innirniiuwi-tutmtbj l|j|{ tlj j ih LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, plrnr Chap._ Copyright No. ShelfPiiS-^- mo UNITED STATES OF AMERICA . r- ' « / > BABY STUART-BY VAN DYCK NEW Lessons in English . a». * . * ■ - \ V ■ • FOR Intermediate Grades BY / J. N. PATRICK, A. M. v\ You cannot, by all the lecturing in the world, enable a man to make a shoe. Dr. Johnson. A. FLANAGAN CO., Publishers, CHICAGO. V.- T£m" 65.341 Copyright, 1892, J. N. Patrick. Copyright, 1900, BY A. Flanagan Co. 1642 2 Library of Congress Two Copies Receiveo JUL 9 1900 Copyright ontry SECOND COPY. Delivered to ORDER DIVISION, J UL 19 190 0— CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER 1. The Sentence: Kinds—Principal Parts. 5 Picture Study—The Anecdote. CHAPTER II. Parts of Speech—. 19 Picture Study—Study of Poem. CHAPTER III. Classification of the Parts of Speech — 49 Letter Writing— Study of Selections. CHAPTER IV. Inflection—.99 Study of Picture and Selections. CHAPTER V. Verbals—Participles—Infinitives— ----- 149 Study of Selection. CHAPTER VI. Phrases—Clauses—.159 Study of Selection—Picture Study. CHAPTER VII. The Sentence: Elements—Principal—Subordinate— - 176 Study of Selections. CHAPTER VIII. The Sentence: Simple—Complex—Compound— - - 190 Comparative Picture Study —Letter Writing. Appendix. 208 V 1 • • * ✓ 9 e % * • • • • t 9 • % • » * I ‘ -A ... • # f • PREFACE o ‘ * Lessons in English ’ ’ was written with two facts in view : First, that pupils eleven and twelve years of age can think. Second, that exercises which require thought on the part of the pupil are the only exercises which lead him to a correct use of language. Memorizing extracts from great authors will never familiarize pupils with the logical value of the grammatical elements. It is the mastery of the sentence that enables one to appreciate the beautiful in literature and to ex¬ press thought clearly, concisely, and attractively. This book is inductive in method, direct in aim, and concise in statement. Numerous and exacting exercises, rather than perplexing exceptions and comment, dis¬ tinguish it from most elementary grammars. It is believed that 11 Lessons in English ” is a proper introduction to the author’s “Essentials of English,” and that these two books furnish all the grammatical facts and exercises needed in the public schools. J. N. PATRICK. St. Louis, Mo. Note— This book has been enlarged and enriched by the addition of the Illustrations, the Selections and Exercises on pages 17, 18, 47, 48, 97, 98, 147. 148, 157, 158, 169, 170, 171, 172, 175, 186, 189, 194, 197, and the valuable instruc¬ tions on Letter Writing. This is the work of two experienced teachers and admirably supplements the text prepared by Prof. Patrick. • . V . LESSONS IN ENGLISH. CHAPTER I. THE SENTENCE: KINDS—PRINCIPAL PARTS. THE SENTENCE. Think of something you did yesterday. Tell, or express, your thought. What did you use to express your thought ? Thoughts are usually expressed by words, spoken or written. Any means by which thoughts are expressed is language. The language which we use is the English language. 1. We think. 4. Short long. 2. Read sing. 5. Trees houses. 3. Wood burns. 6. Snow is white. Which of the above groups of words make sense, or express thoughts? Which do not express thoughts? 6 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 1. wasting his time 2. in the morning 3. all misspent time 4. was the first President 5. the air that we breathe Are the words in the above groups so arranged as to express some meaning ? Does any one of the groups express a complete thought ? The words are so arranged as to express some meaning, yet it is necessary to add other words to each group in order to make it express a complete thought . Thus : 1. The hoy is wasting his time. 2. We go to school in the morning. 3. All misspent time will he regretted . 4. Washington was the first President. 5. The air that we breathe shoidd he pure. When words are so put together as to express complete thoughts, they form sentences. A Sentence is a group of words expressing a com¬ plete thought. Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. THE SENTENCE. 1 EXERCISE. I. — Form a sentence of each of the following groups by properly arranging the words : 1. clouds rain dark bring 2. Florida in grow oranges 3. made cream butter is of 4. cat claws eighteen has a 5. boys the playing are ball 6. like place home there no is 7. sweetly the sings robin very 8. paper of made rags cotton is 9. islands Venice eighty is on built 10. on lived island an Robinson Crusoe II. — Tell which of the following groups of words are sentences : 1. Children play. 2. Is made of iron. 3. A burning house. 4. The house is burning. 5. The cow eats hay. 6. Playing on the hay. 7. I sent you a book. 8. The book that I sent. 9. Steel is harder than. iron. 10. Over the mountain. 11. He went over the mountain. 8 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. III. — Add such words as will make a sentence of each of the following groups : 1 . 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13. 14. 15. The rose — Seven days — Robert Fulton — Two little birds — Elephants’ tusks — Industrious pupils — In 1776 the United States — — is the first month. — was a great general. — tell us the time of day. — is the most useful metal. — cannot breathe in the air. — is the largest city in the world. — is called the father of his country. — revolves around the sun in a year. IV.—Write sentences answering the following questions: 1. Of what use are camels? 2. What animal produces ivory? 3. How are minerals usually obtained? 4. What plant is most useful for food ? 5. What plant is most used in making clothing? 6. By whom are anvils used ? Saws ? Plows ? Awls ? V. — Write five sentences about your school. KINDS OP SENTENCES. KINDS OF SENTENCES. 1. The stars are distant. 2. Can you count the stars ? 3. Do not idle your time away. 4. How glad we are to see you ! Are the above groups sentences ? Which one tells something ? Which one asks a question ? Which one expresses a command ? Which one expresses strong feeling ? A sentence which tells something is a declarative sentence. To tell means to declare . A sentence which asks a question is an inter¬ rogative sentence. To ash means to interrogate . A sentence which expresses a command is an imperative sentence. Imperative means commanding . A sentence which expresses strong feeling is an exclamatory sentence. To exclaim means to cry out. A Declarative Sentence tells something. An Interrogative Sentence asks a question. An Imperative Sentence ‘expresses a command or a request. An Exclamatory Sentence expresses sudden or strong feeling. 10 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Every declarative and every imperative sentence should be followed by a period (.). Every interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point (?). Every exclamatory sentence should be followed by an exclamation point (!). EXERCISE. I. — Tell which of the following sentences are declarative, which interrogative, which imperative, and which exclamatory : Youth is short. What time is it ? Oh, how you hurt me ! Bring your book to me. What a warm day it is ! Did you see the sunset ? Woodman, spare that tree. How many legs has a spider? Wisdom is better than rubies. What a beautiful sunset it was ! II. — Copy the following sentences, using the proper punctuation mark after each: 1. Can the ostrich run fast 2. Form good habits in youth 3. Idleness often leads to vice 4. Please let me hear you read 5. How many sides has a triangle 6. How beautiful the moonlight is 7. The peacock is a native of India 8. Oh, how I want Christmas to come 9. What a beautiful tail the peacock has KINDS OF SENTENCES. 11 III. —Write a declarative sentence about each of the following: gold grass school Franklin elephants owls a doll vacation the stars the Rocky Mountains IV. — Change the following declarative sentences to interrogative sentences: It is cold. I shall come. You can finish your work. The boys want to go fishing. The girl skates well. There is a nest in the tree. The stars are distant. There are books in the desks. V. —Write five interrogative sentences. VI. —Write imperative sentences expressing: 1. The command of a teacher to her pupils. 2. Something your mother told you to do. 3. The command of a father to his son. 4. A favor you might ask of your father. 5. A request made of your teacher ; of your mother; of a schoolmate. VII. —Write an exclamatory sentence about each of the following : a pretty doll the moonlight beautiful clouds a severe storm a flash of lightning very high mountains 12 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. THE TWO PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 1. lions 2. the children 3. wave in the breeze 4. was a poet 5. how welcome is Are these sentences? Is any thought expressed about lions ? About the children ? What wave in the breeze ? Who was a poet f What is welcome ? To make sentences of the above, it is necessary to, add to each group such words as will complete the thought. Thus : 1. Lions roar. 2. The children are studying. 3. The leaves wave in the breeze. 4. Was Longfellow a poet ? 5. How welcome is the rain ! About what is something said in the first sentence? In the second? In the third? In the fourth? In the fifth ? What is said about lions 9 About children ? About leaves ? About Longfellow ? About rain ? Every sentence must have two parts— that about which something is said , and that which expresses what is said. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 13 That part of a sentence about which something is said, is called the subject of the sentence ; the part which expresses what is said about the subject, is called the predicate of the sentence. The Subject of a sentence is the part about which something is said. The Predicate of a sentence is the part which expresses what is said about the subject. EXERCISE. I. — Copy the following sentences, drawing line under the subject (when expressed), and lines under the predicate of each : 1. Music charms. 2. Gunpowder explodes. 3. Speak only the truth. 4. Shun evil companions. 5. Morse was an inventor. 6. Are the clouds far away? 7. Can money buy happiness ? 8. Pure water is the best drink. 9. How slowly the snail moves! 10. Rabbits burrow in the ground. 11. Where does coffee come from? 12. Do you like to read good books? 13. A wise son maketh a glad father. 14 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 14. What a brave general Grant was ! 15. A good name is better than riches. 16. Outdoor exercises give us strength. 17. A love for the good makes us good. 18. The light of the sun makes the day. 19. The great oak grew from a little acorn. 20. The mill by the river runs by water-power. II. — Supply predicates for each of the following subjects ; Lincoln farmers the lark the miser carpenters dark clouds the Esquimaux III. — Supply subjects predicates : bark flashes is brittle draw sledges comes from China are troublesome insects Indians Whittier the wren a volcano pond-lilies an idle boy good children for each of the following purrs twinkle was a hero is a mineral delivers the letters are moved by steam IV. — Write five sentences, underlining the sub¬ jects once and the predicates twice. FEEDING HER BIRDS. ( 15 ) FEEDING HER BIRDS. 17 FEEDING HER BIRDS. 1. Study this picture carefully. 2. Is the house like the houses you know? 3. Are the children dressed like the children in your school? 4. What time of year is represented? 5. Describe the picture orally. 6. Learn all you can about the artist and his work. 7. Write a brief description of the picture. 8. To what country do these children belong? How do you know? 9. Imagine yourself one of the children and describe your home and life. Note to Teacher: In using the pictures it will be found best for the child first to study the picture for himself and write the story of it as it appeals to his imagination. Then the teacher may add the in¬ formation regarding the artist valuable to the pupil. In this way the children will learn of several masters. Have both oral and written descriptions of the pictures. A variety is here presented to give the child a wide view of the pos¬ sibilities in the art world. Art is life. Here is a combination of fact and fancy that makes for growth. Encourage pupils to bring in other pictures and begin making collections. Jean Francois Millet. Jean Francois Millet was born of peasant parents in a little town of France, 1814. He was a fine student. At eighteen he read the Bible and Vergil in Latin. At twenty he was a cultured man. Millet was one of the five famous painters of the Barbizon School. , It was his habit to study nature very attentively, yet much of his work was done within doors. 18 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. With almost cruel honesty this artist has portrayed the bitter drudgery of peasant life. His children, however, seem happy. In this pretty scene of the mother feeding her little flock, one can almost hear her caressing tones. One daring hen looks as if she might challenge the babe’s right to be fed. His Head When He Was A Boy. Two strangers once went to a museum in London. They had a guide, who showed them everything that was remarkable. Together with many other things he showed a skull, and told them it was that of Oliver Cromwell. Now, as this skull was quite small, one of the strangers said: “How could so great a man have so small a head?” “Ah, well!” said the guide, “that was his head when he was a boy.” ANECDOTES. Note to Teacher: The use of the anecdote is to promote the story-telling power of the child. Have these anecdotes told orally, then writ¬ ten from memory. The teacher may tell the story and have the class reproduce orally or on paper. At other times the teacher may dictate an anecdote and then direct the pupil to compare his work with the text in the book for the purpose of correcting his mistakes. This is a most valuable exercise as a training in con¬ centration, self-reliance and exactness. This work trains the memory, promotes self-possession, strengthens the conversational powers, and assists in spelling, capitalization and punctuation. Induce the children to relate these anecdotes at home and to bring back reports of the home interest in them. Induce them to bring in new stories; to try writing up incidents that happen on the playground, on the way home or at home. The baby’s quaint sayings afford a great variety of pretty thoughts. This original work in story-telling opens a new world to the child through observation and invention. CHAPTER II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. boys rain trees 2. play falls grow Is either of the above groups of words a sen¬ tence ? Notice that all the words in the first group are of one kind (name-words), and that all those in the second are of another kind (action-words). Boys play. Rain falls. Trees grow. How many sentences are there above ? How many kinds of words in each? Every sentence must have at least how many kinds of words ? In order to add other ideas to these sentences, still other kinds of words must be added. Thus : Happy boys play merrily. The rain falls from the clouds. Trees grow, hut they grow very slowly. Thus it is found that different kinds of words are needed to make sentences. Sentences form lan¬ guage, or speech; hence these different kinds of words are called parts of speech. 20 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. NOUNS. 1. Stars twinkle. 2. Tell the truth. 3. Tea grows in China. 4. Your mind will improve. 5. John laid his book on the table . Mention the words that are used as names in the above sentences. Which word is the name of a per¬ son ? Which the name of a place ? Which words are the names of things ? Which two name things that cannot be seen ? Words used as names are called nouns. Noun means name. A Noun is a word used as a name. EXERCISE. I. — Find fifteen nouns in the .following list of words: of new eat is day sing 80ft true ripe song knife voice water pencil music please flower sponge rapidly pleasure perfume wealth labored pleasant England wealthy laborer conscience NOUNS, 21 II. — Write the names of : 1. Five kinds of trees ; Five kinds of birds ; Five kinds of flowers; Five kinds of wild animals ; Five kinds of domestic animals. 2. Five things in a church; Five things in a grocery store ; Five things in a dry goods store ; Five things in your school-room ; Five things seen on your way to school. 3. Five different parts of a tree ; Five different parts of a clock ; Five different parts of a house ; Five different parts of your body; Five different parts of a train of cars. 4. Five occupations ; Five agricultural products; Five manufactured articles ; Five materials used in making clothing ; Five materials used in building houses. III. —Copy the following sentences, and under¬ line the nouns: 1. Silk is made in France. 2. Longfellow wrote poems. 3. Wood and coal are used for fuel. 22 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 4. Tanners prepare leather from hides. 5. The violet is admired for its sweet odor. 6. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 7. Parrots are brought from Africa by sailors. 8. Webster, the statesman, had a great mind. 9. We believe that the soul lives after the body is dead. 10. The poet says the fragrance of the flower is its thought, which lives after it. IY. — Use the following nouns in sentences : glass cork year earth flash echo knives tides light prairie paws scent panthers watches report Write five sentences, and underline nouns. PRONOUNS. 1. May said to mamma, “May loves mamma.” 2. Little Jessie says, “Jessie wants Jessie’s doll.” 3. The girls took the girls’ lunch with the girls. 4. John took off John’s hat when John came in. 5. Mary has a kitten. Mary loves the kitten very much. Do the above sentences sound right? Can you tell what is wrong with them ? PRONOUNS. 23 The sentences sound right when we use certain words in place of some of the nouns. Thus: 1. May said to mamma, “/ love you.” 2. Little Jessie says, 61 1 want my doll.” 3. The girls took their lunch with them. 4. John took off his hat when he came in. 5. Mary has a kitten. She loves it very much. What words are used to take the place of nouns? Name the noun for which each italicized word stands. Words used in place of nouns are called pro¬ nouns. Pronoun means for a noun. A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. The noun for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The pronoun I should be written as a capital letter. EXERCISE. I.— Copy the following sentences, using pronouns to avoid the repetition of nouns : 1. John has a book and John will lend the book. 2. Janies will buy a pony if Janies can buy a pony cheap. 3. Harry loves Harry’s mother and Harry’s mother loves Harry. 24 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 4. Fannie asked Fannie’s brother Tom to lend Fannie Tom’s knife. 5. When Mary had finished reading Mary’s book, Mary put the book away. 6. The whale looks like a fish, but the whale is not, for the whale cannot breathe in the water. 7. The pupils are in order. The pupils have the pupils’ books ready to study the pupils’ lessons. 8. William promised Gertrude that William would lend Gertrude William’s grammar, that Gertrude might study Gertrude’s lesson. 9. George and Tom took George’s and Tom’s sleds and went coasting. George and Tom stayed until George and Tom’s mother called George and Tom. II. — Copy the following sentences, and under¬ line the pronouns ; name the antecedent, if given: 1. I wrote a letter, but it was brief. 2. Ruth, you have not finished your work. 3. The boys asked their mother to excuse them. 4. Did you give me permission to read your book ? 5. Our friends came, and we were glad to see them. 6. The horse is not afraid of its master, because he is kind to it. 7. John was here. He left word for you to meet him at his office. 8. Cyrus knew all the soldiers of his army, and could call them by their names. III. —Write five sentences containing pronouns. ADJECTIVES. 25 ADJECTIVES. roses girls flowers boy men money Do you know what roses are meant ? What girls ? What flowers ? Which boy ? How many men ? How much money ? May not each of these nouns mean anything of its kind in the world ? A certain kind of words may be added to the nouns to change, or modify, their meaning. Thus : red roses good girls pretty flowers that boy seven men some money Name the words used to modify the meaning of the nouns. Is there a difference between roses and red roses ? Between girls and good girls ? Words used to modify the meaning of nouns are called adjectives. Adjective means something added. An Adjective is a word used to qualify the mean¬ ing of a noun. An adjective used in the predicate may modify the meaning of a pronoun in the subject; as, He is tall.- They are happy. 26 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I. — Copy the following sentences, and underline the adjectives ; tell what each adjective modifies : 1. All people have unhappy hours. 2. A feeble old man has a tottering gait. 3. Lions are called carnivorous animals. 4. Grant was a firm, courageous, patriotic man. 5. The average human life is thirty-one years. 6. Last week he set out forty young pine trees. 7. We should pity that poor little ragged beggar. 8. White, fleecy clouds float in the bright blue sky. 9. The feathery frost-work makes beautiful pictures. 10. Much harm may be done by a few thoughtless words. 11. They had a stormy passage across the great ocean. 12. A cat has four padded feet and eighteen sharp, hidden claws. 13. Those grand old oak trees have been growing many long years. 14. This beautiful, gay butterfly was once an ugly, creeping caterpillar. II. — Write sentences containing the following nouns, using one or more adjectives to describe what each names : bird lion eyes snow wheat moon pupil apple berries diamonds soldier disposition ADJECTIVES. 27 III. — Write sentences containing the following words used as adjectives : ten tiny real blue fresh steep shady glossy gloomy bright several smiling handsome studious fragrant delicious beautiful interesting IV. — Copy the following words, and write oppo site each a word of opposite meaning : old legal sad true soft busy deep brave high warm kind heavy tame weak short honest many noisy polite correct rough sweet regular careful V.— Think of as many adjectives as you can that might be used with each of the following nouns : rose water oranges weather children stone clouds houses clothes Washington VI. — Write five sentences, each containing one or more adjectives. 28 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. VERBS. 1. a horse 4. she happy 2. the pupils 5. ants insects 3. John a letter 6. velvet soft Are the above groups sentences ? Is anything said about a horse ? About the pupils ? About John ? About she f About ants ? About velvet ? In order to make sentences of these groups, it is necessary to use in each a word that says, or asserts , something. Thus : 1. A horse trots. 4. She is happy. 2. The pupils study. 5. Ants are insects. 3- John wrote a letter. 6. Velvet feels soft. Name the words that are used to assert some¬ thing. Name the word in each sentence about which something is asserted. Words used to assert (tell, ask, command) some¬ thing of some person or thing, are called verbs. Verb means simply a word. A Verb is a word used to assert something of some person or thing. Every sentence must contain a noun , or its equiva¬ lent, and a verb, alone, or with other words. (See definitions of subject and predicate , page 13.) VERBS. 29 The verb may consist of more than one word ; as, A horse can trot. The pupils are studying. John should have written a letter. EXERCISE. I. — Copy the following sentences, and under¬ line the verbs : 1. Coffee is a berry. 2. Bats are not birds. 3. Tides rise and fall. 4. Were there many present? 5. Have animals a language? 6. The cuckoo builds no nest. 7. What strange things history tells! 8. How many years make a century? 9. Keep thy heart with all diligence. 10. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 11. Will you deliver the note which I am writing? 12. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 13. And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell not, for it was founded upon a rock. 14. Woodman, spare that tree ! Touch not a single bough! In youth it sheltered me, And I’ll protect it now. 30 LESSONS IN ENGLISH, II.—From the following list of words, make twelve sentences of two words each : hens soar lambs reign food kings burst frisk graze cattle cackle cement eagles glisten sparkle nourishes flashes hardens teachers lightning instruct diamonds dew-drops soap-bubbles III.—Use the following words as subjects of verbs : lion kings bees silver farmer birds grapes rivers cooper thunder kerosene flowers lizards squirrels islands Victoria carpenters America IY. — Use the following verbs in sentences : plow swim was sow falls lived hum sews float crawl were shod dawns blooms seem chirp shines appear wrung scamper discovered remained tastes scratches Y.—Write five sentences, and underline the verbs. ADVERBS. 31 ADVERBS. 1. John came. 2. The bird flew. 3. Some men work. Do the verbs in the above sentence tell all that we wish to know ? Might we not ask when John came 9 Where the bird Jlew ? How some men work 9 To answer these questions, it is necessary to add to the verbs certain words which modify their mean¬ ing. Thus : 1. John came early «, 2. The bird flew down. 3. Some men work rapidly. What word modifies the meaning of the verb in the first sentence ? In the second ? In the third ? Words used to modify the meaning of verbs are called adverbs. Adverb means added to a verb . Adverbs are also used to modify the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs ; as, They are extremely happy children. Grace sang unusually well. The river flows very swiftly. An Adverb is a word used to modify the mean¬ ing of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 32 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I. —Write as many adverbs as you can that denote : 1. How birds sing. 2. How people walk. 3. How pupils recite. 4. How we may speak. 5. How work may be done. II. — Copy the following sentences and underline the adverbs; tell what each adverb modifies : 1. Come immediately. 2. Here are your books. 3. The fire burns cheerily. 4. There are kind people everywhere. 5. Diamonds are extremely hard stones. 6. How softly and silently the snow falls ! 7. Few persons speak perfectly correctly. 8. The ostrich is an exceedingly swift runner. 9. Always obey your parents promptly and cheerfully. 10. Winter is almost gone ; it will soon be summer. 11. We saw the balloon go up, but not come down. 12. The little bird opened its mouth wide, and hastily swallowed the worm. 13. The crocus blooms early in the spring; the chrys¬ anthemum late in the fall. 14. That very industrious boy does his work remark¬ ably well, and greatly pleases his teacher. PREPOSITIONS. 33 III. — Change the following sentences so that adverbs may be used instead of the italicized adjectives : 1. He is a swift runner. [He runs swiftly.'] 2. She is a graceful skater. 3. The bee is a busy worker. 4. John does accurate work. 5. His actions are strange. 6. Mary’s writing is beautiful. 7. The girl sang a sweet song. 8. The boy made a complete failure. 9. He gave us an interesting talk. 10. The snail has a slow motion. 11. That horse is a rapid walker. IV. — Write five sentences, each containing one or more adverbs. PREPOSITIONS. 1. Will you come — us ? 2. Here is a flower — you. 3. The boy ran — the house. 4. The book — the desk is mine. Have these sentences any meaning ? Is there any relation between come and us ? Between flower and you V Between ran and house ? Between booh and desk ? 34 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A certain kind of word must be used in each of the above sentences to show a relation between the disconnected ideas. Thus : 1. Will you come with us? 2. Here is a flower for you. 3. The boy ran into the house. 4. The book on the desk is mine. Name the words used to show relation. Tell between what the relation is shown in each sentence. Words which join nouns or pronouns to other words by showing relation, are called prepositions. Preposition means placed before. The noun or pronoun following a preposition, and related by it to some other word, is called the object of the preposition. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation of its object to some other word. EXERCISE. I.—Copy the following sentences, underlining the •prepositions once, and their objects twice ; also tell to what each preposition relates its object : 1. Do not lean against the wall. 2. The ship sails across the ocean. PREPOSITIONS. 35 3. Italy is a country beyond the sea. 4. I called for her and she came with me. 5. The house on the hill belongs to him. 6. The nest of the bird is in a tree by the brook. 7. Their home, near the city, was destroyed by fire. 8. A book with pictures in it is liked by children. 9. The pencil rolled off the table and fell to the floor. 10. The lark rises from the earth and soars toward the sky. 11. You cannot go over the mountains without a guide. 12. The boat came up the river and landed at the wharf. 13. He went into the garden, and now walks in the garden. 14. The reign of Queen Elizabeth is noted for its lit¬ erary achievements. 15. George III. was born about three months after the birth of Washington. II. — Write each of the following sentences as many times as you can use (correctly) a different preposition to fill the blank : 1. The pencil is — the book. 2. The bird flew — the tree. 3. He has a home — the sea. 4. The boat went — the river. 5. I received news — my friends. 6. The cottage — the hill is pretty. III. — Write five sentences, each containing one or more prepositions. 36 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. The sun shone. The water sparkled. 2. The man is poor. He is contented. 3. Rule your tongue. It will rule you. 4. He will succeed. He works faithfully. 5. The rainbow will appear. The sun comes out. How many sentences here ? Do so many short sentences together sound well ? Are any two of the sentences related in thought, or is each an independ¬ ent statement? A certain kind of word may be used to connect each pair of the sentences given above, and to show a relation in thought between them. Thus : 1. The sun shone and the water sparkled. 2. The man is poor, but he is contented. 3. Rule your tongue, or it will rule you. 4. He will succeed, because he works faithfully. 5. The rainbow will appear, if the sun comes out. How many sentences here ? Name the words used to connect the independent sentences and bring them into relation. When two or more sentences are thus combined, they form compound sentences, as in 1, 2, and 3, or complex sentences, as in 4 and 5. CONJUNCTIONS. 37 1. We study and we recite. 2. John studies and Mary studies. 3. William works slowly, but he works steadily. 4. You have slates, and you have books, and you have pencils. 5. He is a kind boy, and be is a polite boy, and be is an industrious boy. Do these sentences sound well? Is there not too much repetition ? The sentences may be improved by using but once parts that are alike, and connecting parts that are unlike. Thus : 1. We study and recite. 2. John and Mary study. 3. William works slowly, but steadily. 4. You have slates, books, and pencils. 5. He is a kind, polite, and industrious boy. Name the words used to connect the parts of sentences. Words used to connect sentences or parts of sentences are called conjunctions. Conjunction means joining together . A Conjunction is a word used to connect sen¬ tences or parts of sentences. Note. — Three or more words following one another, and used alike in a sentence, as in 4 and 5, are said to form a series. 38 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Words in a series, unless they are all connected by conjunctions, should be separated by commas. EXERCISE. I. — Copy the following sentences, and underline the conjunctions ; also tell whether the conjunction connects sentences or words, and when words, what part of speech : 1. Time and tide wait for no man. 2. The teacher spoke kindly, but firmly. 3. The plant grows, blooms, and dies. 4. Truthful and honest men are respected. 5. Faith, hope, and charity are virtues. 6. I will not go, since it is raining. 7. She leads a gay but an unhappy life. 8. Cease to do evil and learn to do well. 9. The farmer raises wheat, corn, hay, and oats. 10. I shall not go unless you go with me. II. You cannot reap if you do not sow. 12. The lecture was interesting, though it was long. 13. The boy goes to school, but he does not study. 14. Obey Nature’s laws, or you will suffer her penalties. 15. John will succeed, because he is industrious and persistent. 16. We know that the earth is round, for men have sailed around it. 17. The day is cold and dark and dreary; It rains, and the wind is never weary. CONJUNCTIONS 39 II. — Use an appropriate conjunction to connect each of the following pairs of sentences : 1. Buy the truth. Sell it not. 2. He is afflicted. He is patient. 3. I honor him. He is a good man. 4. Wood floats. It is lighter than water. 5. Croesus was wealthy. He was not happy. 6. Life is short. You should improve the time. 7. Keep your promises. You will not be trusted. 8. There is no harvest. There is no seed-time. 9. I do not think it will rain. The clouds are very dark. 10. Take care of the cents. The dollars will take care of themselves. III. —Combine each of the following sets of sentences into one sentence, using as few words as possible : 1. Coal is found in Missouri. Iron is found in Missouri. 2. Electricity produces light. Electricity produces heat. 3. The merchant buys goods. The merchant sells goods. 4. The farmer plows. The farmer sows. The farmer reaps. 5. The day was bright. The day was cool. The day was pleasant. 6. Diamonds are precious stones. Rubies are precious stones. Emeralds are precious stones. 7. Lincoln was a good man. Lincoln was a wise man. Lincoln was a patriotic man. 40 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 8. Furs are obtained from Alaska. Fish are obtained from Alaska. Lumber is obtained from Alaska. 9. He reads slowly. He reads silently. He reads thoughtfully. He reads understandingly. 10. The Southern States export cotton. The Southern States export sugar. The Southern States export rice. The Southern States export tobacco. IV. — Write five sentences, each containing a different conjunction. INTERJECTIONS. 1. There they come. 2. I am so glad to see you. 3. We have not heard from him. Do these sentences express any strong or sudden feeling ? By using a certain kind of words with the above sentences, we add to them the idea of strong feeling, or emotion. Thus : 1. Ah ! There they come. 2. Oh 1 I am so glad to see you. 3. Alas! We have not heard from him. Name the words that are used to express emotion. Which word expresses surprise ? Which joy? Which sorrow ? Do these words form a part of the sub¬ jects of the sentences ? A part of the predicates ? INTERJECTIONS. 41 Words which are thrown into sentences to express some emotion, are called interjections. Interjection means thrown into the midst of. An Interjection is a word used to express emotion. An interjection should usually be followed by an exclamation point. The interjection O should be written as a cap¬ ital letter. Note. — The interjection oh begins with a capital only at the beginning of a sentence. Oh is always followed by a comma or an exclamation point; O is generally followed by the name of what is addressed, after which the exclamation point is used. EXERCISE. I. — Copy the following sentences, and underline the interjections ; tell what emotion is expressed : 1. Ha ! I see you. 2. Pshaw! I am not afraid. 3. Oh ! How you frightened me ! 4. O Father ! Will you come ? 4. Hurrah ! We have a holiday. 5. Fie ! Fie ! I do not believe it. 6. Hark ! I hear strains of music. 7. Ah ! I have sighed to rest me. 8. Awake, O bell! Proclaim the hour. 9. The joys of youth, alas ! will not return. II. —Write five sentences containing interjections. 42 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. We have found eight kinds of words, each doing a different work in the sentence. These are all the kinds that are ever used ; hence there are but eight classes of words, or parts of speech. Every one of the many thousand words in our language belongs to one or another of these classes. The following summary may help to fix in the mind the names of the parts of speech, and their offices in the sentence : Nouns, words used as names. Pronouns, words used in place of nouns. Verbs, words used to assert something. Adjectives, words used to modify nouns. Adverbs, words used to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Prepositions, words used to connect words be¬ tween which they show relation. Conjunctions, words used to connect sentences and parts of sentences. Interjections, words used to express emotion. WORDS DIFFERENTLY USED. 43 WORDS DIFFERENTLY USED. The same word is not always the same part of speech. The office of a word, the work which it does in a sentence , determines to what part of speech it belongs. As a word may have different offices in different sentences, it may belong to two or more parts of speech. Thus.: 1. The boy threw a stone . 2. A stone wall was built. 3. Stone the reptile to death. In the first sentence, stone names an object; hence it is a noun. In the second, it modifies a noun ; hence it is an adjective. In the third, it asserts an action; hence it is a verb. Note the use of the italicized words in the following sentences: They live near the city. [Preposition.] Do not fear, mother sits near . [Adverb.] As we near the city, we see smoke. [Verb.] What a near approach to drowning! [Adjective.] We can hut try. But is a conjunction. They are hut children. No one was there hut him. He is poor, hut he is honest. [Adverb.] [Noun.] [Adjective.] [Preposition.] [Conjunction.] 44 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. Determine to what part of speech the italicized words in the following sentences belong: 1. Hope is the balm of life. 2. I hope it will not rain. 3. He should act better. 4. I do not know a better boy. 5. Can you better your condition? 6. The man yet lives. 7. I can do little, yet I will try. 8. The dog ran after the boy. 9. I will go after you return. 10. The book will be read in after years. 11. The span of the bridge is long. 12. Can you span the distance ? 13. That is not more than a span long. 14. We help one another. 15. She could not get help. 16. Help 7 I am drowning ! 17. She came, for we sent for her. 18. The mouse ran under the box. 19. The ship went under with all on board. 20. The under side of the board is rough. 21. The mountain is grand. 22. Waves mountain high broke on the reef. 23. The good alone are great. 24. Good men are beloved. CHORISTER BOYS. FROM PAINTING BY ANDERSON. 1847. ( 46 ) QUESTIONS ON CHORISTER BOYS. 47 QUESTIONS ON CHORISTER BOYS. 1. Do you like this picture? 2. Describe the boys. Which face do you prefer? 3. Why does the little boy look perplexed? 4. Describe the picture orally. 5. Write a paper, imagining yourself in a cathedral, and describe the building, the music and the feeling aroused in you. Note to Teacher: The children who have seen the beautiful and impressive ser¬ vice in the Catholic or Episcopal churches will readily find orig¬ inal material for composition work suggested by this beautiful picture of Anderson’s, exhibiting, as it does, the variety of spirit¬ ual awakening in child-nature. YOUR PLACE. Just where you stand in the conflict, There is your place! Just where you think you are useless, Hide not your face! God placed you there for a purpose; Whate’er it be, Think he has chosen you for it; Work loyally. Gird on your armor! be faithful At toil or rest, Whiche’er it be, never doubting God’s way is best. Out in the fight, or on picket, Stand firm and true; This is the work which your Master Gives you to do, 48 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. YOUR PLACE. 1. What are the duties of a soldier? 2. Do you wish to be one? 3. To fight battles, must one be in the army? 4. What battles have you ever fought ? 5. Which is more difficult, to stay at home or to go forth into battle? 6. Write a paper expressing your thoughts on read¬ ing this poem. _ A Modest Eequest. It was a hot day, and a young man on foot making his way to the distant city was very tired. He wished often that he could have a chance to ride with some one. At length he saw a gentleman coming behind him in a carriage. This young man was a witty fellow, and he thought he would try his wit with this gentleman, who seemed to be a friendly man and who even spoke a few words to him. He asked the gentleman if he would be so kind as to take his coat with him to the gate of the next city, which they could see in the distance. ’T will gladly do so,” said the gentleman in the carriage, “but I cannot see how you will get it again, unless you can run as fast as my horse.” “O,” said the young man, “as to that, that is easy enough; if you have no objection, I will remain in my coat.” The gentleman thought the wit deserved a reward, and he took him with him to the city. CHAPTER III. CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. KINDS OF NOUNS. Common and Proper Nouns. The man is a poet. They live in a city. A river rises in a state. In the above sentences, do you know what man is meant ? What city ? What river ? What state ? Are man , city , river , state, names of particular objects, or is each of these words a name belonging in com¬ mon to all of a large class of objects ? Whittier is a poet. They live in Chicago. The Mississippi rises in Minnesota. In these sentences, which word names a particular man ? Which a particular city ? Which a particular river ? Which a particular state ? 50 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Nouns like man , city , river , and state, which are names common to all of a large class of objects, are called common nouns. Nouns like Whittier , Chicago , Mississippi , and Minnesota , which name particular persons, places, or things, are called proper nouns. A Common Noun is a name common to all of a class of objects. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular per¬ son, place, or thing. Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter. When a proper noun consists of more than one word, each important word should begin with a capital letter; as, 6rulf of Afexico Xocust Street ifocky Afountains i?ank of Commerce i^alpli Waldo Emerson Central ATigh School The following are proper nouns, and should begin with capital letters : 1. Names of the days, the months, and the principal holidays ; as, ATonday January Christmas .Fourth of July KINDS OF NOUNS. 51 2. Names of religious sects and political par¬ ties ; as, Gatholic .Methodist .Democrat Tory 3. Names of important historical events; as, War of the .Doses the Reformation the Rebellion 4. Names of books, papers, etc.; as, “Tittle Women” “The Touth’s Companion” 5. All names referring to God ; as, -Almighty Our Rather the Rternal Ooodness Uncle James Secretary Blaine Wm. Jones, Esq. Sir Walter Scott Mr. and Miss Smith Gen. W. T. Sherman What words are used in the above proper names to show respect, or to denote office ? What words are not written out in full ? Words used with proper names to show respect or to denote office, are called titles. When a word is shortened, it is abbreviated, and the shortened form is an abbreviation. Titles of office or honor used as parts of proper names should begin with capital letters. A period should be placed after every abbrevi¬ ation. 52 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I.—Name the common and the proper nouns in the following sentences ; notice the use of titles and abbreviations : 1. Gen. U. S. Grant was a great general. 2. Rev. H. W. Beecher died March 8, 1887. 3. She is a Presbyterian, and he a Unitarian. 4. A doctor was called, and Dr. Fraser came. 5. The Statue of Liberty is on Bedloe’s Island. 6. The Pacific Ocean was discovered by Balboa. 7. Yellowstone Park contains wonderful geysers. 8. The largest lake in the world is Lake Superior. 9. There are six states in the New England States. 10. You should read “A Child’s History of England.” 11. The boy asked his Uncle Frank to tell him a story. 12. They have moved from that street to Pine Street. 13. Supt. A. G. Lane is superintendent of the schools in Chicago, Ills. 14. Our friends live in Cleveland, O., at 305 Euclid Ave., a very beautiful avenue. 15. At the close of the Revolutionary War, Lord Corn¬ wallis surrendered to Gen. Washington. 16. In the poem, “The Children’s Hour,” Longfellow speaks of his daughters, Alice, Allegra, and Edith. 17. For the love of God is broader Than the measure of man’s mind, And the heart of the Eternal Is most wonderfully kind. KINDS OF NOUNS. 53 II. — Write the names of the days of the week ; the names of the months ; the names of the princi¬ pal holidays. III. — After each of the following common nouns, write two proper nouns belonging to the class which the common noun denotes : boy sea state boat girl city school bank lake ocean country capital poet street general teacher river island president mountains strait inventor discoverer exposition IY.—Write sentences containing the following abbreviations used before names : Mr. (Mister.) Dr. (Doctor.) Gen. (General.) Mrs. (Mistress.) Rev. ( Reverend.) Col. (Colonel.) Capt. (Captain.) Prof. (Professor.) Hon. (Honorable.) Messrs. (Gentlemen.) Y. — Write sentences containing the following abbreviations used after names : Jr. (Junior.) D. D. (Doctor of Divinity.) Sr. (Senior.) M. D. (Doctor of Medicine.) Esq. (Esquire.) U. S. A. (United States Army.) P. M. (Postmaster.) M. C. (Member of Congress.) 54 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. VI. — Capitalize and punctuate the following sen¬ tences, using proper abbreviations : 1. he lives in kansas city missouri 2. the city is in the western part of missouri 3. have you read hawthorne s tanglewood tales 4. bunker hill monument is in boston, massachusetts 5. the hudson river is the principal river in new york 6. remember now thy creator in the days of thy youth 7. doctor kimbal is one of the most successful doctors in the place 8. I live at 307 wentworth street do you know where that street is 9. the mayor of saint louis welcomed the president of the united states 10. we shall have a holiday thursday because it is thanksgiving day 11. we spent several days with aunt ellen our aunt who lives in the country 12. the prince of wales will succeed queen victoria on the throne of england 13. the mountains of western south america are an extension of the rocky mountains 14. napoleon was defeated at the battle of Waterloo and banished to the island of st helena 15. in the contest for governor governor fifer repub¬ lican candidate was re-elected in illinois 16. the strait of gibraltar is a strait connecting the mediterranean sea with the atlantic ocean 17. vassar college is a college attended only by young women it is situated at poughkeepsie new york KINDS OF NOUNS. 55 18. the quakers first settled Philadelphia Pennsylvania Pennsylvania was named for william penn 19 a company of soldiers is commanded by a captain a regiment by a colonel and an army by a general 20. general blank colonel richards captain barnes hon¬ orable t e fulton and mister and mistress pierce are at the metropolitan hotel VII.—Write five sentences, each containing both a common and a proper noun. Abstract and Collective Nouns. Beauty is admired. Kindness is a virtue. The man has great strength. Name the italicized nouns in the above sentences. Have you seen something beautiful ? Can you think of beauty by itself ? Have you known kind people ? Can you think of kindness without thinking of a person ? Do you know a strong man ? Is strength something you can think of as separated from any object ? Nouns like beauty , kindness , strength , which name qualities that are separated, or abstracted , from the objects to which they belong, are called abstract nouns. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality. LESSONS IN ENGLISH. The army has lost its leader. A JlocTc of birds flew over us. The class in grammar is large. Name the italicized nouns in the above sentences. Are there many men in an army ? Can you think of the whole army as one thing ? Can you think of a number of birds together as one flock ? Is a class one thing, made up of several pupils ? Nouns like army , flock , class , which name a col¬ lection of things taken together, are called collective nouns. A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of things. Note. — Both collective and abstract nouns are common nouns. EXERCISE. I. — Name the abstract and the collective nouns in the following sentences : 1. Hopefulness is a virtue. 2. Congress has adjourned. 3. Vanity goeth before a fall. 4. The man has great wisdom. 5. A committee of three was appointed. 6. The jury has not rendered its verdict. 7. The congregation rose and sang the hymn. KINDS OF NOUNS. 57 8. The world is full of poverty, vice, and crime. 9. Youth longs, manhood strives, age remembers. 10. The company were entertained by a recitation. 11. The goodness of the Creator is seen everywhere. 12. The band of robbers showed courage and discretion. 13. Industry, honesty, and temperance, are three essen¬ tials of happiness. II.—Make an abstract noun from each of the following adjectives, and use ten of the nouns in sentences : true sad pure glad good just wide high brave wise sweet poor simple angry young great cheerful proud honest fierce pleasant fragrant wealthy distant prosperous ambitious impatient truthful III.—Write an appropriate word after each of the following collective nouns ; use ten of the nouns in sentences : herd of — flock of — gang of — drove of — bunch of — swarm of — couple of — fleet of — suite of — class of — crowd of — group of — regiment of — assemblage of — tribe of — crew of — team of — bevy of — squad of — family of — collection of — 58 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. KINDS OF PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns. I am going. Are you going ? She did it well. He has finished them . Which one of the pronouns used above repre¬ sents ( stands for ) the person speaking ? Which one represents the person spoken to ? Which two repre¬ sent persons spoken of ? Which two represent things spoken of ? Pronouns which represent by their form the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person op thing spoken of, are called personal pronouns. A Personal Pronoun is one which represents by its form the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. Pronouns which represent the speaker are of the first person, those which represent the person spoken to are of the second person, and those which repre¬ sent what is spoken of are of the third person. The pronouns in most common use, such as /, you, he, she , it, we , they, etc., are called the simple personal pronouns. KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 59 Pronouns formed by adding self or selves to cer¬ tain simple personal pronouns, as my self f yourself , himself , ourselves , themselves, etc., are called com¬ pound personal pronouns. EXERCISE. I.—Name the personal pronouns in the follow¬ ing sentences, and tell whether they are of the first, second, or third person ; also whether they are sim¬ ple or compound : 1. I, myself, saw him. 2. Did you enjoy yourselves? 3. Charity vaunteth not itself. 4. She told me about it herself. 5. We did not see them ourselves. 6. If you want a thing done, do it yourself. 7. The man gave himself up when he was caught. 8. John studied at home. Did he know his lesson? 9. Did you see her ? She was here and left her package. 10. I received some books, but I have not yet read them. 11. When you see your father, give him our regards. 12. The bird has a worm in its mouth. It will feed the young birds. 13. Indians are treacherous in their character. They cannot be trusted. II. — Write three sentences, each containing one or more simple personal pronouns ; three, each con¬ taining a compound personal pronoun. 60 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Relative Pronouns, He studies. He will learn. I received the letter. You wrote it. You have a book. I want to read it. How many sentences above ? Are any two of them connected, or is each an independent state¬ ment, or assertion? Each pair of the above sentences may be com¬ bined into one sentence containing an independent and a dependent assertion. Thus ? 1. He who studies will learn. 2. I received the letter ivhich you wrote. 3. You have a book that I want to read. Does the italicized part in each of these sen¬ tences make sense, alone ? Does the part not itali¬ cized make sense without the other ? What, then, is the independent assertion in each sentence ? What the dependent assertion ? What word joins the de¬ pendent assertion to the rest of the sentence in 1 ? In 2 ? In 3 ? Do who , which , and that also repre¬ sent nouns ? They then belong to what part of speech ? Pronouns used as in the above sentences to represent, or relate to, nouns or pronouns to which they join dependent assertions, are called relative pronouns. KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 61 A Relative Pronoun is one which represents a noun or a pronoun to which it joins a dependent assertion. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is the noun or pronoun which it represents. The simple relative pronouns are who (ivhose, whom), which , that , and sometimes as. Who is used to refer to persons, which to things ; that and as may refer to either persons or things ; as, 1. The man who was here has gone. 2. I saw the house which was sold. 3. Here is the boy that you want to see. 4. The book that was lost has been found. 5. Such tools as I have you may use. 6. Such a boy as he is, will always succeed. The most usual compound relative pronouns are whoever , whichever , what , and whatever. The compound relative usually includes its ante¬ cedent ; as, I hear what [that which'] you say. Whoever \lie who] wants to come may do so. Take whichever [ the thing which ] you like. Whatever [anything which] he does, he tries to do well. 62 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Pronouns that are used to ask questions are called interrogative pronouns ; as, Who is that ? What are you doing ? Which will you have ? The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is contained in the answer ; as, Who was here ? John . What do you want? Water. Which is your favorite season ? Spring. EXERCISE. I. — Name and classify the pronouns in the fol¬ lowing sentences; also name the antecedents of the relative pronouns : 1. He who is honest is noble. 2. That is the dog which I lost. 3. Which is your favorite study? 4. What is the price of the goods? 5. Do good to them that hate you. 6. What he said was of no interest. 7. To whom did you give the letter? 8. Such a day as this is, cheers one. 9. You may have whichever you choose. 10. Who first circumnavigated the globe? KINDS OF PRONOUNS. 63 11. Evil falls on him who goes to seek it. 12. The evil that men do lives after them. 13. I will send a boy whom you can trust. 14. I will reward whoever will catch the thief. 15. The girl whose mother is ill is very dutiful. 16. We acquire the strength that we overcome. 17. He that getteth wisdom loveth his own soul. 18. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well. 19. The friend whom we were expecting has come. 20. Lincoln, who was our most beloved president, was assassinated. 21. London, which is the largest city in the world, is the capital of Great Britain. II. — Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate relative pronouns : 1. I know the boy — was here. 2. I know the boy — you sent. 3. That is the horse — was lame. 4. Take the road — leads to the right. 5. He — will not work, should not eat. 6. Use well the opportunities — you have. 7. Is that the lady — has been to Europe? 8. Those are the children — we saw before. 9. You have not sung the song — I like best. 10. The child — mother is dead is unfortunate. 11. Can you see the bird — is singing so sweetly? 12. The flowers — bloom in the spring are beautiful. 13. The man — took the money is one — all trusted. 14. Dogs — bark loudest are not always the bravest. 64 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. III. — Combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence containing a dependent assertion introduced by a relative pronoun: 1. The boy brought the note. He is waiting. 2. Some fish are eyeless. They live in caves. 3. The fur warmed a bear. It warms a monarch. 4. I saw the house. It was blown down by the winds. 6. The church was destroyed by fire. It has been rebuilt. 6. Many animals have white fur. They live in the arctic region. 7. Cotton is a soft, wooly substance. It grows round the seed of a plant. 8. Goldsmith wrote “The Deserted Village.” He was born at Pallas, Ireland. 9. The chairman introduced the speaker. The speaker was warmly welcomed. 10. Cornwallis surrendered to Washington at Yorktown. Cornwallis was commander of the British army. 11. The vessel was called “The Mayflower.” It brought the Pilgrim Fathers from the old world to the new. 12. The Kohinoor is one of the most valuable diamonds in the world. It is in the possession of the British Crown. IV. —Write three sentences, using who , which , and that properly as relative pronouns ; three, using who , which , and what properly as interrogative pro¬ nouns ; three, using in each a compound relative pronoun. KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 65 KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. Qualifying and Limiting Adjectives. Good children obey their parents. The small flower has a sweet odor. Withered grass revives after a rainy day. Which of the adjectives in the above sentences tell what kind f What kind of children is mentioned ? What kind of flower ? What kind of odor ? What kind of grass ? What kind of day ? Does each of these adjectives denote a quality in the object named by the noun ? Adjectives like good, small, sweet, withered, rainy, which tell what kind, or denote a quality in the object named by the noun, are called qualifying adjectives. A Qualifying Adjective is one which denotes a quality in the object named by the noun. The Indian shot an arrow. Each pupil has Jive problems. This tree bore several peaches. Much time is wasted by those boys. Which of the adjectives in the above sentences merely point out what the noun names ? Which tell how much or how many ? Does each of these adjectives make less general, or limit , the meaning of the noun? 66 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Adjectives used to point out what is named, or to tell how much or how many, because they limit the meaning of nouns, are called limiting adjectives. A Limiting Adjective is one which points out the object named by the noun, or tells how much or how many. The limiting adjectives a, an, and the are called articles; the is the definite article , a and an are the indefinite articles. A is used before words beginning with consonant sounds , and an before words beginning with vowel sounds ; as, a house an apple a tree an effort A limiting adjective standing alone, representing a noun understood, is an adjective pronoun; as, This is yours. Some are left. Are there many ? I will take either. That will do. Few are choosen. Have all finished ? Each must do his part. An adjective used to ask a question is an inter¬ rogative adjective ; as, Which road shall we take? Whose pencil was left here? What book do you like best ? KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 67 Nouns and pronouns used to show ownership are possessive adjectives ; as, John’s slate is broken. The sun’s rays are hot. My book is on your desk. He wrote his name on their slates. Qualifying adjectives derived from proper nouns are called proper adjectives; as, An English vessel was lost. The American people are independent. TV r e are studying a Shakespearian play. EXERCISE. I. — Name and classify the adjectives in the following sentences, and tell what each adjective modifies : 1. Which horse won the first race? 2. A merry heart makes a smiling face. 3. Last night the moon had a golden ring. 4. Minnie’s fine large Maltese kitten is lost. 5. In whose care did you direct that letter? 6. Public measures were discussed by eminent men. 7. An inquisitive person is an unpleasant companion. 8. Innocent child and snow-white flower ! Well ye are paired in your opening hour. 68 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 9. He was a pious, just, humane, temperate, and sin¬ cere man. 10. The ocean eagle soared from her nest by the white sea’s foam. 11. Three large whaling vessels were destroyed in the recent severe storm. 12. The Vikings were a bold, piratical tribe from the Scandinavian peninsula, who infested the coast of the British Islands in the tenth century. 13. Those evening bells ! Those evening bells ! How many a tale their music tells, Of youth, and home, and that sweet time, When last I heard their soothing chime. II. — Write sentences containing the following nouns, using one limiting adjective and two or more qualifying adjectives to modify the meaning of each : day gems boy fire book house girl dogs dress forest room storm ocean peach snake clouds mountain laborer ponies general III! — Form a proper adjective from each of the following proper nouns, tives in sentences : and use five of the adjec- Rome . Alps Asia Ireland Spain China Christ Germany Italy Russia Luther Scotland France Portugal Norway Switzerland KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. 69 IV.—Write sentences containing the following words preceded by a or an : one unit harp ewer ounce uncle « hour eagle onion urchin honor eulogy orphan umpire hunter elephant European uniform hundred envelope V.—Determine which of the italicized words are limiting adjectives, and which adjective pronouns : I have some. All men are brothers. I remember that day. Both books are here. Please give me another. VI. — Determine which are interrogative adjectives, pronouns : Whose are those ? Which book do you want? What paper are you reading ? To what do you refer? Some people are slow. All are present. That is enough. You may have both. Another time will do. of the italicized words and which interrogative Whose hat is lost? Which did you get? W hat have you there ? To what place is he going ? VII. — Write three sentences, each containing a qualifying and a limiting adjective ; three, each containing an adjective pronoun ; three, each con¬ taining an interrogative adjective ; three, each con¬ taining a possessive adjective. 70 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. KINDS OF VERBS. Complete and Incomplete Verbs. 1. Flowers bloom. 3. John saws — 2., The sun shines. 4. Carpenters build —- 5. The child is — 6. The men are — Which of the above groups of words are com¬ plete statements ? After which groups do you nat¬ urally ask what ? In which, then, do the verbs form complete predicates ? In which do the verbs not form complete predicates? Verbs which may be used alone as predicates are complete verbs. Verbs which require one or more words to com¬ plete the predicate are incomplete verbs. 1. John saws wood. 2. The child is happy. 3. The men are farmers. What is the complete predicate in each of the above sentences ? Which completing word shows what the action asserted by the verb affects ? Which one denotes a quality in the subject of the verb ? Which one denotes the same thing as the subject ? Note. —Adjectives used like happy in 2, are called predicate adjectives. Nouns used like farmers in 3, are called predicate nouns. Both predicate adjectives and predicate nouns describe the subjects. KINDS OF VERBS* 71 The word, or words, which completes a predi¬ cate by showing what the action asserted by the verb affects , is called the object of the verb. The word, or words, which completes a predicate by describing what the subject of the verb names , is called the complement of the verb. The Object of a verb is the word, or words, which shows what the action asserted by the verb affects. The Complement of a verb is the word, or words, which completes the predicate by describing what the subject of the verb names. EXERCISE. I. — Tell which of the verbs in the following sentences are complete, and which incomplete ; also tell whether the incomplete verbs require objects or complements : Fire blazes He is a lawyer The sea was calm The earth trembled II. — Use an object to of the following sentences Cats eat — Birds build — Diamonds cut — The girl swept — Elephants are large David killed Goliath Artists paint pictures The brook murmurs gently complete the verb in each God created — She has read — Longfellow wrote — The hunter killed — LESSONS IN ENGLISH. n III. — Use a complement to complete the verb in each of the following sentences : Iron is — Lions are — The earth is — The men were — Longfellow was — Quadrupeds are — Salt is — Lilacs are — The ocean is — A volcano is — My pet bird is — The cat’s claws are — Transitive, Intransitive and Copulative Verbs. 1 . Ice melts. 5. 2. Wood floats. 6. 3. Horses eat hay. 7. 4. Smiths pound iron. 8. Flowers are pretty. Velvet feels smooth. Snakes are reptiles. Grant became president. Which of the verbs in the above sentences are complete ? Which require objects to complete their meaning ? Which require complements ? Verbs which require objects to complete their meaning, as in 3 and 4, are called transitive verbs. Transitive means passing over. The action passes over from the subject to the object. Verbs which do not require objects to complete their meaning, as in 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are called intransitive verbs. The action does not terminate on an object. KINDS OF VERBS. 73 Verbs which require complements that describe what their subjects name, as in 5, 6, 7, and 8, are called copulative verbs. Copulative means joining. A copulative verb joins the complement to the subject. A Transitive Verb is one which requires an object to complete its meaning. An Intransitive Verb is one which does not require an object to complete its meaning. A Copulative Verb is one which requires a com¬ plement that describes what the subject names. Note. — Transitive verbs are always incomplete. Intransitive verbs are either complete or incomplete (copulative). Many verbs may be used both transitively and intransitively; as, I see clearly. I see a house. The wind blows cold. The wind blows the dust. The sun sets in the west. He sets the vase on the shelf. Write correctly. Write the example. John studies well. John studies grammar. He struck the ball. He struck at the ball. The abstract verb be is the pure copula-verb. A few other intransitive verbs are copulative ; such as, appear , look , see?n f become , feel , taste , smell. 74 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I. —Name the verbs in the following sentences; tell which of them are transitive, which intransitive, and name the object of each transitive verb : 1. The rain falls softly. 2. The lightning flashed. 3. Columbus discovered America. 4. The rain refreshes the flowers. 5. How peacefully the child sleeps. 6. Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 7. The sun set and the stars came out. " 8. The astronomers foretold the eclipse. 9. The India-rubber tree grows in Brazil. 10. The iceburg drifts slowly toward the south. II. What general conquered the known world? 12. In the Bay of Fundy the tides rise very high. 13. Volcanoes sometimes emit fire, smoke, and lava. 14. The physician prescribes medicine for the invalid. 15.. Johnnie beat the drum, and Willie carried the flag. II.—Name the copulative verbs in the following sentences ; name the complement of each verb, and tell whether it is an adjective or a noun : 1. Glass is brittle. 2. Quartz is a mineral. 3. Phidias was a sculptor. 4. He may become president. 5. Idleness is the key of beggary. KINDS OF VERBS. 75 6. The water of the ocean is salt. 7. Longfellow and Bryant were poets. 8. Truthfulness and honesty are virtues. 9. Children are happy, playful, and innocent. 10. Are not the eggs of the humming-bird small? 11. The peach looks beautiful and tastes delicious. 12. The girl’s manners seem lady-like and refined. 13. The flowers appear refreshed after the shower. 14. Farmers are usually honest and industrious men. 15. Victoria became queen when she was a young woman. 16. The elephant is a clumsy creature, but he is very intelligent. III. — Determine in which of the following sen¬ tences the verbs are used transitively, and in which they are used intransitively : Water freezes. He freezes cream. The clock stopped. We stopped the clock. John rode the horse. We rode on the train. Boys sail toy ships. Ships sail on the ocean. The soldiers fought bravely. The soldiers fought a battle. I return your pencil. In spring the flowers return. IV. — Use tha following intransitive verbs in sentences: sit is lie grow live are went stand sleep was flows frowns shines were squeal laughed 76 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. V.—Write sentences containing the following words used transitively : lay led set dig help rows made open threw called finish hoist fasten admire praises discover knocked conceal erected purchased VI.—Write sentences, using the following verbs ( 1) intransitively, ( 2 ) transitively : shot read sing jump turns swim speak learn burns writes sweeps drowned VII.— Use the following adjectives as comple¬ ments of copulative verbs : clear sharp brave useful costly glossy dreary grateful playful fierce roguish diligent vicious valuable convenient poisonous VIII. — Use the following nouns as complements of copulative verbs : guest crime tools artist pupils insects mineral patriot teacher reptile statesman reformer inventor general quadruped vegetables KINDS OF ADVERBS. 77 IX.— Use an adjective to complete the predi¬ cate in each of the following sentences : I feel — You look — The pear tastes — The flower smells — X.—Supply two or complete the predicate sentences : Foxes are — My dog is — Some boys are — Some girls are — Good pupils are — She seems — He became — The country looks — The children appear — more suitable adjectives to in each of the following The day was — These roses are — Washington was — The apples were — Niagara Falls are — KINDS OF ADVERBS. Adverbs of Time, Place, Manner and Degree. 1. He came yesterday. 2. The girl stands there. 3. They fought nobly. 4. He works very hard. 5. It is extremely warm. "Which of the adverbs in the above sentences tells when ? Which tells where ? Which tell how ? Which tell how much ? 78 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Adverbs that tell when are adverbs of time ; those that tell where are adverbs of place; those that tell how are adverbs of manner; those that tell how much are adverbs of degree. Adverbs, therefore, are classified according to their meaning ; as, 1. Adverbs of Time — now, soon, (hen, often, early, next, formerly, etc. 2. Adverbs of Place — here, out, above, back, down, hence, everywhere, etc. 3. Adverbs of Manner — how, thus, well, gently, slowly, so, otherwise, etc. 4. Adverbs of Degree — too, very, more, nearly, enough, quite, etc. An adverb which shows the manner of the assertion, thus modifying the meaning of the whole sentence, is called a modal adverb ; as, I shall not go. Perhaps I will go. He will certainly come. That is indeed beautiful. You are surely mistaken. Tmdy, I cannot go with you. There will undoubtedly be a storm. KINDS OF ADVERBS. 79 An adverb which introduces a dependent asser¬ tion is called a conjunctive adverb ; as, I came when I was called. Tell me why you are unhappy. Make hay while the sun shines. That is the house where he was horn. I have not seen her since you were here. An adverb used to ask a question is an inter¬ rogative adverb ; as, Where has he gone ? When will they return ? Why did you do that ? How are you going ? EXERCISE. I. — Name and classify the adverbs in the fol¬ lowing sentences, and tell what each modifies : 1. Where is Madagascar? 2. Presently she returned. 3. Always speak the truth. 4. Truly I have not seen her. 5. The horse walks very slowly. 6. The train is probably delayed. 7. How often has this happened? 8. It is an oppressively warm day. 9. They very seldom see snow there. 80 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 10. Mary plays while her sister sings. 11. Do yonr work promptly and accurately. 12. How strangely easy difficult things are ! 13. People were running hither and thither. 14. I never before heard so eloquent a sermon. 15. This is the window where the sun shines in at noon. II. — Change the following adjectives to adverbs by adding ly to each, and use the adverbs in sentences : neat calm easy heavy angry vivid gentle nimble regular terrible faithful immediate III. —Write sentences containing the following words used as modal adverbs : not surely perhaps truly certainly probably indeed possibly undoubtedly IY. — Write sentences containing the following words used (I) as conjunctive adverbs, ( 2 ) as inter- rogative adverbs how why when where V.—Write three sentences containing adverbs of time ; three containing adverbs of place ; three containing adverbs of manner ; three containing ad¬ verbs of degree. CONJUNCTIONS. 81 KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS. Co-ordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions. 1. John and James came. 2. You may stand or sit. 3. The girl works slowly but neatly. 4. The wind blows, for the leaves stir. 5. The sun shone, but the day was cold. What does each of the conjunctions in the above sentences connect ? Are the connected parts in each sentence of the same importance, or of equal rank f Note. — The different parts of a sentence are called its elements. Conjunctions which connect elements of equal rank, as above, are called co-ordinate conjunctions. Co-ordinate means of equal order or rank. 1. I shall not go if it rains. 2. We did not know that he had gone. 3. You cannot succeed unless you work hard. 4. The lecture was interesting, though it was somewhat long. What is the principal assertion in each of the above sentences ? What is the dependent assertion in each ? What conjunction connects the principal and the dependent assertion in each sentence ? Are the parts connected of equal or unequal rank ? 82 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Conjunctions which connect elements of unequal rank, as in the preceding sentences, are called sub¬ ordinate conjunctions. Subordinate means of lower order or rank. A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one that connects elements of equal rank. A Subordinate Conjunction is one that connects elements of unequal rank. [Relative pronouns are used as subordinate con¬ junctions ; as, The man who was arrested is a thief. Study the lesson which you had yesterday. I have read the book that you sent me. They that touch pitch will be defiled. His father gives him ichatever he wants. Such flowers as they have are seldom seen. Conjunctive adverbs are also used as subordi¬ nate conjunctions ; as, I do not know when he is going. The reason why he went is plain. I will remain while you are gone. They played until they were tired. This is the place where we saw him. The country whence he came denied him freedom. EXERCISE. 83 EXERCISE I. — Name the conjunctions in the following sen¬ tences, tell what they connect, and whether they are co-ordinate or subordinate : 1. Shall you walk or ride? 2. She left before you returned. 3. Many profess, but few practice. 4. Men who are true are respected. 5. I saw my friend while I was out. 6. Seek wisdom, for wisdom ennobles. 7. John will go, but Henry will remain. 8. The lady walks firmly but gracefully. 9. Sweet is the hour when daylight dies. 10. The evil that men do lives after them. 11. India-rubber is elastic and compressible. 12. I have not heard from her since she left. 13. If you want friends, you must be friendly. 14. The waves ran high because the wind blew. 15. Obey your parents, or you will be unhappy. 16. Columbus believed that the earth is a sphere. 17. Keep your shop, and your shop will keep you. 18. We reached school in time, though we had to hurry. 19. Alexander, Caesar, and Napoleon were great generals. 20. Unless you are industrious and persistent, you will not succeed at anything. II.—Write three sentences, using in each a co-ordinate conjunction ; three, using in each a sub¬ ordinate conjunction. 84 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION. We have found the following subdivisions of the parts of speech : Nouns. << Common General. Abstract. Collective. Proper. Pronouns. Personal / Simple. L Compound. Relative (Simple. L Compound. Interrogative. Adjective. Adjectives. < Qualifying. Limiting. Possessive. Interrogative. Verbs. Complete 3 l 4 r ], (Ltta/vvta,, Cpcu, Tlo^. 2lo, I SCjS. CoVruXL 'li/yuA)',, cjJtAoco, TL Ijy., J^a/vu 20, I 8^. The Address of a letter contains the name, the title , and the residence or place of business of the person to whom the letter is written. LETTER WRITING. 89 ADDRESSES. P'‘Uxjy. (jxiAv. IS'l.ObOTl/, TloVmoX, SflJLbs. LCjo (L. S'ta/nxax^ayrv Co., 12 -IoIq li/ctlMaAlv O/XKy., ClviOOCpo, ML&, TlbiAO Cd/rvo GXLe/rv, Q/huxxo-cL, To^xx/kv Co., CaC Note: In letters to relations or friends, the address is sometimes placed at the close of the letter, to the left of and below the sig¬ nature. The same address must be placed on the envelope that is written on the letter. The Salutation of a letter contains the opening words of respect or affection. FORMS OF SALUTATION. In business letters or letters to strangers: jQoa/v s& lA/,— CyuYhLU/yru/rv ,— Thxxdxx/rvv,— jQoa/v Thxxdxx/yvv,— jQxxx/v j3'iAs &,— RoxKAX/nxh^tA/,— 90 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. In letters to relatives or friends: jdt/ClA/ lYlxy$\AA /,— TR/bp cUxxA/ jSUJaA /,— jCUxxA/ 'WtXEixxmv,— jdexxA/ CLu/nAs (OuXct ayVU/XHy tocla/bp. 92 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. J) hxxAs jalXoA^wtX-t 7 u/jo. cxvrutu/cXoA/ tolct TvUy £woyyU/ t/w- t iKaaXa/yxx^ jxxxitk/ aAouX- CA/oXo-I J!oA/cIaam ILo, QA^xmx^aAbtey a /rub BloooriAoax^toTv; a/mt tXu^ 'yuaaMu- Xoa^ ojyjA'uxt to Lc/mxt rwo a/n/Lp VY\&/^aj^A/rus \\ju fvcuct. c3l"U/ eowvvtVLp tA> n>eAA^ Xtciiu/J tt^uX ruouo. ^i/jojao^ tX- bAA/YY\A' t(J^AAlAAx}lr^ £u> to CU CpL/l!/' U>luO' 1&/ ti/uxt o|/ tooXimx^ aX- tXu/ XxmaA^A' t/w cu f>Xcp c^X/bp. JX- $u^yyvuxt Xo'uaX- m to tool?/ ouX- o|/ tX^ caA/ u>Xnxtouo a/mt (UA/ trU/ c^A^e/w j^uXclA/ a/mt u/oocUi'. JI.o/vyv ti/uxt a/mt £dXey|a/bp, £u> J) ft/wouo "t^ou/ uottt uxxmaA^ tAX&/ &XuovX- titteA. J! umXL tlA^ to u>4ttt/ mx>'U/ toTrioVu>u>. Thyuv. Ct. 16 . (XuAtt/vv, CJtu/axpo, c9tt. LETTER WRITING. \2T\ C/m/vvuvtl- £Ua1mjxs^jm, Slo-xixv, < ^aajy\Aj H, I cjOO. 3to CL. 3'ta/max^a/vv Co., .2tolo dJalModv Qyv-o., Cldeocjo, QoKvttomon/:— PtcxUU/ su/wct mo I “3tuy Ttloltdvcp. ojy JtHwi/," (dp Poof, cLCe/rvVi^ j^oIm/vv; I “SaiitA/ otou/t (Xa/ttyO'iA'," Wp CLtay liJa Ao, do. ext.; I ‘‘CyuxxA- QyrnX/Wioyriy JItuLuA^- t/UUA/," 1/ot. I, dotty. uddv ttxAX/ tooltA/ j!oV 'mAjy ouyyv Ltt-AxxA/bp. 4/tO/txjy jCaKy OotuyTTUyfiiy l/W tt-. PtiXXA^y tiOnxL t-'Xjy ttuy (XoOOX/ldxi/VV C. O'. jQy. djyOU/b&y t'lyUyPlJy, CLtt-iAyt Qa c3aXtotL. 94 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 1. Write a letter of friendship to some relative in another city. 2. Write a business letter to A. C. McClurg & Co., 215 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ills., ordering the following books for the little library which your father is helping you to obtain: 1 Ellis’s “Stories from American History,” cloth; 1 “Early History Stories of North and South America,” cloth; 1 “Black Beauty,” cloth. 3. Write a business letter to the Vaughan Seed Co., 84 Randolph St., Chicago, Ills., ordering 1 pkt. Sweet Peas, 1 pkt. Dwarf Nasturtiums, 1 pkt. Four O’Clocks, for your flower garden. Enclose forty cents to pay for them. To the Teacher: Only one letter should be assigned for a lesson. The pupils should be required to point out the parts of each letter, and to show where replies or packages should be sent in answer to the let¬ ters. The teacher should explain about paragraphing and indi¬ cate the reasons why the parts of a letter are arranged as they are. Punctuation, capitalizing, spelling and penmanship should be taught mostly by example. 4. Write a letter to Perry Mason & Co., Boston, Mass., enclosing $1.75 and renewing your subscription to the Youth’s Companion for one year from Jan. 1, 1900. 5. Write a letter to the Century Co., Union Square, N. Y., directing them to change the address of your copy of “St. Nicholas” from one place to another place. 6. Write a letter to a friend at a distance, describ¬ ing your school. Tell the number of pupils, the studies you have and any other things that are of special interest to you. * . » •r . * V 1 ■T» •4 t * T- c f \ 4 < -'!) ( 95 ) DANCE OE THE NYMPHS. COROT. 97 COROT. Jean Baptiste Camille Corot was born in Paris, July 20, 1796. He was the gentlest of painters, the most lovable of men, so high-minded in his work, so true to his friends that his memory is ever held in tender rever¬ ence. This great soul’s childhood was passed amid common surroundings. His father was a barber and his mother a dressmaker. But there must have been gentle blood indeed in this mother since she helped the little Jean to accomplish so much. The spirit of love and the spirit of work dwelt side by side in this youth. Yet many, many years he toiled at his chosen profession unknown and poor. Up to his fiftieth year he could scarcely find a purchaser for his pictures. At length, however, he came to be appreciated by art lovers, and his friends began to notice that he was a great artist. He was called the leader of the new school of landscape painting. Artists called him Pere Corot, and he was truly a father to all in distress; he never turned away a troubled soul from his door. When his friend Millet died, he gave Madame Millet $3,000 to help her out of financial trouble. This beautiful picture, the Dance of the Nymphs, is one of his many silvery landscapes. In his early life when the rest of the family slept, Corot often remained leaning out of the window contemplating the sky and the trees. In these days he was absorbing the grandeur of nature until, filled with the beauties of the outer world, he painted his pictures with this inner light. This pic¬ ture is full of the rare beauty of summer time. The 98 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. forest is peopled with the wood-nymphs; we can almost imagine their play to be, “Ring Around the Roses.” Some one has said of Corot: “He could invest every landscape with a romanticism and charm which were wonderful.” Like our own sweet poet Whittier, the poet-painter Corot never married. He loved all people and was well beloved. When he died in 1875, the world mourned. Becoming Young Again. A lady had a little daughter about five years old, who loved her mother and grand-mother equally well. On the birthday of the latter, the mother asked her little daughter Emma (that was her name) to pray to God that he would bless dear grandmother, and that she might become very old. Emma looked at her mother in sur¬ prise. The mother noticed the look of her child, and asked again: “Well, will you not pray to God that your grandmother may become older?” The little girl an¬ swered with child-like simplicity; “Dear mother, grand¬ ma is already very old; I should rather pray to God that she may become young again.” Be good, my child, and let who will be clever; Do noble deeds, not dream them all day long, And so make life, death and that vast forever One grand, sweet song. —Charles Kingsley. CHAPTER IV. INFLECTION. 1. This boy is younger than the other boys. 2. The host and hostess greeted us. 3. He was there, for I saw him. 4. I am strong , but you are stronger. 5. I see it now, and I saw it yesterday. What words in these sentences show a change in meaning by a change in form ? What word in (3) has different forms to show a difference in its* use —as subject and as object of a verb? Words that change in form to denote different meanings or uses, are said to be inflected. Infection means bending into a different shape. Inflection is a change in the form of a word to adapt it to a change in its meaning or use. Only nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs are inflected. C. 100 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. FORMS OF NOUNS. Number-Forms. The booh is new. The leaf withers. The lady has gone. The man is working. The boohs are new. The leaves wither. The ladies have gone. The men were working. Can you tell by the form of each noun used above whether it denotes one or more than one ? Name the nouns that denote one. Name those that denote more than one. The form of a word by which it denotes one or more than one, is called number. A word which denotes one is in the singular number. A word which denotes more than one is in the plural number. Most nouns are inflected for number. The fol¬ lowing are the general rules for forming the plural of nouns : 1. The plural of most nouns is formed by adding s to the singular ; as, boy girl horse roof piano boys girls horses roofs pianos FORMS OF NOUNS. 101 2. The plural of nouns ending in x , s, z , sh , and c/i (soft), is formed by adding es to the sin¬ gular ; as, ax kiss dish bench adz axes kisses dishes benches adzes 3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant are made plural by changing y to i and adding es; as, fly lady lily fairy 1 lies ladies likes faines If a vowel precedes the final y, the word is made plural simply by adding s ; as, day turkey valley delay days turkeys valleys delays 4. Some nouns ending in / or fe are made plural by changing / to v and adding es ; as, leaf wife wolf knife leaves wives wolves knives Besides those given, the following nouns are made plural according to rule 4 ; other nouns ending in / are made plural by adding s ; calf beef elf life half thief self loaf staff sheaf shelf wharf Some nouns ending in o are made plural by adding es ; as, hero, heroes. 102 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. The most common nouns following rule 5 are : echo motto cargo hero negro potato tomato tornado calico buffalo volcano mosquito The plural of the following nouns is formed irregularly : man foot ox child men feet oxen children tooth mouse goose woman teeth mice geese women EXERCISE. I. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns by adding s or es f sea fox shoe scarf glass cliff waltz ostrich artist guide motto monarch potato bridge circus spoonful soldier cupful witness handkerchief II. — Use each of the following nouns in sen- tences, first in the singular, then in the plural: way joy sky ally buoy duty ruby alley story artery daisy monkey donkey display Sunday mystery century balcony chimney attorney FORMS OF NOUNS. 103 III. —Change the italicized nouns in the follow¬ ing sentences to the plural form, and make such other changes in the sentences as are necessary: 1. The Turk wears a fez. 2. Put the dagger in its sheath. 3. A galley is a low, flat vessel. 4. The buggy has a broken shaft. 5. The foot of the goose is webbed. 6. A bundle of wheat is called a sheaf. 7. The atlas contains a map of the country. 8. The tomato was once thought unfit to eat. Gender-Forms. Obey your father and your mother. The hunter killed a lion and a lioness. The Icing is dead and the queen reigns. What nouns used above denote the sex of the objects which they name? Which name objects of the male sex ? Which name objects of the female sex ? The form of a word by which it denotes sex is called gender. Gender means hind , or sex. Words which denote males are of the masculine gender. Words which denote females are of the feminine gender. 104 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A few nouns are inflected to distinguish sex ; as, host hero widow Paul hostess \\Qvoine widows Pau line Different words are used to distinguish sex ; as, boy wife duck stag girl husband drake hind EXERCISE. I. — Write opposite each of the word of opposite gender : following words son lad cow beau man cock horse wizard aunt Jesse sister madam bride goose nephew bachelor maiden master landlord gentleman II. — Form the feminine of each of the follow¬ ing nouns by changing its termination : heir Jew czar actor tiger duke negro songster governor prince emporer murderer Joseph shepherd enchanter III. — Write three sentences containing nouns of the masculine gender ; three containing nouns of the feminine gender. FORMS OF NOUNS. 105 Case-Forms. The home of the man was sold. The knives of the boys are dull. Have you seen the. books of the children ? Which of the nouns used above names the owner of the house ? Which names the owners of the knives ? Which names the owners of the books ? What preposition is used in each sentence to show the relation of ownership between the owner and what is owned ? The relation of ownership may be expressed, without the preposition, by changing the form of the noun which names the owner. Thus : The man's home was sold. The boys' knives are dull. Have you seen the children's books ? Notice the changes that are made in the nouns to make them show ownership. The form of a word by which it shows its rela¬ tion to other words is called case. Words which show the relation of ownership, or possession , are in the possessive case. Nouns are inflected to show relation only in the possessive case. 106 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. The possessive case of nouns is formed : 1. By adding apostrophe and s (’s) to singular nouns and to plural nouns not ending in s ; as, girl’s dress George’s book lady’s bonnet men’s gloves children’s hour ivoman’s work 2. By adding only the apostrophe ( ’ ) to plural nouns ending in s ; as, girls’ dresses ladies’ bonnets hoys’ school teachers’ meeting EXERCISE. I. — Use nouns in the possessive case instead of the parts italicized in the following sentences : 1. The tongues of cats are rough. 2. Beware of the nest of the hornet. 3. The tusks of elephants are ivory. 4. We keep clothing for men and boys. 5. The feathers of the turkey are glossy. 6. Mt. Vernon was the home of Washington. 7. Have you read the fables written by Aesop ? 8. The house owned by Dr. Blank is for sale. 9. A monument for the soldiers will be built. 10. Cloaks suitable for ladies and misses for sale here. II. The crown that is worn by Queen V.ctoria is set with costly jewels. FORMS OF NOUNS. 107 II. — Change each of the italicized nouns in the following sentences to the plural possessive form ; make such other changes as are necessary: 1. Where are the girVs hats? 2. A horse's hoof is horny. 3. My brother's store is closed. 4. The bird's songs are enjoyed. 5. Did you see the boy's mother? 6. The baby's carriage is broken. 7. The buffalo's horns are short. 8. A monkey's eyes are bright. 9. Our uncle's children are our cousins. 10. You will find a hornet's nest there. 11. A child's manners shows its training. 12. Nothing could be seen of the thief's tracks. 13. The fox's bark was heard in the distance. III. — Write the singular and plural possessive forms of each of the following nouns : fly box ox boy pony fish waif wolf watch dwarf horse negro mouse eagle woman donkey thrush society attorney mosquito IY.—Write three sentences containing singular nouns in the possessive case ; three containing plural nouns in the possessive case. 108 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Number-Forms. I am here. Did you see him ? She gave it to me. We are here. Did you see them ? They gave them to us. Which of the pronouns used above denote one ? Which denote more than one? Which, then, are in the singular number ? Which in the plural number ? Personal pronouns are inflected to denote number. The number of a pronoun must be the same as that of its antecedent ; as, A boy was here. He left a note. Where is the bird ? It has flown. The girls came, but they have gone. The children took their books with them. Two singular antecedents connected by and gen¬ erally require a plural pronoun ; as, John and Charles have their books open. Ellen and Lucy take their lunch with them. Two singular antecedents connected by or or nor require a singular pronoun ; as, Either John or Charles has his book' open. Neither Ellen nor Lucy takes her lunch with her. Forms of pronouns. ioO The singular form of pronoun should be used after each, every, either, neither, not one, any one, etc. Thus : Each of the girls took her books home. Every one of the boys failed in his lesson. Neither of these books has all its leaves. Either of the women will do her part. Not one of the men does as much as he can. Has any one of the pupils forgotten to bring his books with him ? Gender-Forms. She went away. I have not seen him. He gave the book to her. Which of the pronouns used above show by their forms that they denote males ? Which show that they denote females ? Which, then, are of the masculine gender? Which of the feminine gender? Two personal pronouns have gender forms. The gender of a pronoun must be the same as that of its antecedent ; as, When Mary left, she gave me her books. The king expects his subjects to support him. Every woman contributed as much as she could. The man was chopping wood, and he cut his foot. iio LESSONS IN ENGLISH. When the gender of the antecedent is indefinite, the masculine form of the pronoun is used ; as, Each one of them did his best. Everybody must look out for himself. There is no one but has his troubles. If any one wants to go, let him raise his hand. Person-Forms. I am ready. Are you going ? He sent it to her. Which of these pronouns represents the speaker ? Which represents the person spoken to ? Which two represent persons spoken of ? Which represents a thing spoken of.? Which, then, is of the first person? Which of the second ? Which are of the third ? Personal pronouns are inflected to denote person. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person. The antecedent of a pronoun of the first person is the name of the person speaking ; that of a pronoun of the second person is the name of the person spoken to ; that of a pronoun of the third person the name of the person or thing spoken of; as, /, John, saw these things. Arthur, you must help me. The boy has a rabbit. He feeds it leaves. FORMS OF PRONOUNS. Ill Case-Forms. I am ready, send me. We saw him, but he did not see us. They called for her , and she went with them. Did John leave his pencil on your desk ? Which of these pronouns are used as subjects of verbs ? Which as objects of verbs ? Which as objects of prepositions ? Which denote ownership ? Notice the changes in form to show the different relations. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. The object of a verb or of a preposition is in the objective ,case. Words which denote ownership, as we have learned, are in the possessive case. Most personal pronouns are inflected to denote the nominative, the objective, and the possessive case. Pronouns used as complements of copulative verbs are in the nominative case ; as, It is I. This is he. That was she. I think these are they . Was it we that you called? It may have been she who came. 112 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. The relative and interrogative pronoun who , is inflected for case ; as, I see a boy who is idle. This is the girl whose father died. The man ivhom you describe was here. Who is going ? i Whose are these books ? Whom did you call ? Declension of Pronouns. We have found that pronouns have number, gender, person, and case forms. The orderly ar¬ rangement of the inflections of a pronoun is called its declension. Thus : Nominative. Possessive. Objective. First J Singular. .1 my or mine me Person. [ Plural . ...we our or ours us Second f Singular. ... thou thy or thine thee Person. [ Plural. ... ye or you your or yours you f Sing. Masc... ...he his him Third Sing. Fem... ...she her or hers her Person. < Singular. ... it its it Plural. ... they their or theirs them Singular or Plural ... ...who whose whom The pronouns you, your , and yours are used in the singular, though plural in form. FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 113 The forms thou, thy, thine, and ye are not used in ordinary speech, but in what is called solemn discourse, as in prayer and some kinds of poetry. The possessive forms, my, our, thy, your, her, their, are used before nouns ; when no noun is expressed, mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs are used ; as, This is my hat. This hat is mine. Is that her cloak. Is that hers ? That is your pencil. That pencil is yours. These are our books. These books are ours. A pronoun used as the subject of a verb or as the complement of a copulative verb, is in the nominative case. A pronoun used as the object of a verb or of a preposition, is in the objective case. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, gender, and number. EXERCISE. I.—Determine the number, gender, person, and case of each pronoun in the following sentences : 1. He and I are brothers. 2. My friend took her and me. 3. We thought that it was she. 114 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 4. You cannot go, nor they either. 5. She can do the work as well as they. 6. There is the book. Please hand it to him. 7. There is no ill-feeling between her and me. 8. He is taller than I, but I am older than he. 9. You, he, and I, are members of the same class. 10. Bees gather honey for themselves, and men rob them of it. II. — Choose the correct form of pronoun, and then repeat or copy each sentence several times : 1. John and (I, me) will go. 2. It is (I, me) that am reciting. 3. You are older than (we, us). 4. You can write as well as (he, him). 5. Will you take William and (I, me ) ? 6. It was (he, him) that went past. 7. I do not think that is (she, her). 8. Do you suppose it was (they, them ) ? 9. Was it (we, us) you wanted to see? 10. I was playing with Alice and (she, her). 11. They invited (she, her), but not (I, me). 12. Give the flowers to (he, him) and (she, her). 13. Was it not Mary and (she, her) who called? 14. The invitation is for (he, him) and (I, me). 15. It was (she, her) and (I, me) that were whispering. 16. There were present only (they, them) and (I, me). 17. They asked my friend and (I, me ) if we could walk as fast as (they, them). FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 115 HI.—Use in each blank the correct form of who : 1 . 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . — was here? — did you see? — was it that came? — did the boy strike? With — were you walking. At — house is she staying? To — is the letter directed ? I will send a boy — is honest. I will send a boy — you can trust. The man — was here has gone. The man — you saw was my father. The woman — died was one — all loved. IY. — Fill blanks with pronouns of correct num¬ ber and gender: 1. Not one of us did — best. 2. No one should neglect — work. 3. All the pupils had — lessons. 4. Each of the pupils had — lessons. 5. Every tree is known by — fruit. 6. Some man or boy has lost — hat. 7. If any one knows, — must not tell. 8. Everyone must learn — lesson for — . 9. Let anyone guess this riddle if — can ? 10. Neither one of the girls brought — lunch. 11 . I will let each of you recite in — turn. 12. If Ned or Frank is whispering, — must remain. 13. If Ned and Frank are whispering, — must remain. 116 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. FORMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Comparison of Adjectives. Mary is hind. I have a short stick. Jane is hinder. You have a shorter stick. Ruth is hindest. He has the shortest stick. What quality has each of the girls ? [ Kindness.] How many forms of the adjective hind are used to express different degrees of the quality ? Which form denotes merely the quality ? Which a higher degree of the quality ? Which the highest degree of the quality? What adjective is changed in form to express different degrees in the length of the sticks ? Which form expresses the quality alone ? Which a lower degree of the quality ? Which the lowest degree of the quality ? The change in the form of an adjective to express different degrees of quality, is called comparison. The form of an adjective which expresses merely the quality, as hind , short , is the positive degree. The form of an adjective which expresses a higher or lower degree of the quality in one object than in another, as hinder , shorter , is the comparative degree. The form of an adjective which expresses the highest or lowest degree of the quality, as hindest , shortest , is the superlative degree. FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. 117 Adjectives are compared regularly by adding r or er to the positive to form the comparative ; st or est to the positive to form the superlative ; as, wise wiser wisest swift swifter swifted small smaller smaller A few adjectives are compared irregularly ; as. good better best little less least had or ill worse worst much or many more most Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually not inflected, but are compared by placing before them the adverbs more or less for the comparative, most or least for the superlative ; as, honest more honest most honest truthful more truthful most truthful honorable less honorable least honorable Note. — A word of two syllables is compared regularly, when the terminations can be added to it without making an awkward word ; as, pretty, prettier, prettiest; noble, nobler, noblest. A few qualifying adjectives are not compared; as round , square , equal , chief, principal. 118 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. The comparative form of an adjective is used when comparing two objects, the superlative form when comparing more than two ; as, Which is older , John or Frank ? Which is oldest , John, Frank, or Tom ? The young man is taller than his father, and the tallest of three brothers. Only two adjectives — this and that —are inflected for number; as, This man works. These men work. That girl is studying. Those girls are studying. Be careful to use the right number form of the adjective with the singular nouns sort and kind ; as, This [not these~\ kind of apples grows here. I do not like that [not those~\ sort of people. Comparison of Adverbs. Most adverbs that admit of comparison are com¬ pared by the use of more and most , or less and least ; as, quickly ^quickly £},„ickly distinctly distinctly distinctly FORMS OF ADVERBS. 119 A few adverbs are inflected for comparison; as, soon soone?’ soon est often oftener oftenes£ few adverbs are irregularly compared well better best much more most little less least far farther farthest badly or ill worse ivorst EXERCISE. I. — Determine the degree of each qualifying adjective in the following sentences : 1. Truth is stranger than fiction. 2. Diamonds are the costliest gems. 3. Of the two roads, choose the shorter. 4. John is the youngest of five brothers. 5. Empty vessels make the loudest noise. 6. Which is larger, Illinois or Missouri? 7. Which is largest, Texas, California, or New York? 8. Which has the sweeter odor, the violet or the rose ? 9. By persistent effort, the hardest task becomes easy. 10. Julia is the older and the more domestic of the two. 11. South Carolina is a small state, Delaware is smaller than South Carolina, and Rhode Island is the smallest state in the Union. 120 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. II. — Compare each of the following adjectives : few soft rich able fine brave foolish cruel happy bright patient unkind useful formal graceful wealthy fertile careless handsome beautiful III. —Choose the correct form in each sentence : 1. I prefer (this, these) kind of pencils. 2. Were you weighed on (that, those) scales? 3. I do not trust (that, those) sort of friends. 4. Of all lakes, Superior is the (larger, largest). 5. Which is (taller, tallest), Harry, Ned, or Tom? 6. (That, those ) sort of companions will benefit you. 7. Do you want some of (this, these) kind of apples? 8. Which do you like (better, best), spring or fall? 9. Which is (more, most) desirable, health or wealth? 10. The (younger, youngest) of the two girls is the (prettier, prettiest). IV. — Determine which of the italicized words are adjectives, and which adverbs ; tell the degree of each : You came latest. I ate breakfast early. The girl is less than I. This is the fastest train. He spoke longer than usual. We walked farther to-day. You are the latest arrival. I ate an early breakfast. The man works less now. This train runs fastest. I want the longer string. They live in the farther house. FORMS OF VERBS. 121 FORMS OF VERBS. Number and Person Forms. work s The child « studies is busy was late has a pen The children < work study are busy were late have pens Which of these verbs are used with a singular subject ? Which with a plural subject ? Notice the changes in the form of the verbs. A verb may change form to agree with the number of its subject, hence verbs are said to have number. ivork study I < am busy was late have a pen Which of these verbs are used with a subject of the first person ? Which with a subject of the second person ? Which with a subject of the third person ? Notice the changes in the form of the verbs. A verb may change form to agree with the per¬ son of its subject, hence verbs are said to have person. you work study he t she are busy Qr were late it have a pen work s studies is busy teas late has a pen 122 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. We see that the verb has few inflections for per¬ son and number. The following are all the changes in ordinary speech : The verb be has different forms — am, is, are , ivas, were — to denote differences in the person and number of its subjects ; other verbs change form to agree with the person and number of their subjects only in the third person singular, when have is changed to has, or s or es is added to the verb. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. Two or more singular subjects generally require a plural verb if connected by and ; a singular verb if connected by or or nor ; as, John and James go to school. John or James goes to school. Mary and her sister have their lessons. Neither Mary nor her sister has her lessons. When two or more singular subjects connected by and have a singular meaning, or are preceded by each, every , or no, they require a singular verb; as, The soldier and statesman is dead. Each boy and girl has a book. Every man, woman, and child ivas lost. No day and no hour is without its duties. FORMS OF VERBS. 123 Be careful not to violate the preceding rule when the position of the subject is changed, or when a noun of a different number comes between the subject and the verb ; as, . 1. Yonder come John and James. 2. Not one of the boys is absent. 3. Neither of the men works hard. 4. There go the children from school. 5. Every one of the pupils lias a pencil. 6. Each of these expressions is incorrect. 7. There were left only my brother and I. 8. Do your father and mother expect to go ? 9. The appearance of the clouds indicates rain. Sometimes the meaning of a word, rather than the form, determines whether it should have a sin¬ gular or a plural verb ; as, 1. News is scarce. 2. No pains icas spared. 3. A great number were injured. 4. The number injured icas ten. 5. The deer are in the park. 6. The deer is a beautiful animal. 7. The class [as a whole] is large. 8. The class [as individuals] are studying. 9. The “Arabian Nights” icas once his delight. 124 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I. — Choose the correct form of verb in each sentence, and tell why it is correct : 1. (Was, were) you there? 2. One of those horses (is, are ) lame. 3. Either of you (is, are ) able to lift it. 4. (Has, have) Mary and Lucy been ill? 5. (Was, were) Florence or Fannie here? 6. Neither of the boys (read, reads) well. 7. (Is, are) either of your friends coming? 8. The jury (was, were) divided in opinion. 9. Which of these sentences (is, are) correct? 10. Each of the States (has, have) two senators. 11. No house, no fence, no tree (was, were) left. 12. What sounds (has, have) each of the vowels ? 13. Either you or your brother (was, were) there. 14. Both you and your brother ( was, were ) there. 15. Here (come, comes) my friend and her husband. 16. Each man, woman, and child (has, have) duties. 17. Frank, Robert, and Ned (live, lives) in the city. 18. Every branch and twig (is, are ) covered with snow. 19. Neither Ned nor Tom (have, has) (his, their) books. 20. The fragrance of many flowers (fill, fills) the air. 21. A variety of pleasing objects (charm, charms) the eye. 22. The ebb and flow of the tides (was, were) explained. 23. The jury (has, have) rendered a verdict of guilty. 24. ( Has, have ) there been many failures in business ? 25. There (is, are) a book, an apple, and a pencil on my desk. FORMS OF VERBS. 125 II. — Change the person or number of each italicized word, and make such other changes in the sentences as will be necessary : 1. All men have their faults. 2. We are industrious pupils. 3. Are you going to the fair? 4. She has a slate on her desk. 5. The bird was building its nest. 6. There is an apple on the table. 7. Are the covers of the books blue? 8. Has there been a wretk on this rock? 9. The men who do their duty are happy. 10. The boys help their father in the store. 11. The man that rows the boat has a strong arm. 12. The fern seeks the shade and shuns the sunshine. 13. This is the best exercise that has been written. 14. At the signal, each of the pupils rises to his feet. 15. All the girls who have their lessons may be excused. 16. The trees that grow on the lawn furnish us shade. III. — Use the following verbs in sentences ( 1 ) with singular subjects, (2) with plural subjects: do go cry lay run see play deny delay reply perch rustle march creep crouch screech belong invade tarnish prepay. 126 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Mode-Forms. 1. I go to school. 5. 2. I may go to school. 6. 3. Go to school. 7. 4. If I go , I will learn. 8. John runs. John can run. Run , John. If John run, he will fall. In which of these sentences is the action asserted as a fact ? In which is it asserted as a possibility ? In which is it commanded ? In which is it asserted as doubtful, or conditional ? • The manner in which the verb makes the asser¬ tion is called mode. Mode means manner. A verb which asserts something as a fact is in the indicative mode. A verb which asserts something as possible or necessary is in the potential mode. A verb which asserts a command is in the imper¬ ative mode. A verb which asserts something as doubtful or conditional is in the subjunctive mode. The indicative mode is the one most used ; as, Time Jlies. Are you going ? Caesar conquered . Have you a pencil ? Students will learn. Did he learn his lesson ? FORMS OF VERBS. 127 The potential mode is expressed by the use of one of the helping verbs, may, can, must, might , could, would, or should, with the simple form of the principal verb ; as, You way read. He can do the work. We must study hard. John might write better. Can you help me ? May I ask a favor ? Would that he right ? They could see the bird. The imperative mode is used only with subjects in the second person in expressing requests or com¬ mands ; as, Come to me. Please sing for me. The subjunctive mode has almost gone out of use in our language. It is used in subordinate assertions to express doubt , a supposition contrary to fact , or a wish ; as, 1. If she he there, she will not sing. 2. Though he fail , he will not despair. 3. Provided the pupil study , he may remain. 4. Unless he have friends, he cannot succeed. 5. If John tell a falsehood, he will be punished. 6. I would not go, if I were you. 7. If he were willing, I would help him. 8. I wish that my mother were here. 128 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Verbs in the indicative mode are used to express what is assumed as a fact ; as, 1. If he is needy, we must help him. 2. Though he is lame, he walks fast. 3. If he was severe, he was not unjust. 4. If he wishes to see me, he must come here. 5. If she intends to apply, she must do so soon. Tense-Forms. 1. We play. 4. He goes to school. 2. We played. 5. He went to school. 3. We shall play. 6. He will go to school. Do the verbs used above express time ? Which denote present time ? Which past time ? Which future time. The form of a verb by which it expresses time is called tense. Tense means time. All time is divided into present, past, and future; hence there are three principal tenses of verbs—the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense, s The Present Tense of a verb denotes present time. The Past Tense of a verb denotes past time. The Future Tense of a verb denotes future time. FORMS OF VERBS. 129 They have learned their lessons. They had learned their lessons when they came. They will (or shall ) have learned their lessons before class-time. Which of these verbs represents an action as completed at the present time ? Which represents an action as completed at a certain past time ? Which represents an action as completed at a cer¬ tain future time ? An action completed is 'perfected ; hence we have the present-perfect tense, the past-perfect tense, and the future-perfect tense. The Present-perfect Tense of a verb represents an action as completed at the present time. The Past-perfect Tense of a verb represents an action as completed at a certain past time. The Future-perfect Tense of a verb represents an action as completed at a certain future time. The indicative mode has all of the six tenses. The potential mode has four tenses—the present, the past, the present-perfect, and the past-perfect. The subjunctive mode has two tenses—the present and the past. The imperative mode has but one tense — the present. i perative Subjunctive Potential Indicative Mode. Mode. Mode. Mode. 130 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Summary op Mode and Tense Forms. < Present. love , sing. Past. love d, sang. Futul ' e . S ^J[ jfoue, sing. Present-Perfect.^ave j- loved, sung. Past-Perfect. had love d, sung. Future-Perfect.| have love d, sung. Present may • can must < Past Present-Perfect. might could ' would should may . can must love, sing . have love d, sung. might "1 Past-Perfect.would f ^ ave loved, sung. should J Present . love, sing . Past. love d, sang. Present 5 ' love, sing . FORMS OF VERBS. 131 We see by the table that there are few inflec¬ tions for mode and tense. The only changes in the verb itself are in the past tense, indicative and sub¬ junctive, and in the perfect tenses, indicative and potential. The imperative mode has but one form, the unchanged form, or root , of the verb. The subjunctive mode has forms different from the indicative only in the following cases : 1. In the present tense be is used instead of am , is , and are ; in the past tense, were is used instead.of was. [See page 157.] « 2. Have is used instead of has , and other verbs drop s , or es , in the third person singular, present tense. [See page 107.] The form of a verb used after has , have, or had in the perfect tenses, is called the past-participle of the verb. The three forms, the present-indicative the past- indicative, and the past-participle , are called the principal parts of a verb ; as, Present Indicative. Past Indicative. Past Participle. live lived lived see saw seen Note. — The regular arrangement of all the different forms of a verb is called its conjugation. 132 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Be careful not to use the past-participle for the past tense of the verb, or the reverse ; as, I saw [not seen~\ him yesterday. I have never seen [not saw~\ him. I Jc?ieiv [not hnowed~\ he would come. We should have written [not wrote] our exercises. He never did [not done~\ such a thing in his life. Auxiliary Verbs. The verb itself has few inflections, but there are certain helping verbs, as the table shows, which are used with the principal verb to express the different modes and tenses. Verbs used to help form the different modes and tenses of other verbs, are called auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary means helping. The principal auxiliaries are : Present, - do , be, have , shall, will , may, can, must. Past, - did, was, had, should, would , might, could. Do, be, have, and will , are also used as principal verbs. Note. — The combination of the principal and the auxiliary verb is sometimes called a verb-plirase or verb-term. FORMS OF VERBS. 133 Always use the proper auxiliary : May expresses permission or possibility ; as, Mother says I may go. The sun may shine to-morrow. The Governor may pardon the convict. Can expresses ability; as, He can read. I think I can go. Must expresses necessity ; as, He must go. It must he true. Might and could , the past tenses of may and can , follow the rules for may and can ; as, He might come (possibility). He could come (ability). Shall , in the first person, expresses simple futurity ; in the second and third persons, compul¬ sion. Will , in the first person, expresses purpose ; in the second and third persons, simple futurity; as, I shall go (simple futurity). You shall go (compulsion). He shall go (compulsion). I will go ( purpose ). You will go ( simple futurity ). He will go (simple futurity). 134 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Should and ivould, the past tenses of shall and will , follow in general the rules governing the uses of shall and will ; as, I thought I shoidd go. I determined I would go. I feared he woidd fail. I demanded that he should come. Do is used as an auxiliary in making the emphatic form of a verb, and also in interrogative and negative sentences ; as, I do try. He did come. We do feel sorry. Did you write this ? I do not know how. We did not hear you. Do you live here ? He does not want to go. Be is used as an auxiliary in making the pro¬ gressive form of a verb ; as, I am reciting. You were writing. He is studying his lesson. Fannie has been riding this morning. The boy should have been solving his problems. Note. — Be is also used as an auxiliary in making the pas¬ sive form of a verb. KINDS OF VERBS. 135 Regular and Irregular Verbs. They shout aloud. I break the stick. They shouted aloud. I broke the stick. They have shouted aloud. I have broken the stick. What forms of the verb shout are here given ? What forms of the verb break ? Which of these verbs forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the simple form, or root ? Which does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the root ? Verbs which form their past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the root, are regular verbs. Verbs which do not form their past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the root, are irregular verbs. Note. — For a list of irregular verbs and their principal parts, see page 158. EXERCISE. I.—Tell the mode and tense of each verb (or verb-term) in the following sentences ; tell which are principal and which auxiliary verbs : 1. I do see it. 4. He was reading. 2. Hope cheers. 5. The sun has set 3. I will not go. 6. Napoleon fought, 136 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 7. He could tell us. 19. If it rain, I shall stay. 8. Can I assist you? 20. Shall I bring it to you? 9. Did the star fall? 21. You should have seen it. 10. I may have lost it. 22. Will you come with me? 11. We furled the sail. 23. I wish that it were done. 12. Study nature’s laws. 24. I intend they shall work. 13. The bells are tolling. 25. The moon will have risen. 14. May we go with you ? 26. He had gone when I came. 15. Have the boys come ? 27. If he be ill, he will not go. 16. You must come soon. 28. If he is poor, he is honest. 17. Look before you leap. 29. If he was slow, he was sure. 18. He does go there often. 30. If he were here, I could go. II. —Choose the correct word, or words, in each of the following sentences : 1. Though she (is, be) firm, she is not unkind. 2. If he (is, be) there, I (will, shall) be surprised. 3. Though she (was, were) there, I did not see her. 4. If I (was, were) there, I (would, should) help you. 6. If the weather (be, is) pleasant, (may, can) we go? 6. What (would, should) you say if you (was, were) asked ? 7. Though I (be, am) discouraged, I (will, shall) not give up. 8. If he (disobey, disobeys) me, he (will, shall) be punished. 9. If wishes (was, were) horses, beggars (might, could) ride. 10. Unless it (turn, turns) colder, you will not need your cloak. FORMS OF VERBS. 137 11. If I (was, were) strong enough, I (could, might) help you. 12. If he (be, is) at home, tell him I (would, should) like to see him. 13. Though the bill ( pass, passes), the law (will, shall) not be enforced. 14. Supposing she (was, were) here, she (would, should) be no help to us. 15. If he (expect, expects) to go with us, he (should, would) be making preparations. III. — Change the verbs in the following sen¬ tences, first to the past tense, then to the future tense : 1 . The sun shines. 6. The buds burst. 2. The boys skate. 7. He catches the ball. 3. I cut the apple. 8. She knows the place. 4. I break the stick. 9. The waves dash high. 5. They blast the rock. 10. We study our lessons. IV. — Change the tense of the verbs—the present to the present-perfect, the past to the past-perfect, the future to the future-perfect : 1 . He reads much. 6. Can you forget it? 2. Should I write? 7. It would not grow there. 3. They go to town. 8. Mary broke her promise. 4. I was busy all day. 9. I shall finish by that time. 5. He will sleep long. 10. A thief may steal the money. 138 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. V. — Write each of the following sentences ten times, using the verb in all the tenses of the indica¬ tive and the potential modes ; tell which of the verbs are transitive and which intransitive : 1 . We raise our hats. 7* I lie in the hammock. 2. I recite my lesson. 8. I lay the pencil down. 3. They do their duty. 9. Water rises in the well. 4. A boy drowns a cat. 10. John rides the horse home. 5. He knows the poem. 11. The farmer threshes wheat. 6. We sit on the bench. 12. I set the box on the table. VI. — Change the verb in each sentence to the progressive form, and tell its mode and tense : 1. I work. We write. He thinks. 2. It rained hard. They rowed fast. 3. The pupils had studied their lessons. 4. The ship will then sail across the sea. 5. I can get ready. He may deceive you. 6. The farmer might have hoed the weeds. 7. In June, she will have taught five years. 8. The boys had cut and carried wood all morning. 9. The animal must have watched as we rode along. 10. The men raised their hats. The river rose to-day. 11. We set the box on the table. The box sat on the table. 12. The book lies on the desk. I lay the book on the desk. 13. The watch should not lose time. It has run regularly. FORMS OF VERBS. 139 VII. — Change each of the following to the emphatic, the interrogative, and the negative form : You replied. We improve. He makes hay. John skates well. It drew the blood. Time brings changes. They fight for liberty. The children copy the words. VIII. — Give the principal parts of the following verbs ; tell which are regular and which irregular : do go sew see lie fly say wear draw lay fall give chew fancy sit pull wipe leave teach set begin swim delay learn rise cover throw forget retire raise IX. —Use the principal parts of each of the following verbs in sentences : eat buy saw tear bite beat draw show blow ring take know bring drink hurt wring shake write came choose x.— Write ten sentences containing verbs in the indicative mode ; ten containing verbs in the potential mode ; five containing verbs in the sub- junctive mode ; three containing verbs in the impera- tive mode. 140 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Voice-Forms. 1. He shot. 2. He was shot. 3. Bees make honey. 4. Honey is made by bees. 5. John strikes the ball. 6. The balls are struck by John. In which of these sentences are the subjects represented as acting ? In which are the subjects represented as being acted upon ? Do the verbs change form to show whether their subjects act or are acted upon? The form of a verb which shows whether its subject acts or is acted upon is called voice. Verbs which represent their subjects as acting are in the active voice. Vorbs which represent their subjects as being acted upon are in the passive voice. The passive voice of a verb in any tense is formed by using the form of be in that tense with the past participle of the verb ; as, I am hurt. He mag be appointed. You are loved. John was bitten by the dog. Note. — Only transitive verbs have voice forms. FORMS OF VERBS. 141 EXERCISE. I-—Change the verbs in the following sentences form the active to the passive voice, or the reverse: 1. Heat expands metals. 2. Electricity moves the car. 3. Burglars entered the house. 4. Flies are caught by spiders. 5. The work shall be finished for you. 6. William Penn founded Philadelphia. 7. Heavy rains have swollen the rivers. 8. I was very much amused by the story. 9. Reading good books benefits the mind. 10. Somebody should attend to the matter. 11. The steam engine was invented by Watt. 12. The drowning child was rescued by the dog. 13. These exercises will be written by the pupils. 14. These truths are held by us to be self evident. 15. They found many beautiful shells on the shore. 16. We are kept alive by food, exercise, and sleep. 17. Longfellow wrote the beautiful poem “Evangeline.” 18. The colonists claimed that England taxed them unjustly. 19. In 55 B. C., Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius Caesar. 20. The Atlantic Ocean is crossed by fast steamers in less than seven days. 21. We call Lincoln the “ Emancipator,” because the slaves were liberated by him. LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 142 II.—Write sentences, using the following verbs in the active voice; then change the sentences, using the verbs in the passive voice : kill build wrote began moved learned mends arrested caught destroyed defeated discovered III. — Tell the form of each of the following verb-terms, and use each in a sentence : 1 . think 14. are reaping 2. brings 15. were defeated 3. fancied 16. is being made 4. can use 17. should be kept 5. do read 18. may have fallen 6. is built 19. will be covered 7. shall ride 20. had been rowing 8. might hear 21. has been raised 9. am working 22. could have heard 10. did recite 23. will have finished 11. has driven 24. must have been earning 12. is raging 25. would have been pleased 13. was stolen 26. should have been attending. IY. — Correct the following sentences ; tell why the words in italics are incorrect: 1 . Who done that? 5. He laid down to rest. 2. Your dress is tore. 6. Let the box set there. 3. Can I be excused? 7. Will I bring it to you? 4. We shall assist you. 8. Has the dike broke yet? FORMS OF VERBS. 143 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 . 21 . 22 . 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. I shall do my very best. Our club was badly beat. I never seen that before. My mother says I can go. He run as fast as he could. The work is not yet began. What will we do with this? How long has it laid there? I should help you, if I could. I would have went , if I could. We will be gone several days. I would like very much to go. The paper is laying on the table. Is the t£ble standing in the corner? I wish I had chose a different seat. You should not lay on the ground. The leaves were shook off by the wind. Set by me here. Sit out a chair for her. We would be delighted if you should come. SUMMARY OF INFLECTION. Words are inflected to show : 1. Number — the form of a word which ex¬ presses one or more than one. 2. Person — the form of a pronoun which de¬ notes the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 144 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 3. Gender — the form of a noun or a pronoun which denotes sex. 4. Case — the form of a noun or a pronoun which shows its relation to other words. 5. Comparison — the form of an adjective or an adverb which shows a greater or less degree of^ quality or intensity. 6. Mode—the manner in which a verb expresses being, action, or state. 7. Tense — the form of a verb which denotes the time, or the degree of completeness, of being, action, or state. 8. Voice — the form of a transitive verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. Nouns are inflected to show... Pronouns are inflected to show... Number. Gender. Person. Case. Adjectives } Adverbs are inflected to show J Comparison. " Number. Person. Verbs are inflected to show.< Mode. Tense. . Voice. ( 146 ) FROM PAINTING BY LANDSEER. SAVED. 147 SAVED. 1. Study this picture carefully. 2. Describe the scene. 3. What kind of a dog is pictured? 4. What birds are flying above? 5. Notice the difference in the sky in this picture from that in the picture by Corot, The Dance of the Nymphs. 6. Tell the story as if you had witnessed the rescue. 7. Relate anecdotes of brave deeds. WISHING. Do you wish the world were better? Let me tell you what to do— Set a watch upon your actions, Keep them always straight and true. Rid your mind of selfish motives, Let your thoughts be clean and high; You can make a little Eden Of the sphere you occupy. Do you wish the world were wiser? Well, suppose you make a start By accumulating wisdom In the scrap-book of your heart. Do not waste one page on folly; Live to learn and learn to live; If you want to give men knowledge, You must get it ere j^ou give. Do you wish the world were happy? Then remember, day by day, Just to scatter seeds of kindness As you pass along the way; For the pleasures of the many May be ofttimes traced to one, As the hand that plants an acorn Shelters armies from the sun. Note to Teacher : Ella Wheeler Wilcox. Study this poem for mood of verbs. 148 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Two Painters. There was once a man who thought he was a great painter. One day he wished to paint his hall very beau¬ tifully. He spoke to another painter about it. “First,” said he, “I shall whitewash it as nicely as possible, and then paint it.” His friend, who was a great artist as well as a wit, answered mischievously: “Allow me to give you a word of advice; you had better paint it first, and then whitewash it.” A Good Bargain. Two men made a journey one day in summer. It was a very hot day, and, as they were very tired, they bought a horse together. The question now was, who shall ride the horse? One then said to the other: “When I ride, you shall walk, and when you walk, I will ride;” and the other was perfectly satisfied with the bargain! Kindness Brings Happiness. John and Harry, while on their way to school, saw an old lady with a basket of apples, which she was car¬ rying to market. Harry proposed throwing the basket over when the woman set it down to rest, for it would be such fun to see her run after the apples. John’s eyes flashed. “No, let us rather ask to carry the basket for her,” said he. The woman was very thankful when they offered to carry her basket, and as she walked behind them it was hard to tell which of the three was the happiest. CHAPTER V. VERBALS : PARTICIPLES — INFINITIVES. 1. The boy speaks distinctly. 2. The man speaking is earnest. 3. A word spoken cannot be recalled. 4. To speak is not always wise. What is the verb in the first sentence? Can you find in each of the other sentences a word formed from the same verb ? Do speaking , spoken , to speak , denote action ? Could they be used alone to assert anything. Words like speaking , spoken , to speak , which denote action without asserting it, are called verbals. Verbals may be formed from almost every verb in the language. Thus : give giving given to give think thinking thought to think laugh laughing laughed to laugh 150 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. PARTICIPLES. I saw a boy running. The bird singing is a thrush. The man injured cannot live. Name the verbals used above. Does running describe boy ? Does singing describe bird ? Does injured describe man 9 Since the words running, singing, and injured express action and also modify the meaning of nouns, they share the nature of what two parts of speech ? Verbals which share, or participate in, the nature of verbs and of adjectives, are called participles. A Participle is the form of a verb which shares the nature of a verb and of an adjective. Simple participles are of two kinds : 1. Present or imperfect, ending in ing; as, loving, seeing , walking, sleeping. 2. Past or perfect, ending usually in d, n, or t; as, loved, seen, walked, slept. Compound participles are formed by combining simple participles with the auxiliaries being, having, having been ; as, being loved having loved having been loved having been loving PARTICIPLES. 151 A participle, on account of its verb nature, may take : 1. An adverbial modifier; as, The oarsman pulling steadily will win. Having worked rapidly, be has finished. The tree, firmly rooted , stands the storm. 2. An object ; as, The boy driving the horse is careful. Having been plowing corn, he is tired. The thief, having stolen the money, escaped. 3. A complement; as, He, being a stranger, was not admitted. John, having been ill, is not able to go. Having become president, he did his duty. A participle may be used : 1. As a verbal adjective ; as, The boat leaving goes north. The soldier wounded will die. 2. As a verbal noun; as, Walking is good exercise. The boys enjoy skating . 152 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 3. As an adverbial modifier ; as, He came crying . They stood amazed. 4. As a pure adjective ; as, The running brook is clear. She has a cultivated voice. He is kind and forgiving. 5. As a pure noun ; as, The singing of birds delights us. We heard the roaring of the waves. INFINITIVES. To row is tiresome. He hopes to improve. Our desire is to learn. Name the verbals used above. Which one is used as the subject of a verb ? Which as object of a verb ? Which as complement of a copulative verb ? Do to row , to improve , to learn , name actions ? They do the work, then, of what part of speech ? Verbals used to name actions, forming verbal nouns, are called infinitives. An Infinitive is the form of a verb having the properties of a verb and of a noun. INFINITIVES. 153 The simple infinitive is the root of the verb before which to is generally used ; other infinitives are compound. In regard to time, infinitives are : 1. Present; as, to live , to see , to hope. 2. Present-perfect; as, to have lived, to have seen , to have hoped. An infinitive, on account of its verb nature, may take : 1. An adverbial modifier ; as. To act honorably is a duty. He tries to decide impartially. 2. An object; as, To help others is a pleasure. We are commanded to love our enemies. 3. A complement; as, To he cheerful is sometimes difficult. The boy seems to have been studious. His one desire is to become a soldier. An infinitive may be used : 1. As a verbal noun; as, To walk is healthful. All boys like to play. 154 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 2. As an adjective modifier ; as, There is a time to play. His ability to manage is excellent. 3. As an adverbial modifier ; as, We came to learn . I am afraid to go. It is too late to return. After the verbs bid , dare , let , hear, feel, make, need, see, and some others, the to is usually omitted before the infinitive ; as, I dare not go. Bid him come. We saw them start . You need not stay. A modifier should not be used between to and the infinitive ; as, I meant never to do [not to never do] that again. You ought at least to be [not to at least be] grateful for it. Visitors are requested not to handle [ not to not handle] the articles. And should not be used instead of to before an infinitive ; as, I must try to go [not try and go]. Come to see me [not come and see me]. INFINITIVES. 155 The present-perfect infinitive should not be used where the present infinitive expresses the meaning; as, I intended to write [not to have written~\. I hoped to he [not to have heen~\ able to go. I expected to call [not to have called ] sooner.. EXERCISE. I.—Name the participles and the infinitives in the following sentences, and tell how each is used in the sentence ; tell which have objects, which complements, and which adverbial modifiers : 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . Seeing is believing. To despair is to fail. Avoid reading hurriedly. I do not dare go again. She has lessons to learn. The dog ran away howling. We visited a ruined castle. He likes to read good books. A sower went forth to sow. His ambition is to be elected. Telling lies hardens the heart. He is too gentle to hurt a fly. Be swift to hear, slow to speak. The daring are the successful. Running water does not stagnate. 156 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 16. To speak correctly is difficult. 17. To save time is to lengthen life. 18. The woman seems to have fainted. 19. He, being weary, lay down to rest. 20. There is pleasure in helping others. 21. The horse driven yesterday is tired. 22. Having been duly warned, they escaped. 23. The boat, heavily loaded, left the wharf. 24. The instinct to hoard money is not noble. 25. They live in a house overlooking the river. 26. The branches of the elm are long and drooping. 27. The child, being much disappointed, began to cry. 28. As soon as young birds are strong enough to fly, they must learn to use their wings. II.— Form the present and past participle and the present and present-perfect infinitive of each of the following verbs : sail knit tell fall wind bend drink freeze whip dance swing satisfy regret shrink strive scream forgive destroy borrow forsake III.—Write sentences, using infinitives (1) as subject, ( 2 ) as object of a verb, ( 3 ) as complement of a verb, (4) as an adjective, (5) as an adverb. IY.—Write three sentences, using a participle ( 1) as a verbal adjective, ( 2 ) as a verbal noun, ( 3 ) as an adverbial modifier. f HE PEBBLE AND THE ACORN. THE PEBBLE AND THE ACORN. “I am a pebble! and yield to none!” Were the swelling words of a tiny stone. “Nor time nor ages can alter me; I am abiding while ages flee. The pelting hail and the driveling rain Have tried to soften me, long, in vain; And the tender dew has sought to melt Or touch my heart; but it was not felt. “There’s none that can tell about my birth, For I’m as old as the big, round earth. The children of men arise, and pass Out of the world like blades of grass; And many a foot on me has trod, That’s gone from sight, and under the sod! I am a Pebble! but who art thou, Rattling along from the restless bough?” The Acorn was shocked at this rude salute, And lay, for a moment, abashed and mute; She never before had been so near This gravelly ball, the mundane sphere; And she felt, for a time, at a loss to know How to answer a thing so coarse and low. But to give reproof of a nobler sort Than the angry look, or keen retort, At length, she said, in a gentle tone: “Since it has happened that I am thrown From the lighter element, where I grew, Down to another, so hard and new, And beside a personage so august, Abased, I will cover my head in dust, And quickly retire from the sight of one Whom time, nor season, nor storm, nor sun, Nor the gentle dew, nor the grinding heel, Has ever subdued, or made to feel!” And soon, in the earth, she sank away, From the comfortless spot where the Pebble lay. 158 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. But it was not long ere the soil was broke By the peering head of an infant oak: And, as it arose, and its branches spread, The Pebble looked up, and wondering said: “A modest Acorn! never to tell What was enclosed in its simple shell! That the pride of the forest was folded up In the narrow space of its little cup! And meekly to sink in the darksome earth, Which proves that nothing could hide its worth. “And ^h! how many will tread on me, To come and admire the beautiful tree, Whose head is towering toward the sky, Above such a worthless thing as I! Useless and vain, a cumberer here, I have been idling from year to year; But never, from this, shall a vaunting word From the humble Pebble again be heard, Till something, without me or within, Shall show the purpose for which I have been.” The Pebble its vow could not forget, And it lies there wrapped in silence yet. 1. Study the poem and read as a whole. 2. Paraphrase it. 3. What is a fable? 4. The Pebble and the Acorn are personified. What is personification? 5. Personify the geranium and the oak tree and write a conversation between them. Note to Teacher: Also study this poem for the application of work on ad¬ jectives, participles and infinitives. CHAPTER VI. PHRASES — CLAUSES. PHRASES. 1. He walks rapidly. 2. He walks with rapidity . 3. A wise man spoke. 4. A man of wisdom spoke. 5. We enjoy rowing . 6. We enjoy rowing on the river . 7. To love is natural. 8. To love the good ennobles. What expression in 2 does the same work as the adverb rapidly , in 1 ? What expression in 4 does the same work as the adjective wise , in 3 ? What expres¬ sions in 6 and 8 do the same work as the verbal nouns rowing and to love , in 5 and 7 ? An expression consisting of a group of words without subject and predicate, and used as a single part of speech, is called a phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, not containing subject and predicate, and doing the work of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 160 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A phrase which does the work of a noun is called a substantive phrase. A substantive phrase may be used : 1. As the subject of a verb ; as, To overcome a difficulty strengthens us. Writing a good letter secured him the place. 2. As the object of a verb ; as, He desires to improve'the time . He confesses having taken the money . 3. As the complement of a verb ; as, The greatest victory is conquering self . My purpose is to finish the work . 4. As the object of a preposition ; as, We were about to start homeward . You can succeed by making an effort . A phrase which does the work of an adjective is an adjective phrase; as, A desire to help others is noble. The flowers of spring have returned. I have a knife with a broken handle, A ship riding the waves is a beautiful sight. Then appeared the Czar, guarded by soldiers. PHRASES. 161 A phrase which does the work of an adverb is an adverbial phrase; as, We drove over the bridge. The birds return in the spring. Crowds came to witness the sight. Phrases are distinguished with regard to form as prepositional , participial, and infinitive. A prepositional phrase is one introduced by a preposition ; a participial phrase is one introduced by a participle ; an infinitive phrase is one introduced by to followed by a verb. Note.—A verb with its auxiliaries is often called a verb- phrase. [See page 112.] CLAUSES. A man who is wise is respected. All believe that the man is honest. The birds leave when summer is gone. Does the expression who is wise describe man f It does the work, then, of what part of speech ? Is the expression that the man is honest the object of the verb believe? It is used, then, as what part of speech? Does the expression when summer is gone modify the meaning of the verb leave ? It is used, then, as what part of speech ? 162 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A group of words containing subject and predi¬ cate, and used as a single part of speech, is called a clause. A Clause is a group of words, containing subject and predicate, and doing the work of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A clause which does the work of a noun is called a substantive clause. A substantive clause may be used : 1. As the subject of a verb ; as, Why he is going is not known. What he says makes no difference. That work is beneficial needs no proof. Whoever finishes first may be excused. 2. As the object of a verb ; as, Tell us how you did it. We will do whatever you wish. Columbus believed that the earth is round. 3. As the complement of a verb ; as, Life is what you make it. The question was who would go. Pilate’s words were, “ What is truth?” CLAUSES. 1G3 4. As the object of a preposition; as, You are judged by what you do. We must move from where we are. Persevere in whatever you undertake. A clause which does the work of an adjective is an adjective clause ; as, A pupil who studies will learn. I have a book which you should read. Youth is the time when habits are formed. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. The place where the hero fell is marked by a stone. A clause which does the work of an adverb is an adverbial clause; as, He died where he fell. He acted as a man should act. Make hay while the sun shines. He went home because he was ill. If you persevere , you will succeed. The work is harder than he can do. Note.—A substantive clause may be introduced by a sub¬ ordinate conjunction, a relative pronoun, or a conjunctive adverb ; an adjective clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun or an adverb used relatively ; an adverbial clause may be introduced by a subordinate conjunction or a conjunctive adverb. 164 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Two expressions which have the same meaning are equivalent; as, a wealthy man = a man of wealth = a man who is wealthy. Sometimes a word may be changed : 1. To an equivalent phrase ; as, a Boston man = a man from Boston works earnestly = works with earnestness a hot-house flower = a flower grown in a hot-house 2. To an equivalent clause ; as, a man who lives in Boston works as if he were in earnest a flower which grew in a hot-house Sometimes a phrase may be changed : 1. To an equivalent word ; as, came behind time = came late breezes from the ocean = ocean breezes answered without delay = answered promptly 2. To an equivalent clause ; as, a man without a home = a man who has no home news to tell you = news which I wish to tell you wire made of brass = wire which is made of brass EXERCISE. 165 Sometimes a clause may be changed : 1. To an equivalent word; as, a candidate who was defeated = a defeated candidate a box that was made by the Japanese = a Japanese box delays which can not be avoided = unavoidable delays 2. To an equivalent phrase; as, the man who lives there = the man living there came that we might see you = came to see you the house which is on the hill = the house on the hill EXERCISE. I.—Name the phrases in the following sentences; tell which are substantive, which adjective, and which adverbial; also tell of what form each is : 1. He is working for the prize. 2. Revenge dwells in little minds. 3. Crowds came to view the ruins. 4. My desire is to see Niagara Falls. 5. To become a scholar requires study. 6. Is this a time to be cloudy and sad? 7. The moon shines with borrowed light. 8. The view from the hilltop is beautiful. 9. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 10. In ancient times, France was called Gaul. 11. Returning good for evil is a Christian trait. 166 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 12. A basket bolding apples stood on the table. 13. They are building a home for the friendless. 14. I could not avoid expressing my disapproval. 15. The philanthropist wishes to relieve suffering. 16. Her favorite pastime was playing on the violin. 17. He wrecked the train by leaving the switch open. 18. The ship, abandoned by its crew, lay tossing wildly. II.—Name the clauses, and tell which are sub¬ stantive, which adjective, which adverbial: 1. I will come when you call. 2. While life lasts, there is hope. 3. He laughs best who laughs last. 4. What is done cannot be undone. 5. He did what was requested of him. 6. Sweet is the hour when daylight dies. 7. I will have finished before you return. 8. If you want friends, you must be friendly. 9. They sleep the sleep that knows no waking. 10. Much depends upon who undertakes the work. 11. The pupil explained why the divisor is inverted. 12. I judge from what he reads that he is a scholar. 13. The place where the pilgrims landed is Plymouth. 14. I have not heard from Fannie since she went away. 15. The fact is that we make much of our own trouble. 16. Nerves are white cords which run through all parts of the body. 17. Some animals which are now extinct were larger than elephants [are]. EXERCISE. 167 III. — Change the italicized words to equivalent phrases : flew skyward was seen there cultured people wrote carelessly the ocean’s roar beardless youths a public highway an influential man a golden chain finished it easily southerly breezes hand-made shoes an orphan asylum was extremely cruel a temperance lecture the Saint Louis mail IV.—Change the italicized phrases to equivalent words : suits for boys fish without eyes a man of courage cars for passengers found in this place stories about fairies a cottage by the sea a spoon made of wood a work of value went toward home speaks with fluency treats all with respect diamonds from Brazil a hat belonging to Tom the house of Mr. Smith ran without taking heed V.—Change the italicized words and phrases to equivalent clauses : 1. An aimless life is useless. 2. I came down to attend the lecture. 3. People of intelligence like to read. 4. A man without friends is to be pitied. 168 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 5. We started on onr journey before sunrise. 6. A New York merchant bought the picture. 7. The burning building makes a bright light. 8. Please hand me the book with the blue cover. 9. Having finished his address , he took his seat. 10. The man killed by the train was a switchman. 11. People living in the flooded districts had to leave. VI. — Change the italicized clauses to equivalent words or phrases : 1. He looks as if he were happy. 2. I desire that I may please you. 3. It is a building that will not burn. 4. He bore the pain as a hero would. 5. A stone that rolls gathers no moss. 6. She has a doll which has flaxen hair. 7. I found a nest which had nothing in it. 8. They did not return until the sun had set. 9. Oranges which grow in Florida are the best. 10. That is a boat which has a wheel on the side. 11. I received a note which was written in German. VII. —Write three sentences, each containing a substantive phrase ; three, each containing an adjec¬ tive phrase ; three, each containing an adverbial phrase. VIII. —Write three sentences, each containing a substantive clause ; three, each containing an adjec¬ tive clause ; three, each containing an adverbial clause. THE SPIDER AND THE FLY. 169 BY MARY HOWITT. I. “Will you walk into my parlor?” said the Spider to the Fly; “ ’Tis the prettiest little parlor that ever you did spy. The way into my parlor is up a winding stair, And I have many curious things to show when you are there.” “Oh no, no,” said the little Fly; “to ask me is in vain, For who goes up your winding stair can ne’er come down again.” II. “I’m sure you must be weary, dear, with soaring up so high; Will you rest upon my little bed?” said the Spider to the Fly. “There are pretty curtains drawn around; the sheets are fine and thin, And if you like to rest awhile, I’ll snugly tuck you in!” “Oh no, no,” said the little Fly, “for I’ve often heard it said, They never, never wake again who sleep upon your bed!” III. Said the cunning Spider to the Fly: “Dear friend, what can I do To prove the warm affection I’ve always felt for you? I have within my pantry good store of all that’s nice; I’m sure you’re very welcome—will you please take a slice?” “Oh no, no,” said the little Fly; “kind sir, that cannot be: I’ve heard what’s in your pantry, and I do not wish to see!” IV. “Sweet creature!” said the Spider, “you’re witty and you’re wise; How handsome are your gauzy wings! how brilliant are your eyes! I have a little looking-glass upon my parlor shelf; If you’ll step in one moment, dear, you shall behold yourself.” “I thank you, gentle sir,” she said, “for what you’re pleased to say, And, bidding you good morning now ? I’ll call another day,” 170 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. V. The Spider turned him round about, and went into his den, For well he knew the silly Fly would soon come back again: So he wove a subtle web in a little corner sly, And set his table ready to dine upon the Fly; Then came out to his door again, and merrily did sing: “Come hither, hither, pretty Fly, with the pearl and silver wing; Your robes are green and purple; there’s a crest upon your head; Your eyes are like the diamond bright, but mine are dull as Alas, alas! how very soon this silly little Fly, Hearing his wily, flattering words, came slowly flitting by; With buzzing wings she hung aloft, then near and nearer drew, Thinking only of her brilliant eyes and green and purple hue, Thinking only of her crested head. Poor, foolish thing! at last Up jumped the cunning Spider, and fiercely held her fast. VII. He dragged her up this winding stair, into his dismal den, Within his little parlor—but she ne’er came out again! And now, dear little children, who may this story read, To idle, silly, flattering words, I pray you, ne’er give heed; Unto an evil counselor close heart and ear and eye, And take a lesson from this tale of the Spider and the Fly. THE SPIDER AND THE FLY. 1. Select the clauses. Give the use of the various clauses. 2. Note throughout the poem the nominative case by address. Compare the adjectives. Note their attrib¬ utive use. Select the various adverbs and state uses. 3. - Select the eight parts of speech. Select the different noun uses. Select the participles and infinitives. State the word each participle describes, THE BRAVE SOLDIER* 171 ANECDOTE. The Brave Soldier. When the French were storming Batisbon, the great general, Napoleon, stood at a distance watching the movement of the troops. Soon he saw riding rapidly toward him a young sol¬ dier. When he had reached the emperor, the youth dis¬ mounted. “Sire,” he cried, “your soldiers have won! We have taken Ratisbon for you! The eagle is on the walls,—and I placed it there!” The eyes of the general flashed and hope sprang high in his soul. He dreamed of future victories and of the success of his armies. But soon he thought of the lad who had brought the glorious news and his look softened. He turned to the brave, young soldier who had been clinging to his horse and was faint with an awful wound in his breast. In pity the great emperor said: “Why, my lad, you are wounded!” “Nay, sire,” proudly replied the gallant youth, “I am killed!” and fell dead at the feet of his general. Robert Browning, the great English poet, has written a beautiful poem about this valiant deed and called it “An Incident of the French Camp.” A wise man went to see a king and said he knew the secret of happiness. For a large sum he told the secret. It is: “Do a kindness to some one every day.” The king tried to follow the advice, and was soon a happy and contented man. 172 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. PICTURE LESSON. “ Can’t You Talk ? ” I. ORAL EXERCISE. Look at the picture carefully and be ready to answer the following questions:—What is the name of this pic¬ ture? Why so named? Can you think of a better name? Where is the child? What is he doing? Is he talking, or does he look as if he would like to speak to the dog? How old do you think this baby is? Can he walk? Do children talk before they are able to walk? How is the baby dressed? How did it come here on the stone steps? Is it summer or winter? Is it morning or evening? Does the child seem to be afraid of the dog? What kind of a dog is this? What dogs are noted for their kindness and devotion to their charges? Are dogs always kind to very little children? Why are they so often selected as pets for children? Are they apt to be friendly with cats ? Where is the cat? Why does it not follow the child out of doors? Does the picture tell or suggest a story? If so, tell it. II. WRITTEN EXERCISES. Write the story you read in this picture. Tell what happened when the baby awoke that morning. Also how he got out of doors and enjoyed his visit to the dog. Tell what the child, the dog and the cat said, or would have said if they could. Remember the quotation marks. What do you think the mother said when she found her baby? ( 173 ) CAN’T YOU TALK PICTURE LESSON. 175 III. CORRECTED WORE Look your paper over carefully. Does every sen¬ tence begin with a capital letter? How is each sentence ended? Have you used quotation marks with borrowed words or sentences ? Read your story silently. Have you described the picture or told a story ? Does the word and occur more than once in any sentence? How can you improve the long sentences? How can you shorten them? Rewrite and try to shorten them. Read the story aloud. Can you give the thought in each long sentence in other words ? Which is the better way? Why? AMONG THE NOBLEST. “Yes, well your story pleads the cause Of those dumb mouths that have no speech, Only a cry from each to each In its own kind, with its own laws; Something that is beyond the reach Of human power to learn or teach.” Thus spake the poet, with a sigh; Then added, with impassioned cry, As one who feels the w T ords he speaks, The color flushing in his cheeks, The fervor burning in his eye; “Among the noblest in the land, Though he may count himself the least, That man I honor and revere Who, without favor, without fear, In the great city dares to stand The friend of every friendless beast.” CHAPTER, VII. THE SENTENCE — ELEMENTS. Good pupils | are always studious. Many birds | build very ingenious nests. Smoke from the factories | rises over the city. The waves which now ripple | roll high when it storms. What two parts has every sentence ? [ See page 12.] Read, in each sentence above, only the words necessary to make a complete thought. What, then, is the principal word in each subject ? What is the principal word, or words, in each predicate ? What words, phrases, or clauses are used as modifiers ? The parts of which a sentence is composed are its elements. The entire subject of a sentence is the logical subject; the entire predicate is the logical predicate. The principal word in the logical subject is the grammatical subject; the principal word, or words, in the logical predicate is the grammatical predicate. ELEMENTS OP SENTENCES. 177 The grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate of a sentence are its principal elements. The parts of a sentence which modify the prin¬ cipal elements are its subordinate elements. The grammatical subject may be a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, Man is mortal. To do right is a duty. They went away. Studying hard benefits us. The good are great. That she came is certain. The grammatical predicate is the verb ( or verb phrase), alone, or with its complement or object; as, Time Jlies. Riches take wings. You must study. Fruit is wholesome. He should have gone. Fixed stars are suns. The noun complement of a copulative verb may be a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, That is John. Her desire was to go soon. He was made leader. My idea is that he has gone. The object of a verb may be a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, Miners dig ore. I finished reading the hook. We shall see her. I feared that he would fail. 178 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Note. — The subject and the object of a verb, the noun com¬ plement of a copulative verb, and the object of a preposition, a participle, or an infinitive, are always substantive elements, or noun-terms. The grammatical subject may be modified by a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, Ten men were sent. Kind words are remembered. A desire to help others is noble. The way of the transgressor is hard. The man steering the boat is the pilot. The officer who ivas killed was brave. The object of a verb, the noun complement, or any noun in the sentence, may be modified in the same manner as the subject. Note. —Words, phrases, and clauses used to modify nouns are adjective elements, or adjective-terms. The verb may be modified by a word, a phrase, or a clause ; as, He is often late. He is working to win the prize. She sings sweetly. I will tell her when I see her. We went up the hill. After frost comes , the nuts fall. They live in the city. We shouted till the woods rang. Note.— Words, phrases, and clauses used to modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, are adverbial elements, or adverb-terms. ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 179 An element that is not modified is called a simple element; as, Good men are respected. Days of childhood are bright. Men who are good are respected. An element that is modified by another element is called a complex element; as, Remarkably pleasant weather favored us. Children enjoy building houses with blocks. We spent the day in a quiet grove near the city. It is easy to find reasons why she should stay. Those who come in summer , when everything is green , like the place. As we have seen [page 33], two or more ele¬ ments used in the same relation in the sentence may be joined by a conjunction, thus forming a compound element; as, Tides ebb and flow. I prefer roses , violets , or lilies-of-the-v alley. This worthy but unfortunate man needs aid. They went dozen the valley and up the hill. Will you not tell me where you are going and when you will return ? 180 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Names of persons and things addressed, exclam¬ atory words and phrases, and words and phrases merely introductory, since they are not grammatically related to other parts of the sentences in which they they are used, are independent elements ; as, John , have you a knife ? Well , what are you going to do ? I think, my friend , you are wrong. Alas ! Poor child , he is left alone. By the way , I saw your friend to-day. The natural order of the elements is : 1. — Subject, preceded by word modifiers and followed by phrase and clause modifiers. 2. —Predi¬ cate—the verb followed by its modifiers, complement, or object. Elements, however, are often changed from their natural order ; as, Down it came. What is the news ? A mighty king was he. There comes my friend. Blessed are the pure in heart. How unsearchable are Thy ways ! It is sad to be forgotten. Note. —The real subject of the last sentence above is to be forgotten. It is merely introductory. ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 181 Modifiers must be so placed as to show exactly what they are intended to modify. They should generally be placed as near as possible to the words with which they are connected. Thus : A basket of fresh eggs [not & fresh basket]. I have only five minutes to wait [not only have]. I see dearly how it happened [ not how it happened dearly. ] He reads with interest the book you gave him [ not the book you gave him with interest ]. The man who is diligent is most likely to succeed [not is most likely to succeed who is diligent ]. SUMMARY. Elements are classified with reference to : { Principal. Subordinate. Independent. 2 . Structure. word. phrase. clause. f Simple. Complex. [ Compound. 3. Use. < Noun-terms. Ad j ective-ter ms. Verb-terms. Adverb-terms. 182 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I. — Analyze each of the following sentences by doing the work indicated : ( 1 ).— Name the logical subject and the logical predicate. (2).— Name the principal elements. (3). — Name the subordinate elements, and tell what each modifies. (4). — Tell whether each element is a word, a phrase, or a clause, and what work it does in the sentence : 1. I think that he will come. 2. The little bee works busily. 3. She dislikes to ask a favor. 4. God created heaven and earth. 5. That news is toq good to be true. 6. No one can tell what influence is. 7. He was a sadder but a wiser man. 8. The probability is that it will rain. 9. A small leak may sink a great ship. 10. That the earth moves was once denied. II. Those who sow in youth reap in old age. 12. A desire to improve is to be commended. 13. The person who does no good, does harm. 14. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 15. Making money absorbs the time of many men. 16. The gentlemanly boy answered very courteously. 17. Vicious people generally corrupt their associates. 18. What we do, not what we think, makes saints of us. 19. Sponges are the skeletons of small marine animals. EXERCISE. 183 20. The drowsy cattle lie under the oaks by the brook. 21. To help the poor is a duty which none should shirk. 22. Thought and language act and react on each other. 23. The moonlight, falling on the river, make a beautiful silvery track. 24. The stories that we read should instruct us while they amuse us. 25. Sparkling water from a cool spring refreshed the thirsty travelers when they stopped to rest. II. — Change each of these sentences to the natural order, and analyze as in I : 1. Away flew the bird. 2. What man dares, I dare. 3. A lovelier scene I never saw. 4. How mournfully coos the dove ! 5. Can success come without effort? 6. It is thought that he was killed. 7. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 8. What a beautiful flower the rose is! 9. It is your duty to obey your parents. 10. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 11. What shall be the reward of the faithful? 12. Having lost his position, he returned home. 13. Where the heart is there will the treasure be. 14. He is a good man, whom fortune makes better. 15. Gone are the birds that were our summer guests. 16. The rose’s glowing breast the honey-bee now seeks. 17. Across the unknown sea steered the brave Genoese. 184 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. III. — Name the independent elements in the following sentences : 1. Father, who makes it snow? 2. There is no place like home. 3. Now, Barrabas was a robber. 4. To be honest, I do not like him. 5. I do not know, sir, where he has gone. 6. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. 7. Ah, then there was mounting in hot haste. 8. Alas ! Poor Yorick ! I knew him, Horatio. 9. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 10. Sweet Auburn ! Loveliest village of the plain. IV. — Improve each of the following sentences by changing the position of the part italicized : 1. All books are not instructive. 2. The woman only has one child. 3. I meant to never do that again. 4. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see. 5. The boat only goes down in the morning. 6. She received a beautiful pair of ear-rings. 7. In the riot, many were injured on both sides, 8. He almost seemed as if he were ready to cry. 9. I should like to have you visit me very much. 10. He took a book from the library that he wanted. 11. We came very near being killed more than once. 12. Ants are very industrious insects as well as bees. 13. Handsome men’s dressing rooms will be fitted up. EXERCISE. 185 14. The birds have almost all gone, which cheered us in summer. 15. The weary traveler sank down to rest, overcome with fatigue. 16. It has been reported that she was to be married several times. 17. I have read the book which you sent me with much pleasure. 18. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, climbing to the top of a hill. 19. The boat was thought to be lost, which carried the excursionists. 20. The Laplander defies the severity of his climate, wrapped in his deerskins. 21. We have a school-house large enough to accomo¬ date five hundred pupils, three stories high. V. — Write three sentences, using words as principal elements ; three, using phrases (1) as subject, (2) as complement, (3) as object of a verb ; three, using clauses (1 ) as subject, (2) as comple¬ ment, (3 ) as object of a verb. VI. — Write three sentences, using words to modify the principal elements ; write four sentences, using phrases to modify (1) the subject, (2) the verb, (3) the complement, (4) the object of a verb ; four, using clauses to modify ( 1) the subject, ( 2 ) the verb, (3) the complement, (4) the object of a verb. 186 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. THE BAREFOOT BOY. Blessings on thee, little man, Barefoot boy, with cheeks of tan! With thy turned up pantaloons, And thy merry whistled tunes: With thy red lips, redder still Kissed by strawberries on the hill; With the sunshine on thy face, Through thy torn brim’s jaunty grace: From my heart I give thee joy,— I was once a barefoot boy! Oh, for boyhood’s painless play, Sleep that wakes in laughing day, Health that mocks the doctor’s rules, Knowledge never learned of schools, Of the wild bee’s morning chase, Of the wild-flower’s time and place. How the tortoise bears his shell, How the wood-chuck digs his cell, And the ground-mole sinks his well. How the oriole’s nest is hung, How the robin feeds her young, Where the whitest lilies blow, Where the freshest berries grow, Where the ground-nut trails its vine, Where the wood-grape’s clusters shine. Of the black wasp’s cunning way, Mason of his walls of clay. Cheerily, then, my little man, Live and laugh, as boyhood can, Though the flinty slopes be hard, Stubble-speared the new-mown sward, Every morn shall lead thee through Fresh baptisms of the dew; Every evening from thy feet Shall the cool wind kiss the heat; All too soon these feet must hide In the prison cells of pride, IM iMB THE “ BAREFOOT BOY.” ( 187 ) - . THE BAREFOOT BOY. 189 Lose the freedom of the sod, Like a colt’s for work be shod, Made to tread the mills of toil, Up and down in ceaseless moil. Happy if their track be found Never on forbidden ground; Happy if they sink not in Quick and treacherous sands of sin. Ah! that thou couldst know the joy, Ere it passes, barefoot boy! Suggestions for Composition Work. Describe the barefoot boy,”—his clothing, his face. What did Whittier know about barefoot boys? Tell five things the boy knew. How had he learned them? Where do the freshest berries grow? What will happen to him “all too soon?” What are the “prison cells of pride?” What is Whittier’s wish for the boy? What does the use of “thee,” “thy,” indicate? Select the four lines (or more) you like the best in the poem. CHAPTER. VIII. THE SENTENCE: SIMPLE —COMPLEX —COMPOUND. The studious boy improves. The boy who studies improves. The boy studies and he improves. Which of these sentences has but one subject and one predicate ? Which sentence contains a prin¬ cipal and a subordinate assertion? Name the subject and the predicate of each. Which sentence contains two assertions of equal rank ? Name the subject and the predicate of each. A sentence which contains but one subject and one predicate is a simple sentence. A sentence which contains a principal assertion and one or more subordinate assertions, or clauses, is a complex sentence. A sentence which contains two or more asser¬ tions of equal rank is a compound sentence. Only words and phrases can enter as elements into simple sentences. EXERCISE. 191 The clause which makes a sentence complex, as we have seen, does the work of a noun, an adjec¬ tive, or an adverb. The sentences joined by co-ordinate conjunctions to form a compound sentence are called members; as, Buy the truth and sell it not. Virtue elevates the mind , but vice debases it. Govern your passions or they will govern you. Time is short , hence it should be improved. The connective may be omitted between the members ; as, United we stand, divided we fall. Cease to do evil; learn to do well. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, his cheek’s blood went and came. Words that can be easily supplied are often omitted from clauses or members ; as, You are taller than I [am]. He is poor but [ he is ] honest. I did not know [that] you were here. While [he was] walking, he met a friend. Some went on the train, some [went] by water. Note. — Treat the members of compound sentences as separate sentences. 192 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. EXERCISE. I. — Tell what kind of sentence each of the fol¬ lowing is, and analyze it as in exercise I, page 149 : 1. Wisdom is better than rubies. 2. He studies what he likes best. 3. Woes cluster; they love a train. 4. A wise son maketh a glad father. 5. Politeness goes far, yet costs little. 6. Where Homer was born is unknown. 7. A small unkindness is a great offence. 8. The sleep of the laboring man is sweet. 9. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 10. The belief is that all the planets revolve. II. We learned that the moon causes the tides. 12. Keep your shop and your shop will keep you. 13. It is a rule of manners to avoid exaggeration. 14. Sweet flowers are slow, but weeds make haste. 15. To deliberate with your conscience is not wise. 16. He leadeth my soul where the still waters flow. 17. He is the free man whom the truth makes free. 18. The merchant who acts honorably obtains credit. 19. The king must win, or he must forfeit his crown. 20. Most politicians advocate whatever seems popular. 21. The soldiers, following their leader, pressed onward. 22. The bride kissed the goblet, the knight took it up. 23. Gaining victory from defeat is the test of strength. 24. Every fact that is learned becomes a key to other facts. EXERCISE. i93 $5. They have nothing to do; therefore they are un¬ happy. 26. Straws swim on the surface; pearls lie at the bottom. 27. Though a liar speak the truth, he will not be believed. 28. The ornaments of a home are the friends that fre¬ quent it. 29. Language was given us that we might express our thoughts. 30. The greatest men very frequently have striking peculiarities. 31. The proper business of friendship is to inspire life and courage. 32. We obey the laws of society, because they are the laws of virtue. 33. A successful man controls circumstances, and is not controlled by them. 34. A little mind attends to several things at once, but a great mind gives itself solely to one thing at a time. 35. “I can ” climbs to the mountain top, Or plows the billowy main; He lifts the hammer in the shop, And drives the saw and plane. II.—Write five simple sentences; five complex sentences ; five compound sentences. 194 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. By the River. 1. Study the picture carefully. 2. Compare the foliage in this picture with that in Corot’s Dance of the Nymphs. 3. What does this comparison suggest as to the season of the year in each picture ? 4. Do you like the picture more because of the fig¬ ures in the foreground? 5. Imagine yourself walking upon the river-path, and write a paper describing the scenes and incidents of your walk. THE RAVEN. BY EDGAR ALLAN POE. I. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore,— While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. “ ’Tis some visitor,” I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door— Only this, and nothing more.” II. Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor. Eagerly I wished the morrow: vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow—sorrow for the lost Lenore— For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore— Nameless here for evermore. III. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before; So that now, to still the beating of my heart, I stood repeating, “ ’Tis some visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door,— Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door; That it is, and nothing more.” BY THE RIVER ( 195 ) " d ■ THE RAVEN. 197 IV. Presently my soul grew stronger; hesitating then no longer, “Sir,” said I, “or madam, truly your forgiveness I implore; But the fact is, I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door, That I scarce was sure I heard you”—here I opened wide the door: Darkness there, and nothing more. The Kaven. 1. These four stanzas from the poem, The Raven, by Edgar Allan Poe, are to be used for the study of the participle. (a) The participle with an adverb modifier; (b) With an adverbial phrase modifier; (c) With an object. 2. The participle— 1. Modifying the subject; 2. As object of a preposition; 3. As predicate complement; 4. As an attribute of the subject. Note the pure adjective use of “dying” in II. 3. Study this poem, too, for use of attributive, apposi- tive and qualifying adjectives. State the uses of nouns, phrases and clauses. Not at Home. Lessing knocked at his door when he came home one evening. His servant, who was in the house, looked out of the window; but, as it was dark, he did not recog¬ nize him, and said: “The professor is not at home.” Lessing, who had his thoughts elsewhere, replied: “No matter, I will call again some other time,” and went away. 198 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Letter Writing. ADDRESSING AN ENVELOPE—STUDY OF THE HEADING AND THE ADDRESS—VARIOUS LETTER FORMS. Before a letter is mailed, it must be neatly folded and placed in a suitable envelope. It is not considered good taste to crumple or soil a letter in folding it. The envelope should be sealed and then addressed. The stamp should be placed upon the upper right hand cor¬ ner. Following is a picture of an envelope correctly addressed for the letter on page 91: m/lA, Gy. 13 . GyUy&vbi/rV, (DOS 0 ] TKbcVTlAXHy Q/T>C'., Clx/WlOXpO-, When the person to whom the letter is sent lives in a small town or village, or receives mail at a country post-office, the street address is not given. Instead, give the name of the county after the post-office address. LETTER WRITING. 109 Draw four rectangles, the length being a little more than twice the width. Let these represent four envel¬ opes. Write upon them the correct addresses for the letters on pages 91 and 93, being careful to write the address in the proper place. THE HEADING. The Heading consists of the time when and the place where the letter was written. Study carefully the arrangement, capitals and punctuation of the headings on page 88. For convenience in writing dates, the names of cer¬ tain months are usually abbreviated. Thus we write Jan. for January, Sept, for September. May, June and July should not be abbreviated. Write and punctuate twelve dates, each containing a different month. In order that the reply to a letter may the more cer¬ tainly reach the writer, the place from which the letter is sent should be stated as definitely as possible. Thus, it is not sufficient to say State St., Chicago, III., for the reason that State Street is several miles long and a post¬ man cannot well hunt the whole length of it. The number of the house should be given. If temporarily residing in a place, or the street number is not known, it is well to have your letters sent in care of some well-known firm or institution, of a hotel, or of some post-office box. Thus:— 200 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. 7TW TlLaA/bp jCL. c)Lx^cU/, Clvu^cw^cv TloA/m/aX j3c$\ax>L, CAUTIONS. Do not omit the name of the state from the heading. Do not write d, th, or st after the number showing the day of the month. Do not abbreviate the name of a city, county, in¬ stitution or hotel. THE ADDRESS. The address consists of the name of the person or firm to whom the letter is written; the title, if any; and the residence or place of business. You should exercise the same care in writing the address that was used in writing the heading. [Review the hints given.] Busi¬ ness men complain that many persons are so careless in their correspondence as to cause much trouble and annoyance. LETTER WRITING. 201 TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS BEFORE NAMES OF PERSONS! Mr., Messrs., Rev., Hon., Mrs., The Mrs., Very Rev., Col., Miss, Misses, Dr., Gen., Master, Masters, Prof., Capt., Madame, Mesdames, Judge, Gov. The Miss Smiths; The Masters Arnold. TITLES AND ABBREVIATIONS USED AFTER NAMES! Esq., A. B., M. D., Ph.D., D. D., Jr., A.M., D.D.S., Ph.M., LL.D., Mgr, S.J, D.O, M.S, LL.M. Note 1.—The teacher should explain the meaning and use of these titles and abbreviations. Note 2.—A lady, in writing to a stranger, should always prefix Mrs. or Miss in signing her name, so that the person receiving the letter may know how to address the reply. Thus,— UAAs AM/l/bp (THAz^.) C. l^x>uynx^. ADDRESSES. 1. Write the address for a letteT to a physician. 2. Write the address for a letter to the Superin¬ tendent of your schools. 3. Write the address for a letter to three married ladies of the same name; of different names. 4. Write the address for a letter to a member of Congress. 5. Write the address for a letter to a graduate from a dental college. 202 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. THE BODY OF A LETTER. The body of a letter should convey the thought of the writer clearly. The style of a letter is determined by its character. A business letter should be concise, definite, accurate and courteous. It should be written on one side of the paper only; names of articles or figures should be plainly written, and the writer should keep a copy of the letter. A friendly letter should be written in an easy con¬ versational style, avoiding slang, vulgarity and gossip. All letters should be respectful—but especially those to superiors and inferiors. They should be carefully written. A slovenly written letter, or one upon soiled paper, or one carelessly folded, is discreditable to the writer and discourteous to the recipient. Errors in arrangement, spelling, capitals and punctuation; loose¬ ness of expression, and the omission of important de¬ tails all mark the writer as careless, if not illiterate. The body of a letter may begin on the same line with and immediately following the salutation; but it usually begins on the - first line below it. It is custom¬ ary to leave a margin of a quarter or a half-inch on the left of each page. If a letter is of some length, it is usually begun about an inch or an inch and a half from the top of the page; but if the body consists of only a few lines, the letter is begun nearer the center of the page, so as to leave the top and bottom margins about the same. OTHER BUSINESS AND SOCIAL FORMS. 203 Other Business and Social Forms. TELEGRAMS. Sending telegrams and cablegrams is expensive, as telegraph companies usually charge so much per word, or so much for ten words and so much for each addi¬ tional word. It is important, therefore, .to make each message as brief as clearness will permit. Copy the following telegram: Cairo, Ills., June 5, 1900. Mrs. Jno. L. Stevens, 236 Dearborn Ave., Chicago, Ills. Train wrecked. Am uninjured. Will reach home to-morrow afternoon. Jno. L. Stevens. Condense the following telegrams into ten words or less: 1. I have arrived at my destination safe. I will report conditions and prospects by mail. 2. What credit do you instruct me to give Jones & Estes? Telegraph me your reply. 3. Grandma is no better. She is growing worse daily. I think you had better come at once. Write five telegrams of ten words each. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. A letter of introduction is one in which a friend or an acquaintance is introduced to another friend or acquaintance. It is intended to be carried by the party introduced. It should not be sealed. It should have upon the lower left hand corner of the envelope the word “Introducing,” followed by the name of the person to be introduced. 204 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Copy the following letter of introduction: Des Monies, Iowa, Feb. 3, 1898. Judge Thos. B. Reed, Madison, Wis. My dear Sir :— This will be handed you by my friend, Alexander Hobart, of this city. You will find him a bright business man and a genial gentleman. Any courtesies extended to him will be gratefully remembered by Yours very truly, William Mason. Write three letters introducing friends to other friends. LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION. The usual purpose of a letter of recommendation is to assist some one to secure employment. It should not be sealed. Copy the following recommendation: Dayton, O., June 20, 1900. To whom it may concern: We take pleasure in stating that the bearer, Floyd Jones, has been in our employ as book-keeper for eight years and that we have found him faithful, competent and honest. We commend him to the favorable consideration of any to whom this may be presented. Very truly, Thompson, Brown & Co. Write a letter of recommendation for Edward Mason, who has been a good boy and a bright scholar, and who is seeking to obtain a position as clerk in the store of Wallace & McCullough. Sign it as his teacher. FORMAL AND INFORMAL NOTES. 205 Mrs. A. R. Patrick is a housekeeper. Mary Stewart has been in her employ as a domestic for four years. Mrs. Patrick desires to recommend her to the public as competent, neat, careful and honest. Write the recom¬ mendation. FORMAL AND INFORMAL NOTES. In formal notes of invitation, acceptance, regret, congratulation, etc., the writer refers to himself by name instead of using a pronoun. Such notes should be written upon small note paper and, if possible, con¬ fined to the first page. If too long for this, they may be continued upon the third page. In such notes the address and conclusion are omitted. The place and date are written at the left, below the note. The place given is usually the street number or the local name of one’s residence; and the date includes the day of the week and the day of the month. When the letters R. S. V. P. are written upon an invitation, they signify that an answer is requested. Informal notes are simply plain, friendly notes, writ¬ ten in familiar language and using the first person. Copy the following formal notes: Mr. and Mrs. J. A. Hilliard request the pleasure of the company of Mr. and Mrs. Thos. R. Nelson at luncheon on Friday, April 10, at twelve noon. 264 Maywood Ave., Wednesday, April eighth. Mr. and Mrs. Thos. R. Nelson accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs J. A. Hilliard’s invitation for Friday noon. 159 Arch St., Thursday, April ninth. 206 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Mr. and Mrs. Thos. E. Nelson regret that, owing to a previous engagement, they are unable to accept Mr. and Mrs. J. A. Milliards kind invitation for Friday noon. 159 Arch St.. Thursday, April ninth. Copy this informal note: 4603 Monroe Ave. My dear Miss Knapp :— We are to have several of the young people out tomorrow evening to meet Miss Virginia Morris, of New York; and, incidentally, to take a boat ride upon the lake, followed by a luncheon and games. I should enjoy having you with us. Can't you come? We start for the lake at five o'clock sharp. Sincerely yours, June 10, 1900. Margaret Badger. GENERAL EXERCISE. 1. Write a letter to Laird & Lee, 253 Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ills., ordering 1 copy ‘‘Lee’s Guide to Paris,” silk cloth, 50c.; 1 copy “Two Chums,” $1.00; 1 copy “The Heart of a Boy,” $1.25; 1 copy “Yellow Beauty,” new edition, 50c. Enclose money order for $3.25 and tell how you wish the books sent. 2. Write an application for a position as clerk in one of the stores of your town. 3. Write an application for a position as farm hand, employment to be by the month and for the entire year. 4. Write a note to a friend inviting her to take tea with you the following Friday. GENERAL EXERCISE. 207 5. Write three telegrams on different subjects, each to be of ten words. 6. Write a letter to a young friend in another place, describing a picnic you recently enjoyed. 7. Write a note of invitation. Of acceptance. Of regret. 8. Write a letter introducing one friend of yours to another friend. 9. Write a letter thanking a gentleman for a let¬ ter of recommendation. 10. Write A. Flanagan Co., 266 Wabash Ave., Chicago, asking for a copy of their Teacher’s Catalogue. APPENDIX. Conjugation of the Verb Be. Principal Parts. Present: am. Past: was. Past Participle : been. INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. Sing. 1. am "| Plu. | Sing. 1. was ) Plu. Sing, and Plural. 2. are 3. is J > are, . 2. were 3. was J > were. shall or will be. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Future Perfect. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. have been had been shall or will have been has been (3d per. sing.). POTENTIAL MODE. Present : may, can, must be. Past : might, could, would, should be. Pres. Perfect: may, can, must have been. Past Perfect : might, could, would, should have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present : be. Past : were. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present: be (with subject in second person). PARTICIPLES. Present : being. Past : been. Perfect : having been. INFINITIVES. Present : (to ) be. Perfect : (to ) have been. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 2C9 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Those marked with an R are also used as regular verbs. Pres. T. Past T. l Past P . Pres. T. Past T. Past P. Abide Arise abode arose abode arisen Cleave • f clove \ cleft ( cloven ( cleft Awake Be or am awoke, R was awaked been Clothe Come clad, R came clad, R come Bear bore born Cost cost cost Bear bore borne Creep crept crept Beat beat beaten Crow crew, R crowed Begin began begun Cut cut cut Bend bent, R bent, R Dare durst, R dared Bereave bereft, R bereft, R Deal dealt, R dealt, R Beseech besought besought Dig dug, R dug, R Bet bet, R bet, R Dive dove, R dived Bless blest, R 'bid, „ bade blest, R Do Draw did drew done drawn Bid j bidden Dream dreamt, R dreamt, R Bind bound bound Dress drest, R drest, R Bite Bleed bit bled bitten bled Drink drank ( drank ( drunk Blow blew blown Drive drove driven Break broke broken Dwell dwelt, R dwelt, R Breed bred bred Eat ate eaten Bring brought brought Fall fell fallen Build built, R built, R Feed fed fed Burn burnt, R burnt, R Feel felt felt Burst burst burst Fight fought fought Buy bought bought Find found found Cast cast cast Flee fled fled Catch caught, R caught, R Fling flung flun 6 Chide chid chidden Fly flew flown Choose chose chosen Forsake forsook forsaken Cling clung clung Freeze froze frozen 210 LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Pres.T. Past T. PastP. Pres. T. Past T. Past P. Get got ) got, ( gotten Mow Pass mowed past, R mown, R past, R Gild gilt, B gilt, R Pay paid paid Gird girt, R girt, R Pen pent,# pent, R Give gave given Put put put Go went gone Quit quit, R quit, R Grave graved graven, R Rap rapt, R rapt, R Grind ground ground Read read read Grow grew grown Rend rend rent Hang hung hung Rid rid rid Have had • had Ride rode ridden Hear heard heard [ ran £> ( rung Heave hove, R hoven, R Ring rung Hew hewed hewn, R Rise rose risen Hide hid hidden Rive rived riven, R Hit hit hit Run ran run Hold held held Saw sawed sawn, R Hurt hurt hurt Say said said Keep kept kept See saw seen Kneel knelt, R knelt, R Seek sought sought Knit knit, R knit, R Seethe sod, R sodden, R Know knew known Sell sold sold Lade laded laden, R Send sent sent Lay laid laid Set set set Lead led led Shake shook shaken Leave left left Shape shaped shapen,R Lean leant R leant, R Shear sheared shorn ,R Leap leapt, R leapt, R Shave shaved shaven, R Lend lent lent Shed shed shed Let let let Shine shone, R shone, R Lie lay lain Shoe shod shod Light lit, R lit, R Shoot shot shot Lose lost lost Show showed shown, R Make made made Shrink -j f shrunk, shrunk Mean meant meant L shrank Meet met met Shred shred shred LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 211 Pres. T. Past T. Past P. Shut shut shut Sing /sang, \sung sung Sink ( sunk, J sank sunk Sit sat sat Slay slew slain Sleep slept slept Slide slid / slidden \slid Sling slung slung Slink slunk slunk Slit slit slit Smite smote smitten Sow sowed sown, R Speak ( spoke, ( spake spoken Speed sped sped Spend spent spent Spin ( spun, ( span spun Spit ( spit, ( spat spit Split split split Spread spread spread Spring ( sprang, | sprung sprung Stand stood stood Stay staid, R staid, R Steal stole stolen Stick stuck stuck Sting stung stung Stride / strode, \ strid stridden, strid Strike struck / struck, \ stricken Pres. T. Past T. Past P. String strung strung Strive strove striven Strow strowed strown,R Swear swore, sworn Sweat sweat, R sweat, R Sweep swept swept Swell swelled swollen, R Swim • ( swam [ swum swum Swing swung swung Take took taken Teach taught taught Tear j 1 tore, tare torn Tell told told Think thought thought Thrive throve, R thriven, R Throw threw thrown Thrust thrust thrust Tread trod, trodden Wax waxed waxen, R Wake woke, R woke, R Wear wore worn Weave wove woven Wed wed, R wed, R Weep wept wept Wet wet, R wet,R Whet whet, R whet, R Win won won Wind wound, R wound Work wrought ,R wrought ,R Wring wrung wrung Write wrote written A few verbs, usually regular, are sometimes spelled with t instead of ed; as spelt , spilt , learnt , smelt, blent, spoilt.