{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3441", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\\nin 2011 with funding from\\nThe Library of Congress\\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/comeniusbeginninOOmonr", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "COMENIUS", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "%\\\\xt (\u00c2\u00a7xmt ut?d0xs\\nEdited by NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\\nCOMENIUS\\nTHE BEGINNINGS OF EDUCATIONAL\\nREFORM\\nBT\\nWILL S. MONROE, A.B.\\nPROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY IN THE\\nSTATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT WESTFIELD, MASS.\\nNEW YORK\\nCHAELES SCEIBNEE S SONS\\n1900", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "64890\\n12400\\nLibrary of Congress!\\nTwo Copies Received\\nJUN 29 1900\\nCopyright ent-y\\npirn* t?, ?0O\\nCUffAG\\nSECOND COPY.\\nOt-Iiveifd In\\n0R0ER DIVISION,\\nJUL 11 1900\\nNo.\\nCOPYRIGHT, 1900, BY\\nCHARLES SCRIBNER S SONS\\n1\\nNortoooti ^Press\\nJ. S. dishing Co. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Berwick Smith\\nNorwood Mass. U.S.A.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nThe present volume is an effort to trace the reform\\nmovement in education from Vives, Bacon, and Ratke\\nto Comenius, who gave the movement its most signifi-\\ncant force and direction; and from him to the later\\nreformers, Francke, Eousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi,\\nFrobel, and Herbart. A variety of ideas, interests,\\nand adaptations, all distinctly modern, are represented\\nin the life-creeds of these reformers; and, in the\\nabsence of a more satisfactory term, the progressive\\nmovement which they represent has been styled real-\\nism, sometimes called the new education.\\nIt has been well said that the dead hand of spirit-\\nual ancestry lays no more sacred duty on posterity\\nthan that of realizing under happier circumstances\\nideas which the stress of age or the shortness of life\\nhas deprived of their accomplishment. Many of the\\nreforms represented by the realists occupy no incon-\\nsiderable place in the platforms of modern practi-\\ntioners of education and in the belief that a history\\nof the movement might contribute toward the ulti-\\nmate reforms which realism represents, it has seemed\\nexpedient to focus such a survey on the life and\\nteachings of the strongest personality and chief expo-\\nnent of the movement.\\nThe condition of education in Europe during the\\nsixteenth century is briefly told in the opening chap-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "vi PREFACE\\nter following are given the traces of the educational\\ndevelopment of Comenius in the writings of Vives,\\nBacon, and Batke three chapters are devoted to the\\nlife of Comenius and the reforms in which he actively\\nparticipated an exposition of his educational writings\\nhas three chapters a chapter is given to the influence\\nof Comenius on Francke, Bousseau, Pestalozzi, and\\nother modern reformers; and the closing chapter\\nsums up his permanent influence. The volume has\\ntwo appendices, one giving tables of dates relating\\nto the life and writings of Comenius, and the other\\na select annotated bibliography.\\nIn the exposition of the writings of Comenius, the\\nauthor has made liberal use of English and German\\ntranslations from Latin and Czech originals. In the\\ncase of the Great didactic, the scholarly translation by\\nMr. Keatinge has, in the main, been followed. Free\\ntranslations of portions of this work had been made\\nby the author before the appearance of Mr. Keat-\\ninge s book; and in some instances these have been\\nretained. As regards the account of Comenius views\\non the earliest education of the child, the author s\\nedition of the School of infancy has been followed;\\nand in the discussion of reforms in language teaching,\\nhe is indebted to Mr. Bardeen s edition of the Orbis\\npictus, and to Dr. William T. Harris for the use of\\nthe handsome Elzevir edition of the Janua, which is\\nthe property of the Bureau of Education.\\nWILL S. MONROE.\\nState Normal School,\\nWestfield, Mass.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER I\\nEuropean Education in the Sixteenth Century\\nHumanism, realism, and naturalism characterized Devo-\\ntion of the sixteenth century to the humanistic ideal\\nStudy of Latin eloquence Style the chief aim\\nNeglect of the mother-tongue Views of John Sturm\\nand the Jesuits Devotion to Cicero Decadence of\\nthe later humanists Erasmus and Melanchthon on\\nthe enrichment of the course of study Satires of\\nRabelais directed against the humanists Protests\\nof Montaigne Attitude of Ascham and Mulcaster\\nTransition from humanism to realism\\nCHAPTER II\\nForerunners of Comenius\\nTraces of the intellectual development of Comenius.\\nVives a realist His early training in Spain and\\nFrance Educational activity in Belgium and Eng-\\nland Views on the education of women Theory\\nof education Comparison of Comenius and Vives.\\nBacon the founder of modern realism Views on the\\neducation of his day Attacks medievalism Study\\nof nature and the inductive method Individual dif-\\nferences among children. Ratke Studies at Ham-\\nburg and Rostock Visits England and becomes\\nacquainted with the philosophy of Bacon His plan\\nof education Its reception by the universities at\\nvii", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "viii CONTENTS\\nJena and Giessen Organization of the schools at\\nGotha Call to Sweden Summary of Ratke s views\\nHarmony of his teachings with those of Comenius.\\nCampanella, Andreae, and Bateus Their influence\\non the life and teachings of Comenius 15\\nCHAPTER III\\nBoyhood and Early Life of Comenius: 1592-1628\\nAncestry of Comenius Attends the village school at\\nStrasnitz Studies Latin in the gymnasium at Prerau\\nCharacter of the Latin schools of his day Enters\\nthe college at Herborn Studies theology and phi-\\nlosophy Inspired by the teachings of Alsted Makes\\nthe acquaintance of the writings of Ratke Continues\\nhis studies at Heidelberg Begins his career as a\\nteacher at Prerau Ordained as a clergyman In-\\nstalled as pastor and school superintendent at Fulneck\\nPersecution 38\\nCHAPTER IV\\nCareer as an Educational Reformer: 1628-1656\\nFlight to Poland Appointed director of the gymnasium\\nat Lissa Reforms introduced Literary projects\\nNeed of a patron Call to England Friendship with\\nHartlib Interest of the English Parliament Dis-\\ncontent with existing educational institutions\\nLewis de Geer, his Dutch patron Call to Sweden\\nInterview with Oxenstiern Located at Elbing\\nReform of the Swedish schools Return to Poland\\nConsecration as senior bishop Consequences of\\nthe treaty of Westphalia Ecclesiastical ministrations\\nCall to Hungary Reform of the schools at Saros-\\nPatak Plan of a pansophic school Return to Lissa\\nThe city burned Flight of Comenius from Poland 47", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS ix\\nCHAPTER V\\nClosing Years: 1656-1670\\nPAGE\\nFlight to Amsterdam Reception by Lawrence de Geer\\nReligious freedom in Holland Publication of the\\ncomplete edition of his writings Other educational\\nactivities The one thing needful Death at\\nAmsterdam and burial at Naarden Eamily history\\nof Comenius Alleged call to the presidency of Har-\\nvard College Portraits Personal characteristics 7 1\\nCHAPTER VI\\nPhilosophy of Education\\nThe Great didactic Conditions under which produced\\nAim of the book Purpose of education Man s\\ncraving for knowledge Youth the time for training\\nPrivate instruction undesirable Education for\\ngirls as well as boys Uniform methods. Education\\naccording to nature How nature teaches Selection\\nand adaptation of materials Organization of pupils\\ninto classes Correlation of studies. Methods of\\ninstruction Science Arts Language Morals\\nReligion. Types of educational institutions The\\nmother s school School of the mother-tongue\\nLatin school University. School discipline Char-\\nacter and purpose of discipline Corporal punish-\\nment only in cases of moral perversity 83\\nCHAPTER VII\\nEarliest Education of the Child\\nSchool of infancy Circumstances under which written\\nView of childhood Conception of infant educa-\\ntion. Physical training Care of the body The\\nchild s natural nurse Eood Sleep Play and exer-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\ncise. Mental training Studies which furnish the\\nsymbols of thought Nature study Geography\\nHistory Household economy Stories and fables\\nPrinciple of activity Drawing Arithmetic\\nGeometry Music Language Poetry. Moral and\\nreligious training Examples Instruction Disci-\\npline Some virtues to be taught Character of\\nformal religious instruction 109\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nStudy of Language\\nDominance of Latin in the seventeenth century Methods\\nof study characterized by Comenius. The Janua\\nPurpose and plan Its success. Atrium and Ves-\\ntibulum Their relation to the Janua. The Orbis\\npictus Its popularity Use of pictures. Methodus\\nnovissima Principles of language teaching Func-\\ntion of examples Place of oral and written language\\nin education 123\\nCHAPTER IX\\nInfluence of Comenius on Modern Educators\\nFrancke Early educational undertakings The institu-\\ntion at Halle Character of the Psedagogium Im-\\npulse given to modern education. Rousseau The\\nchild the centre of educational schemes Sense\\ntraining fundamental Order and method of nature\\nto be followed. Basedow Protests against tradi-\\ntional methods Influenced by the Eraile His\\neducational writings The Philanthropinnm. Pesta-\\nlozzi Love the key-note of his system Domestic\\neducation Education of all classes and sexes The\\nstudy of nature Impulse given to the study of\\ngeography. Frobel His relations to Comenius and", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nPestalozzi Educational value of play and principle\\nof self-activity Women as factors in education.\\nHerbart Assimilation of sense-experience Train-\\ning in character Doctrine of interest 142\\nCHAPTEE X\\nPermanent Influence of Comenius\\nGeneral neglect of Comenius during the eighteenth century\\nCauses Intrenchment of humanism Summary\\nof the permanent reforms of Comenius Revived\\ninterest in his teachings National Comenian peda-\\ngogical library at Leipzig The Comenius Society\\nReviews published for the dissemination of the doc-\\ntrines of Comenius Conquest of his ideas 165\\nAPPENDICES\\nI. Table of Dates 173\\nII. Select Bibliography 175\\nIndex 181", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "COMEjNTIUS\\nCHAPTER I\\nEUROPEAN EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY\\nHumanism, realism, and naturalism characterized Devotion of\\nthe sixteenth century to the humanistic ideal Study of Latin\\neloquence Style the chief aim Neglect of the mother-tongue\\nViews of John Sturm and the Jesuits Devotion to Cicero\\nDecadence of the later humanists Erasmus and Melanchthon\\non the enrichment of the course of study Satires of Rabelais\\ndirected against the humanists Protests of Montaigne Atti-\\ntude of Ascham and Mulcaster Transition from humanism to\\nrealism.\\nEducation in Europe/ says Oscar Browning, 1\\nhas passed through, three phases, which may conven-\\niently be called humanism, realism, and naturalism.\\nThe first is grounded upon the study of language, and\\nespecially of the two dead languages, Greek and Latin.\\nThe second is based upon the study of things instead\\nof words, the education of the mind through the eye\\nand the hand. Closely connected with this is the\\nstudy of those things which may be of direct influ-\\nence upon and direct importance to life. The third is\\nnot in the first instance study at all. It is an attempt\\n1 Aspects of education. By Oscar Browning. New York: In-\\ndustrial Educational Association, 1888.\\nB 1", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "2 COMENIUS\\nto build up the whole nature of man, to educate first\\nhis body, then his character, and lastly his mind.\\nThe sixteenth century was wedded to the human-\\nistic ideal of education. Without regard for the\\ndiversity of avocations, classical culture was held to\\nbe the safest and best -training for the manifold duties\\nof life. Aristotle s Politics was considered the wisest\\nutterance on the direction of affairs of state Csesar s\\nCommentaries the safest guides to military eminence\\nthe practical Stoicism of the Latin authors the most\\ninfallible basis for ethics and the regulation of con-\\nduct; and as for agriculture, had not Virgil written\\na treatise on that subject It was clear in the minds\\nof the sixteenth-century humanists that classical cul-\\nture furnished the best preparation, alike for theo-\\nlogians and artisans.\\nTo accomplish this purpose, as soon as the child\\nwas considered sufficiently matured for linguistic dis-\\ncipline, and this varied from the sixth to the ninth\\nyears, he was initiated into the mysteries of Latin\\neloquence. His preliminary training consisted in a\\nverbal study of the Latin grammar for purposes of\\nprecision in speech and successful imitation; but, as\\nthe grammar was printed in Latin, with its hundreds\\nof incomprehensible rules and exceptions, all of which\\nhad to be learned by heart, the way of the young\\nlearner was, indeed, a thorny one. True, the classical\\nauthors were later read, but chiefly for the purpose\\nof gleaning from them choice phrases to be used in\\nthe construction of Latin sentences, or for purposes\\nof disputations in dialectics. Logic and history were\\ngiven most subordinate places in the course of study,\\nthe former merely that it might give greater precision", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN 16th CENTURY 3\\nin writing and speaking, and the latter that it might\\nfurnish illustrations in rhetorical exercises.\\nThis conception of education was almost universally\\nheld in the sixteenth century, by Protestants like\\nTrotzendorf and Sturm, as well as by Catholics like\\nAquaviva and the members of the Society of Jesus.\\nNor was it confined to elementary and secondary\\neducation for, as Professor Paulsen 1 has shown, the\\nconquest of European universities by the humanists\\nwas complete by the second decade of the sixteenth\\ncentury. The statutes of most of the universities at\\nthis time make the speaking of the Latin compulsory.\\nThat at Ingolstadt reads A master in a bursary\\nshall induce to the continual use of Latin by verbal\\nexhortations and by his own example and shall also\\nappoint those who shall mark such as speak the vul-\\ngar tongue and shall receive from them an irremissible\\npenalty. Again: That the students in their aca-\\ndemical exercises may learn by the habit of speaking\\nLatin to speak and express themselves better, the\\nfaculty ordains that no person placed by the faculty\\nupon a common or other bursary shall dare to speak\\nGerman. Any one heard by one of the overseers to\\nspeak German shall pay one kreutzer. There grew\\nout of this prohibition a widespread system of spying.\\nThe spies reported to the university authorities on\\nsuch students (vulgarisantes they were called) who\\npersisted in speaking in the mother-tongue. In spite,\\nhowever, of statutes, spies, fines, and floggings, the\\n1 The German universities their character and historical devel-\\nopment. By Friedrich Paulsen. Authorized translation by Edward\\nDelavan Perry, with an introduction by Nicholas Murray Butler.\\nNew York and London Macmillan Co., 1895. pp. xxxi 251.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "4 COMENIUS\\nboys in the sixteenth century spoke little Latin when\\nthey were alone by themselves. Cordier, 1 writing in\\n1530, says, Our boys always chatter French with\\ntheir companions or if they try to talk Latin, cannot\\nkeep it up.\\nThe old ecclesiastical Latin of the Middle Ages had\\nbeen superseded by the classical Latin of the Eoman\\npoets, and all the energies of the educational institu-\\ntions were thrown into the acquisition and practice of\\nLatin eloquence. The classics were read for the\\nphrases that might be culled for use in the construc-\\ntion of Latin sentences; these, with disputations,\\ndeclamations, and Latin plays, were the order of the\\ncentury. Since education consisted in the acquisition\\nof a graceful and elegant style, the young learner,\\nfrom the first, applied himself to the grammatical\\nstudy of Latin authors, regarding solely the language\\nof the classics, and taking subject-matter into account\\nonly when this was necessary to understand the words.\\nThere was no study of the mother-tongue prelimi-\\nnary to the study of the classics. Children began at\\nonce the study of the Latin grammar, and they had to\\nwrite Latin verses before they had been exercised in\\ncompositions, in the vernacular, or, for that matter,\\nbefore they had been trained to express their thoughts\\nin Latin prose. And still more remarkable, as Oscar\\nBrowning points out, the Latin taught was not the\\nmasculine language of Lucretius and Csesar, but the\\nornate and artificial diction of Horace and Virgil, and,\\nabove all, of Cicero. There is no doubt, he adds,\\nthat narrow and faulty as it was, it gave a good edu-\\n1 De corrupti sermonis emendatione. By Maturin Cordier.\\nParis, 1530. Quoted by Mr. Keatinge.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN 16th CENTURY 5\\ncation so long as people believed in it. To know\\nHorace and Virgil by heart became the first duty of\\nthe scholar. Speeches in Parliament were considered\\nincomplete if they did not contain at least one Latin\\nquotation. A false quantity was held to be a greater\\ncrime than a slip in logical argument. Cicero not\\nonly influenced the education of English statesmen,\\nbut had no inconsiderable effect on their conduct.\\nThe humanist educators of the sixteenth century\\nnot only neglected the study of the mother-tongue\\nthey proscribed it. The Ratio 1 of the Jesuits forbids\\nits use except on holidays, and Sturm at Strasburg\\nabbreviated the recreation periods of his pupils because\\nof risks of speaking in the mother-tongue on the play-\\nground. And all this proscription of the vernacular\\nthat students might acquire eloquence in a foreign\\ntongue. Well does Raumer 2 ask, Why did they\\ncontinue, like a second Sisyphus, their fruitless\\nendeavors to metamorphose German into Eoman\\nyouths, and to impart to them, in defiance of the\\nlaws of human nature, another tongue?\\nThey were themselves deceived in assuming that\\nthey could call to life the ancient culture of Rome\\nand Greece. Indeed, they believed that they had dis-\\ncovered ways of training which would develop scholars\\ncapable of producing Latin works equal to the master-\\npieces that they had studied in their schools. John\\nSturm, one of the most ardent of the humanists, said\\n1 For an account of the schools of the Jesuits see Loyola and the\\neducational system of the Jesuits. By Thomas Hughes. New York\\nCharles Scrihner s Sons, 1892. pp. 302.\\n2 Gs.schichte der Padagogik. Von Karl von Raumer. Gutersloh\\nBertelsmann. 1882.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "6 COMENIUS\\nThe Eomans had two advantages over us the one\\nconsisted in learning Latin without going to school,\\nand the other in frequently seeing Latin comedies and\\ntragedies acted, and in hearing Latin orators speak.\\nCould we recall these advantages in our schools, why\\ncould we not, by persevering diligence, gain what they\\npossessed by accident and habit namely, the power\\nof speaking Latin to perfection? I hope to see the\\nmen of the present age, in their writing and speaking,\\nnot merely followers of the old masters, but equal to\\nthose who nourished in the noblest age of Athens and\\nRome. But how misguided and mistaken!\\nNot only did Latin monopolize the curriculum of\\nthe sixteenth-century school, but the study was pri-\\nmarily philological, for grammatical structure, and\\nonly secondarily for the content of the literature, for\\na correct understanding of the author. As a matter of\\nfact, the method of study was such as to make intelli-\\ngent comprehension of the author s thought next to im-\\npossible, since the humanists simply culled out phrases\\nwhich might be imitated and used in the exercises of\\nstyle. Raumer says of this kind of teaching: The\\nauthor was not an end, but only a means to an end\\nthe cultivation of deified Eoman eloquence in boys.\\nAnd why? Precisely as the peacock was used by the\\njackdaw. They borrowed the author s words and\\nphrases, grouped them together, and learned them by\\nheart, in order subsequently to apply them in speech\\nor writing. Borrow is too feeble an expression for\\nthe jackdaw designed not merely to borrow the pea-\\ncock s feathers, but to represent them as his own.\\nThe doctrine of imitation, as set forth by Sturm and\\nthe others, was, after all, a mere jackdaw theory.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN 16th CENTURY 7\\nThe pupil was taught how, by a slight alteration, to\\ndisguise phrases from Cicero, and then to use them\\nin writing or speech, exactly as if they were his own\\nproductions, so adroitly smuggling them in that the\\nreaders or hearers might not suspect from whence they\\nwere taken. Says Sturm: When the teacher gives\\nout themes for composition, he should draw attention\\nto those points where imitation is desirable, and show\\nhow similarity may be concealed by a superadded\\nvariation. Again: We must, in the first place, take\\ncare that the similarity shall not be manifest. Its\\nconcealment may be accomplished in three ways by\\nadding, by taking away, and by alteration.\\nIn this mad race for Latin eloquence, the sixteenth-\\ncentury humanists became more and more circum-\\nscribed in the choice of authors. Sturm, for example,\\nplaced Cicero at the head of the list, because of the\\nfaultless models of his eloquence. The Jesuits like-\\nwise held Cicero in high esteem. Said one of their\\nwriters, Style should be drawn almost exclusively\\nfrom Cicero, although the most approved of the histo-\\nrians need not on that account be overlooked. Again\\nThe pattern we should follow in style is compre-\\nhended in the words of the rule, imitate Cicero. As\\nin the study of theology we follow the divine Thomas\\nAquinas, and in philosophy Aristotle, so in the\\nhumanities Cicero must be regarded as our peculiar\\nand preeminent leader. For he has been crowned by\\nthe palm of superior praise by the common consent of\\nthe world. But some, misguided by a wilful and\\nself-formed taste, have gone astray, preferring a style\\ntotally different from that of Cicero; such an erratic\\ncourse is quite at variance with the genius of our", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "8 COMENIUS\\ninstitutions and hostile to the spirit of prompt obedi-\\nence.\\nThis servile devotion to Cicero, it should be recalled,\\nwas a marked departure from the more varied and\\nricher curricula of the fifteenth -century humanists, 1\\nwhen men of the stamp of Vittorino da Feltre, Leo-\\nnardo Bruni, Vergarius, Sylvius, and Guarino were\\nthe standard-bearers of humanism. Many causes had\\nconspired to bring about this decadence; and perhaps\\nthe most fundamental cause was the senseless worship\\nof forms of expression. The later humanists wor-\\nshipped the forms of thought. Beauty of expression,\\nsays Professor Laurie, 2 was regarded as inseparable\\nfrom truth and elevation of thought. The movement\\nsoon shared the fate of all enthusiasms. The new\\nform was worshipped, and to it the spirit and sub-\\nstance were subordinated. Style became the supreme\\nobject of the educated classes, and successful imita-\\ntion, and thereafter laborious criticism, became marks\\nof the highest culture.\\nThis use of the classics as instruments in grammati-\\ncal drill and vehicles of communication had become\\nwell-nigh universal by the middle of the sixteenth\\ncentury. Erasmus, himself one of the most ardent\\nadvocates of classical learning, perceived apparently\\nthe narrowing tendencies of humanistic training, and\\nurged that students be taught to know many things\\nbesides Latin and Greek in order that they might the\\n1 See the admirable sketch of the earlier humanists Vittorino da\\nFeltre and other humanists. By William H. Woodward. Cam-\\nbridge: University Press, 1897. pp.256.\\n2 John Amos Comenius his life and educational work. By\\nS.S.Laurie. Boston: Willard Small, 1885. pp.229.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN 16th CENTURY 9\\nbetter comprehend the classics. He recommended the\\naddition of geography, arithmetic, and natural science\\nto the school course.\\nAnd Melanchthon, with all his enthusiasm for clas-\\nsical learning, thought the humanities insufficient to\\nsatisfy all the needs of culture. He advised the\\nincorporation of physics, mathematics, and astronomy\\ninto the curriculum. Although the nature of things\\ncannot be absolutely known, nor the marvellous works\\nof God traced to their original, until, in the future\\nlife, we shall listen to the eternal counsel of the\\nFather, he writes, nevertheless, even amid this our\\npresent darkness, every gleam and every hint of har-\\nmony of this fair creation forms a step toward the\\nknowledge of God and toward virtue, whereby we our-\\nselves shall also learn to love and maintain order and\\nmoderation in all our acts. Since it is evident that\\nmen are endowed by their Creator with faculties fitted\\nfor the contemplation of nature, they must, of neces-\\nsity, take delight in investigating the elements, the\\nlaws, the qualities, and the forces of the various bodies\\nby which they are surrounded.\\nAs has already been shown, however, the humanists\\ntook little interest in the study of subjects not discussed\\nby classical authors. Absorbed in a world of books,\\nas Mr. Quick 1 suggests, they overlooked the world of\\nnature. Galileo had in vain tried to persuade them\\nto look through his telescope, but they held that truth\\ncould not be discovered by any such contrivances\\nthat it could be arrived at only by the comparison of\\nmanuscripts. No wonder, remarks Mr. Quick,\\n1 Essays on educational reformers. By Robert Hebert Quick.\\nNew York: D. Appleton Co., 1893. pp. 560.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "10 COMENIUS\\nthat they had so little sympathy with children, and\\ndid not know how to teach them.\\nFortunately for the history of education, there were\\ncritics in the sixteenth century who did not conform\\nto the dogma of linguistic discipline, and who called\\nattention to the need of educational reform. What-\\never the merits of the classical languages, protested\\nthese critics, they must derive their value ultimately\\nfrom the rank they take as literature. The protest of\\nEabelais early in the century was not only one of the\\nfirst but one of the most effective charges against con-\\ntemporary practices. In his famous satire he intrusted\\nthe young giant Gargantua to the care and training of\\nthe humanist educator Tubal Holofernes, who spent\\nfive years and a quarter in teaching him to say his\\nA B C s backward; thirteen years on Donatus Latin\\ngrammar and the composition of Latin verses and sen-\\ntences thirty-four years more in the study of Latin\\neloquence, after which the schoolmaster dies, when, as\\nEabelais concluded, Gargantua had grown more igno-\\nrant, heavy, and loutish. In this confused and\\nribald allegory/ 7 says Mr. James P. Munroe, 1 Rabe-\\nlais led the way out of ancient superstition into mod-\\nern science. More than this, he taught in it that the\\nstudy of Nature, observation of her laws, imitation of\\nher methods, must be at the root of every true system\\nof education. He showed that the Nature spirit is the\\ntrue spirit of good teaching. Ever since his day civil-\\nized mankind has been trying to learn this lesson of\\nhis and to apply it in the schools. For three centuries\\n1 The educational ideal an outline of its growth in modern\\ntimes. By James Phinny Munroe. Boston: D. C. Heath Co,,\\n1895. pp. 262.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN 16th CENTURY 11\\nthe leaders in education, under his direct inspiration,\\nhave been slowly and painfully transforming the false\\npedagogy of the cloister into the true pedagogy of\\nout-of-doors. Writers and teachers, schools and uni-\\nversities, have been engaged in a halting and irregular\\nstruggle to transfer education from a metaphysical to\\na physical basis, to lead it away from the habit of\\ndeductive speculation into one of inductive research.\\nThis transfer Eabelais made boldly and at once. He\\ndid not, of course, elaborate the educational ideal of\\nto-day, but he plainly marked out the lines upon which\\nthat ideal is framed. He taught truth and simplicity,\\nhe ridiculed hypocrisy and formalism, he denounced\\nthe worship of words, he demanded the study of things,\\nhe showed the beauty of intellectual health, of moral\\ndiscipline, of real piety. Best of all, he enunciated\\nthe supreme principle of Nature, which is ordered\\nfreedom.\\nMontaigne, 1 also, in France, was equally severe in\\nhis criticisms on the humanists. He denounced in no\\nuncertain terms the methods of introducing Latin to\\nbeginners and the harsh and severe discipline so com-\\nmon in the schools of Europe during the sixteenth\\ncentury. Education ought to be carried on with a\\nsevere sweetness, he wrote, quite contrary to the\\npractice of our pedants, who, instead of tempting and\\nalluring children to a study of language by apt and\\ngentle ways, do, in truth, present nothing before them\\nbut rods and ferules, horror and cruelty. Away with\\nthis violence Away with this compulsion! There is\\nnothing which more completely dulls and degenerates\\n1 Montaigne s Education of children. Translated by L. E. Rec-\\ntor. New York D. Appleton Co., 1899. pp. xriii -f 191.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "12 COMENIUS\\nthe nature of a bright child. Again: Our schools\\nare houses of correction for imprisoned youths; and\\nchildren are made incorrigible by punishment. Visit\\nthem when the children are getting their lessons, and\\nyou will hear nothing but the outcries of boys under\\nexecution and the thundering noises of their teachers,\\ndrunk with fury. It is a pernicious way to tempt\\nyoung and timorous souls to love their books while\\nwearing a ferocious countenance and with a rod in\\nhand.\\nMontaigne was equally convinced of the pedagogic\\nerror of the humanists in regarding classical knowledge\\nas synonymous with wisdom. We may become\\nlearned from the learning of others, he said, but we\\nnever become wise except by our own wisdom.\\nWe are truly learned from knowing the present, not\\nfrom knowing the past any more than the future.\\nYet we toil only to stuff the memory and leave the\\nconscience and understanding void. And like birds\\nabroad to forage for grain, bring it home in their beak,\\nwithout tasting it themselves, to feed their young, so\\nour pedants go picking knowledge here and there out\\nof several authors, and hold it at their tongue s end,\\nonly to spit it out and distribute it among their pupils.\\nRoger Ascham, 1 in the quaint preface of his Schole-\\nmaster, also bears testimony against the harsh disci-\\npline of the sixteenth century. During the great\\nplague in London, in 1563, Ascham and some friends\\nwere dining at Windsor with Sir William Cecil.\\nWhile there he learned that many of the students at\\nEton had run away because of the severe punishments\\n1 The scholemaster. By Roger Ascham. Edited by Edward\\nArber. Boston Willard Small, 1888. pp. 317.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "EUROPEAN EDUCATION IN 16th CENTURY 13\\nadministered at this famous public school. Where-\\nupon, says Ascham, Sir William took occasion to\\nwish that some discretion were in many schoolmasters\\nin using correction than commonly there is, who\\nmany times punish rather the weakness of nature than\\nthe fault of the scholar, whereby many scholars that\\nmight else prove well, be driven to hate learning\\nbefore they know what learning meaneth; and so are\\nmade willing to forsake their book, and to be willing\\nto put to any other kind of living. This incident led\\nto the composition of the Scholemaster, which was a\\nguide for the bringing up of youth, in which gentle-\\nness rather than severity is recommended, and a\\nready way to the Latin tongue, in which an honest\\neffort is made to simplify language teaching and adapt\\nit to the tastes and interests of young learners.\\nEichard Mulcaster, 1 another Englishman and human-\\nist of the sixteenth century, questioned seriously the\\nwisdom of his associates and contemporaries in\\ntheir exclusion of the mother-tongue from the course\\nof study. In his Elementarie he asked: Is it not\\na marvellous bondage to become servants to one\\ntongue, for learning s sake, the most part of our time,\\nwith loss of most time, whereas we may have the very\\nsame treasure in our own tongue with the gain of most\\ntime? our own bearing the joyful title of our liberty\\nand freedom, the Latin tongue remembering us of our\\nthraldom and bondage. I love Borne, but London\\nbetter I favor Italy, but England more I honor the\\nLatin, but I worship the English. Mr. Quick is\\nright in maintaining that it would have been a vast\\n1 Positions. By Richard Mulcaster. Edited by Robert Hebert\\nQuick. London: Longmans, Green Co., 1888. pp. 309.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "14 COMENIUS\\ngain to all Europe if Mulcaster had been followed\\ninstead of Sturm. He was one of the earliest advo-\\ncates of the use of English instead of Latin, and good\\nreading and writing in English were to be secured\\nbefore Latin was begun.\\nThese were some of the voices raised against the\\nbookish classical learning of the sixteenth century;\\nbut it remained for Vives, Bacon, and Eatke to con-\\nvince Europe of the insufficiency of the humanistic\\nideal, and for Comenius, the evangelist of modern\\npedagogy, to bring about the necessary reforms. The\\npart played by each in the transition from humanism\\nto realism, from classical learning and philology to\\nmodern thought and the natural sciences, will be briefly\\ntraced in the succeeding chapters of this work.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "CHAPTEE II\\nFORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS\\nTraces of the intellectual development of Comenius. Vives a real-\\nist His early training in Spain and France Educational activ-\\nity in Belgium and England Views on the education of women\\nTheory of education Comparison of Vives and Comenius.\\nBacon the founder of modern realism Views on the education\\nof his day Attacks medievalism Study of nature and the\\ninductive method Individual differences among children.\\nRatke Studies at Hamburg and Rostock Visits England and\\nbecomes acquainted with the philosophy of Bacon His plan of\\neducation Its reception by the universities at Jena and Giessen\\nOrganization of the schools at Gotha Call to Sweden Sum-\\nmary of Ratke s views Harmony of his teachings with those\\nof Comenius. Campanella, Andrese, and Bateus Their influ-\\nence on the life and teachings of Comenius.\\nEvert educational reformer owes much, in the way\\nof inspiration and suggestion, to his predecessors, and\\nof none is this more true than of John Amos Comenius.\\nEverywhere in his writings are to be found traces of\\nthe movement he championed, in the writings of\\nVives, Bacon, Eatke, Bateus, Campanella, and others.\\nAs Professor Nicholas Murray Butler remarks From\\nEatke he learned something of the way in which\\nlanguage teaching, the whole curriculum of the time,\\nmight be reformed and from Bateus he derived both\\nthe title and the plan of his Janua. Campanella sug-\\ngested to him the necessity of the direct interrogation\\nof nature if knowledge was to progress, and Vives\\nemphasized for him from the same point of view the\\n15", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "16 COMENIUS\\ndefects of contemporary school practice. But it was\\nBacon s Instauratio Magna that opened his eyes to the\\npossibilities of our knowledge of nature and its place\\nin the educational scheme. 1 This obligation to his\\npredecessors Comenius was the first to recognize.\\nAnd he recognized it often and specifically by his will-\\ning tributes to the help received by him from Vives,\\nBacon, Batke, and others.\\nVives\\nComenius received his first impulse as a sense-\\nrealist, says Baumer, from the well-known Spanish\\npedagogue John Lewis Vives, who had come out against\\nAristotle and disputation in favor of a Christian mode\\nof philosophizing and the silent contemplation of\\nnature. It is better for the pupils to ask, to inves-\\ntigate, than to be forever disputing with one another,\\nsaid Vives. Yet, adds Comenius, Vives under-\\nstood better where the fault was than what was the\\nremedy. In the preface to the Janua, Comenius\\nquotes Vives among others as opposed to the current\\nmethods of language teaching.\\nThe Spanish educator was born a hundred years\\nbefore Comenius, of poor, but noble parentage, When\\nfifteen years old he was considered the most brilliant\\npupil in the academy at Valencia. Two years later he\\nwas matriculated in the University of Paris, where,\\nas his biographers tell us, he was surrounded by the\\nDialecticians, whose theology was the most abstruse\\nand whose Latin was the most barbarous. This con-\\n1 The place of Comenius in the history of education. By Nich-\\nolas Murray Butler. Proceedings of the National Educational\\nAssociation for 1892.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS 17\\ndition of affairs turned the young Spaniard s thoughts\\ntoward educational reform. He realized in Paris, as\\nhe had not before, the uselessness of the empty dis-\\nputations which occupied so much time in the schools.\\nThree years were spent in study at Paris, after\\nwhich Vives travelled through portions of Spain and\\nFrance, and, in 1517, he settled with the Valdura\\nfamily in Bruges and married the daughter of his\\nhost. Here he wrote his allegory Christi triumphus,\\nin which he holds up to ridicule the methods of teach-\\ning in the University of Paris. A year later he was\\ninstalled in the University of Louvain as the instructor\\nof the young Cardinal de Croy. While here he wrote\\na history of philosophy; made the acquaintance of\\nErasmus; and opened correspondence with Thomas\\nMore and other reformers.\\nIn 1519 he visited Paris with Cardinal de Croy;\\nand, in spite of his late criticisms, he was cordially\\nreceived by the university, his scholarship and ability\\nnow being recorded facts. Two years later De Croy\\ndied without having made any provision for the sup-\\nport of his tutor. Vives began at once a commentary\\non St. Augustine; but his health giving way, he\\nreturned to Bruges, where, in July, he had a personal\\ninterview with Thomas More, Wolsey, and others, who\\nwere in favor with Henry VIII of England. He\\ntaught at Louvain during the winter semester of\\n1522-1523, after which, through the influence of the\\nEnglish dignitaries already mentioned, he was called\\nto England.\\nIn what capacity he went to England is hardly\\nknown. Some say as the tutor of King Henry s\\ndaughter Mary others as a lecturer in the University", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "18 COMENIUS\\nof Oxford. Certain it is that he gave two lectures at\\nOxford, which were attended by the king and queen,\\nand that he received the honorary degree of D.C.L.,\\nin 1523. In 1526 appeared his treatise on the care of\\nthe poor, which he dedicated to the municipal council\\nof Bruges. It was one of the first scientific treatments\\nof pauperism. He maintained that it was incumbent\\nupon State, and not upon the Church to care for the\\npoor. Buisson says of it, Its suggestions are as\\nattractive as they are wise; and even to-day they\\ncontinue in full force.\\nIn 1528 he published his pedagogic classic on the\\nChristian education of women. The mother, says\\nVives, like Cornelia, should regard her children as\\nher most precious jewels. She should nurse her own\\nchildren because of possible physical influences on the\\nchild. The mother should instruct her girl in all that\\npertains to the household; and early teach her to read.\\nShe should relate to her stories, not empty fables, but\\nsuch as will instruct and edify her and teach her to\\nlove virtue and hate vice. The mother should teach\\nher daughter that riches, power, praise, titles, and\\nbeauty are vain and empty things; and that piety,\\nvirtue, bravery, meekness, and culture are imperish-\\nable virtues. Strong discipline in the home is urged.\\nLax discipline, says Vives, makes a man bad, but it\\nmakes a woman a criminal. Dolls should be banished\\nfrom the nursery because they encourage vanity and\\nlove of dress. Boys and girls should not be instructed\\ntogether, not even during the earliest years of child-\\nhood. But women require to be educated as well as\\nmen. This work, which presented in stronger terms\\nthan hitherto the claims of the education of women,", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS 19\\nwas dedicated to Catherine of Aragon. It was widely\\nrepublished and had large influence.\\nFor five years Yives had beeu a distinguished figure\\nat the court of Henry VIII, but with the king s appli-\\ncation for divorce, in 1528, came a rupture of these\\npleasant relations. In a letter to a friend he says\\nYou must have heard of the troubles between the\\nking and the queen, as it is now talked of everywhere.\\nI have taken the side of the queen, whose cause has\\nseemed to me just, and have defended her by word and\\npen. This offended his Majesty to such degree that I\\nwas imprisoned for six weeks, and only released upon\\ncondition that I would never appear in the palace\\nagain. I then concluded it safest to return home [to\\nBruges]; and, indeed, the queen advised me to in a\\nsecret letter. Shortly after Cardinal Campeggio was\\nsent to Britain to judge the cause. The king was very\\nsolicitous that the queen appoint counsel to defend\\nher side before Campeggio and Wolsey. She, there-\\nfore, called me to her aid; but I told her plainly that\\nany defence before such a court was useless, and that\\nit would be much better to be condemned unheard,\\nthan with the appearance of defence. The king sought\\nonly to save appearances with his people, that the\\nqueen might not appear to have been unjustly treated\\nbut he had little regard for the rest. At this the\\nqueen was incensed that I did not obey her call instead\\nof following my own good judgment, which is worth\\nmore to me than all the princes of the world together.\\nSo it has come about that the king regards me as his\\nadversary, and the queen regards me as disobedient\\nand opinionated; and both of them have withdrawn\\nmy pension.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "20 COMENIUS\\nHis closing years were passed at Bruges with his\\nwife s family; at Breda with the Duchess of Nassau,\\na Spanish lady who had formerly been his pupil; and\\nat Paris, where he gave some courses of lectures. He\\nhad struggled against a weak constitution all his life,\\nand after his return from England other diseases\\ndeveloped. He died on May 6, 1540, in his forty-\\neighth year, and was buried in the Church of St.\\nDonat at Bruges.\\nHis most considerable contribution to the philoso-\\nphy of education appeared after his return from Eng-\\nland. It was entitled De disciplinis; was published in\\nthree parts, in 1531 and was dedicated to the King of\\nPortugal. As Dr. Lange remarks, this work -alone\\nentitles Vives to large consideration as an educational\\nreformer.\\nVives justifies, in the introduction, the position he\\nassumes in regard to Aristotle; while he regards the\\nGreek as a great philosopher, he declares that the\\nworld has gained in experience since Aristotle wrote,\\nand he sees no reason why his teachings should not be\\nset aside if found to be incorrect. He has no doubt\\nbut that later generations will find theories better\\nadapted to their ends than those he himself advocates,\\nbut he greets as a friend the one who shall point out\\nhis errors.\\nIn the first part he treats of the decline of the\\nsciences. The causes of this decline he considers two-\\nfold: (1) Moral; and here he notes an unwillingness\\nto search for truth for truth s sake. Pride is the root\\nof this evil. A student in the University of Paris had\\nremarked to him, Sooner than not distinguish myself\\nby founding some new doctrine, I would defend one of", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OE COMENIUS 21\\nwhose falsity I was convinced. This moral weakness\\nhe thought altogether inconsistent with the advance-\\nment of the sciences. (2) Historical and material,\\nincluding as causes the migration of nations by which\\nexisting orders of civilization have been annihilated;\\nthe obscurity of ancient manuscripts, requiring more\\ntime to decipher their meaning than it would take to\\ndiscover from nature their meaning; the ever increas-\\ning use of commentaries in the study of originals, in\\nwhich the diverse opinions of the commentators lead\\nfarther from the original sense the practice of scho-\\nlastic disputation which is taught the pupils before\\nthey know what they are disputing about; and the\\npractice of regarding teaching as a trade rather than\\na profession, thus causing many bright minds to select\\nother vocations, and to bring to the work incompetent\\nand coarse minds.\\nThe second part treats of the decline of grammar,\\nand the third part of the art of teaching, in which he\\ngives some most sane directions. Schools should be\\nlocated in the most healthy part of the community.\\nThey should not be too near commercial centres at\\nthe same time, they should not be too distant from the\\ncentre of population. As to teachers, they should\\nhave good academic training; they should be skilled\\nin the art of imparting knowledge and their morals\\nshould be such as would furnish examples to their\\npupils. Covetousness and ambition, above all things,\\nshould be unknown to them. Teachers who have\\nambition and reputation in their minds are thereby\\nunfitted for the work of teaching. On this account,\\nthe state should fix the salaries, and the compensation\\nshould be the wage of honest men. There should be", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "22 COMENIUS\\na school in every community. Before pupils should\\nbe assigned tasks, teachers should ascertain their\\nmental capacities and characteristics. They should\\nalso be privately tested four times a year; and when\\nchildren are found who possess no taste for study they\\nshould be dismissed from the school. Corporal pun-\\nishment should seldom be applied, and never to such\\na degree as to humiliate the pupils. Children should\\nbe given plenty of play time; and hearty, romping\\ngames are especially recommended. In the matter of\\nmethod, Vives heartily commends the inductive,\\nfrom particulars to generals, and he urges such a\\ngrouping of studies that each new subject studied may\\nnaturally grow out of the preceding lesson. While he\\nstrongly advises the study of the natural sciences, he\\nis less enthusiastic here than Bacon, fearing, as\\nhe admits, that a contemplation of nature may prove\\ndangerous to those not deeply grounded in faith.\\nBut Vives was essentially a realist in his doctrines\\nof education; and when his views are compared with\\nthose of Comenius, community of ideas is at once\\napparent. Both would begin education in the home\\nand make the mother the first teacher. Both realized\\nthe need of better organization and classification of\\nthe schools. Both urged reforms in the matter of\\nlanguage teaching. Both considered education a mat-\\nter of state concern, and urged pedagogical training\\nfor teachers. Both presented the claims of science\\nand urged the coordination and correlation of the\\ndifferent subjects of study. Both emphasized the value\\nof play and the need of physical training. Both advo-\\ncated education for all classes of both sexes, and both\\nexaggerated the need and importance of the religious\\ntraining of the child.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS 23\\nBacon\\nThough there were many before Bacon, and espe-\\ncially artists and craftsmen, says Raurner, who lived\\nin communion with nature, and who, in manifold ways,\\ntransfigured and idealized her, and unveiled her glory\\nand, though their sense for nature was so highly culti-\\nvated that they attained to a practical understanding of\\nher ways, yet this understanding was at best merely\\ninstinctive for it led them to no scientific deductions\\nand yielded them no thoughtful and legitimate domin-\\nion over her.\\nThe founder of modern realism was born in London\\non the 22d of January in the year 1561. When six-\\nteen years of age he entered Trinity College, Cam-\\nbridge, where he studied under Dr. John Whitgift, a\\nnoted professor of theology, and afterward archbishop\\nof Canterbury. He studied diligently the writings of\\nAristotle, but was convinced of their inadequacy.\\nWriting of this period he says Amid men of sharp\\nand strong wits, and abundance of leisure, and small\\nvariety of reading, their wits being shut up in the\\ncells of a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their dictator,\\nas their persons are shut up in the cells of monasteries\\nand colleges; and who knowing little history, either\\nof nature or time, did out of no great quantity of\\nmatter, and infinite agitation of wit, spin cobwebs of\\nlearning, admirable for the fineness of the thread and\\nwork, but of no substance or profit.\\nThe checkered career of Bacon is extraneous to his\\nwritings and may be passed over in silence. As noted\\nin the first chapter, the educational institutions of the\\nsixteenth century concerned themselves wholly with", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "24 COMENIUS\\nthe acquisition and display of Latin eloquence.\\nGrammar was studied with infinite labor and sorrow\\nfor years that students might acquire correct forms of\\nspeech; logic that they might express themselves with\\nprecision; and a minimum of history was taught that\\nancient records might furnish ornate illustrations in\\nspeaking and writing.\\nErasmus and Melanchthon had disputed this ideal\\nof culture, but it remained for Bacon to demolish this\\nidol of medievalism. Forsooth, he says, we suffer\\nthe penalty of our first parents sin, and yet follow in\\ntheir footsteps. They desired to be like God, and we,\\ntheir posterity, would be so in a higher degree. For\\nwe create worlds, direct and control nature, and, in\\nshort, square all things by the measure of our own\\nfolly, not by the plummet of divine wisdom, nor as we\\nfind them in reality. I know not whether, for this\\nresult we are forced to do violence to nature or to our\\nown intelligence the most; but it nevertheless remains\\ntrue, that we stamp the seal of our own image upon\\nthe creatures and works of God, instead of carefully\\nsearching for, and acknowledging, the seal of the\\nCreator manifest in them. Therefore have we lost,\\nthe second time, and that deservedly, our empire over\\nthe creatures, yea, when after and notwithstanding\\nthe fall, there was left to us some title to dominion\\nover the unwilling creatures, so that they could be\\nsubjected and controlled, even this we have lost, in\\ngreat part through our pride, in that we have desired\\nto be like God, and to follow the dictates of our own\\nreason alone. Now then, if there be any humility in\\nthe presence of the Creator, if there be any reverence\\nfor and exaltation of his handiwork, if there be any", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OE COMENIUS 25\\ncharity toward men, any desires to relieve the woes\\nand sufferings of humanity, any love for the light of\\ntruth, and hatred toward the darkness of error, I\\nwould beseech men again and again, to dismiss alto-\\ngether, or at least for a moment to put away their\\nabsurd and intractable theories, which give to assump-\\ntions the dignity of hypotheses, dispense with experi-\\nment, and turn them away from the works of God.\\nLet them with a teachable spirit approach the great\\nvolume of creation, patiently decipher its secret char-\\nacters, and converse with its lofty truths; so shall\\nthey leave behind the delusive echoes of prejudice, and\\ndwell within the perpetual outgoings of divine wis-\\ndom. This is that speech and language whose lines\\nhave gone out into all the earth, and no confusion of\\ntongues has ever befallen it. This language we should\\nall strive to understand, first condescending, like little\\nchildren, to master its alphabet.\\nInstead of training children to interrogate nature\\nfor themselves, and to interpret the answers to these\\ninterrogations, instead of going straight to nature her-\\nself, the schools are forever teaching what others\\nhave thought and written on the subject. This pro-\\ncedure, according to Bacon, not only displays lack of\\npedagogic sense, but gives evidence of ignorance and\\nself-conceit, and inflicts the greatest injury on philoso-\\nphy and learning. Such methods of instruction, more-\\nover, tend to stifle and interrupt all inquiry. We must,\\nsays Bacon, come as new-born children, with open\\nand fresh minds, to the observation of nature. For\\nit is no less true in this human kingdom of knowledge\\nthan in God s kingdom of heaven, that no man shall\\nenter into it except as he becomes first as a little child.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "26 COMENIUS\\nBacon s notion, as summarized by Kaumer, was that\\nman must put himself again in direct, close, and\\npersonal contact with nature, and no longer trust to\\nthe confused, uncertain, and arbitrary accounts and\\ndescriptions of her historians and would-be inter-\\npreters. From a clear and correct observation and\\nperception of objects, their qualities, powers, etc.,\\nthe investigator must proceed, step by step, till he\\narrives at laws, and to that degree of insight that will\\nenable him to interpret the laws and to analyze the\\nprocesses of nature. To this end Bacon proffers to us\\nhis new method the method of induction. With\\nthe aid of this method we attain to an insight into\\nthe connection and natural relation of the laws of\\nmatter, and thus, according to him, we are enabled\\nthrough this knowledge to make nature subservient to\\nour will.\\nThis was, according to Comenius, the true key to the\\nhuman intellect. But he laments that Bacon should\\nhave given us the key and failed to unlock the door to\\nthe treasure-house. But Bacon did more than formu-\\nlate the laws of scientific induction for pedagogic pur-\\nposes he made possible the enrichment of the courses\\nof study by the addition of a wide range of school\\nstudies. His thrusts at the Latin and Greek, as the\\nsole exponents of culture, were telling in their effect\\nand made possible the recognition of the vernacular\\nthemes in Comenius day. The wisdom of the\\nGreeks, he says, was rhetorical; it expended itself\\nupon words, and it had little to do with the search\\nafter truth. Speaking again of classical culture, he\\nsays These older generations fell short of many of\\nour present knowledges; they know but a small part", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OE COMENIUS 27\\nof the world, and but a brief period of history. We,\\non the contrary, are acquainted with a far greater\\nextent of the world, besides having discovered a new\\nhemisphere, and we look back and survey long periods\\nof history.\\nBacon recognized great individual differences in the\\nmental capacities of children, and he urged that these\\ndifferences and special tastes be taken into account by\\nthe teachers. He says: The natural bent of the\\nindividual minds should be so far encouraged that a\\nstudent who shall learn all that is required of him\\nmay be allowed time in which to pursue a favorite\\nstudy. And, furthermore, it is worth while to con-\\nsider, and I think this point has not hitherto received\\nthe attention which its importance demands, that there\\nare two distinct modes of training the mind to a free\\nand appropriate use of its faculties. The one begins\\nwith the easiest, and so proceeds to the more difficult;\\nthe other, at the outset, presses the pupil with the\\nmore difficult tasks, and, after he has mastered these,\\nturns him to pleasanter and easier ones for it is one\\nmethod to practise swimming with bladders, and\\nanother to practise dancing with heavy shoes. It is\\nbeyond all estimate how a judicious blending of these\\ntwo methods will profit both the mental and the bodily\\npowers. And so to select and assign topics of instruc-\\ntion as to adapt them to the individual capabilities\\nof the pupils, this, too, requires a special experi-\\nence and judgment. A close observation and an accu-\\nrate knowledge of the different natures of the pupils\\nare due from teachers to the parents of these pupils,\\nthat they may choose an occupation in life for their\\nsons accordingly. And note further, that not only", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "28 COMENIUS\\ndoes every one make more rapid progress in those\\nstudies to which his nature inclines him, but, again,\\nthat a natural disinclination, in whatever direction,\\nmay be overcome by the help of special studies. For\\ninstance, if a boy has a light, inattentive, inconstant\\nspirit, so that he is easily diverted, and his attention\\ncannot be readily fixed, he will find advantage in the\\nmathematics, in which a demonstration must be com-\\nmenced anew whenever the thought wanders even for\\na moment.\\nThese citations will suggest parallels in the aims of\\nthe two great reformers. Both sought to introduce\\nthe student to nature at first hand. Both aimed to\\nreorganize the sciences into one great body of coordi-\\nnated knowledge. Both emphasized the value of the\\ninductive method in the development of subjects of\\nstudy. Bacon said A good method will solve all\\nproblems. A cripple on the right path will beat a\\nracer on the wrong path. Said Comenius: The\\nsecret of education lies in method. Again: There\\nis no difficulty in learning Latin what we want is a\\ngood method.\\nRathe\\nAlthough but little more than twenty years the senior\\nof Comenius, Ratke s mental development was less\\ntardy, so that when the Moravian was a young col-\\nlegian at Her born, Ratke was enjoying the full flush\\nof popularity as an educational reformer. Born at\\nWilster in Holstein (Germany), in 1571, he trained in\\nthe gymnasium at Hamburg, and later studied philoso-\\nphy at Eostock. Later he travelled in England and\\nHolland studied Hebrew and Arabic, and formulated", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OE COMENIUS 29\\nthe plan of education which made him famous as a\\nreformer. He attached great value to his plan and\\nexpressed great unwillingness to divulge it without\\nadequate remuneration. He made known his contem-\\nplated reforms at a diet of the German Empire, held\\nat Frankfort on the 12th of May, 1612. They were\\nthreefold: (1) To teach Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, or\\nany other language, to young or old in a very short\\ntime (2) to establish schools in which the arts and\\nsciences should be taught and extended (3) to intro-\\nduce a uniform speech throughout the empire, and, at\\nthe same time, uniform government and religion. He\\nproposed to follow the order and course of nature, and\\nteach first the mother-tongue, after this Hebrew and\\nGreek, as being the tongues of the original text of the\\nBible, and, lastly, Latin.\\nThrough the influence of the princes (and more espe-\\ncially by the encouragement of the Duchess Dorothea\\nof Weimar), the plans of Eatke were submitted to a\\ncommission selected from the faculties of the univer-\\nsities at Jena and Giessen, Professors Grawer,\\nBrendel, Walther, and Wolf representing Jena and\\nProfessors Helwig and Jung, Giessen. The report\\nwas favorable to Eatke. Professor Helwig, who was\\none of the best linguists of his day, was the spokes-\\nman for Giessen, and he accepted Eatke s views with\\ngreat enthusiasm. By diligent reflection and long\\npractice, he says, Eatke has discovered a valuable\\nmethod by which good arts and languages can be\\ntaught and studied more easily, quickly, and correctly\\nthan has been usual in the schools. Eatke s method\\nis more practicable in the arts than in the sciences,\\nsince arts and sciences are by their nature consistent", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "30 COMENIUS\\nwith themselves, while the languages, on the contrary,\\nby long use have acquired many inaccuracies.\\nProfessor Helwig commends especially the method-\\nology in Ratke s plan, and urges that we must con-\\nsider not only the knowledge to be imparted, but as\\nwell the method of imparting knowledge. He says\\nNature does much, it is true, but when art assists\\nher, her work is much more certain and complete.\\nTherefore it is necessary that there should be an espe-\\ncial art to which any one who desires to teach can\\nadhere, so that he shall not teach by mere opinion and\\nguess, nor by native instinct alone, but by the rules of\\nhis art just as he who would speak correctly by the\\nrules of grammar, and he who would sing correctly by\\nthe rules of music. This art of teaching, like the art\\nof logic, applies to all languages, arts, and sciences.\\nIt discusses among other things how to distinguish\\namong minds and gifts, so that the quicker may not\\nbe delayed, and that, on the contrary, those who are\\nby nature not so quick may not remain behind; how\\nand in what order to arrange the exercises; how to\\nassist the understanding; how to strengthen the\\nmemory; how to sharpen the intellect without vio-\\nlence and after the true course of nature. This art of\\nteaching, no less than other arts, has its fixed laws\\nand rules, founded not only upon the nature and\\nunderstanding of man, but upon the peculiarities of\\nlanguages, arts, and sciences and it admits of no ways\\nof teaching which are not deduced from sure grounds\\nand founded upon proof. The Jena professors were\\nno less favorable with regard to this new art of\\nteaching.\\nThe influence of this report on the fame of Eatke", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS 31\\nwas far-reaching. The following year (1614) he was\\ninvited to Angsburg to reform the schools of that city.\\nThis invitation was the outgrowth of a study of his\\nplan by David Hoschel, the principal of St. Anne s\\nSchool, and two other teachers appointed by the city\\nto accompany him to Frankfort and aid him in the\\ninvestigation. They reported that Eatke had so far\\nexplained his method to them that they were satisfied\\nand pleased with it; and the invitation to Eatke\\npromptly followed. Beyond a few monographs by the\\nAugsburg disciples, based on his method, and inspired\\ndoubtless by his sojourn there, we are altogether with-\\nout evidence of the success or failure of the reforms\\nat Augsburg.\\nEarly in 1616, Prince Ludwig of Anhalt-Gotha\\nyielded to the persuasions of his sister, the Duchess\\nDorothea of Weimar, and invited Eatke to Gotha to\\norganize the schools there in accordance with his\\nviews. He engaged to organize and supervise the\\nschools and to instruct and train the teachers, but he\\nbound the prince to exact from each teacher a promise\\nnot to divulge his method to any one.\\nA printing-office was established at Gotha to supply\\nthe books required by the new order. Fonts of type\\nin six languages were imported from Holland, and\\nfour compositors and two pressmen were brought from\\nEostock and Jena. The people of Gotha were required\\nby the prince to send their children to the schools\\norganized by Eatke. Two hundred and thirty-one\\nboys and two hundred and two girls were enrolled.\\nThe school was graded into six classes. The mother-\\ntongue was taught in the lowest classes; Latin was\\nbegun in the fourth, and Greek in the sixth. He", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "32 COMENIUS\\nrequired that the teacher in the lowest class should be\\na man of kind manners, and that he need know no\\nlanguage but the German. This scandalized the whole\\nGerman nation. A schoolmaster ignorant of Latin!\\nCritics appeared from the first with the most cogent\\nreasons for distrusting the new methods. But\\nEatke had the confidence of the prince, and all went\\nmerrily for a time. The instruction was simplified;\\nand, besides the mother-tongue, arithmetic, singing,\\nand religion were taught.\\nBut he encountered numerous obstacles at Gotha:\\nthe teachers of the town, it would appear, did not\\nfully share his views; the town adhered to the\\nBefornied Church and Eatke was a Lutheran, a fact\\nwhich caused no end of trouble and the prince was\\nnot altogether satisfied with the fulfilment of Batke s\\npromises of reform. The pastor of the Beformed\\nChurch of Gotha preferred formal charges of hetero-\\ndoxy against him, and maintained, besides, that Eatke\\nmade too little provision for the study of music and\\nthe catechism; that too much time was given to\\nrecreation; that the discipline was altogether too\\nmild; and that the children were permitted to pass\\nfrom one study to another too rapidly. Singular\\ncharges, these! And the more singular when one\\nrecalls the long hours and the harsh discipline of the\\nseventeenth century.\\nThe opposition was strong, and at the end of eigh-\\nteen months the Gotha experiment was brought to an\\nabrupt close. Eatke was not only dismissed, but was\\nimprisoned on the charge that he had claimed and\\npromised more than he knew that he could bring to\\npass. After spending the best of a year in prison,", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS 33\\nhe signed a declaration in which he assented to the\\ncharges. Then the prince released him. He went to\\nMagdeburg, where he was well received by the school\\nauthorities; but the ecclesiastical dignitaries of the\\ncity were soon at war with him, and he moved on to\\nKudolstadt, where he was cordially received by the\\nPrincess Anna Sophia, wife of Prince Gunther of\\nSwarzburg-Eudolstadt.\\nSubsequently Oxenstiern, the chancellor of Sweden,\\nsought his services in the reformation of the Swedish\\nschools; but instead of the requested interview, he\\nsent the chancellor a thick quarto. I accomplished\\nthis wearisome labor, says Oxenstiern; and after I\\nhad read the whole book through, I found that he had\\nnot ill displayed the faults of the schools, but his\\nremedies did not seem to me adequate. Katke died\\nshortly afterward at the age of sixty-four years.\\nRatke s contribution to education was chiefly in the\\nmatter of methodology. His leading principles were\\n(1) In everything we should follow the order of nature.\\nThere is a certain natural sequence along which the\\nhuman intelligence moves in the acquisition of knowl-\\nedge. This sequence must be studied, and instruction\\nmust be based on a knowledge of it. (2) One thing\\nat a time. Each subject of study should be orderly\\ndeveloped and thoroughly dealt with before proceeding\\nto the next. (3) There should be frequent repetition.\\nIt is astonishing what may be accomplished by the\\nfrequent repetition of one thing. (4) Everything first\\nin the mother-tongue. The first thinking should\\nalways be in the vernacular. Whatever the vocation,\\nthe pupil should learn to express himself in the\\nmother-tongue. After the mother-tongue has been\\nD", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "34 COMENIUS\\nmastered, the other languages may be studied.\\n(5) Everything without compulsion. Children can-\\nnot be whipped into learning or wishing to learn; by\\ncompulsion and blows they are so disgusted with their\\nstudies that study becomes hateful to them. More-\\nover, it is contrary to nature to flog children for not\\nremembering what has been taught them. If they\\nhad been properly taught they would have remem-\\nbered, and blows would have been unnecessary. Chil-\\ndren should be taught to love and reverence not to\\nfear their teachers. (6) Nothing should be learned by\\nrote. Learning by heart weakens the understanding.\\nIf a subject has been well developed, and has been\\nimpressed upon the mind by frequent repetition, the\\nmemory of it will follow without any pains. Fre-\\nquent hours of recreation are advised in fact, no two\\nlessons should come immediately together. (7) A defi-\\nnite method (and a uniform method) for all studies.\\nIn the languages, arts, and sciences, there must be a\\nconformity in the methods of teaching, text-books\\nused, and precepts given. The German grammar, for\\ninstance, must agree with the Hebrew and the Greek\\nas far as the idioms of the language will permit.\\n(8) The thing itself should first be studied, and then\\nwhatever explains it. Study first the literature of a\\nlanguage and then its grammar. A basis of material\\nmust first be laid in the mind before rules can be\\napplied. He admits that many of the grammars fur-\\nnish examples with the rules; but these examples\\ncome together from all sorts of authors, like mixed\\nfodder in a manger. (9) Everything must be learned\\nby experience and examination. Nothing is to be\\ntaken on authority. It will be recalled that Ratke", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OF COMENIUS 35\\nvisited England after the completion of his studies at\\nBostock; and it is altogether likely that while there\\nhe became a convert to induction and the philosophy\\nof Bacon.\\nIn most particulars Ratke and Comenius were in\\nharmony. Both urged that the study of things should\\nprecede or be united with the study of words; that\\nknowledge should be communicated through appeals\\nto the senses; that all linguistic study should begin\\nwith the mother-tongue; that methods of teaching\\nshould be in accordance with the laws of nature and\\nthat progress in studies should be based not on\\ncompulsion, but on the interest aroused in the pupils.\\nCampanella, Andrece, and Bateus\\nComenius derived many of his philosophic concepts\\nfrom the Dominican reformer, Thomas Campanella,\\nwhose writings influenced him powerfully, at least\\nduring his student years at Herborn and Heidelberg.\\nThe writings of Campanella convinced him of the\\nunwisdom of the study of nature from the works of\\nAristotle. Books, Campanella had declared, are but\\ndead copies of life, and are full of error and decep-\\ntion. We must ourselves explore nature and write\\ndown our own thoughts, the living mirror which shows\\nthe reflection of God s countenance. These protests\\nagainst scholasticism found a responsive chord in the\\nthoughts of the young Comenius.\\nIn the preface to the Prodromus Comenius is unre-\\nserved in his expression of obligations to his prede-\\ncessors. Who, indeed, should have the first place,\\nhe says, but John Valentine Andrese, a man of nimble", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "36 COMENIUS\\nand clear brain. The conrt preacher of Stuttgart had\\nstrongly impressed Comenins by his deep love for\\nChristian ideals and his warm enthusiasm for their\\nrealization in practical life, as well as by his humor-\\nous polemics against the dead scholasticism of his day.\\nComenius incorporates in his Great didactic a brief by\\nAndrese on the use of the art of teaching, in which\\nhe maintains (1) that parents up to this time have\\nbeen uncertain how much to expect from their chil-\\ndren; (2) that schoolmasters, the greater number of\\nwhom have been ignorant of their art, have exhausted\\ntheir energies and worn themselves out in their efforts\\nto fulfil their duty; (3) that students should master\\nthe sciences without difficulty, tedium, or blows, as if\\nin sport and in merriment; (4) that schools should\\nbecome places of amusement, houses of delight and\\nattraction, and the work so adjusted that students of\\nwhatever capacity might attain a high standard of\\ndevelopment; (5) that states should exist for the\\ndevelopment of the young; (6) that schools should be\\nso efficient that the Church may never lack learned\\ndoctors, and the learned doctors lack suitable hearers\\nand (7) that the schools may be so reformed that they\\nmay give a more exact and universal culture of the\\nintellect, and that Christian youths may be more fer-\\nvently stirred up to vigor of mind and love of heavenly\\nthings. Let none, therefore, says Andrese, with-\\ndraw his thoughts, desires, strength, and resources\\nfrom such a sacred undertaking. It is inglorious to\\ndespair of progress and wrong to despise the counsel of\\nothers.\\nThe obligation of Comenius to William Bateus, the\\nIrish Jesuit, was not great, although he makes free", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "FORERUNNERS OE COMENIUS 37\\nacknowledgment of the same in the Janua. Indeed,\\nthe plan of the Janua was well formulated before he\\nknew of the existence of the Jesuit father s book.\\nHe made known the plan of his Janua to some friends,\\nwho told him that Bateus had already published a\\nsimilar work. He was not content until he had pro-\\ncured a copy of the book. The idea, says Comenius,\\nwas better than the execution. Nevertheless, as he\\nwas the prime inventor, I thankfully acknowledge it,\\nnor will I upbraid him for those errors he has com-\\nmitted. This willing recognition of his obligation\\nto a wide range of educational writers is proof of the\\ndeclaration he often made, I care not whether I act\\nthe part of teacher or learner.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nBOYHOOD AND EARLY LIFE OF COMENIUS: 1592-1628\\nAncestry of Comenius Attends the village school at Strasnitz\\nStudies Latin in the gymnasium at Prerau Character of the\\nLatin schools of his day Enters the college at Herborn Studies\\ntheology and philosophy Inspired by the teachings of Alsted\\nMakes the acquaintance of the writings of Ratke Continues his\\nstudies at Heidelberg Begins his career as a teacher at Prerau\\nOrdained as a clergyman Installed as pastor and school\\nsuperintendent at Fulneck Persecution.\\nMany of the facts concerning the early life of John\\nAmos Comenius are shrouded in obscurity. It is\\ncertain, however, that he was born in the village of\\nMvnitz in Moravia (now a province of Austria) on\\nthe 28th day of March, in the year 1592. Nivnitz\\nthen, as now, was little more than a country market\\ntown and settled quite largely by members of the\\nreligious organization known as Moravian Brethren.\\nThe father and mother of Comenius, Martin and Anna\\nKomensky, were influential members of the brother-\\nhood, who had settled here some years previous with\\nother followers of John Hus, the Bohemian reformer\\nand martyr. The tradition that Martin Komensky\\nwas a miller by trade does not seem to be well authen-\\nticated. Besides John Amos, three daughters were\\nborn to Martin and Anna Komensky, Ludmilla,\\nSusanna, and Margaret, but the three girls died in\\nearly childhood.\\n38", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "BOYHOOD AND EARLY LIFE OF COMENIUS 39\\nMartin Komensky died in 1604, 1 and his wife sur-\\nvived him less than a year. Left an orphan at the\\nearly age of twelve years, Comenius was intrusted to\\nthe care and training of an improvident aunt, who\\nsoon made way with his inheritance. In this, as\\nin the neglect of his school training, the incom-\\npetence of the foster parent is clearly apparent. For\\nsomething more than four years the lad attended\\nthe village school at Strasnitz. But, as he himself\\ntells us, the curriculum was narrow and the teaching\\npoor. While here Comenius formed the acquaintance\\nof a schoolfellow named Nicholas Drabik, through\\nwhose prophetic visions he was so ignominiously led\\nastray in his later life, and so bitterly reproached by\\nhis contemporaries. It was a strange irony of fate,\\nremarks Mr. Keatinge, that a wanderer like\\nComenius, when only eleven years old and in his\\nnative land, should commence the intimacy that was\\nto embitter his old age in Amsterdam. But, as Ben-\\nham notes, the fact that the matter was so soon for-\\ngotten shows that the character of Comenius received\\nno indelible stain by the unfortunate alliance, even\\nthough he excited the ridicule and disrespect, and\\neven the contempt, of his contemporaries.\\nAt the advanced age of sixteen years, he was ini-\\ntiated into the mysteries of classical learning in the\\nLatin school at Prerau, where he studied for two\\nyears. A fairly accurate notion of his studies during\\nthis period may be gained from a glance at the course\\nof study in a contemporary Latin school herewith\\n1 1 am aware that Comenius says that his father died in 1602 hut\\nthe evidence which Vrbka has adduced seems to me conclusive that\\nthe senior Komensky died two years later.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "40 COMENIUS\\nreproduced in translation from the Bohemian. 1 The\\nschedule of hours in the second grade of this school\\nwas as follows In the morning, during the first hour,\\nrepetition of grammar lesson from memory and expla-\\nnation of the next day s grammar lesson. During the\\nsecond hour, the dialogues of Castalio and the third\\nhour, the recitation of Castalio s dialogues in the\\nBohemian, and the grammatical analysis of the words\\nand conversation of the lesson. In the afternoon,\\nduring the first hour, writing and singing the second\\nhour, explanation of the writings of Cicero according\\nto Sturm s edition, and grammatical analysis; and the\\nthird hour, exercises in words and sayings. This was\\nthe programme for Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and\\nSaturdays. On Wednesdays there was but one lesson\\nin the morning and one in the afternoon. In the\\nmorning the catechism was recited; in addition, imi-\\ntative exercises for the formation of style. In the\\nafternoon, the writing of short words and a recapitu-\\nlation of the week s lessons.\\nThe programme for the third grade was as follows\\nIn the forenoon of Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays,\\nand Fridays\\nFirst hour. Repetition of Latin rules in the\\nmother-tongue.\\nSecond hour. Exposition of the conversations of\\nJohn Lewis Vives.\\nThird hour. Repetition of the above, and Bohe-\\nmian exercises from the text.\\nIn the afternoon of the same days, first hour, writ-\\ning and singing second hour, Greek grammar and the\\n1 RukovM SJcolsivi Obecneho. By Karel Toubenek and Kare]\\nVorovka. Prague, 1892. Translated by Miss Clara Vostrovsky.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "BOYHOOD AND EAELY LIFE OF COMENIUS 41\\ncollected writings of John Sturm; and third hour,\\nexposition of Greek proverbs from the New Testa-\\nment, together with grammatical analysis of the same.\\nThis class had for its forenoon lesson on Wednesdays\\nthe catechism and exercises in the Bohemian, and in\\nthe afternoon singing and writing. In the summer the\\nmore industrious pupils were excused from the lessons on\\nWednesday afternoons.\\nOne period on Saturday was devoted to a weekly\\nreview; and on Sunday morning a chapter was read\\nfrom the New Testament, the same explained in Greek\\n(to all grades above the second), and all the students\\nattended church. In the afternoon there was preach-\\ning again and more reading from the New Testament.\\nSuch we may suppose to have been the character of\\nhis studies at Prerau during the two years from 1608\\nto 1610. Because of his maturity, he appreciated\\nmost keenly the faults of current humanistic methods\\nof teaching. As one of his biographers remarks:\\nThe defects of this early education were the seeds\\nfrom which sprang the whole of his didactic efforts.\\nConsiderably older than his schoolfellows, he was able\\nto criticise the methods and speedily arrive at the con-\\nclusion that the lack of progress was due more to the\\ninefficiency of the teachers than to the idleness of\\ntheir pupils. From this time onward, he began to\\ndevise new methods of class instruction and better\\nschemes of study. From the vivid memory of the hor-\\nrors through which he had passed, of the thousand and\\none rules that had to be learned by rote before they\\nwere understood, of the monotonous study of grammar,\\nonly diversified by the maddening effort to translate\\nLatin authors without the assistance of suitable die-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "42 COMENIUS\\ntionaries or commentaries, sprang that intense sym-\\npathy with beginners which characterizes his whole\\nlife and gives practical worth to every precept that he\\nenunciated.\\nAfter two years in the Latin school at Prerau, he\\nentered the college at Herborn on the 30th of March,\\n1611. The University of Prague was at this time in\\nthe hands of the Utraquists, whose unfriendly attitude\\ntoward the Moravian Brethren led to the selection of\\na German university for his higher course of instruc-\\ntion. He had determined to qualify for the ministry,\\nand the institution at Herborn at this time afforded\\nunusual opportunities for the study of theology.\\nDoubtless another factor in the selection of Herborn\\nwas the fact that John Henry Alsted, one of the most\\ndistinguished theological and philosophical professors\\nof the day, was lecturing there, and aspiring youths\\nof the temperament of Comenius naturally gravitated\\ntoward this centre of fresh thought. Although but\\nfour years older than Comenius, Alsted was the most\\ncommanding figure in the academic circles of Europe\\nat this time. He had travelled extensively; had made\\nthe acquaintance of most of the learned men in Europe\\nworth knowing; and had advocated views of education\\nwhich were new and startling.\\nFor twenty-seven years Herborn had enjoyed unprec-\\nedented academic prosperity. Opportunities for the\\nstudy of education were unexcelled; for, connected\\nwith the college, there was a preparatory department\\nwhich served as a laboratory for the study of peda-\\ngogic problems, in which, for example, the lower classes\\nwere instructed in the mother-tongue a procedure\\nthat was regarded as ultra-heterodox at this time.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "BOYHOOD AND EARLY LIFE OF COMENIUS 43\\nCoHienius was most helped by the instruction of the\\ndistinguished theologian and philosopher, Professor\\nJohn Henry Alsted. The teachings of Alsted were\\nof a character calculated to deepen the convictions of\\nthe young student from Moravia, for the Herborn pro-\\nfessor taught among other things as is indicated by\\nhis Encyclopaedia of the sciences, published a few years\\nlater the following: (1) Not more than one thing\\nshould be taught at a time; (2) not more than one\\nbook should be used on one subject, and not more than\\none subject should be taught on one day; (3) every-\\nthing should be taught through the medium of what is\\nmore familiar; (4) all superfluity should be avoided;\\n(5) all study should be mapped out in fixed periods\\n(6) all rules should be as short as possible; (7) every-\\nthing should be taught without severity, though disci-\\npline must be maintained; (8) corporal punishment\\nshould be reserved for moral offences, and never in-\\nflicted for lack of industry; (9) authority should not\\nbe allowed to prejudice the mind against the facts\\ngleaned from experience, nor should custom or precon-\\nceived opinion prevail (10) the construction of a new\\nlanguage should first be explained in the vernacular;\\n(11) no language should be taught by means of gram-\\nmar; (12) grammatical terms should be the same in all\\nlanguages. The teacher, said Alsted, should be\\na skilled reader of character, so that he may be able\\nto classify the dispositions of his pupils. Unless he\\npays great attention to differences of disposition, he\\nwill but waste all the efforts he expends in teaching.\\nAnother professor of philosophy at Herborn at the\\ntime was Heinrich Gutberleth, who was likewise\\ndeeply interested in pedagogy and whose lectures", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "44 COMENIUS\\nseem to have influenced Comenius, with special refer-\\nence to his advocacy of the study of the physical\\nsciences. In theology he heard lectures by Piscator,\\nHermannus, and Pasor. Since 1530 the schools of\\nNassau had been marked by great improvement, and\\nthis improvement was in no small measure due to the\\nintelligent interest of the professors of theology at\\nHerborn in the schools of the province. Hermannus,\\nwith whom Comenius studied practical theology, was\\nespecially active in school reform.\\nIt was during his student life at Herborn that\\nComenius became acquainted with Ratke s plan of\\ninstruction, then much discussed at university centres,\\nand especially at Jena, Giessen, and Herborn. How-\\never much he may have been stimulated to educational\\nreform by his own belated classical training and by\\nthe pedagogic character of the work at Herborn, the\\nwritings of Ratke, as he himself tells us, played the\\nlargest part in making him an educational reformer.\\nWhile at Herborn he gave special attention to the\\nBohemian language, and planned a dictionary which\\nwas never published.\\nComenius left Herborn in the spring of 1613; and\\nafter a few weeks sojourn at Amsterdam he repaired\\nto Heidelberg, where he matriculated as a student of\\nphilosophy and theology on the 13th of June. Beyond\\nthe fact that he purchased a manuscript of Copernicus,\\nand that at the end of a year, his funds becoming\\nexhausted, he was forced to make the return journey\\nto Prague on foot, nothing is known of his life at\\nHeidelberg.\\nBack in his native country after these years of study\\nand travel in Germany, he was still too young by two", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "BOYHOOD AND EARLY LIFE OF COMENIUS 45\\nyears for ordination in the brotherhood. Meanwhile\\nhe turned his attention to education, and engaged him-\\nself as a teacher in the elementary school at Prerau\\nconducted by the Moravian Brethren. This experi-\\nence brought him face to face with problems of method-\\nology and discipline, and gave him an opportunity to\\napply some of the theories he had formulated while a\\nstudent at Herborn. His attention was at once called\\nto the ineffective methods employed in teaching Latin,\\nfor the remedy of which he prepared an easy Latin\\nbook for beginners.\\nHis ordination took place at Zerwick on the 29th\\nday of April, 1616, although he continued teaching at\\nPrerau for two years longer, when he was called to\\nthe pastorate of the flourishing Moravian church at\\nFulneck. At the same time, or shortly thereafter, he\\nwas elected superintendent of the schools of the town.\\nIn this twofold capacity he ministered to the spiritual\\nand educational needs of Fulneck for three years, and\\npassed the only tranquil and happy years of his life.\\nBut the year that ushered in this prosperous career\\nwitnessed the outbreak of the Thirty Years War.\\nIn 1621 Fulneck was sacked by the Spaniards, and\\nthe conquering force gave itself up to destruction that\\nbaffles description. Houses were pillaged, including\\nthe residence of Comenius, and he lost all his prop-\\nerty, including his library and the manuscripts of\\nseveral educational treatises, on the composition of\\nwhich he had spent years of labor.\\nFrom this time on, the Moravian Brethren were\\nexposed to the most relentless persecutions. Many\\nwere executed, and others took refuge in caves in the\\nwilderness or on the secluded estates of wealthy sym-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "46 COMENIUS\\npathizers. For three years Comenius found an asylum\\non the estate of Karl von Zerotin. The death of his\\nwife and children (for he had married while at Ful-\\nneck) added to the afflictions of his exile; but he\\nsought relief from his sorrow in literary work the\\ncomposition of a metrical translation of the Psalms, an\\nallegorical description of life, and the construction of\\na highly meritorious map of Moravia.\\nThe persecution of the enemies rendered conceal-\\nment no longer possible; and, although Karl von\\nZerotin was held in high regard by Ferdinand II, in\\n1624 the imperial mandate was issued which banished\\nthe evangelical clergy from the country. For a time\\nComenius and several of his brethren secreted them-\\nselves from their merciless pursuers on the Bohemian\\nmountains, in the citadel of Baron Sadowsky, near\\nSlaupna. But the edict of 1627 put an end to further\\nprotection of the Moravian clergy by the nobles and\\nin January, 1628, Comenius and many of his compa-\\ntriots, including his late protector, Baron Sadowsky,\\nset out for Poland. On the mountain frontier which\\nseparates Moravia from Silesia, one gets an excellent\\nview of Fulneck and the surrounding country. Here\\nthe band of exiles knelt and Comenius offered up an\\nimpassioned prayer for his beloved Moravia and Bohe-\\nmia. This was his last sad look on his devoted coun-\\ntry. He never afterward beheld the land of his\\nfathers, but for more than half a century he lived an\\nexile in foreign regions. Well might he, in his old\\nage, exclaim: My whole life was merely the visit of\\na guest; I had no fatherland.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nCAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER: 1628-1656\\nFlight to Poland\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Appointed director of the gymnasium at Lissa\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nReforms introduced Literary projects Need of a patron\\nCall to England Friendship with Hartlib Interest of the Eng-\\nlish Parliament Discontent with existing educational institu-\\ntions Lewis de Geer, his Dutch patron Call to Sweden\\nInterview with Oxenstiern Located at Elbing Reform of the\\nSwedish schools Return to Poland Consecration as senior\\nbishop Consequences of the treaty of Westphalia Ecclesiasti-\\ncal ministrations Call to Hungary Reform of the schools at\\nSaros-Patak Plan of a pansophic school Return to Lissa\\nThe city burned Flight of Comenius from Poland.\\nAfter the flight from Bohemia, Comenius and his\\ncompatriots found a refuge at Lissa, Poland, with\\nCount Raphael, a powerful prince of the faith of the\\nMoravian Brethren, to whose estate hundreds of per-\\nsecuted Bohemians had already fled. Twelve years\\nwere passed in Lissa, during which time Comenius\\nwas actively engaged in educational reform. Besides\\nthe composition of three of his most important books\\nthe Janua, in 1631, the Great didactic, probably in\\n1632, and the School of infancy, in 1633 he engaged\\nactively in the work of teaching. A secondary school\\nof acknowledged repute had been maintained in Lissa\\nby the Moravian Brethren since 1555, and here\\nComenius found the opportunity of putting into prac-\\ntice s ome of his educational theories. It is apparent,\\nhowever, from his writings, that he read widely before\\n47", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "48 COMENIUS\\nundertaking the reorganization of the gymnasium at\\nLissa, and that he sought aid from all the writers on\\neducation, both ancient and modern. His corre-\\nspondents at this period included such distinguished\\nnames as Lubin, Andreas, Bitter, Vogel, Ratke, Frey,\\nMencel, Hartlib, Evenius, Johnstone, and Mochinger.\\nTo these distinguished contemporaries he expresses\\nhis dissatisfaction with current educational practices,\\nand seeks guidance in the reform movement he has\\ninstituted in Poland.\\nWhen our people attend school for the sake of the\\nlearned languages, what do they bring with them on\\nreturning home? he asks. What beyond that which\\nthey obtain there the tinkling of human eloquence,\\nthe love of disputation, and the knowledge that puff eth\\nup instead of the charity that buildeth up. Moreover,\\nsome acquire corrupt morals; some, a desire to make\\nthemselves agreeable by a show of external civility;\\nsome, habits of intemperance and a distaste or hatred\\nof firm discipline. And yet these very men were\\ntrained for the lights of the Church and the pillars of\\nthe State. that, instead of such an education, we\\nhad retained the simplicity of childhood. that we\\nmight bring back the ancient custom of the Spartans,\\nwho, more than all the other Greeks, were intent upon\\nthe rational education of their youth.\\nA noteworthy feature of his work as a reformer at\\nLissa consisted in a careful grading of the schools, and\\nthe formulation of a course of study for the succes-\\nsive grades. The guiding principle in this schemati-\\nzation of school work was that each grade should pave\\nthe way for the one next higher, the elements of all\\nsubjects of study being comparatively simple, these", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 49\\nelements should be gradually introduced and elabo-\\nrated from grade to grade. These reforms were not\\nonly far-reaching, they were revolutionary; and they\\nmade possible the modern graded school.\\nCivilized Europe did not long remain in ignorance\\nof these reforms. They were discussed with approval\\nin England, Germany, France, and Sweden; and sev-\\neral foreign governments sought his services in the\\nwork of educational reform. Sweden, in 1638, ten-\\ndered him a remunerative position and unlimited\\nopportunities of reforming the schools of the kingdom\\nalong the lines laid down in his writings. He replied\\nthat he was willing to recommend a competent person\\nto undertake the work, but that he was not in position\\nto sever his relations with the Moravian Church in\\nPoland and to leave unfinished some important\\neducational writings.\\nHis own poverty, as well as that of his brethren,\\nmade him realize keenly the need of a wealthy patron\\nto aid him in the realization of his educational ideals.\\nThe vastness of the labors I contemplate, he wrote,\\ndemands that I should have a wealthy patron,\\nwhether we look at their extent, or at the necessity of\\nsecuring assistants, or at the expense generally. I\\npropose to render the study of science, philosophy,\\nand theology more accessible to all parties, and of\\ngreater usefulness in the regulation of human affairs\\nthan has hitherto been the case. In order to do this,\\ntwo kinds of books are necessary (1) for philosophi-\\ncal research and (2) for elementary training.\\nBooks of the first class would primarily have refer-\\nence to the Latin language, and of this class I would\\nadopt eight", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "50 COMENIUS\\n1. The Vestibulum, or introduction to the Latin\\ntongue.\\n2. The Janua, or gate of the Latin tongue.\\n3. The Palace, or essentials of the Latin language.\\n4. A dictionary giving the meaning of the Latin\\nwords in the mother-tongue.\\n5. A dictionary giving all the words of the native\\nlanguage in Latin, and more especially supplying\\nphrases of the former language with corresponding\\nphrases in the latter.\\n6. A Latin dictionary explaining all the peculiar\\nidioms of the language.\\n7. An elementary grammar containing all the\\ndeclensions and conjugations, and to be used in\\nconnection with the Vestibulum.\\n8. A more comprehensive grammar, to be used in\\nconnection with the Janua.\\nThe books to be used in connection with element-\\nary training are three\\n1. PansopJiia, or universal wisdom. This book\\nshould comprise the sum total of human wisdom, and\\nbe so expressed as to meet the requirements of both\\nthe present and future ages. The method to be fol-\\nlowed in such a book would be to reduce it to certain\\nfundamental principles, beyond the compass of which\\nno part of human knowledge can reach. Such first\\nprinciples are God, the world, and common sense.\\n2. Panhistoria, or universal history. This work\\nmust comprehend the most vital facts of all ages.\\nUniversal history is a most excellent handmaid of the\\nunderstanding, searching into the causes of all things,\\nand inquiring into the laws of cause and effect. In-\\nstruction in history must be graded. It might be ar-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 51\\nranged in six classes Bible history, natural history,\\nhistory of inventions, history of morals, history of the\\nvarious religious rites, and general history.\\n3. General dogmatics. These have to treat of\\nthe different theories taken by human ingenuity, the\\nfalse as well as the true, thereby preventing a relapse\\ninto vain speculations and dangerous errors.\\nOne man is not able to accomplish an undertaking\\nof such magnitude. There ought to be some clever\\nlinguists, perhaps three well versed in philosophy, an\\nable historian, and a man thoroughly acquainted with\\nBiblical literature. As regards the philological labors,\\nI have already met with an excellent assistant in Mr.\\nWechner. Nor are clever coadjutors wanting for the\\nPansophia, who have not only offered the treasures of\\ntheir libraries, but who have offered themselves in\\ntheir cooperation in this work. Among these my\\nfriend Hartlib far excels. I do not know his equal\\nin the extent of his knowledge, his acuteness of rea-\\nsoning, his zeal to become useful to the welfare of\\nmankind, his fervent love for a philosophy unmixed\\nwith errors and fanciful speculations, and his self-\\ndenial in order to further the objects in view.\\nSuch a patron, however, was not at once forthcoming,\\nalthough it would appear from his letters that Count\\nBohulslaw of Lissa, whom he styles the chief in the\\nkingdom of Poland, was of some pecuniary assistance\\nto him at this time in the development of his theories.\\nThe wide publication of his writings aroused a keen\\ninterest in his reforms, and especially in England.\\nSamuel Hartlib, who corresponded extensively with\\nthe learned men of Europe, had already translated\\ninto English several of the educational writings of", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "52 COMENIUS\\nComenius, and in various other ways had interested\\nthe English public in the work of the Moravian\\nreformer.\\nThe keen personal interest of Hartlib in the work\\nof Comenius had important temporary consequences\\non the direction of the reformer s activities during the\\nnext few years. Hartlib at this time was the most\\ninteresting figure in English educational history.\\nEverybody knew him, says Professor Masson. 1\\nHe was a foreigner by birth, being the son of a\\nPolish merchant who had left Poland when the coun-\\ntry fell under Jesuit rule, and had settled in Elbing\\nin Prussia, in very good circumstances. Twice mar-\\nried before to Polish ladies, this merchant had married\\nin Prussia for his third wife the daughter of a wealthy\\nEnglish merchant at Dantzig; and thus our Hartlib,\\ntheir son, though Prussian born and with Polish connec-\\ntions, could reckon himself half English. The date\\nof his birth was probably about the beginning of the\\ncentury. He appears to have first visited England in\\nor about 1628, and from that time, though he made fre-\\nquent journeys to the continent, London had been his\\nheadquarters. Here, with a residence in the city, he\\ncarried on business as a merchant, with extensive\\nforeign correspondence, and very respectable family\\nconnections. But it did not require such family con-\\nnections to make Hartlib at home in English society.\\nThe character of the man would have made him at\\nhome anywhere. He was one of those persons now\\nstyled philanthropists, or friends of progress, who\\ntake an interest in every question or project of their\\n1 The life of John Milton. By David Masson. Vol. III. Lon-\\ndon, 1873.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 53\\ntime promising social improvement, have always some\\nirons in the fire, are constantly forming committees,\\nor writing letters to persons of influence, and live\\naltogether for the public. By the common consent of\\nall who have explored the intellectual and social his-\\ntory of England in the seventeenth century, he is one\\nof the most interesting and memorable figures of that\\nwhole period. He is interesting both for what he did\\nhimself and on account of the number and intimacy of\\nhis contacts with other interesting people.\\nThrough Hartlib s influence the English Parliament\\ninvited Comenius to England. This was in the sum-\\nmer of 1641. Comenius himself may be permitted\\nto tell how all this came about After my Pansophia\\nhad been published and dispersed through the various\\ncountries of Europe, many learned men approved of\\nthe object and plan of the work, but despaired of its\\never being accomplished by one man alone, and there-\\nfore advised that a college of learned men should be\\ninstituted to carry it into effect. Mr. Samuel Hart-\\nlib, who had forwarded its publication in England,\\nlabored earnestly in this matter, and endeavored by\\nevery possible means to bring together for this pur-\\npose a number of intellectual men. And at length,\\nhaving found one or two, he invited me with many\\nstrong entreaties. As my friends consented to my\\ndeparture, I proceeded to London, and arrived there\\non the autumnal equinox (September the 22d) in the\\nyear 1641, and then learned that I had been called\\nthither by an order of the Parliament. But, in con-\\nsequence of the king having gone to Scotland, the Par-\\nliament had been dismissed for three months, and,\\nconsequently, I had to winter in London.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "54 COMENIUS\\nHis friends meanwhile examined with more detail\\nhis educational views and encouraged him to elaborate\\nhis views in a tract, which he named Via lucis, or the\\nway of light. This, as he himself says, was a na-\\ntional disquisition as to the manner in which wisdom\\nthe intellectual law of minds may at length\\ntoward the evening of the world be felicitously dif-\\nfused through all minds in all nations.\\nAround Comenius Hartlib soon collected a group of\\nthoughtful men interested in the Moravian reformer s\\nviews and together we may suppose they discussed\\nat length the larger educational problems already\\nformulated by Comenius in his published writings.\\nThe group included, besides Hartlib, Mr. John Pell,\\na mathematician of acknowledged repute;. John Mil-\\nton, the poet and educational writer; Theodor Haak,\\nthe expositor of philosophic systems John Wilkins,\\nthe agricultural enthusiast; John Durie, the advocate\\nof evangelical unity; Thomas Farnaby, the school-\\nmaster at Sevenoaks and one of the English editors\\nof Comenius Janua; and probably the American\\nWinthrop, later governor of Connecticut, who was\\nwintering in London. He was delighted with London\\nand the people he met. Writing to friends in Lissa,\\nhe says: I live as a friend among friends; though\\nnot so many visit me as would if they knew that I\\ncould speak English, or if they had more confidence\\nin their own Latin.\\nWhen Parliament finally convened and my pres-\\nence being known, writes Comenius, I was com-\\nmanded to wait until after some important business\\nhaving been transacted, a commission should be issued\\nto certain wise and learned Englishmen to hear me", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 55\\nand be informed of my plan. As an earnest, moreover,\\nof their intentions, they communicated to me their\\npurpose to assign to us a college with revenues,\\nwhence some men of learning and industry selected\\nfrom any nation might be honorably sustained either\\nfor a certain number of years or in perpetuity. The\\nSavoy in London, and beyond London, Winchester,\\nand again near the city, Chelsea, were severally men-\\ntioned, and inventories of the latter and its revenues\\nwere communicated to me; so that nothing seemed\\nmore certain than that the designs of Lord Bacon to\\nopen a universal college of all nations, devoted solely\\nto the advancement of the sciences, were now in way\\nof being carried into effect.\\nComenius had assumed that when the call to Eng-\\nland came to him at Lissa, it simply represented a\\nprivate movement backed by Hartlib and other influ-\\nential Englishmen; and he expresses himself in terms\\nof delighted surprise upon arriving in London to find\\nthat he had been summoned thither by the Parliament\\nof the realm. The parliamentary sanction of this\\nsummons has never been corroborated. Professor\\nMasson made the attempt, but was unable to find in\\nthe Lords or Commons Journal for the years 1641\\nand 1642 any traces of communication between\\nComenius and the Parliament of which he speaks.\\nHe admits that there may be such corroborative evi-\\ndence, since the indexes for these years are incom-\\nplete. There are, however, no good and sufficient\\nreasons for doubting the word of Comenius in this\\nmatter.\\nThere are traces at this period of parliamentary dis-\\nsatisfaction with current English education, and more", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "56 COMENIUS\\nparticularly with university education in England.\\nProfessor Masson thus states the matter There had\\nfor some time been a tradition of dissatisfaction with\\nthe existing state of the universities and the great\\npublic schools. In especial, Bacon s complaints and\\nsuggestions in the second book of his De Augmentis\\nhad sunk into thoughtful minds. That the universities,\\nby persistence in old and outworn methods, were not\\nin full accord with the demands and needs of the age;\\nthat their aims were too professional and particular,\\nand not sufficiently scientific and general; that the\\norder of studies in them was bad, and some of the\\nstudies barren; that there ought to be a bold direction\\nof their endowments and apparatus in the line of\\nexperimental knowledge, so as to extract from nature\\nnew secrets and sciences for which humanity was\\npanting; that, moreover, there ought to be more fra-\\nternity and correspondence among the universities of\\nEurope and some organization of their labors, with a\\nview to mutual illumination and collective advance-\\nment all these Verulamian speculations, first sub-\\nmitted to King James, were lying here and there in\\nEnglish intellects in watch for an opportunity.\\nBut the time was not yet come for the reform move-\\nment in English education. Ireland was in a state of\\ncommotion; two hundred thousand Englishmen had\\nbeen massacred; 1 the sudden departure of the king\\nfrom London on the 10th of January, 1642, and the\\nprospect of a prolonged civil war convinced Comeniusv\\nthat it would be useless to tarry longer in England.\\nHe informed his friends of his disappointment of his\\nplans. Hartlib was hopeful and urged delay, but a\\n1 Professor Masson.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 57\\ncall to Sweden, made four years previous, was renewed\\nat this time, and he left London on the 10th of June,\\nin the year 1642.\\nLewis de Geer, a rich Dutch merchant and phi-\\nlanthropist, residing at JNordkoping, Sweden, had\\noffered to render him financial aid in working out his\\neducational reforms in Sweden. But de Geer s\\nnotions of reform differed widely from those of the\\nEnglish friends. He was less interested in universal\\nresearch, the founding of pansophic colleges, and the\\nresults of original investigation than Hartlib and the\\nEnglishmen. What he wanted was better school-\\nbooks for the children, rational methods of teaching\\nfor the teachers, and some intelligent grading of the\\nschools. The English friends were satisfied with the\\nbroad generalities of pansophic learning, the unreal-\\nized dreams that were so very near the reformer s\\nheart; the Dutch merchant would be satisfied with\\nnothing less than concrete applications of theories.\\nThere is no doubt that Comenius would have preferred\\nlingering in England or going to some place where his\\ncherished pansophic schemes might be given a hear-\\ning. But he was human and had organic needs, and\\nhe knew that the liberal remuneration offered him by\\nde Geer would avert poverty even though the realiza-\\ntion of his pure and exalted pansophic dream was\\ndeferred.\\nIn the history of great renunciations, says Mr.\\nKeatinge, 1 surely none is stranger than this. We\\nhave a man little past the prime of life, his brain\\n1 The Great didactic of John Amos Comenius. With introduc-\\ntions, biographical and historical. By M. W. Keatinge. London,\\n1896. pp.468.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "58 COMENIUS\\nteeming with magnificent, if somewhat visionary,\\nplans for social reform, a mighty power in the com-\\nmunity that shared his religious ideas, and an object\\nof interest even to those who may have shrugged their\\nshoulders at his occasional want of balance. Suddenly\\nhe flings his projects to the winds, consigns his darling\\nplans to the dustheap of unrealizable ideas, and\\nretires to a small seaside town not to meditate, not\\nto give definite form to latent conceptions or to evolve\\nnew ones, not to make preparation for the dazzling\\nof intellectual Europe with an octavo of fantastic\\nphilanthropy or of philosophic mysticism, but- to\\nwrite school-books for the little boys in Swedish\\nschools.\\nComenius went from London to Nordkoping, where\\nhe spent some days in conference with his new patron,\\nLewis de Geer. He was not to receive a stipulated\\nsalary, but to be paid certain sums upon the comple-\\ntion of definite texts, the number and character of the\\nsame to be determined by the educational authorities\\nat Stockholm, whither de Geer directed Comenius to\\ngo for further orders. In Stockholm he met with\\nLord Axel Oxenstiern, grand chancellor of the king-\\ndom of Sweden, and Dr. John Skyte, professor of\\ncanon and civil law (as well as chancellor) in the Uni-\\nversity of Upsala. Of this conference Comenius says\\nThese two exercised me in debate for four days, and\\nchiefly Oxenstiern, that eagle of the north. He\\ninquired into the foundations of both my schemes, the\\ndidactic and the pansophic, so searchingly that it was\\nunlike anything that had been done before by any of\\nmy learned critics. In the first two days he examined\\nthe didactics, with, at length, this conclusion: From", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 59\\nan early age/ said he, I perceived that our method\\nof studies generally in use is a harsh and crude one,\\nbut where the root of the trouble was I couldn t find\\nout. At length having been sent by my king [Gus-\\ntavus Adolphus], of glorious memory, as ambassador\\ninto Germany, I conversed on the subject with various\\nlearned men. And when I heard that Wolfgang Eatke\\nwas toiling a.t a reformed method, I had no rest of mind\\nuntil I had got that gentleman into my presence but,\\ninstead of a talk on the subject, he offered me a big\\nvolume in quarto to read. I swallowed that trouble;\\nand, having gone through the book, I noted that he\\ndetected not badly the maladies of the schools; but\\nthe remedies he proposed did not seem to me sufficient.\\nYours, Mr. Comenius, rest on firmer foundations.\\nThe consultation with Oxenstiern and Skyte con-\\ntinued four days, at the conclusion of which they ren-\\ndered their decision on his various theories. With\\nreference to his pansophic notions, they saw little of\\nimmediate utility to the welfare of mankind. But his\\ndidactics they regarded with favor. They urged him\\nto give his attention to the reformation of teaching\\nand the preparation of suitable text-books. While\\nsomewhat chagrined at this unsympathetic attitude\\ntoward his pansophic theories, and a little surprised\\nto learn that de Geer should be of the same mind, he\\nwas forced to acquiesce, not, however, without the ear-\\nnest solicitations of Hartlib and his English friends\\nnot to forsake the cherished pansophic principles. 2\\n1 Mittheilungen iiber Wolfgang Ratichius. Von Agathon\\nNiemeyer. Halle, 1840.\\n2 In a letter to Governor Winthrop of Connecticut, Hartlib la-\\nments that Comenius should continually allow himself to be diverted\\nfrom his pansophic works.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "60 COMENIUS\\nThe town of Elbing, on the Baltic Sea, in West\\nPrussia, was designated by de Geer as a suitable\\nresidence for Comenius during the time that he should\\nbe in the service of the Swedish educational depart-\\nment. Here he settled, with his family and the\\nassistants de Geer had permitted him to employ at\\nthe patron s expense, in October, 1642. The chief\\ntask imposed upon him was the compilation of a\\nseries of text-books for use in elementary and sec-\\nondary schools. But progress was slow; the Swedes\\nbecame impatient, and de Geer grew restive. In con-\\nsequence, the relations with his patron soon became\\nstrained, and continued so during most of the Elbing\\nperiod. In reply to a complaint from de Geer,\\nComenius wrote him in September, 1643 I compose\\nbooks and do not merely copy those of others. Our\\nproposed work is not merely a book, but a real treas-\\nure for the aiding of whose production my patron will\\nassuredly have no cause for regret. He admits that\\nhe has been diverted from the completion of a work on\\nlanguage teaching by a philosophic treatise which he\\nconsiders of far greater importance than the details\\nof methodology.\\nIn addition to the philosophic studies, in which de\\nGeer and the Swedes had little or no interest, Come-\\nnius dissipated his energies in other ways. When\\nit became generally known that he had located in\\nElbing, the wealthy patrons of the local high school\\npetitioned the town council to secure him to give\\nweekly lectures to the pupils. In other ways he iden-\\ntified himself with local interests, which diverted his\\ntime from his assigned tasks. Moreover, his connec-\\ntion with the Moravian Brethren compelled him to", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 61\\nmake frequent trips to Poland to attend ecclesiastical\\nconventions and minister to the needs of the scattered\\nbrethren. De Geer s patience must have been sorely\\ntried, for he sent to Elbing, with annoying frequency,\\nto inquire concerning the progress of the work. In\\nreply, Comenius begged his patron have patience; he\\nexplained the difficult nature of his labors, and assured\\nhim that he was making as much progress as was con-\\nsistent with the nature of his undertaking.\\nToward the close of 1646 he went to Sweden and\\nmade a personal report to his patron, covering the four\\nyears of his employment. A government committee\\nwas appointed to review his work; its report was most\\nfavorable to Comenius; and he was urged to get the\\nwork in shape for immediate publication. He had\\nprepared during this time, in spite of distractions, a\\nwork on language teaching, which treated of its nature,\\nfunction, and the laws to be observed in language\\nteaching; a lexicon based on these laws; and a series\\nof graded reading books.\\nAt the death of Justinus, the senior bishop of the\\nMoravian Brethren in 1648, Comenius was elected his\\nsuccessor. His new duties made his removal to Lissa\\nnecessary, and he took with him the unfinished\\ntreatises for the Swedes, and sent them to de Geer as\\nrapidly as he was able to complete them. It caused\\nhim no pang of sorrow to sever his connection with\\nthe Dutch merchant and the Swedes. For he was\\nisolated at Elbing; his labors were uncongenial, and\\nthe remuneration which he received was small. It is\\napparent from his letters, subsequently written, that\\nit was not merely the Dutchman s gold that held him\\nto tasks so arduous and uncongenial. He hoped by", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "62 COMENIUS\\nthis connection to secure the moral support of the\\nSwedes in removing from the Moravian Brethren the\\nban which exiled them from their beloved fatherland.\\nThe treaty of Westphalia, however, shattered this\\nhope. There was not a single stipulation in favor\\nof the exiled brethren. The promises Sweden had\\nmade to Comenius in this matter were disregarded.\\nIn vain he implored Oxenstiern not to forsake his\\npeople. My people have aided your arms with their\\nweapons, the unceasing offerings of their tears and\\nsupplications to God; and now, when they see your\\nsuccess and may rejoice in the hope for a more favor-\\nable issue of affairs, they are troubled with dread\\napprehension lest they should be forsaken. Later he\\nwrote him Of what use is it to us, who are now de-\\nprived of every hope of peace, to have assisted you with\\nour tears in obtaining victory when, although it lay\\nwithin your power to release us from our prison-house,\\nyou surrender us anew into the hands of our oppress-\\nors? Of what avail now all those holy evangelical\\nalliances formed by our ancestors, and consecrated\\nwith their sacred martyr-blood? 1 But these impor-\\ntunities were of no avail; for, while equal privileges\\nwere granted to the Reformed, Lutheran, and Catholic\\nchurches in Germany, in Bohemia, and Moravia, the\\nritual of the latter alone was established. It was a\\nsevere blow to Comenius, as well as to the whole\\nbrotherhood of the Moravian Church.\\nThe years 1648 to 1650 were passed in ministrations\\nto the dispersed brethren; 2 he was especially conscien-\\n1 The correspondence between Comenius and Oxenstiern over\\nthe treaty of Westphalia is given by Gindely, tfber des Comenius\\nLeben und Wirksamkeit in der Fremde. Vienna, 1855.\\n2 For a full account of these labors see Gindely s Geschichte der\\nBohmischen Briider. Prague, 1857-8.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 63\\ntious in the discharge of the duties of his episcopal\\noffice; he established more intimate relations between\\nthe Polish and Hungarian branches of the Moravian\\nchurches; he sought and secured important financial\\naid for the brotherhood in England, Holland, and\\nSweden; he secured positions as teachers for many of\\nhis exiled countrymen; and induced the University\\nof Oxford to create stipends for Bohemian students.\\nGindely remarks that at this period there were few\\nEuropean countries in which the proteges of Comenius\\ncould not be found in the capacity of private tutors,\\npublic school-teachers, artists, or clergymen.\\nThe impoverished condition of the Moravian Church\\ncaused Comenius no little concern, and induced him to\\nlook with some favor on the numerous calls to impor-\\ntant educational posts which came to him from foreign\\ncountries. That from the widow of Prince Rakoczy\\nand her son Sigismund was especially tempting. They\\nwanted him to come to Transylvania, Hungary, and\\nreform the school system. A liberal salary was offered,\\ntogether with complete facilities for the organization\\nof a school system in accordance with his own views\\nincluding a printing establishment for the publica-\\ntion of required books. It was further stipulated that\\nhe might bring with him ten or a dozen Bohemian\\nyouths to be educated at the expense of the prince and\\nhis mother. The scattered members of the Moravian\\nChurch in Hungary, in the belief that the presence of\\nthe bishop in that country would unify the interests\\nof the brotherhood, also urged him to accept the Tran-\\nsylvanian call, at the same time petitioning the gen-\\neral synod to relieve Comenius of his clerical functions\\nat Lissa for a few years.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "64 COMENIUS\\nThe Church granted the petition, and Comenius\\nsettled in Saros-Patak, in May, 1650. He at once\\ndrew up a sketch of a seven-grade school, which he\\npublished a year later under the title Plan of a pan-\\nsophic school. In scope and breadth of view,\\nremarks a modern historian, the scheme was centu-\\nries in advance of its time, while many of the sugges-\\ntions which it contained are but imperfect]y carried\\ninto effect at the present day.\\nThe Plan is a detailed course of study with specific\\ndirections for the application of the course for the use\\nof teachers. In these directions he explains the great\\ndanger of overworking the children; and to avoid this,\\na rest-pause of a half-hour is provided after each\\nhour s instruction for free, spontaneous play. After\\neach meal a full hour s rest is granted. The pupils\\nare to have eight hours of sleep they are granted a\\nhalf -holiday on Sundays and Wednesdays, with fort-\\nnight vacations at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsun-\\ntide, and a month s vacation in the summer. This\\ngave a school year of forty-two weeks, with thirty\\nhours for school work in each week. The forenoon\\ninstruction was as follows: From 6 to 7 o clock,\\nreligious instruction, including hymns, prayers, and\\nBible readings. From 7.30 to 8.30, theoretical expo-\\nsition of the new subject-matter of the day s lesson;\\nand from 9 to 10, a practical treatment and review of\\nthe same. There was music (and mathematics) in\\nthe afternoon from 1 to 2; history from 2.30 to 3.30;\\nand composition, with exercises in style, from 4 to 5.\\nThe Plan requires that the seven grades of the\\nschool meet in separate rooms, and that a teacher be\\nprovided for each grade. In each class, the text-books", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 65\\nmust be adapted to the capacities of the children. The\\nVestibulum is the lowest class. Over the door of this\\nroom is the motto, Let no one enter who cannot\\nread. The room is so decorated that the pictures\\nillustrate the subjects taught in this grade; and, by\\nmeans of these illustrations, the senses are trained.\\nThe pupils are taught short maxims containing the\\nmost important rules of conduct, a few common Latin\\nwords, the elements of arithmetic, the scales in music,\\nand some short hymns and prayers. Writing and\\ndrawing are also taught, and special attention is given\\nto the games of the children.\\nThe Janual is the second class. The motto over\\nthe class-room door of this grade is, Let no one enter\\nwho is ignorant of mathematics. Provided the more\\ncommon objects mentioned in the Janua cannot be\\nreadily obtained, pictures of these objects are hung on\\nthe wall. The text-books used are, besides the Janua,\\nthe Latin vernacular dictionary and the Janual gram-\\nmar. In composition, the pupils are exercised in the\\nstructure of phrases, sentences, and periods; in reli-\\ngion, they learn the catechism in mathematics, addi-\\ntion and subtraction and plane figures in geometry.\\nThere are more advanced exercises in music; and, as\\nin the preceding grade, the teachers are urged to\\nencourage the plays and games of the children.\\nThe Atrial is the third class. Its motto is, Let no\\none enter who cannot speak. Here Bible readings,\\nin abridged form and suited to the intelligence of the\\nchildren, are begun. The text-book is the Atrium,\\ntogether with a grammar of eloquence and a Latin-\\nLatin dictionary. In arithmetic, the pupils master\\nmultiplication and division, and in geometry, solid", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "66 COMENIUS\\nfigures. The musical instruction includes harmony\\nand the rudiments of Latin verse. Famous deeds in\\nBiblical narrative furnish the basis of the historic\\ninstruction. In composition there are exercises in\\nstyle, consisting of paraphrasing and the transposition\\nof sentences. Before the pupils are permitted to pass\\nfrom this grade they must be able to read the Latin\\nauthors readily and to converse in the Latin fluently.\\nThe Philosophical is the fourth class, with the\\nmotto, Let no one who is ignorant of history enter\\nhere. The walls are decorated with pictures illus-\\ntrative of arithmetic, geometry, and physics, and con-\\nnected with this class-room are a chemical laboratory\\nand a dissecting-room. The religious instruction\\nincludes hymns, Psalms, an epitome of the New Tes-\\ntament, and a life of Christ. The text-book is called\\nthe Palace of wisdom; in it the genesis of natural phe-\\nnomena are described. In mathematics, the pupils\\nlearn the rules of proportion; they begin the study of\\ntrigonometry; also statics, and instruction on musical\\ninstruments. Greek is begun, and the pupils study\\nnatural history through Pliny and iElian. Comenius\\nmentions that he does not consider Greek a difficult\\nstudy; and he thinks it need cause the pupils no\\nalarm, since an exhaustive knowledge of Greek is not\\nrequired, and the difficulties of the study will be\\nlargely overcome by the use of rational methods of\\nteaching.\\nThe fifth class is the Logical. Over the door is the\\ninscription, Let no one enter who is ignorant of\\nnatural philosophy, and the walls are covered with\\nthe rules of logic. The pupils have a Bible manual\\nand a class-book on problems in philosophy. The", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 67\\nproblems include a survey of things that have been\\nand may be discovered by man a formal logic explain-\\ning the processes of reasoning, and a repertory of such\\nphilosophical problems as present themselves to the\\nhuman mind. In arithmetic, the rules of partnership\\nand allegation are studied; in geometry, mensuration\\nof heights and distances and plane surfaces in geog-\\nraphy, a description of the earth; in astronomy, an\\naccount of the heavens; in history, a survey of\\nmechanical inventions. For the formation of a liter-\\nary style, such historians as Curtius, Csesar, and Jus-\\ntin are read. The study of Greek is continued, and\\nIsocrates and Plutarch are recommended for reading.\\nDramatic performances are introduced in the fifth\\nclass. Grammar, logic, and metaphysics are repre-\\nsented in conflict, but a reconciliation is finally effected\\nthrough study.\\nThe sixth is the Political class. Its motto, Let\\nno one enter who cannot reason. Sallust, Cicero,\\nVirgil, and Horace are read for style; provision is\\nmade for verse writing; attention is given to geog-\\nraphy and the parts of astronomy dealing with the\\nplanets and the laws of the eclipses; the Bible is read\\nthrough more advanced topics in arithmetic and geom-\\netry are taken up the special class-book studied deals\\nwith human society and the laws of economics; in\\nGreek the pupils read from Thucydides and Hesiod.\\nDramatic performances are continued, the degeneration\\nand moral downfall of Solomon being rendered.\\nThe seventh and last grade of the course is the\\nPhilosophic. Its motto is, Let no one enter who\\nis irreligious. The instruction is of an essentially\\ntheological character. On the walls are inscribed", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "68 COMENIUS\\nnumerous mystic symbols illustrative of the hidden\\nwisdom of the Holy Scriptures. The most devotional\\nPsalms and church hymns are used in the school exer-\\ncises. There are readings from the Scriptures, the\\nworks of the most inspired theologians and martyrs,\\nand a resume of Christian beliefs, duties, and aspira-\\ntions, all written in the phraseology of the Bible.\\nThe text-book of the grade is ultra-religious in char-\\nacter. It includes (1) an account of the earthly and\\nheavenly revelations of God; (2) a commentary for\\nScriptural reading; and (3) a detailed account of the\\nmysteries of salvation. In arithmetic, the sacred and\\nmystic numbers that occur in the Scriptures in archi-\\ntecture, the sacred structures as exemplified by Noah s\\nark, the tabernacle, and the Temple; in history, the\\ngeneral history of the Church; and in ancient language,\\nHebrew takes the place of Greek this, that the stu-\\ndents maybe able to read and understand the Scriptures\\nin the original text. Oratory is studied that those\\nwho become preachers may know how to address a\\ncongregation, and that those who engage in politics\\nmay know how to reason with their hearers.\\nSuch is a condensed survey of the course of study\\nwhich Comenius devised for the schools at Saros-\\nPatak; and in no small degree his reputation as a\\nreformer rests upon this piece of work. For the\\nSaros-Patak Plan became a model for educators in\\nmany lands, and the progenitor of a long line of graded\\nschemes of instruction which constitute such an essen-\\ntial feature of the educational economy of to-day. Not\\nonly were subjects of study graded in accordance with\\nthe laws of the development of child-mind, but text-\\nbooks were graded as well. Moreover, the scheme", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "CAREER AS AN EDUCATIONAL REFORMER 69\\nmade necessary the employment of teachers who com-\\nprehended the character of the work, and, more par-\\nticularly, those with some appreciation of the natural\\nhistory of the child and the causes which condition its\\ngrowth. Little as Comenius understood psychology,\\nat least in the modern use of that term, he was alive\\nto the fact that in childhood the senses are keenest,\\nand that the line of least resistance in the acquisition\\nof new impressions is through (1) objects, (2) pictures,\\nand (3) interesting verbal descriptions in the mother-\\ntongue.\\nHis labors at Saros-Patak terminated at the close of\\nthe fourth year, during which time the first three\\ngrades of the Plan were organized. All contemporary\\nevidence confirms the success of the scheme. Although\\nso marked a departure from traditional educational\\npractices, it succeeded to a degree that must have\\nbeen surprising even to Comenius himself. The fact\\nthat the teachers in the schools .were trained under\\nComenius at Lissa did much, doubtless, to remove\\notherwise possible frictions.\\nBut careful gradation was not the only marked\\nreform carried out at Saros-Patak during this period.\\nPictures were introduced as aids in teaching, and the\\nfirst child s picture book, the first of a long line of\\nbooks so popular in our own day, was written. This\\nwas the famous Orbis pictus, to be discussed in a\\nsubsequent chapter.\\nComenius returned to Lissa in 1654, to resume his\\necclesiastical labors. But his sojourn was brief; for,\\nwith the invasion of Poland by the Swedes, came the\\nfall and conflagration of the city. Comenius escaped,\\nalmost in a state of nudity, to use his own words.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "70 COMENIUS\\nHe had not only lost his property and his library in\\nthe conflagration, bnt he had sustained a yet greater\\nloss in the burning of his numerous manuscripts, and,\\nmore important (to him) than all the others, his entire\\npansophic work, on the composition of which he had\\nlabored so arduously for many years. Writing to\\nMontanus, he says, The loss of this work I shall\\ncease to lament only when I cease to breathe. He\\nescaped from Lissa to Silesia, where he found refuge\\nfor a time in the home of a nobleman. He shortly\\nafterward pushed on to Frankfort, but not feeling\\nsecure here he moved to Hamburg, where for two\\nmonths he was prostrated by a severe illness.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nCLOSING YEARS: 1656-1670\\nFlight to Amsterdam Reception by Lawrence de Geer Religious\\nfreedom in Holland Publication of the complete edition of his\\nwritings Other educational activities The One thing need-\\nful Death at Amsterdam and burial at Naarden Family-\\nhistory of Comenius Alleged call to the presidency of Harvard\\nCollege Portraits Personal characteristics.\\nDuring his last year s residence at Saros-Patak,\\nComenius had sustained a great loss in the death of\\nhis friend and former patron, Lewis de Geer. In a\\nfuneral oration which he composed, he characterized\\nhis benefactor as a man pious toward God, just\\ntoward men, merciful to the distressed, and meritori-\\nously great and illustrious among all men. The rich\\nDutch merchant bequeathed his estates to his son,\\nLawrence de Geer of Amsterdam; and not only his\\nestates, but also his deep interest in the welfare of the\\nMoravian reformer.\\nLearning of the severe illness of Comenius, Lawrence\\nde Geer wrote him to leave Hamburg and come directly\\nto Amsterdam, where all the needs of his closing years\\nwould be provided. The younger de Geer, it would\\nseem, had not only a real and profound affection for\\nthe aged Comenius, but also a keen and intelligent\\ninterest in all his schemes for educational reform.\\nAmsterdam proved, indeed, a haven of rest to the\\nweary wanderer. At this time the city enjoyed greater\\n71", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "72 COMENIUS\\nreligious freedom than perhaps any other city in\\nEurope. Says Benham Comenius found himself in\\nthe midst of a community then enjoying the largest\\namount of religious toleration to be found anywhere in\\nEurope, and with it a great diversity of religious\\nopinions. Unitarians expelled from their own Coun-\\ntries here united themselves to the friends of specu-\\nlative philosophy among the Remonstrants and\\nArminians; and the philosophy of Descartes here\\nfound admirers even among the members of the\\nReformed Church. The truly evangelical Comenius\\nhad become known to many through his writings,\\nwhich, together with the influence of his patron s son,\\nLawrence de Geer, who continued his father s benevo-\\nlence, induced rich merchants to intrust him with the\\neducation of their sons; so that, with the additions\\naccruing from his literary labors, Comenius found a\\nsupply of food and raiment, and was thereby content.\\nIn spite of his advanced age, these closing years of\\nhis life at Amsterdam were busy ones; for besides\\nministering to the needs of the scattered and disheart-\\nened ecclesiastics of the Moravian Brethren, he en-\\ngaged somewhat in private teaching, and saw through\\nthe press a complete edition of his educational writ-\\nings. It was a magnificent volume of more than a\\nthousand pages, and was printed by Christopher\\nCunard and Gabriel a Roy under the title All the\\ndidactical works of J. A. Comenius.\\nThe publication of this handsome folio, containing\\nall his educational writings, was made possible by the\\ngenerosity of Lawrence de Geer. The first part of\\nthe folio, written between 1627 and 1642, contains\\n(1) a brief narration of the circumstances which led", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "CLOSING YEAKS 73\\nthe author to write these studies; (2) the Great\\ndidactic, showing the method of teaching all things\\n(3) the School of infancy, being an essay on the edu-\\ncation of youth during the first six years; (4) an\\naccount of a six-class vernacular school; (5) the\\nJanua; (6) the Vestibulum; (7) David Vechner s JfodeZ\\nof a temple of Latinity (8) a didactic dissertation on\\nthe quadripartite study of the Latin language .(9) the\\ncircle of all the sciences; (10) various criticisms on\\nthe same; (11) explanations of attempts at pansophy.\\nThe second part of the folio, written between 1642\\nand 1650, contains (1) new reasons for continuing to\\ndevote attention to didactic studies (2) new methods\\nof studying languages, built upon didactic foundations\\n(3) vestibule of the Latin language adapted to the\\nlaws of the most recent methods of language teaching;\\n(4) new gate of the Latin language exhibiting the\\nstructure of things and words in their natural order;\\n(5) a Latin and German introductory lexicon explain-\\ning a multitude of derived words; (6) a grammar of\\nthe Latin and vernacular, with short commentaries;\\n(7) treatise on the Latin language of the Atrium;\\n(8) certain opinions of the learned on these new views\\nof language teaching.\\nThe third part of the work, written between 1650\\nand 1654, contains (1) a brief account of his call to\\nHungary; (2) a sketch of the seven-class pansophic\\nschool; (3) an oration on the culture of innate capaci-\\nties; (4) an oration on books as the primary instru-\\nments in the cultivation of innate capacities (5) on\\nthe obstacles to the acquisition of encyclopaedic culture\\nand some means of removing these obstacles; (6) a\\nshort and pleasant way of learning to read and under-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "74 COMENIUS\\nstand the Latin authors (7) on scholastic erudition\\n(8) on driving idleness from the schools (9) laws for\\na well-regulated school; (10) the Orbis pictus; (11) on\\nscholastic play; (12) valedictory oration delivered on\\nthe occasion of the completion of his labors at Saros-\\nPatak; (13) funeral oration on the life and character\\nof Lewis de G-eer.\\nThe fourth part of the work represents the years\\nfrom 1654 to 1657. It contains (1) an account of the\\nauthor s didactic studies; (2) a little boy to little\\nboys, or all things to all (3) apology for the Latinity\\nof Comenius; (4) the art of wisely reviewing one s\\nown opinions (5) exits from scholastic labyrinths into\\nthe open plain; (6) the formation of a Latin college;\\n(7) the living printing-press, or the art of impressing\\nwisdom compendiously, copiously, and elegantly, not\\non paper, but on the mind; (8) the best condition of\\nthe mind; (9) a devout commendation of the study of\\nwisdom.\\nIn addition to his literary labors, he gave much time\\nto the administration of church affairs for Lissa had\\nrisen from her ashes and was more prosperous than\\nbefore the war. Here congregated again many adhe-\\nrents of the Moravian brotherhood, and the college was\\nrebuilt and resumed its beneficent pedagogic influ-\\nence. From this centre the Moravian influence\\nspread anew to many parts of Europe. England,\\nPrussia, and other Protestant countries were generous\\nin their contributions toward the restoration of Mora-\\nvian churches. All this money was sent to Comenius\\nat Amsterdam, and by him apportioned to the scat-\\ntered brethren. He received thirty thousand dollars\\nfrom England alone during the years 1658 and 1659;", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "CLOSING YEARS 75\\nthe only stipulation made in the disposition of the\\nmoney was that a portion of it should be used for the\\nprinting of Polish and Bohemian Bibles. The last\\nyears of his life were occupied almost wholly in such\\nministrations.\\nHe published in 1668 his swan song, the One thing\\nneedful. This is his farewell address to the world.\\nIt delineates in a forceful yet modest way his aspira-\\ntions for educational reform, gives expression of the\\ndeep faith which sustained him during the long years\\nof his weary pilgrimage, and burns with enthusiastic\\nzeal for the welfare of mankind the burning passion\\nof his life. He was well prepared at the advanced\\nage of seventy-six years to sum up the experience\\nof a long and afflicted life.\\nA few citations from this touching bit of reminis-\\ncence will hint at the motives which actuated him in\\nhis life-work as an educational reformer. I thank\\nGod that I have been all my life a man of aspirations\\nand although He has brought me into many labyrinths,\\nyet He has so protected me that either I have soon\\nworked my way out of them, or He has brought me by\\nHis own hand to the enjoyment of holy rest. For the\\ndesire after good, if it is always in the heart, is a\\nliving stream that flows from God, the fountain of all\\ngood. The blame is ours if we do not follow the\\nstream to its source or to its overflow into the sea,\\nwhere there is fulness and satiety of good.\\nOne of my chief employments has been the\\nimprovement of schools, which I undertook and con-\\ntinued for many years from the desire to deliver the\\nyouth in the schools from the labyrinth in which they\\nare entangled. Some have held this business foreign", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "76 COMENIUS\\nto a theologian, as if Christ had not connected together\\nand given to his beloved disciple Peter at the same\\ntime the two commands, Feed my sheep and Feed\\nmy lambs. I thank Christ for inspiring me with\\nsuch affection toward his lambs, and for regulating my\\nexertions in the form of educational works. I. trust\\nthat when the winter of indifference has passed that\\nmy endeavors will bring forth some fruit.\\nMy life here was not my native country, but a\\npilgrimage my home was ever changing, and I found\\nnowhere an abiding resting place. But now I see my\\nheavenly country near at hand, to whose gates my\\nSaviour has gone before me to prepare the way. After\\nyears of wandering and straying from the direction of\\nmy journey, delayed by a thousand extraneous diver-\\nsions, I am at last within the bounds of the promised\\nland.\\nThe rest and peace and glory which he so hopefully\\nanticipated came to him at Amsterdam on the 15th of\\nNovember, in the year 1670. His remains were con-\\nveyed to Naarden, a small town on the Zuyder Zee,\\ntwelve miles east of Amsterdam, where they were\\ninterred in the French Reformed Church, on the 22d\\nof November. The figure 8 was the only epitaph\\nplaced on his tomb. More than a century afterward\\nthe church was transformed into a military barracks,\\nand for many years the date of his death, the church\\nin which he was buried, and the grave inclosing his\\nremains were unknown. But in 1871 Mr. de Roper,\\na lawyer residing in Naarden, found among his father s\\npapers the church register, the sexton s account book,\\nand other documents relating to the old French\\nEeformed Church. After the figure 8, in the church", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "CLOSING YEARS 77\\nregister, was this entry John Amos Comenius, the\\nfamous author of the Janua Linguarum; interred the\\n22d of November, 1670. A diligent search was\\ninstituted, and the grave was found. An aged woman\\nresiding in Naarden recalled the location of the French\\nEeformed Church as the present site of the barracks.\\nBy permission of the commanding officer, an examina-\\ntion was made and the tombstone marked 8 was found.\\nThe remains were subsequently removed to a little\\npark in Naarden, where there was erected to his\\nmemory, in 1892, by friends of education in Europe\\nand America, a handsome monument. This consists\\nof a pyramid of rough stones with two white marble\\nslabs containing gold-furrowed inscriptions in Latin,\\nDutch, and Czech (Bohemian) A grateful posterity\\nto the memory of John Amos Comenius, born at\\nNivnitz on the 28th of March, 1592 died at Amster-\\ndam on the 15th of November, 1670 buried at Naar-\\nden on the 22d of November, 1670. He fought a\\ngood fight. A room in the town hall at Naarden has\\nbeen set aside as a permanent Comenius museum,\\nwhere will be found a collection of his portraits, sets\\nof the different editions of his writings, and the old\\nstone slab containing the figure 8.\\nThe present work being an educational rather than\\na personal life of Comenius, no reference has thus far\\nbeen made to his family life. It may be noted briefly\\nthat he married, in 1624, Elizabeth Cyrrill, with\\nwhom he had five children, a son (Daniel) and four\\ndaughters. Elizabeth died in 1648 and he married\\nagain on the 17th of May, 1649, Elizabeth Gainsowa,\\nwith whom he appears to have had no children. A\\nthird marriage is mentioned by some of his biog-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "78 COMENIUS\\nraphers, but the statement lacks corroboration. One\\ndaughter, Elizabeth, married Peter Figulus Jablonsky,\\nwho was bishop of the Church from November, 1662,\\nuntil his death, January the 12th, 1670. Their son\\nDaniel Ernst Jablonsky was consecrated a bishop of\\nthe Polish branch of the Moravian Church at Lissa\\nMarch the 10th, 1699. He served the Church until\\nhis death, May the 25th, 1741.\\nAn account of the life of Comenius would be incom-\\nplete without some reference to his alleged call to\\nthe presidency of Harvard College. This rests upon\\nan unconfirmed statement by Cotton Mather. In his\\nMagnalia 1 he says: Mr. Henry Dunster continued\\nthe Praesident of Harvard-College until his unhappy\\nEntanglement in the Snares of Anabaptism fill d the\\nOverseers with uneasie Fears, lest the Students by his\\nmeans should come to be Ensnared: Which Uneasi-\\nness was at length so signified unto him, that on\\nOctober 24, 1654, he presented unto the Overseers,\\nan Instrument under his Hands, wherein he Resigned\\nhis Presidentship and they accepted his Eesignation.\\nThat brave Old Man Johannes Amos Commenius, the\\nEame of whose Worth has been Trumpetted as far as\\nmore than Three Languages (whereof every one is\\nEndebted unto his Janua) could carry it, was agreed\\nwithall, by our Mr. Winthrop in his Travels through\\nthe Low Countries to come over into New England\\nand Illuminate this College and Country in the Quality\\nof a President. But the Solicitations of the Swedish\\n1 Magnalia Christi Americana, or the ecclesiastical history of\\nNew England. By the Reverend and Learned Cotton Mather and\\nPastor of the North Church in Boston, New England. London, 1702.\\nBook IV, p. 128.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "CLOSING YEARS 79\\nAmbassador, diverting him another way, that Incom-\\nparable Moravian became not an American.\\nThe following evidence makes improbable this\\ncall\\n1. Some years ago the writer asked Professor Paul\\nH. Hanus to ascertain for him if the records of Har-\\nvard College corroborated Mather s statement. After\\nexamining the proceedings of the overseers and all\\nother records of the college during its early history,\\nhe reported that he could not find the slightest cor-\\nroboration of Mather s statement, and that he seriously\\ndoubted its accuracy.\\n2. The historians of the college Peirce, Quincy,\\nand Eliot do not allude to the matter. And Presi-\\ndent Josiah Quincy, 1 in his complete and standard\\nhistory of the institution, refers to the loose and\\nexaggerated terms in which Mather and Johnson, and\\nother writers of that period, speak of the early dona-\\ntions to the college, and the obscurity, and not to say\\nconfusion, in which they appear in the first records of\\nthe seminary.\\n3. Careful examination has been made of the\\nnumerous lives of Comenius printed in the German\\nlanguage, as well as those printed in the Czech and,\\nalthough less noteworthy distinctions are recorded,\\nthere is no mention of a call to Harvard College or\\nAmerica.\\n4. In the Journals of Governor John Winthrop of\\nMassachusetts, there are no allusions to Comenius.\\nGovernor Winthrop died in 1649 and it was not until\\n1653 that President Dunster fell into the briers of\\n1 The history of Harvard university. By Josiah Quincy. Bos-\\nton, 1840. 2 vols.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "80 COMENIUS\\nAntpsedo-baptism, when he bore public testimony\\nin the church at Cambridge against the administration\\nof baptism to any infant whatsoever. And the his-\\ntorians of the college report that up to this time\\n(1653) Dunster s administration had been singularly\\nsatisfactory, so that there could have been no thought\\nof providing his successor before the death of Governor\\nWinthrop. Mather is either in error or he does not\\nrefer to Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts. He\\nmay refer to Governor Winthrop of Connecticut,\\nthe eldest son of the Massachusetts governor, although\\nevidence is wanting to show that the Connecticut\\ngovernor had anything to do with the management of\\nHarvard College. Young Winthrop was in England\\nfrom August the 3d, 1641, until the early part of 1643.\\nIt will be recalled that Comenius spent the winter of\\n1641-1642 in London, and the fact that both knew\\nHartlib most intimately would suggest that they must\\nhave met. In a letter which Hartlib wrote to Winthrop\\nafter the latter s return to America, he says, Mr.\\nComenius is continually diverted by particular con-\\ntroversies of Socinians and others from his main\\nPansophical Worke. 1\\n5. Mather is clearly in error in regard to the date\\nof the call of Comenius to Sweden. The negotiations\\nwere begun in 1641 and were completed in August of\\nthe next year, so that the solicitations of the Swed-\\nish Ambassador diverting him another way took\\nplace more than twelve years before the beginning of\\n1 Correspondence of Hartlib, HaaTc, Oldenburg, and others of the\\nfounders of the Royal Society xoith Governor Winthrop of Connect-\\nicut, 1661-1672. With an introduction and notes by Robert C. Win-\\nthrop. Boston, 1878.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "CLOSING YEARS 81\\nthe troubles at Cambridge which led to the resignation\\nof Dunster.\\nWith so many flaws in Mather s statement, and the\\nabsence of corroborative evidence, it seems altogether\\nimprobable that Comenius was ever called to the\\npresidency of Harvard College. 1\\nIn closing, brief mention may be made of his most\\ndominant physical and personal characteristics.\\nSeveral excellent portraits of Comenius are in exist-\\nence, the best perhaps being by Hollar and Glover.\\nFrom these it is apparent that he was a man of\\nimposing figure, with high forehead, long chin, and\\nsoft, pathetic eyes. It is not difficult to read into\\nhis sad, expressive countenance the force of the\\nexpression in his last published utterance, My\\nwhole life was merely the visit of a guest; I had no\\nfatherland.\\nThere is no conflicting evidence on the personal life\\nof the reformer; but rather unanimous agreement on\\nthe sweetness and beauty of his character. Says\\nPalacky: In his intercourse with others, Comenius\\nwas in an extraordinary degree friendly, conciliatory,\\nand humble; always ready to serve his neighbor and\\nsacrifice himself. His writings, as well as his walk\\nand conversation, show the depth of his feeling, his\\ngoodness, his uprightness, and his fear of God. He\\nnever cast back upon his opponents what they meted\\nout to him. He never condemned, no matter how\\n1 For further discussion of the question see my article, Was\\nComenius called to the presidency of Harvard in the Educational\\nReview, November, 1896, Vol. XII, pp. 378-382, and the article by\\nMr. James H. Blodgett in the same Review for November, 1898, Vol.\\nXVI, pp. 390-393 also the closing chapter in Professor Hanus Educa-\\ntional aims and educational values (New York, 1899), pp. 206-211.\\na", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "82 COMENIUS\\ngreat the injustice which he was made to suffer. At\\nall times, with fullest resignation, whether joy or\\nsorrow was his portion, he honored and praised the\\nLord. Eaumer says of him: Comenius is a grand\\nand venerable figure of sorrow. Wandering, perse-\\ncuted, and homeless during the terrible and desolating\\nThirty Years War, he never despaired, but, with\\nenduring and faithful truth, labored unceasingly to\\nprepare youth by a better education for a better future.\\nHis unfailing aspirations lifted up in a large part of\\nEurope many good men prostrated by the terrors of\\nthe times and inspired them with the hope that by\\npious and wise systems of education there might be\\nreared up a race of men more pleasing to God. Well\\nmight Herder say Comenius was a noble priest of\\nhumanity, whose single end and aim in life was the\\nwelfare of all mankind.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nPHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION\\nThe Great didactic Conditions under which produced Aim of\\nthe book. Purpose of education Man s craving for knowledge\\nYouth the time for training Private instruction undesirable\\nEducation for girls as well as boys Uniform methods. Edu-\\ncation according to nature How nature teaches Selection and\\nadaptation of materials Organization of pupils into classes\\nCorrelation of studies. Methods of instruction Science Arts\\nLanguage Morals Religion. Types of educational institu-\\ntions The mother s school School of the mother-tongue\\nLatin school University. School discipline Character and\\npurpose of discipline Corporal punishment only in cases of\\nmoral perversity.\\nThe Great Didactic\\nMost comprehensive of all of the educational writ-\\nings of Comenius is the Great didactic. It was\\nplanned in 1628, while yet in the full possession of\\nhis vigor, before misfortune had hampered his useful-\\nness and persecution had made him a wanderer.\\nWritten originally in the Czech, it was translated into\\nthe Latin and published at Amsterdam in 1657. The\\noriginal Czech manuscript was discovered at Lissa in\\n1841, and presented to the museum at Prague; but\\nthe Austrian censors of the press forbade its publica-\\ntion because Comenius was a Bohemian exile\\nThrough the exertions of the museum authorities, how-\\never, it was allowed to be printed in 1849. Professor\\nLaurie gave English readers a summary of the Great\\n83", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "84 COMENIUS\\ndidactic in his Life and educational works of John\\nAmos Comenius (London, 1883) but the first complete\\ntranslation was made by Mr. M. W. Keatinge of\\nEdinburgh in 1896.\\nThe full title is The great didactic setting forth the\\nwhole art of teaching all things to all men or a certain\\ninducement to found such schools in all parishes, towns,\\nand milages of every Christian kingdom that the entire\\nyouth of both sexes, none being excepted, shall quickly,\\npleasantly, and thoroughly become learned in the sciences,\\npure in morals, trained in piety, and in this manner in-\\nstructed in all things necessary for the present and future\\nlife, in which, with respect to everything that is suggested,\\nits fundamental principles are set forth from the essential\\nnature of the matter, its truth is proved by examples, from\\nthe severed mechanical arts its order is clearly set forth in\\nyears, months, days, and hours and finally an easy and\\nsure method is shown by which it can be pleasantly\\nbrought into existence.\\nThe purpose of the Great didactic, as announced by\\nComenius in the preface, is to seek and find a method\\nof instruction by which teachers may teach less, but\\nlearners may learn more; schools may be the scene of\\nless noise, aversion, and useless labor, but of more\\nleisure, enjoyment, and solid progress; the Christian\\ncommunity have less darkness, perplexity, and dis-\\nsension, but more light, peace, and rest. He prom-\\nises in his greeting an art of teaching all things\\nto all men, and of teaching them with certainty, so\\nthat the result cannot fail. Among the uses of such\\nan art he notes the advantage (1) to parents, that they\\nmay know that if correct methods have been employed\\nwith unerring accuracy, it is impossible that the", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 85\\ndesired result should not follow; (2) to teachers, who,\\nwithout a knowledge of this art, try in turn first one\\nplan and then another a course which involves a\\ntedious waste of time and energy; and (3) to schools,\\nthat they may become places of amusement, houses of\\ndelight and attraction, and that they may cause learn-\\ning to flourish. Such, in brief, are fundamental prin-\\nciples of a philosophy of education. How well those\\nprinciples were elaborated and applied will be seen in\\nthe exposition of his writings which follows.\\nPurpose of Education\\nThe opening chapters of the Great didactic treat of\\nman as the highest, the most absolute, and the most\\nexcellent of created beings: of the life beyond as\\nman s ultimate end, and of this life as merely a prepa-\\nration for eternity. The human being passes through\\nthree stages in his preparation for eternity he learns\\nto know himself, to rule himself, and to direct him-\\nself to God. Man s natural craving is for knowledge,\\nlearning, virtue, piety, and the seeds of knowl-\\nedge are implanted in every rational creature. The\\nmind of man is unlimited in its aspirations. The\\nbody is enclosed by small boundaries the voice roams\\nwithin wider limits the sight is bounded only by the\\nvault of heaven; but for the mind, neither in heaven\\nnor anywhere outside of heaven can a boundary be\\nfixed for it.\\nMan delights in harmony; and, as respects both his\\nmind and his body, he is a harmony. Just as the\\ngreat world itself is like an immense piece of clock-\\nwork, put together with many wheels and bells, and\\narranged with such art that, throughout the whole", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "86 COMENIUS\\nstructure, one part depends upon another through the\\nharmony and perfection of the movements so it is\\nwith man. All this harmony and perfection is made\\npossible through education.\\nHe gave no bad definition, remarks Comenius, who\\nsaid that man was a teachable animal. But he must\\nbe taught, since he is born only with aptitudes.\\nBefore he can sit, stand, walk, or use his hands, he\\nrequires instruction. It is the law of all created\\nthings that they develop gradually and ultimately\\nreach a state of perfection. Plato was right when he\\nsaid, If properly educated, man is the gentlest and\\nmost divine of created beings but if left uneducated\\nor subjected to a false training, he is the most\\nintractable thing in the world.\\nEducation is necessary for all classes of society;\\nand this is the more apparent when we consider tlr\u00c2\u00a3\\nmarked individual differences to be found among\\nhuman beings. No one doubts that the stupid need\\ninstruction that they may outgrow their stupidity.\\nBut clever and precocious minds require more careful\\ninstruction than dull and backward minds; since those\\nwho are mentally active, if not occupied with useful\\nthings, will busy themselves with what is useless, curi-\\nous, and pernicious. Just as a millstone grinds itself\\naway with noise if wheat is not supplied, so an active\\nmind, if void of serious things, entangles itself with\\nvain, curious, and noxious thoughts, and becomes the\\ncause of its own destruction.\\nThe time for education is in early youth. 1 God has,\\n1 For an excellent discussion of the meaning of infancy see Pro-\\nfessor John Fiske s Excursions of an evolutionist (Boston, 1896),\\npp. 306-319, and Professor Nicholas Murray Butler s Meaning of\\neducation (New York, 1898), pp. 3-34.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 87\\naccordingly, made the years of childhood unsuitable\\nfor anything but education; and this matter was\\ninterposed by the deliberate intent of a wise Provi-\\ndence. Youth is a period of great plasticity. It is\\nin the nature of everything that comes into being to\\nbend and form easily while tender; but when the\\nplastic period has passed to alter only with great diffi-\\nculty. If one wishes to become a good tailor, writer,\\nor musician, he must apply himself to his art from\\nhis earliest youth, during the period when his\\nimagination is most active and when his fingers are\\nmost flexible. Only during the years of childhood is\\nit possible to train the muscles to do skilled work. If,\\nthen, parents have the welfare of their children at\\nheart, and if the good of the human race be dear to\\nthe civil and ecclesiastical guardians of society, let\\nthem hasten to make provision for the timely plant-\\ning, pruning, and watering of the plants of heaven\\nthat these may be prudently formed in letters, virtue,\\nand piety.\\nPrivate education is not desirable. Children should\\nbe trained in common, since better results and more\\npleasures are to be obtained when they are taught\\ntogether in classes. Not only is class teaching a\\nsaving of labor over private instruction, but it intro-\\nduces a rivalry that is both needful and helpful.\\nMoreover, young children learn much that is useful\\nby imitation through association with school-fellows.\\nComenius, it may be remarked, was one of the first\\nof the educational reformers to see clearly the value\\nof class teaching and graded instruction. His reforms\\nin this direction have already been noted.\\nSchool training is necessary for the children of all", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "88 COMENIUS\\ngrades of society, not of the rich and powerful only,\\nbut the poor and lowly as well. Let none be neglected,\\nunless God has denied him sense and intelligence.\\nWhen it is urged that the laboring classes need no\\nschool education, let it be also recalled that they are\\nexpected to think, obey, and do good.\\nGirls should be educated as well as boys. No satis-\\nfactory reason can be given why women should be\\nexcluded from the pursuits of knowledge, whether in\\nthe Latin or in the mother-tongue. They are formed\\nin the image of God as well as men; and they are\\nendowed with equal sharpness of mind and capacity\\nfor learning, often, indeed, with more than the oppo-\\nsite sex. Why, then, should we admit them to the\\nalphabet, and afterwards drive them away from books?\\nComenius takes issue with most writers on education\\nthat study will make women blue-stockings and chat-\\nterboxes. On the contrary, he maintains, the more\\ntheir minds are occupied with the fruits of learning,\\nthe less room and temptation there will be for gossip\\nand folly..\\nNot only should education be common to all classes\\nof society, but the subjects of instruction should be\\ncommon to the whole range of knowledge. Comenius\\nholds that it is the business of educators to take\\nstrong and vigorous measures that no maii in his\\njourney through life may encounter anything so un-\\nknown to him that he will be unable to pass sound\\njudgment upon it and turn it to its proper use without\\nserious error. This desire for encyclopaedic learning,\\nas already noted, dominated his life and writings.\\nBut even Comenius recognized the futility of\\nthoroughness in a wide range of instruction, and he", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 89\\nexpresses willingness to be satisfied if men know the\\nprinciples, the causes, and the uses of all things in\\nexistence. It is general culture something about a\\ngreat many things that he demands.\\nComenius clearly saw that the conditions of educa-\\ntional institutions were wholly inadequate for the\\nrealization of these purposes (1) because of an\\ninsufficient number of schools, and (2) because of the\\nunscientific character of current methods of instruc-\\ntion. The exhortations of Martin Luther, he observes,\\nremedied the former shortcoming, but it remains for\\nthe future to improve the latter.\\nThe best intellects are ruined by unsympathetic and\\nunpedagogic methods. Such great severity character-\\nizes the schools that they are looked upon as terrors\\nfor the boys and shambles for their intellects. Most\\nof the students contract a dislike for learning, and\\nmany leave school altogether. The few who are forced\\nby parents and guardians to remain acquire a most\\npreposterous and wretched sort of education, so that\\ninstead of tractable lambs, the schools produce wild\\nasses and restive mules. Nothing could be more\\nwretched than the discipline of the schools. What\\nshould be gently instilled into the intellect is violently\\nimpressed upon it, nay, rather flogged into it. How\\nmany, indeed, leave the schools and universities with\\nscarcely a notion of true learning. Comenius laments\\nthat he and many thousands of his contemporaries\\nhave miserably lost the sweet springtime of life and\\nwasted the fresh years of youth on scholastic trifles.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "90 COMENIUS\\nEducation according to Nature\\nComenius proposes to so reconstruct systems of\\neducation that (1) all shall be educated, except those\\nto whom God has denied understanding, in all. those\\nsubjects calculated to make men wise, virtuous, and\\npious (2) the course of training, being a preparation\\nfor life, shall be completed before maturity is attained\\n(3) and schools shall be conducted without blows,\\ngently and pleasantly, in the most natural manner.\\nBold innovator! How clearly he perceived the faults\\nof the schools of his day with what keen insight he\\nformulated methods for their improvement; and with\\nwhat hope in the reform which has gone forward\\nsteadily for these two hundred and seventy-five years,\\nbut which even now is far from being an accomplished\\nfact!\\nThe basis of the reform which he advocates is an\\napplication of the principle of order order in the\\nmanagement of time, in the arrangement of subjects\\ntaught, and in the methods employed. Nature fur-\\nnishes us a criterion for order in ail matters pertain-\\ning to the improvement of human society. Certain\\nuniversal principles, which are fundamental to his\\nphilosophy of education, are deduced from nature.\\nThese, stripped of their tedious examples and details,\\nare:\\n1. Nature observes a suitable time.\\n2. She prepares the material before she attempts to\\ngive it form.\\n3. She chooses a fit subject to act upon, or first\\nsubmits her subject to a suitable treatment in order to\\nmake it fit.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 91\\n4. She is not confused in her operations; but, in\\nher onward march, advances with precision from one\\npoint to another.\\n5. In all the operations of nature, development is\\nfrom within.\\n6. In her formative processes, she begins with the\\nuniversal and ends with the particular.\\n7. Nature makes no leaps, but proceeds step by-\\nstep.\\n8. When she begins a thing, she does not leave off\\nuntil the operation is completed.\\n9. She avoids all obstacles that are likely to inter-\\nfere with her operations.\\nWith nature as our guide, Comenius believes that\\nthe process of education will be easy, (1) if it is begun\\nbefore the mind is corrupted; (2) if the mind is pre-\\npared to receive it; (3) if we proceed from the general\\nto the particular, from what is easy to what is more\\ncomplex; (4) if the pupils are not overburdened with\\ntoo many different studie s; (5) if the instruction is\\ngraded to the stages of the mental development of the\\nlearners (6) if the interests of the children are con-\\nsulted and their intellects are not forced along lines\\nfor which they have no natural bent; (7) if everything\\nis taught through the medium of the senses (8) if the\\nutility of instruction is emphasized; and (9) if every-\\nthing is taught by one and the same method.\\nNature begins by a careful selection of materials,\\ntherefore education should commence early the pupils\\nshould not have more than one teacher in each subject,\\nand before anything else is done, the morals should be\\nrendered harmonious by the teacher s influence.\\nNature always makes preparation for each advance", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "92 COMENIUS\\nstep; therefore, the desire to know and to learn should\\nbe excited in children in every way possible, and the\\nmethod of instruction should lighten the drudgery,\\nthat there may be nothing to hinder progress in school\\nstudies.\\nNature develops everything from beginnings which,\\nthough insignificant in appearance, possess great poten-\\ntial strength whereas, the practice of most teachers is\\nin direct opposition to this principle. Instead of start-\\ning with fundamental facts, they begin with a chaos\\nof diverse conclusions.\\nNature advances from what is easy to what is more\\ndifficult. It is, therefore, wrong to teach the unknown\\nthrough the medium of that which is equally unknown.\\nSuch errors may be avoided if pupils and teachers talk\\nin the same language and explanations are given in the\\nlanguage that the pupil understands if grammars and\\ndictionaries are adapted in the language and to the\\nunderstanding of the pupils; if, in the study of a\\nforeign language, the pupils first learn to understand\\nit, then to write it, and lastly to speak it; if in such\\nstudy the pupils get to know first that which is nearest\\nto their mental vision, then that which lies moderately\\nnear, then that which is more remote, and lastly that\\nwhich is farthest off; and if children be made to exer-\\ncise first their senses, then their memory, and finally\\ntheir understanding.\\nNature does not overburden herself, but is content\\nwith a little at a time therefore the mental energies\\nof the pupils should not be dissipated over a wide\\nrange of subject-matter.\\nNature advances slowly; therefore school sessions\\nshould be shortened to four hours pupils should be", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 93\\nforced to memorize as little as possible school instruc-\\ntion should be graded to the ages and capacities of the\\nchildren.\\nNature compels nothing to advance that is not driven\\nforward by its own mature strength; therefore it fol-\\nlows that nothing should be taught to children not\\ndemanded by their age, interests, and mental ability.\\nNature assists her operations in every possible\\nmanner; therefore children should not be punished\\nfor inability to learn. Bather, instruction should be\\ngiven through the senses that it may be retained in\\nthe memory with less effort.\\nNothing is produced by nature the practical applica-\\ntion of which is not evident; therefore those things\\nonly should be taught whose application can be easily\\ndemonstrated.\\nNature is uniform in all her operations hence the\\nsame method of instruction should be adapted to all\\nsubjects of study, and the text-books in each subject\\nshould, as far as possible, be of the same editions.\\nComenius observes that there is a very general com-\\nplaint that few leave school with a thorough education,\\nand that most of the instruction retained in after life\\nis little more than a mere shadow of true knowledge.\\nHe considers that the complaint is well corroborated\\nby facts, and attributes the cause to the insignificant\\nand unimportant studies with which the schools occupy\\nthemselves. If we would correct this evil, we must go\\nto the school of nature and investigate the methods\\nshe adopts to give endurance to the beings which she\\nhas created.\\nA method should be found by means of which each\\nperson will be able not only to bring into his mental", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "94 COMENIUS\\nconsciousness that which he has learned, but at the\\nsame time to pass sound judgment on the objective\\nfacts to which his information refers. This will be\\npossible if only those subjects are studied which will\\nbe of real service in the later life if such subjects be\\ntaught without digression or interruption; if a thor-\\nough grounding precede the detailed instruction if all\\nthat comes later be based upon what has gone before\\nif great stress be laid on the points of resemblance\\nbetween cognate subjects; if the studies be arranged\\nwith reference to the pupils present mental develop-\\nment, and if knowledge be fixed in the memory by\\nconstant use.\\nIn support of his principle of thoroughness, Come-\\nnius adduces the following proofs from nature Noth-\\ning is produced by nature that is useless. When she\\nforms a body, she omits nothing that is necessary.\\nShe does not operate on anything unless it possesses\\nfoundations, and she strikes her roots deep and devel-\\nops everything from them. She never remains at\\nrest, but advances continually; never begins anything\\nfresh at the expense of work already begun, but pro-\\nceeds with what she has started and brings it to com-\\npletion. She knits everything together in continuous\\ncombination, preserving due proportion with respect\\nto both quality and quantity. Through constant exer-\\ncise she becomes strong and fruitful.\\nProgress is less a question of strength than of skill.\\nHitherto little has been accomplished in the school-\\nlife of the child, because no set landmarks have been\\nset up as goals to be reached by the pupils; things\\nnaturally associated are not taught together; the arts\\nand sciences are scarcely ever thought of as an encyclo-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 95\\npsedic whole; the methods employed are as numerous\\nand diverse as the schools and teachers instruction is\\nindividual and private, and not public and general, and\\nbooks are selected with too little regard for the value\\nof their contents. If these matters could be reformed,\\nthere is no doubt in the mind of Comenius that the\\nwhole circle of the sciences might be covered during\\nthe period of school training. Toward the solution of\\nthis problem he answers the following questions\\n1. How can a single teacher instruct a large num-\\nber of children at the same time? In answer, he\\nmaintains that it is not only possible for one teacher\\nto instruct several hundred children at once, but\\nthat it is essential for the best interests of both the\\nteacher and the children The larger the number\\nof pupils, the greater will be the teacher s interest in\\nhis work; and the keener his interest, the greater the\\nenthusiasm of his pupils. In the same way, to the\\nchildren, the presence of a number of companions will\\nbe productive not only of utility, but also of enjoy-\\nment, since they will mutually stimulate and assist\\none another. For children of this age, emulation and\\nrivalry are the best incentives to study. The reader\\nwill observe that this scheme of Comenius contem-\\nplates some adaptation of the system of pupil teach-\\ning, and that it interdicts all efforts at individual\\ninstruction.\\n2. How far is it possible for pupils to be taught\\nfrom the same book? It is an undisputed fact, says\\nComenius, that too many facts presented to the mind\\nat the same time distract the attention. It will, there-\\nfore, be of great advantage if the pupils be permitted\\nto use no books except those which have been expressly", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "96 COMENIUS\\ncomposed for the class in which they are. Such books\\nshould contain a complete, thorough, and accurate epit-\\nome of all the subjects of instruction. They should give\\na true representation of the entire universe should be\\nwritten simply and clearly preferably in the form of\\na dialogue; and should give the pupils sufficient assist-\\nance to enable them, if necessary, to pursue their\\nstudies without the help of a master.\\n3. How is it possible for all the pupils in a school\\nto do the same thing at one time? This may be accom-\\nplished by having a course of instruction commence\\nat a definite time of each year; and by and by so\\ndividing the course of instruction that each year, each\\nmonth, each week, each day, each hour may have a\\ndefinite appointed task for it.\\n4. How is it possible to teach everything according\\nto one and the same method? That there is only\\none natural method has already been satisfactorily\\ndemonstrated (to the mind of Comenius), and the uni-\\nversal adoption of this natural method will be as great\\na boon to pupils as a plain and undeviating road is to\\ntravellers.\\n5. How can many things be explained in a few\\nwords? The purpose of education is not to fill the\\nmind with a dreary waste of words from books.\\nEightly says Seneca of instruction Its administra-\\ntion should resemble the sowing of seed, in which\\nstress is laid not on the quantity, but on the quality.\\n6. How is it possible to do two or three things by\\na single operation? It may be laid down as a general\\nrule that each subject should be taught in combination\\nwith those which are correlative to it. Reading, pen-\\nmanship, spelling, language, and nature study should", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 97\\nwork together in the acquisition and expression of\\nideas. As Professor Hanus 1 has pointed out,\\nComenius clearly foreshadowed the correlation and\\ncoordination of school studies at least two centuries\\nbefore Herbart. Indeed, he went so far as to urge the\\ncorrelation of school instruction with the plays and\\ngames of children. He urged that children be given\\ntools and allowed to imitate the different handicrafts,\\nby playing at farming, at politics, at being soldiers\\nor architects. In the game of war they may be allowed\\nto take the part of field-marshals, generals, captains,\\nand standard-bearers. In that of politics they may be\\nkings, ministers, chancellors, secretaries, and ambassa-\\ndors, as well as senators, consuls, and lawyers; since\\nsuch pleasantries often lead to serious things. Thus,\\nmaintains Comenius, would be fulfilled Luther s wish\\nthat the studies of the young at school might be so\\norganized that the pupils would take as much pleasure\\nin them as playing at ball all day. In this way, the\\nschools might become a real prelude to the more\\nserious duties of practical life.\\nMethods of Instruction\\nA correct method of instruction was to Comenius, as\\nhas already been pointed out, the panacea for most of\\nthe ills of teaching. He made reform in methodology\\nthe starting point of all his schemes for educational\\nimprovement. In the Great didactic he considers\\nreform in methods of instructing in the sciences, arts,\\nlanguage, morals, and religion.\\n1 Permanent influence of Comenius, Educational Review, March,\\n1892. Vol. Ill, pp. 226-236.\\nH", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "98 COMENIUS\\n1. Science. Knowledge of nature or science requires\\nobjects to be perceived and sufficient attention for the\\nperception of the objects. The youth who would com-\\nprehend the sciences must observe four rules (1) he\\nmust keep the eye of his mind pure (2) he must see\\nthat the proper relationship is established between\\nthe eye and the object (3) he must attend to the object;\\n(4) he must proceed from one object to another in\\naccordance with a suitable method.\\nThe beginning of wisdom in the sciences consists,\\nnot in the mere learning of the names of things, but in\\nthe actual perception of the things themselves. It is\\nafter the thing has been grasped by the senses that\\nlanguage should fulfil its function of still further\\nexplaining it. The senses are the trusty servants of\\nthe memory, leading to the permanent retention of\\nthe knowledge that has been acquired. Reasoning,\\nalso, is conditioned and mediated by the experience\\ngained through sense-perception. It is evident, there-\\nfore, that if we wish to develop a true love and\\nknowledge of science, we must take special care to\\nsee that everything is learned by actual observation\\nthrough sense-perception. This should be the golden\\nrule of teachers Everything should as far as possible\\nbe placed before the senses.\\nWhen the objects themselves cannot be procured,\\nrepresentations of them may be used models may be\\nconstructed or the objects may be represented by\\nmeans of engravings. This is especially needful in\\nsuch studies as geography, geometry, botany, zoology,\\nphysiology, and physics. It requires both labor and\\nexpense to produce models, but the results of such aids\\nwill more than repay the efforts. In the absence of", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 99\\nboth objects and models, the things may be repre-\\nsented by means of pictures. 1\\n2. Arts. Theory/ says Vives, is easy and short,\\nbut has no result other than the gratification that it\\naffords. Practice, on the other hand, is difficult and\\nprolix, but of immense utility. Since this is so,\\nremarks Comenius, we should diligently seek out a\\nmethod by which the young may be easily led to\\nthe application of such natural forces as one finds in\\nthe arts.\\nIn the acquisition of an art, three things are required\\n(1) a model which the pupil may examine and then\\ntry to imitate (2) material on which the new form is\\nto be impressed; and (3) instruments by the aid of\\nwhich the work is accomplished. After these have\\nbeen provided, three things more are necessary before\\nan art can be learned a proper use of the materials,\\nskilled guidance, and frequent practice.\\nProgress in the art studies is primarily through\\npractice. Let the pupils learn to write by writing, to\\ntalk by talking, and to sing by singing. Since imita-\\ntion is such an important factor in the mastery of an\\nart, it is sheer cruelty to try to force a pupil to do that\\nwhich you wish done, while the pupil is ignorant of\\nyour wishes. The use of instruments should be shown\\nin practice, and not by words by example, rather than\\nby precept. It is many years since Quintilian wrote,\\nThrough precepts the way is long and difficult, while\\nthrough examples it is short and practicable. But\\nalas remarks Comenius, how little heed the schools\\npay to this advice. Man is essentially an imitative\\n1 The Orb is pictus, the first child s picture-book, was subsequently-\\nprepared to meet this need.\\nLarc.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "100 COMENIUS\\nanimal, and it is by imitation that children learn to\\nwalk, to run, to talk, and to play. 1 Rules are like\\nthorns to the understanding, since to grasp them\\nrequires a degree of mental development not common\\nduring the elementary school life of the child.\\nComenius would have the first attempts at imita-\\ntion as accurate as possible, since whatever comes first\\nis the foundation of that which is to follow. All\\nhaste in the first steps should be avoided, lest we pro-\\nceed to the advanced work before the elements have\\nbeen mastered.\\nPerfect instruction in the arts is based on both\\nsynthesis and analysis. The synthetic steps should\\ngenerally come first, since we should commence with\\nwhat is easy, and our own efforts are always easiest to\\nunderstand. But the accurate analysis of the work of\\nothers must not be neglected. Finally, it must be\\nremembered that it is practice, nothing but faithful\\npractice, that makes an artist.\\n3. Language. We learn languages, not merely for\\nthe erudition and wisdom which they hold, but because\\nlanguages are the instruments by which we acquire\\nknowledge and by which we impart our knowledge to\\nothers. The study of languages, particularly in youth,\\nshould be joined to the study of objects. The intelli-\\ngence should thus be exercised on matters which appeal\\nto the interests and comprehension of children. They\\nwaste their time who place before children Cicero and\\nthe other great writers for, if students do not under-\\nstand the subject-matter, how can they master the\\nvarious devices for expressing it forcibly The time\\n1 See in this connection Tarde s Laws of imitation. New York,\\n1900.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 101\\nwould be more usefully spent on less ambitious efforts,\\nso correlated that the languages and the general intelli-\\ngence might advance together step by step. Nature\\nmakes no leaps, neither does art, since art imitates\\nnature.\\nEach language should be learned separately. First\\nof all, the mother-tongue should be learned then a\\nmodern language that of a neighboring nation;\\nafter this, Latin and, lastly, Greek and Hebrew. The\\nmother-tongue, because of its intimate connection with\\nthe gradual unfolding of the objective world to the\\nsenses, will require from eight to ten years a modern\\nlanguage may be mastered in one year Latin in two\\nyears Greek in one year and Hebrew in six months.\\nThere are four stages in the study of a language.\\nThe first is the age of babbling infancy, during which\\ntime language is indistinctly spoken the second is the\\nage of ripening boyhood, in which the language is\\ncorrectly spoken; the third is the age of mature\\nyouth, in which the language is elegantly spoken and\\nthe fourth is the age of vigorous manhood, in which\\nthe language is forcibly spoken.\\n4. Morals. If the schools are to become forging\\nplaces of humanity, the art of moral instruction must\\nbe more definitely elaborated. To this end Comenius\\nformulates the following pedagogic rules\\nAll the virtues may be implanted in men.\\nThose virtues which are called cardinal virtues\\nprudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice should\\nfirst be implanted.\\nPrudence may be acquired through good instruction,\\nand by learning the differences which exist between\\nthings and the relative value of those things. Come-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "102 COMENIUS\\nnius expresses agreement with Vives, that sound judg-\\nment must be acquired in early youth.\\nChildren should be taught to observe temperance in\\neating, drinking, sleeping, exercising, and playing.\\nFortitude is to be learned by the suppression of ex-\\ncessive desires playing at the wrong time or beyond\\nthe proper time and by avoiding manifestations of\\nanger, discontent, and impatience. It is needful for\\nthe young to learn fortitude in the matter of frankness\\nand endurance in toil. Children must be taught to\\nwork, and moral education must preach the gospel of\\nwork.\\nLastly, examples of well-ordered lives in the persons\\nof parents, teachers, nurses, and schoolmates must\\ncontinually be set before the children, and they must\\nbe carefully guarded against bad associations.\\n5. Religion. In the scheme of education which\\nComenius outlines in the Great didactic, religion\\noccupies the most exalted place; and while training\\nin morals is accessory to religion, children must in\\naddition be given specific instruction in piety. For\\nthis purpose definite methods of instruction are out-\\nlined. Instruction in piety must be of such a\\ncharacter as to lead children to follow God, by giving\\nthemselves completely up to His will, by acquiescing\\nin His love, and by singing His praises. The child s\\nheart may thus be joined to His in love through\\nmeditation, prayer, and examination. Children should\\nearly be habituated to the outward works which He\\ncommands, that they may be trained to express their\\nfaith by works. At first they will not understand the\\ntrue nature of what they are doing, since their intelli-\\ngence is not yet sufficiently developed; but it is", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 103\\nimportant that they learn to do what subsequent\\nexperience will teach them to be right. 1\\nWhile Comenius was not willing to go as far as St.\\nAugustine and the early church fathers in the matter\\nof abolishing altogether the whole body of pagan\\nliterature from the school, nevertheless, he thought\\nthat the best interests of the religious education of\\nthe child required unusual precaution in the reading of\\npagan books. He reminds his readers that it is the\\nbusiness of Christian schools to form citizens, not\\nmerely for this world, but also for heaven, and that\\naccordingly children should read mainly those authors\\nwho are well acquainted with heavenly as well as\\nwith earthly things.\\nTypes of Educational Institutions\\nThe modern fourfold division of education into\\nkindergarten, elementary schools, secondary schools,\\ncolleges or universities was clearly foreshadowed by\\nComenius in the Great didactic. His philosophy of\\neducation comprehends a school of infancy, a school\\nof the mother-tongue, a Latin school, and a university.\\nThese different institutions, he notes, are not merely\\nto deal with different subjects, but they are to treat\\nthe same subjects in different ways, giving such\\ninstruction in all of them as will make true men,\\ntrue Christians, and true scholars, although grading\\nthe instruction throughout to the age, capabilities,\\nand previous training of the learners.\\n1. School of infancy. Comenius would have a\\n1 For a more detailed account of Comenius views on the religious\\neducation of children see the following chapter on the School of\\ninfancy.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "104 COMENIUS\\nmother s school in every home, where children may\\nbe given such training as will fit them at the age of\\nsix years to begin regular studies in the vernacular\\nschool. He prepared for the use of mothers during\\nthis period a detailed outline, which he published\\nunder the title, Information for mothers, or School of\\ninfancy. An analysis of this book is given in the\\nfollowing chapter on the earliest training of the child.\\n2. School of the mother-tongue. This covers the\\nyears from six to twelve, and includes all children of\\nboth sexes. The aim of this school is to teach the\\nyoung such things as will be of practical utility in later\\nlife to read with ease both printing and writing in\\nthe mother-tongue; to write first with accuracy, and\\nfinally with confidence in accordance with the rules of\\nthe mother-tongue to compute numbers as far as may\\nbe necessary for practical purposes to measure spaces,\\nsuch as lengths, breadths and distances to sing well-\\nknown melodies, and to learn by heart the- greater\\nnumber of psalms and hymns commonly used in the\\ncountry. In addition, the children study the princi-\\nples of morality, the general history of the world, the\\ngeography of the earth and principal kingdoms of\\nEurope, elementary economics and politics, and the\\nrudiments of the mechanical arts.\\nThe six years of the school of the mother-tongue\\nare graded into six classes, with a detailed course\\nof study for each class. Provision is made for four\\nlessons daily, two in the forenoon and two in the\\nafternoon. The remaining hours of the day are to be x\\nspent in domestic work or in some form of recreation.\\nThe morning hours are devoted to such studies as\\ntrain the intellect; the afternoons to such as give", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 105\\nmanual skill. No new work is to be introduced in\\nthe afternoon but the pupils may review and discuss\\nthe lessons developed during the morning sessions.\\nIf it is desired that a foreign language be introduced,\\nit should not be begun before the tenth year.\\n3. The Latin school. The purpose of the Latin\\nschool is to give a more thorough and comprehensive\\ntraining to those aspiring to callings higher than the\\nindustrial pursuits. It covers the years from twelve\\nto eighteen, and was also divided into six classes,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthe grammar, natural philosophy, mathematical, ethics,\\ndialectic, and rhetorical classes. Since Comenius\\nviews on Latin are so fully set forth in a later chapter\\non language teaching and the Janua, it is only neces-\\nsary here to recall that his curriculum for the Latin\\nschool includes a wide range of culture subjects. The\\nmost important of the culture studies of the Latin\\nschool is history, including an epitome of Biblical\\nhistory, natural history, the history of arts, inventions\\nand customs, history of morals, and a general historical\\nsurvey of the leading modern nations of the world.\\n4. University. While Comenius frankly admits\\nthat his experience has been chiefly limited to work\\nin elementary and secondary schools, still he sees no\\nreason why he should not state his views and wishes\\nwith regard to superior instruction. The curriculum\\nof the university conceived in the Great didactic is\\nuniversal in character, making provision for a wide\\nrange of studies in every branch of human knowledge.\\nThe university must possess learned and able profes-\\nsors in the languages, sciences, and arts, as well as a\\nlibrary of well-selected books for the common use of\\nall. One of the fundamental aims of the university", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "106 COMENIUS\\nis to widen the domain of knowledge through original\\ninvestigation in consequence, its equipment must fit\\nit for research work.\\nHow fully these schemes have been realized, the\\nreader may appreciate by comparing the types of edu-\\ncational institutions of the United States and Germany\\nwith those of the Great didactic, which were outlined\\nby Comenius more than two centuries ago.\\nSchool Discipline\\nThe Great didactic is an eloquent protest against\\nthe severe and inhuman discipline of Comenius day.\\nSchools which abound with shrieks and blows, he says,\\nare not well disciplined. Discipline is quite another\\nthing; it is an unfailing method by which we may\\nmake our pupils pupils in reality. This makes it\\nnecessary for the teacher to know the child, the being\\nto be disciplined, the subjects of study which serve as\\nmental stimulants, and the relations which should\\nexist between the child and the subjects to be taught.\\nDiscipline must be free from personal elements, such\\nas anger or dislike, and should be exercised with frank-\\nness and sincerity. Teachers should administer pun-\\nishments just as physicians prescribe medicines\\nwith a view to improving the condition of the indi-\\nvidual. Nor should severe forms of discipline be\\nexercised in connection with studies or literary exer-\\ncises. Studies, if they are properly taught, form in\\nthemselves a sufficient attraction. When this is not\\nthe case, the fault lies not with the pupil, but with the\\nteacher if his skill is unable to make an impression\\non the understanding, his blows will have no effect.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 107\\nIndeed, lie is more likely to produce a distaste for\\nletters than a love for them by the application of force.\\nWhenever, therefore, we see a mind that is diseased\\nor dislikes study, we should try to remove its disposi-\\ntion by gentle remedies but on no account should we\\nemploy violent ones. The sun gives us an excellent les-\\nson on this point. In the spring-time, when the plants\\nare young and tender, it does not scorch them, but warms\\nand invigorates them it does not put forth its full\\nheat until they are full grown. The gardener proceeds\\non the same principle, and does not apply the pruning\\nknife to plants that are immature. In the same way\\nthe musician does not strike his instrument a blow\\nwith his fist or throw it against the wall because it\\nproduces a discordant sound but setting to work on\\nscientific principles, he tunes it and gets it into order.\\nJust such a skilful and sympathetic treatment is\\nnecessary to instil a love of learning into the minds\\nof pupils and any other procedure will only convert\\ntheir idleness into antipathy and their interest into\\ndownright stupidity.\\nSevere forms of discipline should be used only in\\ncases of moral delinquencies, as (1) impiety of any\\nkind, such as blasphemy, obscenity, and other offences\\nagainst God s law (2) stubbornness and premeditated\\nmisbehavior, such as disobeying orders and conscious\\nneglect of duty and (3) pride, disdain, envy, and idle-\\nness. Offences of the first kind are an insult against\\nthe majesty of God; those of the second kind under-\\nmine the foundations of virtue and those of the third\\nprevent any rapid progress in studies. An offence\\nagainst God is a crime, and should be expiated by an\\nextremely severe punishment an offence against man", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "108 COMENIUS\\nis iniquitous, and should be promptly corrected but\\nan offence against Priscian is a stain that may be\\nwiped out by the sponge of blame. In a word, the\\nobject of discipline should be to stir the pupils to\\nrevere God, to assist their fellows, and to perform the\\nlabors and duties of life with alacrity.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nEARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD\\nSchool of infancy Circumstances under which written View\\nof childhood Conception of infant education. Physical train-\\ning Care of the body The child s natural nurse Foods\\nSleep Play and exercise. Mental training Studies which fur-\\nnish the materials of thought, and studies which furnish the\\nSymbols of thought Nature study Geography History\\nHousehold economy Stories and fables Principle of activity\\nDrawing Arithmetic Geometry Music Language\\nPoetry. Moral and religious training Examples Instruction\\nDiscipline Some virtues to be taught Character of formal\\nreligious instruction.\\nThe School of Infancy\\nPlato, Qnintilian, Plutarch, and other writers on\\neducation have discussed the earliest training of the\\nchild, but none of these early writers have compre-\\nhended the significance of infancy with any such peda-\\ngogic insight as Comenius and his School of infancy\\nhas taken a permanent place among the classics which\\ndeal with the period of childhood. It was written\\nduring the years 1628 to 1630, when he was in charge\\nof the Moravian school at Lissa. A German edition\\n(it was originally written in the Sclavic tongue) ap-\\npeared at Lissa in 1633, a second edition at Leipzig\\nin 1634, and a third German edition at Nuremberg\\nin 1636. Subsequently Polish, Bohemian, and Latin\\n109", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "110 COMENIUS\\ntranslations appeared; and Joseph Muller, 1 a most\\npainstaking Comenius bibliographer, mentions an Eng-\\nlish translation in 1641. I have found no other refer-\\nence to an English translation so early. As already-\\nnoted, however, Comenius was well and favorably\\nknown to Milton, Hartlib, and others high in educa-\\ntional authority in England and the fact that most\\nof his other writings were translated there gives cred-\\nence to Mr. Mtiller s statement. In the year 1858,\\nMr. Daniel Benham 2 published in London an English\\ntranslation, to which he prefixed a well-written account\\nof the life of Comenius. But his translation was soon\\nout of print and this excellent treatise in conse-\\nquence remained inaccessible to English readers until\\nthe appearance of my own translation. (Boston, 1896.\\nRepublished in London, 1897.)\\nThe School of infancy was written as a guide for\\nmothers during the first six years of the child s life,\\nand was dedicated to pious Christian parents, guar-\\ndians, teachers, and all upon whom the charge of chil-\\ndren is incumbent. Since the education of the child\\nmust begin at its birth, mothers must assume the\\nteacher s role and the mothers of the seventeenth cen-\\ntury, according to Comenius, were altogether unfitted\\nbecause of lack of training to undertake this high and\\nholy mission. Accordingly, the School of infancy out-\\nlines definite instructions for mothers.\\nComenius was too deeply grounded in the religious\\n1 Zur Biickerkunde des Comenius, Monatshefte der Comenius-\\nGesellschaft. 1892. Vol. I., pp. 19-53.\\n2 School of infancy an essay on the education of youth during\\nthe first six years, by John Amos Comenius. To which is prefixed\\na sketch of the life of the author. London, 1858. pp. 168 75.\\nt", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "EARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 111\\ndogmas of his day to abandon altogether the doctrine\\nof original sin, then so generally held but he main-\\ntained that suitable early training would overcome\\nmost of the original perversity in the human heart.\\nNo one, he urges, should be a mother or a teacher who\\ndoes not hold unbounded faith in the possibilities of\\nchildhood. The child is not to be regarded with refer-\\nence to its youthful disabilities, but rather with a\\nview to the purposes of the Divine mind, as Frobel\\nwould say, regard the child as a pledge of the pres-\\nence, goodness, and love of God. What higher tribute\\nto childhood than this The mother that has under\\nher care the training of a little child possesses a garden\\nin which celestial plantlets are sown, watered, bloom,\\nand nourish. How inexpressibly blessed is a mother\\nin such a paradise With Quintilian he asks Has\\na son been born to you From the first, conceive only\\nthe highest hopes for him.\\nThe purpose in the education of the child is three-\\nfold: (1) faith and piety, (2) uprightness in respect to\\nmorals, and (3) knowledge of languages and arts and\\nthis order must not be inverted. Parents, therefore,\\ndo not fully perform therr duty when they merely\\nteach their offspring to eat, drink, walk, and talk.\\nThese things are merely subservient to the body,\\nwhich is not the man, but his tabernacle only; the\\nrational soul dwells within, and rightly claims greater\\ncare than its outward tenement.\\nIn the education of the child, care especially for\\nthe soul, which is the highest part of its nature and\\nnext, attend to the body, that it may be made a fit\\nand worthy habitation for the soul. Aim to train the\\nchild to a clear and true knowledge of God and all his", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "112 COMENIUS\\nwonderful works, and a knowledge of himself, so that\\nhe may wisely and prudently regulate his actions.\\nIt must be borne in mind, however, that to properly\\ntrain children requires clear insight and assiduous\\nlabor. It is to be regretted that so many parents are\\ntoo incompetent to instruct their children and that\\nothers, by reason of the performance of family and\\nsocial duties, are unable to discharge this high and\\nholy mission. All such, of course, must hand their\\nchildren over to some one else to instruct. But they\\nshould intrust their little ones to the care and training\\nof such instructors only who will make the act of\\nlearning pleasing and agreeable a mere amusement\\nand mental delight.\\nSchools should be retreats of ease, places of literary\\namusement, and not houses of torture. A musician\\ndoes not dash his instrument against the wall, or give\\nit blows and cuffs because he cannot draw music from\\nit, but continues to apply his skill until he is able to\\nextract a melody. So by your skill you should bring\\nthe mind of the young child into harmony with his\\nstudies.\\nThe first step in the education of the child is the\\nmost important. Every one knows that whatever\\nform the branches of an old tree may have, that they\\nmust necessarily have been so formed from the first\\ngrowth. The animal born blind, lame, defective, or\\ndeformed remains so. The training of the child s\\nbody, mind, and soul should, therefore, be a matter\\nof earnest thought from the very first.\\nWhile it is possible for God to completely transform\\nan inveterately bad man, yet, in the regular course of\\nnature, it scarcely ever happens otherwise than that", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "EARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 113\\nas a being is formed during the early stages of devel-\\nopment, so it matures, and so it remains. Whatever\\nseed is sown in youth, such fruit is reaped in old age.\\nISTor is it wise to delay such training until the child\\nis old enough to be instructed in a school, since ten-\\ndencies are acquired which are difficult to overcome.\\nIt is impossible to make a tree straight that has grown\\ncrooked, or to produce an orchard from a forest every-\\nwhere surrounded with briers and thorns. This makes\\nit necessary for parents to know something about the\\nmanagement of children, that they may be able to\\nlay the foundations upon which the teachers are to\\nbuild when the child enters school at the age of six\\nyears.\\nGreat care must be exercised with reference to the\\nmethods adopted with children so young. The instruc-\\ntion need not be apportioned to the same degree that\\nit is apportioned in schools, since at this early age all\\nchildren are not endowed with equal ability, some\\nbeginning to speak in the first year, some in the\\nsecond, and some not until the third year.\\nPhysical Training\\nThe first care of the mother must be for the health\\nof her child, since bodily vigor so largely conditions\\nnormal mental development. A certain author,\\nsays Comenius, advises that parents ought to pray\\nfor a sound mind in a sound body/ but they ought to\\nlabor as well as pray. Since the early care of the\\nchild devolves largely on the mother, Comenius coun-\\nsels women with reference to the hygiene of childhood.\\nPrenatal conditions are no less important than post-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "114 COMENIUS\\nnatal; and prospective mothers should observe tem-\\nperance in diet, avoid violent movements, control the\\nemotions, and indulge in no excessive sleep or indolence.\\nFor good and sufficient reasons the mother should\\nnurse her own child. How grievous, how hurtful,\\nhow reprehensible, he exclaims, is the conduct of\\nsome mothers, especially among the upper classes, who,\\nfeeling it irksome to nourish their own offspring, dele-\\ngate the duty to other women. This cruel alienation\\nof mothers from their children, he maintains, is the\\ngreatest obstacle to the early training of the child.\\nSuch conduct is clearly opposed to nature the wolf\\nand bear, the lion and panther, nourish their offspring\\nwith their own milk; and shall the mothers of the\\nhuman race be less affectionate than the wild beasts\\nMoreover, it contributes to the health of the child to\\nbe nourished by its natural mother.\\nComenius has some sound advice for mothers on the\\nkinds of food for young children. At the first it must\\nas nearly as possible approximate to their natural ali-\\nment; it must be soft, sweet, and easily digestible.\\nMilk is an excellent food; and after milk, bread,\\nbutter, and vegetables. All highly seasoned foods are\\nto be avoided and Comenius urges mothers to regard\\nmedicines as they would poisons, and avoid them\\naltogether. Children accustomed to medicine from\\ntheir earliest years are certain to become feeble,\\nsickly, infirm, pale-faced, imbecile, cancerous.\\nChildren during the earliest years require an abun-\\ndance of sleep, fresh air, and exercise. They need not\\nonly to be exercised, but their exercises should be in\\nthe nature of amusements. A joyful mind, he\\nremarks, is half health, and the joy of the heart is", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "EARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 115\\nthe very life-spring of the child. These exercises for\\nthe amusement of the child may provide for the pleas-\\nure of its eyes, ears, and other senses, as well as con-\\ntribute to the vigor of its body and mind. Play not\\nonly conduces to the health of the child, but it lays the\\nbasis for later development. 1\\nMental Training\\nFor the mental training of the child during its first\\nsix years Comenius has outlined two classes of studies\\n(1) those which furnish the materials of thought, such\\nas nature study, geography, and household economy,\\nand (2) those which furnish the symbols of thought,\\nsuch as drawing, writing, and language. This group-\\ning of form and content studies, it should be noted,\\nhas been followed by the disciples of Herbart in their\\nschemes of classification.\\nThe first and second years of the child s life must\\nbe entirely given over to the development of organic\\nfunctions but, by the beginning of the third year, the\\nchild has acquired a vocabulary, and he should be\\ntaught to comprehend the meaning of the words he\\nuses. This early knowledge should be of natural\\nthings plants, flowers, trees, sand, clay, the cow,\\nhorse, and dog. He may be taught to comprehend\\nsome of the more important observable characters of\\nthese objects and to know their uses.\\nSpecial exercises should be provided for the training\\n1 To except Locke no reformer before Comenius time has set\\nforth the need of physical training with anything like the clearness\\nand fulness of the School of infancy. See Some thoughts concern-\\ning education by John Locke. Edited with introduction and notes\\nby R. H. Quick. London, 1884. pp. 240.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "116 COMENIUS\\nof the eye excessive lights must be avoided, and also\\noverstraining. Children may be moderately intro-\\nduced to objects of color, and thus taught to enjoy the\\nbeauty of the heavens, trees, flowers, and running\\nwater. In the fourth and following years they should\\nbe taken into fields and along the rivers, and trained to\\nobserve plants, animals, running water, and the turning\\nof windmills. In both nature study and geography\\nComenius anticipated the Heimatskunde of Pesta-\\nlozzi.\\nChildren should also during their first six years be\\ntaught to know the heavens, and to distinguish between\\nsun, moon, and stars to understand that the sun and\\nmoon rise and set; to recognize that the days are\\nshortest in winter and longest in summer to distin-\\nguish time morning, noonday, evening, and when to\\neat, sleep, and pray.\\nThe study of geography should be begun at the\\ncradle, and the location, distance, and direction of the\\nnursery, kitchen, bed-chamber, and orchard should\\nearly be learned. They should have out-door lessons\\nin geography, and be taught to find their way through\\nthe streets, to the market-place, and to the homes of\\ntheir friends and relatives. In the fifth year they\\nshould study a city, field, orchard, forest, hill, and\\nriver, and fix what they learn about these things in\\nthe memory.\\nThe early historic instruction should begin with a\\ndevelopment of the sense of time the working days\\nand the Sabbath days, when to attend and engage in\\ndivine services, the occurrence of such solemn festivals\\nas Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, and the sig-\\nnificance of these holy occasions. The child may also", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "EARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 117\\nbe trained to recall where he was and what he did\\nyesterday, the day before, a week ago.\\nHousehold economy should receive important in-\\nstruction during the first six years of the child s life.\\nHe must be trained to know the relation which he is\\nto sustain to his father and mother, and to obey each\\nwhere to place and how to care for his clothes the\\nuse of toys and playthings the economy of the home,\\nand his place in that economy.\\nComenius also commends stories and fables, particu-\\nlarly those about animals which contain some moral\\nprinciple. Stories, says Comenius, greatly sharpen\\nthe innate capacity of children. Ingeniously con-\\nstructed stories serve a twofold purpose in the early\\ndevelopment of the child: they occupy their minds,\\nand they instil knowledge which will afterward be of\\nuse.\\nThe greatest service which parents can render their\\nchildren during these early years is to encourage play.\\nThis must not be left to chance, but must be provided\\nfor and children need, most of all, to play with other\\nchildren near their own age. In such social plays with\\ntheir companions there is neither the assumption of\\nauthority nor the dread of fear, but the free inter-\\ncourse which calls forth all their powers of invention,\\nsharpens their wits, and cultivates their manners and\\nhabits.\\nIn his discussion of the form studies, such as draw-\\ning, writing, and language, Comenius remarks that\\nnothing delights children more than to be doing some-\\nthing. Youthful vigor will not long permit them to\\nbe at rest and this spontaneous activity requires wise\\nregulation, in order that children may acquire the habit", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "118 COMENIUS\\nof doing things that they will be required to do later. 1\\nThis is the time when children are most imaginative\\nand imitative they delight in doing the things that\\nthey have seen done by their elders. All these imita-\\ntive exercises give health to their bodies, agility to\\ntheir movements, and vigor to their muscles.\\nAt this period children delight in construction sup-\\nply them with material with which they may exercise\\nwhatever architectural genius they may have clay,\\nwood, blocks, and stones, with which to construct\\nhouses, walls, etc. They should also have toy car-\\nriages, houses, mills, plows, swords, and knives.\\nChildren delight in activity, and parents should realize\\nthat restraint is alike harmful to the development of\\nthe mind and the body.\\nAfter children have been taught to walk, run, jump,\\nroll hoop, throw balls, and to construct with blocks and\\nclay, supply them with chalk or charcoal, and allow\\nthem to draw according as their inclination may be\\nexcited. In arithmetic Comenius recognizes the diffi-\\nculty in leading children to see quantitative relations.\\nBy the fourth year, however, he thinks that they may\\nbe taught to count to ten and to note resemblances\\nand differences in quantity. To proceed further than\\nthis would be unprofitable, nay, hurtful, he says, since\\nnothing is so difficult to fix in the mind of the young\\nchild as numbers. Comenius, it would seem, valued\\nthe study of arithmetic much less highly than modern\\neducators. He thought that some geometry might be\\ntaught during these early years children may easily\\n1 Note the harmony of this conception of play with the modern\\ntheories of Professor Karl Groos in his Play of animals (New York,\\n1898, pp. 341) and in his Spiele der Menschen (Jena, 1899, pp. 538).", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "EARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 119\\nbe trained to perceive the common geometric forms\\nand the measurements and comparisons involved in\\nthe perception of such forms train the understanding\\nof the child.\\nMusic is instinctive and natural to the child. Com-\\nplaints and wailings are his first lessons in music. It\\nis impossible to restrain such complaints and wails\\nand even if it were possible, it would not be expedient,\\nsince all such vocalizations exercise the muscles in-\\nvolved in the production of speech, develop the chest,\\nand contribute to the child s general health. Children\\nshould hear music in their earliest infancy, that their\\nears and minds may be soothed by concord and har-\\nmony. He even countenances the banging and rattling\\nnoises which children are fond of making, on the\\nground that such noises represent legitimate steps in\\nthe development of the child s musical sense. Give\\nthem horns, whistles, drums, and rattles, and allow\\nthem to acquire perceptions of rhythm and melody.\\nIn the matter of instruction in language, Comenius\\nhad one fundamental principle that ideas of things\\nmust accompany or precede the words which symbol-\\nized the things. In consequence, word training, as\\nsuch, had no place in his schemes of education. When\\nchildren begin to talk, great care must be exercised that\\nthey articulate distinctly and correctly. The start\\nmust always be in the mother-tongue. Comenius, it\\nwill be recalled, was at variance with his contempora-\\nries in deferring instruction in Latin until the child\\nwas twelve years old. During these early years he\\nbelieves that poetry and especially jingles and\\nnursery rhymes may be used with great profit in\\naiding children to acquire language. They may not", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "120 COMENIUS\\nalways understand the rhymes, but they are certain to\\nbe pleased much more by the rhythm of verse than by\\nprose.\\nMoral and Religious Training\\nHowever much Comenius may have valued mental\\nand physical training, the fundamental aim and end\\nof all education he regarded as moral and religious.\\nThe agencies which he would have employed in the\\nearly moral training of the child are (1) a perpetual\\nexample of virtuous conduct (2) properly timed and\\nprudent instruction and exercise and (3) well-regulated\\ndiscipline. Children are exceptionally imitative, in\\nconsequence of which there should be great circum-\\nspection in the home in matters of temperance, clean-\\nliness, neatness, truthfulness, complaisance, and respect\\nfor superiors. While lengthened discourses and\\nadmonitions are not expedient, prudent instruction\\nmay often accompany examples with profit.\\nAs to discipline, Comenius thinks that occasionally\\nthere is need of chastisement in order that children\\nmay attend to examples of virtue and admonition.\\nWhen other means of discipline have been ineffectual,\\nthe rod may be used, but only for offences against\\nmorals never for stupidity. Comenius gives the\\nimpression that children may be whipped into being\\ngood. The influence of the ill-timed advice of Solomon\\nis clearly apparent here.\\nTemperance and frugality, he thinks, claim the\\nfirst place in the moral training of the child, inasmuch\\nas they are the foundations of health and life, and the\\nmother of all the virtues. Neatness and cleanliness\\nshould be exacted from the first j so should respect of", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "EARLIEST EDUCATION OF THE CHILD 121\\nsuperiors and elders. Bold and forward children are\\nnot generally loved. Obedience, like the plant, does\\nnot spring up spontaneously, but requires years of\\npatient care and training to develop into a thing of\\nbeauty. Truthfulness likewise is no less important;\\nso also justice, respect for the rights of others, be-\\nnevolence, patience, and civility.\\nAnd most important of the virtues to be acquired\\nby the young child is industry. Nothing hinders\\nmoral growth more than indolence. Comenius agrees\\nwith the church fathers that Satan s best allies are\\nthe idle. Children must not be idle. Teach them to\\nplay, to make things, to do things, to be helpful to\\nthemselves and useful to others.\\nComenius exaggerated the importance of religious\\ntraining during the child s earliest years. While\\nrecognizing that reasoning was necessary for the best\\nresults in religious instruction, he nevertheless over-\\nburdens the memory with formal religious instructions.\\nBefore the child is six years old he is to be taught the\\nLord s Prayer, the Apostles Creed, the Confession of\\nFaith, the Ten Commandments, and numerous hymns.\\nIn spite of his unreasonable demands on the memory,\\nmost of Comenius counsels to mothers on the religious\\ninstruction of their little ones are sane and helpful.\\nThe spirit of the parents, he rightly suggests, is all\\nimportant in religious instruction outward piety is\\nnot enough. The religious nature unfolds slowly, and\\nunusual patience and foresight are required in its\\nnurture and development.\\nAll this training physical, mental, moral, and\\nreligious has been preliminary to the formal training\\nin the school, which is to begin in the sixth or seventh", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "122 COMENIUS\\nyear of the child s life. The transition step from the\\nhome to the school is now to be made for jnst as\\nlittle plants after they have grown up from their seed\\nare transplanted into orchards, for their more success-\\nful growth, so it is expedient that children, cherished\\nand nurtured in the home, having acquired strength of\\nmind and body, should be delivered to the care of\\nteachers.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nSTUDY OF LANGUAGE\\nDominance of Latin in the seventeenth century Methods of study\\ncharacterized by Comenius. The Janua Purpose and plan\\nIts success. Atrium and Vestibulum Their relation to the\\nJanua. The Orbis pictus How conceived Its popularity\\nUse of pictures. Methodus novissima Principles of language\\nteaching Function of examples Place of oral and written\\nlanguage in education.\\nRecalling that Latin occupied such an exalted place\\nin the schools of Comenius day, it is not at all sur-\\nprising that he gave so much attention to the study of\\nlanguage. Latin absorbed practically all the energies\\nof the pupils, and with results that were far from\\nsatisfactory. A historian of the period says, Boys\\nand teachers were alike unhappy; great severity of\\ndiscipline was practised, and after all was done, and\\nall the years of youth had been spent in the study\\nmainly of the Latin, the results were contemptible.\\nThe study of Latin is thus characterized by Come-\\nnius:\\n1. The Latin language is taught abstractly with-\\nout a knowledge of the things which the words denote.\\nWords should be learned in connection with things\\nalready known it is false to conclude that, because\\nchildren know how to utter words, they therefore under-\\nstand them.\\n2. The second evil in the study of language is driv-\\n123", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "124 COMENIUS\\ning children into the manifold intricacies of grammar\\nfrom the very first. It is a blunder to plunge them\\ninto the formal statements of grammar on their first\\nbegiuning Latin. To make matters worse, the Latin\\ngrammar is written in Latin. How should we adults\\nlike it, if, in the study of Arabic, we had a grammar\\nwritten in the Arabic first put into our hands\\n3. The third evil in the study of language is the\\npractice of compelling children to make impossible\\nleaps instead of carrying them forward step by step.\\nWe introduce them from the grammar into Virgil and\\nCicero. The sublimity of poetic style is beyond the\\nconception of boys, and the subject-matter of Cicero s\\nepistles not easy for grown men. It will be said that\\nthe object is to place before children a perfect model\\nto which they may attain. It is right to aim at a\\nperfect model, when the aim is practicable, and if we\\nproceed gradually to the highest. But larger things\\nare with advantage postponed to lesser things; and\\nlesser things, if accommodated to the age of the\\nlearners, yield greater fruits than large things. If\\nCicero himself were to enter our schools and find boys\\nengaged with his works, Comenius believes that he\\nwould be either amused or indignant.\\nProfessor Laurie remarks that when we bear in\\nmind the construction of the Latin grammars then in\\nuse, that of Alvarus, for example, having five hun-\\ndred rules and as many exceptions, we cannot be\\nsurprised at the unanimous condemnation of the then\\ncurrent methods of teaching, and the almost universal\\nlamentation over the wasted years of youth.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 125\\nThe Janua\\nWe are now to see how Comenius proposed to reform\\nthese evils. I planned a book, he says, in which\\nall things, the properties of things, and the actions\\nand passions of things should be presented, and to\\neach should be assigned its proper work, believing\\nthat in one and the same book the whole connected\\nseries of things might be surveyed historically, and\\nthe whole fabric of things and words reduced to one\\ncontinuous context. On mentioning my purpose to\\nsome friends, one of them directed my attention to\\nthe Jesuit father s Janua linguarum, and gave me a\\ncopy. I leaped for joy but on examination, I found\\nthat it did not fulfil my plan.\\nThe Janua referred to by Comenius was that written\\nby William Bateus, an Irish Jesuit, who was spiritual\\nfather at Salamanca, Spain. His Janua appeared in\\nSpain prior to 1605. It contained twelve hundred\\nshort Latin sentences with accompanying Spanish\\ntranslations. The sentences were made up of common\\nLatin root-words, and no word was repeated. In 1615\\nan English-Latin edition appeared and subsequently\\neditions in French, German, and Italian. The object\\nof Bateus in the publication of his Janua was to pro-\\nmote the spread of Christianity by enabling the heathen\\nthe more easily to learn to read the Latin.\\nIt will thus appear that the plan of the Janua lingu-\\narum reserata of Comenius, the book that was destined\\nto make his name known throughout the world, was\\nnot wholly original with the Moravian reformer. The\\nname and to some extent the plan of the book had\\nbeen suggested by the publication of the Jesuit.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "126 COMENIUS\\nThe first edition of Comenius Janua appeared in\\n1631. 1 In the numerous subsequent editions the\\nauthor made important changes and additions. In\\nsubject-matter, the Janua comprehends the elements\\nof aH the sciences and arts. There are a hundred\\nchapter headings with a thousand Latin sentences and\\ntheir German equivalents arranged in parallel columns.\\nThe subjects treated cover a wide range from the\\norigin of the world to the mind and its faculties. The\\nfirst chapter is an introduction, in which the reader is\\nsaluted, and informed that learning consists in this\\nto know distinctions and names of things. He is\\nassured that he will find explained in this little book\\nthe whole world and the Latin language. If he should\\nlearn four pages of it by rote, he would find his eyes\\nopened to all the liberal arts.\\nThe second chapter treats of the creation of the\\nworld, the third of the elements, and the fourth of the\\nfirmament. In chapters five to thirteen inclusive, fire,\\nmeteors, water, earth, stones, metals, trees, fruits,\\nherbs, and shrubs are treated. Animals occupy the\\nnext five chapters; and man his body, external\\nmembers, internal members, qualities and accidents of\\nthe body, ulcers and wounds, external and internal\\nsenses, the intellect, affections, and the will the\\neleven following chapters. Nineteen chapters are\\n1 1 am indebted to Dr. William T. Harris for the use of the copy\\nof the Janua belonging to the library of the Bureau of Education\\nat Washington. It is a handsome Elzevir, bound in vellum, and\\npublished at Amsterdam in 1661. It contains 863 pages, 511 of\\nwhich are given to the thousand parallel sentences in the five lan-\\nguages (Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German) in which the\\nbook appears. The remaining 352 pages are given to the lexicon-\\nvocabularies in the different languages.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 127\\ngiven to the mechanic arts. Twenty-one chapters deal\\nwith the house and its parts, marriage, the family,\\ncivic and state economy. Twelve chapters are assigned\\nto grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry,\\nand the other branches of knowledge, describing briefly\\nwhat they are and ethics gets twelve chapters, a\\nchapter being devoted to each of the twelve virtues.\\nIn the four succeeding chapters, games, death, burial,\\nand the providence of God and the angels are treated.\\nChapter ninety -nine treats of the end of the world and\\nin the one-hundredth chapter Comenius gives some\\nfarewell advice, and takes leave of his reader.\\nEach chapter of the Janua is to be read ten times.\\nIn the first reading there is to be an accurate transla-\\ntion into the vernacular; at the second reading the\\nwhole is to be written out, Latin and vernacular, and\\nthe teacher is to begin conversation in the Latin\\ntongue. At the third reading the teacher is to read\\nthe Latin aloud, and the pupils are to translate into the\\nvernacular without seeing the printed page. At the\\nfourth reading the grammar is to be written out and\\nthe words parsed. Special attention is to be given to\\nthe derivation of words at the fifth reading the syno-\\nnyms to be explained at the sixth and the grammati-\\ncal rules applied at the seventh. At the eighth reading\\nthe pupils are to learn the text by heart. The ninth\\nreading is to be devoted to a logical analysis of the\\nsubject-matter; and the tenth and last reading is to be\\nconducted by the pupils themselves. They are to\\nchallenge one another to repeat portions of the text.\\nIn this ingenious manner Comenius applies his long-\\ncherished pansophic theories to language teaching, the\\nJanua being an application of ideas formulated in the", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "128 COMENIUS\\nGreat didactic. It is, however, more than an applica-\\ntion of pansophie notions it is an attempt to realize\\nhis oft-enunciated educational maxim that words and\\nthings should never be divorced, that knowledge of\\nthe language should go hand in hand with the knowl-\\nedge of the things explained.\\nThe success of the Janaa was most unexpected, and\\nno one was more surprised at its sudden popularity\\nthan Comenius himself. That happened, he writes,\\nwhich I could not have imagined, namely, that this\\nchildish book was received with universal approbation\\nby the learned world. This was shown me by the\\nnumber of men who wished me hearty success with\\nmy new discovery; and by the number of translations\\ninto foreign languages. For, not only was the book\\ntranslated into twelve European languages, since I\\nmyself have seen these translations (Latin, Greek, Bo-\\nhemian, Polish, German, Swedish, Dutch, English,\\nFrench, Spanish, Italian, and Hungarian), but also into\\nthe Asiatic languages Arabic, Turkish, and Persian\\nand even into the Mongolian, which is understood\\nby all the East Indies.\\nThe Janua, more than any other book that he wrote,\\nmade Comenius name familiar to scholars throughout\\nthe world, and for more than a century it was the most\\npopular secondary-school text-book in use. How came\\nthis book to confer on its author such world-wide\\nfame Partly, answers Eaumer, from the pleasure\\nfound in the survey of the whole world, adapted both\\nto young and old, and at a day when no great scientific\\nrequirements were made. Many were amused by the\\nmotley variety of the imaginations and investigations\\nof the book by its old-fashioned grammatical, didactic,", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 129\\nand rhetorical discussions, and its spiritual extrava-\\ngances. The greatest influence was, however, exerted\\nby the fundamental maxim of the book that the\\nknowledge of a language, and especially of the Latin,\\nshould go hand in hand with a knowledge of the things\\nexplained in it. x\\nAtrium and Vestibulum\\nThe Janua was followed in 1633 by the Atrium. It\\ncontains 427 short sentences somewhat more amplified\\nthan in the Janua. In the introduction the teacher\\npromises to initiate the pupil into the mysteries of\\nwisdom, the knowledge of all things, the ability to do\\nright always, and to speak correctly of everything,\\nespecially in Latin, which, as a common language to\\nall nations, is indispensable to a complete education.\\nThe foundation of things is laid in the Vestibulum\\n(subsequently published) the Janua furnishes the\\nmaterials for the building and the Atrium provides\\nthe decorations. With the completion of these, pupils\\nmay confer with the wisest authors through their\\nbooks, and through this reading they may become\\nlearned, wise, and eloquent.\\nThe second part treats of substantives, as the classi-\\nfication of things the third part of adjectives, as the\\nmodification of things; the fourth part explains pro-\\nnouns in the fifth part verbs are introduced the\\nsixth part discusses adverbs, the seventh part preposi-\\ntions, the eighth part conjunctions, and the ninth part\\ninterjections. The tenth part contains examples of\\n1 The Janua has lately been brought out in France in inexpen-\\nsive form by Professor A. C. Vernier of the College of Autun. (Au-\\ntun, 1899. pp. 350.)", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "130 COMENIUS\\nthe derivation of words. The Atrium was intended as\\na simplified Latin grammar to be used with the graded\\nsystem of language teaching outlined by Comenius.\\nThe Vestibulum, although written and published\\nafter the Janua and Atrium, was intended as a first\\nbook or Latin primer. The Janua was found to be\\ntoo difficult for the younger learners, and so this sim-\\nple book was composed during his sojourn at Saros-\\nPatak. The sentences were abbreviated, and they deal\\nwith simple things. The following are the chapter\\nheadings: {1) Concerning the accidents or qualities of\\nthings; (2) Concerning the actions and passions of\\nthings; (3) The circumstances of things; (4) Things\\nin the school (5) Things at home (6) Things in the\\ncity; (7) Concerning the virtues. He expresses regret\\nthat he is unable to illustrate the text of the Vestibulum\\nwith cuts to amuse the pupils and enable them the\\nbetter to remember, but says that he could find no\\nartists competent to do the required illustrative work.\\nHe urges the teachers to supply the want of such cuts\\nby explanations of the things, or by showing the things\\nthemselves. Without some such devices, the instruc-\\ntion must necessarily be lifeless. The parallelism\\nof the knowledge of words and things is the deepest\\nsecret of the method.\\nOrbis Pictus\\nThe idea of the use of pictures in elementary school\\nwork was suggested to Comenius by Professor Lubinus,\\nof Eostock, who edited in 1614 a Greek testament in\\nthree languages. He suggested reforms in the simpli-\\nfication of language instruction, and advised the con-", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 131\\nstruction of a book containing pictures of things, with\\na certain number of brief sentences attached to each,\\nuntil all the words and phrases of Latin were exhausted.\\nWhile at Saros-Patak, he carried into effect the desires\\nset forth in the Vestibulum with reference to an illus-\\ntrated child s first Latin reader, although the book was\\nnot printed until some years later, because of unex-\\npected difficulty in finding a skilful engraver in copper.\\nIn a letter to Michel Endter, of Nuremberg, who sub-\\nsequently published the Orbis pictus, Comenius wrote\\nin 1655: It may be observed that many of our chil-\\ndren grow weary of their books, because they are over-\\nfilled with things which have to be explained by the\\nhelp of words. The pupils, and often the teachers\\nthemselves, know next to nothing about the things.\\nThe Orbis pictus was first published at Nuremberg\\nin 1657 and, although the Janua had been received\\nwith well-nigh universal favor, its popularity was sur-\\npassed by the illustrated book. I have no means of\\nknowing how many editions of the Orbis pictus have\\nappeared during the last two hundred and fifty years.\\nI have myself seen twelve different editions in the\\nBritish Museum, Comenius-Stif tung, library of Harvard\\nUniversity, and elsewhere. These are: Nuremberg,\\n1657, Latin-German; London, 1658, Latin-English;\\nAmsterdam, 1673, Latin-Dutch-German; Nuremberg,\\n1679, Latin-German-Italian-Erench London, 1727,\\nLatin-English Nuremberg, 1746, Latin-German Lon-\\ndon, 1777, Latin-German St. Petersburg, 1808, Latin-\\nRussian-Gerrnan New York, 1810, Latin-English;\\nWroctawin, 1818, Latin-Polish-Erench-German Ko-\\nnigsgratz, 1883, Latin-Bohemian-German-French Sy-\\nracuse, 1887, Latin-English.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "132 COMENIUS\\nThe purpose of the Orbis pictus, as indicated by\\nConienius in the preface, was\\n1. To entice witty children to learn for it is appar-\\nent that children, even from their infancy, are de-\\nlighted with pictures and willingly please their eyes\\nwith them. And it will be very well worth the pains\\nto have once brought it to pass that scarecrows may\\nbe taken away out of wisdom s gardens.\\n2. This same little book will serve to stir up the\\nattention, which is to be fastened upon things, and\\neven to he sharpened more and more, which is also an\\nimportant matter. For the senses being the main\\nguides of childhood (because therein the mind does not\\nas yet rise to an abstract contemplation of things), they\\nmust evermore seek their own objects; if the objects\\nare not present, the senses grow dull and flit hither\\nand thither out of weariness. But when the objects\\nare present, they grow merry, wax lively, and willingly\\nsurfer themselves to be fastened upon them till the\\nthings be sufficiently discerned. This book, then, will\\ndo a good piece of service in taking flickering wits and\\npreparing them for deeper studies.\\n3. Children being thus interested and the attention\\nattracted, they may be furnished with the knowledge\\nof the most important things by sport and merry pas-\\ntime. In a word, this book will add pleasure to the use\\nof the Vestibulum and Janua, for which end it was at\\nthe first chiefly intended. The accounts of the things\\nbeing given in the mother-tongue, the book promises\\nthree good things (1) It will afford a device for learn-\\ning to read more easily than hitherto, especially having\\na symbolical alphabet set before it, with pictures of\\nthe voices [creatures] to be imitated. The young ABC", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 133\\npupils will easily remember the force of every char-\\nacter by looking at the creatures, and the imagination\\nwill be strengthened. Having looked over a table of\\nthe chief syllables, the children may proceed to view\\nthe pictures and the inscriptions set under them.\\nSimply looking upon the object pictured will suggest\\nthe name of the object and tell how the picture is to\\nbe read. Thus the whole book being gone over by the\\nbare use of the pictures, reading cannot but be learned.\\n(2) The book being used in the vernacular will serve\\nfor the perfect learning of the mother-tongue. (3) The\\nlearning of the vernacular words will serve as a plea-\\nsant introduction to the Latin tongue.\\nThe Orbis pictus was translated for use in English\\nschools in 1658 by Charles Hoole, a London school-\\nmaster. He observes in his introduction: There are\\nfew of you (I think) but have seen, and with great\\nwillingness have made use of (or at least pursued),\\nmany of the books of this well-deserving author, Mr.\\nJohn Comenius, which, for their profitableness to the\\nspeedy attainment of a language, have been translated\\ninto several countries, out of Latin into their native\\ntongue. Now the general verdict (after trial made)\\nthat hath passed, touching those formerly extant, is\\nthis, that they are indeed of singular use, and very\\nadvantageous to those of more discretion (especially of\\nsuch as already have a smattering of Latin) to help\\ntheir memories to retain what they have scatteringly\\ngotten here and there, to furnish them with many\\nwords, which (perhaps) they have not formerly read,\\nor so well observed but to young children (whom we\\nhave chiefly to instruct), as to those that are ignorant\\naltogether of things and words, and prove rather a", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "134 COMENIUS\\nmere toil and burden, than a delight and furtherance.\\nFor to pack up many words in memory of things not\\nconceived in the mind, is to fill the head with empty\\nimaginations, and to make the learner more to admire\\nthe multitude and variety (and thereby to become dis-\\ncouraged) than to care to treasure them up in hopes to\\ngain more knowledge of what they mean.\\nThe first lesson in the Orbis pictus is a dialogue\\nbetween a teacher and a pupil. The former says,\\nCome, boy, learn to be wise. Whereupon the latter\\nasks, What doth this mean? The master makes\\nreply, To understand rightly, to do rightly, and to\\nspeak rightly all that are necessary. The boy asks\\nwho will teach him these things, to which the master\\nmakes reply, I, by God s help, will guide thee\\nthrough all. I will show thee all; I will name thee\\nall. To all this the boy makes eager response See,\\nhere I am. Lead me in the name of God. The mas-\\nter concludes the dialogue with this injunction:\\nBefore all things thou oughtest to learn the plain\\nsounds of which man s speech consisteth, which living\\ncreatures know how to make, and thy tongue knoweth\\nhow to imitate, and thy hand can picture out. After-\\nward we will go into the world, and we will view all\\nthings. Mr. Maxwell 1 thus characterizes this intro-\\nduction and the picture that illustrates it The boy,\\na plump but not a pleasing person, and the master, a\\nman severe and stern to view, who has evidently\\nall the frowns and none of the jokes of Goldsmith s\\nschoolmaster. They are conversing on a barren plain,\\nthe only other living thing in sight being a wild ani-\\n1 The text-books of Comenius. Proceedings of the National\\nEducational Association for 1892. pp. 712-723.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 135\\nmal apparently of some extinct species. In the back-\\nground are a village church, of the regulation pattern,\\nthe roofs of houses, and a couple of pyramids which\\nare intended for mountains.\\nThe introduction is followed by an illustrated lesson\\non the sounds of the letters of the alphabet, with a\\npicture and statement (in the vernacular and Latin)\\nof the sounds made by animals. The crow illustrates\\nthe sound of a, the statement in the English being, The\\ncrow crieth in the Latin, Comix cornicatur. A\\nlamb illustrates the sound of b, the statement being,\\nThe lamb bleateth (Latin, Agnus balat). And so on\\nthrough the alphabet. This is what Comenius calls\\na lively and vocal alphabet.\\nLike the Jayiua, the subjects treated in the Orbis\\npictus cover a wide range of topics. Their character\\nmay be indicated by the following citations of chapter\\nheadings God, the world, the heavens, fire, the air,\\nthe water, the clouds, the earth, the fruits of the earth,\\nmetals, stones, trees, fruits of trees, flowers, potherbs,\\ncorn, shrubs, birds, tame fowls, singing birds, birds\\nthat haunt the fields and woods, ravenous birds, water-\\nfowls, ravenous vermin, animals about the house, herd-\\ncattle, laboring beasts, wild cattle, wild beasts, ser-\\npents and creeping things, crawling vermin, creatures\\nthat live as well by water as by land, river-fish and\\npond-fish, sea-fish and shell-fish, man, the seven ages\\nof man, the outward parts of man, the head and the\\nhand, the flesh and bowels, the charnels and bones, the\\noutward and inward senses, the soul of man, deformed\\nand monstrous people, dressing of gardens, husbandry,\\ngrazing, grinding, bread-making, fishing, fowling,\\nhunting, butchery, cookery, the vintage, brewing, a", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "136 COMENIUS\\nfeast, and so on to the one hundred and fifty-first\\nchapter, in which the first illustration is reproduced\\nwith this benediction by the master: Thus thou\\nhast seen in short all things that can be shewed, and\\nhast learned the chief words of the Latin and mother-\\ntongue. Go on now and read other good books dili-\\ngently, and thou shalt become learned, wise and\\ngodly. Remember these things Fear God and call\\nupon him that he may bestow upon thee the spirit of\\nwisdom. Farewell.\\nUnder the pictures illustrating each chapter follows\\nthe descriptions in the vernacular and the Latin. The\\nfollowing on the school may be taken as characteristic\\nof the book\\nA school (1) Schola (1)\\nis a shop in which young wits est officina in qua novelli animi\\nare fashioned to virtue, and it formantur ad virtutem dis-\\nis distinguished into classes. tinguitur in classes.\\nThe master (2) Prseceptor (2)\\nsits in a chair (3) sedet in cathedra (3)\\nthe scholars (4) discipuli (4)\\nin forms (5) in subselliis (5)\\nhe teaches, they learn. ille docet, hi discunt.\\nSome things are writ down Qusedam prse scribuntur illis\\nbefore them with chalk on a creta in tabella. (6)\\ntable. (6)\\nSome sit Quidam sedent\\nat a table and write (7) ad mensam scribunt (7),\\nhe mendeth their faults (8) ipse corrigit mendas (8).\\nSome stand and rehearse Quidam stant recitant\\nthings committed to memory mandata memoriae (9).\\n(9).\\nSome talk together (10) and Quidam confabulantur (10)\\nbehave themselves wantonly ac gerunt se petulantes neg-\\nand carelessly these are chas- ligentes hi castigantur\\ntised with a ferrula (11) ferula (baculo) (11)\\nand a rod (12) virga (12).", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 137\\nThe braced figures refer to the objects numbered\\nin the cut for example, a group of students convers-\\ning together in the illustration is marked 10 in the\\ncut and in the text. The purpose of Comenius, it\\nshould be noted in passing, was primarily to teach the\\nvernacular through things and the representation of\\nthings although he had no objection to the learning\\nof the Latin with the vernacular. His aim, as stated\\nby himself, That instruction may progress without\\nhindrance, and neither learning nor teaching delay,\\nsince what is printed in words may be brought before\\nthe eyes by sight, and thus the mind may be in-\\nstructed without error.\\nPrimer though it be, says G. Stanley Hall, the\\nOrbis pictus sheds a broad light over the whole field\\nof education. Compayre remarks, It was the first\\npractical application of the intuitive method, and has\\nserved as a model for the innumerable illustrated\\nbooks which for three centuries have invaded the\\nschools. And Eaumer, who is little given to praise\\nof Comenius and his schemes, adds, The Orbis pictus\\nwas the forerunner of future development, and had for\\nits object, not merely the introduction of an indistinct\\npainted world into the school, but, as much as possible,\\na knowledge of the original world itself, by actual\\nintercourse with it.\\nProfessor Laurie is doubtless right when he says\\nthat Comenius knew little psychology scarcely more\\nthan the generalizations of Plato and Aristotle, and\\nthese not strictly investigated by himself. Yet who\\ncan read these lines in the preface of the Orbis pictus,\\nThis little book will serve to stir up the attention,\\nwhich is to be fastened upon things, and ever to be", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "138 COMENIUS\\nsharpened more and more; for the senses ever more\\nseek their own objects, and when the objects are\\npresent, they grow merry, wax lively, and willingly\\nsuffer themselves to be fastened upon them, until the\\nthings are sufficiently discerned who can read these\\nlines, and reflect upon the manner in which volitional\\nattention operates in the higher spheres of thought and\\nemotion, and say that Comenius was altogether igno-\\nrant of the psychological law that the power of the will\\nover the attention of little children is largely a matter\\nof automatic fixation, depending upon the attractive-\\nness of the objects that affect the senses.\\nMethodus Novissima\\nWhile residing at Elbing, Comenius wrote the\\nMethodus novissima for the use of the teachers of\\nSweden. This he intended as a plan of studies, and it\\ncontains the principles which must lie at the basis of\\nevery rational course of study. The three principles\\nof his method are the parallelism of things and words,\\nproper stages of succession, and easy natural progress.\\nIn God are the ideas, the original types which he\\nimpresses upon things; things, again, impress their\\nrepresentation upon the senses, the senses impart\\nthem to the mind, the mind to the tongue, and the\\ntongue to the ears of others; for souls shut up in\\nbodies cannot understand each other in a purely\\nintellectual way.\\nAny language is complete in so far as it possesses a\\nfull nomenclature, has words for everything, and\\nthese significant and consistent, and is constructed\\nin accordance with fixed grammatical laws. It is a", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 139\\nsource of error when things accommodate themselves\\nto words, instead of words to things. The same\\nclassification prevails for words as for things; and\\nwhoever understands the relation of words among\\nthemselves will, the more easily, study the analogous\\nrelations among things.\\nVives thought that the most complete language\\nwould be that in which the words express the nature\\nof things, and Comenius believed that there could be\\ncomposed a real language in which each word should\\nbe a definition.\\nTo be able to represent a thing by the mind, hand,\\nor tongue is to understand it. The mental process\\ninvolved consists of representations and images of the\\npictures of things. If, says Comenius, I perceive a\\nthing by the senses, its image is impressed upon my\\nbrain if I represent a thing, I impress its image upon\\nthe material; but if I express in words the thing\\nwhich I have thought of or represented, I impress it\\nupon the atmosphere, and through it upon the ear,\\nbrain, and mind of another.\\nThings are learned by examples, rules, and practice.\\nBefore the understanding, truth must be held up as\\nan example; before the will, the good; before the\\nforming powers, the ideal and to these must be\\nadded practice regulated by suitable rules. But rules\\nshould not be given before the examples. This\\nis well understood by artisans; they do not begin\\nby lecturing to their apprentices upon trades, but by\\nshowing them how masters work and then by putting\\ntools in their hands and training them to imitate\\ntheir masters. We learn to do by doing, to write\\nby writing, and to paint by painting.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "140 COMENIUS\\nThe second step must never be taken until the first\\nis learned and the first step should be repeated and\\nassimilated with the second step. We should advance\\nfrom the easy to the more difficult, from the near to\\nthe more distant, and from the simple to the complex.\\nProceed toward knowledge by the perception and\\nunderstanding of objects present to the senses, and\\nlater to the information of others about the objects.\\nThe attention should be fixed upon one object at a\\ntime first upon the whole, then upon the parts. The\\nunderstanding should compare the objects being per-\\nceived with similar objects previously observed. The\\nmemory has three offices to receive impressions, to\\nretain impressions, and to recall impressions. Keten-\\ntion will be made easier by repetition, and recollection\\nby the association of perceived relations. The young-\\nest children should be instructed by means of visible\\nobjects, and pictures impress themselves most firmly\\nupon the memory.\\nTeachers who are themselves intellectually quick\\nmust avoid impatience. The pupils who learn the\\nquickest are not always the best and the dulness of\\nthe pupils must be supplemented by the teacher s\\nindustry. Learning will be easy to pupils if teachers\\nmanage them in a friendly way and study the dispo-\\nsition of each child. Children must not only be made\\nto look at their lessons, but to enter into the spirit of\\nthe subject under consideration.\\nWe should remember that schools are the workshops\\nof humanity and that they should work their pupils\\ninto the right and skilful use of their reason, speech,\\nand talents into wisdom, eloquence, readiness, and\\nshrewdness. Thus will the teachers shape these little", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "STUDY OF LANGUAGE 141\\nimages of God, or, rather, fill up the outlines of good-\\nness, power, and wisdom impressed upon them by\\ndivine power. The art of teaching is no shallow\\naffair, but one of the deepest mysteries of nature and\\nsalvation.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nINFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON MODERN EDUCATORS\\nFrancke Early educational undertakings The institution at\\nHalle Character of the psedagogium Impulse given to modern\\nlearning. Rousseau The child the centre of educational\\nschemes Sense training fundamental Order and method of\\nnature to be followed. Basedow Protests against traditional\\nmethods Influenced by the Emile His educational writings\\nThe Philanthropinum. Pestalozzi Love the key-note of his\\nsystem Domestic education Education for all classes and\\nsexes The study of nature Impulse given to the study of\\ngeography. Frobel His relations to Comenius and Pestalozzi\\nEducational value of play and principle of self -activity Women\\nas factors in education. Herbart Assimilation of sense-\\nexperience Training of character Doctrine of interest.\\nIt is less easy to trace the influence of Comenius on\\nmodern educational reformers than to indicate the\\ntraces of his pedagogic development, since he read\\nwidely and credited cheerfully the paternity of his\\neducational ideals. He says in this connection: I\\ngave my mind to the perusal of divers authors, and\\nlighted upon many which at this age have made a\\nbeginning in reforming the method of studies, as\\nRatke, Helwig, Rheinus, Bitter, Glaum, Csecil, and,\\nwho indeed should have the first place, John Valentine\\nAndreas, a man of noble and clear brain as also Cam-\\npanella and the Lord Verulani, those famous restorers\\nof philosophy by reading of whom I was raised in\\ngood hope, that at last those so many various sparks\\nwould conspire into a flame yet observing here and\\n142", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 143\\nthere some defects and gaps, I could not contain\\nmyself from attempting something that might rest\\nupon an immovable foundation, and which, if it could\\nbe once foundfr out, should not be subject to any ruin.\\nTherefore, after many workings and tossings of my\\nthoughts, by reducing everything to the immovable\\nlaws of nature, I lighted upon my Great didactic,\\nwhich shows the art of teaching all things to all men.\\nSuch commendable frankness is not always found in\\nthe reformers that follow Comenius but in their writ-\\nings it is not difficult to discern community of ideas\\nfirst definitely formulated by Comenius. This holds\\ntrue in a degree of all reformers since Comenius day,\\nbut in a measure sufficiently large to require passing\\nnote in Francke, Rousseau, Basedow Pestalozzi, Frobel,\\nand Herbart.\\nFrancke 1\\nOf a profoundly religious nature like Comenius,\\nFrancke applied himself to the study of theology at the\\nUniversities of Kiel and Leipzig, after having studied\\nat Erfurt. The listless and heartless character of the\\nteaching and study at these institutions impressed him\\nprofoundly, and directed his attention to the need of\\neducational reform. Four years after taking his degree\\nat Leipzig (1688), he established an infant school at\\nHamburg, which, though brief, was, as he tells us, the\\nrichest and happiest experience of his long and varied\\ncareer. It taught him the lesson which he thought\\nwas needed alike by himself and his contemporaries\\n1 For a full account of Francke s life and work see A. H. Francke s\\nPadagogische Schriften. Nebst einer Darstellung seines Lebens\\nund seiner Stiftungen. Herausgeg. von G. Kramer. Langensalza,\\n1876.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "144 COMENIUS\\nthat teachers of little children entered upon their work\\nwith altogether too little preparation. He says, Upon\\nthe establishment of this school, I learned how destruc-\\ntive is the usual school management, aneL how exceed-\\ningly difficult is the discipline of children and this\\nreflection made me desire that God would make me\\nworthy to do something for the improvement of schools\\nand instruction.\\nHe received an ecclesiastical call to Erfurt, which he\\naccepted, but his orthodoxy was questioned and he was\\nnot permitted to fill the office to which he had been\\nappointed. The foundation of the University of Halle,\\nin 1691, made an opening for him in the chair of\\nGreek and Oriental languages. While serving in this\\ncapacity, he organized the philanthropic institution\\nwhich has made Halle famous. It began as a charity\\nwork among the poor, and grew to such proportions\\nthat at his death, in 1727, thirty -three years after\\nits inception, it included (1) the psedagogium with\\neighty-two students and seventy teachers and pupil-\\nteachers (2) the Latin school of the orphanage with\\nthree inspectors, thirty-two teachers, four hundred\\npupils, and ten servants; (3) elementary schools in\\nHalle for the children of citizens, employing four\\ninspectors, ninety-eight male and eight female teach-\\ners, and having an enrollment of one thousand and\\ntwenty -five children; (4) apothecary shops and book-\\nstores. As a charity school, tranche s institution\\nbecame the model of hundreds organized in Europe\\nduring the next century.\\nThe psedagogium, which was a part of the great\\nphilanthropic institution, was opened in 1696, as a\\nselect school for the sons of noblemen. It was one", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 145\\nof the earliest training schools for teachers, and the\\nforerunner of university pedagogical seminaries,\\nwhich, in Germany at least, serve as training schools\\nfor teachers in secondary schools. Francke aimed to\\nfit young men, and particularly university students,\\nin the faculties of philosophy and theology, for greater\\nusefulness as teachers. Indeed, much of the teaching\\nin the paedagogium was done by the university stu-\\ndents who contemplated teaching careers. Besides the\\npractice work, instruction was given in the history\\nand theory of education, methods of teaching, and\\nschool organization and government. Francke s paeda-\\ngogium was a worthy progenitor of the long line of\\nrenowned university seminaries which are now inte-\\ngral factors of the German universities, such, for\\nexample, as the deservedly noted pedagogical semi-\\nnary at Jena under the direction of Professor Wilhelm\\nRein, and the not less noted pedagogical seminaries at\\nLeipzig under Professors Volkelt, Schiller, and Eichter.\\nLike Comenius, Francke valued less the classical\\nculture, but more the modern learning which fitted for\\nthe duties of life. It is a common evil/ 7 he says,\\nthat we do not teach what we use in our occupations\\nevery day. This led him to give large consideration\\nto the study of the mother-tongue. I find few uni-\\nversity students, he says, who can write a German\\nletter correctly spelled. They violate orthography in\\nalmost every line. I know of many examples where,\\nafter they have entered upon the ministry and have\\nhad occasion to have something printed, it has been\\nnecessary to have their manuscripts first corrected in\\nalmost every line. The reason for this defect is usu-\\nally in the schools, where only the Latin translation", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "146 COMENIUS\\nof their exercises is corrected, but not the German.\\nIn many ways he labored to actualize the larger idea\\nof education which Comenius had outlined in the\\nGreat didactic.\\nRousseau\\nWhile he does not mention Comenius by name, even\\na cursory reading of the Emile 1 furnishes abundant\\nevidence of Eousseau s familiarity with the writings\\nof the Moravian reformer, if not at first hand, then\\nthrough the writings of others. At any rate, some\\nstriking parallels are suggested in a comparative study\\nof the writings of the two reformers. As summarized\\nby Mr. Davidson, 2 Rousseau s educational demands\\nare threefold (1) the demand that children should,\\nfrom the moment of their birth, be allowed complete\\nfreedom of movement; (2) that they should be edu-\\ncated through direct experience, and not through mere\\ninformation derived from books (3) that they should\\nbe taught to use their hands in the production of use-\\nful articles. These demands, it will be recalled, were\\nalso made by Comenius in one form or another.\\nComenius and Bousseau both emphasized the fact\\nthat school systems must be made for children, and\\nnot children for school systems. Neither reformer\\nshared the schoolmaster s customary contempt for\\n1 An abbreviated translation of tbe Emile has been made by Miss\\nEleanor Worthington (Boston: D. C. Heath Co., 1891, pp. 157),\\nand a fuller (though not complete) translation by Professor William\\nH. Payne (New York: D. Appleton Co., 1893. pp. 355).\\n2 Rousseau and education according to nature. By Thomas\\nDavidson. New York: Charles Scribner s Sons, 1898. pp. 253.\\nAlso the excellent life by John Morley, in two volumes (London and\\nNew York, 1888).", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 147\\nchildhood, but both urged that childhood must be\\nstudied and loved to be understood and trained, and\\nboth, if they had lived in the nineteenth and twentieth\\ncenturies, would have been enthusiastic advocates of\\nchild study. Says Rousseau We do not understand\\nchildhood, and pursuing false ideas of it, our every\\nstep takes us farther astray. The wisest among us\\nfix upon what it concerns men to know, without ever\\nconsidering what children are capable of learning.\\nThey always expect to find the man in the child, with-\\nout thinking of what the child is before it is a man.\\nWe never know how to put ourselves in the\\nplace of children we do not enter into their ideas\\nwe attribute to them our own; and following always\\nour own train of thought, even with syllogisms, we\\nmanage to fill their heads with nothing but extrava-\\ngance and error. I wish some discreet person\\nwould give us a treatise on the art of observing chil-\\ndren an art which would be of immense value to us,\\nbut of which parents and teachers have not as yet\\nlearnt the very rudiments.\\nSense training was fundamental in Comenius\\nscheme of primary education. Nature studies\\nplants, animals, and minerals were introduced from\\nthe first, that the child might early cultivate his\\npowers of observation, and form the habit of acquiring\\nknowledge at first hand. Eousseau likewise lays\\ngreat stress on sense training. The faculties which\\nbecome strong in us, he says, are our senses. These,\\nthen, are the first that should be cultivated they are,\\nin fact, the only faculties we forget, or at least those\\nwhich we neglect most completely. The child wants\\nto touch and handle everything. By no means check", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "148 COMENIUS\\nthis restlessness; it points to a very necessary appren-\\nticeship. Thus it is that the child gets to be conscious\\nof the hotness or coldness, the hardness or softness,\\nthe heaviness or lightness of bodies, to judge of their\\nsize and shape and all their sensible properties by\\nlooking, feeling, listening, especially by comparing\\nsight and touch, and combining the sensations of the\\neye with those of the fingers.\\nComenius, Eousseau, and, in fact, all the realists\\nfrom Bacon to Herbert Spencer, have emphasized the\\nthought that education should follow the order and\\nmethod of nature; though, as Professor Payne sug-\\ngests, it is not always easy to form a clear notion of\\nwhat they mean by nature, when they say that educa-\\ntion should be natural, and that teachers should follow\\nthe method of nature. The key-note of Eousseau s\\ntheory, as expressed in the opening paragraph of the\\nEmile, is that everything is good as it comes from\\nthe hands of the author of nature, but everything\\ndegenerates in the hands of man. Mr. Davidson\\npoints out in his study of Eousseau that the air was\\nfull of nature panaceas during the middle years of the\\neighteenth century, and that these were applied alike\\nto social, political, and educational institutions. He\\nsays The chief of these notions were (1) a state of\\nnature as man s original condition a state conceived\\nsometimes as one of goodness, peace, freedom, equality,\\nand happiness, sometimes as one of badness, war,\\nslavery, inequality, and misery; (2) a law of nature\\nindependent of all human enactment, and yet binding\\nupon all men; (3) a social contract, voluntarily and\\nconsciously made, as the basis of justification for civil\\nsociety and authority a contract by which men", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 149\\nunited for the protection of rights and the enforce-\\nment of laws which had existed already in the state\\nof nature; (4) false inequality among men, as due to\\nprivate property, or the usurpation by some of what,\\nby natural right, belonged to all; (5) a peaceful,\\nuntroubled, unenterprising, unstruggling existence as\\nthe normal form of human life. 7\\nWhile less sane, less practical, less comprehensive\\nin his educational views than Comenius, it can scarcely\\nbe said that he was less influential. Differing in many\\nimportant particulars, a common ideal permeates the\\nwritings of the two reformers an unbounded faith\\nin the possibilities of youth, and a deep conviction that\\nit is the business of teachers to view the world and\\nnature from the standpoint of young and growing\\nchildren, and to cling with less tenacity to points of\\nview established by antiquity and convention.\\nBasedoto\\nWhile resembling Eousseau more than Comenius in\\ntemperament and character, as well as in educational\\nideals, there is yet much in Basedow s educational\\nscheme that recalls the Moravian reformer. Born at\\nHamburg, in 1727, he experienced, like Eousseau, an\\nunhappy childhood, and, like Comenius, received a\\nbelated education. He prepared for the University of\\n1 To except the brief sketch by Quick {Educational reformers,\\npp. 273-289) and von Raumer s sketch in translation in Barnard s\\nAmerican Journal of Education (Vol.5, pp. 487-520) there is dearth\\nof material on Basedow in English. For an excellent account in\\nthe German see Pddagogische Schriften. Mit Einleitungen, An-\\nmerkungen, und Basedow s Biographie. Herausgegeben von Hugo\\nGoring. Langensalza, 1879-80.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "150 COMENIUS\\nLeipzig at the Hamburg gymnasium; but at both\\ninstitutions lie rebelled against the traditional meth-\\nods of instruction. After completing the course in\\ntheology at Leipzig, it was found that he had grown\\ntoo heterodox for ordination, and he engaged himself\\nas a private tutor to a gentleman in Holstein.\\nRemarkable success attended his labors as a teacher.\\nHe studied his children, adapted subject-matter to\\ntheir capacities, and made extensive use of conversa-\\ntional methods. This experience secured him an\\nappointment in Denmark, where he taught for eight\\nyears. But his essays on Methodical instruction in\\nnatural and Biblical religion disturbed alike the seren-\\nity of the Danish clergy and schoolmasters, and\\nhe was released and called to the gymnasium at\\nAltoona, where he encountered opposition no less\\npronounced.\\nRousseau s Emile appeared at this time, and it\\ninfluenced him powerfully. He renewed his attacks on\\ncontemporary educational practices; charged universal\\nneglect of physical education and the mother-tongue;\\ncriticised the schools for devoting so much time to the\\nstudy of Latin and Greek, and for the mechanical and\\nuninteresting methods employed in teaching these\\nlanguages; and admonished society for neglecting to\\ninstruct the children of the poor and middle classes.\\nRaumer, who is no admirer of Basedow, admits the\\njustice of the charges. He says: Youth was in\\nthose days for most children a sadly harassed period.\\nInstruction was hard and heartlessly severe. Gram-\\nmar was caned into the memory; so were portions of\\nScripture and poetry. A common form of school pun-\\nishment was to learn by heart the One Hundred and", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 151\\nNineteenth Psalm. Schoolrooms were dismally dark.\\nNo one conceived it possible that the young could find\\npleasure in any kind of work, or that they had eyes for\\naught but reading and writing. The pernicious age\\nof Louis XIV had inflicted on the children of the\\nupper class hair curled by the barber and messed with\\npowder and pomade, braided coats, knee breeches,\\nsilk stockings, and a dagger by the side for active,\\nlively children a perfect torture.\\nThe publication, in 1774, of his Elementary book\\nwith plates and his Book of methods for parents and\\nteachers, formulated and brought to public notice his\\nviews on education. The Elementary book with plates\\nfollowed closely the lines of Comenius, and it has\\noften been called the Orbis pictus of the eighteenth\\ncentury. The purpose of the book was clearly ency-\\nclopaedic. As stated by himself, his aims were:\\n(1) elementary instruction in the knowledge of words\\nand things; (2) an incomparable method, founded\\nupon experience, of teaching children to read without\\nweariness or loss of time; (3) natural knowledge;\\n(4) knowledge of morals, the mind, and reasoning;\\n(5) a thorough and impressive method of instructing\\nin natural religion, and for a description of beliefs so\\nimpartial that it shall not appear of what belief is the\\nwriter himself; (6) knowledge of social duties and\\ncommerce. The work was published in four volumes\\nand illustrated by one hundred plates.\\nThe Book of methods presents the root-ideas of\\nComenius and Kousseau. In it he says You should\\nattend to nature in your children far more than to art.\\nThe elegant manners and usages of the world are, for\\nthe most part, unnatural. These come of themselves", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "152 COMENIUS\\nin later years. Treat children like children, that they\\nmay remain the longer uncorrupted. A boy whose\\nacutest faculties are his senses, and who has no per-\\nception of anything abstract, must first of all be made\\nacquainted with the world as it presents itself to the\\nsenses. Let this be shown him in nature herself, or,\\nwhere this is impossible, in faithful drawings or\\nmodels. Thereby can he, even in play, learn how the\\nvarious objects are to be named. Comenius alone has\\npointed out the right road in this matter. By all\\nmeans reduce the wretched exercises of the memory.\\nThe institution which carried Basedow s educational\\ntheories into practice was the Philanthropinum at\\nDessau, which became both famous arid notorious in\\nthe days of the founder, and exercised, withal, a\\npowerful influence on the pedagogy of Germany and\\nSwitzerland during the last quarter of the eighteenth\\nand the first half of the nineteenth century. What-\\never may have been its faults, it had the merit of\\nlooking at education from a more modern standpoint.\\nWith the conviction that the final word had not been\\nspoken on pedagogy, Basedow boldly determined to\\nfind new methods of approach to the child s mind.\\nAs an experiment the Philanthropinum was both inter-\\nesting and suggestive. Kant, who recognizes this\\naspect of its utility, says: It was imagined that\\nexperiments in education were not necessary; but this\\nwas a great mistake. Experience shows very often\\nthat results are produced precisely the opposite to\\nthose which had been expected. We also see from\\nexperiments that one generation cannot work out a\\ncomplete plan of education. The only experimental\\nschool which has made a beginning toward breaking", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OE COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 153\\nthe path is the institution at Dessau. Whatever its\\nfaults, this praise must be given it: It is the only\\nschool in which teachers have had the liberty to work\\nout their own methods and plans, and where they\\nstood in connection, not only with each other, but with\\nmen of learning throughout all Germany.\\nIn subjects taught, as well as in methods of teach-\\ning, Basedow followed Comenius in the main. Words\\nwere taught in connection with things; object teach-\\ning occupied an important place pictures were exten-\\nsively used; children were first taught to speak and\\nlater to write in foreign languages; German and\\nFrench held positions of honor arithmetic, geometry,\\ngeography, and natural history were all taught; great\\nattention was given to the physical development of\\nthe children, and play was considered as important as\\nLatin; school hours were shortened; the discipline\\nwas much less severe; and the children were allowed\\nand permitted to take degrees of freedom altogether\\nunheard of before Basedow s day.\\nPestalozzi 1\\nPestalozzi was not widely read in the literature of\\neducation in fact, the Emile was about the only such\\nbook he ever read, as he himself tells us. It is,\\n1 There is a wealth of material in the English language on Pesta-\\nlozzi. See: Pestalozzi and the modern elementary school, by Pro-\\nfessor A. Pinloche (New York: Charles Scribner s Sons, 1900);\\nPestalozzi: his life and work, by Roger de Guimps (New York:\\nD. Appleton Co., 1897, pp. 438) Life, work, and influence of\\nPestalozzi, by Hermann Krusi (New York: American Book Co., pp.\\n240) and the rich volume of sources by Henry Barnard, Pestalozzi\\nand Pestalozzianisnx (Hartford, 1859, pp. 238 230).", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "154 COMENIUS\\nnevertheless, apparent that he was quite as much\\ninfluenced by Comenius as by Rousseau. The vital\\nprinciple of his reforms love of and sympathy for\\nthe child had been as forcefully enunciated by\\nComenius as by Kousseau; and the saner and more\\npractical character of Pestalozzi s enthusiasm would\\nlead one to suppose that he was less influenced by the\\nauthor of the Emile than by the Moravian reformer.\\nThe first qualification for the task [of teaching],\\nsays Pestalozzi, in a letter to Greaves, 1 is thinking\\nlove And this spirit dominated all his efforts in\\nbehalf of educational reform. He says It is recorded\\nthat God opened the heavens to the patriarch of old,\\nand showed him a ladder leading thither. This ladder\\nis let down to every descendant of Adam; it is offered\\nto your child. But he must be taught to climb it\\nnot by the cold calculations of the head, or by the\\nmere impulses of the heart, but by a combination of\\nboth.\\nBoth reformers started with the child at birth,\\nand made domestic education fundamental to their\\nschemes. Maternal love, says Pestalozzi, is the\\nfirst agent in education. Nature has qualified the\\nmother to be the chief factor in the education of\\nthe child. In How Gertrude teaches her children 2,\\nhe tells us, It is the main design of my method to\\nmake home instruction again possible to our neglected\\npeople, and to induce every mother whose heart beats\\n1 Letters on early education. Addressed to J. P. Greaves, Esq.,\\nSyracuse, 1898, pp. 180.\\n2 Translated by Lucy E. Holland and Frances E. Turner, and\\nedited with introduction and notes by Ebenezer Cook. Syracuse\\nC. W. Bardeen, 1894. pp. xliv 256.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 155\\nfor her child to make use of my elementary exercises.\\nAgain, in the account of his school at Stanz, he says\\nMy aim was to simplify teaching so that the common\\npeople might be induced to begin the instruction of\\ntheir children, and thus render superfluous the teach-\\ning of the elements in the schools. As the mother is\\nthe first to nourish her child physically, so also, by\\nthe appointment of God, she must be the first to give\\nit spiritual and mental nourishment. I consider that\\nvery great evils have been occasioned by sending chil-\\ndren too early to school; and by adopting so many\\nartificial means of educating them away from home.\\nThe time will come, so soon as we shall have simpli-\\nfied instruction, when every mother will be able to\\nteach, without the help of others, and thereby, at the\\nsame time, go on herself always learning. This, it\\nwill be recalled, was also Comenius cherished desire\\nin the School of infancy.\\nComenius and Pestalozzi stand almost alone among\\nthe great educational reformers in proclaiming the\\ndoctrine of universal education training for the poor\\nas well as the rich, for the lowly born as well as for\\nthe privileged classes, for girls as well as boys.\\nPopular education, says Pestalozzi, once lay before\\nme like an immense marsh, in the mire of which I\\nwaded about, until I had discovered the source from\\nwhich its waters sprang, as well as the causes by\\nwhich their free course is obstructed, and made myself\\nacquainted with those points from which a hope of\\ndraining its pools might be conceived. Ever since my\\nyouthful days, the course of my feelings, which rolled\\non like a mighty stream, was directed to this one point,\\nto stop the sources of that misery in which I saw", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "156 COMENIUS\\nthe people around me immersed. Such regeneration\\nhe thought could be brought about by consecrated and\\nintelligent schoolmasters, and particularly, as G. Stan-\\nley Hall notes in his admirable introduction to the\\nAmerican translation of Leonard and Gertrude, 1 by\\nthe love and devotion of noble women overflowing\\nfrom the domestic circle into the community, by the\\ngood Gertrudes of all stations in life, the born edu-\\ncators of the race, whose work and whose key-words\\nwe men pedagogues must ponder well if our teaching\\nis to be ethically inspired.\\nThe study of nature, and this at first hand, was like-\\nwise an inheritance from Comenius. Pestalozzi makes\\nobservation the basis of all knowledge. If I look\\nback and ask myself what I have really done toward\\nthe improvement of methods of elementary instruction,\\nI find that in recognizing observation as the absolute\\nbasis of all knowledge, I have established the first and\\nmost important principle of instruction. I have en-\\ndeavored to discover what ought to be the character\\nof the instruction itself, and what are the fundamental\\nlaws according to which the education of the human\\nrace must be determined by nature.\\nComenius was the first of the educational reformers\\nto recognize the importance of geography as a subject\\nof school study and although he had it taught in the\\nschools he conducted, and gave it important considera-\\ntion in his educational schemes, the study received\\nno fresh recognition until the time of Pestalozzi.\\nAt Stanz, at Burgdorf, and at Yverdon, geography\\nranked as one of the foremost elementary school\\n1 Translated and abridged by Eva Cbanning. With an introduc-\\ntion by G. Stanley Hall. Boston D. C. Heath Co., 1897. pp. 181.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 157\\nstudies. And not only was geography taught in the\\nschoolrooms, but better than that, it was taught in the\\nopen air. Vulliemin, jwho was two years a student\\nunder Pestalozzi at Yverdon, writes The first ele-\\nments of geography were taught us on the ground.\\nWe began the study by taking a walk along a narrow\\nvalley on the outskirts of Yverdon. We were led to\\nobserve all its details, and then to help ourselves to\\nsome clay we found there. This we carried back in\\nour baskets, and, on our return home, we had to make\\na model of the ground walked over, and of the sur-\\nrounding country; this we did on long tables. Our\\nwalks were extended, from time to time, and, on our\\nreturn, we added new features as we learned them.\\nPestalozzi was fortunate in having with him at\\nYverdon two eminently successful German teachers,\\nwho comprehended his aims, and who subsequently\\napplied his methods in the fatherland. One was Hen-\\nnig, the author of a popular pedagogic work on home\\ngeography, and the other was Karl Ritter, the deserv-\\nedly renowned German geographer. Ritter brought\\nwith him to Yverdon two young men from Frankfort\\nwhom he was tutoring, and he served Pestalozzi in the\\ncapacity of a pupil-teacher and, while a developed man\\nwhen he entered the institution, in 1807, he came to\\nYverdon, as so many other enthusiastic Germans had\\ndone, to study pedagogy with the most distinguished\\nmaster of the century. Years later, when Ritter had\\nbecome the best-known geographer of his age, he\\nwrote Pestalozzi knew less geography than a child\\nin one of our primary schools, yet it was from him\\nthat I gained my chief knowledge of this science for\\nit was in listening to him that I first conceived the", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "158 COMENIUS\\nidea of the natural method. It was he who opened the\\nway to me, and I take pleasure in attributing whatever\\nvalue my work may have entirely to him.\\nComenius and Pestalozzi had much in common in\\ntheir aims as educational reformers and they together\\nshare, as Dr. Hoffmeister 1 points out, the honor of\\nhaving originated and carefully elaborated one of the\\nmost efficient elementary school systems in Europe\\nthe Volksschule in Germany. Pestalozzi gave himself\\nto education, or, to use his own significant character-\\nization, I have lived all my days like a beggar, that I\\nmight teach beggars how to live like men. Comenius\\ngave himself, also, and he gave besides a half-dozen\\nbooks, which take classic rank in the permanent liter-\\nature of education.\\nFrobel\\nThe large obligations of the founder of the kinder-\\ngarten to both Comenius and Pestalozzi cannot be\\ngainsaid. Frobel s attention was called to the writ-\\nings of the Moravian reformer early in his educational\\ncareer by Professor Krause, Herder, and others inter-\\nested in his schemes. Comenius proposes an entire]y\\nnew basis of education, Professor Krause wrote to\\nFrobel. He attempts to find a method of education,\\nconsciously based upon science, whereby teachers will\\nteach less, and learners will learn more whereby there\\nwill be less noise in the schools, less distaste, fewer\\nidle pupils, more happiness and progress; whereby\\nconfusion, division, and darkness will give place to\\norder, intelligence, and peace. He adds, Comenius\\n1 Comenius und Pestalozzi als Begriinder der Volksschule. Von\\nHermann Hoffmeister. Berlin, 1877.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 159\\nwas the first to advocate Pestalozzi s doctrine of\\nobservation (Anschauung). Mr. Hauschrnann, 1 one\\nof FrobePs biographers, remarks: Krause looked\\nupon Frobel as the educational successor of Comenius\\nand Pestalozzi. Frobel, he thought, might show, as\\nit had never been shown before, how the Pestalozzian\\ndoctrine of Anschauung was to be applied to the\\neducation of every child.\\nThe weeks spent with Pestalozzi in the autumn of\\n1805 and the two subsequent years (1808-1810) passed\\nwith him at Yverdon, gave Frobel ample opportunity\\nto study thoroughly the Swiss reformer s theories and\\npractices; and these he subsequently applied with\\neven greater skill than his master had done. Schmid,\\nthe German historian of education, says, Frobel, the\\npupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, com-\\npleted the reformer s system; taking the results at\\nwhich Pestalozzi had arrived through the necessities\\nof his position, Frobel developed the ideas involved\\nin them, not by further experience, but by deduction\\nfrom the nature of man, and thus he attained to the\\nconception of true human development and to the\\nrequirements of true education.\\nHe was thus, in a sense, the combined product of\\nthe philosophy of Comenius and the zeal of Pestalozzi,\\nalthough working along lines carefully marked out by\\nhimself. It does not detract from the fame of Frobel\\nto say that most of the root-ideas of his kindergarten\\nare to be found in the School of infancy. Mr. Bowen,\\n1 The kindergarten system its origin and development as seen\\nin the life of Friedrich Frobel. By Alexander Bruno Hauschmann.\\nTranslated and adapted by Fanny Franks. London Swan Sonnen-\\nschein Co., 1897. pp. xvi 253.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "160 COMENIUS\\nwho has given us one of the best expositions 1 of\\nFrobel s ideas, pays a just tribute of the obligation of\\nhis master to the writings of Pestalozzi and Comenius.\\nHe says: With all his enthusiasm for education and\\nhis desire to found it on a scientific basis, Comenius\\nhad but little scientific knowledge of child-nature, and\\ntroubled himself not at all to acquire it. He con-\\nstantly insisted, it is true, upon the exercise of the\\nsenses, and an education in accordance with nature;\\nbut his exercise of the senses soon reduced itself, in the\\nmain, to the use of pictures, with a view to a readier\\nand more intelligent acquirement of language; and,\\neven in his ergastula literaria, or literary workshop,\\nthe manual and other work introduced was intended\\nto aid poor children in partly getting their own living\\nwhile at school, rather than to exercise faculty while\\nhis nature was as quaint and conventional as that\\nin a pre-Eaphaelite picture. None the less, however,\\nComenius was the true founder of educational method.\\nThere is entire agreement in a few of the most fun-\\ndamental aims of the two reformers. Comenius, no\\nless than Frobel, preached the gospel of self -activity,\\nand demanded that play be given important considera-\\ntion in the training of the child. What Comenius\\nsays on these subjects has already been given in the\\nexposition of the /School of infancy. In his Education\\nof man, 2 Frobel says: Play is the purest, most spir-\\nitual activity of the child at this period; and, at the\\nsame time, typical of human life as a whole of the\\n1 Frobel and education through self-activity. By H. Courthope\\nBrown. New York: Charles Scribner s Sons, 1897. pp. 209.\\n2 Translated and annotated by W. N. Hailmann. New York\\nD. Appleton Co., 1887. pp. 332.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 161\\nhidden natural life in man and all things. It gives;\\ntherefore, joy, freedom, contentment, inner and outer\\nrest, peace with the world. A child that plays\\nthoroughly, with self -active determination, persever-\\ningly, until physical fatigue forbids, will surely be a\\nthorough, determined man, capable of self-sacrifice for\\nthe promotion of the welfare of himself and others.\\nIs not the most beautiful expression of child-life at\\nthis time a playing child? a child wholly absorbed\\nin his play? a child that has fallen asleep while so\\nabsorbed? The plays of the child contain the\\ngerm of the whole life that is to follow; for the man\\ndevelops and manifests himself in play, and reveals the\\nnoblest aptitudes and the deepest elements of his\\nbeing.\\nFrobel joined with Comenius in demanding that\\nwomen shall take a responsible part in the education\\nof the child. Mr. James L. Hughes 1 says in this\\nconnection: The greatest step made toward the full\\nrecognition of woman s individuality and responsi-\\nbility since the time of Christ was made when Frobel\\nfounded his kindergartens and made women educators\\noutside the home educators by profession. This\\nmomentous reform gave the first great impetus to the\\nmovement in favor of women s freedom, and provided\\nfor the general advance of humanity to a higher plane\\nby giving childhood more considerate, more sympa-\\nthetic, and more stimulating teachers. Frobel was\\nconvinced that women were better adapted than men\\nfor the early stages of instruction. He says: All\\nagree that, compared with the true mother, the formal\\n1 Frobel s educational laws for all teachers. By James L. Hughes.\\nNew York D. Appleton Co., 1897. pp. 296.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "162 COMENIUS\\neducator is but a bungler. But she must become con-\\nscious of her own aim, and must learn intelligently\\nthe means to reach it. She can no longer afford to\\nsquander or neglect the earliest years of her child.\\nAs the world grows older, we become richer in knowl-\\nedge and art. But childhood remains short as before.\\nIn other important particulars Frobel owed much to\\nComenius, as well as to Pestalozzi. Compare, for\\nexample, the School of infancy with the aims of the\\nkindergarten, and the bequests of the Moravian\\nreformer will at once be apparent. The exaggerated\\nand unpedagogic symbolism, however, with which\\nFrobel burdened his otherwise excellent kindergarten\\nsystem, formed no part of his heritage from Comenius.\\nHerbart\\nProfessor De Garmo, 1 who has given us a most\\nsuccinct statement of Herbart s educational views,\\nremarks, that one of the main results of Comenius,\\nKousseau, and Pestalozzi is the firmly fixed conviction\\nthat observation, or the use of the senses, and, in\\ngeneral, the consideration of simple concrete facts in\\nevery field of knowledge, is the sure foundation upon\\nwhich all right elementary education rests. This\\ntruth is now the acknowledged starting-point of all\\nscientific methods of teaching. Yet the fact of impor-\\ntance of observation in instruction does not carry with\\nit any information showing how the knowledge so\\nobtained can be utilized, or what its nature, time,\\namount, and order of presentation should be. In\\n1 Herbart and the Herbartians. By Charles De Garmo. New\\nYork Charles Scribner s Sons, 1895. pp. 268.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS ON EDUCATION 163\\nshort, it does not show how mental assimilation can\\nbest take place, or how the resulting acquisitions can\\nbe made most efficiently to influence the emotional and\\nvolitional sides of our nature. Perception is, indeed,\\nthe first stage of cognition, but its equally important\\ncorrelative is apperception and assimilation. It is\\nHerbart and his successors who have made us dis-\\ntinctly conscious of this fact. There can be no\\nreasonable doubt but that Herbart did give a powerful\\nimpulse to the judicious assimilation of acquired\\nsense-experience; and yet even here it is quite pos-\\nsible to underestimate the character and value of the\\nnature studies of Comenius and the object lessons of\\nPestalozzi.\\nHerbart, like Comenius, emphasized the necessary\\neffect of all instruction on character. The circle of\\nthought, says Herbart, contains the store of that\\nwhich by degrees can mount by the steps of interest\\nto desire, and then, by means of action, to volition.\\nFurther, it contains the store upon which all the\\nworkings of prudence are founded in it are the\\nknowledge and care, without which man cannot pur-\\nsue his aims through means. The whole inner activity,\\nindeed, has its abode in the circle of thought. Here\\nis found the initiative life, the primal energy; here\\nall must circulate easily and freely, everything must\\nbe in its place, ready to be found and used at any\\nmoment; nothing must lie in the way, and nothing\\nlike a heavy load impede useful activity. Indeed,\\nas Kern suggests, in Herbart s scheme interest is the\\nmoral monitor and protector against the servitude that\\nsprings from passions and desires.\\nThe doctrine of interest, but vaguely suggested by", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "164 COMENIUS\\nComenius, is perhaps the most noteworthy contribu-\\ntion of Herbart to modern pedagogy but to summar-\\nize Herbart s views on interest would be to summarize\\nhis whole theory of education. He recognizes two\\ngroups of interests intellectual and social. Two\\nphases of intellectual interests are distinguished:\\n(1) empirical interests, or the pleasures occasioned\\nby disinterested curiosity; (2) speculative interests\\noccasioned by the impulse to search out causal rela-\\ntions; and (3) aesthetic interests aroused through\\nbeauties in nature, art, and character. The social\\ninterests are likewise threefold: (1) sympathetic or\\naltruistic; (2) social and fraternal; and (3) religious.\\nHerbart s contribution to empirical psychology,\\nalthough important, was second to his application of\\ndirect pedagogic problems to actual school practice\\nthe working out of his doctrine of many-sided interest,\\nthe selection and adjustment of materials of instruc-\\ntion, and the reform of school government and\\ndiscipline. 1\\n1 See Herbart s Science of education. Translated from the Ger-\\nman, with a biographical introduction by Henry M. and Emmie\\nFelkin. Boston D. C. Heath Co., 1895. pp. 268.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nPERMANENT INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS\\nGeneral neglect of Comenius during the eighteenth century\\nCauses Intrenchment of humanism Summary of the perma-\\nnent reforms of Comenius Revived interest in his teachings\\nNational Comenius pedagogical library at Leipzig The Come-\\nnius Society Reviews published for the dissemination of the\\neducational doctrines of Comenius Conquest of his ideas.\\nThe permanent influence of Comenius remains to\\nbe noted. Famous in his own day; enjoying the\\nfriendship of great scholars and the confidence of royal\\npersonages the founder of numerous school systems\\nthe author of more than a hundred books and treatises,\\nwhich were translated into most of the languages of\\nEurope and Asia, the name of the great Moravian\\nreformer was quite if not entirely forgotten, and his\\nwritings practically unknown, for more than a century\\nafter his death. Professor Nicholas Murray Butler, 1\\nin likening him unto the stream that loses itself in the\\narid desert and then reappears with gathered force\\nand volume to lend its fertilizing power to the sur-\\nrounding country, says: Human history is rich in\\nanalogies to this natural phenomenon; but in Comenius\\nthe history of education furnishes its example. The\\ngreat educational revival of our century, and particu-\\nlarly of our generation, has shed the bright light of\\n1 The place of Comenius in the history of education. Proceed-\\nings of the National Education Association for 1892. pp. 723-728.\\n165", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "166 COMENIUS\\nscholarly investigation into all the dark places, and\\nto-day, at the three hundredth anniversary of his\\nbirth, the fine old Moravian bishop is being honored\\nwherever teachers gather together and wherever edu-\\ncation is the theme.\\nThe world, which usually takes pause for a moment,\\nwhen a great man dies, to seriously consider what\\nthere was in the dead that lifted him above the ordi-\\nnary level, took no such inventory when the remains\\nof Comenius were laid at rest in a quiet little town in\\nHolland. The man whom we unhesitatingly affirm,\\nsays Mr. Keatinge, to be the broadest-minded, the\\nmost far-seeing, the most comprehensive, and withal\\nthe most practical of all writers who have put pen to\\npaper on the subject of education; the man whose\\ntheories have been put into practice in every school\\nthat is conducted on rational principles who embodies\\nthe materialistic tendencies of our modern side\\ninstructors, while avoiding the narrowness of their\\nreforming zeal; who lays stress on the spiritual aspect\\nof true education, while he realizes the necessity of\\nequipping his pupils for the rude struggle with nature\\nand with fellow-men Comenius, we say, the prince\\nof schoolmasters, produced, practically, no effect on\\nthe school organization and educational development\\nof the following century.\\nThe causes of this universal neglect are not easily\\nexplained. That he lived most of his days in\\nexile; that he belonged to a religious community\\nwhich was numerically insignificant and which suf-\\nfered all those bitter persecutions following in the\\ntrain of the Thirty Years War; that indiscretion\\nentangled him in certain alleged prophetic revelations,", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "PEKMANENT INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS 167\\nwhich subsequently turned out the baldest impostures;\\nand, more important than all, as Professor Laurie\\npoints out, that schoolmasters did not wish to be dis-\\nturbed by a man with new ideas, these facts help to\\nexplain the universal neglect into which his name and\\nwritings fell. In a personal letter, Oscar Browning\\nexpresses the belief that if the teachings of Comenius\\nhad been dated a century earlier, that the realistic\\ntype of education might have been generally followed\\nat least in the countries that had broken with the\\nChurch of Eome. As it was, however, Melanchthon,\\nthe schoolmaster of the Eeformation, adopted, with\\nslight modifications, the humanistic type of educa-\\ntion. For the time being, at least, the ideas held by\\nComenius were pushed into the background, and\\nhumanism, already deeply intrenched, dominated\\neducational practices. Reformers were not wanting,\\nhowever, to champion the reforms of Comenius, men\\nlike Francke, Rousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Frobel,\\nand Herbart. But it remained for the nineteenth cen-\\ntury to realize, in considerable measure, the aims and\\naspirations of the far-reaching reforms of the Moravian\\nbishop. v\\nThere is nothing startling about the educational\\nreforms of Comenius to-day, says Professor Earl\\nBarnes. They are the commonplace talk of all\\nschool conventions. But to see them when no one\\nelse has formulated them, to enunciate them before an\\naudience often hostile, and to devote a life to teaching\\nthem and working them out this requires a broad\\nmind and something of the spirit of the martyr, and\\nboth these elements were strong in Comenius.\\nIn spite of the neglect into which the reforms of", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "168 COMENIUS\\nComenius fell, his influence has been lasting because\\nhis work was constructive and his reforms were far\\nreaching. Among the reforms which he advocated (and\\nsince incorporated in the modern educational move-\\nment), the following may be named:\\n1. That the purpose of education is to fit for com-\\nplete living, in consequence of which its benefits must\\nbe extended to all classes of society.\\n2. That education should follow the course and\\norder of nature, and be adapted to the stages of mental\\ndevelopment of the child.\\n3. That intellectual progress is conditioDed at every\\nstep by bodily vigor, and that to attain the best results,\\nphysical exercises must accompany and condition\\nmental training.\\n4. That children must first be trained in the\\nmother-tongue, and that all the elementary knowledge\\nshould be acquired through that medium.\\n5. That nature study must be made the basis of all\\nprimary instruction, so that the child may exercise his\\nsenses and be trained to acquire knowledge at first\\nhand.\\n6. That the child must be wisely trained during its\\nearliest years, for which purpose mothers must be\\ntrained for the high and holy mission of instructing\\nlittle children, and women generally be given more\\nextended educational opportunities.\\n7. That the school course must be enriched by the\\naddition of such useful studies as geography and\\nhistory.\\n8. That the subjects of study must be so correlated\\nand coordinated that they may form a common unit\\nof thought.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "PERMANENT INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS 169\\n9. That teachers must be specially trained.\\n10. That schools must be more rationally graded\\nand better supervised.\\n11. That languages must be taught as living\\norganic wholes fitted for the purposes of life, and not\\nas the lifeless tabulations of the grammarians.\\nIt was the opinion of Mr. Quick that the most\\nhopeful sign of the improvement of education was the\\nrapid advance in the last thirty years of the fame of\\nComenius, and the growth of a large literature about\\nthe man and his ideas. The revival of Comenian\\nideas really dates from the beginning of the present\\ncentury, when Germany, crushed and dismembered,\\nlooked to her schools as the surest means of regaining\\nfallen glory; so that the battle of Jena may be given\\nas the date of this awakened interest in the reforms of\\nthe Moravian educator. This interest culminated in\\nthe foundation of the great national Comenius peda-\\ngogical library (Comenius-Stiftung) at Leipzig, in\\n1871. It was founded by a band of enthusiastic dis-\\nciples of Comenius, of whom Julius Beeger was the\\nforemost; and, although it numbered but 2642 vol-\\numes at the end of the first year, the interest in the\\nmovement has been so great that it now numbers\\nover 70,000 volumes, and constitutes the largest\\nsingle collection of pedagogical books in the world.\\nThe books are classified in 56 departments, the most\\nimportant of which are encyclopsedias of pedagogy,\\ncomplete collections of the writings of standard edu-\\ncational writers, sources of history of education,\\ngeneral works on the history of education, histories of\\nspecial periods in education, histories of education in\\ndifferent countries, histories of individual educational", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "170 COMENIUS\\ninstitutions, educational biographies, works on sys-\\ntematic pedagogy, physical education, etc. The library\\ncovers every department of educational thought, and\\nis especially strong in the literature relating to the\\nelementary schools of Germany. The privileges of\\nthe library are freely open to all students of educa-\\ntion. The library is under the control of the Leipzig\\nteachers association, and is sustained in part by the\\nassociation and in part by appropriations from the\\ncity of Leipzig and the kingdom of Saxony. 1 What\\nmore appropriate memorial to the long and devoted\\nlife of Comenius to the cause of education could be\\ndesired, and what stronger evidence of the permanent\\ninfluence of his work and worth.\\nA second recent manifestation of the permanency of\\nthe Moravian educator s influence is the Comenius\\nSociety (Comenius-Gesellschaft), with headquarters in\\nGermany, and numbering among its members most of\\nthe leaders in educational thought in the world. It\\nwas organized in 1891. The objects of the society are\\n(1) to spread the living influence of the spirit of\\nComenius and the men who have represented cognate\\nreforms; (2) to work toward an increased knowledge\\nof the past and a healthy development of the future\\non the principle of mutual union and forbearance, by\\nmeans of the cultivation of the literature which has\\ngrown out of that spirit; and (3) to prepare the way\\nfor a reform of education and instruction on the lines\\nlaid down by Comenius. In order to realize these\\n1 An excellent account of the national Comenius pedagogical\\nlibrary will be found in: Die pddagogischen Bibliotheken, Schul-\\nmuseen und standigen Lehrmittelausstellungen der Welt. Von\\nJulius Beeger. Leipzig Zangenberg Himly, 1892. pp. 84.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "PERMANENT INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS 171\\nobjects, the society further proposes (1) the publica-\\ntion of the more important writings and letters of\\nComenius and his associates; (2) inquiry into the his-\\ntory and dogmas of the old evangelical congregations\\n(Waldenses, Bohemian Brethren, Swiss Brethren,\\netc.), chiefly by publishing the original sources from\\ntheir history; and (3) the collection of books, manu-\\nscripts, and documents which are important for the\\nhistory of the above objects.\\nThe membership of the society, while overwhelm-\\ningly German, includes a considerable number from\\nAustria-Hungary, Holland, Great Britain, the United\\nStates, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Italy, Switzerland,\\nFrance, Greece, Belgium, and Denmark. The society\\ninspired the numerous celebrations in commemoration\\nof the three hundredth anniversary of the birth of\\nComenius (March 28, 1892). These celebrations, held\\nat most of the educational centres in the Old World,\\nand at a number of places in the New, revived the\\nmemory of Comenius, and brought his teachings to\\nthousands of teachers who had known him before\\nonly as a name.\\nThe society began in 1892 the publication of a high-\\ngrade review, Monatshefte der Comenius-Gesellschaft,\\nwhich is published bi-monthly at Berlin, and is\\nedited by the distinguished Comenius scholar, Dr.\\nLudwig Keller. This review has most creditably\\ncarried out the purposes of the society in publishing\\na wealth of original material on Comenius and his con-\\ntemporaries, that hitherto has been altogether inacces-\\nsible to the student of the history of education. The\\nsociety also publishes a bi-monthly educational journal\\nfor the use of teachers in the elementary schools of", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "172 COMENIUS\\nGermany especially interested in the doctrines of\\nComenius. It is entitled Comenius-Blatter fur Volks-\\nerziehung, and is also published at Berlin and edited\\nby Dr. Keller. The propaganda of the Comenius\\nSociety has done much to restore this worthy to the\\nplace he so justly merits the foremost educational\\nreformer of modern times.\\nThese are some of the agencies employed by the\\nComenius Society in opening up an appreciation of\\nthis great man, who, born in Moravia, working\\namongst Czechs, Germans, English, Dutch, Swedes,\\nand Hungarians, with friends in France and Italy, has\\nwon by his thought, as well as by his life, a universal\\nsignificance. As philosopher and divine, in union\\nwith Andrese, Dury, Milton, and others, he devoted his\\nlife to a work of peace. He placed the weal of man,\\nas he termed it, above the respect for languages,\\npersons, and sects; thus his energies were directed\\ntoward restraining the wrangling people, churches,\\nand classes from the violent utterance of their differ-\\nences, and leading them on the ground of early Chris-\\ntian views to mutual peace and forbearance. As\\neducationalist, inspired by Bacon, he successfully\\nasserted the claims of experimental science in the\\nelementary schools of his time, placed the mother-\\ntongue on the list of subjects of instruction, and\\nincluded in the conception of the school the idea of\\nphysical culture. By his demand for education of all\\nchildren, including girls, who till then had been\\nneglected, he became one of the fathers of modern\\nelementary education.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "APPENDICES\\nI. TABLE OF DATES\\n(a) Pertaining to the Life of Comenius\\n1592. Born at Nivnitz, Moravia, March 28th.\\n1604. Death of his father and mother.\\nEntered the elementary school at Strasnitz.\\n1608. Entered the gymnasium at Prerau.\\n1611. Matriculated in the college at Herborn.\\n1613. Matriculated in the university at Heidelberg.\\n1614. Appointed teacher in the Moravian school at Prerau.\\n1616. Ordained as a minister, April 29th.\\n1618. Called to the pastorate of the church at Fulneck also\\nsuperintendent of schools.\\n1624. Marriage to Elizabeth Cyrrill.\\nDriven into the Bohemian mountains by religious per-\\nsecutions.\\n1627. Banished from his native country.\\n1628. Fled to Poland given charge of the gymnasium at Lissa.\\n1632. Consecrated as a bishop, October 6th.\\n1641. Called to England, arriving there September 22d.\\n1642. Left London, June 10th, for Sweden.\\nSettled at Elbing, Prussia, in October.\\n1648. Beturned to Lissa death of his wife chosen president\\nof the council (senior bishop), of the Moravian Church.\\n1649. Ke-married, to Elizabeth Gaiusowa.\\n1650. Took charge of the schools at Saros-Patak, Hungary, in\\nMay.\\n1654. Beturned to Lissa.\\n1656. Lissa burned flight to Silesia.\\nSettled in Amsterdam.\\n1670. Died at Amsterdam, November 15th buried at Naarden\\n(Holland), November 22d.\\n173", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "174 APPENDICES\\n(b) Principal Writings of Comenius\\n1616. Grammatical facilioris proecepta (Simple grammatical\\nrules) Prague.\\n1617. Listowe do nebe (Cries of the oppressed poor). Olmutz.\\n1622. De Christina perfectione (On Christian perfection).\\nPrague.\\n1623. Labyrint sveta a raj srdce, to jest (Labyrinth of the world\\nand paradise of the heart) Lissa.\\n1631. Janua linguarum reserata (Gate of languages unlocked).\\nLissa.\\n1633. Informatorium der Mutter-Schul (School of infancy).\\nLissa.\\nAtrium Unguce Latince (On the study of Latin style).\\nLissa.\\n1634. Physical ad lumen divinum reformats synopsis (Physics\\nremodelled in accordance with divine light). Leipzig.\\n1638. Prodromus pansophice (Fragment of the Great didactic.\\nPublished in London, 1639, by Hartlib) Lissa.\\n1641. Via lucis (The way of light). Amsterdam.\\n1643. Pansophice diatyphosis, inconographica, et orthographica\\n(Published in England in 1650 with the title A pattern\\nof universal knowledge) Danzig.\\n1647. Vestibulum Latinoe Unguce rerum (Vestibule of the Latin\\nlanguage) Lissa.\\n1648. Linguarum methodus novissima (New method of language\\nstudy) Lissa.\\n1650. Lux in tenebris (Light in darkness on prophetic vis-\\nions). Amsterdam.\\nScholai pansophicce delincetio (Plan of a pansophic school)\\nSaros-Patak.\\n1656. Schola ludus (School dramas). Saros-Patak.\\n1657. Orbis sensualium pictus (The world illustrated). Nu-\\nremberg.\\nOpera didactica omnia (Complete didactic works in four\\nvolumes) Amsterdam.\\n1660. Historia fratrum Bohemorum (History of the Bohemian\\nbrethren). Amsterdam.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "APPENDICES 175\\nCartesius cum sua naturali philosophic*, a mechanicis\\neversus (Descartes and his natural philosophy over-\\nthrown by arguments derived from mechanical princi-\\nples). Amsterdam.\\nBe natura caloris et frigoris (On the nature of heat and\\ncold). Amsterdam.\\n1668. Unum necessarium (The one thing needful). Amsterdam.\\nII. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY\\n(a) Writings of Comenius\\n1. The great didactic. Translated with introductions, bio-\\ngraphical and historical, by M. W. Keatinge. London\\nAdam and Charles Black. 1896. pp. 468.\\nThis first complete translation of Comenius most\\nphilosophic work is admirably done. The biographical\\nintroduction is given ninety-eight pages, and the his-\\ntorical introduction fifty pages. These are both inter-\\nesting and critical. The book unfortunately is not\\nindexed.\\n2. The school of infancy an essay on the education of youth\\nduring the first six years. Edited with an ^introduction\\nand notes by Will S. Monroe. Boston D. C. Heath Co.\\n1896. London Isbister Co. 1897. pp. xvi+99.\\nThere are numerous foot-notes, intended to show the\\norigin of Comenius educational ideals and the influence\\nof his writings on later educators. Collateral reading\\nreferences are given at the end of each chapter, and in\\nthe appendix there is a reasonably complete bibliography\\nof Comenius literature.\\n3. The orbis pictus. Translated into English by Charles\\nHoole. London: John and Benj. Sprint, 1728. Syra-\\ncuse, N.Y.: C. W. Bardeen. 1887. pp. 100.\\nThis is a very satisfactory reproduction of the famous\\nHoole translation by the photographic process. Some of\\nthe cuts are indistinct, but Mr. Bardeen wisely refrained\\nfrom retouching them, preferring occasional indistinct-\\nness to modern tampering with the originals.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "176 APPENDICES\\n4. John Amos Comenius his life and educational work. By\\nS. S. Laurie. Boston Willard Small. 1885. pp. 229.\\nThe introduction (pp. 1-16) gives the effect of the Ke-\\nnaissance on education a brief but appreciative sketch\\nof the life of Comenius follows (pp. 17-64) and the\\nremainder of the book is given to an exposition of his\\nwritings.\\n5. Grosse Unterrichtslehre. Aus dem Lateinischen ubersetzt\\nmit Einleitungen und Anmerkungen versehen von Julius\\nBeeger und Franz Zoubek. Leipzig: Siegismund und\\nVolkening. Ro date. pp. clxxvii+280.\\nThe sketch of the life of Comenius (176 pp.) is by\\nZoubek,. and the translation of the Great didactic from\\nthe Latin into German by Beeger.\\n6. Ausgewahlte Schriften. Aus dem Lateinischen ubersetzt\\nund mit Einleitung und Anmerkungen versehen von\\nJulius Beeger und J. Leutbecher. Leipzig Siegismund\\nund Volkening. No date. pp. xvi+359.\\nA collection of the miscellaneous educational writings\\nof Comenius, including the School of infancy, Paneger-\\nsia, and fragments of the Pansophy.\\n7. Grosse Unterrichtslehre. Mit einer Einleitung: J. Come-\\nnius, sein Leben und Wirken. Einleitung, Ubersetzung\\nund Commentar von Gustav Adolph Lindner. Wien\\nund Leipzig A. Pichler s Witwe und Sohn. 1892. pp.\\nlxxxix+311.\\nPerhaps the best German edition of the Great didactic.\\nThe biographical sketch is less valuable than the one in\\nthe edition by Beeger and Zoubek but the annotations\\non the Great didactic, covering about forty pages, give it\\nspecial pedagogic value.\\n8. Ueber Bins ist noth Unum necessarium Von\\nJoh. Amos Comenius. Znaim Fournier und Haber-\\nler. 1892. pp. 22.\\nA convenient edition of Comenius pathetic swan song,\\nThe one thing needful.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "APPENDICES 177\\n(b) Biographical and Critical\\n1. Educational Beview. Nicholas Murray Butler, editor. New\\nYork Educational Review Publishing Co. March, 1892.\\nVol. III. pp. 209-236.\\nThe issue for March, 1892, is a Comenius number. It\\ncontains a brief on Comenius by Professor Butler (pp.\\n209-211); The place of Comenius in the history of\\neducation, by Professor Laurie (pp, 211-223) The\\ntext-books of Comenius, by Mr. C. W. Bardeen (pp. 223-\\n336) and The permanent influence of Comenius, by\\nProfessor Hanus (pp. 226-236).\\n2. Proceedings of the National Educational Association for\\n1892. pp. 703-728.\\nThe department of superintendence of the National\\nEducational Association, in connection with the meeting\\nat Brooklyn, Eebruary 16-18, 1892, held exercises in\\ncommemoration of the three-hundredth anniversary of\\nthe birth of Comenius, with the following addresses:\\nPrivate life and personal characteristics, Dr. John\\nMax Hark (pp. 703-711) Text-books of Comenius,\\nSuperintendent William H. Maxwell (pp. 712-723)\\nPlace of Comenius in the history of education, Pro-\\nfessor Nicholas Murray Butler (pp. 723-728)\\n3. Essays on educational reformers. By Robert Hebert Quick.\\nNew York: D. Appleton Co., 1893. pp. 119-171.\\nOne of the best brief critical surveys of the writings\\nof Comenius and written in the fascinating style of the\\ngenial Quick.\\n4. History of pedagogy. By Gabriel Compayre\\\\ Translated\\nby W. H. Payne. Boston D. C. Heath Co. 1886.\\npp. 122-136.\\nA brief summary of Comenius most important contribu-\\ntions to primary instruction.\\n5. The educational ideal an outline of its growth in modern\\ntimes. By James Phinney Munroe. Boston D. C. Heath\\nCo. 1895. pp. 68-94.\\nA concise and critical survey of the reforms of Comenius\\nN", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "178 APPENDICES\\nand the other realists. After Quick, the best brief survey\\nof the modern movement and at many points it supple-\\nments Quick.\\n6. Barnard s American Journal of Education. Published at\\nHartford by the editor, Henry Barnard. June, 1858.\\nVol. V. pp. 257-298.\\nDr. Barnard was one of the earliest to call attention to\\nthe pedagogic value of Comenius writings. This transla-\\ntion from Karl von Baumer s G-eschichte der PadagogiJc\\nwas, up to the time Professor Laurie s book appeared,\\nthe only comprehensive study of Comenius in English.\\nBaumer, however, is not an impartial critic of the realists.\\nThe history of the unitas fratrum. By Edmund de Schwei-\\nnitz. Bethlehem, Penn. Moravian Publication Office.\\n1885. pp. 693.\\nAn authoritative account of the Moravian Brethren and\\nof Comenius relation to the same.\\n8. Monatshefte der Comenius-Gesellschaft. Ludwig Kellar,\\neditor. Berlin: Hermann Heyfelder. 1892-1900. 10\\nvolumes.\\nA high grade bi-monthly review published by the\\nComenius Society in the interest of. education generally,\\nand in particular of the views held by the Moravian re-\\nformer. The review is a mine of rich material on Come-\\nnius and his contempories.\\n9. Leben und Schicksale des Johann Amos Comenius. Von\\nAnton Vrbka. Znaim Eournier und Haberler. 1892.\\npp. 160.\\nThe best brief German life of Comenius. It is accurate\\nand sympathetic, and contains 17 wood-cuts.\\n10. liber des Johann Amos Comenius Leben und Wirhsamkeit.\\nVon Anton Gindely. Znaim: Eournier und Haberler.\\n1893. pp. 109.\\nAnother brief German work. Professor Gindely is a\\nRoman Catholic, and while he writes of Comenius with\\nless enthusiasm, he presents his life with critical fairness.\\n11. Johann Amos Comenius: sein Leben und seine Schriften.\\nVon Johann Kvacsala. Berlin Julius Klinkhardt. 1892.\\npp. 480 89.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "APPENDICES 179\\nThis, so far as I know, is the most comprehensive life\\nof Comenius to be found in any language hut at many\\npoints it is unnecessarily tedious and diffuse.\\n12. Beings Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik. Lan-\\ngensalza Hermann Beyer und Sonne. Vol. I. pp.\\n558-569.\\nAn excellent brief article by A. Nebe. An article on\\nthe Comenius-Stiftung follows (pp. 569-573).\\n13. Der Anschauungsunterricht in der deutschen Schule von\\nAmos Comenius Ms zur Gegenwart. Von Gottlieb Gus-\\ntav Deussing. Erankenberg C. C. Rossberg. 1884.\\npp. Q6.\\nA historical and critical dissertation on the growth of\\nobject teaching, and nature study.\\n14. Die padagogischen Grundgedanken des Amos Comenius.\\nVon Hermann Gottsched. Magdeburg A. und R. Faber.\\n1879. pp. 64.\\nA dissertation on Comenius philosophy of education.\\n15. Comenius ein Systematiker in der Padagogik. Von\\nWalter Muller. Dresden Bleyl und Kaemmer. 1887.\\npp. 50.\\nA dissertation on the contributions of Comenius to\\nsystematic pedagogy and school systems.\\n16. Die Padagogik des Spaniers Johann Ludwig Vines und\\nsein Einfluss auf Joh. Amos Comenius. Eiiangen Junge\\nund Sohn. 1890. pp. 69.\\nIndicates traces of the educational theories of Comenius\\nin the writings of Vives.\\n17. Die Didaktik Basedows im Vergleiche zur Didaktik des\\nComenius. Von Petru Garbovicianu. Bucharest: Carol\\nGobi. 1887. pp. 82.\\nThe influence of the Great didactic of Comenius on\\nBasedow and his institution is pointed out.\\n18. Schmidt s Encyclopadie des gesammten Erziehungs und\\nUnterrichtswesen. Gotha: Besser. 1876. Vol. I. pp.\\n941-951.\\nThe article is by G. Baur. It is less comprehensive,\\nalthough more sympathetic, than the article in Raumer s\\nGeschichte der Padagogik.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "180 APPENDICES\\n19. Buisson s Dictionnaire de pedagogie et d instruction prv-\\nmaire. Paris Hanchette et Cie. 1887. Vol I. Part I.\\npp. 421-427.\\nThree brief but discriminating articles. The first, on\\nthe life of Coinenius, by C. Progler (pp. 421-423); the\\nsecond, on the pedagogical writings of Coinenius, by Fer-\\ndinand Buisson (pp. 423-426) the third, on the perma-\\nnent influences of Comenius, by A. Daguet (pp. 426-427).", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAlsted, John H., 43.\\nAndreae, John Valentine, 85.\\nA qua viva, 3.\\nAquinas, Thomas, 7.\\nAristotle, Politics, 2 philosophy of, 7.\\nArithmetic, 116.\\nArts, 99.\\nAscham, Eoger, on humanism, 12 the\\nScholemaster, 13.\\nAtrium, 65, 129.\\nBacon, Francis, dangers of science, 22\\nviews on education, 23-28 criticisms\\non English education, 56 education\\naccording to nature, 148.\\nBardeen, C. W., editor of Orbis pictus,\\n175 text-book of Comenius, 177.\\nBarnard, Henry, contributions to the\\nliterature of Comenius, 178.\\nBarnes, Earl, on the reforms of Come-\\nnius, 167.\\nBasedow, Johann Bernhard, educa-\\ntional theories and labors, 149-153.\\nBateus, William, the Janua, 36, 125.\\nBaur, G., sketch of Comenius, 179.\\nBeeger, Julius, relation to the Come-\\nnius-Stiftung, 169 translation of the\\nwritings of Comenius, 176.\\nBenham, Daniel, translation of School\\nof infancy, 110.\\nBibliography of Comenius, 177-180.\\nBlodgett, James H., call of Comenius\\nto Harvard, 81.\\nBowen, H. Courthope, relation of\\nFrobel to Comenius, 159.\\nBrowning, Oscar, on humanism, 1 on\\nthe study of Latin, 4.\\nBruni, Leonardo, an early humanist, 8.\\nBuisson, Ferdinand, Vives on pauper-\\nism, 18 the pedagogical writings of\\nComenius, 180.\\nButler, Nicholas Murray, forerunners\\nof Comenius, 15 meaning of infancy,\\n86 permanent influence of Come-\\nnius, 165, 177.\\nCaesar, Commentaries, 2.\\nCampanella, Thomas, on study of\\nnature, 35.\\nComenius, John Amos, forerunners,\\n15 relation to Vives, 16 agree-\\nment with Bacon, 23 influenced by\\nEatke, 2S obligations to Bateus, 36\\nbirth at Nivnitz, 38 ancestry, 39\\nclassical training at Prerau, 40\\nstudies at Herborn, 42 matricula-\\ntion at Heidelberg, 44 teacher in an\\nelementary school, 44 ordination as\\na minister, 45 exile in the Bohe-\\nmian mountains, 46 flight from Bo-\\nhemia, 47 literary connections, 48\\nfirst call to Sweden, 49 call to Eng-\\nland, 53 English friends, 54 failure\\nof English schemes, 55 second call\\nto Sweden, 56 relations with Lewis\\nde Geer, 57 location at Elbing,\\n60; ordination as senior bishop of\\nthe Moravian Brethren, 61 eccle-\\nsiastical ministrations, 62 call to\\nHungary, 63 organization of the\\nschools at Saros-Patak, 64 return to\\nPoland, 69 flight to Amsterdam, 71\\ncomplete edition of his works, 72\\ndeath at Amsterdam, 76; burial at\\nNaarden, 76 marriage and children,\\n77; alleged call to presidency of\\nHarvard College, 78 portraits, 81\\nthe Great didactic, S3-108; the\\nSchool of infancy, 109-122; the\\nJanua, 123-129; the Atrium and\\nthe Vestibulum, 129-139 the Orbis\\npictus, 130-138; Methodus novis-\\nsima, 138-141 influence on modern\\neducators, 142; on Francke, 143-\\n181", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "182\\nINDEX\\n146 on Eousseau, 146-149 on Base-\\ndow, 149-153 on Pestalozzi, 153-158\\non Frobel, 158-162 on Herbart, 162-\\n164 permanent influence, 165-171\\nbibliography, 177-180.\\nComenius-Blatter, 172.\\nComenius-Gesellschaft, 170.\\nComenius-Stiftung, 169.\\nCompayre, Gabriel, the Orois pictus,\\n137 sketch of Comenius, 177.\\nCordier, Maturin, condition of educa-\\ntion in France in the 16th century,\\n4.\\nDaguet, A., sketch of Comenius, 180.\\nDavidson, Thomas, relation of Eous-\\nseau to Comenius, 146.\\nDe Garmo, Charles, Frobel and Come-\\nnius, 162.\\nDe Geer, Lawrence, aid to Comenius,\\n71.\\nDe Geer, Lewis, patron of Comenius,\\n57.\\nDe Schweinitz, Edmund, account of\\nthe Uhitas fratrwm, 178.\\nDiscipline of schools, 89, 106-108.\\nDunster, Henry, president of Harvard\\nCollege, 78.\\nDurie, John, connection with Come-\\nnius, 54.\\nElbing, the Prussian home of Comenius,\\n60.\\nfemile, 146.\\nErasmus, on classical learning, 8, 24.\\nFables, 117.\\nFiske, John, meaning of infancy, 86.\\nFood of children, 116.\\nFrancke, August Hermann, studies at\\nKiel and Leipzig, 143 organization\\nof the Pasdagogium at Halle, 144;\\nattitude toward classical learning,\\n145.\\nFrobel, Friedrich, obligations to Come-\\nnius, 158 studies with Pestalozzi,\\n159 views on the education of\\nwomen, 161.\\nGalileo, opposed by the humanists, 9.\\nGeography, 116, 138.\\nGindely, Anton, life of Comenius, 178.\\nGirls, education of, 88.\\nGotha, Eatke s experiment at, 31.\\nGreat didactic, 36, 83-108.\\nGroos, Karl, on play, 118.\\nHall, G. Stanley, value of the OrM8 pic-\\ntus, 137 influence of Pestalozzi, 156.\\nHanus, Paul H., call of Comenius to\\nHarvard College, 79 correlation, 97\\npermanent influence of Comenius,\\n177.\\nHark, John Max, personal character-\\nistics of Comenius, 177.\\nHarris, William T., 126.\\nHartlib, Samuel, account of, 51-54.\\nHarvard College, alleged call of Come-\\nnius to the presidency of, 78-83.\\nHeidelberg, matriculation of Comenius\\nat the university, 44.\\nHenry VIII, relations with Vives, 19.\\nHerbart, Johann Friedrich, obligations\\nto Comenius, 162 effect of instruc-\\ntion on character, 163 doctrine of\\ninterest, 164.\\nHerborn, studies of Comenius at, 42.\\nHistory, 116.\\nHoole, Charles, editor of the Orbis\\npictus, 133, 177.\\nHughes, James L., Frobel and the\\neducation of women, 161.\\nHughes, Thomas, account of Loyola,\\n5.\\nHumanism, 1-14.\\nHus, John, first bishop of the Moravian\\nBrethren, 38.\\nInfancy, meaning of, 86; Comenius\\nSchool of infancy, 103, 109-122.\\nInterest, doctrine of, 163.\\nJanua, of Bateus, 37 of Comenius,\\n65, 125-129.\\nJena, relations to Eatke, 29 pedagogi-\\ncal seminary, 145.\\nJesuits, the Ratio studiorum of, 5\\ndevotion to Latin eloquence, 7.\\nJustinus, Laurentius, bishop of the\\nMoravian Brethren, 61.\\nKant, Immanuel, on the labors of Base-\\ndow, 152.\\nKeatinge, M. W., quoted, 39, 57 edi-\\ntion of the Great didactic, 84,\\n175.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n183\\nKeller, Ludwig, editor of Monatshefte\\nder Comenius Gesellschaft, 170,\\n178.\\nKindergarten, 158.\\nKomensky, Martin, father of John\\nAmos Comenius, 38.\\nKvacsala, Johann, sketch of Comenius,\\n178.\\nLanguage, 100, 123-141.\\nLatin, schools, 105 study of, 2.\\nLaurie, S. S., quoted, 137; edition of\\nthe Great didactic, 176; place of\\nComenius in the history of educa-\\ntion, 177.\\nLeipzig, study of pedagogy at the uni-\\nversity, 145 national pedagogical\\nlibrary, 169.\\nLindner, G. A., edition of the Great\\ndidactic, 176.\\nLuther, Martin, 89.\\nMagnolia of Cotton Mather, 78.\\nMasson, David, quoted, 52.\\nMather, Cotton, call of Comenius to\\nHarvard, 78.\\nMaxwell, William H., text-books of\\nComenius, 134, 177.\\nMelanchthon, Philip, on classical learn-\\ning, 9, 24.\\nMental training, 115-120.\\nMethods of instruction, 97-103.\\nMethoduH nomssima, 138-141.\\nMonatshefte der Comenius-Gesell-\\nschaft, 171, 178.\\nMonroe, Will S., call of Comenius to\\nHarvard College, 81 edition of the\\nSchool of infancy, 110, 175.\\nMontaigne, on humanism, 11.\\nMoral training, 101, 120.\\nMoravian Brethren, 38.\\nMulcaster, Kichard, on humanism,\\n13.\\nMiiller, Joseph, bibliography of Come-\\nnius, 110.\\nMunroe, James P., on Eabelais, 10\\nsketch of Comenius, 177.\\nMusic, 119.\\nNaarden, burial place of Comenius, 76.\\nNaturalism, 1.\\nNature, education according to, 90-\\n97.\\nNivnitz, birthplace of Comenius,\\n38.\\nNursing of children, 114.\\nOrbispictus, 69, 130-138.\\nOxenstiern, Axel, 33, 58, 62.\\nOxford, university of, 63.\\nPffidagogium at Halle, 144.\\nPansophia, 51, 53, 64.\\nPaulsen, Friedrich, on European uni-\\nversities, 3.\\nPestalozzi, anticipated by Comenius,\\n116 influenced by the JiJmile, 153\\ndomestic education, 154; study of\\nnature, 156 geography, 157.\\nPhilanthropinum of Basedow, 152.\\nPhysical training, 113-115.\\nPictures, use of, 98.\\nPlay, 160.\\nPortraits of Comenius, 81.\\nPrivate education, 87.\\nPurpose of education, 85-89.\\nQuick, Kobert Hebert, quoted,\\nestimate of Comenius, 177.\\nQuintilian, 99.\\n169;\\nEabelais, on humanism, 10.\\nRatio studiorum of the Jesuits, 5.\\nEatke, Wolfgang, 28-35, 59.\\nEaumer, Karl von, 5, 6, 16,\\n128.\\nEealism, 1.\\nEein, Wilhelm, 145, 179.\\nEeligious training, 102, 120-122.\\nEitter, Karl, 157.\\nEousseau, Jean Jacques, 146-149.\\nIT,\\n109-122,\\nSaros-Patak, 64.\\nSchiller, Hermann, 145.\\nSchool of infancy, 103,\\n175.\\nScience, 98.\\nSense-training, 115, 147.\\nSkyte, John, 58.\\nSpencer, Herbert, 148.\\nSturm, John, 3, 5, 7, 14.\\nSymbolism of Frobel, 164.\\nTrotzendorf, Valentine Friedland, 3.\\nUniversity, 105.", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "184\\nINDEX\\nVergarius, Petrus Paulus, 8.\\nVernier, A. C, edition of the Janua,\\n129.\\nVestibulum, 129.\\nVittorino da Feltre, 8.\\nVives, John Lewis, account of educa-\\ntional views, 16-22.\\nVolkelt, Johannes, 145.\\nVolksschule of Germany, 158.\\nVostrovsky, Clara, 40.\\nVrbka, Anton, life of Comenius,\\n178.\\nWestphalia, treaty of, 62.\\nWomen, education of, 18, 88.\\nZerotin, Karl von, patron of Comenius,\\n46.\\nZoubek, Franz, edition of Comeniua\\nwritings, 176.\\n3 47 7", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3319", "width": "1937", "jp2-path": "comeniusbeginnin00monr_0208.jp2"}}