The habitual use of any of them\\ncreates a desire for more, and decreases the appetite for\\nfood. Opium is the most seductive of them all. By its\\nsoothing and exhilarating influence it gains such a hold\\non the moral and physical nature that the strongest will\\nis unable to emancipate the victim from its enchantment.\\nIts frequent use in cough mixtures, soothing syrups, cor-\\ndials, carminatives, and other compounds interferes with\\nthe assimilation of food and enervates the system. The\\n1 The London Lancet.\\nThe evil effects of cigarettes are due in part to the fine shredding of the\\ntobacco, in part to the combination of paper with tobacco, the more direct\\nrelation of the nicotine with the mouth and air passages than when to-\\nbacco is smoked in a pipe or cigar, the frequent inhalation of cigarette\\nsmoke and its retention for a time in the air passages, and, finally, to the\\nfact that the habit of cigarette smoking is usually begun by young chil-\\ndren, though there is a law against selling cigarettes to children under\\nsixteen years of age.\\n2 Narcotics are substances which have the property of stupefying.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "28 THE HUMAN BODY. GENERAL FACTS.\\nsame effects follow the use of chloral, caffeine, etc.,\\nsubstances too frequently employed without reason or\\ndiscrimination.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. What is to be gained by the study of anatomy, physiology, and\\nhygiene\\n2. Define these three topics.\\n3. What is health\\n4. What is its value to individuals and communities?\\n5. What is the general arrangement of the human body\\n6. What are cells, and what is meant by cell life\\n7. What properties are distinctive of live matter?\\n8. Name the phases through which life passes.\\n9. Name some of the tissues and fluids of the body.\\n10. What are the sources and objects of animal heat?\\n11. What are the chemical components of the body?\\n12. What are bacteria and disease germs?\\n13. What are the methods used to produce immunity from infec-\\ntious diseases\\n14. What is alcohol how obtained\\n15. What are alcoholics Name the several classes.\\n16. What are some of the evil effects of alcohol in varying\\namounts\\n17. What are the dangers of tobacco?\\n18. What is the tobacco habit What is the danger of cigarette\\nsmoking\\n19. What is said as to the use of opium, cocaine, and other\\nnarcotics", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II.\\nBONES AND JOINTS.\\n24. The Use and Number of Bones. The general figure\\nand stability of the human body are maintained by the\\nbones. Associated with cartilages 1 and ligaments they\\nform the framework, or skeleton. 2 In the entire skeleton\\nof an adult there are two hundred distinct bones. 3 The\\nrelations of these to one another are shown in Fig. 6.\\n25. Shape of Bones. The bones vary in form, and\\nthough they are more or less irregular, they may be con-\\nsidered as long, short, or flat. 4\\n1 Sometimes called gristle.\\n2 Skeletons usually seen in museums and lecture rooms are sometimes\\ncalled artificial skeletons, because cartilages and ligaments are replaced\\nfor the most part by wire, leather, and chamois skin.\\n3 Bones of the spinal column 26\\nThe cranium (skull) 8\\nThe face 14\\nRibs, hyoid bone, and breast bone 26\\nThe upper extremities 64\\nThe lower extremities 62\\nTotal 200\\nThis enumeration includes the patellae (knee pans), but not the teeth,\\nsmall bones of the middle ear, or certain small bones having the form of\\nseeds (sesamoid), situated in the tendons or strings of certain muscles,\\nwhere unusual pressure is exerted. Neither does it include certain super-\\nnumerary bones, called Wormian bones, found in incomplete joints of the\\nskull. Teeth differ from bones in structure, development, and mode oi\\ngrowth.\\n4 Examples of the more irregular bones are the hyoid, to which the\\ntongue and larynx are attached, the vertebrae, or most of the bones of the\\n20", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "30 BONES AND JOINTS.\\nThe long bones are hollow shafts with two extremities,\\ncalled heads, which are generally expanded, the better\\nto form joints and to afford increased surface for the at-\\ntachment of muscles and ligaments (Fig. 6, right leg).\\nThey represent columns for supporting the weight of the\\nbody, or levers of different kinds for the muscles to act\\nupon. The long bones are the clavicle (collar bone), the\\nhumerus (arm bone), the radius and ulna (forearm bones),\\nthe femur (thigh bone), the tibia and fibula (leg bones),\\nand some of the bones of the hands and feet. 1\\nThe short bones are located in those parts of the body\\nwhere strength, compactness, and elasticity are required.\\nThey are strongly bound together by ligaments. Examples\\nof short bones are found in the wrist and ankle.\\nThe flat bones afford broad surfaces for muscular attach-\\nment, and serve to protect important organs. They are\\nthe shoulder blades, breast bone, ribs, hip bones, and some\\nof the bones of the skull.\\n26. The Surfaces of Bones. On the surfaces of bones\\nare various eminences 2 and depressions. 3 The first afford\\nattachment for muscles, tendons, and connective tissue;\\nthe latter, safe and convenient passages for blood-vessels,\\nnerves, tendons, and muscles. Through the surfaces of\\nthe bones are openings for the passage of blood-vessels,\\nspinal column, and some of the bones of the skull. These last are the\\ntemporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, superior maxillary (upper jaw), inferior\\nmaxillary (lower jaw), the palate bones in the roof of the mouth, and the\\ninferior turbinated bones in the nose.\\n1 These last are the phalanges, or bones of the fingers and toes, and the\\nmetacarpal and metatarsal bones, i.e. bones connected with the carpus, or\\nwrist, and tarsus, or ankle.\\n2 Tuberosities, tubercles, spines, and ridges.\\n3 Grooves, furrows, fissures, and notches.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "FLAT BONES OF THE SKULL.\\nNASAL BONES\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n-THE CRANIUM.\\n-MALAR (CHEEK) BONE.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2--SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES\\n-INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE\\n-SPINAL COLUMN. CERVICAL REGION.\\nSHOULDER BLADE\\nFig. 6.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "32\\nBONES AND JOINTS.\\nnerves, etc. These openings are especially numerous at\\nthe extremities of long bones.\\nAll bones are enveloped in a firm vascular 2 mem-\\nbrane (the periosteum), ex-\\ncept on the surfaces of joints,\\nwhere they are overlaid with\\na smooth elastic tissue,\\nknown as cartilage. The\\nW8IP periosteum clings closely to\\nthe bone and nourishes it,\\nand is capable, with the aid\\nof the surrounding soft tis-\\nsues, of producing new bone\\nto replace that removed by\\ndisease or by surgical opera-\\ntions. 2 Bones die when de-\\nprived of periosteum.\\nm\\nFig. 7.\\nPosterior View of\\nFemur, showing\\nthe ridges, de-\\npressions, and\\nopenings.\\n27. Structure of Bones.\\nIf a bone be sawn across,\\nits walls will be found to be\\nvery hard and strong, like\\nivory. This firm tissue is\\ncalled the compact tissue.\\nIn a long bone it is thicker\\nin the middle of the shaft\\nthan at the extremities,\\nwhere it disappears in a fine\\nnetwork tissue, called the\\n;.V\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Mm\\nFig. 8.\\nLongitudinal Section\\nof Femur, showing\\nthe compact and\\ncancellous tissue\\nof bone.\\n1 Full of blood-vessels.\\n2 Hence the surgeon, in removing dead bone, removes as little of the\\nperiosteum as possible, and thus has succeeded, with the aid of nature, in\\nproducing new lower jaws, and even arm bones.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "BONES AND JOINTS. 33\\nspongy or cancellous tissue. 1 The size of the bone along\\nthe shaft, where the strength is mainly required, is thus\\ndiminished while at the ends the extent of surface\\nwhich is needed is obtained without increase of weight. 2\\nThe more expanded and elastic spongy tissue serves also,\\nboth at the extremities of the long bones and in the\\nFig. 9.\\nKadiograph (X-ray) of Head of Thigh Bone, showing arched structure and can-\\ncellous tissue. (Dr. J. Sherman Wight.)\\ninterior of the other bones, to deaden the force of con-\\ncussions. It is ordinarily filled with the oily material\\nknown as marrow, which also nils the hollow shaft or\\ntube of the long bones. This tube or central canal is\\ntherefore called the medullary canal {i.e. marrow canal).\\n1 The tubular character of long bones with compact walls affords light-\\nness and strength. The same principle is observed in stalks of grain and\\nin the construction of bicycle frames.\\n2 Pupils in the engineering school at Zurich use the section of the head\\nof a thigh bone for the study of ideal stress lines for bridges.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "34\\nBOXES AND JOIXTS.\\nIt is lined with a vascular web of connective tissue,\\nknown as the medullary membrane, which nourishes the\\ninner parts of the bone. The marrow in the spongy\\ntissue of bones is of a red color, and is called red marrow,\\nto distinguish it from that of a yellow color in the hollow\\ns.\\nii\\nFig. 10.\\nLongitudinal Canals in Compact\\nTissue of Bones, with their con-\\nnecting canaliculi and the lacu-\\nnae. (Magnified 200 diameters.)\\ntfMtfllii\\nft\\nFig. 11.\\nTransverse Section of Compact Tissue of\\nBones, showing openings of longitudinal\\ncanals, the canahculi. and the lacunae. (Mag-\\nnified 200 diameters.) The fine lines are can-\\nalicuM the dark spots are lacunae.\\nshafts of adult bones. The red marrow is one of the\\nsources of the red blood corpuscles.\\nEven the compact tissue, solid as it appears to the eye,\\nis found, under the microscope, to contain numerous vas-\\ncular canals. The larger of these run lengthwise with the\\nbones, and are connected with one another and with the\\nperiosteum and medullary membrane by slightly oblique", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "BONES AND JOINTS. 35\\ntransverse canals, in the course of which are enlarge-\\nments or small reservoirs. 1 In addition to blood vessels,\\nnerves are found in bones, and, according to good authori-\\nties, also lymphatics. 2\\n28. Nutrition of Bones. Bones are nourished by the\\nsame means as other and softer tissues, and like them\\nhave the power of assimilation. Pupils are apt to judge\\nof bones in the living body by the dried specimens in\\nlecture rooms and museums; but they are as unlike as the\\ngreen and the dead twigs of a tree. A bone of an animal\\nrecently killed will be found to have a pinkish, pearly-\\nwhite hue, due to the blood it contains.\\nIn very early life bones are soft and cartilaginous.\\nGradually they become harder, cartilage being replaced\\nby bone, as food supplies the necessary phosphatic salts.\\nIf proper food is not supplied during the growth and\\ndevelopment of children, their bones may become so soft\\nand flexible as to be distorted readily by muscular con-\\ntraction or by weights which they would normally sustain.\\nThis diseased condition is known as rickets.\\n29. Strength and Elasticity of Bones. Bones are com-\\nposed of animal matter, mostly gelatine, and mineral mat-\\nter (bone earth), chiefly calcium phosphate. 3 The animal\\n1 The longitudinal canals are called Haversian canals, from Clopton\\nHavers, their discoverer the transverse canals, canalivuU the reservoirs,\\nlacunae. The Haversian canals, the canaliculi, and the lacunae together\\nconstitute the Haversian system of canals.\\n2 Lymphatics are vessels that carry lymph. Bones arc generally not\\nvery sensitive; but when inflamed they become acutely sensitive, the\\nnerves being pressed upon in their bony canals by the products of inflam-\\nmation.\\n8 If a bone be immersed in a dilute acid (muriatic, for instance) fox\\na sufficient time, the mineral matter will be dissolved, while the animal", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "36 BONES AND JOINTS.\\nmatter renders bones tough and elastic, enabling them to\\nbear ordinary shocks without injury, while the mineral\\nmatter makes them hard and rigid, capable of sustaining\\nweights and strains without change of shape. Professor\\nRobinson found that a piece of bone one inch square bore\\na weight of five thousand pounds without breaking. 1\\nIn youth, the animal matter constitutes more than one-\\nthird of the bone substance hence the bones of children\\nare more elastic than those of adults, and less likely to be\\nbroken. 2 As the child grows, the bones become stronger,\\nand are thus adapted to the increasing muscular strength.\\nIn adult life, mineral matter constitutes two-thirds of the\\nbone substance. The bones are then very strong, though\\nretaining considerable elasticity. In old age, the bones\\nbecome brittle from an excess of mineral matter, and are\\nlikely to break from slight causes. An aged person,\\nincautiously stepping even from a footstool or from a\\ncurbstone, may break his thigh bone. Sometimes bones\\nbecome brittle as .the result of disease.\\n30. Joints. The junction of two or more bones con-\\nstitutes a joint, or, more technically, an articulation.\\nmatter will remain in the perfect shape of the bone, which may now be\\nbent, or even tied in a knot. If a bone be exposed to the action of fire,\\nthe animal matter will be burned out, and the substance remaining in the\\nshape of the bone will crumble when touched.\\n1 Bone has been found by experiment to possess twice the resisting\\nproperty of solid oak. It is also elastic, as is shown by the resiliency of\\nthe fibula when its shaft is pressed against its tibia and by Mr. Ward s\\nexperiment of placing the clavicle at right angles against a hard body,\\nand striking the free end a smart blow with a hammer, when the bone\\nwill rebound a distance of two feet. G. M. Humphrey, Treatise on\\nthe Skeleton.\\n2 Bones of children are apt to be bent by prolonged and repeated\\nweight and strain upon them.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "BONES AND JOINTS.\\n37\\nJoints are classified as immovable, mixed, and movable.\\nThe joints of the cranial bones, 1 called sutures or dovetail\\njoints, are immovable 2 those of the vertebrae are mixed.\\nMost of the other joints of the body are movable. The\\nvarieties of these are the ball and socket joints, of which\\nthe shoulder and hip are examples and hinge joints, to\\nwhich class the knee and elbow belong.\\nFig. 12.\\nSuture Joints of the Skull.\\nFig. 13.\\nHip Joint (Ball and Socket).\\n31. The skull rests and nods upon the first vertebra,\\nor atlas. It also rests upon a tooth-like process of the\\naxis, or second bone of the spinal column, which projects\\nupwards through a hole in the atlas and forms a pivot, or\\n1 Upper bones of skull (Fig. 12).\\n2 The upper bones of the skull of a baby do not unite until months\\nafter birth, in order to allow the brain to grow. The dovetail joints Later\\nin life fasten these bones together very firmly, so that an adult can carry\\nconsiderable weight upon the head without injury.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "38\\nBONES AND JOINTS.\\nswivel, upon which the head rotates, or turns from side to\\nside, the atlas also turning with it.\\n1, opening for spinal cord.\\n3-3, transverse ligament, inclosing, with\\nthe bone, an opening for part of axis\\nto pass up through.\\n7-7, resting places for prominences on\\nskull.\\nFig. 15.\\nAtlas and Axis in position.\\n10, projection of axis, passing through the\\natlas, upon which the skull rests.\\n32. Structure of Joints. The bones of most of the\\njoints are held together by strong bands of fibrous con-\\nnective tissue, called ligaments. Their connection is\\nFe\\nCa L\\n-SS\\nFig. 16.\\nLongitudinal Section of Knee Joint, showing the relation of the structures which enter\\ninto its composition.\\nT, tendon. CaL, capsular or envelop- F, fat.\\nSS, synovial sac. ing ligament. L, ligament of patella.\\nFe, femur. P, patella or knee pan. Ti, tibia.\\nCr L, crucial or cross-shaped ligament between the ends of the femur and tibia.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "BONES AND JOINTS.\\n39\\nfurther strengthened by muscles and tendons, and also, in\\nsome degree, by the enveloping fat and skin. The articu-\\nlar surfaces of these bones are protected from friction by\\nthin shields of firm, elastic tissue, called cartilage, and, in\\nthe movable joints, by the synovial 1 membranes which\\nline their cavities and which pour into the joints, as it is\\nneeded, a lubricating substance called the synovial fluid.\\nThe elasticity of these cartilages serves to diminish shocks\\nA Fig. 17- B\\nA. Longitudinal section of wrist joints, showing the synovial sacs and membranes (SS).\\nB. Ligaments of wrist joint (L).\\nfrom walking, running, jumping, etc., thus protecting the\\ndelicate structures of the body from injuries which would\\notherwise result.\\n33. Injuries to Joints. Sprains are the violent straining\\nor twisting of one or more of the structures of a joint.\\nSo serious, sometimes, is the injury that a sprain is spoken\\nof as a broken joint. A dislocation is a bone out of place,\\nand is often associated with the tearing 1 or bruising of\\n1 So called from the synovia or adhesive fluid within it.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "40 BOXES AXD JOIXTS.\\njoint tissues. The treatment of sprains, as well as of\\ndislocations and fractures, should be under the direction\\nof a physician. 1\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1 Of what use are bones\\n2. How many are there in the body? How classified?\\n3. Describe the long bones, and explain the use of their length.\\n4. Where are the short bones located\\n5. What is the special use of flat bones\\n6. Why are there eminences and depressions upon bones, and\\nwhy openings through them\\n7. What is the periosteum, and of what use is it the cartilage\\n8. Of what kinds of tissue are bones constructed? Describe\\nthese tissues and their respective uses.\\n9. What and where is the marrow? the medullary canal the\\nmedullary membrane\\n10. Of what are bones composed\\n11. Of what different uses are the animal and mineral matter of\\nbones What results from an excess or a deficiency of either\\n12. How do the bones of the young and old differ?\\n13. How are bones nourished, and what do they contain\\n14. What is a joint, or articulation, and how are joints classified\\n15. How are the nodding and rotating motions of the head\\neffected?\\n16. What protects the joints from friction\\n17. How is the liability of the delicate structures of the body\\nto injury from shocks in jumping, etc., diminished?\\n18. How are the bones held together, and what is a dislocation\\n1 For further information, see Emergencies, pp. 391 and 393.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nTHE SKELETON. 1\\n34. Its Uses. The skeleton is beautifully adapted to\\nsupport weight. 2 It affords surfaces for the attachment\\nof muscles, and thus facilitates the movements of the body.\\nIt incloses cavities for the lodgment and protection of\\nthe eyes, heart, lungs, brain, and other important and\\ndelicate organs.\\n35. The Spinal or Vertebral Column. 3 This is the main\\nsupport of the body, and in the adult consists of 26 bones,\\n24 of which are called vertebrae. 4 The two lowest bones\\n1 The skeleton of man is an internal or endo-skeleton, that of the\\noyster or lobster an external or exo-skeleton. The turtle has both an\\ninternal and an external framework. The sturgeon, besides an endo-\\nskeleton, has an irregular outer case of superficial bony plates (dermo-\\nskeleton), which enables the fish to swim more safely in search of food\\namong rocks and debris.\\n2 At twenty-one years of age the weight of the human skeleton is about\\none-tenth that of the entire body. It averages about 15 lbs., yet is capable\\nof sustaining great weights, and can at times be subjected to great strains\\nwithout injury. Dr. Winship, a celebrated athlete, though a small man,\\ncould lift a weight of 2500 lbs.\\n8 It is commonly called the backbone, as though it were a single bone.\\n4 From the Latin vertere, to turn. They turn, or rotate, and at times\\nincline forward, backward, or to either side, in the varied movements of\\nthe body. In the neck, or cervical region, there are seven vertebrae\\nin the back, or dorsal region, twelve, and in the loin, or lumbar\\nregion, Jive. The sacrum and coccyx are sometimes called false vertebrae,\\nfor in very early life the first is composed of live rudimentary vertebrae,\\nand the second of four. Hence, the number of bones in the spinal column\\nis sometimes stated as 33.\\n41", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "42 THE SKELETON.\\nare the sacrum and coccyx. The spinal column not only\\nserves to bear the weight of the upper part of the body,\\nbut maintains it in proper relation with the lower part\\n(Fig. 6). Its lower end fits in like a wedge between the\\nhip bones, and unites with them to form the pelvis. Take\\nthe backbone away, and the skeleton collapses.\\nFig. 18.\\nBackbone Pictures, showing dependence of body upon the spinal column.\\n36. Vertebrae. Each vertebra is composed of a disk-\\nlike body with a bony arch projecting backward from it,\\nand is tunnelled by a large opening through it extending\\nup and down, or longitudinally with the body. The ver-\\ntebrae are united by strong ligaments, and are so placed\\nthat the openings through the several vertebrae form one\\nlong tube or tunnel, called the spinal canal, which serves\\nfor the lodgment and protection of the spinal cord. 1\\nNerves pass to and from this canal, through notched\\napertures in the sides of the various vertebral arches.\\nThe posterior projections (spines) of the arches form the\\nridge which may be felt extending along the middle of the\\nback. To diminish the shock of jars and falls, there are\\ncushions of very elastic cartilage between the vertebrae.\\n1 A cord-like arrangement of nerves (that is, many strands of nerves\\nunited together in one cord), which connect the brain with other parts of\\nthe body, by means of branches sent out through the spinal openings\\nmentioned in the text.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON.\\n43\\nSCa\\n37. Curves of the Spinal Column. The vertebral column\\nhas four curves, the cervical,\\ndorsal, lumbar, and sacral. Two\\nare forward curves, and two back-\\nward. These are so nicely ad-\\njusted that their relative positions\\nare ordinarily maintained, what-\\never the movements of the body\\nmay be. Hence, pressure is better\\ndistributed than would be the\\ncase if the column were straight.\\nStill, jumping from a height upon\\na resisting surface, heavy blows\\nor falls, and the prolonged and\\nexcessive action of special muscles\\nor groups of muscles frequently\\nproduce spinal deformities and dis-\\nease. 1 The custom, too common\\namong school children, of carrying\\na number of books on the same\\narm tends to produce lateral cur-\\nvature of the spine. The man who\\nhabitually carries a pack on one\\nshoulder becomes deformed (a).\\n1 Spinal curvatures are liable to result\\nfrom habitual sitting, standing, or even\\nlying in wrong positions. The habit of\\nbending over to study, write, or use the\\nsewing-machine is injurious. When stand-\\ning, the body should be erect, the shoulders\\nheld back in an easy, comfortable manner.\\nWhen sitting, the body or head should be\\nbent but slightly forward. Constrained\\npositions are always injurious.\\nLoiiii itiul\\nil Section of spinal\\nColumn.\\nCO, cervical curve.\\nIK dorsal curve,\\nLC, lumbar curve.\\nBC, sacral curve.\\nSCa, spinal canal,\\nNO. opening for nerves\\n0, location of Intei\\ncartilages.\\ns, sacrum.\\nCO, oocoyx.\\njrtebral", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "44\\nTHE SKELETON.\\n38. The Ribs. Branching out from each side of the\\nspinal column, in the dorsal region, are the twelve ribs,\\nwhich are grooved under-\\nneath for the passage of\\nblood-vessels and nerves\\nto the front of the body.\\nThe ribs slope downward\\nand outward, and, with\\nthe dorsal vertebrae and\\nbreast bone, form the\\nbony walls of the thorax\\nor chest. This arrange-\\nment and the elasticity\\nof the cartilages which\\nunite most of the ribs to\\nthe breast bone permit\\nconsiderable enlargement\\nof the chest cavity in the\\nprocess of breathing. 1 Free movements of the chest walls\\nare necessary for the health and proper action of the\\norgans within them.\\n39. The Pelvis. This consists of the sacrum and coccyx\\nbehind, the hip bones (innominate bones) upon the sides,\\nand the pubic bone in front. By its size, strength, curves,\\nand expanded upper edges (hips), it is well adapted to\\nsupport and protect the organs within it. It also assists\\nin supporting the upper part of the body, by its relation\\nLateral Curvature of Spine, caused by the habit\\nof carrying books on one arm. (Moshek.)\\n1 The seven upper ribs upon each side are joined directly to the breast\\nbone by cartilages, and are called true ribs the other five are called\\nfalse ribs. Of these five the three upper ones are joined by cartilages to\\nthe cartilages of the true ribs, while the two lower, having no cartilages,\\ntheir anterior ends being free, are called floating ribs.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON. 45\\nto the spinal column and by the attachment which it\\naffords for the powerful muscles of the trunk. Articu-\\nlating (forming joints) with the pelvis are the two thigh\\nbones. These are supported by the bones of the legs,\\nwhich in turn rest upon those of the feet.\\n40. The Limbs, or Extremities. These are joined to the\\ntrunk at its upper part by means of the shoulders (collar\\nbones and shoulder blades), and at its lower portion by\\nthe hip bones. The bones of each upper extremity\\nare the humerus (arm bone), radius and ulna (fore-\\narm bones), and the bones of the hand. 1 Each upper ex-\\ntremity is so arranged that the hand may be freely used. 2\\nThe lower extremities have less mobility than the\\nupper, but more strength, since they bear the weight of\\nthe body. The bones of each lower extremity are the\\nfemur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (leg bones), and the\\nbones of the foot. 3\\n41. The Bones of the Foot. The bones are arranged in\\nthe form of an arch, the forward part of the foot and the\\nheel only resting upon the ground. This arched form\\nsecures great elasticity, and diminishes the shocks to other\\n1 The hand includes the bones of the wrist, palm, and fingers,\\n2 The arm bone is longer than the forearm bones, and the forearm\\nbones are longer than those of the hand. This arrangement, together with\\nvery pliable lingers and with the thumb, which can readily bo opposed to\\nall the fingers, characterizes man as distinct from ami above all other\\nforms of animal life.\\n8 The foot includes the bones of the ankle, instep, and toes. The mobility\\nof the toes and their power to grasp objects are very much increased by\\ntheir frequent use without, the restriction of shoes, as has been noticed\\namong certain savage tribes. Persons born without hands have learned\\nto write, to use a. knife and fork in eating, and to thread a needle with\\ntheir toes,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "46 THE SKELETON.\\nparts of the body in the acts of walking, running, and\\njumping. It also affords a more secure footing in walking\\nand running over uneven ground, in climbing ladders, etc. 1\\nFig. 21.\\nBones of the Foot and their Relative Location.\\n42. The Principal Closed Cavities of the Skeleton. These\\nare three in number, viz. the cranial, thoracic, and pelvic\\ncavities. 2 Within the cranial cavity are the brain and the\\nbeginning of the spinal cord, and also nerves and blood-\\nvessels.\\nThe cranium, or skull, is a rounded bony box, admir-\\nably constructed for its particular use. 3 It has a vaulted\\ndome, side walls, and very strong buttresses in the tem-\\nporal bones, which inclose the delicate organs of hearing.\\n1 The elastic arch of the foot assists largely in graceful movements of\\nthe body, if it is not hampered by improper footgear. When the liga-\\nments of the arch have lost their tone, the foot is known as a flat foot,\\nand walking becomes difficult.\\n2 In addition to these cavities and the marrow cavities of long bones,\\nthere are cavities which contain air, such as the frontal sinuses in the\\nfrontal bones of the skull, which open into the upper part of the nose\\nthe antrum, in each half of the upper jaw and the sphenoidal and eth-\\nmoidal sinuses, in the sphenoid and ethmoid bones. These reservoirs of\\nair are concerned in the processes of breathing and in the production of\\nvoice, and serve to lighten the weight of bones.\\n3 The tissue of which the flat bones are composed is arranged in layers,\\nor tables. On account of their character, these were by the ancients\\nlikened, the outer one to wood, the middle one to leather, and the inner\\none to glass (from its smoothness).", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON.\\n47\\nThe base is formed of bones strongly wedged in together,\\nwith openings so arranged that the delicate blood-vessels\\nand nerves passing through them are not easily injured.\\nFig. 22.\\nFront View of the Contents of the Cavities of the Chest and Abdoni*\\nB, trachea.\\nC, oesophagus.\\nE, diaphragm.\\nF, liver.\\nI, spleen.\\nD, stomach.\\nG, intestines.\\nH, heart.\\nA, lungs.\\nJ, bladder.\\n43. The Thoracic Cavity. This extends from the base\\nof the neck above to the diaphragm 1 below, and from\\nthe spinal column and ribs behind to the breast bone and\\nthe cartilages of the ribs in front. It contains the\\nlungs, the heart, some large blood-vessels, nerves, the\\nthoracic duct, and the oesophagus, or gullet.\\n1 A strong muscular and tendinous partition dividing the thoracic from\\nthe abdominal cavity (Fig. 28).", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "48\\nTHE SKELETON.\\n44. The Pelvic Cavity.\\nthe pelvic bones. It con\\nBRAIN\\n(cerebrum)\\nFig. 23.\\nSide View of the Head and Trunk\\nthe bones and soft coverings\\nof the cavities being removed,\\nand the face, throat, and spinal\\ncolumn given in longitudinal sec-\\ntions. The organs are in relief.\\nA. lungs. F. a small portion\\nB. trachea. of the liver.\\nC. oesophagus. G. intestines.\\nD. stomach. H, heart.\\nE. diaphragm. I. spleen.\\nJ, bladder.\\nThis is the space inclosed by\\ntains the bladder, the lower end\\nof the large intestine, and other\\nviscera.\\nBetween the thoracic and pel-\\nvic cavities is a fourth cavity,\\nthe abdominal, which is partly in-\\nclosed hj bony walls and partly\\nby muscles. It contains the\\nliver on the right side, the stom-\\nach and spleen on the left, the\\nintestines in front, and the pan-\\ncreas, kidneys, receptacle for\\nchyle, and very large blood-\\nvessels and nerves behind.\\n45. Effects of Alcohol upon\\nBones. The specific evil ef-\\nfects of alcohol upon the tis-\\nsues and organs of the body,\\neither in derangement of their\\nfunction or change of their\\nstructure, have been specially\\nstudied by scientists in con-\\nnection with the muscles, skin,\\nstomach, liver, kidneys, blood,\\nand nervous system. Very little\\nis known of any specific effects\\nof alcohol upon bones and\\njoints. It is believed that blood\\ncontaining it, if brought repeat-\\nedly to these parts, interferes\\nwith their growth and develop-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON. 49\\nment, especially in the young, by hampering the activity\\nof the various cells which enter into their composition.\\nFothergill states that alcohol is used to limit the growth\\nof jockeys and pet dogs. It is a fact well recognized\\nby surgeons that broken bones of drunkards unite with\\ngreat difficulty.\\nAs to tobacco, opium, and the other narcotics, no spe-\\ncific effects upon bones and joints are known.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Of what service is the skeleton\\n2. What is the use of the skeleton, and what is its main support?\\n3. How is the spinal column fitted to the hip bones, and of what\\ndoes it consist\\n4. Describe the vertebrae. How they are separated from each\\nother, and why?\\n5. How is the spinal canal formed, and what is its purpose?\\n6. How do the nerves of the body reach it?\\n7. What curves has the spinal column, and what is their object\\n8. Describe the ribs, and explain the object of their downward\\nslope.\\n9. Of what bones does the pelvis consist, and what is its use?\\n10. Describe the lower portion of the skeleton.\\n11. How are the bones of the feet arranged, and w r hy are they so\\narranged\\n12. Of what bones does each upper extremity, or arm, consist, and\\nwhat is the object of their arrangement?\\n13. What are the bones of the lower extremities?\\n14. What cavities are in the skeleton\\n15. Describe the cranium, and mention its contents.\\n10. Describe the thoracic cavity, and mention its contents.\\n17. What cavity is above the pelvic cavity, and what are its\\ncontents?\\n18. What is said as to specific effects of alcohol, tobacco, opium,\\netc., upon bones", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "A. Posterior View.\\nB. Front and Side View.\\nFig. 24.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 51\\nFig. 24.\\nMuscles of the Body. Superficial layer.\\nE, extensors of the hand.\\nB, biceps muscle, flexor of arm and forearm.\\nD, deltoid, raises the arm and moves it backwards and forwards.\\nTEA, trapezius, draws back and raises shoulder.\\nTKI, triceps, extensor of forearm.\\nLD, latissimus dorsi, assists in respiration by moving the ribs.\\nGM, gluteus maximus, moves the thigh backwards and outward\\nVE, vastus externus, extends the leg.\\nB, biceps of thigh, flexor of leg.\\nG, gastrocnemius, extends the foot.\\nF, flexors of the foot.\\nTA, Tendo Achillis.\\nB.\\nE, extensors of the hand.\\nF, flexors of the hand.\\nB, biceps, etc.\\nD, deltoid, etc.\\nPM, pecioralis major, draws the arm forwards and inwards.\\nP, pronator, rotates forearm inwards.\\nSM, serratus magnus, assists in respiration.\\nRA, rectus abdominis, that makes tense the abdominal walls.\\nTF, tensor femoris, that makes tense the connective tissue of thigh\\nand moves the thigh outwards.\\nS, sartorius, flexes the leg.\\nAD, adductor group of thigh muscles.\\nKF, rectus femoris, one of the group of extensor muscles of thigh.\\nTA, tibialis anticus, moves foot forwards.\\nET, extensors of the toes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nMUSCLES. -PAT.\\n46. Uses of Muscles. The muscles, about four hundred\\nin number, are essentially organs of motion. They are of\\na deep red color, 1 and constitute what is ordinarily called\\nflesh, or, in animals, lean meat. By means of muscles\\nthe varied and wonderful movements of the body are per-\\nformed, and speech is rendered possible. Through their\\naction, the heart pulsates, the blood circulates, and respi-\\nration, digestion, and other vital processes are carried on.\\nThey also shield blood-vessels, lymphatics, and nerves,\\nassist in diminishing the force of shocks and blows, and\\ngive roundness to the figure. They help to hold the\\nbones together and to form the walls which inclose the\\ncavities of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.\\n47. Classification of Muscles. Certain muscles are\\ngrouped about the bones, to which most of them are\\nattached. These are known as voluntary muscles? because\\ntheir movements are, for the most part, governed by the\\nwill. Other muscles, which are within the body and form\\na large part of the walls of hollow organs, as the stomach,\\nintestines, and blood-vessels, are called involuntary muscles,\\n1 Muscles but little used, as in young children and in paralyzed persons,\\nhave a pale color. In most of the vertebrate animals the flesh is red.\\nIn some birds and many fishes it is colorless, yellowish, or pink.\\n2 Also as muscles of animal life. Those attached to the skeleton are\\nskeletal muscles also called muscles of organic life.\\n52", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 53\\nbecause they act independently of the will. 1 For instance,\\nthe simple presence of food in the stomach is sufficient to\\nexcite that muscular organ into its normal and involun-\\ntary activity. Certain muscles, as those of breathing, are\\ncalled mixed muscles, as they belong partly to the volun-\\ntary and partly to the involuntary classes. Ordinarily we\\nbreathe without exertion of the will, but to a certain\\nextent it is in our power to increase or suspend the pro-\\ncess.\\n48. Connections of Muscles. Voluntary muscles are\\nconnected with bones, and also with cartilages, ligaments,\\nskin, and other structures, either by muscular tissue, or\\nby means of white, firm but flexible, glistening masses of\\nfibrous tissue, known as tendons, or sinews. 2 Tendons are\\ninelastic, and serve as connecting bands or cords to hold\\nmuscles in position 3 and to enable their fleshy or active\\nportions to move parts of the body that are remote,\\nwithout interfering with the symmetry and beauty of its\\noutline. 4 How bulky and ill-proportioned, for example,\\n1 Sometimes voluntary muscles cannot be controlled by the will. For\\ninstance, twitching of the eyelids may not be readily stopped, and the\\ndrunkard cannot always prevent tremors of the hands.\\n2 The more fixed or central attachment of a muscle is its origin. The\\nmovable point to which the force of the muscle is directed is its insertion.\\nBut many muscles may be made to act from either extremity. In the\\nmuscles of the face, one end is attached to bone, the other to movable skin.\\n3 In childhood the fleshy portions of muscles ait relatively long and\\nthe tendons short. As we grow older, the tendons are relatively longer,\\nand the active fleshy portions less in amount. Hence, to excel in athletic\\nsports, it is needful to begin practising early in life. A baby can readily\\nput its feet in its mouth, or when sitting en a bed with the legs at right\\nangles with the body, can easily lift the legs to an acute angle with the\\ntrunk, a feat that is impossible with an adult.*\\n4 The tendon of one of (he muscles that move the eye passes through\\na loop or pulley. A tendon under the jaw passes through a slit in the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "54\\nMUSCLES. FAT.\\nwould be the wrists and ankles, and how clumsy their\\nmovements, if the muscular tissue were extended through\\nthose parts (a). The largest and strongest tendon in the\\nFig. 25.\\nMuscles of Left Hand. Front surface.\\nFCC flexor of ulnar side of the wrist.\\nFCR, flexor of radial side of wrist.\\nSH, sheath of connective tissue through\\nwhich the tendons pass.\\nOP. the opposing muscle of thumb.\\nABP, muscle that draws the thumb out-\\nward.\\nFBP, the short flexor of the thumb.\\nADP, adductor that draws the thumb in-\\nwards.\\nS of T, sheath of tendon in position, removed\\nfrom other fingers to show the arrange-\\nment of tendons.\\nFS, long, superficial flexor of the fingers.\\nFP, the long, deep flexor of the fingers.\\nAMD. muscle that pulls the little finger\\noutward.\\ntendon of another muscle whose direction is different. Tendons may be\\nreadily felt at the wrist, ankle, the bend of the elbow, and under the\\nknee, when the muscles are tense.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT.\\nbody is the Tendo Achillis, which connects certain muscles\\non the back of the leg with the heel. 1\\nInvoluntary muscles, for the most part, are not attached\\nto bones, but to other structures.\\n49. Arrangement of Muscles. Muscles vary in shape,\\nand are arranged usually in layers or groups, occupying\\nalways the best position to facilitate their own action and\\nto preserve the compactness, usefulness, and beauty of the\\nparts. Those of the face are, for the most part, short and\\nnarrow; of the cranium, thin and flat; of the thorax,\\nabdomen, and pelvis, broad and flattened and of the\\nneck and extremities, long and rounded. Some muscles\\nhave a tendon at one end, or at both ends, or at one side, or\\nrunning through the middle. Others have two tendons at\\none end, as the two-headed or biceps muscle of the front\\nof the upper part of the arm or three tendons, as the\\ntriceps, at the back and upper part of the arm. The\\nabdominal cavity is walled in, in front and on the sides,\\nby three layers of strong, flat muscles, their respective\\nfibres crossing the abdomen in different directions, but all\\ncentering in a strong tendinous band iii the middle line,\\ncalled the linea alba. This strong wall is strengthened\\nstill further, in front, by two overlying straight muscles,\\nextending one on either side of the linea alba, from the\\npelvis nearly to the breast bone.\\n50. Action of Groups of Muscles. The respective groups\\nof muscles are named according to the kind of motion\\nproduced, their position, uses, etc. 2 Muscles that bend\\n1 Tendon of Achilles, so called from the Grecian fiction that this tendon\\nwas the only vulnerable portion of the body of Achilles.\\n2 The names of muscles have come down to us from the ancients. Their\\nlength is often in inverse proportion to the size of the muscle named.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "56 MUSCLES. FAT,\\nthe joints are called flexors, as, for example, those on the\\nfront of the arm that bend the forearm, and on the back\\nof the thigh that bend the leg. Those which restore the\\nbent parts to a straight condition are extensors. The\\nextensors, corresponding to the above-mentioned flexors,\\nare located, as the necessity of the case demands, on the\\nback of the arm and on the front of the thigh. Rotator\\nmuscles are those which turn upon their axes the parts to\\nwhich they are attached. Such are the oblique muscles\\nof the eye and those attached to the radial bone of the\\nforearm. It is by means of the latter that the forearm\\nand hand can be turned around so as to present either side\\nat pleasure.\\nAdductors are muscles which move parts toward the\\naxis of the body, and abductors those which move parts\\nfrom the axis of the body. Of the first, the large muscles\\nof the chest and back, which draw the arm to the side.\\nand those which draw the lower extremities together, are\\nexamples of the latter may be named the muscles of the\\nshoulder and the outer muscles of the thigh.\\nSphincters are annular, or ring, muscles which close or\\nconstrict certain natural openings of the body, as the eye\\nand mouth.\\n51. Muscles, such as the flexors and extensors, the\\nabductors and adductors, which produce by their action\\nentirely opposite movements, are called opposing or antago-\\nFor instance, a very short muscle which extends from one corner of the\\nupper lip to the nostril upon the same side of the face, whose function is\\nmerely to raise the lip. as in sneering, is called the levator labii\\nsuperioris alaeque nasi; while a wery long and important muscle of the\\nthigh is more plainly named the sartorius. i.e. the \u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u00a2tailor. because\\nit is the principal muscle by which that useful functionary assumes his\\nfamiliar position for work.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 57\\nnistic. The result of the combined action of opposing\\nmuscles, when excessive, is rigidity. It is the easy com-\\nbined action of the opposing muscles which enables us to\\nstand, or to apply a force properly graduated to the\\nnecessities of the most delicate muscular work (a). The\\naction of opposing muscles, when healthy, is nicely ad-\\njusted, so as not to interfere with their mutually free and\\neasy movements. 1 Their abnormal action is exemplified\\nin the rigidity which takes place in convulsions, and in\\nlead palsy, where the unchecked contraction of the\\nflexors of the forearm, through paralysis of its extensors,\\nproduces a falling of the hand known as wrist drop.\\n52. Muscles of Expression. Ordinarily we show how\\nwe feel by our features, and by the position and move-\\nments of the body. The expression of the emotions is\\neffected mainly, however, by the varied movements of the\\nfacial muscles, especially those which move the lips, eye-\\nlids, eyebrows, and lower jaw. 2 Hence these muscles are\\nspoken of as the muscles of expression. 3 The develop-\\nment of certain of them by frequent use produces the\\njovial, smiling, or laughing face while development of\\nother groups produces the sad, sour, or disagreeable\\nface.\\n1 The easy picking up of a lead pencil from a table, for example,\\nrequires the combined harmonious action of opposing muscles of the\\nshoulder, arm, forearm, and hand, as well as those of the eyes. This\\nharmony of movement is sometimes spoken of as consensus of action.\\nThe want of it is apparent in a person having St. Yitus s dance.\\n2 Some persons can move the ears by means of developed fan-shaped\\nmuscles attached to these organs, which in most persons are rudimentary.\\n8 There are 70 pairs of muscles in the neck and face. It has been esti-\\nmated that the body is capable of 5000 different movements, and the face\\nof 750 different expressions.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "58\\nMUSCLES. FAT.\\n53. Structure of Muscles. A voluntary muscle is com-\\nposed of bundles of striated or striped fibres called fas-\\nciculi. The muscular tissue is enveloped in a delicate\\nelastic sheath of connective tissue, the perimysium} which\\nFig. 26.\\nMuscles of Expression.\\nalso slips in between the fasciculi and incloses them. The\\nfibres of a muscle generally run parallel to one another\\nthroughout its length, converging toward its tendinous\\nattachment. Each fibre consists of a soft, contractile\\n1 Around a muscle.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT.\\n59\\nsubstance, and is inclosed by a thin, elastic, transparent\\nsheath, the sarcolemma.\\nB, bone.\\nC, connective tissue.\\nFig. 27.\\nTransverse Section of a Leg.\\nF, fat (adipose tissue). M, muscles.\\nV, veins. BL, blood-vessels (arteries and veins).\\nInvoluntary muscles are\\ncomposed of plain, smooth\\nfibres, not striped, which\\ncontain nuclei and nucleoli.\\nThese fibres are contractile,\\nspindle-shaped cells, which\\nare held together in bun-\\ndles by a cement-like sub-\\nstance. These bundles com-\\npose larger bundles or flat-\\ntened bands, which are held\\ntogether by connective tis-\\nsue, and frequently interlace.\\nv 6\\nFig. 28.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2tion oi Muscle (magnified 50 di\\n(i, perimysium.\\nb. fasciculus.\\noounecti v\\nfibre.\\nameter\\ne tis.V*", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "60\\nMUSCLES. FAT.\\nNerves, blood-vessels, and lymph vessels run between\\nand into muscles to stimulate them to activity, to afford\\nNon-striated Fibres of Involuntary Muscles, somewhat separated from\\neach other for microscopic examination.\\nFig. 30.\\nPortion of a Voluntary Fibre,\\nshowing the fibrillae, trans-\\nverse striae, and the sarco-\\nlemma detached at one point.\\nMagnified 250 diameters.\\nnourishment, and to carry away dead\\nmaterial. 1 Fat cells are frequently\\nfound among muscular fibres.\\n54. Under the microscope the\\nfibres of a voluntary muscle are\\nfound to be marked with alternate\\ntransverse bands, or striae, with faint\\nstripes running lengthwise over\\neach fibre. 2 After death, when the\\nmuscles are stiffened, or if a muscle\\nis hardened in alcohol, the fibres\\ncan be broken up longitudinally\\ninto very fine threads, called fibrillae\\n(little fibres).\\n55. Chemical Composition of Mus-\\ncles. Muscle consists of about\\n1 Muscles, fasciculi, fibres, connective tissue, nerves, and blood-vessels\\nan be studied in the leg of a sheep.\\n2 The transverse stripes are by some believed to be the boundary lines\\nmuscle cells.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 61\\nthree-fourths water, which affords softness and flexibility, 1\\nthe remaining one-fourth being made up of common salt,\\ncalcium phosphate, and albuminous substances, the chief\\nof which is myosin. 2 Myosin coagulates soon after death,\\ncausing rigidity of the body.\\n56. Properties of Muscular Tissue. The characteristic\\nproperty of muscles is contractility The power of shorten-\\ning and thickening their bulk when tense, or in a state of\\naction, and of becoming elongated and thinner when re-\\nlaxed, or in a state of rest, is peculiar to muscle fibres, and\\nis sometimes spoken of as muscular irritability. Contrac-\\ntility is normally excited in voluntary muscles by the will\\nacting through the nervous system, but it can also be called\\ninto action independently of the will, by various kinds\\nof stimulation, such as pinching, pricking with a needle,\\nthe application of an acid or electricity. In involuntary\\nmuscles, it ordinarily results from nervous stimulus. Con-\\ntractions may be extremely gentle, as when the muscles\\nof the eye or hand are engaged in delicate work or they\\nmay be powerful, as in athletic sports or in heavy lifting.\\nProlonged use, the want of use, a supply of poor or in-\\nsufficient blood, and certain poisons lessen the normal\\nirritability of muscles. Muscles are also elastic, and are\\nsaid to have tone when they promptly and in a normal\\nmanner respond to stimuli. When repeated stimulation\\nis applied to muscles, they contract in wave-like impulses.\\nWhen stimulation of muscular fibres is too rapid, the\\n1 Muscles sometimes lose pliability and act with difficulty, when the\\nfluids of the body are diminished by overwork or as the result of disease.\\nSometimes the motion of tendons, through grooves or canals of bone oi\\ncartilage, may produce creaking sounds.\\n2 The translucent, jelly-like substance of muscular fibres is sometimes\\ncalled muscle-plasma.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "62 MUSCLES. FAT.\\nmuscle contracts firmly, the wave movement disappears,\\nand the contraction may not be followed by any relaxation\\nfor a considerable time, as in muscular cramps, and the\\ndisease known as tetanus. 1\\nSame muscles in action\u00e2\u0080\u0094 contracted.\\nMuscles of frog s leg at rest\u00e2\u0080\u0094 relaxed.\\nFig. 31.\\nContraction and Eelaxation of Muscles.\\n57. Hygiene of Muscles. For healthy growth and de-\\nvelopment muscles require a constant supply of good blood,\\nsufficient nerve stimulus, and alternate exercise and rest.\\nWithout these requisites waste products accumulate and\\n1 The skeletal muscles of some insects can contract 1,000,000 times\\nan hour, requiring 300 stimuli per second for complete and continued con-\\ntraction. In birds, 100 stimuli per second are required and in man, 40.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 63\\nirmscular activity is diminished. Overworked muscles\\nwaste away equally with idle muscles in the latter case,\\nuseless fat may take the place of the muscular fibres. 1\\nIn the arrangement of nature, certain muscles are intended\\nto be at rest while others are in activity. Even the fibres\\nof a single muscle do not all act at the same time. This\\nprovision does not dispense, however, with the necessity\\nfor additional rest in sleep.\\n58. Sleep. All parts of the body, the brain included,\\nrequire rest, and share, directly or indirectly, in the ben-\\nefits of sleep. Particularly refreshing is the first sleep,\\nand that which is least disturbed by uneasy dreams, men-\\ntal effort, and anxiety. Generally, the more both mind\\nand body can be withdrawn from all outside influences, the\\nbetter. The amount of sleep needed by different persons\\nvaries according to the age and condition of individuals.\\nThe greater part of infancy is generally passed in slumber\\nand in old age, also, much sleep is required. In middle\\nlife, usually about eight hours a day is necessary, though\\nit is reported of Frederick the Great and Napoleon that\\nthey slept but three or four hours out of the twenty-\\nfour (a). Needed restoration may often be found in a\\nchange of employment, whether of work or amusement, as\\nwell as in sleep. In such cases, if amusement be needed,\\nit becomes as much one s duty to play as it was before to\\nwork.\\n59. Fat. This substance usually constitutes about one-\\ntwentieth part of the weight of the entire body. It is\\n1 The wasting of muscles from non-use is shown in a broken arm\\nwhich has been kept in splints for several weeks, or in a sound leg that\\nhas been idle for a long time, on account of the other leg s being disabled\\nby injury or disease.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "64\\nMUSCLES. FAT.\\nfound in all parts of the body, with the exception of the\\nbones, teeth, and fibrous tissues, either in masses or in the\\nform of an emulsion, 1 or in that of globules and granules\\nof oil. In the first form it is called adipose tissue, the\\nmost familiar example of which is that which is embedded\\nin the areolar or connective tissue, between the skin and\\nthe muscles. Animal fat is generally a mixture of three\\nFig. 32.\\n(Microscopic view.)\\nAT, adipose tissue.\\nC, fat in cells of cocoanuti\\nFig. 33.\\n(Microscopic view.)\\nM, fat globules in milk.\\nE, fat globules in an emulsion.\\nvarieties of fat, stearin, palmitin, and olein. Stearin\\nand palmitin are more or less solid, as usually seen in the\\nmeat of animals but in the live body, at its ordinary\\ntemperature, they are held in solution by the olein with\\nwhich they are associated.\\nBy the arrangement of the fat about the internal organs,\\nbetween the muscles, under the skin, and about the joints,\\nit acts as cushions to these structures, maintains their tem-\\nperature, fills up inequalities in and about the various struc-\\n1 That is, in suspension, as in milk.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 65\\ntures, and greatly enhances the beauty and symmetry of\\nthe human form. It also serves for nutrition in time of\\nneed, as is particularly to be observed in torpid animals x\\nand in emaciating diseases. In fact, fat being composed\\nof carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, contains elements which\\nare essential to the nutrition and growth of tissues, and is\\nfound in quantity whenever cell growth is rapid, especially\\nin the case of healthy young children.\\n60. The amount of fat in different persons depends upon\\nage, race, and hereditary tendency; also upon the weather,\\nclimate, and occupation; yet there is probably a normal\\nlimit as to the amount of fat in the case of each individual.\\nAny amount beyond this limit is likely to be not only\\ninconvenient, but distressing and even dangerous to life,\\neither by impeding the action of the heart or by taking\\nthe place of important tissues, thereby producing a\\ndiseased condition, which is known as fatty infiltration.\\nOrdinarily, a steady gain of fat within the normal limit\\nindicates an improving condition of the blood and better\\nnutrition, while a deficiency is often the first note of alarm\\nto warn us of the approach of consumption, scrofula, or\\nsome other serious disease which has begun its stealthy\\nmarch in a faulty nutrition. 2 Rapid loss of fat usually\\nindicates impoverishment of the blood. 3\\n1 The common tortoise, for instance, burrows in the earth in the latter\\npart of autumn, and does not reappear till spring has well advanced.\\nSome species of bears become very fat toward tin 1 winter lime, and then,\\nduring the winter, while hibernating, eat no food, so far as is known. In\\nthe spring they come out of their hiding-places, lean and hungry.\\n2 Tt has been observed that cooks, butchers, oilers, etc., are generally\\nexempt from such affections, and it is believed by some authorities that\\nthe exemption is dvc to the fat absorbed by their skins from the materials\\nwhich they handle.\\n3 In such instances, the fat that remains seems thin ami watery.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "66 MUSCLES. FAT.\\nFatty tissue is the most fluctuating in bulk of all the\\ntissues of the body, for within a very short time a large\\namount may appear or disappear. Its increase is promoted\\nby many of the animal and vegetable substances used as\\nfood, and it is the result also of chemical changes that occur\\nwithin the body, in such food as starch and sugar. It is\\noften injuriously increased by impoverished blood during\\nsickness or idleness, by a continued use of alcoholic drinks\\n(especially ale, beer, and porter), and by fatty, sugary,\\nand starchy foods. It may, therefore, be diminished some-\\ntimes by a partial or complete omission of the articles of\\nfood and drink mentioned above, by proper bathing and\\nattention to the excretory organs, and by systematic,\\nwell-adapted exercise. It can seldom, however, with\\nsafety, be kept below the individual s normal standard\\nfor a great length of time. The use of drugs or medi-\\ncines as anti-fat remedies is not always safe, nor is it\\nusually efficacious.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Describe muscles.\\n2. What is their chief use\\n3. What two grand divisions of muscles are there\\n4. How are muscles attached to the parts to be moved\\n5. Why are tendons used for this purpose\\n6. Why are the voluntary muscles more often attached to bones\\nthan the involuntary?\\n7. Why do blood-vessels and nerves accompany muscles\\n8. What is the chief constituent of muscle substance?\\n9. What other uses have muscles besides being organs of motion\\n10. To what is the moving power of muscles due\\n11. How may the contractility of muscles be excited?\\n12. How may their irritability become weakened\\n13. What are opposing or antagonistic muscles Give examples.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "MUSCLES. FAT. 67\\n14. What are the respective results of their normal and abnormal\\naction\\n15. Name other kinds of muscles.\\n16. What are the muscles of expression?\\n17. What is necessary for muscles to be healthy and well developed?\\n18. When is sleep most beneficial?\\n19. What periods of life require most sleep?\\n20. How may muscles be refreshed without cessation of activity\\n21. What are the varieties of fat\\n22. What are its uses?\\n23. How does excessive fat become dangerous\\n24. How may fat be increased how diminished\\n25. What about the use of drugs to that end", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nMUSCULAR EXERCISE.\\n61. Physical Culture has engaged the attention of man-\\nkind, in a varying degree, from the very earliest times.\\nIts object, at first, was to strengthen man for defence\\nagainst his fellow-men and wild animals. At a later date,\\nin the Grecian games, athletic contests were eagerly\\nentered into in a spirit of emulation, and for the culti-\\nvation and exhibition of strength and beauty. Among\\nthe Spartans, the women, as well as the men, had their\\npl^sical training. And yet we are told by the medical\\nwriters of those times that the excessive exercise indulged\\nin by many of the athletes rendered them dull, sluggish,\\nand torpid, and that they averaged only five years of\\n(athletic) life. Still later, in the gymnasia, or schools, of\\nthe Greeks, efforts were first made to combine physical\\nand mental education, so as to produce a sound mind in\\na sound body. Yet, even at the present time, the true\\nvalue of proper muscular exercise in restoring health, as\\nwell as in maintaining it, is not fully appreciated.\\n62. Effects of Exercise. Exercise, besides developing\\nand strengthening the muscles, causes a muscular pressure\\nupon the blood-vessels, and increases the force and rapidity\\nof the circulation. In this way it promotes the con-\\nsumption of ox} T gen by the tissues, and the elimination\\nfrom them of carbon dioxide and other waste products.\\nThrough exercise the breathing power is developed, the", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 69\\nappetite improved, digestion made stronger, the accumula-\\ntion of fat diminished, and animal heat increased. The\\nnervous system also shares in the general improvement,\\nand, as a consequence, better mental work is made pos-\\nsible. 1 In those colleges and schools where physical cul-\\nture receives attention, the mental as well as the physical\\nstrength of the students has been found to be improved (cl).\\n63. Well-balanced Exercise. In all cases, there should\\nbe, as much as possible, a corresponding development of\\nthe whole man. 2 Engravers, telegraph and sewing-machine\\noperators, tailors, shoemakers, and all persons who, in\\nplying their vocation, use one set of muscles mainly, are\\nliable to paralysis of those muscles (a). Such persons\\nshould each day engage for a time in exercises that will\\ncall into action the other muscles of the body. In like\\n1 At the Elmira Reformatory twelve of the dullest boys for six months\\naveraged only 45 per cent in their studies. After a course in physical\\nculture, their treatment in every other respect being the same, they\\nreached an average of 74 per cent. Dr. Wey, the physician in charge,\\nsays With physical culture and improvement there came a mental\\nawakening, a cerebral activity never before manifested in their prison\\nlife. Their faces parted with the dull and stolid look they had in the\\nbeginning, assuming a more intelligent expression, while the eye gained\\na brightness and clearness that before was conspicuous by its absence.\\n2 Large persons with powerful muscles, but with little endurance, are\\nnot able to accomplish so much as wiry small ones, whose powers of endur-\\nance have been developed by gradual training. A man of good physical\\ncapacity may be trained so that the voluntary muscles of his arms and\\nchest will be powerfully developed, with a contractile force proportionate\\nto their size, and yet his respiratory power may be so disproportionate\\nthat he cannot run a hundred yards without gasping and another, or the\\nsame individual, if possessing ordinary locomotive capacity ami fair\\ndevelopment, may be trained to run ten times the distance without dis-\\ntress, while the voluntary muscles of his arms and chest remain as they\\nstood at the time that the training began. McLaren, Training in\\nTheory and Practice.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "70 MUSCULAR EXERCISE.\\nmanner those whose callings lead them to the exercise of\\ntheir brains only, to the neglect of their muscles, make too\\nlarge a demand upon the nervous system, and pay the\\npenalty in disorders of that system.\\n64. The Powers of Endurance of individuals are very\\nunequal. Accordingly, what would be proper exercise for\\none person may be very improper for another. Some\\nfeeble persons are too ambitious and need restraint, as\\nmuch as the lazy need urging. Exercise that is beyond\\nthe strength of the individual or of a kind to which he is\\nunaccustomed, or attended by severe or sudden strains on\\nundeveloped muscles, will be followed by bad results,\\nfor example, by exhaustion, cramps, loss of appetite, over-\\nstrained heart, and even diseases of the blood-vessels and\\nnervous system (V). The hard work necessitated by cer-\\ntain occupations of life often produces serious results, even\\nin very strong and well-developed men. It is especially\\nimportant that such occupations should be carried on in\\nthe open air, or in well-ventilated rooms, and that the\\nworkers should have the proper kind and amount of food.\\nAttention to these details would undoubtedly save many\\nlives.\\n65. Proper Muscular Exercise is that which is adapted to\\nthe age, health, and strength of the individual. It should\\nbe varied and agreeable in character, and pursued daily,\\neither in the open air or in well-ventilated places, but\\nnever to the point of weariness. 1 Exercise walking,\\nfor example which is systematically undertaken merely\\nfor the sake of exercise is not only irksome and likely to\\n1 The custom of years prescribes certain seasons for out-door games\\nand pastimes. Unfortunately, people do not always observe them, but\\ncling tenaciously to certain sports which they prefer.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 71\\nbe given up after a time, but is not so beneficial as when\\nit is associated with an agreeable visit, beautiful scenery,\\nthe gathering of flowers and shells, or even the purchase\\nof some desired object. 1\\n66. Young children, even babies, should not be carried\\nmore than is absolutely necessary. They will exercise\\nthemselves sufficiently if placed in warm but well-ventilated\\nrooms, where the limbs can have free movements, unim-\\npeded by tight or heavy clothing. Childhood, indeed, is\\na period of restless activity, and by the time a child is\\nthree years old systematic exercise becomes necessary.\\nGentle walks, running after and throwing balls, playing\\nwith clean sand, and the like, should be regularly per-\\nmitted and encouraged. Much harm is caused by confining\\nyoung children and putting barriers around their natural\\ndesires for play. In the case of older children and youth,\\nno system of artificial exercise can take the place of that\\nafforded by the usual out-door games, such as base-ball,\\nfoot-ball, leap-frog, hoop rolling, or hare and hounds,\\nalways provided they are not played too roughly or con-\\ntinued too long. These sports may be pursued advan-\\ntageously, as a rule, up to forty or forty-five years of age.\\nAt about this age natural degenerative changes occur in\\nthe body, and care is particularly necessary that the heart\\n1 I have heard that that benevolent nobleman, Lord Rosse, during\\nthe famine years, anxious to relieve distress, and equally anxious not to\\nencourage habits of pauperism, paid men so much a day for diguing holes\\nin his demesne, and paid them again for the filling of them up. The\\nlaborers are said to have manifested the most extreme disgust at the occu-\\npation, although the work was not harder than most useful labors. It is\\nthis sense of the inutility of the work done by the labor in some of the\\nmilitary prisons which constitutes much of the severity of the punishment.\\nAnd this remark is as true of mental exercise as of bodily. RIapother,\\nLectures on Public Health,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "72 MUSCULAR EXERCISE.\\nand blood-vessels be not overstrained. Hunting (if mod-\\nerate) and fishing are more suitable to this period of life.\\nAt sixty and upwards exercise continues necessary but\\nthe tissues having become still weaker, it should be very\\ngentle in character.\\n67. There is no physiological reason why girls, instead\\nof being limited to a round of spiritless games which are\\nof very little use in developing Strength, quickness of\\nmotion, or the power of endurance, should not engage in\\nmany of those sports which are the delight of boys (a).\\nThe opportunities of out-door exercise for girls and women\\nare. unfortunately, not so many or so diversified as for\\nboys and men. Sedentary habits are especially the bane\\nof women in prosperous circumstances (5).\\n68. Best Times for Exercise. The early part of the day\\nnot immediately on rising, however, but after the\\nsystem has been toned up by some slight food and pre-\\nliminary gentle movements is the best time for hard\\nwork or exercise for then the body has had the benefit\\nof the rest of the previous night. It is not safe to\\nexercise violently soon after a hearty meal, or when the\\nstomach is empty, or when the body is in a state of exhaus-\\ntion. At one time it was commonly believed that a long\\nwalk before breakfast was especially desirable, but the\\nbad results following this exercise in many instances, such\\nas exhaustion, faintness, dyspeptic and nervous disorders,\\nhave served to dispel the idea among careful observers.\\nThe gentle nervous stimulus given to the whole system\\nbv a little light food in the stomach after its long fast is\\nneeded by most people, and would be beneficial to all,\\nbefore exercising in the early morning.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 73\\n69. Varieties of Exercise. The different forms of\\nexercise may be classified as follows 1. Those that\\nbring into nearly equal action all the muscles of the body,\\nas swimming, horseback riding, fencing, boxing, base\\nball, foot ball, lawn tennis, and military drill. 2. Those\\nthat exert the muscles of the upper part of the body prin-\\ncipally, as bowling and shooting. 3. Those that serve to\\ndevelop principally the muscles of the lower part of the\\nbody, as walking, dancing, skating, and bicycle riding. 1\\nMost of these exercises are beneficial to both sexes.\\nCertainly every one should learn to swim. Apart from\\nits utility as a safeguard to life, it is the experience of one\\nof the large swimming schools in London that carefully\\nregulated swimming develops muscle, and relieves to a\\ngreat extent backache, or pain in the lumbar muscles.\\nHorseback riding also is a valuable form of exercise. As\\nDr. Holmes expresses it, Saddle-leather is in some\\nrespects even preferable to sole-leather the principal\\nobjection to it is of a financial character. No exercise,\\nhowever good, should be overdone (a).\\n70. Gymnasiums. A gymnasium is valuable for those\\npersons who do not have opportunities for out-of-door\\nexercise, or who need the stimulus of class instruction\\nand the companionship of fellow-workers, accompanied\\nwith systematic drill. But too often competition is\\ncarried so far that the weak are injured. To effect the\\nmost good, the gymnasium should have a medical super-\\nintendent, in order that pupils may not be taxed beyond\\ntheir strength; that the exercise may be adapted to the\\n1 Notwithstanding the fact that long distance bicycle riding is quite\\ncommon, it should be thoroughly understood that for persons with weak\\nheart, lungs, blood-vessels, or kidneys, such riding is dangerous.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "74 MUSCULAR EXERCISE.\\nindividual that proper ventilation may be maintained,\\nand other hygienic rules observed and that assistance\\nmay be given promptly in case of accidents. For persons\\nwho cannot leave their houses, various appliances, such as\\ndumb-bells, Indian clubs, rowing machines, and rubber\\nbands or cords are beneficial.\\n71. Passive Exercise. Persons too feeble to use their\\nown muscles in exercise will obtain benefit from carriage\\nriding, the use of electricity, or the gentle daily rubbing,\\npressing, and moving of their muscles by another. This\\nlast procedure is known as massage, and is every day\\nbecoming more popular with invalids. Where the will is\\nbut slightly exerted, as in the above examples, the exer-\\ncises are known as passive.\\n72. Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics upon Muscles. The\\ntremulousness of muscles and their inability to effect any\\ncomplicated movement, so frequently observed in persons\\nunder the influence of alcohol, is largely due to the dis-\\nturbing effects of the drug upon the nervous system.\\nHowever, it is true that muscles are sometimes impaired,\\ni.e. lose tone and become flabby, as the result of impaired\\nnutrition brought about by alcohol in the blood. When\\nso weakened, they are in no condition to respond promptly\\nto normal nervous impulses or stimuli. The result is that\\nboth voluntary and involuntary muscular movements are\\nsluggish. Experience has shown that alcoholics can sel-\\ndom be relied upon to sustain either nervous energy or\\nmuscular strength. As Professor Stewart says, In severe\\nand continuous exertion, with exposure to all weather,\\nas in war and exploring expeditions, alcohol is injurious\\nand it must be avoided in mountain climbing.\\nwt The British authorities some time ago made a test of", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "MUSCULAR EXERCISE. 75\\nthe alleged value of alcohol when men are subjected to\\nunusual and exhausting labor. Experiments were made\\nat different times and under varying conditions, with three\\nregiments from each of several brigades. In one, every\\nman was forbidden to drink any alcohol whatever while the\\ntest lasted; in the second, malt liquor only was taken; in\\nthe third, a ration of whiskey was given to each man. The\\nwhiskey drinkers manifested more dash at first, but gen-\\nerally in about four days showed signs of weakness and\\nfatigue those given malt liquor displayed less dash at first,\\nbut their endurance lasted somewhat longer; while the ab-\\nstainers improved daily in alertness and staying powers.\\n73. Tobacco has the power to induce through the\\nnervous system a feeling of lassitude, which results in\\ninefficient use of the muscles, and consequent weakening.\\nOpium, chloral, and other similar drugs, used repeatedly\\nor in large amount, produce even more depressing effects.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. What have been the motives for physical culture in the past, and\\nby what bad effects was excessive exercise said to have been\\nfollowed\\n2. What is proper exercise, and what are its effects?\\n3. How does it affect the mental health, and why\\n4. What is improper exercise, and what are its effects\\n5. What is to be said of exercise at different ages?\\n6. What of the exercise of women and girls\\n7. What of exercise in the early morning?\\n8. What of the varieties of exercise\\n9. What of the gymnasium\\n10. What is massage, and when is it to be employed?\\n11. How do alcohol, tobacco, opium, etc., affect muscles and inter-\\nfere with muscular exercise", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "Di CT\\nFig. 34.\\nLongitudinal Section of Skin (partly diagrammatic), magnified about 100 diameters. Its\\nstructure and contents (with the exception of the lymphatics).\\nE, epidermis.\\nI), dermis.\\nCL, color layer.\\nTC, tactile corpuscle.\\nN. nerve.\\nA, artery.\\nCT, connective tissue.\\nF, adipose tissue.\\nHF, hair follicle.\\nPT, perspiratory tube and gland.\\nSG-, sebaceous gland.\\nEP, erector pilae muscle.\\nH, a hair.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nTHE SKIN AND KIDNEYS.\\nI. THE SKIN.\\n74. The Skin, or external covering of the body, is strong,\\nflexible, and elastic, varies in smoothness and delicacy in\\ndifferent parts of the body, and has no less than six func-\\ntions. 1 It has been likened to a sentinel whose duty is to\\nguard the body against attacks, both from within and\\nfrom without. It consists of two distinct layers, an\\ninner, the dermis or true skin, and an outer, the epi-\\ndermis or cuticle. 2\\n75. The Dermis is composed of a dense network of\\nfibrous and elastic connective tissue (a), in the meshes of\\nwhich are blood-vessels, lymphatics, nerves, sebaceous\\nglands, sweat glands, hair, hair follicles, 3 and muscular\\nfibres attached to some of the hair follicles. 4 Underlying\\nthe dermis, and closely blended with it, is the subcutaneous\\nconnective {areolar tissue, inclosing vessels, nerves, adi-\\npose tissue, 5 sweat glands, and sometimes muscular fibres. 6\\n1 See Section 84. 2 Called also scarf skin ami false skin.\\n3 Little bags, or pouches.\\n4 Through the meshes of the connective tissue oozes nutritious watery\\nmaterial from the blood-vessels. In dropsy, this material distends the\\nconnective tissue.\\n5 The wrinkling of the skin of old persons is due to a diminution in the\\namount of fat, as well as to a lessened elasticity of the connective tissue.\\n6 Muscular fibres are abundant in the skins of many animals, enabling\\nthem to shake off insects by a wrinkling motion of the hide.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "78 THE SKIN.\\nThe surface of the dermis, upon which the epidermis is\\nmoulded, rises into minute eminences called papillae.,\\nwhich are arranged in groups or rows, producing ridges\\nand furrows. 1 They are most numerous in the most\\nsensitive parts, such as the tips of the fingers, where they\\nnumber about thirty-five thousand to the square inch.\\nThe papillae are made up of connective tissue, terminal\\nblood-vessels arranged in loops, nerves in fine threads,\\nand oval enlargements known as tactile corpuscles, or\\nlittle bodies with touch-power, in which the sense of touch\\nresides. 2\\nThe extreme sensitiveness of the papillary portion of\\nthe skin is made apparent whenever the raised cuticle\\ncovering a blister is broken and anything, even air, comes\\nin direct contact with the true skin.\\n76. The Epidermis is composed entirely of cells, rounded\\nand soft at its lower portion, flattened, hard, and horn-like\\nupon its surface, where they are exposed to the atmos-\\nphere and to external sources of injury. Owing to attri-\\ntion and chemical action, the outer cells of the epidermis\\nare constantly being removed, while the deeper ones,\\nformed from the dermis, are pushed forward to take\\ntheir place, growing harder and flatter as they approach\\n1 These ridges and furrows may be distinguished by means of a good\\nmagnifying glass. Their arrangement upon the fingers of different per-\\nsons assumes different patterns. This fact is made use of sometimes in\\nthe detection of criminals.\\n2 In the outer portion of the dermis, and below the papillae, other\\nnerves end in enlargements, but these are known as Paccinian corpuscles.\\nThe nerves of the skin are sometimes classified as follows (1) nerves of\\nsensation; (2) trophic nerves, or those which control the nourishment\\nof the skin (3) secretory nerves, or those that control the action of the\\nglands; and (4) vasa motor nerves, or those which regulate the action\\nof the blood-vessels.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN. 79\\nthe surface. 1 Having no nerves except a few in the lower\\nportion, the epidermis is not sensitive, and being without\\nblood-vessels, it cannot bleed. It is well adapted, there-\\nfore, to cover and protect the sensitive tissues beneath.\\nIt thickens in the various parts of the body that are most\\nused, as on the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet,\\non the knees of the shoemaker, or on the breast of the\\nburnisher of books (a).\\n77. The Color of the Skin is due in part to the blood cir-\\nculating through it, and in part to the pigment or coloring\\nmatter of the skin in the lower cells of the epidermis.\\nAn unusual quantity of red blood in thin portions of the\\nskin causes it to blush, or redden, while blood tinged by\\nthe yellow coloring matter of the bile imparts a jaundiced\\nor yellow color. The distinctive variations in color of\\nindividuals, families, and races are due to the diversified\\narrangement of the pigment. The whiteness of the skin\\nof albinos is due to the absence of this pigment, while\\nfreckles, and the peculiar irregular discoloration seen\\nupon the skin of so-called leopard boys, are owing to\\nvariations in its quantity, quality, or distribution.\\n78. Sweat Glands. Classified as appendages of the skin\\nare the sweat glands, the sebaceous glands, the hair, and\\nthe nails. Sweat glands are minute tubes, 2 closed at the\\nlower end, and opening upon the free surface of the epi-\\ndermis. They extend downward through the epidermis\\n1 A microscopic examination of water in which the hands are washed\\nwill almost always show an abundance of epidermal cells, even though the\\nwater seems quite clear. Contagious diseases sometimes spread from one\\nperson to another by means of epidermal cells mingled with disease\\ngerms.\\n2 About -gl-Q of an inch in diameter and of an inch in length.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "80\\nTHE SKIN.\\ninto the dermis and subcutaneous areolar tissue, where they\\nend in coils, intertwined with capillary or hair-like blood-\\nvessels. From the blood in these vessels the perspiration\\nis constantly filtered out by\\nthe sweat glands. The upper\\nextremity of each coil is the\\ncommencement of a perspira-\\ntory tube. Their openings,\\ntogether with the outer open-\\nings of the tubes of the\\nsebaceous or oil glands, con-\\nstitute the pores of the skin.\\nSweat glands are found\\nnearly everywhere in the\\nskin, but are most numerous\\nin the palms, soles, and arm-\\npits, where they number from\\n2685 to 2736 to the square inch. Upon the entire surface\\nof the body there have been estimated to be between two\\nand three millions, and the entire length of the secreting\\nsurface is said to be about two and a half miles. 1 The\\nvery great number of glands, and the coiled and twisted\\narrangement by which considerable length is attained in\\nminute spaces, indicate the great importance of the work\\nthat they have to perform\\nThe function of the perspiratory glands is to eliminate\\nthe debris of used-up tissues, and to keep the body com-\\nfortable in the varying temperature and conditions to\\nwhich it is exposed.\\n79. Perspiration is generally a clear liquid, containing\\nwater, sodium chloride, ammonia, urea, carbon dioxide,\\nFig. 35.\\nEpidermis from the Palm of the Hand\\n(with its pores), as viewed from the\\nunder surface. Magnified eight diam-\\neters.\\n1 They may be considered as flexible living drain pipes or drainage tubes.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN. 81\\nand other waste products. The importance of a free flow\\nof perspiration is illustrated by the bad effects resulting\\nfrom any sudden check of it, as in catching cold and in\\nfever. In such cases extra excretory work is thrown upon\\nother organs, especially upon the lungs and kidneys, and\\nin this way the health is often permanently impaired.\\nMost of the perspiration which is brought to the surface\\nby the sweat glands is immediately evaporated in the form\\nof an imperceptible vapor, and is therefore termed insen-\\nsible perspiration, as distinguished from sensible per-\\nspiration, or sweat, which is the result of vigorous exercise,\\nover-heat, etc. The constant evaporation of perspiration\\ninto the surrounding air is the most powerful of all the\\nmeans whereby the surplus heat is carried off and the\\nbody kept at its normal temperature. In health, when-\\never the body begins to suffer from excess of heat, as, for\\nexample, during violent exercise, the skin responds to the\\nurgency of the occasion, and pours out the due amount of\\ninsensible perspiration or of sensible sweat. 1\\n80. Under ordinary circumstances the amount of per-\\nspiration excreted in twenty-four hours is from two to\\nthree pounds, but it varies with the temperature, current,\\nand moisture of the air, the depressed or excited state of\\nthe nervous system, or the amount of physical exercise\\ntaken. Workmen in gas-houses, furnaces, iron-works,\\nand other places where they are subjected to great heat,\\nmay perspire as much as three pints in an hour. To pre-\\nvent exhaustion, such persons drink freely of water, or,\\n1 The value of the skin as a regulator of temperature is sometimes\\nstrikingly shown when, front catching cold, the body is alternately chilly\\nand hot. A tepid bath taken early in this disordered condition produces\\na sweat, and the equable normal temperature is regained.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "82\\nTHE SKIN.\\nbetter still, of water containing oatmeal. A hot and\\ndry atmosphere accelerates perspiration, while a moist or\\nmuggy one retards it, producing inconvenience and some-\\ntimes great suffering. It is related of Chabert, the fire-\\nking, that, if the air were dry, he could enter, without\\ndiscomfort, a chamber where the temperature was 400\u00c2\u00b0 F.,\\nbut could not endure a moist atmosphere of a much lower\\ntemperature. 1 Perspiration is also\\nimpeded by cold and draughts of air.\\n81. The Sebaceous Glands secrete\\nan oily matter, which lubricates the\\nskin and hair and thus preserves\\ntheir softness and pliancy. 2 They\\nare located in the dermis, and are\\nclusters of simple follicles, with tubes\\nconnecting with a common or main\\ntube. Most of the main tubes open\\ninto the hair sacs (Fig. 34); others\\nopen directly upon the surface of the\\nskin, and are especially numerous\\nabout the face.\\nFig. 36.\\nSection of Sebaceous Gland\\nhaving two lobules.\\n1, rudimentary hair follicle,\\ncontaining a fine (downy)\\nhair.\\n82. Hairs are distributed more or less abundantly over\\nthe surface of the body. 3 Their bulbs or root enlarge-\\n1 A temperature of 100\u00c2\u00b0 F. in the dry air of South Africa is quite tol-\\nerable, while 85\u00c2\u00b0 in the moist atmosphere of Bombay may be oppres-\\n2 In sebaceous glands minute (microscopic) auimalculae are sometimes\\nfound, but they are not so frequent or so harmful as some sensational\\npublications would lead us to believe. What are often called flesh worms\\nare nothing more than masses of fatty matter tipped by black points, or\\ndirt, which has adhered to them at the mouths of the sebaceous glands.\\n3 It has been estimated that a thin head of hair contains 90,000 hairs,\\nwhile a thick head of hair has 133,920.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN. 83\\nments are inserted in special hair sacs or follicles, or, in\\nthe case of the fine downy hairs, in sebaceous follicles.\\nThe shafts of the former pass out obliquely through the\\nducts of the follicles (Fig. 34). Each hair is oval or\\nsomewhat flattened, and is composed of a pith-like sub-\\nstance in the centre, surrounded by a fibrous tissue, and\\nthis by a so-called cuticle, or layer of epidermis-like\\ncells. 1 The fibrous and pith-like tissues contain a pig-\\nment or coloring matter. Hairs are well supplied with\\nblood at the base of the hair follicles, and also, it is\\nbelieved, with nerves. They are living tissues, strong\\nand elastic. 2\\nTo the hair follicles are attached muscular fibres\\n(erector pilae, Fig. 34), which, under the stimulus of fear,\\nhorror, cold, etc., cause the follicles to be more perpen-\\ndicular, and thus make the hair stand on end. Hair is\\nsubject to various diseases which may shorten its length,\\nchange its color, or destroy it. It is affected by the same\\nconditions as the skin, of which it is a part (a).\\nThe hair has various uses. That upon the head and face\\nprotects from cold and excessive heat, and diminishes the\\nforce of blows. The eyebrows prevent the perspiration\\nfrom running into the eyes the eyelashes keep out dust\\nwhile the hairs at the orifices of the nose and ears protect\\nthose parts from dust and insects.\\n1 Under the microscope the sides of a hair seem to be roughened. The\\nhair of certain animals is perceptibly rough to the touch. Human hair\\nmay become rough from disease. Wry flat hair is apt to curl like a\\nshaving.\\n2 It has been found that a hair ten inches long will stretch to thirteen\\ninches; and that a hair stretched one-fifth returned to within one-seven-\\nteenth of its original length; also, that a single hair of a boy, 8 years\\nof age, supported a weight of 7812 grains; one of a man of 22 years.\\n14,285 grains; of 57 years, 22,222 grains.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "84\\nTHE SKIN.\\n83. Nails are modifications of the epidermis, identical\\nin formation, bnt peculiar in appearance and manner of\\ngrowth. The root of the nail rests in a matrix, which is\\na fold of the dermis, particularly rich in vascular papillae,\\nfrom which the nail cells are produced. 1 When nails are\\ndestroyed, new ones\\nwill be formed if the\\nmatrix is uninjured.\\nNails are a support\\nand a defence to the\\nends of the fingers and\\ntoes, assist in picking\\nup small objects, and,\\nif healthy and in good\\ncondition, add comeli-\\nness to the parts to\\nwhich they are at-\\ntached. The health\\nof the nails is affected\\nby local or general diseases. They may become rough\\nor split or marked by grooves or discolorations, as the\\nresult of disease. They should never be bitten off, but\\ncarefully trimmed with scissors, a sharp knife, or a nail\\nfile, but never to the quick. 2\\n84. The Various Functions of the Skin. First. The skin\\nis a protective, covering. This quality is due mainly to the\\nhair, the structure of the epidermis, and the strength of\\n1 The pink color of a healthy nail is due to the blood beneath. The\\nlittle white area towards the root of a nail, called lunula from its crescent\\nshape, has less blood under it than other parts of the nail.\\n2 Dirt under the ends of nails frequently holds disease germs. A hang-\\nnail is a sliver of skin attached at one end, and should be cut off close to\\nthe point of attachment.\\nFig. 37.\\nTwo Views of the End of a Finger. In the first, part\\nof the skin covering the base of the nail is cut and\\nturned back to show the base of the nail. In the\\nsecond (a perpendicular section), the relations of\\nthe nail to the skin, fat, muscle, and bone are\\nshown.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN. 85\\nthe connective tissue. In a good-sized man the skin con-\\ntains about seventeen square feet of surface, is thick and\\nstrong upon those parts most subject to pressure and fric-\\ntion, but thinner where motion or greater elasticity is\\nnecessary, as on the eyelids, in the armpits, under the\\nknees, and over the abdominal organs.\\nSecond. It is an organ of sensation. Being abundantly\\nsupplied with nerves, it enables us to appreciate all degrees\\nand varieties of touch and temperature. The value of this\\nsensitiveness is especially appreciated in the different\\ntrades and vocations of life, and most of all when it is\\ndiminished or lost. In a palsied limb it may happen that\\na severe frost-bite, burn, or other injury will even destroy\\nthe tissues without the knowledge of the sufferer.\\nThird. It is an organ of excretion, purifying and elimi-\\nnating from the blood the waste products which the per-\\nspiration holds in solution. 1\\nFourth. It is the great regulator of animal temperature.\\nThough the general temperature of the human body is\\nabout 98^\u00c2\u00b0 F., there is, within the limits of health,\\na normal variation of about 1\u00c2\u00b0 below and above that\\npoint. The proper regulation of the temperature de-\\npends in part upon the elimination of watery vapor by\\nthe lungs, but mainly upon the perspiratory function of\\nthe skin.\\nFifth. It is an organ of absorption. It takes up and\\npasses through it into the lymph and blood vessels cer-\\ntain substances with which it may come in contact. It\\nhas been found by experiment that the body absorbs\\nwater through the skin Certain drugs, as strychnine,\\n1 It is estimated that the skin and lungs in 24 hours excrete five pounds\\nof waste material.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "86 THE SKIN.\\nquinine, mercury, and belladonna, produce their usual\\neffects when applied to the tender parts of the skin.\\nRubbing oily preparations into the skin has long been\\npractised to increase warmth and furnish nourishment.\\nCareless workmen in lead works, painters, and mirror-\\nsilverers are often poisoned by lead or mercury absorbed\\nthrough the skin. The evil effects which sometimes re-\\nsult from using cosmetics and hair dyes are due to the\\nabsorption of harmful material. Friction increases the\\nrapidity of absorption.\\nSixth. The skin, by virtue of its powers of absorption\\nand excretion, serves as an accessory organ of breathing.\\nIt absorbs oxygen and gives out carbon dioxide, per-\\nforming, it is estimated, from one-fortieth to one-fiftieth\\nof the respiratory function.\\n85. The Relation of the Skin to Other Parts of the Body.\\nOwing to the extent, structure, and variety of functions\\nof the skin, its condition has much to do with the general\\nhealth. The skin, lungs, liver, bowels, and kidneys are\\nallies in physiological action. All excrete waste material,\\neach in its own way. If, therefore, from any cause the\\nnormal action of one or more of these organs is inter-\\nfered with, extra and unnatural work is thrown upon the\\nothers, and the excessive excretions produce discomfort,\\nand often inflammatory disease of greater or less danger.\\nThe skin is also intimately connected with the internal\\norgans by nerves and vessels. Hence, if it be severely\\ninjured, as by an extensive burn, these organs may become\\ninflamed and death may result. Conversely, because of\\nthe same intimate connection, or sympathy, as it is\\nsometimes called, indigestion often causes eruptions to\\nappear upon the skin.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN. 87\\n86. The Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics upon the Skin.\\nAlcohol, taken in small quantities, temporarily flushes\\nand gives a feeling of warmth to the skin, by increasing\\nthe flow of blood through its minute blood-vessels. By\\nrepeated indulgence in its use, the skin of the face\\nbecomes puffy and has the blotched appearance so charac-\\nteristic in the confirmed drunkard. This condition is due\\npartly to a paralysis of the muscles of the blood-vessels,\\nthe consequent dilatation of these vessels and a stag-\\nnation of blood, and partly to an interference with the\\ncirculation of blood in other portions of the body. The\\ncongestion of the blood so caused interferes with the nutri-\\ntion of the skin and the exercise of its functions.\\nAlcoholics are frequently used under the impression\\nthat they afford warmth. Persons relying upon them for\\nthis purpose are apt to suffer intensely when exposed to\\nsevere cold. 1 That they temporarily furnish a feeling of\\nwarmth in the skin is evident, but the increased heat\\nbrought to the surface of the body by the increased vol-\\nume of blood disarranges the heat equilibrium of the body\\nand is soon dispelled by radiation.\\nAs Dr. Brunton 2 puts it Alcohol does warm a man\\nin one way it warms his skin and warms the ends of\\nthe nerves in the skin, and thus conveys to his sensorium 3\\nthe feeling of warmth, but at the expense of internal\\norgans, by dilating cutaneous vessels. Arctic observers\\ndo not like their men to drink alcoholics. A party\\n1 Dr. Kane, in his Arctic Explorations, says: Coffee in the morning\\nseemed to last the men through a large part of the day, and tea soothed\\nthem after a day s labor and exposure. They both operated upon fatigued\\nand overtaxed men like a charm, and their superiority over alcoholic\\nstimulants was very marked.\\n2 Lectures on the Action of Medicines, ISOT.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "THE KIDXEYS.\\nof engineers were surveying in the Sierra Nevada. They\\ncamped at a great height above the sea level, where the\\nair was very cold, and they\\nwere miserable. Some of\\nthem drank a little whis-\\nkey, and felt less uncom-\\nfortable some of them\\ndrank a lot of whiskey,\\nand went to bed feeling\\nvery jolly and comfort-\\nable indeed. But, in the\\nmorning, the men who\\nhad not taken any whis-\\nkey got up all right\\nthose who had taken a\\nlittle whiskey got up feel-\\ning very unhappy the\\nmen who had taken a lot\\nof whiskey did not get\\nup at all. they were\\nsimply frozen to death.\\nThey had warmed the sur-\\nface of the body at the expense of their internal organs.\\n87. The habitual use of tobacco, and sometimes the oc-\\ncasional use, tends to interfere with the nutrition of the\\nskin, and is apt to make the face pale and unhealthy-\\nlooking.\\nOpium and other narcotic drugs have a similar tendency.\\nFig. 38.\\nSection of Kidney. (Geat.)\\nII. THE KIDXEYS.\\n88. The Kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, lying in\\nthe back of the abdomen, just under the diaphragm, one", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE KIDNEYS.\\n89\\non each side of the vertebral column. They are well\\nsupplied with blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and\\nare composed of two parts, a cortical or outer portion, and\\nan inner or medullary portion, made up of small tubes\\nseparated by connective tissue and arranged in the form\\nof pyramids. These tubes open at the apices of the pyra-\\nmids into a cavity known as the pelvis, which connects\\nwith the bladder by means of a long duct, the ureter.\\nThey are known as uriniferous tubules and are lined by\\na single layer of secreting cells. The outer end of each\\ntubule terminates in a dilation which contains a knot of\\ncapillary blood-vessels.\\n89. Function of the Kidneys. The kidneys filter water,\\nsalts, and most of the urea from the blood. The urea is\\nthe result of a final oxidation of\\nthe nitrogenous material of the\\nbody, and, if not thrown out of\\nthe body, it becomes exceed-\\ningly poisonous. This excre-\\ntion is effected mainly by the\\nurine, through the kidneys.\\nThe amount of this fluid should\\nbe slightly more than the water\\ntaken into the body in twenty-\\nfour hours.\\nSevere cold, or any disease\\nor stimulation that impairs the\\nfunctional activity of the kid-\\nneys, tends to an accumulation in the blood of poisonous\\nnitrogenous wastes.\\n90. Effects of Alcohol upon the Kidneys. Alcohol\\nexcites the kidneys to increased activity, by dilation of\\nFig. 39.\\nUriniferous Tubule and Dilation.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "90 THE KIDNEYS.\\ntheir blood-vessels and irritation of their structural cells.\\nIts repeated use frequently leads to a more or less perma-\\nnent dilation of the urinary tubules, destruction of the\\nsecreting cells, fatty infiltration of the cortical substance,\\nand either contraction or enlargement of the kidneys,\\ni.e. Bright s disease and other diseases of the kidneys.\\nAs to tobacco, opium, and other narcotics, no special\\neffects on the kidneys are noted.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Describe the skin and name its different layers.\\n2. Locate and describe the dermis.\\n3. What are the papillae, and what peculiar power resides in them\\n4. Where is the subcutaneous tissue, and what does it contain\\n5. Where is the epidermis, of what is it composed, and what passes\\nthrough it? What is its function?\\n6. To what is the color of the skin owing?\\n7. What are the appendages of the skin?\\n8. Describe the sweat glands and their functions.\\n9. What affects the flow of perspiration, and, if checked, what\\nfollows\\n10. Describe the sebaceous glands and their uses.\\n11. Describe the hair and its uses the nails and their uses.\\n12. What are the functions of the skin? Describe each.\\n13. Explain why the skin and other excretory organs are mutually\\naffected by the condition of each other.\\n14. What connection has the condition of the skin with the general\\nhealth\\n15. How does alcohol interfere with the functions of the skin?\\n16. Why is it unreliable as a heat producer?\\n17. Where are the kidneys, how are they arranged, and what is their\\nfunction\\n18. How does the repeated use of alcohol impair their function", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nBATHING.\\n91. The Value of Bathing. Though bathing has at all\\ntimes been considered of value, its full importance as a\\nsanitary measure is not even yet generally appreciated.\\nThe bathing establishments of the Ancients were many\\nand magnificent, and were patronized by multitudes daily,\\npartly for health, but largely because bathing in them was\\ninexpensive, and the baths were luxuriously appointed.\\nIn Eastern countries, bathing has always been a religious\\nrite. From time to time it has been regarded as a diver-\\nsion by the devotees of fashion. It should be a religious\\nduty, a sanitary measure, and a perpetual fashion.\\n92. Bathing as a Sanitary Measure. First. It assists the\\nskin in the discharge of its functions, and so materially helps\\nto maintain health, beauty, and endurance. It fortifies\\nthe body against colds, 1 fevers, certain skin eruptions, 2 and\\ninternal disorders. Various skin and contagious diseases\\n1 Dr. C. R. Agnew, after twenty-nine years practice in New York City,\\nwrote: Inattention to health laws produces defects in tissue building.\\nThere is a morbid sensibility of the skin and mucous membranes. I\\narrive at the causes by the result of treatment, for I find that by proper\\nshoeing, open fires, the cold bath in the morning on rising, followed by\\nbrisk rubbing with a pair of English bath-mittens and the use of the\\nstrap, and by the exposure of the skin to the air, very many times catarrhs\\ndisappear without any local treatment whatever.\\n2 It is the testimony of many persons that systematic bathing prevents\\nand cures chafing of the skin much better than powders, ointments, etc.\\n91", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "92 BATHING.\\nowe their origin to, and spread most rapidly among, the\\nslovenly in the crowded parts of cities.\\nSecond. It removes dirt, odors, and poisonous materials.\\nPerspiration, ordinarily a harmless fluid, if allowed to\\naccumulate upon the skin and mingle with dirt of various\\nkinds, clogs the pores. It may even undergo chemical\\nchanges, and become an irritant or produce poisonous\\nmatter which may be absorbed into the system.\\nThird. Skin cleanliness augments the nutritive effects of\\nfood. 1 In other words, the assimilation of new materials\\nis promoted by a thorough removal of the old.\\n93. Proper Bathing is that which is adapted to the age,\\nhealth, peculiarities, and occupation of the individual. It\\nshould be performed in a comfortable atmosphere, and be\\naccompanied by a brisk rubbing of the skin, with the\\nhands, a flesh brush, or mittens made of coarse crash.\\nIt should be followed by a thorough drying with a firm,\\ngood-sized towel, or, in the case of old and feeble persons,\\nby friction over a loose flannel gown put on the dampened\\nskin. 2 As very young children lose heat rapidly, they\\nshould, after a bath, be very promptly but gently rubbed,\\ndried, and warmed.\\n94. Soap is generally necessary as an adjunct of bathing,\\nto remove greasy particles by its chemical action. It should\\nbe made of good animal or vegetable fat, combined with\\n1 The eminent English sanitarian, Mr. Chad wick, said: It should\\ntherefore be preached to the poor, as an additional inducement to skin\\ncleanliness, that the same food which is required to make four children\\nthat are kept dirty thrive, will serve to make five thrive whose skins are\\ndaily washed and kept clean.\\n2 Considerable comfort may be derived from friction (especially of the\\nupper part of the body) with mittens merely dampened, or by dry rubbing\\nwith mittens or with the bare hands.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "BATHING. 93\\npotash or borax, as is castile, cotton-seed oil, olive oil,\\nand palm oil soap. Soaps containing an excess of alkali,\\nor made from poor fats or oils, or containing other impuri-\\nties, irritate the skin and produce eruptions. 1 If the skin\\nis sensitive or harsh and dry, it may be well to apply a\\nlittle vaseline or oil, rather than to use soap.\\n95. Times for Bathing. Though the very strong and\\nhealthy may, with impunity, bathe at almost any time,\\nmost persons should not take more than a sponge bath\\nbefore breakfast, as at that time the bodily powers are\\nweakest nor take a prolonged bath when fatigued, or\\njust before or just after a hearty meal or unusual exer-\\ncise. About 11 a.m. is a suitable time for most persons.\\nThose who are feeble and catch cold easily can generally\\nbathe more safely just before going to bed. After bath-\\ning, they need extra warm bed-clothing, but should not\\nhave enough to produce sweating. 2\\n96. Varieties of Baths. Ordinary fresh-water baths are\\nclassified as hot, warm, tepid, temperate, cool, and cold. 3\\nThe shower bath stimulates the skin by the force of the\\nwater, as well as by its temperature. Salt water baths,\\n1 Among the very poor, common laundry soaps are frequently used for\\ntoilet purposes. Some of these soaps are injurious. The demand for\\ncheap articles has brought into the market many toilet soaps, too cheap\\nto be always reliable.\\n2 At the seaside, only the hardiest should attempt an early morning-\\ndip in the surf. Many persons are injured by bathing very soon after a\\nhearty meal of clams or other shell-fish. Such food needs strong digestive\\npowers and ample time for digestion. This process is interfered with by\\nsuch bathing, and blood is diverted in increased quantity into weak blood-\\nvessels, sometimes causing apoplexy and death.\\n8 Hot, 08\u00c2\u00b0 to 112\u00c2\u00b0 F. Warm, 92\u00c2\u00b0 to 98\u00c2\u00b0 F. Tepid, 85\u00c2\u00b0 to 92\u00c2\u00b0 F. Tem-\\nperate, 75\u00c2\u00b0 to 85\u00c2\u00b0 F. Cool, 00\u00c2\u00b0 to 75\u00c2\u00b0 F. Cold, 30\u00c2\u00b0 bo 60\u00c2\u00b0 F.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "94 BATHING.\\nmineral baths, and others are resorted to either for clean-\\nliness, for their supposed medicinal effects, or as a means\\nof nourishment. Among these are the Russian or vapor\\nbath, 1 the Turkish or hot-air bath, 2 and the cold air, broth,\\nand even mud and blood baths.\\nSalt-water bathiiig has much greater tonic effects than\\nbathing in fresh water. At the sea-shore the air, also,\\ncontains particles of salt. There, too, are new scenes and\\nsurroundings, and the water, dashing with force against\\nthe body, gives occasion to vigorous muscular exercise.\\nAll this exercise, combined with the stimulating properties\\nof the salt water itself, tends greatly to quicken the cir-\\nculation, and to add value to the bath. But to obtain all\\nthe good effects, the bather should first thoroughly wet the\\nhead and shoulders, then dash into the water, move briskly\\nabout, and come out before feeling tired or chilly. He\\nshould then rub dry and dress quickly. 3\\nMineral baths are baths of water containing various\\nnatural or artificial mineral salts. Certain mineral springs\\nthose of Arkansas and West Virginia, for example\\nare much resorted to by invalids.\\nThe Turkish bath is a valuable method of cleansing\\nthe body and equalizing the circulation, and is generally\\npreferred to the Russian bath, where the air is hot and\\nmoist. But after the bath, the bather should remain in\\nthe waiting-room for a considerable time before venturing\\ni 100\u00c2\u00b0 to 130\u00c2\u00b0 F. 2 110 to 200\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\n3 Salt water, being more dense than fresh, is much easier to float and\\nswim in, and is for this reason preferred by bathers. The weight of the\\nlive human body, with the lungs healthy and inflated, is generally less\\nthan the same bulk of water hence, it need not sink in either fresh or\\nsalt water. Sometimes persons do sink because they become alarmed,\\nand, in their fright, fail to inflate the lungs, but raise the arms, thereby\\nsubmerging the mouth and nostrils.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "BATHING. 95\\ninto the outer air, and then should be well wrapped up\\nand should not expose himself to draughts by standing\\non street corners, or by riding in open vehicles. He may,\\nto advantage, take a moderate walk. 1\\nThe ancients esteemed sun baths for their remedial\\neffects, and had places arranged in their gardens and\\nbuildings where the body could be exposed to the sun s\\nrays (a). At the present time, much value, in certain\\nquarters, is attached to the sun bath. 2 In some parts of\\nGermany, mud baths are used for their supposed medicinal\\neffects. So milk, blood, broth, and oil are in some places\\napplied to the skin as nourishing agents. Rubbing with\\noil or vaseline after a bath is known as a Roman bath,\\nand is sometimes of value in softening harsh skins and\\nincreasing warmth. 3\\n97. Adaptation of Baths. Temperate and tepid baths,\\nwhich promptly quicken the flow of blood and make the\\nskin glow, agree with most persons, whatever their age\\nand condition. But the tendency is, on account of the\\ncomfort they afford, to prolong them beyond the limit of\\nsafety, and then they are followed by chilliness, muscular\\ndebility, depression of spirits, and sometimes by inflam-\\nmation of the throat or lungs. It is desirable to become\\n1 In the East, where the Turkish baths are very thorough and are\\naccompanied by much shampooing and friction, the skin of only one\\nweek s date, when collected, is often as large as one s fist. Sydney\\nSmith, in a letter from a hot bath in Germany, says They have already\\nscraped enough off me to make a curate.\\n2 Some institutions, as the New York Hospital and the Hospital for\\nCrippled Children, have their Solaria, or sun-rooms, in which certain fee-\\nble persons are placed each day.\\n8 The South Sea Islanders are said to anoint the body freely with the\\noil of the cocoanut before and after bathing in the sea. This is sup-\\nposed to increase their powers of endurance in the water.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "96 BATHING.\\naccustomed to cool water if we wish the tonic effects of\\nbathing. This can often be accomplished by gradually\\nlowering the temperature of the bath a little each time,\\nor by following up a sponging with tepid water by one\\nwith cool water. 1 It should, however, be quickly per-\\nformed in a warm room, and be accompanied by a brisk\\nrubbing of the skin.\\nFor very young children, a sponge or dip bath of tepid\\nwater is desirable each day or on alternate days. But\\nthe child should gradually become accustomed to cool\\nwater.\\nOlder children who frequently exercise in the open air\\nmay bathe to advantage daily in very cool water, if the\\nbath be a short one, and followed by brisk friction.\\nMany adults are benefited by such daily bathing, and\\npersons who work in a dusty atmosphere may need even\\nmore than one bath a day. If, from any cause, the\\nentire body cannot be bathed, the bathing of the head,\\nneck, chest, and feet will afford comfort and strength.\\nIn the case of old and feeble persons, whose circulation\\nis sluggish, tepid water alone should be used.\\n98. The immediate effect of very cool or cold water ap-\\nplied to the skin is to chill the surface of the body the\\nfirst shiver It lowers the temperature, produces pallor\\nby driving the blood inwards, and gives rise to the appear-\\nance called goose skin, through contraction of the skin\\nmuscles, especially those attached to the hair follicles. In\\n1 Such bathing, lasting only from five to eight minutes, is valuable in\\nthe morning, on rising, for most people. Sometimes a few drops of\\nammonia-water or some salt, added to the water of a bath, renders it\\nmore stimulating. Children and feeble persons have repeatedly become\\naccustomed to cool and even cold baths by gradual training as above.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "BATHING. 97\\na vigorous person, reaction promptly follows. The skin\\nbecomes warm from the blood returning to it in increased\\namount. The bather should leave the bath before the\\nsecondary effects the second shiver appear, i.e.\\nchilliness, lassitude, blueness of lips and finger nails, and\\nin some instances great prostration. This second shiver\\nis always a danger signal.\\n99. Hot and cold baths are to be used with caution,\\nespecially by persons with heart disease, or far advanced\\nin consumption, or when very feeble or greatly fatigued.\\nHot-water baths are more cleansing than cold-water, but\\nare generally more relaxing, and have not the tonic\\nproperties of the latter. Hot water applied to the skin\\npromptly stimulates it, and is as promptly followed by\\nchilliness, lassitude, and prostration, if the bather is not\\nrobust and active, or if the bath-room is cool. Once a\\nweek is often enough to use a hot-water bath. If fre-\\nquently resorted to, danger may result from over-stimula-\\ntion and subsequent depression of the heart and nervous\\nsystem. Persons in robust health may enjoy frequent\\nbathing in cold water, even in cool rooms, if the bathing\\noccupies but a short time and is followed by brisk fric-\\ntion but the practice is attended with risk. 1\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Why is bathing important to health\\n2. Upon what do the times, manner, and hours of bathing depend?\\n3. What is the proper bathing for different ages?\\n1 There are people, undoubtedly, who can break the ice in ponds, and\\nplunge in with impunity, but most persons cannot. Sometimes bathing\\nmust be so nicely adapted to the individual s needs that only a physician\\ncan decide what kind it must be, and how and when it is to be resorted to.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "BATHING.\\n4. What effects follow proper and what improper bathing?\\n5. What are the effects of cold and warm water respectively\\n6. What are the best times for bathing?\\n7. How are water baths classified, and what can you say of the\\nseveral kinds?\\n8. What other baths are there? Of what use are they?\\n9. What can you say about soap", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII.\\nCLOTHING.\\n100. Uses of Clothing. First. The great object of cloth-\\ning is to prevent the loss of animal heat. Clothing not\\nonly hinders too rapid evaporation from the body, but\\nbeing non-conducting, it prevents a loss of heat from\\ndirect contact with the outer air and other cold objects,\\nand materially checks radiation. We are thus enabled to\\nbear more easily sudden changes of temperature.\\nSecond. It economizes the animal forces by the retention\\nof heat and by the comfort it affords. An exhausting ex-\\npenditure of nervous and muscular energy to create animal\\nheat is thereby avoided, and the food, instead of being\\nused up as fuel in supplying a constant waste, is saved for\\nthe construction and repair of tissue. It is well known\\nthat both human beings and animals, when warm, require\\nless food and can do better work than when cold.\\nThird. It protects the body from heat, dust, and other\\nexternal sources of injury, particularly from the injuri-\\nous influences of the winds, damp air, rain, hail, and snow,\\nand from contact with poisonous substances.\\nFourth. Clothing is a covering and an ornament for the\\nbody.\\n101. Proper Clothing. Nature provides the inferior ani-\\nmals with a natural covering that is beautiful, complete,\\nand admirably adapted for varying seasons and climates;\\nbut man, in this as in other respects, is left with a power\\n00", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "100 CLOTHING.\\nof choice, and must take the consequences. Clothing\\nshould be made to fit the form, and not the form the\\nclothing. It should be chosen for comfort rather than\\nfor style, though clothing may be both comfortable and\\nstylish. It should be of the quantity, quality, and color\\nbest adapted to the varying needs of the wearer. It\\nshould be light, dry, clean, and properly ventilated.\\n102. Bad Effects of Tight Clothing. We have already seen\\nthat freedom of movement is indispensable in the various\\nforms of muscular exercise, and in the performance of vital\\nprocesses. It follows, therefore, that any clothing which\\ninterferes with this freedom is to be avoided.\\nHeavy or tightly fitting head coverings overheat the\\nscalp and exclude the air. 1 Their pressure obstructs the\\nblood supply and the free action of the nerves, inducing\\nheadache and baldness. Tight cravats, collars, and bands\\npress upon the windpipe and the important blood-vessels,\\nnerves, and other structures of the neck, thereby impeding\\nthe passage of air, blood, and nerve currents, and pro-\\nducing discomfort, a sense of fulness in the head, head-\\nache, and disturbance of vision. Some years ago many\\nBritish soldiers fell victims to close military stocks,\\nwhich, obstructing the easy return of the blood from the\\nhead, produced cerebral congestions and apoplexy.\\nThe shoulders should bear a large part of the weight of\\nclothing. The pressure of arm-hole seams and shoulder\\nbands upon the arms below the shoulder-joints hinders\\nthe free play of those important members, and is an ob-\\nstruction to proper muscular exercise.\\nThe normal movements of the lungs, heart, and other\\n1 The helmet hats now worn by soldiers are of light weight, good color,\\nand well ventilated. Formerly soldiers head-gear was tight and heavy.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "CLOTHING.\\n101\\norgans are disturbed when-\\never the free movements of\\nthe ribs are restrained by\\ntight coats, corsets, or vests\\n(a). Such compression, more\\nthan any other, deranges\\nthe vital processes, and pro-\\nduces suffering which is often\\nreferred to other causes.\\nAmong its effects are lassi-\\ntude, headache, cold feet,\\nshortness of breath when\\nexercising, dyspepsia, faint-\\nness, many derangements of\\nthe functions of internal or-\\ngans, and sometimes deform-\\nities of the chest. 1\\nTight belts impede the\\nmovements of the abdominal\\norgans, and may cause vari-\\nous disorders. Elastic bands\\nin garters and shoetops are\\nsometimes so tight as to\\naffect the circulation of blood\\nin the parts pressed upon.\\nFig. 40.\\nComposite photograph of girl in corset ami\\nwithout corset; an exact reproduction.\\nNote the two outlines at the waist.\\nThis is not what is called tight lac-\\ning, but from a working costume.\\n(Dickinson).\\n1 It is well known to medical examiners of life insurance companies and\\nfor the army and navy, that the measurement around (he middle of the\\nchest, even with the clothes on, should show at least two inches difference\\nbetween the chest expanded by full inspiration and contracted by Eorced\\nexpiration. The difference, in health, is from 2 to I inches, the average\\nbeing about 3. Now, a chest that expands (after being emptied as far as\\npossible of air) only 1^ to If inches with bight garments on. will often\\nexpand 2\\\\ to inches with the garments removed. This latter degree of\\nexpansion is the normal one, and any garment that lessens it is too tight.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "102\\nCLOTHING.\\n103. No articles of dress, perhaps, need to be so nicely\\nadjusted, for the comfort of the individual, as boots and\\nshoes. 1 If too large, they cause discomfort, corns and bun-\\nions, and loss of temper; if too small, they do all this and\\nFig. 41.\\nVertical section of right foot, showing the arches and the relations of the various\\nstructures.\\nB, bones.\\nM, muscles.\\nT, tendons\\nF, fat.\\nC, connective tissue.\\nBL, blood-vessels.\\nmore; they interfere with muscular exercise, cause cold\\nfeet, pain, and deformity.\\nIn shoes modelled upon lasts of wrong shape the weight\\nis thrown upon or toward the outer side of the foot, instead\\nof being borne, as it should be, directly over a line drawn\\nfrom the middle of the heel to the middle of the big toe. 2\\n1 It is said that the Duke of Wellington, being questioned as to the\\nmost essential requisite of a soldier s clothing, replied, A good pair of\\nshoes. What next A spare pair of good shoes and even thirdly, A\\nspare pair of soles. Mapothek, Lectures on Public Health.\\n2 Unfortunately, normal feet are rare, because properly constructed\\nand fitting shoes are by many not considered stylish enough. It is not a\\nquestion of square, round, or pointed toe. The shape is a matter of fancy.\\nBut the selection of a shoe is a question of free motion of instep, ankle,\\nand toes, and comfort from non-pressure.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "CLOTHING.\\n103\\nIf to such shoes high heels are added, and especially\\nif they are near the middle of the soles, an unnatural\\nmincing gait, not\\nunattended with\\ndanger, is the re-\\nsult. The weight\\nof the body being\\nthrown forward\\nupon the toes, the\\nligaments of the\\nvarious joints are\\nstrained, especially\\nthose of the spi-\\nnal column, knees,\\nankles, and toes.\\nThe muscles of\\nthe back of the leg are deprived of their share of work.\\nOverriding and other deformities of the toes are pro-\\nduced and in some instances, important tendons which\\npass around the outer ankles are thrown out of their\\ngrooves, and lameness results.\\nB\\nFig. 42.\\nA, normal foot, proper position of toes.\\nB, normal foot, with an outline of the front part of an\\nimproper shoe.\\nC, toes crowded out of position as result of wearing such\\nan improper shoe.\\nFig-. 43.\\nAn improper shoe.\\nFig. 44.\\nA proper shoo.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "104 CLOTHING.\\nBoots and shoes should fit the feet snugly, especially\\nover the instep, but should allow free movements of the\\nvarious joints. They should have broad soles, low and\\nbroad heels, 1 should not cramp the toes, should be hollowed\\nout but little on the inner side, and should be so shaped\\nthat the weight of the body may be borne where nature\\nintended it to be. These simple requisites will give us\\nsensible, comfortable, and good-looking foot coverings.\\n104. The Quantity of Clothing should be sufficient to keep\\nthe body comfortably warm, and should be increased or\\ndiminished with the change of season or of temperature.\\nIt is, of course, important that the body should be able\\nto bear slight changes in temperature but the practice\\nof hardening by exjiosure (as is sometimes done with\\nthe limbs of little children) is attended with danger. 2\\nNeither is it prudent to throw aside warm clothing before\\nthe actual onset of warm weather, or to delay putting it on\\ntill cold weather has far advanced.\\n105. On the other hand, too much clothing has also its\\nbad effects. It induces free perspiration, which, retained\\nin contact with the skin, proves an irritant. The skin,\\nfrom being unaccustomed to the stimulating effects of a\\ntonic atmosphere, becomes susceptible to very ordinary\\nchanges in temperature. Hence, thick wrappings worn\\nabout the neck, such as tippets or fur collars, tend to\\nmake one subject to throat affections, especially if the\\n1 Not more than half an inch high. For young children spring heels\\nmay be best. The shoe should be a little longer than the foot.\\n2 Proper care of the skin, by systematic bathing and well-regulated\\nclothing, will in reality harden, while exposure of tender skins is dan-\\ngerous to health and life.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "CLOTHING. 105\\nwrappings be removed where there is any draught of\\nair. 1\\nAs far as possible, clothing should cover all parts of the\\nbody equally. Hence, padding a part of the clothing,\\nwhile other portions are made quite thin, is objectionable.\\nSo, too, full dress, in the fashionable sense, is not full\\nenough in a cold room, or on going out of an overheated\\nroom in cold weather. Warmth, however, depends more\\nupon the material and structure of the clothing than upon\\nthe quantity.\\n106. Lightness, Ventilation, and Warmth are desirable\\nqualities in clothing, and may be combined in a loosely\\nwoven cloth, the meshes of which contain confined air.\\nAir is one of the best non-conductors of heat known but\\nif left free, it abstracts heat by promoting evaporation from\\nthe skin, and by keeping up a continual contact of fresh\\nnil warmed particles. Confined air, however, prevents rapid\\nevaporation, as well as radiation and the actual contact of\\ncolder bodies. Hence mittens are warmer than gloves,\\nbecause they contain more confined air, and also because\\nthe fingers are in contact. Two pairs of cotton stockings\\nafford more warmth than one pair, because of the air\\nbetween them. For the same reason, two undershirts\\nmay be better than an overcoat, and are an especial pro-\\ntection against sudden exposure. So woollen stockings\\n1 A regiment of infantry, according- to Baron Percy, being on their\\nmarch in hot and stormy weather, the soldiers became heated and out of\\nbreath. The colonel permitted them to take oil their stocks. Soon after-\\nwards they entered a gorge of the Vosges. exposed to the northwest wind,\\nwithout, covering the neck. On the following day 7;\u00c2\u00bb soldiers were sent\\nto the hospital, the greater part attacked with inflammatory sore throat,\\nand, in a few days, more than 300 others were taken sick, apparently from\\nthe same exposure. Dunglison, On Human Health.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "106 CLOTHING.\\ndrawn over shoes are more comfortable, when walking\\nthrough snow, than even thick shoes. Felt shoes are\\nwarmer than leather ones. Loosely knit head coverings\\nworn by women are both light and very warm.\\n107. Clothing frequently worn needs a texture that will\\nadmit fresh air through it, or should be so arranged that\\nthe air may pass beneath it. Tightly woven and close-\\nfitting underclothing or impervious rubber outer gar-\\nments do not allow the impurities from the skin to escape.\\nMuch better are the loosely woven, net-like under-gar-\\nments now made, and the modern, gossamers, which in\\nsome instances are ventilated by valve-like openings under\\nthe arms and on the back. 1 While it is prudent to\\nprovide ourselves with overcoats, wraps, and rubber gar-\\nments during a storm, they should be removed, or at\\nleast unfastened, when indoors or when not exposed to\\ninclement weather.\\n108. Dryness and Cleanliness. Wet clothing chills the\\nskin, cools the air in contact with it, hinders the escape of\\nimpurities, and should be removed as soon as possible, the\\nbody made dry and warm, and dry clothing substituted.\\nIf caught in a storm when unprovided with wraps, the\\nincreased animal heat afforded by walking or other con-\\ntinuous exercise will usually avert evil consequences.\\nIt is important that clothing for the night, including\\nbed coverings, should be light, dry, airy, and warm. 2 There\\n1 The oil-skin coats worn by sailors, and made of cotton cloth treated\\nwith alnm, linseed oil, etc. are light, water-proof, and by their texture\\nventilated. Rubber boots and overshoes, worn frequently and for a long\\ntime, are likely to cause chilblains. An outside garment of leather,\\nlined with wool, is comfortable for those exposed to severe cold.\\n2 A few folds of newspaper put between two blankets or other covers\\nwill furnish sufficient bed-clothing for a bitter winter s night. In addi-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "CLOTHING. 107\\nshould be a complete change of clothing at night. Much\\nwakefulness and feverishness is undoubtedly due, if not\\nto impure air, to unaired clothing. As Miss Nightingale\\nputs it Feverishness is generally supposed to be a\\nsymptom of fever, in nine cases out of ten it is a symp-\\ntom of bedding.\\nUnclean clothing, besides keeping the skin in a foul\\ncondition, becomes a receptacle for germs of disease. 1\\nClothing worn by attendants in cases of scarlet fever,\\nsmall-pox, or other contagious diseases should be burned\\nor disinfected as soon as possible (a).\\n109. Color and Dyes. Color in dress is not merely a\\nmatter of taste, but is an important consideration from a\\nsanitary standpoint. Benjamin Franklin demonstrated, by\\nmeans of various colored cloths placed upon the surface\\nof snow under the sun s rays, that black was the warmest\\ncolor, and white the coolest. Dark colors are best for\\ngeneral use in cold weather, and white, gray, etc., in hot. 2\\ntion to the superior non-conducting quality of paper, its porosity allows\\na ready escape of the insensible perspiration without the cooling effects of\\nevaporation. The sleeper is kept, therefore, dry and warm, and never\\nexperiences that clammy dampness which results from thicker bed-cloth-\\ning nor does he suffer from an oppressing weight. He will soon accus-\\ntom himself to the rattle of the paper. Paper is also used to advantage in\\nthe shape of undervests, and in the soles of shoes. As to bed-clothing\\nso-called comfortables are sometimes very uncomfortable, on account\\nof their weight, which impedes the circulation and prevents the escape of\\nthe insensible perspiration, and the sleeper awakes in the morning damp\\nand even uncomfortably cold.\\n1 Skirts and trousers so long that they gather and hold tilth from the\\nstreets are for sanitary reasons to be deprecated.\\n2 Clothing has frequently been the agent through which infectious\\ndisease has been propagated. Judging from Stark s observations on the\\npower of absorbing odors, the probability is that contagion is absorbed\\nafter the same manner. Stark found that the absorption of odors was in", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "108 CLOTHING.\\nOwing to the demand for cheap and bright-colored\\nclothing, poor material, sometimes colored with cheap and\\npoisonous dyes containing arsenic, copper, etc., is thrown\\nupon the market. Clothing, such as socks, tights, or\\nundershirts, is dangerous if so colored, since it usually\\ncomes in direct contact with the skin. 1 The dyes act with\\nespecial force in hot weather, when they are dissolved by\\nperspiration.\\n110. Material. In our variable climate, woollen under-\\ngarments should be worn, of varying thicknesses for the\\ndifferent seasons. Intermediate garments, such as waists\\nand vests, should be made with especial reference to wear,\\nwhile the outer garments may be arranged with greater\\nregard to the mere appearance. Woollen or silk cloth is\\na better retainer of heat than cotton or linen. Woollen\\ncloth is filled with confined air, and its ability to retain\\nmoisture, whether from the skin or from outside, prevents\\nthe cooling effects of rapid evaporation. Hence flannel\\nand merino, in our changeable climate, make excellent\\nunder, intermediate, or outer garments. 2\\nproportion to the hygroscopic absorption, and that it depended in a great\\nmeasure upon color black absorbing most, then blue, red, green, yellow,\\nand lastly white. For a nurse, a dark woollen garment is the worst and\\nlight-colored cotton best. Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health.\\n1 The symptoms produced vary somewhat; usually they consist in\\nredness and staining of the part, followed by swelling, itching, and\\nsmarting, with the formation of little blisters or vesicles, which break\\nand give exit to a discharge. The part affected then becomes decidedly\\npainful, and is occasionally greatly swollen. There is also a great deal of\\nconstitutional disturbance, and in fact the sufferer is quite ill. The\\npeculiar staining of the skin, coinciding with the particular hue and\\npattern (bars, stripes, etc.) of the colored article, at once suggests the\\ncause of the mischief. The Skin and its Troubles. Health Primer.\\n2 The favorite prescription of the celebrated English physician, John\\nHunter, for the rearing of children, was plenty of milk, plenty of", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "CLOTHING. 109\\nSilk is the next most suitable material, especially for\\nundergarments then cotton and lastly linen. Linen\\nbeing a good conductor, and thin and closely woven, is\\ntoo cool for use in winter or in a changeable climate.\\nNeither is it suitable for an undergarment where the wearer\\nis working hard or is exposed to great heat and draughts\\nof air. Linen, cotton, or silk garments may be worn next\\nthe skin, with flannel over them, by those whose skins are\\nirritated by flannel. 1\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Why does clothing keep us comfortable, and what other use has it\\n2. What are the evil effects of tight clothing? Illustrate.\\n3. What is said of too tight and too heavy clothing, respectively?\\n4. What are the three desirable qualities in clothing, and how are\\nthey best combined?\\n5. How and why may air be made useful in our clothing? Illustrate.\\n6. Why should clothing have ventilation\\n7. What are the bad effects of wet clothing\\n8. Of what sort should our bed covering be?\\n9. What may result from unclean clothing?\\n10. Of what importance is the color of clothing?\\n11. What bad effects have improper dyes?\\n12. AVhat is to be said of the different materials for clothing?\\nsleep, and plenty of flannel. 1 It is stated by physicians in hot countries\\nthat the wearing of wide flannel bandages (doubled) over the abdomen is\\na capital safeguard against cholera, bowel affections, and a sudden check\\nof the perspiration. Street laborers, soldiers, and factorymen find by\\nexperience that they can wear flannel with comfort when exposed to\\nvarying changes in the atmosphere and at hard work. It is said that in\\nrainy weather sailors wring out the water from their woollen jackets and\\nput them on again, seldom catching cold.\\n1 Cloth or clothing should not be bought simply because it is cheap.\\nMuch of the cheap cloth is math 1 of odds and ends, rolled or otherwise\\npressed into shape, and is known as shoddy. It is of little value for\\nclothing.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX.\\nDIGESTION. -THE CONVERSION OP POOD INTO\\nTISSUES.\\n111. Nutrition. The maintenance of life, our growth\\nand development, and the production and utilization of\\nvarious forms of energy, all depend upon the vitality of\\nthe innumerable cells of which the body is composed.\\nThis vitality is largely influenced by food. kk From the\\nfood the blood is fed; from the blood the tissues are fed.\\nFor the proper nourishment of the body, there must be\\na daily income of food and oxygen, and a daily outgo of\\nthe refuse of food and tissues in the shape of ivastes.\\nThese, if retained in the body for any length of time,\\ndecompose and are likely to form poisons. Wastes are\\nexcreted inainly by the lungs, skin, and kidneys, in the\\nform of water, carbon dioxide, and urea. The large intes-\\ntine gets rid of such materials as skins of fruit and vege-\\ntables, and food substances that have not been converted\\ninto blood, all associated with water and refuse secretions.\\nNutrition, which accomplishes all this, is a complex\\nprocess. It involves the reception, digestion, and absorp-\\ntion of food, the absorption of oxygen, the conveyance of\\nabsorbed food and oxygen to all parts of the body, the\\nbuilding up of tissues by assimilation, the breaking down\\nof tissues, and the taking up of waste materials thus\\nproduced and conveying them to excretory organs for\\nexpulsion from the body.\\n110", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. HI\\n112. Digestion. Man, being an omnivorous animal, is\\nable to live on a large number of food substances. The\\nconditions of his life demand that this should be so. Part\\nof his food he can eat in its raw state, and dispose of with\\ncomfort the rest he must prepare by cooking. All of it\\nmust be in liquid form to be absorbed, and most of\\nit must be transformed before it can become blood. For\\nthis transformation and liquefaction, mechanical and chem-\\nical agencies are necessary.\\nThe process by which food is converted into blood in\\nthe body is called digestion. The digestive organs consist\\nof the alimentary canal and its accessory organs, the teeth,\\nsalivary glands, liver, and pancreas.\\nIn animal organisms whose food is of an elementary\\ncharacter, these organs are few in number and of simple\\nstructure. The amoeba has no specific digestive organs.\\nIt can take food into its body through any portion of its\\nsubstance, and cast out the waste in the same way. In\\nman, the digestive organs and the process of digestion are\\ncomplex. His food is mechanically broken up by means\\nof the teeth and the churning motion of the stomach. It\\nis chemically acted upon by secretions from the salivary\\nglands, stomach, liver, pancreas, and small intestine. All\\nof these secretions owe their efficacy to substances within\\nthem called ferments. 1 Each ferment acts upon particular\\nfood substances. Some act best in an alkaline, some in\\nan acid medium. All are most active when the body is at\\nits normal temperature.\\n1 That is, ingredients which, by their presence under favorable cir-\\ncumstances of heat and moisture, change the chemical constitution of\\nSubstances for which they have an affinity. The action of yeast, in bread-\\nmaking, is an example of the action of a ferment. Unorganized ferments\\nare sometimes called enzymes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "112\\nDIGESTION.\\n113. The steps by which food is converted into the\\ntissues of the body are mastication, or chewing vnsali-\\nvation, or mixing with\\nthe saliva deglutition, or\\nswallowing stomach and\\nintestinal digestion; absorp-\\ntion, the taking up of\\nthe digested material by\\nthe absorbents (veins and\\nlacteals) circulation, the\\nconveyance of this mate-\\nrial by the blood to all\\nthe tissues; and assimi-\\nlation, the appropriation\\nof it by the cells of the\\ntissues, according to their\\nneeds.\\n114. The Alimentary Canal\\nis a musculo-membrane-\\nous tube, which extends\\nfrom the lips downward\\nthroughout the trunk, and\\nin adults is about thirty\\nfeet in length. In it the\\nfood is digested. It is\\nlined throughout its en-\\ntire length by a delicate\\nbut firm tissue, which is\\ncontinuous with a similar\\nlining within the air pas-\\nsages, the whole being\\nknown as the mucous\\nFig. 45.\\nThe Alimentary Canal.\\nM. mouth.\\nP. pharynx.\\nOK. oesophagus\\nS, stomach.\\nCO, its cardiac\\nopening.\\nPO, its pyloric\\nopening.\\nSI\\nVA. vermiform appendix.\\nLI, large intestine.\\nE, rectum.\\nGB. gall-bladder.\\nBD, bile duct.\\nPD. pancreatic duct.\\nDO, opening of the common\\nduct into small intestines.\\nmall intestine.\\nAccessory Digestive Organs.\\nL, liver. P, pancreas. SP, spleen.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 113\\nmembrane. 1 This membrane is richly supplied with blood-\\nvessels for its own nourishment, and, in certain parts of\\nit, these vessels with lymphatics are peculiarly arranged\\nto carry on the process of absorption. It is well supplied\\nwith nerves. In addition to the gastric and intestinal\\ndigestive juices which the mucous membrane secretes,\\nit is supplied with a viscid fluid called mucus, which\\nprotects it and enables its opposing surfaces to glide\\neasily upon each other in the various movements of the\\ncanal, incident to digestion. 2 The wall of the digestive\\ntract is made up of fibrous connective tissue for strength,\\nand, for the most part, of two layers of involuntary mus-\\ncular fibres, one longitudinal, the other circular. These,\\nby alternately contracting, push the food along.\\nThe alimentary canal varies in its different parts in\\nsize, form, and structure, thereby forming the mouth,\\noesophagus, stomach, and intestines.\\n1 The mucous membrane varies in thickness and general arrangement\\nin its various portions. In the nose and air passages it is thin and\\nsmooth, in the mouth and throat somewhat thicker upon the tongue it is\\ncovered with papillae, in the small intestine with very soft projections\\ncalled villi and in the stomach.it is thrown into ridges. The cells cover-\\ning the surface of the mucous membrane are epithelial cells, and together\\nconstitute the epithelium. Sometimes the mucous membrane is called\\nthe internal skin, from a similarity to the external skin.\\n2 Ordinarily, in health, there is just sufficient mucus to act as a lubri-\\ncant. But in some, young children especially, whose tissues are very\\nsensitive, an excess of mucus is readily induced by an irritation oi the\\nmucous membrane, through indigestible food, exposure of the skin to\\nsudden changes in temperature, and by other means. This excess of\\nmucus may, by coating proper food, interfere with its digestion. On the\\nother hand, if the mucous membrane is not torn, injured, or diseased,\\nsuch an excess, by coating improper articles that have been swallowed,\\nwill generally prevent any injury that might otherwise result from\\nthem.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "114\\nDIGESTION.\\n115. The Mouth is the commencement of the canal. It\\nconsists of the lips in front a cheek on each side a bony\\nFig. 46.\\nA Vertical Section through the Middle of the Pace, Neck, and Upper Vertebrae.\\n1, Cavity in the skull.\\n2, opening of left Eustachian tube.\\n3, the hard palate.\\n4, the soft palate.\\n5, muscular wall in front of tonsil.\\n6, muscular wall behind the tonsil.\\n7, the left tonsil.\\nS, pharynx, or throat.\\n9, the epiglottis.\\n10, the hyoid bone.\\n11, oesophagus.\\n12, the cavity of larynx.\\nroof, or hard palate, separating the mouth from the cavity\\nof the nose, or nasal passages and the tongue below. In", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n115\\nthe back part of the mouth is the soft palate, or cur-\\ntain, that separates the mouth from the pharynx, and\\nwhich is raised in the act of swallowing. The mouth\\ncontains the teeth, and is moistened by the saliva.\\n116. The Pharynx, or throat, is at the first bend of the\\nalimentary canal downwards. It is, in general, funnel-\\nshaped, with its upper portion,\\nor roof, rounded like a buggy-\\ntop. It is slightly constricted\\nin front, on each side, by two\\nmuscular pillars, the pillars of\\nthe fauces, between which are\\nalmond-shaped bodies called ton-\\nsils. Above and behind the soft\\npalate the pharynx communicates\\nwith the nose by two openings,\\nknown as the posterior nares, one\\nfor each nasal passage. In the\\nupper part of the throat, on a line\\nwith the floor of the nose, are the\\nopenings of two ducts, named the\\nEustachian tubes} which connect\\nthe mouth with the organs of\\nhearing. At the lower part of\\nthe throat, in front, is the larynx,\\nor voice box, which opens into\\nthe windpipe or tube leading to\\nthe lungs. Surrounding the phar-\\nynx are three obliquely placed\\nmuscles, styled the constrictors\\nFig. 47.\\nThe Location of the Constrictor\\nMuscles.\\nL.T, the front part of lower jaw, tin\\nremainder being cut away t\u00c2\u00bb\\nshow parts beneath.\\nllli. Hie hyoid bono.\\nTO, thyroid cartilage of larynx.\\nCC, cricoid cartilage of larynx.\\nT, trachea.\\nOK, oesophagus.\\nCM, the constrictor muscles\\nsuperior, middle, and interior.\\n1 Inflammation of the throat sometimes extends through one or both of\\nthese ducts, causing earache or deafness.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "116\\nDIGESTION.\\nof the pharynx. These overlap each other, and, with\\nother muscles, are concerned in the act of swallowing.\\n117. The Oesophagus, or gullet, is the next portion of\\nthe alimentary canal, and connects the pharynx with the\\nstomach, passing through the neck and chest, and ending\\njust below the diaphragm. It lies in front of the spinal\\ncolumn, and its upper part is immediately behind the\\nwindpipe. The alternate contraction and relaxation of\\nthe muscles of the oesophagus serve to propel its contents\\ntoward the stomach. The wave-like motion resulting is\\ncalled peristalsis, and is similar to that of the intestines. 1\\nFig. 48.\\nThe Muscles of the Stomach, one part removed to show underlying fibres.\\n118. The Stomach is somewhat pear shaped, its larger\\nend being upon the left side of the body, beneath the ribs,\\n1 This peculiar motion is also called vermicular, or worm-like.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n117\\njust under the diaphragm, and in contact with the spleen.\\nThe smaller end is on the right side of the body, under\\nthe liver. When moderately filled, the length of the\\nstomach is about twelve inches, and its greatest diameter\\nfour inches. 1 Its capacity is about four pints.\\nThe stomach has two openings one where the oesoph-\\nagus enters, called the cardiac 2 opening, because of its\\nFig. 49.\\nThe Internal Surface of the Stomach, from which the epi-\\nthelium has been removed, showing the openings of gastric\\nglands. [Magnified 20 diameters.]\\nFig. 50.\\nA Gastric Gland.\\nlocation near the heart, from which it is separated by the\\ndiaphragm; the other is styled the pyloric, or gate open-\\ning, because it is provided with a muscular valve known\\n1 The stomach varies in size more than any other organ in the body.\\nWhen empty, it is shrunken and flattened, and overlapped by the liver.\\nWhen very full, it comes close behind the abdominal wall, and the pit of\\nthe stomach ,1 is no longer visible. The stomach of the glutton becomes\\ndistended and does not readily regain its normal shape. When very\\nmuch distended, it often presses upon the heart, causing distress and the\\nsymptoms of heart disease,\\n2 Derived from the Greek Kap8hj, heart.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "118\\nDIGESTION\\nas the pylorus, or gate-keeper, the object of which is to\\nprevent the premature exit of food from the stomach. 1\\nThe lining of the stomach is very soft and delicate.\\nWhen the cavity is almost, or entirely, empty, the lining\\nis arranged in folds. It is amply supplied with mucous\\nglands and with gastric follicles, i.e. glands which secrete\\na digestive fluid, the gastric juice.\\nThe muscles in the walls of the stomach are involun-\\ntary, and are arranged in three layers, the oblique, the\\ncircular, and the longitudinal. Their alternate contraction\\nand relaxation serve to agitate thoroughly the contents\\nof the stomach and to mingle them with the gastric juice.\\n119. The Intestines. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The\\nremaining part of the ali-\\nmentary canal consists of the\\nintestines, or bowels, which\\nlie mainly in the abdominal\\ncavity, but end in the lowest\\npart of the pelvic cavity.\\nThese are divided into the\\nsmall and large intestines,\\nthe former being from twenty\\nto twenty-five feet in length\\nand averaging one and a\\nthird inches in diameter,\\nthe latter about five feet in\\nlength and two inches in\\ndiameter.\\nVERMIFORMIS\\nFig. 51.\\nlieo-coecal Valve and Adjacent Parts.\\n(Sappey.)\\n1, end of small intestine in large intestine.\\n2, ileo-coecal valve.\\n1 When the stomach contains a large amount of indigestible food, and\\nhas been too long in action, its muscular tone diminishes, and the valve\\nno longer prevents the exit of improper material. Thus indigestible sub-\\nstances accidentally swallowed may pass the gate-keeper, 1 though some-\\ntimes their passage is greatly delayed and causes much discomfort.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n119\\n120. The Small Intestine is coiled upon itself and extends\\nfrom the pylorus to the large intestine, which begins in\\nthe right lower portion of the abdomen. Its opening into\\nthe large intestine is guarded by the ileo-coecal valve, an\\narrangement which readily admits of the passage of refuse\\nmaterial into that intestine, but interposes a usually ser-\\nviceable barrier to its return.\\nThe intestine is held in place principally by the mes-\\nentery, a double fold of serous membrane 1 attached to\\nthe spinal column but it so envelops the intestine that\\nits necessary peristaltic\\nmovements in the trans-\\nmission of food are not\\ninterfered with.\\nThe lining of the in-\\ntestine is very vascular\\nand velvety. Through-\\nout the larger part of\\nthe canal it is arranged\\nin transverse, shelf-like\\nfolds, -more or less circu-\\nlar in form, which, from\\ntheir winking motion\\nas they sway backward\\nand forward in the\\nfluids of the intestine,\\nare called valvulae con-\\nniventes. There are\\nabout eight hundred of these delicate folds\\nthe passage of food, and so expose i( for\\nFig. 52.\\nSection of Small Intestine, showing Valvulae Con-\\nniventes (Testttt). Wide perpendicular line\\nmuscle line on left fibrous coat line on right\\nmucous membrane.\\nThey retard\\na lonerer time\\n1 A membrane which secretes a thin whey-like thud called serum. A\\nsimilar membrane, under the name o( the peritoneum^ incloses, for the\\nmost part, all the abdominal viscera, in the same way.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "120\\nDIGESTION.\\nto the action of the digestive fluids. They also provide\\na very large surface for secretion and absorption.\\nThe characteristic velvety condition of the mucous\\nmembrane is due to its millions of minute elevations, pre-\\nsenting a general appearance of plush, and known as\\nintestinal villi. Through them the process of absorption is\\nFig. 53.\\nVilli of Small Intestine, with their superficial arteries and veins distended.\\n(Magnified 100 diameters.)\\nmainly effected. Each villus is composed of a framework\\nof connective tissue, upon the free surface of which is\\nthe epithelium, a single layer of cells. In the centre of\\nthe framework is a small vessel, with a closed end near the\\nupper extremity of the villus. This is called a lacteal, 1 and\\nis an offshoot of a system of absorbent vessels distributed\\nthroughout the body, named lymphatics.\\n1 So called because during digestion it is filled with a milk-white fluid,\\nconsisting mainly of fat, which it has taken up from the intestine. During\\nthe intervals of digestion these vessels are not readily seen. Sometimes\\nthe lacteals are double.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n121\\nThe lacteals empty into the receptaculum cliyli (i.e. re-\\nceptacle of the chyle), a pouch lying upon the lumbar\\nvertebrae. This pouch connects with the thoracic duct, a\\nsmall tube which extends upwards\\nand empties into the left subclavian\\nvein, -the large vein, under the left\\nclavicle, or collar bone. Within each\\nvillus are involuntary muscular fibres\\nand a network of minute blood-vessels\\n(veins) that empty into a large vein,\\ncalled the portal vein, 1 which conveys\\nto the liver certain products of diges-\\ntion.\\nIn the mucous membrane of the\\nintestine are numerous follicles, some\\nof which secrete mucus and some a\\ndigestive fluid known as intestinal\\njuice. Within about three inches of\\nthe pylorus the duct from the gall-\\nbladder of the liver and that from\\nthe pancreas open into the intestine,\\nadmitting two more digestive fluids,\\nthe bile and the pancreatic juice.\\nA Vertical Section of an\\nIntestinal Villus.\\na, epithelial cells.\\nb b, blood-vessels entering\\nand leaving the villus.\\nd, lymphatic vessel (lacteal)\\nin the centre.\\n121. The Large Intestine begins as a rounded cavity,\\nthe coecum, ascends upon the right side of the abdominal\\ncavity to the under surface of the liver, crosses over to\\nthe left, underneath the stomach, and descends upon the\\nleft side to the upper and left portion of the pelvis, where\\nits caliber becomes smaller. It then makes a bend, enters\\nthe pelvis, becomes the rectum^ and ends as the lower open-\\n1 So called because it enters the liver at what was once called the porta,\\nor gateway.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "122 DIGESTION.\\ning of the alimentary canal. 1 The coecum has a cylin-\\ndrical tube, from one to five inches long, projecting\\nfrom its lower part, which tube is known as the appendix\\nvermiformis. Its uses are not known. Sometimes seeds\\nof small fruit lodge in it. Usually these do no harm but\\noccasionally an inflammation (appendicitis) is started by\\ntheir presence in the appendix, though such inflammation\\nis more often the result of excessive activity of bacteria\\nupon decomposing food. It is wise, when eating fruit\\nwith small seeds, to eat also bread or some other food\\nwhich will be likely to entangle the seeds and pass them\\nbeyond the opening of the appendix.\\nWhile it is true that the large intestine is able, to a\\nlimited extent, to absorb certain food substances, it is\\nessentially the sewer of the body and contains refuse.\\nThe daily evacuation of this waste material is a matter of\\nthe greatest importance, to avoid decomposition and the\\nabsorption of poisons into the blood\\n122. Accessory Organs of Digestion. The Teeth are the\\norgans of mastication, and are well adapted for the break-\\ning and grinding of food, to prepare it for the softening\\nand digestive action of the saliva. They assist, also, in\\nthe use of the voice, and in preserving the symmetry of\\nthe face. Each tooth has three parts the crown, or body,\\nseen in the mouth the root, embedded in a socket in the\\njaw and a neck, the constricted portion between the other\\ntwo. This is supported by the gum, a dense fibrous\\ntissue covered with mucous membrane. 2 The bulk of\\n1 The ascending part of the large intestine is called the ascending\\ncolon; the transverse part, the transverse colon; the descending part,\\nthe descending colon.\\n2 The gums of old people who have lost their teeth shrink and some-\\ntimes become very hard, enabling them to munch their food.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n123\\nthe tooth is composed of dentine, resembling bone, and\\nsometimes called tooth-bone, or ivory. On the crown,\\ncovering the dentine, is the enamel,\\nthe hardest tissue in the body. 1\\nStrong as it is, it may be broken\\nand the decay of the teeth ren-\\ndered probable by the cracking of\\nhard-shell nuts or other hard sub-\\nstances between them. Covering\\nthe root is a thin layer of bone, the\\ncement.\\nThe dentine incloses a cavity in\\nthe tooth, which is termed the pulp\\ncavity, and which contains the\\npulp, a substance consisting of con-\\nnective tissue, blood-vessels, and terminal nerves. The\\nnerves and blood-vessels enter this cavity through a\\nsmall opening at the tip of each root. 2 Canals radiate\\nfrom the pulp cavity to the outer surface of the dentine.\\nDestruction of the enamel at any point, therefore, exposes\\nthe entire cavity, and decay results.\\nFig. 55.\\nA Vertical Section of Tooth.\\nE, enamel.\\nC, cementum.\\nO 0, openings in roots for the\\npassage of nerves and blood-\\nvessels into the pulp cavity,\\nrepresented in figure by\\ndarkened centre.\\n123. There are two sets of teeth: the temporary, or\\nmilk teeth, of early childhood, twenty in number, the\\nfirst appearing usually about the seventh month of\\n1 The hardness of the enamel varies in different persons. In some it\\nis so soft, from a deficiency of phosphatic salts, that the teeth wear down\\nalmost to the gums.\\n2 The pulp supplies nourishment to the tooth. When it dies, the tooth\\nloses its translucency and sensibility, and is discolored, and if it be a\\ntooth of the permanent set, is never replaced by a new one, or even by\\nnew tooth-structure, but may retain its position in the jaw and do duty\\nfor years.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "124\\nDIGESTION.\\nlife, 1 the last about the twenty-fourth and the perma-\\nnent set of youth and adult life, thirty-two in number,\\nthe first appearing about the sixth year, the last, or wis-\\nM/2\\n\\\\M\\nFig. 56.\\nA diagram of two upper jaws, representing the location, arrangement, and time of\\neruption of the temporary and permanent teeth. The relation of the temporary\\nto the permanent teeth is indicated by their position, and by dotted lines con-\\nnecting them with the permanent teeth. The numerals represent, in one\\ninstance, the time of the appearance of the teeth in years in the other, in\\nmonths.\\nI, incisor teeth. C, canine teeth. B, bicuspid teeth. M, molar teeth.\\ndom teeth, about the twenty-fourth year. 2 The perma-\\nnent teeth originate near the roots of the temporary teeth,\\nand, as they develop, press upon these roots and cause\\n1 From various causes, such as sickness, hereditary peculiarities, or\\nlack of proper tooth-forming food, the appearance of the teeth may be\\ndelayed till one year of age, or even longer. Babies are sometimes born\\nwith teeth.\\n2 The first permanent teeth appear behind the posterior milk molars,\\nbefore any of the milk teeth are shed, viz. at six years, so that a child\\nof six has twenty-four teeth, twenty temporary and four permanent.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n125\\ntheir absorption, the temporary teeth being eventually\\nshed as little conical crowns, with convex bases.\\nTeeth are classified as ificisors, canines, bicuspids, and\\nmolars. In the first or temporary set, there are in each\\njaw four incisors, two canines, and four molars. In the\\nsecond or permanent set, there are in each jaw the same\\nnumber of incisors and canines, four bicuspids, and six\\nmolars. The bicuspids 1 replace the molars of the tempo-\\nrary set. The teeth of the permanent set are larger and\\nmuch stronger than those of the first.\\nFig. 57.\\nSection of Jaws, showing the Temporary and Permanent Teeth.\\nThe incisors, or cutters, are in the front of each jaw,\\nand have chisel-like edges for use in cutting or biting food.\\nAdjoining the incisors are the canines, 2 which are some-\\n1 So called, because they have two cusps or points upon their crowns.\\n2 The upper canines are sometimes called eye tooth, the lower ones\\nstomach teeth, though they have no peculiar relation to these organs.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "126 DIGESTION.\\nwhat pointed at the edges, like the teeth of dogs. They\\nassist the incisors in dividing the food. The bicuspids\\nare between the canines and molars. They are shorter\\nand thicker than the canines, and assist the molars in\\ncrushing the food. The remaining teeth are the molars, 1\\nor grinders. These teeth pulverize the food, and are\\nespecially adapted for the purpose, their grinding sur-\\nfaces being broad and irregular. This grinding action\\nis effected by the pressure of the lower jaw against the\\nstationary upper jaw, with lateral, rotary, and upward\\nmovements, by means of powerful muscles.\\n124. The Care of the Teeth is a matter of importance.\\nThe condition of the teeth of children, as well as adults,\\nshould be carefully watched by a reliable dentist, and\\ndefects remedied at least twice a year. 2 Bad teeth, by\\ninterfering with proper chewing, are at times the cause of\\ndyspeptic ailments. They also change the voice and foul\\nthe breath. Decay of teeth may not only cause toothache,\\nbut an excruciating pain in the side of the face and head\\n(i.e. neuralgia) may result from an extension of the irri-\\n1 From the Latin molaris, a grindstone.\\n2 The temporary teeth in children should not decay, but should fall\\nout clean and white when their function is ended. If not cared for, they\\nare more likely to decay than permanent teeth, on account of the larger\\namount of animal matter they contain. Cavities in the temporary as well\\nas in the permanent teeth should be filled, when possible. The prema-\\nture extraction of a tooth may destroy the symmetry of the jaws, and\\nallow the opposing tooth to grow to an uncomfortable length. In rabbits\\na tooth thus deprived of its opposing one grows like a tusk. Much can\\nbe accomplished by competent dentists toward regulating the direction\\nof the teeth and the shape of the jaws. The excess of animal matter in\\nthe osseous tissue of young children accounts for the deformed upper\\njaws, with the projecting front teeth, which sometimes result from long-\\ncontinued thumb-sucking.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 127\\ntation from the small nerves in the tooth pulp to the\\nlarge nerves of the face and head.\\nFig. 58. (White.)\\nThe Connection of the Nerves of the Teeth with the Sensitive Nerves of the Face and Head.\\nTeeth to be strong must be used Persons who eat\\nmainly soft food (bread without crust, for example) arc\\nlikely to have soft teeth. Teeth, as well as bones, require\\na certain proportion of mineral matter, which is supplied\\nby such food as milk, eggs, cereals, and meat. They\\nshould be kept clean by frequent rinsing with water, and", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "128 DIGESTION\\nby the use of a tooth-brush, especially upon the inner side\\nof the teeth, in the morning and before retiring. As a\\ndentifrice upon the moistened brush, prepared chalk,\\nchalk and orris root, common salt, or a good soap may\\nbe used to advantage. Acid or gritty powders, or mix-\\ntures containing charcoal, are to be avoided. Every\\nparticle of foreign matter should be removed from\\nbetween the teeth by a quill or wooden toothpick, or by\\ndrawing a thread of dental floss silk between the teeth. 1\\nThis is important, as the mouth is a warm, moist cavity,\\nfavorable to the decomposition of food retained in it, and\\nto the development of acids that tend to dissolve the lime\\nsalts of the teeth. If a softened spot appears in a tooth,\\nthe bacteria of the mouth attack the dentine, and decay\\nsets in. 2\\n125. The Salivary Glands. The saliva is secreted by\\nthree pairs of glands, the parotid, the submaxillary, and\\nthe sublingual, and b}^ the general mucous surface of the\\nmouth. The parotids, 3 one just in front of and below\\neach ear, open into the mouth by ducts opposite each\\nsecond upper molar tooth. The submaxillary glands,\\n1 Pins, knife blades, and other metallic substances should never be\\nused as toothpicks, for they are likely to injure the enamel.\\n2 To prevent acidity, a mouth wash of bicarbonate of soda or lime\\nwater may be used occasionally with good effect. To remove odors, a\\nsolution of common salt, or a wash of five drops of carbolic acid, one\\nquarter teaspoonful of listerine, and one teaspoonful of glycerine in a\\nhalf tumbler of water, is serviceable. Acid medicines should always be\\ntaken, diluted with water, through a glass tube, and the mouth thor-\\noughly rinsed afterward with water.\\n3 Called parotid, from two Greek words, meaning near the ear.\\nThese glands are sometimes called masticatory glands, as they are found\\nonly in animals furnished with grinding or masticating teeth. The disease\\nknown as mumps is an inflammation of one or both of these glands.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n129\\nbeneath the floor of the mouth and just within the angles\\nof the lower jaw, open by a common duct, under the\\ntongue, at its junc-\\ntion in front with\\nthe floor of the\\nmouth. The sub-\\nlingual glands lie\\nunder the tongue,\\nand discharge their\\nsecretion by ducts\\nnear the opening\\nof the canal from\\nthe submaxillary\\nglands.\\nFig. 59.\\nDiagram showing the location and relations of the sali-\\nvary glands of the left side, a large part of the lower\\njaw being removed.\\nT, the tongue. SLG-, the sublingual gland.\\nLJ, part of the lower jaw. SMG, the submaxillary gland.\\nPG-, the parotid gland.\\n126. The Pancreas is a fleshy gland, about six inches\\nin length, lying transversely behind the stomach and large\\nintestine. It secretes the pancreatic juice, a digestive fluid\\nwhich is poured into the upper part of the small intestine.\\n127. The Liver is the largest gland in the body, weigh-\\ning in the healthy adult from three to four pounds, and\\nmeasuring in its transverse diameter from ten to twelve\\ninches. It is of a dark brown color, is situated in the\\nupper part and right side of the abdomen, and receives\\nall the blood from the stomach and intestines through the\\nportal vein. Part of the nitrogenous digested materials\\nreceived in this way is probably converted by the liver\\ncells into serum albumin. This is carried into the blood\\ncurrent from the liver, and is distributed throughout the\\nbody by veins known as hepatic veins, which connect with\\na large vein (the inferior vena cava) that empties into the\\nheart. An excess of these nitrogenous materials, together", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "130\\nDIGESTION\\nwith substances brought by the return blood current to\\nthe liver, is converted by the liver cells into urea. These\\ncells also break down old red blood corpuscles, returning\\nany useful residue\\nto the blood.\\nThe liver has\\nstill other func-\\ntions. Some of the\\nsugar which it re-\\nceives by the portal\\nvein is taken out\\nof the blood by\\nthe liver cells and\\nstored up in the\\nliver as glycogen, to\\nbe given out as\\nsugar, in the inter-\\nvals of digestion,\\nwhenever the blood\\nof the body needs it.\\nThe liver also\\nsecretes bile, one of\\nthe digestive fluids.\\nIts flow is constant,\\nbut increases soon\\nafter digestion in\\nthe stomach begins.\\nPart of it, in the\\nintervals of digestion, is stored up for future use in the\\ngall-bladder a pear-shaped bag attached to the under\\nsurface of the liver. Bile, when secreted, is carried by\\na multitude of fine canals within the substance of the\\nliver into a main tube, which opens, together with one\\nFig. 60.\\nThe Portal Vein and its Branches.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 131\\nfrom the gall-bladder, into a larger tube known as the\\ncommon bile duct, which is joined farther on by the pan-\\ncreatic duct. Both the bile and pancreatic juice are then\\ndischarged by a common opening into the upper part of\\nthe small intestine.\\n128. The Various Steps of Digestion. Mastication. The\\namphibian bolts its fly, the bird its grain, and the fish its\\nbrother, without the ceremony of chewing, but in man,\\nmastication is necessary for complete and comfortable\\ndigestion. When food has been received into the mouth\\nand cut and torn into pieces by the incisors and other\\nteeth, it is then chewed or ground into minute fragments.\\nFor this purpose, by the action of the tongue, lips, and\\ncheeks, it is rolled about the mouth and placed between\\nthe lateral teeth, especially the molars.\\nThe teeth of the human being combine the characteris-\\ntics of those of the carnivora and herbivora, that is to\\nsay, are adapted for masticating both animal and vege-\\ntable food. The first appearance of teeth indicates that\\nother food than milk can now be used, while the cutting\\nof the permanent teeth shows that food which requires\\nmuch chewing is to be included in a proper diet.\\n129. Insalivation. At the same time that food is being\\nchewed, it is softened by insalivation, or a thorough mix-\\nture with the saliva, so that it can be easily swallowed\\nand readily acted upon by the digestive fluids farther\\non in the alimentary canal. Sapid substances, such as\\nsugar and salt, are also dissolved so that they can be\\ntasted. Part of the cooked starch l in the food is changed\\n1 The firm envelopes of unbroken raw starch granules prevenl the eon-\\ntents of the starch cells from being readily acted upon by saliva.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "132 DIGESTION.\\ninto dextrin and then into maltose, a soluble form of\\nsugar, by the ferment action of the ptyalin of the saliva.\\nSaliva acts best in an alkaline medium, but when swal-\\nlowed continues to act upon cooked starch for a short\\ntime in the acid secretion of the stomach. The conversion\\nof starch is resumed with activity in the small intestine,\\nunder the influence of the alkaline secretion of the\\npancreas.\\n130. The Saliva is a thin alkaline fluid. Besides its\\nsoftening and transforming properties, it keeps the mouth\\nmoist, to enable us to speak with comfort. From one to\\nthree pints are secreted per day in a man of average size,\\nthe quantity increasing with the hardness and dryness of\\nfood. It is also increased by the movements of the lower\\njaw in mastication, by anything introduced into the mouth,\\nand especially by those things which stimulate the nerve\\nof taste. Its flow is largely under the influence of the\\nnervous system. The mere thought or smell of agreeable\\nfood will make the mouth water, while under the in-\\nfluence of anger or fear, the tongue, in its dryness, is\\nsaid to cleave to the roof of the mouth.\\n131. Deglutition. The food, having been properly\\nprepared, is moved toward the pharynx to be swallowed.\\nThe final steps in deglutition are involuntary. As the\\nfood or drink enters the pharynx, it is grasped by the con-\\nstrictor muscles and hurried on into the oesophagus,\\nthe openings leading to the lungs, nasal cavities, and ears\\nbeing usually protected from its ingress by the approxi-\\nmation of their Avails and by the raising of the soft palate.\\nIf the mechanism of swallowing is disturbed by excessive\\nlaughing or talking or by rapid swallowing, food, espe-\\ncially the fluid portion, is likely to enter the larynx or nose,", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 133\\nand cause coughing, sneezing, and sometimes serious re-\\nsults unless prompt aid be furnished. 1\\nThe passage of food or drink to the stomach is effected\\nby means of the peristaltic action of the oesophagus.\\nThis action is at times sufficiently powerful to overcome\\nthe laws of gravitation. Hence, liquids and solids may,\\nby some persons, be swallowed in any position of the body,\\neven standing on the head, as is done by jugglers.\\n132. Stomach Digestion. Just as soon as the food reaches\\nthe stomach, stomach digestion begins. The mucous mem-\\nbrane, which in the intervals of digestion is of a pale red\\ncolor, now becomes bright red from its engorgement with\\nblood. Its folds are obliterated, the pyloric sphincter\\ncloses the opening into the intestine, the muscles in the\\nwalls of the stomach begin to churn its contents and to\\nmix them with the gastric juice, which is now abundantly\\npoured out.\\n133. The Gastric Juice is a thin fluid, strongly acid. It\\ndissolves certain mineral salts found in the cereals and\\nother food substances, dissolves the connective tissue of\\nmeat, releases fat from its envelopes by breaking them up,\\nand transforms some of the proteids, or albuminous ma-\\nterial, such as lean meat, the gluten of wheat, and white\\nof eggs, into peptones, in which form they are liquefied\\nand made capable of absorption. This transformation is\\neffected by the ferment action of an ingredient of the gas-\\ntric juice known as pepsin, 2 assisted by an acid ingredient\\n1 Sometimes, for example, particles of meat, going the wrong way.\\nlodge in the larynx and cause death by suffocation. (.See Emergencies,\\np. 309.)\\n2 Pepsin, obtained generally from the stomachs of pigs, is used as an\\nartificial digestant in certain forms of dyspepsia.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "134 DIGESTION.\\n(free hydrochloric acid). It contains also another ferment,\\nrennin, 1 which curdles milk.\\nMuch gastric juice is secreted in 24 hours; probably\\nthe amount is more than five times that of the saliva. Its\\nquantity is increased by stimulating substances, like mus-\\ntard and catsup, in contact with the mucous membrane of\\nthe stomach, and its flow is facilitated by the odor and\\nappearance of appetizing food. On the other hand, the\\nquantity is diminished by fear, anger, anxiety, or grief,\\nand also by excessive eating and drinking.\\n134. While stomach digestion is going on, the fluid\\nportion of the food both that which has entered the\\nstomach as fluid and that which has been liquefied in this\\norgan is rapidly taken up by the absorbents of the\\nstomach and carried into the blood.\\nThe unabsorbed food begins slowly to leave the stomach\\nabout half an hour after its introduction, the pylorus\\nrelaxing, at intervals, to allow it to pass out 2 in the form\\nof a thick, cream-like fluid, called chyme. This is a mix-\\nture of some of the sugar and salts of the food, trans-\\nformed starch or maltose, softened starch, water, mucus,\\nbroken fat and connective tissue, peptones, and of much\\nundigested material if the meal has been too hearty.\\nThe entire digestion of an ordinary meal in the stomach\\nusually requires from two to four hours. Some foods\\nare thoroughly digested, so far as the stomach is con-\\ncerned, in one hour, and some require as much as five\\n1 Milk is promptly curdled in the stomach, but most of it is redissolred\\nlater, unless the quantity of milk has been more than can be digested.\\n2 Substances more or less indigestible are acted upon with difficulty.\\nSometimes they are thrown up. or pass, after many hours, into the small\\nintestine, causing suffering (colic).", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 135\\nhours (a). The duration of stomach digestion varies\\nalso in different persons, and in the same persons at\\ndifferent periods. It depends not only upon the kind and\\nquantity of food taken, but also upon the condition of the\\nnervous system and the amount of exercise.\\n135. Intestinal Digestion. The acid chyme, upon enter-\\ning the intestine, comes in contact with the pancreatic\\njuice, bile, and intestinal juice, all of which are alkaline\\nin reaction, and is changed by them into a thin, milky,\\nalkaline fluid, the chyle. The liquefaction and transfor-\\nmation of \u00c2\u00abproteids into peptones, begun by the stomach,\\nis continued by the pancreatic juice, assisted, probably, by\\nthe intestinal juice. The transformation of cooked starch\\ninto maltose, begun by the saliva, is continued by the\\npancreatic juice, which also acts upon some of the raw\\nstarch. Of the fats, a part is saponified and a part, by\\nthe combined action of the bile and the pancreatic juice,\\nis changed into an emulsion, to be absorbed by the intes-\\ntinal villi. All this is intestinal digestion. 1\\n136. The Pancreatic Juice 2 is a clear, viscid fluid, resem-\\nbling saliva. It has three ferments trypsin, amylopshu\\nand steapsin. 3 Trypsin acts like pepsin on proteids,\\nchanging them into peptones but, unlike pepsin, it can\\nact in an alkaline medium, as well as in a slightly acid\\none, and can split peptones into other nitrogenous sub-\\nstances. Amylopsin changes starch into sugar, and acts\\non raw as well as on cooked starch. Steapsin splits part\\n1 The passage of the food through the small intestine is said to occupy,\\non the average, about twelve hours.\\n2 Pancreatine, 1 obtained from the pancreas of animals, is much used\\nas an artificial digestant.\\n8 It is said to have also a milk-curdling ferment, practically not used.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "136 DIGESTION.\\nof the fats into glycerine and fatty acids. The acids\\nunite with the alkalies of the pancreatic juice and the\\nbile, to form soaps, which aid in emulsifying the fat not\\nsplit into glycerine and fatty acids.\\n137. The Bile is of a color varying from green to a\\ngolden yellow. About two and a half pints are secreted\\nin twenty-four hours. The principal action of the bile\\nis to assist the pancreatic juice to emulsify fat. Probably\\nit prevents the decomposition and putrefaction of food\\nduring its passage through the intestines, and perhaps\\nincreases the muscular action of the intestines and lessens\\nconstipation. Part of the bile is thrown off as an excre-\\ntion, and part of it is reabsorbed by the portal vein, to be\\nagain secreted. If the bile is not secreted, or is prevented\\nfrom entering the small intestine, an animal will become\\nvery feeble and emaciated, and may die. 1\\n138. The Intestinal Juice is a thin, yellowish secretion,\\nfrom the glands of the intestines. It plays a subordinate\\npart in digestion, but its action is not thoroughly under-\\nstood. It may aid, by its alkalinity, in the emulsification\\nof fat and the transformation of proteids. It may change\\nsome of the maltose into dextrose, another form of soluble\\nsugar. It has but little action on starch.\\n139. Absorption is the process by which liquefied and\\ntransformed food is taken up by the venous capillaries\\nand lacteals and carried into the blood. By the blood\\nit is conveyed to the heart, and from the heart it is dis-\\ntributed to every part of the body by means of the circu-\\nlation. Then assimilation occurs.\\n1 Biliousness is not due to an excess of bile, but to deranged secretion\\nor action of it.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION.\\n137\\nAs the entire mucous membrane of the alimentary canal\\nis well supplied with blood-vessels and lymph-vessels, it\\nis probable that, in a small\\ndegree, absorption of water,\\ncommon salt, and sugar oc-\\ncurs in the mouth, pharynx,\\nand oesophagus. While there\\nis some absorption from the\\nstomach, it mostly occurs in\\nthe small intestine, with its\\nimmense surface and innu-\\nmerable villi. Here much\\nof the sugar and peptone and\\nmost of the fat are absorbed.\\nThe lining cells of the ali-\\nmentary canal have a select-\\ning power not understood.\\nThis is aided by the pushing\\naction of the intestine, and\\nby the process of osmosis,\\ni.e. the interchange of liq-\\nuids (or gases), separated\\nfrom each other by a moist\\nanimal membrane, which has\\nno visible pores. The di-\\ngested materials are soaked\\nup by the membrane in a\\nmanner similar to the action\\nof blotting paper.\\nFig. 61.\\nA Diagrammatic Repi-esentation of the\\nVarious Organs concerned in the Con-\\nversion of Food into Blood.\\n1, mouth and salivary glands.\\n2, the oesophagus. 3, the stomach.\\n4, a portion of the small intestine.\\n5, the pancreas. 6, the liver.\\n7, mesentery with lacteals.\\n8, receptacle of chyle.\\n9, the thoracic duct emptying its contents\\ninto the left subclavian vein.\\n10, branches of portal vein leading to liver.\\n11, an hepatic vein leading from the liver\\nto the large ascending vein.\\n12, the large ascending vein cut off at its\\njunction with the heart.\\n13, the large descending vein cut off in like\\nmanner.\\n140. Emulsified fats are absorbed by the epithelial colls\\nof the villi, from which they find their way into the\\nlacteals, and thence to the thoracic duct and the heart", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "138 DIGESTION.\\nWater, salts, and sugars pass into the rootlets of the\\nportal vein, and thence to the heart. The peptones are\\ntaken up by both lacteals and blood-vessels. In the large\\nintestine, water and soluble salts are the main substances\\nabsorbed, though artificially prepared food introduced\\ninto the rectum may be absorbed to a limited extent, and\\nmaintain life for a few weeks.\\n141. The Fate of Absorbed Food. Water, sugars, and\\nsome salts are ready for absorption when taken into the\\nbody. Indiffusible carbohydrates, like starch and dextrin,\\nare changed by digestion into diffusible sugar, and indif-\\nfusible proteids into diffusible peptones. Fats, for the\\nmost part, are mechanically altered. Diffusible peptones\\nin the blood current are changed into non-diffusible pro-\\nteids, serum albumin, and serum globulin, which are used\\nto build up the albuminous tissues, the waste of which is\\ndischarged from the body as urea, creatinin, etc. The fat\\ndisappears soon after entering the blood. Some of it is\\nstored up as the fat of the body, but probably the greater\\npart of it is changed into water and carbon dioxide,\\nevolving, in the process, heat or other forms of energy.\\nThe proteids of the body are formed only from the pro-\\nteids of food, but fat can be formed from both the proteids\\nand carbohydrates of food. Probably most of the sugar\\nabsorbed is destroyed in the active tissues of the body,\\nespecially the muscles, and eliminated as carbon dioxide\\nand water. A small part is changed into fat, while con-\\nsiderable (especially after a hearty meal) is stored in the\\nliver as glycogen, and, when needed, given to the blood as\\nsugar in the intervals of digestion. 1 Water and the min-\\n1 When the sugar in the body cannot be utilized by the tissues, part of it\\nis excreted by the lungs and kidneys, causing a condition known as diabetes.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 139\\neral ingredients of food, as a rule, pass through the system\\nunchanged, affording necessary fluidity, strength, or alka-\\nlinity to various tissues and fluids.\\n142. In healthy digestion the food which cannot be as-\\nsimilated or converted into heat, energy, and strength is\\nordinarily eliminated with ease by the excretory organs.\\nBut if the bodily powers be overtaxed by food inappro-\\npriate as to quantity or quality, the extra eliminating\\nwork demanded, especially of the kidneys and liver, may\\nseriously derange these organs.\\n143. Requisites for Normal Digestion. In order to do\\ntheir work, the digestive organs must be normal in\\nstructure and capable of the necessary muscular move-\\nments. Their secretions must be perfect as to quality\\nand quantity. Gastric juice, for example, will not act as\\na solvent if its acid is neutralized by an alkali. Nor will\\nthe pancreatic and intestinal juices perforin their functions\\nif their alkaline nature is destroyed by acids. 1\\nThe food also must be just sufficient, and so cooked or\\notherwise prepared that it can be acted upon with ease\\nby the digestive organs and their secretions. It must\\nbe taken at regular intervals, thoroughly chewed, and\\nslowly swallowed. It should not be taken immediatel} T\\nbefore or after great physical or mental effort. Broken\\nor decayed teeth, or a defective number of them, sore\\nmouth or throat, neuralgia of the face, the waste of saliva\\nby the habit of expectoration, torpidity of the muscles\\nof the alimentary canal, defective action of the glands\\nconcerned in digestion, impediments in ducts, and undue\\nlr rhe lesson of moderation in the use of alkalies and acids is evident.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "140 DIGESTION.\\nanxiety of mind, all interfere with proper digestion and\\nnutrition. 1\\n144. Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics upon the Digestive\\nOrgans and Digestion. Alcohol, taken in small quantity,\\nproduces a feeling of warmth in the stomach, accelerates\\nits muscular action, and increases the functional activity\\nof the other digestive organs. When it aids digestion it\\nis probably not through any inherent powers of its own,\\nbut by virtue of its irritant properties, inducing an in-\\ncreased flow of gastric juice. Larger amounts interfere\\nwith the digestive process, partly by rendering the albumi-\\nnoids less soluble, and partly by producing, as a secondary\\neffect, constriction of the minute blood-vessels, thus caus-\\ning a decrease in the digestive secretions. Frequently,\\npeople who call themselves moderate drinkers, and who\\nare never intoxicated, suffer from an obstinate dyspepsia,\\nloss of appetite, and nausea, especially in the morning.\\nTo allay these uncomfortable sensations, they resort to an\\nearly alcoholic drink, which only increases the trouble.\\nWhen alcohol is taken in still larger amount and used\\nfrequently, the stomach becomes inflamed, hardened, and\\ncontracted. The liver is frequently altered in shape,\\nbecoming either contracted (i.e. fibroid degeneration,\\ncausing cirrhosis or hobnail liver), or enlarged from\\nfatty degeneration, causing fatty liver. When the liver\\nis contracted, the vessels leading to that organ are com-\\npressed, and congestion of the stomach, rectum, pharynx,\\noesophagus, and face is likely to result, while indirectly the\\nfunctions of the heart and kidneys are disturbed. These\\nchanges in the digestive organs of course interfere with\\n1 Difficult digestion, or dyspepsia, demands, therefore, a careful\\nstudy of the causes in each case, before medicinal measures are used.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "DIGESTION. 141\\ntheir functions food is not properly digested, the blood\\nis poor, and the liver fails to excrete the wastes that come\\nto it and that originate in it.\\n145. Tobacco, opium, etc., while acting mainly on the\\nnervous system, frequently produce loss of appetite, nausea,\\nand a persistent dyspepsia, by deranging the gastric juice.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. What is meant by nutrition?\\n2. What are the wastes of the body, and how are they disposed of\\n3. What is digestion, and what are the digestive organs?\\n4. Describe the alimentary canal, and name its different portions.\\n5. What begins the alimentary canal, and what is there secreted?\\n6. Describe the pharynx, and state what opens into it.\\n7. What are the constrictors of the pharynx, and their object?\\n8. Describe the oesophagus, its object, and mode of action.\\n9. Describe the stomach and its openings.\\n10. How are the intestines divided? Describe the small intestine.\\n11. What is the mesentery, and its use?\\n12. How is the movement of the food in the intestine effected?\\n13. What is the mucous membrane of the intestine?\\n14. Describe the lacteals.\\n15. What secretions enter the intestine near the pylorus, and from\\nwhat?\\n16. Describe the large intestine, the coecum and its appendage.\\n17. What are the accessory organs of digestion\\n18. Describe the teeth, and their uses.\\n19. What do human teeth indicate as to the proper- food of man\\n20. Why should care be taken of the temporary or first set of fceeth?\\n21. How should teeth be preserved?\\n22. Describe the salivary glands, and their secretion.\\n23. Describe the pancreas and i(s secretion.\\n24. Describe the liver and state its functions.\\n25. What is the process of the conversion o( food into tissue?", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "142 DIGESTION.\\n26. What is the chyme The chyle\\n27. How are the fatty matters in food converted into an emulsion\\n28. What is absorption, and where does it occur\\n29. How do the absorbed products of digestion reach the general\\ncirculation\\n30. What changes are effected after they have reached the blood?\\n31. What is assimilation\\n32. What is necessary to healthy digestion\\n33. What are the effects of alcohol on digestion and the digestive\\norgans\\n34. What are the effects of tobacco, opium, etc.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nTHE CIRCULATION. -BLOOD. -LYMPH.\\n146. The Organs of Circulation. The blood, as we have\\nseen, is the form which the nutritive constituents of food\\ntake after digestion. It flows as pure blood in one set of\\ncurrents from the heart to the tissues for their nourish-\\nment, and returns in another set of currents to the heart,\\nladen with waste products, which are expelled from the\\nbody through the lungs and other excretory organs. This\\nflow of the blood to and from the various parts of the body\\nis the circulation, and the organs through which it is pro-\\npelled are the organs of circulation. These organs are the\\nheart and the blood-vessels, the latter consisting of the\\narteries, capillaries, and veins. There is in reality only\\none circulation, but the heart sends out two streams of\\nblood one to the lungs, which returns again to the heart,\\nsometimes called the pulmonary, respiratory, or lesser, circu-\\nlation the other through the rest of the body and back\\nto the heart, called the systemic, or greater, circulation.\\n147. The Heart is a hollow, muscular, conical-shaped\\norgan, in adults about five inches long. It is situated\\nobliquely in the chest, between the two lungs, and behind\\nthe lower two-thirds of the breast bone, its posterior por-\\ntion in part resting upon the diaphragm. It is chiefly on\\nthe left side of the body. Its tip, or apex, is directed\\nforward and downward, striking against the walls of the\\nthorax, between the fifth and sixth ribs, a little to the left\\n143", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "144 THE CIRCULATION. -BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nFig. 62.\\nFront View of the Organs of Circulation. Veins, black arteries, with transverse\\nlines Parts on the right side of figure are removed to show some of the deep\\nvessels, while the left side shows superficial vessels.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n145\\nof the breast bone, at which point we can usually best\\nfeel the impulse of the organ. Its broad attached end,\\nFig. 63.\\nHeart, Front View.\\n1, right ventricle.\\n2, left ventricle.\\n4, right auricle.\\n6, left an ride.\\n7, pulmonary artery.\\n8, the aorta.\\n9, superior vena cava.\\n10 and 11, front coronary artery and\\nvein which In part control the blood-\\nsupply of the substance o( the heart.\\n12, lymphatic vesSels.\\nor base, is directed upwards and backwards and to the\\nright. Owing to its surroundings, this end of the heart\\nhas comparatively little motion.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "146\\nTHE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n148. The whole organ, with about two inches of the\\ngreat blood-vessels which arise from it, is enveloped in a\\nfibrous sac known as the pericardium. 1 This sac is lined\\nwith a smooth, glistening membrane, which secretes a\\nlubricating fluid called serum, thus permitting the heart\\nto move freely and without friction. The interior of the\\nheart is also lined with a smooth, serous membrane, called\\nthe endocardium? which is similar to and continuous with\\nthe lining membrane of the blood-vessels.\\nJ)V...\\nAV\\nLV\\nRV-\\nThe Heart and Some of its Vessels. The ventricles are laid open to show their structure.\\nThe relative thickness of the walls of the ventricles are shown, also the muscle columns\\nand their tendons, together with the curtain-like valves.\\nA, aorta.\\nP A, pulmonary artery.\\nP V, pulmonary veinsof left auricle.\\nE V, right ventricle.\\nL A, left auricle.\\nD V, descending vein,\\nsuperior vena cava.\\nA V, ascending vein,\\ninferior vena cava.\\nL V, left ventricle.\\n149. Component Parts of the Heart. The heart is divided\\nby muscular walls into four compartments or cavities, the\\n1 Derived from the Greek, signifying around the heart.\\n2 Derived from the Greek, signifying within the heart.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 147\\ntwo upper ones called auricles, 1 and the two lower, ven-\\ntricles. 2 Into the auricle on the right side of the heart\\ni.e. the right auricle open small veins, which take the\\nvenous or impure blood from the substance of the heart,\\nand also two large veins, 3 one of which brings the same\\nkind of blood from the upper half of the body, the other,\\nthat from the lower half. Into the auricle on the left\\nside of the heart i.e. the left auricle four pulmo-\\nnary veins open (two from each lung), bringing blood\\nthat has been purified in the lungs. When the auricles\\nare full of blood, they contract simultaneously and force\\nit into their respective ventricles, through openings (one\\nbetween each auricle and its ventricle) that are known\\nas the auriculo-ventricular openings. From the right\\nventricle arises the pulmonary artery, which carries\\nvenous blood to the lungs to be purified. From the left\\nventricle arises the aorta, which carries pure blood to all\\nparts of the body. When the ventricles are full, they\\ncontract simultaneously and expel the blood into these\\narteries.\\nThe openings between the auricles and ventricles, and\\nthose between the ventricles and the arteries which con-\\nnect with them, are guarded by little doors or valves,\\ncomposed of delicate but strong fibrous tissue. These\\nopen to allow the blood to pass onward in its natural\\ncourse, and then close, thus preventing the blood from\\nregurgitating, i.e. flowing back. The cavities of the left\\nside of the heart are respectively smaller than those of the\\nright, but their walls are stronger. Especially is this true\\n1 From the Latin, meaning little ears, so called, it is said, from\\ntheir resemblance to dogs ears.\\n2 Literally, the diminutive of stomach.\\n8 Called the superior and inferior vena cavac.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "148 THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nof the left ventricle, whose function it is to send blood\\nthrough the entire body (Fig. 64). 1\\n150. The Valves of the Heart are arranged as follows\\nthe mitral 2 valve, between the left auricle and left ven-\\ntricle, is composed of two curtains, or flaps and the\\ntricuspid, 8 between the right auricle and right ventricle, of\\nthree flaps. These curtains in each opening are attached\\non one side to the margin of the opening, and hang\\nsuspended in the ventricles when blood is passing into\\nthese cavities. To their free edges are fastened delicate\\nbut strong tendons (chordae tendineae), which are at-\\ntached to muscular prolongations from the inside of the\\nwalls of the ventricles, known as papillary muscles. The\\nalternate contraction and relaxation of these muscles, as-\\nsisted by the action of other muscle fibres in the ventri-\\ncles, open and close the valves. When the ventricles are\\nfilled with blood, these muscles relax, and the free edges\\nof the curtains come together.\\nThe three valves at the beginning of the pulmonary\\nartery and of the aorta, known as semilunar valves, are\\ncrescent-shaped pouches attached to the margins of the\\nopenings. When blood is forced from the ventricles by\\ntheir muscular walls, these valves are pushed against the\\nsides of the arteries named, but immediately afterwards\\nthey come together. The closure is effected by the con-\\ntraction of the muscular fibres in the walls of the vessels,\\nand by the backward pressure of the blood current.\\n1 Sometimes the heart is considered as a double organ the right side,\\ntransmitting venous blood, is spoken of as the right heart, and the left side,\\ntransmitting arterial blood, as the left heart.\\n2 From a supposed resemblance, when it is open, to a bishop s mitre.\\n3 Having three points.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 149\\n151. Action of the Heart. The heart acts like a force\\npump, and is the principal instrument by which the blood\\nis kept moving through the blood-vessels. Its muscular\\nwalls are well adapted for this persistent and difficult\\nwork, the fibres being strong and interlaced. The auricles\\nhave two layers of fibres, and the ventricles, which do\\nmuch harder work, have several layers, one of them\\nspiral. 1 When the auricles have emptied themselves, they\\nrelax, and again fill with blood. The contraction of the\\nventricles begins toward the end of the contraction of\\nthe auricles, the auriculo- ventricular valves closing and the\\nsemilunar valves opening. When the blood is discharged\\nfrom the ventricles, they relax and the semilunar valves\\nclose. The contraction of the ventricles follows so closely\\nthat of the auricles, and is so much more pronounced, that\\nthe whole heart seems to contract at one time. 2\\n152. The alternate contractions and relaxations of the\\nauricles and ventricles cause the heart to roll somewhat,\\nand to elongate, pushing its apex against the chest wall.\\nThese movements constitute the pulsations, or throb-\\nbing, of the heart. They are so constant that the organ\\nseems never to have rest but the alternate periods of\\nrelaxation, short as they are, afford in the aggregate con-\\nsiderable rest to the busy muscles of the heart.\\nThe contraction of the muscles, especially those of the\\nventricles, and the closure of the valves of the heart give\\nrise to what are known as heart sounds, which can be\\nheard by placing one s ear over the heart of another and\\n1 The valves, vessels, walls, and internal muscles may bo studied in a\\nbeef s heart, In a boiled heart, the muscles of the walls can be separated.\\n2 The contraction of the heart is known as its systole, the relaxation as\\nits diastole.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "150 THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nm contact with the chest, or by means of an instrument\\ncalled the stethoscope. These sounds are termed the first\\nand second sounds, and changes in their rhythm, intensity,\\nor pitch are indications to the physician of the character\\nof any disturbance or disease in the heart. 1\\n153. Nervous Control of the Heart. The steady, rhyth-\\nmical pulsations are controlled by a nervous mechanism\\nwithin the heart. In addition, the action of the heart is\\nregulated to the varying needs of the body, by one set\\nof nerves that originate in the brain and by another from\\nthe spinal cord, which decrease or increase the pulsations,\\nas may be necessary. Influences which operate upon the\\nnervous system operate also upon the heart. Its move-\\nments are decreased in frequenc}^ by sorrow or depres-\\nsion of spirits, and quickened by mental excitement, joy,\\nor anger hence the expressions, one can hear his\\nheart beat, or his heart is in his throat, or it beats\\nlike a trip-hammer. The temperature of the surround-\\ning atmosphere, the quantity of food eaten, the age, sex,\\nand muscular activity also affect the rapidity of the\\nheart s action. 2\\n154. Heart Beats. At birth the number of beats is\\nnormally about 140 per minute, at the end of the first year\\n120, at the end of the second year 110 during middle\\n1 Normally, these sounds are nearly on the same key, and resemble the\\nsyllables lub dup.\\n2 Functional derangement of the heart, causing pain and violent pal-\\npitations, may readily occur by repeated nervous excitement in feeble\\npersons or those who, though physically strong, lack self-control. The\\nheart is sometimes strained and injured in some one or more of its struc-\\ntures by excessive muscular exercise, especially in rowing, bicycle riding,\\nprolonged marches, and fighting. Its action is sometimes enfeebled by\\nthe deposit of fat in its walls, as the result of a sedentary life or the\\nrepeated over-indulgence in alcoholics or fat-making foods.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 151\\nlife it varies from 70 to 80, being about 10 more in women\\nthan men, and in old age is about 60.\\nThe normal frequency of the heart s action varies with\\nthe temperament, family tendency, and mode of living of\\nthe individual. Of Napoleon I. and the Duke of Wel-\\nlington it is said the pulsations were but 40 per minute.\\nIn some persons, especially those with excitable, nervous\\ntemperaments, they number 90 or even more. Very rapid\\naction tends to exhaust the heart yet the vitality of the\\norgan is remarkable. In man and other warm-blooded\\nanimals it is the last organ to cease giving signs of life,\\nand even when it has ceased to beat, electricity has again\\naroused its action. 1 In cold-blooded animals, such as\\nthe frog and snake, whose heart-action is comparatively\\nslow, the heart will continue to throb after the animal has\\nbeen beheaded, and even after the heart itself has been\\nremoved from the body.\\n155. The Arteries 2 are a series of cylindrical, firm, but\\nelastic canals, which commence with the aorta, and by\\ndivisions and subdivisions convey the blood to all the vas-\\ncular parts of the body. 3 The larger arteries are com-\\n1 The ancients regarded various organs of the body as seats of the\\nemotions. The spleen was the seat of anger and melancholy, hence the\\nterm splenetic while the heart was the seat of joy, love, harmony, and\\nthe like. The words courage, 1 cordiality, heart-felt, hearty\\nheartiness, etc., have their derivation in this idea.\\n2 So named from two Greek words, meaning receptacle of air,\\nsince the ancients believed that these blood-vessels contained air only,\\nprobably because they generally found them empty in the dead body.\\nArteries do not collapse when cut, as veins do. A firm tube of rubber\\nwill give a fair idea of what an artery is while a tube with thin, flexible\\nwalls represents a vein.\\n3 Arteries are found in every tissue except the hair, nails, epidermis, car-\\ntilages, and the cornea of the eye. Bui blood reaches the cells ofthese tissues\\nby a peculiar process of absorption known as imbibition, or drinking in.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "152\\nTHE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nposed of three coats first, a smooth, delicate, and slightly\\nelastic inner wall, similar to, and continuous with, the\\nendocardium and the lining of the veins and the capil-\\nlaries next, a middle coat, composed of\\nelastic and muscular tissue and lastly,\\na very strong outer coat, composed of\\nfibrous and elastic tissue with some\\nmuscular fibres. 1 As the arteries be-\\ncome smaller, the external coat disap-\\npears hence the very small arteries\\n(arterioles) have but two coats. In the\\ncapillaries (which connect the smaller\\narteries with the rootlets of the veins)\\nthe middle coat also disappears, and the\\nthin, delicate, circular wall that remains\\nis well adapted for the transudation of\\ngases and fluids. 2\\nThe smoothness of the lining wall prevents friction. The\\nelasticity of the arteries permits them to yield without\\ndanger of bursting, as the blood is thrown into them with\\neach stroke of the heart, and also enables them to accom-\\nmodate themselves to the various movements of the bodv.\\nFig. 65.\\nEn-\\nlvm-\\nA Part of an A rtery\\nveloping it are\\nphatics and lymphatic\\nglands.\\n1 The outer coat is so strong that when a surgeon ties (ligatures) an\\nartery, it is not broken. The two broken internal coats arrest and clot\\nthe blood and stop bleeding. Very seldom does a healthy artery rup-\\nture from the force of the blood current. The walls of the arteries\\nare nourished by blood conveyed to them by little arteries called vasa\\nvasorum. Corresponding vessels also supply the heart. The elasticity\\nof the larger arteries will be best appreciated in the aorta of an ox or\\nsheep. Like a piece of india-rubber, it yields when stretched, and imme-\\ndiately thereafter recovers itself.\\n2 If a large artery is ligatured, the small arteries which connect the\\nportion of the artery below the ligature with that above, or with another\\nartery, become enlarged and establish a collateral circulation.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 153\\nTheir contractility affords them the power of adapting\\nthemselves to the variable quantities of blood which they\\ncontain, and which must be supplied to the tissues as\\nrequired. As the blood is sent into the large arteries\\nfrom the heart, the flow is intermittent. The caliber of\\nthe arteries, as they divide and subdivide, becomes smaller\\nand smaller. But in the aggregate that caliber is greatly\\nincreased, and, owing to this and to their elasticity and\\ncontractility, the pulsations in the arteries are less inter-\\nmittent as the arteries become smaller, and finally, in the\\ncapillaries, the blood current is uniform and constant, but\\nslow. It thus becomes well adapted to furnish to each\\ncell its appropriate nourishment, and to abstract from each\\nits waste products. 1\\n156. The Pulse. With each beat of the heart, the\\narteries, already quite full of blood, are dilated by the\\nadditional blood sent into them. As the semilunar valves\\nFig. 66.\\nPortions of Four Traces taken by the Sphygmograph, in Different Conditions of the Pulse.\\nclose, the arteries contract to assist the onward flow of\\nblood. The pulsations thus produced constitute the\\npulse, or wave, in the arteries. This is usually felt at\\n1 The motion of the blood in the arteries may be illustrated by con-\\nnecting a syringe, representing the left ventricle, with a large rubber tube,\\nrepresenting the aorta, which is connected with various tubes of gradually\\ndecreasing size, representing the subdividing arteries and the capillaries.\\nThe water is injected into the large tube in an intermittent and forcible\\ncurrent, which abates in the smaller tubes, and becomes continuous in\\nthe smallest.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "154 THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nthe wrist, but may be felt over any artery which is located\\nnear the surface, as in the upper lip, the chin, temples,\\nelbows, and inner side of the ankles. To determine the\\ncharacter of the pulse more accurately than by the sense\\nof touch alone, an ingenious registering instrument, called\\nthe sphygmograph, may be attached to the forearm, and\\nby means of a lever lightly resting on the pulse there will\\nbe registered with a pencil on prepared paper the char-\\nacter of the pulsations. The character of the pulse is a\\nfair indication of the action and strength of the heart,\\nand is modified or altered by the same causes that affect\\nthe action of the heart. 1\\n157. The Capillaries are hair-like blood-vessels, which\\npermeate the vascular organs in networks variously\\narranged, and bring the blood into close contact with\\nthe cells of the tissues, but none of them enter the\\ncells. 2 Though very small tubes, their number is great.\\nThrough them the blood is propelled very slowly and\\ngently. Its nutritious ingredients ooze through the\\nwalls of these vessels into the surrounding cells, and\\nsome of the waste material from the tissues finds its way\\ninto the capillaries in the same manner. 3 In the glandu-\\n1 Though the pulse generally averages a certain number of beats per\\nminute (see 154), it is increased or diminished at times by apparently\\nslight causes, especially in young children. Thus, after crying, the pulse\\nrises 10 to 20 beats, and is lowered the same amount during sleep. After\\na meal the pulse of an adult has from 5 to 10 beats more per minute than\\nbefore 5 beats more when sitting than when lying down 10 beats more\\nwhen standing than when sitting and 10 to 50 more beats when in\\nmotion than when at rest.\\n2 Capillaries are about y^- of an inch in diameter, and are composed\\nof thin, flat cells, united at their edges.\\n3 The irrigation system in use in the western part of the United States\\nseems to be modelled after the plan of the capillary circulation. Large", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n155\\nlar organs the capillaries supply the substance requisite\\nfor secretion in the villi of the intestine they take up\\nthe elements of the digested food in the lungs they ab-\\nsorb oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide in the kidneys\\nthey discharge waste products collected from other parts.\\nFig. 67.\\nInjected Cross-section of a Lobule of the Liver, showing the capillary network between\\nthe portal and hepatic veins. Magnified 60 diameters.\\n1, section of intra -lobular vein. 2, its branches collecting- blood from the capillaries.\\n3, inte -lobular branches of the portal vein connecting with the capillary network, and\\nsupplying the lobule with blood for its nourishment.\\nThe capillary circulation thus furnishes, directly or indi-\\nrectly, the materials for the growth and renovation of the\\nentire body. This circulation is usually studied in a\\ntissue which is transparent and vascular, such as the web\\nditches bring water from a reservoir into smaller ditches, ami these into\\nstill smaller ones, which pass between the plants. The water in these\\nvery small ditches moves slowly, oozing into the soil and among the\\nrootlets.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "156\\nTHE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nV G\\nFig. 68.\\nA Diagram of the Capillary Circulation, with\\narteries in white, veins in black.\\nT, trachea, arrows representing incoming and\\noutgoing air.\\nD, the diaphragm.\\nA, artery (the aorta). Y, vein.\\n1, capillary circulation of head.\\n2, vessels of upper extremities.\\n3, capillaries of the lungs.\\n4, of the stomach. 6, of the spleen.\\n5, of the liver. 7, of the pancreas.\\n8, of a portion of small intestine.\\n9, of the kidneys.\\n10, vessels of lower extremities.\\nof a frog s foot, or of a\\nbat s wing, and is an\\nexceedingly beautiful and\\ninteresting sight. 1\\n158. The capillaries,\\nhaving very thin and\\nsomewhat elastic walls,\\nvary in size, at different\\ntimes, in response to any\\nexciting cause. They are\\nlargest when the part to\\nwhich they are distribut-\\ned is functionally active.\\n1 We see the great arterial\\nrivers, in which the blood flows\\nwith wonderful rapidity, branch-\\ning and subdividing until the\\ncirculating fluid is brought to\\nthe network of fine capillaries,\\nwhere the corpuscles dart along-\\none by one. The blood is then\\ncollected by the veins and carried\\nin great currents to the heart.\\nThis exhibition to the student\\nof Nature is of inexpressible\\ngrandeur and our admiration is\\nnot diminished when we come to\\nstudy the phenomena in detail.\\nIt can be seen how the\\narterioles regulate the supply of\\nblood to the tissues how the\\nblood distributes itself by the\\ncapillaries and finally, having\\nperformed its office, how it is\\ncollected and carried off by the\\nveins. Flint, Text-book of\\nPhysiology.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 157\\nEmotion and exposure to warmth dilate the small arteries\\nby relaxing their muscular fibres and more blood at such\\ntimes fills the capillaries in connection with them, so that\\nthe parts to which they are distributed blush, or become\\nruddy. On the other hand, pallor is produced by con-\\ntinued cold, anger, or fear, which cause the muscles to\\ncontract and the amount of blood in the small arteries\\nand capillaries to be diminished. So numerous are the\\ncapillaries that their entire capacity is said to be from\\nfive hundred to eight hundred times that of the arteries.\\nTheir extensive distribution may be appreciated when Ave\\nconsider that the slightest cut upon any part of the skin\\nor mucous membrane which is sufficient to induce bleed-\\ning must cut across many capillaries. They are most\\nnumerous wherever the nutritive processes are most\\nactive, as in the lungs and glands and in the mucous\\nmembrane of the small intestine, and, during the func-\\ntional activity of these parts, may be said to bathe them\\nin blood. 1\\n159. The Veins. After the blood has parted with\\nnutriment to the tissues, and absorbed waste products\\nfrom them, it passes on from the capillaries into larger\\nchannels, called small veins or veinlets, and then into still\\nlarger ones known as veins. Waste products not so taken\\nup are carried into the blood by another set of vessels,\\ncalled the lymphatics, described in 169.\\n1 Blood carried to a part for a length of time, in larger quantity than\\nis necessary for its nourishment, is liable to cause its inflammation and\\neven its death. When the supply of blood is for a lengthened period\\nmuch smaller than is demanded, failure in nutrition and death of the part\\nmay result; or, if a part has been long contracted, as by frost-bite, and\\nblood is too suddenly brought into it, inflammation and death of the part\\nmay ensue.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "158\\nTHE CIRCULATIOX. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nVeins, like arteries, are composed of three coats, but\\nthey contain a smaller quantity of muscular and elastic\\nfibres, and a larger proportion of firm\\nconnective tissue. They are conse-\\nquently less elastic and contractile, and\\nmore compressible, though they have\\nconsiderable capacity for resistance to\\npressure. They are also distinguished,\\nin the limbs and in the external parts\\nof the head and neck, by being pro-\\nvided with valves so arranged that their\\nclosure prevents a backward flow of\\nblood. The position of these valves\\nmay be seen by the little prominences\\nthat appear in the course of the superficial veins, if we\\ntie a cord around the wrist or arm.\\nThe capacity of the venous system is greater than that\\nof the arterial, owing to its numerous intercommunica-\\ntions. If an obstruction occurs in a vein, the blood can\\ntherefore be diverted into one or more branches more\\nreadily than in the case of the arteries but the encircling\\nof an entire limb with a tight band would obstruct the\\ncirculation in all the vessels of that region, and induce\\nswelling below the band. 1\\nFig. 69.\\nA Part of a Vein, with its\\nbranches laid open,\\nshowing the valves.\\n160. The Circulation of the Blood. The movements of the\\nblood will probably be best understood if we follow it\\nfrom point to point in its circuit.\\nIn the first place, the venous or impure blood, collected\\n1 Such is sometimes the effect of tight garters. Persons whose vocation\\nnecessitates much standing sometimes have varicose veins, or knotted\\nveins of the legs, due to impeded flow of blood through these vessels.\\nIn such cases, elastic stockings should be worn to support the vessels.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "Fig. 70.\\nDiagrammatic Representation of the Circulation through the Heart and Body. Arrows\\nshow the direction of blood currents.\\nRA, right auricle.\\nLA, left auricle.\\nRV, risrht ventricle.\\nLV, left ventricle.\\n1,1, superior and inferior vena-cavae.\\n2, pulmonary artery.\\n3, 3, branches of pulmonary artery.\\n4, 4, pulmonary veins.\\n5, arch of aorta.\\n6, branch to upper part of body.\\n7, branch to lower part of body.\\n8, heart.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 159\\nby the smaller veins from the various parts of the body, is\\npoured into two great veins, which open into the right\\nauricle. When the auricle is dilated and filled to its nor-\\nmal limit, its walls contract and expel the blood through\\nthe right ventricular opening into the right ventricle.\\nThis ventricle, thus dilated and filled, contracts, and\\nexpels its contents through the pulmonary artery into the\\nlungs, where the blood is thoroughly distributed among\\nthe air cells by numerous capillaries, and is purified by\\nexchanging its waste products for the oxygen of the air.\\nFrom the lungs it is carried as pure blood by the pul-\\nmonary veins into the left auricle. When this auricle is\\nnormally dilated and filled, it contracts, and the blood is\\nforced through the left ventricular opening into the left\\nventricle. This ventricle, when dilated and filled, con-\\ntracts, and sends the blood into the aorta, and through its\\nbranches to the capillaries for the nourishment of the tis-\\nsues. Having parted with much of its life-giving prin-\\nciples and acquired the results of decay and disintegration\\nin the tissues, the blood requires to be again purified, and\\ncommences, at the extremities or sources of the venous\\nsystem, its return to the heart. Passing successively\\nthrough the enlarging veins, as though it were a river\\nsystem, with its springs, brooks, and rivulets, or like the\\nrootlets enlarging into the roots of a tree, it finally again\\nreaches the right auricle. 1\\n1 From 1545 to 1586 several persons described portions of the circu-\\nlatory apparatus and their function. In 1602 Harvey began his investiga-\\ntions upon living animals, and in 1616 discovered the circulation of the\\nblood. His description of the movements of the heart is forcible, clear.\\nand accurate. Of the heart, he says, by an admirable adjustment all\\nthe internal surfaces are drawn together, as if with cords, and so is the\\ncharge of blood expelled with force. Like other investigators in the\\nsame field, Harvey was subjected to much persecution.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "160 THE CIRCULATION BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n161. The force and rapidity of the circulation are very\\ngreat, but differ widely in the various sets of vessels and\\nin the different organs. The average time required for\\nthe passage of the blood from the heart to the tissues\\nand back is about twenty seconds. 1 The flow into the\\narteries and through the capillaries is effected by the\\npowerful contractions of the heart, aided by the contrac-\\ntility and elasticity of the arteries, and, in the case of the\\ncapillaries, also by the elasticity of the surrounding tis-\\nsues. So great is the force exerted, that if a large artery\\nbe cut across, the blood spirts to a distance of several feet.\\nIn health, both arteries and veins readily withstand\\nthe force of the circulation but when weakened by age,\\ninjury, or disease, they may burst under unusual exer-\\ntion, such as fast Avalking or running, the lifting of heavy\\nweights, or even by a sudden change of position, as in the\\nquick rising from a recumbent posture. If vessels of the\\nbrain give way, paralysis or death may occur from the\\npressure of the escaped blood upon the brain. This con-\\ndition is known as apoplexy.\\nThe flow of blood through the veins is more rapid than\\nthat through the capillaries, but considerably slower than\\nthe arterial current. It is effected by the pressure from\\nthe capillary circulation, by the contraction of the volun-\\ntary muscles through which the veins pass, and by the act\\nof inspiration, whereby the chest is expanded. This ex-\\npansion not only tends to draw air into the lungs, but also\\nblood from the veins. 2\\n1 Dalton estimates that the average rapidity of an arterial current is 12\\ninches per second, of a venous current 8 inches per second, and the rate\\nthrough the capillaries is rather less than of an inch per second.\\n2 If a vein, especially in the lower part of the neck, be wounded, and\\nconsiderable air enters the blood, death is likely to result. The air finds", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 161\\n162. The Blood is eminently the vital fluid. If from\\nany cause much blood is lost, great weakness follows,\\nand if the flow is not checked, death results. On the\\nother hand, if fresh blood from a living person or animal\\nbe injected into the veins of one much prostrated, or even\\napparently dead, especially if this condition be the result\\nof loss of blood, he may be revived. This operation is\\nknown as the transfusion of blood. 1\\n163. To the eye, the blood seems to be merely a homo-\\ngeneous reel, scarlet, or dark-blue liquid, according as it is\\ndrawn from the capillaries, arteries, or veins. Blood has\\na salty taste, and a very small quantity of it is capable of\\nstaining a large amount of water. As shown by a micro-\\nscopic examination, it consists of two parts, the plasma\\nand the corpuscles. The first is an alkaline, transparent,\\nand nearly colorless fluid, in which the corpuscles swim\\nin countless numbers.\\n164. Red Blood Corpuscles. Blood corpuscles are of two\\nkinds, the red and the white. The red are smaller than\\nthe white, and much more numerous. 2 The red color is\\nits way to the right ventricle, is mixed with the blood in the form of\\nminute bubbles, and is carried into the pulmonary artery once in this\\nvessel it is impossible for it to pass through the capillaries of the lungs,\\nand death by suffocation is the inevitable result. Flint.\\n1 The operation originated in the 17th century, and much was expected\\nfrom its use, some believing that old people could be rejuvenated by using\\nthe blood of the young; but, after a number of deaths had resulted, it\\nfell into disrepute. The operation has been revived, and. owing to im-\\nproved surgical appliances and to a better knowledge oi the subject,\\nexcellent results have been obtained. Warm milk of cows lias been\\nsuccessfully used instead of blood.\\n2 Tied corpuscles are about 00 of an inch in diameter, and about\\nJoo of an\\nin diameter.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "162\\nTHE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nws\\nFig. 71.\\nBlood Corpuscles.\\ndue to the globules en masse; if viewed separately by\\ntransmitted light, they are of a light amber color. It has\\nbeen estimated that there are five million red corpuscles\\nin a minute drop (a cubic\\nmillimetre) of blood. 1 In\\nform they are flattened, cir-\\ncular disks, slightly hol-\\nlowed out on each side, and\\nunder the microscope are\\nseen to arrange themselves\\nin rows, adhering together\\nside by side like a roll of\\ncoins. They are of jelly-\\nlike consistency, very elastic\\nand extensile, easily bent\\nand distorted, and can be\\npushed through the walls of\\nthe capillaries. They con-\\ntain water, salts of phosphorus, and potassium, but their\\nmost important ingredient is a reddish proteid substance\\ncontaining iron, which gives the color to blood. This\\nsubstance, called haemoglobin, has a strong affinity for\\noxygen, and unites with it; but the tissues, which have a\\nstronger affinity, absorb a large part of the oxygen in\\ncombination with the coloring matter, and replace it with\\ncarbon dioxide. This changes the color of the blood from\\nred or scarlet (depending on the amount of oxygen\\npresent) to a dark blue. On account of the life-giving\\noxygen thus carried by the red globules, they are some-\\ntimes spoken of as little boats laden with precious\\n1 In persons who are very pale and have poor, thin hlood, the number\\nof red corpuscles is estimated to be one-third less than the normal amount,\\nwhich is from 300 to 400 of the red to every white corpuscle.\\nM, of man.\\nF, of the frog.\\nWS. of the water sala-\\nmander.\\nS, of a shark.\\nD, of the dove.\\n0, of the camel.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 163\\nfreight, which are in health despatched at the right time,\\nto the right place, in the right quantity. 1\\nThe red globules of the blood of all vertebrate animals\\ncontain a coloring matter similar to, if not identical with,\\nthat of man, but differ from the globules of human blood\\nas to form, size, and structure. The detection of this\\ndifference is sometimes of importance in courts of law in\\nthe decision of questions relating to the stains upon mur-\\nderous weapons, or upon garments, floors, etc.\\n165. The White Corpuscles, or leucocytes, are rounded,\\ncolorless cells, each containing a nucleus. They are com-\\nposed of protoplasm, and have the power of amoeboid\\nmovement. 2 They move from place to place, and also\\nmigrate, i.e. escape from the capillaries into the sur-\\nrounding tissues. Powers says of this migration, or dia-\\npedesis, as it is technically called Under certain\\ncircumstances, both white and red corpuscles may escape\\nfrom the vessels, and pass or wander into the adjoining\\nlymphatics. The escape of the white corpuscles appears\\nto occur normally, whilst the escape of the red occurs\\nonly when the pressure of the blood against the walls\\nof the capillaries is much increased, or when there is\\nretardation of the blood current, as in inflammation. In\\nthe case of the white corpuscles, the attraction between\\nthe corpuscle and the capillary wall seems to be increased,\\nthe corpuscle begins to bore its way through the wall,\\nassumes an hour-glass form, part being within and part\\n1 The red corpuscles are believed to be formed in the rod marrow of\\n.bones, the lymphatic glands, and the spleen. After fulfilling their allot-\\nted task they are for the most part dost roved in the liver.\\n2 These corpuscles are not peculiar to blood, but are found in lymph,\\nchyle, and other fluids.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "164 THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nwithout the lumen of the vessel, and it finally escapes\\naltogether into the adjoining tissues. How far the\\nnutritive processes are influenced by the migration of\\nblood corpuscles is not definitely known.\\nThere is reason to believe that certain of the white\\ncorpuscles have the power of eating up bacteria and other\\nnoxious matter with which they come in contact, as the\\namoeba takes its food. Such cells are called phagocytes,\\nand their principal function seems to be to destroy disease-\\nproducing bacteria which may have entered the body by\\nthe lungs, alimentary canal, or torn skin. Their number\\nis probably decreased by fasting, and increased by good\\nliving, as are the white corpuscles in general. Successful\\nresistance to infectious diseases is believed to depend\\nlargely upon the power and activity of the phagocytes.\\nIf they are overpowered by the number and strength of\\nthe bacteria, the invaded tissues die, and may slough\\naway.\\n166. Coagulation of Blood. Blood coagulates, or clots,\\nspontaneously when exposed to atmospheric air. This\\nproperty is peculiar to blood. If it were not for this\\ncoagulation, we should be liable to bleed to death from\\neven a slight cut. In most of the other warm-blooded\\nanimals, coagulation is more prompt and thorough than\\nin man, and there may be extensive injury to blood-vessels\\nwithout fatal results to the helpless animals. But man is\\nable, by pressure for a time upon a bleeding vessel or by\\ntjung the two cut ends, to cause coagulation, and so\\nlessen the danger from extensive hemorrhage.\\nSeldom does the blood clot in the living body, unless the\\ncirculation is impeded or arrested by some disease or by\\nan injury to the inner coat of a blood-vessel. A clot", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 165\\nformed in a blood-vessel may interrupt the blood supply\\nto a part of the body and cause the death of that part,\\nor it may be sent in the blood current to the brain, and\\ncause paralysis of a portion of the body, or death of the\\nentire body. A bruise-spot is the discoloration pro-\\nduced by blood escaping from injured capillaries and\\ncoagulating in or under the skin. The rapidity with\\nwhich it disappears depends upon the severity of the in-\\njury, the relative thickness of the skin, the vascularity of\\nthe part injured, and the health of the person. When\\nblood is poor and thin, as in scurvy and other blood\\ndiseases, it flows readily from wounds or from the im-\\npoverished tissues, producing dangerous hemorrhages and\\nmany bruised spots. The drawing of a tooth or the\\nscratch of a pin in such cases is liable to result in severe\\nbleeding.\\nCoagulation is essentially the formation of fibrin, from\\nthe fibrinogen, a proteid constituent of the plasma, by the\\naction of a fibrin ferment. The fibrin forms in inter-\\nlacing threads, which entangle the corpuscles. Soon this\\nnetwork shrinks in all directions and squeezes out a\\npale yellowish fluid, the serum, which consists essentially\\nof all the ingredients of the blood, except the corpuscles\\nand fibrin. The semi-solid mass which remains is the\\ncoagulum, or clot, and retains most of the corpuscles. 1\\n167. The Quantity and Quality of Blood. The entire\\nquantity of blood of an individual is about ten per cent of\\n1 Fibrin may be seen in the fibrous filaments remaining after thor-\\noughly washing a clot of blood, or in the tine threads which cling to a\\nbundle of twigs with which fresh blood has been thoroughly beaten for\\na time. Such blood remains uncoagulable, and is said to be detibrinated.\\nFibrin is so tough that buttons and door handles have been made from\\nthe blood of animals.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "166\\nTHE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\nthe weight of the body. Of this quantity about one-fourth\\nis distributed to the heart, lungs, large arteries, and veins,\\none-fourth to the liver, one-fourth to the muscles, and\\none-fourth to the remaining organs and tissues. The\\nbrain utilizes one-fifth of the entire quantity of blood.\\nThe quality of blood varies much in different individuals.\\nThe old expressions, rich blood, poor blood, and\\nblood will tell have much of truth in them in a physio-\\nlogical sense, for so-called blood diseases are often\\nhanded down from one generation to another. Blood\\nmay become so poor (thin and watery) from inattention to\\nhygienic requirements that health is impossible. On the\\nother hand, chilliness and pallor of countenance will dis-\\nappear, strength and\\n1\\nm\\nenergy will return to the\\nfeeble, when poor blood\\nhas been enriched by\\ngood food, abundance of\\nsleep, by warmth, clean-\\nliness, and frequent ex-\\nercise in the open air.\\nFig. 72.\\nLymphatic Vessels ctf a Papilla of the Palm of the\\nHand, greatly magnified.\\n168. The Lymph. \u00e2\u0080\u0094In\\naddition to the blood,\\nthe lymph is widely dis-\\ntributed throughout the\\nbody. It is, in fact,\\nblood plasma (without\\nthe red corpuscles),\\nwhich constantly exudes\\nfrom the capillaries to\\nbathe the cells of the\\ntissues, bringing nutri-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n167\\ntive material directly to them. From the cells it receives\\nwaste products and conveys them into minute and delicate\\nvessels, called lymphatics, which drain the intercellular\\nspaces, and finally empty into the blood current. 1\\n169. The Lymphatics are most abun-\\ndant in organs well supplied with\\nblood-vessels, such as the glandular\\norgans, the mucous membrane, and\\nthe skin (particularly that of the\\nsoles of the feet and the palms of\\nthe hands), and are absent in the\\nnon-vascular tissues. 2\\nThe lymphatic capillaries converge\\nafter leaving the various tissues, the\\ntubes becoming larger as they ap-\\nproach the heart. Those from the\\nright side of the head and neck and\\nfrom the right upper extremity form\\nthe right lymphatic duct, which opens\\ninto the venous system at the junc-\\ntion of the right subclavian vein with\\nthe right internal jugular vein. The\\nlymphatics of the lower extremities\\nenter the abdominal cavity, and with\\nthe abdominal lymphatics (including\\nthe lacteals) form the beginning\\nof the thoracic duct. At the base\\nof the neck, before this duct empties\\n1 These vessels are so small that they cannot bo readily soon unless\\ninjected with quicksilver.\\n2 Those instances related of blood poisoning, by mere contact of poison-\\nous material with the tender parts of the skin or mucous membrane, are\\nprobably due to the absorption of the poison by the lymphatics.\\nFig. 73.\\nSuperficial Lymphatics of the\\nHand and Forearm.\\nG, lymphatic eland.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "168\\nTHE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\ninto the left subclavian vein at its junction with the left\\ninternal jugular, it is joined b} T the lymphatics from the\\nLym r\\nrij\\nRSV\\nRC\\nLym L\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0TD\\nLSV\\nTD\\nLac\\nLym L Ex\\nFig. 74.\\nThoracic Duct.\\nLym R, lymphatics of right side of head and neck.\\nLym L, lymphatics of left side of head and neck.\\nRIJ, right internal jugular vein.\\nRSV, right subclavian vein.\\nLSV, left subclavian vein.\\nLym L Ex\\nTD, thoracic duct.\\nRC, receptacle of the chyle.\\nLac, lacteals.\\nLym L Ex, lymphatics of\\nlower extremities.\\nleft side of the head and neck and from the left upper\\nextremity. Thus the lymph is mingled with the venous", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 169\\nblood before its arrival at the right side of the heart. 1\\nThe flow of lymph is aided by valves in the lymphatics,\\nsimilar to those in veins.\\n170. Lymphatic Glands. In the course of the lymphat-\\nics everywhere in the body are numerous little knots,\\ncalled lymphatic glands. 2 These are spongy networks,\\nwhich filter injurious bodies, such as bacteria, from the\\nslowly moving lymph, and destroy them, if their number\\nis not too great. It is believed that these glands also\\nsupply leucocytes to the blood. When many of them are\\nhardened or otherwise altered, as in scrofula, health fails\\nand the person grows thin, though the food may be suit-\\nable in quality and abundant in quantity. 3\\n171. Intimately connected with the circulation of blood\\nand the conveyance of lymph are the operations of secre-\\ntion, transudation, and absorption, which form a large part\\nof the processes of nutrition. Though the various parts\\nof the body are constantly changing, the general normal\\ncondition is maintained, through the movement and reno-\\nvation of the blood and lymph. 4\\n1 About the year 1600 the thoracic duct was discovered; in 1622 the\\nlacteals, but until 1649 they were supposed to empty into the liver in\\nthat year (1649) the receptacle for chyle was discovered, and the fact that\\nchyle was carried into it, and thence into the venous system. It was not\\nuntil 1650 that the other absorbent vessels, i.e. lymphatics, were dis-\\ncovered, first in the liver, and then in the other parts of the body.\\n2 About 700 in number. These glands are not infrequently enlarged,\\nfor instance, upon the head, or in the neck, from some irritation of\\nthe skin, from a sore throat, etc., and can then be readily felt.\\n8 The lymph current is a very slow side-stream to the blood current,\\nand seems to provide for emergencies, absorbing the excess of plasma\\nand the excess of wastes.\\n4 The spleen, thymus gland (a gland found in children upon the front\\nof the neck), and other ductless glands, in connection with the blood-", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "170 THE CIRCULATION.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n172. The Spleen is a dark, purplish organ, situated in\\nthe left side of the abdomen, near the stomach. It has\\na firm capsule, but its interior is a sponge-like tissue,\\ncontaining in its meshes the spleen pulp. This pulp is\\ncomposed of red and white blood corpuscles. The blood\\ncirculates abundantly through the spongy tissue, but not\\nin firm tubes. The spleen becomes gradually distended\\nwith blood after a hearty meal or after severe exercise,\\nand then shrinks. It also enlarges and hardens when the\\nblood has an excess of white corpuscles, as in malarial\\nand other diseases. 1 The function of the spleen seems\\nto be to supply leucocytes to the blood, and to renovate\\nor destroy some of the old and worn-out red corpuscles.\\n173. Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics upon the Organs of\\nCirculation and the Blood. Diluted alcohol, taken inter-\\nnally, is readily absorbed by the blood. In small amount,\\nit slightly increases the action of the heart and the flow\\nof blood, produces flushing of the face, glistening of the\\neyes, and a general stimulating effect. Repetitions of this\\nexcitation frequently lead to the taking of larger and\\nlarger amounts. These tend to tire the heart and blood-\\nvessels, and to weaken their walls by the deposit of fat or\\nof calcareous matter, especially in the arteries. A heart\\nso weakened gradually becomes too feeble to pump the\\namount of blood necessary to sustain more than ordinary\\nmuscular exertion, and may give out when overtaxed.\\nThe diseased arteries from the same cause may rupture,\\nand paralysis or death result.\\nvessels, elaborate in a similar manner formative constituents of the blood.\\nWhen these glands are diseased, the blood is likely to be more or less\\nwhite and watery.\\n1 So enlarged and hardened it is known as ague cake.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH. 171\\n174. Tobacco, used habitually, may produce through\\nthe nervous system functional derangement of the heart,\\nknown as tobacco heart, attended by pain, faintness,\\nand severe palpitations. This functional derangement, in\\na naturally weak organ, may lead to structural or organic\\ndisease of the heart.\\n175. While opium and other narcotics readily enter the\\nblood and impair it, their action in the body is manifested\\nprincipally in derangement of the general nervous system.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. State what is meant by the circulation, and what is its object.\\n2. What are the organs of circulation\\n3. What is the chief organ, where situated, and what is its structure\\n4. How does the blood pass from the auricles to the ventricles\\n5. What keeps it from returning from the ventricles to the auricles?\\n6. What other valves are there in the circulation, and where\\n7. By which side and parts of the heart is pure blood transmitted?\\n8. Describe the circulation of the blood.\\n9. Does the heart, like other muscles, have rest\\n10. How are the movements of the heart effected? How affected?\\n11. What can you say as to its vitality?\\n12. Describe the arteries and their function.\\n13. What is the pulse and its rate\\n14. What causes blushing and pallor Apoplexy\\n15. Describe the capillaries.\\n16. How are the nails, cartilage, etc., nourished?\\n17. Describe the veins.\\n18. Where, then, would you compress a bleeding artery to stop its\\nflow Where a vein\\n10. What facts show the importance of blood?\\n20. Of what is blood composed?\\n21. How does it appear under the microscope?\\n22. What is the function of the red corpuscles?", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "172 THE CIRCULATION. BLOOD. LYMPH.\\n23. What is the coagulation of the blood, its cause, and value\\n24. When does blood clot in the blood-vessels\\n25. What is paralysis A bruise A hemorrhage\\n26. What proportion, in weight, of the body is blood\\n27. Describe lymph, lymphatics, and the lymphatic glands.\\n28. Where do the lymphatics empty\\n29. What processes of nutrition are intimately connected with the\\ncirculation of blood and lymph\\n30. What are the effects of alcohol, tobacco, etc., upon the blood and\\norgans of circulation\\ni", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI.\\nPOOD. -DIETETICS.\\n176. The Uses of Food. Food, in a physiological sense,\\nis anything which, when introduced into the system, will\\nnourish some part of the body, supply heat or other form\\nof energy, or aid in the discharge of the various processes\\nwhich take place in the body. Some indigestible and in-\\nnutritious materials (such as bran and the skins of small\\nfruits), when associated with food substances, are impor-\\ntant aids, if taken in moderate amount, in stimulating the\\nalimentary canal. Substances too much refined are not\\nthe best adapted to persons in health.\\nFood that produces heat or other forms of energy in\\nthe body may be considered as fuel, for it is literally\\nburned, just as coal is burned in an engine to produce\\nheat and work. This is accomplished by its combination\\nwith the oxygen of the atmosphere, which we inhale in\\nbreathing. Though we do not call oxygen a food, it is\\nsuch in reality, as without its aid, food substances would\\nbe of no service in the body.\\nFood which is used in excess of the daily requirements\\nof the body is stored in the system for future needs, prin-\\ncipally in the form of fat. When a person is starving,\\nthe body uses this reserve fat, before it feeds upon its\\nmuscles and other albuminous tissues. As these tissues\\nare consumed, the body becomes weaker and weaker, until\\ndeath results. How long a person can live, absolutely de-\\n173", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "174 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nprived of food, depends upon how much reserve material\\nhe has, and also upon how warm he can be kept and the\\namount of exercise he takes.\\n177. Sources of Food. Food is furnished to us by all\\nthe kingdoms of nature and as our knowledge extends,\\nnew food products are discovered. It is worthy of note\\nthat the ordinary food supply of different countries varies\\nin kind and quantity, and that substances highly esteemed\\nby some parts of our race are repulsive to us, while\\nsome of our most valued foods are considered by others as\\neven poisonous (a). Unlike the lower animals, man can\\nprepare, by sifting, grinding, cooking, etc., such food as he\\ncannot or does not care to eat in its natural state. He is\\nthus able to remove what may be hurtful, and to retain\\nwhat is beneficial.\\n178. The Food Elements 1 needed by the body are proteids,\\ncarhohydrates, fats, salts, and water. No one of these food\\nelements alone can support life. Experience has shown\\nthat they are all needed, the proportion of each vary-\\ning, according to the requirements of the individual, for\\nwarmth, for repair of tissues, and for energy in mental,\\nmuscular, or other work.\\n179. Proteids contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and\\noxygen, and some of them also sulphur and phosphorus.\\nBeing the only food elements which contain nitrogen, they\\nare specified as nitrogenous, and the foods of which they\\nform the principal part are nitrogenous foods. From\\ntheir resemblance to albumin the most prominent of\\n1 Sometimes called nutritive ingredients, alimentary principles, food\\nprinciples, or proximate principles.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 175\\nthe proteid elements they are also called albuminoids,\\nand the foods which contain them in large amount are\\nknown as albuminous or albuminoid foods.\\n180. Sources of Proteids. The proteids of food are\\nobtained from both the animal and the vegetable king-\\ndoms, for albuminous compounds exist not only in nearly\\nevery animal fluid and tissue, but also in vegetables, espe-\\ncially the cereal grains. These grains, and such vege-\\ntables as beans and peas, which are rich in proteids, may\\nsometimes be substituted for animal food. While the\\nnitrogenous constituents of vegetable food are similar to\\nthose of animal food, their relative quantity is much\\nsmaller, and the indigestible residue of vegetable food is\\nmuch larger in amount.\\nThe principal proteids of animal food are albumin,\\nmyosin, fibrin, and casein of vegetable food, albumin,\\ngluten, and casein.\\nAlbumin is found in flesh, blood, milk, in many vege-\\ntable juices and solids, and in its purest form in the\\nwhite of eggs.\\nMyosin is the basis of lean meat, and fibrin is found in\\nits fibrous portion.\\nGluten exists in variable quantity in the cereal grains,\\nbeing most abundant in wheat. It is a highly nutritious\\ncompound, composed of several albuminoids, together\\nwith oil and inorganic matter. 1 Gluten gives to dough\\nits adhesive character.\\nCasein exists in milk, and in a coagulated form in\\ncheese. It is also extracted from beans, peas, and similar\\n1 Gluten is easy of digestion, and substances which contain it in con-\\nsiderable amount are readily digested, even by invalids and dyspeptics.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "1 76 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nvegetables, and is then known as vegetable casein, or\\nlegumin. 1\\n181. Value of Proteids. Proteids are the\\ntissue-forming elements of food. They build up the nitroge-\\nnous materials of the bod}^, i.e. muscles, tendons, etc.,\\nand supply the albuminoids of blood, milk, and other fluids.\\nFrom the presence of albuminous substances in the\\nanimal economy, the necessity of a sufficient supply of\\nalbuminoids in food is evident, yet they cannot of themselves\\nalone support life. Animals fed exclusively on them lose\\nappetite, become emaciated, and die of starvation. Though\\nthey are of great importance, and exhaustion follows more\\nrapidly when they are withheld than when the body is\\ndeprived of certain other food constituents, yet to dis-\\ntinguish them as the nutritious elements of food is\\nmisleading. This misunderstanding as to their value is to\\nbe regretted, for the value of other food constituents is\\nthereby lost sight of. When proteids are used in larger\\namount than is needed to build and repair the tissues, some\\nof them are burned to produce energy others are probably\\nconverted into fat. In a way not thoroughly understood,\\nmore fat is stored in the body when proteids (especially\\nmeat) are eaten with fatty food, than when the latter\\nalone is eaten.\\n182. Excessive Use of Proteids. Albuminous substances\\ncan be eaten for a longer time without loathing than most\\nother food constituents. The foods which contain them,\\nespecially meat, are for the most part palatable, and give\\nus the sensations of energy, of feeling up to the mark,\\n1 The article called tao-foo, made by the Chinese from peas, is\\napparently identical with cheese. Flint, Text-book of Physiology.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 177\\nof being equal to work, which are so pleasant to all.\\nHence they are apt to be consumed in too large quan-\\ntities, and the stimulus afforded by such food is quite\\noften obtained at the risk of biliousness and gout, for the\\nwaste products resulting from the digestion of so much\\nnitrogenous food are not thoroughly eliminated from the\\nbody, and act as poisons in the blood. Especially is this\\nthe case if there is insufficient exercise, if the digestive\\nsecretions are not sufficiently abundant or active, or if the\\nliver and kidneys are not in healthy working order. 1\\n183. Nitrogenous, Non-albuminous Food Elements are asso-\\nciated with some food substances. They are known as\\ngelatinoids, nitrogenous extractions, and amids. They can-\\nnot take the place of albuminoids, but afford some heat and\\nenergy. Examples of such substances are the gelatinous\\nmaterial of connective tissue, collogen of tendon, ossein\\nof bone, kreatin, and allied compounds, which are the\\nchief ingredients of beef teas and of most beef extracts.\\nCombined with fats and carbohydrates these substances\\nenable the body to do with less proteids. Gelatine, often\\ngiven to invalids in the form of jelly, does not act as a\\nbody builder and restorer. 2\\n1 Luxurious and well-to-do people frequently eat too much, especially\\nof rich, albuminous food, and take too little exercise. A business reverse\\nwhich compels them to live on simpler food and to take more exercise is,\\nso far as their health is concerned, a blessing- in disguise.\\n2 In 1841 the physiologist Magendie, in connection with a French com-\\nmittee of investigation, showed that animals fed on pure albumin, fibrin,\\nor gelatine lost their appetites and died, with all the evidences of starva-\\ntion, about the twentieth day. On the other hand, raw bones, containing.\\nas they do, fat, albumin, water, and salts, as well ns gelatine, are capable\\nof supporting life. The same committee fonnd that dogs could live and\\nbe nourished for a considerable time on gluten alone.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "178 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n184. Carbohydrates and Fats consist of carbon, hydro-\\ngen, and oxygen, but the amount of ox} T gen is greater in\\nthe carbohydrates than in the fats. Carbohydrates of\\nvegetable origin are the starches, cane and grape sugar,\\ndextrin, gums, and cellulose (woody fibre). Those of\\nanimal origin are lactose, or sugar of milk, and glycogen\\n(animal starch). Carbohydrates constitute a large pro-\\nportion of all cereal grains.\\n185. Value of Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates and fats\\nare the chief fuel constituents of food. Both are readily\\noxidized in the body, giving off water and carbon dioxide.\\nTheir oxidation produces proportionately more heat and\\nmuscular power than that of proteids. Both are trans-\\nformed into the fat of the body, and are mainly re-\\nsponsible for the storage of fat. The Tyrolese chamois\\nhunters, it is said, find that they can endure greater\\nfatigue with beef fat as their food than with the same\\nweight of lean meat. The strength of the Hindoo and of\\nthe Irishman, the one living mainly on rice and the other\\non potatoes, is well known. Still, the amount necessary\\nof such foods to furnish that strength is very large in\\ncomparison with that required by a mixed animal and\\nvegetable diet. Necessary as are the carbohydrates and\\nfats, like the albuminoids and other alimentary principles,\\nnone of them alone will support life.\\nEither carbohydrates or fats, if used frequently or in\\nlarge quantities to the exclusion of other food elements,\\nare not easily digested, and may prove injurious. Vege-\\ntables which contain a considerable amount of carbo-\\nhydrates need to be well cooked, especially if they are old\\nor hard, in order to soften the tough cellulose and break\\nup the starch granules. We can readily digest a large", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n179\\npart of the cellulose of young and tender plants, like let-\\ntuce, celery, asparagus, and carrots. 1\\n186. Starch is the principal carbohydrate in vegetable\\nfood, and though ordinarily a fine white powder, under\\nthe microscope it is seen to consist of granules. These\\nvary in size and form, according to the kind of starch. 2\\nStarch is distributed through the vegetable kingdom\\nin the form of thin cells, in tubers, seeds, stems, and fruit.\\nA B\\nFig. 75.\\nA, Cells of raw potato, starch B, Cells of partially cooked\\ngranules in natural condi-\\npotato.\\nC, Cells of a thoroughly-\\ncooked potato.\\ntion.\\nIt is especially abundant in the cereals, and in potatoes,\\nchestnuts, beans, rice, and peas. Arrowroot, tapioca, and\\nsago, which are extractions from various plants, are nearly\\npure specimens of starch.\\n1 The different nutrients can, to a greater or less extent, do one\\nanother s work. If the body has not enough of one for fuel, it can use\\nanother. But, while the protein can be burned in the place of fats ami\\ncarbohydrates, neither of the latter can take the place of the albuminoids\\nin building and repairing the tissues. At the same time the gelatinoids,\\nfats, and carbohydrates, by being consumed themselves, protect the\\nalbuminoids from consumption. Prof. W. 0. Atwater.\\n2 They cannot be distinctly seen with the naked eye, ami are so ex-\\ntremely minute that wheat Hour, ground to an impalpable dust, contains\\nits starch granules mostly unbroken and perfect.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "180 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nCooked starch is more readily digested than raw, as\\ncooking causes the granules to swell and burst. A homo-\\ngeneous jelly-like mass results, composed mainly of dex-\\ntrin, or transformed starch, which is readily changed into\\nmaltose by the digestive secretions. A crust of bread,\\nwith its starch changed into dextrin by thorough cooking,\\nis more digestible than the inside of the loaf, where the\\nstarch is too frequently not sufficiently cooked. During\\nthe process of maturing, a part of the starchy contents of\\nfruits and vegetables is changed into dextrin by the fer-\\nment action of a peculiar vegetable substance known as\\ndiastase. This is the principal reason why ripe fruit is\\nmore digestible than unripe. 1\\nThough cooked starch is in general promptly trans-\\nformed by the digestive process, if taken in excess, to the\\nexclusion of other food material, fermentation results, the\\nappetite is weakened, and digestion is impaired. There-\\nfore, persons living chiefly on bread and tea, or on bread\\nand potatoes, or, as sometimes happens in the case of\\nyoung children, upon arrowroot and corn starch, often\\nsuffer from an acid stomach. 2\\n187. Sugar is closely related to starch in chemical com-\\nposition, but is distinguished by its sweet taste, its solu-\\nbility in water, and the crystallization which occurs upon\\nboiling a watery solution. Some varieties of sugar read-\\nily ferment that is to say, decompose, and are converted\\ninto alcohol and carbon dioxide on exposure to heat and\\n1 Gums, mucilages, and other substances known as amyloids, and\\nassociated with starch in certain vegetables, have comparatively little\\nfood value.\\n2 Starchy foods should be given sparingly to very young children, in\\nwhom the saliva and pancreatic juice are not very efficient.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 181\\nmoisture, or in the presence of an organized substance\\nknown as yeast.\\nThere are several varieties of sugar. The most im-\\nportant of these are cane sugar, glucose or grape sugar,\\nand milk sugar. 1 Of these varieties, cane sugar is the\\nsweetest and most soluble.\\nSugar has a high fuel value, and renders other food\\nmore palatable. It is absorbed into the system almost as\\nquickly as water, acts promptly, and is especially service-\\nable when the diet is deficient in starch and fat (a). But\\nif used immoderately it may make the consumer unduly\\nfat, interfere with the appetite for more substantial food,\\nand cause acidity of the stomach and decay of the teeth.\\nGood candy i.e. candy not impaired by deleterious\\ncoloring matter or other substances can be safely used\\nby most persons, if eaten in moderation.\\n188. Fats are obtained principally from the fatty tissue\\nof animals and from cream. Many vegetable substances\\nalso contain fat, especially oats and Indian corn, cocoa,\\nbeans, nuts, and olives. The digestibility of fat varies\\nwith individuals, and with the kind eaten some persons\\ndispose easily of that of bacon or beef, while others readily\\ndigest fresh butter only. Animal fat is, as a rule, not so\\neasily digested as vegetable oils. Some kinds of fat, not\\nbeing pure, easily decompose on exposure to air or, on\\nbeing heated, produce acids, which prove very indigestible\\nand irritating.\\n1 Cane sugar is obtained from sugar cane, beet root, sugar maple, etc.\\nGlucose is combined with cane sugar and fruit sugar in poaches, pine-\\napples, and strawberries with fruit sugar in honey, grapes, cherries, and\\ndried fruit and is frequently found in the animal fluids. Milk sugar is\\nthe saccharine ingredient of milk.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "182 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n189. Value of Fat. Fat is essential to cell growth and\\nto general nutrition of the body. A diet free from fat will\\nnot support life. Eaten in sufficient quantity, it is a\\npreventive of that defective nutrition which finally ends\\nin chronic nervous diseases and in scrofula and allied\\naffections. 1 On the other hand, too much fat is not readily\\ndisposed of in the body, but produces skin eruptions,\\nunduly increases the adipose tissue, especially about the\\nheart and other organs, and thus impairs health.\\nThe fuel value of fat is more than twice that of proteids\\nor carbohydrates. We need proteids; but fat, coupled with\\nenough of the carbohydrates, decreases the amount of\\nproteids necessary to maintain the nitrogenous equilibrium\\nof the body. This is a matter of importance, especially\\nfor the poor, or when proteids are not readily obtained or\\nnot easily digested. Fat is much used in hot countries\\nin the shape of vegetable and fish oils, when meat is scarce\\nor is prohibited by religious opinions (a). The diet of\\nthe inhabitants of these countries is mainly a cereal one,\\nand usually affords sufficient albuminoids for the building\\nand repair of tissues.\\n190. Not only does fat, coupled with carbohydrates,\\nsave the consumption of proteids, but when we wish to\\nget our food in a more condensed form, we can use fats\\nfreely in connection with proteids, and lessen the amount\\nof carbohydrates. In army dietaries the amount of fat\\n1 This is probably one of the reasons of the craving of children in our\\nclimate for butter, which presents oily matter to the digestion in an easily\\nassimilable form, and is evidently a valuable dietetic agent.\\nIt is probably true that most of the persons who are benefited in this\\ncountry by cod-liver oil, in Switzerland by neat s-foot oil, and in Kussia\\nby train-oil, would not need these oils as medicine if their food had con-\\ntained sufficient oil or fat.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 183\\nis largely increased for marching and for great exertion,\\nthe quantity being three times more than that allotted to\\ngarrison life.\\nExperience seems to show that we should not consume\\nless than two ounces of fat per day, but we may increase it\\nto eight or nine ounces if we decrease one or both of the\\nother two great constituents of food.\\n191. The heat-producing property of fat renders it\\nespecially valuable in cold weather and in cold climates,\\nwhere it is eaten by the inhabitants in enormous quanti-\\nties, four to rive pounds per day being the ordinary\\namount for the average adult (a). Sailors who may be\\naverse to fatty food learn to drink freely of oil when\\nwintering in the Arctic regions, and enjoy the fat portions\\nof the seal, walrus, and other marine animals. 1\\n192. Water. The inorganic constituents of food are\\nwater and the chemical salts. Of all substances, a regular\\nsupply of water is the most essential to the maintenance of\\nlife. If deprived of it for eight or ten hours, far greater\\ninconvenience, pain, and debility is suffered than upon a\\n1 People belonging to the well-to-do classes, unless they have given\\nspecial study to the subject, seldom realize the importance of fat in our\\neconomy. Fat means to them fat meat, suet, lard, and the like, and the\\nmuch eating of these is considered proof of a gross appetite they do not\\nconsider how much fat they take in eggs, in milk, in grains like oatmeal\\nand maize, in the seasoning of their varied dishes, and in their well-\\nfattened meats, where, as in an average piece from a very fat mutton,\\nthey eat twice as much fat as proteid, without knowing it. Indeed, a\\nwell-fed man of the upper classes may have more fat in his daily diet\\nthan has the freshly arrived Michlenburg laborer, who spreads a quarter-\\nInch layer of lard on his bread. The latter cannot take his fat in unsus-\\npected forms; he craves this principle with his plain vegetable diet, and\\nmust take it as he can get it. Mrs. Abel, Practical and Sanitary\\nCooking, etc.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "184 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nsimilar deprivation of solid food. With water, life may\\nbe sustained without the aid of other food for several\\nweeks but, if it is entirety withheld, death is likely to\\nresult in a few days\\nWater is present in all the tissues and fluids, and con-\\nstitutes about 70 per cent of the entire weight of the\\nbody. 1 It dissolves certain food substances, and gives\\nfluidity to the blood, lymph, and secretions, enabling\\nthem to perform their functions of introducing into the\\nbody and discharging from it substances held by them\\nin solution. The elasticity of bones, cartilages, and\\nmuscles, and the flexibility of tendons and other tissues,\\nare largely due to its presence. After performing its\\npart in the various nutritive processes carried on in the\\nbody, about 20 per cent is exhaled from the lungs, 30 per\\ncent discharged by the skin, and 50 per cent by the kid-\\nneys and intestines.\\n193. About 2\\\\ quarts of water are required per day\\nby the average adult, in temperate climates and doing\\nmoderate work, to replace the water lost by excretion.\\nDuring severe labor, especially in warm weather or in hot\\nquarters, .the amount required is very much more. Prob-\\nably about one-half of the water usually needed is obtained\\nin the food we consume. Every kind of food contains\\nwater for example, fat beef has about 50 per cent pota-\\ntoes, 75 per cent bread, 35 per cent peas and oatmeal,\\n15 per cent.\\n194. Salts are, next to water, the most important inor-\\nganic elements of the body and of food. They consist of\\n1 The necessity of water in food may be inferred from the statement\\nthat we are two-thirds water and one-third land.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 185\\nsodium chloride or common salt, iron, and the chlorides,\\nphosphates, and sulphates of potassium, magnesium, and\\ncalcium. Salines influence solubility, and have much to\\ndo with the chemical changes of food substances.\\nCommon Salt is essential to the life of animals, and is\\nfound in their every tissue, with the exception of the\\nenamel of the teeth. It is also a constituent of nearly all\\nfood, and exists in small quantities in almost every spring,\\nsoil, and plant. The quantity taken with food as fur-\\nnished by nature is generally insufficient for the needs of\\nthe body, and hence its use as a condiment. It assists in\\nregulating the processes of endosmosis and exosmosis, and\\nexcites the digestive secretions, thus stimulating the appe-\\ntite. Its value is indicated by the natural craving of the\\nsystem for it, and by the results of experiments upon the\\nlower animals. Without it, digestion would be imperfect\\nand health could not be long maintained. We are told\\nthat the ancient laws of Holland ordained men to be\\nkept on bread alone, unmixed with salt, as the severest\\npunishment that could be inflicted upon them in their\\nmoist climate. Animals will go long distances in search\\nof salt, and if deprived of it, their hides become rough,\\ntheir spirits dull, and they finally lose health and strength.\\nIn countries where salt is scarce, it is sold at fabulous\\nprices (a).\\nLime occurs principally as calcium phosphate and cal-\\ncium carbonate, the first being most abundant. Lime is\\nan ingredient of every tissue and fluid of the body, but is\\nespecially necessary in the bones and teeth, where it affords\\nstrength and consistency. A deficiency of lime salts\\nrenders the bones soft, so that they easily bend hence,\\nduring early life, when the tissues arc developing, lime\\nsalts should be supplied in comparatively large quantities.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "186 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nOf all articles of food, meat, milk, and vegetable grains\\ncontain lime in the largest amount.\\nOf iron about one-third of an ounce exists in the body\\nin connection with the coloring matter of the blood, of\\nwhich fluid it forms about one one-thousandth part. Iron\\nis a constituent of milk and eggs, and is sometimes found\\nin water. Its importance to health is easily recognized,\\nwhen, as a medicine, it restores color to the skin and\\nenriches the blood.\\nPhosphorus and sulphur, in the form of phosphates and\\nsulphates, are introduced into the body with proteid food\\nsubstances, and enter into the composition of muscles and\\nother tissues.\\n195. The Vegetable Acids malic, citric, tartaric, etc.\\nare found in fruits and vegetables, combined with lime,\\nsoda, and potassa, forming salts known as malates, citrates,\\netc. These salts are indispensable in food, for in the body\\nthey are converted into carbonates, and assist in furnish-\\ning alkalies to the blood and other fluids.\\n196. Fuel Value of Food. By the expression fuel\\nvalue of food is meant the amount of heat power and of\\nmuscular and other forms of energy that various foods\\nproduce when oxidized in the body. Undoubtedly, intel-\\nlectual activity is somewhat dependent upon the utiliza-\\ntion of food material by the brain and nerves, but exactly\\nwhat food substances produce this form of energy is not\\ndefinitely known. Fats and carbohydrates are the chief\\nproducers of energy, but proteids sometimes act as fuel.\\nThe first two, by reason of their lack of nitrogen, cannot\\nbuild and repair nitrogenous tissues, but they build and\\nrepair fatty tissue.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 187\\n197. The energy of food in the body is estimated by\\nphysiologists just as if the food were burned outside the\\nbody, i.e. in heat units or calories. 1 Taking ordinary\\nfood materials as they come, the following general esti-\\nmate has been made for the average amount of heat and\\nenergy in one pound of each of the classes of nutrients\\nCalories\\nIn one pound of protein 2 1.860\\nIn one pound of fats 4.220\\nIn one pound of carbohydrates 1.860\\nIn other words, when we compare the nutrients in respect\\nto their fuel values (their capacities for yielding heat and\\nmechanical power), a pound of protein of lean meat or\\nalbumin of eggs is just about equivalent to a pound of\\nsugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either\\nwould be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or\\nbutter, or the body fat.\\n198. Relative Value of Food Substances. The table 3 on\\npage 188 gives the composition of a few food materials.\\n1 The calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature\\nof one kilogram (2.2 pounds avoirdupois) of water 1\u00c2\u00b0 C, or one pound of\\nwater about 4\u00c2\u00b0 F. A foot ton is the energy (power) which would lift\\none ton, one foot. One calorie is equivalent in mechanical energy to\\n1.53 foot tons.\\n2 The term protein, as used in this chapter, includes all the nitroge-\\nnous food constituents, the nutritious proteids, and the materials which\\nhave little nutritive value, like kreatin of muscle tissue and amids of\\nvegetable tissue.\\n3 It represents the food materials in the form in which we buy them,\\nincluding water and refuse, like bones and the skins of potatoes. It was\\nprepared by Prof. W. 0. Atwater, special agent of the United States in\\nnutrition investigations, and published by the Department of Agriculture.\\nMuch of the material in this chapter is from recent publications by the\\ngovernment on food and diet.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "188\\nFOOD. DIETETICS.\\nComposition of Food Material.\\nNutrients. Non Nutrients.\\n-s Fuel value.\\nProteii\\nrryrm c\\nFats Carbo- Mineral\\nHydrates Matters\\nL^w^rvJ E8B9\\nWater Refuse\\nCalories\\nNutrients, Etc., P.ot.\\n10 20 30 40 50 00 70 SO 00 100\\nFuel Value of 1 Lb.\\n400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3000 4000\\nCodfish, salt\\nOysters\\nE ggs\\nnai^\\n/VXy^/V^V^^A *S*J\\nWheat bread\\nr\\nl^^v\\nWmmw :::::v.:::::: :::::!T^\\nWheat flour\\nCornmeal\\n1L\\nE\\nOatmeal\\nrE\\nBeans, dried\\nIM:\\nice\\nPotatoes\\nr\\\\ /-n ^n. /~s^^-v J ^-y_ -v_\\nSugar\\nWithout bone\\nFig. 76.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 189\\nAnimal foods in general, 1 especially beef, have the most\\nproteicls among the vegetable foods, wheat, oatmeal,\\npeas, and beans head the list. These, therefore, are\\nthe foods best adapted to build and repair the tissues.\\nThe foods which have the most fats, such as butter and\\nits substitutes and fat meats, have the highest fuel value.\\nGrains, meal, and good flour have also a high fuel value\\non account of their carbohydrates. Fresh vegetables,\\nsuch as turnips and cabbages, contain much water, and\\nare mainly useful for their salts. The principal value of\\nfresh fruits is in their salts and acids.\\nMilk comes nearest to being a perfect, or normal, food,\\nbecause it contains all the food elements in about the\\nright proportion but by adults it must be taken in con-\\nsiderable quantity to afford of itself sufficient nutriment\\nand fuel.\\n199. The Importance of a Mixed Diet. After the first\\nyear or two of life, a mixed diet is best for all. One\\ncould live on bread or meat alone, but the exclusive use\\nof either of these foods would entail great labor on cer-\\ntain digestive organs, and would make the disposition\\nof a large amount of refuse of one kind very uncertain.\\nAnd also, after a time, the food would become distasteful.\\nThe system of an adult doing moderate work requires\\ndaily about 20 grams 2 of nitrogen and 280 grams of car-\\nbon. Wheat bread contains 1 per cent of nitrogen and 30\\n1 Fish, as a rule, have so much refuse and water that they must be\\neaten in larger amount than other meat to afford the same amount of\\nnutrients. Eggs contain more fat and proteids than milk, and about the\\nsame amount of mineral matter, but no carbohydrates. A quart of\\nmilk, three-quarters of a pound oi moderately tat beef, and five ounces\\nof wheat flour contain about the same amount of nutritive material.\\n2 A gram 15.43 troy grains.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "190 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nper cent of carbon, while meat has 3 per cent of nitrogen\\nand 11 per cent of carbon. In order, therefore, to obtain\\nthe required amount of nitrogen, if bread alone is eaten,\\nit will be necessary to eat about four pounds a day in\\ndoing this, twice the necessary amount of carbon will be\\nconsumed. On the other hand, to obtain sufficient car-\\nbon from an exclusive meat diet, a man must eat about\\nsix pounds of meat a day, and then he would be taking\\nsix times the necessary amount of nitrogen.\\nCombinations of foods, such as meat and bread, bread\\nand milk, meat and potatoes, pork and beans, crackers and\\ncheese, are scientifically correct, and the results of experi-\\nence show that they may be used as the essentials of each\\nday s food. In addition to the flesh foods, heat foods,\\nand work foods, we need water, air, mineral matters, and\\nthe flavors resulting from the cooking of food, or those\\nwhich are added to foods to make them taste good. 1\\n200. The Quantity of Food needed varies greatly, depend-\\ning upon age, health, occupation, digestive powers, and\\nother peculiarities, as well as upon the climate and season,\\nthe amount of clothing worn, the kind of food used, and\\n1 Surely the economical housekeeper who would throw out of the\\nlist of necessaries all the things that tickle the palate, that rouse the\\nsense of smell, that please the eye and stimulate overtired nerves, just\\nbecause these things contain but little food, would make a grave mistake.\\nShe may know just what cuts of meat to buy, what vegetables are most\\nhealthful and economical, but, if she does not understand how to make\\nthe mouth water, her labor is largely lost. Especially if she has but\\nlittle money should she pay great attention to this subject, for it is the\\nonly way to induce the body to take up plain food with relish. The list\\nof these spices, flavors, harmless drinks, and the like is a long one. Un-\\nfortunately, we have no comprehensive word that will include everything\\nof the sort, from a sprig of parsley to a cup of coffee. The Germans call\\nthem genuss Mittel, pleasure-giving things. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 191\\nother circumstances. In infancy, a period of rapid growth\\nand development, a proportionately larger amount of food\\nis needed than at any other period of life. 1\\nA healthy, growing boy, with the muscular strength\\nand nervous energy of youth, will often eat, and perhaps\\nrequires, as much food as the average man while old,\\nfeeble, and inactive persons require but very little food.\\nActive mental or physical work renders an abundance\\nof substantial food necessary. Proper work cannot be\\naccomplished on an insufficient or improper diet. It\\nhappens sometimes that in prisons, and even in charitable\\ninstitutions, the daily ration is diminished below the\\nphysiological standard, for the sake of economy. If there\\nis but little activity of mind or body, some diminution\\nmay not be attended with actual disease but if active,\\nhealthy children are scantily fed, or convicts in prison are\\ncompelled to do hard work on a light-labor diet, sickness,\\ngreat feebleness, and even death result.\\nSize alone does not determine the amount of food\\nrequired. In fact, large and fat people often thrive on a\\nscant diet, especially if there be a great indisposition to\\nmuscular exertion, while thin and diminutive persons,\\nparticularly hard workers, may eat and digest a very large\\namount. As people become better supplied with this\\nworld s goods, the tendency is to eat too much. Persons\\nin moderate circumstances often thrive on what is con-\\n1 Daring the first year of life a child should grow from six to eight\\ninches, and should weigh at the end of the year two or throe times as\\nmuch as at birth. In the second year, the growth should be only about\\nhalf as much as in the first. In the third year, only about a third as\\nmuch. After the third year the weight and growth are more uniform.\\nTo meet these demands it is generally necessary to feed babies every\\ntwo, three, or four hours.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "192 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nsidered by many an insufficient amount of food. The\\nbody exposed to a cool, bracing atmosphere, or to extreme\\ncold, demands an increased supply of food. 1 According\\nto Dr. Hayes, the Arctic explorer, the daily ration of the\\nEsquimaux is from twelve to fifteen pounds of meat,\\nabout one-third of which is fat.\\n201. Dietaries. The knowledge of the kind and daily\\namount of food required by the average individual, in\\nan aggregation of persons whose social and hygienic sur-\\nroundings are about the same, as in an army, on ship-\\nboard, or in an institution, affords a basis upon which to\\ncalculate the kind and amount needed by a number of\\npersons. From such estimates Dietaries or Diet Tables\\nare constructed.\\nThe dietary standards 2 most commonly adopted in\\nEurope are those prepared by Professor Yoit of Munich,\\nbased largely upon observations and experiments among\\npeople in Bavaria. Voit s standard for a man performing\\nmoderately hard work, as a mason or a carpenter working\\n1 The ravenous appetite noticed amongst the inhabitants of cold cli-\\nmates may be due, in part, to the fact that their food supply is very\\nirregular, so that when food is obtained they eat to excess.\\n2 The term dietary is used as representing the daily food actually\\nused, while the term dietary standard is applied to the quantities of\\nnutrients assumed to be appropriate for the daily food in the given case.\\nThe standard being once decided, dietary tables may be calculated by\\ncombining various food materials, which, according to their chemical\\ncomposition, will furnish the quantities of nutrients which the standard\\ncalls for. Standards have been obtained by dietary studies of the actual\\nfood consumption of individuals, or groups of persons of different age,\\nsex, occupation, and condition of life, and by so-called metabolism ex-\\nperiments with individuals, in which the income and outgo of the body\\nare measured, and the effects of different kinds and amounts of food\\nmaterials are learned,", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 193\\nactively ten hours a day, calls for 0.25 pound (118 grams)\\nof protein, 1 and fats and carbohydrates in quantities suf-\\nficient with the protein to yield 3050 calories of energy.\\nProfessor At water suggests an American standard, some-\\nwhat higher than the European, allowing 0.28 pound\\n(125 grams) of protein and 3500 calories of energy. 2\\n202. The American standard for a man of moderate\\nwork may be obtained approximately from\\n12 oz. of Bound Steak, containing 0.14 lb. protein, and 680 cal. of energy\\n4 oz. of Butter, containing 0.00 lb. protein, and 900 cal. of energy\\n16 oz. of Potatoes, containing 0.02 lb. protein, and 310 cal. of energy\\n21 oz. of Wheat Bread, containing 0.12 lb. protein, and 1590 cal. of energy\\n53 oz., i.e. 3f lbs., of nutrients. 0.28 3480\\nTo this 53 oz., to afford a complete daily diet, is to be\\nadded from 50 to 80 oz. of water, and about 2 oz. of\\nsalt, etc.\\nHard muscular or mental labor requires more nutrients\\nthan are here shown less work and sedentary occupations\\nrequire a smaller amount. Women and children in gen-\\neral need less than men (6). The amount required for\\nmere physical existence is very small. 3\\n1 As protein includes all nitrogenous food elements, the amounts of\\nproteids required are not as large as the above figures would indicate.\\n2 The reason for the more liberal allowance is that investigations\\ncarried on in many parts of the United States indicate that the standard\\nof living is higher in this country than it is in Europe. People hero are\\nhoused, clothed, and fed better than they are there. They have more of\\nthe comforts and opportunities of life, and make more of themselves.\\nThey work harder, accomplish more, and earn more wherewith to pay\\nfor better living. One essential, then, of this higher standard of living is\\nbetter nutrition.\\n3 The first and most important principle established by Chossat is\\nthat absolute deprivation of food, and deficiency of food, are physio-\\nlogically identical in their action on animal life. One acts quicker than", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "194 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n203. Experience, especially in armies, shows that the\\namount of lean meat required daily throughout the year is\\nabout the same. The fats and fat-forming elements\\nshould be apportioned to the amount of heat and work\\ndemanded. The body is not wholly dependent upon\\nthe food eaten any particular day, but rather on the\\nnutrients as a whole taken during longer periods, for\\nthe system is probably storing nutritive material almost\\nconstantly.\\n204. The Digestibility of Food must, to a large extent,\\nregulate the quantity to be eaten by each individual,\\nespecially of such kinds as beans, cheese, and rice. We\\ndo not live upon what we eat, but what we digest and\\nmake use of. A healthy appetite is a good indication as\\nto quantity and quality. Appetite normally asserts itself\\nat regular intervals, or what we call meal-times, and may\\nthen be appeased by a moderate quantity of food. But\\nan undue excitation of the muscles and mucous membrane\\nof the stomach by irregular eating will produce in time\\nthe habit of an irregular secretion of the gastric juice, a\\nconsequent variable appetite, or a frequent and glutton-\\nous desire for unnecessary food. The excessive amount\\nthe other, but the difference is merely one of duration and degree. Both\\nare equally fatal in the end and the end in both is regulated by the\\nsame law. Death arrives when the body has lost six-tenths of its weight,\\nwhether that happens after days, or months, or years. Chambers s\\nJIanual of Diet.\\nIn an overcrowded military prison, a diet of one-third of a pound of\\nbacon and one and three-fourths pounds of unbolted meal daily caused\\nmuch sickness and very many deaths.\\nDuring the siege of Paris, when the inhabitants were inactive, a diet\\nwhich barely supported life consisted of ten ounces of bread and one\\nounce of meat daily.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 195\\nof food thus eaten disorders the processes of secretion,\\nassimilation, and excretion, and induces disease. 1\\nThe appetite may be aroused by attention to hygienic\\nmeasures, such as proper mental and physical exercise,\\nbathing, rest, and the proper selection, cooking, and\\npresentation of food; also, by vegetable bitters and by\\ncondiments. It is diminished, on the other hand, by\\ninattention to hygiene, by worry, by opium and other\\ndrugs, and by an abuse of alcoholic stimulants.\\n205. Variety of Food. The system craves a varied diet,\\nand the living for a length of time on even an abundance\\nof food, if it be unvaried from day to day, will generally\\nresult in loss of appetite and in disease. The condition\\nknown as scurvy, exhibited by thin blood settled in spots\\nunder the skin, spongy and bleeding gums, and general\\ndebility, was formerly not uncommon on long sea voyages,\\nespecially in the Arctic regions, where the diet consisted\\nlargely of bread, tea, and salt meat. At the present time\\nmost vessels going on such voyages are supplied with lem-\\nons, lime juice, canned meats, fruits, and vegetables 2 (a).\\n1 A voracious appetite is a condition which I suppose may be due to\\na very irritable state of the nerves of the stomach. The voracious\\nappetite, as we see it existing in children and young people, usually comes\\nfrom undue encouragement. The greater the desire for food the more\\nfood the individual eats, and so he goes on, until he succeeds in consum-\\ning several times as much food as his system requires. Thus is thrown\\nupon important organs the task of eliminating a quantity of useless mate-\\nrial which ought not to have been taken. A child perhaps is rather\\nthin, and therefore encouraged to stuff, and by degrees the habit of\\ntaking enormous quantities of food is acquired, with the not uncommon\\nresult to the patient of getting thinner, instead of gaining in weight.\\nDr. Lionel S. Beale, Slight Ailments.\\n2 It is required by law that lime juice be carried on board English ships,\\nand served out to the sailors; hence. English ships are sometimes called\\nMime-juicers 11 by American sailors.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "196 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nA similar condition is also seen on land in persons who are\\nrestricted to a diet in which fresh vegetables and fruit are\\nlacking, or whose food consists mainly of potatoes or bread\\nand tea, with little or no butter, meat, or milk. Soldiers\\nin active service, with restricted and unvarying rations,\\noften have an intense craving for fresh vegetables, such as\\nonions and raw potatoes, which are excellent anti-scorbutics.\\nWhen a variety of articles cannot be obtained, varied\\nmethods of preparing and cooking the limited supply\\nshould be resorted to. Good cookery means economy\\nbad cookery means waste.\\nOn the other hand, however, there may be such a thing\\nas too great a variety, and this also will destroy the appe-\\ntite. People living in large hotels, and travellers eating\\nfrequently in bountifully supplied cars and restaurants,\\noften suffer from dyspepsia and disturbed action of the\\nliver and other digestive organs, especially if little exercise\\nis taken. Epicures are apt to resort to alcoholic stimu-\\nlants and to condiments, to excite their jaded appetites.\\nIn like manner, the under-fed and those living on a very\\nsmall variety of food often fancy they need the assistance\\nof alcohol in some form. In the former case the practice\\nof abstemiousness, and in the latter a more bountiful and\\nvaried diet, is really what is needed. 1\\n206. Adulteration, Freshness, and Maturity of Food.\\nArticles of food are often robbed of their value, and are\\nsometimes positively harmful or even poisonous, in con-\\nsequence of adulteration, 2 or of being immature, or stale,\\n1 Coffee-houses, holly-tree inns, and diet dispensaries, by furnishing\\nsuitable food, can do much to avert a taste for liquor.\\n2 Adulteration is very common, and laws to control it are evaded.\\nFrauds in food consist, first, in the addition of deleterious substances,", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 1 97\\nor over-ripe. Milk diluted with water, or skimmed of a\\nlarge part of its cream, or that taken from unhealthy\\ncows, is a common evil. Measly meat, that is, meat\\ncontaining animalcula, such as trichinae, is occasionally\\nthe cause of sickness and death.\\nVegetables and meat of coarse texture, which are pur-\\nchased for economical reasons, are usually tough and in-\\ndigestible. Garden produce, especially corn, cucumbers,\\ncelery, and lettuce, when fresh, are desirable additions\\nto the table, but may become indigestible and a source of\\ndisease, if allowed to become dry and stale. Immature\\nfruits and vegetables lack the fully formed juices and salts,\\nwhich are indispensable to make them serviceable as food.\\nIn over-ripe fruit and vegetables the juices and salts have\\ndecomposed, giving rise to new combinations which are\\nhurtful.\\n207. Cost and Waste of Food. Half of the struggle of\\nlife is a struggle for food. With many people, one of\\nthe great problems is to obtain varied and sufficient food,\\nleaving enough of the week s wages to pay for rent, fuel,\\nlight, clothing, and other necessaries. Investigations by\\nthe government show that in many families, from 50 to Q5\\nper cent, or more, of the income is spent for food alone,\\nand that the waste of food is enormous. It is estimated\\nthat frequently one-half of the food bought would be\\nsufficient, if properly used. 1\\nsuch as salt of copper to pickles, and red lead to cayenne pepper second,\\nin the sale of fraudulent materials, such as cotton-seed oil for olive oil, of\\nflour and a little mustard with turmeric for pure mustard, or of oleomar-\\ngarine for butter; third, in the sale of substances not so fresh or in so\\ngood a condition as they are represented to be by the seller.\\n1 In factory boarding houses where economical and healthful food\\nwas bought, properly cooked, and but little waste allowed, the cost of", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "198 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nThe cost of food varies greatly in different parts of the\\nsame city. A knowledge of where to buy to the best\\nadvantage, of what to brry, and how to prepare and cook\\nmaterials bought, Avill furnish a variety of good, sub-\\nstantial food at much less cost than is generally thought\\npossible (a). Good home-made bread is cheaper than\\nbaker s bread. The tenderest meat, the finest fish, the\\nhighest-priced butter, and the most delicate vegetables\\nhave no greater food value than many of the less costly\\nfoods. Among such foods are milk, flour, cornmeal, oat-\\nmeal, beans, potatoes, substitutes for butter, the commoner\\nkinds of fish, and cheaper meats.\\n208. Investigations show that even where considerable\\ncare is observed, one-tenth of the food bought is thrown\\naway with the table and kitchen refuse. In most fami-\\nlies, a much larger proportion is wasted. If the waste\\nfood of our cities could be utilized, it would nourish every\\nhungry person in these cities.\\nBesides the household waste of food, there is another\\nform, especially in this country, viz., the trimming out\\nof the bones and fat of meat by the butcher. The bones\\ncould be used in valuable soups, and the fat for cooking\\npurposes or for eating.\\n209. Proper Preparation and Cooking may render food\\nof medium quality very serviceable. For example, the\\ncoarser and tougher parts of meat, and also vegetables\\nof coarse fibre, can be rendered quite tender by pro-\\nlonged boiling. On the other hand, the best food may be\\nmeals per week for women was from $1.60 to 81.75; for men $2.00 to\\n$2.25. The eaters, though hard workers, were satisfied. Some of the\\nforeign-horn residents in our large cities manage to live and work at a\\ncost of 11 to 18 cents per day for food for each person.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n199\\nProtein\\nCarbon\\nFuel value\\nFig. 77- (Mayo.)\\nTable Bhowing the Relative Nutritive Value oi -io Coats Worth of Various Foods", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "200 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\nmade useless, unwholesome, and even dangerous, by im-\\nproper preparatory treatment (a).\\nAn important rule in roasting, boiling, or broiling meat\\nis to produce at the start a rapid coagulation of albumin\\non the outer surface of the meat, so as to form a crust that\\nmay prevent the juices from escaping. This is done by\\nsubjecting the meat at first to a great heat, after which\\nthe cooking should proceed more slowly. 1 In like manner,\\nthe boiling of potatoes with at least the larger part of their\\nskins on prevents the escape of much that is nutritious.\\nFrying, if not rightly conducted, is the most objec-\\ntionable of all methods of cooking. Slowly heated fat\\nevolves fatty acids which are more or less injurious,\\nand, by penetrating the frying food, envelops its parti-\\ncles in grease. As fats are not digestible in the stom-\\nach, it follows that food so fried cannot be properly\\ndissolved by the gastric juice, but becomes an irritant.\\nTo fry properly, the fat should be boiling hot before the\\nfood is put into it, that an outer crust may be formed,\\nwhich will prevent the fats from penetrating to the in-\\nterior. After this crust is formed, the temperature of\\nthe fat may be somewhat lowered.\\n210. Preservation of Food. The processes of souring\\nand putrefaction, by which food substances decompose,\\n1 On the other hand, the process of soup-making is facilitated if the\\nmeat is cut into small pieces and put into cold water, and the temperature\\nslowly raised.\\nThe true science of cooking consists in the regulated and controlled\\napplication of heat, by which flavors are developed and the work of con-\\nverting raw and indigestible material into nutritious food is accomplished,\\nHigh heat, common in iron stoves and ranges, renders much of the\\nfat of food indigestible. The flavor of wheat bread, of white kinds of\\nfish, etc., is best developed by a low and prolonged heat. Atkinson.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n201\\nrequire the presence of moisture, a moderately elevated\\ntemperature, and access of atmospheric air or of some\\nfluid containing oxygen. Decomposition is accomplished\\nby the growth and multiplication of bacteria. The meth-\\nods by which the decomposition of albuminoid matter\\nand the activity of bacteria can be prevented, and the\\nFig. 78.\\nOpen grates in cellars are often untrapped, and, when trapped, the traps are usually\\nineffective from want of water, or from being broken and even if sealed by water,\\nthey are still an inefficient barrier to sewer gases, which can pass by absorption\\nthrough water. Teale, Dangers to Health.\\npreservation of food effected, are canning, desiccation,\\nfreezing, or heating to about the temperature of boiling\\nwater 1 (a).\\nFood preserved in cans made of so-called tin, but which\\nis in fact a compound of tin and lead, or in cans badly\\n1 The smoking of meat and pickling in brine do not always kill the\\nbacteria. Salicylic andboracic acids, though good preservatives of moat,\\nare not desirable, as they sometimes produce digestive ailments. Dry\\ncold and the injection of a solution of common salt are probably the best\\nmeans of preserving meat.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "202 FOOD,. DIETETICS.\\nsoldered with lead, may become poisonous, especially if\\nsuch food contain an acid, as is the case with tomatoes. 1\\nFood cooked or left standing in brass or copper vessels\\nthat are not clean is dangerous to life. Ice boxes, store-\\nrooms, or cellars, which are not clean and dry or are\\nimperfectly connected with drains, are constant sources of\\npoison to milk, water, fats, and other foods which readily\\nabsorb poisons from the atmosphere.\\n211. Alcohol as Food. Alcohol does not build or repair\\ntissues, but evidence goes to show that, in a small amount,\\nit may act as a partial food, like starch, sugar, and fat, by\\naffording energy. It requires no digestion, and is readily\\nabsorbed, but it cannot be stored in the bod}- for future\\nuse, as are starch, sugar, and fat. If taken in more than\\nmoderate amount, it impairs the working power of the\\nbrain and other parts of the body. Practically, therefore,\\nit cannot be relied upon for food purposes, except by\\npersons too ill to digest other substances, or by those at\\nthe point of starvation.\\nLeading physiologists of Europe, in a recent statement,\\nsay: Thus far the results of careful experiments show\\nthat alcohol so taken, i.e. in a diluted form, in small doses, is\\noxidized within the body, and so supplies energy, like com-\\nmon articles of food. 5 Professor W. O. At water, after a\\nseries of very careful experiments, corroborates the above\\nstatement. 2 Pure alcohol, and its equivalent in whiskey\\n1 Much of the harm arising from eating canned fruits, vegetables,\\nand meat would be obviated if these goods were preserved in glass jars.\\nCanned fish should be warmed through before being eaten, by placing\\nthe opened can in a basin of hot water. Failure to do this may cause\\nsickness.\\n2 These experiments were made by Professor Atwater and assistants\\nat Wesleyan University, and the Storrs Experiment Station, for the", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 203\\nand brandy, were administered in water or coffee to\\nhealthy men, both at rest and doing active work, in\\ndivided amounts, six times a day, three times with an\\nordinary diet of meat, bread, butter, and the like, and\\nthree times between meals. These experiments demon-\\nstrated 1st. That the alcohol was oxidized, i.e. burned,\\nas completely as bread and other ordinary foods, in the\\nbody and in the same way. 2d. In the oxidation the body\\ntransformed and utilized the energy of the alcohol, just as\\nit did that of sugar, starch, and fat. 3d. The body,\\nwhether at work or rest, held its own just as w T ell with\\nthe alcohol a part of the diet, as it did with a diet without\\nalcohol. l\\nUnited States Department of Agriculture, at the instigation of the Com-\\nmittee of Fifty for the investigation of the Drink Problem for the purpose\\nof securing more accurate and scientific knowledge of the physiological\\naction of alcohol. This committee is composed of presidents and pro-\\nfessors of colleges, and other scientific men.\\n1 These experiments mark only a single step toward the settlement\\nof the broad questions involved in the use of alcoholic beverages. They\\ndid not treat of the influence of alcohol upon the circulatory and nervous\\nfunctions. From a Government publication.\\nIt has been shown that when alcohol is taken in small quantities by\\ncertain persons, it is oxidized in the body and gives rise to heat and\\nenergy just as starch would, and is, therefore, a partial food. It must\\nbe noticed that it has been distinctly denied that it is a complete food,\\nand stated that it cannot replace body tissue. But the experiments have\\nbeen immediately seized upon by newspaper sensationalism and inter-\\npreted to mean that the use of alcohol in these small quantities is per-\\nfectly safe, and is, perhaps, to be recommended. The fact that it may\\nthus be a partial food is taken to mean that it is a complete food, and in\\ngeneral the inference is drawn that physiologically alcohol is not injurious.\\nNow nothing could be a more woeful misconception of scientific experi-\\nment. The early experiments, upon which one class of statements\\nis based, were made with the use of alcohol in large doses, while the later\\nexperiments, which form the basis of the other class of statements, have\\nbeen made with small doses. In large doses there is no doubt that rhe", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2204 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n212. Professor Atwater saj^s: 1 In some experiments\\nhere 2 men have taken alcohol to the extent of two and a\\nhalf ounces or thereabouts per day, the amount being di-\\nvided into several doses, and practically the whole amount\\nhas been oxidized. In being oxidized, the alcohol has evi-\\ndently performed one of the functions of food, viz. that\\nof serving as fuel for the body. But I certainly have\\nnever said that alcohol in that or any other daily quantity\\nmay not be injurious or dangerous. I have no doubt\\nthere are countless cases in which people take small quan-\\ntities of alcohol, and do so habitually, without harm to\\nhealth. But there are so many instances in which\\nmoderate use leads to excessive use, and men are ruined\\nphysically, mentally, and morally by that excess, that I\\ncould not say, and I do not see how any thoughtful man\\ncould say, that no harm comes from moderate drinking.\\nIndeed, the exact opposite seems to me one of the most\\nserious facts with which the physiologists, economists,\\nsociologists, and moralists of our day have to deal.\\n213. To take alcohol regularly as a food is expensive,\\nand attended ultimately with well-marked disadvantages\\nand injurious effects, especially upon the nervous system,\\nthe digestive organs, and the blood. To obtain two and\\none-half ounces of alcohol a man would have to drink\\nabout two quarts of ordinary cider or lager beer, or nearly\\neffects of alcohol are abnormal. Based upon experiments with small\\nquantities, the statement is made that it is a food, and herein is the\\nreason for the contradiction of statement [as to whether alcohol is or\\nis not a food]. Professor Conn.\\n1 In a letter to the author.\\n2 See detailed report, Bulletin No. 69, published by the United States\\nDepartment of Agriculture.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "FOOD. DIETETICS. 205\\na bottle of claret or Rhine wine, or three average glasses\\nof whiskey, two ounces each.\\nProfessor Bartley 1 thus estimates the expensiveness of\\nalcohol as food: U A quart of beer costs, by the glass,\\n20 cts. by the pint, 14 cts. An equivalent amount of\\nproteid matter in the form of milk (4 oz.) costs 1 ct., and\\nin the form of meat about 1^ cts., while an equivalent\\namount of carbohydrates in the form of bread (4 oz.)\\ncosts about 1^ cts. Assuming that the alcohol of the\\nbeer is all burned, and that it does no harm to any of\\nthe normal processes, we find that in calculated heat-\\nvalue, one litre (one quart) of beer is equivalent to 5 J oz.\\nof bread costing 1J cts., or to 23 oz. of milk costing 6 cts.,\\nor to 13 oz. of meat costing 13 cts.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Define food.\\n2. How do certain food substances act as fuel?\\n3. In what form is food stored in the body, and why?\\n4. Of what value are the coarser and sometimes indigestible portions\\nof food\\n5. Name the necessary food elements.\\n6. What are the chemical components of proteids?\\n7. What is the value of the proteids of food?\\n8. What are the carbohydrates? What is their food value?\\n9. Name some of the nitrogenous non-albuminous food substances.\\n10. From what sources are the proteids derived? from what the\\ncarbohydrates\\n11. Of what value as food are water and mineral salts?\\n12. Where is starch found?\\n1 Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 1898,\\nProf. E. II. Bartley, Professor of Chemistry, Long Island College Hos-\\npital.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "206 FOOD. DIETETICS.\\n13. When is starch most digestible\\n14. Why is ripe fruit more digestible than unripe fruit?\\n15. Of what value is sugar hi food?\\n16. Of what value is fat in food?\\n17. Xame some of the fats that can be used as food.\\n18. What is meant by the fuel value of food?\\n19. How is it estimated\\n20. What vegetable foods resemble the animal foods as tissue builders?\\n21. To what extent is water found in the body?\\n22. Why is a mixed diet important\\n23. Upon what does the necessary quantity of food depend?\\n24. What are dietaries What is their value\\n25. What is meant by a healthy appetite\\n26. Why should the diet be varied?\\n27. What may be the consequences of a too varied diet\\n28. What is said of the resort to stimulants by the over-fed? By\\nthe under-fed?\\n29. Is it possible to select and use food that is both economical and\\nnutritious How\\n30. What is meant by the proper preparation and cooking of food?\\n31. In what sense can alcohol be considered as food\\n32. Why is it not a safe article to use as food", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nFOODS.\\n214. Animal Foods. The various articles of food may\\nbe classified as animal, vegetable, and mineral. Animal\\nfoods comprise the flesh of animals, their blood, secretions\\n(milk, eggs, etc.), and also their various organs, which,\\nthough not containing so much nitrogen as flesh, are often\\nmore serviceable if eaten with proper vegetable food. 1\\nFlesh, or meat, consists of muscular, connective, and\\nadipose tissues, and contains albuminoids, water, fat,\\nand salts. On account of its abundant supply of nitroge-\\nnous ingredients, its stimulating properties and pleas-\\nant taste, meat is usually ranked as a very nutritious\\nfood and is therefore frequently eaten to excess, espe-\\ncially by little children, old people, the feeble, and the\\n1 The organs most commonly used as food are the heart, the liver, the\\npancreas, or sweet-bread, the thymus gland, and the stomach, or tripe.\\nPigs feet and ox-tails are highly esteemed by many. The heart though\\ncomposed almost entirely of muscle is not always easily digested, while\\ntripe is in general readily digested. The majority of the internal organs\\ndo not contain a large amount of nitrogen, and should be eaten, therefore,\\nwith grain food or vegetables comparatively rich in nitrogen. Bones, which\\nare thrown away by many housekeepers because they are thought to be of\\nno use, if well broken up, and submitted to prolonged boiling, will yield\\nfat and gelatine which may form the basis, or stock, for nutritious\\nsoups (a). When meat is roasted, the drippings contain much nutri-\\nment, and if hoiled or submitted to prolonged simmering, as in the mak-\\ning of soup, much of the juice of the meat goes into the broth, leaving the\\nmeat quite hard. Such drippings and broth should be eaten with vege-\\ntables or cereals.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2JOT", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "208 FOODS.\\ninactive (a). It requires to be properly prepared and\\nthoroughly chewed before it can be safely swallowed or\\nreadily digested (5).\\n215. The various kinds of meat differ as to their digesti-\\nbility and nutritive value. Beef, mutton, lamb, poultry,\\nthe flesh of many fishes, venison and other game are\\ngenerally more easily digested than pork, veal, and salted\\nor pickled meats. 1 Different parts of the same animal\\nvary as to flavor and tenderness but the cheaper por-\\ntions may be rendered nutritious and palatable by proper\\ncooking and seasoning. 2\\nThe age of animals, the kind of feeding, and the care\\nobserved in their housing and transportation influence\\nthe flavor and nutritiousness of the meat obtained from\\nthem. As. a rule, the flesh of young animals is more ten-\\nder than that of old ones; but meat, especially veal, from\\nvery young animals is unwholesome. Salted food, whether\\nmeat or fish, in small quantity, will stimulate the appetite,\\nand is useful as an occasional article of diet.\\nOf all varieties of meat, beef is most often used, and\\nis least likely to pall upon the appetite\\nPork, owing to the quality and quantity of its fat and\\nthe compactness of its lean meat, is not readily digested\\nby many persons but if obtained from animals properly\\nfed and cared for, it is serviceable.\\n1 Hippophagy, or the eating of horse flesh, is advocated by good authori-\\nties, especially when beef is hard to obtain. Such food is a valuable\\nresource in France, where many of the people scarcely ever touch meat,\\nin consequence of the enormous disproportion between the production of\\ncattle and the population of the country.\\n2 The lactic acid, which develops in raw meat a few days old, tends to\\nsoften the tough fibrous tissue and make the meat more tender. Dilute\\nvinegar is sometimes applied to meat for this purpose.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 209\\nAs to poultry and game, tenderness and flavor are the\\nmost desirable characteristics. Old birds and old game-\\nanimals are generally tongh and indigestible, and their\\nflesh is often rank. 1 If there is any odor of decomposi-\\ntion, a bluish color, or spotting of the skin, poultry and\\ngame should not be used.\\n216. Fish should be eaten oftener than it is, as it fur-\\nnishes an economical source of proteids and affords variety\\nto the diet. 2 But the constituents of the meat of different\\nkinds of fish vary considerably. Salmon, eels, mackerel,\\nand halibut contain much fat and nitrogenous material.\\nThe following fish, in the order named, contain the largest\\namount of protein cod, salmon, halibut, eels, mackerel,\\nwhitefish, perch, bluefish, and shad. 3 The custom of allow-\\n1 Experienced poulterers and butchers claim that every variety of fowl\\nand game has its particular season, and at such times the flesh, even of\\nold birds, will be found tender and palatable, just as fruit eaten in\\nseason is far preferable to that which is forced for an early market.\\n2 Investigations show that in the United States generally from one-\\nhalf to two-thirds of the protein of the food is obtained from animal\\nsources, i.e. meats, milk, eggs, and fish, but that less than 5 per cent is\\nfurnished by fish. Laborers employed in the fisheries of Russia con-\\nsume from 26 to 62 ounces of fish daily. This, with some bread, millet\\nmeal, and tea, constitutes the diet throughout the fishing season. These\\nquantities are unusually large, but no bad effects are mentioned as fol-\\nlowing the diet. There is a widespread notion that fish contains large\\nproportions of phosphorus, and on that account is particularly valuable\\nas brain food. The percentages of phosphorus in specimens thus far\\nanalyzed are not larger than are found in the flesh of other animals used\\nfor food. But, even if the flesh be richer in phosphorus, there is no ex-\\nperimental evidence to warrant the assumption that fish is more valuable\\nthan meats or other food material for the nourishmenl of the brain.\\nC. T. LanctWortiiv, Ph.D. (United States Department of Agriculture),\\nFish as Food.\\n8 Fish such as the skate and sea-robin, known to be wholesome, are\\nseldom eaten, owing to prejudice.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "210 FOODS.\\ning fish to die slowly, when caught, is not only inhuman,\\nbut it also lessens their food value.\\nAll fish are best when in season, and should be se-\\nlected with care. The freshness of a fish is determined by\\nthe fulness and brightness of the eyeballs, and the vivid\\ncolor of the gills. The sense of smell cannot always be\\nrelied on in selecting fish, since packing in ice prevents,\\nto a large extent, the escape of odor.\\nShell fish and the flesh from the hind legs of frogs\\nare valuable edibles, though some of these foods at\\ntimes prove more or less indigestible, and excite redden-\\ning and an almost unbearable itching of the skin, known\\nas hives or nettlerash 1\\n217. Harmful Meat. Though meat partially decomposed\\nmay be eaten with apparent impunity by some persons, in\\nthe majority of cases it either causes indigestion and\\nsevere sickness, or deteriorates the system so that it easily\\nsuccumbs to infectious diseases (a). It sometimes hap-\\npens, notwithstanding the vigilance of health authorities,\\nthat unwholesome meat is sold in the shops. Therefore\\nit is important that buyers should know what constitutes\\ngood meat (5).\\nMeat eaten raw, or but just warmed through, may prove\\ndangerous to health from the trichinae or other animal\\nparasites it sometimes contains. 2 This is especially the\\ncase with pork and fish. Certain diseases of animals, such\\nas glanders, splenic fever, and tuberculosis of cattle and\\n1 Fish should be fresh and well-cooked. Oysters obtained where\\nfilth abounds should never be eaten, as they are apt to contain harmful\\nbacteria.\\n2 Parasite poisoning generally occurs in people who have eaten raw or\\nunderdone meat, in sausages, pork or veal pies, or from the inner parts\\nof a roast. A heat of nearly 212\u00c2\u00b0 is necessary to destroy parasites.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 211\\nhogs, render their meat dangerous. Meat should be\\ncooked enough to coagulate its albumin and blood, de-\\nvelop its flavor, kill bacteria, and render it tender.\\nOverdone meat is generally more or less insipid and\\nindigestible.\\n218. Milk is an emulsion of fat (i.e. cream) in water,\\nand contains albumin casein, sugar, and salts. Many\\npersons consider it only a beverage, whereas it is an im-\\nportant article of diet, even for adults, since it contains all\\nthe necessary food elements in the most digestible form.\\nIt sustains the life of infants at a time when the digestive\\norgans are most sensitive. It should be the principal\\nfood of children. Contrary to a popular belief, milk is of\\ndecided value in fevers and many other ailments. Per-\\nsons with whom milk does not agree, or whom it is said\\nto make bilious, will often be able to digest it if it is\\ntaken in small quantities hot, or fresh from the animal, or\\nwith the addition of lime or seltzer water. 1\\nMilk is sometimes deprived of its cream, diluted with\\nwater, or otherwise adulterated by dishonest dealers. 2 It\\nis also capable of absorbing noxious odors and emanations,\\nand may convey the infection of scarlet and typhoid fevers\\nfrom infected milk rooms. Even the very best milk is so\\nsusceptible to change, that a thunder storm, or exposure to\\n1 For an adult to obtain, from milk alone, 8500 calories fuel value, it\\nwould be necessary to consume a large quantity per day, and this would\\nfurnish too much water and protein. Goat s milk is a good substitute for\\ncow s milk, though not so readily digested.\\n2 Milk may appear rich (owing to its cream, or fat, which vises to the\\nsurface), and yet be deficient in albumin ami salts. In large cities,\\nunwholesome milk is largely consumed by the children of the poor, to\\nthe exclusion of other food, and is responsible for many deaths among\\nthem.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "212 FOODS.\\nthe heat of the sun, or contact with the smallest particle\\nof sour milk, may render it unfit for use.\\nGreat care should be observed in milking and in the\\nkeeping of milk (a). The store rooms, as well as the\\nvessels which contain it, should be clean and free from\\nodors. The udder of the cow should be cleansed before\\nmilking, and the hands of the milker should be clean.\\nThe milk from healthy animals only should be used.\\nTuberculosis is too frequently spread among human\\nbeings by the milk of consumptive cows.\\nButtermilk, or milk deprived of most of its fat in the\\nprocess of butter-making, is a wholesome drink, pleasant\\nfor summer use. It is sometimes prescribed for invalids.\\nSkim-milk, or that from which the cream has been in part\\nremoved, is more valuable than buttermilk, as it contains\\nmore of the various ingredients of milk. Whey, or milk\\nfrom which most of the casein has been removed in the\\nprocess of cheese-making, is readily digested, even when\\nslightly sour, and can be made palatable by the addition\\nof a little nutmeg and sugar. 1\\n219. Butter is an important food, if fresh and sweet,\\nand is considered the most digestible of animal fats, as\\nit is the most palatable; but it is expensive. It consists\\nprincipally of the fat of milk, with water and a small\\nquantity of casein and salts. Artificial butters, such as\\n1 In referring to buttermilk, Dr. Chambers says, It is refreshing and\\nnutritious, and to see it given to pigs, instead of being distributed to the\\nneighbors, makes the philanthropist s heart bleed. Some think that\\nskim-milk is worth very little, and buttermilk still less, whilst they give\\nwhey (if at all) only to the sick. This is a very great mistake, and the\\npoor should get all the buttermilk and skim-milk they can obtain they\\nmay be purchased when new milk cannot be afforded. Edward\\nSmith, Foods.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 213\\noleomargarine and butterine, are made of animal fat, with\\nperhaps a trace of butter. If the fat is fresh and clean,\\nthese substitutes have practically the nutritious value of\\nbutter. Marrow, olive oil, cottonseed oil, and the crisp\\nfat of cooked bacon or beef are also good substitutes for\\nbutter. 1\\n220. Cheese contains the nitrogenous elements as well\\nas some of the fat of milk, in a concentrated form. It is\\na valuable food, if eaten in moderation and combined with\\nstarchy articles of food. Soft cheese, such as is used\\nlargely in Europe, and new cheese are in general most\\ndigestible. Old cheese in small quantity is an appe-\\ntizer. Skim-milk cheese is almost pure casein and hard\\nto digest.\\nCheese should not be eaten in large quantities by any\\none, and for children and persons with weak digestion a\\nvery small amount should suffice. Very young children\\nshould never eat it.\\n221. Eggs consist of water, fats, albumin, and salts.\\nThey afford much nourishment, and may occasionally\\ntake the place of meat. They are most digestible when\\nsoft boiled, or in omelets, or incorporated with starch or\\nflour in plain puddings. 2 The yolk of eggs, boiled hard\\nand powdered very fine, is digestible, but hard-boiled eggs\\ndo not agree with most persons.\\n1 Beef suet, if chopped fine, combines well with bread, rice, etc., in\\npuddings, and affords fat in a digestible form.\\n2 Eggs as ordinarily fried are particularly hard to digest. A poached\\negg, in which the albumin is coagulated to a bluish while color, is readily\\ndigested. So also is an egg broken into a hot dish (containing a piece of\\ngood butter) over a hot fire, and served when just coagulated.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "214 FOODS,\\n222. Vegetable Foods include the cereals, or bread-stuffs,\\ngarden produce, and fruits.\\nThe cereal grains most commonly used as food are\\nwheat, barley, oats, corn, rye, and rice. Wheat is rich in\\nnitrogenous matter, salts, and starch, and is generally con-\\nsidered to be, among the cereal foods, like beef among\\nmeats, the foremost in nutritive value. Barle}^ ranks\\nnext. Rye, though containing a large amount of nitrogen,\\nis not as a rule so readity digested as wheat and barley.\\nOatmeal and corn contain much nitrogen and more fat\\nthan the other cereal grains, and are valuable to persons\\nnot troubled with weak digestion. Rice, though easily\\ndigested, contains a large amount of starch, and but little\\nnitrogen hence, to satisfy the appetite, it must be eaten\\nin large quantity, if taken alone.\\nCereals resemble each other, in that each kind con-\\nsists of a starchy body inclosed in a skin or husk (some-\\ntimes of several layers), which, when detached from\\nthe kernel, is known as bran. Immediately beneath\\nthis husk is a layer rich in gluten, oil, and salts. The\\nhusk is generally woody, fibrous, and indigestible. When\\nthe husk is removed by any process, the whole grains\\nmay be used in the case of oatmeal or wheaten grits,\\nthe grains are simply crushed in that of wheaten flour,\\nthey are ground fine. The finest and whitest wheat\\nflour often contains much starch and but very little\\ngluten. Flour best adapted for family use is that which\\nhas a slight yellowish tinge, is not very fine, and con-\\ntains sufficient gluten to form a coherent ductile dough\\nwhen mixed with a little water. 1 It will make darker\\n1 The old-time custom of squeezing the dry flour in the hand, for the\\npurpose of testing the proportion of gluten as shown hy its cohesive quali-\\nties, will not hold good with flour made by the new process and even", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 215\\nlooking bread than pastry flour, but is sweeter and more\\nnutritious. 1\\n223. Bread is ordinarily made from wheat flour, since\\nother flours do not contain sufficient gluten to make a\\ndough through which gas can permeate to make light\\nbread. Rye, maize, and oatmeal may be combined in\\nvarying proportions with wheat flour for various kinds\\nof bread. Good bread may well be called the staff of\\nlife, the only nutritious element deficient in it being fat.\\nThis is commonly supplied by butter or oil. 2\\nHot, poorly cooked, or very moist bread is not digested\\nwith ease. Leavened bread, i.e. bread made light and\\nspongy by means of carbon dioxide distributed through\\nthe doughy mass, is much more easily digested than un-\\nleavened bread, such as pilot biscuit and hardtack, which\\nare merely mixtures of flour, water, and salt. Leavening\\nis generally effected by means of a fermentation generated\\nin dough by yeast. 3 Carbon dioxide, forced through\\ndough by machinery, makes what is called aerated\\nbread. This gas is generated in the making of bread,\\nthe test of pulling the moist flour between the fingers does not always\\nprove true. In fact, the only absolute proof of good flour seems to be in\\nthe cooking, though it is said that flour rich in gluten takes up a great\\ndeal of water in proportion to its bulk.\\n1 Oatmeal and barley are sometimes not relished, because of a burnt\\ntaste given in the process of kiln drying, or a musty odor and taste from\\nhaving been kept in a moist state. The steam-cooked cereals, being\\npartly cooked, are easily prepared for the table, and, owing to the partial\\nchange of starch into dextrine, are quite readily digested. Eye should be\\nselected with care, as diseased or spurred rye known as ergot may\\ncause severe sickness and even death. Mouldy maize is capable of pro-\\nducing a serious skin disease known as pellagra.\\n2 Butter, therefore, is the golden head of the staff.\\n8 It may also be effected by a piece of fermented dough,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "216 FOODS.\\nbiscuit, etc., by the proper combination of soda and cream\\nof tartar, or other substances. Graham bread 1 is made of\\nunbolted wheat flour. Such bread is wholesome, but con-\\ntains so much bran that it should be eaten with caution\\nby persons of weak digestion. 2\\n224. Vegetables are furnished by our best markets in\\ngreater or less variety throughout the entire year. 3 Not-\\nwithstanding this supply, they are comparatively but\\nlittle used, or certain kinds are used to the exclusion of\\nothers (a). No vegetable is more useful than the white,\\nor so-called Irish, potato (6). It may well be called the\\nking of vegetables, for it agrees with the majority of per-\\nsons, and can be obtained in every season of the year.\\nAnd yet hardly 2-^ of its 25 per cent of solid matters is\\nnitrogenous. Potatoes are deficient also in fat and salts,\\nand should be eaten with butter and salt, pot liquor, meat\\ngravy, or fat meat. They resemble rice in the large amount\\nof starch they contain, and, like rice, must be consumed\\nin considerable quantity if they form the main ingredient\\nof the diet. 4 Mapother claims that the almost exclusive\\nreliance upon the potato in certain parts of Ireland has\\ndepressed the spirit and energy of the inhabitants, and\\nhe urges them to raise and use more of other vegetables. 5\\n1 Named after Mr. Graham, the founder of so-called Grahamism.\\n2 The brown bread made of flour from which bran is almost entirely\\nexcluded is readily digested.\\n3 About 50 different kinds of vegetables are for sale throughout the year,\\nin the large public markets of cities, yet most families use but 12 or 15.\\n4 Potatoes, peeled and soaked in cold water before boiling, lose one-\\nfourth of their albuminoid material, besides much mineral matter and\\nnearly 3 per cent of their carbohydrates.\\n5 Mapother undoubtedly refers to the poorest classes, who cannot obtain\\nsufficient nitrogenous food, even milk to use with their potatoes, \u00e2\u0080\u0094and\\nwho are also depressed by the want of variety in food.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 217\\nSweet potatoes, though not quite so digestible as white,\\nare wholesome. The yam varieties, which are eaten so\\nmuch in warm countries, are sometimes mixed in corn meal\\nbread. Beets, carrots, parsnips, onions, leeks, oyster plant,\\nsquash, and other vegetables are valuable additions to the\\ntable. 1 Potatoes and onions, together with fresh salad\\nvegetables, such as tomatoes, cabbage, greens, lettuce,\\ncelery, corn, and cucumbers, are excellent preventives\\nof scurvy, as we have already seen and in the spring their\\njuices and salts are eminently beneficial 2 (e).\\nPeas, beans, and lentils contain considerable starch and\\na large amount of albuminoid material. When dried, they\\nare not easily digested by persons leading a sedentary life.\\nYet, on account of the ease with which they can be trans-\\nported and preserved, these foods are valuable wherever\\nlarge numbers are to be provided for. As is the case\\nwith some other vegetable foods, they require more\\nthorough cooking and mastication than meat, though\\nthere is a popular belief to the contrary 3 (d).\\n1 Carrots and some other vegetables are considered by many persons\\nas fit only for cattle but if the same attention was paid to their prepara-\\ntion and cooking as is spent upon other foods, they would be considered\\ndelicious.\\n2 Such vegetables, together with fruits, are preferable to sulphur and\\nmolasses, or so-called spring medicines.\\n3 The statement credited to General Scott, viz., that Beans have\\nkilled more soldiers than bullets, has been misunderstood. The bad\\neffects following their use by soldiers have been due mainly to their being\\ninsufficiently cooked. The red native bean of the tropics, like the\\nwhite bean of this country in shape, is to be tried for our soldiers in hot\\ncountries. Its hull is thinner, and the bean is broken up more thoroughly\\nby cooking than the white bean. It is more readily digested, and does\\nnot irritate. This bean, together with the tortilla, practically made\\nfrom hominy, forms almost the entire diet of the Mexican army, and there\\nare few, if any, soldiers who can endure greater fatigue, or among whom\\nis less sickness from dietary causes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "218 FOODS.\\n225. Fruits are particularly esteemed for their juices,\\nwhich consist of water, sugar, and vegetable acids (a).\\nThey are most wholesome when eaten in season in the\\npart of the country where they grow. 1 Over-ripe or\\nunder-ripe fruit may be harmful. Bacteria flourish on\\nunclean fruit. The quantity of albuminoids contained in\\nfruits is generally very small. 2 Fresh fruits serve to\\nquench the thirst, to supply acids, sugar, etc., to stimulate\\nthe appetite for more substantial food, and to assist in its\\ndigestion. 3 Grapes, peaches, oranges, strawberries, cher-\\nries, blackberries, raspberries, plums, bananas, apples,\\npears, and apricots are considered the most digestible.\\nOn the other hand, melons and other cold, watery fruits\\nare likely to interfere with digestion, especially if eaten\\nabundantly at meal times.\\nFruit is said to be gold in the morning, silver at noon,\\nand lead at night. Cooked fruits may be eaten with\\nbenefit at any meal. Dried fruits, raisins, dates, etc., con-\\ntain much sugar, and should be eaten in smaller quantit}^\\nthan fresh fruits.\\nJS T uts contain a large amount of nitrogenous and more\\nor less fatty material. They should be thoroughly chewed,\\nand eaten in moderation.\\n1 Strawberries, for instance, which are brought to cities early in the\\nyear, are frequently ripened artificially, and contain much acid, which at\\ntimes causes dyspeptic ailments.\\n2 Bananas contain over 4 per cent, and furnish a valuable food, if\\nthey are naturally ripened and are eaten in moderation.\\n3 In hot climates these refreshing fruits grow in great abundance,\\nand render a residence in the tropics tolerable. A slice of melon or other\\nfruit is the common gratuity given in addition to the regular charge for\\nany service in hot climates, and forms a contrast to the lump of fat which\\nis its equivalent with the Esquimaux. Fothergill, Maintenance of\\nHealth.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 219\\n226. Condiments are substances which sharpen the appe-\\ntite, give a relish to food, and stimulate the digestive\\norgans. Of these, salt, pepper (especially the red), mus-\\ntard, vinegar, ginger, and horse-radish are the most impor-\\ntant. 1 Pickles, olives, lemon juice, and sauces also belong\\nto this class of accessory foods. An immoderate use of\\ncondiments is injurious, for it causes the consumption of\\nmore food than the system requires, and perverts the\\nappetite. Savory herbs, such as sage, thyme, and parsley,\\nmake certain foods palatable, and can often be substituted\\nwith advantage for more stimulating condiments (a).\\n227. Water. Drinks may be divided into natural and\\nartificial. The first class includes water and milk while\\nthe second embraces tea, coffee, cocoa, and alcoholics.\\nWater is in reality the most important of all foods, as\\nit is a necessary constituent of all parts of the body\\nPure water, chemically speaking, consists only of hydro-\\ngen and oxygen. It is probably never found in nature,\\nbut may be obtained by distillation. It has a flat taste\\nand is not palatable. Rain water, especially that which\\nfalls at the end of a shower, is nearly pure, and is more\\npalatable than distilled water, on account of the air\\nwhich it contains.\\n228. The best drinking water is that which is clean, soft,\\ncolorless, without odor even after boiling, and which has\\njust enough salt, air, and carbon dioxide in it to make it\\npalatable. Water may be clear and sparkling, and still\\n1 Hard work and attendant good appetite require little else than com-\\nmon salt as a condiment, which should be plentifully used. It was said\\nby Plutarch that hunger and salt were the only sauces known to the\\nancients; and the very word sauce is derived from the Latin word\\nsalsus, salted. McSueiuu, Health, and How to Promote It.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "220 FOODS,\\nbe impure and dangerous. This is especially the case in\\nwell water that has filtered through graveyards or soils\\npolluted by cesspools, barnyards, etc. That dirty-looking\\nwaters are not necessarily unfit for drinking is shown by\\nthe fact that the muddy water of the Mississippi is drunk\\nwith impunity by those accustomed to it.\\nThe green scum found on ponds and along the edges\\nof some streams consists mainly of plants of low organism,\\nsuch as algae. In small quantity they are not injurious;\\nbut if luxuriant, their growth indicates the presence of\\norganic matter which is hurtful. If they die and decay,\\nthey tend to spoil the water (a). Water from melting\\nice is usually purer than that from which the ice was\\nformed, for freezing is a purifying process but ice from\\nstagnant ponds, or from water which contains much or-\\nganic matter, is unfit for use. Whenever there is reason\\nto believe that water is unwholesome, it should be exam-\\nined, both microscopically and chemically, by competent\\npersons (6).\\n229. Sources of Drinking Water. Good drinking water\\nis usually obtained from rivers, lakes, deep wells, and\\nsprings. Water from shallow wells, the surface of the\\nground, and most brooks should not be used for drinking\\npurposes. In places where the water supply is not abun-\\ndant, rain water may be used for drinking, if carefully\\ncollected and filtered but if allowed to run over dirty\\nroofs, or over decaying leaves and other vegetable growths,\\nit acquires an unpleasant taste and may prove hurtful.\\nProbably the best form of drinking water is good spring\\nwater, that is, from rain or snow, which, after filtering\\nthrough rocks and gravelly soil, gushes forth clear and\\nsparkling into the air (a). Water from deep wells, fed", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 221\\nas they are by underground streams, is much purer than\\nthat from shallow wells, which is largely the drainage\\nfrom the upper or impurer layers of the soil and has less\\nchance of being thoroughly filtered by percolation through\\na great depth of soil. 1 Examples of deep wells are arte-\\nsian and driven wells, 2 and such immense wells as those\\nat Garden City, L.I., and at Prospect Park, Brooklyn.\\nSome of these wells furnish millions of gallons of drinking\\nwater daily.\\n230. Hard and Soft Water. Ordinary drinking waters\\nusually contain, in various proportions, common salt,\\nsodium, lime, magnesium carbonates, and air, as well as\\ncarbon dioxide, which last gives a sparkling appearance\\nand an agreeable taste to water. Mineral waters contain,\\nin addition, other mineral ingredients.\\nWater containing an excess of salts, especially of lime\\nand magnesia, is known as hard water. It makes the\\nhands feel rough. Water containing little or no lime\\nand magnesia is soft ivater. The hardness may be tempo-\\nrary or permanent; if temporary, it is due to calcium\\nbicarbonates and magnesium bicarbonates, which may be\\nprecipitated by boiling, thus rendering the water soft and\\nsuitable for drinking. If permanent, the hardness is due\\nto calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate, which can-\\n1 Examinations made from time to time of the water from shallow\\nwells, in cities and towns, have shown it to he frequently contaminated\\nby filth from cesspools and other sources, which in many instances wore\\nbut from 25 to 30 feet distant, and sometimes on a higher plane than the\\nwells. According to good authorities, they should be at least 100 feet\\naway from drinking wells.\\n2 Artesian wells vary in depth from one to three or more thousand\\nfeet. Such wells are used in abattoirs, breweries, and other large estab-\\nlishments, where larger quantities of water are needed than can be fur-\\nnished by the ordinary water supply of cities.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "222 FOODS.\\nnot be precipitated by boiling. 1 Hard water is not suit-\\nable for cleansing purposes, as it forms, with the fats of\\nthe soap used, an insoluble compound, which floats as a\\nscum upon the surface of the water. 2\\n231. Impure Drinking Water. Stagnant water or that\\ncontaining any decaying animal or vegetable matter is\\nunfit to drink. 3 Sometimes water is a fruitful source of\\ninfectious diseases, such as typhoid fever and cholera, by\\nreason of the disease germs which it contains, and which\\nmay be carried long distances in it. Impurities are more\\nlikely to continue in deep and sluggish streams than in\\nbrooks and shallow, active streams, where the water is\\nmore freely exposed to the purifying influences of the\\natmosphere. Yet the larger streams, on account of the\\nabundance of water they furnish and the ease with which\\nit can be obtained, are mainly relied upon for the water\\nsupply of cities and large towns. Water for drinking pur-\\nposes should be taken from the middle of the stream and\\nsomewhat below the surface, as the refuse from factories,\\ndrains, and sewers, which finds its way to a greater or less\\nextent into rivers and creeks, is most apt to flow along\\nthe sides. 4\\n1 Hard water may frequently be softened by the addition of wood ashes,\\nsodium carbonate, or borax.\\n2 It is said that in Glasgow, by the introduction of water from Loch\\nKatrine, the inhabitants saved in one year thousands of dollars in soap,\\nthe water used before having been very hard.\\n3 The water of shallow wells and defective cisterns may cause malarial\\naffections which are often credited to a marsh or mill pond near by.\\n4 The river Rhine, it is Avell known,\\nDoth wash your city of Cologne\\nBut tell me, nymphs what power divine\\nShall henceforth wash the river Rhine Coleridge.\\nThe answer is, the oxidizing influences of the atmosphere. It has\\nbeen shown that the farther away from the source of the impurities, the", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 223\\n232. The mode of conveying drinking water from its\\nsource of supply is a matter of great importance. Usually\\nwood, lead, or iron pipes are used for this purpose. Rain\\nwater, or any water deficient in saline ingredients, flowing\\nthrough lead pipes, may dissolve enough lead to render it\\npoisonous. Saline ingredients in river, well, and spring\\nwaters, by partial decomposition, line the pipes with a\\ncrust, and generally prevent this absorption. Sometimes\\nwater, especially if hot, will dissolve enough lead to be-\\ncome injurious. 1 It is wise to let either hot or cold\\nwater run awhile before using it for drinking or cook-\\ning. Hot water running through iron pipes acquires a\\ndisagreeable taste. To obviate the risks above referred\\nto, block tin pipes, tin-lined lead pipes, and glass-lined iron\\npipes are recommended by sanitary authorities.\\nSometimes water that is kept in copper vessels absorbs\\ncopper and is harmful. The presence of iron salts in\\nwater in large quantity is undesirable. So, too, are alka-\\nlies, as in the dry region far west of the Mississippi River.\\n233. Purification of Water. Water may be freed, by vari-\\nous methods, of much of its injurious matter. Boiling will\\ndestroy dangerous disease germs and precipitate the bicar-\\nbonate of lime and some of the coagulable organic matter.\\nAeration will render stale or confined waters palatable.\\nAllowing them to settle will render some muddy waters\\nbetter is the water for drinking purposes. This is true of ordinary organic\\nimpurities, but there is reason to believe that the germs of disease are not\\nso readily rendered harmless.\\n1 Lead pipes should not be used for soda-water fountains, as the car-\\nbonated water dissolves lead readily. The presence of lead in water may\\nbe detected by adding a few drops of a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen.\\nIf lead be present, it renders the water black, or dark brown, owing to\\nthe sulphuret of lead formed.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "224 FOODS.\\nfit for drinking. This settling may be facilitated by pre-\\nviously stirring a little alum into the water. Proper\\nfiltration will partially remove not only suspended organic\\nimpurities, but even some dissolved ones. The filtrating\\nsubstance maybe porous earth, sand, charcoal, certain insol-\\nuble powders, fine gravel, sponge, etc., either alone or vari-\\nously combined. Charcoal, oxide of iron, and sand are the\\nmost active. Filters act partly by sifting out solid parti-\\ncles, and partly b} r oxidation of the organic substances by\\nmeans of the oxygen in the pores of the material used 1 (a).\\n234. Coffee and Tea neither form tissue nor act as fuel.\\nIn moderate quantity, they stimulate the nervous system,\\narouse dormant energies, tend to retard undue waste, and\\nassist in the digestion of food. Hence they are best\\nadapted for use after a hearty meal, but cannot take the\\nplace of food. As stimulants they are frequently superior\\nto alcoholics, and have been found to be especially valuable\\nin armies and on board ships, among soldiers and sailors\\nexhausted by hard work. 2 They should not be. used by\\n1 Suspected water in houses should be first strained through clean\\nflannel, then boiled, and in summer kept in bottles in the ice box. Pipe-\\nclay filters are serviceable, but, like all filters and strainers, must be kept\\nclean, else they do more harm than good. Probably the best filter is\\none composed of finely divided silicon and carbon, pressed into a solid\\ncake. This filter, when dry and clean, will remove a large quantity of\\norganic impurity, as well as lead, from the water passed through it.\\nPrepared for soldiers use, it was carried by the English soldiers in the\\nlate war in Egypt, and found to be of great service. Placed in even the\\ndirtiest water, the fluid was sucked through the filtering mass by means\\nof a rubber tube and mouth-piece, and was rendered fit for drinking.\\n2 Rations of coffee are given with advantage to sailors in the United\\nStates navy and on some of the great ocean steamers, in place of their\\ngrog. Coffee, more than tea, lessens the craving for alcohol. In the\\nSpanish- American War, tea was of great benefit to soldiers in active\\nservice.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "FOODS. 225\\nchildren, except when very much diluted with milk nor\\nshould they be taken in large amount, or very strong, by\\nany one. Thus taken, they cause the heart to act irregu-\\nlarly and depress the nervous system. If relied upon to\\nsupply, by their stimulating properties, the place of nourish-\\ning food, they produce indigestion. 1 Tea and coffee are\\nsimilar in action, though they affect people differently at\\ntimes. Each contains a volatile oil, which gives odor and\\nflavor, an astringent (tannic acid), and an active principle\\ntheine in tea, and caffeine in coffee.\\n235. Chocolate and Cocoa contain fatty matter, albumi-\\nnous and starchy materials, and a substance similar to\\ntheine and caffeine, known as theobromine. They are not\\nso stimulating as coffee and tea, but are much better as\\nfood. As Dr. Edward Smith remarks, in his valuable\\nbook on Health, Perhaps few foods are so nutritious or\\nwill satisfy the appetite so well as cocoa and milk, if\\nplenty of cocoa be used, and it is equally good for all\\nages, classes, and circumstances. 2\\n236. Alcoholic Beverages. While, as we have seen, malt\\nliquors may contain some of the nourishing elements of\\nthe grain, and all alcoholic beverages in small amount\\n1 Investigations show that much of the ill health viz. dyspepsia, bad\\nfeelings, and nervous ailments among certain classes in this country\\nand England is due to the excessive use of tea and coffee. Many women\\nlive upon tea and bread when alone throughout the day, rather than take\\nthe trouble to cook suitable food. Among the poor, tea is largely used,\\nbecause it is considered by them cheap and nutritious.\\n2 The fresher cocoa and chocolate are, the better. Cocoa, especially if\\nretained in tight packages in close apartments, becomes musty and, if\\nexposed to the air for a long time, loses its flavor; hence, in some cities,\\nit is freshly prepared every day by dealers. Unlike coffee and tea, there\\nshould be no grounds which cannot be eaten.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "226 FOODS.\\nyield some energy to the body, they are likely to do so at\\nthe expense of working ability. Frequently their use is\\nfollowed by depression, which, as a rule, is not the case\\nwith hot tea, coffee, cocoa, or soups. Neither do these,\\nlike the alcoholic beverages, produce a craving for more.\\nWhen the system obtains food which is digested and\\nis also sufficient for all the needs of nutrition, alcoholic\\nbeverages are unnecessary. The use of alcohol does not\\nlessen the need of the healthy system for complete food,\\nlike bread, meat, and milk.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. How may foods be classified?\\n2. What do animal foods comprise\\n3. Why is animal food frequently used to excess?\\n4. What meats are least digestible, and why?\\n5. What is to be said of poultry Game? Fish?\\n6. Why should partially decomposed meat be avoided\\n7. What are the reasons for cooking meat?\\n8. What is considered the model food, and why is it so called?\\n9. How should milk be protected from impurities?\\n10. Why are skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey useful?\\n11. What is said of butter and its substitutes?\\n12. What is to be said of cheese? Eggs?\\n13. What do vegetable foods include What cereal grains are most\\nused\\n14. What is to be said of wheat and other cereals\\n15. Which is the best flour for family use?\\n16. Wnat kinds of flour are used for bread, and how is it raised?\\n17. Why are potatoes especially commended\\n18. Why should other vegetables be used?\\n19. What is said of peas, beans, and lentils? What of fruits\\n20. What are condiments, and how should they be used?\\n21. How may drinks be classified? What is to be said of water, and\\nof the different kinds, and how may it be purified?\\n22. What benefit is derived from tea? Coffee? Chocolate and cocoa?\\n23. What is said of the use of alcoholic beverages in comparison?", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII.\\nRESPIRATION. -ANIMAL HEAT.\\n237. Object of Respiration. Blood, to nourish the tis-\\nsues effectually, must contain oxygen. This is supplied\\nby the atmosphere and by various foods, the largest\\namount being furnished by the air which we breathe.\\nSimultaneously with the absorption of oxygen, the blood\\nparts with its carbon dioxide and other impurities. This\\nprocess is effected by respiration, or breathing.\\n238. The Organs of Respiration comprise the lungs and\\nthe air passages leading to them. Also concerned in the\\nact of breathing are the ribs and their cartilages, the\\ndiaphragm, and those muscles of the chest which assist\\nin expanding and contracting the chest walls.\\n239. The Air Passages include the interior of the nose,\\nmouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, the bronchi, and bron-\\nchial tubes. These passages not only afford transit for\\nthe air, but they serve also to warm, cleanse, and moisten\\nit on its way to the lungs.\\nThough air enters the mouth to a greater or less extent,\\nthe nose is the proper channel of respiration. It is lined\\nwith mucous membrane, and is divided by a middle wall\\nof cartilage and bone into separate nostrils, in each of\\nwhich are three thin, projecting plates of bone, one above\\nthe other (Fig. 46). These curve downward, and are", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "228 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\ncovered by mucous membrane. 1 The air, therefore, in its\\npassage through the nostrils, comes by a circuitous route\\ninto contact with a large extent of moist and warm mu-\\ncous membrane. The membrane is kept moist by the\\nsecretions of its mucous glands, and warm by being richly\\nsupplied with blood. 2 In addition to these arrangements\\nfor warming the air, retarding its pas-\\nsage, and ridding it of dust, there are\\nhairs just within the nostrils, and cili-\\nated cells upon a part of the surface\\nof the mucous membrane of the nose.\\nSimilar cells are also found upon the\\nposterior surface of the soft palate, in\\nFig. 79. the windpipe, and in other portions of\\nDiagram of a Vertical Sec- the air passages. Their hairlike Dila-\\ntion of the Bronchial b\\nMucous Membrane. ments are constantly vibrating, but\\n1, cmatedepitMMceUs. with greater f orce i n opposition to\\n5, bSmfnt membrane. the entering current of air, or from\\ne, fibrous layer. within, outward. Their united move-\\nment somewhat resembles that of a field of wheat when\\nmoved by the wind. The effect of such an organism op-\\nposing itself to the entering air current is to catch foreign\\nparticles which may be intermingled with the air, and\\ngradually carry them out of the air passages by an unceas-\\ning counter movement.\\n240. Mouth Breathing. On the other hand, when we\\nbreathe through the mouth, foreign particles are forced\\ninto the throat and lungs and act as irritants, the mouth\\n1 These bones are known as the turbinated bones, from their fancied\\nresemblance to tops.\\n2 It is said that the nasal cavities are a degree or two warmer than the\\ncavity of the mouth.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT. 229\\nand throat become dry, and so imperative is the necessity\\nfor breathing that sufficient time is not taken for the\\nmastication of food. In the habitual mouth breather, the\\nnasal mucous membrane, being insufficiently used, dries\\nand shrinks, causing discomfort. 1 The efforts that are nec-\\nessary to breathe eventually result in unpleasant expres-\\nsions of the face the mucous membrane is likely to become\\nmore or less inflamed, and thus to obstruct the nasal\\npassages hearing is interfered with by partial or entire\\nclosure of the Eustachian tubes, whose function it is to\\nconvey air to the organs of hearing the voice loses its\\nresonance and the lungs are imperfectly developed.\\nSometimes the tonsils enlarge, and obstruct the free\\nmovement of air through the nasal cavities and Eusta-\\nchian tubes 2 (Fig. 46). If the trouble is long-continued\\nin the case of babies and young children whose bones are\\ndeficient in mineral ingredients, there results, from the\\nrepeated violent efforts made necessary in breathing,\\nmore or less sinking of the lateral chest walls, thus\\ncausing an unnatural protrusion in front. This condition\\nis popularly known as the pigeon breast\\n1 Healthy babies breathe, for the greater part of the time, through the\\nnose, with the mouth shut and, if a baby is in the habit of breathing\\nwith the mouth open, there is reason to suspect the presence of enlarged\\ntonsils, or some disease of the nostrils. A Scotch physician, fully appre-\\nciating the importance of proper breathing, has written a valuable medical\\npaper entitled Shut your Mouth and save your Life. Wo are told that\\nsome Indian tribes understand the importance of breathing through the\\nnose, and that the squaw, before retiring for the night, sees that the mouth\\nof her baby is shut. Some of the most careful trainers insist that walking\\nand running should be, as far as possible, with the mouth closed.\\n2 Enlargement of portions of the mucous membrane, behind the poste-\\nrior nares, due frequently to elm nic nasal catarrh, and known as adenoid\\ngrowths, are associated sometimes with mouth breathing. These growths\\nshould be removed by the surgeon, as they impair the voice, the respirator)\\npower, and the general health.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "230 RESPIRATIOX. AXJMAL HEAT.\\n241. The Larynx. The pharynx, as we have seen, is\\na passage for air as well as food, but the larynx is for air\\nalone. This latter organ is located in front of and adjoin-\\ning the upper end of the oesophagus (Fig. 46), and opens\\ninto and is continuous with the trachea. It is composed\\nof several cartilages controlled by muscles, and is so ar-\\nranged as to form a kind of box. Near the middle of\\nit is a dilatable opening called the glottis, through which\\nrespiration is performed, and by means of which articu-\\nlate sounds are produced. Air enters the nose and mouth,\\npasses through the pharynx, and thence into the larynx,\\ntrachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes, and the air-cells of the\\nlungs.\\n242. The Trachea, Bronchi, and Large Bronchial Tubes,\\nlike the larynx and the air-cells, are lined with mucous\\nmembrane. They are tubes, kept open by a series of in-\\ncomplete cartilaginous rings embedded in their walls and\\nplaced at nearly equal distances. These cartilages are\\nbound together by strong connective tissue, and do not\\nmeet posteriorly, an arrangement which gives the air\\ntubes elasticity and pliancy, and in the case of the trachea\\nallows the oesophagus to expand readily in swallowing.\\nThe trachea is about an inch in diameter and four and\\na half inches in length, and has some muscular fibres in\\nits walls. Before entering the chest, it is near the sur-\\nface, and generally can be felt by the fingers. Nearly\\nopposite the third dorsal vertebra it divides into two\\nsmaller tubes, the right and left bronchus. 1 Each bronchus\\n1 Bronchitis, or cold on the chest, is an inflammation of the lining\\nmembrane of the bronchi and bronchial tubes, attended by swelling of\\nthe membrane and increased secretion of mucus. If this is considerable,\\nthe passage of air is impeded and difficulty in breathing results.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\n231\\non entering the lung divides, like the branches and twigs\\nof a tree, into bronchial tubes, which become smaller and\\nsmaller and finally end in lobules.\\nFig. 80.\\nLungs In outline, showing relations of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the bronchial tubes\\nand their branches.\\n1, thyroid cartilage of the larynx.\\n2, cricoid cartilage.\\n8, trachea.\\n4, its point of bifurcation.\\n5, right bronchus.\\n6, left bronchus.\\n243. The Small Bronchial Tubes and the Air-cells. The\\nsmallest bronchial tubes (bronchioles) contain no oarti-", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "232 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\nlages, but are delicate, elastic, and membranous, and have\\ncircular muscular fibres in their Avails. The lobules, or\\ndilated membranous terminations of these tubes, bound\\ntogether by elastic connective tissue, are divided by the\\ninward projection of portions of their walls into a num-\\nber of pouch-like compartments, called alveoli, or air-\\ncells. Each air-cell has very thin, elastic, and disten-\\nsible walls, and is only about yj-g- of an inch in diameter.\\nCovering the lobules, and dipping down between the\\nadjoining walls of the air-cells, is a close network of\\ncapillaries, intermingled with nerves and lymphatics.\\nThe capillaries are supplied by the pulmonary artery,\\nand empty into the pulmonary veins. The convoluted\\narrangement of the walls of the lobules affords an exten-\\nsive surface of very delicate membrane for the aeration\\nof blood, a surface much greater than that of the entire\\nexterior of the body. 1\\n244. The Lungs consist of bronchial tubes, air-cells,\\nblood-vessels, lymphatics, and nerves, all bound together\\nby elastic connective tissue. There are two lungs, lo-\\ncated in the thoracic cavity, one on each side of the\\nmedian line, and separated from each other by the heart\\nand its great blood-vessels and by the bronchi. Each\\nlung is cone-like in shape. Its upper end, or apex, ex-\\ntends about an inch above the level of the first rib. 2 Its\\n1 It is estimated that the extent of surface of all the sacs is about 2600\\nsquare feet, and that in the course of twenty -four hours about 20,000\\nlitres (35,000 pints) of blood traverse the capillaries, the blood corpuscles\\npassing in single file and being exposed to air on both surfaces.\\n2 This part is not inflated fully in mouth breathers, or by other persons\\nhaving poor respiratory power, and is most susceptible to tubercular\\ndisease, probably because it is not actively used.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\n233\\nbroadened lower surface is concave in form, and rests\\nupon the upper convex surface of the diaphragm. The\\nremaining surfaces of the lungs\\nare convex in form, and fit into\\nthe concave interior of the chest\\nwalls.\\n^3\\nFig. 81.\\nUltimate Bronchial Tubes and their Lobules.\\nConnective tissue removed.\\nFig. 82.\\nLobules laid open, showing-\\nalveoli.\\n245. Movements of the Lungs. Free movements of the\\nlungs are absolutely necessary for the full performance of\\ntheir functions. For this work they are well adapted by\\ntheir structure and coverings, and by the arrangement\\nand mobility of the chest walls. Covering each lung,\\nexcept where the large blood-vessels and air tubes enter,\\nis a strong but delicately constructed closed sac, known as\\nthe pleural sac. These sacs together constitute the pleura. 1\\nThe space inclosed by each sac is the pleural cavity. One\\nwall of each sac is closely adherent to the lung, and the other\\nto the concave inner wall of the chest. The lining, or inner\\n1 The word pleura is derived from the Greek, and means rib 1 or\\nside.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "234 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\nsurface, of each sac secretes in health just enough lubricat-\\ning fluid to allow the inner surfaces of its walls to glide\\nreadily upon each other in the process of breathing. 1\\n246. The lung substance is elastic, like a sponge, and\\nis filled with inclosures containing air. If a piece of the\\nhealthy lung of an ox or sheep be pressed between the\\nringers, it makes a peculiar crackling, due to the partial\\ndislodgment of air. If the piece be tightly squeezed, or\\neven bruised between heavy rollers, sufficient air will still\\nremain in it to cause it to float in water. In fact, the lungs\\nare the only organs in the body that will float.\\n247. Mechanism of Respiration. The process of respira-\\ntion consists of inspiration, or breathing in, and expiration,\\nor breathing out. Inspiration requires considerable mus-\\ncular effort. The glottis is more or less widely opened,\\nthe chest walls are drawn outward and upward by mus-\\ncles overlying the chest and by muscular fibres between\\nthe ribs, 2 and the diaphragm is made to descend by the\\ncontraction of its muscles. The thorax is thus dilated,\\nand in consequence the elastic air sacs are filled with air\\nforcibly sucked in. The normal enlargement of the thorax\\nis in three directions; viz., vertical, from side to side,\\nand from the back forwards. The first due mainly to\\n1 When the gliding motions are hindered by the adhesion of the se-\\ncreting surfaces of a pleural sac, as in pleurisy, anything more than the\\nquietest breathing is attended with acute pain.\\n2 There are two sets of muscular fibres between the ribs, placed\\ndiagonally and crossing each other, viz., the external and internal inter-\\ncostal muscles. The first assists in pulling the ribs down, the second\\nserves to pull them up. The lungs lie in an air-tight chest with movable\\nwalls. When, by muscular contraction, the size of the chest is increased,\\nthe surface of the lungs must remain in contact with that of the chest\\nand air thus passively enters the lungs to occupy the increasing space.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\n235\\nthe descent of the diaphragm, and the pushing outward\\nof the walls of the abdomen is the greatest, and is most\\ncommon in men. It is often spoken of as abdominal\\nPLS\\nFig. 83.\\nDiagram. Lungs in Inspiration and Expiration. \u00e2\u0080\u00941, lungs contracted in expiration;\\n2, lungs expanded in inspiration.\\nT, trachea. L, the lung substance. D, the diaphragm.\\nCW, chest walls. PLS, pleural sacs (the walls separated).\\nbreathing, or the abdominal type of respiration, to\\ndistinguish it from breathing mainly by the elevation of\\nthe ribs, i.e. costal breathing, or the thoracic type of\\nrespiration. 1 This latter form of breathing is most\\ncommon in women, especially those who take insufficient\\n1 The action of the diaphragm in respiration may be illustrated with\\nan open bell jar, whose lower and larger opening is covered by thin\\nrubber. Place a snugly fitting cork in the neck of the jar, and through it\\nput a glass tube, one end projecting above the opening of the neck, and\\nthe other end, with a thin rubber bag or pouch firmly secured to it, nearly\\nmidway into the body of the jar. If the rubber covering of the jar is\\npulled downwards, air will enter the tube at its upper end, ami distend\\nthe bag (as in inspiration). Air will be forced out of the bag v as in\\nexpiration) when the rubber covering resumes its first position.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "236 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\nmuscular exercise. The enlargement of the upper part\\nof the chest is generally pronounced in women who re-\\nstrict the free movements of the chest and abdomen by\\ntight clothing. Indian women breathe as men do.\\nIn both sexes, and at all periods of life, the free action\\nof the diaphragm is necessary for health and energy.\\nThough mainly composed of involuntary muscular fibres,\\nthe diaphragm is, to a certain extent, under the control of\\nthe will, and its strength, like that of the other respiratory\\nmuscles, can be increased by proper exercise, such as sing-\\ning, reading aloud, oratory, etc. 1 Hiccoughing, sobbing,\\nand laughter are occasioned by the spasmodic action of\\nthe respiratory muscles, especially of the diaphragm.\\nLaughter, crying, and sobbing, though generally under\\nthe control of the will, may become violent and uncon-\\ntrollable, as is sometimes witnessed in the anger or sorrow\\nof children. 2\\n248. Expiration immediately follows inspiration. It is\\na passive movement, and consists in the gentle expulsion\\nof the air outward through the air passages, by the elastic\\nrecoil of the respiratory apparatus. 3 After each expiration\\n1 Physicians frequently meet with persons, especially those of sedentary\\noccupations, whose breathing is shallow, the air-cells of the lungs expand-\\ning but very little. Oftentimes by proper exercise of the muscles of the\\nchest and diaphragm (i.e. by so-called lung gymnastics), the respiratory\\npower can be increased to a marked extent, and incipient disease of the\\nlungs warded off.\\n2 It sometimes happens that persons having the charge of children are\\nvery severe with them for sobbing persistently, when it is utterly out of\\ntheir power to stop.\\n3 By placing the ear over a healthy lung, we can hear the strong move-\\nment of the air as it enters the chest. Expired, it gives a low-pitched\\nsound, as of a very gentle wind. Variations in the pitch, volume, and\\nquality of these respiratory sounds, or murmurs, enable the physician\\nto detect diseases or disturbances.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT. 237\\nthere is a short period of rest. When more than ordinary\\nrespiratory efforts are necessary, as in oratory, singing,\\nblowing upon wind instruments, etc., increased expiratory\\nforce is created, and the elastic recoil is aided by the power-\\nful contractions of large abdominal muscles. These, pull-\\ning down the ribs and pressing upon the contents of the\\nabdomen, push up the diaphragm, and thus squeeze out the\\nair from the lungs. Corresponding inspiratory power re-\\nsults from a forcible contraction of the muscles of the\\ndiaphragm and of the respiratory muscles of the chest. 1\\n249. The Number of Respirations varies from about forty\\nper minute soon after birth to eighteen per minute in\\npersons from thirty to fifty years of age. The rate is\\nnaturally more rapid where there is small lung capacity,\\nwhen breathing rarefied air at great heights, or when\\ntaking exercise. Of course, where the opposite conditions\\nexist, the rapidity is decreased.\\n250. The Quantity of Air breathed varies. In ordinary\\nquiet breathing, during each act of respiration we inhale\\nand exhale about thirty cubic inches of air (about a\\npint). This is called tidal air. because it is the ordinary\\namount which ebbs and flows in breathing. It is said\\nnot to penetrate, in such respiration, farther than the\\nlarge bronchial tubes. But by the process known as\\ngaseous diffusion, the heavier carbon dioxide in the air-\\ncells and the vivifying and lighter oxygen in the bron-\\nchial tubes are intermingled, and the air in various parts\\n1 In violent inspiratory efforts, following severe physical exercise, or\\nwhen the action of the lungs is much impeded by disease, nearly all the\\nmuscles of the hody may assist the respiratory muscles proper, by placing\\nvarious parts of the body so that the respiratory muscles may have the\\nbest opportunities for work.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "238 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\nof the lungs is partially renovated. It is estimated that\\nfrom eight to ten respirations are necessary to change the\\nwhole quantity of air in the chest cavity. Though about\\nninety gallons of air per hour pass into and out of the\\nlungs in quiet breathing, such as is common among per-\\nsons engaged in sedentary occupations, continued tidal air\\nbreathing is insufficient for the healthy development of the\\nlungs. It does not meet the requirements of persons\\ndoing heavy work, nor is it suitable for any one if the\\natmosphere is vitiated by impurities. 1 For these reasons,\\namong others, systematic exercise in the open air is im-\\nportant. After an ordinary expiration a healthy per-\\nson can, by a forced effort, exhale from 75 to 100 cubic\\ninches of air. This is termed reserve or supplemental air.\\nThere still remain in a healthy lung from 75 to 100 cubic\\ninches of air that cannot be expelled. This is residual\\nair. It is possible, by a forced inspiration, to inhale from\\n100 to 120 cubic inches of air in addition to the tidal air.\\nThis is known as complemental air.\\n251. The amount of air which can be forced from the\\nlungs after the deepest possible inspiration constitutes the\\nbreathing or vital capacity. It is the sum of the reserve,\\nthe tidal, and the complemental air. It may be de-\\ntermined by an instrument known as the spirometer, and\\nis found to be about 230 cubic inches in a person of aver-\\nage stature (p feet, 8 inches) but the vital capacity is no\\n1 Persons whose breathing is generally of this type i. e. who have\\nshallow respirations have also a sluggish circulation, and are most\\nlikely to suffer from consumption and other lung diseases, especially if\\nthe air breathed is impure. Were it not for the increased amount of air\\ncarried into and out of the lungs at about every fifth or sixth act of res-\\npiration, such persons would suffer more than they do from the excess of\\ncarbon dioxide not eliminated.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\n239\\nevidence in itself of vitality, or endurance, or so-called\\nwind, for it bears a definite relation to stature, without\\nbeing affected in a marked degree by weight or the cir-\\nVital\\nCapacity\\nComplemental air 100 to 120 cubic inches.\\nTMal air\\n20 to 30\\nReserve air\\n75 to 100\\nResidual air\\n75 to 100\\nFig. 84.\\nThis diagram represents approximately the vital capacity, and the relative amounts of com-\\nplemental, tidal, reserve, and residual air.\\ncumference of the chest. 1 It is diminished by severe\\nthoracic and abdominal diseases but the vitality of a\\nperson depends more upon the condition of the heart\\nthan upon the expansive capacity of the lungs.\\n252. Relation of Respiration to Circulation. The move-\\nments of respiration are for the most part involuntary.\\nFrom birth until death, asleep and awake, breathing, like\\nthe circulation, goes on involuntarily. There should be in\\nadults one act of respiration to every four or five beats of\\nthe heart, and, in children, one to every three or three and\\none-half beats. But one can increase somewhat the ra-\\npidity of the respiratory movement up to his limit by\\n1 It has been shown by Hutchinson of England, who has made the\\nmost numerous investigations in this direction, and who makes the above\\nstatement, that for every inch in height between five and six feet, the\\nvital capacity is increased eight cubic inches. It increases up to the age\\nof thirty-five, and then diminishes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "240 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\nvarious forms of exercise. With such increase, the heart s\\nmovements must increase proportionately, or exhaustion\\nand suffering ensue from shortness of breath. On the\\nother hand, the same effect is produced when the heart\\nbeats rapidly from severe exercise, and the movements of\\nthe lungs do not increase proportionately. Few persons\\ncan, without great effort, suspend respiration for more than\\nthirty or forty seconds at a time. The desire for breath\\nsoon becomes imperative, owing to the circulation of blood\\nof rapidly increasing impurity, especially in the lungs and\\nbrain. By breathing forcibly a few times, then taking\\na forced inspiration, respiration may be suspended for a\\nminute, or even longer, thus enabling one to pass quickly\\nthrough a cloud of dust, smoke, or other injurious matters\\nin the atmosphere, or to remain for a short time under\\nwater. 1\\n253. Changes in the Air and Blood during Respiration\\noccur in the air-cells of the lungs. Through their thin\\nwalls, and those of the capillaries, simultaneously the\\noxygen of the air is absorbed by the blood, and some of\\nthe wastes of the blood pass into the air in the air sacs.\\nInspired air is robbed of a large part of its oxygen, and\\nexpired air is charged with noxious materials, and will not\\nsupport combustion or maintain life. Animals and human\\nbeings obliged to breathe it exclusively soon die. It con-\\ntains carbon dioxide 2 in excess, and small quantities of\\n1 This ability to hold the breath can be increased by systematic practice,\\nas in the case of the so-called water kings and queens, who sew, write,\\nand eat under water.\\n2 The amount of carbon dioxide exhaled per day by a healthy adult is\\nestimated at about 20,000 cubic inches, while the amount of oxygen con-\\nsumed per day is estimated at about 40,000 cubic inches.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT. 241\\nvarious excretory products similar to those excreted by the\\nskin and kidneys also, an animal product which is\\noffensive and prone to putrefy. It also differs from in-\\nspired air in that its temperature, especially in slow and\\ntranquil breathing, is raised nearly to that of the blood,\\nand because it contains an excess of watery vapor. 2 This\\nvapor- is especially noticeable when the breath is exhaled\\nupon a mirror or window pane, or when it condenses in\\nwinter, as it issues from the mouth and nostrils. 3 Carbon\\ndioxide is heavier than air, and is very poisonous to\\nbreathe. It constitutes about one twenty-fifth of the air\\nthat passes out of the lungs, and tends to make the atmos-\\nphere impure. The amount of carbon dioxide expelled is\\nincreased by exercise, and during and after a hearty\\nmeal. It is greatest in winter and damp weather, is\\nespecially abundant in the early morning, and is least at\\nmidnight 4 (a)\\n1 Chloride of sodium, uric acid, and urates of soda and ammonia. It\\nalso sometimes contains carbonate and hydrochlorate of ammonia, and\\ncarburetted hydrogen and various odorous substances from the food and\\ndrink consumed.\\n2 The air exhaled per day contains an average amount of nine or ten\\nounces of water, but the amount varies with the temperature of the\\natmosphere.\\n3 In cases of suspected death, the condensation of the watery vapor of\\nthe breath upon the glass of a watch or a hand-mirror is an important\\nevidence that life is still present in the body.\\n4 The presence of carbon dioxide in the breath may be illustrated by the\\nfollowing experiment, which is all the more striking if tried after one has\\ntalked or sung awhile, or after a hearty meal. First, the gas, being acid,\\nwill change the blue color of a solution of litmus to red, when the breath\\nis gently blown into the solution through a glass tube for a variable length\\nof time. Second, that the expired air contains carbon dioxide will be shown\\nby its changing clear lime-water, in the same manner as above, to a\\ncloudy white liquid, due to the carbonate of lime formed.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "242 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\n254. The ancients believed that the function of the air,\\nso regularly introduced into the lungs, was to cool the\\nblood. But physiologists have ascertained that associated\\nwith the changes in the air, just studied, is the striking\\nchange in the color of the blood from blue in the pulmo-\\nnary veins to scarlet in the capillaries of the lungs and,\\nalso, that this change is due to the inhaled oxygen. If\\nthe breathing is seriously obstructed, the lips and face\\nturn a purplish blue. If the obstruction is removed, the\\nblood resumes its bright color, and the parts renew their\\nfunctions. If the obstruction is not removed, the change\\nin color is noticeable in other parts of the body, impure\\nblood is circulated through the brain, and the individual\\nbecomes drowsy and unconscious, and death ensues. There\\nis constantly going on in the blood a double change, a\\nloss of oxygen and a gain of carbon dioxide in the tissues,\\nand a loss of carbon dioxide and a gain of oxygen in the\\nlungs.\\nThe urgent appeal of the lungs for pure air, when the\\nbreathing has been carried on in an impure atmosphere, or\\nwhere the lungs are in a diseased or abnormal condition,\\nis like the appetite for food on the part of the digestive\\norgans. The cry originates in the tissues, which demand\\nin the one case the food and in the other the oxygen,\\nboth of which are necessary to life.\\n255. Nervous Control of Respiration. The movements\\nof the diaphragm and the respiratory muscles of the chest\\nare controlled by nerves. The impulses which stimu-\\nlate these nerves to action originate in a part of the\\nbrain known as the respiratory centre. If this centre is\\ndestroyed, breathing stops, never to be renewed. Its ac-\\ntivity seems to depend largely upon the condition of the", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT. 243\\nblood which circulates in it. The poorer the blood, the\\ngreater is the effort required on the part of this nerve\\ncentre to insure increased activity of the respiratory\\nmuscles.\\n256. Relation of Circulation, Respiration, and Animal\\nHeat. The changes which living tissues undergo in the\\nproduction of animal heat are especially indicated by the\\nabsorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbon dioxide.\\nThe more rapid the respiration and circulation, the higher\\nis the temperature. On the other hand, if the temperature\\nof the body is lowered by insufficient food or the use of\\nalcoholics, and secretion and other processes are interfered\\nwith, respiration and circulation, at first accelerated, are\\ngradually lowered below the normal standard. Animal\\nheat remains in the body for a variable period after the\\nblood has ceased to flow and respiration has stopped.\\n257. Exposure to moisture and a high degree of heat,\\nespecially if accompanied with exercise, is apt to cause\\ndeath, which is then said to be the result of sunstroke, or\\nheatstroke. 1 The old, the feeble, and the inactive are most\\naffected by high temperatures, and in them also animal\\nheat is maintained at its normal point with the greatest\\ndifficulty. With them the blood circulates more slowly,\\nrespiratory power is decreased, the chemical and mechani-\\ncal processes take place less rapidly, and heat is generated\\nin smaller amount than in robust health. Thence it is,\\nsays Bennett, that the old man seeks the sun, and that\\nwe find him in the country sitting at his door for hours,\\n1 No case of spontaneous combustion -i.e. the rapid destruction of\\nthe human body by fire, as the result of excessive animal heat has boon\\nproved, though sometimes reported.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "244 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\nbasking in the sun, seeking from its genial rays the warmth\\nwhich the organic processes no longer afford, as in former\\ndays the days of his youth and of his organic vigor.\\n258. In summer and in hot countries perspiration and a\\ndecreased amount of clothing moderate the animal tem-\\nperature in cold climates and seasons the heat of the\\nbody is preserved by extra clothing, by warming the at-\\nmosphere with artificial heat, by more exercise, and by an\\nincreased amount of food. It is the testimony of many\\nobservant travellers, that the health of persons journeying\\nfrom one climate to another is best preserved when the\\ncustoms of the inhabitants of these climates are followed,\\nin regard to food, exercise, and clothing (a).\\n259. Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics on Respiration and\\nthe Respiratory Organs. In habitual drunkards, the blood\\nis practically an alcoholized fluid. Part of the alcohol is\\nexcreted by the lungs, kidneys, and skin, and part is\\nbroken up in the blood into other substances. Such\\nblood tends to congest the capillaries of the lungs, and\\nby getting rid of an undue amount of heat, to produce a\\nsensitiveness of the lungs to cold, which is quite frequently\\nfollowed by obstinate attacks of bronchitis. Repeated\\ncongestion of the lungs, by thickening their lining mem-\\nbrane and thus interfering with the diffusion of gases, re-\\ntards the change of impure blood into pure blood, and\\npermits carbon dioxide to be retained in undue amount.\\nThe heart is compelled to work harder to overcome the\\nobstacle to the free propulsion of its contents.\\nProbably one of the most constant effects of alcohol\\nand alcoholic liquors, especially in considerable amount,\\nis to produce a depression of both rate and depth of", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT. 245\\nrespiration through direct action on the respiratory nerve\\ncentre, and to diminish the exhalation of carbon dioxide.\\nThis substance, retained in the blood and tissues, produces\\na feeling of depression. For the oxidation of alcohol in\\nthe body, some oxygen is consumed, which otherwise\\nwould be used by the food and tissues.\\n260. The evil effects of tobacco, either chewed or\\nsmoked, are due mostly to nicotine. Tobacco smoke,\\nhowever, sometimes acts as an irritant to the throat, nasal\\npassages, larynx, and Eustachian tubes, producing either\\nan obstinate catarrh, or a very dry condition of the\\nthroat, known as smoker s throat. This is attended\\nby coughing, hawking, and expectoration, and, when the\\nEustachian tubes are inflamed, produces deafness also.\\nThese bad results are most likely to occur when to-\\nbacco smoke is inhaled, and are common among cigarette\\nsmokers, of whom it is estimated about 90 per cent inhale\\nthe smoke.\\n261. The local effects of opium and other narcotic\\ndrugs upon the respiratory organs is usually to diminish\\ntheir secretion of mucus, and so interfere with their func-\\ntions.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. What is the object of respiration, and what are its organs?\\n2. Describe the lungs. How are their free movements secured?\\n3. Name the air passages and their four functions.\\n4. Describe the nose, and its advantages over the mouth as an air\\npassage.\\n5. What are some of the evils of mouth breathing?\\n6. With what passage do the nasal cavities connect, and what\\ntubes and glands are there Located? Slate the object oi the\\ntubes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "246 RESPIRATION. ANIMAL HEAT.\\n7. What is situated below the pharynx, and of what air passage is\\nit the commencement\\n8. Describe the larynx; the trachea; the bronchial tubes; the\\nlobules.\\n9. How are the trachea and other air tubes kept open How the\\nsmaller tubes\\n10. Why do these tubes terminate in convoluted lobules, and what\\nblood-vessels are there placed\\n11. Of what does the mechanical act of respiration consist? Describe\\neach process.\\n12. What may aid powerful respiratory efforts Describe the action\\nof the diaphragm.\\n13. What connection has the will with respiration? the heart? the\\ncondition of the blood?\\n14. Explain what is meant by tidal air; by residual air; by reserve\\nair; by complemental air; by vital capacity.\\n15. What changes take place in the air during respiration in the\\nblood?\\n16. Where does the appeal for fresh air originate, and how is the\\nneeded oxygen supplied through the lungs?\\n17. By what nervous influence are the respiratory movements\\neffected?\\n18. What are the relations between respiration, circulation, and\\nanimal heat?\\n19. What are the effects of alcohol and narcotics upon the lungs and\\nrespiration", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV.\\nAIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\n262. Relation of the Body to Atmospheric Pressure. So\\nwell is man adapted to the atmosphere, that its density\\ncannot be much increased or diminished without inter-\\nference with the circulation, respiration, and other vital\\nprocesses. The thickness of the atmosphere is supposed\\nto be not less than 45, and not more than 200 miles, and\\nthe pressure of this immense mass at the sea level is com-\\nputed to be 15 pounds upon every square inch of sur-\\nface. Upon the body of a man, therefore, of average size,\\nit is more than 16 tons. This pressure, enormous as it\\nappears, is of vital importance to the animal economy. At\\ngreat heights, where atmospheric pressure is diminished,\\nbreathing becomes exceedingly difficult, or impossible.\\nNot only does the rarefied air not furnish sufficient oxygen\\nto the lungs, but carbon dioxide is imperfectly eliminated,\\nand owing to diminished pressure upon the blood-vessels,\\nbleeding may occur from the nose, mouth, and ears. 1\\nIn deep subterranean and submarine excavations, such\\nas mines and tunnels, the atmospheric pressure is so\\nincreased that the workers in them are often disabled.\\nSometimes in the construction of the piers of such large\\nbridges as that over the East River, between New York\\nand Brooklyn, it is necessary to sink an immense inverted\\n1 At an altitude of a little under 11,500 feet, we find that the press-\\nure is only two-thirds of that at the sea level. 1\\n2-47", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "248 AIR. VENTIL ATION. LIGHT.\\nbox, or caisson, in which men work, digging out the\\nearth for the foundations. As the earth is excavated, the\\ncaisson sinks, and the air which it is necessary to pump\\nin becomes exceedingly dense, as its pressure equals the\\npressure of the water without. 1 Such dense air is as\\ninjurious as exceedingly rarefied air, producing severe neu-\\nralgic pains, great prostration, hemorrhages, or paralysis.\\n263. Composition of Air. Atmospheric air is in gen-\\neral a mixture of one part in bulk of oxygen to four parts\\nof nitrogen, associated with a varying quantity of carbon\\ndioxide, ammonia, watery vapor, inorganic and organic\\nmatter. The amount of carbon dioxide is usually very\\nsmall at ordinary elevations, only about four parts in\\nevery 10,000 of air. It is utilized by vegetation, most of\\nthe carbon being solidified in the vegetable tissues. Its\\npresence in the atmosphere is shown by the film of carbo-\\nnate of lime that forms upon lime water when exposed to\\nthe air. The amount of ammonia is usually about one\\ngrain to 23,000 cubic feet of air. It emanates from\\nputrefactive processes in progress on the surface of the\\nearth, and is also produced from the nitrogen of the\\natmosphere by electric agency during thunder storms.\\nIt furnishes to vegetation nitrogen, much of which is\\nconsumed by, and enters into the tissues of, animals.\\n1 Caisson disease seriously impaired the health of the chief en-\\ngineer of the East River Bridge, and also that of some of the workmen.\\nAt the St. Louis Bridge, when one of the caissons touched a rocky bed,\\nthe atmospheric pressure was 45 lbs. to the square inch, and by the rise\\nof the river it was increased to 50 lbs. When the pressure was 34 lbs.,\\nsevere suffering began. It was found that the men could work only one\\nor two hours at a time. They were generally taken sick on coming\\nout of the air-lock into the normal atmosphere, seldom in the air-lock\\nitself. This sudden exposure to air at the normal pressure was equiva-\\nlent to the application of a gigantic cupping glass to the whole body.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 249\\nThe amount of watery vapor depends largely upon the\\ntemperature of the air. It seldom forms more than or\\nless than -J-q, of the bulk of the air, and preserves the\\ngeneral purity of the atmosphere. 1 If in considerable\\namount, it prevents desiccation, and maintains the vital-\\nity of organisms submerged in it. Inorganic matter and\\nvegetable and animal organic matters are found in most\\nspecimens of air examined, the amount varying in differ-\\nent localities. Rain, called sometimes the sewage of the\\natmosphere, carries to the earth these and other substances,\\nwhich otherwise would accumulate without end. The\\nclearness of the atmosphere after a rain storm is a matter\\nof common observation.\\n264. Oxygen and Nitrogen. Oxygen, as we have seen,\\nis necessary to purify the blood and sustain life. Animals\\nusually die when the quantity of oxygen in the atmosphere\\nis reduced from three to five per cent. Without it, com-\\nbustible bodies would not burn. Just as we find the most\\nvaluable food constituents become less valuable when used\\nalone, so oxygen requires to be diluted with the other\\nordinary constituents of the air, in order to become even\\nrespirable. Its dilution with nitrogen, which is a harm-\\nless, inert gas, is in the exact proportion which serves\\nbest to support life and to maintain that degree of com-\\nbustion which is most useful to the ordinary purposes\\nof mankind. Any diminution of its normal amount is\\n1 That water is present in the air is seen by its condensation in chops\\nupon an ice-cold vessel a pitcher or tumbler of ice-water in hot\\nweather also in the dew, hoar frost, fog, rain, and snow, and in its\\neffect on certain solid substances which have the property of combining\\nwith water and becoming liquid. Such substances, of which calcium\\nchloride is an example, are said to be deliquescent.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "250 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\nattended with as bad results as is the addition to air of\\nharmful substances. On the other hand, were the oxygen\\nin excess, it would become a very destructive agent, in\\nproportion to that excess. In such cases the tissues of\\nanimals would be rapidly consumed, together with all\\nbodies having any chemical affinity for oxygen, and such\\nas were set on fire would burn beyond control.\\n265. Ozone is a form of oxygen, but has greater chemi-\\ncal activity as an oxidizing agent than other forms hence\\nit is a powerful disinfectant, and is recommended for the\\npurification of sick rooms. It exists in very minute quan-\\ntity in the air, and, thus diffused, is considered a stimulat-\\ning agent in debilitated conditions of the system. It is\\nmuch more abundant in the country than in towns, and\\nits quantity is increased just after a thunder storm. 1 Air\\nhighly charged with ozone is not breathable, and is capable\\nof bleaching and destroying vegetable coloring matters.\\n266. Harmful Air. Suspended Matters. It sometimes\\nhappens that air is rendered more or less injurious by the\\naccumulation of dust and other suspended matters, or by\\nan undue proportion of one or more of its normal con-\\nstituents, or by the addition to it of poisonous gases.\\nA ray of sunlight in a darkened room, or in the open\\nair upon a foggy day, reveals in its track myriads of shin-\\ning particles of dust, however clear the atmosphere may\\notherwise seem. This dust consists, in varying propor-\\ntions, of starch granules, cotton fibres, spores, seeds, pollen,\\n1 The quantity varies at different times and places, but it is said to be,\\nat the most, about one volume in 700,000 of air, and is quite constant in\\nthe atmosphere among pine trees. Ozone passed through a mass of putre-\\nfying material will rid it of noxious odors.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 251\\nand cellular tissue, of wool, hair, epidermal cells, and other\\nanimal substances, of flintlike particles, and of microscopic\\norganisms in a living state.\\nFrom hundreds of sources suspended matters are wafted\\nby the winds, and some of them are also carried by flies,\\nmosquitoes, and other insects. They are found almost\\neverywhere, even penetrating close joints of carpentry\\nwork. When in large quantity in the air, as at times\\nin cities, they are irritating to the respiratory organs,\\nespecially of feeble people. In such cases it is advis-\\nable to protect the mouth and nostrils by a handkerchief\\nor veil, or any other object through which the air can be\\nbreathed and which at the same time prevents the dust\\nfrom entering the air passages. 1 In the same way the\\ntemperature of very cold air may be mitigated.\\n267. Disease Germs are at certain times wafted through\\nthe air, and are capable of producing dangerous infectious\\ndiseases, each according to its kind. Eight of these dis-\\neases, named in the order of their general prevalence, are\\nconsumption, pneumonia, diphtheria, typhoid fever, scar-\\nlet fever, measles, whooping-cough, and small-pox. The\\nrelative importance of these diseases is shown by the fol-\\nlowing diagram 2\\n1 In certain occupations, such as stone cutting, metal polishing, knife\\nand glass grinding, or in white-lead works and other manufactories, the\\ndust is so plentiful and irritating at times that respirators are worn,\\nconsisting of frameworks of wire gauze, made to fasten over the mouth\\nand nostrils, containing a piece of sponge, cotton, wool, or other similar\\nsubstance, slightly dampened.\\n2 The Teachers Sanitary Bulletin, No. 0, issued by the Michigan\\nState Board of Health, from which the diagram was taken, states: The\\nmortality in Michigan is as low as that of any state of the Union, and\\nmuch lower than in many states. 1", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "252 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\nDEATHS IN MICHIGAN, 10 YEARS, 1887-96.\\nMMWMirriWBgyaBM CONSUMPTION.\\nPNEUMONIA.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Ill I H I i DIPHTHERIA.\\nTYPHOID FEVER,\\nSCARLET FEVER.\\nH MEASLES.\\nWHOOPING-COUGH.\\nSMALL-POX.\\nFig. 85.\\nDisease germs retained in mud and upon moist surfaces\\nmay do no harm but the mud of to-day is the dust of\\nto-morrow, which will be scattered far and near, infecting\\nthe lungs of very susceptible people. Mud may also be a\\nsource of infection if brought into houses upon skirts and\\nshoes. In buildings, conveyances, and in the streets, spit-\\nting should be refrained from, except into receptacles that\\ncan and will be disinfected. Dusting and sweeping should\\nmean the removal of dust and dirt, and not merely its\\ntransference from one place to another. 1\\n268. Consumption, once believed to be solely an hered-\\nitary disease, is recognized now as frequently the result\\nof infection from specific germs in the sputum, or spittle,\\nemanating from consumptives and mingled with the dust\\nof the atmosphere. 2 Fortunately, the mortality from\\n1 Dusting is best effected by gently wiping surfaces with a slightly\\ndampened piece of cheese-cloth. Moistened tea leaves, salt, oatmeal, or\\nsawdust entangles dirt upon floors, so that it can be readily removed.\\nStreets should be sprinkled before being swept. The amount of dirt or dust\\nwhich accumulates each day in houses and schools is not generally appre-\\nciated. In one school, the janitor reports about one and a half bushels.\\n2 To examine the dust of the air microscopically, a small drop of\\nglycerine, put in the middle of a glass slide, may be left lying, or be moved", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 253\\nthis disease may be lessened, if its specific germs can be\\nprevented from entering the air passages, and if infected\\npersons can be isolated, breathe pure air, have proper food,\\nexercise, and warmth, and be properly clad.\\n269. Observation of the diffusion of seeds of the thistle\\nand other plants by the winds suggested that infection is\\nspread by similar methods. The development of disease\\ngerms is believed to be as rapid as is that of the spores of\\nthe yeast plant. Both need for their development favor-\\nable conditions of warmth and moisture, the former, also\\na feeble human body, and the latter, fermenting material.\\nDisease germs may lie dormant in cold weather, or where\\ntheir surroundings are clean, only to grow and develop in\\nthe presence of moisture and filth, and may be carried\\nlong distances in merchandise and clothing, especially in\\nwoollen materials. They may be conveyed also by milk,\\nwater, insects, or mail matter. Children and feeble per-\\nsons are most susceptible to their influence. 1 Quarantine\\ni.e. complete isolation and cleanly surroundings of per-\\nsons with infectious diseases will usually prevent the\\nspread of infection 2 (a).\\nfor a given time against the air. Then a cover glass is laid upon this,\\nand it is ready to be examined. Solidified flat surfaces of gelatine or\\nother bacterial culture medium, exposed to the air for a time, and then\\ncovered and set aside for development of bacteria and moulds that may\\nhave fallen, give a fair idea of the varieties, and a rough, comparative idea\\nof the numbers. Currieh.\\n1 Disease germs are dangerous ingredients of the air of drains and cess-\\npools, and only need the proper surroundings for their development\\n2 It is related that in the Scilly Isles, for ten consecutive years there\\nwas not a death from measles, scarlet fever, or small-pox. and only mi 1\\ncases, if any at all, though such diseases wen 1 very prevalent upon the\\nmainland, with which there was little communication.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "254 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\n270. Malaria. The term malaria literally means bad\\nair. By physicians and sanitarians it is applied to malaise,\\nor a diseased condition called intermittent or remittent\\nfever. This condition is supposed to be due to impure air\\nfrom low and swampy regions containing poisonous micro-\\norganisms, 1 which come from vegetable matter in process\\nof decay, but it may occur even in deserts. Malaria is\\noften caused by the breaking up and overturning of soil\\nnot thoroughly drained. 2 The eucalyptus tree and the\\nsunflower, on account of the power they possess of absorb-\\ning moisture by their roots, are valuable in drying the soil\\nand preventing malaria (a).\\n271. The Organic Nitrogenous Matter which is thrown off\\nfrom the lungs mingled with carbon dioxide and watery\\nvapor, does much toward vitiating the atmosphere. Its\\nexact composition has not been ascertained. It has a dis-\\nagreeable, persistent odor, and is known to be poisonous. 3\\nCombined with the emanations from the skin and other im-\\npurities, the mixture gives to the atmosphere of a crowded\\nroom that odor which is so disagreeable to those who enter\\nthe room from the outer air. It is also the cause of that\\nclose, oppressive sensation perceived so often in the un-\\nventilated rooms of tenement houses.\\nAir containing such ingredients ordinarily acts as a\\n1 These cannot be cultivated artificially like bacteria, hence less is\\nknown of them.\\n2 The deep upturning of the ground, as in the building of large sewers\\nand displacement of muddy soil to construct railroad beds, has produced\\nmalarial poison in localities where it had not been before.\\n3 In an experiment by Dr. Hammond, a mouse confined in an atmos-\\nphere of carbon dioxide breathed with difficulty. When some of the\\norganic matter was removed from the atmosphere, although the air was\\nstill loaded with carbon dioxide, the mouse breathed more freely.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 255\\nsubtle poison, undermining the health, and changing the\\ncharacter of the blood, especially of those who are obliged\\nto spend much of their time in it and who do not exer-\\ncise in the open air. It becomes exceedingly poisonous if\\nbreathed and rebreathed by a large number of persons in\\nclose quarters, and the condition produced is known as\\nochlesis, or crowd poisoning.\\nThe history of the past gives fearful instances of such\\npoisoning, and to a greater or less extent it is still to be\\nfound in many tenement and cheap lodging houses, in the\\nholds of some emigrant vessels, in overcrowded schools,\\nchurches, and theatres, and especially in cheap places of\\namusement (a). Formerly, overcrowding, with its con-\\nsequent filth, was the cause of many deaths from jail, ship,\\nor typhus fever and it is still the prolific source of many\\nsubtle diseases, especially in cities and large towns (6).\\n272. Gaseous Matters. The gases which most often,\\neither alone or in combination with suspended matters,\\nmake air impure and dangerous to life are carbon dioxide,\\ncarbon monoxide, illuminating gas, hydrogen sulphide, and\\nsewer gas.\\n273. Carbon Dioxide, or carbonic acid gas, is the most\\nconstant gaseous impurity in the atmosphere. It is a\\nheavy, invisible gas resulting from the combustion of any\\nsubstance containing carbon, from the decay and putre-\\nfaction of any animal or vegetable substance, or from\\nfermentation, and is given off during the respiration of\\nanimals. In nature it is diffused throughout the atmos-\\nphere, and is absorbed by trees and plants. In them the\\ngas is decomposed, the carbon being retained for their\\ngrowth, while the oxygen is returned to the atmosphere.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "256 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\nThat there is a compensating interchange of oxygen and\\ncarbon dioxide between plants and animals is shown in\\na well-arranged aquarium. The fish give off the neces-\\nsary amount of carbon dioxide for the health of the plants,\\nand the plants furnish enough oxygen for the fish.\\nNotwithstanding the diffusive power of gases and the\\nabsorption of carbon dioxide by plants, it occasionally\\naccumulates in such quantities as to x^oison the atmos-\\nphere in various places. When the moisture in the at-\\nmosphere is in excess, as in foggy weather, the ajnount of\\ncarbon dioxide may increase from about four volumes in\\nten thousand to eight volumes. In manufacturing districts\\nthe accumulation is very great. When generated in low,\\nconfined places, such as cellars, beer vats, cesspools, caves,\\nand mines, it may be retained for a considerable time,\\npartly by its weight and partly because it is generated\\nfaster than it can be diffused in these places. The air in\\nsuch places, especially in the lower stratum, is dangerous\\nto breathe and incapable of supporting combustion. In\\nthe Dog s Grotto, near Naples, and in various other\\nplaces, carbon dioxide is continually generated (a). This\\ngas, if in considerable amount, may be detected by the\\nextinction of a lighted candle introduced into the place\\nto be tested. 1\\n274. The investigation of the air as to organic impuri-\\nties is necessarily prolonged and tedious, but the amount\\nof carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is readily ascer-\\ntained. As these impurities are generally associated with\\ncarbon dioxide, the amount of the gas present is a guide to\\nthe respiratory impurity of the air.\\n1 Choke damp is the term given by miners to the carbon dioxide\\ngenerated in mines.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 257\\nIt is said that the odor of crowd poison becomes gener-\\nally perceptible when the carbon dioxide in a room exceeds\\nsix parts in 10,000 volumes of air. This is the amount\\nmentioned by Dr. Parkes, the eminent sanitarian, as the\\nlimit of permissible impurity, yet a much larger amount\\nis often found in the air of houses, schools, etc. But\\nthough the odor of crowd poison be perceptible, carbon\\ndioxide itself has no odor. Usually, therefore, its subtle\\neffects are upon us before any warning has been given.\\nIt accumulates in houses not well aired, from illuminating\\ngas, lamps, furnaces, stoves, decaying vegetables and wood,\\nand from our own breathing (a). The results of breath-\\ning it in any considerable quantity for a length of time\\nare headache, dulness, giddiness, nausea, chilliness, and\\neven unconsciousness and death.\\n275. Carbon Monoxide, or carbonic oxide, is a much\\nmore poisonous, gas than carbon dioxide, for it not only\\nrobs the air of oxygen, but destroys the blood corpus-\\ncles, and its evil effects are not readily dissipated by\\nfresh air, as is the case with carbon dioxide. It is color-\\nless, has but little odor, and when not combined with\\ngases that have odor may slowly insinuate itself into a\\nroom and gradually undermine the health of the occupant.\\nIt is one of the ingredients of illuminating gas, and also\\nresults from imperfect combustion of coal. It sometimes\\npasses through ill-fitting joints in furnaces and stoves,\\nand even through cast iron when it is very hot. This\\nis most likely to happen when the supply of cold air is\\ninsufficient, or the escape of the products of combustion\\nis largely prevented by dampers, or by smoke-pipes that\\nare too small. A stove or furnace should therefore be so\\nlarge that it can warm the room without being itself very", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "258 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\nhot. Smoke-pipes should be large, and with perforated\\ndampers. More coal will thus be consumed, but the dan-\\nger will be lessened. 1 Combined with sulphur compounds\\nin the imperfect combustion of coal, carbonic oxide has\\nthe peculiarly disagreeable odor known as that of stove\\ngas. This gas is irritating to the nostrils and throat,\\ncausing dryness, constriction, and a disagreeable taste.\\n276. Illuminating Gas, as ordinarily delivered to the\\nconsumer, is mainly a mixture of marsh gas 2 (about one-\\nthird), sulphur, and carbon monoxide. The very best\\nkind of illuminating gas poisons the air into which it may\\nescape but if the gas has not been thoroughly purified, it\\ncontains other and much more poisonous ingredients than\\nthose already named. The old, the very young, and all\\nwhose sense of smell is not acute, may be gradually poi-\\nsoned by the slow escape of gas from a leaky gas pipe,\\nwithout perceiving the odor of the gas. 3\\n277. Hydrogen Sulphide, or sulphuretted hydrogen, is a\\ncolorless gas, with the odor of putrefying eggs. It is very\\npoisonous. When breathed in a pure state, it quickly\\nproves fatal, destroying the blood corpuscles, and is dan-\\n1 It is much better to regulate the supply of air admitted to stoves and\\nfurnaces for draught, than to rely upon dampers. Truly, it needs a\\nphilosopher to run a furnace properly.\\n2 It is so called because in hot weather it may be evolved from the\\nputrefaction of vegetable matter in the mud at the bottom of stagnant\\npools, and is the same as the fire damp of the coal mines. It is a\\ncompound of carbon and hydrogen, and is colorless, explosive, and\\npoisonous.\\n3 To detect leaks in gas pipes, apply soap-suds to the suspected leaky\\njoint. The formation of bubbles will show an escape. This is safer than\\ntrying the joint with a lighted match.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "AIR. VEN TIL ALTON. LIGHT. 259\\ngerous even when diluted with atmospheric air. 1 It is a\\ncomponent of sewer gas and in houses and other build-\\nings it emanates from decomposing refuse in garbage\\nreceptacles, from cesspools and drains.\\n278. Sewer Gas, 2 especially of late years, has been held\\nresponsible for much of the sickness in houses connected\\nwith drains and sewers. Sewer-gas poisoning, from de-\\nfective plumbing of houses and insufficient airing of\\nthe sewers, undoubtedly exists, but the plumber is fre-\\nquently blamed for sickness which is due to other causes.\\nSewer gas may be odorless and escape into a room without\\nits presence being known, or it may have a faint, sickly\\nodor, or an odor like that of sulphuretted hydrogen. In\\neither case it may lower the vitality, thus making us sus-\\nceptible to disease. Its presence should be excluded by\\nwell-ventilated sewers, and drains with tight joints the\\npipes, closets, and basins should be so placed that, if a leak\\noccurs, it will not imperil the health of the inmates of the\\nhouse. 3 Sewers and drains should be thoroughly cleansed\\nand disinfected from time to time.\\n1 One eight-hundredth part in the air is sufficient to kill a mouse.\\n2 A compound of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen,\\nammonium sulphide, disease germs, and other substances.\\n3 A refrigerator connected with the sewer leads to the tainting of\\narticles kept in it. Pipes which convey water from roofs and connect with\\nthe sewer may convey sewer gas into the upper part of the house, if these\\npipes open under windows, as is sometimes the case with mansard roofs.\\nOccasionally rats gnaw through lead pipes, and thus sewer gas escapes\\ninto houses; or the roots of trees penetrate faulty joints of drain pipe.\\nWorkmen have lost their lives in the opening of old cesspools, when the\\ncontents were stirred, though before that operation a candle would burn\\nif lowered into the vat. During and after heavy rains, swollen rivers and\\nstreams often prevent sewage from escaping into them, and sewer gas\\nbacks up 1 into houses, causing discomfort and sickness.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "260 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\n279. Devitalized Air is a term which is applied to air\\nthat has been robbed of much of its life-sustaining prop-\\nerty by various means, as by mixture with the emana-\\ntions from decaying lumber in cellars, from musty clothes\\nstored in closets, from poisonous wall papers (a) or de-\\ncomposing paste between the layers of wall paper, from\\ndecomposing food in pantries, or from tobacco smoke (5).\\nHouses built upon ground made by filling depressions\\nwith dirt and ashes mingled with decaying animal and\\nvegetable matter are sometimes permeated by deleterious\\ngases, which give rise to symptoms of malarial poison\\namong the inmates. 1\\n280. It has been shown by Pettenkofer and others that\\nbricks, ordinary mortar, cement, and sandstone are perme-\\nable by air and moisture. 2 Moisture also collects upon the\\nwalls of new houses or those in damp situations, and is a\\nsource of disease (V). Newly built houses should not be\\noccupied as dwellings until the mortar, cement, etc., be-\\ncome thoroughly dry. It is also a matter of great impor-\\ntance that the ground upon which houses are built should\\nbe thoroughly drained and dry, else the dampness will\\nbe apt to cause rheumatism and other severe afTee-\\n1 Such land should not be built upon until three years after filling in.\\n2 A remarkable case in a London house has come to my knowledge,\\nwhich gives a distinct proof of the much greater passage of gas through\\nthe walls in winter than in summer. A small room occasionally used was\\nnoticed sometimes to have an unbearably bad smell. This was never\\nnoticed in summer, nor in winter unless a fire was lighted in the room.\\nThe drainage was suspected and examined, but was found perfect yet\\nhere was this extraordinarily foul air making its way into the room when-\\never the interior was warm and the exterior cold. The cause was a dust\\nbin built against one of the walls, and the filtration of the air through\\nthis and the house wall into the room. Hartley, Air and its Bela-\\ntions to Life.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 261\\ntions. 1 Harmful gases may be conveyed, even by the\\nbest soil, from leaky drains, sewers, gas pipes, and other\\nsources of impurities. Pettenkofer mentions an instance\\nof death from illuminating gas, which had penetrated\\nthrough the earth a distance of twenty feet, from a\\nleaky pipe, into a basement.\\n281. Country and City Air. Cowper says, God made\\nthe country, and man made the town. Undoubtedly\\nthe air is very pure in those country districts where the\\ninhabitants are not crowded together where there are no\\nfactories or nuisances, no decomposing garbage or other\\nrefuse where the water supply is abundant, and no stag-\\nnant water exists where the houses are well drained, and\\nso placed that the sunlight enters the rooms and where\\nthe dwellings and out-houses are at least one hundred feet\\napart. But where these conditions do not exist, the bet-\\nter portions of most towns and cities are preferable.\\nMoreover, in the country there are not so apt to be health\\nboards and sanitary associations to remedy evils. 2\\n1 Sand absorbs and retains but little water clay, ten to twenty times\\nas much as sand while rich earth absorbs and retains, it is said, forty or\\nfifty times as much. Hard, rocky soils allow but little water to pass\\nthrough them. An ideal building site is upon the side of a gently sloping\\nhill (with a rocky and sandy soil), looking toward the south, not near a\\nmarsh or sluggish stream, with good drinking water, and enough trees\\nto protect it from the strong sunlight and to absorb any excess of mois-\\nture there may be in the soil. On the other hand, very many trees, by\\naffording too much shade, make the surroundings of a house damp and\\nassist in the production of malaria. It is of importance that the trees\\nshould be of such kinds as to afford ample shade, ami at the same time\\nhave no unpleasant odor. The trees which best meet these requirements,\\nand are most pleasing to the eye, are the oak, elm, maple, tulip tree,\\nash, mulberry, linden, horse-chestnut, and walnut,\\nBy the enlightened and active work of siu h bodies much good has\\nbeen done. By proper drainage of low, swampy, or submerged lands.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "262 AIR. VENTILATIOX. LIGHT.\\nOn the other hand, the numerous overcrowded and dirty\\ntenement houses in the large cities are productive of very\\ngreat mortality, 1 and are often sources of danger to the\\nbetter portions, being the starting-points of infectious\\ndiseases and low forms of fever (a). Of late years model\\ntenement houses have been erected in some of our cities,\\nin which overcrowding and uncleanliness are prohibited\\nby the owners (6).\\n282. Fresh Air. The importance of an abundance of fresh\\nand pure air will be appreciated when we consider that wild\\nanimals kept in confinement frequently die from diseases\\ndue to confined air or an insufficient amount of air (a). As\\nDr. Richardson puts it, Open air is a powerful disinfect-\\nant, protecting the gypsy from germs which we vainly\\nfight with all the aid of science. Some of the impurities\\nin the air act harmfully by lessening the amount of oxygen,\\nsome irritate the air passages and lungs, and others poison\\nthe blood directly by being absorbed by the air-cells.\\nThe general effect of most of the impurities is to produce\\npallor, headache, drowsiness, loss of appetite and strength.\\nmalarial fevers have been crowded out, and the soil redeemed for cultiva-\\ntion or for building purposes. The health tracts and reports published\\nby such organizations contain much valuable information.\\n1 The density of population in the tenement districts of large cities is\\nnot generally understood. In one of the largest cities in this country the\\npolice census of 1895 reports one block, size 375 x 200 feet, with a popu-\\nlation of 2628, rate per acre 1526 another block, size 200 x 300 feet,\\npopulation 2244, rate per acre 1774; and many districts containing 400,\\n500, and 600 persons per acre. In Bethnal Green, London, there are\\n365.3 people per acre in Whitechapel, 303.5. In Bombay, where there\\nis an average of 57.7 persons per acre, there are three districts in which\\nthere are 680, 715, and 750. It will be difficult for any person living in\\nthe genuine country to imagine so large a population per acre as these\\nmentioned.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 263\\nThey undermine the health, and so increase the suscepti-\\nbility to organic and infectious diseases. If the impurities\\nare in large amount, vomiting, marked prostration, and\\neven death may result. 1\\n283. Purification of Air. Ventilation. Many of the\\ndangers arising from impure air may be obviated by suit-\\nable ventilation, purification by means of chemicals, by\\nheat, or by steam.\\nBy suitable ventilation is meant the free admixture of\\nout-door air with that of buildings and apartments, but\\nso modified as to temperature and velocity of current, in\\nits admission into rooms, that draughts are prevented.\\nSuitable ventilation should take place by night as well as\\nby day. The airing of one room by introducing the con-\\nfined air from another is not suitable ventilation neither\\nis it right to exclude from our sleeping rooms the night\\nair, of which so many live in fear. In fact, night air\\ngenerally contains less carbon dioxide than day air. 2 But\\ndraughts of cold air, either by night or by day, are injuri-\\nous to all, especially to the feeble, the very young, and\\n1 What will poison one person may have but little effect upon another\\nless susceptible. There are some people who seem to catch everything,\\nwhile others can expose themselves to impure air and sustain no apparent\\ninjury. In cities, noxious gases from factories sometimes poison sus-\\nceptible people, and remain for some time undetected.\\nLiving in a pure atmosphere, good food, suitable exercise, sufficient\\nwarmth, and agreeable surroundings have a marvellously good effect upon\\nfeeble and many sick persons. Homes for consumptives have been estab-\\nlished in Europe and in some of our states, where these sanitary measures\\ncan be carried out, The United States Government has established a\\nsimilar resort at the far West for consumptive soldiers.\\n2 Thousands of soldiers, hunters, and lumbermen sleep every night in\\ntents, open sheds, and even in the open air, without injurious conse-\\nquences.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "264 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\nthe aged. They lower the temperature of the body, and\\ninduce internal congestions. A cold draught of air cuts\\nlike a knife. 1\\n284. In buildings having furnaces or stoves connected\\nthrough their air-chambers with the out-door air by means\\nof air-boxes or flues, the air that enters in cold weather is\\nwarmed and its velocity somewhat diminished by contact\\nwith the heated iron of the furnaces or stoves. All fur-\\nnaces should have roomy air-boxes, covered at their inlet\\nwith cheese-cloth, to catch dust. 2 If possible, the air\\nshould be drawn from above the street level, in order to be\\ncomparatively free from dust and other suspended matters.\\nCold air may likewise be better adapted to our use by\\nits passage through one or more layers of fine wire gauze,\\nwoollen, cotton, or linen cloth fitted in frames into the\\nwindows, or arranged as screens before the open windows.\\nIn very warm weather the air may be made more comfort-\\nable by suspending dampened cloths in the rooms.\\n285. Ventilators are appliances for the free passage of\\nair into and out of ships, mines, dwellings, etc. They\\ndiffer very much in structure and mode of action. In\\nlarge ships (such as war-vessels) and in great mines, the\\nfresh air is sucked in and the foul air forced out by\\nengines. In dwellings, in very cold weather and when\\nthe wind is blowing hard, sufficient out-door air for ven-\\ntilating purposes may be sucked in through the air-flues\\n1 If cold wind reach you through a hole,\\nGo make your will and mind your soul. Old proverb,\\n2 It is shameful to have to state that, at the present day, houses are\\nsometimes built without air-boxes, or with boxes that open into cellars\\ninstead of out of doors. Occasionally foul air is sucked into apartments\\nfrom cellars, through defective air-boxes, causing much sickness.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 265\\nof furnaces, or by the sides of window sashes. A current\\nis created by the impure air escaping through open fire-\\nplaces and chimneys, especially when fires are burning in\\nthe grates, stoves, and furnaces. 1\\n286. Ordinarily it is necessary to obtain air in larger\\nquantities (a). This may be effected through cotton\\ncloth, etc., as before described, through revolving metal\\nwheels inserted into window-panes, through small diagonal\\nopenings in the window-sashes, or by placing under the\\nlower window-sash a board, occupying the whole width of\\nthe sash, and from three to six or more inches high. 2 The\\nair thus passing in is not deflected directly downward\\nupon the occupants of the room. In factories, institu-\\ntions, schools, vehicles, and similar places where ventila-\\ntion is to be provided for many persons, it should be\\nautomatic for if regulated by the varied judgment of\\nthe numerous inmates, it will prove ineffective (6).\\n287. The Amount of Fresh Air needed for Each Person in a\\nRoom. Estimates of the necessary amount of air and\\n1 Fireplaces should not be entirely closed neither is it well to have\\nthem so large and open that a great draught is created, thereby drawing\\nthe air too strongly out of the room and too much heat up the chimney.\\nSuch fireplaces must needs consume a large quantity of fuel in order to\\nradiate sufficient heat to be equally diffused throughout the room. Stoves\\nwith outer jackets or envelopes, which receive and warm cold air as it\\npasses through them into rooms, are preferable to ordinary stoves, which\\nthrow out dry and superheated air.\\n2 A simple and effectual arrangement is that of Dr. Keen, viz.. fastening\\nwith tacks or loops a piece of paper or cloth across the lower ten or\\ntwelve inches of the window-frame, and then raising the lower sash mere\\nor less, according to the weather. It will probably occur to the reader\\nthat the cloth so placed may be suitably ornamented on one or both\\nsides.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "266 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\ncubic space which each inmate of a room requires, under\\nvarying circumstances, have been made by sanitarians as\\nguides to proper ventilation, since the detection by\\nsmell of harmful odors or a sense of closeness is not\\nalways certain. 1\\nWhen the amount of carbon dioxide in the air of an\\noccupied room is beyond six parts in ten thousand, the air\\nbecomes oppressive and dangerous, not only on account\\nof the carbon dioxide present, bat also on account of the\\npoisonous organic matter exhaled by the lungs. The air\\nis also vitiated by gas jets and lamp flames. 2 To main-\\ntain air sufficiently pure for respiratoiy purposes in a room,\\nat least 3000 cubic feet of fresh air must be introduced\\nevery hour for each individual. For each adult, 3 at least\\n600 cubic feet of air space are needed in an ordinary\\nroom to insure the requisite change of air without\\ndraughts, since the air should be completely changed\\nthree or four times an hour (a).\\n288. Disinfection. Any substance that will destroy the\\ninfecting power of infectious material is a disinfectant.\\nAn agent which destroys bad odors is a deodorant, or\\ndeodorize?-. An agent which arrests putrefactive decom-\\nposition is an antiseptic. An abundance of fresh air not\\n1 Especially by persons who are mouth breathers, who have nasal\\ncatarrh, or whose sense of smell is blunted by living in a close and\\npolluted atmosphere.\\n2 According to Pettenkofer, a burner consuming five feet of gas per\\nhour gives off as much heat as eight men, more carbon dioxide than\\nthree men, and as much watery vapor as five men. One of the claims\\nmade for electric lights is that they give out very little heat and carbon\\ndioxide.\\n3 It is claimed by some sanitarians that there should be no distinction\\nbetween adults and children, as to the necessary amount of air space.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 267\\nonly dispels disagreeable odors, but frequently acts as a\\ndisinfectant by virtue of its oxygen. 1 Smouldering paper,\\nburning coffee, cologne water, and other things commonly\\nused as purifiers act only as deodorants, simply replacing\\none odor with another that is stronger. They have abso-\\nlutely no value as disinfectants.\\nCharcoal, dry loam, and ashes are valuable deodorants\\nto use in out-houses and cesspools. The material so deodor-\\nized, when exposed to the sun, air, and light (as it should\\nbe, at a considerable distance from dwellings), will be\\ndisinfected by these agencies. Slaked lime, added to the\\ncompost heap, will hasten the antiseptic and disinfectant\\nprocesses begun by the sun, light, and air. The coating\\nof walls, especially cellar-walls, with lime-wash is a use-\\nful method of sweetening the atmosphere, and should be\\nfrequently repeated. Cold arrests putrefaction, but does\\nnot destroy germs whereas steam under pressure (221\u00c2\u00b0 F.)\\nfor ten minutes, or boiling water for half an hour, will do\\nso. Certain chemicals, such as chloride of lime and mer-\\ncuric chloride, in a strong solution, will destroy germs.\\nIn a weak solution they prevent putrefaction\\n289. Sunlight. In addition to an abundance of air of\\nthe right kind, animals need sunlight. Without this the\\nblood is impoverished and vital energy is diminished (a).\\nSecluded from the light, human beings become pale and\\nsickly, just as plants do in cellars; and, like plants, they\\ngrow stronger and healthier on removal into the light.\\n1 Rigorous cleanliness, sunlight, and an abundance of fresh air will not\\nonly keep away the visible and obnoxious tilth, but will lessen the viru-\\nlence of typhoid fever, cholera, ami other infectious diseases which are\\nsometimes classed as tilth diseases.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "268 AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT.\\nBacteria thrive best in darkness and in moist places. 1\\nMost of them are killed by strong sunlight (6).\\nDuring the prevalence of epidemics in some of our\\nsouthern cities, it has been noticed that there is more sick-\\nness on the shady than on the sunny side of the streets.\\nHouses should be so constructed that the sun can shine\\ninto every room during some part of each day. But just\\nas we have found to be the case with the other vital\\nrequisites of man, so there may be an excess of light, and\\nof its accompanying heat. Too great exposure, in warm\\nweather, to the direct rays of the sun may induce sun-\\nstroke. Even in the frigid zone the glare of the light on\\nthe snowy landscape is attended with danger to the sight,\\na danger which is also incurred by those who have the\\nsun s rays reflected upon them from white sand and other\\nreflecting objects. 2\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. Of what service to man is the pressure of the atmosphere?\\n2. What is the ordinary composition of air?\\n3. What is said of the relative proportions and uses of nitrogen and\\noxygen?\\n4. Of what use are the other ingredients of the air\\n5. Of what does the dust in the air consist, and from what sources\\ndoes it come\\n6. How should we protect ourselves from its evil effects?\\n7. What is to be said of disease germs and of their development\\n1 The virulence of most disease germs is preserved in dust, but the\\nbacteria of cholera die when dry.\\n2 To obviate the dangers of an excess of light, nature carpets the earth\\nwith green, and either vaults the heavens with blue, or draws over them\\nher gray curtain of cloud, and at proper intervals spreads over us the\\nblack pall of night, bringing with it refreshment and rest.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "AIR. VENTILATION. LIGHT. 269\\n8. What of the organic nitrogenous matters thrown off by the lungs?\\n9. To what is the term malaria applied, and what are some of the\\ncauses of malaria?\\n10. What gases corrupt the atmosphere, and which one is constantly\\npresent therein\\n11. Whence does the atmosphere derive its carbon di\u00c2\u00aexide, and why\\nshould so poisonous a gas be an essential ingredient of the\\natmosphere\\n12. W T hen and where is it apt to be in excess, and what are the effects\\n13. What is to be said of carbon monoxide? of illuminating gas?\\nof sulphuretted hydrogen of sewer gas\\n14. What other emanations than the above gases devitalize the air?\\n15. What is to be said of damp building sites and of leaky drains and\\ngas pipes\\n16. State the relative advantages of city and country life.\\n17. What are the effects of an impure atmosphere upon the health,\\nand how may they be obviated Illustrate as to ventilation\\nas to the use of chemicals.\\n18. What effects follow a deprivation of light What its excess", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "270\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nFig. 86.\\nPosterior view of the spinal cord, a portion of the cerebrum and cerebellum, and some of the\\nnerve* of the cerebro-spinal system. On the left side of the body some of the tissues are\\nremoved to show the deeper nerves, while the right side shows certain superficial ones.\\nCE. cerebrum. B, nerves distributed to the arm. SN, sciatic nerve.\\nCEE, cerebellum. SC. spinal cord.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV.\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n290. Predominance of Nervous Processes in Man. Some\\nof the processes already studied, viz., digestion, circula-\\ntion, absorption, and respiration, are common to both\\nanimals and vegetables but the processes by which con-\\nsciousness, will power, voluntary motion, sight, hearing,\\netc., are accomplished are, so far as is known at present,\\npeculiar to animals. One animal is superior to another\\nin proportion to the number and development of these\\nfunctions. In man their number is the greatest and\\ntheir development the highest, so that man maintains\\nsupremacy over all other forms of creation.\\n291. Use of the Nervous System. In health, all the or-\\ngans of the human body possess a peculiar property\\nknown as irritability, 1 which enables each one to perform\\nits function at the right time, in the right way, and in\\naccord with the functions of other organs. Thus the\\ngastric juice is secreted whenever any substance is intro-\\nduced into the stomach, and the number of the pulsations\\nof the heart bears a definite relation to the frequency o{\\nthe respiratory movements. This irritability, or normal\\n1 Irritability (irrito, I provoke). In physiology, this word signifies\\nthe power of responding to a, stimulus, as exemplified by (be contractility\\nof muscular tissue. In medicine, irritability implies an undue excitability\\nof an organ or tissue, from disease or disorder, such as of the brain, spinal\\ncord, stomach, eye, or bladder. Quain, Dictionary of Medicine.\\n271", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "272 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nexcitability, of tissues, together with the performance of\\nall vital functions, is made possible by the nervous system,\\nthrough which all impressions are received, and by means\\nof which motion, sensation, thought, etc., are produced.\\nThis system regulates all the movements of the body,\\nboth voluntary and involuntary, and all the processes,\\nand harmonizes the functions of the various organs.\\n-292. Everywhere in the healthy body there is coopera-\\ntion for the common good. Were it not so, man would be\\na collection of disorderly organs, each one trying to live\\nto itself, and to act for itself. The heart varies its rapid-\\nity of action to keep pace with the muscular activity of\\nthe individual. The muscles work together to produce\\nvaried movements of the bod}^.\\nThe various organs of the body are connected with the\\nbrain the centre of operations by means of nerves,\\nwhich are like so many electric wires running to and from\\nthe seat of government of the community. By this ar-\\nrangement, notice of any disturbance is immediately com-\\nmunicated to headquarters, so that a remedy may be\\npromptly furnished. The importance of the nervous sys-\\ntem, with its harmonizing influence, is obvious when we\\nwitness the results of disturbances therein, such as irregu-\\nlar action of the muscles of the extremities in spasms and\\ncramps, fluttering of the heart, or convulsions.\\n293. General Arrangement of the Nervous System. Owing\\nto the difference in location and function of its various\\nparts, there are two divisions of the nervous system; viz.,\\nthe cerebrospinal nervous system, and the sympathetic 1\\n1 At one time it was believed that one part of the body became\\ndiseased through sj mpathy with another part. As the second of the", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 273\\nnervous system. The first-named division includes all that\\nportion of the nervous system contained within the cranial\\ncavity and the spinal canal; viz., the brain and the spinal\\ncord, together with the nerves which branch off from\\neach. This system presides over the functions of animal\\nlife, as volition, sensation, etc.\\nThe second-named division includes all that portion of\\nthe nervous system located principally in the thoracic,\\nabdominal, and pelvic cavities, and distributed to the in-\\nternal organs. Its special function is the regulation of\\ninvoluntary processes, like growth and nutrition. It is\\nconnected with the cerebro-spinal system.\\n294. Nervous Tissue. Nerve fibres and cells. The ner-\\nvous system, whether simple in arrangement, as in the\\nstarfish, or more complicated, as in the higher animals,\\nconsists of two different kinds of tissue, the one white and\\nthe other gray. These differ from each other not only in\\ncolor, but in structure and mode of action.\\nThe white matter constitutes the bulk of the nervous\\ntissue, and is in large quantity on the exterior of the spinal\\ncord and in the interior of the brain. To the unaided\\neye, it seems to be a homogeneous mass of white, semi-\\nsolid material. In reality it consists of slender threads,\\ncalled nerve fibres, 1 Avhich for the most part lie parallel\\nto one another, and are kept in place by delicate con-\\nnective tissue. Nerve fibres, united in bundles large\\nabove-named divisions of the nervous system is largely responsible for\\nthe spread of disorder and disease, it has been called sympathetic, in\\ndeference to the old belief. It is also sometimes called ganglionic^ owing\\nto the fact that it is largely composed of ganglia, or masses of gray\\nnervous matter.\\n1 They vary in breadth from l 00 of an inch in nerves, to llU s of an\\ninch in the brain.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "274\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nenough to be seen with the naked eye, form nerves. The\\nsole fundi on of nerves and nerve fibres is to convey nervous\\n295. The gray matter of the nervous system is of an\\nashen-gray color, and constitutes the cortex the ex-\\nternal or convoluted layer of the brain and various\\ndeposits in the substance of that organ. It also forms\\nthe centre of the spinal cord,\\nand the masses of varying size,\\ncalled ganglia} which are con-\\nnected with certain nerves and\\nare especially numerous in the\\nsympathetic system.\\nUnder the microscope, the gray\\nmatter is seen to consist mainly\\nof cells of peculiar shape, called\\nnerve cells, intermingled with\\nconnective tissue and very small\\nnerve fibres, the smallest of\\nwhich are nerve filaments. These\\ncells vary in form and size. 2\\nEach one consists of granular ma-\\nterial containing a large nucleus\\nand a nucleolus, and has several branches or processes,\\none of which connects with the axis cylinder the central\\nconveying portion of a nerve fibre 3 (a).\\nEach collection of gray matter, consisting, as it does,\\nFig. 87. (Gray.)\\nNerve Cells from Spinal Cord.\\n(Magnified.)\\n1 From the Greek y yyXiov, a knot.\\n2 Viz., from to of an inch in diameter. The cells in ganglia\\nare known as ganglionic cells. The term is sometimes used to include\\nall nerve cells.\\n3 The connecting process of the cell is sometimes called the neuron.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n275\\nof groups of nerve cells, is a nerve centre. Its function is\\nto receive nervous impressions, to originate and impart ner-\\nvous force or impulses, and also to transmit them from one\\nnerve cell to another. 1\\n296. Nerves are bundles of nerve fibres, between which\\nis connective tissue for support and as a framework for\\ncapillaries and lymphatics which\\nnourish the parts and carry away\\nwastes. Each fibre is distinct and\\nmay act independently of every\\nother. Most fibres are, in fact,\\ninsulated by connective tissue and\\nfatty matter, as are the wires of\\na cable by rubber. 2\\nThe nerves connected with the\\nbrain and spinal cord are divided,\\nas to function, into sensory, or\\nafferent, which convey sensory im-\\npressions or impulses to these\\nnerve centres, and motor, or effer-\\nent, which convey motor impulses\\nfrom these nerve centres.\\nThe largest nerves, or those near\\nFig. 88- (Leidy.)\\nMode of Branching of Nerves.\\n1, 2, two bundles of nerve fibres.\\n3, a branch of three fibres.\\n4, branch of two fibres.\\n5, 6, branches of single fibres.\\n7, decussation between two\\nnerves.\\n1 A nerve centre may be likened to a switchboard of a telephone ex-\\nchange (which might be called a telephone centre), receiving messages\\nfrom one quarter, originating and sending out messages to another, or\\ntransmitting a message received from one place to another. In a telephone\\nexchange the message is transmitted by connecting the wire from the\\nsender with the wire to the receiver. In the body the message probably\\nleaps from one nerve cell to another, as these cells in a nerve centre are\\nnot all connected with one another.\\n2 If this insulating material disappears or softens [o such an extent as\\nto allow the conducting portion of adjoining fibres to touch, nervous im-\\npulses will be sent to portions of the bodj tor which they were not\\nintended, just as telephone messages go astray if wires are crossed,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "276\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nthe nerve centres, are composed of both afferent and\\nefferent fibres, and are known as nerve trunks. As they\\ngo to the tissues, these trunks separate into smaller nerves\\n(consisting of either afferent or efferent fibres, as the case\\nmay be), and these into still smaller ones, and finally they\\nend in or among the cells of the body as nerve filaments so\\nsmall that they cannot be seen except with a microscope. 1\\nWhen nerves branch, or decussate (i.e. cross each\\nother), some of the fibres of which they\\nare composed leave the nerves, and\\nbranch off. 2\\n297. Structure of Nerve Fibres. Nerve\\nfibres are of two kinds, medullated and\\nnon-medullated. Each has in its centre,\\nfrom end to end, a delicate core, the\\naxis cylinder, which connects with a\\nnerve cell, and is the essential or con-\\nducting portion of the fibre. Covering\\nthis core, in medullated fibres, is a sheath\\nof white fatty material, the medullary\\nsheath (having nuclei in its course), and\\noutside of this is a thin, delicate covering of connective\\ntissue, the neurilemma, or primitive sheath. These sheaths\\nare frequently absent in nerve filaments.\\n2V-\\nK.\\nFig. 89.\\nDiagram of Structure of\\nMedullated Nerve-fibre.\\nN neurilemma.\\nM, medullary sheath.\\nA, axis cylinder.\\n1 The sciatic nerve, located in the back part of the thigh, is a very large\\nnerve, as large round as the tip of the little finger. The painful affection\\nsciatica results from an irritation or inflammation of this nerve.\\n2 Nerves distributed to the walls of blood-vessels are vaso-motor nerves\\nthose which stimulate gland cells to action are secretory nerves those\\nwhich check the action of certain organs are inhibitory. The nerve fibres\\nwhich connect the brain and. spinal cord with distant organs are called\\nperipheral nerve fibres, to distinguish them from those within the brain\\nand spinal cord. The end of a nerve or nerve fibre nearest its nerve centre\\nis the inner, or proximal, end the other is the distal, ov peripheral, end.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 277\\nThe non-medullated fibres, sometimes called gray fibres,\\nhave no medullary sheath, only the axis cylinder and the\\nneurilemma. These fibres are found mainly in the sym-\\npathetic system. The medullated fibres are found in the\\nbrain, spinal cord, and in large nerves.\\n298. Interdependence of Nerve Fibres and Cells. A nerve\\nfibre, connected by its axis cylinder with a nerve cell, is in\\nreality an elongated process of the cell. Taken together,\\nthe cell and its fibre may be considered an anatomical\\nunit. Each depends upon the other. A nerve fibre sev-\\nered from the cell it is connected with degenerates and is\\nno longer capable of conveying any message. The muscle\\nor other part of the body to which it goes, or from which\\nit comes, also degenerates and cannot do its work. The\\ncell, deprived of needed nerve stimulus, grows feeble from\\ninactivity. 1\\n299. Nervous Impulse, or nerve force, the peculiar power\\ntransmitted by the nerves, is believed to be of a molec-\\nular nature, and in the form of a wave. 2 Its velocity is\\nso rapid (usually 100 feet per second) that its transmission\\nseems to be instantaneous. 3 Nervous impulses are put in\\n1 Some physiologists state that if a fibre dies as the result of an injury,\\nits connecting cell can produce a new fibre growing out from the cell body.\\n2 The ancients, believing nerve force to be a fluid, called it the ner-\\nvous fluid. It was once supposed to be of an electric nature but elec-\\ntricity travels 1000 miles per second, and the nerve current never more\\nthan 200 feet.\\n8 An act of volition is said to require 2 s of a second a simple distinction\\nor recognition of an impression, ^of a second.\\nIn the case of the ear, when the sound attended to is that of two\\nelectrical sparks quickly succeeding- each other, it can be perceived that\\nthere are two, and that one is earlier than the other, when it precedes it\\nby no more than 0.002 see. 1 Poweks, Physiology,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "278 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nmotion by stimuli, either from within or from without the\\nbody, such as food, waves of light and sound, the emotions,\\nthe application of electricity or other agents. These im-\\npulses, when aroused, produce the various motions, sensa-\\ntions, and functions incident to the body. Normally\\nthey rarely, if ever, originate in the course of nerve\\nfibres, but are produced either at the outer ends of fibres\\nin special structures like the sense organs, or at their\\ninner endings in nerve cells. On the other hand, artificial\\nstimulation, such as electricity applied in the course of\\na fibre, will produce impulses, just as an electric wire\\ncan be tapped. Heat increases the conductive power of\\nnerves, and cold diminishes it.\\n300. Nerves kept in action (i.e. strained, or put on the\\nstretch) for a considerable time, as in the repeated con-\\ntraction of the same group of muscles, become fatigued\\nand need rest. The nerve fibres, their connecting cells,\\nand their capillary blood-vessels become weakened by such\\nabuse, and accumulate carbon dioxide and other wastes.\\nPitiful examples of fatigued and poisoned nerves and\\nmuscles are seen in some of the competitors in long-\\ncontinued walking and bicycle contests.\\n301. The Brain and Spinal Cord; their Relation and Mem-\\nbranes. The brain is the great mass of nerve tissue which\\noccupies the cranial cavity, and is continuous (through a\\nlarge opening in the base of the skull) with the spinal\\ncord. 1 Both are divided by a longitudinal furrow into\\ntwo portions, right and left.\\n1 The spinal cord is sometimes considered as a part of the brain, the\\ntwo constituting the great cerebro-spinal centre.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 279\\nThe brain and the spinal cord are protected from\\nvarious injuries by their strong, bony encasements, and\\nfrom friction against these walls by three coverings, or\\nmembranes, by connective tissue, and by fluid between\\ntwo of the coverings. The outermost membrane, the\\ndura mater, 1 is fibrous and strong. It lines the cranial\\ncavity and spinal canal, and has various shelf -like expan-\\nsions in the former for the support of different portions of\\nthe brain. The innermost membrane, the pia mater, 2\\nin reality a fine network of capillaries in the meshes of a\\ndelicate connective tissue, is in close contact with the\\nbrain and spinal cord, dipping down into their furrows.\\nBetween the dura mater and pia mater is a delicate sac-\\nlike membrane, the arachnoid, 3 containing a fluid known\\nas the cerebro-spinal fluid. The protection and freedom\\nof motion afforded by this sac, with its soft and yielding\\nliquid contents, are evident.\\n302. Divisions of the Brain. The brain consists of three\\nmasses, or divisions 4 first, the cerebrum, or brain proper,\\nwhich is the largest, and occupies nearly the upper two-\\nthirds of the cranial cavity next, the cerebellum, or little\\nbrain, which about fills the lower and back portion of\\nthe cavity and third, the medulla oblongata!* This last is\\nHard mother called dura because of its great resistance, and\\nmater because it was believed to give rise to every membrane of the\\nbody. Dunglison, 3Iedical Dictionary.\\n2 Delicate mother.\\n3 A name originally applied to delicate membranes resembling spiders\\nwebs. The term arachnoid is from a Greek word, meaning spider.\\n4 These are sometimes spoken of as i\\\\w fore-brain, mid-brain, and hind-\\nbrain.\\n6 I.e. oblong pith or marrow. It is sometimes called the bulb,\\noblong cord, or spinal bulb.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "280\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nthe smallest part, and is the broadened commencement of\\nthe spinal cord (Fig. 90). These three parts of the brain\\ncer\\nFig. 90.\\nVertical Section of Brain.\\nCE, cerebrum, left hemisphere.\\nCEB, cerebellum, left portion.\\nMO, medulla oblongata.\\nSC, spinal cord.\\nare connected with one another, and all contain both\\nwhite and gray matter.\\n303. The Size and Weight of the Brain depend somewhat\\non the size of the individual, but they also bear consid-\\nerable relation to his intellectual capacity (a). In the\\nlower animals the cerebellum and the ganglia at the base\\nof the brain are the largest but in the higher animals\\nthe cerebrum, as a rule, increases in size in proportion\\nto the degree of intelligence. In man the size is very\\nmuch greater in proportion to that of the entire body than\\nin any of the lower animals. The quality of the brain\\nmaterial is also undoubtedly a matter of importance, for", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 281\\nthe brains of some very intelligent persons have been\\nfound to be comparatively small.\\n304. The Cerebrum is rounded upon its upper and lateral\\nsurfaces, where its shape conforms to that of the skull,\\nwhile its base or lower surface is more flattened, and rests\\nin front upon the floor of the cranial cavity, and at the\\nback upon a membranous expansion of the dura mater,\\nwhich separates it from the cerebellum. The longitudinal\\nfissure before referred to divides the cerebrum into two\\nnearly equal parts, called hemispheres. These, however,\\nare connected toward their lower portions by a trans-\\nverse band of nerve fibres called a commissure} and also\\nby two columns of fibres 2 which extend upward from the\\nbulb, diverging as they enter the hemispheres.\\n305. Each hemisphere is everywhere marked, on its\\nouter surface, or cortex, with irregular grooves and ridges,\\nand is covered by gray matter. The undulations thus\\nformed are termed convolutions. This convoluted arrange-\\nment provides, in a small space, a large amount of gray\\nmatter, the source of nervous power. The convolutions,\\nin proportion to their number and well-marked character,\\nindicate the degree of intelligence in animals and man.\\nIn young children, especially before the age of seven\\nyears, when the brain is very soft and imperfect!} devel-\\noped, and the mental powers are not strong, the convolu-\\ntions are not well marked. Such is also the case in the\\nlower animals and in the uncivilized races of mankind. 3\\n1 I.e. point of union of two parts. These are the crura cerebri.\\n8 There are exceptions, however, as in the whale and elephant, in\\nwhich the convolutions are exceedingly intricate and beautiful. The par-\\nticular arrangement of the fissures and convolutions differs as the brain\\nascends through the half apes, the apes, and man.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "282 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nThe white matter of the hemispheres is large in amount,\\nand consists of nerve fibres prolonged from various tissues\\nand organs of the body. These fibres terminate in the\\ngray matter of the convolutions and in the ganglia of the\\nbrain. 1\\n306. The cerebrum is a single organ, as far as the intel-\\nlect is concerned, but a double one with relation to the\\ntwo sides of the body. Impressions from either side of\\nthe body are appreciated through the hemisphere on the\\nopposite side, owing to the crossing, in the course of\\nthe spinal cord, of nerve filaments which convey sensa-\\ntions. So, too, the bursting of one or more blood-vessels\\n(i.e. apoplexy) or the stoppage of a blood-vessel by a\\nclot, on one side of the cerebrum, injures the nervous\\ntissue and produces complete or j)artial paralysis upon the\\nopposite side of the body, owing to the crossing in the\\nmedulla oblongata of nerve filaments that convey motor\\nimpulses.\\n307. Functions of the Cerebrum. The cerebrum is the\\norgan of the mind. It enables one to know, think, origi-\\nnate, and act. It is connected, directly or indirectly, with\\nall parts of the body, and acts as a superintendent. It is\\nthat part of the nervous system through which the intellec-\\ntual and moral powers, or faculties, act. 2 These faculties,\\n1 In the cerebrum are many curious and interesting anatomical arrange-\\nments, cavities, ventricles or water beds, passageways, and curtains,\\nwhich, though important to the anatomist and physician, are too intricate\\nand complex to be described here.\\n2 Facts in regard to the functions of the nervous system are ascertained\\nfrom the study of the lower animals, and by experiments made upon them,\\nand also by studying the results of disease and injury in the human being.\\nIt is a curious fact that the cerebral substance is not sensitive, but can be", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 283\\nrightly used, make man the noblest work of God for\\nhis is the highest organism, and the one which best\\nadapts itself to its environments (a).\\n308. The principal faculties are memory, reason, and\\njudgment. A good memory is essential to healthy de-\\nvelopment of the intellect. It not only retains facts,\\nbut produces them, when wanted, with their connections\\nand relations (a). Reason enables us to appreciate the\\ntrue relation between cause and effect. Judgment requires\\nboth memory and reason, and is that faculty by which\\nappropriate means are adapted for the accomplishment of\\na particular end.\\nThe vigor of the intellect depends more upon the\\nquality than the quantity of the cerebral tissue. The\\nquality is improved by proper use of the mental faculties.\\nIt is inferior in those who do not strengthen the memory\\nand the power to reason correctly and to judge aright.\\n309. Brain Localization. The attempts made from time\\nto time to locate accurately in the cerebrum the centres\\nof the various mental faculties have not been fully suc-\\ncessful. This is probably due to the fact that these\\ncut or torn without pain. In general, loss of cerebral substance by dis-\\nease or severe injury causes impaired memory, tardy, inaccurate, and\\nfeeble connection of ideas, irritability of temper, and easily excited\\nemotional manifestations.\\n1 We are apt to be carried away by a vague notion that there is no\\nlimit to acquirement, except our defect of application or some other curable\\nweakness of our own. There are, however, very manifest limits. We are\\nall blockheads in something some of us fail in mechanical aptitude, some\\nin music, some in languages, some in science; memory in one of those\\nlines of incapacity is a rope of sand there must be in each case a defi-\\nciency of cerebral substance for that class of connections. Bain, Mind\\nand Body.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "284\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nfaculties are of a complex nature, and are produced by a\\ncoalition of a number of impressions.\\nThe functions of the rounded masses near the base of\\nthe cerebrum, called basal ganglia, are not settled, owing\\nto experimental difficulties. But the centres or areas of\\nmotion, sight, smell, and hear-\\ning are quite clearly localized. 1\\nThe motor areas, or those\\nwhich are associated with def-\\ninite motions of the voluntary\\nmuscles, are in the upper and\\nside portions of the cerebral\\ncortex, and usually on the\\nopposite side of the body from\\nthe muscles moved.\\nThe surgeon, by the removal\\nof tumors or clots of blood\\nfrom certain motor areas, has\\nrelieved cases of epilepsy and\\nparalysis. Studies of diseased conditions of the brain\\nindicate that the removal of certain portions of the brain,\\nrespectively, or injury to them, will produce blindness,\\ndeafness, or lack of smell, etc., as the case may be. The\\nFig. 91.\\nBrain Localization.\\nP, pons. M, medulla.\\nCEE, cerebellum.\\n1 Investigations seem to show that the centres for motion, sensation,\\nand the mental faculties are not so isolated as has been hitherto supposed,\\nbut that they are more diffused and shade off into each other. Thus\\na wonderful provision is made for emergencies. If the very heart of a\\ncentre or area be injured, there will be oftentimes sufficient nervous tissue\\nremaining to perform the work in a more or less perfect manner.\\nThe faculty of articulate language appears to reside in the third or\\ninferior frontal convolution of the left side, which convolution would con-\\ntain both the centre for the memory of words, and the centre for the co-\\nordination or combination of the movements of speech. Cooke,\\nTablets of Physiology.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 285\\ncentres for sight are in the occipital lobes of the cerebrum\\nthe centres for hearing, near and behind each ear for\\nsmell, on the sides of the cerebrum in front of the ear.\\n310. The Cerebellum its Functions. The cerebellum\\nhas no convolutions. Its surface, or cortex, is of gray\\nmatter, arranged in nearly parallel ridges of irregular\\ndepth. 1 Its two lobes are connected by nerve fibres, which\\npass from side to side across the upper and front part of\\nthe medulla oblongata. This is called the pons, from its\\nresemblance to a bridge. 2\\nLike the cerebrum, the cerebellum is without feeling.\\nIts function is the coordination, or harmonious regulation,\\nof the movements of the voluntary muscles. The neces-\\nsity of its directing power is made manifest whenever that\\npower is interfered with, as is shown in the unsteady gait\\nof the drunkard, or in cases of injury or disease of the\\ncerebellum.\\n311. The Medulla Oblongata. The medulla resembles\\nthe spinal cord in the arrangement of the white and gray\\nmatter. Through it run nerve fibres on their way to\\nand from the upper portions of the brain, those that con-\\nvey motor impulses crossing within the medulla. Fibres\\nalso enter it from the cerebellum. From its interior and\\nfrom the under surface of the cerebrum rise what are\\nknown as the cranial nerves. These emerge Prom the\\ncranial cavity through openings in the base of the skull,\\nand are distributed to various parts of the head and neck,\\nto the organs of special sense, and to some of the thoracic\\n1 From the peculiar branching appearance of the gray matter in a per-\\npendicular section of the cerebellum, it is called arbor vitac, or tree of life.\\n2 Also pons Varolii, after its discoverer, Yarolius.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "286 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nand abdominal organs. A still more essential feature of\\nthe medulla oblongata is the possession of nerve centres\\nthat control respiration, the pulsations of the heart, and\\nthe size of the small arteries. 1\\nThe mental faculties may become almost useless, and\\nsensation and the power of voluntary motion may be lost,\\nby disease or injury of the cerebrum or cerebellum but\\nlife itself remains if the respiratory and heart centres\\n(vital knots, or points, as they are sometimes called) are\\nintact. If these centres are injured, breathing is impaired;\\nif destroyed, death necessarily results. Hence, nature has\\nprovided protection for the medulla, by burying it so\\ndeeply within the skull that it is seldom injured by blows\\nor falls. Sometimes, however, in fracture of the spinal\\ncolumn near its articulation with the skull, particles of\\nbone are driven into the medulla oblongata, causing\\ninstant death. 2 Apoplexy in this part of the brain is\\nalso of rare occurrence.\\nTo the centres of the medulla come impulses from all\\nparts of the body, which may never give rise to conscious\\nsensation, but which so stimulate these centres as to keep\\nthem alert (like watch-dogs) to the needs of the organism.\\nOrdinarily, whether asleep or awake, these centres pursue\\nthe even tenor of their way. Under some great emotion,\\nwhen all the energy of our being is centred on one thought\\n1 Other portions of the medulla are said to regulate mastication, swal-\\nlowing, vocal utterance, and the secretion of saliva and sweat.\\n2 Instantaneous death may result from injury to the medulla oblongata\\nwithout the neck s being broken, as when the atlas is dislocated by the\\nstriking of the head upon the bed of a stream in diving from a height into\\nshallow water a proceeding always attended with danger. Occasionally\\nanimals fall dead from sudden injury to the vital point. For instance,\\na clumsy shanghai rooster, in full pursuit of another, fell over a wooden\\npail, striking the back of his head, and died instantly.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n287\\nor supreme effort, these centres may stand in abeyance,\\nor the pang may be so great as to break the vital chain.\\nHigher life is only possible by freedom from the necessity\\nof watching over these functions.\\nCE\\nCE\\nCER\\nFig. 92.\\nThe Lower Surface or Base of the Brain.\\nCE, cerebrum, right and left hemispheres CEE, cerebellum, right ami left portions. Pass-\\ning from one hemisphere to another is a white, broad, transverse band of fibres, like a\\nbridge. This is the pons Varolii (bridge of Yarolius), and is a bond of union between\\nthe various segments of the brain. Underlying it is the upper portion of the medulla\\noblongata. The cranial nerves are shown branching out from under the front and\\nmiddle portions of the hemispheres, and from the sides of the medulla oblongata.\\n312. The Cranial Nerves. Of these there are twelve\\npairs (Fig. 92), numbered from one to twelve in the\\norder in which they rise from the base of the brain, the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "288 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nenumeration beginning at the front of the cerebrum and\\ncontinuing backwards. These nerves, with the exception\\nof those distributed to the interior of the nose, eye, and\\near (termed nerves of special sense), are either motor or\\nsensory, or are mixed nerves and convey both sensory and\\nmotor impulses. 1 The fifth, seventh, and tenth pair of\\ncranial nerves are briefly described in the three following\\nsections.\\n313. The Fifth Pair of Nerves are the great sensitive\\nnerves of the face and the side of the head. They possess\\nalso motor fibres (derived from distinct roots), which are\\ndistributed to the muscles of mastication. Each of the\\nnerves of this pair has three main trunks. The upper one\\npasses from the cranial cavity into the orbital cavity, 2\\nsending filaments to the eye and adjacent parts, then out\\nthrough a notched opening in the skull underneath the\\neyebrow, toward its inner side, 3 and is distributed to the\\nforehead and top of the head. The second branch, after\\nleaving the cranial cavity, runs along the floor of the\\norbit, giving off branches to the upper teeth, gums, and\\nmucous membrane of the upper jaw. Then, through an\\n1 Eirst pair, olfactory nerves, or nerves of smell 2d, optic nerves, or\\nnerves of sight 3d, motor nerves to three of the muscles that move the\\neyeballs, and to the iris and ciliary muscle of the eye 4th, pathetic nerves,\\neach of which moves one muscle of the eyeball, pulling the eyeball up-\\nward and outward 6th, motor nerve to one of the straight muscles of the\\neyeball 8th, auditory nerves, or nerves of hearing 9th, glossopharyn-\\ngeal nerves, nerves of sensation to pharynx, fauces, and tonsil, and special\\nnerve of taste to certain parts of the tongue the 11th joins the 10th,\\nand is also distributed to muscles about the neck 12th, hypo-glossal\\nnerves, mainly to muscles of tongue.\\n2 The cavity in which the eye rests.\\n3 This point is very sensitive to pressure. Where the other branches\\nof the nerve emerge, sensitiveness is less.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n289\\nopening just below the front lower edge of the orbital\\ncavity, it is distributed to the middle portion of the face,\\nthe nose, cheeks, and upper lip. The third branch, with\\nFig. 93.\\nSuperficial Branches of the Seventh and the Fi\\nFairs of Cranial Nerves,\\nwhich the motor-nerve filaments are associated, supplies\\nsensitive fibres to the mucous membrane of the cheeks,\\nlips, and front part of the tongue, and to the lower teeth.\\nIt emerges at an opening in the front part o( the lower jaw.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "290\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nto be distributed to the lower lip, chin, and adjacent parts\\n(Fig. 93). Irritation of this nerve by disease or other\\ncause produces intense pain, as\\nin neuralgia, headache, or tooth-\\nache.\\n314. The Facial or Seventh Pair\\nof Nerves are the great motor\\nnerves of the face, the nerves\\nof expression, by which the fea-\\ntures are animated by various\\nmovements, in response to the\\nemotions. One nerve of the pair\\nemerges from the skull near the\\nexternal opening of each ear, and\\nis distributed to the muscles of\\nthe face. When these nerves\\nare irritated or diseased, convul-\\nsive twitchings of the face and\\nunusual exj)ressions result. If\\nthe injury is confined to the\\nnerve of one side of the face,\\nonly the facial movements upon\\nthat side will be disturbed.\\n315. The Pneumogastric or\\nTenth Pair of Nerves are mixed\\nnerves. Their distribution is\\nwider than that of any other\\nFig. 94. (Dalton.) nerves in the body, and their\\nDiagram of Pneumogastric Nerve, influence greater, f or they supply\\nwith its principal branches.\\n1, pharyngeal branch. the OT g anS f V01Ce aild ^Spira-\\nI: fnS larTgfa? 1 tioii with motor and sensory mi-\\ns yb \u00e2\u0084\u00a2tW pulses, and the pharynx, gullet,", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\n291\\nstomach, and heart with motor influence. They are con-\\nnected at various points with the sympathetic system of\\nnerves.\\n316. The Spinal Cord extends downwards from the\\nmedulla oblongata about eighteen inches, and ends in a\\npoint opposite the second lumbar vertebra. It is a some-\\nwhat cylindrical mass of nerve tissue, and is fissured in\\nfront and behind. It becomes enlarged in the cervical and\\nlumbar regions, at the points where the nerves supplying\\nthe upper and lower ex-\\ntremities are given off.\\nToward the lower end, it\\nsends out prolongations\\nthrough the sacrum\\nwhich, from their fancied\\nresemblance to the hairs\\nof a horse s tail, are called\\nthe cauda equina.\\nThe centre of the spinal\\ncord, for nearly its entire\\nlength, is composed of\\ngray matter, arranged\\nsomewhat like two cres-\\ncents (one in each half\\nof the cord), united back\\nto back by a band of gray\\nmatter. The extremities\\nof these crescents, directed toward the front o( the cord,\\nare called anterior horns; those directed backward, pos-\\nterior horns. Opposite them, at regular intervals, fibres\\nof the spinal nerves emerge from the cord. The gray\\nmatter of the cord is surrounded by longitudinal nerve\\nN.C.\\nTrans vers\\nFig. 95.\\nSection of Ooe-half of SpiDal Cord.\\n(Partly diagrammatic.)\\nAF, anterior fissure. PM. pia mater.\\nPF, posterior fissure. XF. nerve fibres.\\nNO, nerve cells.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "292 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nfibres, which pass up and down the cord in well-defined\\ntracts or columns. The white matter of the cord lying\\nbetween the posterior horns and posterior fissure con-\\nstitutes the right and left posterior columns that be-\\ntween the posterior horns and anterior horns, the right\\nand left lateral columns that between the anterior horns\\nand anterior fissure, the anterior columns. These columns\\nare connected with fibres of the spinal nerves.\\n317. The Spinal Nerves consist of thirty-one symmet-\\nrical pairs of nerves, which are connected with the spinal\\ncord by so-called roots. Each nerve has an anterior and\\na posterior root. The posterior roots (upon each of which\\nis a ganglion), 1 with their respective nerves, are known\\nas sensory roots and nerves, because they convey sensory\\nimpressions while the anterior roots, with their nerves,\\nare the motor roots and nerves, because they convey motor\\nimpulses. Just beyond or outside of their junction with\\ntheir respective roots the motor and sensory fibres are\\ninclosed in the same sheath, but their functions always\\nremain distinct. The spinal nerves are mainly distributed\\nto the skin and muscles upon the corresponding sides of\\nthe body, and convey nervous force and impressions to\\nand from the trunk and the extremities.\\n318. Functions of the Spinal Cord. The spinal cord is\\na conducting medium, as well as a nerve centre. The\\nposterior columns of the spinal cord convey sensory im-\\npressions to the brain, and the antero-lateral columns\\nconvey motor impulses from the brain.\\n319. Sensory impressions, such as the perception of heat\\nand cold, or of the size, location, and character of objects,\\n1 Called sometimes spinal ganglion.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 293\\nare conveyed by the sensory nerve fibres of the body to\\nthe sensory roots of the spinal nerves. By these roots\\nthey are conveyed either to the gray matter of the cord\\nor to its posterior columns of the opposite side, to be\\ntransmitted by them to the cerebrum. We become con-\\nFig. 96. (Westbkook.)\\nA diagram to represent the passage of the nerve fibres from the spinal cord upward to the\\ndifferent parts of the brain, and some of the more important ganglionic masses with\\nwhich they are associated.\\n1, the gray matter of the cerebral convolutions.\\n2, the white matter of the interior of the cerebrum, through which the fibres pass on their\\nway to the convolutions.\\n3, the corpus striatum, or anterior basal ganglion the fibres passing through it run in\\nthree principal directions viz., to the anterior, middle, and posterior regions of the\\ncerebrum they are represented by the three continuous lines.\\n4, the space between the two basal ganglia, through which fibres pass directly from below\\nupward these fibres appear in the cerebrum as broken lines, running toward the\\nthree principal regions.\\n5, the optic thalamus, or posterior basal ganglion, with fibres (represented by dotted lines)\\ntraversing it on their way from below upward.\\n6, the pons Varolii, made up of horizontal fibres which cross from one side of the cere-\\nbellum to the other.\\n7, corpora quadrigemina, from which the optic nerves, in part, take their origin.\\n8, the cerebellum, with a ganglionic mass in its interior, and fibres passing into it from\\nthe brain above and the medulla oblongata (9) below.\\n10, the dark convoluted line indicates the ganglionic matter of the spinal cord reaching up\\ninto the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii.\\nscions of sensations only when they are thus carried to the\\nbrain. If the posterior root of a spinal nerve is severed,\\nirritation of the skin supplied by its fibres will not cause\\ndiscomfort or pain, because that part of the skin is no\\nlonger connected with the brain. In proportion as an\\nobject becomes painful, whether by reason of great heat,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "294 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\npressure, or other cause, the sensory nerves lose their\\npower of enabling us to perceive the ordinary properties\\nof the object, and we become aware only of suffering.\\nAn injury to a sensory nerve in any part of its course is\\nnot felt at the point of injury, but at the terminal points\\nof the nerve filaments, where impressions are usually felt.\\nThis explains why, when the ulnar nerve, or funny\\nbone, at the elbow is struck sharply, numbness or pain\\nis referred to the outer side of the hand and the little\\nfinger, which parts are supplied by this nerve. Oftentimes,\\nafter a limb lias been amputated, the patient claims that he\\nsuffers pain in the part removed, or that his toes or fingers,\\nas the case may be, are being tampered with. The cause\\nof this distress is generally found to be some irritation of\\nthe nerve in the wound. When the force of the nervous\\ncurrent is diminished in sensory and motor nerves by\\npressure, as when one leg is kept crossed over the other in\\na constrained position for a length of time, or the arm is\\nlain upon in sleep, temporary numbness of the limb and\\nloss of motion result, and the part is said to be asleep.\\nUnder such circumstances, attempts to move the arm or\\nleg will prove futile for a minute or two, as the motor\\nnerves supplying these extremities cannot act in obedi-\\nence to the orders of the brain until they have regained\\ntheir tone. The irritation of a motor nerve in its course\\nresults in motion of the part to which its filaments are\\ndistributed, while a severe injury produces loss of motion.\\n320. Motor impulses for the voluntary muscles origi-\\nnate, for the most part, in the gray matter of the cerebro-\\nspinal nervous system. 1 From the cerebral gray matter\\n1 The involuntary muscles are moved through the sympathetic system\\nof nerves.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 295\\nthey are carried by motor-nerve filaments to the anterior\\ncolumns of the spinal cord on the same side of the\\nbody, or to the antero-posterior columns on the opposite\\nside, and thence to the motor nerves communicating with\\nthese columns. 1 From the gray matter of the cord, motor\\npower passes out through the anterior horns, to be dis-\\ntributed by the motor nerves in connection with them.\\nOnly those motions can be considered as voluntary ivhich\\nemanate from the brain. If an anterior root of a spinal\\nnerve be severed, motor impulses cannot be conveyed\\nto the muscles usually moved by its nerve fibres when\\nintact.\\nWhen the spinal column is fractured at its middle, the\\nlower extremities are paralyzed, the upper remaining un-\\naffected. 2 When the injury is in the neck region, the\\nupper extremities are also paralyzed, for the cord is\\ndamaged above the point at which the nerves distributed\\nto them are given off. Sometimes injuries to the spine\\nresult in loss of power only or sensation only but, if\\nsevere, the parts below are deprived of both sensation and\\nvoluntary motion.\\n321. The Sympathetic Nervous System consists of a double\\nchain of ganglia on the sides of the spinal column. These\\nganglia are connected with one another by nerves, and with\\nthe cerebro-spinal nervous system by motor and sensitive\\nfibres. From them numerous and very delicate fibres are\\n1 Many fibres passing to and from the cerebral cortex pass through the\\nbasal ganglia. Of these, the optic thalami (one in each hemisphere) are\\nbelieved to be sensory centres, and the corpora Striata (one in each hemi-\\nsphere), motor centres.\\n2 Such paralysis is called paraplegia, while that which results in one\\nside of the body, from injury to one cerebral hemisphere, is known as\\nhemiplegia.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "296\\nTHE XERVOUS SYSTEM.\\nFig. 97.\\nVertical section of body, showing sympathetic nerves and ganglia of right side, and their\\nconnection with the cerebrospinal nerves. Cerebrospinal system: CN, cervical\\nnerves B, nerves distributed to the arm D57, dorsal nerves SN, sacral nerves, some\\nof which are distributed to the leg PN, pneumogastric nerve. Sympathetic system.:\\nP, plexus in the head PP, pharyngeal plexus CP, cardiac plexus OP, oesophageal\\nplexus SoP, solar plexus AP, aortic plexus MP, mesenteric plexus SP, sacral\\nplexus G, some of the ganglia of the sympathetic system.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 297\\ndistributed, chiefly to the alimentary canal and its append-\\nages, the heart, blood-vessels, and certain other organs. 1\\nAt various points the sympathetic nerves, with their\\nganglia, form matted nets, or plexuses, about certain\\nlarge arteries. A typical one is the solar plexus, so called\\nbecause its radiating nerves branch out like the solar rays.\\nThis is situated in the abdomen, some of its filaments\\naccompanying the branches of the aorta distributed to the\\nstomach, intestine, spleen, pancreas, liver, and other organs.\\nAn injury to this plexus, as by a severe blow upon the\\nabdomen, is likely to result in sudden death. When\\npersons are said to die of concussion or shock, death\\nresults from a severe disturbance of the sympathetic\\nsystem. Soldiers have been known to die suddenly,\\nwithout any mark of injury being found upon their\\nbodies, from the passage of cannon-balls very near them.\\nSquirrels and other small game are sometimes killed by\\nbullets fired close to the head. Fish have been stunned\\nor killed, when within a few inches of the surface of the\\nwater, by a sharp blow struck upon the water just above\\nthem, or by the close contact of a pistol ball.\\n322. Ordinarily, in health we do not notice that we\\nhave a heart, lungs, and stomach, so quietly does the vital\\nmachinery work. Yet, owing to the connection of the\\nsympathetic with the cerebro-spinal nerves, the functions\\nof the internal organs may be disarranged by apparently\\nslight causes. For example, emotional disturbances, such\\nas terror and fear, will contract the arterioles, and thus\\n1 These nerves, distributed to the blood-vessels, are known as vasomotor\\nnerves, and the continuous muscular action they furnish is called the\\ntone of the arteries.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "298 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\\ncause paleness, while shame and joy will cause blushing\\nby the dilation of these vessels. Even unpleasant sounds,\\nodors, or events will sometimes interfere with digestion,\\nthe action of the heart, and the secretion of tears.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. How is man especially distinguished from the lower animals?\\n2. What is the use and general arrangement of the nervous system\\n3. What two kinds of nervous tissue are there? What is their func-\\ntion What are nerves\\n4. Describe nerve force and its rapidity.\\n5. How is it aroused?\\n6. What three divisions has the brain How are the brain and\\nspinal cord divided longitudinally\\n7. Name and describe the three coverings of the brain and spinal cord.\\n8. On what does the working capacity of the brain depend?\\n9. Describe the cerebrum and its hemispheres. What do the convo-\\nlutions indicate?\\n10. What relation do the hemispheres bear to each other and to\\nthe body?\\n11. What is the office of the cerebrum? of memory? of judgment\\nand reason\\n12. What effect has mental exercise upon the cerebral substance?\\n13. Describe the cerebellum and its function. The medulla oblongata.\\n14. State the importance of the medulla oblongata. How is it pro-\\ntected\\n15. Describe the spinal cord its conveyance of sensations and motor\\nimpulses.\\n16. What are the spinal nerves? Which of their roots convey sensa-\\ntions? which motor impulses?\\n17. How are sensations conveyed to the brain\\n18. How is motion produced where originated How is the motor\\nimpulse transmitted?\\n19. What is the effect of irritating nerves midway in their course?\\n20. What follows the severing of nerves or of the spinal cord\\n21. How many and what are the cranial nerves Whence do they\\nissue", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 299\\n22. How many and what branches has the fifth pair? What causes\\ntoothache V\\n23. What pair constitutes the facial nerves What follows their use\\ntheir injury?\\n24. Describe the tenth or pneumogastric nerve.\\n25. Describe the sympathetic system, and its ganglia and plexuses.\\n26. Over what processes does this system preside? What is its normal\\naction What may ensue from a sudden shock to a plexus?", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI.\\nNERVOUS SYSTEM (continued). REFLEX\\nACTION.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 NERVOUS ENERGY.\\n323. Reflex Action. Many of the movements of our\\nbodies are automatic. These are the result of what is\\nknown as reflex action, i.e. an action (secretion or muscular\\nmovement) produced\\nby the transmission\\nof an afferent impulse\\nto a nerve centre and\\nits reflection thence as\\nan efferent impulse.\\nIn some way a sen-\\nsory current, received\\nby certain nerve cells,\\nstimulates other nerve\\ncells to produce a mo-\\ntor current. Reflex\\naction is especially\\ndistinctive of the gray\\nmatter of the spinal\\ncord, which is a long\\nseries of nerve centres.\\nOther movements that\\nare sometimes called automatic, such as walking and eating\\nwhile we are in deep thought, are first started by the will,\\nand then continued apparently by reflex action through\\nthe cerebellum or spinal cord.\\n300\\nFig. 98.\\nSection of Spinal Cord and Diagram of Spinal Nerve,\\nmotor fibres ending in muscle of abdomen, sensory\\nfibres beginning in skin overlying the muscle.\\n1, 1, anterior columns. 2, 2, lateral columns.\\n3, 3, posterior columns.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY. 301\\nFor the performance of reflex action, it is essential that\\nthe continuity of the sensory nerve be intact between the\\nterminal point irritated and the nerve centre, that the\\nnerve centre be healthy and uninjured, and that the con-\\ntinuity of the motor nerve be intact from the nerve centre\\nto the glands or muscles acted upon.\\n324. Examples of Reflex Action. If the spinal cord be\\nsevered at any point, the power of voluntary motion is at\\nonce lost in all parts below that point. But if the reflex\\nactivity of the spinal cord below the severed portion re-\\nmains intact, and the foot be tickled, the foot and leg\\nwill be hastily drawn away. In the same way a hand\\nor foot accidentally coming in contact with a hot sub-\\nstance is instantly snatched away before the brain has\\nhad time to take cognizance of the danger. The in-\\nstinctive efforts made to hold or regain one s footing,\\nwhen jostled in a crowded conveyance or slipping upon\\nthe pavement, are also due to like reflex impulses. If the\\nspinal cord is inflamed, or is under the influence of strych-\\nnine or any other stimulating substance, the sensitiveness\\nof the gray matter of the cord to impressions is greatly\\nincreased. In such instances convulsions readily occur\\nby contact of the body with a draught of air, or by\\nthe noise caused by the sudden shutting of a door. In\\ncold-blooded animals, the reflex activity of the cord re-\\nmains for a considerable length of time even after the\\nbrain has been removed and the animal is practically\\ndead. A decapitated frog will jump in a natural manner\\nwhen the feet are pinched or irritated.\\n325. For the most part, reflex action is performed\\nwithout the knowledge of the individual, but it some-\\ntimes may be voluntarily aided. Swallowing, ordinarily", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "302 REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\nthe result of unconscious reflex action by contact of sub-\\nstances with the pharynx, becomes voluntary if a substance\\nlodges in it. A minute particle lodging in the larynx, by\\nits irritation induces coughing and involuntary efforts of\\nthis organ for its expulsion. These, if unsuccessful, are\\naided by the voluntary efforts of the individual, sometimes\\nmany of the muscles of the body uniting to get rid of the\\ninsignificant particle. The act of winking is the result of\\na reflex action, and occurs generally without our knowl-\\nedge, but may also be performed at will.\\n326. There are certain reflex actions effected through\\nthe cerebro-spinal nerves, in conjunction with those of the\\nsympathetic system, of which we are conscious, but over\\nwhich we have ordinarily no control. Of these may be\\nmentioned coughing, vomiting, blushing, the secretion of\\ntears from irritation of the eyes by dust, the closure of the\\neyelids at a sudden flash of light, and the grimace on sud-\\ndenly inhaling an unpleasant odor. 1\\n327. The Reflex Actions of the Sympathetic System we\\nare not even conscious of, except in some diseased con-\\nditions of the body. Such actions result in secretion,\\nexcretion, absorption, peristaltic movements, the contrac-\\ntion and dilatation of the pupil of the eye in regulating\\nthe admission of light, and the variations from time to\\ntime in the volume and rapidity of the blood current in\\nthe numberless capillaries of the body.\\n1 Sometimes pressure upon the upper lip will prevent sneezing, and di-\\nversion of the mind by new scenes or objects may stop an irritating cough,\\nor even prevent vomiting. A surgeon, after taking an active emetic, was\\nalmost immediately called upon to perform an important surgical opera-\\ntion. Not till after the operation was performed and the anxiety was\\nover did the emetic take effect.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\n303\\n328. Sometimes during sleep voluntary actions are per-\\nformed without the mind s being conscious of them, even of\\ntheir inception such, for example, are walking and writ-\\ning, or even intellectual efforts of a high order. Sleep-\\nwalkers, or somnambulists, have been found carefully\\nbalancing themselves on the ridges of housetops, or en-\\ngaged in other perilous feats. To awaken them suddenly,\\nand so disarrange the nervous control of the muscular\\nmovements, may prove dangerous.\\n329. Artificial Reflex Actions: Habits. The voluntary\\nfaculties may be educated to act, as it were, in a reflex\\nmanner. Actions which at first are purely voluntary and\\nconsciously performed\\nmay, by frequent repe-\\ntition, become habitual\\nand apparently be per-\\nformed unconsciously.\\nSuch actions are com-\\nmon, and are called arti-\\nficial reflex actions. The\\nexpert pianist plays the\\nmost intricate music\\nwithout any apparent\\nthought upon his part\\nas to how his fingers\\nare to move; and it is a\\ncommon experience for\\npersons to walk, eat, and even read in an automatic man-\\nner while their thoughts are occupied by other matters. 1\\nSphial Centre\\nfor\\nHcuid Writing\\nFig. 99. (Brown.)\\nNerve Centres in Relation to Speech and Writing,\\n1 It is said that a soldier, while carrying a bowl of soup, suddenly\\ndropped it, on hearing- some one call attention, so accustomed was he at\\nthat word of command to stand erect with his hands by his sides. Con-", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "304 REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\nChildren, by imitating the odd habits or actions of others,\\nsometimes acquire similar habits, which may be very diffi-\\ncult for them to eradicate. 1\\n330. The Use of Reflex Actions. Were it not for reflex\\nactions, every movement of the body and all the functions\\nof the internal organs would have to be planned by the\\ncerebrum. Harmonious cooperation of the various parts\\nof the body would be impossible, and the mind would be so\\noverburdened with details that there could be no intel-\\nlectual development. It is only in some disordered or\\ndiseased condition of the body that we appreciate any\\nirregularity or want of harmonious nervous action. Hence\\nit is that the healthy, robust man or woman often fails to\\nhave any sympathy with the ailing person subject to\\nirregular reflex nervous actions which cause pain, uneasi-\\nness, nausea, and discomfort.\\nA strong will may control many of these actions, and\\na weak one is more or less controlled by them. For ex-\\nample, the reflex action of crying out when in pain is\\nsometimes prevented by biting the tongue, clenching the\\nteeth, or by holding some object very tightly. So, too,\\nthe yielding to the sensation of tickling, or to the involun-\\ntary closing of the eyes when a blow is aimed at the head,\\nmay, in a similar way, be prevented. But Mr. Darwin\\nvalescing soldiers in military hospitals have been known to jump out of\\nwarm beds and stand erect, at hearing the word attention shouted\\nin through the door by a would-be joker. A gentleman, accustomed to\\neat apples while reading, often reached out his hand for an apple while\\nhis thoughts w T ere busy on the book. One evening a friend, unperceived,\\nadded a number of apples to those already in the dish and the reader\\nunconsciously ate apple after apple until all were gone.\\n1 The unconscious performance of ordinarily conscious actions has been\\ntermed unconscious cerebration.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY. 305\\ngives a striking example of an instinctive reflex act over-\\nriding a very strong effort of the will He placed his\\nface against the glass of the cobra s cage, in the reptile\\nhouse of the Zoological Gardens, and though, of course,\\nthoroughly convinced of his perfect security, could not, by\\nany effort of the will, prevent himself from starting back\\nAvhen the snake struck with fury at the glass.\\nIn young children the nervous system is delicate and\\nvery susceptible to impressions. Reflex actions are espe-\\ncially frequent, and sometimes attended with danger, in\\nchildren of excitable temperaments and those who have a\\ntendency to nervous disorders. In such children, indigest-\\nible food, dentition, or fright may cause convulsions,\\nepilepsy, or even death.\\n331. Nervous Energy. The quantity of nerve force and\\nthe amount of nervous energy which each person possesses\\ncannot be definitely stated. Most individuals have more\\nthan is required for the ordinary necessities of life. The\\nsurplus constitutes a reserve force, which is stored away\\nfor emergencies. In times of trial, feeble and apparently\\ninefficient persons sometimes have more nervous energy\\nthan those whose ordinary physical powers are much\\ngreater while, on the other hand, persons of robust\\nappearance may prove almost valueless on such occasions.\\nSome persons, especially those not in robust health, are\\nparticularly susceptible to nervous impressions, and in\\nthem the reserve nervous force is likely to be recklessly\\ndrawn upon. Even persons of strong physical and mental\\npowers, who do not readily succumb to the effects o( various\\nforms of dissipation, and who freely indulge in excessive\\nexercise, over-eating, over-drinking, or late hours, may\\nunduly tax their reserve supply of nervous force, while", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "306 REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\nbelieving that they are too strong and well to be affected\\nby the drain. The persistent overtaxing of our powers,\\nwhether mental or physical, will sooner or later exhaust\\nthe nervous system, and reduce us to mental and physical\\nbankruptcy (a).\\n332. Perverted Nerve Force Nervousness. Disease,\\nthe excessive concentration of the thoughts upon one s\\nself, severe mental or physical work, and, above all, worry,\\nespecially if associated with lack of rest, of pure air, and\\nof suitable food, create a disturbance or perversion of\\nnerve force, even in those who are considered strong,\\nmentally and physically (a). Such perversion produces\\nnervous prostration and hysteria attended by over-\\nsensitiveness of various parts of the body, or a numbness\\nor diminished sensitiveness. There is also increased ex-\\ncitability of the emotions, with a tendency to spasms of\\nvoluntary and involuntary muscles, and to sudden con-\\ngestions of blood. 1\\n333. Hygiene of the Nervous System. Many of the ner-\\nvous disturbances to which all are more or less subject\\ncan be warded off and nerve force and energy strengthened\\nby systematic and proper exercise and rest of the nervous\\nsystem, just as muscles and other organs are developed\\nby regular and appropriate exercise and rest. Exercise\\nimproperly adapted, however, to the age, health, and\\ncondition of the individual results in a loss of nerve\\npower. Like other parts of the body, the nervous system\\n1 To say that one is nervous too often means that the person of whom\\nit is said is weak-minded and has lost self-control, due to thinking too\\nmuch of himself, rather than of the welfare of others. The use of the\\nterm as an excuse for failure to do one s duty is very common.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY. 307\\nneeds also for its maintenance and health sufficient and\\nwholesome food, and all other hygienic necessities.\\nThe brain, usually, has not more than one-fortieth oi the\\nweight of the body, yet it receives about one-fifth of the\\nwhole volume of the blood. This large proportion of blood\\nindicates that the brain is intended for active work; but\\nits working capacity, like that of other organs, is dependent\\nnot only upon the quantity, but also upon the quality, of\\nthe blood which it receives. If it is ill developed or badly\\nnourished, sensations and will power will be feeble. If\\none faculty or set of faculties has been overtaxed, rest\\nand the use of other faculties instead are demanded. The\\nmost vigorous intellect is generally found in the most\\nevenly developed body and so closely are mind and body\\nrelated that if the health of one fails, that of the other,\\nalso, is likely to be impaired.\\nMental labor in excess is, contrary to the belief of some\\npersons, as exhausting as excessive physical labor, and\\ncannot, as a rule, be pursued for so long a time. The\\namount of nervous energy which each person should ex-\\npend depends upon the capacity of the individual. No\\nperson, however, should work up to the full measure of\\nhis ability. Such work is attended with danger, and has\\nbeen responsible for the death of many otherwise intelli-\\ngent persons. Moderate labor, regularly and systemati-\\ncally pursued, will accomplish more than any amount of\\nspasmodic effort, and will not be attended with such\\ndanger to the system. As far as possible, therefore, regu-\\nlar mental and nervous work should supersede irregular\\nwork, and monotonous labor be replaced by varied exer-\\ntion, if we are to gain and maintain a sound mind in a\\nsound body. Gradually increasing and systematic men-\\ntal work, proportionate to (he health ami nervous power,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "308 REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\ndoes not pull down the average man. It is the spasmodic\\noverwork in the struggle for wealth or fame, the per-\\nplexities which result from suddenly assuming duties one\\nis not capable of performing without a course of prepara-\\ntory training, that do the mischief. The worry which all\\nsuch work excites is a bar to sound mental and nervous\\nhealth, and is oftentimes the factor which turns sanity\\ninto insanitw. 1 In the turmoil and bustle of modern life,\\nespecially in our large cities, the danger to the nervous\\nsystem is great. The remedy is to practise self-control,\\nfor he that ruleth his own spirit is greater than he\\nthat taketh a city. One cannot afford to be unstable, to\\nshift from fancy to fancy, if he wishes his brain to act\\npromptly, vigorously, and intelligently. 2\\n334. Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics on the Nervous Sys-\\ntem. The tendency of the indulgence in any form of\\n1 The chief enemies of the brain are worry, which disorganizes the\\nmachinery, and shock, which paralyzes the brain. Worry or excitement\\ncauses irregular nerve action we call it confusion of ideas, or nervosity.\\nThe optic brain centres throw up a series of depressing mental photo-\\ngraphs, exaggerating existing trouble. This continues to depress the cells\\nin the fore-brain, resulting in complete failure to judge aright or analyze\\ncorrectly. Slight annoyances are likely to grow into quarrels in this\\nway, for by brooding over them brain fatigue occurs. Then the imagina-\\ntion sees exaggerated views, until spite and hatred and kindred passions\\nexhaust the fore-brain, and misguided actions result. The stronger the\\nquarrel grows, the weaker the finer perceptions become. This explains\\nthe disease of the age worry and its results. Dr. Albert Wilson,\\nThe Brain Machine, its Power and Weakness.\\n2 Who is brave He that masters his passions. Who is free He\\nthat has self-control.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Teach them to strive after self-effacement, to aim at some higher\\nideal than themselves, subsequently to find in labor, strength, and through\\nsuffering, tranquillity, and so transfigure their lives to discover therein\\nsacrifice instead of selfishness, and gladness instead of gloom.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY. 309\\nalcoholic drink is to interfere with the various functions of\\nthe nervous system and the parts of the body dependent\\nupon it for activity, and to weaken, and at last destroy, the\\ncontrol of the moral nature. These effects are not under-\\nstood by people in general. The gradual changes in-\\nduced in the nervous system, the slow poisoning of the\\ngreat centres of thought, the transmission from parent\\nto child, from generation to generation, of nervous ten-\\ndencies, progressive mental weakness, imbecility, insanity,\\nidiocy, are evils which far outweigh the results of the\\nmidnight brawl, the mother s sorrow, and the orphan s\\ntears. As a medicine, alcohol should be dealt with like\\nopium, that is, recognized as an agent which, unless\\nproperly employed, will do harm instead of good. Like\\ntea and coffee, it ranks as an excitant or stimulant, but\\nits effects on the nervous system are unlike those of tea\\nand coffee, since it must be taken in gradually increasing\\namount to afford the desired effects, and little by little\\nan alcohol habit is formed. This tendency of moderate\\ndrinking to become immoderate is tersely expressed by a\\nJapanese proverb, A man takes a drink, the drink takes\\na drink, and then, the drink takes the man.\\nAn alcoholic is first used as an experiment, or to please\\na friend, 1 then comes the feeling of necessity for it, a\\ncraving that gradually demands a larger amount. It is\\nused more frequently, until body and mind are poisoned\\nby it. This is the history of most drunkards. When a\\nman loses control of himself from the effects of alcoholics,\\nwhen he lies and resorts to the basest of tricks to obtain\\na drink, when his judgment becomes clouded, and his evil\\n1 The custom of treating to drinks is unfortunately an American one,\\nand unbiassed students of the evils of alcoholic intemperance in this\\ncountry agree that it is largely responsible for such Intemperance.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "310 REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\npassions assert themselves, when he is no longer a rep-\\nutable member of society, he must be considered a dis-\\neased person, and should be removed to an asylum or\\nreformatory for treatment. 1 This is the only chance for\\na cure. Life-insurance companies consider persons sub-\\nject to the drink habit as extra hazardous risks. Great\\nbusiness interests of this country recognize that alcohol\\nunfits men for doing the best work, and will not employ\\npersons addicted to its use. Professional athletes, such\\nas prize-fighters, ball-players, and oarsmen, understand\\nthat they must stop drinking if they wish to excel. Ex-\\nperiments show that more than thirty per cent of muscular\\nstrength is diminished by the use of alcohol, i.e. that\\nthe nerve power which operates muscles is diminished.\\nBriefly, the recognized effects of alcohol on the nervous\\nsystem are as follows 1, excitation of the functional activ-\\nity of the brain, and later of the spinal cord and sympa-\\nthetic system 2, a general lack of coordination, the\\ntongue refuses to give correct expression, ideas are con-\\nfused, mental hallucinations 2 and even insanity may re-\\nsult. This state is followed, or may be accompanied, by\\nvasomotor paralysis, impaired reflex action, depression,\\ncoma, and even death. Many of these conditions are due\\nto degenerative changes in the nerve cells, and to thicken-\\ning of the nervous connective tissue.\\nAlcohol makes the person who indulges in it believe\\n1 In England, on January 1, 1899, the Inebriates Act went into\\noperation, giving magistrates the right to sentence criminal habitual\\ndrunkards to a reformatory instead of to a penal institution. Australia\\nhas a similar law, and legislation to the same effect is being brought about\\nin this country, a step in the right direction.\\n2 Viz., delirium tremens. Excellent authorities agree that dipsomania,\\nor intense craving for alcohol, is frequently an hereditary neurosis, i.e.\\na disease of the nervous system.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY. 3H\\nhis condition is very different from what it really is.\\nWhile he may believe that his senses are keener and his\\npowers of endurance greater, experiments with scientific\\ninstruments of precision have demonstrated that his acuity\\nof vision is lowered, his power of hearing reduced, his\\nsense of smell blunted, and his taste so obtunded that he\\ncan swallow fiery and even caustic liquids without winc-\\ning, and his muscular strength, which he believes to be\\ngreatly augmented, is shown by the dynamometer to be\\nmaterially reduced. Even his soul-stirring eloquence and\\npoetic flights are largely discounted in the estimation of\\nthe man who has not been imbibing.\\n335. Tobacco is a narcotic, but used occasionally, in\\nsmall amount, may be a stimulant. The tobacco habit,\\nby inducing lassitude and an indisposition to exertion,\\nmay cripple one s energies, and unfit him for the neces-\\nsary competition of business life.\\n336. Opium, chloral, cocaine, etc., are essentially narcotic\\ndrugs, and what has been said as to the causes and effects\\nof the alcohol habit may be said even more strongly in\\nregard to those of the opium, chloral, and cocaine habit.\\nThe moral deterioration from the frequent use of these\\ndrugs is even greater than that from alcohol.\\nTo sell liquor to minors or to persons already under\\nits influence and to sell narcotic drugs without the pre-\\nscription of a physician should be criminal offences.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. State the three conclusions at the commencement of this chapter.\\n2. What is reflex action\\n3. Give an example of a really automatic action, and of an appar-\\nently automatic one.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "312 REFLEX ACTION. NERVOUS ENERGY.\\n4. Give examples of reflex action of the spinal cord; of one aided by\\nthe will; examples of reflex action of the sympathetic system.\\n5. Of what value are reflex actions\\n6. When are reflex actions recognized by the person in w r hom they\\noccur\\n7. What is said as to the quantity of nerve force and nervous energy\\nwhich each person possesses\\n8. What is meant by perverted nerve force\\n9. How can the nervous system be kept in good working order\\n10. What is said as to the proper use of nervous energy?\\n11. What is the value of self-control?\\n12. What are the effects of alcohol on the nervous system on the\\nmoral nature?\\n13. What are the effects of opium, chloral, etc., and of tobacco?", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII.\\nSENSATIONS. -THE SENSES TOUCH, TASTE,\\nAND SMELL.\\n337. Common and Special Sensations. By means of\\nsensations, the mind obtains a knowledge, first, of the\\ncondition of the various parts of the body and, second,\\nof external objects and phenomena. The first-named\\nclass may be termed common sensations y 1 the second, the\\nspecial sensations, or the senses. Under the first head\\nare those which cannot be distinctly localized, such as\\nfatigue, discomfort, faintness, and also itching, creeping,\\ntickling, aching, and burning,\\nTactile sensation constitutes what is commonly known\\nas the sense of touch. The line of demarkation between\\nmany of the common sensations and this sense is not a\\nclear one. In fact, as Kirke 2 says, though touch is\\nusually classed with the special senses, it forms the\\nconnecting link between the general and special sen-\\nsations., The sensations produced by stimulation of\\nthe nerves of the skin and of certain portions of the\\nmucous membrane are numerous. Of these may be\\nnamed the sensations of ordinary touch, of weight, heat,\\ncold, and tickling, and, if the stimulation is strong, of\\npain. Some parts of the skin are more sensitive to cer-\\ntain impressions than to others, and at times one sensation\\nin a part is experienced after others are lost. Pain is\\n1 Sometimes called general sensations. Handbook of Physiology.\\n313", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "314 SENSATIONS.\\nprobably more easily induced in the face than elsewhere.\\nThe cheeks and ears seem to be more sensitive to the\\nchanges of atmospheric temperature than other parts of\\nthe face. The soles of the feet, the knees, and the arm-\\npits are particularly sensitive to tickling. The power of\\ndistinguishing heat and cold may be lost in a part, as in\\nparalysis, and yet the sensations of touch and pain remain\\nor pain may be prevented by anaesthetics before the sensa-\\ntion of touch disappears.\\n338. Muscular Sensations, or Sense. The sensation of\\nweight, resistance, etc., is called by some physiologists\\nthe muscular sense, from a belief that to a great extent it\\nis dependent upon the muscular nerves, and is, therefore,\\na peculiar property of muscles. It is most developed in\\nthose parts of the body where the tactile sensibility is\\nthe keenest, and is probably due to the relative amount\\nof the pressure of bodies upon those parts, and also to\\nthe relative amount of nervous and muscular energy\\nexpended in sustaining or resisting bodies. It is an aid\\nin enabling us to appreciate the resistance, immobility,\\nand elasticity of substances that are grasped, or on which\\nwe tread, or which by their weight are opposed to the\\nexertion of muscular power. Habit and education have\\na great deal to do with this sensation. It is astonish-\\ning with what accuracy experts will detect a departure\\nfrom the standard weight in handling barrels of flour and\\nother packages, or even in such light articles as coins.\\n339. Pain. Fortunately, in health, the application of\\nstimuli beyond what may be considered in each individual\\nthe natural limit of stimulation is attended by discomfort or\\npain. For example, tickling may not be unpleasant at", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "THE SENSES: TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 315\\nfirst, but if persisted in, it is likely to become exceed-\\ningly disagreeable and painful, and may be carried to\\nsuch a point as to be dangerous. The muscles, though\\nthey are not very sensitive organs to ordinary stimuli,\\nyet when contracted spasmodically occasion severe pain.\\nThey ache when fatigued, and pain is felt when they are\\ncontused or cut. Sunlight, so necessary for health and\\ncomfort, if intense and shining into one s eyes, will pro-\\nduce pain and blindness. Similarly, long-continued and\\nhigh-pitched sounds fail at length to be appreciated as\\nsounds, and produce only painful sensations. This sensi-\\nbility to pain guards us from many and great dangers.\\nThose parts of the body which are the most subject to\\ninjury are supplied with nerves in the largest quantity,\\nand are most sensitive. A cut into the skin, or the ap-\\nplication of an irritant, ordinarily causes pain but the\\nstructures beneath the skin are comparatively insensitive. 1\\n340. Were it not for this sensibility to pain, important\\nparts of the body might be irreparably injured with-\\nout the knowledge of the individual. Thus, the skin\\nmight be almost boiled by the hot water of a bath, or\\nthe eye might become intensely inflamed by long exposure\\nto bright sunlight, if pain did not warn us of the danger.\\nThis sensibility undoubtedly differs in degree in both men\\nand animals.\\n341. The Senses. The special sensations, or the senses,\\nare generally spoken of as five in number viz., touch,\\n1 In a surgical operation, cutting through the skin is the most painful\\nstep, but this pain is very frequently diminished or avoided by the applica-\\ntion of cold to the part, by means of ether spray or other quickly evaporat-\\ning material.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "316 SENSATIONS.\\ntaste, smell, sight, and hearing. 1 All the organs of special\\nsense are, however, but the working tools of the brain.\\nHence, not only should they be perfect in structure, but\\nalso the brain, and the special nerves which connect these\\norgans with the brain, should be in an alert and healthy\\ncondition. 2 During deep sleep, impressions of sound may\\nbe presented to the ear, or of chilliness to the skin, and\\nthey will not be perceived. During the sleep usually\\nproduced by anaesthetics, great surgical operations are\\nperformed without the knowledge of the individual oper-\\nated upon. But when the sleep is not profound, the\\nvarious steps of an operation may be recognized and\\nafterward remembered, though the ability to move and\\nthe perception of pain may be absent.\\nIt is to be especially noted, first, that each nerve of sense\\nis capable of performing only the function designed for it;\\nthe nerve of sight does not enable us to hear, and the nerve\\nof smell enables us to appreciate only odors. Second, that\\ncultivation of the senses, especially if begun in early life,\\nwill develop their usefulness. Cultivation furnishes the\\naccurate hearing of the educated musician, the keen e}^e-\\nsight of the pilot, engineer, and expert microscopist, and\\nthe accurate touch of the blind (a). But the training may\\nbe carried to the extent of making these senses sources of\\n1 Some physiologists, believing that the several sensations produced by\\nstimulation of the cutaneous nerves, and of those of certain portions of the\\nmucous membrane, are effected through distinct sets of nerve fibres, enu-\\nmerate as among the senses the sense of pressure, of temperature, of\\npain, etc. Others claim that all the senses are but modifications of tha\\nsense of touch.\\n2 As sight, hearing, and touch seem to be most concerned with the\\nwants of the intellect, they are sometimes spoken of as the intellectual\\nsenses while taste and smell, being intimately connected with nutrition,\\nare known as the corporeal senses.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "THE SENSES: TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 317\\nmisery. Certain persons are painfully conscious of the\\nslightest discord others almost instantaneously detect,\\nwith a feeling of disgust, the inharmonious blending of\\ntints which, to the average person, are all in harmony\\nstill others are made uncomfortable by an odor perceptible\\nto no one but themselves.\\n342. Touch is that provision by which we appreciate, by\\nactual contact, the size, form, and character of the surface\\nof objects. It is most sensitive where the nerve endings\\nare the most numerous and their covering the thinnest, as\\nin the margin of the lips, tip of the tongue, palms of the\\nhand, and under surface of the fingers. It is least acute\\nin the middle of the back. 1\\n343. The human hands, with their long, flexible fingers\\nand adjustable thumbs, with their beautiful adaptation\\nto the wants of the whole upper extremity, and with their\\naverage of 20,000 papillae to each square inch of surface,\\nare the parts of the body most usually employed in the\\nexercise of the sense of touch. 2 The sensitive tips of the\\nfingers enable us to feel accurately, while their protec-\\ntion by epidermis, nails, and cushions of fat save us from\\n1 The delicacy of the tactile sensation may be measured by lightly\\napplying at one time the two points of a pair of compasses to any part of\\nthe skin, the eyes being closed. In proportion as the parts tested are\\nsensitive will the two points be perceived as two points when brought\\nvery close together. In this way it has been ascertained that the palmar\\nsurfaces of fingers and hands are more sensitive than the dorsal surfaces,\\nthe front of the body than the back.\\n2 In the cat and seal, feeling is in part effected through the long bristles\\nupon the lips, which are connected at their bases with nerve papillae. In\\nsome monkeys the extreme end of the tail, and in the elephant the trunk,\\nare organs of touch.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "318 SENSATIONS.\\nmuch of the pain that would ensue, if the fingers were not\\nso protected. If the cuticle is removed and the ends of\\nthe sensitive nerves are exposed to the air, pain results,\\nand the sense of touch is lost.\\n344. Touch is the simplest of all the senses, and the\\none which is apparently first developed in the infant.\\nSimple as the sense is, it is capable of wonderful develop-\\nment, especially in persons deprived of one or more of the\\nother senses. The blind learn to read by means of slightly\\nraised letters or points, and to recognize persons by feel-\\ning their faces. They distinguish by touch different\\nplants, the minute markings upon precious stones, the\\ndelicate tracery upon works of art, and, assisted by the\\nsense of smell, even the color of fabrics. 1 They may\\nbecome expert musicians and good sculptors; for it is\\nrelated of the blind sculptor, Giovanni Gonelli, that he\\ncould model the most striking likenesses, entirely by\\nthe sense of touch.\\nPhysicians, by practice, acquire the tactus emditus, or\\ndiscriminating touch, which is so valuable in detecting\\nany unusual thickening, swelling, or heat of parts. 2 The\\nexpert pianist acquires the ability to strike with precision\\nmany keys in a few seconds of time.\\n345. Taste is the sense by which we discover and recog-\\nnize the flavors of substances. It is made possible through\\n1 It is said that a blind country merchant was in the habit of select-\\ning shawls and dress goods for various customers, whenever he went to\\nthe city for stock, and that he seldom failed in taste and judgment.\\n2 A well-known surgeon, now dead, performed the most delicate opera-\\ntions, which required the keenest sense of touch, though his hands were\\nvery large and clumsy-looking.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "THE SENSES: TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 319\\nthe mucous membrane of the tongue, of the soft palate,\\nand of the back part of the throat, these being, in fact, the\\norgans of taste. The tongue is also an organ of touch,\\nand being composed of muscles capable of moving it in\\nvarious directions, it is well\\nadapted to bring material to\\nbe tasted in contact with all\\nparts of the mouth.\\nThe mucous membrane of the\\ntongue is especially adapted to\\nthe detection of flavors. It is\\nabundantly supplied with both\\nvascular and nervous papillae,\\nsimilar to those of the skin.\\nThere are, in addition, large\\ncompound papillae on the back\\npart of the tongue, arranged\\nin a V-shape, and also smaller\\nones toward the front part. The papillae are covered\\nwith a delicate plush-like epithelium, permeable by\\nfluids. 1\\nFig. 100.\\nPapillae of the Tongue. (Magnified\\n20 diameters.)\\n346. The tongue possesses, as Ave have seen, general\\nsensibility but the sense of taste has no distinct nerve,\\nas in the case of the senses of siffht and hearing. The\\nlingual or gustatory branch of the fifth pair of cranial\\nnerves supplies about two-thirds of the tongue, while the\\nlingual branch of the glosso-pharyngeal is distributed to\\n1 Some of the filaments of the nerves of taste end in the papillae in\\nenlargements known as fasti Inuls, or taste goblets. Some of the fila-\\nments probably end in the epithelium, but the sense of taste is most\\nacute where the buds are numerous. If the glosso-pharyngeal nerve is\\nsevered, degeneration of taste buds ensues.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "320 SENSATIONS.\\nthe posterior third. These nerves convey sensations of\\ntaste to the brain. The tip of the tongue seems to pos-\\nFig. 101. (Daltox.)\\nDiagram of Tongue, showing the nerves and papillae, and by dotted lines the\\ndirection of the muscles.\\nsess the greatest sensibility to savors the base is less\\nsensitive, and the sides least of all.\\n347. Only those substances can he tasted which are dis-\\nsolved. These by endosmosis penetrate the mucous mem-\\nbrane, thus reaching the nerves of taste. Dry sugar or\\nsalt, placed upon the tongue, is not tasted till it begins to\\ndissolve. The finer the comminution of food, the sooner\\nis it tasted. The dissolving process is much facilitated\\nby the varied movements of the tongue.\\n348. Taste is one of the means by which we distin-\\nguish between proper and improper articles of food. But\\nin determining the nature of such articles, it is assisted\\nby the other senses. Undoubtedly much pleasure is lent\\nto the taste of certain substances by their appearance\\nand odor. A cold in the head will interfere with the\\ntaste. The practice of swallowing disagreeable medi-\\ncines with the nostrils closed is quite common. It has", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "THE SENSES: TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 321\\neven been affirmed that, if the nostrils are closed and the\\neyes shut, the taste of an onion may be mistaken for that\\nof an apple. The sense of taste, which in man is naturally\\nmore acute than that of smell, is more easily perverted.\\nIn some of the lower animals dogs, for example- the\\nsense of smell is more acute, and these animals generally\\nsmell before they taste.\\n349. Such qualities as watery, astringent, viscid, oily,\\nburning, mild, and sharp are appreciated by the ordinary\\nsensory nerves. Sweet and sour qualities are best appre-\\nciated by the gustatory nerve at the front of the tongue\\nsalt and bitter qualities, by the glossopharyngeal nerve\\ntoward the back of the tongue. 1\\n350. Taste in the human being, and also in some of the\\nlower animals, is more or less influenced by imitation,\\nhabit, surroundings, and training. 2 The young baby does\\nnot readily distinguish between the taste of oil and that\\nof sugar, but learns the difference by degrees. Children\\nfancy certain articles of food and dislike others, because\\nother members of the family or their schoolmates do the\\n1 Sweet, bitter, sour, and salt are the four tastes with which it is\\nsupposed the taste .Aids have to do. There is also an alkaline and per-\\nhaps a metallic true taste. A tap on the tongue may excite a taste. A\\nconstant current of electricity through the tongue produces acidity at\\nthe positive pole and alkalinity at the negative. Rinsing the mouth\\nwith very hot or cold water is said to blunt the taste of quinine. Certain\\ndiseases produce tastes. Biliary products retained in the blood give a\\nbitter taste to the mouth, and in diabetes the mouth sometimes has a\\nsweet taste. 1\\n2 When tomatoes were first introduced into this country, they were gen-\\nerally disliked. Many a man who will not eat fat salt pork at home will\\nrelish it at sea or in the army.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "322 SENSATIONS.\\nsame. Persons living in malarious regions have been\\nknown to like the bitter taste of quinine. Inhabitants\\nof certain parts of the world enjoy rancid fats. Morbid\\ntastes are sometimes the result of disease, or disorders of\\nthe brain or of the blood. Persons so afflicted will eat\\nwith avidity slate pencils and jolaster, or drink vinegar.\\nThat taste may be developed, especially when assisted by\\nthe sense of smell, is seen in expert tea and wine tasters.\\nThe too frequent tasting of strong condiments or spices\\nblunts the sense of taste for more delicate flavors, just as\\nthe frequent tasting of any one article dulls the taste for\\nothers. The nerves of taste fully appreciate but one flavor\\nat any one time, so that if one is presented before another\\nhas disappeared, the result is a mixed or confused taste.\\n351. Smell. In man the sense of smell is not so acute\\nas the other senses, and its impressions often need to be\\nconfirmed by the others (a). In dogs, on the contrary,\\nit is very acute, enabling them to track their prey or\\nfind their masters by scent alone. It is said that the\\nEsquimaux dogs in the Arctic regions are of great value,\\nbecause they can detect, by the sense of smell, supplies of\\nfood stored in the ice long distances away. By this sense\\nanimals also detect the presence of pursuers, if the latter\\napproach from the windward side.\\n352. The essential organ of smell is the upper half of\\nthe mucous membrane of the nasal fossae, or nose cavi-\\nties. 1 These are separated from each other by a verti-\\n1 The lower part of each nasal cavity is the respiratory part its epi-\\nthelium, like that of the trachea, consists of ciliated cells. The upper\\nportion is the olfactory part it has no ciliated cells, but has many rod-\\nshaped cells, in which the filaments of the olfactory nerves end.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "THE SENSES: TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 323\\ncal wall of cartilage and bone, called the septum. In the\\nmucous membrane which covers part of the septum and\\non the two upper turbinated bones are distributed the\\nterminal filaments of the olfactory nerve, or nerve of smell.\\nThese filaments come through the roof of the fossae, as\\nthrough a sieve, from the olfactory bulbs, which are the\\nFig. 102.\\nLeft Nasal Cavity.\\n1, left olfactory bulb with its nerve branches. 2, the nasal nerve.\\n3, a gang-lion, and nerves of the sympathetic nervous system.\\nterminations of the olfactory nerves. These bulbs lie\\nunder the anterior portion of the cerebrum and upon the\\nbony floor of the cranial cavity (Fig. 102). The lower\\nhalf of the mucous membrane of the nose is supplied with\\nordinary sensibility by a nasal branch o[ the fifth pair of\\ncranial nerves. Its irritation causes sneezing.\\n353. Odors, to be recognized, must be presented in a\\ngaseous or vaporous form to the mucous membrane con-\\ntaining the olfactory nerve filaments. The most minute", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "324 SENSATIONS.\\nportion of such a substance as musk will be readily per-\\nceived, if it be forcibly drawn up during inspiration into\\nthe higher portions of the nasal fossae. Some persons are\\nso susceptible to odors and emanations that the smell of\\ncertain substances of roses, for example, or of new-mown\\nhay, or of certain drugs in a powdered state may excite\\nin them an inflammation of the nasal passages. 1 Sharp\\nand pungent vapors, such as that of ammonia, are per-\\nceived by the lower portions of the nasal passages (V).\\n354. The sense of smell may be highly developed, espe-\\ncially where there is deficiency in other senses. 2 Cer-\\ntain blind and deaf mutes are able to recognize by the\\nsense of smell any person with whom they have previously\\ncome in contact. Dryness of the nasal mucous mem-\\nbrane, or its frequent irritation, tends to blunt the sense\\nof smell.\\n1 Hay-fever is one form of such inflammation.\\n2 Taste is at the gateway of the alimentary canal, just as smell is the\\nsentinel of the respiratory tract and just as taste, when combined with\\nsmell to give the sensation we call flavor, influences the digestive process,\\nand is influenced by it, so smell influences the respiratory process. This\\nhas been recently shown by Ch. Henry. He has recorded the entrance\\nand exit of air by the nose with and without odors (the quantity of odorifer-\\nous substance being noted), and he finds that the presence of odors influ-\\nences both the amplitude and the number of the respiratory movements.\\nThus the smell of wintergreen notably increased the respiratory work\\nnext came ylang-ylang, and last, rosemary. The breathing of a fine odor\\nis therefore not only a pleasure, but it increases the amplitude of the\\nrespiratory movements. Just as taste and flavor influence nutrition by\\naffecting the digestive process, and as the sight of agreeable or beautiful\\nobjects and the hearing of melodious and harmonious sounds react on\\nthe body and help physiological well-being, so the odors of the country,\\nor even those of the perfumer, play a beneficent r61e in the economy\\nof life. 1 Dr. John Gray McKendrick and William Snodgrass, The\\nPhysiology of the Senses.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "THE SENSES: TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL. 325\\n355. Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics on Touch, Taste, and\\nSmell. Undoubtedly, these agents quite frequently lessen\\nthe sensitiveness of touch, taste, and smell. Tobacco smoke\\ndries the nostrils, and by irritation of the tongue leads, in\\nsome cases, to a taste for alcoholics. Cocaine paralyzes\\nthe tactile sensibility of the tongue, and opium, by drying\\nthe tongue, interferes with taste.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. How are sensations valuable\\n2. How may they be classified\\n3. What is the effect of excessive stimulation of nerves\\n4. What useful purpose has pain Give examples.\\n5. What parts of the body are in general most sensitive?\\n6. Name sensations experienced through the nerves of the skin.\\n7. How many special senses are usually reckoned\\n8. To what is the sensation of weight probably due\\n9. What is necessary to a healthy exercise of all the senses\\n10. Are the functions of the nerves of the special senses distinct from\\none another?\\n11. Can these senses be cultivated How do we know this?\\n12. AVhat are the objects of the sense of touch\\n13. In what part of the body is touch most delicate\\n14. What have you to say as to its capacity for varied application and\\ntraining? Illustrate.\\n15. What are the organs of taste\\n16. How is the mucous membrane of the tongue adapted to the exer-\\ncise of this function\\n17. Is there a distinct nerve of taste?\\n18. What takes the place of such a nerve\\n19. Where is there the greatest sensibility to savors?\\n20. In what form must substances be to be tasted? Why?\\n21. What relation has this fact to the chewing o[ food?\\n22. Of what use is taste, in addition to its appetizing quality?\\n23. Do the other senses lend any intensity to the taste? Illustrate.\\n21. \\\\W what is the taste more or less influenced V Illustrate.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "326 SENSATIONS.\\n25. To what are morbid tastes sometimes due?\\n26. Give an instance of the capacity of the taste for delicate training.\\n27. How may the sense be blunted?\\n28. What is the essential organ of smell Describe it.\\n29. How is the lower half of the mucous membrane of the nose sup-\\nplied with ordinary sensibility\\n30. In what form must odors be presented to be appreciated?\\n31. Illustrate the extreme sensitiveness of certain persons to odor.\\n32. Can the sense of smell be trained Illustrate.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII.\\nSIGHT.\\n356. Organs of Sight. By means of sight we receive\\nimpressions of light, movement, form, size, shades of color,\\nand the manifold beauties of nature and art. The organ\\nof sight is the eye, and the parts belonging to the eye, or\\nauxiliary to its use, are the eyeball, eyebrow, eyelids, eye-\\nlashes, lachrymal and Meibomian glands, tear passages,\\nmuscles, and optic nerve.\\n357. Eyebrows. Each eyeball rests in an orbital cavity,\\npartially surrounded by cushions of fat. The orbits are\\ndeep and conical, and are formed by the junction of\\nvarious bones. Their upper front edges project and\\noverhang their openings, thus forming the broivs, which\\nare covered with thick skin and short, strong hairs. The\\nbrows, with the other projecting walls of the orbits, and\\nthe nose, serve to protect the eyes from injury. The\\nhairs of the eyebrows prevent the perspiration from flow-\\ning into the eyes.\\n358. Eyelids. In front of each orbit are two movable\\ncurtains, known as the upper and lower eyelids^ the upper\\nbeing more movable than the lower. When closed, they\\ncover the orbital openings. Both have upon their edges\\nhairs Qey clashes which project outward, the bulbs o(\\nwhich are supplied with nerves. The eyelashes are sensi-\\ntive and give warning of the approach of insects, dust, etc.,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "328 SIGHT.\\neven in the dark and, when the eyelids are partially\\nclosed, form an admirable screen. In some persons the\\neyelashes are long and silky, while in others they are\\nshort and stiff. 1\\nA thin, loose skin covers the eyelids on the outside.\\nTheir inner lining is a thin mucous membrane, the con-\\njunctiva, which also covers the front of the eyeballs.\\nThis membrane is extremely sensitive, and aids the eye-\\nlashes in protecting the eye from dust and other foreign\\nparticles. 2 Between the skin and conjunctiva of the lids\\nare cartilages, which serve to preserve the convexity and\\nfirmness of the walls of the lids.\\nEmbedded in the cartilages are the Meibomian glands,\\nwith their tubes. These glands secrete an oily material,\\nwhich lubricates the edges of the lids, thereby preventing\\nthem from adhering and the tears from overflowing upon\\nthe cheeks. 3 The lids distribute the tear secretion over the\\nsurfaces of the eyes, assist in regulating the admission of\\n1 Sometimes, when the lids are diseased, the lashes turn inward and\\nirritate the eye.\\n2 Conjunctivitis, or inflammation of this membrane, is one of the com-\\nmonest affections of the eyes, especially among those whose general\\nhealth is deteriorated, or who are exposed to dusty or other irritating\\nair. In Egypt, owing to the intense heat, to the high winds, and clouds\\nof sand, this and other inflammations of the eye become very severe, even\\ndestroying the organ. It is said that many of the Crusaders in the Holy\\nLand were made blind from these causes. Vitiated or devitalized air has\\na direct irritating effect on the conjunctiva, as on all mucous membranes.\\nThis is shown by the fact that repeated attacks of inflammation of\\nthe mucous membrane of the eye, which have occurred in a vitiated\\natmosphere, and which have resisted all curative means, are often cured\\nat once, and prevented from recurring, when a wholesome supply of air is\\nobtained, all other conditions remaining the same.\\n3 The last effect will be understood if the edges of a cup are greased\\nand the cup is filled with water. The surface of the water may then be\\nmade higher than the edge of the cup, without the water s overflowing.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "SIGHT.\\n329\\nlight, and protect the eyes from heat, cold, and the contact\\nof foreign particles. The eye is closed by the action of a\\nbroad, thin, elliptical muscle which surrounds the orbit\\nand spreads out upon the lids. By it the skin and soft\\nparts about the eye are wrinkled and drawn together\\ninward, and the lids held firmly together.\\n359. The Lachrymal Apparatus. At the external and\\nupper portion of the orbits are located the lachrymal\\nglands, which secrete the tears.\\nis constant, like the insensible\\nit is carried into the\\nThis watery secretion\\nperspiration. Part of\\nH A.G\\nnose\\nthrough openings, one on the\\nedge of each licl 5 near its in-\\nner extremity. These open-\\nings may be readily seen in\\na mirror by everting the lids.\\nEach connects with two little\\ncanals (lachrymal canals, or\\ntear ducts), which communi-\\ncate also with an enlarge-\\nment called the lachrymal\\nor tear sac, and this latter\\nwith the fiasal duct, which discharges into the nose\\n(Fig. 103). The tear sac, together with the nasal duct,\\nconstitutes the lachrymal canal. The lachrymal secretion\\nkeeps the front of the eyeballs in that moist and trans-\\nparent condition which is necessary for comfort and clear\\nvision. If the eye becomes dry, as it does sometimes\\nfrom disease or long exposure to dry, hot winds, it be-\\ncomes clouded, and light docs not easily penetrate it. 1\\n1 Lustreless eyes are seen in fish which have been removed for a time\\nfrom the water. In some forms of serofulous or blood disease in the\\nFig. 103.\\nLG, lachrymal gland.\\nTD, openings of tear ducts.\\nLS, lachrymal sac.\\nND, nasal duct.\\nSkin and parts external to these organs\\nremoved.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "330 SIGHT.\\nUsually the lachrymal secretion passes into the nasal\\nducts after performing its functions but, if largely\\nincreased in quantity by emotion or irritation, it over-\\nflows in tears upon the cheeks. Emotional persons may\\nreadily weep without adequate cause. 1\\n360. Eyeballs. Each eyeball is spheroidal in form, and\\nhas the segment of a smaller and more prominent sphere\\nfitted upon its anterior portion, somewhat as a watch\\nglass is set into its case (Fig. 105). The diameter of\\nthe eye from the front backward is about an inch the\\ntransverse diameter a little less. The segment of the\\nlarger sphere, forming about five-sixths of the globe, is\\nopaque, while that of the smaller and anterior sphere,\\nthe cornea, which is without blood- vessels,. is transparent,\\nlight passing through it as through a clear window-glass. 2\\nThe posterior five-sixths of each eyeball is composed of\\nthree coats, or tunics the sclerotic, 3 choroid, and retina.\\n361. The Sclerotic Coat is a white, firm, fibrous en-\\nvelope, not very sensitive, and having but few blood-\\nhuman being, the Meibomian and lachrymal secretions are decreased in\\namount, and the eyes become bloodshot and cloudy, giving rise to the\\npeculiar appearance known as blear-eyed, the defect being enhanced\\nby the roughening and falling out of the eyelashes.\\n1 Sometimes, also, where the tissues of the lower lids are relaxed, as in\\nold persons, and the lids are turned out, the tears overflow.\\n2 The cornea is a modification of the sclerotic coat, its fibres being\\nunited by a cement-like substance into transparent sheets or membranes.\\nIt can be best seen by looking at it in the human being from the side, or\\nby observing the reflection of objects upon it. In looking at an eye in\\nfront, we look through the cornea and aqueous humor.\\n3 In childhood the sclerotic coat (Greek cr/cA^pos, hard being thin,\\nappears bluish, on account of the pigment behind. In old age it is\\nyellowish, on account of deposit of fat.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "SIGHT.\\n331\\nvessels. It assists in maintaining the globular form of\\nthe eyeball, and protects the delicate structures within.\\nTo its outer surface\\nare attached the six\\nmuscles, four straight\\nand two oblique,\\nwhich move the eye-\\nball. Upon the front\\nof the eye the scle-\\nrotic coat forms what\\nis called the white\\nof the eye, and is\\ncovered by the con-\\njunctiva. In its inner\\nsurface are lodged the\\nciliary nerves. Be-\\nhind, and a little to\\nthe inner side, it is\\npierced by the optic\\nnerve, or nerve of\\nsight, whose fibrous\\nsheath is continuous\\nwith the dura mater of the brain. Along with and in the\\ncentre of its filaments there passes into the eye a large\\ncentral artery, which is distributed to the lining coat.\\nFig. 104.\\nMuscles of the Eye.\\n1, the muscle which lifts the upper lid.\\n2, the superior oblique muscle.\\n3, the pulley through which its tendon plays.\\n4, 5, 6, superior, inferior, and external straight\\nmuscles.\\n10, inferior oblique muscle. 11, optic nerve.\\n12, cut surface of cheek bone. 18, nasal orifice.\\n362. The Choroid, sometimes called the vascular coat, is\\nthe middle coat of the eye, and is closely adherent to the\\ninner surface of the sclerotic. It is soft, containing a net-\\nwork of blood-vessels, and is of a dark color, like the\\ninside of the skin of a dark grape. It is lined with a\\nlayer of flat, dark-brown, or nearly black, pigment cells.\\nThis dark surface absorbs such of the rays of light enter-", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "332 SIGHT.\\ning the eye as would otherwise be reflected and diffused\\nand prevent accurate vision. 1 In albinos, the pigment\\ncells are deficient, and accordingly vision is imperfect\\nwhen the eyes are exposed to strong light.\\n363. The Iris and Pupil. A prolongation of the choroid\\ncoat in the front of the eye forms the iris, which is a\\ncurtain across the interior of the eye, behind the cornea,\\nto the margin of which it is attached. In its centre is the\\npupil, a round opening, through which must pass all the\\nlight that enters the eye. 2 The iris is a muscular organ\\nhaving two sets of fibres, one circular and one radiating.\\nThrough the involuntary action of these fibres the pupil\\ncontracts or dilates, when exposed to greater or less light,\\nthus performing its function of regulating the amount of\\nlight admitted to the retina. But the pupil does not act\\ninstantaneously; hence, on coming into a bright light\\nfrom a dark room, or going into a dark room from the\\n1 Optical instruments, microscopes, opera glasses, and telescopes are\\nblack on their inner surface, for the same reason. The inside of the photo-\\ngraphic camera is also black, that the light admitted may be concentrated\\nand the picture properly produced on its sensitive plate, which might be\\ncalled the retina.\\n2 The shape of the pupil differs in different animals. In the cat it is a\\nnarrow, horizontal slit when contracted, and is round when dilated.\\nCapable of great dilatation, it enables the cat to see even in the dark.\\nIn the human -eye the pupil seems black, except in the case of the albino.\\nThe black appearance is due to the fact that, in looking at the pupil, we\\nlook into a dark chamber at the back. In the albino, the pigment cells\\nbeing deficient, we see the pinkish color afforded by the blood-vessels.\\nIn certain nocturnal animals, such as wolves and cats, in obscure light the\\npupil presents a sparkling or glaring appearance, which at one time was\\nsupposed to be due to a kind of phosphorescence, but is now recognized\\nas a reflection from a patch of metallic lustre found upon the choroid coat\\nof the eyes of these animals.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "SIGHT.\\n333\\nbright sunlight, vision is confused until the proper\\namount of light has been excluded or admitted by the\\ncontraction or expansion of the pupil, and until the\\nretina also has accommodated itself to the change. Cer-\\nFig. 105.\\nVertical Section of the Eyeball, and Part of the Optic Nerve.\\n2, sclerotic coat.\\n4 and 5, external and internal covering s of\\nthe optic nerve, continuous with those\\nof the sclerotic coat.\\n8, superior and inferior straight muscles.\\n9, the cornea.\\n15, the choroid coat.\\n17, ciliary muscle.\\n18, ciliary body.\\n23, branches of central artery of the retina.\\n2S, the crystalline lens.\\n29, the iris.\\n30, the pupil.\\n32, anterior chamber.\\ntain medicinal substances have the property of dilating,\\nand others of contracting, the pupil. For example, bella-\\ndonna (or atropine, which is its active principle), taken\\ninternally or applied to or about the eye, dilates the\\npupil, while opium and the calabar-bean contract it. 1\\n1 The acts of dilatation and contraction of the pupil may bo soon by\\nalternately covcrini; and uncovering the eye o( another, with the hand,\\nfor a moment. In many young persons considerable dilatation is normal.\\nwhile the same is true of contraction in some old persons. Eoetremt", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "334 SIGHT.\\nThe color of the iris varies, and is apt to be in accord\\nwith the general coloring of the individual. 1 By the\\nterms, blue, brown, hazel, gray, or black eyes, the color of\\nthe iris is indicated. 2 Just behind the iris, toward its\\ncircumference, lie the ciliary muscle and the ciliary body.\\nThe latter is a dark pigmented mass, arranged in fluted\\nfolds known as the ciliary processes (Fig. 105).\\n364. The Retina is the third coat, and lines nearly the\\nwhole of the posterior portion of the eyeball. 3 It is a\\ndelicate, transparent membrane, containing an expansion\\nof the filaments of the optic nerve. It is the only part of\\nthe eye that is directly sensitive to light. But sometimes\\na jar of the retina or optic nerve by a blow upon the\\nhead, or an electric shock communicated to the eye-\\nball, or any irritation applied to the retina, produces\\nflashes of light, an effect which is familiarly termed\\nseeing stars. The function of the retina is to receive\\nthe rays of light which enter the pupil of the eye, and\\ncommunicate the impressions thus produced through the\\noptic nerve to a visual centre of the cerebrum\\nThe retina is not equally sensitive to light through-\\nout its whole extent. The point of entrance of the optic\\ncontraction or dilatation of the pupil is the result of poisoning or of\\ndisease.\\n1 Sometimes brunettes are seen with light eyes, and blondes with dark\\nones, and occasionally a person is found with one eye light and the other\\ndark.\\n2 The eyes of young infants are almost always blue, the color not\\nbeginning to change until the sixth or eighth week of life.\\n3 Its greatest thickness is said to be not more than T of an inch, and\\nmicroscopists describe eight or ten different layers in it. An outer one\\ncontains the rods and cones, which are most intimately concerned\\nin the perception of light, while next to the inner coat is the expansion of\\nthe optic nerve.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "SIGHT. 335\\nnerve is insensible to light, and is therefore called the\\nblind spot. 1 About one-tenth of an inch outward\\nfrom this point in each eye is an oval, called the yellow\\nspot, which is the most sensitive part of the retina. This\\nspot is directly in the line of distinct vision. 2\\nEach impression received by the retina lasts for a\\ntime before fading away. If impressions are received too\\nrapidly one after another, vision is confused or dazzled,\\nor the objects seem to be one the old impressions are\\nretained while the new ones are being received. Thus,\\nthe spokes of a rapidly revolving wheel seem to form a\\ncontinuous disk. A lighted torch rapidly swung around\\nshows a circle of light. Two colors upon a card, if rotated\\nrapidly, are confused into a blurred image, or, if the\\ncolors are primary, the complementary secondary color is\\nperceived. 3\\nThe retina becomes tired and loses its sensibility by\\nlooking for a long time steadily at one object, and the\\n1 The blind spot may be found by a simple experiment. Place the\\ntwo thumbs side by side about twelve inches from the face. Shut the left\\neye, and look at the left thumb intently with the right eye, while you\\ngradually move the right thumb away from it toward the right. At a\\ncertain point, generally about six or seven inches, the right thumb will\\nseem to disappear. If carried still farther away, it will bo again soon.\\nThe explanation of this phenomenon is that, at the point of disappear-\\nance, the picture of the thumb falls upon the blind spot.\\n2 The yellow spot, upon which the rays of light converge, i.e. are\\nfocussed, receives impressions through the motions of the eyeball from\\nside to side as in reading, or in various directions, as we catch at a glanoe\\nthe beauties of a landscape.\\n8 Toys for children, in which figures seem actually to bo in motion, are\\nconstructed on the principle stated above. The biograph camera takes\\npictures at the rate of forty per second. In exhibitions these are repro-\\nduced on a screen, from tilms 150 to 800 feet long, which travel in front\\nof the camera lens at the rate of about five feet per second.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "336 SIGHT.\\nsight is relieved by closing the eyes for a moment, or by\\nan occasional glance at other objects. 1\\n365. Transparent Media of the Eyeball. In addition to\\nthe cornea in front of each eyeball, within it there are\\nthree other transparent media, the aqueous humor, the\\nvitreous humor, and the crystalline lens. The vitreous\\nhumor is a colorless, transparent, jelly-like substance,\\ninclosed within the retina. It assists in preserving the\\nform of the eyeball, and affords support to the delicate\\nretina. On its front, in a cup-like hollow, rests the crys-\\ntalline lens. Between the lens and the cornea is the\\naqueous humor, consisting of a small quantity of watery\\nfluid, which enables the iris to move freely.\\n366. The Crystalline Lens is located just behind the iris\\nand in front of the vitreous humor. It is about one-\\nquarter of an inch in thickness, and is shaped like a double\\nconvex lens or magnifying glass. It is contained in a\\ncapsule, kept in place by a suspensory ligament, which is\\na continuation of the inclosing membrane of the vitreous\\nhumor. 2 The lens is of the consistency of jelly, but very\\nelastic, especially in children; consequently, in them the\\nshape is very readily changed, while in old persons the\\nlens, being quite hard, is not easily changed.\\n1 Looking steadily for a time at a bright light or spot will cause it to\\nappear dark. After resting the eye, this dark color disappears.\\n2 Cataract is an opacity of the crystalline lens, and not a white spot\\non the front of the eye, as some believe. It may affect the whole or\\na part of the lens. Usually light is transmitted through the lens when so\\naffected, as through a ground glass window. To restore transparent\\nmedia, or to remove the irritation which such opacity may set up, the\\nlens may be removed by operation. Vision can then be restored in part\\nby the use of spectacles or eyeglasses, i.e. artificial lenses.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "SIGHT. 337\\nThe function of the crystalline lens is to assist in bringing\\nrays of light to a point or focus upon the retina. This\\nis necessary to distinct vision for without the lens, the\\nrays would not come to a focus, and sight would be\\nblurred. At the focal point, an inverted image of the\\nobjects from which the rays proceed is pictured upon the\\nretina. 1 Notwithstanding this inversion, in normal vision\\nthese images are seen in their proper positions and rela-\\ntions, because we have learned, by comparison and ex-\\nperience, to appreciate the size and form of objects reflected\\nupon the retina. Since the brain is the ultimate organ of\\nperception, a disordered brain will sometimes perceive\\ndistorted images of objects of which the retina receives\\ncorrect impressions. So, too, apparent vision is possible\\nwithout any retinal impression at all, the disordered brain\\nseeing some phantom image of its own creation. In this\\nway, in dreams objects appear to be so vividly seen that\\nthey may be readily described when the sleeper awakes.\\n367. The Optic Nerve, which carries impressions from\\nthe retina to the cerebrum, is inserted into the posterior\\nsegment of the eyeball, a little to the inner side of its\\ncentre. Passing into the cavity of the skull, the nerves\\nfrom the eyeballs approach each other till they consoli-\\ndate, forming what is known as the optic chiasm. At\\n1 So, in a bright, direct light, by means of a convex lens, objects, such\\nas trees and drawings, may be pictured upon a white or light-colored\\nsurface, but always inverted or upside down. A candle flame held before\\nthe cornea of an eyeball removed from a bullock (the sclerotic and choroid\\ncoats at the back of the eyeball being detached) will be seen reflected\\ninverted upon the retina. When the lens has boon removed from the eye\\nby operation, the focus of the rays of light falls about three-eighths of\\nan inch behind the retina, and the object seems much larger than it really\\nis, and much less distinct.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "338 SIGHT.\\nthis point there occurs a crossing of a portion of the\\noptic nerve fibres, so that some of the filaments pass from\\nthe left optic nerve to the right, and from the left eyeball\\nto the right eyeball, and vice versa. Filaments also pass\\nfrom one optic tubercle, that is, from the origin of one\\noptic nerve, to the other. 1 The eyes, as Dalton remarks,\\nare not so much two distinct organs, as one double one.\\nBesides the direct impressions (color, size, etc.) carried\\nto the brain by the optic nerves, impressions which result\\nin reflex action are brought back to the eye from the optic\\ntubercles. A stimulus of light, for example, is conveyed\\nto the optic tubercles, and is reflected outward to the mus-\\ncular fibres of the iris, causing contraction or dilation, as\\nthe case may be.\\n368. Binocular Vision. Objects are ordinarily perceived\\nby the simultaneous use of both eyes, i.e. by binocular\\nvision. Two images of each object are formed at the\\nsame time, one upon each retina, though so combined as\\nto produce the impression of but one object upon the\\nbrain. 2 With binocular vision we appreciate, with greater\\naccuracy, the solidity and distance of objects hence, with\\none eye closed, the difficulty of threading a needle, or\\ntouching any object quickly, will be much increased (a).\\n369. Power of Accommodation, or Focussing. All the\\nvarious directions from which rays of light come into\\n1 The optic tubercles are cerebral ganglia on the under surface of the\\nbrain, near its front portion, in which the optic nerves originate.\\n2 The best binocular vision results when the images are both upon\\nthe yellow spots. If this be not the case, if, for example, one eye be\\npressed a little to one side by the finger, and an object is then looked at\\nwith both eyes, the object will seem double, the images falling upon\\ndifferent points in the two eyes.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "SIGHT.\\n339\\ntile pupil, taken together, form what is known as the\\nfield of vision. Objects can be most distinctly seen in\\nthe centre of this held. To enable one to have a long or\\nshort range of vision at will, to see remote objects, and\\nthen, within an incredibly short time, those close at hand,\\nthe crystalline lens, especially, has a power of accommoda-\\ntion. This power also resides in the cornea, iris, and\\nprobably in the humors of the eye, but in a minor\\ndegree.\\nFig. 106 (Foster and Shore).\\nThe Changes in the Lens in Accommodation. A, adjusted for distant objects. B, adjusted\\nfor near objects, con., conjunctiva, cm., ciliary muscle, s.l., suspensory ligament.\\nObjects at different distances cannot be plainly per-\\nceived at the same time. The lens in each case must be\\naccommodated to the distance. 1 Thus, while we o aze at\\n1 There are two ways in which this adjustment might be effected.\\nThe length of the eye might be varied to meet the varying distance of the\\nfocal point, just as a photographer moves the sensitive plate o( his camera\\nbackward or forward to bring it into focus. But, as a matter of fact.\\nanother process takes place in the eye. The retina is net moved back-\\nward or forward, but the refractive power of the crystalline lens is\\nchanged by an alteration of its thickness. Now, when we leek at distant\\nobjects, and no effort of accommodation is required, the anterior surface\\nof the lens is kept flattened by the pressure of its capsule, and by the\\nelastic pull upon it. of the anterior suspensory ligament. an elastic pull", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "340\\nSIGHT,\\na fly upon a window-pane or the threads of a veil, we do\\nnot see plainly the landscape beyond. If we see the land-\\nscape plainly, the fly or the threads of the veil become\\nindistinct. This accommodation is the result of changes\\nin the shape of the\\nlens, produced by\\nthe ciliary muscle,\\nwhich encircles\\nthe lens and is con-\\nnected with the\\ndelicate ligament\\nthat holds the lens\\nin position. As\\nthe objects looked\\nat are brought\\nnear the e}~e, the\\nlens becomes more\\nand more convex.\\nWhen the eye is\\nat rest, or when\\nobjects are distant,\\nthe lens is more\\nflattened. The ciliary muscle bears the same relation to\\nthe e}^e as the adjusting screw does to the opera-glass,\\nthe photographer s camera, or the microscope.\\nThe range of accommodation is limited, and differs in\\ndifferent individuals. Ordinarily, accommodation fails\\nwhich involves no muscular strain, and consequently no fatigue. But\\nwhen we wish to look at a near object, the ciliary muscle, contracting,\\npulls forward the suspensory ligament and diminishes its circle of attach-\\nment, its tension is lessened, the pull on the capsule of the lens dimin-\\nishes, and the lens, by its own elasticity, assumes a more spherical shape,\\nits anterior surface moving forward and its power of converging rays\\nbeing increased. Physiology of the Senses.\\nFig. 107.\\nSection of Eve.\\nThe line A-V is the axis of vision. The dotted lines show\\nthe position of the iris and the shape of the lens in\\naccommodation for a certain distance.\\nS, sclerotic coat. AH, aqueous humor.\\nC, the cornea. CL. crystalline lens.\\nCC, choroid coat. I, the iris.\\nE, retina. CM, ciliary muscle.\\nVII, vitreous humor. SL, suspensory ligament of lens.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "SIGHT. 341\\nand vision is imperfect, when the object is less than six\\ninches from the eye. Vision becomes imperfect and\\nblurred, outside or inside of each one s normal limit.\\nThe average eye is able to recognize type one-thirty-\\nsecond of an inch in height, held at least eighteen inches\\noff, 1 and type three-eighths of an inch in height twenty\\nfeet away. But the ability to see plainly objects, either at\\na distance or near the eyes, can be developed by training. 2\\nThe pilot clearly defines objects at a long distance, even in\\nan obscure light, which the average eye could not even\\ndistinguish. On the other hand, the watch-maker s eye-\\nsight is very acute for objects near at hand. 3\\n1 The following paragraph from Dr. Snellen, of Utrecht, the author\\nof the test-types in general use, gives a specimen of letters one-thirty-\\nsecond of an inch in height\\nWe have adopted as proper objects square letters, the limbs of which have a diameter equal to one-\\nfifth of the letters height. Such letters are clearly distinguished by a normal eye at an angle of five\\nminutes. As the limbs and subdivisions of the letter just measure one-fifth of their height, they present\\nthemselves at an angle of one minute for instance, our letter C shows an opening, as compared with the\\nO, of one minute visual angle. In testing accuracy of vision, we accept perfect recognition, and not un-\\ncertain perception, of the letters.\\n2 This training is in reality more that of the brain than of the eye.\\nAcute vision is therefore sometimes called brain-sight.\\n3 The eyesight may be brought to a high state of perfection by proper\\ncultivation. It is related of Professor Agassiz that he once selected as an\\nassistant the candidate who could best see and describe what was to be\\nseen from an open window. One person saw merely a board fence and a\\nbrick pavement, another added a stream of soapy water, while a third\\ndetected the color of the paint on the fence, noted a green mold or\\nfungus on the bricks, evidence of bluing in the water, and other details.\\nHoudin, the celebrated prestidigitateur, in his autobiography, attributes\\nhis success mainly to the quickness of perception which he acquired by\\nwalking repeatedly and rapidly by a shop window full of miscellaneous\\narticles, endeavoring to recognize as many objects as ho could at a glance.\\nIn many respects the human eye resembles the photographic camera, with\\nits darkened chamber, reflecting surfaces, adjusting screws, sensitive\\nplates, etc. When used by an experienced and painstaking owner, much\\nmore accurate pictures are produced than if the owners are reckless or\\nuneducated.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "342 SIGHT.\\n370. Physiology of Vision. Rays of light traverse the\\ntransparent and refracting media of the eye and fall upon\\nthe retina, picturing upon it images looked at. The im-\\npressions brought to the retina stimulate the activity of\\nthe fibres of the optic nerve, and are transmitted by them\\nto the cerebrum. The visual nerve centres, in which the\\noptic nerve fibres originate, thus stimulated, produce the\\nsensation of light and objects, and we see.\\n371. Defects in Vision. Owing to the extreme sensi-\\ntiveness of the eyes, defects in vision are quite common.\\nIn cases of injury to or disease of one eye, the peculiar\\ncrossing of the fibres of the optic nerves may give rise to\\nsympathetic inflammation, or disease of the other eye. 1\\nThe ophthalmoscope, an optical instrument which, used\\nin a dark room, by means of reflected light, illuminates the\\nbottom of the eye, was invented by Helmholtz in 1851.\\nIt enables the physician to detect optical defects which\\nthe patient may not have been aware of. Before the use\\nof the ophthalmoscope, many diseased or disordered condi-\\ntions of the eye were not accurately recognized. For\\nexample, it was not known that defective circulation in\\nthe retinal blood-vessels may disturb the vision nor that\\nchanges in the form, consistency, or relation of the various\\nparts of the eye may induce grave optical defects.\\n372. Color Blindness is the inability to distinguish cer-\\ntain colors. Helmholtz and others consider red, green,\\nand violet as base colors, i.e. colors by the mingling of\\nwhich, in proper proportions, white and the various colors\\nof the solar spectrum may be produced. It is believed\\n1 As to the removal of foreign bodies, and the treatment of injuries of\\nthe eye, see Emergencies, page 400.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "SIGHT. 343\\nthat there are special retinal elements for the perception\\nof each of these base colors, and that the color-blind are\\ndeficient in one set of these elements, most commonly the\\nred. 1 It is especially important that railroad employees\\nand seamen should not be color-blind. Vessels carry at\\nnight upon their right hand or starboard side a green\\nlight, and upon the left hand or port side a red light. A\\nred light is also the danger signal upon railroads. Color-\\nblind engineers may not distinguish danger signals, nor\\ncolor-blind pilots know how to pass an approaching ves-\\nsel, thereby causing collision and loss of life. Especially\\nare accidents to be expected, if the atmosphere is so humid\\nthat these men cannot distinguish the difference in the\\nluminosity as well as in the color of signals (a).\\n373. Short, or Near, Sight. An eye perfectly formed,\\ni.e. one in which rays of light are made to focus directly\\nupon the retina, is called an emmetropic 2 eye. If the axis\\n1 Color-blindness in general is called Daltonism, from Dalton, the Eng-\\nlish chemist, who first carefully described it, and was himself subject to\\nit. It is related that his friends were much concerned when he was to be\\npresented at court, for fear that, being a Quaker, he would not wear the\\nscarlet robe which his position required him to wear but to him it seemed\\nof a gray color. It is said that Dalton was twenty-six years old before\\nhe knew he was color-blind. lie matched samples of red, pink, orange,\\nand brown silks with green of different shades blue both with pink and\\nwith violet; lilac with gray. The common form of defective color\\nvision is red-green blindness, of which there arc two varieties the red-\\nblind and the green-blind. In each variety there are many gradations of\\nsensibility.\\n2 From the Greek word e/i/xr/r/aos, i.e. normal. Accuracy of vision\\nmay be ascertained by employing the ordinary cards used by ophthalmic\\nsurgeons, upon which are printed Roman letters of different sizes.\\nEach line of letters has at the end a. number, which denotes the distance\\nin feet at which a person should stand and see the letters clearly. It he\\ncan do this, he possesses normal acuteness of vision. According to the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "344\\nSIGHT.\\nof the eyeball is too long or too short, the focus will not\\nfall upon the retina, but in front of or behind it. There\\nis then said to be an error of refraction. In myopia} or\\nshort sight, the axis of the eye is too long, and ra} r s of\\nlight entering the e}^e are focussed in front of the retina.\\nObjects are not plainly seen until they are brought near\\nA, parallel rays of light.\\nH, long-sighted eye.\\nFig. 108.\\nE, emmetropic or normal eye, rays focussing at proper point.\\nM, short-sighted eye.\\nenough for their images to be focussed upon the retina.\\nThis condition is often hereditary, but is also induced by\\nstrain, for example, by reading very small print in a\\npoor light, or by long, uninterrupted use of the e} r es in\\nclose work. For its relief, properly fitted concave glasses\\nare needed (a).\\n374. Long or Far, Sight. In hyjjermetrojiia, or long\\nsight, the axis of the eyeball is too short, and the focus\\nfalls beyond the retina. The performance of accommoda-\\nusual system employed in eye infirmaries, if a certain line is to be read at\\na distance of twenty feet, and the pupil can do so, he is marked if he\\nmust go closer, and can first distinguish at eleven feet, he is marked\\nthe denominator of the fraction representing the normal distance, and\\nthe numerator the actual distance.\\n1 So called from Greek words which mean to close the eyes, since\\nshort-sighted persons often partially close the lids in order to see distinctly,\\nby shutting off the rays of light that do not come to a proper focus.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "SIGHT.\\n345\\ntion is painful, even when there is no attempt to use the\\neyes in near work. Print becomes blurred and misty if\\nreading is continued too long. In children there is always\\ndanger of squint resulting from the effort to see things\\nclose at hand. This condition can be relieved by convex\\nglasses, which will converge the rays of light upon the\\nretina.\\n375. Old Sight. Presbyopia, or old sight, is a failure\\nof accommodation, i.e. a loss of power to adjust the focus\\nof the eye for near objects. It is especially due to the\\nfact that with increasing age the lens becomes stiffer, and\\nincapable of being bent into the convexity necessary for\\nthe adjustment of the focus for near objects. 1 To remedy\\nthis defect convex lenses are required.\\n376. Astigmatism. Another\\noptical defect is astigmatism,\\nor the inability of the eye to\\nfocus, at the same time,, lines\\nperpendicular to each other\\n(Fig. 109). This condition\\ndepends upon a difference in\\nthe curvature of the different\\nmeridians of the cornea or lens.\\nPersons so affected may readily\\ndistinguish horizontal or per-\\npendicular lines of type, but not both sets equally well\\nat the same time.\\nFig. 109.\\n1 Sometimes old people are delighted at the return of what is called\\nsecond sight, by which they are enabled to read without the aid of\\ntheir accustomed glasses. In fact, they have become short-sighted, owing\\nto a change in the shape of the lens, and can see clearly objects near at\\nhand, while objects far oil are more indistinct than before.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "346 SIGHT.\\n377. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon Sight. In\\nsome persons, alcohol in excess produces a troublesome\\nconjunctivitis, and occasionally defective vision due to\\nchanges in the retina, optic nerves, or lens. Temporary\\ncolor-blindness, and a form of defective sight known as\\ntobacco blindness, due to some changes in the optic\\nnerves not fully understood, often result from the intem-\\nperate use of tobacco. These conditions are likely to be\\nchronic if the use of tobacco is continued.\\n378. Hygiene of the Eyes. Proper care of the eyes is of\\nthe greatest importance. Healthy and well-formed eyes,\\nif properly used, do their work without the conscious-\\nness of their owners. Pain or discomfort in the eyes, or\\neven slight defects in vision, are warnings of disorder, if\\nnot of disease. But persons whose general health is un-\\nusually good are likely to be overconfident, and so fail to\\ntake notice of these warnings in time. Young children\\nare too frequently encouraged in persistent near work,\\nsuch as drawing, studying, reading, and sewing. Such\\nchildren may become prodigies, but the soundness of their\\neyes is frequently sacrificed (a). Most of the eye trou-\\nbles of infants are the result of the careless exposure of\\ntheir sensitive eyes to glaring light or to impure air, or\\nof the application of poultices and other materials to the\\neye. In adult life certain occupations tend to weaken the\\neyes, but even in such cases much can be done to save\\nthem. The following directions for this purpose are those\\ndeemed most important:\\n1. For all kinds of work have an abundance of clear\\nand steady light, especially when engaged in writing, read-\\ning, embroidering, painting, or other work which tries the\\neyes. Fine work and that upon dark surfaces should be", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "SIGHT. 347\\nperformed by daylight. Using the eyes closely during\\ntwilight is injurious.\\n2. Avoid a glaring light, and see to it that the sun does\\nnot shine directly upon your work. Interpose shades of\\nground glass, or light blue or gray tinted glass or paper.\\nThe reflection into the eyes of sunlight from the surface\\nof mirrors is not to be tolerated.\\n3. Let the light reach your work preferably from the\\nleft side and from above, not from in front. 1\\n4. When using artificial light (i.e. that from a lamp,\\ngas, etc.), it is beneficial to shade the eyes from any heat\\nand glare. If gas is used, the Argand burner, or the\\nWelsbach, with its shade and chimney, is advisable. If\\na lamp, use only the best oil and a good lamp. A slight\\ntinge of blue or gray in the shade or chimney modifies the\\nlight pleasantly by absorbing the excess of yellow rays. 2\\nThe heat and glare of bright illuminating rays may be\\nlessened by the interposition of globes filled with water.\\n5. When reading, it is important that the type should\\nbe clear, of good size, and printed in dark, not pale, ink\\nthat the paper printed upon should have a yellowish tinge,\\nor not be absolutely white. 3 For sensitive eyes, ink with\\na bluish tinge may be preferable (5).\\n6. Do not read or write when walking, lying down,\\nor riding, for under these conditions the accommodative\\n1 If from the right or from behind, shadows are cast upon the work.\\n2 Lamps, such as the Rochester, with a centre draught, give a stronger\\nand steadier light than common lamps, and are therefore better. The in-\\ncandescent system of gas lighting (Welsbach) is superior to ordinary gas\\nlight. The incandescent electric light is also good, but bright gas and\\nelectric light should be tempered by light blue, gray, or green shades.\\n3 Most oculists believe that the best paper is that, which is known to the\\ntrack as natural, i.e. which has no dye in it, and which has boon bleached\\nbut little and is not glazed.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "348 SIGHT.\\napparatus of the eyes is strained. Especially is this true\\nif we read in moving vehicles, for the irregular muscular\\nstrain resulting is exhausting to most eyes. Reading\\nduring convalescence from debilitating illness is attended\\nby an improper strain of the weakened eye muscles.\\n7. Do not bend over your work for any length of time\\nsuch a constrained position tires the muscles of the eye, as\\nwell as those of the neck and trunk.\\n8. Prolonged and uninterrupted tension of the eyes\\nover any kind of work is injurious, but especially is this\\ntrue of fine work. Look up and away from the work\\nfrequently, directing the sight toward varied and distant\\nobjects. 1 Rest the eyes, if they are fatigued or painful, or\\nthe images produced are blurred.\\n9. In reading, a book should not be held nearer to the\\neyes than is necessary to see the print distinctly. Print\\nlike that in the text of this book should not be read con-\\ntinuously nearer than about eighteen inches. If you are\\nobliged to hold it nearer than fifteen inches, the probabil-\\nity is that you are near-sighted if two feet away, far-\\nsighted.\\n10. If the eyes ache or are weak, bathe them frequently\\nin clear hot water, but do not use eye-washes, soap, poul-\\ntices, or other application, unless prescribed by a physician.\\nThe eye is too precious an organ to be trifled with.\\n11. Have all diseases of the eye treated early and skil-\\nfully, and remember that the well eye sympathizes with\\nthe diseased one, and you may lose both unless early atten-\\n1 Writing tables and desks covered with blue or green cloth, paper, or\\nleather, serve to rest the eyes. Rooms papered and painted in the same\\ncolors have the same effect. It is a disadvantage of city life that the eyes\\nare occupied for the most part with close objects. Excursions into the\\ncountry are valuable partly for the rest afforded the eyes.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "SIGHT. 349\\ntion is given to the matter. Diseases of the eyes in which\\na large amount of matter forms are dangerous, and pa-\\ntients so affected should be careful to get no matter from\\nthe diseased eye into the well one, and they should have a\\nseparate basin and towels for washing purposes.\\n12. If you need to wear glasses or spectacles, do it the\\neyesight is more important than personal appearance. 1\\n13. Beware of quack eye-doctors, and travelling or\\nstreet venders of spectacles they lack medical education\\nand experience. Even plain colored glasses or goggles,\\nused without proper advice, are likely to be injurious.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. What are the parts belonging to the eye, or auxiliary to its use\\n2. Describe how the eyes are protected from injury by situation\\nby the eyebrows by the eyelids and by the eyelashes.\\n3. What is the conjunctiva and its function?\\n4. Of what use are the cartilages of the lids the Meibomian glands\\n5. What are the functions of the eyelids?\\n6. By what are tears secreted, and how are they disposed of?\\n7. Of what use are the tears, and how is their secretion increased\\n8. Describe the eyeballs.\\n9. How does light enter them, and through what media?\\n10. How many and what coats has the other, or opaque, part?\\n11. Describe the sclerotic coat, and tell how the eyeball is moved.\\n12. What gains admission to the eye through the sclerotic coat, and\\nwhere\\n13. Locate, describe, and give the use of the choroid coat.\\n14. Of the iris and pupil.\\n1 The eyes may be protected from glare o\\\\ Light, such as the reflection\\nfrom snow or sand, by smoked or light blue glasses; from groat boat,\\nas in furnace rooms and smelting works, by the use of mica, instead\\nof glass. People exploding fireworks find eye protectors of asbestos\\nvaluable.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "350 SIGHT.\\n15. To what is the color of the eye due?\\n16. Where is the ciliary muscle\\n17. Locate, describe, and give the functions of the retina.\\n18. Explain what is meant by the blind spot by the yellow spot.\\n19. Why do the spokes of a rapidly revolving wheel seem to run\\ntogether\\n20. How may the retina of the eye become tired and cease to act\\nand how may its action be restored?\\n21. Locate, describe, and give the use of the vitreous humor of the\\ncrystalline lens.\\n22. In what position are the images of objects thrown upon the retina\\nWhy do we see them in their proper position\\n23. What is the ultimate organ of perception, and to what are unusual\\nvisions due\\n24. Where and what is the aqueous humor\\n25. What is meant by the field of vision\\n26. What by the power of accommodation, and to what is it due?\\n27. Give illustrations of the effect of training the power of accom-\\nmodation.\\n28. What is the object of the optic nerves\\n29. At what point does a decussation of the optic nerves take place\\n30. How is the iris stimulated to contract and dilate\\n31. What is meant by binocular vision, and what is its use?\\n32. What is meant by an emmetropic eye\\n33. What is myopia, and to what is it due?\\n34. What bad habits produce it, and how can it be relieved?\\n35. What is hypermetropia,, and to what is it due\\n36. What is presbyopia, and to what is it due\\n37. How are hypermetropia and presbyopia remedied\\n38. What is astigmatism, and to what is it due?\\n39. What is color-blindness and what are its dangers\\n40. What cautions must be observed in the care of the eyes", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX.\\nHEARING.\\n379. Sound. Hearing is effected by means of impres-\\nsions made by the vibration of elastic bodies (ordinarily\\nthe atmosphere) upon the organs of hearing. 1 A shock\\nfrom a sounding body, communicated to the surrounding\\natmosphere, passes in waves toward the ear, moving like\\nthe ripples upon water after a pebble has been thrown\\ninto it.\\nWhen the vibrations follow each other regularly, musi-\\ncal sounds are produced when they are irregular, noises\\nresult. The pitch of sounds depends upon the rapidity\\nof the vibrations. Their intensity, or loudness, depends\\nupon the amplitude of the vibrations. Thus a tuning-\\nfork bowed gently will give out a faint sound, while the\\nsame fork bowed strongly will give a note of the same\\npitch as the former, but sounding much louder. There\\nis also a property of sound called quality? which enables\\nus to distinguish, for example, the piano from the violin,\\nor a musical instrument from the human voice. Most\\nvibrating bodies give out complex sounds, made np oi a\\nvibration as a whole, known as the w fundamental torn 1\\n1 The earth, wood, and many other solid substances transmit sound\\nreadily. Even so slight a sound as the scratching of a pin on one end\\nof a long log may he heard at the other end. An approaching train may\\nhe discovered by the sound transmitted through the iron rails.\\n2 In musical sounds this is known as color, timbre, M or klang.\\n851", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "352 HEARING.\\nand of partial vibrations, i.e. partial tones, or over\\ntones. 1 We distinguish, one instrument from another,\\nand one voice from another, by the number and com-\\nparative strength of these partial tones. The notes\\non the piano and organ are said to vary from 33 to 4224\\nvibrations in a second. The piccolo emits a shrill note\\nof 4752 vibrations in a second. These are the ordinary\\nnotes used in music, but the human ear can distinguish\\na note with as few vibrations as 20, or as many as\\n38,000, in a second. The higher tones, however, are more\\nor less painful to the ear, so powerful are the vibrations\\nin the air of the auditory canal.\\n380. The Organ of Hearing is the ear. It has a very\\ncomplex and delicate structure, which is for the most part\\nlocated in the petrous, or stony, portion of the temporal\\nbone, and is thus well protected from injury. It is\\ndivided into three parts, viz., the external, middle, and\\ninternal ear. The first two are for the collection and\\ntransmission of sounds the last, for their reception and\\nconveyance to the brain, through the auditory nerves,\\nwhich connect with it.\\n381. The External Ear includes the auricle, commonly\\ncalled the ear, and the auditory canal, which leads to\\nthe membrana tympani, or drum-head. The auricle is a\\nshell of cartilage covered with skin which closely fits its\\nevery groove, ridge, and depression. It flares out some-\\nthing like a funnel, the better to catch vibrations of sound.\\n1 Every sound is composed of a number of partial tones, just as light\\nis composed of a number of colors. Partial tones are also called har-\\nmonics.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "HEARING.\\n353\\nIn man it is rarely movable, the muscles for that purpose\\nnot being large or well developed. 1 It is well supplied\\nFig. 110.\\nThe Organs of Hearing.\\n1, auricle.\\n2, opening of ear, showing orifices of seba-\\nceous glands.\\n3, external auditory canal.\\n4, semi-circular canals.\\n5, auditory nerve, with facial nerve.\\n6, membrana tympani, with the elastic fibrous\\nmembrane which forms its border.\\n7, tympanic cavity.\\n8, tensor muscle of the tympanum, the tendon\\nbeing attached to the upper portion of the\\nhandle of the malleus.\\n9, upper portion of Eustachian tube.\\nwith blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, and has at its\\nlowest part a cushion of hit and fibrous tissue. 2\\n1 In animals the auricle is generally very movable, enabling them to\\nperceive faint sounds by turning the ear toward (hem. Even some human\\nbeings possess considerable 1 power in (his respect.\\n2 Sometimes the cartilage dips down into the lobule, and is liable to\\ninjury when the ear is pierced for ear-rings. Serious inflammation may\\nthus be produced.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "354 HEAKING.\\nThe auricle gradually blends with the walls of the audi-\\ntory canal. This canal is about one and one-fourth inches\\nlong, averages one-fourth inch in diameter, and has first\\nan upward, then a downward, inward, and somewhat for-\\nward direction. The outer one-third is cartilage the\\ninner two-thirds, bone. Through this canal the drum-\\nhead, which closes its lower end, may be seen by means\\nof a reflecting mirror and an instrument called the ear\\nspeculum. The walls of this canal are lined with skin,\\nwhich is continuous with that of the auricle, and also with\\nthat over the drum-head, where the skin is very tine. In\\nthe auditory canal are an abundance of both sweat and\\nsebaceous glands, and many coarse, stiff hairs. It has\\nalso numerous wax-producing glands, 1 which secrete the\\nwax of the ear, a sticky and bitter substance that tends to\\nprevent the inroads of insects and the growth of fungi.\\n382. The Drum -head, or membrana tympani (wrongly\\ncalled the drum}, at the bottom of the auditory canal, is\\nthe partition between the external ear and the middle ear,\\nor drum cavity. It is circular in form, about one-fourth\\nof an inch in diameter and ^Jq- an incn thick, and con-\\nsists of three layers an outer one of skin, a middle one of\\nfibrous tissue (to which the other layers are attached),\\nand an inner one of mucous membrane, continuous with\\nthe lining membrane of the drum cavity. The external\\nsurface of the drum-head is smooth and of a pearly lustre.\\nNear its central line is an opaque, white ridge, due to the\\nattachment of the so-called handle of the hammer, one of\\nthe small bones of the ear, to the middle layer of the\\ndrum-head.\\n1 They are classified as modified sweat glands.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "HEARING. 355\\n383. The Middle Ear, tympanum, or drum proper, is an\\nair cavity, 1 about one-half inch in height and width, and\\nabout one-fourth of an inch deep. It is lined with mucous\\nmembrane, a continuation from that of the throat, through\\nthe Eustachian tube, which tube connects the drum cavity\\nwith the pharynx. Connected with this cavity from be-\\nhind, and lined with mucous membrane, are the mastoid\\ncells, or little air cavities in the mastoid portion of the\\ntemporal bone 2 (the prominence immediately behind\\nthe auricle). Through these cells, or through the roof\\nof the drum cavity, which is very thin, an inflammation of\\nthe middle ear may extend to the brain.\\n384. The most important contents of the drum cavity\\nare the three ossicles, or little bones of the ear; viz., the\\nmalleus or hammer, the incus or anvil, and the stapes or\\nstirrup, so named from a resemblance to these objects.\\nThough weighing but a few grains, these little bones have\\nmuscles, cartilages, and blood-vessels, and are so joined\\ntogether that they form a bridge, or chain of bones, reach-\\ning across the drum cavity from the drum-head to the in-\\nternal ear. By vibratory motions they convey sounds to\\nthe fluid of the internal ear, in which float filaments of the\\nauditory nerve. The bone nearest the drum-head, and\\nthe largest of the three, is the hammer, which is held in\\nposition by ligaments attached to the roof and outer wall\\nof the drum cavity. Its handle is, as we have seen.\\n1 This cavity, or drum, in its construction, somewhat resembles an\\nordinary snare, or military, drum, which is a reservoir of air. with two\\ndrum-heads capable of vibration. In an ordinary drum, air is admitted\\nto the inside (drum cavity) by holes in the sides of the drum. Into the\\ndrum of the ear, the air is admitted through the Eustachian tube.\\n2 Supposed to be concerned in the resonance o( the voice.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "356 HEARING.\\nfastened securely to the middle layer of the drum-head,\\nwhile its head is articulated with the next bone, the anvil.\\nThe anvil is held in position by two ligaments, one\\nattached to the upper and posterior wall of the drum\\ncavity, and the other to the drum-head. If the handle of\\nthe hammer is pulled outward, this joint between the\\nhammer and anvil unlocks, releasing the anvil, but if it is\\npushed inward, the anvil is carried with it. The anvil is\\njoined to the stirrup, its long process, or leg, fitting into a\\ndepression in the head of the latter. The foot-rest of the\\nstirrup is oval, and accurately fits into the oval window of\\nthe labyrinth, as the cavity of the internal ear is called.\\n385. The Eustachian Tube is a little more than an inch\\nand a half long, and its direction from the mouth to\\nthe ear is upward, outward, and backward. In the act\\nof swallowing, the anterior wall is pulled away from the\\nposterior by muscle fibres, offshoots from the muscles\\nof the palate, and air enters the Eustachian tube. 1 At-\\ntached to the drum-head is a delicate prolongation of\\none of these offshoots, known as the tensor tympani, or\\nstretcher of the drum. This tube supplies air to the drum\\ncavity, forms an escape tube for its secretions, and is a\\npassage for equalizing a counter current of air, when the\\ndrum-head is driven suddenly in by the concussion of a\\nblow or explosion. Gunners, when a heavy cannon is\\nabout to be fired, open their mouths so that the force of\\n1 Eepeated acts of swallowing are said to prevent much of the discom-\\nfort and pain in the ears consequent upon going down in diving-bells and\\nascending mountains.\\nThe advantage of having tbe tube closed at all times, except when\\nwe swallow, lies in this, that were it always open there would be too much\\nreverberation caused in our ears by the sound of our voice.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "HEARING. 357\\nthe concussion may be less felt. 1 Closure of the Eusta-\\nchian tube is apt to cause deafness, by preventing free\\nentrance and exit of air and by the consequent increased\\npressure upon the drum-head.\\n386. The Internal Ear comprises the labyrinth and por-\\ntions of the auditory nerve connected with it. The laby-\\nrinth is a hollow bony cavity. Its central portion, called\\nthe vestibule, is a sort of anteroom, the entrance to which\\nfrom the middle ear (i.e. the oval opening or window)\\nis closed by the foot-rest of the stirrup. Its upper and\\nforward portion, the cochlea, or snail shell, is a tube coiled\\nin a pyramidal form. Its lower and posterior portion is\\ncomposed of the semicircular canals, three in number.\\nThe inside of the cochlea is divided into two passages,\\none above the other, connecting at the upper portion of\\nthe cochlea. The lower part of the upper one opens into\\nthe vestibule, near the oval window, while the correspond-\\ning part of the lower passage is near the round Avindow,\\nwhich is closed by a membrane.\\nA fluid called the endolymph fills the labyrinth. It\\nis a part of the natural water of the brain and skull\\ncavity. 2 When this fluid in the labyrinth is compressed\\nby the pressure inward of the stirrup, it finds relief at\\nthe round window, by a slight yielding of the membrane.\\nLining the osseous labyrinth is the membranous labyrinth.\\nDistributed in and upon it are the delicate filaments of\\n1 If, while a bather s head is immersed, two stones or shells bo clashed\\ntogether under the water, the sounds perceived by him will be almost\\ndeafening, and may permanently impair his hearing. Children should be\\nextremely careful not to play this dangerous trick upon one another.\\n2 A fluid between the membrane of the labyrinth and its bony encase-\\nment is called the perilymph.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "358\\nHEARING.\\nthe auditory nerve. Of this nerve there are two main\\nbranches, the cochlear branch, supplying the cochlea,\\nand the vestibular branch, supplying the remaining por-\\ntion of the membranous labyrinth. The filaments of the\\ncochlear nerve are distributed in a very complex manner\\nFig. 111.\\n(From photograph by Etdingek.)\\nA. Eight temporal bone, auricle and external canal removed. MT, membrana tympani, or\\ndrum-head M, handle of malleus showing through.\\nB. Eight temporal bone, inner side, petrous portion removed. MT, the drum-head OS,\\nchain of bones in position.\\nC. The bones of the ear. 1, the malleus 2, the incus 3, the stapes.\\nD. The relation of the bones of the ear to the bony portion of the internal ear. 1, the ossi-\\ncles, foot-rest of stapes, attached to oval window 2, the cochlea 3, the semicircular\\ncanals -i, the upper end of Eustachian tube. The round window is not seen in the\\ncut.\\nto the shelves of the cochlea, and end upon thousands of\\nlittle hair-like cells, harp strings as it were, which are\\nheld in place upon the so-called a? ches of Corti. 1 The\\nvibration of these hair-like cells is communicated to their\\n1 There are said to be about three thousand arches of Corti in the\\nhuman ear, each one tuned to respond to the various musical sounds.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "HEARING. 359\\nconnecting nerve filaments, and thus to the auditory\\nnerve and the brain. It is stated by physiologists that\\nwe hear noises with the vestibule nerves, and music with\\nthe cochlear ones.\\n387. It is supposed that, besides their connection with\\nhearing, the semicircular canals have something to do with\\nthe coordination of muscular movements. Experiments\\non birds and other animals show that when these canals\\nare injured, uncontrollable motions of the head ensue,\\nfollowed by reelings and falls, and the inability to control\\nthe muscles involved in walking or flying but neither\\nconsciousness nor the sense of hearing is impaired. Some-\\ntimes in persons with ear disease, similar manifestations\\noccur on an attempt to walk, although consciousness is\\nunimpaired. From the above circumstances, some speak\\nof a sense of equilibrium, and locate it in the semi-\\ncircular canals.\\n388. The Physiology of Hearing is briefly as follows\\nSound waves are collected and strengthened by the auri-\\ncle. 1 Passing down the external auditory canal, they\\nstrike the drum-head, and cause it to vibrate and set in\\nmotion the ossicles, which in turn, through the foot-plate\\nof the stirrup bone, impart motion to the water of the\\nlabyrinth. 2 Through this fluid the impressions of the\\nsoundwaves are conveyed to the membranous labyrinth.\\n1 In the lower animals, the auricles are true collectors oi sound. In\\nman they ha,ve to do with the quality of sound more especially, as any\\none can ascertain by gently pressing the auricle backward or forward\\nwhen near a number of sounds, as of steam whistles, etc.\\n-The vibrations of the membrane of the oval window arc probably\\ntransmitted through the perilymph and membranous labyrinth to (he\\nendolymph.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "360 HEARING.\\nand thence to the brain, by the filaments of the auditory\\nnerve which lie upon the membrane. To be able to hear\\ndistinctly, it is necessary that there should be an ac-\\ncurate arrangement of the various portions of the audi-\\ntory apparatus, free movements of muscles, membranes,\\nand bones, of the fluid of the labyrinth, and of the air\\noutside and inside the drum cavity.\\n389. Defective Hearing may exist without the knowl-\\nedge of the sufferer or of his friends. Of 570 school\\nchildren examined in New York City, 1 76 were found to be\\ndeficient in hearing, either in one ear or in both, while only\\none had been known by the teachers to be deaf, and only\\n19 out of the 76 were aware of aural defects. 2 Neglected\\ninflammations of the throat, especially in those living in\\nan impure atmosphere, and eruptive diseases (such as scar-\\nlet fever and measles, where inflammation extends into\\nthe Eustachian tubes) may cause deafness. Decayed teeth\\nor inflamed gums, by reflex irritation through a ganglion\\nnear the ear, sometimes produce earache and temporary\\ndeafness.\\nBlows upon the ear are always dangerous, and may\\ncause temporary or permanent deafness. Accumula-\\ntion of ear wax is a very common cause of deafness. 3\\n1 See circular of information of the Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1881.\\n2 In conducting such tests, the voice is considered better than the tick-\\ning of a watch. The patient, having one ear stopped, should stand with\\nclosed eyes at various distances from the examiner, while the other ear is\\nbeing tested. The sentences repeated should be intelligible and frequently\\nchanged, and should contain words with hissing and guttural sounds, these\\nnot being easily understood when hearing is impaired. Though this mode\\nof testing is the best, it is not as accurate as the test for defective vision.\\n3 A very large number of persons apply at the eye and ear infirmaries\\nfor relief from deafness, and obtain it after accumulated ear wax has been\\nremoved.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "HEARING. 361\\nCleaning the ear too frequently with swabs, or clearing\\nout the wax with pin-heads, hair-pins, and other metal-\\nlic implements, will be apt to excite inflammation, 1 and\\nmay facilitate the growth of fungi. Neglected diseases\\nof the middle ear may result in brain disease, by inflam-\\nmation through the mastoid cells. Ear diseases sometimes\\nproduce ringing and hissing sounds in the ear, which are\\nvery annoying. In certain forms of disease, the patient s\\nown voice sounds loud and disagreeable to him.\\n390. Hygiene of the Ears. To prevent catching cold\\nin the ears, they should be washed frequently but gently,\\nand in very cold weather may be protected by covering\\nwith a loosely fitting cap, tippet, or ear-tabs. Pressure\\nor overheat will increase the perspiration and soften the\\nskin. Draughts of air from open windows should be\\navoided. The habit of breathing through the mouth\\nis injurious, as it dries the mucous passages of the ear,\\nand thus interferes with hearing. Improper clothing,\\noverheated rooms, or wet feet may cause inflammation\\nof the ear. Prolonged bathing in cold water and div-\\ning from a height should be avoided. When about to\\ndive, or swim under water, a pledget of cotton in each ear\\nis advisable; but the prolonged wearing of cotton in the\\nears makes them sensitive.\\n1 The habit of probing and scraping the external ear is injurious it\\nexcites the ceruminous glands to pour out a superabundance of wax,\\nwhich impairs hearing, and is an annoyance to those who desire to appear\\ncleanly. A graver harm also may be done, such as wounding the delicate\\nlining of the ear, or puncturing the drum membrane, or displacing lite\\nlittle bones. The best way to cleanse the external ear is carefully to\\ninject warm water, or warm water with a little good soap dissolved in it,\\nwith no scraping, and little or no swabbing. Any substance not easily\\nremoved by syringing had better bo left to the care of a physician.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "362 HEARING.\\n391. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon Hearing. Al-\\ncohol and tobacco sometimes produce such irritation or\\ndryness of the Eustachian tubes as to cause a more or\\nless troublesome deafness, ringing in the ears, or other\\nuncomfortable sounds.\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. How is hearing effected\\n2. What is meant by the intensity of sound? the pitch? the quality?\\n3. What is the capacity of the ear to distinguish different sounds\\n4. What is the organ of hearing, and its divisions\\n5. What does the external ear comprise\\n6. Describe the auricle and its use.\\n7. Describe the auditory canal.\\n8. What glands are located in the external ear?\\n9. Describe the membrana tympani, or drum-head.\\n10. What is the middle ear, and what does it comprise\\n11. Where are the mastoid cells\\n12. Describe the contents of the drum cavity.\\n13. How do the small bones of the cavity and the fluid of the laby-\\nrinth act, to enable us to hear\\n14. Describe the Eustachian tube and its uses.\\n15. What is the effect of its stoppage?\\n16. What does the internal ear comprise\\n17. Describe the labyrinth, and its several divisions and contents.\\n1 S. What is distributed throughout the labyrinth to convey the audi-\\ntory impressions to the cerebrum\\n19. 1 That is the belief of physiologists as to the function of the semi-\\ncircular canals, and on what is this belief founded\\n20. What is the physiology of hearing\\n21. What may be said as to the prevalence of defective hearing, and\\nto what causes in general is it due\\n22. What are some of the consequences of ear diseases?\\n23. What care should be taken of the ears, and what precautions used V", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX.\\nTHE VOICE.\\n392. Voice Speech. All animals, except the very lowest\\ntypes, possess some audible method of communicating with\\ntheir fellows, 1 i.e. the voice. Some are incapable of\\nproducing more than one kind of sound, a monotonous\\ncry, while the sounds emitted by others admit of con-\\nsiderable variation. The dog s notes of welcome to his\\nmaster are very different from the harsher tones with\\nwhich he greets intrusive strangers. But to man alone\\nis it given to express thoughts in articulate sounds or\\nspeech. Between the higher and lower races of mankind\\nthere is a great difference as to the use of the voice, in\\nboth language and song, and its development is usually in\\ndirect relation to the intelligence of the races. Idiots, not-\\nwithstanding their possession of a normal vocal apparatus,\\ncannot always converse intelligibly, but resemble some of\\nthe lower animals in the character of their vocal sounds.\\nParrots and other birds can be taught, by constant repeti-\\n1 Among insects this is sometimes accomplished by the rapid vibr ions\\nof wings, the tapping of antennae or limbs upon some resonant object, or\\nthe rubbing of hard portions of the body against each other, the leg against\\nthe wing, for instance, as in the locust family. Sir John Lubbock claims\\nthat bees can vary their hum so as to express their feelings. The com-\\nmon domestic fowl emits one kind of sound when quietly employed in\\nscratching for food, and another when a hawk approaches. The crane\\nhas a marvellously constructed trumpet, for use especially at night and\\nwhen taking long flights.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "364 THE VOICE.\\ntion, to repeat difficult words and sentences, and to imitate\\ncries, laughter, and sobbing but, so far as we know, they\\ndo not originate words or sentences.\\nThe development of speech is intimately connected with\\nthe acuteness of the special senses, for it is through them\\nthat we gather impressions which develop into ideas, and\\nthence into language. This is especially true of the hear-\\ning. By persistent and painstaking efforts, some who\\nhave been born deaf have been taught to articulate, and\\neven to converse, but without that delicate modulation of\\ntone and accentuation and emphasis of words which can\\nbe given only by a regulating ear and the limited power\\nthus laboriously acquired is, after all, exceedingly precari-\\nous and easily lost\\n393. The Organs of Voice are the larynx (Fig. 80) and\\nits accessories, the windpipe, lungs, respiratory muscles,\\npharynx, mouth, and the nasal cavities. All of these\\nparts are necessary for the proper modulation of the voice.\\nThe mechanism required for its production may be com-\\npared to that of a reed organ, the lungs corresponding to\\nthe bellows which supply air, the bronchial tubes and\\ntrachea to the wind chest which conducts the air, the\\nlarynx, with its vibrating cords, to the vibrating reed\\nof the organ, and the pharynx, mouth, and the parts in\\nconnection with them, to the body tube or resonant pipe,\\nwhich modifies the sounds produced.\\n394. The Larynx. Its framework is composed of nine\\ncartilages, connected by ligaments and operated by nu-\\nmerous muscles. It is lined by mucous membrane, and is\\nwell supplied with blood-vessels and nerves. The largest\\nof the four principal cartilages is the thyroid, or shield", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE. 365\\ncartilage, a broad, thin plate, shaped something like the\\ncover of a half -open book, and joined to the hyoid bone\\nabove by a membrane. The back of the book represents\\nthe ridge of the thyroid cartilage, as seen or felt in the\\nfront of the neck, and familiarly known as Adam s apple.\\nBelow the thyroid cartilage, and attached to it by an en-\\ncircling membrane, is the second of the four cartilages, the\\ncricoid, which is shaped like a seal ring, with the narrow\\nportion in front. Lastly, upon the posterior and upper\\nsurface of the cricoid are two slight eminences for articu-\\nlation, with two pyramidal and very movable cartilages,\\ncalled the arytenoids. 1\\nSurmounting the arytenoid cartilages are two very\\nsmall ones, known as the supra-arytenoicl, or buffer, carti-\\nlages, which deaden and distribute pressure, and serve to\\nprevent injury to the larynx, especially in swallowing.\\nAttached by its lower and narrow end to the inner and\\nupper part of the thyroid cartilage is the epiglottis, or\\ncover cartilage, shaped something like a lilac leaf. Its\\nprincipal function is to assist in preventing the entrance\\nof food or other articles into the larynx during the act of\\nswallowing. At such times the larynx is raised, its walls\\nare approximated, and the epiglottis, as a lid, covers the\\nopening of the glottis. On looking into the throat during\\na full inspiration, the rounded, free, upper edge of the\\nepiglottis is sometimes visible behind the base of the\\ntongue. Within the folds of the mucous membrane,\\nstretching from the epiglottis to the arytenoids, are two\\nother cartilages, long and sickle-shaped, termed prop\\ncartilages, which assist in keeping the larynx open.\\n1 I.e. like a pitcher, so called because when joined together tiny re-\\nsemble the beak, or mouth, of a pitcher.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "366 THE VOICE.\\n395. The Vocal Bands. Intimately concerned in the\\nproduction of voice are the vocal bands (or cords) and\\nthe muscles of the larynx. The former are two horizontal\\nelastic bands of ligament, stretched across the larynx\\nfrom front to back. They are attached in front to the\\nangle in the thyroid cartilage, just below the attachment\\nof the epiglottis (one on each side of the interior of the\\nlarynx), and are there comparatively immovable, while at\\nthe back they are attached to the very movable arytenoid\\ncartilages. 1 By the contraction and relaxation of these\\nbands the opening between them, known as the glottis, is\\nenlarged or diminished in size during respiration, and for\\nthe production of A^oice. 2\\n396. Muscles of the Larynx. The tension and degree of\\napproximation of the cords is variously modified through\\nmuscles, and thus in part is produced the various differ-\\n1 Their arrangement allows the edges or margins to be sharply defined,\\nand to vibrate as the air passes over them. These bands are sometimes\\ncalled true vocal cords, to distinguish them from two membranous folds\\nlying above them, known as false vocal cords, because they are not con-\\ncerned in the production of the voice.\\n2 You know musical chords or strings, as those of the guitar, violin,\\netc., are attached only at their two ends, so that they can freely vibrate\\nbetween the tongues or reeds of organs, accordeons, clarinets, and all\\nother artificial reed instruments, are usually attached at one end only, so\\nthat they have three free edges but the human reeds or vocal bands are\\nattached on three sides, and have only one free edge. Those of you who\\nknow what a large number of reed or organ pipes are needed in the organ\\nmade by man, to produce the notes of varying pitch and timbre, cannot\\nfail to be struck with astonishment at the fact that in the organ in man s\\nbody a single reed-pipe, the larynx by a wonderful power of varia-\\ntion inherent in itself suffices for the production of the most various\\nsounds. No musical instrument has ever been constructed by man that\\napproaches in perfection or effectiveness that of the human voice.\\nDr. Louis Elsbeeg. The TTiroat and its Functions.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE.\\n367\\nAC\\nences of sound which make up the human voice. Some of\\nthe muscles of the larynx move and rotate the arytenoids\\noutwardly, thus separating the vocal cords and widening\\nthe chink of the glottis.\\nOthers move and rotate\\nthe arytenoids inwardly,\\nthus approximating the\\nvocal cords, and, in a\\nvarying degree, closing\\nthe glottis. The remain-\\ning muscles of the larynx\\nserve to regulate the ten-\\nsion of the cords, or are\\nconcerned in respiration,\\nor act upon the epiglottis\\nduring the act of swallow-\\ning. The nerves which\\nsupply the mucous mem-\\nbrane of the larynx with\\nsensibility and the mus-\\ncles with motor power\\nare four in number.\\n397. Mechanism of the\\nProduction of Voice. Be-\\nfore the introduction and\\nuse of the laryngoscope, 1\\nthere was much uncer-\\ntainty as to the mechan-\\nism for the product ion\\nFig. 1 12.\\nPosterior View of Larynx.\\nT, base of tongue.\\nTil, upper part of thyroid cartilage (the epiglot-\\ntis is seen between the upper portions of this\\ncartilage and behind the tongue).\\nCO, the cricoid cartilage.\\nAC, arytenoid cartilages, hid in part by muscles.\\nTil, trachea.\\n1 and 2, nerves of larynx, branches distributed\\nto the tongue, to the epiglottis and the folds\\nof membrane between the epiglottis and ary-\\ntenoids, and to muscles controlling the action\\nof the cricoid ami arytenoid cartilages.\\n1 An oval or round mirror attached to ;i long handle, which, placed in\\nthe back and upper pari of the throat, reflects the interior oi the Larynx,\\nand, under favorable conditions, a part of the trachea. This instrument", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "368\\nTHE VOICE.\\nof voice. An examination of the interior of the larynx\\nwith this instrument during ordinary respiration shows\\nthe chink of the glottis to be quite wide during in-\\nspiration, but much narrower\\nduring expiration for in the\\nlatter case the muscles of the\\nlarynx are passive, air being\\ngently forced out. During vo-\\ncalization the vocal cords are\\nparticularly well defined. Speech\\nis shown to be effected during\\nexpiration only, though harsh\\nsounds may be formed during in-\\nspiration. As soon as an attempt\\nis made to produce a sound, the\\ncords are thrown into action. In the production of high\\nmusical notes or shrill sounds, they are made tense and\\nare closely approximated, and are relaxed and moved fur-\\nther apart during the emission of sounds opposite to these.\\nFig. 113.\\nView of the interior of the l arynx\\nduring respiration. Kings of\\nthe trachea seen through the\\nlaryngeal opening, the vocal\\ncords (represented in white)\\nbeing apart.\\n398. For the production of clear\\nvocal sound, the cords must be\\nbrought into close approximation\\nand must be capable of easy vibra-\\ntion. If they cannot so approach\\neach other, whispering results.\\nIf they are not sufficiently smooth\\nor straight, or if their action is\\nirregular, or if they have on their\\nFig. 114.\\nThe Position of the Vocal Bands\\nduring Phonation.\\noriginated from the observations of the celebrated singing teacher, Garcia,\\nupon himself, and the investigations of two Austrian physicians, Turck\\nand Czermak. The first successful demonstration of the action of the\\nvocal cords is said to have been made by Garcia in 185-i.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE. 369\\nedges flakes of mucus, the tones become rough and hoarse\\nin character. 1\\nStammering is caused by a spasmodic contraction of the\\ndiaphragm, interrupting expiratory efforts. The stam-\\nmerer has control of the mechanism of articulation, but\\nnot of the expiratory blast. He must control his respira-\\ntory muscles, to steady their action during speech. A\\nstutterer has control of these muscles and of the dia-\\nphragm, but his lips and tongue are insubordinate.\\n399. Variations in Vocal Sounds depend mainly upon\\ntheir intensity, pitch, and quality. Intensity, or loud-\\nness, depends upon the elasticity of the vocal bands and\\nthe force of the escaping air. The more relaxed the\\nbands and the stronger the current of air over them, the\\nlarger are the sound-waves and the louder the sounds\\nproduced.\\nDifferences in pitch depend upon the rapidity with\\nwhich the bands vibrate. The more rapid the vibrations,\\nthe higher the pitch. The slower they are, and the less\\nclosely the cords approximate, the lower the sound.\\nQuality, or timbre, is that characteristic by which we\\ncan distinguish different voices, and recognize the voices\\nof our friends, even though their features may be con-\\ncealed. Quality is of a composite nature, and is duo to\\nthe more or less harmonious relations between intensity,\\npitch, and other characteristics of sound. It depends\\nlargely upon the condition of the resonant cavities of\\n1 The varying tones produced by two elastic bands more or loss paral-\\nlel with each other, and with edges o( varying rigidity, may bo illustrated\\nby blowing through glass tubes of different length ami caliber, to the\\nopposite ends of which two pieces o\\\\ thin rubber cloth arc firmly fastened,\\nthe free edges being parallel, or nearly so.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "370 THE VOICE.\\nthe throat, mouth, and nose. Enlarged tonsils, loss of\\nteeth, dryness of the mucous membrane, cleft palate,\\nhare-lip, and other defects change the quality of vocal\\nsounds. Our vowel sounds are clearly enunciated only\\nwhen the sounding breath is not obstructed above the\\nlarynx in its outward passage. With the mouth wide\\nopen, only a harsh sound can be made by the vocal bands.\\nConsonant sounds result when there is an obstruction by\\nthe lips, tongue, teeth, etc., to the outward motion of the\\nair. The position of the tongue and of the soft palate\\nfavors the emission of certain sounds. A nasal twang\\nis the result of talking with the nose or the passages\\nthereto from the lungs more or less obstructed. It is\\nnot so much because we talk through the nose, as because\\nwe do not use the nasal vent with sufficient freedom. It\\nis called a nasal twang, because the closed or contracted\\nnasal apertures have caused unpleasant modification of\\nthe sound.\\nThe different qualities of voice depend not only upon\\nnatural variations in the larynx and the accessory organs\\nof speech, but also upon the degree of culture to which the\\nvoice and its organs have been subjected. 1 In some per-\\nsons the voice is so perfectly modulated that it never\\nseems too high, too low, too harsh, or too flat. 2\\n1 Among the Greeks, for the training of the voice there were three sets\\nof teachers, the first to develop power and range of voice, the second to\\nimprove the quality, the third to teach modulation and inflection.\\n2 The capabilities of some voices are almost incredible. It is related by-\\nMrs. Seiler, in her manual on The Voice in Singing, that the singer,\\nFarinelli, once competed with a trumpeter who accompanied him in an\\naria: After both had several times dwelt on notes, in which each\\nsought to excel the other in power and duration, they prolonged a note\\nwith a double trill in thirds, which they continued until both seemed to\\nbe exhausted. At last the trumpeter gave up, entirely out of breath,", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE. 371\\nThere is also a property of voice known as reach,\\ni.e. the penetrant power of a sound over distances and\\nobstacles, such as other sounds, and is due to the purity of\\nthe tone, which in its turn is dependent on the accuracy\\nwith which it is produced. At the Peace Jubilee in\\nBoston, in 1869, Madame Parepa Rosa s voice was dis-\\ntinguishable above those of an accompanying chorus of\\nnearly 12,000 singers and an orchestra of 1000 instru-\\nments, in a hall where the audience consisted of 40,000\\npeople.\\nThe ordinary range or compass of the voice is about two\\noctaves, seldom less than one or more than two and a half.\\nIn some great singers the range is three and a half. 1\\n400. Ventriloquism. The peculiar mode of speaking\\nknown as ventriloquism is a curious modification of the\\nvoice, and is not, as the word literally means, talking\\nfrom the stomach. The power of the ventriloquist is\\nsufficiently marvellous without our attributing it to a\\nstill more marvellous source. Without apparently mov-\\ning his lips, by some occult management of the vocal\\norgans, by great skill in mimicry and considerable ad-\\ndress in appealing to the imagination, the ventriloquist\\ncauses different human voices, animal cries, and other\\nnoises to seem to issue from persons or objects outside of\\nhimself. This remarkable power may account for many\\nwhile Farinelli, without taking breath, prolonged the note with renewed\\nvolume of sound, trilling, and ending finally with the most difficult of\\nroulades.\\n1 The entire range of the human voice exceeds live octaves, for\\nthere have been bassos who sang with east 1 and power the lower V of\\n40 vibrations, and sopranos who readily reached the high F of 1400\\nvibrations, or even the higher C of 2000 vibrations.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "372 THE VOICE.\\nof the wonderful responses which are said to have been\\nmade by the ancient oracles. 1\\n401. The Chief Varieties of Voice are four in number\\nviz., the bass and tenor in the male sex, and the contralto,\\nor alto, and the soprano, in the female. There is a variety\\nof voice between the bass and tenor, known as the bari-\\ntone and one between the alto and soprano, called the\\nmezzo-soprano. Ordinarily the strength and beauty of\\nbass and contralto voices are in the lower notes, and\\nof soprano and tenor in the higher. Bass singers may\\nreach as high notes as tenors, and alto singers as sopranos,\\nor vice versa, but they do not attain the proper clearness\\nand richness of tone. A falsetto voice is one pitched\\nabove its natural compass. In early childhood, the char-\\nacter of the voice is about the same in both sexes. The\\nquality of the soprano voice in boys is often especially\\nprized in the rendering of church music. At about the\\nage of fourteen years, the boy s voice begins to change.\\nThe larynx increases in size, the power of regulating its\\nmuscular control is diminished, and the falsetto voice is\\nlikely to break in upon the ordinary voice, especially in\\n1 From the observations of Miiller and Colonibat, it seems that the\\nessential mechanical parts of the process of ventriloquism consist in taking\\na full inspiration, then keeping the muscles of the chest and neck fixed,\\nand speaking with the mouth almost closed, and the lips and lower jaw as\\nmotionless as possible, while air is very slowly expired through a very\\nnarrow glottis, care being taken, also, that none of the expired air passes\\nthrough the nose. But, as observed by Miiller, much of the ventriloquist s\\nskill, in imitating the voices coming from particular directions, consists in\\ndeceiving other senses than hearing. We never very readily distinguish\\nthe direction in which sounds reach our ear and when our attention\\nis directed to a particular point, our imagination is very apt to refer\\nto that point whatever sounds we may hear. Kirke, Handbook of\\nPhysiology.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE. 373\\ndeclaiming and singing. 1 The voices of girls change\\nsomewhat at about the same age they develop strength\\nand compass, the quality remaining about the same. But\\nwith both sexes at this period there should be no systematic\\ncultivation of the voice.\\n402. Hygiene of the Voice. Weak and improperly modu-\\nlated voices can be improved by proper care and culture. To\\nthis end all diseased conditions, such as enlarged tonsils,\\nadenoid growths, 2 a very relaxed soft palate, nasal or\\npharyngeal catarrh, 3 defective teeth, etc., should be reme-\\ndied, and muscular exercises, adapted to the wants of\\neach individual, should be systematically practised. The\\nmuscles of the diaphragm and those of the chest may be\\nexercised by occasional full respirations, and by the hands\\nbeing placed against a wall, and the chest moved forcibly\\ntoward and away from the wall.\\nThe muscles of the larynx are best exercised by sys-\\ntematic singing exercises on the tones at or near the middle\\nof the ordinary compass of the individual. Repetitions\\nof the act of swallowing, and various movements of the\\nlips, cheeks, and tongue, are valuable. Wind instruments,\\nadapted to the strength of the performer, are also of\\n1 The high-pitched voice of children is due to the small size of the\\nlarynx and the short vocal cords.\\n2 Adenoid growths, spoken of in Chapter XIII., occur in about ten\\nchildren in every hundred, causing catarrhal inflammation of the throat,\\nand sometimes deafness. They force the child to breathe through the\\nmouth, and diminish the air supply to the lungs. There is no such\\nthing as a healthy throat in an individual who breathes through the mouth\\nas a habit.\\n3 One of the commonest causes of nasal ami throat catarrh in child-\\nhood is indigestion, and the commonest cause of Indigestion is the habit of\\neating rapidly and washing food down with fluids during a meal.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "374 THE VOICE.\\nservice in some cases but if they are too powerful or are\\nused excessively, injury to the lungs is likely to result. In\\nparticular, the voice should be frequently used in a natural\\nand proper manner. Spasmodic and prolonged use, espe-\\ncially if the voice is pitched too high, strains the vocal\\napparatus, and produces inflammation of the mucous mem-\\nbrane of the throat. The forced and unnecessary chest\\nrespirations sometimes indulged in by public speakers and\\nsingers place the thorax and larynx in tiresome and con-\\nstrained positions, and interfere with the natural use of\\nthe voice.\\nThe training of the voice should begin in childhood,\\nwhen the vocal organs are most pliable. It should be\\nentrusted to competent teachers, and, like other forms of\\nmuscular exercise, should be pursued systematically and\\ndaily, but never to the point of fatigue. It is related\\nof a celebrated musician that, in answer to an inquiry\\nwhy he practised so systematically, he replied, If I neg-\\nlect to practise one day, I notice it if for two days, my\\nfriends notice it and if for three, the public notice it.\\nEven in adult life, the strength and quality of the voice\\nmay be improved, and clergymen, actors, and other public\\nspeakers have had their usefulness increased by lessons in\\nelocution and the care of the voice (a).\\n403. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Voice.\\nAlcohol sometimes produces huskiness of the voice, by\\nthickening the lining membrane of the larynx and weak-\\nening the laryngeal muscles. Tobacco, especially if the\\nsmoke from it is inhaled, sometimes sets up a troublesome\\nand persistent hacking cough, due to a dryness of the\\nmucous membrane and irritation of its sensitive nerve\\nfilaments.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE. 375\\nQUESTIONS.\\n1. What is to be said of the audible means of communication of men\\nand animals, and on what does its development depend?\\n2. With what is the development of speech intimately connected\\n3. What parts of the body are concerned in the production of voice\\n4. Which is the special, or essential, organ of voice\\n5. Describe the larynx, its cartilages, vocal cords, and muscles.\\n6. How are the differences of sound of the voice produced\\n7. How has the mechanism for this purpose been ascertained?\\n8. What does an examination of the interior of the larynx with the\\nlaryngoscope reveal?\\n9. How are sounds produced, and why are some sounds musical and\\nothers not\\n10. What causes the differences in their intensity pitch\\n11. What is the quality of a voice, and on what does it depend?\\n12. What is ventriloquism?\\n13. What is reach?\\n14. What is said of the range or compass of the human voice?\\n15. What are the chief varieties of voice?\\n16. How and when do the voices of boys and girls change\\n17. How is the voice modulated to produce the various articulate\\nsounds\\n18. What is to be said of nasal sounds? of clearness of voice?\\n19. Give general directions for the care and culture of the voice.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES.\\n404. The following directions as to the care of the\\ninjured will often save life, if carefully followed. In\\nmany cases of injury the crisis is reached before the\\npatient arrives at the hospital gate, and the lack of in-\\nstructed aid at first often turns the tables against him.\\nOfficiousness on the part of bystanders is likely to do\\nharm. 1 Whenever practicable, a physician should be sent\\nfor and the injured person given into his charge. When\\ncalled, the doctor should be informed of the nature of the\\naccident, that he may bring with him the proper appli-\\nances and restoratives.\\nGeneral Directions.\\n405. First. Do not join the crowd about an injured per-\\nson unless you can be of service. As the throng increases\\nin numbers and presses more closely about the sufferer,\\nhis chances for recovery are lessened his air supply is\\ndiminished, and the efforts of those assisting him are\\ninterfered with. At least ten feet of space on all sides\\nof the injured person should be kept clear, except for\\nthose actually concerned in caring for him.\\n1 To replace officiousness with efficiency is the aim of the Red Cross\\nSocieties in this and other countries.\\n376", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 377\\nSecond. If you withdraw, take as many idlers as you can\\nwith you. If no one has assumed charge of the case, take\\nit in hand, going quickly but calmly to work but, if there\\nis already a leader, offer to go for a doctor, blankets, or\\nstimulants, or to do whatever is desired. Do not argue\\nwith others who are assisting, as to methods of work, for\\ndelay imperils the life of the one you desire to save. On\\nthe other hand, do not proceed too rapidly. For ex-\\nample, do not attempt to administer stimulants before\\nthe injured person can swallow.\\nThird. The injured person should be examined ivith the\\ngreatest care. Rough handling may open a wound in\\nwhich bleeding has ceased and start a dangerous hemor-\\nrhage, or cause the jagged end of a broken bone to wound\\nseriously an important blood-vessel or nerve. Thoroughly\\nexamine the entire body, in search of broken or dislocated\\nbones, wounds, unusual swellings or depressions. Note\\nwhether the face is flushed or pale, whether the pupils re-\\nspond to light, whether the breathing is quiet and regular,\\nor noisy, or difficult also note the condition of the pulse.\\nA pale face indicates faintness flushing, too much blood\\nin the head. If the pupils do not respond to light, or if\\nthe breathing is noisy, there is danger of apoplexy.\\nFourth. If the pulse is easily compressed by your\\nfinger, the patient s heart is beating feebly, and there is\\ndanger of life s ebbing away therefore stimulants are\\nneeded. If the face is flushed or the pulse strong (i.e.\\nnot easily compressed), stimulants arc dangerous.\\nWhen the skin is cold, restore warmth by gentle friction\\nwith the hands, and by applications of heated flannels and\\nbottles filled with hot water, especially to the feet, about\\nthe body, and in the armpits. If the head is very hot.\\ncold water or pieces of ice may be applied to it. The", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "378 EMERGENCIES.\\ninjured person generally needs abundance of air, and it\\nmay be necessary to create a current by the use of a fan\\nbut, at the first evidence of chilliness, the patient should\\nbe covered with blankets, shawls, coats, etc., though not\\nso heavily as to induce perspiration. If the person needs\\nstimulants and is able to swallow, give fifteen drops of\\naromatic spirits of ammonia in one-third of a glass of\\nwater; or brandy or whiskey, one part to four or five\\nof water. Repeat every fifteen minutes, if prostration\\ncontinues.\\nFifth. To remove an injured person, use as a stretcher\\na strong shawl or sheet doubled and suspended between\\ntwo poles, a board, a door, a window shutter, a ladder, or\\nsomething similar. If the distance is short, the patient\\nmay be carried by two persons, with hands so locked as\\nto form a chair. If the distance is great, an ambulance\\nmay be devised by placing one or more mattresses in a\\ncovered vehicle of sufficient size. In lifting an injured\\nperson, three attendants are generally required two to\\nsupport the body, while one attends to the injured part.\\nWhen about to convey by a stretcher, depute some one\\nto keep back the crowd, while another goes before to\\nsecure a comfortable shelter. Cover the face of the\\ninjured one with a handkerchief or other light article, to\\nprevent the uncomfortable feeling of being stared at.\\nHe should be instructed not to answer the questions of\\nmere idlers.\\nUnconsciousness.\\n406. Unconsciousness may be partial or complete, and\\nmay be caused by concussion of the brain, by shock from\\nphysical injuries or mental emotion, by apoplexy, epilepsy,\\nnarcotic poisons, loss of blood, or by blood poisoning, as", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 379\\nin some forms of kidney disease. If there is entire insen-\\nsibility, an arm, when lifted and let fall gently, offers no\\nmuscular resistance, but is a dead weight the pupil of\\nthe eye does not contract on exposure to light and no\\neffort to close the lids is made when the operator s finger\\nis brought quickly toward the eye. If unconsciousness is\\npartial, or if it is feigned, as in some cases of hysteria,\\nthe conditions are the reverse.\\n407. Fainting. The danger here is from a feeble heart.\\nThe pulse is weak, the face pale.\\nTreatment. A few minutes of rest may bring about\\nrecovery, the person being laid flat upon his back, with\\nall impediments to free breathing removed. If there is\\nvomiting, place him on his side. A dash of cold water\\nupon the face, tickling of the nostrils, the inhalation of\\nthe vapor of smelling salts or ammonia, and the use of\\nstrong coffee or of stimulants internally may be necessary.\\n408. Intoxication. Symptoms. Breath has the odor of\\nliquor 2 unconsciousness, more or less complete usually\\ncan be roused breathing quiet pulse frequent pupils\\nslowly respond to light.\\nTreatment. Generally, more vigorous measures should\\nbe employed than for fainting; viz., slapping of the face,\\ntickling or slapping of the soles of the feet, and twisting\\nof the hair. If there are symptoms of collapse (i.e. cold\\nskin and feeble pulse), apply warmth and give coffee or\\n1 Sometimes a temperate person, rendered unconscious from a severe\\naccident, is treated as if intoxicated, when the breath smells of liquor,\\nwhich has been taken by him because of faintness or exhaustion. Such\\na mistake not only causes an utter neglect of measures necessary for\\nrecovery, but leads to great injustice and mortification.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "380 EMERGENCIES.\\naromatic spirits of ammonia. It must be remembered\\nthat intoxication may be associated with more alarming\\nforms of unconsciousness, such as apoplexy, in which\\ncase too vigorous restorative measures may imperil life.\\n409. Apoplexy. Symptoms. Patient generally uncon-\\nscious face flushed or very pale pulse full pupils do\\nnot respond to the light breathing more or less noisy\\nparalysis of one side of face or of one or more of the\\nlimbs sometimes convulsions.\\nTreatment. Place in recumbent position, head raised a\\nlittle loosen the clothing about the head, neck, and chest.\\nIf head is hot, apply ice or cold water. Keep patient\\nquiet. Leave other means to the doctor.\\nIn concussion of the brain, as from a blow upon the\\nhead, the symptoms resemble those of apoplexy. Frac-\\nture of the base of the skull is generally indicated by\\nbleeding from the ear.\\n410. Convulsions or Fits. Do not attempt to hold the\\npatient still. Merely prevent him from injuring himself.\\nIf there is danger of the tongue being bitten, place a\\npiece of wood between the teeth. In the ordinary con-\\nvulsions of children, from undigested food, etc., and in\\nconvulsions from blood poison, place the patient for a few\\nminutes in a warm bath. If the head is hot, keep cold\\nwater applied to it during and after the bath. If con-\\nvulsions continue, produce vomiting by administering one\\nteaspoonful of syrup of ipecac, and a movement of the\\nbowels by an enema of soap and warm water.\\nIn the convulsions of epilepsy, these measures are not\\nnecessary. Simply keep patient from hurting himself.\\nDo not struggle with him.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 381\\n411. Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion are two conditions\\nentirely different, but both are caused by fatigue and pro-\\nlonged exposure to great heat. They are most likely to\\noccur among feeble and intemperate persons, among those\\nwho work under the direct rays of the sun or in badly\\nventilated and overheated rooms, or among those who\\nwear too much clothing (especially heavy head-coverings)\\nin hot weather and use iced drinks to excess.\\nSymptoms. In sunstroke, the skin is usually hot, pulse\\nfull, and breathing labored, and the patient may be un-\\nconscious. There is danger from congestion, which occurs\\nin the internal organs. In heat exhaustion, there is cold-\\nness, pallor, and weak pulse.\\nTreatment. Recumbent posture in a cool place, ice to\\nthe head, and cold douches upon the face, neck, chest, and\\nspine, attended with friction until consciousness returns.\\nStimulants are required if the pulse is very weak and if\\nreaction does not soon set in, mustard (but not to blister)\\nmay be applied to the feet, the back of the neck, and the\\nchest. When there is apparently no active congestion, but\\nevidences of heat exhaustion, stimulants are to be used\\nfrom the first, and cold applications sparingly, if at all. It-\\nmay be necessary to induce warmth of the body, but this\\nshould be done in a cool room. Rest in bed is important.\\n412. Suffocation. Drowning, Smothering, Hanging, and\\nGas-poisoning constitute a group of accidents in which\\ndeath results mainly from a deprivation of air. 1 Carbon\\ndioxide, accumulating in the blood, poisons the nerve\\ncentres in the medulla, checks breathing, and may stop\\n1 In accidents of this kind, the face is generally swollen and of a bluish\\ncolor; sometimes the eyes and tongue protrude; about the mouth is\\nmore or less mucus, occasionally streaked with blood.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "382 EMERGENCIES.\\nthe action of the heart. Animal heat is also lost, some-\\ntimes entirely, so far as we can perceive.\\nIn all cases of suffocation, oxygen is to be supplied, cir-\\nculation of the blood reestablished, and animal heat restored.\\nTreatment. 1. Cut or tear clothing from face, neck, and\\nchest, and expose patient to the open air, except in very\\nsevere weather. Valuable time is lost by endeavoring to\\nuntie or unbutton clothing.\\n2. If the jaws are clenched, separate them, and keep\\nthe mouth open by placing a cork or a bit of wood be-\\ntween the teeth.\\n3. With the index finger covered with a handkerchief\\nor piece of cloth, remove from the mouth mucus or any\\nother substance which may prevent the ingress of air.\\n4. In nearly all cases of suffocation the tongue is\\nrelaxed and sometimes swollen, and may fall back into the\\nthroat, blocking the entrance for air. If you are obliged,\\nwithout assistance, to resuscitate any one, practise arti-\\nficial respiration, as hereafter described in 413, First\\nMethod. The head of the patient being kept lower than\\nthe body, and face downward, the tongue will fall forward\\nby its own weight. If you have an assistant, he should\\npull the tongue forward with a cloth, and hold its tip\\nfirmly out of the mouth, the patient being on his back. 1\\n5. Heat is to be restored by warm, dry blankets, and\\nfriction under them by the application of hot flannels,\\nbottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit of the\\nstomach, the armpits, the sides, the feet, and between the\\nthighs.\\n1 In the resuscitation of very heavy persons, whom yon cannot lift from\\nthe ground, if you have no assistance, put a strip of cloth over the tongue\\npulled forward, and hold it in place by tying the cloth at the back of the\\nneck, or fasten it by an elastiG band passing over it and under the chin.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES.\\n383\\n6. In cases of partial suffocation, it is often sufficient\\nto loosen the clothing about the neck, slap the chest\\nwith a cold wet towel, expose the patient to the open air,\\nand allow him to inhale the fumes of ammonia; admin-\\nister stimulants, if necessary, and keep him free from ex-\\ncitement while recovering. When the patient does not\\nbreathe, perform artificial respiration, as directed under\\nhead of Drowning.\\n413. Drowning. Treatment. 1 1. To remove water from\\nthe air passages. After loosening clothing which interferes\\nFig. 115.\\nRemoving Water Patient on Ground.\\nwith breathing, clearing the mouth, and seeing that the\\ntongue does not fall back into it, remove water from the\\n1 The following instructions for rescuing drowning people should bo\\nremembered: Approach the drowning from behind, seizing them by\\nthe collar, or a woman by the back hair, and towing (hem at arm s length\\nto boat or shore. Do not let tluan cling around your neck or arms to\\nendanger you. Duck them tinder until unconscious, if necessary to break\\na dangerous hold upon you but do not strike to stun them.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "384\\nEMERGENCIES.\\nair passages as follows place the person face down-\\nward over your knee, or upon the ground with a large\\nroll of clothing beneath the stomach, and press on the\\nback over the stomach for a half minute or, the patient\\nFig. 116.\\nRemoving Water Clasping under Chest.\\nbeing face downward, stand astride his hips with your\\nface toward his head, and raise him two or three times\\nwith a slight jerk, your hands being clasped under the\\nlower part of his chest. 1\\n2. Artificial Respiration. Now, ivithout delay (unless\\nthe person is breathing) commence artificial respira-\\ntion. Continue this for two hours or more, if neces-\\n1 To hold a body up by the heels, so that the water may run out, is\\nunnecessary. Rolling a body upon a barrel is a barbarous custom, at-\\ntended with the danger of injury to internal organs, and is not to be\\ntolerated. It is seldom that any large quantity of water enters the lungs\\nor stomach. Some water is usually drawn into the air passages, unless\\nthe person faints when immersed.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES.\\n385\\nsary, 1 while assistants are constantly trying to arouse\\nanimal heat, by rubbing the extremities and in other\\nFig. 1 1 7.\\nArtificial Respiration Michigan Method.\\nways before described, without hindering artificial breath-\\ning, which is the one remedy not to be lost sight of.\\n1 After how long a period of immersion in water a person may be\\nresuscitated is not definitely known, and depends on various circum-\\nstances. If water has passed into the throat, air is excluded, and suffo-\\ncation is prompt. So also if the drowned person has been tossed about\\nin the surf. On the other hand, if the drowning person is able to\\ncontrol respiration, and lift his head occasionally above the surface, life\\nwill be prolonged, and the chances for resuscitation are increased. Such\\nalso is the case if fainting occurs, as respiration and the heart s action\\ncease through the action of the nervous system, and there are conse-\\nquently no respiratory or circulatory efforts demanding air for the puri-\\nfication of the blood. It may be noted here that many persons, even\\ngood swimmers, are drowned by reason of being seized with cramps or\\nspasmodic contractions of muscles which cannot he controlled. Persons\\nwho are subject to cramps or twitching of the muscles, or who are\\ndebilitated, should not venture into water beyond their depth.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "386 EMERGENCIES.\\nFirst Method. Keep the patient face downward, main-\\ntaining all the while your position astride the body, grasp\\nthe clothing over the points of the shoulders, or, if the\\nbody is naked, thrust your fingers into the armpits, clasp-\\ning your thumbs over the points of the shoulders, and\\nraise the chest as high as you can (Fig. 117) Avithout\\nlifting the head quite off the ground, holding it long\\nenough to count slowly one, two, three. Replace him\\nFig. 118.\\nArtificial Eespiration Michigan Method.\\non the ground, with his forehead on his flexed arm, the\\nneck straightened out, and the mouth and nose free.\\nPlace your elbows against your knees and your hands\\nupon the sides of his chest (Fig. 118), over the lower ribs,\\nand press downward and inward, with increasing force, long\\nenough to count slowly one, two. Then suddenly let\\ngo, grasp the shoulders as before, and raise the chest\\n(Fig. 117); then press upon the ribs, etc. (Fig. 118).\\nThese alternate movements should be repeated ten to", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 387\\nfifteen times a minute. Use the same regularity as in\\nnatural breathing. 1\\nSecond Method. After getting rid of the water, turn\\nthe patient quickly on his back, placing a roll of cloth-\\ning under the back, so that the short ribs bulge promi-\\nnently forward and are raised a little higher than the\\nlevel of the mouth. Have the tip of the tongue held\\nout of a corner of the mouth by a handkerchief in the\\nhand of a bystander, and the arms stretched forcibly back\\nabove the head. Then kneel astride or beside the patient s\\nFig. 119.\\nArtificial Respiration Government Method.\\nhips, with your hands resting on the abdomen spread out\\nyour fingers so that you can grasp the waist about the short\\nribs. Throw all your weight steadily forward upon your\\nhands, squeezing the ribs at the same time as if you wished\\nto force everything in the chest upward out of the mouth.\\nContinue this movement while you count slowly one, two,\\nthree then suddenly let go with a. final push, which\\nsprings you back to your first kneeling position. Remain\\n1 This is the method advised by the Michigan State Board of Health,\\nand has the merit that it can be carried out by one person, if the patient\\nis of light enough weight to be lifted readily.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "388\\nEMERGENCIES.\\nerect upon your knees while you count one, two, then\\nthrow your weight forward as before. Repeat all these\\nmotions with regularity at first, four or five times a\\nFig. 120.\\nArtificial Respiration Government Method.\\nminute, gradually increasing the rate to about fifteen\\ntimes a minute. 1 If natural breathing be not restored,\\nafter three or four minutes, turn the patient over on his\\nFig. 121.\\nArtificial Respiration Government Method.\\nface, with a roll of clothing under the stomach, and press\\nfirmly for a half minute on his back then turn him over\\non his back and renew artificial respiration.\\n1 Method of Dr. Howard, advised by the United States Life Saving\\nService. It requires two operators. Both in this method and in that\\nadvised by the Michigan State Board of Health, assistants are necessary\\nto restore heat. etc.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 389\\n3. After Treatment. After the person breathes, carry\\nhim promptly to a house, or under cover, and if possible\\nput him in bed. See that he is thoroughly dry and warm,\\nusing friction, blankets, and hot applications, as already\\nindicated. If warmth is not readily established by these\\nmeans, a warm bath may be given, the body being im-\\nmersed to the neck for not more than four or five minutes.\\nWhen the patient is able to swallow, slowly admin-\\nister sips of hot coffee, hot water and brand}^, or aro-\\nmatic spirits of ammonia and water. Keep him quiet and\\nwarm in bed, in a well-ventilated room, for forty-eight\\nhours or more, if necessary, and encourage sleep. Some-\\ntimes, even after he seems on the road to recovery, dis-\\ntressed breathing will occur, from a secondary congestion\\nof the weakened lungs, brought on by excitement or by\\nmoving about too much. Large mustard plasters ap-\\nplied to the chest will help to relieve this condition. If\\nthis fails, the desired end may be gained by carefully\\nrepeating the artificial breathing, or by slapping the chest\\nwith a towel wet in cold water, or by holding ammonia\\nto the nostrils.\\nVarious Injuries.\\n414. Burns and Scalds. Burns are caused by contact of\\nthe body witli fire, heated substances, or chemical agents\\nscalds, by contact with steam or boiling liquids. The\\ndanger in either case is from shock, and from inflamma-\\ntion of internal organs. It increases, generally, in pro-\\nportion to the nearness to the vital organs, the amount\\nof surface injured, and the destruction of the underlying\\ntissues.\\nIf you see a person on fire, act promptly. Pick up\\nthe nearest rug, shawl, table-cover, overcoat, or slip of", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "390 EMERGENCIES.\\ncarpet. Hold it before you to protect yourself, as you\\nwrap it around the burning part, keeping the names as\\nmuch as possible from the face of the sufferer, so as to\\nprevent the entrance of overheated air into the lungs. If\\nnecessary, throw the burning person to the ground and roll\\nhim over and over in blankets, carpets, or other woollen\\nmaterials, and extinguish burning material with water. 1\\nTreatment. 1. Remove the clothing about the injured\\nparts, as far as possible, by cutting, being careful not to\\ntear blisters open. Soften by water all adherent pieces of\\nclothing. Cover the burned or scalded places with strips\\nof soft linen or cotton cloth (not with cotton batting, for\\nit adheres too closely, and is too heating), saturated in a\\nmixture of carbolic acid, glycerine, and olive oil, one tea-\\nspoonful of the first mixed with the same amount of gly-\\ncerine, and then well shaken together with one pint of oil, 2\\nor saturated in carbolized vaseline, or in a strong solution\\nof bicarbonate of soda. Lacking these, the spots may be\\ncovered with cream, dampened starch, or any substance\\nthat will exclude the air. When blisters form, their\\ncontents may be removed by slight punctures of a\\nsharp needle.\\n2. In severe cases there is more or less shock, and it\\nmay be necessary to suspend local measures, and revive\\n1 Kindling fires with kerosene oil, filling lamps when they are lighted,\\nrunning or moving quickly while one s clothes are on fire, and working\\nabout open fires in loose cotton dresses, are all sources of danger.\\n2 This mixture is much cleaner than many of the burn mixtures, and\\nquiets pain. It should be kept on hand in houses and factories. In case\\nolive oil cannot be obtained, similar oils will answer. Strips of cloth\\nare to be preferred to large pieces, as they can be more readily removed.\\nIn burns from an acid, apply first lime-water or a solution of baking\\nsoda; if from an alkali, as lye, apply vinegar and water, one part\\nvinegar to four parts water.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 391\\nthe patient by stimulants, as before directed in cases of\\nshock.\\n3. Do not remove the dressings unless cleanliness de-\\nmands it. When you do, use great gentleness, that you\\nmay not injure newly formed skin. Oily dressings should,\\nfrom time to time, have fresh oil applied over them, and\\nit is well to spray liquid dressings with a mixture of car-\\nbolic acid, one teaspoonful to one-half pint of water.\\n4. Troublesome, contracting scars, producing deformi-\\nties, sometimes follow burns. Especially is this the\\ncase at the bend of a joint, or where the skin is loose,\\nas about the eyes, mouth, and neck. In short, there is\\ngreat responsibility involved in the care of burns and\\nscalds, and no person should attempt their continued\\ntreatment, when a physician can be obtained.\\n415. Frost Bite. This results from exposure to severe\\ncold. The affected part, through reduced vitality, becomes\\nbluish or white. Sometimes exposure to cold winds or a\\nsevere snowstorm will gradually produce a congestion of\\ninternal organs and a tendency to sleep, which, if indulged,\\nespecially in the open air, may result in death.\\nTreatment. To bring about reaction, place the person\\nin a room without fire, and gradually rub the chilled or\\nfrozen parts with ice, snow, or cold water. Stimulants\\nmay be necessary. When the parts begin to redden and\\nsting, or become painful, stop active treatment, for reac-\\ntion has commenced, and care is necessary (by rest,\\nsleep, and gradually increasing warmth) lest the returning\\ncirculation in the skin become too active, and so cause\\ninflammation.\\n416. Fractures and Dislocations. The signs o( a fractured\\nor broken bone are, generally, more or less change in the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "392 EMERGENCIES,\\nshape and natural appearance of the injured part, pain\\nand inability to move the part readily, tenderness and\\nunnatural mobility at the point of injury, and a grating\\nsound when the broken ends of the bone are gently rubbed\\nagainst each other. The symptoms of dislocation, or bones\\nout of joint, are, in general, a more marked deformity and\\nmore impaired motion than in the case of a fracture.\\nTreatment. There is generally but little urgency in the\\ntreatment of a broken limb. The common impression\\nthat a broken bone must be set immediately is erroneous,\\nand tends to induce much handling of the injured parts.\\nThis is always dangerous, as jagged ends of bones may\\nbe made to injure the soft tissues. Put the patient in as\\ncomfortable a position as possible, pending the arrival of the\\nsurgeon. Support the affected part by pillows, blankets,\\nshawls, or coats, so as to prevent the painful twitchings\\nof the injured muscles, and to preserve, as nearly as pos-\\nsible, its natural shape. In case of fracture of the collar\\nbone, place the forearm in a sling, improvised from a\\nlong towel or any piece of cloth, putting a soft pad in\\nthe armpit of the affected side let the patient lie on\\nhis back, with a small pillow between his shoulders.\\nIf the patient is to be moved, steady the affected arm by\\na bandage over it and around the body. A broken arm\\nis made most comfortable by placing it in a semi-flexed\\nposition upon a pillow; a broken leg, by gently extend-\\ning it to its full length and supporting it by pads on\\nboth sides. With a broken knee cap, the leg should be\\nelevated on an inclined plane, with a ngure-of-8 bandage\\nabout the knee. If one or more of the ribs are broken,\\napply a bandage firmly around the chest, to prevent mo-\\ntion, so far as possible. When a jaw-bone is broken, hold\\nthe parts in proper place by a bandage about the head.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 393\\nWhen the patient is to be removed, the necessary addi-\\ntional support to the broken bones may be obtained by\\nbinding on softly padded splints/ that is, shingles, pieces\\nof leather, sticks, or anything that can serve to hold the\\nbones quiet and, as nearly as possible, in normal position.\\nThe setting of a bone should be done by a surgeon.\\nWhen once the injured parts are adjusted, they should\\nnot be disturbed. 1\\nIn a case of dislocation, the bystanders should merely\\nmake the sufferer as comfortable as possible. The reduc-\\ntion of a dislocation should never be attempted by a\\nlayman, if a surgeon can be obtained.\\n417. Sprains 2 are bruised or torn ligaments, cartilages,\\nmuscles, and nerves about the joints, and are serious in-\\njuries.\\nTreatment. After such an injury, though apparently\\nslight, rest is necessary, and this may be temporarily\\nobtained by firmly, but gently, wrapping the part in\\ncloths or bandages dipped in hot or cold water, as the\\nfeelings of the person may indicate and the surround-\\n1 The process of repair in broken bones is similar to that witnessed in\\nthe healing of wounds of the soft parts. New, delicate material is abun-\\ndantly deposited between and about the ends of the broken pieces. This\\ngradually hardens to the consistency of bone, in the meantime decreasing\\nin size, so that very little deformity results if the broken bones have boon\\nkept well in place. The best surgeons are at times unable to prevent\\ndeformities, owing to the impossibility, in certain instances, of securing the\\nproper apposition and retention of the broken parts. An unprofessional\\nperson should not attempt to set a broken bone, if a surgeon can possibly\\nbe procured.\\n2 The terms sprain and strain essentially apply to the same conditions,\\nthough strain is sometimes used as meaning merely the result of stretch-\\ning of muscles.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "394 EMERGENCIES,\\nings admit. The surgeon may ultimately apply a proper\\nsplint.\\n418. Contusions or Bruises result from falls, blows, or\\npressure, and, if severe, are attended by shock, broken\\nblood-vessels, and crushed muscles and other tissues.\\nBlack and blue spots, which result from the oozing of\\nblood from injured blood-vessels, are largest where the\\ntissues are lax and contain little fat, such as the connec-\\ntive tissue under the skin of the scalp and eyelids. They\\nusually disappear after a few hours or days.\\nTreatment. Rest, relief from shock, the elevation of\\nthe bruised part so as to retard the flow of blood into it,\\nand the application of cloths wet with hot or cold water. 1\\n419. Wounds are generally classified as follows:\\nIncised wounds (i.e. cuts or incisions of various depths,\\nmade generally by sharp instruments), punctured wounds\\n(such as stabs, and pricks made by splinters, thorns, or\\nneedles), and poisoned wounds (such as the bites of snakes,\\nspiders, or rabid dogs). If the wounded part is very\\nmuch bruised, the wound is called a contused wound. If\\nthe skin and tissues beneath are much torn, it is a lacerated\\nwound.\\nWounds may be attended by more or less hemorrhage,\\nby pain, and b}^ the presence of dead or foreign matter,\\nviz., fibres of cloth, dirt, or coagulated blood.\\n1 Hot water hastens most quickly the disappearance of black and blue\\nspots, but cold water is also of value. Cloths may be wet in alcohol and\\nwater, equal parts, or in equal parts of alcohol, vinegar, and water, or in\\nwater to which has been added one-sixth part of tincture of arnica or\\nextract of witch hazel. Water dressings, if continued too long, lower the\\nvitality of the part, and should be replaced by a firm flannel bandage.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 395\\nTreatment. Ascertain the source and amount of the\\nbleeding, and do not be alarmed by the amount of the\\nclothing stained, for a small amount of blood will often\\nmake a large stain, and yet the source of the bleeding may\\nfrequently be controlled with ease. 1 When the wound is\\nlocated, the kind of hemorrhage will be apparent. If a\\nlarge artery has been cut across, the blood spirts. If,\\nfrom spontaneous coagulation, the blood has ceased to\\nflow, it may be well not to disturb the condition of things,\\nuntil removal of the patient to a better location but\\nremember that in the removal, if the person is jarred much,\\nbleeding may recur, and will need to be checked. To stop\\nexternal bleeding, pressure is of the first importance, then\\napplications of ice, hot water, tannin, or alum. If the bleed-\\ning is comparatively slight, or occurs in places where\\nthe bones are near the surface, as in the scalp and face,\\npressure may be applied to the wound by the fingers, or by\\na pad held firmly in place by a bandage. If severe, and\\nespecially if from an artery, pressure must be applied\\nbetween the wound and heart, by means of a pad bound\\nover the main artery. In the case of a limb, it should be\\nelevated, and the artery should be pressed upon above\\nthe wound, by a knot in a suspender or piece of cloth,\\nwhich is first tied about the limb and then twisted by\\n1 A surgeon relates the following: Was called one night to see a\\nwoman, reported to be bleeding to death. Found her in a close room,\\nsitting in a chair, with blood-stained carpet about her, ami. wrapped\\naround one of her legs, a sheet soaked in blood. Tearing this oft 1\\nfound a little stream of blood trickling from a small opening in a blood-\\nvessel, between the knee and the ankle. Pressure with the finger\\nreadily controlled the bleeding tor the time, and a properly applied\\nbandage accomplished the end afterward. Much anxiety, loss o\\\\ blood,\\nand injury to carpet might have been saved by a little coolness and\\nknowledge.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "396 EMERGENCIES.\\nmeans of a stick until the bleeding ceases. 1 This is\\ncalled a tourniquet.\\nWhen the bleeding is controlled, carefully remove dirt\\nor other foreign matter, and replace any organ which may\\nprotrude. Wash the wound and the parts about it with\\ncarbolic acid and water (one teaspoonful to a pint), con-\\ntaining a little glycerine, or with hot water, or with com-\\nmon salt and water, one tablespoonful of salt to a pint of\\nwater. The operator s hands should be cleansed previously\\nwith hot water and soap. These antiseptic precautions\\ninsure cleanliness and ward off dangers from bacteria.\\nAfter cleansing, dry the wound gently, and, if it is an\\nincised one, bring its edges together by strips of surgeons\\nadhesive plaster, parallel to each other, and from one-\\nhalf to one-fourth of an inch apart. Never cover the\\nentire wound with plaster, as some exit must be allowed\\nfor any oozing that may occur. The tourniquet may\\nnow be removed, if the proceeding be not attended with\\nrenewed bleeding, and a pad and bandage of clean, dry cloth\\nor of antiseptic gauze applied, to assist in keeping the strips\\nof plaster in position and to prevent secondary bleeding.\\nIf the wound is jagged and torn, so that the edges\\ncannot be brought together, replace the parts as nearly as\\npossible in their normal position. If there is a tendency\\nto bleeding, apply firmly clean cloths wet with carbolized\\nhot or cold water; if there is no such tendency, cleanse\\nthe wound, and apply dry dressing 2 with pressure.\\n1 The main artery of the arm runs along the inner edge of the promi-\\nnent muscle which stands out when the arm is strongly bent of the thigh,\\nalong its inner middle line. These arteries and other principal ones are\\noutlined in Fig. 62.\\n2 Dressings do not need to he removed for several days, unless they\\nbecome foul.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 397\\n420. Punctured Wounds are usually considered most\\ndangerous, on account of the bruising which generally\\naccompanies them, the injury to the deeper tissues, and\\nthe character of the sources of injury, rusty nails,\\npieces of shell, needles, splinters of wood, etc. If in the\\nsole of the foot or the palm of the hand, they may cause\\nlockjaw, and are sometimes followed by erysipelas and\\nother forms of inflammation whereas, the principal\\ndanger from an incised wound is hemorrhage.\\nTreatment. If the sources of the injury are still in the\\nwound, remove them. Thorns, needles, splinters, etc.,\\nshould not be left in the body, with the idea that they\\nwill work their way out. Poking at them, however, as\\nin the case of splinters, adds to the irritation already set\\nup. If a splinter is under the finger or toe nail, and can-\\nnot be pulled out, scrape the nail thin over the splinter,\\nuntil it can be easily cut and the splinter seized or make\\nan incision on each side of the foreign body, and remove\\nthe tongue of nail between. The skin and tissues of the\\npalm and the sole are so firm and dense that imprisoned\\nmatters cannot easily find exit, and lockjaw may result.\\nIt is important, therefore, that an incision should be made\\nover the foreign substances, so as to reach them easily\\nand to allow a free exit for blood, etc. The removal of\\nneedles, unless they are near the surface, had better not be\\nattempted by others than surgeons, as on being touched\\nthey readily slip between the fibres of muscles and connec-\\ntive tissues. If there is a tendency to such slipping, or\\nif the needle seems deeply buried, hold the part still till\\nthe surgeon comes.\\nWhen a fish-hook enters a part, and does not go through,\\npush the point through it possible, and then cut the barb\\noff and withdraw the remnant. It the barb cannot bo", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "398 EMERGENCIES.\\npushed through, cut down upon the hook and remove it.\\nIn these wounds, carbolized water dressings (one tea-\\nspoonful to a pint of water) are best. Pain mar be re-\\nlieved by the addition of laudanum (one tablespoonful to\\na pint of water).\\nPoisoned Wounds will be considered under the head of\\npoisons, p. 411.\\n421. Special Hemorrhages. Of these, the most common\\nand the least dangerous is bleeding from the nose. This\\nresults from falls, blows, or disease, or may be an effort\\nof nature to relieve internal congestion. Often it is pre-\\nceded by a feeling of weight, pain, and fulness about the\\nforehead.\\nTreatment. Ascertain if the blood escapes from one or\\nboth nostrils, then raise the arm on the affected side above\\nthe head, compress the nostrils, and apply cold to the\\nforehead or back of the neck. Frequently it is sufficient\\nif the patient remains quietly in a sitting posture. If the\\nbleeding continues and the perjon is faint, inject into the\\naffected nostril a syringeful of ice- water or solution of\\ncommon salt, or a weak solution of alum, or blow in some\\ntannin. The nostrils may be plugged by cotton dipped\\nin one of the above solutions. If blood still forces itself\\ninto the throat, and so out of the mouth, the case should\\nbe put in charge of a physician. In all forms of hemor-\\nrhage, the patient must be kept quiet in a cool room, and,\\nwhen faint from severe bleeding, in a recumbent posture,\\nwith the head lower than the body. Bleeding in the mouth\\nmay be relieved by pressure, or by one of the above styp-\\ntics. Blood coming from the stomach is usually dark in\\ncolor, and mingled with food. From the lungs, the blood,\\nis bright red and frothy, mixed with bubbles of air, and", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 399\\nis generally accompanied by a cough. For relief, try\\nquiet, a recumbent posture, ice and styptics internally, in\\nsmall quantities, so as not to induce vomiting cold may\\nbe applied over the region of the stomach. Bleeding\\nfrom the gum, after the extraction of a tooth, is sometimes\\nalarming but continued pressure in the socket with the\\ntip of the finger, or a piece of sponge, or a plug of wood\\nheld firmly in place by the jaws, is ordinarily sufficient.\\nWhen pressure, cold, and ordinary styptics will not con-\\ntrol hemorrhage, touching the bleeding spot with a red-hot\\nknitting-needle is of service.\\n422. Foreign Bodies. Pieces of bone, meat or other\\nfood, pins, false teeth, etc., sometimes lodge in the\\nlarynx, causing great difficulty in swallowing and breath-\\ning, and give rise to the feeling and danger of suffocation.\\nTreatment. A sharp blow upon the back, if given im-\\nmediately after the accident has occurred, will sometimes\\nassist the patient to eject the foreign body. If it fails,\\ninvert the patient, and move him from side to side, while\\nsome one strikes him between the shoulders with the open\\nhand; or lay him ou chairs, bed, or table, with the head\\nand upper part of the chest hanging over, and make sud-\\nden pressure on the back when he breathes out. If this\\nfails, and the foreign body cannot be dislodged by the\\nfinger introduced into the mouth, the surgeon is needed.\\nLittle children sometimes put peas, beans, shoe-buttons,\\npins, etc., into the nose or ears. Insects also enter\\nthese places. Small bodies may be removed from the ear\\nby syringing with tepid water, the nozzle of the syringe\\nbeing placed against the Tipper wall o( the ear canal,\\nand the auricle pulled upward and backward. Larger\\nbodies may be gently scooped out by a bent probe or", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "400 EMERGENCIES.\\nthe rounded end of a hair-pin, care being taken not to\\ninjure the drum membrane. Insects may be washed out,\\nafter being smothered with salt water or oil. If the for-\\neign body is in the nose, close both nostrils, take a full\\nbreath through the mouth, and then breathe out suddenly\\nand forcibly through the affected nostril. Sometimes\\nsneezing, induced by snuff, will dislodge it.\\nForeign bodies in the eye, if not removed promptly,\\ncause serious inflammation. Never rub the eye to dislodge\\nthem gently use a moist camel s-hair brush, or a piece of\\nwet cotton wrapped around a very small, smooth piece of\\nwood. Particles of steel or iron may be removed by a\\nmagnet. Sometimes it is difficult to see a minute particle,\\nunless a bright light falls directly upon the eye. The best\\nposition for the operator is to stand behind the chair of\\nthe patient, or a little to one side, steady the affected eye,\\nand keep the lids open with the fingers of the left hand\\nor, sitting in front of the patient, turn the upper lid\\ngently backward, over a lead-pencil, penholder, or firm\\ntoothpick. The lower lid is readily everted. A magni-\\nfying glass is of service, in detecting whether a supposed\\nparticle is one in reality, or merely a stain from a piece\\nof metal, or a natural discoloration. Eyestones are some-\\ntimes used to dislodge particles from under the eyelids\\nbut it is much better for the patient to take hold of the\\nlashes of the upper lid, raise it from the eyeball, and then\\nmove it firmly but gently over the loAver lid toward the\\ninner corner of the eye. The inflamed condition of the eye,\\nafter a foreign body has been in it, is generally relieved by\\na drop of olive oil or castor oil upon the eye, or by a gentle\\nbathing with hot water. Poultices or patented eye-washes\\nshould not be used. If the foreign matter is lime, bathe\\nthe eye with a weak solution of vinegar and water.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 401\\nPoisons.\\n423. Poisons may be classified as irritant, narcotic, and\\nacro-narcotic. The first act locally, upon the skin, air\\npassages, lungs, and alimentary canal. They cause pain\\nand inflammation, and may produce vomiting, or difficulty\\nin breathing or in swallowing. Substances whose local\\naction is very destructive are called corrosive poisons.\\nIrritant poisons include metallic poisons, such as copper\\nand mercury irritating gases and vegetable and animal\\nsubstances, such as cantharides, decayed meat, and poison-\\nous fish. The corrosive group comprises the strong acids,\\nsuch as sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and oxalic and alka-\\nlies, such as potash and ammonia, acid and alkaline salts,\\nand corrosive sublimate.\\nNarcotic poisons act remotely, i.e. through the blood and\\nnervous system, and produce delirium, convulsions, stupor,\\nor marked prostration. They include such substances as\\nopium, chloral, alcohol, belladonna, and aconite. Acro-\\nnarcotic poisons act both locally and remotely. They\\ninclude pinkroot, ergot, lobelia, etc., and the poisons in\\nvenomous bites and stings and virulent wounds. 1\\nSymptoms. Usually we suspect poisoning if a person is\\ntaken suddenly and violently ill, especially if there is great\\n1 A popular idea is that a poison is a substance which, taken in small\\namount, will destroy life. The fact is, there are varying degrees of sus-\\nceptibility to the action of a poisonous substance, and by the habitual use\\nof a substance large doses may often be taken with impunity. Some\\npersons are so susceptible that they cannot take even the most minute\\ndose of calomel without a resulting sore mouth, or of belladonna, without\\nits producing a dry throat and dilated pupils. Of the lower animals,\\nhogs, it is said, can eat henbane with impunity pheasants, stramonium\\ngoats, tobacco and water hemlock.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "402 EMERGENCIES.\\npain and repeated or severe retching or vomiting, and if it is\\nknown that the person has recently taken food or drink. 1 It\\nsometimes happens that severe colic from undigested food,\\nan attack of cholera morbus, the pain and distress refer-\\nable to heart disease, or the stupor due to apoplexy are\\nmistaken by the ignorant for symptoms of poisoning, and\\nthe patient is roughly and wrongly dealt with. To ascer-\\ntain whether a person has been poisoned, carefully examine\\nthe mouth, lips, and breath search the clothing and the\\nroom in which the poison is supposed to be. A person\\nwho has taken poison with intent to kill is likely to\\nprevaricate and destroy the evidence of the poison used.\\nSpasms, with more or less unconsciousness, indicate\\nstrychnine quiet, deep sleep, from which a person is not\\neasily aroused, and strongly contracted pupils indicate\\nopium stupor, with salivation, indicates mercury; inflam-\\nmation of the mouth, severe pain, retching, and vomit-\\ning indicate arsenic or other corrosive poison delirium\\nindicates belladonna, stramonium, or hyoscyamus; unusual\\nexcitement, with occasional stupor, indicates alcohol or\\nIndian hemp loss of muscular power, feeble pulse, great\\nprostration, paleness, and coldness of the skin indicate\\ntobacco, aconite, or digitalis bloated and livid face,\\n1 Poison may do its work slowly, if taken in small amount and\\nrepeatedly, and the patient may be thought to have a chronic dis-\\nease. Such poisons are called cumulative. Lead and arsenic are ex-\\namples.\\nDrugs and medicines containing poisonous ingredients, as chloroform,\\nopium, belladonna, fusel oil, etc., should not be left within the rea,ch of\\nlittle children or others likely to use them recklessly or without cause.\\nSuch things should be in bottles of a peculiar shape, and with peculiar\\ncolored labels. There is a great danger (which is constantly increasing)\\nin the indiscriminate use of powerful medicines without the advice of a\\nphysician.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 403\\nlimbs contracted, and head thrown back indicate the\\nsuffocative gases. 1\\nTreatment. In most cases of poisoning, we are to en-\\ndeavor 1. To get the poison out of the body, by\\nencouraging vomiting. 2. To neutralize, or render inert,\\nby means of antidotes, what cannot be removed. These\\nact mechanically, chemically, and by reason of their\\nphysiological properties. 3. To combat any dangerous\\nsymptoms that have arisen, and to obviate their effects\\nby means of stimulants, artificial respiration, and by\\nexciting the action of the skin, kidneys, and bowels.\\nFirst, to remove the poison as quickly as possible from\\nthe body, emetics should be given. Give at least every fif-\\nteen minutes, until vomiting is produced, copious draughts\\nof warm water or other drinks, or one pint of warm water\\nwith a teaspoonful of mustard, 2 well stirred in. Tickling\\nthe throat with a feather assists the act of vomiting. If\\nthe person will not swallow readily, close the nostrils with\\nthe thumb and finger, while the emetic is given. If neces-\\nsary, pry the mouth open, depressing the tongue with the\\nhandle of a strong spoon, a clothespin, or a stick. By press-\\ning on the jaws at their joints, the mouth will be forced\\nopen.\\nSecond, to neutralize or render inert what cannot be\\nremoved, antidotes should be given. Examples of chemical\\nneutralizing substances are weak acids (lemon juice or\\ndiluted vinegar), to be used when the poisons are such\\n1 Alcoholics may hide the common symptoms of poisoning. The\\nprofound sleep of some intoxicated persons resembles closely the sloop\\nproduced by opium.\\n2 The mustard should be thoroughly mixed with the water, lost some\\nof it may cling to the lining ol the stomach and excite Inflammation.\\nThe stomach pump should be used by physicians only.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "404 EMERGENCIES.\\nalkalies as lime, potash, etc. and, on the other hand,\\nalkalies, such as lime-water, weak soda-water, and soap-\\nsuds, to neutralize acid poisoning. Common salt, with\\nmilk and the white of an egg, should be opposed to nitrate\\nof silver, verdigris, and corrosive sublimate. A fresh\\npreparation of iron, formed by precipitating tincture of\\nchloride of iron with a larger amount of ammonia, is an\\nantidote for arsenic and metallic poisons generally. Bel-\\nladonna is an example of a physiological antidote. It\\ndilates the pupil of the eye, in opposition to opium, which\\ncontracts it. Coffee is a valuable physiological antidote\\nto opium, its tendency being to excite, and to overcome\\nstupefaction. Mechanical antidotes, i.e. such as allay\\nirritation, are olive oil, milk, flour and water (in a thin\\npaste), chalk mixtures, castor oil, mucilage, flaxseed tea,\\nthe white of egg and water, and, in case of strychnine\\npoisoning, charcoal mingled with water. They serve to\\ncoat over the irritated mucous membrane, and thus pro-\\ntect it.\\nSpecific Poisons,\\nirritant and corrosive poisons.\\n424. If the poison taken is knoivn to be a corrosive one.\\nomit emetics, and give antidotes immediately.\\n1. Acids. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Sulphuric (oil of vitriol), nitric (aqua fortis),\\nhydrochloric or muriatic, oxalic, carbolic, 1 acetic, etc. The\\nfirst three of the above are much used in certain factories,\\nphotographing establishments, etc., and are sometimes left\\ncarelessly about. Oxalic acid (frequently used to polish\\n1 Carbolic acid, so called, is not properly an acid.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 405\\nkitchen boilers) is sometimes taken by mistake for Epsom\\nsalts, which it resembles in appearance.\\nAntidotes. Baking soda, borax, chalk, magnesia, wall\\nplaster, or saleratus, mixed with water; lime-water; soap-\\nsuds; oil in large amount; followed by mucilaginous drinks,\\nand stimulants, if necessary. When sulphuric acid has\\nbeen taken, it should be quickly diluted by a free use of\\nice water.\\n2. Alkalies and their Salts. Soda; ammonia (water of\\nammonia, muriate of ammonia, or sal ammoniac); potassa\\n(caustic potash in sticks and lumps) has been mistaken\\nby children for candy; lye; liquor potassae, a clear, liquid\\nmedicine; pearlash, or carbonate of potash; nitrate of potash,\\nor saltpetre, used in corning beef, has been mistaken for\\npurgative salts chlorate of potash, a common remedy for\\nsore throat, has been used unwittingly in large and poi-\\nsonous doses binoxalate of potash has been taken by\\nmistake for cream of tartar.\\nAntidotes. Vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon\\njuice, citric and tartaric acid in solution fixed oils,\\ncastor, linseed, olive, cod-liver, machine, which form soaps\\nand so prevent caustic effects; mucilaginous drinks, es-\\npecially when saltpetre has been taken.\\n3. Metallic Substances. Antimony. In tartar emetic\\nand wine of antimony an ingredient of pewter, Britan-\\nnia, and type metal; oxide of antimony.\\nAntidotes. Assist the distressing vomiting by draughts\\nof tepid water, flaxseed tea, or sugar water; give a cup of\\nstrong, green tea.\\nArsenic. An ingredient of paris green (used to destroy\\ninsects among plants); of orpiment, a yellow paint: of real-", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "406 EMERGENCIES.\\ngar, a red paint; of arsenite of copper, or Scheele s green;\\nused in some brightly colored artificial flowers, wall papers,\\ncandy boxes, and kindergarten papers; in fly powders, rat\\npastes; in the stuffing of birds; by enamellers; and in\\na number of medicinal preparations. Arsenic, as ordina-\\nrily obtained in the shops, is a fine, white powder, and\\nmay be mistaken for sugar or some equally harmless sub-\\nstance.\\nAntidotes. Freshly prepared oxide of iron (to be ob-\\ntained at a drug store); give one teaspoonful every few\\nminutes. Dialyzed iron, moistened charcoal, plaster, and\\ncalcined magnesia are other antidotes. Encourage vomit-\\ning. Allay irritation.\\nCopper. Found in some cooking utensils; in the alloys,\\nbronze, brass, bell metal, german silver, etc. in sulphate\\nof copper, or blue vitriol; in acetate of copper, or verdi-\\ngris. Poisoning has occurred from pickles made green by\\ncopper from the use of colored confectionery from the\\nwrappers of farinaceous foods; from inferior filling for\\nthe teeth and, in the workshops of some trades, from\\ncopper dust.\\nAntidotes. Milk; white of eggs; a quarter-teaspoonful\\nof baking soda in water, every five minutes for half an\\nhour. Allay irritation.\\nIodine. Ordinary tincture of iodine; in some liniments.\\nAntidotes. Boiled starch and water boiled or baked\\npotatoes.\\nIron. Copperas, green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, used\\nin lotions and as a disinfectant.\\nAntidotes. Baking soda and mucilaginous drinks.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 407\\nLead. In the acetate or sugar of lead, often used as an\\napplication to sores or as an eye-wash 1 in white lead\\nand red oxide used by painters in some hair-dyes in\\nwater kept in leaden vessels or pipes in wines sweetened\\nby lead in tin foil covering of tobacco and farinaceous\\nfoods in pickle jars with metal tops in newly painted\\nrooms. It sometimes poisons the makers and users of\\nglazed cards, japan ware, cosmetics, lead type, or tin spoons.\\nAntidotes. Strong solution of Epsom or Glauber s salts,\\nor emetics.\\nMercury. Bichloride of mercury, or corrosive sublimate,\\nused in solution as a medicine, as an ingredient of lotions,\\nand for the destruction of vermin in red oxide, or red\\nprecipitate, and the white precipitate upon looking-\\nglasses in the preservation of stuffed birds and animals.\\nIt is corrosive.\\nAntidotes. White of eggs flour beaten up with milk\\nand water.\\nPhosphorus. An ingredient of many rat poisons. Chil-\\ndren have been poisoned by eating these, and by sucking\\nmatches. The vapor in match factories is a source of\\npoison.\\nAntidotes. Large quantities of magnesia or chalk in\\nwater; plaster; milk of magnesia; white of eggs. Avoid\\nfatty substances.\\nSilver. Lunar caustic or nitrate of silver, an ingredient\\nof hair-dyes used in solution as a lotion some forms used\\nin photography and the trades.\\n1 Eye-washes containing lead are apt to cause opacity of the eye,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "408 EMERGENCIES.\\nAntidotes. One to two teaspoonfuls of salt in a tumbler\\nof water decomposes the poison and arrests its activity.\\nAllay irritation.\\nTin. In some dyeing substances in poor cans for the\\npreservation of food.\\nAntidotes. See Copper, p. 406.\\nZinc. Sulphate of zinc or white vitriol, used in lotions;\\nchloride of zinc in disinfectants.\\nAntidotes. Bicarbonate of soda in water milk and\\nwhite of eggs. Vomiting relieved by copious draughts of\\nwarm water.\\n4. Gases. Chlorine, a suffocative gas, used in trades\\nand chemical experiments carbonic oxide (stove gas),\\nfrom incomplete combustion in stoves and furnaces car-\\nbon dioxide (choke damp), in deep wells, cisterns, vats,\\nclosed cellars, mines, sewers, etc. sulphuretted hydrogen\\n(odor of decaying eggs), a subtle poison, found wherever\\nthere is putrefaction, in cesspools, sewers, and outhouses\\nilluminating gas, etc.\\nAntidotes. Fresh, pure air dashes of cold water upon\\nthe face inhalation of vapor of ammonia artificial\\nrespiration.\\n5. Animal and Vegetable Poisons. Poisonous fish: conger-\\neel, bladder fish, gray snapper, etc. some shell-fish.\\nAntidotes. Emetics; emollients; strong purgatives; stim-\\nulants.\\nCroton oil, a violent purgative, also used in liniments,\\nmay be mistaken for a harmless oil poke berries oil of\\ntansy; beans of castor -oil plant wild parsnip oleander;", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 409\\nmarsh marigold cantharides, or Spanish Fly colchicum,\\nused frequently in rheumatic medicines, etc.\\nAntidotes. After vomiting, give strong coffee, or vinegar\\nand water mucilaginous drinks stimulants.\\nNARCOTIC POISONS.\\n425. Opium, in laudanum, paregoric, cordials, powders,\\nmany liniments, soothing syrups, cholera mixtures, etc., is\\na particularly active poison in the very young and the old.\\nAntidotes. Strong coffee aromatic spirits of ammonia\\n(fifteen drops every fifteen minutes till the patient re-\\ncovers) electricity cold douches slapping of the surface\\nby hands or wet towels. Keep the patient -moving if in-\\nclined to sleep, and, if possible, in the open air.\\nBelladonna (deadly nightshade) in ointments, liniments,\\nand lotions. Its active principle, atropia, is used in\\nsolution by oculists as an application to the eye. The\\nleaves and berries of the plant are sometimes eaten by\\nchildren.\\nAntidotes. Cold douches brandy paregoric, fifteen\\ndrops, or laudanum, five drops, with care, every quarter\\nof an hour, with large doses of lime-water; electricity.\\nHemlock. Five varieties are said to be poisonous, and\\nall parts of the plant. The roots of the water hemlock are\\nsometimes mistaken for parsnips. One variety (fool s\\nparsley) is sometimes mistaken for ordinary parsley. The\\nhemlock is common, and grows in hedges and wild places.\\nAntidotes. Aromatic spirits of ammonia. If much pain\\nand vomiting, ten grains of bromide o( potassium every\\nhalf -hour, or hour, as the case demands.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "410 EMERGENCIES.\\nStramonium (thorn-apple, Jimson or Jamestown weed).\\nFound along roadsides, and near fences in out-of-the-\\nway places. Blossoms, capsules, and seeds are poisonous,\\nif eaten.\\nAntidotes. Same as for Belladonna, p. 409.\\nStrychnine, as sold in the shops, is a white powder bought\\nfrequently to poison animals is an ingredient of tincture\\nof mix vomica.\\nAntidotes. Chloroform, or ether, inhaled to relieve spasm\\ncold douches aromatic ammonia camphor spirits bro-\\nmide of sodium, five grains every half hour rectal injec-\\ntion of an infusion of tobacco artificial respiration.\\nPrussic Acid. Hydrocyanic acid, used in a dilute form,\\nmedicinally; cyanide of potassium, used to kill moths,\\nbutterflies, etc. in laurel water the meat of peach, cherry,\\nplum, and almond pits, if freely eaten.\\nAntidotes. See Gases, page 408.\\nChloroform and Chloral, both too often used indiscrimi-\\nnately and recklessly by people at large.\\nAntidotes. Slapping of body, cold douches, stimulants,\\nelectricity, artificial respiration.\\nDigitalis (foxglove), a garden plant. Its extract used\\nmedicinally.\\nAntidotes. Same as for Belladonna, p. 409.\\nHyoscyamus (henbane), used medicinally.\\nAntidotes. Same as for Belladonna, p. 409.\\nAlcohol, used repeatedly, even in the so-called moderate\\namount, is sometimes a slow poison. In larger amount,\\nespecially in the young or feeble, it has caused acute", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 411\\npoisoning, and even death. Wood spirits, i.e. wood alco-\\nhol, used as a solvent of gum, and sometimes in liniments,\\nis more poisonous, if taken internally, than ordinary\\nalcohol.\\nAntidotes. In acute poisoning, emetics, cold douches,\\ncoffee, aromatic spirits of ammonia, and slapping the soles\\nof the feet.\\nACRO-NARCOTIC POISONS.\\n426. Venomous Bites and Stings. Treatment. In case\\nof snake bite, or that of an animal supposed to be mad,\\ntie a string or handkerchief tightly about the limb just\\nabove the bite then suck the wound, or encourage the\\nblood to flow by means of a cupping-glass. Wash out the\\nwound with warm water and rub thoroughly into it a\\npiece of nitrate of silver, or paint it with undiluted car-\\nbolic acid, or press into it, for a moment, the end of a red-\\nhot knitting-needle. When poisoned by a snake, use alco-\\nholic stimulants freely. Sometimes the bite of a human\\nbeing is very dangerous.\\nWhen stung by bees, wasps, scorpions, etc., extract the\\nstinger by fingers, small forceps, or pressing about it\\nwith the barrel end of a watch key then apply spirits of\\nammonia, saleratus water, or mud.\\nPoisoned Wounds Infectious Diseases. The contact of\\nthe skin (especially if it is broken) with decomposing\\nsubstances, poisonous cards, utensils, etc., or o( the\\nmucous membrane with matter secreted from diseased\\nsurfaces, has produced diseases from which persons have\\ndied.\\nTreatment Stimulants internally, and mild applications\\nexternally, till the doctor comes.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "412 EMERGENCIES.\\nPOISONOUS PLANTS, i\\n427. Fatal cases of poisoning are usually among children,\\nin the spring of the year, when they search for green things,\\nand too frequently dare each other to eat of plants they\\nfind. Conium is mistaken for sweet cicely, poke roots for\\nartichokes, blue flag for sweet flag, kalmia leaves for\\nwintergreen, and hellebore for marsh marigold. Children\\nshould be taught the difference between poisonous and\\nnon-poisonous plants.\\nWater Hemlock. 2 Every part is poisonous, if eaten,\\nespecially the root grows in lowlands, and resembles\\nparsley.\\nPoison Hemlock (Conium). Seeds mistaken for anise\\nroot poisonous if eaten, especially in late spring.\\nBlack Nightshade. Clusters of white flowers, followed\\nby black, round berries should not be eaten neither\\nshould the red berries of the bitter-siveet.\\nCoke, or Scoke. The root is poisonous, if eaten.\\nThe Lobelias are poisonous; viz., the cardinal flower with\\ntall spike of red flowers, the large lobelia with blue blos-\\nsoms, and Indian tobacco.\\n1 Most of these act both as irritants and narcotics, but the narcotic\\neffect depends largely on the amount absorbed by the skin or mucous\\nmembrane.\\nFor stramonium, hemlock, and belladonna, see narcotic poisons.\\n2 Cowbane, spotted parsley, muskrat weed, beaver poison, and wild\\nparsnip are common names for water hemlock.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 413\\nToadstools. Three varieties are particularly poisonous.\\nSometimes mistaken for edible mushrooms.\\nMushrooms. Poisonous mushrooms, according to Chris-\\ntison, are recognized by their dark color acrid, bitter\\ntaste pungent odor and by the fact that they generally\\ngrow in dark, damp places. 1 The edible have gills at first\\ndelicate pink, afterward purple and tawny black stem\\nwhite, full, firm, varying in shape, with a white, persistent\\nring. They must be sought for in the open fields. The\\nbest kinds have a peculiar, easily recognized odor.\\nAconite (monkshood, wolfsbane). Preparations of\\nleaves and roots are used medicinally, internally, and in\\nliniments. Preparations of the root are several times\\nstronger than those of the leaves. The plant has been\\nmistaken for the horse-radish. This poison produces pecul-\\niar numbness, or tingling sensations in the mouth, throat,\\nand skin.\\nMezereon. A garden shrub having bright red berries,\\nsometimes eaten by mistake for currants.\\n1 On the subject of distinguishing poisonous species, Mr. Cooke says\\nthat there is no golden rule which will enable us to tell at a glance the\\ngood species from the bad. The only safe guide lies in mastering, one by\\none, the specific distinctions, and increasing the knowledge through ex-\\nperience, as a child learns to distinguish a filbert from an acorn, or a loaf\\nof sorrel from one of white clover. The characters of half a dozen good,\\nesculent species, he says, may be learned as easily as the ploughboy\\nlearns to discriminate as many species of birds, lie tolls us. moreover,\\nthat it is not enough to avoid poisonous species, but that discretion should\\nbe used in preparing and eating good ones. They change so rapidly that\\neven the cultivated mushroom, if long kept, is unfit for use. Nor is it\\nenough that they be of good species and fresh but plenty of salt must be\\nused in their preparation, to neutralize any deleterious property, and\\npepper and vinegar are also recommended as advantageous. 1 Popular\\nScience Monthly.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "414 EMERGENCIES.\\nSpurred Rye, or Ergot. In medicines; sometimes care-\\nlessly ground with rye into flour.\\nPoison Sumac poison dogwood, poison elder is\\nbetween a shrub and a tree, found in moist places all of\\nits parts are poisonous. 1\\nFruits. Do not eat berries of the bitter-sweet, black\\nnightshade, buckthorn, poke, baneberry, leather wood,\\nyews, juniper, red elderberry, privet, English ivy, wahoo,\\nor daphne.\\nSeeds. Do not eat the seeds of stramonium, corn-cockle,\\ncastor-oil plant, black cherry, foxglove, saffron, or mul-\\nlein, or the common horse-chestnut, or red buckeye.\\nFlowers. Do not eat those of stramonium, laurel,\\nstagger-bush, elder, locust, or lily of the valley.\\nTreatment for above Acro-narcotic Poisons. Allay ir-\\nritation by drinking milk, olive oil, mucilage, etc.\\nOvercome narcotic effects by fresh air, stimulants, cold\\ndouches, electricity, artificial respiration.\\n428. Certain plants are poisonous to the touch, some per-\\nsons being more susceptible than others.\\nThe Poison Ivy is very common, grows along the ground,\\nor clings to stones, stumps, fences, or trees. It is dis-\\ntinguished from the harmless woodbine or Virginia\\nx For further information as to poisonous plants, see Report of New\\nJersey Agricultural Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 135, and Principal\\nPoisonous Plants of the United States, Bulletin No. 20, Department of\\nAgriculture, Division of Botany.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "EMERGENCIES. 415\\ncreeper, which often grows with it, by having three\\nleaflets together, instead of five, as has the latter vine.\\nAll parts of the plant are poisonous, especially its juice.\\nThick gloves should be worn when working where it is.\\nTreatment. Wash poisoned spot with alcohol and water,\\nthen keep applied cloths saturated with lime water, butter-\\nmilk, a strong solution of sulphite of soda, or iodide of\\npotassium.\\nPoison Dogwood is more poisonous to many persons than\\npoison ivy. Treatment same as for ivy poison.\\nThe Stramonium Plant, when touched, sometimes inflames\\nthe skin. Treatment same as for ivy poison.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX.\\nReferences are to page and section of text. In the text, reference to these\\nnotes is made by letters.\\nPage 11, 11 (a). Divine and Wholesome Discontent. I\\nwould make men and women discontented, with the divine and whole-\\nsome discontent, at their own physical frame and at that of their children.\\nI would accustom their eyes to those precious heirlooms of the human\\nrace, the statues of the old Greeks to their tender grandeur, their chaste\\nhealthfulness, their unconscious, because perfect, might and say,\\nThere these are tokens to you, and to all generations yet unborn, of\\nwhat man could be once of what he can be again if he will obey those\\nlaws of nature which are the voice of God. I would make them discon-\\ntented with the ugliness and closeness of their dwellings I would make\\nthe men discontented with the fashion of their garments, and still more\\njust now the women, of all ranks, with the fashion of theirs and with\\neverything around them which they have the power of improving, if it\\nbe at all ungraceful, superfluous, tawdry, ridiculous, unwholesome.\\nCanon Charles Kingsley, Health and Education.\\nPage 11, 11 (b). Deaths in Armies, in War Times, from Sick-\\nness and Wounds. The losses through sickness in war times are\\ngreat, even in temperate climates. During the Crimean War, when the\\nAnglo-Franco-Sardinian forces reached the total of 428,000 men. there\\nwere 302,000 sick, 09,200 of whom died. Only 0200 soldiers died from\\nwounds. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71. out of 200,000 Germans\\nsurrounding Metz, 130,000 were in hospitals and out of a total number\\nof 295,000 sick men taken care of in German hospitals, only 88,000 wore\\nthere on account of wounds received on the battle-field. The total number\\nof German soldiers sick or wounded amounted to 812,000 men. Accord-\\ning to the statistics of the American Civil War, the number who were\\nkilled in battle and died from wounds was 93,969. Those who died from\\ndisease numbered 180, 210. The deaths reported in the Spanish- American\\n417", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "418 APPENDIX.\\nWar, among United States soldiers, from May 1, 1898, to April 30, 1899,\\nwas 6406. Of these, 5438 were from disease 968 soldiers were killed in\\nbattle, or died of wounds, injuries, and accidents.\\nPage 43, 37 Habits of Posture modify the Shape. Every\\noccupation presents temptations to the body to acquire a habit of posture\\nwhich, in time, modifies the shape of the individual. The woman who\\nsews by hand acquires a low right shoulder while the one who habitu-\\nally uses a machine, upon which both arms rest, tends to become high-\\nshouldered with symmetrical body lines. The man who stands at a desk\\nwith arms supported, in time assumes the same shape. The sailor who\\nclimbs the masts, acquires a similar shape, although in a different way.\\nThe man of letters, with head forward and chin depressed, elongates his\\ncervico-occipital muscles, so that at middle life we recognize him without\\ndifficulty. The drug and dry goods clerk, if right-handed, works with\\nleft foot thrown to the side and body to the right both arms in front of\\nthe hip line. The resultant shape we are all familiar with, if at all\\nobservant. The horse-car driver, as he stands with his right hand on the\\nbrake and left on the dash-board, acquires a left foot twist in accord-\\nance with this posture. The truck-driver, who sits with arms forward\\nholding his reins, is a characteristic figure. The man who digs the street,\\nthe bricklayer, and the hod-carrier all assume, in time, their own trade-\\nmark. Prof. Eliza M. Mosher, The Influence of Habitual Posture\\non the Symmetry and Health of the Body.\\nPage 54, 48 (a). The Human Hand. We ought to define the\\nhand as belonging exclusively to man, corresponding in sensibility and\\nmotion with that ingenuity which converts the being who is the weakest\\nin natural defence to the ruler over animate and inanimate nature.\\nAs Galen long since observed Did man possess the natural armor of the\\nbrutes, he would no longer work as an artificer, nor protect himself with\\na breastplate, nor fashion a sword or spear, nor invent a bridle to mount\\nthe horse and hunt the lion neither could he follow the arts of peace,\\nconstruct the pipe and lyre, erect houses, place altars, inscribe laws, and,\\nthrough letters, hold communication with the wisdom of antiquity. But\\nthe hand is not a distinct instrument nor is it properly a superadded\\npart. The whole frame must conform to the hand, and act with reference\\nto it. Dr. Bell, The Hand.\\nPage 57, 51 (a). Importance of Conjoint Action of Muscles.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe state of equilibration between the muscles performing opposite\\nkinds of movements may be readily illustrated by the part played", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 419\\nby the muscles placed before and behind the spine, in maintaining the\\nerect posture of the body. The position is kept up without effort, with-\\nout even consciousness, by the healthy man whose muscles are well bal-\\nanced and in good tone. It may be, however, that the same man, after\\na long day s work over a desk in an ill-ventilated city office, no longer\\npresents that supreme unconsciousness of his muscles and their action,\\nand the stoop of his shoulders and bent head demonstrate to others that\\nthe balance is no longer kept, that the tonicity of the morning has passed\\noff, and the wearied muscles are no longer on the watch. And so it is\\nwhen, in sleep, the muscles are relaxed and gravity asserts its force, so\\nthat the head falls forward by its own weight, no longer restrained by\\nthe passive counteraction of its extensor muscles. So little is the\\neffort required to keep the body erect, that it is a sign rather of weakness\\nthan strength in any one who exercises an effort to do this. This may\\nseem paradoxical, but it is nevertheless the case and he who walks bolt\\nupright, with his chin in the air and his back as rigid as a plank, is often\\nnot a strong, but a weak man. Dr. Sidney Coupland, Personal\\nAppearances {Health Primer).\\nPage 63, 58 (a). Time to be allotted to Sleep. Where\\nattempts have been made by literary characters to assign a proper\\nperiod for sleep, they have either been guided by their known capabili-\\nties, or by what they have esteemed themselves capable of effecting or\\nthey have been led, in their ignorance of physiology, into Utopian con-\\nsiderations regarding the time wasted, as they conceive, in rest. How\\nelse can we account for the idea of Jeremy Taylor, that three hours only\\nin the twenty-four should be devoted to sleep In an equally arbitrary\\nmanner, Baxter fixes on four hours, Wesley on six, and Lord Coke on\\nseven. So much depends on the constitution and habits of individuals,\\nthat if some were restricted to the period allotted to Baxter, or Taylor\\nespecially, their lives could not fail to pay the forfeit. Men of active\\nminds, whose attention is engaged in a series of interesting employ-\\nments, sleep much less than the lazy and listless. It is probable that, in\\nthese cases, sleep is more intense. Dr. Robley Dunglison, Human\\nHealth.\\nPage 69, 02 (a). The Value of Physical Education to Students.\\nProfessor Edward Hitchcock says of the work accomplished at Amherst\\nCollege: Prom the beginning oi the existence of the department of\\nphysical education in Amherst College it has never been the desire to\\ndevelop the muscular system at the expense of any other part of the body.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "420 APPENDIX.\\nas is too often understood to be the meaning of physical education or train-\\ning. This department was not created, nor has it been developed, for the\\npurpose of extraordinary attention to the muscular system. Its sole object\\nhas been to keep the bodily health up to the normal standard, so that the\\nmind may accomplish the most work, and to preserve the bodily powers\\nin full activity for both the daily duties of college and the promised labor\\nof a long life. Indeed, in that particular, the precept of Cicero has been\\nliterally followed, namely, that bodily exercise should have for its chief\\nobject the development of a capacity for rational work. At the same time,\\nit has been equally desired that the so-called exercises of this department\\nshould be mentally as well as physically enjoyed by the students, and not\\nbe made a tedious, mechanical, or heavy drill. The results accom-\\nplished by this department in Amherst College lead its government to\\ncontinue its existence, and sustain it on a par with the others.\\nDr. D. A. Sargent, Professor of Physical Training at Harvard, in\\na paper read before the American Public Health Association, says:\\nStudents enter college trained in mind but not in body and where one\\nfails for want of mental ability, ten break down for want of physical\\nstamina. Many are short in stature for their age, or tall and slender,\\nwith a deficiency of muscular strength. Under an appropriate system of\\nphysical training, however, they make most rapid advancement, showing\\nthat their bodies had been kept in arrears, while their brains were devel-\\noped. Many are ignorant of the first principles of physiology and\\nhygiene, and leave school with acquired defects which are past remedying,\\nbut which a little appropriate knowledge and training could have obviated.\\nNot infrequently the students who stood the highest in the preparatory\\nschools are taken with a sort of mental dyspepsia after entering college,\\nand devote most of their energies to physical exercises. This is invariably\\nthe case where the preparatory training has been forced and unnatural.\\nPage 69, 63 (a). Cramp and Palsy from Overuse of One Set of\\nMuscles. A form of palsy, sometimes known as hammer palsy, occurs\\nfrom the continuous use of the hammer in scissors-making and forging of\\nknife-blades, 100 blows, it is said, being necessary to forge one blade. In\\none day a good operator will make 24 dozen blades. Tailor s palsy,\\nmilker s cramp, and writer s cramp are instances of the overuse\\nof certain muscles. In regard to writer s cramp, Dr. George M. Beard\\nstates, after an examination of 125 cases, that it is far less likely to\\noccur in those who do original work, as authors, journalists, composers,\\nthan in those who do routine work, as clerks, book-keepers, copyists,\\nagents, etc.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 421\\nPage 70, 64 (a). Some of the Results of Improper Muscular\\nExercise. Every year a number of middle-aged men, who for years or\\nmonths have been engaged in the sedentary occupation of a profession, of\\nliterature, or of business, at the commencement of the autumn holidays\\nstart for the Continent or the Highlands, and suddenly undertake immense\\nfatigue in the ascent of Alpine heights, or the no less laborious work of a\\nday on the moors, without the least preparation. So also we see, every\\nbank holiday, crowds of young men starting off for some tremendous\\nwalk, or bucket up the river, utterly unprepared for the task they\\nundertake. Is it to be wondered at that men return complaining that\\ntheir holiday has done them no good that, instead of vigor, they complain\\nof exhaustion that their appetite fails them, their nights are sleepless,\\ntheir limbs ache, and they are jaded and spiritless It is the evils pro-\\nduced from this erratic athleticism that give rise to the formidable indict-\\nments that from time to time have been urged against vigorous exercise\\nand the pursuit of manly sports, which, if properly managed and under-\\ntaken systematically, are really the foundation of really healthy life.\\nDr. C. H. Ralfe, Exercise and Training (Health Primer).\\nPage 72, 67 {a). Why Young Women should have Muscular\\nExercise. It has been my privilege, for more than twenty-five years,\\nto be intimately associated with young women, either as teacher in the\\nschoolroom in the earlier years, or as medical practitioner, or teacher of\\nhygiene, during the latter ones, and every day s added experience only\\nconfirms me in the position I have occupied from the first relative to the\\nvarious forms of nervousness which characterize our sex. That position\\naffirms that the best possible balance for a weak nervous system is a well-\\ndeveloped muscular system. Weak, shaky, hysterical nerves always ac-\\ncompany soft, flabby muscles and it is a mournful fact that the majority\\nof the young women whom I meet in schools are notably deficient in\\nmuscular development. 1 Dr. Mary J. Studley.\\nPage 72, \u00c2\u00a767 (6). Housework as Exercise. Too many house-\\nkeepers believe that their indoor work affords sufficient exercise for\\nthem. Undoubtedly housework, if conscientiously performed, does\\nexercise nearly all the muscles of the body. But it should not take\\nthe place of brisk, daily out-door walking, with its consequent inhalation\\nof fresh air and thorough expansion of the lungs. It has boon estimated\\nthat proper exercise for women should be equal to a walk o( six miles per\\nday. Average housework exerts as much muscular force as would be\\nexpended in walking two and a halt* miles, thus leaving a margin of three", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "422 APPEXDIX.\\nand a half miles for the daily walk. English women frequently walk\\neight to nine miles. Unfortunately, some housekeepers endeavor to do\\nmore daily work than a walk of eight to nine miles per day would repre-\\nsent. They seldom go into the open air or take any other recreation, and\\nsooner or later break down.\\nPage 73, 69 (a). Kinds of Exercise.\\nGood Effects of Certain Forms of Exercise. Dancing is a\\ncheerful and useful exercise, but has the disadvantage of being used\\nwithin doors, in confined air, and often in dusty rooms and at most un-\\nseasonable hours. Practised in the open air, and in the daytime, as is com-\\nmon in France, dancing is certainly an invigorating pastime but in heated\\nrooms, and at late hours, it is the reverse, as these do more harm than can\\nbe compensated by the healthful exercise of the dance. Dr. Combe.\\nFive minutes of pretty brisk exercise on the bars, or with dumb-bells,\\nor in any other moderate way, repeated several times during the morning,\\nwill have a wonderfully good effect in promoting full respiration, purify-\\ning the blood, and in nourishing the muscular system. The writer often\\npicks up a chair, or any other moderate weight at hand, and after five\\nminutes play therewith, over the head or otherwise, can feel that the\\nmuscles of the arm have in that short time secured an extra supply of\\nblood, which tends at once to nourish them, and to diffuse and equalize\\nthe circulation. Dr. Richard McSherry, Popular Science Monthly.\\nIt is surprising how short a period of vigorous exercise, daily, will\\ndevelop an approach to the maximum of muscular power. I\\nbelieve that one hour a day of vigorous exercise, with proper attention to\\ndiet, will efficiently train a well-formed and healthy man for any reason-\\nable feat of strength or endurance. Dr. Austin Flint, Jr., The Source\\nof Muscular Power.\\nBicycle Riding. The bicycle as a means of training the body in\\nhabits of correct poise, and of strengthening the holding power of muscles,\\nis a force the value of which can scarcely be overestimated. Like all\\ngood things, however, it must be used with discretion, if it is to do the\\ngood work for mankind which it so richly promises. The upright posture\\non the bicycle offers to the body exhilarating exercise with every organ\\nand most of the muscles in normal position, and with an expenditure of\\nforce within the limits of ordinarily healthy individuals the stooping\\nposture, fast riding, and long hill climbing should of course be avoided.\\nProf. Eliza M. Mosher.\\nBicycle Riding vs. Horseback Riding. Bicycle riding has certain\\nadvantages over the present style of horseback riding. When women", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 423\\nget into the habit of riding part of the time with the stirrup on the right\\nside and part with the stirrup on the left, one objection to the spinal ro-\\ntation and the un symmetrical development will be overcome, and it is to\\nbe presumed that eventually they will all ride astride as their great-grand-\\nmothers did before the days of Elizabeth. The expense (of horseback\\nriding) precludes this form of exercise for most women. Cheapness,\\nsafety, accessibility, and the small amount of preparation required are\\nall on the side of the wheel. Dr. R. L. Dickinson.\\nPage 77, 75 (a). Strength and Elasticity of Skin. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The strength\\nof the connective tissue of the skin is best illustrated by the tension it\\nwill bear without breaking, as seen in one of the rites followed among\\nIndians in testing the bravery and endurance of candidates who aspire to\\nbe chiefs. One end of a rope is attached to a pole fastened in the ground,\\nthe other to a sharp stick run through the skin of the chest of the candidate.\\nHis aim is to then circle about the pole until the stick is torn out. An ob-\\nserver writes that he has seen the skin pulled out to a distance of eight or\\nten inches before tearing. The elasticity of the connective tissue of the skin\\nof a healthy person is evidenced by the ease with which the skin returns\\nto its proper position after having been lifted and the hold relaxed. The\\nElastic Skin Man, on exhibition a few years ago, had an abnormally\\nelastic skin. The skin of the chin, for example, could be raised to the\\nmouth, and when released promptly returned to its place.\\nPage 79, 76 (a). The Production of Corns and Callous Spots.\\nIt is a law that interrupted pressure produces hypertrophy, i.e. an\\nincrease of nourishment or supply, resulting in an increase of size, and\\nconstant pressure produces atrophy, or a want of nourishment or supply,\\nresulting in a decrease of size. Callous spots upon the knees of shoe-\\nmakers and the chests of other workmen are to be ascribed to the inter-\\nrupted pressure upon the respective parts, by lapstone and hammer,\\nbrace and bit, burnishers, breast-drills, etc. Corns, in like\\nmanner, are the result of the irritation of certain portions of the epidermis\\nlying near to the bones, by the interrupted pressure from shoes which are\\neither too tight or too loose. On (lie other hand, the constant pressure of\\nshoes, bandages, etc. {i.e. by night ami by day), will cause atrophy, as\\nmay be seen in the deformities of the feet of certain Chinese girls.\\nPage 80, 78 (a). The Vast Number of Pores and Drainage\\nTubes of the Skin. Taken separately, t ho little perspiratory tube.\\nwith its appended gland, is calculated to awaken in the mind very little", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "424 APPENDIX.\\nidea of the importance of the system to which it belongs but when the\\nvast number of similar organs composing this system is considered,\\nfor it includes the sebiparous glands, which are also agents in perspira-\\ntion, we are led to form some notion, however imperfect, of their prob-\\nable influence on the health and comfort of the individual. I use the\\nwords imperfect notion advisedly, for the reality surpasses imagination,\\nand almost belief. I counted the perspiratory pores on the palm of\\nthe hand, and found 3528 to a square inch. Now, each of these pores\\nbeing the aperture of a little tube of about a quarter of an inch long, it\\nfollows that in a square inch of skin on the palm of the hand there exists\\na length of tube equal to 882 inches, or 73| feet. I think that 2800\\nmight be taken as a fair average of the number of pores in the square\\ninch of surface, and 700, consequently, of the number of inches in length\\nof the tubes. Now, the number of square inches of surface in a man of\\nordinary height and bulk is 2500 the number of pores, therefore,\\n7,000,000 and the number of inches of perspiratory tube, 1,750,000\\nthat is, 145,833 feet, or 48,600 yards, or nearly twenty-eight miles. 1\\nWilson, Diseases of the Skin.\\nPage 83, 82 (a). Causes of Baldness. How to maintain the\\nHealth of the Hair. Baldness, which is very common among middle-\\naged men, as well as among the old, results from local or general causes,\\nor both combined. It may come from the pressure of tight hats and caps\\ncutting off the supply of blood, from an insufficiency of air, caused by too\\nconstant wearing of head coverings, from diseases of the scalp, such as\\nanimal and vegetable parasitic growths, from severe inflammation, as\\nerysipelas, or any exhausting disease, or from worry, age, or hereditary\\nweakness in the parts. So-called hair-restorers are only valuable in\\nso far as they stimulate the activity of the scalp. Some of them, however,\\nincluding various hair-dyes, destroy the health of the hair, injure the\\nscalp, and impair the general health. The frequent use of overheated\\ncurling irons is believed to be one of the causes of falling of the hair\\namong women. A too frequent use of a fine comb increases the activity\\nof the skin, and causes the epidermis to throw off numerous cells, which,\\ncombined with the oil of the hair, dirt etc. create dandruff. 5 Frequent\\nbrushing with a good stiff brush strengthens and improves the hair by\\ninvigorating the scalp, and increases the amount of sebaceous material, or\\nnatural hair-oil. Most people have, therefore, within their reach, a\\nnatural ointment which is far superior to pomades and artificial hair-oils.\\nAn occasional cleansing of the scalp by a thorough brushing, and washing\\nin water containing a few drops of ammonia, followed by the application", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 425\\nof a small amount of vaseline, is far better than the use of oils and grease,\\nwhich may be of doubtful utility or positively harmful.\\nPage 85, 84 (a). The Relief of Thirst through the Skin. It\\nhas been frequently remarked that the sensation of thirst is always least\\npressing in a moist atmosphere, and that it may be appeased to a certain\\nextent by baths. We could hardly account for an actual alleviation\\nof thirst by immersion of the body in water, unless we assumed that a\\ncertain quantity of water had been absorbed. A striking example of relief\\nof thirst in this way is given by Captain Kennedy, in the narrative of his\\nsufferings after shipwreck, when he and his man were exposed for a long\\ntime without water, in an open boat. With regard to his sufferings from\\nthirst, he says I cannot conclude without making mention of the great\\nadvantage I derived from soaking my clothes twice a day in salt water,\\nand putting them on without wringing. So very great advantage\\ndid we derive from this practice, that the violent drought went off, the\\nparched tongue was cured in a few minutes after bathing and washing\\nour clothes at the same time we found ourselves as much refreshed\\nas if we had received some actual nourishment. Flint, Text-book\\nof Physiology.\\nPage 95, 96 (a). Sun Baths among the Ancients. According\\nto Plutarch, when the youthful Alexander visited Diogenes at Corinth,\\nhe found the famous cynic tranquilly lying in the sun. The warrior affa-\\nbly saluted the philosopher, and asked if he could do him any service.\\n1 Only stand a little out of my sunshine, replied Diogenes. This incident\\noccurred when this renowned Athenian had reached the age of three-\\nscore and ten long past the eccentric days of his life in a tub and his\\ndaylight lantern-searches for an honest man and there is good reason\\nto suppose that he really valued the invigorating solar rays more than\\nany boon Alexander could give. Nor was he alone in his devotion to\\nsunshine, for, as we learn from Pliny, it was a common practice in\\nGreece for old men to recruit their energies, both mental and physical,\\nby exposing themselves naked in the sun a fact which Hippocrates\\nmight have had in mind when he wrote, Old men are double their\\nage in winter, and younger in summer. Dr. C. E. Angell, in the\\nSanitarian.\\nPage 101, 102 (a). Constriction of the Waist. Recent experi-\\nmental research, by a variety of observers, coincides in establishing cer-\\ntain facts concerning waist constriction.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "426 APPEXDIX.\\n1. The normal breathing of woman is like that of man abdominal.\\nWaist constriction changes the type of breathing to costal. 1\\n2. The pelvic organs, normally, make a considerable excursion with\\neach respiration. Waist constriction in the upright position checks this\\nmotion almost entirely.\\n3. Sitting or bending forward lessens the pressure within the abdomen.\\nWaist constriction in these positions greatly increases intra-abdominal\\npressure.\\n4. The abdominal organs are displaced downward by waist constric-\\ntion, and at times to an extreme degree.\\n5. The pelvic floor is bulged downward.\\n6. The circulation in the pelvis is obstructed.\\n7. The abdominal wall suffers by thinning of muscle and accumulation\\nof fat, and the trunk muscles waste.\\n8. The chest expansion is crippled by compression of the lower ribs\\nand the check on the play of the diaphragm.\\n1 9. The capacity for outdoor exercise is hampered. Dr. R. L. Dick-\\ninson, Simple and Practical Methods in Dress Beform.\\nPage 107, 108 (a). Some of the Risks attending the Use of\\nUnclean Clothing. Unclean clothing is sometimes a direct means\\nof conveyance of disease. The unclean fabric becomes saturated with\\npoisonous substances, with the fumes of tobacco, for instance, and holds\\nits wearer in a persistent atmosphere charged with unwholesome vapor.\\nStill more seriously it becomes the medium of the poisons of the spreading\\ndiseases. I could cull from my note-books many examples of the last-\\nnamed danger, but must be satisfied to mention one or two striking and\\nbrief illustrative facts. I have known scarlet fever carried by the cloth-\\ning of a nurse into a healthy family, and communicate the disease to\\nevery member of the family. I have known cholera to be communicated\\n1 Abdominal respiration is essential to icoman s health clothing must be\\nworn that does not restrict it. All women who wear corsets and tight waist-\\nbands breathe with a distinct movement of the upper chest. This costal or\\nthoracic respiration is as unnatural to the woman as it is to the man. Mays has\\nshown by tracings that Indian girls breathe like men, Kellogg has elaborately\\nconfirmed the observation among various Indian tribes, among Chinese women,\\nagricultural women, and English pit-brow lassies, and Wilberforce Smith has\\nadded his evidence. All agree that civilized women who have been in the\\nhabit of wearing clothing truly loose about the waist show the same type.\\nWomen asleep breathe like men, and male and female animals breathe alike.\\nDr, R. L. Dickinson.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 427\\nby the clothes of the affected person to the women engaged in washing\\nthe clothes. I have known small-pox conveyed by clothes that had been\\nmade in a room where the tailor had by his side sufferers from the terri-\\nble malady. I have seen the new cloth, out of which was to come the\\nriding-habit for some innocent child to rejoice in as she first wore it,\\nundergo the preliminary duty of forming part of the bedclothing of\\nanother child stricken down with fever. Lastly, I have known scarlet fever,\\nsmall-pox, typhus, and cholera communicated by clothing contaminated\\nin the laundry. Dr. B. W. Richardson, Diseases of Modern Life.\\nPage 122, 121 (a). Relief of Constipation. Constipation, or a\\nsluggish condition of the bowels, is very common, and has much to do\\nwith ill health. The following suggestions for relief will neither answer\\nfor all persons, nor always take the place of medicinal measures, which\\nshould come from the attending physician 1st. Daily muscular exercise,\\nespecially walking, if not carried beyond the strength of the individual.\\nToo much exercise may aggravate the trouble. 2d. A cold bath before\\nbreakfast for those who can stand it. 3d. Moist compresses {i.e. several\\nthicknesses of cloth) applied for two or three hours daily over the abdo-\\nmen. 4th. Daily kneading of the bowels, especially in the course of the\\nlarge intestine. 5th. A glass of hot or cold water before breakfast, or\\nwater in which a few cloves have remained over night, or in which there\\nis just enough salt to give a slight saline taste. 6th. Fruit oranges, ap-\\nples, bananas, or grapes, before or at breakfast figs, dates, and other\\nsimilar fruits throughout the day, in small quantity, or stewed fruit\\nfor supper, or a baked apple before retiring. 7th. Oatmeal, Indian meal,\\nGraham bread, Graham crackers, sardines, coffee (for some persons, tea),\\nmolasses, molasses cake, zwieback, etc.\\nWhile the above measures, used with discrimination, are of value, it is\\nbut right to state that many persons, especially those who take but little\\nexercise, are liable to carry the hygienic treatment to extremes, and to\\ninjure their digestive organs by much indigestible food.\\nPage 127, 124 (a). The Importance of Thorough Chewing of\\nFood. The value of insalivation in connection with mastication becomes\\napparent when we consider how difficult it is to chew dry substances\\nlike crackers until they are moistened. It is also almost impossible to\\nswallow substances which are very dry. The value of a thorough com-\\nminution of food, in making it more soluble, is shown by a comparison\\nof the length of time it takes for a lump of sugar to dissolve in water,\\nwith that consumed by a similar lump broken into line particles, in the\\ni", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "428\\nAPPENDIX.\\nsame amount of water. Imperfect chewing and the absence of sound\\nteeth produce many a dyspeptic. On the other hand, the rilling of\\nteeth, or the substitution of a good artificial set for teeth which are worn\\nout or decayed, has often furnished the dyspeptic the only means of\\ncure. It is well known to veterinary surgeons that horses sometimes\\nlose their appetite and strength on account of broken or irregularly worn\\nteeth, which prevent them from chewing their food.\\nOld people and young children are very apt to bolt their food. As\\nthey do not chew well, their food should be thoroughly minced for\\nthem.\\nPage 135, 134 (a). Time occupied in the Digestion of Various\\nArticles of Food. In 1822, Alexis St. Martin, eighteen years of\\nage, a voyageu? in the employ of the American Fur Company, was\\nwounded in the left side, the ball perforating the stomach. Through an\\nopening which did not heal entirely for a number of years, Dr. Beaumont\\nof the United States Army was enabled to watch the digestion of foods in\\nthe stomach. The following extract from a table prepared by Dr. Beau-\\nmont shows the digestibility of various foods. The estimates may be con-\\nsidered as approximative only, being founded upon an isolated case still,\\nexperiments have been made upon animals which tend to confirm those\\nmade upon St. Martin.\\nPigs feet, soused (boiled) 1 00\\nTripe, soused (boiled) 1 00\\nSoup, barley (boiled) 1 30\\nTrout, salmon, fresh (fried) 1 30\\nVenison steak (broiled) 1 35\\nMilk (boiled) 2 00\\nCabbage, with vinegar (raw) 2 00\\nEggs, fresh (raw) 2 00\\nApples, sour, mellow (raw) 2 00\\nMilk (raw) 2 15\\nTurkey (roasted) 2 30\\nEggs, fresh (soft boiled) 3 00\\nBeefsteak (broiled) 3 00\\nMutton, fresh (boiled) 3 00\\nSoup, chicken (boiled) 3 00\\nBread, corn (baked) 3 15\\nOysters, fresh (roasted) 3 15\\nMutton (roasted) 3 15\\nEggs (hard boiled) 3 30\\nEggs (fried) 3 30\\nPotatoes, Irish (boiled) 3 30\\nOysters (stewed) 3 30\\nBeets (boiled) 3 45\\nGreen corn and beans (boiled) 3 45\\nSalmon (boiled) 4 00\\nSoup, beef, vegetables, and\\nbread (boiled) 4 00\\nDuck, barn-yard (roasted) 4 00\\nHeart, animal (fried) 4 00\\nPork, salt (fried) 4 15\\nVeal (fried) 4 30\\nCabbage (boiled) 4 30\\nDuck, wild (roasted) 4 30\\nPork, fresh (roasted) 5 15\\nPage 174, 177 (a). Oddities of Diet. Certain tribes of Indians\\nin South America eat at times a peculiar kind of clay. Beetles were", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 429\\neaten by Roman epicures, and are said also to be eaten by Turkish women\\nfor the purpose of fattening themselves. Bees, moths, ants, mice, and\\nmany small animals form staple articles of diet in some parts of the world.\\nHumboldt tells us that centipedes are eaten with avidity by some of the\\nnatives of South America. Birds nests, rats, and snails are eaten in\\nChina. The Tartars ate horses, camels, and dogs, and drank mare s milk.\\nThe Egyptians thought wheat, beans, and barley poor food, and did not\\neat the head of any animal. In Africa certain tribes will not eat sugar or\\ndrink milk.\\nPage 181, 187 (a). Food Value of Sugar. Certain rowing\\nclubs in Holland report very beneficial results from the use of large\\namounts of sugar in training. It seemed to counteract the bad effects of\\na meat diet, so that the dreaded symptoms of overtraining did not appear.\\nThe rowers who used sugar always won because of superior endurance.\\nProfessor Pfluger says that, without doubt, the sugar in the blood is\\nheavily drawn on during violent exercise hence the longing for it in a\\nform that can be rapidly assimilated. Its use by mountain climbers\\nis well known. The Swiss guide considers lump sugar and highly sweet-\\nened chocolate an indispensable part of his outfit. In India it is said\\nthat workmen must have daily large amounts of food well seasoned with\\nsugar. The employer must furnish it or lose his workmen. In all\\ntropical lands the consumption of dates, figs, and other sweet fruits is very\\nlarge. In small quantities and in not too concentrated form, sugar\\nwill take the place, practically speaking, weight for weight, of starch as\\na food for muscular work, barring the difference in energy and in time\\nrequired to digest them, sugar having here the advantage. In times of\\ngreat exertion or exhausting labor, the rapidity with which it is assimi-\\nlated gives it certain advantages over starch. Mary Hinman Aisi:i\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nSugar as Food, United States Department of Agriculture.\\nPage 182, 180 Use of Fat in Hot Climates. Consider\\nhow olive-oil is used in the warm parts of Europe, and how ghee is used\\nin India, in order to satisfy yourself that oily matter may be taken with\\nfacility in hot countries as well as in cold. You hear nothing about\\nindigestion you find that a bad olive harvest or a scant supply of ghee is\\na great national calamity. A Hindoo servant o( a Eriend, who kept up his\\nIndian habits of eating in London, has often told uio that nothing would\\nmake up for a deficiency of ghee or butter, ami that this was the common\\nexperience of his countrymen at home or away from home, lie looked\\nupon a sip of ghee in very much the same light as that in which his fellow-", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "430 APPENDIX.\\nservants looked upon a draught of beer. Wine is good, but oil is better,\\nsaid a peasant to the courier who was with me in Andalusia and after\\ngulping down a large mouthful of olive-oil, and smacking his lips more\\nthan once, the expression of his countenance was an apt illustration of the\\nmeaning of the Scriptural text which speaks of oil as making the face to\\nshine. Indeed, it may be taken for granted that oil may be used in large\\nquantities throughout the year in the hot olive-growing countries of the\\nsouth of Europe, not only without making people bilious, but with unmis-\\ntakable benefit. Dr. C. R. Radcliff, London Practitioner, A Few\\nWords About Eatables.\\nPage 183, 191 (a). Use of Fat in Cold Climates. The accounts\\ngiven by travellers of the amount of food, and especially of fat, eaten\\nby the inhabitants of the frigid zone are almost incredible. The Russian\\nadmiral, Saritcheff, tells of a man who ate, in his presence, at a single\\nmeal, twenty-eight pounds of boiled rice and butter.\\nSir John Franklin tried how much fat an Esquimaux boy could con-\\nsume fourteen pounds of tallow candles quickly disappeared and Sir\\nJohn closed the experiment with a piece of fat pork, as he began to feel\\napprehensive for his stores. Oil is a luxury greedily devoured by the\\nNorthern races, as was amusingly proven in a seaport town some years\\nago. The town was lighted by oil lamps, and the inhabitants remarked\\nthat they went out for several successive nights at last it was discovered\\nthat some Russian sailors in the harbor climbed the lamp-posts and drank\\nthe oil. Mapother, Lectures on Public Health.\\nPage 184, 192 Fasting. Importance of Water. With-\\nout something to eat or drink, man will not live beyond a few days, or at\\nmost a week. Access to water, however, makes a great difference. There\\nis a well-known case of an Ayrshire miner who lived twenty-three days,\\nburied in a coal mine, without swallowing anything but small quantities\\nof chalybeate water sucked through a straw. He had the advantage of\\nbeing shut up in a contaminated atmosphere, which, by diminishing ner-\\nvous sensibility, lessened the cravings of hunger. Berard quotes the ex-\\nample of a convict who died of starvation after sixty-three days, but in\\nthis case water was taken. Cases of alleged fasting longer than this are\\ncertainly due to imposture. The insane appear to bear fasting better than\\nthose in their sober senses and, in some morbid conditions of the body,\\nnourishment may certainly be done without for a surprising length of\\ntime. Animals have an advantage over man, so far as living without food\\nis concerned. CasselVs Magazine.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 431\\nPage 185, 194 (a). Salt its Importance. Animals will travel\\nlong distances to obtain salt men will barter gold for it indeed, among\\nthe Gallas and on the coast of Sierra Leone, brothers will sell their sis-\\nters, husbands their wives, and parents their children, for salt. In the\\ndistrict of Accra, on the Gold Coast of Africa, a handful of salt is the\\nmost valuable thing upon earth after gold, and will purchase a slave or\\ntwo. Mungo Park tells us that with the Mandingoes and Bambaras the\\nuse of salt is such a luxury that to say of a man, He flavors his food\\nwith salt, is to imply that he is rich, and children will suck a piece of\\nrock-salt as if it were sugar. No stronger mark of respect or affection\\ncan be shown in Muscovy, than the sending of salt from the tables of the\\nrich to their poorer friends. In the Book of Leviticus it is expressly com-\\nmanded as one of the ordinances of Moses, that every oblation of meat\\nupon the altar shall be seasoned with salt, without lacking and hence it\\nis called the Salt of the Covenant of God. The Greeks and Romans also\\nused salt in their sacrificial cakes and it is still used in the services of\\nthe Latin church the ^parva mica, or pinch of salt, being, in the cere-\\nmony of baptism, put into the child s mouth, while the priest says, Re-\\nceive the salt of wisdom, and may it be a propitiation to thee for eternal\\nlife. Everywhere, and almost always, indeed, it has been regarded as\\nemblematical of wisdom, wit, and immortality. To taste a man s salt,\\nwas to be bound by the rites of hospitality and no oath was more solemn\\nthan that which was sworn upon bread and salt. To sprinkle the meat\\nwith salt was to drive away the devil and to this day nothing is more un-\\nlucky than to spill the salt. Letheby, On Food.\\nPage 193, 202 (a). United States Army Ration. There is in\\nthe army of the United States a considerable difference between the\\nration of the soldier and the diet of the soldier. The critics of the army\\nration do not understand this. The ration is the allowance for subsist-\\nence of one person for one day. The diet is what is actually prepared\\nin the kitchen for consumption by the soldier day by day. The ration is\\nprescribed by law, and consists of the meat, the bread, the vegetables, the\\nfruit, the coffee and sugar, the seasoning and the soap and candle com-\\nponents. The slightest knowledge of practical cookery will enable\\nany one to form an idea of what may bo called the flexibility o\\\\\\nthe army ration. If the proximate principles be calculated it will\\nbe found that many variations may bo made in the relative proportions of\\nproteids, hydrocarbons, and carbo-hydrates. The ration is so elastic\\nthat the soldier may verily oat his candles if he does not require them for\\nother purposes, lie may Leave the candles in the hands of the subsisteiuv", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "432\\nAPPENDIX.\\ndepartment, and if their money value will pay for a can of peaches, or a\\npound of rice, or so much of any other of a long list of articles kept for\\nsale by the subsistence officers, he can eat his candle component in the\\nform of peaches and rice, or any other of the purchasable things.\\nSo, indeed, with all the other components of the ration, excepting only\\nthe fresh vegetables, fresh bread, baking powder, and dried fruit.\\nThere is even a greater elasticity than this to the ration, for the money\\ncredit for components not drawn and used may be applied to the purchase\\nof articles from outside sources, articles not kept for sale by the subsistence\\ndepartment. A soldier s ration is fixed by law, and it is a most\\nliberal one, but his dietary depends upon the intelligent supervision of\\ncompany officers and the ability of the company cooks. Dr. Charles\\nSmart, Deputy Surgeon General, U. S. Army.\\nThe\\nMeat Components.\\nFresh beef or fresh mutton\\n(when the cost does not\\nexceed that of Beef)\\n20 oz\\nor Pork or Bacon\\n12 oz\\nor Salt Beef\\n22 oz\\nor Dried Fish\\n14 oz\\nor Pickled Fish or Fresh Fish 18 oz\\nor Canned Salmon\\n16 oz\\nVegetable Components.\\nBeans or Peas\\n21 oz\\nor Rice or Hominy\\nIf oz\\nPotatoes\\n16 oz\\nor Potatoes (121 oz.) and\\nOnions (3| oz.)\\nor Potatoes (Hi oz.) and\\ncanned Tomatoes (41 oz.)\\nor 4| oz. of other fresh\\nvegetables (not canned)\\nwhen they can he obtained.\\nFruit Components.\\nDried Fruits Apples, Peaches,\\nPrunes, etc 2 oz.\\nRation.\\nBread Components.\\nFlour or Soft Bread 18 oz.\\nor Hard Bread 16 oz.\\nor Corn Meal 20 oz.\\nBaking Powder, when necessary\\nfor soldiers to bake their\\nown bread if oz.\\nCoffee and Sugar Components.\\nCoffee, green If oz.\\nor Roasted Coffee Us oz.\\nor Tea, green or black oz.\\nSugar 2f oz.\\nor Molasses or Cane Syrup if gills.\\nSeasoning Components.\\nVinegar A gills.\\nSalt if oz.\\nPepper, hlack 5 g oz.\\nSoap and Candle Components.\\nSoap M oz.\\nCandles, when illuminating oil\\nis not furnished s oz.\\nU. S. Subsistence Department.\\nThe Travel Ration for soldiers on forced marches consists of bread,\\nbeef, beans, coffee, and sugar.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX.\\n433\\nPage 193, 202 (6). Pood.\\nEstimated Daily Needs.\\nChildren, 1 to 6 years\\nChildren, 6 to 15 years\\nWomen (Germany) moderate work\\nMan (Germany) moderate work\\nMan (United States) moderate work\\nActive laborer (England)\\nWriter, hard work\\nSubsistence diet\\nProtein.\\nFat.\\nGrams.\\nGrams.\\n28 to 70\\n35 to 48\\n75\\n37 to 50\\n92\\n44\\n118\\n56\\n127\\n113\\n156\\n71\\n150\\n150\\n57\\nCarbo-\\nhydrates.\\nGrams.\\n60 to 250\\n250 to 400\\n400\\n500\\n494\\n568\\n500\\nCALORIE8.\\n765 to 1400\\n2040\\n2125\\n3050\\n3500\\n3630\\n4060\\n1760\\nFood Actually Consumed.\\nfood purchased\\nfood used\\nU. S. Army ration\\nU. S. Navy ration\\nU. S. college students (boarding club)\\nU. S. college foot-ball team\\nU. S. well-to-do family\\nU. S. teamsters {hard work)\\nItaly, underfed laborers\\nAverage of ten farm-\\ners families in Ver-\\nmont, Connecticut,\\nand New York\\nAverage of fourteen 1\\nmechanics families food purchased\\nin Connecticut, New\\nYork, Tennessee, food used\\nand Indiana J\\nAverage of fourteen\\nprofessional men s food purchased\\nfamilies in Connect-\\nicut, Pennsylvania, I food used\\nIndiana, and Illinois J\\nAverage of twelve la- j food purchased\\nborers families in\\nNew York City food used\\nAverage of eleven food purchased\\npoor families in\\nNew York City food used\\n120\\n161\\n143\\n184\\n138\\n184\\n181\\n292\\n128\\n177\\n254\\n363\\n82\\n40\\n101\\n136\\n97\\n130\\n110\\n161\\n103\\n150\\n108\\n132\\n104\\n125\\n103\\n119\\n101\\n116\\n93\\n98\\n93\\n95\\n3851\\n4998\\n4827\\n5742\\n4082\\n7804\\n2192\\n3655\\n3515\\n3690\\n3465\\n3438\\n3325\\n2950\\n2906\\n3005\\n2916\\nProfessor Aim n k.\\nPage 195, 205 (a) Fresh Meat as a Preventive of Scurvy. Dr.\\nT. J. Turner, Medical Director, United States Navy, in an article in the\\nSanitaria)), April, 1884, shows that an ample supply o( Eresh moat, i.e.\\nfrom animals killed on the spot, such as the walrus and narwhal, is\\nsuperior to any form of preserved meat in the prevention o\\\\ scurvy, in\\nthat it furnishes the necessary salts and acid (probably lactic acid). In", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "434 APPENDIX.\\nfact, he speaks of fresh raw animal food as the best anti-scorbutic.\\nWhere it cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity, he suggests that a\\nmixture of sodium, potassium, and calcium phosphates be added to pre-\\nserved and cooked meats or other foods, and that lactic acid be added to\\nthe vinegar used as a condiment.\\nThe experience of armies shows that fresh meat is more wholesome\\nthan canned meat. It is now carried by many vessels in refrigerators.\\nPage 198, 207 (a). Economy in Food.\\nThe Cheapest Food. The cheapest food is that which furnishes the\\nmost nutriment at the least cost. The most economical food is that which\\nis both healthful and cheapest. When the mother goes to market to\\nmake her purchases, she is thinking of meat, and flour, and potatoes, what\\nthey cost, and how the folks at home will relish them. Her real prob-\\nlem, though she does not understand it, is to get the most and the best nutri-\\nment for her money. She is to obtain, at the least cost, protein, fats,\\nand carbo-hydrates needed to meet the wants of her family. Flavor and\\nappearance are things to look out for, of course. She may buy them in the\\nfood if she has the money and is willing to spend it, but they are costly. She\\nmay supply them by good cooking and tasteful serving, but this will take\\nskill and care, and too many women in her circumstances lack the one\\nand are averse to the other. Or she may ignore both flavor and appear-\\nance, and if her husband does not like the food she sets before him, and\\nother things about the home are not attractive, he will very likely go to\\nthe poor man s club, otherwise known as the saloon. If she spends\\na dime for beefsteak at 20 cents a pound, she gets half a pound, which\\nsupplies 0.08 pound of protein and 550 calories of energy but if she\\ninvests the same money in flour at 2| cents per pound she has 4 pounds,\\nwith 0.44 pound of protein and 5.680 calories of energy. Prof. W. O.\\nAtwater, Food and Diet.\\nEconomical and Nutritious Food. There is an unfortunate\\nprejudice among us against learning of foreign countries. The Ameri-\\ncan, workman says indignantly that he does not want to learn how to live\\non starvation wages. But the facts, viewed coolly, are just these The\\ninhabitants of older countries have learned some lessons that we too must\\nsoon learn, whether we will or no, and to profit by these lessons before\\nwe are really obliged to will in no way lower wages it will simply help\\nus to get more comfort and pleasure out of our money. Students of\\neconomy, political and domestic, find no better school than the experience\\nof older countries, and consequently draw lessons from their greater thrift\\nand economy in living. Mrs. Helen Campbell found, among the poor", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 435\\nsewing women of New York, that none were skilful in cooking their\\nscanty food, excepting only the German and Swiss women. All observ-\\ning travellers unanimously give this testimony If our American work-\\nman knew how to make as much of his large wage as the foreigner does\\nof his small one, he could live in luxury. But, you ask, what are the\\nspecial lessons to be learned of the foreign housewife We answer,\\nchiefly self-denial and saving. Do not give up in despair because you\\nhave a small income, and resign yourself to living meanly, in a hand-\\nto-mouth fashion. Diligent study of the question and resolute abstention\\nfrom luxuries will solve the problem, if it can be solved. We indulge\\nourselves and our children too much in what tastes good, while all the\\ntime we have not money enough to buy necessaries. We seem, in\\ngeneral, to spend too much money in our country on food compared with\\nwhat we use in other directions our great trouble is that we do not know\\nhow to save every scrap of food and use it again in some form. For one\\nthing, we have yet to learn the great art of soup making, and, it seems,\\nalso of soup eating. The American housekeeper would say to me This\\nis nothing new for years we ve been hearing about soups. We don t like\\nsoups. I only ask, Have you tried them for a considerable length of\\ntime, so that you have become skilled in making them, and your family\\nused to their taste One fact alone ought to insure for them a good trial\\nthat at least three nations, the German, French, and Italian, make daily\\nuse of them, and have for generations. To take part of our food in this\\nform is an absolute necessity, if we are to do the best possible with a\\ncertain amount of money. Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, Practical\\nSanitary and Economic Cooking.\\nPage 200, 209 (a). The Importance of Good Cooking.\\nHow Good Cooking pays. Foul air and overcrowding would.\\nhowever, be less fatal in its results were food understood. The well-filled\\nstomach gives strange powers of resistance to the body. Happily, to\\nknow an evil is to have taken the first step in its eradication. To\\nhave made cooking and industrial training the fashion is to have cleared\\naway the thorny underbrush on that debatable ground, the best education\\nof the poor. That cooking schools and the knowledge of cheap and\\nsavory preparation of food must soon have their effect on the percentage\\nof drunkards no one can question. Philanthropists may urge what\\nreforms they will less crowding, purer air, better sanitary regulations\\nbut this question of food underlies all. The knowledge that is broad\\nenough to insure good food is broad enough to mean better living in all\\nways. One woman, who has learned in any degree to order her own", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "436 APPENDIX.\\nhome and life aright, will be more a power with those among whom that\\nlife passes than a dozen average preachers. Mrs. James T. Field,\\nHow to Help the Poor.\\nThe High Calling of a Cook. Bad cooking is the rule, good cook-\\ning the exception. The truly artistic cook the veritable cordon bleu\\nis a rare bird with us. The calling of a man cook ranks a little above that\\nof the waiter-man it is, perhaps, nearly up to that of a first-rate barber\\nor hair-dresser. Almost invariably the professional male cook is an exotic\\nproduction, generally imported from France, the calling being beneath\\nthe dignity of a native American not of African descent. A hired woman\\ncook holds her head somewhat higher than the waitress and laundress, not\\nso much on account of her superior rank, as from certain advantages of\\nher position. The responsibility of cooking, however, in small households\\neither rests with a maid of all work, or it is assumed by the mistress,\\nwhose qualifications are derived from perhaps a little experience, the\\npossession of some family receipts, and, possibly, a cook-book. I shall\\nnot linger on this topic, but leave it with a few assertions. If alimentation\\nhave the importance and dignity which I have claimed for it if appetite\\nand taste are to be estimated by their physiological relations, the functions\\nof a cook are of a higher grade than that denoted by the facts just stated.\\nA skilful cook, male or female, is entitled to as much distinction, at least,\\nas a clever mechanic. The calling should be reckoned an honorable one.\\nThe science and the art of cooking should be taught by competent pro-\\nfessors, and should be embraced in the curriculum of female schools.\\nMore than this, here is a field for discoveries, inventions, and continued\\nprogress. To devise new combinations and culinary processes is a worthy\\nobject of study and experiment. He who may originate a new article of\\ndiet, palatable, digestible, and nutritious, by utilizing materials which are\\nreadily available, deserves something of the credit belonging to one who\\nmakes two blades of grass grow where but one grew before. Dr.\\nAustin Flint, Food in Its Relations to Personal and Public Health, a\\npaper read at the annual meeting of the American Public Health Associ-\\nation, 1876.\\nPage 201, 210 (a). The Preservation of Food.\\nMethods of Preserving Food for Transportation. The value of\\nproper canning and of other methods of preserving food are well illustrated\\nin the detailed instructions as to provisions, given by the Navy Depart-\\nment to the commander of the Greely Relief Expedition in the spring of\\nthe year 1884. Macaroni and vermicelli, bacon, preserved cranberries,\\netc. are to be packed in air-tight wooden kegs marrow beans, dried", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0448.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 437\\ngreen peas, dried Lima beans, sweet corn, pork, salt beef, etc., in well-\\nseasoned, tight half-barrels baking-powder, compressed vegetables,\\nmince-meat, evaporated fruit, fried potatoes, roast chicken and turkey,\\nhead cheese, sausages, apple and peach butter, candied lemon-peel, figs,\\ntamarinds, cooked corn, beef, preserved beef and mutton, raw and fried\\noysters, sardines, butter, etc. in hermetically sealed tins smoked and dried\\nmeats, well covered with canvas. Fried oysters and eggs (boiled twenty\\nminutes) are to be put into cans and covered with hot lard. The special\\nmackerel and special salmon shall be of the best quality, and warranted\\nto keep two years.\\nImproper Canning of Food. The intelligent purchaser will not buy\\na can of goods in which the brown streak of resin is not visible at the\\nsoldering point. To deceive him, it is alleged, the canners have adopted\\nthe habit of bronzing the tops of cans to conceal the absence of the resin\\nstain. It is fair to infer that bronzed cans are soldered with muriate of\\nzinc amalgam. Every cap should be examined, and, if two holes are\\nfound in it, send it at once to the Health Board, with the contents and the\\nname of the grocer who sold it. Reject every article of canned food that\\ndoes not show the line of resin around the edge of the solder on the cap,\\nthe same as is seen on the seam at the side of the can. Standard, or\\nfirst-class goods, have not only the name of the factory, but also that of\\nthe wholesale house which sells them, on the label. Seconds, or doubt-\\nful or reprocessed goods, have a stock label of some mythical canning-\\nhouse, but do not have the name of any wholesale grocer on them. Reject\\nall goods that do not have the name of the factory, and also the name of\\nsome wholesale firm, on the label. A swell, or decomposing can of\\ngoods, can always be detected by pressing in the bottom of the can. A\\nsound can pressed will give a solid feel. When gas from the decomposition\\nof the food is inside the can, the tin will rattle by pressing up the bottom\\nas you displace the gas in the can. Reject every can that shows any rust\\naround the cap on the inside of the head of the can. If housewives are\\neducated to these points, then muriate of zinc amalgam will become a\\nthing of the past, and dealers in k .swells 1 have to seek some other occu-\\npation. Dr. J. G. Johnson, Medico-Legal Society^ Feb. 9, L884.\\nPage 207, 214, Notk 1 (a). How to utilize Remnants of Food.\\nNothing so well symboli/.cs tin- economical habits of continental\\nEurope, and especially France, as the pot aufeu. This is an iron pot kept\\nconstantly simmering upon the fire, into which is put from day to day all\\nthe wholesome remnants of food, which in this country arc thrown away.\\nOur people, in their magnificent way of doing things, never stop to con", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0449.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "438 APPENDIX.\\nsider how much nutriment adheres even to well-picked bones of porter-\\nhouse steak, mutton chops, ribs of beef, legs of mutton, etc. All these,\\nand many things besides, are put into the pot au feu water, seasoning,\\nand fragrant herbs are added as required, and the constant simmering\\na solvent for even the toughest of Texan beef extracts every particle of\\nmarrow, even, and the bones come out as clean and white as if they had\\nbeen bleached in the sun. Among the common people, more than half of\\nthe nutriment of the day comes from the pot au feu, and if any member\\nof the family comes home at an unusual hour hungry, it affords at all times\\na meal at once warm and wholesome. This explains how, as Hugh McCul-\\nloch tells us, the forty millions of France could live on what the forty\\nmillions of America throw away and when we consider the wretched\\ncookery that prevails in this country, it is not too much to affirm that they\\nlive twice as well as do our farmers and day laborers. Lancaster\\nFarmer.\\nPage 208, 214 (a). The too Frequent Use of Meat. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Undoubt-\\nedly, meat is too frequently used to the exclusion of other foods. For\\nchildren, meat once a day is sufficient. The report of Dr. D. M. Camman,\\nphysician to the Orphans Home and Asylum of the Protestant Episcopal\\nChurch, New York City, in the N. Y. Medical Journal, March 29, 1884,\\nshows that for the last twenty-Jive years the children in that institution\\nunder eight years of age have received no meat, but in place of it an abun-\\ndance of milk yet the health of the children has been unusually good.\\nThe eating of meat three times a day, except by persons who do very hard\\nphysical work, taxes the eliminating organs. The effects of too much\\nmeat combined with too little exercise are frequently manifested in the\\nbiliousness, headache, gout, etc., which befall persons who live high.\\nFew people need meat, ordinarily, more than twice a day in summer, not\\nmore than once a day. The sick are often inclined to consider meat, or\\nmeat teas, soups, and broths, as the most nutritious foods they can take,\\nand hence sometimes delay their recovery by overtaxing the liver and\\nkidneys.\\nPage 208, 214 (6). The Adaptation of Food to the Digestive\\nPowers. Nature has provided for the young of the mammalia, in milk,\\nfood containing all the elements of nutrition in a semi-prepared state,\\nwhich only requires a very short time for its thorough transformation into\\nchyle. The same may be said of all oviparous animals, for they live on\\nthe contents of the egg in the early stage of their existence. Nature has\\nevidently wished to spare the delicate organs of the young, in the earliest", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0450.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 439\\nperiod of life, the labor which they are destined later in life to undergo,\\nin the elaboration of their food.\\nThe stomach of the strong man, of the navvy, of the drayman, may be\\ncompared to a quartz-crushing machine. It wants quartz that is,\\nstrong, coarse foods, bread, bacon, pork, beef, to work upon to crush.\\nTo give it eggs and milk would be like putting trifle or blanc-mange\\ninto the quartz-crushing machine it would merely put it out of gear.\\nOn the other hand, the child, the delicate woman, the dyspeptic, the\\ninvalid, have stomachs that may be compared to a light chocolate-\\ncrushing machine. Quartz they cannot crush, and the attempt would\\nruin the machine, although it may be perfectly equal to crushing light\\nthings, such as chocolate, eggs, etc. In sickness and in deranged health\\nthe digestive organs lose their tone and powers, and should be treated as\\nNature treats the young that is, the kind of nitrogenous food should be\\ngiven which entails the least work on the part of the stomach. It is\\nweakened, its muscular and secreting powers are diminished, and it no\\nlonger requires for its health many hours of rude exercise daily.\\nNutrition in Health and Disease.\\nPage 208, 215 (a). The Relative Value of Various Meats. \u00e2\u0080\u0094An\\ninquiry among various charitable institutions shows that beef is relished\\nbest, and in the form of stews next, mutton and pork then fish, espe-\\ncially in the form of chowder. Of late years, a great deal has been said\\nagainst the use of pork, and undoubtedly much of the pork sold to and\\nused by the poor is unfit to eat. But if pigs are fed largely upon corn,\\nand are kept well cleaned and housed, they yield healthy pork. The flesh\\nof all animals is affected by transportation in badly ventilated cars, and\\neven the method of killing influences the quality of the meat.\\nPage 210, 210 (a). Raw Oysters. Our practice in regard to\\nthe oyster is exceptional, and furnishes a striking example of the general\\ncorrectness of the popular judgment on dietetic questions. The oyster is\\nalmost the only animal substance which we eat habitually and by pref-\\nerence in the raw or uncooked state and it is interesting to know that\\nthere is a sound physiological reason at the bottom of this preference. The\\nfawn-colored mass which constitutes the dainty of the oyster is its liver,\\nand this is little less than a mass of glycogen associated with the glycogen,\\nbut withheld from actual contact with it during life, is its appropriate\\ndigestive ferment, the hepatic diastase. The mere crushing of the dainty\\nbetween the teeth brings these two bodies together, and the glycogen is at\\nonce digested, without other help, by its own diastase. The oyster, in the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0451.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "440 APPENDIX.\\nuncooked state, or merely warmed, is, in fact, self-digestive. But the\\nadvantage of this provision is wholly lost by cooking, for the heat employed\\nimmediately destroys the associated ferment, and a cooked oyster has to\\nbe digested, like any other food, by the eater s own digestive power.\\nThis graphic description by Dr. Roberts tells us how it is that oysters au\\nnaturel are so much in vogue for invalids, as they deservedly are. Also,\\nwhy oysters should not be cooked in oyster sauce, but put into the pre-\\npared sauce just as it comes to table why, as King Chambers insists, in\\na beefsteak pudding, the oysters should not be cooked, but a flap of the\\npaste raised, and the oysters popped in, just as the pudding is served. In\\nmaking oyster pates, the paste is cooked in bread-crumbs, which is then\\ntaken out and the oysters put in after which, the pate s are just warmed,\\nand no more, and then brought up to the dinner table. The idea that\\nlong cooking increases the digestibility of food is not always correct.\\nFothergill, Indigestion and Biliousness.\\nPage 210, 217 Decomposing Food to be guarded against.\\nUnder ordinary circumstances, many cases are recorded in works\\nupon poisons, such as Dr. Christison s, where decayed animal food has\\nproduced severe and even fatal diarrhoea, in spite of cookery having con-\\ncealed some of its repulsiveness. High game has fortunately gone out of\\nfashion, and the most frequent form in which we now meet with decom-\\nposing albuminoid matter is that of a fusty egg. Some housekeepers seem\\nto consider this quite good enough for made dishes, and thus spoil material\\nworth ten times what they save by their nasty economy. No egg should\\nbe allowed to enter the kitchen that has the slightest smell of rotten\\nstraw. Dr. T. K. Chambers, Manual of Diet.\\nPage 210, 217 (6). Selection of Meats. Good meat has the\\nfollowing characters 1. It is neither of a pale pink color nor of a deep\\npurple pink, for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter indicates\\nthat the animal has not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood in\\nit, or has suffered from acute fever. 2. It has a marbled appearance from\\nthe ramifications of little veins of fat among the muscles. 3. It should be\\nfirm and elastic to the touch, and should scarcely moisten the fingers\\nbad meat being wet and sodden and flabby, with the fat looking like jelly\\nor wet parchment. 4. It should have little or no odor, and the odor\\nshould not be disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly, cadaverous\\nsmell, and sometimes a smell .of physic. This is very discoverable when\\nthe meat is chopped up and drenched with warm water. 5. It should not\\nshrink much in cooking. 6, It should not run to water or become very", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0452.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 441\\nwet on standing for a day or so, bnt should, on the contrary, dry upon\\nthe surface. Letheby, On Food.\\nPage 212, 218 (a). Milk. Difficulties in obtaining Pure\\nMilk. The first thing to be borne in mind is that milk is naturally a\\npure product. If any milk is found unclean, unwholesome, or dispropor-\\ntioned in its proper parts, the chances are that it is not the fault of the\\ncow. In all such cases the presumption is that some person is to blame,\\neither the one who cares for the cow or the one who handles the milk.\\nThere is a great desire to get milk cheap, and it is not an unknown thing\\nfor customers, including hotels and private institutions, as well as private\\nfamilies, to demand such large measure for their money that the dealers\\nfeel compelled to extend the milk in order to meet these requirements\\nand prevent loss of trade. Some are satisfied with the adulterated stuff,\\nnot knowing that the same amount of actual food, but no more and per-\\nhaps less, is being delivered in the large measure than was formerly\\ndelivered in the small one. This explains how it sometimes happens that\\nmilk is retailed in cities at less than the regular wholesale price. People\\ntoo easily forget quality and think only of quantity. The only sensible\\nthing for the housekeeper or other buyer of milk to do, is to willingly pay\\na fair price, and insist upon good milk in return. Buyers should remem-\\nber that, at the highest prices usual anywhere, good milk is about as cheap\\nan article of food as can be purchased. It should also be borne in mind\\nthat milk can be contaminated as easily after delivery to the family or con-\\nsumer as before, and too often a milkman is blamed for bad milk or cream\\nwhen it was made so by conditions over which he had no control. If left\\nwhere dust can settle in it or flies have access to it, or if set in an ill-ven-\\ntilated cellar or in a warm place, it is pretty certain to be in bad condition\\nafter a few hours, no matter how good it was when delivered. Numerous\\nwell-authenticated cases are known where customers have complained of\\nmilk received, and upon investigation it has been proved that servants in\\nthe house tampered with the milk, removing cream for their own use or\\nadding old milk or vinegar to make it sour prematurely. The object o(\\nthe latter act was, in connivance with an outsider who supplied the\\nmotive, to cause the buyer to change to some other dealer whom the\\nservant was ready to recommend. R. A. Pearson, Facts about Jlilk,\\nU. S. Department of Agriculture.\\nChanges of Milk. Thunderstorms, impurities, warm temperature.\\nand other conditions known to exist when milk is most liable to give\\ntrouble have been blamed for its changes. Hut it is now known that these\\nare only indirect causes, and that the changes in milk which bother the", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0453.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "442 APPENDIX.\\nhousekeeper are due to, and cannot take place without, the presence of\\nminute organisms called bacteria. Any milk having a large amount\\nof sediment is suspicious. Particles of dirt are a sign that germs are\\nabundant. Thus dirty milk may be dangerous as well as disgusting.\\nThe dirt in milk consists mostly of particles of dead skin and ma-\\nnure, which fall into the pail from the body of the cow during milking\\nbut dust in the stable, and dirt and dust in the vessels used for handling\\nmilk, and unclean attendants, are also common sources of dirty sediment\\nin milk. Milk from unhealthy or unthrifty cows, or that which has been\\nhandled by sick persons is dangerous, as it may contain infectious germs\\nor foreign substances which might affect the health of the consumer.\\nThe germs of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and consumption\\n(or tuberculosis) have been found in milk, and thus transmitted to man,\\nand spread from family to family. Feverish cows, and sometimes\\ncows that have been milked a long time, produce milk which should not\\nbe used. Any milk having an unnatural appearance should be discarded.\\nOdors and peculiar flavors are due to bacterial action or to the volatile\\noils of some foods onions, turnips, cabbage, and certain weeds, as garlic\\nand wormwood, give characteristic odors and tastes to milk. Ibid.\\nCare or Milk. The proper care of milk after it has been delivered\\nto the consumer is a matter of great importance. If milk is kept in\\nan open vessel in a refrigerator with meats and various kinds of vegeta-\\nbles, it will absorb odors from them. It is also sensitive to flavors, and if\\nallowed to stand in an old tin dish the tin taste can easily be recog-\\nnized. Milk should therefore be kept in a cool place, free from odors,\\nand in a perfectly clean vessel of suitable material. A well-glazed earthen\\nor porcelain dish, or a glass jar or bottle, is the best container tin is\\ngood so long as bright and the iron is well-covered. Wooden dishes are\\nobjectionable.\\nAs already stated, the change to which milk is most liable is simple\\nsouring, and the best agents to prevent this change are cold and heat.\\nToo much care cannot be used in seeing that the milk is cold when deliv-\\nered, and that it is then immediately put into a cool place. If allowed to\\nstand in the warm air, even for a few minutes, the time it will keep\\nsweet is shortened. Of course it will keep longer at a temperature between\\n35\u00c2\u00b0 and 50\u00c2\u00b0 F. than above 50\u00c2\u00b0 F. Sometimes milk does not keep sweet\\nwhen no cause can be discovered for its souring. This is frequently the\\ncase in summer. Often the trouble is the refrigerator, which may seem\\ncold on account of the great difference between its temperature and that\\noutside, while it is, in fact, not cold, and a thermometer may show its\\ntemperature to be even above 60\u00c2\u00b0 F. Ibid.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0454.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 443\\nPage 216, 224 (a). The Importance of Vegetable Food.\\nThe commonest fault committed by housekeepers in respect of vegeta-\\nbles is, that they do not supply a sufficient variety, seeming to consider\\nthat the meat is the only part of the meal that requires care, and that all\\nthe rest is mere garnish, beneath the notice of a Briton, and unfit to\\nsustain his vigorous life. Yet that is not the experience of the observers\\nof mankind. The attention of Herodotus was called to the fact that the\\nPersians, the manliest and most sporting nation in the world, had at\\nmeals not only several dishes, but several courses of vegetable food, pre-\\nceding a very moderate allowance of solid meat. And Sir Henry Kawlin-\\nson describes the diet of this tough race as practically the same now\\nso that the assumptions of some anthropologists that hunting races are\\nnecessarily riotous eaters of flesh, and that carnivoracity strengthens a\\nnation, are not accurate. The Persian gentleman is the spiritual father\\nof the British squire yet, at many a hospitable board, if a guest does\\nnot fancy meat that day, or has eaten enough of it at a previous meal, he\\nwill have to fall back upon potatoes, or to solace himself by picking a\\nfew bits out of the sauces of made dishes, where the vegetable flavor has\\nbeen saturated with that of meat, and spoilt. Usually, he goes on eating\\ntoo much nitrogenous food out of sheer idleness. Chambers, Manual\\nof Diet.\\nPage 216, \u00c2\u00a7224 (6). Potatoes as Food for Man is the sub-\\nject of a farmers bulletin issued by the United States Department of\\nAgriculture. This shows that the potato, being essentially a starchy\\nfood, to be wholesome should be eaten with meat, eggs or fish, which are\\nessentially nitrogenous foods. Eaten alone the potato furnishes a one-\\nsided, badly-balanced diet. The report shows that the reason why pota-\\ntoes have been a staple article of diet for years is in accordance with the\\nscientific principle that one food must supply the deficiency of another.\\nThe most important groups of constituents in foods are protein (nitroge-\\nnous matter), fats, and carbohydrates (starches, sugars, etc.). Hence,\\nwhen potatoes are eaten with foods largely nitrogenous, they supply a\\nwell-balanced diet, conducive to health and vigor. There is a tendency\\nto decry the potato, and it certainly need not be sewed three times a\\nday, as it is in many households, simply because the housewife has not\\nthe culinary knowledge to find substitutes. There are many pleasing\\nways of preparing them all winter, but these are the days when they are\\nleast desirable, and when the careful housewife will replace them as often\\nas possible with substitutes. In the spring, when old potatoes are at\\ntheir worst and new ones little better, they should be entirely replaced", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0455.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "444 APPENDIX.\\nby such articles of food as hominy, served hot with a bit of crisp bacon\\nfor breakfast with rice, boiled, fried, or in croquettes with macaroni,\\nspaghetti, or even beans. Such substitutes will be found more palatable\\nand far more healthy, even in households which have deemed nothing\\ncould take the place of the everlasting potato, served three times a day\\nand seven times a week. 1\\nPage 217, 224 (c). Salads. Vegetables intended to be used for\\nsalad should all be fresh and crisp, and sweet and clean. Their colors\\nshould be positive and even the reds very red, the whites very white,\\nand the greens pure as those in an autumn sunset sky, except in the full-\\ngrown leaves, such as watercress. With a little trouble, not, how-\\never, necessarily attended by expense, a succession may be provided\\nof materials for salad all the year round, so as to have one at table\\nevery day. And a great preservation of health I believe it to be for\\nhearty persons. The most difficult season to provide for is the latter end\\nof winter, and it may be of use to mention that the dandelion is then\\na friend in need. If a pot be placed over the plant as it grows, or the\\nleaves tied up like lettuce, or it be transplanted into a frame, it can be\\nbleached, and thus loses its bitterness. Daisy leaves are also eatable\\nand thus, with a sprig of tarragon, a few cold potatoes, and some ever-\\nconstant mustard and cress, giant cress, Australian or curled cress, an\\nolive or two pared thin, or some beet root and a slice of Madeira onion,\\na great variety of combinations may be made. Chambers, Manual of\\nDiet\\nPage 217, \u00c2\u00a7224 (d). The Food Value of Peas, Beans, etc.\\nThen there are the vegetable albuminoids, especially the pulse tribe, or\\nlegumes, which are capitally disintegrated by cooking, and best by boil-\\ning or baking. Thus beans, haricots and broad, peas, lentils, dahl, etc.,\\nare all well broken up by heat. The disintegrated flour can easily be\\npassed through a sieve, and then the disintegration factor of the digestive\\nact is disposed of. There can be no question about the fact that with\\nsome persons vegetable albuminoids are much more easily digested than\\nanimal albuminoids and I quite agree with Sir Henry Thompson in his\\nremarks upon this subject. Besides, too, fat spreads easily over the dis-\\nintegrated particles of cooked vegetable albuminoids, as is well seen in\\nthe baked beans and fat pork of New England. Indeed, by such means\\nfat can often be taken without offence to a stomach that cannot other-\\nwise tolerate it and much of the digestibility of fat depends upon the\\nfineness of the particles into which it is subdivided. Haricot beans well", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0456.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 445\\nboiled, passed through a sieve, and then the floury part mixed with milk,\\nmake an excellent soup quite equal in food value to any made with\\nmeat stock. The ordinary lentil soup is at once a most economical and\\na most valuable soup, though scarcely, perhaps, quite adapted for persons\\nwith indigestion. But the proof of the pudding is in the eating thereof,\\nif it does not disagree, there is certainly no objection to its use.\\nFOTHERGILL.\\nPage 218, 225 (a). The Quenching of Thirst by Fruit rather\\nthan by Liquor. Some dyspeptics find that they must take no fluids\\nwith their food, and have to live on a very dry dietary, an Arab dietary.\\nOthers require more fluids than they allow themselves. Others require a\\nbiscuit, or some light article of food betwixt meals. When this is made\\nan excuse for a glass of sherry, it is to be closely criticised as a question-\\nable habit, more honored in the breach than the observance. To take\\nsome fruit would be better in every way. Some succulent fruit would\\nsatisfy the craving for something, and would not require the beverage\\nto get it down. Such use of fruit ought to be more general than it is at\\npresent. In all households where the expense does not forbid it, a large\\ndish of picked fruit of various kinds, when the season permits of it,\\nshould be placed on the sideboard every morning, with a label Help\\nyourself on it (as is found in the waiting rooms of several London con-\\nsultants). Children would soon cease to overeat themselves, just as do\\nthe assistants in confectioners shops, when they realize that it is to he a\\nconstant affair, not an occasional treat to be made the most of. Such an\\nidea is well worthy of adoption. If the temperance section of society\\nwould set the example, it would soon be followed by others, to the benefit\\nof the digestive organs of many while it would be agreeable to all. Fresh\\ngathered fruit out of the garden and orchard ought to be placed on the\\nbreakfast table every morning. For those who experience a bitter or hot\\ntaste in the morning on awakening, such addition to the breakfast table\\nwould be most acceptable. Fothergill, Indigestion and Biliousness.\\nPage 219, 22G The Use of Savory Herbs. Miss Corson,\\nsuperintendent of the New York Cooking School, in her Cooking\\nManual, says: Sweet and savory herbs arc absolutely indispen-\\nsable to good cooking they give variety and savory flavors to any\\ndish into which they outer, and are nearly all o( some decided sanitary\\nuse the different kinds called for in the various receipts further on in\\nthis work can be bought at almost any grocery store, or in the market\\nbut we advise our readers to obtain seeds from some good florist and", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0457.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "446 APPENDIX.\\nmake little kitchen gardens of their own, even if the space planted be\\nonly a box of mould in the kitchen window. Sage, thyme, summer\\nsavory, sweet marjoram, tarragon, sweet basil, rosemary, mint, burnet,\\nchervil, dill, and parsley will grow abundantly with very little care and\\nwhen dried and added judiciously to food, greatly improve its flavor.\\nParsley, tarragon, and fennel should be dried in May, June, and July,\\nju^t before flowering; mint in June and July; thyme, marjoram, and\\nsavory in July and August basil and sage in August and September\\nall herbs should be gathered in the sunshine, and dried by artificial heat\\ntheir flavor is best preserved by keeping them in air-tight tin cans.\\nPage 219, 227 (a). Ice and Ice Water. About three pints of\\nfluids are the normal allowance of water to human beings in a temperate\\nclime under ordinary circumstances but when there is much perspiration,\\ninduced by exertion or other cause, a much larger quantity is nec-\\nessary. In iron works, the men, exposed to high temperature and bathed\\nin perspiration, when at work drink from two to four gallons of fluids\\nper diem. There is a popular prejudice against drinking freely of cold\\nfluids when heated, and no doubt death is sometimes so induced but\\nthe consumption of cold and even chilled drinks is now much on the\\nincrease. Ice is no longer regarded as a mere luxury it has become\\na necessary of life in hot weather, and its addition to a beverage adds\\nmuch to its agreeableness. The chilled fluid directly lowers the heat of\\nthe body, and abstracts from it as much heat as is requisite to raise the\\ntemperature of the chilled fluid to that of the body, that is, from about\\n32\u00c2\u00b0 to 99\u00c2\u00b0 this exercises a distinct influence over the body temperature\\nfor some time. It is obvious from this that the quantity of the chilled\\nfluid has much to do with the effect, and a pint will take twice as much\\nheat to raise its temperature as will half a pint. Consequently it is not\\nunimportant to the imbiber what the amount of his fluid is, as well as its\\ntemperature and to those who produce heat but slowly a sip of iced fluid\\nis as cooling as a draught of it to another whose heat-forming power is\\ngreat. The draught of the latter would be as dangerous to the first as\\nthe sip of the first would be useless and ineffective to the latter. At\\nall entertainments, dancing and other, where the heat becomes great,\\nice, both as a beverage and in the more solid form of ice cream, forms now\\nthe essential matter of the refreshment table, and is very acceptable. It\\nmust be remembered, however, that free indulgence in iced fluids is very\\napt to induce a sharp diarrhoea in many persons. Also the free consump-\\ntion of ice has not unfrequently the effect of creating even a stronger\\ncraving than ever for fluids, from the same action upon the throat that", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0458.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 447\\nsnowballs have on boys hands, the persistent cold causes a free flow of\\narterial blood to the part. In such cases a drink of warm fluid often gives\\nrelief. Fothergill, Maintenance of Health.\\nPage 220, 228 (a). When Scum and Water Weeds are Harm-\\nful. According to Prof. W. G. Farlow, M.D., 1 The flowering plants\\nknown as water weeds, both those that grow from the bottom of ponds\\nand watercourses, and have distinct stems and leaves, and also those that\\nfloat on the surface as scum, are, under ordinary circumstances, harmless.\\nThey may prove (1) troublesome or injurious by growing so luxuriantly\\nas to choke up small streams and shallow ponds (2) by serving as points\\nof attachment or shelter for injurious small plants and (3) by decaying\\nin hot weather.\\nPage 220, 228 (6). A Simple Test for the Purity of Water.\\nFill a bottle made of colorless glass with the water look through the\\nwater at some black object the water should then appear perfectly color-\\nless and free from suspended matter. A muddy or turbid appearance\\nwould indicate the presence of soluble organic matter, or of soluble\\nmatter in suspension. It should be clear as crystal.\\nEmpty out some of the water, leaving the bottle half full cork up the\\nbottle and place it for a few hours in a warm place shake up the water,\\nremove the cork, and critically smell the air contained in the bottle. If it\\nhas any smell, and especially if the odor is in the least repulsive, the\\nwater should be rejected for domestic use. By heating the water to boil-\\ning, an odor is sometimes evolved that otherwise would not appear.\\nPure water should be tasteless and remain so after being warmed. It\\nshould also be odorless but, since the delicacy of smell and taste varies\\ngreatly, sanitarians attach special importance to Heisch s test for sow-\\nage contamination or the presence of putrescible organic matter. A\\nclean pint bottle is filled three fourths full of the water to be tested, and in\\nthe water is dissolved a teaspoonful of the purest sugar loaf or granu-\\nlated sugar will answer the bottle is then corked and kept in a warm\\nplace for two days. If in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours the\\nwater becomes cloudy or muddy, it is unfit for domestic use. If it\\nremains perfectly clear it is probably safe to use. 1L alth.\\nPage 220, 220 (a). Spring Water. A country house is for-\\ntunate if it possesses at a convenient distance a good, cool, copious\\nspring. Nothing is more attractive or more serviceable about a IVun-\\n1 First report of Louisiana Board o( Health", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0459.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "448 APPENDIX.\\nsylvania farm than the spring house often jutting out from a bank or\\nhillside, built low, but firmly, of gray stone, and shaded over by a few\\nold trees. Within you see the clear, transparent pool of water, in its\\nreservoir of stone, pure as the air or sky overhead and around it, or\\ncarefully placed in it, the pans of milk or cream, or butter, waiting for\\nfamily use. A draught from that supply, flowing out to make a limpid\\nstream through the meadow below, gives more refreshment on a midsum-\\nmer day than the most tempting beverage of man s contrivance. It has\\nin it no horrors, no mockery, only health. 1 Dr. Henry Hartshorne,\\nOur Homes.\\nPage 224, 233 (a). Purification of Water by Filtering. The\\nfollowing home-made filter is advised by Dr. Parkes, the eminent sani-\\ntarian Take a large, common flower-pot, and put into it a bit of zinc\\ngauze or a clean bit of flannel then coarse gravel to the depth of about\\nthree inches over that the same amount of white sand washed very clean\\nand next, four inches of charcoal in small fragments, animal charcoal,\\nwhen it can be had. On the top of all, a piece of well-cleaned sponge\\nmay be placed, making sure that this is changed or thoroughly cleansed\\nonce in a week or two more or less often, according to the impurity of\\nthe water.\\nPage 229, 240 (a). Importance of Breathing through the Nose.\\nAir inspired through the nose passes through a refining process, which\\nprepares it for the lungs very much as mastication prepares food for the\\nstomach. If food is improperly masticated, the stomach suffers. If air is\\nimproperly refined, the air passages suffer. The nose and not the mouth\\nwas designed as the gateway to the lungs. The mouth may be closed\\non going to sleep, opened while sleeping, and, when consciousness arrives^\\nclosed again, and thus many are ignorant of the fact that they ever breathe\\nthrough the mouth. If these people are questioned closely, the fact will\\nbe elicited that the mouth and throat are always dry in the mornings, and\\nthat it may be several hours before this condition wears away. When\\ndryness of the throat is caused by sleeping with the mouth open, if the\\nnasal passages are found to be sufficiently large to supply the lungs with\\nair, the mouth should be kept closed by wearing a skullcap with strings\\nor straps fastened to its sides, which, being tied or buckled under the chin,\\nhold the jaws together. Dr. Thomas R. French.\\nPage 241, 253 (a). The Results of Re-breathing Expired Air.\\nIf you want to see how different the breath breathed out is from the\\nbreath taken in. you have only to try a somewhat cruel experiment, but", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0460.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 449\\none which people too often try upon themselves, their children, and their\\nwork-people. If you take any small animal with lungs like your own,\\nmouse, for instance, and force it to breath no air but what you have\\nbreathed already if you put it in a close box, and, while you take in\\nbreath from the outer air, send out your breath through a tube into that\\nbox, the animal will soon faint if you go on long with this process, it\\nwill die.\\nTake a second instance, which I beg to press most seriously on the\\nnotice of mothers, governesses, and nurses. If you allow a child to get\\ninto the habit of sleeping with its head under the bedclothes, and thereby\\nbreathing its own breath over and over again, that child will, assuredly,\\ngrow pale, weak, and ill. Medical men have cases on record of scrofula\\nappearing in children previously healthy, which could only be accounted\\nfor from this habit, and which ceased when the habit stopped. Rev.\\nChas. Kingsley, Health and Education.\\nPage 244, 258 (a). The Adoption of Prevalent Customs. The\\nemigrant should always adopt any custom which, however new and\\nstrange, he finds in use among the settlers of a new country. Those who\\nhave preceded him have had the like Saxon unwillingness to adopt a new\\nhabit, and have only done so from necessity, the reasons for which may\\nnot always be apparent. It is better to fall into it at once, and then seek\\nfor its explanation. Especially is this caution necessary in the matter of\\nfood. Thus the newly-arrived emigrant in India goes on with his English\\nfood, his bottled beer, wine, etc., and is ere long a broken-down, jaundiced\\ncreature, whose liver has been ruined, firstly, by the work thrown upon it\\nin accumulation of bile in it in excess, the climate only requiring sparing-\\nquantities of food, and, secondly, by the medicine taken to relieve his\\ncondition. In travelling, the same thing is seen, though to a less\\nextent than in emigration, and the superior power of adaptation to the\\nwants and requirements of the country explains the health of one person.\\nand the want of it, much of the ill-health of another. Fothergill,\\nMaintenance of Health.\\nPage 253, 209 (a). How to Prevent the Spread of Infectious\\nDiseases. The first thought of the parents of a child sick with a com-\\nmunicable disease is one of desire for the child s recovery, and results in\\nthe calling in of the family physician. This is eminently the desirable\\nstep to take, for the physician is needed to give counsel out o( his previous\\nexperience with similar cases, and as far as possible to assist nature in the\\nrestorative process. But parents and physician must In 1 even more zealous", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0461.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "450 APPENDIX.\\nin considering the welfare of those members of the family who are, up to\\nthis time, perfectly well. Properly managed this may be the only case of\\nthis disease occurring in this house or in the neighborhood improperly\\nmanaged, an epidemic, widespread and dreadful in its ravages, will be the\\nresult. Prevention of further extension of the disease should be the\\nwatchword now, and the steps taken to bring this about must be prompt\\nand vigorous. Our first suggested practical lesson in sanitary practice is\\nthis Place the sick under the care of the physician and nurse, but be\\nsure that the health officer is allowed to establish conditions such that the\\ndisease may be confined to the first case.\\nWhenever any case occurs which is suspected to be a dangerous, com-\\nmunicable disease, patient and nurse should at once be isolated from all\\nother persons, those who may themselves be susceptible to the disease, or\\nthose who may be the means of communication between the sick and the\\nwell. After this, nothing must be allowed to pass from the sick-room to\\nthat part of the house occupied by others, until it has been disinfected by\\nproper means. This applies to air, water, food, dishes, clothing, books,\\npapers, everything that has been within the limits of the sick-room.\\nIsolation must be faithfully applied to all articles of clothing, food, dis-\\ncharges from the body, or other things which become infected. The\\nmost extreme care must be taken that all such things shall be thoroughly\\nisolated until they are disinfected.\\nOrdinarily it will be the attending physician who will decide whether\\nor not it really is a case of a communicable disease, but immediate steps\\nshould be taken even though it is only suspected to be such a case, and the\\nactive work of preventing any further spread of the disease should not\\ncease until it is ascertained that it is not such a disease, or until the patient\\nhas recovered and the final disinfection is accomplished. Teachers\\nSanitary Bulletins, Michigan State Board of Health.\\nPage 254, 270 (a). Some Pacts about Malaria. Malaria\\ntends to be carried by gentle winds along valleys and level tracts in warm\\nor mild weather. It is much less to be apprehended during the sunshine\\nhours of the day than toward night, although it is reported to rise at times\\nhundreds, or even thousands, of feet up into the air after leaving its place\\nof origin the rule is that the subtle influence of malaria remains usually\\nwithin a few feet of the soil, so the nearer one is to the soil the greater the\\nliability to the disease. Accordingly it is safer to have the sleeping room\\nsituated more than twelve feet above the surface of the ground, especially\\nif the earth is being dug up. It is best in ague districts not to breath the\\nair near the ground either very early or late in the day. Fires at night", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0462.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 451\\nand moderately warm clothing are of service against the infection. Forests\\ntend to intercept this strange poison. Currier, Practical Hygiene.\\nDr. A. N. Bell, the eminent sanitarian, says that this poison is a poor\\nsailor, seldom crossing large bodies of water, and is most potent at night.\\nSo well do the natives of hot and malarious countries understand this,\\nthat at Lake Maracaibo, for example, they sleep at night in their boats on\\nthe lake, after their labor through the day on shore, not allowing them-\\nselves to stay on the deadly poisonous shore after sunset, or to return to\\nit until after sunrise.\\nThe Value of the Eucalyptus Tree in draining Wet Soils.\\nThat the E. globulus has earned by fair experiment its name of fever\\ntree, as a preventive, seems now to be settled. Its rapid growth must\\nmake it a great drainer of wet soils, while its marked terebinthine odor\\nmay have its influence, and it is highly probable that the liberation of this\\nessence into the air stands connected with its generation of ozone. But\\nwhatever the sanatory activities of the eucalypt may be, the fact is\\nsquarely settled that spots in Italy, uninhabitable because of malarial\\nfever, have been rendered tolerable by the planting of E. globulus, and it\\nis believed that a more plentiful planting would nearly, if not quite,\\nremove the difficulty. A military post is mentioned in Algeria in which\\nthe garrison had to be changed every rive days, such was the virulence of\\nthe malaria. A plantation of eucalypts cleared the miasma nearly away,\\nand rendered unnecessary the frequent changes of the garrison. In this\\ncase, sixty thousand trees were planted. Prof. Samuel Lockwood,\\nPopular Science Monthly, April, 1876.\\nPage 255, 271 (a). The Black Hole of Calcutta. In 1750,\\none hundred and forty-six English prisoners in Calcutta were confined\\nover night in an apartment about eighteen feet square and fourteen feet\\nhigh, having but one small window. In the morning, there were alive\\ntioenty-three only of the strongest, who had been able to get near the win-\\ndow in the struggle that had occurred for fresh air. And of these, nearly\\nall died subsequently of a very low type of typhus fever, known as putrid\\nfever. The place of their imprisonment has ever since been known as\\nthe Black Hole of Calcutta.\\nOf the one hundred and fifty passengers shut tip in the steamer London-\\nderry, with hatches battened down, during a stormy night in ISIS.\\nseventy-two died before morning.\\nPage 255, 271 (6). The Air of Bedrooms. Hospital Wards, etc.\\nThe air escaping from the ventilator of a crowded room is said to he", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0463.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "452 APPENDIX.\\nvery offensive, and, if drawn through pure water, will taint it. The air\\nof bedrooms sometimes becomes so contaminated at night that sleep is\\nrestless or broken. The admission of a little fresh air will at such times\\noften enable one to sleep soundly. Little children or feeble persons,\\nhaving passed the night in a close room, are liable in the morning to\\nheadache, want of appetite, and a general feeling of debility.\\nSometimes hospital wards become absolutely unsafe for patients, through\\nthe permeation of the walls, floors, and bedding, with poisonous organic\\nmatter. Such wards should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. In\\nsome instances it has been necessary to replaster the rooms.\\nPage 256, 273 (a). Carbon Dioxide in Caves, Wells, etc.\\nUpon the borders of Lake Laacher, near the Rhine, and in Aigueperse,\\nin Auvergne, there are two sources of carbonic acid so abundant that they\\ngive rise to accidents in the open country. The gas rises out of small\\nhollows in the ground, where the vegetation is very rich the insects and\\nsmall animals, attracted by the richness of the verdure, seek shelter there,\\nand are at once asphyxiated. Their bodies attract the birds, which also\\nperish. In former times the accidents caused by this gas in caves, mines,\\nand even in wells, gave rise to the most extravagant stories. Such locali-\\nties were said to be haunted by demons, gnomes, or genii, the guardians\\nof subterranean treasures, whose glance alone caused death, as no trace of\\nlesion or bruise was to be found on the unfortunate persons so suddenly\\nstruck down. Cammile Flammarion, The Atmosphere.\\nPage 257, \u00c2\u00a7274 (a). Carbon Dioxide.\\nCarbon Dioxide in Dwellings, Schools, etc. The air in a\\nLondon schoolroom contained 29 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000 of air,\\nMunich 72\\nHospital at Madrid 43\\nBedroom 48\\nLecture room at Paris 67\\nDr. Henry Hartshorne, Our Homes (Health Prime)\\nA similar excess often exists in our schools, lecture rooms, etc., causing\\nthe inmates to be listless and drowsy, and to suffer from headache and\\nfaintness. According to Pettenkofer, a man exhales every hour from six\\ntenths to seven tenths of a cubic foot of carbonic acid gas. Angus Smith\\nasserts that a good oil moderator lamp produces a little more than half\\na cubic foot. A common gas burner, consuming three cubic feet of gas\\nper hour, gives off about as much carbonic acid gas as three men in the", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0464.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 453\\nsame time would do. The light from a good and properly cared for\\nstudents lamp, or other reliable lamp, is much better for health, as well\\nas eyesight, than illuminating gas but if the oil is poor or the wick is\\nturned so low that combustion is imperfect, a poisonous vapor, mixed\\nwith floating specks of carbon, diffuses itself through the air, and instances\\nare on record of severe prostration resulting from such impurities.\\nA Simple Test for Carbon Dioxide. Dr. Angus Smith s Household\\nTest for Carbonic Acid Gas is as follows Procure a bottle holding ten\\nand a half fluid ounces, fill it with the air of the room you wish to examine,\\nby blowing it in with a bellows or sucking it in through a glass tube pushed\\ndown to the bottom of the vial pour in half an ounce of lime-water, and\\nafter corking tightly, shake well for two or three minutes. If, after a\\nshort time there is no milky appearance of the lime-water, you may know\\nto a certainty that the ten ounces of air in the bottle do not contain enough\\ncarbonic acid to form a visible precipitate of carbonate of lime (chalk) in\\nthe lime-water, and this has been proved by careful experiment on a large\\nscale to be equal to less than six hundredths of one per cent of carbonic\\nacid in the sample of air tested a quantity which has been agreed upon\\nby some high sanitary authorities as the limit beyond which the accumu-\\nlation of this impurity (and others, perhaps much more noxious, which\\nseem always to accompany it when it arises from human or animal respi-\\nration) is injurious to health, and should not be permitted to occur.\\nDr. J. G. Richardson, Long Life and How to Beach It.\\nPage 260, 279 (a). Devitalization of Air.\\nPoisonous Wall-Papers. Within the last few years it has been\\ndemonstrated by physicians and chemists, both in this country and\\nEurope, that wall-papers (especially those that are roughened, or flocked,\\nand of a bright green color) are at times poisonous, owing to arsenic\\nsubstances in the coloring. The arsenic acts as a poison by being diffused\\nin the dust of the rooms, or, as some believe, in a gaseous form as arsenu-\\nretted hydrogen, when it may be recognized by a garlic-like or musty\\nodor. The phenomena of arsenical disease ordinarily produced are\\nsimilar to those attending a severe cold, viz., an irritation of the eyes\\nand of the lining membrane of the nose and throat. The irritation may\\nextend to the bronchial tubes, lungs, and lower portions of the alimentary\\ncanal, or the poison may produce skin eruptions, or may be absorbed in\\nsuch quantity as to produce convulsions ami various disturbances of the\\nnervous system. For further information in regard to poisonous wall-\\npapers, the reader is referred to the investigations made by Dr. Ked.ie,\\nas detailed in the Reports of the Michigan Suite Board of Health.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0465.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "454 APPENDIX.\\nDevitalized Air in Dwellings. In many private houses, houses\\neven of the well-to-do and wealthy, streams of devitalized air are nursed\\nwith the utmost care. There is the lumber room of the house, in which\\nall kinds of incongruous things are huddled away and excluded from light\\nand fresh air. There are dark under-stair closets in which cast-off\\nclothes, charged with organic debris of the body, are let rest for days or\\neven weeks together. There are bedrooms overstocked with furniture,\\nthe floors covered with heavy carpets in which are collected pounds upon\\npounds of organic dust. There are dressing rooms in which are stowed\\naway old shoes and well-packed drawers of well-worn clothing. There\\nare dining rooms in which the odor of the latest meal is never absent, and\\nfrom the sideboard and cupboards of which the smell of decomposing\\nfruit or cheese is always emanating, etc. Under such conditions\\nthousands of families live, children grow up, and old people die. They\\nmay all go for years and suffer no acute disease, and those of the family\\nwhose duty calls them daily into the open air may even be healthy but\\nthose who have to remain nearly all day in the devitalized atmosphere of\\nthe home, show the fact in paleness of face, languor of limb, persistent\\nsense of weariness, and dulness of spirit. Under such conditions acute\\ndisease, epidemic fever, or other actively dangerous malady need not occur\\nunless it be introduced from without but the home is ready for it if it be\\nintroduced. Dr. Benjamin W. Richardson, Diseases of Modern Life.\\nPage 260, 279 Cleanliness versus Dirt. True cleanliness\\nis a matter of minutiae, and admits of no subterfuge. If dirt can find a\\ncrack, a ledge, or an absorbent surface which cannot be reached by the\\nordinary method of cleansing, there dirt will accumulate and where dirt\\nis, there will disease be also. If we are to look to our neighbors for\\npainstaking cleanliness, we must go to Holland for example, where it is\\npopularly believed that no gastronomic injury would ensue from dining\\ndirectly off the flooring boards or tiles. Beyond the delightful duty of\\nscrubbing everything which is not painted, the Dutchman and his wife\\nfind no such esoteric and sanitary delight as in painting everything\\nwhich cannot be scrubbed or rubbed bright. And the Dutchman is\\nright. No layer upon layer of paper-hangings, with brown, gray, or\\ngreen arsenical dust to slowly poison the more susceptible of the family.\\nNo sham plaster walls, porous to sewer-gas and corrupted with putrefied\\npaste, can be allowed. If we have lath and plaster, let it be painted and\\nif we cannot have wainscot or mahogany, kept brilliant by continual\\ncleanly friction and polish, let us have a clean, painted, wooden surface,\\nas artistic in tint and in the disposal of the colors and decoration as taste", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0466.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 455\\nand means will afford it but, to carry out a determined war against dirt\\nand disease, let us have paint. These are no longer notions peculiar to\\nthe Dutch. They are sanitary axioms, which we cannot afford to ignore.\\nDr. H. C. Bartlett, Paper on Chemistry of Dirt.\\nPage 260, 280 (a). Dr. Richardson on Damp Air in Houses.\\nIt is not invariably the new house that is rendered dangerous by being\\ndamp. There are in this country many old houses, picturesquely situated,\\nwhich are not less dangerous. The stranger passing one of these residences\\nis struck by its beauty. There is the ancient moat around it, or the lake\\nin front with the sailing boat and swans, the summer-house, and splendid\\ntrees down to the water s edge. The stranger may well enough be fasci-\\nnated by the view, but let him inquire and he will too often find a truly\\nghostly history of the place. He will be told, probably with some exag-\\ngeration of the truth, that the house is unlucky, that no one who has\\nlived in it has reared a healthy child, and that a traditional malediction\\ntaints the place. If he enter the house he finds the basement steaming\\nwith water vapor walls constantly bedewed with moisture cellars\\ncoated with fungus and mould drawing-rooms and dining rooms always,\\nexcept in the very heat of summer, oppressive from moisture bedrooms,\\nthe windows of which are, in winter, often so frosted on the inner\\nsurface from condensation of the water in the air of the room, that all\\nday they are coated with ice. The malediction on the young nurtured in\\nthat mansion may not be so deep as is rumored, and it is much less\\nobscure than is imagined but it is there, and its name is damp.\\nDr. Benjamin W. Richardson, Diseases of Modern Life.\\nPage 262, 281 Condition of Ordinary Tenement Houses.\\nThis is the place these narrow ways diverging to the right and left,\\nand reeking everywhere with dirt and filth. Such lives as are led here\\nbear the same fruit here as elsewhere. The coarse and bloated faces at\\nthe doors have counterparts at home and all the wide world over. De-\\nbauchery has made the very houses prematurely old. See how the rotten\\nbeams are tumbling down, and how the patched and broken windows\\nseem to scowl dimly, like eyes that have been hurt in drunken frays.\\nWhat lies beyond this tottering flight of steps that creak beneath our\\ntread? A miserable room lighted by one dim candle, and destitute of\\nall comfort, save that which may be hidden in a wretched bed. Beside\\nit sits a man his elbows on his knees his forehead hidden in his hands.\\nWhat ails that man? asks the foremost officer; Fever, he sullenly\\nreplies, without looking up. Conceive the fancies of a fevered brain in\\nsuch a place as this 1 Charles Dickens, American Notts,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0467.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "450 APPENDIX.\\nl When the great riot occurred in 1863, every hiding-place and nursery\\nof crime discovered itself by immediate and active participation in the\\noperations of the mob. Those very places and domiciles, and all that are\\nlike them, are to-day nurseries of crime. By far the largest part\\neighty per cent at least of the crimes against property and against\\nthe person are perpetrated by individuals who have either lost connection\\nwith home life or never had any, or whose homes had ceased to be suffi-\\nciently separate, decent, and desirable to afford what are regarded as\\nordinary wholesome influences of home and family. Pure air, pure light,\\nand sufficient room for domestic privacy and purity, are the simple reme-\\ndies for these evil conditions. B port of Tenement House Committee,\\nNew York.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0A fire in the night in one of these human beehives, with its terror\\nand woe, is one of the things that live in the recollection ever after as\\na terrible nightmare. A more unlovely existence than that in one\\nof these tenements it would be hard to imagine. Everywhere is the\\nstench of the kerosene stove that is forever burning, serving for cooking,\\nheating, and ironing alike, until the last atom of oxygen is burned out of\\nthe close air. Oil is cheaper than coal. The air shaft is too busy carry-\\ning up smells from below to bring any air down, even if it is not hung full\\nof washing in every story, as it ordinarily is. Enterprising tenants turn\\nit to use as a refrigerator as well. There is at least a draught of air,\\nsuch as it is. The stuffy rooms seem as if they were made for\\ndwarfs. Most decidedly, there is not room to swing the proverbial cat\\nin any one of them. The original demand was for 600 cubic feet\\nof air space for each adult sleeper. But of 28,000 and odd tenants\\ncanvassed in New York, in the slumming investigation prosecuted by the\\ngeneral government in 1894, 17,047 were found to have less than 400 feet,\\nand of these 5526 slept in unventilated rooms with no windows.\\nUptown or downtown, as the tenements grow taller, the thing that is\\nrarest to find is the home of the olden days, even as it was in the shanty\\non the rocks. No home, no family, no morality, no manhood, no patri-\\notism said the old Frenchman. Seventy-seven per cent of their young\\nprisoners, say the managers of the state reformatory, have no moral\\nsense, or next to none. Weakness, not wickedness, ails them, adds the\\nprison reformer. Jacob A. Rns, The Tenement House Blight.\\nPage 262, 281 (6). The Need of Model Tenements. The\\npersistence of sickness and mortality in the old, crowded, tenement\\ndwellings of our city, and the rapid and very great falling off in the rates\\nof sickness and death in the new and airy sanitary dwellings like Sir", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0468.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 457\\nSydney Waterlow s in London, and Mr. White s in Brooklyn, or like the\\nimproved districts in Edinburgh and Glasgow, show that a great work\\nfor the physical and moral improvement of the common classes, and for\\nthe prevention of poverty and causes of pauperism, must be undertaken\\nin plans for dwelling reform in our crowded city. The homes of the\\nNew York City poor must be provided with sunlight, fresh air, and the\\nmoral safeguards of real domesticity. The Improved Industrial Dwellings\\nCompany, of which Sir Sydney Waterlow is president, in London, report\\nthat in their nearly three thousand tenements there are no fevers and\\ndeaths by contagious diseases, and in Glasgow the health officer reports\\nthat in the reformed dwellings he has not beard of a case of infectious\\ndisease. Let the deadly contagion of vices and crimes be exterminated\\nfrom the habitations of the poor, and let the natural agencies of health\\nand purity surround and fill their dwellings, as means of saving from\\npauperizing, sickness, and from the evils that medical charities and penal\\ninstitutions cannot cure.\\nGood Results or Improved Dwellings. Improved buildings in\\nBrooklyn, built by Mr. A. T. White after the best London models, contain\\nfrom one thousand to eleven hundred people. In the city of Brooklyn at\\nlarge, the annual deaths of children under five appear to average between\\nnine and ten in the hundred, while in these dwellings it is only between\\nsix and seven, according to the agent s figures. In old-style tenements\\nof about the same size in New York, the Board of Health figures show\\na corresponding rate of 11.4.\\nIt appears from the death records in these Brooklyn buildings that\\nthere is no instance in which a contagious disease has been communi-\\ncated to apartments adjoining, or above or below. These diseases, of\\ncourse, enter there, as into the best-guarded private houses, but the out-\\nside staircase has so far provided all necessary isolation, while in ordi-\\nnary houses used by several families the stairway hall is as natural a\\nvehicle for the communication of disease as that of sound, smells, or\\nflames. Alfred T. White, Dwellings of the Laboring Classes.\\nPage 262, 282 (a). Living in the Open Air. Dr. Benjamin\\nWard Richardson, of London, who has studied the condition of the home-\\nless, divides them into three classes first, vagrants second, itinerants,\\nlike the cheap John fraternity and showmen and third, nomads, like\\nthe gypsies. He says\\nThe vagrant class, notwithstanding irregular meals, uncertain lodg-\\nings, and general lack of comfort, enjoy a degree of health equal, at least,\\nto that of the hard-working classes in packed eoininiuiities. They do not", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0469.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "458 APPENDIX.\\nsuffer from any special class of diseases, and zymotic diseases are not\\nspecially prevalent among them. Generally they do not live to a great\\nage, but there are exceptions to this rule.\\nThe itinerant class is much better fed and clothed than the vagrant\\nclass, and much better sheltered apparently, yet the close van, which\\nserves at once for storehouse, kitchen, sitting-room, and sleeping apart-\\nment, does not conduce to the health and well-being of its inmates.\\nThey are not healthy looking, and their children have usually a pale and\\noppressed cast. They seem to be less subject to such diseases as measles,\\nscarlet fever, smallpox, and typhoid fever, than residents of houses are.\\nThe nomadic class, or tent-dwellers, are by far the most fortunate in\\nregard to health. Rheumatism of the subacute or chronic variety, with-\\nout fever, seems to be their only enemy in the way of disease. Of the\\nzymotic diseases they know little. They do not suffer from consumption\\nnor any of the chest diseases. These statements apply only to gypsies\\nin the nomadic state. When they settle down to the happier influ-\\nences of civilization, such comforts as consumption, zymotic diseases,\\nchest diseases, etc., come within their reach. Poverty, of itself, is not\\nnecessarily a cause of the worst diseases. Open air is a powerful disin-\\nfectant, protecting the gypsy from germs which we vainly fight with all\\nthe aid of science.\\nIn many human habitations diseases are not only begotten, but\\nentrapped.\\nPage 265, 286 (a). The Passage of Air through Plaster, Bricks,\\netc. My illustrious preceptor, Prof. John W. Draper, demonstrated,\\nmany years since, by a series of ingenious experiments, the facility with\\nwhich gases diffuse, even when opposed by a pressure equivalent to that of\\ntwenty atmospheres. The illustrations exhibited this evening warrant us\\nin the deduction that the purity of air in our buildings, whether private\\nor public, is due not only to ventilation and to the imperfect work of the\\ncarpenter, but also to the porosity of the plaster, and the brick or stone\\nwalls through which diffusion takes place, a part of the foul air within\\nbeing exchanged for the fresh, oxygen- abounding air from without.\\nDr. R. Ogden Doremus.\\nPage 265, 286 (6). Automatic Ventilation. As an instance of\\nautomatic ventilation, may be mentioned the plan in use in the cabins\\nof the ferry-boats plying between New York and Brooklyn. These\\nboats carry thousands of persons every week. Before the introduction of\\nthe automatic ventilators, the air of the cabins, at times of day when\\nthe passengers were most numerous, was stifling and impure. Since their", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0470.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 459\\nuse, a very perceptible change for the better has been noticed. The\\nfollowing are sometimes the results of non-automatic ventilation In an\\ninstitution for children the ventilators were open upon the doctor s visit,\\nbut a few moments after were found filled with old clothes. In a large\\nschool, where the air was impure and the cause of sickness, an investi-\\ngation showed that the ventilating apparatus, though in itself good, was\\nof no real value, for the janitor used the fresh-air flue of the furnace as\\na chicken coop, and the janitor s boy the ventilator in the roof as a\\npigeon house.\\nPage 266, 287 (a). The Amount of Air required in Ventila-\\ntion. The only safe principle in dealing with the subject is to have a\\nlarge margin for contingencies and the question really is not whether\\nsix hundred cubic feet per man is too much but whether six hundred\\ncubic feet per man be enough for all the purposes of warming, ventilation,\\nand comfort. It has been said that the question of cubic space is simply\\na question of ventilation, but it is rather a question as to the possibility of\\nventilation. The more beds or encumbrances you have in a room with a\\nlimited cubic space, the more obstruction you have to ventilation. The\\nfewer the beds, the more easy it is to ventilate the rooms. There are\\nfewer nooks and corners, fewer surfaces opposed to the movement of the\\nair, and less stagnation. Beport of Barracks Improvement Commission.\\nPage 267, 288 (a). Instructions for Disinfection (prepared\\nfor the National Board of Health). Disinfection is the destruction of\\nthe poisons of infectious and contagious diseases. Deodorizers, or sub-\\nstances which destroy smells, are not necessarily disinfectants, and disin-\\nfectants do not necessarily have an odor. Disinfection cannot compensate\\nfor want of cleanliness, nor of ventilation.\\nI. Disinfectants to be employed. (1) Roll sulphur (brimstone)\\nfor fumigation. (2) Sulphate of iron (copperas) dissolved in water in the\\nproportion of one and a half pounds to the gallon for soil, sewers, etc,\\n(3) Sulphate of zinc and common salt, dissolved together in water in the\\nproportions of four ounces sulphate and two ounces salt to the gallon\\nfor clothing, bed linen, etc. 1\\n1 Carbolic acid is not included in the above list, for the following reasons\\nIt is very difficult to determine the quality o( the commercial article, and the\\npurchaser can never be certain of securing it of proper strength it is expen-\\nsive, when of good quality, and experience has shown that it must he em-\\nployed in comparatively large quantities to be of any use; it is liable by its\\nstrong odor to give a false sense of security.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0471.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "460 APPENDIX.\\nII. How to use Disinfectants. (1) In the Sick-room. The most\\navailable agents are fresh air and cleanliness. The clothing, towels, bed-\\nlinen, etc., should, on removal from the patient, and before they are\\ntaken from the room, be placed in a pail or tub of the zinc solution, boil-\\ning hot, if possible. All discharges should either be received in vessels\\ncontaining copperas solution, or, when this is impracticable, should be\\nimmediately covered with copperas solution. All vessels used about the\\npatient should be cleansed with the same solution. Unnecessary furni-\\nture, especially that which is stuffed, carpets and hangings, should, when\\npossible, be removed from the room at the outset otherwise they should\\nremain for subsequent fumigation and treatment. (2) Fumigation with\\nsulphur is the only practicable method for disinfecting the house. For\\nthis purpose the rooms to be disinfected must be vacated. Heavy cloth-\\ning, blankets, bedding, and other articles which cannot be treated with\\nzinc solution, should be opened and exposed during fumigation, as directed\\nbelow. Close the rooms as tightly as possible, place the sulphur in iron\\npans supported upon bricks placed in wash-tubs containing a little water,\\nset it on fire by hot coals or with the aid of a spoonful of alcohol, and\\nallow the room to remain closed for twenty-four hours. For a room\\nabout ten feet square, at least two pounds of sulphur should be used for\\nlarger rooms, proportionally increased quantities. (3) Premises. Cel-\\nlars, yards, stables, gutters, privies, cesspools, water-closets, drains,\\nsewers, etc., should be frequently and liberally treated with copperas\\nsolution. The copperas solution is easily prepared by hanging a basket\\ncontaining about sixty pounds of copperas in a barrel of water. (4) Body\\nand Bedclothing, etc. It is best to burn all articles which have been in\\ncontact with persons sick with contagious or infectious diseases. Articles\\ntoo valuable to be destroyed should be treated as follows (a) cotton,\\nlinen, flannels, blankets, etc., should be treated with the boiling hot zinc\\nsolution introduce piece by piece, secure thorough wetting, and boil for\\nat least half an hour. Heavy woollen clothing, silks, furs, stuffed\\nbed covers, beds, and other articles which cannot be treated with the zinc\\nsolution, should be hung in the room during fumigation, their surfaces\\nthoroughly exposed, and pockets turned inside out. Afterward they\\nshould be hung in the open air, beaten and shaken. Pillows, beds,\\nstuffed mattresses, upholstered furniture, etc., should be cut open, the\\ncontents spread out, and thoroughly fumigated. Carpets are best fumi-\\ngated on the floor, but should afterward be removed to the open air and\\nthoroughly beaten. (5) Corpses should be thoroughly washed with a\\nzinc solution of double strength should then be wrapped in a sheet wet\\nwith the zinc solution, and buried at once. Metallic, metal-lined, or air-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0472.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 461\\ntight coffins should be used when possible certainly when the body is to\\nbe transported for any considerable distance.\\nGeorge F. Barker, M.D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia;\\nC. F. Chandler, M.D., Coll. Phys. and Surgs., Health Dept., New\\nYork Henry Draper, M.D., University of City of New York; Ed-\\nward G. Janeway, M.D., Bellevue Medical College, Health Dept.,\\nNew York; Ira Remsen, M.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,\\nMd. S. O. Vanderpoel, Health Dept., New York, Health Officer\\nPort of New York\\nThe Committee on Disinfectants of the American Public Health Asso-\\nciation give the following conclusions as to the value of various disinfec-\\ntants in the order named\\nConclusions.\\nAgents for the Destruction of Spore-containing Infectious Material.\\n1. Fire, complete destruction by burning.\\n2. Steam under pressure, 105\u00c2\u00b0 C. (221\u00c2\u00b0 F.) for ten minutes.\\n3. Boiling water for half an hour.\\n4. Chloride of lime, 1 a four per cent solution.\\n5. Mercuric -chloride, a solution of one to five hundred.\\nAgents for the Destruction of Infectious Material not containing Spores.\\n1. Fire, complete destruction by burning.\\n2. Boiling in water for ten minutes.\\n3. Dry heat, 110\u00c2\u00b0 C. (230\u00c2\u00b0 F.) for two hours.\\n4. Chloride of lime, a two per cent solution.\\n5. Solution of chlorinated soda, 2 a ten per cent solution.\\n6. Mercuric chloride, a solution of one to two thousand.\\n7. Carbolic acid, a five per cent solution.\\n8. Sulphate of copper, a five per cent solution.\\n9. Chloride of zinc, a ten per cent solution.\\n10. Sulphur dioxide, 3 exposure for twelve hours to an atmosphere con-\\ntaining four volumes per cent of this gas in presence of moisture.\\nPage 267, 289 (a). Light as a Stimulus to Respiration. It\\nhas been an axiom from time immemorial that for health sleep should\\nbe taken during the still hours of night, and not during the day. The\\n1 Containing at least twenty-five per cent of available chlorine.\\n2 Containing at least three per cent of available chlorine.\\n8 This will require the combustion of between three and four pounds of sul-\\nphur for every one thousand cubic feet of air space.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0473.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "462 APPENDIX.\\nexample of the ruddy, healthy peasant, who retires to rest with his cattle,\\nand is up with the lark, has been quoted a thousand times. It appears to\\nme, however, that the undeniable fact of exposure to the light of day\\nbeing an element of health which vivifies and reddens the blood was\\nnever satisfactorily explained until the publication of the experiments of\\nthe late Dr. Edward Smith, of the Brompton Hospital. Dr. Smith has\\nproved that light is a powerful stimulus to respiration that under the\\ninfluence of daylight one third more atmospheric air enters the lungs than\\nunder darkness, or even under exposure to artificial light. In other\\nwords, if in daylight during a given time six hundred cubic inches of\\natmospheric air were inspired, during the same time at night only four\\nhundred would enter the lungs, a powerful additional reason and argu-\\nment for pure air at night during sleep. As the oxygenation and subse-\\nquent reddening of the blood depend on its contact with atmospheric air\\nin the lungs during respiration, it is clear, if we accept the above state-\\nments, that the more the body is exposed to sunlight the more oxygen it\\nwill imbibe. As a necessary sequel, the more oxygen physiologically\\nenters the economy, through the functions of respiration, the more per-\\nfectly will all the vital processes which require oxygen be performed.\\nBennett, Nutrition in Health and Disease.\\nPage 268, 289 (5). Light as a Destroyed of Disease Germs.\\nAmong the germicide agents which have been tested, I will first mention\\nlight. We have experiments by a number of different observers upon\\nthe germicide power of light, and it is a very interesting fact that expo-\\nsure to the bright sunlight destroys pathogenic organisms, independent of\\nthe heat of the sun experiments have been made to show this. Taking\\ntwo tubes, one of which is enveloped in tinfoil to exclude the light, but\\nwhich receives the heat in the same way as the other in the one which\\nis exposed to the bright sunlight the germs in certain cases are destroyed\\nin some instances in quite a short time. Duclaux found that certain\\nmicro-organisms are destroyed in twelve hours time when exposed to the\\nsun during June and July. He found that dry spores were destroyed in\\ntwo months when exposed in a dry condition. These spores can be kept\\nindefinitely when put in a dark place in a dry condition. Another ob-\\nserver, Arloing, found that the spores of anthrax in bouillon were killed\\nin two hours whereas the anthrax bacillus required from twenty-seven\\nto thirty hours. It was a strange fact that the anthrax bacilli which had\\ngrown out withstood the light longer than the spores. The explanation\\nis supposed to be that the spore, just at the moment of sprouting, is more\\ntender and more easily killed than the bacilli after they are in full devel-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0474.jp2"}, "475": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 463\\nopment and multiplying by binary division. He found by putting these\\nsame spores in water that they were not killed it was only in a suitable\\nculture medium that the light had this effect on them. By the electric\\nlight spores in bouillon were killed in one hour. This shows us that in\\nsunlight we have a sanitary agent of great importance a fact which has\\nlong been recognized by sanitarians, and now we have experimental data\\nto support this well-recognized fact. Dr. G. M. Sternberg.\\nPage 274, 295 (a). Nerve Cells. The cell of the nervous tissue,\\nlike that of all other tissues, is the essential, living part. In it go ori the\\nmysterious molecular changes which are presented to us as nervous action.\\nTo it the surrounding structures are entirely subservient. It is the text-\\nural Rome to which all roads turn. It is upheld by the connective tissue\\nit is nourished by the capillaries and lymphatics it is drained by the\\nvenules. Although it differs from other cells in many ways that are\\nstrongly marked, in none is it more distinctive than in the fact that it is\\nplaced in direct, or almost direct, communication with distant structures\\nby fibres that conduct sensations to it and by others that convey actions\\nfrom it. The type of a nervous organism, then, is a cell, to which are\\nattached conducting fibres for sensation and motion respectively. The\\ncells being clustered together in what is known as gray matter, and the\\nconducting fibres being composed of so-called white matter, all nervous\\nstructures are made up of gray or cellular and white or conducting matter,\\nbe the relative proportions of each, and the form of the particular organ,\\nwhat they may. Each group of cells perhaps the science of the future\\nwill enable us to say each cell has an intelligence of its own, which has\\nlong been beclouded by the name of function. This intelligence, mis-\\nnamed function, is adequate to the purpose of that particular group of\\ncells. If they be the cells of a jellyfish, they enable the animal to float\\non the surface of the water, to nourish itself, and to seize its prey. If\\nthey be the cells of a bee, they enable it to organize all the wondrous\\neconomy of the hive, to select its queen, to eliminate the drones, to build\\nthe mathematical cell. If they be the cells of the lion, they form the\\nanatomical substratum of all the beast s kingly and ferocious habits.\\nFinally, when they become the cells of the human gray matter, they are\\nintelligent still, varying in the degree of that intelligence as it mounts\\nfrom the lowly lower end of the spinal cord, increasing in complexity as\\nit ascends, until it culminates in the most wonderful gray matter of all\\nspecies, the cortex of the cerebrum, the seat of the mind.\\nFrom the foregoing statements it follows that all nervous organisms\\nare composed of numerous foci of cellular intelligence, intercommunicating", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0475.jp2"}, "476": {"fulltext": "464 APPENDIX.\\nand bound together into one harmonious whole by the white or conducting\\nfibres. 1 Dr. Landon Carter Gray, in the Annals of the Anatomical\\nand Surgical Society.\\nPage 280, 303 (a). The Weight of the Brain. The average\\nmale brain (in Europeans) is 49.5 oz. the female, 44 oz. The brain of\\nCuvier, the naturalist, weighed 64.5 oz., and that of Daniel Webster,\\n53.5 oz. The brains of idiots have been found to vary in weight from 27\\noz. to as low as 8.5 oz. The brains of the insane are said to be 2\\\\ per\\ncent below the average of the sane. Tall men, as a rule, have larger\\nbrains than small men. The maximum size of the brain is reached,\\nnot in human beings, but in the elephant tribe and after, the whales,\\nwhose ponderous bodies demand an enormous muscular expenditure.\\nThe elephant s brain weighs from 8 to 10 lbs. the whale s brain is said\\nto weigh from 5 to 8 lbs. In addition to the propulsion of the muscles,\\na considerable amount of nerve force must be expended in supporting or\\naiding the processes of organic life, digestion, respiration, circulation,\\nand other operations. Bain, Mind and Body.\\nPage 283, 307 (a). The Brain Working of Men and Women.\\nWe doubt whether woman is necessarily and essentially inferior\\nmentally to man we are quite sure she is mentally dissimilar. The\\ngreat maternal function alone could not operate without gradually induc-\\ning intellectual differences which are perpetuated by sexual transmission.\\nAll experience tends to show that woman shines in intuition, man in\\njudgment; that woman is strongest when impelled by emotion, man\\nwhen impelled by will that man is creative, woman administrative that\\nwoman is greatest in self-sacrifice, man in conquest and achievement. Be\\nthese differences inherent in sex, or the outcome of evolution, their experi-\\nence can hardly escape any observer who does not start with some pre-\\nconceived theory.\\nPage 283, 308(a). The Development of the Brain in Chil-\\ndren. Between the fifth and sixth years the base of the brain\\ngrows very rapidly the frontal bone protrudes anteriorly and grows\\nupward. The anterior portion grows considerably, but still the white\\nsubstance and middle portion of brain are prevalent, These are the\\norgans for the receptive faculties and memory. About this time learning\\nought to commence in earnest. All the above figures point to the end of\\nthe seventh year as the period of beginning mental work. But the gray\\nsubstance is also developing at that period. It ought to be influenced to\\na certain degree, like a young tree in the time of its growth, without, how-", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0476.jp2"}, "477": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 465\\never, being strained. Many organs in the brain,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 many functions.\\nNeglect none exercise all gently. It is a mistake to exercise one faculty\\nonly. Our text-books, in the shape of catechisms, exercise the memory\\nonly, and thereby fatigue and exhaust. The compound exercise consisting\\nin walking, with its changes and cooperative action, is less fatiguing than\\nstanding on a single leg. Learning by heart is not learning, and reciting\\nis not thinking just as little as deglutition is digestion. Dr. A. Jacobi,\\nTransactions N. Y. Academy of Medicine.\\nPage 306, 331 How the Nervous System is injured by-\\nOverwork. You see, my dear working friends, I am great upon spar-\\ning your strength and taking things cannily. All very well, say you,\\nit is easy speaking, and saying Take it easy but if the pot s on the\\nfire, it maun bile. It must but you needn t poke up the fire forever, and\\nyou may now and then set the kettle on the hob and let it sing, instead of\\nleaving it to burn its bottom out. I had a friend who injured himself by\\noverwork. One day I asked the servant if any person had called, and was\\ntold that some one had. Who was it Oh, it s the little gentleman\\nthat aye rins when he walks f So I wish this age would walk more, and\\nrin less. A man can walk farther and longer than he can run, and it is\\npoor saving to get out of breath. I am constantly seeing men who\\nsuffer, and indeed die, from living too fast from true, though not con-\\nsciously, immoral dissipation, or scattering of their lives. Many a man is\\nbankrupt in constitution at forty -five, and either takes out a cessio of him-\\nself to the grave, or goes on paying ten per cent for his stock in trade he\\nspends his capital instead of merely spending what he makes, or, better\\nstill, laying up a purse for the days of darkness and old age. A queer\\nman, forty years ago, Mr. Slate, or, as he was called, Schlate, who was\\ntoo clever and not clever enough, and had not wisdom to use his wit, always\\nscheming, full of go but never getting on, was stopped by his friend.\\nSir Walter Scott (that wonderful friend of us all, to whom we owe Jeanie\\nDeans and Rob Roy, Meg Merrilies and Dandie Dinmont, Jinglin Geordie,\\nCuddie Headrigg, and the immortal Bailie), one day, in Princess Street.\\nHow are ye getting on, Schlate Oo, just the auld thing. Sir Walter.\\nma pennies a 1 gang on tippenny eerands. And so it is with our nervous\\npower, with our vital capital, with the pence of life, many oi them go\\non tippenny eerands. We are forever getting our bills renewed, till\\ndown comes the poor and damaged concern with dropsy or consumption,\\nblazing fever, madness, or palsy. Dr. John Brown, Spare Hours.\\nPage 306, 332 (a). Wear and Tear of the Body.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 have\\ncalled these hints Wear and Tear, because this title clearly and briefly", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0477.jp2"}, "478": {"fulltext": "466 APPENDIX.\\npoints out my meaning. Wear is a natural and legitimate result of\\nlawful use, and is what we all have to put up with as the result of years\\nof activity of brain and body. Tear is another matter it comes of hard\\nor evil usage of body or engine, of putting things to wrong purposes, using\\na chisel for a screw-driver, a penknife for a gimlet. Long strain, or the\\nsudden demand of strength from weakness, causes tear. Wear comes of\\nuse, tear of abuse. Why is it that an excess of physical labor is better\\nborne than a like excess of mental labor The simple answer is, that\\nmental overwork is harder, because, as a rule, it is closet, or counting\\nroom, or, at least, indoor, work, sedentary, in a word. The man who is\\nintently using his brain is not collaterally employing any other organs, and\\nthe more intense his application, the less locomotive does he become.\\nDr. S. Weir Mitchell, Wear and Tear.\\nPage 306, 332 (6). Hysteria and Nervousness.\\nThe Causes and Evils of Hysteria. The term Hysteria is ordi-\\nnarily applied by the laity to alternating conditions of the emotions\\namong medical writers, it refers to various phenomena of disturbed\\nnervous force. It can simulate every known disease. The emotional\\nvariety, while it may be the result of incipient disease of the nervous\\nsystem or some other part of the body, of overwork, or of worry, is too\\noften due to the concentration of one s thoughts upon one s self, the\\ndesire for notoriety, etc. If hysteria is merely a bad habit, it should\\nbe broken up, not only for the welfare of the individual afflicted, but\\nbecause impressible friends may acquire similar habits, by imitation.\\nThe cure consists in a change of surroundings (of habitation, companions,\\netc.) and in hygienic measures. If the hysteria is the result of disease,\\nit needs the best medical aid, for it is then a serious affection. Dr. S.\\nWeir Mitchell, in speaking of the fact that men as well as women are\\nliable to hysteria says I have many a time seen soldiers who had\\nridden boldly with Sheridan or fought gallantly with Grant, become,\\nunder the influence of painful nerve wounds, as irritable and hysterical\\nas the veriest girl. In reference to the bad influences which hysterical\\npersons exert, he writes truthfully: A hysterical girl is, as Wendell\\nHolmes has said in his decisive phrase, a vampire who sucks the blood\\nof the healthy people about her, and I may add that pretty surely where\\nthere is one hysterical girl, there will be soon or late two sick women.\\nWhat ails the Modern Girl? The modern girl hardly knows\\nwhat she wants, whether it is the higher education, an aesthetic wardrobe,\\nlove, or fame. She plays tennis and progressive euchre, and flirts and does\\nKensington work and reads Herbert Spencer, and very often writes she", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0478.jp2"}, "479": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 467\\ndabbles in music and talks theosophy, and if there are more things in\\nheaven and earth than are dreamed of in her philosophy one questions\\nwhat they can be. Withal, she is as restless as the wind. She does not\\nlove the quiet of home she lives on excitement she goes to Europe, to\\nthe springs, the mountains, the theatres, the receptions, if she can get\\nthere, or to the modiste she can always fall back upon clothes as a diver-\\nsion, and, when everything else fails, she has nervous prostration and a\\ntrained nurse. In fact, the chief trouble with the modern girl, be she\\nrich or poor, is that she either does too much, keeps her nerves on the\\nstrain, and by and by goes to the other extreme, and does literally nothing\\nbut consume drugs, talk of her ills, and consult the Christian Scientists or\\nshe has no real interests, fritters away her time in shallow pursuits,\\nbecomes pessimistic and dyspeptic, dissatisfied with herself and all the\\nworld cries and questions if life is worth living, and feels especially blue\\non holidays. The remedy for all this is, perhaps, an object in life those\\nwho are well and unselfishly occupied do not question if life is worth liv-\\ning they know it is and whether they are busy in the shoe factory,\\nbehind a counter, at the fireside, in the kitchen or the dining room, so\\nlong as they are busy and not shirking or reaching forward for something\\nmore congenial, and neglecting present duty, their minds are at rest and\\nuninvaded by despondency. One of the best remedies for depression of\\nspirits is the effort to bestow happiness it has been known to prove\\neffectual when all other methods have failed when novels and new gowns\\nand cod-liver oil and bovinine and bromide, when admiration and flattery,\\nare no more serviceable than an abracadabra or any heathen spell.\\nMelancholy or other ills of this nature are the direct result of a too strong\\negotism and an absorbing interest in others is a safe and agreeable medi-\\ncine and is usually the last thing a modern girl tries. Boston Medical\\nand Surgical Journal.\\nPage 316, 341 Keenness of the Senses. It seems to be a\\nrule one to which perhaps there are exceptions, and yet a rule that\\nwhen we suffer the loss or very serious impairment of one sense, nature\\ncompensates us by sharpening some other. Of this many interesting\\nexamples are seen.\\nSanderson, the mathematician, lost his sight in 1683, when only one\\nyear old, after a severe attack of the smallpox. But in spite of his com-\\nplete blindness, he gave himself up to the assiduous study of the sciences,\\nand finally lectured at the University of Cambridge on mathematics and\\noptics, with wonderful success. His sense of touch was exquisitely fine\\nthus, in a collection of Roman medals, he could distinguish the genuine", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0479.jp2"}, "480": {"fulltext": "468 APPENDIX.\\nfrom the false, although the latter were often so admirably counterfeited\\nas to deceive those who examined them with their eyes. By the different\\nfeeling of the air on the face, he could tell when an object was placed\\nbefore him, and his hearing was so accurate, in seizing and appreciating\\nthe slightest sounds, that he could determine the height of any chamber\\ninto which he was introduced, and his distance from the wall.\\nPage 322, 351 (a). What the Sense of Smell does for us.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nOf aU our senses, smell is the one that soonest gets out of practice, so\\nmuch so that numbers of people really do not perceive disagreeable smells\\nat all. If they always accustomed themselves to take notice, and to use\\ntheir noses, they never would consent to live in the horrid air they do.\\nThat is a grand use of the sense of smell. It tells a person who attends to\\nit, that there is some bad or injurious thing mixing itself in the air. A\\nsensible person then sets to work to get rid of that thing, whatever it may\\nbe, and to make his air clean again. A stupid person takes no notice, and\\nthen his nose gets used to the disagreeable smell, and leaves off perceiving\\nit. J. Berners, Lessons on Health.\\nPage 324, 353 (a). Odors. It is well known that perfumes\\nfrom very different sources may be classed under certain types. Thus\\nthe rose type includes geranium, eglantine, and violet ebony the jas-\\nmine type, lily of the valley and ylang-ylang the orange type, acacia,\\nsyringa, and orange flower; the vanilla type, balsam of Peru, benzoin,\\nstorax, tonka bean, and heliotrope the lavender type, thyme and mar-\\njoram the mint type, peppermint, balsam, and sage the musk type,\\nmusk and amber seed and the fruity type, pear, apple, pineapple, and\\nquince. Attempts have been made to discover a relation between the\\ncolors of flowers and the intensity of their perfumes. White flowers\\nmanifest the greatest variety of odors, and then follow reds, yellows,\\ngreens, and blues. It is also noticeable that flowers which by their\\ncolor emit most heat will volatilize the greatest amount of perfume, and\\nthat the more refrangible the rays reflected from the flower, the smaller is\\nthe amount of perfume. Colored substances have also different powers of\\nabsorbing odors. Whites, yellows, reds, greens, and blues absorb odors\\non a decreasing scale. The more intense the color the more likely is it to\\nemit a strong odor, because no doubt the light acts on the essential oil on\\nwhich the odor depends. Heat, more than light, favors the volatilization\\nof perfumes. Hence the odors of a flower bed in a garden are often most\\napparent, not in bright sunshine, but in the shade. An air of mod-\\nerately high temperature and the presence of moisture favor the diffusion", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0480.jp2"}, "481": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 469\\nof the odors of most, flowers. Dr. John Cray McKendrick and Wm.\\nSnodgrass, The Physiology of the Senses, Glasgow.\\nPage 338, 368 (a) The Importance of the Convergence of the\\nEyes in Vision. To direct both eyes to the same point requires a\\ndelicately balanced associated action of several muscles of each eye. In\\nany part of the body, where a certain set of muscles are accustomed to\\nact together in a given direction, this particular combination of movements\\nbecomes natural and easy, and any other comparatively difficult. This\\nmay be appreciated, for instance, by any one who has undertaken to drive\\na nail into the ceiling, and has experienced the fatigue of the muscles of\\nthe arm and neck and back that follows almost immediately. We are\\naccustomed always, in converging the eyes towards any small object, at\\nthe same time to direct them downwards, as the object is usually held in\\nthe hand, or lies on something before us, below the level of the eyes. This\\nfacility of turning both eyes inwards and downwards at the same time\\nhas not only been acquired by the individual, but has been inherited from\\nhis ancestors, and has become a part of his nature so that the association\\nof convergence with any other than a downward movement demands an\\nextraordinary effort. This is a cause of fatigue in looking at pictures hung\\nhigh in a gallery. Considerable interest has been excited recently by an\\naffection noticed in miners, and called miner s nystagmus, in which\\nthe external muscles of the eyeball seem to lose their balance, and the\\neyes continually oscillate. It is thought to result from the unnatural\\nposition of the eyes, in working at the roof of the subterranean cavern in\\nwhich these men pass their lives. Eyesight and How to Care for It\\n{American Health Primer).\\nPage 343, 372 Test for Color-blindness. In several coun-\\ntries, at the present day, all railroad engineers, pilots, switchmen, etc. are\\ntested as to color-blindness. From some examinations made by Dr. Jef-\\nries, of Boston, he concludes that about one person in every twenty-five\\nis color-blind, and that color-blindness is much less frequent among women\\nthan among men. It can be readily tested in schools.\\nThe most efficient test is the wool test of Holmgren, which consists\\nof three skeins of wool dyed with standard test colors, viz., a light green,\\na pale purple or pink, and a bright red. Other skeins of rods, oranges,\\nyellows, yellowish greens, pure greens, blue greens, violets, purples, pinks,\\nbrowns, and grays, all called confusion colors, are provided, and the\\nexaminer is requested to select, one, and match it with one of the test\\ncolors. Suppose the light green skein is shown first. If the examiner", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0481.jp2"}, "482": {"fulltext": "470 APPENDIX.\\nmatches grays, brownish grays, yellows, orange, or faint pink with this\\nhe is color-blind. Then he is shown the purple skein. If he matches\\nwith this blue or violet he is red-blind, but if he selects only gray or\\ngreen he is green-blind. Finally, he may be shown the red skein, having\\na bright red color, like the red flag used on railways. A red-blind per-\\nson will then match, with this, green or shades of brown which to a\\nnormal eye seem darker than red, while if he be green-blind he will select\\nshades of these colors which look lighter than red. Violet-blindness is\\nrecognized by the examiner confusing red and orange with purple.\\nPhysiology of the Senses.\\nPage 344, 373 (a). The Disadvantages of Short Sight. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Short\\nsight is said to be found seldom among farmers, seamen, and Indians,\\nbut it is very common in large cities among students, engravers, artists,\\netc., especially if they work by a flickering light, or one that shines\\nbrightly from in front directly upon the work. Prom an examination of\\nthe eyes of pupils between six and twenty-one years of age, in various\\nschools throughout the country, by Drs. E. G. Loring, R. H. Derby, A. R.\\nMathewson, and J. S. Prout, it has been ascertained that among the\\nlower classes 3.5 per cent were near-sighted, and among the higher 26 J\\nper cent. In Germany the percentages are said to be even greater and\\nit is rare to find army officers who do not wear spectacles. It may be\\nthat if as large a proportion of persons in this country with optical\\ndefects should wear glasses as is the case in Germany, we should be con-\\nsidered as equally near-sighted.\\nA child may be thought a dullard, and to have no aptitude for\\nobservation or learning he may be counted cold-hearted and unrespon-\\nsive when his face does not light up at the smile of his mother or the\\ncaress of his sister he may be esteemed sullen or stupid he may be\\ncounted a bad playfellow he may be thought eccentric or peculiar,\\nbecause he does not behave like other children. All this and more may\\nbe the character ascribed to him, because his misfortune is to have bad\\nsight. Besides, this, it is a truth in mental philosophy, that exactly such\\na character may be fastened upon him for life, because in his young\\ndays he was cut off from enjoyment of the visible world on terms of\\nequality. with his fellows. Do we not know that dim-sighted persons are\\napt to be queer If their deficiencies had been noted and corrected\\nat an early stage of life, who can say how much more symmetrical would\\nhave been their adult character, and how much happiness society and\\nthe family might have enjoyed from them? Pkof. H. D. Noyes, of\\nNew York, Eye Troubles in General Practice.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0482.jp2"}, "483": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 471\\nPage 346, 378 (a). Injurious Effects of Certain Occupations\\nupon the Eyesight. The knowledge of the injurious effects of certain\\nkinds of schooling upon vision is not a new acquisition for Beer wrote,\\nmore than sixty years ago, He who has taken the fruitless pains as often\\nas I have, to try and impress upon parents and friends, in the most\\nfriendly manner and upon the most convincing grounds, the mischievous\\neffect upon the eyes of growing children of the forcing-house system of\\nthe present day, will still he disheartened to find his well-intended coun-\\nsel, based upon long experience, and often repeated, either entirely\\nneglected, or listened to only by a few. Because people hold the\\nimperfectly understood principle that children should be constantly occu-\\npied, there is at all hours of the day a master at hand. There is read-\\ning, writing, language-learning, drawing, arithmetic, embroidery, singing,\\npiano and guitar playing without end, until the persecuted victims are ren-\\ndered pale, weak, and sickly, and to such an extent short-sighted or weak-\\nsighted that finally counsel must be obtained. Of what avail is it\\nto many charming girls, many estimable women, that as children they\\nwere regarded as prodigies, when the soundness of their eyes and the\\nacuteness of their vision have been sacrificed R. B. Carter, Eyesight,\\nGood and Bad.\\nPage 347, 378 (6). Printing Suitable for the Eyes.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Many of\\nthe cheap publications of the present day, and unfortunately some of the\\nmore costly, are poorly printed as to character of type, paper, space\\nbetween the lines (i.e. leading and spacing, or distance between\\nthe words on the lines, and are therefore injurious to the eyes.\\nFor all readers, pearl type, such as in these eleven words,\\nor of this size, agate, is altogether too small.\\nThe same may be said of nonpareil, which unfortunately is used in periodical and other\\nreading matter extensively circulated among children and others.\\nMinion is larger, yet must be considered bad for the eyes, for it is much too\\nsmall.\\nEven the next larger size, brevier, is not large enough, although very\\ncommonly employed.\\nBourgeois type comes next in the scale, but for prolonged reading, as\\nin encyclopaedias and numerous other much-used books, as well\\nas periodicals and newspapers,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0483.jp2"}, "484": {"fulltext": "472 APPENDIX.\\nit is inferior to long primer, which is a standard size for most\\nwell-printed books.\\nA still larger size, such as small pica, is better for young-\\nchildren.\\nFor the very young, pica, as seen in these two\\nlines, is none too large.\\nGreat primer type should be em-\\nployed in the first books that are\\nput before the eyes of the young-\\nest children.\\nCurrier, Practical Hygiene.\\nPage 364, 392 (a). Sense Education. Excellent work has\\nbeen accomplished by sense education in the Seguin Physiological\\nSchool, New York. The following extract from a newspaper article,\\nreferring especially to the education of the voice in the feeble-minded at\\nthe above-named school, is so apropos that it is appended There is that\\nmost depressing sight, the mouth of the child of feeble mind and body.\\nOpen it stands, gaping wide, with its pendulous lower lip. The facial\\nmuscles are ignorant of their duty. It is not will-power alone which will\\never bring those lips together. Still this can be and is corrected. The\\nchild is taught to close it. Constantly the gentle teacher brings her finger\\nto the child s lips, and an effort is made, after a while, by a self-sustained\\nwill, to close it. Sometimes a straw is held in the mouth, to show the\\nchild how to grasp it with the lips. After a while, when his attention is\\noccupied with something else, he forgets to close it. The act of having\\nhis mouth open is noticed, and he shuts it at a word of command. He\\nmay have been perfectly unable a few months ago to arrest a flow of\\nsaliva from his mouth but now this secretion, which w T as over-abundant,\\nhas ceased. He might have been once a saddening sight to see but now\\nmuch of that idiotic blankness has gone. But is it simply the child s\\nappearance which has been improved No. A thousand things may", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0484.jp2"}, "485": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX. 473\\narise from this simple mouth instruction which are of advantage to the\\nchild in the sense of a brain-awakening. His speech has been thick and\\nunintelligible. How could the poor lad pronounce a word properly,\\nhampered as he was with rigid lips Now he is taught to pronounce\\nletters properly. Every sound of every letter may have to be taught\\nhim. The lips become pliant, vibrate at last, and from what was a dumb,\\ninanimate, resoundless block, distinct musical words now are flowing.\\nThe visitor is deeply impressed with what he has witnessed. He has\\nseen the effect of constant, assiduous, philosophical training. He looks\\nat a series of portraits of the children, and marks how rapid have been\\nthe changes. It is this sense-education which has taken from these drear\\nfaces their animal look, and made them human once more. Dr. Seguin\\nit is who, though he be dead now, has given new life to many of God s\\ncreatures, and it is his wife who has carried out his work.\\nPage 374, 402 (a). Rules for the Care of the Voice. No\\nman who is conscious of the ability to speak effectively can undervalue\\nthe power of a pleasant voice and no hearer of a melodious voice but\\nwill acknowledge its influence. We have, probably, all been charmed,\\nand our attention riveted, by such a voice, even when the discourse was\\nnot above commonplace. The converse of this is, alas more often met\\nwith. It is a fact that many of the greatest thinkers, scholars, and\\nwriters use in public speaking and reading a heavy, low monotone, or\\nthey rasp the ear with a high and strident pitch. Their thoughts that\\nbreathe, and words that burn, fall lifeless and cold, nay, even weary\\nand repel their listeners, who experience a sense of relief when the inhar-\\nmonious voice ceases the speaker also being thankful that his painful\\nstruggle to be heard is over. How much the influence of the unfortunate\\npossessor of such a voice is nullified If a statesman, how small must\\nbe his success in directing the fortunes of a nation If a clergyman,\\npainfully will he feel that his earnest endeavors avail him nothing. If\\na barrister, he sees judge and jurymen sleeping, and to the detriment\\nof his client he may lose his carefully prepared case. Yet. in almost\\nevery instance, a voice which has no inherent beauty may, by correct\\ntraining, become attractive and pleasant, and obtain clearness, smooth-\\nness, and commanding resonance.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Bides. 1. Never endeavor to produce a vocal tone without having\\nplenty of breath, and that thoroughly under control. 2. Bold the breath\\nwhen mspired, and commence to expire only on commencing to speak or\\nsing, that is, at the moment it is required to set the ligaments in vibra-\\ntion. 3. Do not think that loudness is essential to force or beauty", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0485.jp2"}, "486": {"fulltext": "474 APPENDIX.\\nshouting is always injurious. The telling quality of laryngeal tone\\ndepends solely on the amplitude of the vibrations, and this is controlled\\nsolely and entirely by the will, which directs the due proportion of -ur to\\nset the vocal ligaments into more or less full vibration. For all purposes\\nof practice it is especially advisable for the pupil to sing piano, which\\nterm does not imply diminished vigor, but simply reduced amplitude of\\nthe vibrations. 4. Never use the voice when functional failure gives\\nwarning that the organ, or the general health, is disordered. 5. Do not\\nattempt to use the voice in unfavorable circumstances, as in the open air,\\nespecially if the weather be cold or raw, nor in a room impregnated with\\ntobacco smoke, foul air, or dust. Above all, do not use the voice, even\\nfor conversation, in trains or vehicles, or in any circumstances of noise\\nwhich will require undue functional exertion. In this connection it will\\nbe important to keep quiet, and avoid chattering and laughing, between\\nsongs or the acts of a drama or opera. 6. Do not use the voice for too\\nlong a period at a time, but always cease before fatigue is experienced.\\nEspecially avoid encores of songs which have required much exertion, or\\nproduction of a telling high note in the final cadenza. It is but rarely\\nthat a song is sung as well on a redemand as at first. 7. After continued\\nsinging or speaking, be careful to prevent exposure of the throat, either\\nexternally or internally, to the impressions of cold air. The same remark\\napplies as to the necessity of guarding against sudden changes from hot\\nto cold air, even when the voice has not been used. Browne, Voice,\\nSong, and Speech.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0486.jp2"}, "487": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nReferences are to Pages.\\nAbdomen, muscles of, 55.\\nAbdominal, cavity, location, con-\\ntents, 48.\\nbreathing, 235.\\nAbductor muscles, 56.\\nAbsorbed food, fate of, 138.\\nAbsorption, by the skin, 85.\\nof infectious diseases, by cloth, 107.\\nof food, 112, 136.\\nAccommodation or focussing, power\\nof, 338.\\nAchilles, tendon of, 55.\\nAcids, as poisons, antidotes, 404.\\nAconite, as poison, 413.\\nAcro-narcotic poisons, 411.\\nActive tissues of the body, 10.\\nAdam s apple, 365.\\nAdductor muscles, 56.\\nAdipose tissue, 64.\\nAdulteration of food, 196.\\nAfferent nerves, 275.\\nAir, passages, the, 227.\\ncells of the lungs, 231.\\nquantity breathed, 237.\\ntidal, 237.\\nresidual and reserve, 238.\\ncomplemental, 238.\\nchanges in, during respiration, 240.\\ncomposition of, 248.\\noxygen and nitrogen in, 249.\\nozone in, 250.\\nharmful suspended matters, 250.\\ndisease germs, 251.\\nmalaria, 254.\\norganic nitrogenous matter, 254.\\nthe Black Hole of Calcutta, 451.\\nof bed-rooms, hospital wards, etc.,\\n451\\nharmful gaseous matters, 255.\\n4\\ncarbon dioxide, 255, 452.\\ncarbon monoxide, 257.\\nilluminating gas, 258.\\nhydrogen sulphide, 258.\\nsewer gas, 259.\\nhow devitalized, 260.\\ndevitalization of, 453.\\nof country and city, 261.\\nfresh, 262.\\npurification of, 263.\\nfresh, amount needed for each per-\\nson in a room, 265.\\npassage through plaster, etc., 458.\\nsunlight, 267.\\nAlbino, skin of, 79.\\neyes of, 332.\\nAlbumin, of the body, 15.\\nof food, 175.\\nAlbuminous, constituents of the\\nbody, 15.\\nmaterial of food, 133, 175.\\nmaterial of food, mode of preserving,\\n201.\\nAlcohol, nature, 19.\\ngeneral effects on the body, 20.\\nand alcoholics, general facts as to, 24.\\neffects upon bones, 48.\\neffects upon muscles, 74.\\neffects upon the skin. ST.\\neffects upon the kidneys, 89.\\neffects upon digestion and the diges-\\ntive organs, 140.\\neffects upon the organs of circulation\\nand the blood, 170.\\nas food, 202.\\neffects upon respiration and the re-\\nspiratory organs, 244.\\neffects upon the nervous system. 308.\\neffects upon touch, taste, and smell,\\n325.\\neffects upon sight, 346.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0487.jp2"}, "488": {"fulltext": "476\\nIXDEX.\\nAlcohol, effects upon hearing, 362.\\neffects upon the voice, 374.\\nas a poison, 410.\\nAlcoholic beverages, use and abuse,\\n225.\\nAlcoholics, classification of, 22.\\nAlcoholism, acute and chronic, 21.\\nAlimentary canal, location, struc-\\nture, function, 112.\\nAlkalies and their salts, as poisons,\\n405.\\nAlveoli of the lungs, 232.\\nAmids in food substances, 177.\\nAmoeba, 4-8.\\nAmoeboid, movements, 8.\\nAmyloids, 180.\\nAmylopsin, 135.\\nAnatomy, human, definition of, 1.\\nAnimal, matter of bones, 35.\\nfoods, 189, 207.\\npoisons, 408.\\nAnimal heat, or vital heat, descrip-\\ntion of, 12.\\nsources and loss of, 13.\\nrelation to circulation and respira-\\ntion, 243.\\nAntiseptics, definition and use of,\\n266.\\nAntitoxin treatment of disease, 19.\\nAorta, the, 147, 159.\\nApoplexy, 160, 282.\\ntreatment of, 380.\\nAppendicitis, 122.\\nAppendix vermiformis, 122.\\nthe (notes), 417.\\nAppetite, healthy, 194.\\nvoracious, 195.\\nAqueous humor of the eye, 336.\\nArachnoid membrane, 279.\\nArbor vitae, 285.\\nArches of Corti, 358.\\nArms, bones of, 45.\\nArsenic, as poison, 405.\\nArteries, location, structure, proper-\\nties, 151.\\nArterioles, 152.\\nArtesian wells, 221.\\nArticular cartilages, 39.\\nArticulations, see Joints.\\nArtificial reflex actions, 303.\\nrespiration, methods, 384.\\nArytenoid cartilages, 365.\\nAscending- colon, 122.\\nAssimilation, definition of, 8.\\nof food, 112, 136.\\nAstigmatism, 345.\\nAtlas and Axis, 37.\\nAtmospheric pressure, relation of\\nbody to, 247.\\nAtropia, see Belladonna.\\nAuditory, canal, 352.\\nnerve, 358.\\nAuricle of the ear, 352.\\nAuricles of the heart, 147.\\nAuriculo-ventricular openings of the\\nheart, 147.\\nAutomatic movements of the body,\\nhow effected, 300.\\nAxis cylinder of nerves, 274, 276.\\nBacilli, see Bacteria.\\nBackbone, 41.\\nBacteria, description and action of,\\n15.\\nBalance of body, how maintained, 8.\\nBaldness, 424.\\nBall and socket joints, 37.\\nBarley as food, 214.\\nBathing, value of, 91.\\nas a sanitary measure, 91.\\nproper, 92.\\ntimes for, 93.\\nBaths, varieties of, 93-95.\\nadaptation, 95-96.\\nwater, various effects of, 96-97.\\nBeans, as food, 217.\\nBelladonna, as poison, 409.\\nBicuspid teeth, 125.\\nBicycle riding, 422.\\nBile and its uses, 121, 130, 136.\\nduct, common, 131.\\nBiliousness, 136.\\nBinocular vision, 338.\\nBioplasm, 4.\\nBirth, 6.\\nBites and stings, venomous, 411.\\nBlack nightshade, as a poison, 412.\\nBladder, the, 48-89.\\nBleeding, how to stop, 395.\\nBlind spot of the eye, 335.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0488.jp2"}, "489": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n477\\nBlood, circulation of, 158.\\nits value, composition, 161.\\ntransfusion of, 161.\\ncorpuscles, red, 161.\\ncorpuscles, white, 163.\\ncoagulation of, 161.\\nquantity and quality, 165.\\npoisoning through the skin, 167.\\nchanges in, during respiration, 240.\\nBlood-vessels, 35, 143.\\nBlushing-, cause of, 157.\\nBody, human, general arrangement\\nof, 2.\\nfluids of, 2.\\ntissues of, 10.\\nchemical composition of, 14.\\nwear and tear of, 465.\\nBoiling- and broiling of food, 200.\\nBones, use and number, 29.\\nshape, 29.\\nclassification, 29.\\nof the skull and spinal column, 29.\\nsurfaces, 30.\\nblood-vessels and nerves, 30.\\nstructure, 32.\\ncompact tissues of, 32.\\nspongy or cancellous tissue of, 33.\\nnutrition, 35.\\nstrength and elasticity, 35.\\nof the hands and feet, 45.\\nof the limbs, 45.\\nof the ear, 355.\\nbroken, treatment of, 391.\\nrepair of, 393.\\nBoots and shoes, 102.\\nBowels, see Intestines.\\nBrain, the, and spinal cord, relation\\nand membranes, 278.\\ndivisions of, 279.\\nsize and weight, 280, 464.\\nlocalization, 283.\\nworking, of men and women, 4(54.\\ndevelopment of, in children, 404.\\nBread, 215.\\nstuffs, 214.\\nBreastbone, 29, 44.\\nBreathing, see Respiration.\\nthrough the mouth. 228.\\nthrough the nose, 448.\\nexpired air, results of, 148.\\nBronchi, the, 280.\\nBronchial tubes, large, 230.\\nsmall (bronchioles) 231.\\nBruise spot, 165.\\nBruises, treatment of, see Contusions.\\nBurns and scalds, treatment of, 389.\\nButter and its substitutes, 212.\\nButtermilk, 212.\\nCaffeine of coffee, 225.\\nCaisson disease, to what due, 248.\\nCalcium phosphate and carbonate,\\n14, 185.\\nCalories, 187.\\nCanaliculi of bones, 35.\\nCanals, Haversian, 35.\\nsemicircular, in the ears, 357.\\nCancellous tissue of bone, 33.\\nCandy, the use of, 181.\\nCane sugar, 181.\\nCanine teeth, 125.\\nCantharides as poison, 409.\\nCapillaries, location, structure, func-\\ntion, 154-157.\\nCapillary circulation, 155.\\nCarbohydrates, of the body, 15.\\nof food, and their value, 178.\\nCarbon dioxide in the air, 255.\\nin caves, wells, etc., 452.\\nin dwellings, schools, etc., 452.\\na simple test for, 453.\\nCarbonic acid gas, see Carbon Diox-\\nide.\\nCarbon monoxide in the air, 257.\\nCardiac opening of the stomach, 117.\\nCartilage, 32, 39.\\nCartilages, articular, 39.\\nof the trachea, 230.\\nof the eyelids, 828.\\nof the larynx, 3(54.\\nCasein in food, 175.\\nCastor oil bean, as poison, 1(^8.\\nCataract, 336.\\nCatching cold, how to avoid, 81, 91,\\n109.\\nCauda equina, 291.\\nCavities of the skeleton, 46.\\nCell, life and death, 4-6.\\ndivision of labor, 5.\\ndivision,", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0489.jp2"}, "490": {"fulltext": "478\\nINDEX.\\nCellars, foul air, 256.\\nCells, description of, 2, 3.\\nnerve, 274.\\nmastoid, 355.\\nCement of the teeth, 123.\\nCereals or cereal grains, as food, 214.\\nCerebellum, location, 279.\\nfunction, 285.\\nCerebral hemispheres, 281.\\nCerebration, unconscious, 304.\\nCerebro-spinal nervous system, lo-\\ncation and functions, 272.\\nfluid, 279.\\nCerebrum, 279-281.\\nfunctions of, 282.\\nCesspools, dangers of, 256.\\nCheese, 213.\\nChemical processes of the body, 7.\\ncomposition of the body, 14.\\nChest, or thorax, 44.\\nChink of the glottis, 368.\\nChloral hydrate as narcotic, see Nar-\\ncotics.\\nChloride of sodium, see Common Salt.\\nChloroform and chloral, as poisons,\\n410.\\nChocolate, 225.\\nChoks damp, 256.\\nChordae tendineae of the heart, 148.\\nChoroid coat of the eye, 331.\\nChyle, 135.\\nChyme, 134.\\nCigarette smoking, risks of, 26.\\nCiliae, description of, 3.\\nCiliary nerves of the eye, 331.\\nmuscle, body, and process, 334.\\nmotion, 9.\\nCiliated cells of the air passages, 228.\\nCircle of life, 6.\\nor field of vision, 339.\\nCirculation, the, 112, 143.\\norgans of, 142.\\npulmonary, respiratory, or lesser,\\n143.\\nsystematic or greater, 143.\\ncollateral, 152.\\nof the blood, movements, 158.\\nforce and rapidity, 160.\\nrelation of respiration to, 239.\\nCirculation, respiration, and animal\\nheat, relations of, 243.\\nCleanliness versus dirt, 454.\\nClothing-, uses of, 99.\\nproper, 99.\\ntight, bad effects of, 100-104.\\nconstriction of the waist, 425.\\nquantity, 104-105.\\nlightness, ventilation, and warmth,\\n105-106.\\ndryness and cleanliness, 106.\\nbed, 106.\\nunclean, risks attending the use of,\\n426.\\ncolor and dyes, 107.\\nmaterial, 108.\\nCoagulation of blood, 164.\\nCoats, or tunics of the eye, 330.\\nCocaine as a narcotic, 27.\\nCoccyx, the, 42, 44.\\nCochlea of the ear, 357.\\nCocoa as food, 225.\\nCoecum, the, 121.\\nCoffee as food, 224.\\nCoke, or scoke, as poison, 412.\\nColchiuum, as poison, 409.\\nCold baths, 97.\\nColor, of the skin, 79.\\nin dress, 107.\\nof the blood, 162.\\nof the eye, to what due, 334.\\nColor blindness, 342.\\ntest for, 469.\\nColumns of spinal cord, 292.\\nCombustion, spontaneous, 243.\\nCommissure, 281.\\nCommon salt, 185.\\nCommunicable or infectious dis-\\neases, 17.\\nCompact tissue (of bone), 32.\\nComplemental air, 238.\\nCondiments, 219.\\nConjunctiva and Conjunctivitis,\\n328.\\nConnective tissue, 10.\\nConsonant sounds, 370.\\nConstipation, treatment of, 122,427.\\nConsumption, or tuberculosis, 252.\\nContagious diseases, conveyance and\\ndanger, 17.\\nContractility of muscular tissue, 61.\\nContused wounds, treatment of,\\n394-396.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0490.jp2"}, "491": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n479\\nContusions, or bruises, treatment of,\\n394.\\nConversion of food into tissues, 110.\\nConvolutions of the brain, 281.\\nConvulsions, treatment of, 380.\\nCooking 1 importance of good, 435.\\nCooperation, value of, in the body,\\n272.\\nCoordination of movements, 285,\\n359.\\nCopper, as poison, 406.\\nCordials, 23.\\nCords, vocal, 366.\\nCorn, as food, 214.\\nCornea of the eye, 330.\\nCorpora striata, 295.\\nCorpuscles of the blood, 161.\\nCorrosive poisons, 404.\\nCortex, 274, 281.\\nCostal breathing, 235.\\nCotton, as clothing, 109.\\nCranial, cavity, 46.\\nnerves, 285-287.\\nCranium, see Skull.\\nCricoid cartilage, 365.\\nCroton oil, as poison, 408.\\nCrowd poison, 255.\\nCrystalline lens, the, 336.\\nCustoms, prevalent, adoption, 449.\\nCuticle, the, 77.\\nDamp air in houses, 455.\\nDeath, local and general, 6.\\nDeaths in armies, from sickness and\\nwounds, 417.\\nDecomposed meat, 210.\\nDecomposition, 201.\\nDecussate, 276.\\nDefective hearing, causes of, 360.\\nDefects in vision, 342.\\nDeglutition, 112-132.\\nDental pulp, 123.\\nfloss silk, 128.\\nDentine of the teeth, 123.\\nDeodorants or deodorizers, 266.\\nDermis, the, 77.\\nDevelopment and decline, 6.\\ncharacteristic of man, 7.\\nDevitalized air in dwellings, 260, 453-\\nDextrin, 180.\\nDiapedesis, description of, 9, 163.\\nDiaphragm, location, 47.\\nimportance in breathing, 235.\\nimportance in production of voice,\\n373.\\nDiastase, 180.\\nDiastole of the heart, 149.\\nDiet, oddities of, 428.\\nDietaries, 192.\\nDietary standards, 193.\\nDifferentiation, 5.\\nDigestion, description of organs of,\\n111, 122.\\nsteps of, 112, 131.\\naccessory organs of, 122.\\nstomach, 133.\\nintestinal, 135.\\ntime occupied in, 428.\\nnormal requisites for, 139.\\nDigestibility of food, 194.\\nDigitalis, as poison, 410.\\nDiscontent, wholesome, 417.\\nDisease, reasons for prevention of,\\n11.\\nantitoxin treatment of, 19.\\nDisease germs, description of, 15-\\n17.\\ndiseases they produce, and how,\\n251-253.\\nDiseases, infectious and contagious,\\n17.\\nDisinfection and disinfectants, 266.\\ninstructions for, 459.\\nDislocation, definition, 39.\\ntreatment of, see Fractures.\\nDrinking water, 219.\\nDrinks, natural and artificial, 219.\\nDrowning, what to do in cases of,\\n383.\\nDrum, or drum-head, of the car,\\n354.\\ncavity, contents of, 355.\\nDuct, thoracic, 121.\\nsalivary, 129.\\nfrom gall bladder. 121. 131.\\npancreatic, L31.\\nnasal, 329.\\nDura mater, 279.\\nDust in the air. 250.\\nDusting and sweeping, 252.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0491.jp2"}, "492": {"fulltext": "480\\nIXDEX,\\nDyes, poisonous, in clothing, 108.\\nDyspepsia, relief from, 140.\\nB.\\nBar, location and structure, 352.\\nexternal, 352.\\nspeculum, 354.\\nmiddle, 355.\\ninternal, 357.\\nEars, hygiene of the, 361.\\nEfferent nerves, 275.\\nEggs as food, 213.\\nElasticity, of muscles, 61.\\nof arteries, 152.\\nEmergencies, general directions, 376.\\nEmmetropic, or normal eye, 343.\\nEmulsion, 64.\\nEnamel of the teeth, 123.\\nEndocardium, 146.\\nEndolymph, 357.\\nEndosmosis and Exosmosis, 9.\\nEndurance, powers of, 70.\\nEnergy, nervous, 305.\\nEnzymes, 111.\\nEpidermis, the, 78.\\nEpiglottis, the, 365.\\nEpithelial cells and tissues, 10.\\nEpithelium, 113.\\nErgot, as poison, see Spurred Rye.\\nEucalyptus tree and sunflower, value\\nof, 254.\\nEustachian tubes, location of, 115.\\nrelation to hearing, 356.\\nExcretion, 7.\\nExercise, see Muscular Exercise.\\nExpiration, movements of, 236.\\nExtensor muscles, 56.\\nExternal ear, 352.\\nExtremities, see Limhs.\\nEye, the, use of, 327.\\ncoats of, 330.\\nmuscles and nerves of, 331.\\nnupil and iris, 332.\\ncolor of, 334.\\nblind spot and yellow spot, 335.\\nEyeball, the media of, 336.\\nEyeballs, 330.\\nEyebrows, eyelashes, and eyelids,\\n327.\\nEyes, hygiene of, 346.\\nsuitable printing for, 471.\\nFacial nerves, or 7th pair, 290.\\nFaculties of the cerebrum, 283.\\nFainting, how relieved, 379.\\nFar sight, see Long Sight.\\nFasciculi of muscles, 58.\\nFasting, importance of water, 430.\\nFat, use of, 429, 430.\\nFat of the body, composition and\\nuses, 15, 64.\\nFats, as food, 178, 181.\\nvalue of, 182, 183.\\nFerments, mode of action of, 111.\\nFibres of muscles, 58.\\nFibrillae, 60.\\nFibrin, 15.\\nand fibrinogen of blood, 165.\\nferment, 165.\\nof food, 175.\\nFibrous tissue, 10.\\nField of vision, 339.\\nFilth diseases, 17.\\nFiltration and filters, 224.\\nFire damp, 258.\\nFireplaces, 265.\\nFish, as food, 209.\\npoisonous, 408.\\nFits, see Convulsions.\\nFlat foot, 46.\\nFlesh, as food, 207.\\nFlexor muscles, 56.\\nFlour, 214.\\nFlowers as poisons, 414.\\nFluids of the body, 2.\\nFocussing, see Accommodation.\\nFollicles, sebaceous, 82.\\nof the hair, 83.\\nof the stomach, 118.\\nof the intestines, 121.\\nFood, absorbed, fate of, 138.\\ndefinition and uses of, 173.\\nsources of, 174.\\nelements of, 174.\\nproteids of, 174.\\nelements, nitrogenous, non-albumi-\\nnous, 177.\\ninorganic constituents of, 183.\\nvegetable acids, 186.\\nfuel value of, 186-187.\\nsubstances, relative value of, 187.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0492.jp2"}, "493": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n481\\nFood, mixed diet, importance of,\\n189.\\nquantity of, 190.\\ndietaries, 192.\\nestimated daily needs and food ac-\\ntually consumed, 433.\\ndigestibility of, 194.\\nvariety of, 195.\\nadulteration, freshness, maturity of,\\n196.\\ncost and waste of, 197.\\nproper preparation and cooking, 198.\\neconomy and nutritiousness, 434.\\npreservation of, 200, 436.\\nalcohol as, 202.\\nhow to utilize remnants of, 437.\\nadaptation to digestive powers, 438.\\ndecomposition to be guarded against,\\n440.\\nFoods, classification of, 207.\\nanimal, 207.\\nharmful meats, 210.\\nvegetable, 214, 443.\\nvegetables, 216, 443.\\nfruits, 218.\\nnuts, 218.\\ncondiments, 219.\\nwater, 219.\\nForeign bodies, in nose, throat, ear,\\nand eye, how to remove, 399.\\nFractures and dislocations, treat-\\nment of, 391.\\nFreckles, cause of, 79.\\nFrostbite, treatment of, 391.\\nFruit, as food, 218.\\nFrying- food, proper method, 200.\\nFuel value of food, 18(5.\\nFunction, definition of, 1.\\nspecialization of, 5.\\nFundamental tone of voice, 351.\\nG.\\nGall-bladder, 130.\\nGame, as food, 209.\\nGanglia, 274.\\nbasal, 284.\\nGarden produce, 197, 214.\\nGas poisoning-, resuscitation from.\\n381\\nGases, in the atmosphere, 255,\\nas poisons, 408.\\nGastric juice, 118, 133.\\nGelatin and gelatinoids, as food, 177.\\nGlands, sweat, 79.\\nsebaceous, 82.\\nsalivary, 128.\\nMeibomian, 328.\\nGlosso-pharyngeal nerve, 288.\\nGlottis, 230.\\nchinks of, 368.\\nGlucose, or grape sugar, 15, 181.\\nGluten, as food, 175.\\nGlycogen, 15, 130.\\nGray matter of nervous system, 274.\\nGullet, see Oesophagus.\\nGums, 122.\\nGustatory nerve, 319.\\nGymnasiums, 73.\\nH.\\nHabits, see Artificial Reflex Actions.\\nHaemoglobin, 162.\\nHair follicles, 83.\\nHairs, location, structure, uses, 82.\\nHand, the adaptation for general use,\\n45.\\nthe human, 418.\\nthe sense of touch, 317.\\nHanging, resuscitation from, 381.\\nHard palate, 114.\\nHard water, 221.\\nHarmful meat, 210.\\nair, 250.\\nHaversian, canals, 35.\\nHay fever, production of, 324.\\nHealth, what the study of, includes, 1.\\nvalue of, 11.\\nHearing, how effected, 351.\\norgan of, 352.\\nphysiology of, 359.\\ndefective, 360.\\neffects of alcohol and tobacco upon.\\n362.\\nHeart, the location ami relations, 1 13.\\ncomponent parts, 146.\\nvalves of. US.\\naction or pulsations of. 149.\\nsounds of. 1 19.\\nbeats. 150.\\nnervous control of. 150.\\neffects of alcohol ami narcotics upon.\\n170.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0493.jp2"}, "494": {"fulltext": "482\\nINDEX.\\nHeat, animal or vital, 12.\\nsources and loss of, 13.\\nexhaustion, see Sunstroke.\\nHemiplegia, 295.\\nHemispheres, the, of the hrain, 281.\\nHemlock, varieties of poisonous,\\n409, 412.\\nHemorrhages, special (nose, lungs,\\nmouth, stomach), treatment of,\\n398.\\nHepatic veins, 129.\\nHerbs, savory, use of, 445.\\nHiccoughing, 236.\\nHinge joints, 37.\\nHippophagy, 208.\\nHistology, definition of, 1.\\nHorns, anterior and posterior, of\\nspinal cord, 291.\\nHot baths, 97.\\nHuman body, the, general facts, 1.\\nHumors of the eye, 336.\\nHydrogen sulphide, 258.\\nHygiene, definition of, 1.\\nHyoscyamus, as poison, 410.\\nHypermetropia, see Long Sight.\\nHysteria and nervousness, 466.\\nI.\\nIce, 220.\\nand ice- water, 446.\\nIleo-coecal valve, 119.\\nIlluminating gas, 258.\\nImbibition, definition of, 9.\\nImmovable joints, 37.\\nImmunity from infectious diseases,\\n18.\\nImpure blood, 147.\\nImpurities, in water, effects of, 222.\\nin the air, effects of, 262.\\nIncised wounds, 394-396.\\nIncisor teeth, 125.\\nIncus, the, or anvil, 355.\\nInfectious diseases, conveyance of\\nand danger from, 17.\\nimmunity from, 18.\\nhow to prevent the spread of, 449.\\nInferior vena cava, 129, 147.\\nInoculation, 18.\\nInorganic constituents of the body,\\n14.\\nof food, 183.\\nInsalivation, 112, 131.\\nInsensibility, 379.\\nInsensible perspiration, 81.\\nInspiration, 234.\\nIntensity of sound, to what due, 351,\\n369.\\nInter-costal muscles, 234.\\nInternal ear, 357.\\nIntestinal, digestion, 112-113.\\nvilli, 120.\\njuice, 136.\\nIntestines, or bowels, 118-121.\\nIntoxication, relief of, 379.\\nInunction, 95.\\nInvoluntary muscles, 52.\\nIodine and iron as poisons, 406.\\nIris, the, 332.\\nIron, constituent of the food and\\nthe body, 186.\\nIrritability of tissues, 271.\\nIrritant poisons, 404.\\nJoints, varieties, 36.\\nstructure of, 38.\\ninjuries to, 39.\\nJudgment, 283.\\nJuice, intestinal, 121, 136.\\npancreatic, 121, 129, 136.\\ngastric, 133.\\nK.\\nKidneys, location, structure, 88.\\nfunctions, 89.\\neffects of alcohol upon, 89.\\nL.\\nLabyrinth of the ear, bony and mem-\\nbranous, 357.\\nLacerated wounds, 394-396.\\nLachrymal apparatus, i.e. glands,\\ncanals, sacs, and secretion, 329.\\nLacteals, 120, see Lymphatics.\\nLactose, or sugar of milk, 15.\\nLacunae of bones, 35.\\nLarge intestine, the, 121.\\nLaryngoscope, the, 367.\\nLarynx, the, location of, 115.\\nuse in breathing, 230.\\ncartilages of, 364.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0494.jp2"}, "495": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n483\\nLarynx, use in voice, 364.\\nmuscles of, 366.\\nLaughter, 236.\\nLead, palsy, 57.\\npipes, conveyance of water in,\\n223.\\nas poison, 407.\\nLens, crystalline, 336.\\nLentils as food, 217.\\nLeucocytes, see White Corpuscles of\\nthe Blood.\\nLife, phases of, 5.\\nprocesses and work of, 7.\\ntests of, 13.\\nLigaments, 38.\\nLight, value of, to health, 267.\\nas stimulus to respiration, 461.\\nas destroyer of disease germs, 462.\\nLimbs, the, 45.\\nLime, as constituent of food, 185.\\njuice, value of, 195.\\nLinea alba, the, 55.\\nLinen, as clothing, 109.\\nLiqueurs, 23.\\nLiver, the, location and functions of,\\n129.\\nLiving in the open air, 457.\\nLiving matter, properties of, 8.\\nLobelias, the, as poisons, 412.\\nLobules of the lungs, 231.\\nLong, or far, sight, 344.\\nLoudness of sound, see Intensity.\\nLungs, tbe, location, shape, struc-\\nture, 232.\\nmovements of, 233.\\nLymph, 166.\\nLymphatic glands, 169.\\nLymphatics, 167.\\nM.\\nMalaria, 254.\\nsome facts about, 450.\\nMalleus, or hammer, 355.\\nMalt liquors, 22.\\nMaltose, 132.\\nMarrow of bones, 33.\\nMarsh gas, 258.\\nMarsh marigold, as poison, 419.\\nMastication, 112, 131.\\nimportance of thorough, 4-J7,\\nMastoid cells, 355\\nMeat, as food, 207-211.\\nharmful, 210.\\nfresh, as preventitive of scurvy, 433.\\nthe too frequent use of, 438.\\nMeats, relative value of, 439.\\nselection of, 440.\\nMechanical processes, 7.\\nMedia, transparent, of the eye, 336.\\nMedulla oblongata, location, struc-\\nture, functions, 285.\\nMedullary, canal of bones, 33.\\nmembrane, 34.\\nsheath, 276.\\nMedullated nerve fibres, 276.\\nMeibomian glands, 328.\\nMembrana tympani, 352-354.\\nMembranes, description of, 9.\\nof the brain, 278.\\nMemory, 283.\\nMercury as a poison, 407.\\nMesentery, the, 119.\\nMetabolism, definition of, 8.\\nMetallic substances as poisons, 405.\\nMezereon, as a poison, 413.\\nMicrobes, see Bacteria.\\nMicrococci, see Bacteria.\\nMiddle ear, the, 355.\\nMigration of blood corpuscles, 163.\\nMilk, sugar, 15, 181.\\nas food, 189, 211.\\ncare of, 212, 441.\\nchanges in, etc., 441.\\nMineral baths, 94.\\nMineral matter of bones, 35.\\nMitral valve of the heart, 148.\\nMixed and movable joints, 37.\\nmuscles, 53.\\nModel tenements, 262.\\nMolar teeth, 125.\\nMotor, or efferent nerves, 275.\\nimpulse, 294.\\nMouth, the, 114.\\nbreathing, dangers of, 2 28.\\nMucous membrane, 112.\\nMucus, 113.\\nMud baths\\nMulti-cellular organisms, 5.\\nMuscle plasma. 61.\\nMuscles, number ami use, 62.\\nclassification, 62.\\nconnections. 53.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0495.jp2"}, "496": {"fulltext": "484\\nINDEX.\\nMuscles, arrangement, 55.\\naction of groups, 55.\\nantagonistic, or opposing, 56.\\nimportance of conjoint action, 418.\\nof expression, 57.\\nstructure of, 58.\\nchemical composition of, 60\\nhygiene of, 62.\\noveruse of one set, 420.\\neffects of alcohol and narcotics upon,\\n74-75.\\nof the hair follicles, 83.\\nconstrictors of pharynx, 115.\\npapillary, of the heart, 148.\\ntensor tympani, 356.\\nof the larynx, 366.\\nMuscular tissue, properties of, 61.\\nsensations or sense, 314.\\nMuscular exercise, uses, 68.\\nwell-balanced, 69.\\nproper adaptation, 70.\\npower of endurance, 70.\\nimproper, some of the results of,\\n421.\\nbest times for, 72.\\nwhy young women should have,\\n421.\\nhousework, 421.\\nvarieties of, 73, 422.\\nin gymnasiums, 73.\\npassive, 74.\\nMushrooms, poisonous and edible,\\n413.\\nMusical sounds, how produced, 351.\\nMyopia, see Short Sight.\\nMyosin, 15, 61, 175.\\nN.\\nNails, structure, use, 84.\\nNarcotic poisons, 409.\\nNarcotics, definition, 27.\\neffects upon muscles, 74.\\neffects upon the skin, 87.\\neffects upon the digestive organs\\nand digestion, 140.\\neffects upon the blood, 171.\\neffects upon respiration and the\\nrespiratory organs, 245.\\neffects upon the nervous system, 311.\\neffects upon touch, taste, and smell,\\n325.\\nNasal, cavities, or fossae, 322.\\nducts, 329.\\ntwang, 370.\\nNear sight, see Short Sight.\\nNerve, fibres, 273-276.\\nfilaments, 274.\\ncells, 274, 463.\\ncentre, 275.\\ntrunks, 276.\\nfibres and cells, interdependence,\\n277.\\nforce, see Nervous Impulse.\\nforce perverted, nervousness, 306.\\nNerves, structure, 275.\\nsensory and motor, 275.\\ncranial, 285-287.\\nfifth pair of, 288.\\nseventh pair of, or facial, 290.\\ntenth pair of, or pneumogastric, 290.\\nspinal, 292.\\nNervous, processes, predominance in\\nman, 271.\\ntissue, white, 273.\\ntissue, gray, 274.\\nimpulse, or nerve force, 277.\\nenergy, 305.\\nNervous system, the, use, 271.\\ngeneral arrangement, 272.\\ncerebro-spinal, 273.\\nsympathetic, 295.\\nreflex action, 300.\\nhygiene of, 306.\\nhow injured by overwork, 465.\\neffects of alcohol and narcotics upon r\\n308.\\nNeuralgia, 126.\\nNeurilemma, the, 276.\\nNightshade black as poison, 412.\\nNitrogen of the air, 249.\\nNoises, how produced, 351.\\nNon-medullated nerve fibres, 276.\\nNostrils, as channels of respiration,\\n227.\\nNucleus and nucleolus, 4.\\nNutrition, description of, 110.\\nNuts as food, 218.\\nOatmeal, as food, 214.\\nOchlesis, definition and dangers of,\\n255.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0496.jp2"}, "497": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n485\\nOdors, 468.\\nOesophagus, the, 116.\\nOil of Tansy, as poison, 408.\\nOld sight, 345.\\nOleander, the, as poison, 408.\\nOlein, 15, 64.\\nOlfactory nerve and bulb, 323.\\nOpenings of the heart, 147.\\nOphthalmoscope, the, its use, 342.\\nOpium, use and abuse, 27.\\nas poison, 409.\\nOptic nerve, the, 331, 337.\\nOrbits, orbital cavities, 327.\\nOrgan, definition of, 2.\\nof smell, 322.\\nof sight, 327.\\nof hearing, 352.\\nOrganic, constituents of the body, 14.\\nmatter in drinking water, how de-\\ntected, 223.\\nmatter exhaled, 254.\\nOrgans, of absorption, 85.\\nof digestion, 111.\\nof circulation, 143.\\nof respiration, 227.\\nof taste, 319.\\nof voice, 364.\\nOsmosis, definition of, 9, 137.\\nOssicles, or bones of the ear, 355.\\nOval opening, or window of internal\\near, 357.\\nOxidation, description of, 8.\\nOxygen of the air, 249.\\nOysters, 210.\\nraw, value of, 439.\\nOzone of the air, 250.\\nP.\\nPain, value of, 314.\\nPalate, hard and soft, 114.\\nPallor, causes of, 157.\\nPalmitin, 15, 64.\\nPancreas, the, location and function,\\n129.\\nPancreatic juice, 129, 135.\\nPancreatine, L35.\\nPapillae, of the skin, 78, 317.\\nof the tongue, 319.\\nPapillary muscles of the heart, 148.\\nParalysis, 282.\\nParaplegia, 295.\\nParasite poisoning, 210.\\nParotid glands, see Salivary Glands.\\nPartial tones of the voice, 351.\\nPatella, or knee pan, 29.\\nPeas, etc., as food, 217, 444.\\nPelvic cavity, contents of, 48.\\nPelvis, the, 44.\\nPepsin and Peptones, 133.\\nPericardium, 146.\\nPerilymph, 357.\\nPerimysium, the, 58.\\nPeriosteum, 32.\\nPeristalsis, 116.\\nPeritoneum, 119.\\nPermanent set of teeth, 124.\\nPerspiration, 80.\\nPerspiratory glands, see Sweat\\nGlands.\\nPhagocytes, 164.\\nPharynx, the, 115.\\nPhases of life, 5.\\nPhosphate and carbonate of lime in\\nbones and teeth, 14.\\nPhosphorus, constituent of the body\\nand food, 186.\\nas poison, 407.\\nPhysical culture, 68.\\neducation, value of, to students, 419.\\nPhysiology, human, definition of, 1.\\nof vision, 342.\\nof hearing, 359.\\nPia mater, 279.\\nPillars of the fauces, 115.\\nPitch, of sounds, to what due, 351,\\n369.\\nof voice, to what due, 369.\\nPlasma, 161.\\nPleura, pleural sac and cavity, 233.\\nPleurisy, 234.\\nPlexus, of nerves. 297.\\nPneuraogastric nerve, 290.\\nPoison, definition of, 20.\\nhemlock, 412.\\nsumac and ivy. 414.\\ndogwood, 415.\\nPoisoned wounds, 411.\\nPoisonous, fish, I0S.\\nplants. 412\\nfruits, seeds, and flowers, 414.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0497.jp2"}, "498": {"fulltext": "486\\nINDEX.\\nPoisons, classification, 401.\\ngeneral directions for relief from,\\n403.\\nspecific, 404.\\nirritant and corrosive, 404.\\nanimal and vegetable, 408.\\nnarcotic, 409.\\nacro-narcotic, 411.\\nPoke berries, as poison, 408.\\nPores of the skin, 80.\\nPork, as food, 208.\\nPortal vein, 121.\\nPosterior nares, 115.\\nPosture, habits of, modify the shape,\\n418.\\nPotatoes, 216, 443.\\nPoultry, as food, 209.\\nPresbyopia, see Old Sight.\\nPreventive medicine, 11.\\nProcesses, chemical, mechanical,\\nvital, 7.\\nProliferation of cells, 6.\\nProp cartilages, 365.\\nProteids, of the body, 14.\\nof food, 133, 174.\\nsources of, 175.\\nvalue of, 176.\\nexcessive use of, 176.\\nProtein, what it includes, 187.\\nProtoplasm, definition and proper-\\nties of, 4.\\nPrussic acid, as poison, 410.\\nPtomaines, 16.\\nPtyalin of the saliva, 132.\\nPublic hygiene, 1.\\nPulmonary, respiratory, or lesser\\ncirculation, 143.\\nartery and veins, 147.\\nPulp of the tooth, and the pulp cavity.\\n123.\\nPulsations, or throbbing of the heart,\\n149.\\nPulse, the, 153.\\nPunctured wounds, 394-397.\\nPupil, the, 332.\\nPure blood, 147.\\nPurification, of water, 223.\\nof air, 263.\\nPutrefaction of food, 200.\\nPyloric opening of stomach, 117.\\nPylorus, the, 118.\\nQ.\\nQuality of sound, 351, 369.\\nQuarantine, use of, 253.\\nR.\\nRain, water, 220.\\nvalue of, 249.\\nRation of U. S. Army, 431.\\nReach of the voice, 371.\\nReaction after bathing, 97.\\nReason, the, 283.\\nReceptaculum chyli, 121.\\nRectum, the, 121.\\nRed corpuscles of the blood, 161.\\nReflex action, what it is, 300.\\nof the cerebro-spinal system, 301.\\nof the sympathetic system, 302.\\nReflex actions, artificial, 303.\\nthe use of, 304.\\nRefraction, error of, 344.\\nRefrigerator, connection with sewer,\\n259.\\nRennin, 134.\\nReproduction, 6, 8.\\nResidual and reserve air of the lungs,\\n238.\\nRespiration, air passages, 227.\\nobject and organs of, 227.\\nmouth breathing, 228.\\nmechanism of, 234.\\ninspiration, 234.\\ntypes of, 235.\\nexpiration, 236.\\nquantity of air breathed, 237.\\nvital capacity, 238.\\nrelation to its circulation 239.\\nchanges in the air and blood during,\\n240.\\nnervous control, 242.\\nrelation to circulation and animal\\nheat, 243.\\neffects of alcohol and narcotics on,\\n244.\\nartificial, 384.\\nRespirations, number of, 237.\\nRespirators, use of, 251.\\nRetina, the, 334.\\nRibs, the, 44.\\nRice, as food, 214.\\nRickets, 35.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0498.jp2"}, "499": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n487\\nRoasting of food, 200.\\nRoman bath, 95.\\nRods and coues of the retina, 334.\\nRotator muscles, 56.\\nRound window of the ear, 357.\\nRussian baths, 94.\\nRye, as food, 214.\\nspurred, as a poison, 414.\\nS.\\nSacrum, the, 42.\\nSalad vegetables, importance of, 217,\\n444.\\nSaliva, the, 132.\\nSalivary glands, the, 128.\\nSalt, common, 185.\\nits importance, 431.\\nas food element, 185.\\nSalt-water bathing, 94.\\nSanitation, definition and effects of,\\n1,11.\\nSarcolemma, 59.\\nSavory herbs, as condiments, 219.\\nScalds, see Burns.\\nSciatic nerve and sciatica, 276.\\nSclerotic coat of the eye, 330.\\nScoke, poison, see Coke.\\nScope of study in this book, 1.\\nScurvy, condition of blood in, 165.\\ncauses of, 195.\\npreventives of, 195, 217, 433.\\nSebaceous glands, 82.\\nSecretion, 169.\\nSeeds, as poisons, 414.\\nSemicircular canals of the internal\\near, 357.\\nSemilunar valves of the heart, 148.\\nSensations, common and special,\\n313.\\nSense, muscular, and of pain, 314.\\nof touch, 317.\\nof taste, 318.\\nof smell, 322.\\nof sight, 327.\\nof hearing, 351.\\neducation, in Seguin School, 472.\\nSenses, the, 313.\\nthe keenness of, 467.\\nSensible perspiration, or sweat, 81.\\nSensory, impressions. 292,\\nor afferent nerves, 275.\\nSeptum of the nose, 323.\\nSerous membrane, 119.\\nSerum, 119, 146, 165.\\nSerum albumin, 15.\\nSesamoid bones, 29.\\nSewer gas, composition and dangers\\nof, 259.\\nShallow respiration, dangers of, 238.\\nShell fish, as food, 210.\\nShiver, the first and second, 96-97.\\nShoes, proper and improper, 102.\\nShort, or near, sight, 343.\\nSight, organs and use of, 327.\\nshort, or near, 343, 470.\\nlong, or far, 344.\\nold, 345.\\neffects of alcohol and narcotics upon\\n346.\\ninjurious effects of certain occupa-\\ntions upon, 471.\\nSilk, as material of clothing, 109.\\nSilver, as a poison, 407.\\nSinews, see Tendons.\\nSkeletal muscles, 52.\\nSkeleton, uses of, 41.\\nprincipal closed cavities of, 46.\\nSkim milk, 212.\\nSkin, the, structure of, 77.\\nstrength and elasticity of, 423.\\ncorns and callous spots, 423.\\ncolor of, 79.\\nappendages of, 79.\\npores and drainage tubes, 423.\\nfunctions, 84-86.\\nrelief of thirst through, 425.\\nrelation of, to the other parts of the\\nbody, 86.\\neffects of alcohol and narcotics upon,\\n87.\\ncare of, Chapters VII. and VIII.\\nSkull, the, 37, 46.\\nSleep, amount and use of, 63, 419.\\nSmell, organ of, 322.\\nhow odors are recognized, 323.\\ndevelopment of sense of, 324. 468.\\neffects of alcohol and narcotics upon.\\nSoap, kinds and value of, 92.\\nSobbing-. 236,\\nSoft, palate. 115.\\nwater, 221.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0499.jp2"}, "500": {"fulltext": "488\\nINDEX.\\nSolar plexus, 297.\\nSolaria, or sun rooms, 95.\\nSound, production of, 351.\\nquality, loudness, pitch, etc., 369.\\nSounds, consonant and vowel, 370.\\nSoup-making-, 200.\\nSouring- of food, 200.\\nSpeech, 363.\\nSphincter muscles, 56.\\nSpinal, column, use, form, number of\\nbones in, 41.\\ncanal and cord, location, 42.\\ncolumn, curves of, 43.\\ncord, 271, 291, 318.\\nnerves, 292.\\nSpirilli, see Bacteria.\\nSpirits, composition and effects, 23.\\nSpirometer, or lung tester, 238.\\nSpleen, the, location, structure, func-\\ntion, 170.\\nSpongy tissue of bones, 33.\\nSpontaneous combustion, 243.\\nSprains, treatment of, 393.\\ndefinition, 39.\\nSpring water, 220.\\nSpurred rye, or ergot, as a poison, 414.\\nStammering and stuttering, 369.\\nStapes, or stirrup, 355.\\nStarch, digestion of, 132.\\nas food, 179.\\nSteapsin, 135.\\nStearin, 15, 64.\\nSternum, the (Fig. 6), 31.\\nStimuli, definition and examples, 8.\\nStock for soup, 207.\\nStomach, digestion, 112, 133.\\nlocation, structure, 116.\\nStoves and furnaces, stove gas, 257.\\nStramonium, as poison, 410, 415.\\nStriae of muscles, 60.\\nStrychnine, as poison, 410.\\nSublingual glands, see Salivary\\nGlands.\\nSubmaxillary glands, see Salivary\\nGlands.\\nSuffocation, resuscitation from, 381.\\nSugar, as food, 180, 429.\\nSulphur, constituent of food and of\\nthe body, 186.\\nSulphuretted hydrogen, 258.\\nSun baths, 95, 425.\\nSunlight, 267.\\nSunstroke, 268.\\nwhat to do in cases of, 381.\\nSuperior vena cava, 147.\\nSupplemental air, see Reserve Air.\\nSupporting tissues, 10.\\nSupra-arytenoid cartilages, 365.\\nSuspended matters in the air, 250.\\nSuture or dovetail joints, 37.\\nSwallowing, see Deglutition.\\nSweat, 81.\\nglands, 79.\\nSweet bread, see Pancreas.\\nSympathetic nervous system, 272,\\n295.\\nSynovial membrane and synovial\\nfluid, 39.\\nSystole of the heart, 149.\\nTactile, corpuscles, 78.\\nsensation, 313.\\nTactus eruditus, its value, 318.\\nTaste, organs of, 318.\\nhow effected, 320.\\nhow influenced, 321.\\nTea, as food, 224.\\nTears, origin and use, 329.\\nTeeth, the, uses and structure, 122.\\nsets, 123.\\ncare of, 126.\\nTemperate and tepid baths, 95.\\nTemperature of the body, 12.\\nTemporary, or first set of teeth, 123.\\nTendon of Achilles, 55.\\nTendons, structure, location, use, 53.\\nTenements, 261, 455, 456.\\nTensor tympani muscle, 356.\\nTenth pair of nerves, 290.\\nTest type, 341.\\nTests of life, 13.\\nTetanus, 62.\\nThein of tea, 225.\\nTheobromine, 225.\\nThermometer, medical, or clinical,\\n12.\\nThirst, relief of through the skin, 425.\\nquenching by fruit, 445.\\nThoracic, cavity, contents of, 47.\\nduct, 121, 167.\\ntype of respiration, 235.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0500.jp2"}, "501": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n489\\nThorax, the, 44.\\nThroat, the, see Pharynx.\\nThymus gland, 169.\\nThyroid cartilage of the larnyx, 364.\\nTidal air, 237.\\nbreathing, 238.\\nTight, boots and shoes, 102.\\nclothing, effects of, 100.\\nTimbre of voice, see Quality.\\nTin, as poison, 408.\\nTissue, definition of, 2.\\nconnective, 10.\\nspongy, or cancellous, 33.\\ncompact, 32.\\nTissues, classification of, 10.\\nToadstools, as poisons, 413.\\nTobacco, general effects of, 25.\\neffects on muscle, 75.\\neffects on the skin, 88.\\neffects on the digestive organs and\\ndigestion, 141.\\neffects on the blood and organs of\\ncirculation, 171.\\neffects on respiration and the respi-\\nratory organs, 245.\\neffects on the nervous system, 311.\\neffects on touch, taste, and smell,\\n325.\\neffects on sight, 346.\\neffects on hearing, 362.\\neffects on the voice, 374.\\nTone, of muscles, 61.\\nfundamental, 351.\\nTones, partial, 352.\\nTongue, the, its use, 114, 319.\\nTonsils, the, 115.\\nTooth-bone, or ivory, 123.\\nTouch, organs of, 317.\\ndelicacy of, 318.\\nToxins, 16.\\nTrachea, the, 230.\\nTransfusion of blood, 161.\\nTransudation, 169.\\nTransverse colon, 122.\\nTrichinae, 197.\\nTricuspid valves of the heart, 148.\\nTripe, as food, 207.\\nTrunk, the, 2.\\nTrypsin, 135.\\nTuberculosis, see Consumption,\\nTunics of the eye, 330.\\nTurbinated bones of the nose, 228.\\nTurkish baths, 94.\\nTympanum, the, see Middle Ear.\\nTypes of breathing, 235.\\nU.\\nUlna bone, the, 45.\\nUnconscious cerebration, 304.\\nUnconsciousness, causes of, 378.\\nUrea, 89.\\nUreter, 89.\\nV.\\nVaccination, description, value, 18.\\nValve, ileo-coecal, 119.\\nValves of the heart, 148.\\nValvulae conniventes, 119.\\nVasomotor nerves, 297.\\nVascular, 32.\\nVegetable, acids, 186.\\nfoods, 189, 214.\\npoisons, 408.\\nVegetables, 216.\\nVeins, pulmonary, 147.\\nlocation, structure, function, 157.\\nVenomous bites and stings, 411.\\nVenous, or impure blood, 147.\\nsystem, capacity of, 158.\\nVentilation, 263.\\nautomatic, 458.\\namount of air required, 459.\\nVentilators, 264.\\nVentricles of heart, 147.\\nVentriloquism, how produced. 371.\\nVermicular motion, see Peristalsis.\\nVermiform appendix, 122.\\nVertebrae, location, number. 41. 42.\\nVertebral column, see Spinal Col-\\numn.\\nVestibule of the ear, 357.\\nVilli of the intestines, the, 120.\\nViscera, 48.\\nVision, binocular, 338.\\npower of accommodation, 338.\\nfield of. 339.\\nphysiology of. 342.\\ndefects in. 3-12.\\nnormal sight, 313.\\ncolor blindness, 342.\\nimportance of convergence of eyes,\\n469.", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0501.jp2"}, "502": {"fulltext": "490\\nINDEX.\\nVital heat, 12.\\nprocesses in the body, 7.\\ncapacity, 238.\\nknots, or points, 286.\\nVitreous humor of the eye, 336.\\nVocal, cords or bands, 366.\\nsounds, variations in, 369.\\nVoice, the, 363.\\norgans of, 364.\\nmuscles of larynx, 366.\\nmechanism of the, 367.\\nchief varieties of, 372.\\nhygiene of, 373.\\nrules for the care of, 473.\\neffects of alcohol and tobacco upon,\\n374.\\nVoice-box, see Larynx.\\nVoluntary muscles, 52.\\nVoracious appetite, 195.\\nVowel sounds, production of, 370.\\nW.\\nWarmth of the body, see Animal\\nHeat.\\nWaste- water pipes, 259.\\nWater, its value in the body, 183.\\nas food, 219.\\ndrinking, 219.\\ndrinking, sources of, 220.\\nweeds and scum, 447.\\nsimple test for purity, 447.\\nspring, 447.\\nhard and soft, 221.\\ndrinking, impure, 222.\\npurification of, 223, 448.\\nhemlock, as poison, 412.\\nWatery vapor in breath, 241.\\nWell water, 220.\\nWheat, as food, 214.\\nWhey, 212.\\nWhite, blood corpuscles, 163.\\nmatter of the nervous system, 273.\\nWindpipe, the, see Trachea.\\nWines, composition and effects, 23.\\nWisdom teeth, 124.\\nWoollen clothing, value of, 108.\\nWormian bones, 29.\\nWounds, treatment of, 394.\\ncontused and lacerated, 396.\\npunctured, 397.\\npoisoned, 398, 411.\\nYellow spot of the eye, 335.\\nZ.\\nZinc, as poison, 408.", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0502.jp2"}, "503": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0503.jp2"}, "504": {"fulltext": "JUN 25J900", "height": "3482", "width": "2313", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0504.jp2"}, "505": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3538", "width": "2246", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0505.jp2"}, "506": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3521", "width": "2407", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolog00walk_0506.jp2"}}