{"1": {"fulltext": "\\\\miwmmmi 9 mmvmiv\\\\ rfff(m i fffm*", "height": "3671", "width": "2482", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nQT ^0)\\nChap. Copyright i\\\\o.\\n8helf_ _ti_5_S\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3585", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3577", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3585", "width": "2398", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3601", "width": "2279", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "NEW CENTURY SERIES\\nOF\\nANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nBY\\nHENRY F. HEWES, A.B., M.D. (Harvard)\\nTeacher in Physiological and Qinical Chemistry,\\nHarvard University Medical Scliool, Boston.\\nWINFIELD S. HALL, PH.D., M.D. (Leipsic)\\nProfessor of Physiology,\\nNorthwestern University Medical School, Chicago.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "NEW CENTURY SERIES\\nOF ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\n1. Oral Lesson Book in Hygiene.\\nFor Primary Teachers,\\n2. The New Century Primer of Hygiene.\\nFirst Book for Pupils Use.\\n3. Intermediate Physiology and Hygiene.\\nFor Fifth- and Sixth-Y^ear Pupils, or Corresponding Classes in\\nUngraded Schools.\\n4. Elementary Anatomy Physiology and Hygiene.\\nFor Higher Grammar Grades.\\n5. Anatomy Physiology and Hygiene.\\nFor High Schools.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "JV\u00c2\u00a3IV CENTURY SERIES\\nOF ANA TOA^Y PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nANATOMY\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nFOR\\nm(m SCHOOLS\\nBY\\nHENRY F. HEWES, A.B., M.D. (Haevaed)\\nTeacher in Physiological and Clinical Chemistry, Harvard Vniversity Medical Schaoi\\nBoston. Physician to Out- Patients at the Massachti setts\\nGeneral Hospital, Boston.\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "IB O\\nV LU\\no\\n66174\\nTNTTO EHteMENT\\n^2rsl6\\nt)\\nWe, the undersigned, have carefully examined the school text -book\\nentitled\\nANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\\nby Dr. Henry F. Hewes, with reference to the following points\\n1. Fullness and accuracy of subject matter relating to the nature\\nand effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics upon the human\\nsystem.\\n2. Amount of matter on general hygiene.\\n3. Presentation of matter with regard to its adaptability to the\\nclass of students for which it is designed.\\nWe are satisfied that on all of these points, as well as in the regiilar\\nanatomy and physiology, the treatment is as complete as is required\\nfor a book of this grade, and fully in harmony with the results of the\\nlatest investigations. We therefore heartily indorse the book for\\nHigh School grades or pupils.\\nText-book Committee\\nMrs. Mary H. Hunt,\\nWot kVs and Xatlonul Supcriu fen dent\\nof Scientific Tenvperance Instrnclion\\nfor the Woman s Christian Temper-\\nance JJnion.\\nA. H. Plumb. D.D.\\nDaniel Dorchester, D.D.\\nWilliam A. Mowry, Ph.D.\\nL. D. Mason, M.D.\\nT. D. Crothers, M.D.\\nChas. H. Shepard, M.D.\\nCopjTight, 1900, by\\nAmerican Book Company\\nHewes, P. H.\\nW. p. I", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nTHE great and universal factor in progi ess is education. Cor-\\nrect action is dependent upon correct thinking. The more\\nfamiUar a man is with the laws of nature the more he will obey\\nthem and work in harmony with them, to the benefit of himself\\nand his fellows.\\nIn no branch of education is this connection between knowledge\\nand conduct or welfare more direct than in that which deals with\\nthe study of our own bodies, and of the laws and practices which\\nmust be observed in order to maintain a condition of health and\\nactivity in these bodies that is, the study of physiology and\\nhygiene.\\nFor upon the observation of these rules of hygiene depends the\\npreservation of health, a first essential for usefulness as well as\\nenjoyment in life. He can best and most intelligently observe\\nthese laws who is familiar with and understands the facts from\\nwhich they are deduced, the phenomena of physiology.\\nThis study should therefore be a part of the education of each\\nand all of us. It should be taken up in youth, for it is during\\nthis period that the organs and tissues of the body, the frame, the\\nheart, the brain, are growing and taking on the character which\\nthey keep throughout life, and that the practices and habits wliich\\nare the most deep-seated and fundamental are forming. The\\nhealth and character then acquh*ed often prove the bed rock of\\nthe whole physical, mental, and moral development. The eiTors\\ncommitted then are often irreparable, and it is the province of our\\neducational systems to insure that at least these errors shall not\\nbe committed through ignorance.\\nIn preparing a text-book for this purpose of general education\\nin the schools, the point to be kept most in mind is the unity of\\nthe subject.\\nThe physiology is the description of how our bodies are nour-\\nished and hoAv they work. The hygiene is the code of instructions\\nwhich directs how to keep this body nourished and in working\\norder, and is deduced directly from the study of the physiology.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "6 PREFACE\\nIt is a criticism of mauy of the school physiologies that with\\nthein the subject is presented as a series of lectures upon several\\norgans and their special functions, rather than, as it should be, as\\na single treatise upon one organ, the body, and one function, Hfe.\\nWhatever may be the special functions of special organs, the\\nprimary function in which all cooperate is the maintenance of life\\nand activity in the body by the provision for nourishment of its\\ntissues, energy for its work, and disposal of its waste.\\nSo it is that physiology is primarily the study of the course of\\nthe food elements through the body from the ingestion by the\\nmouth, throughout the distribution, utiUzation, and combustion in\\nthe various organs and tissues, to the elimination from the body\\nthat is, the study of physiological chemistry.\\nIn this conception particular attention has here been given to\\nthis fundamental department of physiological knowledge.\\nIn addition to the strictly fundamental matter upon anatomy,\\nphysiology, and hygiene, the book contains special chapters upon\\nthe cause and prevention of infectious diseases. The study of\\nbacteria and of the diseases whiv h they cause has brouglit to light\\nmuch knowledge which, if distriljuted generally, would guide the\\nX^iiblic in controlling and preventing the spread of the harmful\\nconditions consequent upon bacterial action. It seems wise, there-\\nfore, to include this knowledge in a general text-book upon\\nhygiene.\\nA special feature of the book is the experimental work, which,\\nwhile avoiding dissections, is designed to enable the teacher to\\ndispense with cram methods by furnishing abundant opportunity\\nfor individual investigation and observation.\\nThroughout the work the author has endeavored to include the\\nresidts of modern investigation and to introduce the experimental\\nspirit which is the active force of all learning. He has endeavored\\nalso to make the connection between the rules of hygiene and the\\nfacts of physiology, from which these rules are deduced, as clear\\nas possible.\\nIn these chapters upon hygiene a considerable space has been\\ndevoted to the consideration of the status of the habit of alcohol\\ndrinking from a hygienic standpoint. In view of the menace to\\nthe health and happiness of the human race which lies in this\\nhabit, a thorough statement of the truth in tliis regard is neces-\\nsary in a schoolbook of this kind.\\nThe author is indebted to Messrs. William Wood Co. for per-\\nmission to use in the preparation of his illustrations several plates\\nbelonaring to them.\\nHenry F. Hewes, M.D.\\nHaevard University.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nr HAPTER PAGE\\nIntroduction The Study of the Human Body 9\\nI. A General Survey of the Structure and Compo-\\nsition of the Body 13\\nI. The General Structure of the Body Anatomy. II.\\nStructural Materials of the Body Tissues and Cells\\nGrowth. III. Cheuiical Composition of the Body.\\nDemonstrations and Experiments.\\nII. Processes OF Life in THE Body -Oxidation Metab-\\nolism Physiology and Hygiene 24\\nThe Object of the Study of Physiology and Hygiene.\\nDemonstrations and Experiments.\\nIII. The Skeleton The Bones and Joints 37\\nHygiene of the Skeleton. Demonstrations and Experi-\\nments.\\nIV. Motion 65\\nI. The JMechanism of Motion. II. The Organs of Motion\\nThe Muscles Classes of Muscles. Demonstra-\\ntions and Experiments.\\nV. The Nutrition of the Body 87\\nI. Food. II. The Digestive Organs Hygiene of the\\nOrgans of Digestion. Demonstrations and Experi-\\nments. Ill Digestion and Absorption. IV. Circu-\\nlation and Assimilation. Demonstrations and Ex-\\nperiments.\\nVI. The Hygiene of Nutrition 132\\nThe Value of the Different Foodstuffs for Nutrition\\nCondiments and Beverages.\\nVII. Alcohol and Alcoholic Liquors 143\\nTheir Use and the Results upon Health\\nVIII. Circulation and the Circulatory System 154\\nI The Heart. II. The Blood Vessels. III. The Lym-\\nphatics. IV. The Method of the Circulation through\\nthe Vessels. V. Hygiene of the Circulatory System.\\nDemonstrations and Experiments.", "height": "3588", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "8 CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nIX. Respiration and the Respiratory System 179\\nI. The Respiratory Tract. II. Tlie Mecliauism of\\nRespiration. III. The Gas Interchange in Respira-\\ntion. lY. The Excretion of Water by the Ijiiugs.\\nV. The Abduction of Heat. VI. Hygiene of Res-\\npiration and the Respiratory Tract. Demonstra-\\ntions and Experiments.\\nX. Waste and Excretion The Excretory Organs 197\\nI. Excretion by tlie Lungs. II. Excretion by the Kid-\\nneys. III. Excretion by the Skin. IV. Excretion\\nby the Intestines. V. Hygiene of Excretion and\\nthe Excretory Organs. VI. The Body Heat. Dem-\\nonstrations and Experiments.\\nXI. The Nervous System 214\\nI. The Organs of the Nervous System. II. The Func-\\ntions of the Brain and the Spinal Cord. Demonstra-\\ntions.\\nXII. Tobacco Opium Cocaine 235\\nXIII. The Special Senses 239\\nDemonstrations and Experiments.\\nXIV. The Voice 261\\nDemonstrations.\\nXV. Ferments and Fermentation Their Place in\\nNature. Bacteria and their Connection with\\nDisease 265\\nStudy of Organized Ferments.\\nXVI. Disease Its Prevention and its Care 277\\nGeneral Principles of Prevention of Disease \u00e2\u0080\u0094What\\nto Do until the Physician Comes.\\nXVII. Physical Culture 293\\nHome or Gymnasium Exercises\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Games and Athletics.\\nGlossary 303\\nIndex 309", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION\\nTHE STUDY OF THE HUMAN BODY\\nThere are no objects upon the earth which aronse in ns\\nmore Avonder and interest tlian the great machines which\\nhave been fashioned by man. The locomotive running at\\ntremendous speed over miles of country, the mill machines\\nAvhich take in the crude cotton and turn it out as, cloth, the\\nmowing machine, the clock, all seem to us marvels of in-\\ngenuity and power. The working of the complicated sys-\\ntems of pistons, levers, wheels, and cogs fills us with curiosity\\nand amazement.\\nWonderful as thes productions are, however, the most\\ningenious and perfect among them is, in intricacy of design\\nor efficiency for work, but a plaything in comparison with\\nthe machines Avhicli nature has fashioned for us all\u00e2\u0080\u0094 our\\nown bodies.\\nYou are all familiar with the performances of this machine\\nof nature s making, the human body. You know that it can\\ntransform bread and Ava.ter and vegetables into flesh and\\nbone and hair. You have seen it run, bound over brooks\\nand Avails, SAvim, climb, by various movements of its parts.\\nYou have felt the heat that it is constantly forming. Through\\nthe eyes it collects the images of the surrounding objects,\\nthrough the ears the sounds of AAdnd and wave, the hum-\\nming of the insects, the singing of the birds.\\nDoubtless all of you have wondered much about these\\n9", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "10 INTRODUCTION\\nworkings of your own bodies, and about the secret processes\\nwliicli go on within them: how the skin and bones are\\nformed from the food how the constant breathing and the\\nbeating of the lieart are kept np niglit and day through\\nlong years why the breath makes a cloud of vapor upon\\na cold night why we sleep how the boy grows to the\\nman what the property is within us which makes us live\\nand change instead of renuiiuing lifeless and apparently\\nchangeless for all time, like the water and the rocks. These\\nand many more questions in regard to the workings of your\\nbodies nuist liave fre(piently entered your minds.\\nAnd it is very important that you should be able to answer\\nthem for it is tln-ougli the possession of a knowledge of the\\nbody and its processes that we are able to keep these bodies\\nin health and usef nlness. Just as the engineer must under-\\nstand the mechanism of his engine, so every man shouhl\\nunderstand the parts and workings of his l)()dy in order to\\nrun it properly.\\nIt is for the unfolding of these secrets of the body mechan-\\nism that we take up the study of anatomy and physiology,\\nthe sciences of the structure and functions of this body.\\nAs we have said, the body is a machine. It performs a\\ncertain definite work and has a definite manner of action. It\\nis kept going by energy which is obtained from the burning\\nof substances within it, just as the engine is kept running\\nby the energy derived from the burning of coal in its fur-\\nnace and, as in the engine, this burning causes heat. To keep\\nup this constant bui-ning it has to have a constant supply of\\nfuel put into it, just as the engine has its coal shoveled in.\\nThe material which is turned into fuel, the food, is distributed\\nthroughout its parts by vessels, and the energy derived from\\nthe food is distributed by nerves, just as the steam of the\\nengine is carried about by pipes, or the energy of the electri-\\ncal machine by wii-es.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION 11\\nNow, in order to study a machine we first examine tlie\\ngeneral form and structure of the apparatus as a whole, as-\\ncertain the names and relations of the various parts, and get\\nsome general idea of their functions. Then we take the\\nmachine apart and investigate the structure and workings of\\neach piece, so that we may be thoroughly familiar with each\\nstep in the performance of the work of the apparatus which\\nwe are to direct.\\nSo in the study of the body we must first obtain an idea\\nof its general form and structure. We must record its parts,\\ntheir positions, their general relations to one another, and\\ntheir functions. We must investigate the general character\\nof the work which the body has to perform, and the fun-\\ndamental process by which its work is accomplished. We\\nmust trace the food which enters by the mouth through\\nits processes of digestion, absorption, circulation, and as-\\nsimilation, until it becomes built up into flesh, bone, or\\nblood. We must study the burning of the body fuel in\\nits cell furnaces, with its production of heat and energy, and\\nhow this energy gets to the heart and muscles and brain, and\\nenables them to work. And finally we must see how the\\nwaste products of the burning and wear of the tissues,\\nthe ashes, are disposed of. Then we must study separately\\nthe various organs, and the special functions which they per-\\nform in forwarding the work of the whole organism.\\nHeard are the voices,\\nHeard are the sages,\\nThe worlds and the ages\\nChoose well your choice is\\nBrief and yet endless.\\nGoethe.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "A, heart; a, right\\nauricle of heai t b,\\naorta C, lung D\\nliver; stomach\\nF, small intestine,\\nIT, large intestine.\\nBlue vessels\\nveins. Superficial\\nveins and arter\\nies proportionally-\\nlarger than nor\\nmal. Red vessels,\\narteries. Large ves-\\nsels in neck repre-\\nsent arteries and\\nveins to and from\\nhead and upper ex-\\ntremities arteries\\ncoming from dark-\\nred aorta; veins\\nentering large vein\\nwhich enters right\\nauricle.\\nFull figure, with viscera exposed.\\n12", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "Not in the World of Liglit alone,\\nWhere God has built his blazing throne,\\nNor yet alone on earth below.\\nWith belted seas that come and go,\\nAnd endless isles of sunlit green,\\nIs all thy Maker s glory seen\\nLook in upon thy wondrous frame\\nEternal Wisdom still the same\\nHolmes.\\nCHAPTER I\\nA GENERAL SURVEY OF THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSI-\\nTION OF THE BODY\\nI. THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ANATOMY\\nIF we look at tlie liimian body we see that it is made up\\nof a central portion, or trunJi, to wliicli are attached the\\nhead and limhs. If the body be marked off into right and\\nleft halves by a line through the center from top to toe, it\\nwill be found that the two halves externally look practically\\nahke. Each part on one side has its counterpart upon the\\nother side.\\nOver the whole surface of tlie body is the sh n.\\nBeneath the skin we can feel the muscles, and beneath these\\nthe hones.\\nThe bones are built up together to form the frame, or\\nsJceleton, of the bod}^ Upon this frame tlie muscles are at-\\ntached in such a way that they can move one part of the\\n13", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "14 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nframe upon another. Within the cavities made by the bony\\nand tlie muscular frame lie the organs of respiration, the\\nlungs the organs of digestion, the stomach and intestines,\\nthe liver; the organ of circulation, the heart; the central\\nnervous system, the brain and spinal cord the organs of\\nexcretion, the kidne^^s and bladder. Throughout the bony\\nframe, the muscles, the skin, and the organs within, run\\nblood vessels, which carry the blood, with its food and oxy-\\ngen, to all these parts and bear away the waste. To and\\nfrom all these parts run nerves, through which the functions\\nand actions of the parts are controlled.\\nTlie study of the structure of the body is called (oiafonifj\\n((xreek (ma, through, and fennio, 1 cut, referring to the\\nstudy of anatomv bv dissection).\\nII. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS OF THE BODY\u00e2\u0080\u0094 TISSUES AND\\nCELLS GROWTH\\nTissues. These parts which compose the body\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the bones\\nof the skeleton, the muscles, the skin, the various organs, as\\nthe stomach, the lungs, the eyeballs, the brain\u00e2\u0080\u0094 are in their\\nturn composed of different kinds of material, known as\\ntissues (Latin texere, to weave built up together in their\\nstructure. There is muscle tissue (meat is made of this\\nkind of tissue) and bone tissue and brain tissue, etc. These\\ndiffer in appearance just as the woolen cloth of a suit and\\nthe cotton cloth of the liuiug differ, and they are built up\\ntogether just like these cloths in a suit. (See derivation of\\ntissue. Thus, in the stomach we have the walls made of\\nseveral kinds of tissue, bound together very much as are the\\ncloth and lining and stiffening material of a suit of clothes.\\nIn this method of formation the body may be likened to a\\nhouse. The skeleton of the l)ody corresponds to the frame\\nof the housC; the skin and the muscles to the walls, the", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE BODY 15\\nmouth to tlie doorway, tlie windpipe and gullet to halls and\\nstairW ays leading to the rooms within, the eyes to the win-\\ndows. Just as these parts of the house are built up of com-\\nbinations of different materials, so are the parts of the body\\nbuilt up of similar combinations of materials known as tis-\\nsues. Thus, the frame of the house is composed of wood\\nand iron built up together the skeleton of the body is\\ncomposed of bony tissue, connective tissue, cartilage tissue,\\nbuilt up together. The walls of the house are composed of\\nbrick and mortar the walls of the l)ody of epithelial tissue,\\nconnective tissue, fat tissue, and muscle tissue, built up to-\\ngether just as are the brick and mortar.\\nCells. The tissues in their turn are made up of minute\\nstructures called cells, arranged together in different ways.\\nJust as the brick and mortar are each really a large number\\nof fine particles of clay or lime stuck together, just as the\\ncloth is many fine threads Avoven together, so the connective\\ntissue and the bony tissue are made up primarily of a large\\nnumber of small bodies placed together. Here, however,\\nthe resemblance between the formation of the materials\\nused in building the body and. those used in building a\\nhouse ends. For the particles which make up the brick or\\niron are dead bodies which never change, while the cells of\\ntissues are live bodies which grow and change their shape\\nand the shape of the tissue which\\nthey form. Every tissue may be said ^f\\nto begin as one cell. This cell grows\\nand divides into two cells lying side\\nby side, and these new cells into more, J\\nand so on until w^e have a great mass\\nof cells built up together. j\\nIn thus growing the cells may de- ^^^^^B^ 1\\nvelop long processes, or sprouts, and\\nr QqW processes and mter-\\nproduce also intercellular substance, cellular substance.", "height": "3594", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "16\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nVarieties of cells\\na jelh like material\\nwhich is deposited\\nabout and between\\nthem. The masses\\nof cells, with their\\nprocesses and the\\nintercellnlar sub-\\nstance, growing to-\\ngether in this wa}^,\\nform a tissue.\\nVarieties of tissues. These cells\\njnay take different shapes and\\narrange themselves together in\\ndifferent ways. This variation\\nin the character and nrrauge-\\nment of the cells gives rise to\\ndifferent kinds of tissues. Thns,\\nthe cells may be cubical or po-\\nlygonal in shape and lie side l)y\\nside like stones in a wall, with\\nConnective tissue.\\nEpithelial tissue.\\nvery little substance be-\\ntween. Such a forma-\\ntion is called an epithe-\\nlial tissue. Or the cells\\nma}^ be spindle-shaped\\nor triangular, with, long-\\nprocesses crossing each,\\nother and twisting to-\\ngether, so that the tissue\\nlooks like a skein of silk\\nor a net. Such a tissue\\nis called a connective\\ntissue.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF. THE BODY 17\\n^m\\nA cell, highly magnified.\\na, nncleufi; h. nucleolus; c,\\ncell body of protoplasm witli\\ngranules and vacuoles.\\nThe cells of a special tissue form only this kind of tissue.\\nSo that when we have a structure, as a bone or the skin,\\nmade up of several kinds of tissue, we have had several kinds\\nof cells all growing together and pro-\\nducing their own tissue. These tis-\\nsues thus collected form the part or\\norgan.\\nThe cell. The cell is therefore the\\nunit of structure. The single cell is\\na minute structure consisting of a\\nmass of soft granular substance, con-\\ntaining a dense body, the micleus, in\\nits center. A fully formed cell con-\\nsists of three parts 1. The cell body.\\n2. The dense nucleus (Latin, a kernel imbedded in the\\ncell body. 3. A very dense body looking like a dot in the\\nnucleus, the nucleolus (Latin, a little kernel Seen under\\nthe microscope, alive and floating singly in the blood, a\\nblood cell looks something like a jellyfish. The cells of dif-\\nferent tissues vary in shape and size and in the plan of\\ntheir arrangement. Some are spherical, some flat and rec-\\ntangular some are spindle-shaped and have processes many\\ntimes longer than themselves, which help to make up the tis-\\nsue of which they are\\nthe cells.\\nProperties of cells. The\\ncell as it exists in the\\nbody is alive. It takes up\\nnourishment, builds up\\nsubstances within itself,\\nreproduces its kind. Some cells have the power of motion,\\nknown as amoeboid motion (Greek ameiho, I change (see\\nGlossary). By this motion, which enables the cell to change\\nits shape and to throw out processes, it can become long and\\nAmoeboid cell, showing changes in\\nshape due to its motion.", "height": "3598", "width": "2288", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "18 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthin, so as to slip through fine openings, or can surround a\\nparticle of substance with which it comes in contact.\\nIn the cells all the vital processes of the body occur. They\\nare the furnaces in which the (Combustion which produces\\nthe body energy takes place. In them the growth of the\\ntissues goes on.\\nGrowth. Growtli of the body parts and tissues takes place\\nprimarily through the cells. At the start, as described, the\\ncells divide, form-\\ns iui)- more cells;\\n___^ ^in they develop pro-\\n^W^^ r4^^4- cesses and fibers,\\nfe-^rl -^-^y and form in-\\ntercellular sub-\\nDivision of cells. i^ t^\\nway building up\\ntissues, which, forming together, make the parts and the\\norgans. Throughout childhood and youth this formation of\\nnew cells and new tissue is ver}^ active. Tissue is formed\\nmuch more rapidly than it is used up, and tlnis the body and\\nits parts grow larger.\\nWith manhood the cells cease to grow and produce so\\nactively. They simply produce new tissue about as fast as\\nit is used up in tlie work of the body, and so, as the impor-\\ntant parts, the bones and heart and lungs, grow no greater,\\nthe man remains of the same height.\\nCell activity. The healtji of the body depends upon the\\nperfect action of its many organs; and the action of these\\norgans depends upon the healthy activity of the cells which\\ncompose their tissues. Nature does all it can to provide the\\nbest conditions for the activity of these cells. Thus, the\\ncells are most active in a temperature of 98^ to 100\u00c2\u00b0 F. or\\nthereabouts and so we find that the body temperature is\\nkept constantly between these limits. When a part of the", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE BODY 19\\nbody is exposed to very cold temperature, the cells of the\\npart may become so cold that they die. In this case the\\nprocesses of life, the work and repair and growth, can no\\nlonger go on in the part, and it wastes away. Some\\ntravelers have lost their fingers or toes, or even their feet,\\nin this way.\\nThere are other influences which may injure these cells\\nbesides cold. Thus, irritation of the ceUs by acids or\\nalcohol or other irritant substances may do so. Contact of\\nthe cells with poisonous substances, as tobacco, cocaine,\\nopium, etc., will do the same thing. If we pour strong\\nalcohol upon a growing plant or upon the mesentery of a\\nfrog we can see the tissues shrivel up and the ceUs lose their\\nactivity under its influence.\\nm. CHElNnCAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY\\nProtoplasm. All the tissues and ceUs of the body are com-\\nposed of one fundamental material, known as protoplasm\\n{Grreek protos, first, and plasso, I form original sub-\\nstance). Many substances\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lime, iron, etc.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 enter into the\\ncomposition of the tissues, but all, when present, are combined\\nin this original ground substance, which is present in every\\ncell or substance in which life exists.\\nProtoplasm is a compound chemical substance that is,\\nit is composed of several simpler chemical substances. This\\nwe know because upon breaking it up we obtain from it sev-\\neral separate substances, which of coui se must be its con-\\nstituents.\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 2", "height": "3593", "width": "2236", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "20 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nFUNDAMENTAL COMPOSITION OF MATTER-\\nELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS\\nMost substances which exist as definite materials are composed of two\\nor more separate substances united in chemical combination that is,\\nthey are chemical compounds. If we break them up we obtain these\\nseveral separate substances from them. Thus, if we break up wood by\\nburning it under proper conditions we obtain the simple substances car-\\nbon, hydrogen, oxygen, etc., from it. If we break up water we obtain\\nhydrogen and oxygen.\\nThe substances which we obtain by breaking up compound materials\\ndiffer from these materials in one important respect. They are simple\\nsubstances. They cannot be further broken up. No matter what we\\ndo to the carbon obtained from the wood, we cannot divide it into any\\nsubstances not carbon. These simple substances which cannot be\\nfurther divided are called elements.\\nAll substances which exist are either single elements or combinations\\nof several of them (hence the name element, from elemcn f ion, ^rst or\\nconstituent principle of anything The names of several of the com-\\nmon elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, iron, sulphur,\\nphosphorus, chlorine.\\nThese elements may exist as separate substances. Thus, charcoal is\\nthe element carbon. Oxygen exists as a gas in the air.\\nBut most of the carbon and oxygen and of the other elements exists in\\na state of combination with each other in the many compound substances.\\nThe small particles of these original constituents or elements which\\nexist in these combinations, as the finest particles of carbon in wood\\nor oxygen in water, are called atoms (Greek a, privative, and temno, I\\ncut not to be cut or divided any further).\\nOrganic and inorganic compounds. Compound chemical sub-\\nstances are di\\\\dded into two classes, the organic and inorganic.\\nOrganic substances are principally those formed as a result\\nof the action of livdng cells, that is, substances found in or\\ncoming from the bodies of plants or animals, living or dead.^\\n1 These descriptions of organic and inorganic substances are given to convey to the\\nreader an idea of the nature of the substances which belong to each class. They are\\nnot intended for definitions.\\nThe only definition which accomplishes an approximately absolute distinction be-", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE BODY 21\\nThey may, however, be built up independently of the action\\nof living cells. Most of them burn. Such are muscle, brain,\\nbone, wood, and coal.\\nInorganic substances are for the most part those which\\nmake up the mineral world, the rocks, and water, salt, etc.\\nMany of these inorganic substances are found in the living\\nbody, as water and salt. They may be combined by the ac-\\ntion of living cells into organic substances, as the lime is\\nbuilt up with other substances to form the organic sub-\\nstance bone.\\nProtoplasm is an organic compound. It contains three\\nimportant organic substances, proteid, carbohydrate, and fat,\\nbesides water and many mineral substances.\\nThese proteids, carbohydrates, and fats form the principal\\norganic compounds of the body.\\nThe chief inorganic compounds are water, salt (chloride of\\nsodium), lime (calcium carbonate), and phosphates.\\nThe chief elements found in the body, all in combination,\\nare oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus,\\nchlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\nA certain number of experiments are given with each chapter to\\nenable the pupil to determine for himself some of the facts which he\\nfinds stated in the text.\\nThe limited facilities of most secondary schools restrict the applica-\\ntion of the experimental method of the study of physiology.\\nThe experiments given here are for the most part so simple that each\\npupil may apply them. More difficult experiments may be demonstrated\\nby the instructor. A useful collection of experiments will be found in\\nthe Outline of Requirements in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene for\\ntween organic and inorganic substances is the chemical one, which classes all com-\\npounds containing carbon as organic all those without carbon, inorganic.\\nThis definition is not a iiseful one for purposes of physiology, however, and it is\\nbest to consider the substances after the above descriptions.", "height": "3601", "width": "2287", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "22 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nEntrance to Harvard College, also in Peabody s Laboratory Exercises\\nin Anatomy and Physiology.\\n1. The use of the microscope. The study of cells and tissues can be\\nmade only by means of a microscope. A compound microscope such as\\nis needed for observations of this kind consists of two lenses set in a\\nmovable tube. The lower lens or objective does the main part of the\\nmagnifying. The upper lens is called the eyepiece. The movable tube\\nis set in a stand in such a manner that the distance of the lower lens\\nfrom the object to be studied can be varied.\\nBelow the stand is a mirror arranged to throw light directly upon the\\nobject through an aperture in the stage upon which the object rests.\\nThe object to be examined is placed upon the stage over the aperture\\nand below the lens. The light is thrown upon it by the mirror. The\\ntube is then moved up or down until the object can be seen clearly\\nthrough it. This finding of the clear image of the object is called\\nfocusing. It is accomplished by keeping one eye at the eyepiece and\\npushing the tube to and from the object until this is clearly defined.\\nA lens is said to magnify so many diameters according to the number\\nof times it enlarges the diameter of the object viewed. Thus, a micro-\\nscope fitted with lenses which make a cell appear two himdred times its\\nnatm-al diameter is said to magnify two hmidred diameters.\\nIn studjdng cells a microscope magnif jdng at least two hundred di-\\nameters should be used.\\n2. Cells. To observe the appearance of a cell, scrape the surface of\\nthe tongue, and place the mixture of saliva and tissue substance thus\\nobtained upon a glass slide, and cover with a thin glass cover slip.\\nSeveral of the flattened superficial cells of the mucous membrane of the\\nmouth cavity will be found upon moving this slide about under the\\nmicroscope.\\n3. Scrape the skin, and place the dust thus collected in a drop\\nof water upon a slide, and observe as above. The flattened cells which\\nare constantly wearing away upon the surface of the skin will be seen.\\n4. Examine a drop of blood taken upon a cover slip and spread upon\\na slide. The white corpuscles here are cells. Note their amoeboid\\nmotion.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What is anatomy? Describe the general plan of structure of the\\nbody. Name some of its structm-al parts. What is the trunk? What", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE BODY 23\\nparts should we come upon in our course if we removed the skin and\\none by one the parts beneath it until we reached the center of the body-\\ntrunk? What name is given to the substance of which organs or\\nparts of the body are made What does muscle tissue look like f What\\ndoes bone tissue look like externally\\nII. How does each tissue begin? What besides cells goes to make\\nup a tissue? What is a cell? How do cells differ in appearance?\\nWhat do cells do in the body? How do tissues and parts grow? What\\nis the difference between growth in boyhood and manhood?\\nIII. What is the fundamental substance of living tissue? What is\\nthe difference between a chemical element and a compound? Define\\nan element. Name one. Define a compound substance. What are\\norganic compounds? Name some inorganic compounds. What are\\nsome of the properties of organic substances? Name three important\\norganic compounds found in the body. Have you any protoplasm in\\nyour body? Where?", "height": "3601", "width": "2295", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nPROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY-OXIDATION-\\nMETABOLISM-PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nWE have now outlined the general structure of the\\nmachine which we call the body. We have seen that\\nit is built of many separate parts, all of which are composed\\nof different materials, known as tissues that these tissues\\nare formed by the growth of many small bodies, known as\\ncells, and that these cells, and therefore the tissues and the\\nparts, are composed fundamentally of a substance known as\\nprotoplasm.\\nWe must now endeavor to form some idea of how the\\nmachine works from what source and by what processes\\nit obtains the energy through the agency of which its activity\\nis maintained; in other words, how the property of life\\nwhich is present in the finest particles of the body substance,\\nthe cells and tissue elements, is kept up continually.\\nLife and death. Life may be likened to a fire which\\nbui-ns on unceasingly in every particle of the body. In the\\ncells of each tissue and part, the brain, the heart, the blood,\\nthe skin, it burns on as long as there is fuel and oxygen for\\nthe burning. While it burns, the body is alive it takes\\nnourishment, grows and repairs, and does what work it is\\ncalled upon to do to keep the life flame within it. (See note,\\np. 28.) When the fire goes out in any part, that part\\n24", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "PROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY 25\\nis dead, and can no longer grow or work.^ When it goes\\nout throughout the body, the body dies. Its movements\\ncease, its wheels run down, its heat fails. The blood no\\nlonger flows through its parts. The cells and tissues dry up\\nand decay, and their elements return to the earth, to be again\\nbuilt up into plants and other animals.\\nThe maintenance of life Building material and energy.\\nNow, in order that this life fii-e may continue burning in\\nthe cells and tissues throughout the body, the body must have\\ntwo things. These are, first, material for the maintenance\\nand repair of its tissues 5 and, second, energy for its action.\\nI. The burning of the life fire, with the processes and ac-\\ntivities necessary for its maintenance, is continually wearing\\nand wasting the substances of the tissues. The protoplasm\\nof which the ceUs are built is constantly being used up. To\\noffset this constant wasting of the tissues, the body has to\\nsupply them with new material as fast as their own is used\\nup. This material it gets in the food, which it takes in and\\ndistributes, and builds up into new tissue. Thus the integ-\\nrity of the body is maintained.\\nII. All these processes of keeping the tissues nourished,\\nthe procuring of food, eating it, distributing it into the tis-\\nsues by the circulation, building it up to tissue by the cells,\\nin fact, all the processes necessary for the maintenance\\nof life,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 entail a certain amount of work by the body;\\nfor when a cell is building up a new substance it is doing\\nwork just as is a man in building up a wall.\\nTo do this work the body has to use the second thing\\nwhich it must have for the maintenance of life, i.e., energy.\\nEnergy. It is difficult to give a comprehensive definition\\nof energy which will be easily intelligible; for energy\\n1 Thus, when a finger or a toe is so thoroughly frozen that all the cells which make\\nup its tissues lose their power to work, to build up and to burn the food supplies, the\\npart dies. It becomes cold and shrivels up.", "height": "3601", "width": "2295", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "26 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nappears in several different forms, which are totally unlike\\nin their outward character. In connection with work, energy\\nmeans power, strength in action. When you lift a stone a\\ncertain amount of power or strength is necessary. So in each\\nmovement of the arms or jaws, each beat of the heart, the\\nbody has to use some power or energy.\\nSource of energy. The body gets its building material from\\nthe food where does it get its energy The answer to the\\nquestion is that the body gets energy indirectly from the\\nsame source from which it gets its building material, but\\ndirectly from its oivn tissues?-\\nThere is a great deal of this energy everywhere about us.\\nIt exists in the sunshine, in the wind, in the trees and plants,\\nin coal, and in our own tissues. If we want to use it we\\nsimply have to find some way to get it out of these things\\nand to appropriate it for ourselves. We use the energy of\\nthe wind for sailing or for turning a mill. If we want to get\\nthe use of the energy which is stored up in coal we burn the\\ncoal. By this process the stored-up energy is set free and\\ncan be used to make steam for running an engine. If the\\nbody needs, for work of any kind, the energy which is stored\\nup in its tissues, it gets it by burning these tissue stores.\\nWhen these tissues are burned their energy is set free.\\nSome of it goes to form heat, some of it goes to perform\\nwork, and thus the movements of the body are performed.\\nThe power which the body needs for work at a given\\ntime is therefore already in the body tissues, and needs only\\nto be liberated by the burning of these tissues to be useful\\nfor work.\\nThe storage of energy in the body. The next point to es-\\ntablish is how this energy becomes thus stored up in the tis-\\n1 Some of the food maybe burned in the body without previous incorporation into\\nthe tissues, but this is not true of the larger part. Most of the body energy comes from\\nthe buxning of tissue into which the food has been mcorporated.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "PROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY 27\\nsues, and how its supply there is kept up. As we have\\nah eady hinted, it gets to the tissues in the food.\\nThe energy comes primarily from the sunshine. It is\\nderived from this through a complex process of nature\\ncarried on by the plants. Man uses these plants, or the tis-\\nsues of animals which have fed upon them, for food, and\\nthus takes into his body the energy which they have acquired\\nfrom the sunshine.^\\nThe elements of which our food consists, the carbon, oxy-\\ngen, nitrogen, hydrogen, etc., exist in a free state or in sim-\\nple compounds everywhere about us in the soil and air.\\nThe plant takes them and unites them into compounds, such\\nas starch, sugar, proteids, and fats, and out of these com-\\npounds builds up its own structures, its stalks and stems, its\\ngrains of wheat or rice, or apples or potatoes. To do this\\nbuilding requires energy, which the plant borrows from the\\nsunshine in which it is bathed. This energy remains stored\\nup in the compounds as long as they exist. When these\\ncompounds are broken up the energy is liberated.\\nThe wheat or rice grains thus consist of many of these\\natoms or of these simpler compounds of carbon, nitrogen,\\noxygen, etc., held together in a more complex structure\\nknown as wheat, and the wheat contains not only the carbon\\nand nitrogen compounds, but also the energy which has\\nbeen used to build them up together, and is now holding\\nthem together as proteid and starch in wheat. So that if\\nyou eat a wheat grain you take into your own body a cer-\\ntain amount of energy which the plant borrowed from the\\nsun in making the wheat. Thus, when we eat vegetables\\nand grains and build them up into flesh and bone, we are\\ntaking great stores of energy into our own tissues. And\\n1 This transfer of the radiant energy of the sun through plants and animals until it\\nis used to heat the body, or for work, as walking or thinking, is one marked illustra-\\ntion of the law of the correlation of forces (or energy).", "height": "3593", "width": "2302", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "28 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe tissues become like storage batteries of electricity,\\ncharged with energy which they can liberate.\\nThe liberation and use of energy in the body. To use this\\nenergy the body, as we have said, burns the tissues. Each\\ntissue cell is in reality a minute furnace in which the\\nstarches, sugars, and fats are oxidized (see definition of oxi-\\ndation below), or burned. The process is the same as that\\nwhich takes place when wood and coal are burned in the\\nfurnaces of an engine. Heat is evolved in both cases. In\\nthe bod}^ oxidation goes on slowl}^, and as a result the body\\nis kept only comfortably warm. In the furnace this pro-\\ncess goes on rapidly, and much more heat, as well as flame,\\nis given off.\\nThis burning, or combustion (Latin cowhuro, I burn\\nresults in the breaking down of these substances which have\\nbeen taken in and stored up there, in the eating and assimi-\\nlating of tlie wlieat or potatoes. Tlie small blocks of carbon,\\noxygen, hydrogen, etc., which make up the compounds all fall\\napart again. The energy which was used in holding these\\nsmall blocks together, as the large wheat block, is set free\\nand can be used for something else.^ The body uses it for\\nmoving its muscles, thinking, and breathing for body heat,\\nand for the many other processes necessary to maintain life.\\n1 This burning of the tissue substances in the body is a process of oxidation. Every\\nchemical combination which takes place with violence enough to cause heat is called\\ncombustion. Free oxygen has so strong an affinity for the carbon and hydrogen of\\nthe tissue substances that when it is brought in contact with them under proper con-\\nditions it tears them away from their union in these organic compounds, and unites\\nthem with itself. This union causes heat, and is thei cfore called combustion. In thus\\ntaking these elements for itself it breaks up the substances in which they are contained.\\nIn the burning of wood or coal in the air we have merely the union of the elements\\nof these substances with oxygen and in the burning, as you have often seen, the wood\\nor coal is broken up, its coiistituents becoming smoke and ashes, and its energy being\\nliberated as heat. \\\\Mien we provide a fire in a furnace or stove with a draft we are\\nsimply seeing to it that the wood or coal secures plenty of air from which to get the\\noxygen for burning.\\n2 This energy may be likened to a string which is holding together a bundle of fagots.\\nWhen the string is broken or untied, the bundle falls apart, and the string can be\\nused for other purposes.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "PROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY 29\\nAbout four fifths of the energy of the body goes to heat,\\none fifth to work.\\nThe free oxygen for the body combustion is supplied from\\nthe air by the act of breathing. In the lungs the oxygen is\\nseparated from the air by the blood and conveyed by this\\nblood to the tissues. Here it is united in the combustion as\\nwe have described.\\nRepair and growth. It is clear, then, that life itself and the\\nprocesses necessary to the preservation of life, the many\\nacts and functions of the body, are kept up in the body by\\nthe constant burning of the tissues. This burning causes a\\nwasting of these tissues, a waste which is being constantly\\nreplaced by new tissue. This constant supply of repair\\nmaterial is derived from the food. The food, then, serves to\\nkeep intact the structure of the tissues and also their store\\nof energy.\\nIn the adult this supply of essential material and energy\\nwhich the tissues derive from the food is practically that\\nwhich is used up in the burning and the work.^ The tissue\\nwhich is burned is renewed, but no great amount of extra tis-\\nsue is built. If a man works very hard he may use up more\\ntissue than can be renewed at the time, and he loses weight\\nbut with rest the renewal will be more rapid than the waste,\\nso that he will regain this weight.\\nDuring the years of active growth, however, the cells of\\nthe tissues take up more material than they break down, and\\nthis goes to the formation of new tissue. The bones and\\nbrain and heart thus grow larger until they have reached the\\nsize which they are to keep through life.\\nThe body a very perfect machine. In thus getting the\\nmaterial for the structure and repair of its various parts\\nand the energy for its running from one and the same\\n1 Some fat tissue may be built during adult life, also muscle tissue, but the frame-\\nwork of the body and separate organs remains fixed.", "height": "3599", "width": "2294", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "30 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nsource, from the food, the body is at once a more economi-\\ncal and at the same time more perfect machine than any\\nfashioned by man.\\nFor all these are first built of iron and wood and other\\nmaterials, and then get their energy by the burning of coal\\nin their furnaces, or from a waterfall, the wind, electricity,\\nor elsewhere that is, they get their building material from\\none source and their energy from another. As they work,\\ntheir parts wear out, until finally the machine has to cease\\nwork for repairs.\\nBut the living body never has to cease work. It is always\\nbreathing the blood is always flowing. The wear of tissue\\nis replaced while the work is going on, from tlie food which\\nis taken in. The best engine can use only one eighth of the\\nenergy liberated in its furnaces for work, while the body can\\nuse one fifth.\\nMetabolism. This whole process of the transformation of\\nfood to tissue and tissue to waste in the body, which results\\nin maintaining the integrity of the tissues and the liberation\\nof energy, is called metabolism (Greek mefahallo, I throw to\\nand fro change The body builds up (anabolism) and\\nbreaks down (katabolism), and the whole combined process\\nis metabolism.\\nDivision of fanction. Organs. The accomplishment of all\\nthe processes necessary to keep up this metabolism, such as\\nthe mental processes and movements which are necessary to\\nprocure food, the processes of digestion which prepare it for\\nuse by the cells, the distribution of the food about the body,\\nthe disposal of the waste, the supplying of free oxygen to\\nthe body, is divided among various body structures known\\nas organs (Greek organon, an instrument Thus, the brain\\ncontrols the thought processes, the muscles control the mo-\\ntion, the stomach and intestines control the digestive pro-\\ncesses, and the kidneys and lungs control the disposal of waste.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "PROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY 31\\nThe work which each organ has to accomplish for the\\ngood of the whole body is called its function (Latin fungi,\\nto discharge an office\\nPhysiology. The study of the functions of the body and\\nof its separate organs is called physiology (Greek 2)husis,\\nnature, and logos, discourse Upon the knowledge\\nwhich we obtain by this study of the structure of the body,\\nanatomy, and of the functions of the body, physiology, we\\nbase our knowledge of the laws and conditions of health.\\nHygiene. The science of these laws of health is called\\nhygiene (Greek Imgieia, health\\nTHE OBJECT OP THE STUDY OP PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nIf a man knows the laws which govern the development\\nof the human body and its maintenance in a condition of\\nhealth, and follows them, he will, unless influenced by con-\\nditions beyond his control, grow up strong and well, and\\ncapable for the service of his community or country.\\nIf, on the other hand, through ignorance or neglect, he fails\\nto follow these laws, he will never attain the strength which\\nmight have been his, will more easily contract disease, and\\nwill be less able to keep up in the race with his wiser fellows.\\nEvery one should therefore be familiar with the make-up\\nof the body and with the functions of its various organs.\\nEvery one should know what the substances are which the\\nbody needs for its nutrition and work, and how it uses them\\n1 Broadly speaking, physiology is the science which treats of the phenomena of living\\nbodies. The fundamental differential characteristic of a live body or substance is the\\npossession of the capacity to biiild or form new substances from totally different ma-\\nterials. Thus, the human body changes bread and water, etc., into bone and flesh the\\nplants change or build up carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen to wheat and corn. They are\\nthus live things. The single cells of the animal or plant body perform these changes,\\nand they are thus live things. There are animals which consist of a single cell similar\\nto these body cells. These cell creatures float about in water, eat food, and grow as\\nthe higher animals do. Lifeless things, as stones or bricks, are made of the same sub-\\nstances as live bodies, but they cannot form new substances from old, like living things.", "height": "3603", "width": "2291", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "32 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nwhy he eats and drinks, why he exercises, why he needs\\npure air. With this knowledge he can choose for eating and\\ndrinking those substances which are useful for nutrition,\\ngrowth, and work, as milk, eggs, meats, grains, vegetables,\\nand fruits, and avoid the use of those which may hinder\\nthese processes, as alcohol and tobacco. He can adopt those\\nhabits of life which tend to strengthen the body structures,\\nas exercise, living in the open air, cleanliness, and can avoid\\nundue exposure or fatigue, which makes him liable to disease.\\nIt is of great importance that this knowledge be acquired\\nin youth, for at this period the tissues are developing and\\ntaking their form and any failure to provide the necessary\\nfood or any injury to the tissues at this time may result in\\na permanent deformity of the body. Thus, a boy who inter-\\nferes with the development of his tissues by the use of\\ntobacco must carry these undeveloped parts all his life, as they\\ncannot grow after the period of growth and formation is\\npast. The child who through poor food becomes rickety\\n(rachitic) and gets deformed bones carries these bones to\\nthe grave. The boy who walks with bent shoulders while the\\nbones are forming will be round-shouldered for life, as the\\nshape of the frame is fixed in youth.\\nHealth and disease. While every part of the body is sound\\nand each organ performs its work perfectly, the condition\\nknown as health is maintained. When, however, any part\\nbecomes disabled, or the functions of the organs are not\\nproperly performed, the body is said to be diseased.\\nThe causes of disease are very numerous. If the body is\\nnot supplied with a sufficient amount of food it may become\\ndiseased. Many diseases are due to parasites, small animal\\nor vegetable organisms which get into the body and grow\\nthere, taking the food from the tissues and destroying them.\\nOthers are due to chemical poisons, which affect the func-\\ntions of the organs.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "PROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY 33\\nDiseased conditions are also due to external injury, as a\\nfractured bone or a cut with a knife. Some are due to ex-\\nposure to cold. Some of these diseased conditions, as those\\ndue to starvation, improper feeding, or the taking of poisons,\\nwe can directly prevent by avoiding the causes. Those due\\nto certain parasites which are carried from person to person\\nin water, as typhoid fever and cholera germs, we can prevent\\nby sanitary regulations. Other diseases, however, as those\\ndue to injury from without or to parasites which are carried\\nthrough the air, we cannot so successfully ward off.\\nThe first class are sometimes called preventable diseases, in\\ncontrast to the others, which are more or less accidental.\\nBut all diseases are to a certain extent preventable if we but\\nunderstand their nature and the nature of the human body\\nwhich they affect.\\nEvery one cannot be expected to understand the nature of\\ndisease. That must at present be left to the physicians and\\nthe boards of health. But all can understand the nature of\\nthe human btDdy, and the laws which govern its maintenance\\nin health.\\nThrough this understanding people will be able to protect\\nthemselves to a certain extent against all diseases. For all\\ndiseases are less likely to affect people who keep themselves\\nin good condition, and more likely to affect those who have\\nneglected to do so. Thus, a man who is fatigued by over-\\nwork, or one who has been exposed to cold, or one who has\\ninjured his organs or their function by poison or neglect\\nto exercise them, is more liable to contract pneumonia or\\nscarlet fever than a sound man, or more likely to have\\ntrouble in healing a wound.\\nThe observance of the rules of health is therefore a great\\npreventive of disease.^\\n1 In China, it is said, physicians are paid a yearly salary to keep their patients in\\nhealth. We must learn to keep in health through our own knowledge.", "height": "3601", "width": "2282", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "34 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\nTO FAMILIARIZE THE PUPIL WITH THE GENERAL FUNCTIONS\\nOF ANIMAL LIFE\\n1. Measure your height and weight at the beginning of your school\\nyear, and record, the results.\\nTake these measurements from time to time during the school year,\\nand mark the variations, if any.\\n2. Take the temperature of the body by placing a clinical thermom-\\neter beneath the tongue for three minutes.\\n3. Place your finger upon the wrist over the radial artery (under\\ndirection), and note the regular beat of the blood stream flowing to\\nthe hand. Note the same beat in the temporal artery at the side of the\\nhead. Place the fingers between the fifth and sixth ribs on the left side\\nof the chest, about two inches from the breastbone, and note the beat\\nhere of the heart thumping against the chest walls.\\n4. Measure the circumference of your chest with a tape, while\\nbreathing normally. Expand your lungs fully and, holding the breath,\\nmeasure the circumference of the chest again.\\n5. Count the number of respiiations in a minute.\\nCOMBUSTION OF ORGANIC MATTER\\n6. To show the similarity between the combustion of organic matter\\nwhich goes on in the body in the oxidation of the organic tissues and\\nthat outside of the body in the burning of any organic substance, as\\ntallow, perform the following experiment\\nPlace a little lime water in the bottom of each of two bottles. Lower\\na lighted candle into one. When it goes out stop the mouth of the bot-\\ntle and shake it.\\nPlace a glass tube in the lime water of bottle No. 2 and blow through\\nit. In both bottles the lime water will become cloudy, owing to the\\ncarbon dioxide which it receives in the first instance from the burn-\\ning of the tallow, in the second from the burning of the body tissues.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What is physiology? (See note, p. 31.) Name some lifeless ob-\\njects. Name some live objects. What is the real diiference between", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "PROCESSES OF LIFE IN THE BODY 35\\nthe living and the lifeless objects? Are there any lifeless objects which\\nmove about? Name some. What is the source of the heat energy which\\nforms the steam and thus drives the locomotive? How is the energy\\nformed which keeps the human body going and which enables man to\\nwork?\\nII. What is the effect upon the wood of burning it in a furnace?\\nWhat is the effect upon the cells and tissues of the body of the burn-\\ning of their substances? How is this constant wasting and wear of the\\ntissues made up that is, how is the loss from burning replaced?\\nIII. What are the two objects of eating food? What turns the wheat\\nand vegetables into bone and muscle Where does the food get the\\nenergy which is stored up within it? How is this energy liberated in\\nthe body? Into what is it changed in the body? What is the source of\\nmost of the energy which the plants or animals store up\\nIV. What becomes of the energy stored up in coal when this is\\nburned in the open air? in the furnace of an engine which is running?\\nWhat is meant by oxidation Does this occur outside the body Where\\ndoes the oxygen for the process come from when the oxidation occurs\\nin a furnace? Where does it come from in the body?\\nV. What is metabolism? How is the body a more perfect machine\\nthan a steam engine? What are organs? Name several. What is\\nhygiene What is the direct object of the study of physiology Why\\nshould this study occur at an early age?\\nVI. What is disease What is the broadest rule for the prevention\\nof disease What is the general aim for which all the organs of the\\nbody work together? Where in the body is the real vital center of life\\nand activity? Whenever you lift a weight the energy for this action is\\nsupplied by combustion in what tissues of the body does special com-\\nbustion during this muscular effort occur? In what part does special\\ncombustion occur when you perform a mathematical problem in your\\nhead?\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 3", "height": "3600", "width": "2297", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "The skeleton.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nTHE SKELETON- THE BONES AND JOINTS\\nTHE body is built up upon a solid frame, known as the\\nskeleton (Greek skello, I dry\\nThis skeleton is a very wonderful structure. It gives the\\nbody its shape and height and support. At the same time\\nit is so put together as to allow one part to move upon the\\nother in the many motions of the body.\\nIt is made up of firm structures, called tones. These bones\\nare the very best substances of which a movable frame like\\nthat of the body could be made, as they are very strong,\\nlight, and elastic. You can gain some idea of their strength\\nwhen you are told that they are twice as resistant as solid\\noak.\\nThe separate bones are built up together Like the beams\\nand pillars of a house. They are united by joints. In\\nsome cases these joints are firm, like those of the house\\nbeams. In other cases they are loose, like the joint of a boom\\nand a mast upon a boat. These loose joints allow of motion\\nof one bone upon the other and are called movable joints.\\nThe bones are sometimes joined together by plates of an\\nelastic substance called cartilage (Latin cartilago, gristle\\nThis is very elastic and allows the structure in which it is\\nbuilt to bend to pressure and blows. There is a great deal\\nof this cartilage in the walls of the chest, and you all know\\nhow these walls, especially at the lower part, can be pressed\\n37", "height": "3601", "width": "2293", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "38\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nCervical {Atlas)\\nin, and how they spring back again. At the joints the bones\\nare often held together by strong bands, known as ligaments\\n(Latin ligare, to bind\\nThe number of bones used in the body frame is more than\\ntwo hnndred. They are of many shapes and sizes, these\\ncharacteristics depending upon the\\nuses for which they are intended.\\nThus, in the limbs, where extended\\nmotion is necessary, the bones are\\nlong and slim. In the head, where\\nprotection is required, they are flat\\nand firmly built together.\\nThe general arrangement of the\\nskeleton. The central portion of\\nthe skeleton, upon which all the\\nother parts are supported, is the\\nspine, or vertebral (Latin vertere, to\\nturn column. Upon the top of\\nthis column rests the skull. At its\\nsides are attached the ribs, which\\nmake the walls of the chest and sup-\\nport the skeletons of the upper\\nlimbs. At its base are attached the\\npelvic bones, which support the\\nlower limbs.\\nThe spine (Latin spina, a thorn\\nThe spine, or backbone, consists of\\na number of small bones called ver-\\ntebrce, placed one upon another in\\na column. There are thirty-three\\nvertebrge in all. The first twenty-\\nfour are separate seven cervical\\n(Latin cervis, neck twelve dor-\\nVertebral column, sal (Latin dorsum, back and\\nCoccyx...", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n39\\nspinous process\\n^y Transverse p^-ocess\\nCentral canal\\nfive lumbar (Latin lumhus, loin Below these come five\\nmore united into one bone, the sacrum, and below this four\\nmore united into the coccyx.\\nThese vertebra3 are all alike in general form. Each\\nvertebra consists of a somewhat circular bone, flat at both\\nends, about one and\\none half inches in\\ndiameter by one\\ninch in thickness,\\ncalled the body. The\\nbody bears upon\\nthe dorsal (poste-\\nrior) side an arch\\nof bone, the neu-\\nral (Greek neuron,\\nnerve arc/i, and\\nfrom the walls of\\nthis arch project\\nthree processes, a\\nspinous process pos-\\nteriorly and two\\ntransverse processes laterally. The vertebrae lie one upon an-\\nother in a column. Each is separated from those next it by\\npads of cartilage about a quarter of an inch in thickness.\\nThese cartilage pads are called the intervertebral disl s.\\nThey bind the vertebras together, serve as a cushion to pre-\\nvent one vertebra striking upon another, and by their\\nelasticity allow of a certain amount of motion of each verte-\\nbra, and thus of the whole vertebral column.\\nThe upper surface of the arch of one vertebra touches the\\nlower surface of the arch of the one above, forming joints\\nat the points of contact.\\nAt the front of the vertebral body and at the back, and\\nat the junctions of the arches, are ligaments, which bind\\nVertebrae.", "height": "3601", "width": "2291", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "40 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe bones together. Ligaments also attach the spinous\\nprocesses.\\nAs the arches of the vertebme thus lie together in a line\\nthey form in their center a continuous canal bounded by\\nbone and ligament. In this canal runs the delicate nerve\\nstructure which takes the messages from the brain to the\\norgans and limbs, the spinal cord.\\nThis spinal column is really a very wonderful contrivance.\\nIt is made up of a chain of little bones so strong that it will\\nsupport the whole body and any weight which it may carry,\\nand yet so flexible that it bends like a willow rod, and takes\\nthe shock of running and leaping so easily that none of the\\njar gets to the brain, which lies in a case on its top. In its\\ncenter it carries safely through years of bending and twisting\\na delicate nerve cord which the least pressure would injure.\\nThe column is curved. At its upper part in the neck it\\narches forward in the back it curves backward lower down\\nin the loins it runs forward again, and at the base backward\\nagain. This curved form, together with the cartilaginous\\ncushions between the vertebme, gives a springiness to the\\nspine which prevents jarring.\\nIf you drive a strong straight stick down upon the side-\\nwalk 3^ou get a shock in the hand, but if you do the same\\nthing with a curved stick of the\\nsame strength, as half a hoop, you\\nreceive very little shock. The\\nsame principle holds true of the\\nspine.\\nThe arrangements of interver-\\ntebral attachments and joints of\\nthe column allow a slight forward\\nand backward motion, a slight lateral motion, and even some\\ntwisting of one vertebra upon another. Thus we can bend\\nforward or backward or side wise, or twist about.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n41\\nThe first cervical vertebra is called the atlas (after Atlas,\\nthe Titan supposed by the Greeks to support the world). It\\ndiffers in form from the other vertebra?. It is shaped like\\na ring without any body. Upon its upper surface are two\\nsmooth surfaces upon which the skull rests.\\nThe atlas rests upon the second vertebra, the axis. Tlie\\naxis has a process, the odontoid (Greek odous, tooth, and\\neidos, resemblance process, which fits into the ring of the\\natlas and forms a pivot on which the ring revolves.\\nThe skull, atlas, and axis are bound together by ligaments\\nin a set of loose joints which allow the free motion of the\\nhead. The skull moves back-\\nward and forward upon its\\njoints with the atlas, the atlas\\nbeing held firm on the axis.\\nWhen the head moves around?\\nthe atlas moves w^th it, rotat-\\ning upon the pivot process of\\nthe atlas. Two ligaments from\\nthe odontoid process to the\\nskull check this rotary mo-\\ntion.\\nThe sacnun lies at the base\\nof the column. Its five verte-\\nbrae are grown together into one bone in the adult. It\\nsupports the pelvic girdle. Below it carries the coccyx, which\\nconsists of four vertebrae formed into one bone.\\nThe thorax. Attached to the dorsal vertebrae are the ribs.\\nWith the sternum, which they support, these ribs make the\\nwalls of the thorax (Greek, chest\\nThe rihs are twelve in number. Each rib attaches to a\\ndorsal vertebra by one joint with the transverse process.\\nMost ribs also attach to the vertebra above their main one.\\nFrom the spine the ribs sweep round and a little downward\\nSacrum, made of five vertebrae.", "height": "3600", "width": "2288", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "Skeleton of trunk.\\nA, A, seapulie and cla^^cles forming pectoral girdle; B, ribs and sternxini forming\\nthorax C, vertebral column D, pelvic girdle.\\n42", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON 43\\nto the front of the thorax to attach by their cartilages to the\\nsternum. Upon each side seven ribs attach separately.\\nThe next three connect with one another, and all together\\nRibs.\\n.1, short upper rib B, long median rib a, vertebral attachment; b, attach-\\nment of cartilage whicli joins to sternum.\\nattach to the seventh rib. The two lower ribs have their\\nforward end unattached and are called floating ribs. Each\\nrib consists of a flat bone, with a flat cartilage, called a costcd\\ncartilage {costa, a rib npoii its sternal extremity.\\nThe joints of the ribs, with the vertebrae and with the\\nsternum, allow of the motion between these parts which\\noccurs in breathing.\\nThe combination of bone and cartilage in the ribs, their\\ncurved shape and jointed attachments, make them excellent\\nstructures for the movable walls of a box like the thorax,\\nwhich must be, at the same time, strong, light, and springj^\\nThe steyiium (Greek sternon) is a flat bone forming the\\nfrontal piece of the thorax. It is attached to the seven upper\\nribs.\\nThe pectoral and pelvic girdles. Attached to the spine and\\nthoracic skeleton are the two girdles which support the\\nlimbs.", "height": "3597", "width": "2284", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "44\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe pectoral girdle (Latin pectus, chest consists of two\\nattached bones upon each side of the thorax, the clavicle\\n(Latin clavis^ a key and the scapula.\\nThe clavicle, or collar bone, articulates at its inner ex-\\ntremity with the sternum. At its outer extremity it supports\\nC lavicle\\nHumerus\\nScapula and clavicle, with end of humerus, representing\\narticulation of pectoral girdle with thorax.\\nthe scapula. It holds the arm out from the body and thus\\nfacilitates free motion. In animals, as the horse, which use\\nthe fore limb for support only there is no clavicle in the\\nskeleton.\\nThe scapula, or shoulder blade, a large flat triangular bone\\nwith a prominent spine upon its dorsal surface, lies behind\\nthe ribs in the back. It is held in its place by muscles and\\nligaments, and by its attachment to the clavicle. Together", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n45\\nScapula\\nthese bones, two upon each side, form an imperfect arch for\\nthe support of the arms.\\nThe pelvic (Latin pelvis, a basin girdle, which supports\\nthe lower limbs, is made up of the two innominate (Latin in,\\nwithout, and nomen,^^ a name\\nor hip bones, one upon each side.\\nEach bone attaches to the sacrum\\nand arches round to meet its fel-\\nlow, the two together forming a\\ncomplete arch. The cup-shaped\\ncavity thus formed is called the\\npelvic cavity.\\nThe skeleton of the upper limbs\\nconsists of a series of bones.\\nThe humerus, a long bone, ar-\\nticulates with the scapula by a\\nball-and-socket joint. At the\\nother end of the humerus two\\nbones, the radius (Latin, a\\nspoke and idna (Latin, el-\\nbow articulate with it, form-\\ning the elbow joint. These two\\nbones, which form the skeleton\\nof the forearm, run parallel from\\nthe elbow to the wi-ist.\\nThe %vrist is made up of eight\\nsmall carpal (Greek Mrpos,\\nwrist bones, which articulate\\nwith the lower extremity of the radius and with one another,\\nforming the wrist joint and the lower part of the hand.\\nTo these bones are attached the metacarpal (Greek meta,\\nafter, and Mrpos, wrist bones of the hand, and to these\\nthe first phalanx (Greek, battalion of each finger and\\nthumb. Each finger has three phalanges, one articulating\\nPhalanges\\nArm.", "height": "3601", "width": "2285", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "46\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nto the end of the other. The thumb has two. The fingers\\nare shaped and put together in the hand in a way to allow\\ntheir doing various and del-\\nicate tasks. Their varying\\nlength makes them fit per-\\nfectly into the hollow of the\\nhand.\\nThese bones are all articu-\\nlated by joints and attached\\nby ligaments. They are so\\narranged as to allow of a\\nvery free motion.\\nThe skeleton of the lower\\nlimbs corresponds in its gen-\\neral plan with that of the\\nupper.\\nThe femur, corresponding\\nto the humerus, articulates\\nwith the pelvic girdle. To\\nthe femur articulate the tihia\\n(Latin tihia, a flute or pipe\\nand fihula (Latin/ a buckle\\nat the knee. Seven tarsal\\n(Greek tarsos, instep\\nbones, which articulate with\\nthe tibia and fibula and with\\none another, make the ankle\\nand beginning of the /oof.\\nTo the tarsals are appended\\nthe metatarsals (Greek meta,\\nafter, and farsos, instep and to these the phalanges,\\ntwo for the big toe and three for each of the others.\\nIn addition to these bones the skeleton of the lower limbs\\nincludes the jyateJla (Latin patina, a pan or kneecap, a\\nFibula\\nTarsals\\nMttatarsali\\nPhalanges", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n47\\nsmall bone which lies in the tendon of the muscles which\\nextend the leg.\\nThe formation of the limhs is adapted to their function.\\nSince the chief function of the limbs is extended motion,\\nthey are made up of long bones articulated by joints which\\nallow very free motion. Lightness and strength are com-\\nbined as far as possible in the bones. As the arm and hand\\nare used for reach and prehension, the joints are very free.\\nThe leg, being used for support as well as motion, is more\\nfirmly bound to the trunk, and the joints are less loose. The\\nsmall bones of the foot and ankle are arranged in the form\\nof a springy arch to carry the body more easily in locomotion.\\nThe marked differences between the two sets of limbs are\\nseen only in man and the monke} s, as it is only in these ani-\\nmals that the two sets are used for such different purposes.\\nThe skull, or skeleton of the head and face, rests by its pos-\\nterior bone, the occipital bone, upon the upper bone of the\\nspine, the atlas. It is\\ncomposed of twenty-eight\\nbones. Eight of these\\nform the cranium, six the\\nears, and fourteen the\\nface. The cranium is a\\nbox for the protection of\\nthe brain. It is composed\\nof a basal occipital (Latin\\no5, against, and caput,\\nhead lyone, which rests\\nupon the spine; two pa-\\nrietal (Latin paries, a\\nwaU bones, one on each\\nside, forming the crown\\ntwo temjyoral (Latin tempora, temples bones, one on each\\nside 5 a. frontal (Latin 0)is, forehead bone, forming the\\nSkull,\\na, frontal bone; b, parietal; c, temporal; cl,\\nlower jawbone e, eye socket canal of ear.", "height": "3601", "width": "2288", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "48\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nforehead a sphenoid (Greek sj^hen, wedge bone at the\\nbase, with an ethmoid (Greek ethmous, sieve bone in front\\nof it.\\nForamina (Latin foro, bore a hole In the occipital\\nbone is a large opening, the foramen magnum, through which\\nthe spinal cord enters the spinal canal. In the temporal\\nbones are the openings to the ear cavities. Openings for the\\npassage of the cerebral nerves occur in several of the bones.\\nThese apertures are csMed foramina.\\nAs the object of the cranium is protection, the bones are\\nfirmly united to one another by immovable joints, called sn-\\ntures (Latin snere, to\\nsew In these sutures\\nthe edges of the bones are\\nfor the most part dove-\\ntailed, the projections of\\none bone edge fitting the\\nhollows of another. The\\nsutures can be easily felt\\nupon a baby s head. The\\nbones are hard and thin,\\nand are placed together\\nto form an arch. The\\ncharacter of these bones\\nand this method of their\\narrangement make the\\ncranium an excellent shield to prevent the shock of blows\\nfrom reaching the brain. The skull is so shaped that the\\nstrongest point is in front, just where the danger of a blow\\nis greatest. The skull is so firm and hard that bullets some-\\ntimes glance from it as from armor.\\nThe Face. The bones of the face articulate with the\\ncranial bones and with one another. They consist of the\\nmalar (Latin mala, cheek or cheek bones; the maxillce, or\\nI\\nBone of cranium, showing\\nserrated edges.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\nupper jawbones, which carry the upper teeth; the palate\\n(Latiu, palate bones, which together with the maxillary\\nform the roof of the mouth the nasal (Latin 7iasiis, nose\\nbones, roofing the nose; the lachrymal (Latin lachryma, a\\nEthmoid\\nInferior\\nmaxillary /j--\\nVertical section of skull.\\ntear bones, lying between the nasal and orbital cavities the\\nturbinate (Latin turbo, ^a top bones, the vomer (Latin, a\\nplowshare and the inferior maxillary or jawbone.\\nThe upright character of the human skeleton. The human\\nskeleton is fashioned for an upright bearing. The head is\\nnearly balanced upon the vertebral column, so that it takes\\nvery little muscular effort to hold it erect. The pelvis is\\nbroad, so that the balance of the trunk upon the lower limbs\\nis easily maintained. The spine is curved and elastic, thus\\npreventing the forcible transmission of the impact of the\\nfeet or hips with the earth to the head and brain. The\\nattachments of the lower limbs to the trunk are very fii-m,\\nthus allowing a secure support of the body in standing and\\nlocomotion. The instep arch of the foot is firm and springy,", "height": "3584", "width": "2273", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "50 PHYSIOLOaY AND HYGIENE\\npreventing the occurrence of shock when the feet strike the\\nground.\\nMan a vertebrate animal. The presence of the spinal\\ncolumn, dividing the body (trunk and head) into two cavities,\\na front or ventral one, which contains the lungs and stom-\\nach and heart, and a posterior or dorsal one, containing the\\norgans of the nervous system,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 places man in the class of\\nanimals known as vertebrates. To this same group belong\\nthe fishes, reptiles, birds, and beasts. Clams, insects, worms,\\nand other lower forms possess no backbone and are called\\ninvertebrates. Man belongs to the special class of verte-\\nbrates known as mammals, animals which suckle their young,\\nwhich have more or less of the body surface covered by hair,\\nand which have the ventral cavity of the body entirely\\nseparated by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and the\\nabdominal. Beasts, as the monkey, the dog, etc., possess the\\nsame organs and parts in their bodies as man. The brain\\nof man is, however, much more highly developed than that of\\nany beast. He possesses a mind which makes him sensible\\nof right and wrong and enables him to reason. It is these\\nqualities of mind which make him supreme among living\\nthings.\\nDEMONSTRATION\\nThe pupil slioiild ^^sit some museum and look at the skeleton of a\\nman, also at those of monkeys and of fourfooted beasts. Note the vari-\\nous resemblances in the parts and general structure of the skeletons.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n51\\nTHE JOINTS\\nThe bones of the skeleton are placed together by means of\\njoints. The joints may be immovable, as the joints of the\\ncranial bones, or movable, as those of the arms and spine.\\nThe movable joints are contrivances which allow and regu-\\nlate the motion of the bones upon one another, and thus the\\nmovements of the body.\\nThe motion is secured through the agency of the muscles,\\nwhich work the bones one upon another in these joints, just\\nas the rope (sheet) attached to the boom of a boat pulls the\\nboom about upon its joint with the mast.\\nStructure of a movable joint. The ends of bones which\\nmeet in a joint are covered with cartilage, which provides a\\nsmooth, elastic surface\\nfor motion and pressure.\\nThese cartilages are made\\nthickest upon the middle\\nof the convex surfaces\\nand upon the edges of the\\nconcave surfaces, that is,\\njust in .the places where\\nthe wear is greatest. The\\nbones are held together\\nby ligaments, which lie\\nabove the joint. With\\nthe muscles they keep the\\nbones in place and limit\\nthe motion of the joint.\\nOne ligament forms about the ends of the two bones, inclos-\\ning these ends and the joint in a closed sac. This sac forms\\nthe capsule (Latin capra, a box of the joint.\\nOn the inside of the capsule is a thin membrane, the\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 4\\nJoint.\\n1, right hip, exterior, showing capsule liga-\\nments 2, left hip, showing interior of joint.", "height": "3593", "width": "2277", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "52 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nsynovial (Greek sun, together, and oon, egg a fluid\\nlike white of egg) membrane. This secretes a fluid which\\npours over its surface and keeps the joint lubricated. (See\\nExperiment 9, chapter on motion.)\\nForms of joints. The joints differ in their formation in\\naccordance with the kind and amount of motion which is to\\nbe secured. Thus, we find baU and socket joints, allowing of\\na to-and-fro, in-and-out, and rotary motion, as the shoulder\\njoint; hinge joints, as the elbow, allowing a backward and\\nforward motion like that of a door gliding joints, as those\\nbetween the vertebrae pivot joints, as that of the atlas and\\naxis, allowing rotation.\\nBall and socket joint. In the shoulder joint the rounded\\nupper extremity of the humerus fits into a shallow, cuplike\\nfossa (Latin, a ditch of the scapula. The joint is sur-\\nrounded by a loose capsular ligament and external liga-\\nments which hold the himierus to the scapula.\\nMost of the movements of the whole arm take place in this\\njoint, which is very free. Thus, the arm can be.carried for-\\nward and inward, that is, flexed (Latin Jfexere, to bend\\nor carried backward and outward, that is, extended (Latin ex,\\nout, and tendere, to stretch or carried toward the mid-\\nline of the body, that is, adducted (Latin ad, toward,\\nand dncere, to draw or away from the midline, that is,\\nabducted (Latin ah, away from, and dncere, to draw\\nor twisted round in its joint, that is, rotated (Latin rota,\\na wheel and so forth.\\nThe joint is made very shallow to allow the very free\\nmotions of the arm. This shallowness accounts for the\\nfrequent dislocations of the shoulder.\\nThe hip joint is another ball and socket joint. Here, how-\\never, a firm support is needed, and so the joint cup is deeper\\nand the ligaments are more firm. This joint is so tight that\\nthe air pressure aids in keeping it in place.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n53\\nThe elhow joint is a hinge joint, allowing simply flexion\\nand extension. In this joint the radins and nlna move npon\\nthe rounded end of the hnmerus. The ulna fits to the\\nhumerus much as a boom fits to a mast. By this arrange-\\nment no side or rotary motion is possible. Flexion is limited\\nonly by the pressure of the muscles coming together. Ex-\\ntension is checked by a ligament in front of the joint.\\nThe knee joint is on the same plan, but has larger carti-\\nlages and firmer ligaments, as it is used for support as well\\nas motion.\\nThe motions of the forearm are regulated by the action of\\nthe parallel bones, the radius and the ulna, upon each other.\\nThe radius is attached to the ulna by two pivot joints, one\\nabove and one below. It can be rotated upon the ulna, and as\\nit carries the hand, this turns forward and backward with the\\nradius, performing the motions of pronation (Latin pronus^\\non the front and supination (Latin supinus, on the\\nback that is, the motions of turning the hand upon its\\nfront or upon its back.\\nForms of bones. The bones are hard, firm structures. Their\\nfunction is support of the body, and protection\\nof the soft parts which lie within their frame-\\nwork. Many of them form levers for the mus-\\ncles to act upon in producing motion. The shape\\nand character of the bones differ with their posi-\\ntion and use in the body. The bones of the arm\\nand leg, as the humerus and femur, are long,\\nslim, and hollow, with clubbed extremities. They\\nare called long bones.\\nThe bones of the wrist and ankle are small\\nrectangular or polygonal bones. They are called\\nshort bones. The sternum is a flat bone.\\nThe ribs are flat or tabular bones. A rib\\nconsists of a thin plate composed of hard Long bone.\\nShoulder\\njoint\\nsurface\\nExtremity\\nfor elbow\\njoint", "height": "3593", "width": "2279", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "54 PHYSIOLOaY AND HYGIENE\\nsurface layers and a very small layer of spongy bone sub-\\nstance between (Experiment 4).\\nOther bones, as the vertebrae, combine the characters of\\ntwo or more of the above forms, and are called irregular\\nhones.\\nThe chemical composition of bone. The bones must be hard\\nand at the same time tough. The}^ nnist be firm enough not\\nto bend, and yet flexible enougli not to break with weight.\\nTo attain this combination of hardness and toughness the\\nbones are made up of a compound of two substances. One,\\nthe mineral or inorganic substance, consisting principally\\nof phosphates and carbonates of lime, gives the hardness.\\nThe other, the organic substance, gives the toughness and\\nelasticit3^\\nIf a bone be burned in a hot fire all the organic matter\\nwill be separated and the mineral matter left. It will have\\nlost its toughness, and will break at a blow or crumble\\nbeneath the fingers.\\nIf a bone be soaked in dilute hydrochloric acid all the\\nmineral matter will be separated and the organic matter\\nremain. The bone will then be flexible, bending double\\nwitliout breaking, and so useless for support. (See Exper-\\niments 5 and 6.)\\nIn infancy and childhood the bones are not so hard as in\\nadult life. They contain more of the organic matter, which\\nmakes them bend more easily. This accounts for the fact\\nthat children s bones are less likely to break with falls.\\nGross structure of bone (Experiments 1-3). If we examine\\na fresh long bone, as the humerus or femur, we see that it is\\na long cylindrical shaft with two large articular extremities.\\nIf we lift it we find that it is much lighter than it looks.\\nUpon the surface of the shaft is a tough membrane com-\\nposed of connective tissue and blood vessels\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the periosteum\\n(Greek |;e around/ and osteon, bone This periosteum", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n55\\nis the nourishing membrane of the bone. Upon its inner\\nsurface the deposit of new bone occurs in the growth of the\\nbone. If it be stripped away the bone dies.\\nThe articular surfaces of the extremities of the bone are\\nlined with cartilage.\\nInternal structure. If we divide the shaft longitudinally\\nwe find that it consists of a thick, hard, compact outer layer,\\nand a thin inner layer of spongy tissue, looking like a trellis-\\nwork of fine bony process surrounding a hollow central\\ncavity. This central or medullary (Latin medulla, mar-\\nrow cavity runs throughout the shaft. It is\\nfilled with soft yellow marrow. In it run blood\\nvessels, lymphatics, and nerves to supply the\\nbone.\\nThe tissue of the articular extremities is com-\\nposed of a mass of spongy substance filled with\\nred marrow and coated by a thin layer of hard,\\ncompact bone.\\nThis combination of hard, compact exterior\\nwith a reticulated interior formation and a hol-\\nlow center gives the bones great strength with\\nsmall weight. If the bones were solid through-\\nout they would be much heavier and less strong,\\nas a tube will bear more weight than a rod con-\\ntaining the same amount of material.^\\nThe flat bones of the body have the same gen-\\neral structure, but possess no hollow centers.\\ntrelliswork formation keeps the bone from jarring with the\\nshock in falls. In animals like the alligator, whose recum-\\nbent posture protects them from falls, the bones contain\\nmuch less of this spongy structure. The traheculce (Latin,\\nSection of a\\nlong bone.\\nThis spongy\\n1 This principle is utilized in the construction of tiibular bridges. In birds the\\nhollow of some bones, instead of man-ow, contains air, being connected with the lungs.\\nThis secures greater lightness than that of human bones.", "height": "3600", "width": "2298", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "56\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nsmaU beams of the trellis tissue are arranged in arches\\nto support the weight which the bone has to bear.\\nHistological structure of bone (Greek histos, tissue/ and\\nlogos, discourse study of tissue). Histologically the\\nbone is made up of a collection of cells and their processes,\\nand intercellular substance in which lime salts have been\\nincorporated.\\nExamined under the microscope even the densest part of\\nthe bone proves to be simply a fine network of small bony\\nplates and fibers.\\nThroughout this\\nnetwork run ca-\\nnals, the Haver-\\nsian canals, car-\\nrying the blood\\nvessels for the\\nnourishment of\\nthe tissue. These\\ncanals open at the\\nperiphery (Greek\\nperi, about, and\\npliero, carry\\nouter surface) and\\nin the medulla.\\nAround the canals in concentric lines, consisting of a series\\nof plates, are the lamelJce (Latin lamina, a plate which\\nform the walls of the fine network. Each canal and its\\nlamellae form a Haversian sy stern, and the network is made\\nup of these systems.\\nBetween the lamellae, in a circle round the canals, are small\\ncavities known as lacunce, from which radiate fine tubes, the\\ncanaliculi, opening into the Haversian canals, or into the\\ncanaliculi of other lacunae. In each lacuna lies a living cell.\\nThese cells are the bone cells. The plates which make the\\n7\\nHaversian sj^stem of bone.\\nDark central canals surrounded by lamellae and the dark\\nlacunae with caniculi extending across the direction of the\\nlamellae.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n57\\nBone cells.\\nframe of the network are made of intercellular substance\\nwith deposits of lime salts. The bones are constantly grow-\\ning, like any other tissue.\\nStructure of cartilage. Cartilage\\nlines the articular surfaces of\\nmany bones, forming a smooth,\\nelastic surface material for the\\njoints (Experiment 1). It is also\\nused in connection with bone or\\nalone to make up certain parts of\\nthe skeleton. Thus, a part of the\\nshaft of each rib is cartilage. It\\nis a flexible, tough substance,\\nsomewhat like hard rubber, and\\nthus gives flexibility to the parts\\nin which it is used.\\nIn its intimate structure carti-\\nlage consists of a homogeneous\\n(Greek homos, like, and genos, kind intercellular sub-\\nstance with cells scattered about in it. Most of the bones\\nbegin as cartilage, in which\\nbony tissue is afterwards de-\\nposited. This complete change\\nof cartilage into bone, the ossi-\\nfication, does not occur in some\\nbones until twenty years of\\nage, and even latei*.\\nLigaments are tough, some-\\nwhat elastic bands composed\\nof connective tissue. They are\\nused to bind the parts of the\\nskeleton, the bones and cartilages, together. They support\\norgans. They form the supports and the sheath of joints.\\n(See Experiment 9, p. 85.)\\nCartilage.", "height": "3598", "width": "2300", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "58 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nConnective tissue is a very widespread tissue in the body,\\nentering- into the formation of many parts and organs.\\nLigaments, the periosteum of bones, the fasciae and tendons\\nof muscles, are composed of it, and it enters into the walls\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2of serous and mucous membranes and blood vessels and into\\nthe skin. Its texture may be very firm or very loose, ac-\\ncording to its position or use.\\nHYGIENE OF THE SKELETON\\nThe first requisite of a strong, agile body is a good bony\\nframe. Strong muscles lose much of their efficieucy if they\\ndo not have strong, straight bones to act upon. Any weak-\\nness or deformity of the bony walls of the body tends to\\nrestrict the growth and functional efficiency of the organs\\nwhich are protected and supported by these walls, as are the\\nbrain and lungs.\\nEffect of good and bad habits upon the skeleton. The ossifi-\\ncation of the cartilage and the bony union of the shafts and\\nextremities of the bones go on during infancy and childhood.\\nComplete union is not accomplislied until about the twen-\\ntieth year. In thus hardening, the frame and the bones will\\ntend to take the shape in which they have been allowed to\\ngrow. We should have care, therefore, that they are not\\ninfluenced disadvantageously by improper habits.\\nThus, a child should not be allowed to walk until his leg\\nbones are capable of bearing his weight. Otherwise the\\nflexible bones may beud outward and become fixed in this\\nshape, and the child thus be bow-legged.\\nChildren should carry the frame erect and the shoulders\\nwell back. The development of the thorax should be en-\\ncouraged by running and rowing, and exercises with the\\narms. Thus a full respiratory capacity will be developed.^\\n5 The correct position is head up, chin in, chest expanded, shoulders back and\\ndovm, abdomen in, hips thrown back. By holding this attitude in mind and prac-", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON 59\\nDress. All clothing which constricts the chest or waist,\\nas tight waists or corsets or belts, should be discarded.^\\nShort skirts are better than long ones, as they allow a fuller\\ndevelopment of the legs by permitting a freer stride.\\nTight shoes permanently deform the foot, and, by thus in-\\nfluencing the gait, hinder the development of the legs.\\nSeats in schools. Much harm has come in past times from\\nimproper methods of seating children at school. The seat\\nshould be of such a height that the feet touch the floor,\\nelse the thigh bones may become bent by the weight of the\\nlegs below.\\nThe desk should be so arranged that the child may sit\\nerect while writing, to avoid the risk of a lateral curvature\\nof the spinal column, or a stoop of the shoulders.\\nFood. The proper development of the bones is dependent\\nupon proper feeding. In improperly fed children the bones\\ndo not harden as they should. There is a disease common\\namong children of the poor, called ricTiets, in which great\\ndeformities of the bones occur as a result of the lack of\\nproper food.\\nFracture {hatm frangere, to break When a bone is\\nbroken the injury is called a fracture. When this occurs a\\nvery interesting process ensues. From the broken ends of\\nthe bone a fluid substance oozes and collects about the frac-\\nture. In time this hardens to a gristle-like substance. Then\\nbone begins to be formed in this substance, just as it does\\nin cartilage in the original formation of bone, until in six\\nticing it faithfully for af ew days one can train the muscular sense to become accustomed\\nto it, and after a time to feel uncomfortable in a stooping or crooked position. In\\nsleep also the straight position should be cultivated, that the chest may have room for\\nfree expansion. Pillows should be only high enough to support the head at such a\\nlevel as will hold the neck straight.\\n1 It is said that the Queen of Portugal has amused herself and her friends by having\\npictures of the skeletons of the ladies of her court made by means of the X ray. These\\npictures showed the bones of the thorax so deformed, evidently by the use of the\\ncorset, that it made a decided impression on them, and they have determined to use\\nthis article of dress no longer.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Journal of Hygiene.", "height": "3601", "width": "2284", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "60 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nweeks the broken parts are united by new bone just as\\ngood as the old.\\nDislocation. The joints are delicate structures. Their\\nlocation subjects them to sudden and severe strains. In a\\nfall, for instance, the whole weight of the body may come\\nupon the wrist or shoulder. A misstep brings an unex-\\npected strain upon the ankle. Owing to the loose structure\\nof the joints, these strains are likely to lead to dislocations\\n(Latin dis, from, and locus, place Thus, a baseball\\nstriking the end of the finger pushes the inner end of the\\nphalanx through or past the ligaments, out of joint. The\\nbone has then to be put back over the same course by which\\nit went out.\\nWhen the ligaments of the joint are stretched and bruised\\nor torn, the injury is called a sprain. Such an injury often\\noccurs from a Avi-enching of the ankle in running.\\nExposure to cold and wet. The joints are a favorite seat\\nof several diseases. Exposure to cold and wet is very likely\\nto cause inflammation, and is often followed by a disease\\nknown as rheumatism, which fi-equently affects the joints.\\nAlcohol drinking. Indulgence in alcoholic liquors appears\\nto have a distinctly deleterious effect upon the nutrition of\\nthe bones. It is a well-authenticated fact, substantiated by\\nthe testimony of man}^ surgeons, that in alcoholic subjects\\n(heavy drinkers) the repair of fractures and other injuries\\nto bones is much less vigorous than in the average patient.\\nThe periosteum appears unable in such cases to supply the\\nproper nourishment so rapidly as in normal condition.^\\n1 As a surgeou having vast opportunities of experience in hospital and private\\npractice. I must declare that I always look upon patients who have been in the habit\\nof using spirituous beverages as least likely to recover from serious maladies or from\\nshock follomng operations, and also as those most likely to require longer time for\\nthe cure of diseases of a more simple character. I have at times met with cases of\\nfracture of the bones, occurring in persons of intemperate habits, in wliom the bones\\nwould not unite by bony material, but remained flexible or useless.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 J. N. Carnochan,\\nProfessor of Surgery, New York Medical College, author of Contributions to Opera-\\ntive Surgery.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON 61\\nIndulgence in alcoholic liquors is a very prominent factor\\nin the causation of gout, with which is often associated a\\nvery serious diseased condition of the joints.^ This disease\\nis common among people who are accustomed to high living,\\nand especially to drinking strong wines and ales. The ten-\\ndency to gout is often inherited.\\nFaulty nutrition of the bones, from the use in youth either\\nof alcoholic drinks or of tobacco, prevents their full develop-\\nment, and consequently affects the stature.^\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\nSTRUCTURE OF BONE\\n1. Procure the thigli bone of a sheep, with the meat upon it. Re-\\nmove the meat by soaking and scraping.\\nNote the pinkish-white color of the bone, which is due to the vascular\\nparts of the tissue, from which all blood and lymph have not yet disap-\\npjBared. Contrast this color of bone lately living with the white color of\\nold dried bone.\\nNote the large, roughened ends of the bone the smooth surfaces for\\narticulation the cartilage which lines these articulation surfaces.\\nNote the rough places for the attachment of muscles. Somewhere in\\nthe length of the bone you will find a hole, which is the entrance of a\\nblood vessel into the bone.\\n2. Saw this bone across in the middle. Note the difference in the\\ncharacter of the compact outer layer and the spongy inner layer.\\n1 There is no truth in medicine better established than that the use of fermented\\nor alcoholic liquors is the most powerful of all the predisposing causes of gout nay, so\\npotent that it may be a question whether the malady would ever have been known to\\nmankind had such beverages not been indulged in. Stout and porter rank next to\\nwine in predisposing to gout eider and smaller beverages will also act to some extent\\nas producing causes of gout. Dr. Alfred Baring Garrod.\\n2 Children of alcoholic parents, trained to the early use of liquor, are stunted in\\ntheir growth, and a French physician is inclined to ascribe to this fact the decref.se\\nin the standard of normal height shown by statistics in that country. Journal of\\nthe American Medical Association, November 14, 1896.\\nSmoking prevents the healthy nutrition of the several structures of the body;\\nhence comes, especially in young persons, an an-est of the growth of the body low\\nstature, a pallid and sallow hue of the surface, an unhealthy supply of the blood,", "height": "3596", "width": "2298", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "62 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nNote the central cavity with its contained soft marrow substance.\\n3. Make a longitudinal section of the lower half of the bone.\\nNote the archlike arrangement of the trabeculae of the spongy tissue\\nin the extremity of the bone.\\n4. Obtain a rib.\\nMake a cross section.\\nNote the difference in the structural plan of this fiat or tabular bone\\nand that of the long bone examined.\\n5. Composition of bone. Organic substance.\\nWeigh a rib bone. Heat it in a hot coal fire for half an hour.\\nNote and explain the changes which occur in burning.\\nAfter cooling, weigh again. The loss in weight is due to the loss of\\norganic matter which has burned up. The shape of the bone remains\\nthe same, but there is less substance.\\nThe bone is now easily breakable because the tough organic matter\\nwhich gave it tenacity is gone.\\n6. Removal of mineral matter from bone.\\nWeigh a rib bone as before.\\nAdd a teaspoonful of hydrochloric acid to a pint of water. Place the\\nbone in this for a few days.\\nNote that the size and form do not change.\\nNote the loss of weight, after drying the bone thoroughly.\\nWhen it is taken out, note that the bone bends much more easily than\\nbefore that it can now be cut with a knife. This is because the hard\\nmineral matter has been removed by the acid, leaving the tough organic\\nmatter only.\\n7. Test for the carbonates and phosphates in bone.\\nPulverize some of the bone which has been roasted and add hydro-\\nand weak bodily powers.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 James Copeland, M.D., F.R.S., Editor of London Medical\\nRepository.\\nI believe that no one who smokes tobacco before the bodily powers are developed\\never makes a strong, \\\\igorons man.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Fergus Ferguson, M.D.\\nA record of the users of tobacco has been kept at Yale for the past eight years, for\\nthe main purpose of determining the number of men who began the habit while in\\ncollege, and, from the uniformity of the records, considerable confidence has been\\nfelt in the resiilts obtained. The growth of the men is as follows: In weight the non\\nusers increased 10 4 per cent more than the regular \\\\isers, and 6.6 per cent more than\\ntlie occasional users. In the growth of height the nonusers increased 24 per cent\\nmore than the regular users, and 14 per cent more than the occasional users. Pro-\\nfessor J. W. Seaver, M.D., of Yale, in the University Magazine.\\nStunted growth has again and again impressed a lesson of abstinence from tobacco,\\nwhich has hitherto been far too little regarded. London Lancet.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON 63\\nchloric acid. Bubbles of carbonic acid gas will be given off. This test\\nshows the presence of the carbonates.\\nAdd water. Filter. Then to the clear filtered solution add amnionic\\nhydrate. A precipitate will fall. This precipitate consists of phos-\\nphates,\\n8. Proportion of water and solid in fresh bone.\\nBreak a fresh bone into small pieces. Weigh, dry in a current of\\nAvarm air until there is no variation in the weight, and weigh again.\\nDetermine loss. The loss is water.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What is the function of the skeleton What structures and mechan-\\nisms are used in its make-up, and how are they put together? Describe\\nthe general arrangement of the skeleton. How is the vertebral column\\nbuilt up? What is inclosed within the column? Give some idea of the\\nadaptability of the spinal column to its uses.\\nII. What are intervertebral disks? Where is the atlas? What does it\\nsupport? What keeps all the bones joined together What is the lower\\nend of the spine called? What is the thorax? What is contained within\\nit? How many ribs are there? How are the ribs attached at each\\nend?\\nIII. What motions of the thorax do the joints and attachments be-\\ntween the spine and ribs allow? Why is part of each rib cartilage?\\nWhere does the sternum lie? What is the pectoral girdle? How is it\\nattached to the trunk skeleton?\\nIV. Describe the scapula. What is the pelvic girdle? How do the\\nhumerus, radius, and ulna lie in relation to each other? How many\\nbones are there in the wrist? Name the bones of the leg. What are\\nthe metatarsals? In what parts are the phalanges?\\nV. Grive some idea of the way in which the structure of the limbs is\\nadapted to their use. Describe the skull. What is the chief object of\\nthe cranium? What are foramina? How are the cranial bones jointed\\ntogether?\\nVI. To what class of animals does man belong? What is a joint? De-\\nscribe a movable joint in the body. Mention a ball-and-socket joint; a\\nhinge joint. What are the functions of the bones? Name several\\nvarieties of bones.\\nVII. How is it accomplished that bones are both hard and tough and\\nelastic at the same time? What happens when the inorganic substance\\nis removed from a bone by acids? How do the bones of children differ", "height": "3598", "width": "2299", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "64 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nfrom those of adults? Give a general idea of the gross and finer struc-\\nture of a bone, as the humerus. What is gained by having the, long\\nbones hollow\\nVIII. Where in the body do we find cartilage How does it compare\\nwith bone in hardness and elasticity? Of what kind of cell substance\\ndoes cartilage principally consist Does cartilage ever change in the\\nbody? What is ossification? What are ligaments used for in the body?\\nIX. When does the body take its shape? How does the knowledge in\\nregard to the anatomy and physiology of the skeleton influence us in our\\nhabits of life? What is a fracture? What is a dislocation? A sprain?\\nX. If a man and a boy each sat daily for three or four hours in a straight-\\nbacked chair, which would receive the more injury? Is the same true\\nof tobacco smoking? Why is a fall less likely to injure a child than a\\ngrown person?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nMOTION\\nI. THE ^lECHANISM OF MOTION. II. THE ORGANS OF MOTION\\nONE of the very important functions of the body is that of\\nmotion. In providing for its wants the body must per-\\nform a variety of movements. It is moved from place to place\\nby the motion of the legs. The arms are moved in supplying\\nthe food to the body. The lips, jaws, and tongue are moved in\\neating the food. The heart is constantly moving in pump-\\ning the blood. The food is kept moving in the stomach and\\nintestines by motions of the walls of these organs.^\\nAll these motions are brought about through the agency\\nof a set of organs known as muscles.\\nThese muscles form the firm flesh which we can feel\\nbeneath the skin and fat, covering and filling out the whole\\nskeleton. They act for support and protection of the parts,\\nbut their prime function is motion. Wlierever there is\\nmotion to be performed there are muscles provided for its\\nperformance.\\nEach muscle is a firm, fleshy body, which has the power of\\ncontracting, that is, of growing shorter. You can feel in\\n1 Motion is one of the forms which the energy store of the body assumes when it is\\nliberated. The burning of the tissue supplies, and consequent liberation of energy for\\nthis purpose, takes place in the organs adapted for the accomplishment of this\\nfunction.\\n65", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "66 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\n3^our arm the firm, fleshy muscle kno^\\\\Ti as the biceps, and\\ncan feel it grow larger in girth and shorter when you con-\\ntract it to bend your arm.\\nThe muscle is often attached to bones, and by moving pulls\\none up toward another. Let us illustrate by this same biceps\\nmuscle. This muscle is attached to the scapula, or shoulder\\nblade. From thence it runs down the arm and across the\\nelbow joint to the radius bone of the forearm, to which it\\nattaches Avitli its lower end. Now, when tliis muscle con-\\ntracts it tends to pull the bones to which it attaches\\ntoward each other. But the scapula is fixed and immovable.\\nSo the only bone which moves is the radius, which is bent\\nup on the elbow joint toward the scapula, and the arm and\\nhand going with it, the whole forearm is bent (Experiment 1).\\nOn the back of the arm is another muscle, the triceps, which\\nstraightens the arm again.\\nThese muscles often attach to the bones by long, strong\\ncords known as tendons (Latin tendo, I stretch You can\\nfeel at the wrist the tendons running from the muscles of the\\nforearm to the fingers. They are closely packed here and\\nbound down by a fibrous ring at the wrist. The big, rougli\\nends of the long bones are for the attachment of these\\nmuscles or their tendons.\\nAll muscles do not attach to bones. Some are in the walls\\nof organs, like the heart or stomach, and by contracting make\\nthe cavities of these organs smaller.\\nAntagonistic muscles. The muscles are often arranged in\\nsets\u00e2\u0080\u0094 one set to pull a bone or a part one way, and another\\nset to pull it back. Thus, on the front of the arm are muscles\\nto bend the fingers, on the back muscles to straighten them\\nagain. In the face there are muscles at each side of the\\nmouth, keeping it in shape. If one side of tlie face be\\nparalyzed the puUiug ceases on that side, while the other set\\nof muscles has it all its own way, and distorts the mouth.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "MOTION\\n67\\nEach muscle is in reality a little engine. It is made up of\\norganic substance, and contains, as we have explained in Chap-\\nFlexors. and extensors of hand.\\nA, fi-ont of arm: 3, biceps; 3 biceps tendon; 4, brachialis antiens; 5, triceps: all\\nof upper arm. 7, flexor cai-pi radialis 8, i^almaris longns 9, flexor carpi ulnaris\\n13, flexor snblimis digitonim; 14, flexor longus poUicis; 15, flexor profundus digitoriim;\\n16, palmaris breads 17, abductor pollieis all flexors of hand and fingers, bending them\\nto the arm. 6, pronator radii teres.\\n-B, back of aiTa: 12, extensor carpi radialis longior; 13, extensor car^n radialis brevior;\\n14, extensor communis digitorum 15, extensor carpi ulnaris between 14 and 15, ex-\\ntensor minimi digiti 18, 19, extensors internodii poUicis. All straighten hand and fingers.\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 5", "height": "3601", "width": "2293", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "68 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nter II., under metabolism, a certain amount of energy stored\\nup in this substance. When the muscle engine works, some\\nof this organic substance is burned, and its energy liberated.\\nThus, by the burning of its fuel the muscle gets energy to\\nproduce its movements, just as the engine does from the\\nburning of coal.^\\nThe action of a muscle is controlled from the nerve\\ncenters. When we desire to make a certain movement, a\\nmessage is sent from the brain along a nerve to the muscle\\nwhich performs this movement. This message sets the mus-\\ncle engine going, just as an electric current sent by push-\\ning a button starts a bell ringing or a machine running.\\nI. THE MECHANISM OF MOTION\\nThe movements of the body by muscular action are per-\\nformed for the most part through the mechanism of the lever\\nsystem.\\nThe lever (Latin levare, to lift is a contrivance to gain\\neither greater power or greater range of motion. By press-\\ning your weight upon the long arm of a lever you can raise\\nseveral times, say twice or thrice, this weight upon the other\\nend, thus gaining power. By moving the short arm of a\\nlever one foot you may move an object upon the other end a\\nlonger distance, say six feet, thus gaining range of motion.\\nThe mechanism consists of a bar, the lever, resting upon a\\nfixed point, the fulcrum. If the fulcrum is in the center of\\nthe bar no advantage is gained either way. Thus, upon a tilt\\nor seesaw, with equal parts of the board two people of equal\\nweight will just balance each other. If one starts the tilt by\\na jump, the other will fall just the distance that the first\\nrises. If one person is lighter, he is given more board, which\\n1 When the muscles are in active use much more burning occurs, and more heat is\\nproduced in the body. Each of us can prove this by experience.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "MOTION 69\\nenables him to raise the heavier person by his less weight\\nbut in doing it he has to ride over more distance than the\\nother man on the short end. So, while the man on the long\\nend moves a greater with a less weight, the man on the\\nshorter end moves the long end a greater distance by going\\na less.\\nIt is for this second purpose, the gain in range of motion,\\nthat the lever system is utilized principally in the body. The\\nmuscles occupy the place of the heavier person on the shorter\\nend of the board. They attach to the short end of the bone\\nwhich is placed as a lever, and by moving this a short dis-\\ntance move the other end of the bone, and all attached to it,\\na long distance. The muscles are strong enough for all prac-\\ntical purposes, and do not need to gain power. What they\\ndo need to gain is range of motion, so that the hand can\\nreach about the body, or the legs take a long stride, and, by\\ntheir extra strength applied to the lever, thej can, by moving\\nthemselves one inch, move the end of a limb one foot or more.\\nTHREE CLASSES OF LEVERS.\\nLevers are divided into three classes, according to the\\nposition of the fulcrum.\\nIn Class I. the fulcrum lies between the weight and the\\npower. A lever of this class is seen in the mechanism of\\nmoving the head forward and back. Here the fulcrum is the\\natlas upon which the head rests, the power arm is the small\\npart of the head behind the line of the spine, the distance arm\\nthe front of the head and face. The power is applied to the\\nshort arm by muscles stretching from the spine to the head.\\nIn Class II. the fulcrum is at one end with the weight\\nbetween it and the power. When we raise ourselves upon\\nour toes we use this form of leverage. The front of the\\nfoot is the fulcrum, the power is exerted upon the heel by", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "70 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe calf muscles, the weight of the body rests between and\\nis raised. In this leverage we lose distance and gain power.\\nIn Class III. the fulcrum is at one end, with the power\\nbetween it and the weight.\\nAn application of this form of leverage can be seen in\\nthe flexing of the forearm.\\nThe forearm articulates with the humerus at the elbow.\\nThe biceps muscle starts from the scapula above, crosses the\\nelbow joint, and attaches by its tendon to the radius of the\\nforearm just below the joint.\\nWhen the biceps contracts or shortens it puUs upon the\\nforearm, which is bent upon its hinge joint, and the free end\\nof the arm comes towai-d the shoulder. The fulcrum is the\\np\\nLever of Class I.\\nW\\np\\nF\\n1\\nW\\nA\\nLever of Class II.\\nP\\n\\\\7\\nw\\nLever of Class III.\\nF\\njoint, the weight or distance arm the forearm and hand; the\\npower is applied by the muscle near the fulcrum. By mov-\\ning a short distance the part of the bone to which it attaches,\\nby its contraction through an inch or so the biceps moves\\nthe hand on the end of the long weight arm a foot.\\nThe extension of the forearm is accomplished by the\\ntriceps muscle through a leverage of Class I.\\ni", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "MOTION 71\\nThe flexion of the hip is an application of leverage of the\\nthird class, similar to the flexion of the forearm.\\nWalking. The movements of the loody are thus accom-\\nplished by the mechanical arrangement of mnscle, bone, and\\njoint.\\nIn walking, one leg and foot is carried forward by the\\nmuscles which bend the thigh upon the hip. At the same\\ntime the knee is slightly bent by the muscles which flex it,\\nto take the toes from the ground. This foot is placed on the\\nground before the other foot has left it. The body is then\\nraised on the toes of the posterior foot, chiefly by the action\\nof the calf muscles pulling on the heel, and given a push for-\\nward by the toes as they leave the ground. This hind foot\\nis then swimg forward in turn and grounded in time to catch\\nthe forward weight of the body.^\\nOne side of the body tends to outwalk the other. This,\\nif not corrected, w^ould lead us to walk in a circle, as people\\nfrequently do who are lost in the woods.\\nIn moderate walking very little muscular effort is used,\\nas the legs swing forward after the first lift, like pendu-\\nlums, of their own weight. The body is simpl}^ kept falling\\nforward.\\nIn vigorous walking more muscular motion is brought\\ninto play.\\nRunning. In running, the legs are lifted and the body\\nthrust forward by quick, vigorous action of the calf muscles\\nand the extensors of the knee.\\nThe upright posture. The body is maintained in the erect\\nstanding posture by the tension of the ligaments of the\\nframe and the cooperation of certain muscles. With the\\nfeet as a support, the flexor and extensor muscles of the ankle\\nboth contract, and thus hold the ankle from bending and the\\nIn walking, the body oscillates from side to side, so that a man is never so tall\\nwhen walking as when standing still.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "72 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nleg steady in the midline. The knee is kept stiff by the\\ncontraction of the extensors, which prevent flexion, and the\\nligaments of the joint, which prohibit overextension.\\nThe trunk is balanced in the midline, and is held there by\\nthe strong ligaments and muscles which pass from the pelvis\\nto the thigh in front, and by the muscles behind. The head\\nis held upright and in line by ligaments and by the contrac-\\ntion of the muscles of the neck.\\nIf any change from the line is made by one part of the\\nbody, another part must be placed out of line in the opposite\\ndirection to adjust the balance. Thus, we may offset the\\ntendency to fall in leaning forward by throwing the hips\\nback or by putting a foot forward.\\nThe postures of the body are thus regulated and controlled\\nby muscular action. A man who has lost his power to con-\\ntrol his muscles through nerve disease or through poisoning\\nby alcohol reels in his gait and falls frequently.\\nn. THE ORGANS OF MOTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE MUSCLES\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CLASSES OF\\nMUSCLES\\nVoluntary and involuntary muscles. Muscles in the body\\nare of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary.\\nThe voluntary (Latin voluntas, Hhe will muscles are\\nunder control of the will. All the muscles which produce\\nmotion of the parts of the skeleton, as in walking, bending,\\ngrasping, talking, chewing, are voluntary.\\nThe involuntary muscles (Latin in, not, and voluntas,\\nwill lie principally in the walls of organs and vessels, and\\nby their contractions produce movements of these walls.\\nThus, the food is forced through the stomach and intestines\\nby the action of the muscles in the ^^alls of these structures.\\nThey are controlled by unconscious nervous action, and per-\\nform whether we will or not.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "MOTION 73\\nThe voluntary muscles are, as stated, attached by one end\\nto a fixed body. This attachment is called the origin. At the\\nother end they are attached to a movable body. This attach-\\nment is called the insertion (Latin inserere, to implant\\nAmong the voluntary muscles which appear prominently\\nupon the surface of the body are the biceps of the arm, the\\ndeltoid of the shoulder, the pectoralis major (Latin pectus,\\nchest, and major, greater of the chest, the flexors and ex-\\ntensors of the forearm, and the calf muscles of the leg. The\\nNceps (Latin Us, twice, and caput, head two-headed)\\nflexes or bends the forearm. You can feel this muscle harden,\\nand see it grow shorter and bulge out, as you bend your arm.\\nYou can feel the several muscles upon the front of the fore-\\narm stiffen and stand out when you close the fingers, and feel\\nthem soften, and the muscles on the back of the arm stiffen\\nand stand out like cords, when you open the hand widely.\\nThe calf is made up of two muscles which are very strong,\\nas they have to be to lift the whole body. They attach to the\\nheel by a strong tendon, the tendon of AcJiilles. (See list,\\nwith plate, pp. 76-78.)\\nStructure of voluntary muscle (Experiments 6-8). A muscle\\nis a soft, tough mass of tissue, having, as a rule, a thick red\\ncentral portion, with one or both ends tapering into white\\ncords, known as tendons. Its appear-\\nance can be judged by looking at the\\nbeef in the market stalls.\\nSome muscles have a tendon at one\\nend only, some no tendons, attaching\\ndirectly by their fascice (Latin fascis, a\\nbundle to the bones.\\nThe tissue of voluntary muscles is\\nknown as striate muscle tissue. Each\\nmuscle mass consists of a number of Striate muscle.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0L n ujn iij^ T /T a, at rest (relaxed) b, con-\\nbundles of fibers, called fasciculi (Latin tVacted,", "height": "3599", "width": "2296", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "74\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ndiminutive of fascis, ^a smaU bimdle all bound together\\nby a connective tissue sheath. Each fasciculus is surrounded\\nand separated from the rest by a connective tissue sheath\\nextending from the main sheath.\\nEach fasciculus consists of a bundle of mnsGle fibers running\\nlongitudinally.\\nEach fiber is enveloped in a sheath called a sarcolemma\\n(Greek sarx, flesh/ and lemma, husk The fiber consists\\nof a semifluid substance which, as it lies in the sarcolenmia,\\nll iioiiiijifiii\\nf J-;i]i]iiii^#]iffiM i\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\\nIPllllllllIHlIll\\ni^ll!\\nSection of voluntary muscle,\\nfibers separated.\\nVoluntary (striate)\\nmuscle fiber.\\nhas a striate (striped) appearance, showing alternate dark and\\nlight bands running across it. Each fiber represents a cell\\nand has a nucleus. It can be teased (separated) into fine\\nthreads, or fihnllce (small fibers).\\nIn contraction of the muscle each fiber grows shorter and\\nthicker, thus increasing the breadth and lessening the length\\nof the whole muscle.\\nThe prolongations of the muscle, fasciculi, and fiber sheaths\\nform the tendons, which are thus tough connective tissue\\nstructures. In the sheaths run blood vessels and nerves.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "MOTION\\n75\\nStructure of involuntary muscle. The tissue of most invol-\\nuntary muscles is called nonstriate or plain muscle tissue.\\nThis tissue consists, like the striate, of\\nbundles of fibers bound together by con-\\nnective tissue. The fibers, however, are\\nnot striped and have no sarcolemma.\\nThey consist of elongated cells attached\\nto one another. The fibers interlace.\\nThe m usde of the heart differs in struc-\\nture from both the above forms of mus-\\ncle. It consists of fibers striated like the\\nvoluntary muscle, but, like the plain\\nmuscle tissue, having no sarcolemma\\nand interlacing with one another.\\nIn chemical composition the muscle\\ncontains a proteid substance, mineral\\nsalts, glycogen, and water. This pro-\\nteid clots after death, causing a stiff-\\nness of the\\nFibers of involuntary\\nmuscle,\\na, nucleus.\\nHeart muscle.\\nmuscular system,\\nknown as rigor mortis.\\nIn its action, as we have stated,\\nthe muscle burns up a portion of\\nits substance.^ This substance lost\\nby burning and wear and tear of\\naction its cells renew from the\\nfood which comes to it from the\\nblood, so that during rest after a\\nhard day s work the muscles are\\nall built up again and made ready\\nfor more labor.\\nCorresponding to the several\\nparts of the bony skeleton, the\\ntrunk, the limbs, etc., we have sep-\\n1 The tissue burned is principally the carbohydrate store.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "76\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\narate groups of muscles which regulate the motions of each\\nof these parts or form part of their muscular frame.\\nThe important muscles of each division, most of which can\\nbe seen in the plate on page 77, are as follows\\n30\\n17\\n14\\n16\\nMuscles of the trunk.\\n{Numbers refer to plate.)\\nErector spinae\\nExternal oblique\\nInternal oblique\\nRectus abdominis\\nIntercostals\\nSerratus magnus\\nTrapezius\\nRhomboideus\\nLatissimus dorsi\\n15 Pectoralis major (chest muscle)\\nmoves the trunk backward,\\nmove the trunk forward.\\ncompresses the abdominal viscera.\\nraise and depress the ribs.\\nraises the thorax.\\nmove head backward move shoul-\\nders backward.\\ndraws arms downward and back-\\nward.\\ndraws arms across front of chest.\\nMuscles of the head.\\n1\\nOccipito-frontalis\\nmoves the scalp and eyebrows.\\n2\\nOrbicularis palpebrae\\ncloses the eye.\\nLevator palpebrae\\nopens the eye.\\n11\\nTemporal\\nraises the lower jaw.\\n9\\nMasseter\\nFace muscles.\\nraises the lower jaw.\\n7\\nDepressor labii inferioris\\ndepresses the lower lip.\\n6\\nOrbicularis oris\\ndraws lips together.\\n10\\nCompressor nares\\ndepresses end of nose and draws\\nsides together.\\n4\\nZygomaticus major\\ndraws angle of mouth upward and\\noutward.\\n3\\nLevator labii superioris alae-\\nraises the upper lip and side of the\\nque nasi\\nnose.\\nMuscles of the neck.\\n12 Platysma myoides\\n13\\nSterno-cleido-mastoid\\nScalenus\\ndepresses lower jaw and lower lip.\\ndepresses head upon neck and chest,\\nmoves head and neck to the side.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "The muscular system.", "height": "3601", "width": "2299", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "78\\nPHYSIOLOaY AND HYGIENE\\nMuscles of the upper limb.\\n18 Deltoid (from shoulder to arm) carries arm outward and upward.\\n19\\n20\\n22\\n21\\nBiceps\\nTriceps\\nBrachialis anticus\\nI Supinator longus\\nPronator radii teres\\nr Flexor carpi radialis\\nPalmaris longus\\nFlexor carpi, ulnaris\\nExtensor carpi radialis\\nExtensor carpi ulnaris\\nflexes forearm and raises arm.\\nextends forearm.\\nflexes forearm.\\nrotates and flexes forearm.\\nrotates forearm.\\nflex hand at wrist,\\nextend the hand.\\n24\\n23\\nMuscles of the hand.\\nInterosseous muscles\\nAbductor pollicis\\nFlexor brevis pollicis\\nmove fingers.\\ndraws thumb outward.\\nflexes thumb.\\nMuscles of the lower limb.\\nV Psoas magnus (from trunk to\\nthigh)\\n26 Quadriceps extensor cruris\\n25 Sartorius\\n27\\n29\\n31\\n28\\nS Adductor longus\\nAdductor magnus\\nGracilis\\nGluteus maximus\\nBiceps flexor cruris\\nSemimembranosus\\nSemitendinosus\\nGluteus medius\\nGluteus minimus\\nTibialis anticus\\nExtensor longus digitorum pedis\\nGastrocnemius (calf mus-\\nSoleus cles)\\n(ham-\\nstring\\nmuscles)\\nflexes thigh (moves it forward) on\\nbody, or body on thigh.\\nextends leg at knee.\\nflexes lower limb and erects it has\\nbeen supposed to be the muscle\\nchiefly concerned in producing\\nthe crosslegged posture of the\\ntailor\u00e2\u0080\u0094 hence its name.\\nadduct thigh\u00e2\u0080\u0094 move it toward\\nother limb.\\nextends thigh at hip.\\nflex leg at knee.\\nabduct thigh\u00e2\u0080\u0094 move it away from\\nother limb,\\ndraws up foot.\\ndraws up foot and extends toes,\\nraise body from ground upon the\\nfoot; raise heel.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "MOTION 79\\nHygiene of the muscles. The development of the muscles\\ndepends upon a proper supply of food, exercise, and removal\\nof the waste formed by this exercise or muscular work.\\nUse of food. As we have said, the wear of the muscle\\ntissue involved in muscular work has to be made up by new\\nfood brought to the muscle. A man who works hard needs\\nmore food than one wdio rests, as he is using up more tissue.\\nUse of exercise. To develop strong muscles, however, it is\\nnot enough to eat plenty of food. The food must be driven\\nto the muscles. This assimilation of more food by the\\nmuscles, and their consequent development, is accomplished\\nby exercise. If a man eats a large amount of food and does\\nno work he will simply get fat or ill. If he exercises, some\\nof the extra food wdll go to form muscle, and his muscles will\\nbecome large and strong.\\nA good amount of exercise is almost as necessary to a\\nman s health as a proper amount of food or of sleep. It\\nmakes him stronger in muscle, heart, and lungs. .It increases\\nthe activity of the circulation, and thus helps to distribute the\\nblood well over the body and to carry away the waste prod-\\nucts which collect in the body from the combustion of the\\ntissues, which if allowed to remain cause loss of force.\\nEvery one wishes to grow up as strong and able as possi-\\nble. To do this he must know what things are good for him\\nto eat and what things are bad, what exercise to take, and\\nhow to take it.\\nHe must choose good, nutritious food, like milk and meat\\nand eggs and bread and vegetables and fruit, and not take\\nin their stead pastry and sweets, which are not so useful, and\\nwhich disorder his digestion.\\nHe must avoid especially all substances which may weaken\\nand unfit him for work, such as alcohol and tobacco.\\nEffect of alcohol upon muscular work. Alcohol, when taken\\ninto the body as in its ordinary use as a beverage, lessens the", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "80 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nbody s power for muscular work. This fact has been demon-\\nstrated by experiments upon large armies of men.\\nIn the British army in Africa, for instance, the experiment\\nwas tried of testing how far the soldiers could march when\\ntaking daily what were considered moderate amounts of rum,\\nand then how far they could march when taking no liquor,\\nand comparing the records. So also in the Army of the\\nPotomac, in the American Civil War, the same experiment\\nwas tried with whisky.^ When the records are compared\\nit is found that soldiers can endure longer marches when\\ntaking no liquor than when allowed their daily portion.\\nThese and other experiments of the same nature thus demon-\\nstrate that alcohol has the effect of diminishing the capacity\\nof a man for muscular work, even when the alcohol is taken\\nin what are generally considered as moderate amounts.^\\nFrom these results we are justified in concluding that the\\n1 The sirdar, Sir Herbert Kitchener, and General Gatacre, in their advances up the\\nNile, have strictly foi bidden the supply of alcoholic liquors to any of tlie troops under\\ntheir command. We learn that they took this step on two grounds. First, on the\\nground that from long experience they were convinced that the physical condition of\\nthe troops would, under these conditions, be enormously improved, and the men\\nwould have much greater stajang power, while their dash, determination, and steadi\\nness would also be increased. The second gi-ound appears to have been that the\\nmental and moral stamina of the troops would be preser\\\\^ed in a far greater degree\\nthan could possibly be the case if alcohol were served out. The result has been that\\nthe health, spirits, and conduct of the troops have been the admiration of all those\\nwho have had any dealings with them, and this experiment on a large scale has been\\nan unqualified success.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 J. Sims Woodhead, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the\\nUniversity of Cambridge, England.\\nSee also Parkes (Proc. Royal Soc, No. 150, 1874) on the issue of the spirit ration in\\nthe Ashanti campaign.\\nHall. Kaffir War, 18.5.5-56.\\nBaer, Centralbl. f. allgem. Gesundheitspflege (1886).\\n2 These experiments do not controvert the accepted fact that energy may be\\nderived from alcohol in the body. They show that, owing to some effect of the alcohol,\\nthe body cannot get a sum total of benefit in the form of muscular work from this\\nenergj of the alcohol. There are experiments which show that men may do an\\nincreased amount of work for a very short time under the influence of alcohol but\\nsuch increase is accomplished, experiments as the above show, only at the expense of\\nenergy or tissue which is needed for bearing sustained labor or exposure. Thus, in\\nsome experiments upon British regiments, the regiment which had liquor took the lead\\nat the start, but was far behind at the finish.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "MOTION 81\\ndrinking of alcoholic liquors, even in so-called moderation,\\nis a bad practice for any one who wishes to do hard work or\\nendure sustained exertion.\\nThis knowledge is a direct contradiction to the common\\nidea that a glass of liquor increases the power to work. If\\nthe poor man were aware of this harmful effect of liquor, it\\nwould keep him in many instances from spending for a\\nglass of beer or ale or whisky the money which should be\\nspent for strength giving foods, such as bread or meat.\\nIn skill and accuracy, and in the direction and expenditure\\nof energy, the man who has taken no alcohol has a great\\nadvantage over the man who has. He is more calm in an\\nemergency, and can judge better how to make his strength\\nmost effective. This effect of alcohol was remarkably demon-\\nstrated in the naval battle off Santiago, in the recent Spanish-\\nAmerican War, in the incapacity of marksmanship shown by\\nthe Spanish gunners, who were given alcoholic drinks under\\nthe false idea that it would fortify them for their work.^\\nExercise. Exercise should be regular and judicious. If\\ntaken to the point of fatigue day after day it does harm.\\n1 The attention of the civilized world has been called to the conspicuous fact of the\\naccuracy of the filing of the gunners on our battle ships in the recent war with Spain.\\nThe contrast between the firing of the men of our navy and that of Spain was due in\\npart, no doubt, to the custom that prevails on the ships of the latter, where daily\\nrations of gi og are given at all times, and when an action is going on or anticipated,\\ndouble rations of grog are furnished to the men, while since 1862, when that custom was\\nabolished by our government, no rations of liquor are allowed at any time on board\\nour ships.\\nThe custom just alluded to as followed by Spain is true of all the na S ies of the\\nworld but ours. Yet Great Britain has abandoned the double rations of grog when a\\nfight is on, and then no liquor is allowed, but in place of it supplies of water and oat-\\nmeal are arranged all over the ship to satisfy the thirst resulting from the heat, exer-\\ntion, and smoke inseparable from a naval combat. The Journal of the Amer. Med.\\nAssoc, January, 1899, p. 174.\\nIt is said that a desire to excel in athletic sport has led clubs of students at some of\\nthe German universities to give up their morning drinking bout. They have learned\\nthat beer drinking stands in the way of their best physical development and the\\nhighest degree of athletic success. For years sports have been in great favor.\\nSome of these, such as contests between boatmen or between cyclists, require con-\\nsiderable energy and power of endurance. Evidently if alcohol increased strength", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "82 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nOne should not feel used up, but like taking more exercise,\\nwhen one stops.^ During exercise more blood flows to the\\nmuscles than during rest. Exercise should not, therefore, be\\ntaken soon after meals, as the blood is needed at that time\\nfor the digestive organs.\\nTraining. People who exercise regularly establish a habit\\nof the system whereby the flow of the food to the muscles,\\nits assimilation there, and the oxidation of the muscular tis-\\nsue, are accomplished at least cost to the organism. Such\\npeople are said to be in f raining.\\nEven development. Every one in training the muscular\\nsj^stem should guard against developing these organs at the\\nexpense of the vital organs, the heart, lungs, and nervous\\nsystem. Large muscles are of little use without a strong\\nheart to keep them nourished. The man who can lift a great\\ndumb-bell is not so useful as the man who can lift less but\\ncan endure nuiscular strain longer. The real strength is in\\nendurance of work and exposure, and resistance to disease.\\nThis is found in an evenly developed organism.\\nExercise should be chosen to develop the muscles through-\\nout the body. Running develops the muscles of the legs\\nrowing with a sliding seat the arms, back, and legs. Horse-\\nback riding develops the legs and trunk. Swimming and\\nwrestling are very excellent exercises. All vigorous exercise\\ndevelops the muscles of respiration and the heart.\\nIf any group of muscles is undeveloped, special exercises\\nshould be practiced to develop these, as chest- weight pulling,\\ntliese competitors would provide themselves witli it and iise it freely. But tliis is not\\nthe case. No true spoi-tsmau, either before or duriug tlie contest, touches a glass of\\nspirits, experience having taught the harm he would thereby do to liimself. (Dr.\\nBienfait of Liege.)\\n1 One cause of fatigue is the accumulation of the waste products of the combustion\\nof the tissues involved in muscular exercise. In excessive exercise these may collect in\\nthe blood more rapidly than they are eliminated by the lungs, kidneys, and other ex-\\ncretoiy organs. In sijch cases they act as a poison, inhibiting (preventing) the output\\nof nerve or muscular energy, and tlie fatigue that we feel when this occurs Is nature s\\nwai ning to cease exercise until the waste products are eliminated.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "MOTION 83\\ndnmb-bell and club swiiigins:. As a rule ont-of-door ex-\\nercises, whicli are carried on as a pleasure rather than as\\na task, should be utilized as much as possible, and supple-\\nmented, if necessary, by some systematic? gymnasium work.^\\nRest; The periods of rest should be as regular as those of\\nexercise. In these periods, especially during sleep, the mus-\\ncles renew the tissue which they have used up during exercise.\\nClothing. The clothing which is worn should be loose, so\\nas not to restrict muscular action. It should not be too thick,\\nor it will restrict the escape of the extra heat generated by\\nthe exercise.\\nCare in bathing the skin must be observed, for an\\nunclean skin hinders the excretion of the waste substances\\ncaused by the combustion of the muscles in action, and any\\naccumulation of such waste products poisons the system and\\nlessens the power of action.\\nMuscular exercise is good not only for the health of the\\nmuscles, but for that of the whole body. A man can use his\\nmind with more efficiency, has a better circulation and a\\nbetter digestion, if he exercises regularly. The action of the\\nmuscles increases the circulation all over the body, and thus\\nincreases the elimination of waste products, whether pro-\\nduced by brain activity, muscle activity, or digestive activity.\\nThe heaviness and inaptitude for work which are common to\\npeople who do not take enough muscular exercise are due to\\n1 Walking is good exercise, but the aniount of benefit to be derived from walking\\ndepends on the way it is practiced. A slow walk over smooth pavements for a well\\nperson is not to be compared with a tramp through woods, over rough fields, or climb-\\ning hills. Really graceful walking is something of a fine art, and is comparatively rare.\\nTo walk well one should take a free and firm but light stride, balancing the upper part\\nof tlie body alternately on each hip, but without swaying it perceptibly, and giving the\\nimpetus foi-ward witli a light spring from the ball of the toot.\\nBicycling has become one of the most popular forms of exercise. It is well siiited\\nto people in sedentary occupations and to women. The cyclist, however, takes more\\nexercise than he is aware of, or than he intends, and is particularly liable to overtax\\nhis sti ength. Riding to reach a given point laid down in plans for the day, or to keep\\nup with a club, or to finish a hill when very tired, but near the top, are the bicycler s\\ntemptations, but they should be resisted, or harm may resiilt.\\nHEWES, P. fe H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 6", "height": "3601", "width": "2297", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "84 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe sluggishness of the circulation and the accumulation of\\nwaste substances, conditions which disappear with regular\\nexercise. Children and adults who devote all their time to\\nstudy or brain work, and neglect their exercise, will suffer\\nfor it. There is a time for all things. The most useful man\\nis one who has a strong brain, strong muscles, and a strong\\nheart. The object of muscular exercise is not to develop\\nmodern Samsons. Bodily vigor should be cultivated, not as\\nan end, but as a means to an end. Intellectual and spiritual\\nperfection are the real ends. The body is but the instrument.\\nA flabby state of the muscles keeps the body on the verge of\\na breakdown, and therefore a poor instrument.\\nTobacco smoking or chewing diminishes the usefulness of\\nthe muscles, first, by hindering their development if practiced\\nduring youth second, by its poisonous action whenever prac-\\nticed. The paralyzing effect of tobacco upon the nerve cen-\\nters diminishes the amount of nervous energy which a man\\ncan use in moving his muscles. All smokers are familiar\\nwith the inertia for muscular effort which comes after smok-\\ning. Tremor of the hand is also common with smokers when\\nthey try to perform acts requiring steadiness.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\n1. Place tlae fingers in the hollow of the elbow, and as the forearm is\\nflexed, note the tendon of the biceps muscle which draws up the forearm.\\nNote that the belly of the muscle swells and becomes hard in action.\\nMeasure the circumference of the arm over the biceps, first while the\\narm hangs free, second when the forearm is strongly flexed. Note the\\ndifference.\\n2. Find upon the skeleton the marks of the origin of this muscle\\nupon the scapula also the mark of the insertion of the tendon upon the\\nradius.\\n3. Note in the front of the wrist the prominent tendons of the\\nforearm muscles which flex the hand.\\nHolding the hand extended, flex the fingers, and note the motion of\\nthe deep muscles and tendons beneath the skin of the forearm.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "MOTION 85\\n4. Note upon the back of the hand the tendons o the extensor\\nmuscles of the fingers and hand.\\n5. To note how the muscles and tendons act as ligaments supporting\\nthe bones in the joints, clinch the fist and see how the cords upon the\\nback of the hand and wrist tighten, as well as those upon the front.\\n6. Structure of muscle.\\nExamine a piece of lean beef shank. Note the fascia which holds the\\nbundles.\\nBoil thoroughly. Pick the fibers apart. This will show that muscle\\nis made up of many fine fibers bound together, and will give some idea\\nof its structure.\\n7. Get a turkey leg. Note the white cordlike tendon in the back\\nof it. Pull this tendon and see how it moves the foot, just as did the\\nmuscle which pulled this tendon during life.\\n8. If some of the very finest muscle particles of the beef (Experi-\\nment 6) are placed in a drop of water, or, better still, a drop of one\\nper cent solution of common salt, the striped (striate) character of the\\nfibers can be made out under the microscope (two hundred diameters).\\n9. Structure of a joint.\\nGet a joint of a fowl with the two bones.\\nNote how the muscles and tendons cross it from the bone above to\\nthe bone below.\\nNote the action of these muscles and the joint.\\nNote the ligaments which hold the bones together at the joint.\\nCut through the capsule of the joint.\\nNote the smooth surfaces of the bone, lined with cartilage and moist\\nwith synovial fluid, and how they glide one upon the other.\\n10. Study the action of joints.\\nTo illustrate the combined action of muscles and joints in regard to\\nmechanism and force, the school should be provided with a joint\\napparatus. A description of such an apparatus and the experiments\\nwhich maybe made with this apparatus will be found in the Outlines\\nof Requirements for Harvard.\\n11. Proportion of water and solids in muscle.\\nCut up some fresh muscle. Weigh and dry it until the weight re-\\nmains constant. Determine loss of weight.\\n12. Demonstration.\\nTo a nerve muscle preparation from the hind leg of a dead frog at-\\ntach a recording apparatus. Apply a single electrical shock to the\\nmuscle. Note result. Apply single shock to nerve. Note result.\\nApply rapid succession of shocks to nerve. Note result.", "height": "3601", "width": "2286", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "86 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What are the organs of motion Where does the energy for this\\nmotion come from? How is it liberated? Describe a muscle. What is\\nthe characteristic property of muscle? Describe the method by which\\na muscle, as the biceps, accomplishes a motion of the part (the forearm).\\nWhat are the rough places upon the ends of the bones for? What is\\nmeant by antagonistic muscles?\\nII. Where is the action of each muscle controlled? Upon what system\\nis the physical mechanism of motion in the body based? Describe a lever.\\nWhat are the objects of the utilization of a lever? For which purpose is\\nit principally used in the body? Describe some motion of your body\\nillustrating each of the three classes of lever. Describe the act of\\nwalking.\\nIII. How is muscle classified according to its mode of action? Where\\nare the muscles of eacli class found? Describe the structure of voluntary\\nmuscle. What are tendons? What is the tendon of Achilles? What is\\nthe origin of a muscle? The insertion? Describe the structure of in-\\nvoluntary muscle. What kind of muscle is heart muscle? What is\\nrigor mortis\\nIV. What is the chief requisite in regard to the food for purposes of\\nmuscular development? What practice besides the eating of sufficient\\namounts of food is necessary for the full development of muscle?\\nWhat is the effect of the taking of alcoholic liquors during long periods\\nupon the capacity for muscular work\\nV. What kind of exercise is best? What muscle in the body is it most\\nimportant to have strong and sound? What is the best time for exer-\\ncise How much exercise should be taKen at a time\\nVI. When a man wishes to move a heavy stone too large to lift, what\\ninstrument does he employ? What is the mechanical principle involved\\nin the use of this tool What is the principle used in attaching a horse\\nto a pole running through a central axis, as in the moving of a house\\nalong a road? Give some illustrations of the utilization of this principle\\nin the body. Can you move both the upper and the lower jaws?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nTHE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\nI. FOOD. 11. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. III. DIGESTION AND\\nABSORPTION. IV. CIRCULATION AND ASSIMILATION.\\nTHE maintenance of life means the maintenance of\\nactivity of some kind. Man is constantly using his\\nmnscles in motion and locomotion. The brain is constantly\\nactive in directing these movements and in thinking. Even\\nin sleep, the cells of the body are in constant activity regu-\\nlating metabolism and the transformation of energy; the\\nblood is being circulated by the heart action, the air is being\\nbreathed in and out.\\nNeed of food. All this constant activity means the ex-\\npenditure of much energy. As described in an earlier chap-\\nter, the energy for work is supplied in the body by the\\ncombustion of the tissues themselves. The stored-up lateyit\\n[Latin latere, to lie hid energy of tissue substance is con-\\nverted to dynamic [Greek dunamis, force energy for\\nwork and heat by the oxidation of the substances with the free\\noxygen breathed in through the lungs. The process entails a\\nconstant wasting, a burning up of tissue substances. This\\nwaste has to be provided for by a constant replacement of\\nthe decomposed substances with new substances of the same\\nkind that is, the tissues must grow as fast as they waste,\\notherwise the body would wear out and life would cease.\\n87", "height": "3601", "width": "2297", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "88 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe material for the constant renewal of tissue the animal\\ngets in his food. By the frequent taking in of a food snpply,\\nsufficient when burned in the body to produce as much energy\\nas is used there and to repair the nitrogenous waste, the\\nequilibrium of the organism is maintained.\\nI. THE FOOD\\nConstitnents of animal food. The tissues are made up of\\ncombinations of certain elements. As stated on page 21,\\nthese are principally carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen,\\nsulphur, sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorine, phosphorus,\\niron, and magnesium.\\nSince these elements are the constituents of the tissues,\\nthey must be the constituents of the food which is to renew\\nthe tissues.\\nNeed of organic foods. The body is unable to take up in\\ntheir pure or separate state some of these constituents which\\nit needs for the building up of its tissues. Thus, it cannot\\ntake up the element nitrogen from the air, in which this sub-\\nstance exists in its free state, and it cannot use pure carbon\\n(charcoal) as a food.\\nTo use these substances the body has to get them in pre-\\nviously prepared combinations with hydrogen and oxygen.\\nSome of these combinations, known as organic foods, can be\\ntaken up by the body and broken up within it; and the\\nnitrogen and carbon which are contained in them can then be\\nused by the tissues as they are liberated by this breaking up\\nof the organic substances.\\nSo while the body takes some elements and some food sub-\\nstances in the simple form in which they exist in the air and\\nsoil, as free oxygen from the air, hydrogen and oxygen in\\nwater, sodium and chlorine in salt, the greater quantity of\\nthe necessary food substances is taken in the form of com-", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 89\\nbinations, similar in character to those which exist in the\\nbody, that is, in the form of organic substances.\\nThus, most of our foods we take as compounds of carbon,\\nhydrogen, and oxygen, known as carbohydrates and fats, or\\nof carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, known as proteids.\\nThese compounds are built up from the elements in the air and\\nsoil by the plants, and we get them in vegetables and fruits, or\\nin flesh, milk, or eggs, from the bodies of other animals which\\nhave eaten the plants. They are called organic foods} In\\ntaking them we get not only the use of the nitrogen, carbon,\\nand other elements contained in them for repair of our tissue,\\nbut also, as stated on page 27, the use of the energy which is\\nstored up in them in their production by the labor of the\\nplants. This energy of the foods is liberated for work in\\nthe body when the food is combined with the tissues and\\nburned. This combination and this combustion, as we have\\nseen, are carried on continuously by the tissue cells.\\nClasses of foods. The organic foods, as stated, are of three\\nclasses\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ^rofeic?,^, carbohydrates, and fats.\\nProteids (Greek protos, first most important) are sub-\\nstances consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,\\nand sulphur. The chief proteids of food are the gluten of\\nflour and many vegetables, the albumin of eggs, the casein\\nof milk, the myosin of meat. Proteid elements are the es-\\nsential constituent of the body tissues. As they alone of the\\norganic food substances contain nitrogen, they are abso-\\nlutely essential in the food supply. As they also contain the\\nother important constituent elements of the body, carbon,\\nhydrogen, and oxygen, man can subsist upon proteid food\\nalone, with the addition of water and mineral salts (Experi-\\nment 5, p. 122).\\nCarbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and\\noxygen. The chief carbohydrates of food are the starch of\\n1 See definition of organic substances, page 20 also Experiment 4, page 122.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "90 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nflour, rice, potatoes, cereals, the sugars of fruit, cane sugar,\\nglycogen, cellulose of grains (Experiments 7 and 8, p. 123).\\nFats are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.^\\nThe chief fats of food are butter and cream from milk, fat\\nof meat, oils.\\nBoth carbohydrates and fats enter into the forrftation of\\nthe body tissues. Neither food is absolutely essential to the\\nrenewal of tissue, however, as either can be built from pro-\\nteids. As these foods contain no nitrogen, the tissues cannot\\nbe sustained upon them alone. They are of great use for\\nthe acquirement and production of energy in the body, as\\nthey contain much latent energy and are easily broken up\\nto liberate it.\\nIn addition to the organic foods man must have water and\\nminerals. Water he gets in most foods (Experiment 10,\\np. 123). Thus, many vegetables contain eighty per cent of\\nwater in their substance. In addition man does and should\\ndrink a certain amount of extra water.\\nThe mineral salts he gets from his organic foods (Experi-\\nment 11, p. 123). Thus, the sodium chloride, phosphates and\\ncarbonates of calcium, magnesium, iron, and so forth, are\\ncontained in the milk and meat and grains and vegetables.\\nOne salt, the chloride of sodium, he takes separately as\\ncommon salt.\\nQuantity and proportion of foods in diet. A man must take\\nas much food as he uses up. A man who works needs more\\nthan a man who stays in bed or one who loafs. In doing more\\nwork he uses more energy, and the production of this energy\\nentails greater waste of his tissue, which has to be replaced.\\nA man with moderate exercise uses up in a day about four\\nthousand grains of carbon and about three hundred grains\\n1 In carbohydrates the hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the same proportion\\nas in water, i.e., two of hydrogen to one of oxygen in the fats the hydrogen and\\noxygen are not combined in the same proportion as in water (Experiment 9, p. 123).", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 91\\nof nitrogen. This is the amount which comes away as\\nwaste, the carbon in carbon dioxide, the nitrogen in urea,\\nand this is therefore the amount which must go into his food.\\nIf he takes more carbon or nitrogen than he needs it will do\\nhim no good, but simply make more work for his organs.\\nChoice of food. So in choosing his food he must try to get\\na combination which contains these amounts of carbon and\\nnitrogen, but not much more of either. To do this he has to\\nmake his meals of several kinds of food, as most foods do not\\ncontain in the right proportions all the substances which we\\nneed. Thus, bread contains both carbon and nitrogen, but\\nin such proportions that a man has to take twice the neces-\\nsary amount of carbon to get the necessary nitrogen. A man\\nwould need four pounds of bread a day to subsist on bread,\\nwhich, besides giving him the extra carbon to dispose of,\\nwould necessitate his eating a large bulk of food and over-\\ntaxing his digestion.\\nMeat alone, to give the necessary amount of carbon, would\\ncontain three times the amount of nitrogen required.\\nIf, however, a man combines bread and meat, or meat and\\nvegetables, he can get the proper amount of the necessary\\nelements into his body without marked excess of any kind.\\nThat is the reason that men live on a mixed diet}\\nThere are some foods, as milk, which contain the carbon\\nand nitrogen in proper proportion but in taking enough milk\\nto supply the body an adult has to take an excessive quantity,\\nand gets more mineral salts and fat than he needs. The\\ngrowing infant needs these salts and fat, and thus thrives on\\nmilk.\\nCertain vegetables, beans or peas for example, contain\\nnitrogen and carbon in about the proper proportions.\\n1 The Eskimo lives upon animal food alone, the Hindoo \\\\ipon vegetable food; but\\nexperience teaches ns that the peoples of the world who have accomplished most are\\nthose who use both kinds of food.", "height": "3601", "width": "2290", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "92 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nII. THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION\\nHow the food gets to the tissues. We have seen that the\\nmaterial necessary for the production of the body tissues, and\\nof the energy to keep the life going, is supplied to the cells\\nby the ingestion (Latin in, in, and gerere, to carry of\\nfood. In order that this food which we eat may be of use to\\nthe organism, it has first to be digested (Latin dis, apart,\\nand gerere, to carry then absorbed (Latin ah, from, and\\nsorhere, to suck up and carried to the cells, where it is as-\\nsimilated (Latin ad, to, and similis, like to make like).\\nThe food is first taken into the alimentary canal, consisting\\nof the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Through the walls of\\nthis canal it is absorbed into the blood, and carried by this\\nto the lymph, from which the ceUs take it up.^\\nObject of digestion. The food, like all substances, is made\\nup of a combination of minute particles, called molecules.\\nThe waUs of the alimentary canal may be likened to a very\\nfine sieve. Through this sieve the molecules of the food\\nmust pass before they get to the blood. Now, the molecules\\nof most of our food substances are too large to go through\\nthe sieve so the food substances have to be changed in the\\ncanal to other substances with smaUer molecules before they\\ncan be absorbed. This process of the transformation of the\\nfood into solable, diffusible materials is called digestion?\\n1 It must be understood that the real latilization of the food is in the cells of the\\nvarious tissues. The digestion and circulation, and the organs which accomplish these\\nfunctions, are useful merely to prepare the food for the cells, and to get it to them. All\\nhigher animals have organs of this kind, because the cells are so placed that the food\\nlias to be brought to them. In verj low forms of animal life (as the amoeba), however,\\nthere is no digestive or circulatory system. The cell takes up the food directly from\\nthe water or earth about it, wherever it comes in contact with any food, just as the\\ncells in our body take the food up from the blood or lymph.\\n2 Thus, the proteid substances of meat and bread, the albumins and so-called native\\nproteids, will not pass the membrane of the intestine into the blood. They have first\\nto be digested to peptones, which will pass through these animal membranes.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\n93\\nThe process of digestion and absorption is reaUy far\\nmore complex than this description implies. The intestinal\\nwalls are not a true sieve. The absorption is due to the ac-\\ntivity of the living cells, which pass the substances through\\nthem. But the food first does have to be broken into smaller\\nmolecules to get through the cells, and thus the process is\\nanalogous to the straining through a sieve (Experiments\\n15, a, h, 16, 17, pp. 125-127).\\nThe alimentary tract. Digestion of the food takes place,\\nas we have said, in the organ or series of organs known as\\nthe alimentary (Latin alere, to nourish tract or canal.\\nThis canal, starting with the mouth, includes the structures\\nknown as the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Con-\\nnected with it are several structures known as glayids, which\\nassist in its function, as the salivary glands (Greek sialon,\\nspittle liver, smd pancreas. The whole combined struc-\\nture of canal and glands forms one great digestive organ.\\nThe mucous membrane. The whole alimentary canal is\\nlined, with one continuous membrane, known as the mucous\\nmembrane. This mem-\\nbrane is lined with an inner\\nlayer of epithelial cells of\\ncubical or cylindrical shape,\\nwhich secrete a fluid sub-\\nstance known as mucus.\\nBesides the epithelial layer\\nor layers, the membrane\\nconsists of an under layer of connective tissue carrying nerves\\nand vessels. The walls of the canal include this mucous\\nmembrane, and in most parts outside layers of plain muscu-\\nlar tissue, which give them motion. The stomach has three\\nmuscular layers, the intestines two layers.\\nGlands. Throughout the whole length of the canal are\\nstructures called glands; these manufacture substances\\nMucous membrane.", "height": "3603", "width": "2284", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "94\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nand pour them into the canal to aid in digestion and ab-\\nsorption. These glands may lie in the mucous membrane\\nof the canal, as the gas-\\ntric glands, or form\\nseparate isolated struc-\\ntures, as the liver.\\nIn structure, a gland\\nconsists of a collection\\nof epithehal cells built\\nup in connective tissue\\naround a well or duct.\\nThe simplest gland is\\nmerely a blind tube lined\\nwith secreting cells. It\\nlooks like a well, the\\ncells lying about the wall\\nlike the stones in the wall\\nof a well. Many glands\\nconsist of clusters of\\nthese short blind tubes\\nbranching out from\\none another, all built\\nup by connective tissue\\ninto a separate struc-\\nture with nerves and\\nblood vessels. Such are the racemose (Latin raeemus, sl\\nbunch of grapes glands, as the pancreas and salivary\\nglands.\\nSecretion. The epithelial cells of the gland take up sub-\\nstances from the blood, and transform them into a new\\nsubstance known as the gland secretion (Latin secernere, to\\nseparate This they pour forth from their duct into the\\ndigestive canal. If we examine the secreting cells of glands\\nlike the salivary at a period when no digestion is going on in\\nGlands iu mucous membrane.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\n95\\nthe part of the canal supplied by these glands, we see that the\\nprotoplasm of the cells is filled with abundant granules.\\nDuring digestion these granules disappear. They repre-\\nsent, together with the water and salts which are secreted\\nby tlie cells, the material of the secretion.\\nThe mouth. The process of digestion begins in the mouth.\\nThe mouth cavity contains the teeth, the tongue, the palate,\\nand a digestive secretion, the saliva.\\nThe teeth are hard, bonelike structures attached to the\\njaws. Each tooth consists of a crown and Jangs. In its\\na\\nTeeth.\\na, incisors b, canine c, bicuspids d, molars.\\ncenter is a cavity filled with soft pulp. The substance of the\\nteeth is known as dentine. The crown, which is the part\\nuncovered, is capped with a very hard substance known as\\nenamel. Over the fangs, which are imbedded in the gums, is\\na substance known as cement, which cements the fang to\\nthe periosteum of the jawbone in the fang socket. Nerves\\nand blood vessels enter the tooth by a central canal to the\\npulp cavity.", "height": "3601", "width": "2293", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "96 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe two sets of teeth. Man has two sets of teeth\u00e2\u0080\u0094 one the\\nmilk teeth, coming in infancy, a second the permanent teeth,\\nreplacing these in adult life. The adult has thirty-two teeth,\\nsixteen in each jaw, and eight in each half of the jaw. In\\neach jaw the four middle teeth are chisel-shaped for cutting\\nthe food they are called the incisors (Latin incidere, to cut\\nNext to these on each side comes a pointed tooth, the canine\\n(Latin canis, dog like a dog tooth); then two Ucuspids\\n(Latin his, twice, and cuspis, spear two-pronged) on\\neach side, with double crowns and forked fangs last, three\\nmolars (Latin niola, mill or grinders, which have large,\\nrough crowns for crushing the food, and several fangs.\\nThe milk teeth are twenty in number\u00e2\u0080\u0094 two incisors, one\\ncanine, and two molars on a side of each jaw. They come\\nduring the second year, and drop out to make way for the\\npermanent set in the sixth or seventh year.\\nThe tongue is a movable muscular organ covered with a\\nmucous membrane. In this membrane are situated the\\norgans of the sense of taste. In health the surface of the\\ntongue is red and moist.\\nThe digestive secretion of the mouth, the saliva, is a viscid,\\nwatery, alkaline fluid. It is poured into the mouth from the\\norifices of the ducts of three pairs of glands, the parotid (Greek\\npara, near, and ous, ear the suhmaxiUary (Latin sub, un-\\nder, and maxilla, jaw and the suUingual (Latin sub, un-\\nder, and limjua, tongue glands, situated in the tissues of\\nthe throat and neck. The parotids, just below and in front\\nof the ears, are the glands which are swollen in the mumps.\\nMastication (Latin masticare, to chew The work of\\nthe mouth in digestion is principally a mechanical one. By\\nmovements of the lower jaw the food is broken up between\\nthe teeth. This is called mastication. The food by the same\\nprocess is thoroughly mixed with the saliva and softened.\\nThis food is then collected by the action of the tongue and", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 97\\ncheeks and thrust into the back of the mouth. By the con-\\ntraction of the muscular walls of the fauces, the bolas, or ball\\n(Greek hoJos, a mass of food is then squeezed into the\\npharynx, the soft palate, or uvula, a tissue curtain which\\nDissection of face, showing parotid gland with duct leading to\\nthe cavity of the mouth, and submaxillary gland.\\np, parotid sm, submaxillary d, duct of parotid n, nerves (branches of facial)\\nartery of the face.\\nyou can see hanging from the roof of the mouth at its pos-\\nterior end, being raised.\\nThe pharynx is a cavity connecting the mouth with the\\nesophagus. The uvula (Latin uva, grape shuts it off from\\nthe mouth. Above it is entered by the posterior openings of", "height": "3600", "width": "2293", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "98 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe nose cavities, at the sides by the Eustachian tubes con-\\nnecting with the middle ear, in front below by the larynx,\\nbehind by the esophagus. The epiglottis (Greek epi, upon,\\nand glottis, glottis is a fold of tissue which extends from\\nthe walls of the larynx aeross the opening from the pharynx\\nto the larynx, and shuts off the larynx and windpipe from\\nthe pharynx while food is passiug. When not perfectly\\nclosed the food may get into the windpipe. This is what\\noccurs when food goes the wrong way.\\nDeglutition (or swallowing) (Latin (leglntire, ^Ho swal-\\nlow The food is carried through the pharynx by the con-\\ntinuation of the muscular action of swallowing begun at the\\nfauces, and is forced into the esophagus. It is then forced\\nalong the esophagus by the action of the muscular walls, and\\ninto the stomach. The first part of swallowing, the forcing\\nof the food through the fauces, is voluntary. After the food\\nreaches the opening of the esophagus the swallowing goes on\\nwithout our conscious control.\\nThe esophagus (Greek oiso, ^I shaU bear, and jyJiagein,\\nto eat is a muscular tube which runs along the spine\\nfrom throat to stomach. Its walls contain striate and plain\\nmuscular tissue, which aids in the progress of the food.\\nThe stomach is a dilated pouch of the alimentary canal lying\\nin the upper part of the abdomen, and rests just below the\\nribs on the left side. In structure its walls consist of a\\nmucous membrane and three layers of muscular tissue\\nabout it.\\nThe mucous membrane of the stomach is lined with a single\\nlayer of cylindrical epithelial cells. Throughout the surface\\nof the membrane are numerous shallow pits, into which open\\nthe ducts of the gastric glands which lie imbedded in the\\nmembrane. (See diagram, p. 94.)\\nThe principal secretion of the stomach is a watery acid\\nfluid known as the gastric juice.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\nThe food enters the stomach bj the opening from the\\nesophagus, the car^Ziac (Greek kardia, heart Here it is\\nthoroughly mixed with the secretions by the motions of the\\nstomach walls, and digested. It is then pushed, by the mus-\\nSection showing course of food through pharynx and esophagus.\\nA, cavity of mouth showing teeth; B, epiglottis; C, pharynx; D, esophagus;\\nU, soft palate F, nasal cavity S, S, spine.\\ncular action of the stomach walls, through the passage from\\nthe stomach to the intestines, the pijlorus (Greek jmle, gate,\\nand oiiros, keeper This pylorus is an opening bounded\\nby a firm muscular rmg. During digestion in the stomach\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 7", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "100\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe opening is closed most of the time by the contraction of\\nthe muscle. From time to time it relaxes and allows a little\\ndigested food to pass through.\\nWhen all the food is digested as\\nfar as it can be in the stomach,\\nthe whole mass passes into the\\nintestine.\\nThe intestine (Latin intns,\\nwithin is divided into the\\nsmall intestine and the large in-\\ntestine. It consists of a tube\\ntwenty-five feet in length, lying\\nmostly in coils in the abdomen,\\nbelow the liver and stomach.\\nThe coils are supported by folds\\nof connective tissue known as\\nthe mesentery (Greek w^fsos, mid-\\ndle, and enteron, intestine\\nwhich carry blood vessels to the\\nintestines. Externally both the\\nstomach and the greater part of\\nthe intestine are covered with the\\nserous co^ ering of the abdominal\\ncavity, the peritoneum [Greek peri,\\naround, and teino,^^ I stretch\\nThe walls of the intestine consist of a mucous membrane\\nand two la^^ers of muscular tissue external to this.\\nIn the small intestine the mucous membrane lies like a\\nloose sleeve in folds or tucks called valvulce conniventes. The\\nmembrane is filled with numerous small glands, the crypts of\\nLieherkiihn, which open among the cells of the lining epithe-\\nlium. Between the glands the membrane is raised into many\\nStomach and intestine. i\\na, stomach h, cardiac orifice c, py\\nlonis d, duodenum e, large inte s\\ntine small intestine.\\n1 This cut is diagrammatic and does not give exact positions or relations of the organs\\nincluded.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\n101\\nsmall processes called vilU, which give to the surface of the\\nintestine the appearance of velvet.\\nThe villi (Latin villus, a nap of cloth are organs for\\nthe absorption of the digested food. Each villus is a minute\\npillar or conical elevation made up of connective tissue lined\\nwith the epithelial cells\\nof the intestinal mem-\\nbrane, and carrying\\nblood vessels and a lym-\\nphatic vessel known as\\na lacteal (Latin lac,\\nmilk The food is\\npassed through the cells\\nof the villus wall, col-\\nlected in the lacteal and\\nefferent vessels, and\\nborne away to the blood\\nstream. The intesti-\\nnal wall also contains\\ncollections of glands\\ncalled Peyer s patches.\\nBesides the secretions\\nfrom the crypts of Lieberkiihn and other glands which lie in\\nthe wall, the intestine is also supplied by secretions from two\\nlarge glands which lie separate from it and empty into it\\nby ducts, the liver and the pancreas (G-reek pan, all/ and\\nkreas, flesh\\nThe liver is a large gland which lies beneath the diaphragm\\n(the large muscle which forms the floor of the thoracic\\ncavity and the roof of the abdominal cavity) and ribs, mostly\\non the right side of the abdomen. A secretion of this gland,\\nthe Ule, is poured into the intestine during digestion. It aids\\nin the digestion and absorption of the food, principally the\\nfats. From the blood which is brought to the liver by its\\nVilli in mucous membrane of small\\nintestine.\\na, lacteal b, blood vessel (vein) e, epithelial\\ncells g, glands.", "height": "3599", "width": "2301", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "102 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nafferent vessels, the hepatic artery and portal vein, substances\\nare taken np by the liver cells and formed into certain prod-\\nucts known as bile and glycogen. The substances are taken\\nfrom the blood on one side of the cells, combined, and the\\ncompound formed is discliar ged as bile into ducts on the\\nother side of the cells. These ducts finally bring the bile\\nto a large duct, the hepatic duct, which runs into the in-\\ntestine.\\nConnected with the bile duct is a large bladder, the gall\\nbladder. The bile is secreted continuously. During digestion\\nit is poured into the intestine. At other periods it is stored\\nin the gall bladder, from which it is discharged when diges-\\ntion is on again. The bile is, in part at least, an excretion in\\nwhich waste is removed from the blood. It is useful in part\\nalso as a secretion facilitating the digestion and absorption\\nof fats in the intestine.\\nThe pancreas is a gland lying in the bend of the small\\nintestine. It consists of clusters of blind tubes lined with\\ncubical cells, all uniting in a large duct which enters the\\nintestine.\\nThe partly digested mass of food from the stomach, the\\nchyme, enters the upper intestine through the narrow con-\\nstriction of the stomach, the pylorus, which relaxes to allow\\nit to pass. Here it is mixed with the intestinal secretions,\\nsuch as the bile and the pancreatic juice, and further di-\\ngested. As tlie now well-digested food is forced along by\\nthe contraction of the muscular walls of the intestine, much\\nof it is absorbed by the villi and intestinal cells. The resi-\\ndue is forced along into the large intestine.\\nThe large intestine is separated from the small by a valve,\\nthe ileoccecal valve. Just beyond this valve lies the pouch\\ncaUed the appendix. This appendix is a rudimentary struc-\\nture corresponding to a useful one in the lower animals.\\nThe wall of the large intestine, Hke the waU of the small", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 103\\nintestine, consists of mucous membrane and muscle layers.\\nTlie membrane is fiUed with tubular glands, but contains\\nno villi.\\nThe muscles of the walls are arranged in three longitudi-\\nnal bands. The contents of the small intestine, the food\\nwhich has escaped absorption there, the indigestible residue,\\nand the detritus from the intestinal walls and the blood, are\\npassed along the large intestine. Here more food and most\\nof the water are absorbed. The residue is passed on as a\\nthick mass to the rectum, where it is expelled Sisfceces (Latin\\nfaex, di-egs\\nHYGIENE OF THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION\\nThe members of the body rebelled against the Belly, and said, Why\\nshould we perpetually engage in ministering to your wants, while you\\ndo nothing but take your rest and enjoy yourself in luxury and self-\\nindulgence? The members carried out their resolve, and refused their\\nassistance to the Belly. The whole body quickly became debilitated,\\nand the hands, feet, mouth, and eyes, when too late, repented of their\\nfolly.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ^sop.\\nThe action of the organs of digestion and absorption is\\nregulated by what is known as an automatic self-acting\\nnervous mechanism, and is beyond our conscious control.\\nWe simply provide the proper food at the proper intervals,\\nand the digestion goes on witliout our giving any thought to\\nthe process. In fact, beyond attending to the thorough mas-\\ntication of the food and the swallowing of small amounts at a\\ntime, the less we think about the process of digestion the\\nbetter.^\\nBut although we do not control this function, we can, by\\n1 The mind has a marked influence upon the process of digestion. Strong emo-\\ntions, such as fear, anger, or grief, at mealtime destroy both the appetite and the\\npower of digestion. Business cares and anxiety brought to the table counteract the\\nbest efforts of the best of cooks. All unpleasant topics or remarks should be accounted\\nhygienic sins. Mealtime is the time for fun and laughter, for pleasant stories and\\namusing anecdotes.", "height": "3593", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "104 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncare in diet and in the practice of eating, influence to a great\\nextent the health of the organs and the efficacy of their\\nfunction. We must eat plenty of food in order to provide\\nfor the body needs but in so doing we should alwa^^s choose\\nand take the food in such a manner as to avoid injuring\\nthe digestive organs, and to make their work as easy as\\npossible.\\nIn the fii*st place, we must have our food as digestible as\\npossible. It is foolish to use up the energy of the organs\\nand perhaps injure them by giving them some indigestible\\nsubstance like green apples or tough meat, when we can get\\nas much or more nourishment from some easily digestible\\ntootV\\nMastication. We can aid in the digestion of the food by\\nchewing it thoroughly. Food which is broken up into fine\\nparticles and softened is more easily digested, as the diges-\\ntive juices can ^et at it better. If we swallow large pieces\\nof meat or bread they are very slowly digested, and thus bur-\\nden and perhaps injure the stomach.\\nCare of the teeth. To chew our food thoroughly we must\\nhave good teeth. If the teeth are not properly cared for\\nthey decay, and thus we may lose them. If the food sub-\\nstances which collect about them in chewing are allowed to\\nremain there, they undergo a process of fermentation or\\ndecomposition, and form substances which are injurious to\\nthe teeth. The teeth should be thoroughly brushed at least\\ntwice daily. Some harmless tooth powder recommended by a\\ncompetent dentist, or a good soap, should be used as often as\\nnecessary to keep them free from tartar. The particles of\\nfood which collect between the teeth should be removed by\\nsome soft thread, as floss. Neglect of cleanliness, besides\\n1 Some indigestible residue is useful (see p. 138). Thus, the residue of fruits and\\nvegetables keeps the intestines in working order. But the above principle is to be fol\\nlowed in general.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 105\\nfacilitating decay, permits a substance known as tartar to col-\\nlect upon the teeth, which helps to loosen and destroy them.\\nPeople with poor teeth frequently suffer from indigestion,\\nas the food cannot be broken up into small pieces before\\nbeing swallowed, or collects some of the foul decomposi-\\ntion products from the mouth, which irritate the stomach.^\\nCooking. To make our food more digestible most of it\\nis prepared by cooking. This process disintegrates and\\nsoftens the food, so that we can more easily break it up in\\nthe mouth and stomach. Thus, the nutritious muscle fiber\\nof meat is separated from its indigestible connective tissue\\nsupports. The hard shells of corn and oats are softened and\\nseparated.\\nCooking also brings out the flavors of food substances and\\nmakes them more appetizing.\\nEating too fast. The food should be chewed slowly and\\nswallowed in small amounts, as the stomach can take care of\\nthe food better if it receives it a little at a time. There is no\\nmore common cause of indigestion than rapid eating.\\nDrinking. Large amounts of liquid should not be drunk\\nwith our meals, as this dilutes the digestive juice and delays\\ndigestion. A glassful of water may be sipped with the meals.\\nAn equal amount of water should be taken in the same\\nmanner between meals.\\nOvereating. We must be moderate in the quantity of food\\nwhich we eat. Stuffing overloads and stretches the stomach,\\n1 Forty newsboys, ranging in years from fifteen to eighteen, applied recently for\\nappointments in tlie United States naval service. Thirty-eight out of the forty were\\nrejected on account of physical defects, the cause of rejection in most cases being\\nunsoundness of the teeth.\\nSavages have stronger teeth than civilized men, owing probably to the fact that they\\neat harder food, which exercises the muscles and bloodvessels of these parts and keeps\\nthem well supplied with blood.\\nThe teeth are especially liable to decay soon after their appearance the enamel has\\nnot then attained its maximum density. They should be watched and a dentist con-\\nsulted as soon as any signs of decay are detected.", "height": "3601", "width": "2276", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "106 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nso that it cannot do its work. It irritates the waUs of the\\nstomach and causes inflammation.\\nThe body needs a certain amount of food daily. If we\\neat more than this we do not get stronger, as the body can-\\nnot use it. We simply overtax the digestive and eliminating\\norgans. Overeating makes people dull and lazy. They can-\\nnot work well they build up fat instead of muscle, and this\\nfat is a burden, not a benefit, to them. They get their or-\\ngans out of order and suffer from indigestion and biliousness.\\nFurther, we must not eat large amounts of one substance,\\nbut should divide our diet among several kinds of food, as\\nmeat, vegetables, bread, milk, fish, fruit.\\nThe habit of eating large amounts of sweets, as candy,\\ncake, and pastry, is a bad one. The body does not need so\\nmuch sugar. It cannot use it, and the organs get overworked\\nand out of order. There is a very serious disease, known as\\ndiabetes, which sometimes is associated with eating much\\nsweet food. This eating of sweet substances also takes away\\nour appetite for other foods which are necessary.\\nThe amount of food which we need varies with the work\\nwhich we do and tlie climate in which we live. Men who\\nwork hard all day need more food than those who rest or\\nloaf. In cold weather or in cold climates people need more\\nfood than in warm. The cold air tends to remove more heat\\nfrom the body, and this loss has to be made up for by more\\nfood. The Eskimos, who live in the North, eat tremendous\\namounts of food, often as much as fifteen pounds a day.\\nMealtime. Eating between meals. In order that we may\\nnot overburden the digestive organs we divide our food into\\nmeals. It is best in temperate zones to take three meals a\\nday, at intervals of about five or six hours\u00e2\u0080\u0094 say breakfast at\\nseven, lunch or dinner from twelve to one, dinner or supper\\nat six. Between these meals one should not eat, as the\\ndigestive organs, like the body itself, need some time to rest.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 107\\nA man should not eat heartily within one or two hours of\\nbedtime, as the function of digestion is less active during sleep.\\nHe should not do hard work with his muscles or with his\\nbrain directly after a meal, as this exercise takes the blood\\naway from the digestive organs, where it is needed.\\nWhen a man comes in tired, it is a bad plan for him to\\neat heartily at once. In his fatigued condition the functions\\nof digestion will not respond to the call upon them.\\nFinally, we must avoid all substances which irritate or\\ninjure the digestive organs or disturb their function.\\nRelishes. The spices\u00e2\u0080\u0094 pepper, curry, and similar sub-\\nstances\u00e2\u0080\u0094which are added to foods to make them appetizing\\nare frequently irritating to the membrane of the stomach.\\nThe healthy man has a good appetite to make him relish his\\nfood, and needs no extra relishes. If, however, he gets used\\nto having his food highly spiced, he becomes dependent upon\\nthese additions and the feeling of warmth which they cause\\nin the stomach. He thus has to continue irritating his\\nstomach and liver to keep up an appetite.\\nAlcohol. Prominent among these substances which may\\nirritate and injure the digestive organs are the beverages\\nknown as alcoholic liquors. Alcohol is a distinct irritant of\\ntissue. If it be applied to the tongue it causes a burning\\nsensation. It does the same thing when it touches the\\nmucous membrane of the stomach. This irritation, where it\\nis often repeated or severe, causes disorder and injury of the\\nstomach. The irritated cells pour forth an excessive secre-\\ntion, and become in time, if the irritation is kept up, inca-\\npable of performing their ordinary function.^\\n1 CMttendeii (American Joiimal of the Medical Sciences, vol. cxi.; American Journal\\nof Physiology, vol. 1.) has made careful experiments upon the effect of varying amounts\\nof alcohol upon gastric digestion. He finds, in digestion experiments made with mix-\\ntures of digestive juice outside the body, that even small amounts of alcohol retard di-\\ngestion. The same amounts cause a sliglit increase in the secretion of gastric juice\\nwhen taken into the body. Tlie retardation effects and the secretion effects practically\\nijeutralize each other, as regards the total effect of alcohol upon gastric digestion.", "height": "3601", "width": "2293", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "108 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe harmful action of alcohol upon the digestive organs\\ndoes not stop with the stomach. The liver, which purifies the\\nblood flowing from the alimentary tract, has this irritant\\nsubstance passing through its cells. Where this irritation is\\nlong continued there is reason to believe that the cells are\\ninjured the liver becomes less able to perform its functions.\\nHabitual drinkers not infrequently suffer from an incurable\\ndisease known as cirrhosis of the liver, of w^hicli the alcohol\\nis in all probability to some extent a cause.\\nAnother practice which is apt to injure the digestive organs\\nis taking hot or cold substances. Very hot substances cause\\ninflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth, esoph-\\nagus, and stomach.\\nDrinking much ice water without food irritates the stom-\\nach walls and makes one liable to indigestion. Drinking it\\nwith food often benumbs the cells, and thus delays the secre-\\ntion of gastric juice and digestion. If one drinks ice water\\nhe should take simply a few sips at a time, as this small\\namount is warmed by the body almost as soon as it reaches\\nthe stomach.\\nThe drinking of large amounts of liquid is apt to stretch\\nthe stomach and make it less able to perform its functions.\\nThus, beer drinkers often have stomachs which are stretched\\nmuch beyond their natural size. Such stomachs cannot, as a\\nrule, digest food or pass it on to the intestines for absorption\\nso w^ell as normal stomachs.\\nTobacco. Smoking is very apt to set up an irritation of\\nthe stomach and a disordered state of the secretions. This is\\ndue in part to the large amounts of saliva and mucus swal-\\nlowed, and in part to the systemic action of the poison.\\nThe tobacco often seems to relieve the desire for food. This\\nit does by benumbing the nerve sensibility upon which the\\nsensation of hunger depends. By such action it impairs\\nthe appetite.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 109\\nChewing gum. The habit of chewing gum as a rule is\\none to be avoided. This practice calls forth an excessive\\nsecretion of saliva. This saliva is swallowed, and either\\nkeeps the stomach in a constant state of excitation or hinders\\nthe activity of the acid juices there.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\nA good object lesson in regard to the needs of mastication, and to the\\nadaptation of the teeth and jaws for different kinds of food, may be ob-\\ntained by the study of the method of mastication, and the teeth and jaws,\\nof various animals.\\nA carnivorous (flesh-eating) animal, as the dog, seizes his meat and\\nswallows it with but little chewing. A herbivorous (vegetable-feeding)\\nanimal, as the horse, chews his food for a long time, with a lateral as\\nwell as an up-and-down movement of the jaw. This suggests that\\nvegetable foods are less easy to digest and need more breaking up and\\nmixture with saliva than animal food and this is true of uncooked vege-\\ntable food, oats, gi-ass, etc. If you look at the jaw of the horse or cow you\\nwill see that its articulation allows of a lateral motion, while that of the\\ndog allows only a hinge (up-and-down) motion. This is to enable the\\nhorse to grind his food thoroughly.\\nThe teeth of the carnivora will be seen to be adapted for tearing\\nand cutting, even the molars having sharp edges, and closing past each\\nother like the blades of a pair of scissors.\\nThe teeth of the herbivora will be seen to be fitted for grinding, the\\nmolars having rough, flat surfaces. These teeth, like an emery wheel,\\nthough they grind other things smooth, are themselves always rough.\\nThat is because they are formed of two substances, which wear away at\\ndifferent rates, so that an uneven surface is always left.\\nIf we now examine our own teeth and jaws we shall see, first, that we\\nhave both the cutting teeth of the carnivora and the grinders of the\\nherbivora second, that our jaws allow of both the up-and-down and the\\nlateral motion so that we are fitted for both the animal and vegetable\\ndiet.\\nIt is noticeable that among civilized nations the teeth are becoming\\nless sound and vigorous. This is partly due to the fact that with the\\nuse of cooked food, food already ground and softened, there is less use", "height": "3601", "width": "2287", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "110 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nfor the teeth, and so, according to the law of evolution, they, as super-\\nfluous organs, are tending to disappear.\\nMASTICATION AND DEGLUTITION\\n1. Chew and swallow slowly some food substance.\\nNote how the different teeth act in the mastication, how the tongue\\nand cheek muscles help in the process.\\nNote that swallowing begins as a voluntary act, but that the food once\\nstarted is beyond control.\\n2. Note where the skin ends on the lips and where the mucous\\nmembrane begins.\\n3. Wipe the tongue dry and place sugar upon it. At fii-st there is\\nno taste, as the sugar has to be dissolved to affect the taste organs.\\n4. Look into a boy s mouth and wipe the part under the tongue\\ndi y. As you look a drop of saliva will collect.\\nIII. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION\\nWe have obtained an idea of tlie nature of the food with\\nwhich the body must be supplied, and of the organs by which\\nthis food is digested aud made ready for assimilation by the\\ntissues. We must now endeavor to trace this food from its\\nentrance into the alimentary canal to its destination where it\\nappears transformed into tissues, muscle, flesh, and bones.\\nSalivary digestion (Experiment 13, p. 124). Digestion of\\nthe food begins in the mouth, under the action of the saliva.\\nThe saliva is an alkaline fluid which contains a ferment\\ncalled pfi/alin (Greek j^f^fff^o)}, saliva This ptyalin has\\nthe power at the temperature of the body of converting-\\nstarch, whicli cannot be absorbed through the membrane of\\nthe alimentary canal, into sugar which can be absorbed.\\nDigestion of the starch of bread or vegetables therefore\\nbegins when such food has been mixed with the saliva.\\nYou can illustrate this digestion by holding in the mouth\\na little starch paste (see Experiment 13, p. 124) and noting\\nthe sweet taste which develops in a short time.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 111\\nThe proteids and fats are not acted upon by the saliva.\\nDigestive ferments. These ferments, of which ptyalin is\\nan example, are very important agents in digestion. They\\nare chemical products of the gland cells which have the\\npower of bringing about changes in the food substances with-\\nout themselves being used up in the process.^ Tliere are\\nother forms of ferments, of which the yeast cells and bac-\\nteria are examples, which are alive. They are called organized\\nferments. In distinction from these the chemical ferments\\nare known as unorganized ferments.\\nDigestion in the stomach (Experiment 14, p. 125). The food\\nenters the stomach as a soft mass mixed with the alkaline\\nsaliva. Here it is mixed with the digestive secretion of the\\nstomach known as the gastric juice (Greek gaster, stomach\\nThis juice secreted by the gastric glands upon the stimula-\\ntion of the food contains an acid, hydrochloric acid, and two\\nferments, pepsin (Greek peptein, to digest and rennin. It\\nacts principally upon proteids. The acid and pepsin acting\\ntogether convert the native albumins of meat and vege-\\ntables to albumoses and peptones^ forms of proteid which\\ncan be absorbed. The rennin coagulates casein, the proteid\\nof milk.\\nThe action of the saliva upon starch is stopped by the acid\\ngastric juice. The carbohydrates and fats are not digested\\nby the gastric juice, which does, however, digest away the\\nalbuminous envelope of the fat cells, and thus by freeing the\\nfat facilitates its digestion later.\\nDigestion in the intestine. The food, after remaining in the\\nstomach until proteid digestion is suf cieiitly advanced, is\\npropelled into the intestine. This period is from three to six\\n1 The most important digestive ferments are the ptyalin of the saliva and the amy-\\nlopsin of the pancreatic juice, which convert starch to sugar; the pepsin of the gastric\\njuice and the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, which convert albumins to albumoses\\nand peptones; the rennin, which coagulates (curdles) milk; the ferment of the intes-\\ntinal juice, which inverts cane sugar.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "112 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nhours with a full meal. Practically but little absorption\\noccurs in the stomach.\\nThe digested gastric contents, or chyme, enters the duode-\\nnum, and is there acted upon by the pancreatic juice and bile\\nand the secretions of the intestinal glands (see p. 128).\\nThe pancreatic juice is a watery alkaline fluid containing\\nsodium carbonate and three ferments, amijlopsin, tnjpsin, and\\nsteapsin.\\nThe amylopsin digests starch to sugar. The starch foods\\nwhich have escaped the salivary action, or those which have\\nnot been completely converted to glucose, are here fully\\ndigested.\\nThe trypsin^ like the pepsin, digests proteids, but in an\\nalkaline medium instead of an acid. The proteids which\\nescape complete digestion in the stomach are finished here.\\nThe steapsin acts upon the fats, splitting the natural fat\\ninto fatty acid and glycerin.\\nThe intestinal juice from the small glands which lie in the\\nwalls of the membrane contains a ferment which inverts\\nsugar that is, it turns the cane sugar which we eat to invert\\nsugar a sugar with smaller molecules, more suited for absorp-\\ntion.\\nWith the action of the intestinal secretions the digestion of\\nthe food is completed. The native food substances have been\\nconverted to soluble forms with molecules small enough to\\npass the intestinal cells, the proteids to albumoses and pep-\\ntones, the carbohydrates to invert sugar and dextrose\\n(glucose).\\nThe fats have been brought into a finely divided state\\nknown as an emulsion, or broken up into fatty acids and\\nformed into soap, in which forms they can be absorbed\\n(Experiment 15, p. 125).\\nAbsorption. The alimentary contents are thus prepared for\\nabsorption into the blood. This process occurs through the", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 113\\nmedium of the epithelial cells and the villi of the intestinal\\nmucous membrane. The molecules of these substances\\nformed as a result of digestion are small enough to be\\npassed through these intestinal cells. Thus, during and after\\ndigestion these sugars, peptones, and fat products, the min-\\neral salts and water, are taken up by the cells and transferred\\nto the blood and lymphatics. Some of the products are\\npassed unchanged into the blood, others are elaborated into\\ndifferent substances by the cells through which they are\\npassed; but the essential food principles, proteids, carbo-\\nhydrates, and fats, with water and inorganic salts, all get\\ninto the blood in some form.^\\nThe villi in absorption. The structures described as villi\\nare particularly active in this process of absorption. The\\nepithelial cells of the villus pass the products through and\\ndischarge them into the blood vessels and the central lacteal.\\nDuring digestion these vessels are loaded with these products,\\nwhich they bear away to the blood. In this process the in-\\ntestinal cells act like porters unloading a ship into railroad\\ncars. The merchandise is taken from the ship (the intestine)\\nand put upon the railroad (the blood vessels), which dis-\\ntributes it over the country (the body). After absorption the\\nfood is collected by two sets of vessels, the lymphatic vessels\\nand the portal vein. The food collected by the lymphatics\\nis called the chyle. It is collected together into a large vessel,\\nthe thoracic duct, and discharged from this into the blood.\\nThe food collected by the blood vessels of the villi and the\\nintestinal walls is discharged into a large vein, the portal vein.\\nThis vein carries it to the large gland already mentioned, the\\nliver. Here it is, roughly speaking, filtered and further\\nelaborated by the liver cells, its useful parts poured into the\\nblood of the general circulation, while its harmful or poi-\\n1 The physical processes involved in absorption are imbibition and osmosis, in all\\nprobability. Osmosis is described on page 120. See also page 126.", "height": "3595", "width": "2280", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "114\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nsonous elements are destroyed or turned aside into the bile\\nfor elimination from the sj stem.\\nStructure of the liver. In structure the liver consists of\\ncubical epithelial cells compactly arranged in bundles known\\nas lobules (small lobes). Each lobule is built up with connec-\\nLiver.\\na, b, c, artery, veiTi, and bile duct y b, gall bladder.\\ntive tissue in which run numerous blood vessels from the\\nportal vein. These vessels run between the cells in the\\ncenter of the lobule. By these cells harmful substances or\\nsubstances reserved for special purposes are taken from the\\nportal blood. The purified food in the portal blood is then\\ncarried on to the blood stream which feeds the body tissues\\nby the hepatic vein. The liver separates from this blood\\nwaste products which the blood has taken up in the body, as\\nwell as the waste food; for instance, the waste coloring\\nmatter of the blood corpuscles, and the waste nitrogen prod-\\nucts which result from the breaking down of the proteid\\ntissue substances. Some of these waste products are ex-\\ncreted in the bile. Others, as urea, are poured into the\\nblood and excreted by the kidneys.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\n115\\nThe liver cells also store up some of the carbohydrate food\\nin the form of glycogen.\\nIV. CIRCULATION AND ASSIMILATION\\nThe blood and lymph. The food which has been digested,\\nabsorbed, and purified has to be borne from the intestines\\nand liver to the tissues which it is to nourish. Also, the\\ntissues thus nourished have to be provided with free oxy-\\ngen from the lungs for their combustion to form energy.\\nThirdly, tlie waste products of this combustion of the tissues\\nhave to be carried away\\nand disposed of. This\\ncarrying of the food and\\nwaste of the body is the\\nfunction of the hlood and\\ntlie lymph.\\nThe hlood is a fluid sub-\\nstance of red color which\\ncirculates throughout y J]\\nthe body. It consists of\\na watery substance, the\\nplasma, in which are sus- corpuscles.\\nr, corpnsfle (full view) corpiiscles (side iew)\\npended great numbers coi-puscles in rolls (rouleaux) c, erenated cor-\\nof small semisolid bod-\\nies, the corpuscles. These corpuscles are of three kinds, the\\nred corpuscles, the white corpuscles, and the blood plaques.\\nThe red corpuscles are small circular biconcave disks, like\\ncoins, with their upper and lower surfaces hollowed out.\\nThe corpuscles give the red color to the blood. Each cor-\\npuscle has a diameter of from six to nine micromillimeters\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nabout 3yVo c f an inch. They are very numerous\u00e2\u0080\u0094 about five\\nmillion to one cubic millimeter of blood. If a drop of blood\\nbe spread upon a glass slide and looked at under the micro-\\nscope, these corpuscles may be seen lying free or in rolls.\\nHEWES, P. H,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 8", "height": "3601", "width": "2288", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "116 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nIn structure the corpuscle consists of an elastic protoplasm,\\nor stroma, in which is set the red coloring matter, hemoglobin^\\nmuch as the color is set in the glass of a colored marble.\\nThis hemoglobin is a very important substance which carries\\nthe oxygen from the lungs to the cells. In blood it is always\\ncombined with some of this\\noxygen, and is thus oxyhemo-\\nglobin.\\nWhite corpuscles. ^he ivh ite corpuscles, or leu-\\ncocytes (Greek ZeitA os, white,\\nand I utos, cell are colorless bodies of many sizes, but\\nmostly larger than the red corpuscles. They are less numer-\\nous than the red, numbering about eight thousand to a cubic\\nmillimeter, or one to six hundred reds.\\nThese ichite corpuscles are really single cells, which are free\\nin the blood. In them we have a chance to observe the\\ncharacter of the living cell, which is the unit of structure in\\nall the tissues.\\nEach corpuscle consists of a nucleus surrounded by pro-\\ntoplasm. The whole cell is enveloped in a cell membrane.\\nThe nucleus is more dense in substance than the protoplasm.\\nIts form may be round or horseshoe shape or still more\\nirregular. The protoplasm is a colorless, translucent sub-\\nstance. It is often filled with fine granules.\\nLike all cells at some period of their existence, these\\ncorpuscles are alive. They take up and discharge new sub-\\nstances to and from the plasma, divide and form new cells,\\nand many of them have the power of amoeboid motion (see\\np. 17). Owing to this power of motion they may take any\\nshape, but as a rule they appear spherical in the blood.\\nThe hlood plaques are very small, protoplasmic, disk-shaped\\nbodies.\\nCoagulation (Latin coagulare, to curdle When the\\nblood is taken from the body or exposed to the air for a few", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OP THE BODY 117\\nminutes it forms a jellylike mass called a dot This pro-\\ncess of clot formation is known as coagulation. The coag-\\nulation is due to the formation of fine elastic threads in a\\nthick network in the blood. This threadlike substance is\\ncalled In thus collecting it forms a firm mass which\\ncollects the corpuscles in its meshes. The fluid parts of the\\nblood, the serum, may be squeezed out and separated.\\nCoagulation is a very useful process in stopping the bleed-\\ning from a wound by plugging up the opening in the ves-\\nsels with the clot.\\nThe fibrin is formed from substances in the plasma by the\\naction of a ferment. The removal of this fibrin from the\\nplasma leaves the serum (Experiments 20, 21, pp. 128, 129).\\nThe serum (Latin for whey which is the plasma of the\\nblood minus the fibrin, consists of water with mineral salts,\\nproteid substances, and certain other materials in solution.\\nThe proteids of the serum are two in number, albumin (Latin\\nalhus, white and gloduUn, substances like the proteid of\\nwhite of egg (Experiment 23, p. 129).\\nThe salts of blood are chiefly chlorides and carbonates of\\nsodium and potassium and phosphates of magnesium and\\ncalcium. They are contained in both the plasma and the\\ncorpuscles. The corpuscles contain iron combined in the\\nhemoglobin.\\nThe food substances which are absorbed are carried in\\nthe blood in solution and in suspension. We thus have in\\nthe serum of blood after a meal proteid, carbohydrate, and\\nfat substances which have been absorbed and are on the\\nway to the tissues, also lime salts, phosphates, and other\\nminerals going to the bones and brain and other tissues\\nwhich need them.\\nThe circulation of the blood. Thus, to carry the food and\\noxygen to the tissues and the waste away from them the\\nblood is circulated through all parts of the body. This pro-", "height": "3593", "width": "2284", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "118 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncess is called the circulation (Latin circulare, to encompass\\nof tlie Mood.\\nFor the carrying out of this process an organ or series of\\norgans is provided, the circulatory system. This system con-\\nsists of the heart and the blood vessels.\\nThe heart is a muscular pump which keeps the blood ever\\nflowing.\\nThe hlood vessels are muscular and elastic tubes which con-\\nduct the blood over the body. Those which take the blood\\nfilled with food and oxygen to the tissues from the heart\\nand lungs are called arteries (Greek aer, air, and terehi,\\nto keep. It was formerly thought that arteries carried\\nair, as they were found empty of blood after death). Those\\nwhich return the blood from the tissues with the waste\\nmaterials are called the veins (Latin venire, to proceed\\nThe arteries when they reach the tissue which they supply\\ndivide into fine tubes called capiUaries (Latin capiUus, a\\nhair which permeate the tissue and come together again in\\nveins.\\nThe food and oxygen in this arterial blood, during the\\npassage of the blood through the capillaries, pass through\\nthe walls of the capillaries into the lymph (Latin lympha,\\nwater which takes them to the cells. Some of the waste\\nproducts from the tissues collected by this same lymph pass\\nback through the capillary walls to the blood, just as in the\\nexperiment (p. 126) with the egg some of the water passes\\ninto the egg and some of the egg albumin into the water.\\nThe blood then goes on to the veins and through them, de-\\nprived of its food elements and filled with waste.\\nThe veins bear this blood back to the heart, whence it is\\npumped to the excretory organs, as the kidneys, where it\\ngets rid of the waste products, and to the lungs and ali-\\nmentary tract, where it takes up a new supply of food and\\noxygen, and so on round the body again.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\n119\\nThe blood which is going to the tissues filled with a supply\\nof oxygen and food is called arterial hlood; it is bright scar-\\nlet in color. That which is returning in the veins to the heart\\nfrom tlie tissues is called venous hlood; it is of a dark purple\\ncolor.\\nThis circulation of the blood can be studied in the web of\\na frog s foot. If we look at this web under the microscope\\nBlood in capillaries in tissue.\\nwe see fine tubes dividing into still finer ones, all filled with\\nblood. Through the larger tubes the blood comes, flowing\\ninto the smaller. In the small tubes the flow is slow, the\\ncorpuscles going in single file. Collecting the blood from\\nthe fine capillary tubes, we see small veins of blue color.\\nThe lymph. The blood flows in tubes, and thns does not\\nget directly to the cells of the tissues, except the cells of the\\nvessel walls. Its nutritious products are brought to the cells\\nby what is known as the lymph.", "height": "3603", "width": "2292", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "120 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe lymph is a watery liquid which fills the interstices of\\nthe tissue among the cells and about the capillaries.\\nThe nutritious substances of the blood pass through the\\ncapillary walls into this lymph. The lymph gives them up to\\nthe cells which are bathed in it. At the same time the lymph\\ncollects the waste from the cells and returns it to the blood.\\nThe process of interchange between the two fluids, the blood\\nand the lymph, through a membrane which separates them, is\\ncalled osmosis (Greek osmos, impulse Where this process\\noccurs we have two fluids of different densities separated by a\\nmembrane, as the intestinal mucous membrane, or the walls\\nof a blood capillar} that is, we have, as in Experiment 16,\\npage 126, on one side of the membrane a dense fluid, white\\nof egg for instance, and on the other a thin fluid, water.\\nWhen osmosis occurs these fluids interchange their sub-\\nstance, the dense fluid (the egg white) giving up its heavier\\nconstituent to the w^ater, and tlie thin fluid (water) giving\\nup its lighter constituent (the water itself) to the egg, so\\nthat they tend to become equally dense, the egg becoming\\nwatery and the water becoming heavier.\\nSo in the circulation the blood gives up food substances,\\nsalts, and water the lymph gives up waste substances. The\\nsame process is active in the absorption from the small intes-\\ntine. Here the intestinal contents on one side of the mem-\\nbrane give up food to the blood on the other side and take\\nup water from the blood, so that the intestinal contents\\nbecome more liquid, while the blood becomes more concen-\\ntrated.\\nThe lymphatics. In this interchange between the blood and\\nthe lymph in the tissues the blood gives up a larger amount\\nof fluid than it takes back. The amount of lymph in the\\ntissues would tend therefore to increase all the time. This\\nexcess of lymph, however, is collected and carried away from\\nthe tissues by a set of vessels known as the lymphatics.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 121\\nThese vessels drain all the lymph spaces in the tissues.\\nThey collect into larger vessels and finally empty into the\\nlarge veins, so that the lymph and its waste products all get\\nback to the blood.\\nThe lacteals, which collect some of the food absorbed from\\nthe intestine, belong to this system of lymphatics.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\n1. Reaction. Acids and alkalis.\\nThere are certain chemical substances which are known as acids.\\nThese substances can be tested for by using blue litmus paper. An\\nacid or any substance which contains an acid turns blue litmus red.\\nThis test is the indication of the fact that a substance is an acid or\\ncontains an acid. The substance which gives this test is said to have an\\nacid reaction. The gastric juice gives this test, as it contains hydro-\\nchloric acid.\\nAnother set of chemical substances are known as alkalis. These\\nsubstances turn red litmus paper blue, or yellow turmeric paper red.\\nThe saliva, the pancreatic juice, the blood, turn red litmus blue, as they\\nare alkaline in reaction (contain alkalis).\\nSome substances do not change the color of litmus. They are neu-\\ntral in reaction. Salt and water are such substances.\\nTest some blue litmus with hydrochloric acid with sodic hydrate\\nwith saliva. Test some red litmus with the same substances.\\n2. Solution.\\nWhen you add sugar or salt to water and shake the mixture, the solids\\ndisappear the mixture remains clear. Such a mixture is known a^ a\\nsolution. The substances which thus disappear are said to be soluble\\nin water. This process of solution occurs in the mouth, and stomach,\\nand intestines. The sugar or salt eaten is dissolved there as in the test\\ntube. Other substances, as starch and hard-boiled egg, are insolu-\\nble in water. They do not disappear in water or make a clear mixture.\\nThese substances have to be changed in the body (by digestion) to\\nsoluble substances.\\nTry shaking each of the above substances in water to illustrate the\\nabove statements.", "height": "3600", "width": "2273", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "122 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\n3. PrecipitateSo\\nWhen two substances are mixed they may form a third substance.\\nAdd some of a nitrate-of -silver solution to a solution of salt (sodium\\nchloride). Note the formation of a third substance, a white powder\\nwhich sinks in the liquid (chloride of silver).\\nThis third substance is insoluble, while the first two substances were\\nsoluble. Such an insoluble substance formed by adding any chemical\\nto a second chemical in solution is called a precipitate.\\nEXPERIMENTS UPON FOODS\\nA clearer understanding of the nature and composition of the vari-\\nous food substances will be achieved if the pupil familiarizes himself\\nwith the tests for the chief constituent substances of the foods\u00e2\u0080\u0094 proteids,\\ncarbohydrates (starches and sugars), fats, mineral salts.\\n4. Demonstration of the adaptability of organic food for burning\\nwith charring.\\nOne of the important characteristics of organic foods in distinction\\nfrom inorganic is their adaptability for burning.\\nPlace meat or any vegetable upon a hot fire. They will char and\\nburn up. This is due to their organic (carbon-containing) character.\\nPlace a rock or a lump of salt upon a fire. These will not char, as\\nthey contain no carbon, or burn, as they contain no substance which,\\nlike the carbon of organic foods, unites with the oxygen at the ordinary\\nfire heat.\\n5. Tests for proteid substances.\\nA fairly pure proteid substance which is easy to experiment with is\\nwhite of egg. Separate the whites of two or three eggs. Stir this egg\\nalbumin in a pint of water. Filter the mixture. With the fluid which\\nhas been filtered perform the following tests for proteids. These tests\\ncan be obtained upon the proteid substances of any food, as meat, corn,\\nwheat, milk, etc.\\n(a) To a little of the solution in the test tube add some nitric acid.\\nNote what occurs. Then add a little ammonia (ammonic hydrate)\\nto the mixture. Note the color which appears. This is a test for\\nproteid substances. (Xanthoproteic test).\\nTo some of the solution add some sodic hydrate and one or two\\ndrops of a one per cent solution of copper sulphate. Note the color\\nwhich results. (Biuret test for proteid.)\\n(c) Heat some of the solution of egg albumin. The precipitate which\\nappears is the albumin. (If no precipitate appears add one drop of dilute\\nJ", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 123\\nacetic acid and heat again.) This is a test for a special kind of proteid,\\nnot all i^roteids.\\n6. How do these tests react upon meat juice?\\n7. Tests for carbohydrates. Starch.\\n(a) Rub up some corn starch with a little cold water. Add to this a\\ngill of boiling-hot water. (This mixture is called starch paste.) To some\\nof the milky mixture (cool) add a drop of tincture of iodine or of Lugol s\\nsolution. Note the color which appears. This test for starch may be\\napplied to the starch of various foods, as potatoes, wheat, flour, fruit.\\nGrate a potato into a glass of water. A white powdery substance\\nwhich falls to the bottom of the glass is the starch of the potato.\\n8. Test for grape sugar (Fehling s test).\\nDissolve a small amount of grape sugar in water.\\nHeat a small quantity of Fehling s solution in a test tube. To this\\nhot liquid add an equal amount of the sugar solution. Note what\\noccm s. Heat again. Note result, if any.\\n9. Tests for fats.\\nShake a small piece of butter (the fat from milk) or a little sweet\\noil (fat from olives) up with ether. What happens? Filter, and allow\\nthe ether to evaporate.\\nMix some ether with a tablespoonful of flaxseed meal. Let stand\\nfor fifteen minutes. Shake and filter, and allow ether to evaporate.\\nWhat is left in the evaporating dish in and Add a little water\\nto this residue. What do you observe?\\nPerform the same experiment with milk.\\n(c) Rub some flaxseed meal upon paper. Observe result.\\n10. To demonstrate the amount of water in foods.\\nWeigh a piece of meat, as fresh beef. Set aside in a warm, dry\\nplace for twenty-four hours. Weigh again. The loss of weight is due\\nprincipally to the water which has evaporated. Weigh at the end of\\nforty-eight hours seventy-two hours.\\n(b) Remove the peel from an apple or potato. Weigh the peeled fruit\\nand allow it to dry. Note loss of water from day to day.\\n11. Tests for mineral substances in foods.\\n(a) Heat and fuse some flour or meat or milk in a crucible until heat-\\ning causes no further change. The residue left (the ash) represents\\nthe mineral matter of the food, which, as you know, unlike the organic\\nmatter, does not burn.\\n(6) Dissolve some of the ash in water. Filter. To the filtrate (the\\nwatery solution) add some nitrate of silver. What appears?\\nPart of the precipitate which occurs is due to the salt, sodium chloride,", "height": "3601", "width": "2282", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "124 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nin the food, which, as in Experiment 3, page 122, forms, with the silver\\nsalt, the insoluble silver chloride.\\n12. Tests to show the constituents of milk.\\n(a) Allow milk to stand for some time. The thick layer which col-\\nlects on the surface, the cream, consists principally of the fat which is\\ncontained in the milk.\\n(b) Test for proteid by general tests for proteids given on page 122.\\nHeat some milk and add some acetic acid. A thick, flocculent sub-\\nstance, known as curd, which consists of the proteid (casein) contained\\nin milk, is formed. The whey is the liquid left after removal of the\\ncurd. If both the cream and the curd are removed from the milk it\\nstill contains a carbohydrate substance, lactose or milk sugar.\\n(c) If a little whey is boiled with Fehling s solution we get a yellow-\\nish-red substance. This red substance is due to the action of the sugar\\n(milk sugar) in the milk upon the copper, and proves that sugar is pres-\\nent in the whey.\\nShake some milk with ether, filter and evaporate. Note the fatty\\nresidue, which is the fat of the milk.\\nWe can thus find and separate proteids, fats, and carbohydrate sub-\\nstances in milk.\\nEvaporate some milk by boiling. The loss in weight is due princi-\\npally to the loss of water. The residue is the solid substance of milk.\\nThis experiment shows how great a part of milk is made up of water.\\nFuse the residue in a crucible. The ash or mineral constituents re-\\nmain. Test the ash as in Experiment 11. Test for phosphates as in\\nExperiment 7, page 62.\\nEXPERIMENTS TO ILLUSTRATE DIGESTION\\n13. Digestive action of saliva, illustrating digestion of starch.\\n(a) Place a little starch paste (Experiment 7, a, p. 123) on the tongue.\\nIn a short time a sweet taste will develop. This sweet taste is due\\nto the sugar which is formed from the starch in the digestion by saliva.\\nAdd some starch to water. Note that the liquid mixture is\\ncloudy. The starch does not disappear. Add some sugar to water and\\nshake. Note that the sugar disappears. The liquid mixture is clear;\\nthat is, the sugar is more soluble in water than is starch. This shows\\none reason for the usefulness of the change of starch to sugar by diges-\\ntion. This is not, however, the only reason. The fact that the grape\\nsugar (glucose) molecule is smaller than that of the starch and can\\nbetter pass through the intestinal membrane (absorb) is the chief reason.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 125\\n(c) Chew some paraffin. Collect the saliva which flows in abun-\\ndance into the mouth. Make some starch paste. Test with Fehling s\\ntest to prove no sugar is present. Add some of the saliva to some\\nstarch paste another portion of which has given the blue color with\\niodine. Put in a warm place (over a radiator). In five minutes\\nperform Fehling s test. How did the sugar arrive? Twelve hours\\nlater perform the iodine test. The blue color will not appear, and a red\\ncolor, or perhaps no change of color, vnll appear. The starch has all\\nbeen turned to sugar or to other substances.\\nThis experiment illustrates what occurs to starch in digestion in the\\nbody.\\n{d) Take some dry corn starch (uncooked starch) and mix with\\nsaliva. Test this mixture for sugar in five minutes. Is the effect of\\nthe saliva the same upon this uncooked starch as upon the cooked\\nstarch (the starch paste)\\nThe digestion of the starch in wheat, potato, fruits, etc., is carried\\non by the pancreatic juice in the same manner as by the saliva. The\\npancreatic juice, however, digests uncooked starch also.\\n14. Digestion by the gastric juice, illustrating digestion of proteids.\\nMark two one-ounce bottles. Fill 1 with water fill 2 with a mixture\\nof hydrochloric acid and pepsin made up as follows hydrochloric acid,\\n6 cc. water, 1,000 cc. pepsin, 10 gm. This represents an artificial\\ngastric juice except for the absence of rennin.\\nPlace a small piece of hard-boiled egg or fibrin in each bottle, and\\nkeep in a warm place, as over a steam radiator (not above the body\\nheat).\\nNote that the egg remains unchanged in the first (water) bottle.\\nIn the second it disappears, is digested. The digestion of proteids\\nthe albumin of eggs, meats, grain, etc. in the body occurs in this\\nmanner.\\nHere, as with the digestion of starch by saliva, ^the digestion often\\nforms a soluble substance from an insoluble one. Witness the coagulated\\negg albumin in the above experiment. But the proteid substance is often\\nsoluble in the first place, in raw eggs, milk, etc., and the main object\\nof the digestion is to break up non-absorbable proteids so that they\\nwill pass through the animal membranes.\\nProteids are digested in the intestine by the pancreatic juice, as in the\\nstomach by the gastric juice.\\n15. Digestion of fats.\\n(a) Place some butter in some water kept at the body heat (98.6\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nWhat occurs Shake up the water and fat, or some olive oil and water.", "height": "3601", "width": "2284", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "126 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nDo they mix? Place under the microscope a drop of the water which\\nhas been thus shaken. Can you distinguish the fat globules\\n(h) Shake up some olive oil with a solution of sodic hydrate. Does\\nany mixture of the substances occur?\\nLook at a drop of this mixture under the microscope. Can you dis-\\ntinguish the fat globules here as in the water?\\nThe mixtui-e of the fat and the alkali forms an emulsion. The two\\nsubstances do not tend to separate after shaking, as in the case of the\\noil and water. The fat in an emulsion is so finely divided that you can-\\nnot see the globules.\\n(c) Mix some olive oil and sodic hydrate, and boil. Describe the mix-\\nture which forms. This is soap.\\nThe processes illustrate in a rough way the digestion of fats in the\\nbody. The fat is melted in the stomach. In the intestine it is broken\\nup and forms an emulsion with the alkaline fluids there, the pancreatic\\njuice, bile, etc., some of the fat here being formed into soap.\\n01) Obtain some bile. Test the reaction. Add some oil to bile and\\nshake. Is an emulsion formed? Examine mixture under microscope.\\nEXPERIMENTS TO ILLUSTRATE ABSORPTION\\n16. Absorption by osmosis can be represented by the following ex-\\nperiment\\nMake a hole about half an inch in diameter in the large end of an\\negg by breaking through the shell and cutting the outer shell membrane.\\nThe air space between the inner and outer shell membranes is thus\\nopened. Then immerse the egg in a glass of water, with the open\\nend upward and the lower end held in place by a ring support (a napkin\\nring). The albumin of the egg white is thus separated from the water\\nby the inner shell membrane. Through this membrane osmosis occurs\\nreadily, the water passing inward and the albumin outward, so that the\\ndensity of the egg contents and that of the water outside tend to approach\\neach other. The water goes in, however, more rapidly than the albumin\\ncomes out, and as a result the membrane becomes more distended, bulges\\nout through the hole, and finally bursts. This bulging demonstrates\\nthat the water is going through the membrane.!\\nObtain some sacs made from animal membranes. (The sausage\\ncovers made from pigs intestine are good for this purpose.)\\nInto a small sac made of the sausage skin pour a solution of grape\\n1 This and several other experiments are taken from Dr. H. P. Bowditeh s Hints\\nfor Teachers of Physiology.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY\\n127\\nsugar. Suspend the sac in a two-ounce beaker of distilled water. After\\na few hours test the water in the beaker for grape sugar. (Fehling s\\ntest.)\\nPerform the same experiment with a mixture of starch and water in\\nthe sac. Test water in beaker for starch. (Iodine test.)\\nNote that the sugar passes through the membrane, the starch does\\nnot. Starch therefore has to be digested to sugar to absorb.\\nPerform the same experiment with a solution of egg albumin. Test\\nwater for proteids. Perform the experiment with a solution of salt\\n(sodium chloride). Test water for salt by adding nitrate of silver.\\nThese experiments represent in a rough way one part of the process\\nof absorption. The sausage skin represents the intestinal membrane.\\nThe sugar, the salt, etc., pass through this into the water, as in the\\nbody they pass through into the blood.\\nIn the body, however, the cells pf the membrane are alive and trans-\\nform these substances as they pass through. In this dead membrane\\nosmosis is the only active force present.\\n17. Physical methods of absorption.\\nAbsorption occurs partly as a physical process, diffusion, but partly\\nby a specific action of the living cells. The physical processes can\\nbe illustrated by the following experiments\\n(a) Place a few pieces of glass tubing of different sizes in a glass of\\nwater, and note that the water rises higher in the tubes than in the\\nglass, and highest in the small tubes. This represents the process of\\ncapillary imbibition, which is a part of the process of absorption in the\\nintestine. The same thing can be illustrated by placing a piece of filter\\npaper in water colored with aniline blue.\\n(h) The process of perspiration is an example of imbibition.\\n18. Fill out the following table with the results obtained by ap-\\nplying these common tests which have been described for proteids,\\ncarbohydrates, and fats to the food substances given.\\nTest.\\nHeat\\nXanthoproteic\\nBiuret\\nIodine\\nFehling s\\nSolubility in ether\\nStarch.\\nGrape\\nSugar.\\nOlive\\nOil\\n(Fat).\\nEgg\\nAlbu-\\nPep-\\nMeat\\ntone.\\nJuice.", "height": "3593", "width": "2279", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "128 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nDIGESTION BY THE PANCREATIC JUICE, ILLUSTRATING\\nINTESTINAL DIGESTION\\n19. Procure a fresh pancreas from a pig. Cut up finely and gi ind\\nwith some fine sand in a mortar.\\nTo one ounce of the pancreas add four ounces of twenty-five per cent\\nalcoliol, and let the mixture stand three days. Filter, and use the fil-\\ntrate for experiments.\\n(a) Digestion of proteids by the pancreatic ferment (trypsin). To\\n10 ce. of the pancreatic extract add twice that amount of one half\\nper cent sodium carbonate in a test tube.l\\nInto the tube place a small piece of coagulated white of egg or a\\npiece of fibrin, and place mixture over a register or in any place where\\nthe temperature is about the body heat (98.6\u00c2\u00b0 to 100\u00c2\u00b0 F.). Note the\\ngradual digestion of the proteid, which will, in time, disappear entirely.\\n(6) Digestion of carbohydrates by the amylolytic ferment of the pan-\\ncreas. To 10 cc. of starch paste add an equal amount of one half per\\ncent sodium carbonate, and then a few drops of the pancreatic extract,\\nand warm the mixture. Note that the milky starch mixture becomes\\nclear.\\nThis pancreatic ferment digests uncooked starch also, which the\\nsalivary ferment does not do.\\n(c) Digestion of fats by the fat-splitting ferment of the pancreas.\\nCarefully neutralize or make slightly alkaline a little of the pancreatic\\nextract with the one half per cent solution of sodium carbonate. Add\\nthis mixture to 2 ec. of neutral olive oil to which a little blue litmus\\npowder has been added, and stir the mixture.\\nSet in warm place. Note the change in the blue color of the mix-\\nture to purple and pink, also later the formation of an emulsion. (The\\nred color is due to the acid which is formed by the action of the ferment\\non the fat.\\nEXPERIMENTS UPON THE BLOOD\\n20. Obtain a half pint of fresh blood from the slaughter house.\\nAllow it to stand in a wide-mouthed eight-ounce bottle. After a time\\na cup-shaped clot \\\\rill form, adhering to the glass. Below it will be\\nthe nearly colorless serum.\\n1 The pancreatic ferments act in an alkaline reaction, which is provided in the body\\nby the sodium carbonate of the bile and pancreatic and intestinal jiiices.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 129\\n21. Obtain a half pint of blood and whip it briskly with some small\\ntwigs. Fine threads of fibrin will collect upon the twigs. When\\nthe fibrin thus formed has been removed the blood will not coagulate\\nupon standing.\\n22. The coagulation of blood can be observed with but a few drops\\nof blood, if the blood is kept in a moist chamber to prevent drying.\\nPrick the finger, which has been washed in alcohol, with a bayonet-\\npointed needle which has been passed through a flame to sterilize (kill\\nall bacteria upon) it. Collect a few drops of blood upon a small butter\\nplate. Invert this over a saucer of water and cover with a tumbler.\\nIn a half hour or less the blood will form a jellylike clot.\\n23. Test the blood serum (Experiment 20) for proteids. Heat test.\\nNitric acid and ammonia test (Xanthoproteic).\\nTest for sugar with Fehling s test.\\nRub a little upon some paper. Does it appear to contain fat?\\n24. Defibrinate some blood by whipping it.\\nPour off the defibrinated blood. Note its color.\\nShake this in a bottle with air. What change occurs in the blood?\\n25. Corpuscles.\\nPrick the finger. Take a drop of blood upon a cover slip. Drop\\nthis blood side downward upon a glass slide. Examine specimen with\\na microscope (500 diameters).\\nObserve the red corpuscles.\\nObserve the white corpuscles. Look for one in motion (amceboid\\nmotion).\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What are the two objects fulfilled by the food? What causes the\\nconstant wasting in the body? How do we know what substances must\\nbe present in the food to supply the body needs? Name some of the\\nelements contained in the body substances.\\nII. In what form do we take the necessary nitrogen and carbon into\\nthe body? Why do we need compound substances for food? Give two\\nobjects accomplished by the use of organic foods. Mention some in-\\norganic food substances. From what kingdoms of nature do most of\\nour foods come directly?\\nIII. Name the three classes of organic food substances. Which of\\nthese substances is the principal constituent of the body tissues What\\nfoods contain proteid? What is the chief use of carbohydrates and", "height": "3601", "width": "2275", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "130 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nfats in the body? What foods contain carbohydrates? What foods\\ncontain fat?\\nIV. Can we live on any one of these three classes of food alone Upon\\nwhich one? Is it best to live on one kind of food substance? In what\\nforms do we take water into the body? In what way do we get our\\nmineral salts, the lime salts, chlorine, sulphur, iron, etc.\\nV. How can we tell how much food we need? What is the effect of\\nhard work upon the need of food? Explain why we employ a mixed\\ndiet. How does the food get to the tissues of the body? (Name the\\nseveral processes through which it must pass in this course.)\\nVI. What is the object of digestion? What is the name of the di-\\ngestive tract? Name the principal and accessory parts of this digestive\\nsystem. What is a gland? What is the action of a gland called? In\\nwhat does this process consist?\\nVII. Describe the contents of the mouth. Describe the teeth. How\\nare the teeth fashioned according to their fimction? What is the saliva?\\nDescribe mastication. Describe the act of swallowing. Is it voluntary\\nor involuntary? What parts does the food pass through in getting to\\nthe stomach?\\nVIII. What is the stomach? What is the lining of the stomach called?\\nWhat structures lie in this membrane What is tlie intestine What\\nis its length? What structures lie in or upon the membrane of the\\nsmall intestine? Describe a villus. What is the function of the villi?\\nWhat is a lacteal? What large external glands supply the intestine\\nwith secretions?\\nIX. What is the bile? Is the bile an excretion? What use is it as a\\nsecretion? What is the use of the gall bladder? What is the pancreas?\\nWhat does it secrete? In what part of the intestine is most of the food\\nabsorbed? Where is most of the water absorbed?\\nX. What precautions in regard to the choice of food and the method\\nof eating does the study of the organs of digestion suggest? Why do we\\ncook food? Why do we have regular mealtimes? What are relishes?\\nWhat is the effect upon the stomach of smoking? Is alcohol drinking\\nlikely to cause disorder of this organ\\nXI. Describe salivary digestion. What class of food is digested by\\nsaliva? What is an unorganized ferment? Name the digestive fer-\\nment of the saliva of the gastric juice. What food is digested by the\\ngastric juice? What foods are digested in the intestine?\\nXII. What is the important digestive juice of the intestine? What\\nother digestive secretions are found there What is the action of ren-\\nnin? Where does absorption occur? Describe absorption in the villi.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "THE NUTRITION OF THE BODY 131\\nXIII. Through what two channels is the absorbed food borne away to\\nthe general circulation Where is the food collected by the portal vein\\nfirst carried! What occurs to the portal blood in the liver? Where does\\nthe food go from the liver? What becomes of the substances removed\\nfrom the blood by the liver cells? What carries the food to the tissues?\\nXIV. Describe the blood. What is the function of the red corpuscles\\nDescribe a leucocyte. What other functions has the blood besides\\nbearing the food? Does the blood carry the food directly to the cells?\\nWhat is coagulation? What is fibrin? What is the blood serum?\\nXV. What is the circulatory system What becomes of the food when\\nit reaches the capillaries? What is the difference between arterial and\\nvenous blood? Describe the lymph. Describe osmosis. What are the\\nvessels which carry the lymph? Where is the waste collected by the\\nlymph carried? Describe the course of the food from the mouth until\\nit becomes a part of the tissue cells. What happens to the food\\nin the cells?\\nXVI. Illustrate by examples how the anatomy of an animal may sug-\\ngest the nature of his food. Is the solution of the food the only object of\\ndigestion? What other factor besides the physical factor enters into\\nabsorption? How may a failure to brush the teeth affect the health of\\nthe stomach?\\nHEWES, p. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 9", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nTHE HYGIENE OF NUTRITION\\nTHE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT FOODSTUFFS FOR\\nNUTRITION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CONDIMENTS AND BEVERAGES\\nWE have now studied the utilization of food in the body\\nhow it is taken in and distributed to the tissues, and\\nthe changes which it undergoes in the process of metabolism.\\nWe understand why we eat food, and why we use the special\\nsubstances which we do, the organic products, water, and\\nsalts.\\nWe must now consider some of the more common articles\\nof food, and study just what needs of the body each sup-\\nplies and how each is disposed of in the organism.\\nDefinition of a food. A food is any substance whose natui e\\nit is when taken into the body to serve for the growth or\\nrepair of tissue or for the production of energy to be utilized\\nin the performance of normal functions.\\nConsidered from a hygienic point of view, the term food means more\\nthan the above general definition indicates it means a desirable food,\\na nourishing substance which can be recommended as a regular article\\nof diet in normal conditions. There are substances which answer to\\nthe general definition of a food in that they are oxidized in the body\\nwith the production of energy, and yet cannot be considered as hy-\\ngienic foods, since they exert a poisonous action which, offsets what\\nbenefit the body might get from this oxidation.\\n132", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "THE HYGIENE OF NUTRITION 133\\nMilk. One of the most common and useful articles of food\\nis milk. This substance is the sole food of most infants dur-\\ning their first year of life. It must contain, therefore, all the\\nsubstances which are necessary to build up the tissues and to\\nproduce energy in the body.\\nIt should not, however, as has been said before, be used as\\nthe sole food of adults for it does not contain the neces-\\nsary substances, water, proteids, fats, and carbohydrates, in\\nthe proper proportions for the bodies of grown men. A\\nman has to overwork his organs to get enough milk to pro-\\nvide his nourishment. Taken in proper quantity, however,\\nthere is no food more completely utilized in the body. Its\\nproteid elements go to form tissue its fats and carbohydrates\\nare burned to produce energy. As a rule, it is very easily\\ndigested.^\\nCream is the layer of milk which collects upon the top in\\nstanding. It contains much of the fat of the milJi.\\nButter is made from cream by churning it. It consists\\nprincipally of fat and water. The fat of butter is in a very\\ndigestible and useful form.\\nCheese is the proteid elements of milk separated. It con-\\ntains some fat also.\\nEggSj since they are really live animals in an early stage,\\n1 Milk in standing about in pails and cans is sure to collect some of the many\\nmicroorganisms which float about. Also the milk from cattle suffei^ing from disease\\nmay contain the bacteria which cause their disease. One of the diseases which is\\nborne in this way is tuberculosis.\\nTo prevent the taking in of .these bacteria of disease, or these hosts of other bacteria\\nwhich may grow in the body and form substances which may poison the child, the\\nmilk to be given to children is often sterilized, or Pasteurized that is, it is exposed to\\na heat sufficient to kill these bacteria before it is taken.\\nThe Pasteurization of milk, which is the best method of preparing it for the use\\nof children, is accomplished in the following manner The fresh milk is placed in\\nclean bottles which are stoppered with absorbent cotton. The bottles are placed in a\\nsteamer in which is a thermometer. The temperature of the steamer is raised to 167\u00c2\u00b0\\nF., and kept there from twenty minutes to half an hour. The bottles are then removed.\\nMilk thus treated will remain steiile for twenty-four hours. The hot air in the\\nsteamer is, of course, moist.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "134 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nmust contain all the substances which are needed for the tis-\\nsues. They are therefore an excellent food.\\nMeat. The muscular tissues of animals contain much\\nproteid material, and are therefore very useful for building up\\nand repairing the body tissues, which, as we have seen, con-\\nsist mostly of this substance. The fat of meat is also a\\nuseful food.\\nFish, like meat, contains much proteid substance.\\nVegetable foods. Vegetables are a very necessary article of\\ndiet. Some of them contain all the substances which we\\nneed for both repair and energy, so that man can live in\\ngood health upon a strictly vegetable diet. This he could\\nnot do on lean meat, and would find very difficult upon\\nmilk. The most nutritious vegetable foods are the cereals\\nor grains, and some leguminous seeds, as beans and peas.\\nThese contain much proteid matter for tissue building and\\nmuch carbohydrate for energy formation, also mineral salts.\\nOf the grains those in most common use are the wheat from\\nwhich flour for bread is made, and corn. Peas and beans\\nare as useful for tissue building as meat, and more nu-\\ntritious.\\nMany vegetables do not contain much proteid, and there-\\nfore are useful for their starch principally. Such are pota-\\ntoes and rice. The green vegetables, as lettuce, spinach,\\ncabbage, are useful for the mineral salts and organic acids\\nwhich they contain, and for their indigestible matter (see\\nnote, p. 138). Where men are deprived of these or any\\nsubstitute for them they are apt to contract a disease known\\nas scurvy. Many vegetables are rich in iron, which is\\nnecessary for the structure of the blood corpuscles.\\nFruits. Fruits, as a rule, contain much water and small\\namounts of nutritious principles. Apples, for instance, con-\\ntain much water, some starch and sugar, and very little pro-\\nteid. They are refreshing to the taste, and their large", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "THE HYGIENE OP NUTRITION 136\\namount of undigested residue makes tliem useful in keeping\\nthe bowels open. Bananas are fairly nutritious.\\nThere are two substances, prepared from the seeds of the\\ncocoa fruit, and now much used, which are very useful foods.\\nThese are cocoa and chocolate. They are nutritious, but with\\nmany people are difl cult of digestion.\\nWater and salt. Besides these organic food substances\\nwe have two other important foods. Water is absolutely\\nnecessary to the organism. A man needs about four pints\\ndaily. Part of this water he gets with his solid foods, all of\\nwhich contain a considerable amount of water. A certain\\namount, however, he takes separately. Besides the water of\\nhis food a man should take at least a quart of drinking\\nwater a daj^\\nSalt is a mineral substance composed of chlorine and\\nsodium. We need a good deal of both chlorine and sodium\\nin the body as constituents of the tissues. A part of these\\nsubstances we get from other mineral salts contained in our\\nmeat and vegetables, but most of them we get from this chloride\\nof sodium, or common salt. Many foods already contain this\\nsalt; but, as a rule, we cannot get enough of it from our\\norganic food, and have to add it to our dishes in cooking,\\nor mix it with them on the table. It is so necessary that\\nnature provides for our taking it by causing many foods, as\\nmeat, not to taste good without it. Animals need this sub-\\nstance as well as men, and travel great distances to get it.^\\nOther mineral substances, as lime for the bones, a man gets\\nin organic foods, as milk and vegetables, which contain them.\\nThe use of the different foods in the body. All these sub-\\nstances described and all substances which can properly be\\nclassed as foods supply the body with material for tissue\\n1 In the woods or plains one sometimes finds moist, boggy spots or pools of water\\nwhich contain much salt in the water or soil. These are salt licks. The ground\\nabout will be found trodden with the marks of animals who come to get the salt.", "height": "3598", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "136 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nbuildiug or for energy. The foods which contain proteids,\\nas meats, bread, corn, peas, fish, eggs, milk, are very useful\\nfor tissue building. Those which are made up chiefly of\\nsugar or starch, as potatoes, apples, rice, or of fat, as butter,\\nfat meat, cream, are used mostly for energy. As we need\\nboth tissue and energy, we make our meals of combinations\\nof these substances. Where we use up much tissue, as in\\nactive exercise, we eat more proteid food. Where we need\\nmore heat energy or body heat, as in cold climates, we eat\\nmore fat.\\nIf we eat a sufficient amount of food made up from a com-\\nbination of these substances which we have mentioned, meats,\\nvegetables, milk, and so forth, we shall get all the material\\nwhich the body needs.\\nThese foods are all safe. They are suited to the organism\\nand they nourish it. They can do no harm to the healthy\\nbody, unless they are taken in amounts larger than the\\norgans can care for, or unless they are out of condition.\\nMeats and milk and fruits and vegetables, when taken after\\nthey have begun to decay or ferment, often cause poison-\\ning. But this is because the process of fermentation which\\nbrings about the decay in these foods changes their nature.\\nFrom foods they are turned to poisonous substances.^\\nEven though they still may produce energy when taken into\\nthe body, they are no longer to be considered as foods, since\\ntheir bad effects oifset their useful ones. (See extract, p.\\n132, in regard to the definition of a food.)\\nFeeding with special foods or compounds. Much has been\\nsaid about special foods being useful for the needs of sepa-\\nThe poisonous effects of tainted meats, milk, and other foods are dne to substances\\nformed from the fermentation or putrefaction of these foods by microorganisms.\\nThese are called ptomaines. Similar substances are formed in the body as the result of\\ndigestive processes, especially when the digestive processes are out of order. Sick\\nheadache and other illnesses are often due, in all probability, to the absorption of these\\nsubstances thus formed in the body. In normal conditions the body destroys or elimi-\\nnates them as fast as they are formed.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "THE HYGIENE OF NUTRITION 137\\nrate organs, as foods containing phosphorus for the brain,\\nor lime salts for the bones. Now, while it is true that these\\norgans need these substances, it is also true that they can\\nget all they need of them from the proper mixture of the\\nregular foods which we have described. Never in conditions\\nof health make a point of taking foods especially rich in\\nthese substances, as you will often be advised to do. Espe-\\ncially is there no need of taking medical preparations and\\ntonics to supply these substances. If the diet is a proper\\none, no deficiencies in these regards will exist. If such\\ndeficiencies are allowed to develop they should be remedied\\nby making the diet a proper one. Even in conditions of\\ndisease a proper diet forms the best medicine in a great\\nmany cases.\\nA proper diet, in the first place, is one sufficient in amount\\nto supply the needs of the body for tissue building and pro-\\nduction of energy. This means that the day s diet must con-\\ntain as much nitrogen, carbon, water, salt, iron, and so forth,\\nas the man uses in his day s work. We can find out how\\nmuch a man uses of these substances by measuring the\\namount that he excretes of each of them in his breathing, in\\nhis urine, sweat, etc. Then if we give him a diet which con-\\ntains this amount of these substances, we know that he is\\nhaving a sufficient diet and will be able to work and not fail\\nin flesh and strength. Such a diet can be made up in vari-\\nous ways. All of us who are well fed are probably getting\\nthese proper amounts in our mixed diet of meats, milk, vege-\\ntables, bread, and so forth. If we are getting the full sup-\\nply, it makes very little difference of what foods it is made\\nup. We can get our nitrogen from meat or eggs or vege-\\ntables or cereals as we please, and take the carbon which we\\ndo not get at the same time in extra amounts of fats or\\nother carbohydrate foods, as butter, cream, sugars, and bread.\\nBesides supplying the body with a sufficient amount of", "height": "3601", "width": "2277", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "138 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nfood and a proper variety, it is best for us to give it also a\\ncertain extra amount of water and of substances which form\\nrefuse, as vegetables and fruits. These substances keep\\nthe system well washed out and clear. A plentiful number\\nof vegetables and fruits should therefore be included in the\\ndiet. These contain much water, and often certain salts and\\nacids which are useful in keeping the organs, as the liver and\\nkidneys, well cleared out and the large amount of indigest-\\nible residue left from them in the intestines helps to keep\\nthe bowels open.^\\nAn example of a healthful diet for a man who works all\\nday is given on page 140. Of course some people have\\nwhat are known as idiosyncrasies, and cannot eat certain\\nthings which are readily digested by most people. People\\nwho are ill may need a diet made up of easily digested foods,\\nbut the amount should be about the same as in health.\\nBut except for such cases such a diet as is given in this\\ntable is a good one for anybody who works hard with body\\nand mind.\\nThe making of a diet list. Diet tables are made up upon\\nwhat is known as the calorie system. The food is needed,\\nas you know, for two purposes, one to build up proteid\\ntissue, the other to be burned for the production of en-\\nergy in the body. To provide for tissue building we must\\nthen see that our diet contains as much proteid or nitrog-\\nenous material as the body uses. To provide for energy\\nwe must see that, the amount of food is so great that if\\nburned it mil produce just this energy as heat or something\\nelse.\\nA calorie is a unit of heat. We know just how many\\nof these units of heat must be produced daily in the body\\n1 As stated on page 104, foods which are easily digested are to be chosen. But a\\ncertain amount of undigested residue of the proper kind may be useful, as mentioned\\nhere.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "THE HYGIENE OF NUTRITION 139\\nto keep it going, and so we know how many heat units we\\nmust provide in the food. Now, heat units can be obtained\\nfrom all organic foods, so that it does not matter very much,\\nso far as this point is concerned, whether we eat meats or\\nbread or vegetables or fat, provided we eat enough. But\\nit is easier for our digestive organs to take care of a little\\nof each of several foods than much of one kind, so we try\\nto get our heat units from proteids and fats and carbo-\\nhydrates combined.! Proteids we have to eat in certain\\namount for the nitrogen. The fats and carbohydrates we\\ncan divide as best suits our taste and digestion, provided,\\nonly that we take enough of them.\\nIn the following table the values of the foods included in\\nproteid material for tissue building, in calories for energy\\nproduction, and in mineral salts, are given. We know that\\na man at rest needs a food supply of 30 to 34 calories per\\nkilogram weight. During hard work he needs a supply of\\nfrom 45 to 60 calories per kilogram. When the food values\\nin this table are added up they equal 80 to 130 gm. proteid\\n(2J to 4 oz.), 22 gm. salts, and 2,700 to 3,600 calories. As\\nthe daily needs of a workingman of average weight are from\\n80 to 130 gm. proteid, 25 gm. salts, and 2,500 to 3,500 cal-\\nories, this forms an ample diet. It includes also a plentiful\\nsupply of vegetables, acids, and cellulose substances, which\\nserve to keep the excretory functions of the body in good\\naction. It includes a fair division of proteids, carbohy-\\ndrates, and fats. The extra salt which is needed to make\\nthe 25 gm. is supplied by additions of table salt while the\\nfood is being prepared and at mealtime.\\nA diet of this kind supplies the body with a considerable\\namount of water. The remainder of water needed, about\\none quart, is taken by drinking water during the day.\\n1 See note, page 91.", "height": "3601", "width": "2300", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "140\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nBREAKFAST\\nProteid, gm.\\n4-6\\n150-200\\nMineral\\nSalU,\\ngm.\\n.001\\n5-6\\n120-140\\n3\\n4-7\\n150-300\\n.5\\n.2\\n120\\n.5\\n12\\n150-180\\n.5\\n0.5-1\\n50-150\\n.1\\n200 gm. (about 6 oz.) porridge\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094oatmeal, rye, barley, Indian\\nmeal, or wheat\\n8 gm. sugar on porridge\\n100 gm. milk on porridge\\n50 to 100 gm. bread, 1 to 3 slices\\n15 gm. butter\\n2 eggs, or 50 gm. steak or chops\\nFruit\u00e2\u0080\u0094 orange, apple, or grapes\\nDINNER\\n120 gm. consomme or chicken\\nbroth, or potato, pea, or tomato\\npuree with salt 1-5 100-200 1\\n100 to 200 gm.beef, chicken,lamb,\\nham, or sweetbread 20-25 200-400 1\\nOr 200 gm. bluefish, salmon, hali-\\nbut, cod, or mackerel 12-20 150-300\\n50 gm. potatoes 1.5 60 ,5\\n100 gm. spinach, asparagus, or\\nsquash 1 100-200 .5\\n75 gm. peas, beans, macaroni,\\nor corn 9-15 300 3\\nCustard, or ice cream, or Indian\\npudding, or rice or bread pud-\\nding 6-15 150-250 1\\nCheese and crackers 2-5 300 1\\nSUPPER\\nBread and butter 5-7 200 1\\nCocoa, one cup 6 150 1\\nMilk, one glass 8 200 3\\nStewed fruit, pears, baked ap-\\nples, peaches with cake, or\\ngriddle cakes 3-4 200-300 .1\\nApproximately, 80-130 gm. 2,650-3,600 21.71\\nIn addition to liis regnlar food man consumes certain sub-\\nstances, as condiments and beverages, which are not taken as\\nfood to nourish the body, but for the sensations which are\\nobtained by taking them.\\n1 1 gm. 15.434 grains troy.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "THE HYGIENE OP NUTRITION 141\\nCondiments. Some of these condiments are pepper, vine-\\ngar, cloves, nutmeg. They give the food certain flavors\\nwhich excite the appetite and appeal to the sense of taste.\\nFrequently, however, their use does harm, as thej^ may set up\\nirritation of the digestive organs and excite abnormal secre-\\ntion. As already stated, a healthy man needs no stimulation\\nfor his appetite other than hunger.\\nBeverages. The common beverages which men take with\\ntheir food or separately are tea, coffee^ cocoa, or chocolate, and\\nalcoholic liquors.\\nThe alcoholic beverages, beer, wine, whisky, and so forth,\\nare taken for the pleasure which they give from their taste\\nand from their effect upon the nervous system. These sub-\\nstances cannot be recommended as foods. On the contrary,\\nevery one should be cautioned to avoid them for the dan-\\ngers which attend and the evils which result from their use\\nare serious and out of all proportion to the benefits which\\nthis use can bestow.^\\nOur ordinary food substances, such as wheat, sugar,\\nmeat, give us our tissue material and our energy in the\\namount necessary for our nutrition without poisoning or\\ndanger of poisoning. These substances should therefore be\\nchosen as foods, and not alcohol or any other substance\\nwhose use is fraught with danger.\\nIf a person desires some other beverage than water with\\nhis food, he would best use cocoa or chocolate. These sub-\\nstances, as we have said (see p. 135), have a just claim\\nto be considered good foods they furnish at the same time\\n1 It matters not that alcohol is oxidized in the body with the liberation of energy.\\nSo also are several of the organic poisons, as, for instance, muscarine, the active prin-\\nciple of the poisonous mushrooms. Yet no one thinks of classing these substances as\\nfoods.\\nAlcohol has a poisonous action, and since this action is exerted in such a way as to\\nmake the sum total of its effects harmful whenever enough is taken to prove a practical\\nfactor in energy production, alcohol should not be classed with the foods.", "height": "3601", "width": "2286", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "142 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nsomething which ministers both to the taste and to the needs\\nof the body.\\nTea and coffee are taken simply for their pleasurable\\neffects. Since they do not assist in the nourishment of the\\nbody it is a question whether they should not be considered\\nharmful to it in all cases for they exact a certain amount\\nof energy from the body in taking them in and disposing of\\nthem, while they give nothing substantial in return. In\\nmost cases, however, where they are taken in moderation,\\ntheir harm is slight. With some people they are harmful\\neven in moderate amounts. Taken in large amount, they\\nare injurious to all people, causing a disturbance of the\\nnervous system which is a menace to health and comfort.\\nThey should never be given to children.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What is the definition of a food? Name one or more single articles\\nof food which contain all the materials necessary for the body needs.\\nWhat is the objection to our living upon one of these foods alone Why\\nis milk for babies Pasteurized? What are the chief nourishing con-\\nstituents of eggs Meat? Fish?\\nII. How do the vegetable foods compare with the animal for general\\nusefulness? Name some of the most nutritious vegetable foods. Why\\nshould we eat green vegetables and fruits What use have these articles\\nbesides nourishment? How much water do we need daily?\\nIII. Why do we salt our food? Mention some foods suited to partic-\\nular purposes in the body. To what are the poisonous effects of decayed\\nmeats or vegetables due? Are such substances properly called foods?\\nDo we need to take special foods to get the necessary mineral substances\\nfor the body? Give the requisites of a proper diet. How do we measure\\nthe efficiency of a given diet? Are condiments necessary? Name\\nsome of the common beverages. May any of these be classed as foods?\\nIV. Does alcohol provide material for repair of the body tissues?\\nDoes it increase the capacity of a man for continuous labor? Why\\nshould it not be classed with the foods? What is the chief and common\\nobject of the systems of digestion and circulation? Is meat a more\\nvaluable food than corn? Is anyone food indispensable? Does eating\\nfat result in the laying on of fat?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUOES\\nTHEIR USE AND THE RESULTS UPON HEALTH\\nTHE drinkiug of alcoholic liquors is so common and\\nforms so serious an error in the maintenance of health\\nthat it merits special consideration in a book of hygiene.\\nAlcoholic drinks have been used by men for a very long\\ntime, and although some of their evil results have been seen\\nthroughout all this time, it is within recent years only that\\nman has recognized, through careful investigation of the sub-\\nject, the full extent of their harmfulness.\\nNow that their poisonous action is clearly recognized and\\nunderstood, it is necessary that every one should have a\\nknowledge of the nature of these substances and their effects\\nupon the body, that through this knowledge he may avoid\\nthem, and thus escape the disease and degradation which\\nfall upon so many people who use them, often in ignorance\\nof their real nature and effects.\\nAlcoJwl, or in chemical terminology ethyl alcohol (C2H5\\nOH), is a clear liquid substance looking somewhat like\\nwater. It has a characteristic odor and a burning taste.\\nSource of alcohol. Alcohol is obtained from sugar or sub-\\nstances containing sugar by a process known as fermentation\\n(Latin fermentmn, leaven\\n143", "height": "3591", "width": "2286", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "144 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nAlcoholic fermentation. It was long ago discovered that\\ngrape juice and apple juice (sweet cider) and many other sub-\\nstances containing sugar and water, if allowed to stand in the\\nair, become changed in character. From a juice with a\\nsweet taste the grape or apple juice becomes a substance\\nwith a sharp, burning taste. Now, upon comparing the new\\nsubstance with the old, the wine or cider with the grape or\\napple juice, to see what alteration had occurred in it to cause\\nthis change in its nature, it was found that some of the\\nsugar in the old juice had disappeared and been replaced\\nprincipally by two new substances, a liquid, alcohol, and a\\ngas, carbon dioxide. It was also found that the alcohol and\\ncarbon dioxide added together would make up, in a given\\ninstance, just the amount of sugar which had disappeared,\\nexcept a very slight amount. It was therefore concluded\\nthat these new substances were formed by the breaking up of\\nthe sugar.\\nCause of fermentation. Ferments. For a long time the\\ncause of this breaking up or decomposition of sugar in\\nthese liquids was unknown. The amount of starch or sugar\\nin apples or grapes kept intact a month does not change,\\nnor does any alcohol appear in them. Finally, however, by\\nthe aid of the microscope it was found that those liquors\\nwhich had undergone alcoholic fermentation, as the cider\\nor wine, contained another new substance besides alcohol\\nand carbon dioxide. In the liquid were found many minute,\\ncell-like bodies which were not present in the juice as it was\\nsqueezed from the apple. These small bodies were found\\nto be live organisms belonging to the vegetable growths\\nclassed by botanists as SaccJiaromycetes, and known in\\ncommon terminology as the yeast plant. When some of\\nthese small bodies were put into a liquid containing sugar,\\nand the liquor kept fairly warm, it was found that they\\nact like a ferment, breaking up the sugar to alcohol and", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 145\\ncarbon dioxide, that is, bringing about the same action\\nwhich occurred in the cider. It was noted that the yeast\\nplants in performing this function grow and multiply with\\ngreat activity.^ From this it was concluded that the small\\namount of sugar which disappeared from the liquor and\\ncould not be accounted for by the alcohol and carbon dioxide\\nproduced was consumed by the plant as food.^\\nThe process was therefore all explained. These minute\\norganisms or plants are floating about in the air or resting\\nupon the skin of the ripening grapes or apples. When the\\ngrape or apple juice is pressed out, some of these yeast plants\\nare washed into it, or fall into it from the air. Here they\\nbegin to feed npon the sugar in the juice, and grow and\\nmultiply, breaking np this sugar into alcohol and carbon\\ndioxide and several other substances, and changing the ap-\\nple or grape jnice into cider or wine (Experiments 1, 2, 3,\\npp. 274, 275).\\nThe process which thus occurs is called alcoholic or vinous\\nfermentation.\\nThe use of fermented liquors and of the process of vinous\\nfermentation by man. As we have said, these products of\\nvinous fermentation, the wines and cider, are used exten-\\nsively by man as beverages. He takes them partly in con-\\nformity to custom and partly for the pleasure which they\\ngive him, oftentimes in ignorance of the fact that they are\\nharmful substances.\\nThe most common alcoholic beverages produced by\\nthis process of vinous fermentation are wine, beer, and\\ncider.\\nWine, as we have said, is a product formed by the f ermenta-\\n1 The yeast plants are little oval-shaped cells so small that they can be seen only by\\nthe use of a microscope. The ordinaiy yeast which is used by takers in breadmaking\\nor by brewers in beer brewing is simply a special preparation of these plants.\\nPasteur found that from five to six per cent of the sugar is used for food for the\\nyeast plant and to form glycei*in and succinic acid.", "height": "3599", "width": "2289", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "146 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ntion of expressed grape juice. It represents one stage in the\\nprocess of the decomposition of this juice when pressed out\\nof the fruit.\\nIn the manufacture of wine^ man crushes the grapes in a\\nvat. Upon the skins of the grapes are many yeast spores.^\\nThese get into the juice in the process of crushing and\\nmixing, and set up their vinous fermentation. Thus, as the\\njuice lies in the vats, alcohol and carbon dioxide are formed\\nin it, and it becomes wine. If there is sufficient sugar in the\\njuice, the fermentation goes on until the amount of alcohol\\nformed is about fourteen per cent. Wlien tlie alcohol in a\\nliquor reaches this strength it stops the action of the ferment\\nupon the sugar. It poisons the ferment cell so that it can-\\nnot act, and no more alcohol is formed. The strength of\\nalcohol in a fermented liquor may be anywhere from one\\nto fourteen per cent. There are wines with a much greater\\nper cent of alcohol, but in these the extra alcohol has been\\nadded.\\nCider is formed by the fermentation of apple juice, as is\\nwine from grape juice. Many people are under the impres-\\nsion that cider is a harmless beverage, but it is not. It\\ncontains alcohol like all fermented liquors, and from taking\\nthis small amount the formation of a permanent craving\\nand an alcohol habit has often been developed.\\nBeer is manufactured by applying vinous fermentation to\\nthe decomposition of barley. In brewing beer, the barley,\\nwhich contains starch, is kept in a warm place and moist\\nuntil it sprouts. In the process of sprouting, most of the\\nstarch is turned to sugar. This step is necessary, as the\\nyeast ferment will not act upon starch. After the sugar is\\n1 The ferments found most generally upon the surfaces of grapes are Saccharotny-\\nces (sugar fungus) elli/psoideus (ellipse form). Saccharoinyces apicxdati ^from apic,\\npoint also found on grapes, is common on all garden fruits. Saccharomyces cere-\\nvisice (from cerevisia, beer is the ferment of beer yeast.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL AND ALCOPIOLIC LIQUORS 147\\nformed the grain is heated until it is killed, to stop its using\\nup the sugar as a food for the young plant. The dead grains\\nare then crushed, and the sugar is dissolved out by steeping in\\nwater. To this mixture of sugar and water, called beer wort,\\nthe brew^er adds a substance called yeast, which is a mixture\\ncontaining the yeast spores {SaccJiaromyces cerevisice), and\\nwhich causes alcoholic fermentation.^ The liquid then begins\\nto ferment, the sugar is decomposed, and alcohol and carbon\\ndioxide are formed. The alcohol collects in the liquor. Tlie\\ncarbon dioxide, a gas, conies up through the liquor in bub-\\nbles, and passes off into the air. If the beer is bottled before\\nthe sugar is all decomposed, the gas is contained in tlie\\nliquor, and begins to escape when we open the bottle, thus\\ncausing the fizz and foam of the beer.\\nThe making of bread involves the application of the process of al-\\ncoholic fermentation, which here man has turned to a useful purpose.\\nTo the mixture of flour and water, the dough, some yeast is added. This\\nferments the sugar in the dough, forming alcohol and carbon dioxide.\\nThe gas goes through the dough, raising it. When the bread is risen it\\nis baked. This drives off the alcohol and expands the gas, which fills\\nthe bread with small bubbles or holes, and stops the action of the yeast.\\nThere is therefore no alcohol in bread that is properly baked.\\nThe product of fermentation contained in these fermented\\nliquors to which all the harmful effects of the liquors are\\ndue is the alcohol. This alcohol can be separated from the\\nliquors by a process known as distillation. This process is\\nemployed in the manufacture of the beverages called hard\\nliquors, such as whisky and brand}^\\nDistillation. In the liquor the alcohol is mixed with many\\nother substances, as water and sugar, which are less volatile\\nthan alcohol. That is, if the liquor is heated, alcohol is\\n1 Pure yeast ferments siigar only. Mixtures of yeast often contain bacteria, which\\nhave a diastatic action upon starch and turn it to sugar, so tliat tlie yeast can act upon\\nIt. In breadmaking, some of the starch is changed m this manner, and the sugar\\nformed is fermented by tlie yeast.\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 jO", "height": "3600", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "148 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nconverted to vapor at a much lower lieat than is necessary\\nto convert the water to steam. Consequently the alcohol\\nwill turn to vapor and pass off before much of the water\\nhas become hot enough to form steam. Thus, by heating\\nwe can separate the alcohol from the water and more solid\\nsubstances. Now, if this alcohol vapor is allowed to collect\\nin a cold vessel, it wiU condense, and we shall have the\\nliquid alcohol. This process of separating alcohol is called\\ndistillation. The liquor is heated in a closed vessel with a\\npipe running from it which bends downward and empties\\ninto another vessel. The pipe, or worm, is kept cool by a\\ncurrent of cold water. The vapor of the alcohol rises until\\nit is past the bend, then is condensed by the cold, and falls\\nin drops upon the sides of the pipe, and runs into the receiv-\\ning vessel.\\nDistilled liquors. The distilled liquors which are manu-\\nfactured by this process, the whisky, brandy, rum, or gin,\\ncontain much more alcohol than the simple fermented licpiors\\nfrom which they are distilled. In the process of their dis-\\ntillation some water and also some extracts pass over into\\nthe distillate. These extracts give the peculiar flavor to the\\ndifferent liquors.\\nBecause these so-called hard liquors contain more alcohol\\nthan the fermented liquors, they are more harmful but it is\\nonly a question of degree in regard to all alcoholic liquors,\\nbeer or cider, whisky or rum. The alcohol contained in any\\nof these liquors is, when introduced into the body, capable\\nof poisoning it. Those who have once seen men under the\\neffect of this substance need no further evidence of its poison-\\nous power. Its poisonous effects, however, are not confined\\nto these cases where they are so marked as to be plain to\\nevery observer, cases where men lose their reason, their power\\nof coordination and locomotion. A careful study of the\\neffects of alcohol in the body reveals, as we shall see, that its", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 149\\naction is often insidious, often for a long time giving no sign,\\neven to the drinker himself, of the poisonous effect upon his\\nhealth and strength that it is exerting.\\nTHE ACTION OF ALCOHOL WITHIN THE BODY UPON\\nTHE VITAL FUNCTIONS\\nWhen any alcoholic liquor is introduced into the body, a\\nportion of the alcohol is oxidized there. In being oxidized,\\nalcohol is broken up into water and carbon dioxide, and the\\nenergy contained in the compound is liberated. Some of the\\nalcohol, however, passes through the body unchanged, and\\nis eliminated in the urine and the breath.\\nThe action of alcohol upon the constitution and functions\\nof the body is a complex one. To some extent, as stated, it\\nliberates energy for the performance of the vital functions,\\nthat is for heat or work; but it also acts upon the nervous\\nsystem, or upon cellular activity throughout the body, in a\\nmanner detrimental to these functions.\\nI Dr. Adolf Fiek, Professor of Physiology in Wiirzburg, Grermany, says From an\\nexhaitstive definition we shall have to class every substance as a poison vrhich, on\\nbecoming mixed with the blood, causes a disturbance in the function of any organ.\\nThat alcohol is such a poison cannot be doubted. Very appropriately has the\\nEnglish language named the disturbance caused by alcoholic beverages intoxication,\\nwhich, by derivation, means poisoning.\\nEthyl alcohol, even when diluted as in wine, beer, and cider, is a poison which\\nchanges pathologically the tissues of the body and leads to fatty degeneration. Of\\ncourse 1 am not speaking here of the smallest doses. However, the latter (for ex-\\nample, half a liter of beer or a glass of wine) are also poisonous, because they injure\\nthe brain by producing paralysis and derangement of function that is clearly demon-\\nstrated by the experiments of Kraepelin, Smith, Fiirer, Aschaffenburg, etc. The\\nsame have never been controverted. The most moderate drinking of alcohol is quite\\nuseless for the individual, but by means of example and fashion produces an incalcu-\\nlable social injury and misery to the masses, since all cannot remain moderate, and\\nthe entirely moderate remains at last the exception.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dr. August Forel, Professor\\nof Psycliiatry in tlie University of Zurich.\\nAll the alcohols are poisons. Dujardin-Beaumetz and Audige.\\nIs alcohol a poison? I reply. Yes. It answers to the description of a poison. It\\npossesses an inherent deleterious property which, when introduced into the system,\\nis capable of destroying life, and it has its place with arsenic, belladonna, prussic acid,\\nopium, etc. Dr. Willard Parker, late Professor of Surgery in the College of Physicians\\nand Surgeons, New York Consulting Physician to Bellevue, Mount Sinai, Roosevelt,\\nand the New York hospitals.", "height": "3601", "width": "2285", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "150 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nIt is oiir concern in the study of hygiene to determiDe, if\\nwe can, just what the sum total of its effects is, when taken\\nin the amounts and manner in which it is ordinarily used\\nby men as a beverage. In other words, we wish to know\\nwhether the balance of its various separate effects upon the\\nvital functions of the body is helpful or harmful.\\nEffect upon vital functions. We know that if strong alcohol\\nis applied to the cells of a growing plant, or to the body cells\\nuncovered in a w^ound, these cells are deprived of their vitality\\nand finally die. Doubtless this would be the effect of alcohol\\nupon living cells anywdiere in the body, if it reached them\\ndirectly and in full strength but w^hen taken in beverages it\\ndoes not reach the body tissues in fuU strength, but much\\ndiluted. What we want to determine, therefore, is whether\\nthe effect of alcohol in this diluted form in which it cir-\\nculates in the bodj^ of men w^ho use it as a beverage is also a\\ndeleterious one upon the vitality and function of the cells\\ntherein.\\nThe way to determine this question is to study the effects\\nof alcohol upon the persons Avho drink it. In this investi-\\ngation Ave at once- find evidences of this deleterious action.\\nThese evidences are, of course, most marked in the cases of\\npersons who di-ink large quantities of liquor. Here we find\\nmarked disturbance of the functions of the brain, the diges-\\ntive organs, the heart, loss of vitality of the tissues dur-\\ning life, and degeneration of these tissues in the exami-\\nnation after death. But the evidence of deleterious action\\nis not confined to these cases of hard drinkers. It is found\\nalso in the cases of men w^ho drink alcohol in such small\\nquantities, for instance, as are ingested in the practice of\\nwhat is commonly called drinking in moderation.\\n1 All alcohol, and all things of an alcoholic nature, injure the nerve tissues pro tem-\\npore, if not altogether, and are certainly deleterious to the health. I think there is a\\ngi eat deal of injury being done by the use of alcohol in what is supposed by the con-\\nsumer to be a most moderate quantity, to persons who are not m the least intemperate,", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 151\\nThis evidence, which tends to show that the drinking of\\nalcohol even in moderation is injnrions, is best obtained in\\nthe investigation of the effect of this drinking in modera-\\ntion npon two of the vital functions of the body, that of\\nmuscular work and that of maintaining the body heat.\\nThe end and aim of all the body processes is to work. To\\naccomplish this end the body must keep warm. The more\\nperfectly the body can accomplish these conditions, the\\nmore able is the possessor of that body to make his way\\nin the world. Now, alcohol, taken even in what is con-\\nsidered moderation, lessens the power of the body to work\\nand to maintain its heat supply.\\nThis conclusion is based upon experiments conducted\\nupon large numbers of men during long periods of time.\\nThe results in regard to the effect of alcohol upon the\\ncapacity for work were obtained from investigations in the\\nlarge armies of the world during active campaigns (see\\np. 80). Those in regard to the effect upon the maintenance\\nof the body heat were obtained in part from scientific in-\\nvestigations carried on by physiologists in all parts of the\\nworld, in part from investigations conducted among the\\nmembers of companies of arctic explorers.\\nIn the light of our present knowledge, then, it is evident\\nthat alcohol as a beverage lessens the usefulness of the body.\\nA certain amount of alcohol is undoubtedly oxidized, and\\ncan be utilized for the production of energy for the body but\\nin the ordinary conditions of labor and exposure to which\\nman is subjected, the benefit which the body can receive\\nfrom it, in cases where enough alcohol to prove a practical\\nfactor in energy production is taken, is more than offset by\\nand to people supposed to be fairly well. It leads to degeneration of the tissues it\\ndamages the health it injures the intellect. Short of drunkenness, that is, in those\\neffects of it which stop short of dininkenness, I shoxxld say from my experience that\\nalcohol is the most destructive agent we are aware of in this country.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Sir William\\nGull, M.D., r.R.S., Consulting Physician to Guy s Hospital, London.", "height": "3594", "width": "2288", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "152 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe deleterious effect of the alcohol. The sum total of the\\neffect is therefore harmful.\\nIn addition to evidence obtained by physiological investi-\\ngations, we have the evidence of statistics in regard to the\\nhealth and mortality of people who use alcohol, and of those\\nwho do not. These have been collected in England by the\\nlife-insurance companies. They indicate that the life of\\nthe abstainer is, on the average, longer than that of the\\ndrinker.\\nAlso, it has been found that the hospitals get their in-\\nmates to a much greater extent from the drinkers than from\\nthe abstainers. The drinker is less able to resist infection,\\nand the physicians of these hospitals all acknowledge that,\\nonce infected with a serious disease, the chances of the\\nalcohol drinker are much less than those of the abstainer.\\nIn regard to sunstroke, for instance, a condition which is\\nso common in our great cities during the summer mcmths,\\nOsier, in his Practice of Medicine, makes the following\\nstatement: In the larger cities of this country the cases\\n[of sunstroke] are almost exclusively confined to workmen\\nwho are much exposed, and at the same time have been\\ndrinking beer and whisky.\\nIn addition to what directly harmful effects alcohol may\\nhave upon the health through its action upon the tissues or\\nbody functions, its use has another possible effect, which\\nhas to be taken into account in any consideration of tliis use\\nfrom a hygienic point of view. This effect is the formation\\nof what is known as the alcohol hahif. A description of this\\ndeplorable condition is given in the sections on alcohol and\\nthe alcohol habit in Chapter XI. It is sufficient merely to\\nmention it here as one of the dangers attending the use of\\nalcohol.\\n1 Tlie late Surgeon Parke, medical officer of the Emin Pasha relief expedition, said\\nDrink is certainly Ihe most powerful predisposing cause of the development of the\\nsymptoms of sunstroke.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 153\\nThe indulgence in any practice involving risk from the\\npoint of view of health or welfare is justifiable only in cases\\nwhere the benefit to be derived from the practice is propor-\\ntionate to the risk involved, and where the same))enefit cannot\\nbe obtained in some manner involving less or no risk. The\\ndanger of the use of alcoholic drinks, and the harm which\\nmay follow this use, are, in a general average, out of all pro-\\nportion to the possible benefit which is or can be derived from\\nit. This use is therefore unjustifiable, and should be con-\\ndemned in all manuals of hygiene.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What is the source of alcohol? Describe the fermentation of\\nalcohol. What is the cause of this process? What is beer? Wine?\\nCider?\\nII, What are distilled liquors? Describe breadmaking. What are\\nsome of the harmful effects of the drinking of alcoholic liquors upon the\\nvital functions of the body? Give the principal reasons for avoiding\\nthe use of alcoholic beverages.", "height": "3593", "width": "2295", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nCIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM\\nWE have already spoken of the circulatiou of the blood\\nand lymph in describing its connection with the dis-\\ntribution of the nourishment to the tissues. Besides this use,\\nthe circulation has two other functions. One is the bearing\\nof the free oxygen to the tissues, the other the carrying away\\nof the waste products of tissue combustion to the excretory\\norgans.\\nWe must now stud}- the organs by which this function of\\ncirculation is accomplished. These are the heart. Avliich\\npumps the blood about tlie body the blood vessels, which\\ncarr} this stream of blood and the lymphatics, which carry\\nthe lymph.\\nI. THE HEART\\nThe heart is a hoUow muscular organ, whose function it is\\nto pump the blood about the body. It lies in the thorax,\\njust above the diaphragm, behind the sternum and the rib\\ncartilages on the left side. It is attached at its base to the\\ngreat vessels.\\nThe pericardium Greek j;m, around, and ^Y/r(f?rt, heart\\nInclosing the heart is a sac called the pericardium. This\\nsac lines the heart externally, and then leaving it at the\\nbase, folds upon itself and completely surrounds it again.\\n154", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 155\\nThe pericardium is a connective tissue structure lined upon\\nits free surface by a thin membrane of epithelial cells known\\nas a serous memhrane (a membrane made up of cells which\\ndischarge a serumlike\\nor wheylike substance).\\nThese free surfaces of\\nthe two parts of tlie peri-\\ncardium, the part lining\\nthe heart and the part\\nforming the sac, move\\nfreely upon each other\\nwith the movements of\\nthe heart. The cavity\\nbetween them contains\\na little fluid secreted by\\nthe cells of the serous\\nmembrane.\\nThe heart is conical in\\nshape, the broad end, or\\nbase,uppermost, the cone\\nend, or apex, below. The\\napex lies opposite the\\npoint of the chest wall\\nat which we can feel the\\nheart beat most strongly,\\nbetween the fifth and sixth ribs to the left of the sternum.\\nAt the base of the heart the large arteries run out. Here at\\nthe base on each side is a flat, soft, earlike structure connected\\nwith the firmer part below. These flabby structures are the\\nappendages of the auricles (Latin auris, ear of the heart.\\nThe firmer parts below inclose the ventricles (Latin venter,\\nbelly\\nThe heart consists of four chambers two auricles, right\\nand left, and two ventricles, right and left. At the base,\\nHeart aud lungs in chest.\\na, arteiies and veins to head (right) ft, arteries,\\nveins, and nerves to ai-m (left) h, heart I, Inng\\n(drawn hack) p, pericardium.", "height": "3601", "width": "2279", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "156\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nposteriorly and to the left, lies the left auricle. In the com-\\nparatively thin walls of this cavity are four small openings,\\nthe apertures of the pulmonary\\nveins, which bring- the blood from\\nthe lungs. In the lower wall of\\nthe auricle is a large opening\\nto the left ventricle.\\nThe left rent ride lies in the\\nlower part of the heart, to the\\nfront and left. The walls of this\\ncavity are very thick and firm.\\nUpon its upper wall is the open-\\ning from the left auricle. This\\nopening is covered by a valve\\nmade up of two flaps, the bicus-\\npid or mifraJ (Greek niifra, head-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Iress valve. The bases of these\\nvalve flaps are fixed about the\\nauric ulo-ventricular opening.\\nTheir edges are held by connec-\\ntive tissue cords connecting with\\nthe ventricular walls, the cJwrdce\\ntendinece (Greek chorda, ^cord,\\nand teuein, to stretch These\\ncords keep the valve from pressing back into the auricle\\nunder the pressure of the blood in the ventricle. The valve\\nallows the free flow of the blood from auricle to ventricle,\\nbut stops any back flow from the ventricle when the ven-\\ntricle contracts. In the front part of the ventricle, in front\\nof the auricular opening, is the opening to the aorta. This\\nopening is covered by a valve consisting of three flaps, each\\nshaped like a half moon, the semilunar (Latin semi, half,\\nand hiua, moon valve. This valve aHows the blood to flow\\nfrom the ventricle to the aorta, but not back from the aorta.\\nHeart, with aorta.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 157\\nAt the base of the heart, to the right, separated from the\\nleft auricle b} a partition or septum, is the right auricle.\\nIn the right wall of this auricle is the opening of the two\\nlarge veins which col-\\nlect the blood return-\\ning from the tissues\\nto the heart, the stqje-\\nrior and inferior vena\\ncava hollow\\nIn the lower anteri-\\nor part of the auricle\\nis the opening of the\\nright ventricle. This\\nis covered by a three-\\nflap valve, the tricus-\\npid (Latin tri^ three,\\nand cuspis, spear\\npoint valve. It pre-\\nvents regurgitation\\n(Latin re, again,\\nand gurgitare, to en-\\ngulf of the blood\\nfrom ventricle to\\nauricle.\\nThe right ventricle\\nlies in the lower part\\nof the heart, to the\\nright. It is separated from the left ventricle by a septum.\\nThe walls of this ventricle are thicker and firmer than those\\nof the auricle, but less thick than those of the left ven-\\ntricle. At the top of the ventricle, toward the front, is the\\nopening to the pulmonary artery. This opening is covered\\nby a set of seniilimar valves similar to those of the aortic\\naperture.\\nInterior of heart, showing right auricle\\nand ventricle and valves.\\nrt, auricle; c, semilunar valve; i, inferior vena\\ncava; p, pulmonary artery: s, superior vena cava;\\nt, tricuspid valve v, ventricle.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "158\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nHeart valves.\\nStructure of the heart. The heart is composed of muscular\\ntissue of a special kind, described iu the chapter upon the\\nmuscles. This muscular wall is lined without by the cardiac\\nlayer of the pericardium, within by a membrane known as\\nthe endocardium (G-reek en-\\ndon, within, and I ardia,\\nheart\\nThis membrane has a\\nsingle layer of epithelial\\ncells upon its inner sur-\\nface, and is continuous\\nwith the inner lining of\\nthe arteries and veins, the\\nendothelium.\\nThe valves are formed\\nof connective tissue lined\\nwith the endocardium.\\nThe heart is nourished by arteries from the aorta, known\\nas the coronary (Latin corona, crown arteries. Its action\\nis controlled by a special plexus of nerve ganglia (Greek\\nf/afj(/lion, ganglion a knot located in its substance\\nand connected with the central nervous system.\\nThe action of the heart. The action of the heart is brought\\nabout by the contraction of its muscular walls. When the\\nmuscle fibers contract they l)ecome shorter and thicker, and\\nthus diminish the size of the cavities which they inclose.\\nBy the same muscular action the walls of the cavities are\\ndrawn toward each other as well as contracted. Thus, when\\na contraction of the walls of a cavity occurs, the cavity is\\nneaj ly obliterated, and the blood forced out of it, just as\\nsqueezing a rubber ball with a hole in it obliterates its\\nca\\\\dty, and forces any fluid in it, as water, out.\\nThe contraction of the heart walls is called a systole (Greek\\nsustole, a contraction When the walls have thus con-", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 159\\ntracted they relax again, opening the cavities and allowing\\nan inflow of blood from the veins. This relaxation is\\ncalled diastole (Greek, dilatation\\nNow, in the action of the heart, the two anricles contract\\ntogether, and this is followed at once by a contraction of the\\nventricles. Then there is a panse during which the heart\\nrelaxes and the cavities all open again, then a contraction\\nagain, and so on. These rhythmic contractions of tlie\\nheart make what is known as the teat of the heart. This\\nbeat can be felt, especially after exertion, as a thumping of\\nthe heart against the chest wall (Experiment 3, p. 34).\\nThe sounds of the heart, which you can hear by laying\\nyour head, ear down, upon the pillow, are two\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a long one,\\nlike liib, followed by a short one, dn}). The first sound is\\ndue to the contraction of the heart, the second to the clo-\\nsure of the valves.\\nThe passage of the blood through the heart. At the begin-\\nning of the heart beat the auricles contract. The right\\nauricle, which has filled with blood from the large veins\\nof the body, the vence cavce, contracts and forces the blood\\ninto the right ventricle. This contraction of the auricle\\ncloses the flaccid openings of the veins in its walls, so that\\nnone of the blood is forced back into them, but all onward.\\nAs the auricular contraction ends, the right ventricle, which\\nthus has been filled with blood, takes up the contraction,\\nforcing the blood into the pulmonary artery, and thus into\\nthe lungs. The whole contraction of both auricle and ven-\\ntricle passes over the heart like a wave, starting at the\\nauricular end and ending at the ventricular.\\nIn the contraction of the ventricle, the flaps of the tri-\\ncuspid valve close the auricular orifice and prevent a reflex\\nof the blood from the ventricle in this direction, so that it\\ncan go on only into the pulmonary artery.\\nWhile the ventricle is contracting, the aiuicle is relaxing,", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "160\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nand as it does so a new supph^ of blood flows into it from\\nthe veins. This blood in turn is forced into the ventricle as\\nthis relaxes, and so on through beat after beat. In the re-\\nlaxation of the ventricle, the semilunar valve of the pulmo-\\nnary artery is closed over the ori-\\nfice by the back pressure of the\\nblood in the overfilled artery, and\\nthus the back flow of blood into\\nthe ventricle is prevented.\\nThe blood is forced along the\\npulmonary artery to the capil-\\nlaries of the lungs by the force\\nof the beat of the ventricles, and\\nfrom these capillaries into the\\npulmonary veins, and so back to\\nthe left auricle of the heart.\\nAt the same time that the right\\nauricle is contracting upon the\\nblood of the general circulation\\nwhich it has received, the left\\nauricle is contracting upon the\\nblood which it has received, as\\nabove described, from the lungs\\nby the pulmonary veins. This\\nblood it forces into the left ven-\\ntricle. The left ventricle con-\\ntracts at the same time with the\\nriglit, and presses the blood x)ast\\nthe semihmar valves into the aorta, and thus into the gen-\\neral circulation. The pressure of the blood upon the mitral\\nvalve closes it, and prevents regurgitation of the blood into\\nthe auricle. When the ventricle dilates again, the semilunar\\nvalve of the aorta prevents reflux of the blood to the ventricle.\\nThe impulse of the left ventricle forces the blood aloug\\nDiagram of the circulatory\\nsystem.\\nJ7, heart; L, kings; i, intestine;\\nF, liver; K, kidneys; 6, aorta; b x-\\nteiles to head and Tipper extremities\\nh arteries to tinink and lower ex-\\ntremities; c, v-enae cavjB; c veins\\nfrom upper extremities; c veins\\nfrom lower extremities; d. pulmo-\\nnary ai tery e, pulmonary veins\\nportal circulation g, renal circu-\\nlation.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 161\\nthe aorta to the arteries and capillaries throughout the body.\\nFrom the capillaries it is returned by the veins to the right\\nauricle, thence as described to the right ventricle, lungs, and\\nleft auricle, and into the ventricle again. Thus by the im-\\npulse of the heart the blood is kept flowing in a big circular\\ncourse over the body.\\nWork of the heart. The heart beats seventy times a min-\\nute. At each beat each ventricle forces six ounces of blood\\nalong against the back pressure of the blood in the vessels.\\nWhen all this work is calculated, it will be found that the\\nheart in one day does work equal to raising a ton. of coal\\nnearly two hundred feet.\\nII. THE BLOOD VESSELS\\nThe vessels which carry the blood in its course around the\\nbody are divided into three classes.\\nThe arteries are the vessels which carry the blood from\\nthe heart to the capillaries and tissues.\\nThe capillaries are very fine vessels which carry the blood\\nfrom the arteries through the interstices of the tissues.\\nThe veins carry the blood from the capillaries and tissues\\nback to the heart.\\n(See plans of arterial and venous systems, pp. 164, 165.)\\nStructure of the vessels. The whole circulatory system is\\none continuous tube. The endocardium, or inner lining\\nmembrane of the heart, is continued throughout the arteries,\\ncapillaries, and veins. In the vessels it is called the endo-\\nthelium. This endothelium, like the endocardium, consists\\nof a single layer of epithelial cells. The walls of the capil-\\nlaries, the smallest vessels, consist simply of this endothelial\\nmembrane. In the small arteries a layer of muscular and\\nelastic tissue is placed outside this endothelium, and a con-\\nnective tissue layer outside of this. In the large arteries", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "162 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe muscular layer is very thick and contains much elastic\\ntissue.\\nThe arterial walls consist, then, of three layers first, an en-\\ndothelial second, a muscular and elastic third, a connective\\ntissue layer. The elastic\\ntissue nuikes the arterial\\nwall very firm and elastic.\\nWhen an artery is cut it\\ndoes not collapse, owing to\\nthe firm tissue in the walls.\\nThe walls of the veins\\nv\\\\ all ul artery.\\nconsist of three similar\\nlayers. They contain, however, much less muscular and\\nelastic tissue, and thus collapse when cut.\\nPlans of the arterial and venous systems. The arterial\\nsystem begins with the aorta (1).^ This vessel leaves the\\nleft ventricle at the base of the heart and runs upward,\\nforming an arch in the upper part of the chest.\\nFrom the convexity of this arch arise three large arteries\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthe innominate (2) (Latin in-nomen, unnamed which\\ndivides into two trunks, the right carotid (5) (Greek Jcciros,\\nstupor which supplies the neck and head, and the\\nrigJit suhclavian (6) under the clavicle which supplies\\nthe shoulder, arm, and hand on the right side the Jeff\\ncarotid (3), which supplies the left side of the neck and head\\nthe left subclavian (-4), which supplies the left upper limb.\\nEach subclavian runs across the armpit as the axillari)\\narterj^, then down the arm to the elbow as the hracliial\\n(G-reek hrachion, arm dividing there to the radial and\\nulnar arteries to the forearm and hand. From the arch\\nthe aorta runs downward along the front of the spine as\\nthe thoracic aorta (7), giving off branches to the walls of the\\nthorax. Piercing the diapliragm, this artery becomes the\\n1 Figures refer to plate of the circulatory system, page 164.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 163\\nabdominal {Lutm ahdere, to conceal aorta (8), which gives\\noff the coeliac (Greek Jioilia, belly axis (9) to the stomach,\\nliver, dud spleen, the mesenteric arteries to the intestines,\\nthe renal arteries (10), and several smaller branches.\\nAt the level of the fonrth Inmbar vertebra the abdominal\\naorta divides to take two common iliac (Latin ilia, flanks\\narteries (11), a right and left. Each iliac artery supplies its\\nside of the pelvis and continues into the leg, being called\\nthe femoral artery in the thigh and the popliteal (Latin\\npoples, the ham at the knee. This artery divides to the\\nperoneal (Latin perone. fibnla and the posterior tibial,\\nw^hich supply the leg and foot.\\nThe veins begin as small twigs collecting the blood from\\nthe capillaries. These small branches coalesce to larger\\ntrunks until finally the venous blood is collected into the\\ntwo large veins, the superior vena cava (IV) and inferior vena\\ncava (V), w^hich pour it into the heart.\\nThe blood from the head and neck is brought by the jugular\\n(Latin jiigulum, throat veins (c) to the chest. The blood\\nof the hand, arm, and shoulder is brought to the chest\\nby the subclavian vein {b). In the chest the jugular and sub-\\nclavian veins of each side unite to form the innominate [a).\\nThe tw^o innomi nates thus formed unite to form the superior\\nvena cava (IV), w^hich runs to the heart. The intercostal\\nspaces are drained by the azygos (Greek a, without, and\\nzugos, yoke vein, which enters the superior vena cava.\\nThe veins of the low^er limbs unite to form the inferior\\nvena cava. This receives the veins from the pelvis, the kid-\\nneys {g) (renal veins), and the Kver, and enters the heart.\\nThe blood from the alimentary tract, the stomach and\\nintestines, and that from the spleen is collected by the\\nportal vein. This carries it to the liver, where the vein\\ndivides into fine capillaries like an artery. The blood\\nfrom the capillaries, purified by the liver cells, is again", "height": "3600", "width": "2301", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "rfi/s\\nC^ A\\n^to:\\nTlie cireiilatoiy system,\\nright aiu-ide i Meft auricle; C, right ventricle X lt?ft ventricle K, kidneys\\nlU", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 165\\ncollected by the hepatic vein, which enters the inferior vena\\ncava {li).\\nThe pulmonary circulation. In addition to this general\\nsystem of circulation, there is a subsidiary system, the\\npulmonanj (Latin j;y(Z-\\nmOy lung system.\\nThe venous blood\\nreturned to the heart\\nhas to be sent to the\\nlungs for purification\\nbefore it is again sent\\nthrough the body.\\nThe blood is taken\\nfrom the right ven-\\ntricle by the pulmo-\\nnary artery (II), which\\ndivides in the lungs,\\nto capillaries. From\\nthese capillaries the\\nblood is collected and\\nborne back to the\\nheart by the pulmo-\\nnary veins (III).\\nIII. THE LYMPHATICS\\nThe lymph, like\\nthe blood, circulates\\nin vessels. These are\\ncalled hjmjyJiatics. In\\nthe tissues, the lymph\\nis free in the spaces among the cells. These spaces are\\ndrained by a network of delicate vessels. These lymphatic\\nvessels, like the veins, unite to form larger ones, until finally\\nVeins in arm and\\nhand.\\nArteries in arm and\\nhand.", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "166\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYG^IENE\\n1,\\nthe lymph is collected into a left and right vessel of large\\nsize, which empties it into the veins. The large trunk of\\nthe left side is called the thoracic\\ndvct. This receives the lymph from\\nmMi i WL-^^0 both lower limbs, the abdominal\\nfflff S^^^ viscera, and the left thorax, arm,\\nf if, ]\\\\rZ^^ and side of the head.\\nIn addition to the lymph from the\\ntissues, the lymphatics carry to the\\nveins the chyle, which is absorbed\\nfrom the intestines. This chyle is\\nthe part of the food which absorbs\\ninto the lacteals, one of which runs\\nin the center of each villus. These\\nlacteals run into larger trunks, which\\nfinally enter the thoracic duct.\\nIn structure th.e walls of the lym-\\nphatic vessels are composed of an\\nendothelium, a muscular layer, and a\\nconnective tissue layer.\\nThe flow of the lymph in these\\nvessels is due to the pressure in the\\ntissues, where, as described, there is\\na constant overflow of lymph.\\nLymphatic nodes. In the course of\\nthe lymphatics are numerous struc-\\ntures known as hjmpli nodes or lymph\\nglands. These nodes consist of clus-\\nters of cells bound together by con-\\nnective tissue. They are a part of the\\nlymphatic tubes, filled with cells,\\nthrough which the lymph filters in\\nits coiu se. In this passage through the node th-. lymph is\\npurified, certain of its contents being taken out or worked\\nd\\nLymphatics of arm.\\na lymphatic nodes of axilla.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 167\\nover by the gland cells. The lymph also takes up cells\\nfrom these nodes, which are thus poured into the blood and\\nbecome the white corpuscles there, since these corpuscles,\\nmany of them at least, are simply free lymph cells. These\\nnodes are called glands, in many books, but are not glandular\\nstructures.\\nThe spleen. There is one large and important structure\\nin the body classed with the lymph nodes. This is the\\nspleen. It is often called a ductless gland.\\nThe spleen is a dark purplish-red organ about five inches\\nin length, situated on the left side of the abdomen, just in-\\nside the lower ribs.\\nIn structure the spleen is a big lymph node. It consists\\nof a connective tissue framework like that of a sponge.\\nIn the meshes of this spongy frame is a soft pulp, the\\nspleen pulp. This pulp consists of red blood corpuscles,\\nof white blood corpuscles, and other cells. Throughout\\nthe spleen are small white nodules consisting of groups\\nof leucocytes. Here in the spleen these white corpuscles\\nmultiply, and then are poured into the blood as white\\nblood corpuscles, just as they are poured into the lymphatics\\nfrom the lymph nodes. The red corpuscles which have\\nbeen used in the blood are probably collected and broken\\nup here.\\nThe spleen is supplied by an artery, and its vein emp-\\nties into the portal system. The blood flows freely through\\nthe pulp, permeating it everywhere.\\nIV. THE METHOD OF THE CIRCULATION THROUGH THE\\nVESSELS\\nIn the circulation the blood is forced through the series\\nof elastic tubes, the arteries, into the smaller capillaries.\\nThe passage of the blood through these vessels, particularly\\nHEWES, p. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 11", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "168 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe great number of minute capillaries, gives rise to much\\nfriction. This friction is the resistance which the heart has\\nto overcome by its impulse. The vessels are always full of\\nblood. The aorta and arteries are kept more than full\\ndistended.\\nThis pressure on the walls by the excess of blood in the\\nvessels is called the Uood pressure. The distended elastic\\nwalls are constantly tending to contract to their regular\\nsize, and in so doing they are exerting a constant pressure\\nupon the blood within the vessels, forcing it onward into\\nthe capillaries and veins.\\nThe distention is kept constant by the supply of blood\\nwhich the heart is regularly pumping in. Thus during\\nlife there is always a distention of the vessels, with a con-\\nstant flow along them in the direction of the capillaries and\\nveins (Experiments 3, 4, p. 177).\\nWhen the heart pumps, the distention is increased mo-\\nmentarily, and there is a spurt of blood into the small ves-\\nsels. Thus, when an artery is cut, the blood will flow in a\\ncontinual stream, but with this there will be at regular\\nintervals an extra flow or spurt.\\nWhen the blood gets to the veins much of the force has\\nbeen used up in friction, so that the blood flows under less\\npressure here.\\nThe whole flow of the blood is due to the pumping of\\nthe heart. This flow is regulated and guided, however, by\\nthe muscular, elastic walls of the vessels.\\nThe pulse. When the heart pumps the blood it causes a\\ndistention of the walls of all the arteries. Where a large\\nartery runs near the surface of the body, as the radial artery\\nin the wrist, we may feel this wave of distention with the\\nfinger. This we call the pulse. This pulse does not extend\\nto the veins. Here the blood flows steadily, but with very\\nlittle force, as a large amount of force is used up in the fric-", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 169\\ntion of the passage through the capillaries. What remains,\\nhowever, serves to take the blood back to the heart.\\nThe valves of the veins. On account of this low pressure,\\nthe veins, especially those of the limbs, are provided with\\nvalves which open to the blood flowing toward the heart, but\\nclose against any back flow, and thus tend to\\nkeep the blood flowing in one direction under all\\nconditions. The position of these valves in the\\nsuperficial veins of the front forearm may be\\nseen by exercising the arm, and then compress-\\ning it at the wrist. The valves appear as little\\nswellings in the course of the blue veins.\\nThe vasomotor (Latin rasa, vessel, and inoveo,\\nI move regulation of the circulation. We\\nhave said that the blood vessels of the body are\\nalways full. This universal fullness is main-\\ntained by an automatic (Greek auto, self, and matos,\\nspontaneous, self-acting regulation of the caliber of\\nthe vessels in different parts of the body, in accordance with\\nthe amount of blood in them.\\nThere is not enough blood in the body to keep all the\\nvessels distended if each is relaxed to its full extent. But\\nthey are never all thus relaxed. Each artery adapts its size\\nto the amount of blood in it, so as to have its walls always\\ndistended. Thus, if one drachm of blood is in a vessel, the\\nvessel contracts so that it holds without distention less than\\na drachm. The presence of the drachm, therefore, causes a\\ndistention of the walls.\\nThis regulation of the caliber of the vessels is controlled\\nby the muscular tissue in the walls of the vessels. The\\nwhole system of regulation is controlled by the vasomotor\\nnervous mechanism.\\nThis regulation is in constant operation in the accom-\\nplishment of the various functions of the organism. Through", "height": "3598", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "170 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nit, the supply of blood is concentrated in active organs of\\nthe body. Thus, after dinner a large supply of blood is\\nneeded in the stomach and intestines, and the arteries of\\nthis region are therefore dilated to their full capacity, and\\nfilled with an extra supply of blood. This extra supply is\\ndrawn from the quota of other regions, as the brain and\\nlimbs, which are in rather diminished activity at this time,\\nthe vessels in these parts contracting in proportion to their\\ndiminished contents. If, however, a man uses his brain\\nactively or exercises vigorously at this time, the brain and\\nlimbs will keep their full supply of blood, and the stomach\\nwill not get the extra blood which it needs, and thus the\\nprocess of digestion will not go on as it should. We all\\nhave an illustration of this process in the flushing of the\\nface and beating of the arteries of the head during mental\\nexcitement.\\nV. HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM\\nThere is a saying among physicians that a man is as old\\nas his blood vessels. Certainly, any man who has a weak-\\nened or diseased heart or unsound vessels is old before his\\ntime. He is less fitted for work of any kind, and is more\\nsusceptible to disease, than a sound man of his age.\\nThe care of these organs should be a simple thing. The\\nregulation of the cii culation and the action of the circula-\\ntory organs are automatic, and do not need special attention\\nor special exercise. If we eat plenty of food these organs\\nwill get their full supply of blood. When we exercise our\\nmuscles the heart is exercised at the same time. All that\\nwe have to do in the care of these organs is to avoid any\\npractices which injure them or their function. We must\\nnever subject them to overwork, and we must avoid taking\\ninto the system all substances which interfere with their\\naction and health, as alcohol or tobacco.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 171\\nOverwork. The heart is a muscle, and becomes exhausted\\nby excessive exercise. The more work we do, whether with\\nthe muscles or the brain or the digestive organs, the more\\nwork the heart has to do. If we do too much, the heart\\nmay give out, and then all the organs suffer, since it is to\\nthe work of the heart that they owe their constant supply\\nof nutriment.\\nMen in running races or in rowing not infrequently over-\\ntax the heart by keeping up too long. A heart once worked\\nto the point of giving out may never be sound again.\\nThe blood vessels also suffer from such strain. The walls\\nof the veins may give way with the extra pressure and be-\\ncome varicose.\\nTaking cold. Undue exposure may give rise to an affec-\\ntion of the circulation known as taking cold. Sudden or\\nprolonged exposure to cold contracts the peripheral vessels,\\ni.e., those near the surface, and thus causes an accumula-\\ntion or congestion of the blood in the interior parts of the\\nbody. This congestion in the membrane of the nose or air\\npassages may cause inflammation or a tendency to inflam-\\nmation, and, as a result, we have, with perhaps some irrita-\\ntion from without, a cold in the head (a coryza), .or in the\\nchest (a bronchitis). The same cause may give rise to an\\ninflammation of the intestines and diarrhea, or an inflamma-\\ntion of the lungs or of the pleural membranes (a pleurisy).\\nSuch conditions should be guarded against by avoiding sud-\\nden exposure. People should not go from a hot room into\\nthe cold air without extra clothing. At the same time a man\\nshould not become too dependent upon coats and mufflers,\\nelse he will catch cold whenever he leaves them off. The\\nbest plan is to keep the house cool, sleep with open windows,\\n1 Certain of the affections of the air passages which we call colds are undoubtedly-\\ndue to infections by microorganisms, and not merely to congestion of the parts. But\\nsusceptibility to these infections is increased by these congestions.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "172 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ntake a cold morning bath, and keep warm when out by\\nwalking briskly. In this way one becomes hardened to cold.\\nHemorrhage. When a blood vessel is injured or cut, we\\nliave a flow of blood known as a hemorrhage (Greek Jiaima,\\nblood, and regnumi, I burst forth Where the wound\\nis slight the flow will cease of itself, the openings of the\\nvessels being closed by the clotting of the blood. This clot-\\nting is rapid in the blood of healthy persons. It is less\\nrapid and complete in the blood of poorly fed people or\\npeople who drink much alcoholic liquors.\\nWhere the cut is deep or a large vessel is severed, the\\nflow prevents clotting. In such cases pressure must be\\napplied to the vessel above the wound. If the cut is in a\\nlimb a handkerchief should be bound or twisted tightly\\nabout the limb,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 above the cut if the bleeding vessel is an\\nartery, below if a vein, and the patient should be brought\\nto a physician. All cuts should be scrubbed with water\\nwhich has been boiled, to prevent the setting up of inflam-\\nmation there. The air and the soil are filled with minute\\nbodies known as bacteria, which get into these wounds and\\nirritate them, if the lesions are not carefully cleaned.\\nFdiuting occurs when the heart fails to pump the blood\\ninto the head. Such a condition may occur as a result of\\nnervous shock which inhibits the action of the heart tem-\\nporarily. When fainting occurs, the patient should be\\nplaced with tlie liead low, when the blood will soon return\\nto the brain. 1\\nThe blood corpuscles carry the oxygen to the tissues.\\n1 Tlie custom of gh-iiig a person who is faintine; a few sips of cold water is based\\nupon the fact that sipping water qnickens the circulation, wliile ordinary drinking does\\nnot. During the act of sipping the action of the nerve which slows the beating of the\\nheart is inhibited, and, as a consequence, that organ contracts much more rapidly, and\\nthe circulation in various parts of the body is increased. A child gets this same stim-\\nulation by sucking. Thus, when a child sucks its thumb after being scolded, it is get-\\nting itself cheered up by the increased circulatoiy activity induced unconsciously,\\nof course.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "CmCL^LATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 173\\nThis they do by means of the hemoglobin which they\\ncontain.\\nOne constituent of this substance is iron. We nmst be\\nsure to have a supply of iron in the food, else the blood\\nwill suffer, and through this all the tissues will fail of their\\nfull supply of oxygen.\\nPeople who do not get sufficient food or the right kind\\nof food suffer from a lack of corpuscles in the blood or a\\nlack of iron in the corpuscles. This condition is called\\nancemia (Greek without/ and liaima, blood The con-\\ndition may be due to overwork or impure air as well as poor\\nfood, as in these conditions the blood seems to be unable to\\ngain sustenance from the food. In treating anaemia the\\nendeavor should be to administer the iron in food rather\\nthan in medicines.^\\nThe vitality of the body is directly dependent upon the\\npurity and richness of the blood, and the capacity of the\\nheart to keep this supply in active circulation throughout\\nthe parts. People whose blood is lacking in iron, or who\\nhave poisonous substances contained in the blood, are not\\nstrong and have diminished power to resist disease.^\\nWhere the heart is weak the blood tends to stagnate in\\nparts. It fails of sufficient aeration and becomes impure.\\nThe parts cannot get the food which they need, and do not\\nrepair actively.\\nGermicidal power of blood. The blood of healthy indi-\\nviduals possesses a certain power to kill or make inactive\\n1 The ordinary diet contains a sufficient supply of iron for health. Some foods con-\\ntain much more than others. Thus, milk, rice, potatoes, bread, and cereals contain\\nsmall amounts. The following, which are given in the order of their richness in iron,\\nare the leading iron-containing foods: spinach, asparagus, cabbage (outer leaf), beef,\\nmutton, lamb, dandelions, apples, almonds, hazelniits, lentils, beans, carrots.\\n2 Reports from the war between the Turks and the Greeks inform us that ^mong\\nthe former the wounded recovered fi-om the effects of severe injuries most marvel-\\no lsly. Wliat is the reason for this One reason is the fact that the Turks are com-\\npelled by their religion to abstain from alcoholic drinks. This gives them a great\\nadvantage, for their blood is pure. Journal of Hygiene, 1897.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "174 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe germs of disease\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a germicidal (Latin ceedo, I kill\\ngerm-killing power. Tims, in every open wonnd, and\\neven when we eat and drink, a certain number of harmful\\nbacteria probably get into the blood. But the germicidal\\npower therein destroys them (and no abscess in the wound\\nor no disease of the body results). Where these germs are\\nin large numbers, however, the blood may fail to resist\\nthem, especially where the blood is poor, or the circulation\\ninactive.\\nLeucocytosis (Greek leul os, Avliite, kutos, cell, and suffix\\nosis, morbid state and phagocytosis (Greek phafjein, to de-\\nvour, and hdosj cell This germicidal power of the blood\\nis helieved by some to rest in part in the white corpuscles.\\nWhen a tissue is wounded or bacteria lodge anywhere, these\\nlittle scavengers, the leucocytes, can be seen collecting to the\\npoint in great numbers. Some of the bacteria they eat up\\nbodily. Others are killed pi obably by substances which\\ncome from the corpuscles. If these little soldiers, plus the\\ngermicidal power of the serum, are strong enough, they stop\\nor drive back the invading enemy at the very outset. Then\\nother cells appear which build up a tissue wall against fur-\\nther advance. If the enemy are too many, however, the in-\\nvasion goes on into the body, and the person contracts disease.\\nAlcohol, when brought to act directly upon the heart, les-\\nsens the force of the muscular contractions. Its action\\nwhen brought to the heart through the general circulation\\ncannot be so perfectly studied. There can be no doubt,\\nhowever, that alcohol when taken into the system may cause\\ndisorder of the heart s function and even disease of its\\ntissue.\\nThe common effect of alcohol drinking, whether developed\\nby the action of the substance upon the central nerve cen-\\nters of the heart or upon the heart muscle itself, is to\\nincrease the rapidity and diminish the force of the heart s", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 175\\naction, so that the heart runs itself out like a mettlesome\\nhorse who is given the rein.^\\nA heart thus disordered in its action cannot endure so\\nmuch strain as a sound heart. It will give out more easily\\nwith exertion or disease. It is a well-known fact among\\nphysicians that the heart of a patient who is addicted to the\\nuse of alcohol is much less able to withstand the extra strain\\nimposed upon it by the existence of some severe disease, as\\npneumonia, than the average heart.\\nProlonged use of alcohol is very likely to cause a diseased\\ncondition of the heart, known as fatty degeneration.\\nThe use of alcohol appears to be an element in causing a\\nchange in the linings of the blood vessels, known as sclerosis\\n(Greek sMeros, hard which makes them hard and stiff\\nand less able to do their pai-t in the circulation. The firm\\nelastic and muscular tissues are replaced by less strong con-\\nnective tissue. This change is frequently followed by a\\nsoftening of the whole wall of the vessels, especially of the\\naorta and large arteries, known as atheroma (Greek atkera,\\ngruel These changes cause weakening of the walls in\\nplaces, where the pressure of the blood may force the wall\\nout into a thin-walled pouch, or aneurism (Greek aneurunein,\\nto dilate These aneurisms are very serious affairs.\\nThey frequently burst and cause death of the individual.\\nThe dilation of the superficial vessels of the body caused\\nby alcohol often becomes permanent with the constant use\\n1 Even what is called moderate drinking has a much greater share than is generally\\nsupposed, not only in greatly increasing heart diseases in cases where they already\\nexist, but also in inducing their development in the constitutionally and hereditarily\\npredisposed to become affected by them. Jxist as it happens that the dealers in\\nhorses runners out whose hearts are called upon to make oft-repeated and sudden\\nexertions, are prone to become the ictims of heart disease, in like manner the oft-\\nrepeated sudden spurts of cardiac activity induced by the frequent indulgence in small\\nquantities of alcohol lead, for precisely similar reasons, to equally deleterious conse-\\nquences in persons already affected by heart derangement. George Harley, M.D.,\\nF.R.S., London.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "176 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nof liquor. We are all familiar with the red-streaked ap-\\npearance of the face and nose which is often thus caused\\nin drinkers.\\nThese various changes in the vessels which may foUow the\\nuse of alcoholic liquors make the man liable to the breaking\\nor plugging of a vessel in his l)rain. This condition causes\\nwhat is known as apoplexy, and is often the cause of sudden\\ndeath.\\nTohdcco often produces derangement of the heart s action.\\nIndividuals who smoke, and especially boys, frequently\\nsuffer from rapid and irregular beating of the heart. They\\nbecome easily exhausted. Their vessels become weakened\\nand dilated. Smoking may bring on temporary failure of\\nthe heart s action, with fainting. Whether these effects are\\ntemporary or permanent, these organs and the whole sys-\\ntem suffer from them, and their powers of resistance are\\nlessened.^ This condition of tobacco heart, which is very\\ncommon in boys wlio smoke, will keep them from success in\\nathletic contests. It will keep them from gaining admission\\nto the army. In the examinations for enlistment during the\\nrecent war with Spain, many of the young men who pre-\\nsented themselves were excluded owing to tobacco heart.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\n1. An ox heart with a good pipe upon it, that is, with the large\\nblood vessels cut at a distance from the heart, should be obtained from\\na butcher, and the anatomy of the organ studied. By cutting open the\\nheart the four cavities, the valves, and the apertures may be made out.\\n2. Study the effect of muscular exertion upon the rate of the heart\\naction, by counting the pulse beats before and after running upstairs.\\n1 Dr. Laban Dennis, of the New Jersey State Board of Health, reporting upon the\\neffects of tobacco smoking upon the heart, says that it sometimes produces irregu-\\nlarity, palpitation, a teeliug of oppression and faintness, with breathlessiiess and insup-\\nportable pain in the region of the heart, which sometimes extends to the muscles of\\nthe chest and left arm.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION AND THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 177\\n3. Many of the phenomena of the circulation can be studied by\\nmeans of a common Davidson syringe, or a syringe bulb with a short\\nrubber tube upon the suction end and a long tube (six to twelve feet)\\nupon the delivery end. Fit the long tube at the end with a glass tube\\ndrawn out to a fine caliber at the tip (a medicine dropper), to represent\\nthe resistance offered by the small blood vessels to the blood flow.\\nThen spread the tube upon the table and force water through it by\\nalternate compression and expansion of the bulb.\\nThe bulb represents the heart. At the suction end is a valve which\\nallows the water to enter, but not to go out at that end, just like the\\ntricuspid or mitral valves of the heart, so that when you compress it,\\nall the water which has entered must flow on through the delivery end\\nand the long tube.\\nNote that though the water is thrown into the long tube in an inter-\\nmittent manner by the successive compressions of the bulb, it flows\\nfrom the end of the tube in a steady stream (the effect of the elastic\\nwalls of the arteries accomplished here by the use of an elastic rubber\\ntube with an obstacle at the end).\\nThe same principle is applied in the fire engine, where the elastic air\\nin the air chamber jolays the part of the elastic walls of the arteries.\\n4. Attach a nonelastic tube (a glass tube) to the bulb by a short\\nrubber tube. Note that here the flow will be intermittent, not con-\\ntinuous.\\n5. Compress the forearm for a short time.\\nNote how the veins of the hand become distended by this obstruc-\\ntion to their flow. Note also the little knots or swellings which appear\\nin the course of the veins. These knots mark the locations of the valves\\nof the veins.\\n6. The circulation of the blood and the appearance of the capil-\\nlaries and the blood corpuscles can be studied in the web of a frog s\\nfoot or the tail of a tadpole placed under a microscope.\\nNote the corpuscles flowing along. Note the walls of the capillaries.\\nNote the cells of the walls.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What are the three objects accomplished by the circulation of the\\nblood and lymph? Of what organs does this circulatory system con-\\nsist? Where does the heart lief- What is the pericardium? De-\\nscribe the heart. For what are the valves of the heart useful? Of", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "178 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nwhat kind of tissue is the heart principally composed? What is the\\nchief property of muscle tissue?\\nII. By what is the heart action controlled? In what manner does the\\nheart act? What causes the beat of the heart? What are the heart\\nsounds? Describe the passage of the blood through the heart. Describe\\nthe action of the valves.\\nIII. What is the pulmonary artery? Wliere does the blood which is\\nsent to the lungs go after it leaves the lungs Where does the blood go\\nwhen it leaves the left ventricle? From what veins does the right\\nauricle collect the blood? The left auricle?\\nIV. What are the three classes of blood vessels? What is the aorta?\\nName and place some of the principal arteries. Name some of the large\\nveins. What are the two subsidiary systems of circulation? What is\\nthe object of the pulmonary system? Of the portal system?\\nV. Describe the structure of the capillaries. If you cut the wall of an\\nartery it will not collapse; why? How is it with a vein? Describe\\nthe lymphatics. What does the lymph which they carry contain?\\nWhere is it made up? What are lymphatic nodes?\\nVI. What is the thoracic duct Describe the method of the circulation\\nin the vessels. What are the factors in keeping up the blood pressure?\\nOf what does the x^ulse serve as an evidence? What is the force which\\ncauses the flow of the blood? What are the valves in the veins for?\\nVII. What is meant by the vasomotor regulation of the circulation?\\nIs there enough blood to fill full all the vessels in the body? What hap-\\npens in the vessels of the head and muscles when digestion is going on\\nHow can we exercise the heart?\\nVIII. What is anaemia? How can we guard against it? What is\\ntaking cold? Has the blood any power to kill bacteria?\\nIX. What is phagocytosis? Is the rapid beating of the heart which\\nis caused by alcohol drinking good for it? What is tobacco heart?\\nSuppose the semilunar valve of the heart to give way, what would\\nhappen to the blood which the heart forces into the aorta?\\nX. What is the connection between exposing the surface of the body\\nto cold air and a cold upon the lungs or in the head?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nRESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM\\nIN addition to food, the body has to be supplied with\\nanother substance, free oxygen. As we have explained,\\nthe body is kept going, like an engine, by the burning of\\nthe substances within it. Now, burning within the body or\\nwithout is, as you know, a process of oxidation. In order\\nthat it may take place, there must be free oxygen present\\nwith which the substance to be burned may unite. In the\\nfurnaces the coal gets this oxygen from the air. In the\\nbody, likewise, the oxygen is obtained from the air. It is\\nobtained by the process known as respiration, or breathing.\\nThe air is taken into the part of the body known as the\\nlungs. Here the oxygen is separated from the air and car-\\nried by the blood about the body to the cells, which are the\\nfurnaces where the burning takes place, the seat of the true\\nor internal respiration.\\nRespiration (Latin re, again, and spirare, to breathe\\nis accomplished by a set of organs known as the respiratory\\ntract. This tract consists of the upper air passages, the\\nmouth, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and the lungs.\\nThe mechanism of respiration is secured by the muscular\\naction of the walls of the thorax, plus the natural air pressure.\\nDouble object of respiration. The process of external res-\\npiration serves a double purpose. It accomplishes, first, the\\n179", "height": "3598", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "180\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nimporting of the free oxygen to the body second, the ex-\\nporting or elimination from the body of certain waste prod-\\nnets of tissne combustion, the carbon dioxide and water.\\nI. THE RESPIRATORY TRACT\\nThe cliief organs of respiration are the hoigs. On its way\\nto and from the lungs, the air passes through the H2)per air\\npassages. The air en-\\nters these passages\\nby the nose or month.\\nThe cavity of the\\nmouth has already\\nbeen described.\\nThe nose contains\\ntwo cavities, sepa-\\nrated by the nasal\\nseptum, the left and\\nright nostrils. Each\\nnasal cavity is par-\\ntially divided into\\nthree chambei-s by\\nthe turbinate bones, which project into it. Behind, the\\nnasal cavities open by the posterior nares into the pharynx.\\nThe air in passing through the nose is warmed. It gains\\nmoisture from the nasal membranes, and it is freed from\\ndust and germs by the hairs which lie in the anterior\\nnares.\\nThe pharynx is a funnel-shaped cavity which connects the\\nnose and mouth cavities with the larynx and trachea. It\\nhas been described in the chapter upon the nutrition of\\nthe body.\\nThe opening to the larynx is a narrow slit called the\\nglottis. It is covered by a cartilaginous lid, the epiglottis\\nLiiiif s.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 181\\n(Greek epi, upon \u00e2\u0080\u0094upon the glottis). This lid is open dur-\\ning respiration, but closed while food is passing the pharynx.\\nThe larynx is a cavity between the pharynx and trachea.\\nIt is the seat of the organ of voice, and will be described in\\nthe chapter upon the voice.\\nThe trachea (Greek tmchus, rough extends from the\\nlarynx downward. Close to the lungs it divides into two\\ntubes, the bronchi (Greek bronchos, windpipe one for each\\nlung. Each bronchus divides into numerous small bron-\\nchial tubes, which divide again into still finer ones. Each\\nfine tube ends in a cluster of short blind tube branches. Each\\ncluster of dilated tube ends is\\ncalled an mfundibiilum (Latin,\\nfunnel Each infuiidibulum\\nis divided into several chambers\\nby an infolding of its wall. Each\\nchamber is called an alveolus\\n(Latin alveus, a hollow vessel\\nIn the lung are immense num-\\nbers of these infundibula with\\ntheir alveoli, joined by connec-\\ntive tissue. The fine bronchial tubes, of which these in-\\nfundibula are the dilated ends, conduct the air to the alveoli.\\nThe lung may then be said to be made up of numerous\\nbranching tubes, the closed, dilated, and chambered ends\\nof which are all bound together by (Tonnective tissue and\\ninclosed in an elastic membrane, the pleural (Greek pleura,\\nside membrane}\\nLung infundibula.\\n1 The kings represent a contrivance for providing the body with as large a surface\\nas possible for the absorption of the oxygen of the air. In small animals (insects) the\\nsurface of the body is so great in proportion to their bulk that the absorbent surface,\\nprovided by the external surface of the body, is sufficient for the needs of respiration,\\nso that these animals need no special contrivance (no lungs) for this purpose. In\\nhigher animals extra sui-face is necessary. In fish this is provided by the gills. In\\nair-breathing animals the lungs, with their thousands of little pits (alveoli), which\\ngreatly increase the surface included in a small space, are provided.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "182\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nCiliated cells.\\nIn structure the wall of the trachea consists of a connec-\\ntive tissue framework containing plates of cartilage con-\\nnected together by muscular tissue. Internally the tube is\\nlined by an epithelial membrane.\\nIS If Is? W epitli\u00c2\u00abli lias as its surface\\nm l )M if \\\\ri layer columnar cells bearing each a\\nshort, thin process. These processes\\nare called cilia (Latin cilium, eye-\\nlash They are protoplasmic and\\nare in constant motion, waving up-\\nward toward the mouth. By this\\naction they drive any fluid which\\nmay collect in the trachea out toward the mouth. Similar\\ncells exist in the larynx and nose, where they serve a similar\\npurpose.\\nThe bronchial tubes have a structure similar to that of the\\ntrachea. The cartilage and muscle tissues are, however, of\\nsmall amount here, and in the finer tubes they may be\\nentirely absent.\\nIn the inf undibula and alveoli chambers the walls consist\\nof fine elastic connective tissue covered by an epithelial mem-\\nbrane continuous with that of the bronchial tubes, of which\\nthey are the termination. The cells of the membrane in the\\nalveoli are flattened. In the connective tissue about the\\ncells runs a network of capillary blood vessels.\\nAs stated, the walls of the alveoli and the fine tubules\\ncontain much elastic tissue. As a result the lung is a very\\nelastic organ. It can be distended by air to much over its\\nnatural size, but tends to return to this size and expel the\\nair when the pressure is removed.\\nThe pleural membrane. The elastic connective tissue\\nmembrane, the pleura, which incloses each lung, leaves the\\nviscus at the root, and, folding upon itself, lines the walls of\\nthe thorax, in which the lungs are placed. Eacli lung is", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 183\\nthus surrounded by a closed sac in the same manner as is\\nthe heart.\\nThe two free surfaces of this sac, which approximate each\\nother, are covered with a serous membrane. This mem-\\nLung tissue.\\nbrane is moistened by a secretion from these cells. The\\nsurfaces of the sac thus slide easily over each other in the\\nmovements of respii ation.\\nn. THE MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION\\nThe function of respiration is regulated by the action of\\nthe walls of the thorax, under the control of the muscles\\nwhich attach to or make up these walls.\\nThe thorax is a conical cavity surrounded by a wall of\\nbone, cartilage, and muscle. The walls consist of the verte-\\nbral column at the back, the ribs and the costal cartilages,\\nwith their fibrous tissue and muscles, at the side, the ster-\\nnum in front, and the large muscle, the diaphragm, below.\\nHEWES, P. H. 12", "height": "3613", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "184\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nOutside, this cavity is covered by muscle, fat, and skin.\\nInside, it is divided into a right and left cavity, each being\\nlined by the serous membranes, the pleura.\\nThe bones of the thorax are all so articulated that, by\\nmovements of its skeleton, the shape of the thorax can be\\nchanged, and its cavity enlarged or contracted.\\nAction of the diaphragm. The vertical enlargement of the\\nthorax, the lengthening from top to bottom, is brought\\nabout by the large muscle\\ncalled the diaplii agm. This\\nmuscle forms the dome-\\nshaped floor of the thorax.\\nIt consists of a central ten-\\ndon, from which striate mus-\\ncle fibers radiate in all direc-\\ntions. These fibers attach to\\nthe lower ribs, the sternum,\\nand the vertebral column.\\nWhen they contract they\\npull the tendon down to a\\nlower plane, thus enlarging\\nthe thoracic cavity at the ex-\\npense of the abdominal below.\\nAction of the intercostal mus-\\ncles. The increase in the size\\nof the thorax from front to back is brought about by the\\nraising of the rib arches and sternum upon the spine. This\\naction is controlled by the exiermd IntercostaJ (Latin inte7\\\\\\nbetween, and cosfa, rib muscles, which run from rib\\nto rib.\\nDuring rest the ribs which pass around from spine to\\nsternum, the first seven, run downward. Each rib thus\\nforms an arch or hoop, with its front lower than its back.\\nThe fii st arch at the top is the smallest. They then in-\\nDiaphragm.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 185\\ncrease in size until the lowest, the seventh, is reached.\\nWhen the intercostal muscles contract, each arch is brought\\ninto the place of the smaller one above it, and the front\\npoint of the thorax, the sternum, lies farther from the spine\\nin each plane than before. The thorax is therefore en-\\nlarged from front to back.\\nThe raising of the thorax in this manner is accomplished\\nby the contraction of each external intercostal muscle.\\nThe muscle from the first to the second rib contracts, and\\nthe second rib is pulled up, the first rib being held from\\ncoming down by ligaments and muscles above. The second\\nmuscle pulls on the third arch, and so on. These contrac-\\ntions occur simultaneously, so that the whole thorax is\\nmoved as one piece.\\nThe mecJianism of inspiration (Latin in and spirare, to\\nbreathe takes place in the following manner: The elas-\\ntic lungs lie in the closed thorax. Through the air passages\\nthe air from without reaches them and presses upon the\\nwalls, just as it presses upon the body surface. As there\\nis no pressure about the outer walls of the lungs except\\nthe pressure of the chest walls, this air pressure drives the\\nelastic walls out until they everywhere fill the chest cavity\\nand press against these chest w^alls. Thus when at rest the\\nlungs are distended as much as the walls of the thorax will\\nallow.\\nIn inspiration the simultaneous contraction of the dia-\\nphragm and intercostal muscles makes the thoracic cavity\\nlonger and deeper, that is, considerably larger, so that the\\nwalls of the lungs, which were held in by the thoracic w^alls,\\nexpand still further under the air pressure from within, fill-\\ning the larger cavity formed by the recession of these\\nwalls. In this way the lungs grow larger, and more air\\nrushes in from without. The forces which govern inspiration\\nare, then, muscular effort and atmospheric pressure.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "186 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nExpiration (Latin ejc and S2)irare, to breathe out When\\nthe niuselos liave linished their contraction they relax, and\\nas they do so, the walls tend to return to their old position.\\nTliis decreases the size of the chest cavity a^ain, and the\\nwalls of the lungs are pressed in by the incoming chest\\nwalls, the air being expelled through the air passages.\\nThis expiration in moderate breathing is due principally to\\nthe elasticity of the thoracic walls and lungs, which, when\\nthey are given a chance by the relaxation of the muscular\\ntension, tend to return to their regular shape and position,\\ndriving out the air before them.\\nIn forced respiration the action of inspiration is aided by\\nthe action of other muscles which pass from the thoracic\\nskeleton to the spine. That of expiration is reinforced by\\nthe action of the abdominal muscles and the internal inter-\\ncostal muscles, which lessen the regular size of the thoracic\\ncavity. These nniscles act in causing the short forcible act\\nof expiration known as a cough.\\nExperiraeiit. The action of the lungs in expandinri: under air pressure\\ncan be illustrated by a rubber bag placed in a jar from which (he air\\ncan be exhausted. When the bag is opened it collapses, as the pres-\\nsure of air is equal within and without, and the bag collapses by its\\nnatural elasticity. If the bag bo placed in a closed jar with a tube con-\\nnecting the bag with the outer air, and then the air in the vessel be\\nexhausted, the bag will at once bulge out until it touches the walls of\\nthe jar. In this experiment the jar walls represent the thoracic walls,\\nthe bag the lungs.\\nIII. THE GAS INTERCHANGE IN RESPIRATION\\nThe object of the respiratory apparatus is to facilitate an\\nexchange of gases between the body and the air.\\nThe air is breathed in rich in oxygen. In the lungs it\\ngives up some of its oxygen for use in the body, and takes\\nup an equivalent of carbon dioxide waste from the body.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 187\\nIt is then breatlied out a^ain. The expired air tlius differs\\nin composition from the inspired air. It contains less\\noxygen and more carbon dioxide.\\nThe quantity of air inlialed aiid exlialed in each respiration\\nis about thirty, cubic inches. The body therefore gets the\\nbenefit of the oxygen contained in this thirty cubic inches,\\nand also of the carbon-dioxide-carrying capacity of this\\namount of air every time the action of breathing occurs\\n(Experiments 2 and 3, pp. 194, 195).\\nThe oxygen which the inspired air loses in the lungs is\\ntaken up by the blood. In return the air in the lungs takes\\nup a certain amount of carbon dioxide gas from the blood.\\nThis interchange of gases between the air in the lungs\\nand the blood takes place through the walls of the lung\\nalveoli and the blood capillaries. All about in the walls of\\ntlie alveoli, in a network, lie these blood capillaries. They\\nbring the venous blood, loaded with carbon dioxide waste,\\nfrom the tissues to the alveoli walls. This gas waste is\\npassed through the walls of the capillaries and of the alveoli\\nas througli a fine sieve, and is taken up by the air. At\\nthe same time the free oxygen of the lung air is passed\\nthrough these walls and taken up by the blood, so that\\nthe dark venous blood, which comes to the lungs rich in\\ncarbon dioxide and poor in oxygen, goes away as a bright\\nscarlet arterial blood, poor in carbon dioxide and rich in\\noxygen, and is thus distributed over the body.\\nThe oxygen which passes into the blood is taken up there\\nby the red corpuscles. These corpuscles contain a substance\\nknown as hemoglobin, which has a strong affinity for oxy-\\ngen, combining with it to form a compound known as\\noxyhemoglobin.\\nIn the circulation each corpuscle with its load of oxygen\\nthus loosely combined is carried to the tissues throughout\\nthe body. Here this oxygen is given up again and used in", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "188 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe tissues for combustion. It is this last step, this utiliza-\\ntion of the free oxygen from the blood in the tissues, which\\nis the real process of respiration, for the accomplishment of\\nwhich all the other steps, the external respiration and cir-\\nculation, are but a means.\\nIV. THE EXCRETION OF WATER BY THE LUNGS\\nIn addition to serving as a means of gas interchange be-\\ntween the body and the air, the respirator}^ function serves\\nother purposes. One of these is the removal of water from\\nthe body. The expired air always comes out moister, that is,\\nricher in water, than the inspired air. A certain amount of\\nwater is removed from the blood in this way. This exces-\\nsive moisture of the expired air can be observed upon a\\nfrosty day. The air upon issuing from the mouth looks like\\na cloud of steam. The water which is taken up by the lung\\nair at the body temperature of 98. 6\u00c2\u00b0 F. is deposited by con-\\ndensation in the cold air outside (Experiment 4, p. 195).\\nV. THE ABDUCTION OF HEAT\\nRespiration also serves for the removal of a certain\\namount of heat from the body. The air taken into the\\nlungs upon a day when the temperature is at 70^ F.\\ncomes out with a temperature of 97\u00c2\u00b0 F. Thus just so much\\nheat is removed from the body as there is difference in the\\ninspired and expired air (Experiment 5, p. 195).\\nThe volume of the expired air is greater than that of the\\ninspired, smce the air is expanded by the higher heat of the\\nbody and has also taken up water. Its gas volume, however,\\nIS less, as it has lost 5.4 volumes of oxygen and taken up\\nonly 4.3 volumes of carbon dioxide.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 189\\nVI. HYGIENE OF RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY TRACT\\nThe frame of the thorax and the muscles which control\\nrespiration are developed by vigorous out-of-door exercise,\\nas running, rowing, and swimming. In inspiration the\\nchest walls and the abdominal walls are driven outward.\\nTight clothing which interferes with this expansion, as tight\\ncorsets and tight belts, should be avoided.^ Breathlessness\\nor rapid breathing is much more marked after exercise in\\na woman who wears tight corsets than in one who does not.\\nThe lining membranes of the air passages are easily irri-\\ntated by the inhalation of fine, solid particles in the air,\\nknown as dust, or smoke. We should avoid working in\\natmospheres which are very dusty. We should keep our\\nliving rooms as free from dust as possible.^\\nTobacco smokers are apt to contract a chronic relaxed\\n1 Ample lung capacity is vital capital. This cannot be secured with the muscles\\nof respiration bound down by tight clothing. In addition to giving them room for free\\nplay it is well to add to their capacity by special exercises in breathing. One of the\\nsimplest exercises is full, deep breathing. Draw in a long, deep breath, expanding\\nthe chest as fully as possible without straining either lungs or muscles. Retain the\\nbreath thus taken while you count ten; then as slowly as possible expel it. Or,\\nstand erect with chin down, and rise on the toes as you inhale hold the breath for a\\nfew moments, so that the air may act on the whole surface of the blood, nourishing it\\nand at the same time taking up impure gases then expel it forcefully and as com-\\npletely as possible, coming down on the heels at the same time.\\nBy such exercises the blood becomes saturated with oxygen, and the capillaries\\ncarry it to every part of the system, bathing every cell. The lungs increase in\\nelasticity, so that the chest expansion may be increased several inches, while the effect\\nof these exercises reacts on every tissue of the body, producing a healthier tone and\\nstimulating its growth.\\n2 The would-be neat but unwise housekeeper, after sweeping her carpeted floor,\\nwhisks the dust from her furniture vnth a feather duster, satisfied if she but transfers\\nit from regions seen to those imseen. Not so the hygieme housekeeper. First of all,\\nshe reduces dust to a minimum by discarding carpets and living on bare floors with\\nplenty of rugs which can be taken outdoors and beaten. She dusts her smooth floor\\nwith a soft or damp cloth, and so does not raise a fog as in sweeping a carpeted room.\\nShe dusts her bric-a-brac with a soft cloth, which she shakes frequently out of the\\nwindow. She lets in volumes of fresh air and sunshine, and when she has finished her\\nroom it not only looks clean, but it feels clean, smells clean, and is clean,", "height": "3589", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "190 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncondition of the membranes from this constant irritation,\\nespecially those who inhale the smoke.^\\nAll influences which tend to congestion of the membrane\\nof the lungs and air passages are to be avoided. Such in-\\nfluences, for instance, are undue exposure to cold and in-\\ndulgence in alcohol. It has been explained in a preceding\\nchapter how cold may cause inflammation of the lungs or\\nair passages.\\nAlcohol^ when taken frequently, keeps the membranes of\\nthe lungs and throat relaxed. The circulation in the di-\\nlated vessels is less active, and thus congestion and conse-\\nquent inflammation are more apt to follow exposure in these\\ncases than in healthy individuals. Such subjects suffer\\nvery frequently from pharyngitis and from bronchitis.^\\nSore throats and coughs should be cared for at once, else\\nthe condition of the tissues may become chronic. When\\none has a cough he should not spit out what he raises upon\\nthe sidewalk or floor, but into appropriate vessels, as other\\npeople may contract the disease from the dried sputum\\nlying or floating about. People with chronic coughs should\\nlive out of doors in dry country air.\\nVentilation. The air of a room with people in it is con-\\nstantly losing oxygen and accumulating carbon dioxide and\\nother substances excreted in the expired air. Some of these\\n1 Habitual smokers are notoriously liable to colds in the head and to bronchitis and\\nother congestive affections of the air passages. On this subject Dr. J. F. Rumbold\\nsays: The congestion occasioned by the action of tobacco on the mucous membrane\\nof the superior portion of the respiratory tract resembles in many respects the conges-\\ntion resulting from the effects of a cold. Some of these are transitory and some per-\\nmanent. The local effects of tobacco on the mucous membrane of the siiperior portion\\nof the respiratory tract causes a more permanent relaxation and congestion than\\nany known agent. Tobacco depresses the system while it is producing its pleasur-\\nable sensation, and it prepares the mucous membrane to take on catarrhal inflamma-\\ntion from even slight exposure to cold.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 British Medical Journal, 1880.\\n2 Those who have injured themselves with alcohol show less power of resistance\\nagainst influences unfavorable to healtli, and are carried off by diseases which other\\npeople of the same age pass through safely, especially in cases of inflammation of the\\nlungs. Birch-Hirschfeld.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 191\\nexcreted substances are poisonous, and if they are allowed\\nto accumulate in any quantity will poison the people who\\nbreathe the air, causing headache, dullness, and exhaustion.\\nSo it is very important to prevent the accumulation of these\\nproducts. To accomplish this prevention we must keep\\nthe room air constantly changing. This system of chang-\\ning the air of a building is known as ventilation.\\nThe carbon dioxide excreted by the lungs does not collect\\nin amount sufficient to have a poisonous action, but the\\namount of it present serves as an index of the amount of\\npoisonous impurities present. So by measuring the carbon\\ndioxide in the air of a room we are able to tell whether the\\nair is pure or impure. If the air contains two volumes car-\\nbon dioxide in ten thousand volumes, air, we call it fresh.\\nIf it contains six volumes carbon dioxide it is impure. So we\\narrange our ventilation to keep the proportion of cai-bon\\ndioxide in the air as much below six volumes as possible.\\nVentilation is best secured by bringing the fresh air in\\nhigh up, and allowing the mixed air to escape by fireplaces\\nor other ventilators. The fresh air may be brought in\\nwarm by hot-air apparatus, so as to avoid drafts of Qold air.\\nIt is important that the air should contain a certain\\namount of water. Very dry air takes too much water from\\nthe membranes of the air passages, and causes a consequent\\nirritation of the tissues. Stoves in a room are likely to dry\\nthe air too much. Hot-air flues or open fires are better\\nmeans of providing heat.\\nThe odor of the air is a guide to its condition. Wherever\\nthe air of a room smells close, ventilation should be applied.\\nThe constant purification of the air is carried on by plants.\\nThese organisms break up the carbon dioxide which collects\\nin the air, and take up the carbon, leaving the oxygen free\\nfor the air.\\nNot only is a continuous supply of oxygen essential to", "height": "3596", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "192 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nlifo, but any diiniiiution in tlie exchange of oxygen and\\ncarbon in the system lessens nerve sensibility and mus-\\ncular force. Confinement in close rooms is probably, in\\ncases, a predisposing cause of consumption, which numbers\\nfar more victims than any other one disease in our temperate\\nclimates. Probably a nuijority of all the families in the\\ncountry live all winter shut up in close, heated rooms, with\\nthe life giving oxygen (carefully shut out, and poisonous\\nvapors as carefully shut in.\\nLive as much as you can with open windows, wearing\\nwhatever extra clothing is necessary. If you cannot bear\\nan open window, even with an extra coat and a rug over\\nyour knees, when you are sitting in a room, do the next\\nbest thing, wliieh is to throw the windows wide open, and\\ntake some active exercise for a few minutes, while the air\\nin the room is being swept out and fresh air coming in to\\ntake its place. Avoid chill, but at the same time avoid im-\\npure air. In a room where no means of ventilation are\\nfurnished, as is usually the case, there are various simple\\nways of keeping the air constantly changing without lower-\\ning the temperature too much or creating a draft. One is,\\nwhere there is an outside door in the room, to fasten a chain\\nupon it with a hook on the opposite side, over which the\\nlinks of the cluiin may be thrown. The door may then be\\nopened an almost imperceptible crack, or an inch, or half\\nan inch, according to the weather. A screen can be set in-\\nside the door to shut off any draft, if there be any. Or the\\nlower sash of a window nuiy be raised a few inches and a\\npiece of perforated zinc placed in the open space. The foul\\nair will go out through the zinc and the fresh air come in\\nbetween the sashes with an upward current, and the latter\\nwill thus become warmed before it circulates through the\\nroom.\\nSleeping room ventilation is also an important matter.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 193\\nThese rooms should be lar^e and well lighted, and some\\nmeans devised for securing* a constant change of air without\\ndirect draft during the night. In the morning tlie windows\\nshould be thrown wide open as soon as the room is vacated,\\nthe sheets and blankets should be taken off one by one,\\nshaken, and spread out to air, and the room left for at least\\nan hour with the air and sunlight pouring in before the bed\\nis made up. Blankets that can be washed are the only\\nsuitable bed coverings mattresses should be pulled apart,\\ncleansed, and made up with new covers every few years.\\nThe furniture should be plain and simple, and such as can\\nbe kept free from dust.\\nTonsils. There are certain parts, in struts ture like that\\nof lymph nodes, present in the throat, known as tonsils.\\nWhere these are large they may interfere with respira-\\ntion.\\nAdenoids (Greek aden, ^a gland, and eidoi^, like\\nSome people have growths of tissue in the nasopharynx\\nknown as adenoids. Large tonsils or adenoids tend to\\nobstruct the air passages and thus to interfere with respira-\\ntion. The adenoids, obstructing the posterior nasal openings,\\ntend to cause mouth breathing, which is not so good is\\nnasal breathing. When a child breathes with the inouth\\nopen, adenoids should be suspected.^ If large tonsils or\\nadenoids are allowed to remain in children they may affect\\nthe development of the lungs and thorax. They make the\\nmiddle ear more susceptible to disease by affecting its air\\nsupply through the Eustachian tube. They therefore should\\nbe removed earl}^\\nPeople of all ajsjes need to know that it is necessary to keej) the month shnt, for\\nit was not intended for breathing x)nr]) )ses, the nose being essential to this purpose\\nand having the advantage that it warms the air and strains from it irritating matters\\nin.inrious to the lungs. Remember the mouth is exclusively iieeded as a port of entry\\nfor food and a port of exit for crystallized thought, the chief medium of communica-\\ntion between man and man. Journal of the American Medical Association, Novem-\\nber 2U, 1S97.", "height": "3598", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "194 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nIt is an excellent habit to rinse the mouth and throat every\\nmorning with warm water or salt and water.\\nAsphyxia. When the blood cannot get oxygen the person\\nis said to be asphyxiated. Such a condition occurs where a\\nperson is smothered or suffocated by smoke or illuminating\\ngas, or is drowned.\\nDrowning. A drowning person has lost the oxygen from\\nhis lungs and blood. The heart and lungs have therefore\\nceased to work, as neither circulation nor respiration can go\\non without free oxygen. To resuscitate a man who has\\nbeen exposed to drowning we must first place him on his\\nface, with his head low, to let the water run out from his\\nlungs. Then apply warmth about him and start the respi-\\nration by artificial means.\\nArtificial respiration. The person is placed upon the back,\\nwith clothes removed. The arms are lifted straight above\\nthe head and then lowered again to the sides, pressing in the\\nthorax. This motion should be made regularly about eigh-\\nteen times a minute. Unless the patient has gone too far the\\nrespiration will return in time and the circulation start up.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\n1. Each pupil should demonstrate the presence of the air cavities in\\nhis thorax by placing one hand tiat upon his chest wall and striking the\\nback of his fingers lightly with the midfingers of the other hand. A\\nsound such as is obtained by striking the walls of a box or of any re-\\nceptacle filled with air will be heard. Contrast this with the sound\\nobtained by percussing (as above) the skull.\\nNote the movements of the abdomen and of the chest walls in res-\\npiration.\\n2. Repetition of Experiment 6, page 34.\\nPlace some limewater in a bottle. Exhale for several minutes\\nthrough a glass tube which enters this liquid. The limewater will be-\\ncome turbid owing to the carbon dioxide which comes into it from the\\nair which you exhale. This carbon dioxide unites with the calcium of", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 195\\nthe limewater to form a white substance, calcium carbonate, which,\\nmakes the limewater turbid.\\n3. Weigh out 8.7 ounces of charcoal. This represents the amount\\nof carbon waste which the body gets rid of through the lungs daily in\\nthe form of carbon dioxide.\\n4. Breathe upon a mirror.\\nThe moisture which condenses here comes from the exhaled air,\\nwhich this demonstration shows to be charged with more moisture than\\nthe air without.\\n5. Place the hand before the mouth.\\nNote the warmth of the breath.\\nHold a delicate thermometer in front of the mouth. The mercury,\\nwhich has perhaps stood at 70\u00c2\u00b0 (the room temperature), will mount rap-\\nidly, showing evidence of the heat which comes out with each exhalation.\\n6. The principle of the mechanism of respiration can be illustrated\\nby the following apparatus\\nRemove the bottom from a bottle. Stretch a thin sheet of rubber\\ntightly across the opening to cover it entirely, and bind it in place.\\nAttach a stick to the center of this rubber sheet.\\nTake a cork with two holes in it fitted to the top of the bottle.\\nThrough one hole run a glass tube with a collapsed toy balloon attached\\nto its lower end. Through the other hole run a glass tube with a rub-\\nber tube attached to its upper end. On the rubber tube place a pinch\\ncock. Insert the cork tightly so that the balloon lies within the bottle.\\nDraw some of the air from the bottle by sucking through the rubber\\ntube. This exhaustion of the air inside will cause the rubber sheet to\\narch upward. Close the rubber tube by the pinch cock.\\nThen draw down the rubber sheet by the stick. As it descends the\\nballoon will begin to fill out (expand).\\nThe balloon here represents the lungs, the rubber sheet the diaphragm.\\n7. To demonstrate the circulation of air in a room.\\nPour some concentrated hydrochloric acid into an evaporating dish.\\n(Be careful not to inhale the fumes.)\\nPour some ammonic hydrate into another dish.\\nBring the dishes near together.\\nNote the fumes that form. Note the course which they pursue.\\nTry this experiment in several parts of the room to study the\\ndirection of the air currents therein.\\nRecord air pressure in the mouth\u00e2\u0080\u0094 its strength and direction (upon\\nmanometer)\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in quiet inspiration in expiration in forced inspiration\\nin forced expiration.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "196 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. For what purpose does the body need free oxygen? By what pro-\\ncess is it obtained? What other useful purpose is accomplished by\\nexternal respiration? Describe the respiratory tract. What happens\\nto the air in the nose What is the use of the epiglottis In what do\\nthe air passages end?\\nII. Describe the lungs. What is the function of the ciliated cells of\\nthe trachea? What is the use of the cartilage in the tracheal walls?\\nOf the elastic tissue in the walls of the finer bronchi? Describe the\\nmechanism of respiration. What is the great muscle of respiration\\nIII. Describe the structure of the thorax, and show how the size may\\nbe increased by muscular action. What are the physical forces which\\ngovern inspiration? Expiration? Forced expiration? How is the air\\nchanged in the lungs In composition In moisture In temperature\\nOf what is air composed? What does the blood obtain from the air m\\nthe lungs? What does this air obtain from the blood? If the lungs\\nwere shut off from the circulation what color would the blood in the\\narteries assume?\\nIV. How does the blood carry the oxygen? Where is the seat of\\nthe real body respiration? How do we get rid of water by breathing?\\nHow do we get rid of heat? Can you ever see the water which comes\\nout in the air from the lungs?\\nV. What is apt to be the result of smoking upon the tissues of the air\\npassages? What would happen to the air of a room full of people if it\\nwere not constantly renewed from without? What are the best methods\\nof ventilating a room? To what agency do we owe the piu lfication of\\nthe air in natural conditions? How should sleeping rooms be ven-\\ntilated?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nWASTE AND EXCRETION-THE EXCRETORY ORGANS\\nWE have seen that the activity of the living organism\\nis kept up by energy which is supplied by the oxida-\\ntion of the living tissues. As a result of this combustion\\ncertain waste substances are formed in the body, just as\\nwaste substances, ashes and smoke, are formed when coal\\nis burned. These waste substances are low chemical com-\\npounds of the elements which make up the tissues, carbon,\\noxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and so forth. They are princi-\\npally carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and nitrogen. The\\nnitrogen, before excretion, is formed in the body into a com-\\npound known as urea, and excreted as such.\\nThe waste products have to be disposed of. Just as the\\nashes of a furnace must be taken out, or they clog the\\nfurnace fires, the waste substances must be removed from\\nthe tissues and the body, or they would clog the burning in\\nthe tissues. To provide for the disposal of these sub-\\nstances is the work of certain organs called excretory (Latin\\neic, from, and screo, I hawk organs. They are princi-\\npally the lungs, the kidnej^-s, and the skin.\\nExcretion of waste. The waste products are taken from\\nthe tissues by the lymph and blood. By the blood they are\\ncarried to the organs mentioned, and there separated from\\n197", "height": "3603", "width": "2391", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "198\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe blood and passed out of the body. The process of the\\nelimination of waste products is called excretion.\\nOf the waste products, the carbon dioxide is removed\\nfrom the body by the lungs; the water by the lungs, skin,\\nand kidneys the nitrogen waste, the urea, by the kidneys.\\nI. EXCRETION BY THE LUNGS\\nThe process of the elimination of the carbon dioxide\\nand water by the lungs in the function of respiration has\\nbeen described in the preceding chapter.\\nII. EXCRETION BY THE KIDNEYS\\nThe kidneys lie at the back of the abdominal cavity, one\\non each side of the lumbar vertebrae. Each kidney is a dark-\\nred organ, about four inches long by two and a half broad,\\nand one inch thick. The inner\\nborder of each is concave, the\\nouter convex. Into this concave\\nnotch, or hihis (Latin, a trifle\\nof the inner border the artery of\\nthe kidney enters, and from it\\nthe vein leaves. From this same\\nhilus the ureter, or discharge ves-\\nsel of the kidney, proceeds.\\nStructure of the kidney. The\\nkidney is a gland of a very com-\\nplex structure. If we open a kid-\\nney we see that the cut surface\\nappears to consist of two parts,\\na cortical (Latin cortex, ^^bark\\npart and a medullary (Latin medulla, marrow The med-\\nullary portion appears to be made up of a number of conical\\nSection of a kidney.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION\\n199\\nportions, the pyramids, which protrude into a sacculated por-\\ntion, the pelvis (Latin, basin of the kidney. From this\\npelvis runs the ureter, or discharge pipe. In minute struc-\\nture the kidney consists of very small tubes lined with epi-\\nthelial cells, about which are arranged, in a network, blood\\nvessels and lymphatics. The whole mass is held together by\\nconnective tissue and surrounded by a firm capsule (Experi-\\nment 3, p. 212).\\nThe arteries from the main artery at the hilus run among\\nthe tubes and ramify into fine branches in the cortex.\\nThese branches end in fine clusters of capillaries known as\\nglomeruli. From each of these clusters a vein issues. Each\\ncluster of capillaries, or glomerulus\\n(Latin glomus, a ball of cotton\\nis suiTounded by the closed, dilated\\nend of a tuhule small tube The\\nwhole structure, the cluster of ves-\\nsels projecting into the closed end\\nof a tubule, is known as a Malpighian\\n(after Malpighi, who first described\\nit) capsule.\\nThe wall of a tubule consists of\\na single layer of epithelial cells,\\nmostly cubical in shape. The tu-\\nbule begins at its closed, dilated\\nend about a glomerulus. From\\nhere it proceeds by a tortuous course\\nto the medulla, joining with other\\ntubules and forming straight tubes\\nwhich run parallel in the medulla\\nand end at the pelvis. The water\\nand some of the waste substances of the blood running in\\nthe glomerulus capillaries are separated from the interior of\\nthe tubule by the walls of the capillaries and the wall of\\nHEWES, P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 13\\nDiagram of kidney circu-\\nlation, showing a glo-\\nmerulus and tubule,\\na, artery briuging blood to\\npart b, capillary briuging blood\\nto glomerulus h vessel continu-\\ning with blood to tubule c, vein\\nt, tubule; G, Malpighian capsule\\nand glomemlus.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "200\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nepithelial cells which lines the closed end of the tubule sur-\\nrounding the glomerulus. Through these thin layers of cells\\nthe waste substances pass into\\nthe tubules.\\nBelow the capsules the blood\\ncapillaries run in a network\\nabout the tubules, and from\\nthese lower capillaries the urea\\nis separated into the tubules,\\njust as is the water above.\\nTogether these waste prod-\\nucts are borne along the tu-\\nbules to the pelvis of the\\nkidney.\\nThe separation of these prod-\\nucts is due to the specific action\\nof the living cells which line the\\ntubule. These waste substances\\nare taken from the blood,\\nwhile other useful substances,\\nas albumin, are left behind.\\nUrine. The amber-colored\\nliquid which is thus formed by the separation of waste\\nmaterials from the blood by the kidneys is called iirine.\\nThe kidneys and bladder.\\nX, X, ureters.\\nIII. EXCRETION BY THE SKIN\\nThe skin is made up of two layers. The outer layer, the\\nepidermis (Greek ejn, upon, and derma, skin or cuticle,\\nis formed of several strata of cells. The inner stratum con-\\nsists of columnar cells, over this are several layers of round\\ncells, and over these two strata are several layers of flat-\\ntened cells, which, as you approach the surface, become mere\\nscales. The outer stratum consists of dead cells which have", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION\\n201\\nSection of skin of\\nnegro.\\nlost their nuclei and become cornified or hardened. It is\\ncalled the horny layer. The scales of this layer are con-\\nstantly wearing away and peel off with\\nfriction, while new cells are being con-\\nstantly added from the inner layers.\\nThis outer layer may be separated\\nfrom the inner, as in the case of a\\nblister (Experiment 1, p. 212).\\nThe deeper strata of the epidermis\\nmake up the Malpighian layer.\\nThe deeper layer of the skin is called\\nthe dermis, or corium. It is composed\\nof a network of connective tissue,\\ncontaining white fibers and yellow\\nelastic fibers. The surface is raised\\ninto numerous elevations called pajjiUce (Latin, nipples\\nSome of these papillae contain clusters of blood vessels\\nothers contain the nerve organs of\\nthe sense of touch. This layer of\\nskin is well supplied with blood\\nvessels and nerves. A cut through\\nthe epidermis alone causes no bleed-\\ning. A cut into the dermis bleeds.\\nThe dermis rests upon the deeper\\ntissues of the body, muscle and\\nbone. It is separated from these\\nby a loose tissue known as subcu-\\ntaneous (Latin sub, beneath, and cutis, skin tissue. It\\nis in this tissue that much of the fat in fat people lies.\\nThe dermis contains several special structures. These are\\nthe hairs, the sebaceous glands, the sweat glands.\\nThe hair. Hairs are found all over the body surface ex-\\ncept on the palm and sole. Upon the head the hairs grow\\nlong. Over most of the body they are short and very fine.\\nSection of the skin\\nshowing the roots of the\\nhairs and the sebaceous\\nglands.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "202\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nEach hair is made up of a column of flat cells, like those\\nin the epidermis, with a central shaft. It lies in a pit lined\\nwith epidermal cells and situated\\nin a special papilla of the dermis.\\nThis pit is the hair foUicJe (Latin\\nfoJlis, a bag \u00e2\u0080\u0094a little bag). The\\ncells at the base of the follicle form\\nthe root of the hair. The hair grows\\nW IH /Ali)^^^ ^y multiplication of these cells.\\nAs nevv cells form the older ones are\\nthrust upward and become corni-\\nfied, forming the column of the\\nhair.\\nThe sebaceous (Latin sehiDn,\\n^^suet glands are small racemose\\nglands consisting of clusters of cell-\\nlined tubes with a duct opening into\\nthe follicle of a hair. The secretion\\nof these glands is of a fatty nature\\nit keeps the skin soft.\\nThe principal structures of the\\nskin which carry on excretion are\\nthe siveat glands. Each sweat gland\\nis a blind tube, the inner end of\\nwhich lies coiled in a knot in the\\ndermis. These tubes, starting from\\nthis coil, run in a corkscrew course\\nthrough the epidermis and open\\nupon the surface. The openings\\nare called the pores. Each coil and\\ntube is lined with a single layer of\\ncubical cells. About the coil run\\nblood vessels. From the blood in\\nthese vessels the glands separate\\nHair and hair follicle,\\nwith sebaceous gland en-\\ntering follicle.\\nh, hair s. sebaceous gland\\nw, wall of f oUicle fat tissue.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION\\n203\\ncertain substances, as water, inorganic salts, and organic\\nmatter, wliich are discharged as an alkaline fluid called stveat\\nPerspiration (Latin jje/-, through, and spirare, to\\nbreathe This elimination of sweat is known as perspira-\\ntion. The total amount of sweat in twenty-\\nfour hours is from twenty-five to seventy\\nounces (one and a half to four pints). Ninety-\\nnine per cent of the sweat is water. The\\nfunction of perspiration removes princi-\\npally heat and water from the body.\\nElimination of heat. The perspiration\\neliminated to the surface of the body evap-\\norates, and the water thus turns from a\\nliquid to a vapor. In this change heat is\\ntaken up from the body by the water in\\nbecoming a vapor, and removed with it into\\nthe air. In ordinary conditions the amount\\nof perspiration is comparatively small and\\nevaporates from the pores, so that it does\\nnot appear upon the body. Such perspira-\\ntion is called msensible (Latin m, not, and\\nsentire, to perceive In hot weather or\\nafter exertion the sweat pours out more rapidly than it can\\nbe evaporated, and collects in a perceptible moist layer or in\\ndrops upon the body surface. This is called sensible perspi-\\nration. By this large flow and evaporation of sweat much\\nheat is removed from the body. The increase of sweat is\\nassisted in these conditions by dilatation of the peripheral\\nvessels and increased flow of blood to that part. Likewise\\nin cold weather, when it is desirable to lessen the elimination\\nof heat as much as possible, the vessels are constricted and\\n1 The evidence that insensible perspiration is going on continuously can be obtained\\nby placing a rubber cot upon the finger upon going to bed. In the morning, upon\\nremoving the cot, the finger will be found to be moist and swollen with the perspira-\\ntion which has been prevented from evaporation.\\nSweat gland,\\nwith duet.\\nd, duct g, gland.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "204 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ntlie ilow of blood to fclie skiii lessened. The secretion rises\\nwith this increased flow, but is not absolutely dependent\\nupon it. It is regulated by nerve control.\\nThe nails. The nails consist of epidermis of the outer\\nlayer of horny cells formed into a plate. The nail lies in a\\nbed of corium, called its matrix (Latin viater, mother\\nThis portion is ver^^ vascular. Here new epidermal cells\\nform, by which the outer cells are pushed out and thus the\\nnail grows.\\nIV. EXCRETION BY THE INTESTINES\\nThe egesta from the intestinal tract, the faeces, consist of\\nthe excretions of the liver and other glands, of the waste\\nsubstances separated from the walls of the alimentary tract\\nduring digestion, and of the undigested elements of the food.\\nV. HYGIENE OF EXCRETION AND THE EXCRETORY ORGANS\\nThe removal of waste is absolutely essential to the con-\\ntinuance of health. If the waste products of muscular action,\\ndigestive action, brain action, are allowed to accumulate in\\nthe body, they will interfere with the liealth and function\\nnot only of these special organs, but of the whole body. We\\nmust do all that we can to accelerate excretion.\\nTlie attention must be directed first to keeping up a good\\ncirculation, since it is by circulation that the waste products\\nare carried from the tissues to the excretory organs. The\\ncirculation is kept active by exercise and baths. In indolent\\npeople the circulation is apt to become sluggish, and the\\naccumulation of poisonous waste resulting frequently in-\\ncreases the indolence. It causes dullness, drowsiness, and\\nheadache. The muscles become easily exhausted. The nu-", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION 205\\ntriti()u of the tissues becomes unhealthy. Such people not\\nonly do not feel well, but tlie}^ are less able to resist disease.\\nIn the second place, we must keep the excretory organs\\nin good condition. We must drink plenty of water to keep\\nthe kidneys flushed and to prevent concentration of the\\nurine. A concentrated urine contains much solid matter in\\nproportion to its water. It may irritate the renal tissues,\\nits passage causing inflammation. It may tend to deposit\\nits solids in the course of its passage, giving rise to the\\ncondition known as gravel.\\nAll substances which tend to irritate the kidneys should\\nbe avoided.\\nPeople who keep their kidneys under constant irritation\\nby indulgence in alcohol are apt to develop a chronic disease\\nof the kidneys, chronic nephritis {(^veok nephron, kidney\\nWhen the kidneys give out, man}^ waste products collect\\nin the body and poison the organism. This condition is\\nknown as urcemia.\\nThe care of the sMn consists in proper bathing and proper\\nclothing. The excretion of the skin, the perspiration, in\\nevaporation leaves its solid matters crusted on the skin. The\\nsebaceous excretions tend to collect there. Dirt also gets on\\nfrom without. All these substances tend to obstruct the pores\\nand thus to interfere with the excretory action of the skin.^\\nBaths. The skin should be bathed daily. A cold sponge\\nbath is preferable for those with whom it agrees. This bath\\nclears away the deposits and causes a contraction of the pe-\\nWater is the vehicle in which are carried in solution the ingredients of tissue\\nwaste which the system is trying to get i-id of. The flow of water through the kidneys\\nto the bladder furnishes a current in which to carry off the dissolved detritus there-\\nfore the drinking of a physiological amount of water is a benefit and not a detriment\\nto the kidneys.\\n2 Exercise in the open air improves the appearance of the skin and is necessary to\\nall who would have fine complexions. And yet exercise and bathing are not all. If\\nthe diet and digestion are bad the complexion will suffer. Fruits help to keep the\\nsystem clean internally and to prevent the accumulation of waste matter which gives\\nthe skin an unwholesome appearance.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "206 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nripheral (surface) blood vessels, which is followed by a dilata-\\ntion and an increased flow of blood to the surface. In this\\nway the circulation is stimulated. Those wlio do not react,\\nthat is, feel a healthy glow, after a cold bath would better use\\na warm one. Too long exposure to a cold bath will weaken\\ninstead of brace the system. Soap should be used upon the\\nhands and the parts exposed to external dirt. A soap bath\\nis not necessary of tener than once a week. The scalp should\\nbe washed every two weeks. Do not bathe while perspiring\\nfreely.\\nClothing. The skin should be kept at as even a tempera-\\nture as possible. The best clothing to wear next the skin\\nshould therefore be made of a substance which is a poor\\nconductor, as wool. This will keep the body heat in. When\\nthe temperature without is high, as in summer, we can use\\ncotton clothing, which conducts more readily. One must be\\ncareful about undue exposure in changing the thickness of\\nthe clothing. 1\\nRegularity of the bowels. Tlie eliminations from the intes-\\ntines (faeces) consist principally of waste tissue substances\\nand the undigested residue of food. If these substances re-\\nmain stored up in the intestines they poison the system and\\nare a menace to health and comfort. In a large proportion\\nof people who feel run down, suffer from headache and nerv-\\nous disorders, the trouble is secondary to constipation.\\nThe bowels should move daily. Nature perfects most\\nprocesses by forming habits in their regard. The bowels\\nshould be made accustomed to move at a regular time daily,\\nand they will soon acquire this habit.\\n1 People, and especially children, should dress according to the weather, and not ac-\\ncording to the season. In winter woolen night garments are better than cotton, which\\nmay cause too sudden a change in the body temperature. Mackintoshes should not be\\nworn without some other wrap underneath, as they hold in tlie heat and keep the body\\nwarm in some places and expose it in others, especially about the arms, which are\\nsensitive. In this way they may predispose to pneumonia. Mackintoshes and pneu-\\nmonia are twins, one physician declares.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION 207\\nMuch constipation is due to improper dieting, improper\\nmodes of dress, and improper habits in regard to exercise.\\nPlenty of bread, green vegetables, and fruits must be in-\\ncluded in the diet list. Where a tendency to constipation\\narises it should be counteracted by the addition of more\\nfruit and vegetables to the diet, especially such fruits as\\nprunes, figs, tamarinds, and berries. Graham bread is pref-\\nerable to white in such cases. A glass of warm water upon\\nrising in the morning may prove helpful in this regard.\\nIndolent habits tend to promote sluggishness of the\\nbowels. Horseback riding or running and rowing are ex-\\ncellent means of counteracting this sluggishness when it\\nexists.\\nTight belts and clothing which binds about the waist tend\\nto produce sluggishness of the bowels. Habits of regu-\\nlarity, diet, exercise, should all be tried before medicines\\nare resorted to for the relief of constipation. When once a\\nperson begins using drugs to combat conditions which are\\nthe result of improper habits and negligence, he is giving\\nhostages to health. The drug habit once fastened upon his\\nshoulders will stay there like Sindbad s Old Man of the\\nSea. The right method is to discontinue the evil habits.\\nThe disposal of body waste. The proper disposal of the\\nexcretions, especially of the urine and faeces, is a matter of\\ngreat importance. If not disposed of in the proper way\\nthese excretions will prove a source of contamination and\\ndisease to the community.\\nMany diseases are essentially filth diseases, and their\\nspreading, even their occurrence, can be controlled by proper\\nsanitary regulations. Such a disease is yellow fever, which\\nhas played such havoc in Cuba. Several of the infectious\\ndiseases common with us, as typhoid fever, are transmitted\\nthrough the excretions, and their existence can be abso-\\nlutely stamped out in communities by proper care. The", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "208 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nbacteria which are the cause of typhoid fever are present in\\ngreat numbers in the excreta of persons suffering with\\nthis disease, and if these excreta are not disinfected, but\\nare thrown into ordinary- earth closets or into those which\\nempty into streams and I ivers, a widespread epidemic of this\\ndisease may arise from a single case. The people living\\ndownstream may contract the disease by drinking the\\nwater.i Tj^^ drainage from the earth closet carrying the\\ndisease germs may sink into a well. The water of this well\\nmaybe used to wash milk cans by some farmer who supplies\\na village Avith milk, and the germs thus get into the cans\\nand into the milk, and thus an epidemic of the disease run\\nthrough the families who buy the milk. Typhoid fever may\\nbe also spread by means of flies, as occurred in some of our\\ncamps during the late war with Spain. The bacteria are so\\nminute that a single fl}^ could carry away upon its foot as\\nmany as there are shingles upon tlie roof of a house.\\nAll excreta from people suffering with contagious diseases\\nshould be thoroughly disinfected by chlorinated lime or some\\nother disinfectant, or burned or buried, and all excreta,\\nwhether in health or illness, should be disposed of in proper\\nclosets where no flies can obtain access, and where they\\n1 The mistaken notion that a running stream will rid itself of noxious substances\\nshould no longer he entertained where life and health depend iipon absolutely pure\\ndrinking water. Seventeenth Annual Report of the New York State Board of\\nHealth. 1897.\\nThe same report says also that official approval should be withheld from any pro-\\nposed sewerage system which does not provide for other disposal [of sewage] than\\ninto any stream which, in any part of its coiarse, may be used for drinking purposes.\\nIt has been demonstrated that the germs of typhoid fever, cholera dysentery, and\\ncamp diarrhea are present in the discharges of those suffering from these diseases, and\\nthe pi-opagation of these infectious camp diseases results to a large extent from failure\\nto properly dispose of excreta. No doiibt typhoid fever, camp diarrhea, and probably\\nyellow fever are frequently communicated to soldiers in camp through tlie agency of\\nflies, which swanu about fecal matter and filth of all kinds deposited upon the ground\\nor in sliallow pits, and directly convey infectious material, attached to their feet or\\ncontained in their excreta, to the food which is exposed while being prepared at the\\ncompany kitchens, or while being served at the mess tent. Sanitary Recommenda-\\ntions of Surgeon-General Sternberg.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION 209\\ncannot drain into wells or running streams that are used\\nfor drinking water.\\nIn cities and towns with proper sanitary regulations all\\nwastes are carried away by sewers to proper places of dis-\\nposal. In the country and in villages where such an arrange-\\nment does not exist, the greatest care should be observed\\nin the disposal of excretory matter, that it may not con-\\ntaminate the air or the water supplies. Cesspools should\\nbe abolished. Earth closets should be used, into which\\nshould be thrown daily a quantity of dry earth and the\\nwhole frequently removed.^\\nHouse sweepings and kitchen refuse should be burned,\\nand all slop water containing matter capable of causing\\ndisease should be disinfected with chlorinated lime.\\nVI. THE BODY HEAT\\nThe human body is nearly always warmer than the things\\nabout it. This is due to the fact that heat is constantly\\nbeing produced in the body. This production of heat comes\\nfrom the combustion of the tissues and their stores of food.\\nWhen energy is liberated by the breaking down of any\\nsubstance, as in the burning of the tissue of man or the\\nwood tissue of a tree, this energy may take several forms.\\nWhen the wood is burned outside the body the energy\\nliberated takes the forms of heat and light. When the tis-\\nsues are burned in the body the energy liberated takes the\\nforms of heat and work. From four fifths to five sixths of\\nthe energy liberated in the body goes to heat.\\n1 The contents of such closets are sometimes used on land for fertilizers. This\\nshould never be done where gi-een vegetables for human consumption are to be raised,\\nas disease germs still retaining their vitality have been found thus disseminated on the\\nvegetables so raised. Instinct teaches animals like tlie cow and horse to shun the herb-\\nage, however luxuriant, that grows about their own excretions. Man s intelligence\\nought to read in this nature s warning against retaking into his system the wastes that\\nhave been thrown out for deeomjjosition.", "height": "3593", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "210 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThis heat is being produced coutinuously, since the tissues\\nare continuously burning. The burning, and consequently\\nthe production of heat, is more active during marked activit}^\\nof the organs, as with muscular exercise or excessive mental\\nwork but it is going on all the time, as the heart is beating\\nand the blood circulating and the cells secretiDg. This heat\\nis distributed over the body by the blood. It is removed\\nfrom the body by all the excretions, as the expired air, the\\nevaporation of the sweat, the urine, and also by simple\\nconduction into the air about.\\nRegulation of the body temperature. By a certain regu-\\nlation of the mechanism of the body, the production and\\nelimination of heat are always equalized, so that the tem-\\nperature of the body remains constant. This is 98.6o F.,\\ntaken in the mouth. When more heat is produced, as\\nby active exercise, the peripheral circulation and the per-\\nspiration are increased, and thus more heat is removed\\nfrom the body by conduction and evaporation. When the\\nsurrounding air is very hot the production of heat in the\\nbody is lessened and the perspiration and evaporation are\\nvery profuse, so that the bodj^ does not get any hotter.\\nWhen the air is cold the production of heat is increased and\\nthe peripheral vessels are contracted, so that less heat goes\\nto the surface and thus less is conducted away, and the\\ninternal organs of the body become no colder.\\nSources of body heat. The heat energy comes from the\\ntissues, and these from the food so that in an indirect\\nway the heat is produced from the food. When more work\\nis done, more energy is needed and more liberated so more\\ntissue is burned, and therefore more food must be taken to\\nkeep up the equilibrium. If we burn a food outside the body\\nand estimate its energy in heat, we find that this is the same\\nas the energy which the food produces in the body in heat\\nplus work, provided always the food can be digested and has", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION 211\\nno poisonous action. Certain foods, as the fats, have great\\nheat-producing energy stored up, and where such energy is\\nrequired, as in cold weather, such foods are very useful.\\nA comparison of the effect upon the body heat of the\\nconsumption of a given amount of a regular food substance,\\nas fat or carbohydrate, and of the same amount of alcohol,\\nis interesting, as it ilhistrates the difference in the action of\\na food and a poison upon an important body function.\\nFat, alcohol, and sugar are all hydrocarbons. When they\\nare burned or oxidized outside of the body they give rise to\\na certain amount of heat. Fat causes most heat, alcohol\\nnext, and sugar least. It might be argued, therefore, that\\nthe body could get heat from them in this order. When,\\nhowever, we feed a person upon each of these substances\\nand allow them to burn in the body, we find that alcohol\\ncauses a loss of body heat, so that the body is colder, not\\nwarmer, while fat or sugar causes it to keep up its normal\\nheato The alcohol contains more heat, as we have seen,\\nthan the carbohydrate; but its poisonous action upon the\\nsystem is such that the body fails to get the benefit of the\\nheat which is in it.\\nEflfect of alcohol on body temperature. This maintenance\\nof the body heat is necessary for the health of the body.\\nIt fortifies us against cold. So that, if we were going out\\ninto the cold, the worst thing which we could do would be\\nto take any alcoholic liquor, for we should be throwing\\naway some of the heat which the body would need to resist\\nthe cold. Many people do not know this. Tliey think that\\nbecause the alcohol makes them feel warm the body is.\\ntherefore warmer. But travelers in frigid climates have\\nlearned the fallacy of this idea by hard experience.\\nThis action of alcohol in reducing the body heat and the\\npower of resistance against cold is well illustrated by an\\nadventure which is recorded of several travelers who were", "height": "3593", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "212 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncanglit in a snowstorm in the Sierra Nevada Mountains.\\nThese travelers lay down to sleep exposed to very great\\ncold. Several took a large amount of alcohol. It made\\nthem feel warm and comfortable, and they fell asleep.\\nOthers took a little alcohol. Others took none, but went to\\nsleep feeling chilly. In the morning the men who took\\nmuch alcohol were frozen to death those who took a little\\nwere frost-bitten and those who took no alcohol suffered\\nno serious results from the exposure.\\nAlcohol dilates the peripheral vessels, and more blood gets\\nto the body surface. Now, in cold weather we need all our\\nheat inside to keep the vital organs w^arm. If we take\\nalcohol the l)lood carries the heat to the skin, and it passes\\ninto the cold air. It makes us feel warm, because we feel\\nthe hot blood in the skin but it uses up our heat, and we\\nsuffer for it. The travelers who took no alcohol felt chilly,\\nbut they kept their hearts warm at the expense of their\\nskin and w^ere all right. Those who drank warmed the\\nsurface of the body tit the expense of the heart and lungs.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\n1 Run the point of a needle which has been passed through a flame\\n(to sterilize it) beneath the outer layer of skin upon the hand. Note that\\nthis skin can be separated from the layer beneath. No bleeding\\nresults from puncture of this layer. Why?\\n2. Wash the hands in warm water. Dry them and rub them\\ntogether with force. The fine powder of scales which appears upon\\nthe surface is part of the outer horny layer of skin.\\n3. Obtain a sheep s kidney.\\nStrip the capsule.\\nFind the vessels which go to and from the kidney.\\nNote the difference in the appearance of the peripheral layer\\n(cortex) and the inner substance.\\nCan you distinguish the pyramids?\\nThe glomeruli and tubules can be made out in sections prepared for\\nmicroscopic examination.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "WASTE AND EXCRETION 213\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. When coal is burned in a furnace, what are the products? What\\nhappens if the ashes are not taken away? What are the products and\\nashes which are formed by the combustion in the body cells? What\\nwould happen if these were not taken away? What are the organs\\ncalled whose function is to rid the body of these waste products? How\\ndoes the waste get from the cells to the blood From the cells to the\\nexcretory organs?\\nII. What waste products are excreted by the lungs? How does the\\ncomposition of the blood that comes away from an active muscle differ\\nfrom that which enters it? What waste products are excreted by the\\nkidneys? Describe the kidneys. What is a glomerulus? A tubule?\\nWhat is the difference between the blood which flows into a glomerulus\\nand that which flow^s out of it? Where does the water which it loses go?\\nDescribe the composition of the waste substances which are taken from\\nthe blood or built up from the blood by the kidneys.\\nHI. What is urea? What are the ureters? What waste substances are\\nexcreted by the skin? Describe the skin. What other functions has it\\nbesides excretion? Describe the hair. What is its use? What are the\\nsebaceous glands? What are the principal excretory structures of the\\nskin\\nIV. Describe a sweat gland. Of what does perspiration consist? What\\nelse besides perspiration is eliminated by the skin? What is insensible\\nperspiration? What is the effect of the moisture in the air upon the\\nelimination of heat on a hot day? On a cold day? What are the nails?\\nOf what use are they? What becomes of the undigested part of the\\nfood?\\nV. Why must we keep up an active circulation What practices serve\\nto accelerate excretion by the skin? What is tlie proper clothing in\\nwinter? In summer? What is the effect of a daily bath? Why should\\nwe be regular in the operation of the bowels\\nVI. How is the body heat produced? How is the temperature of the\\nbody regulated? Why does not the blood get much hotter upon a warm\\nday than upon a cold one? What foods are great heat producers?\\nWhat is the effect of the drinking of alcoholic liquors upon the main-\\ntenance of body heat? Does warm clothing economize food? Why do\\nwe need more covering while asleep than during the day?", "height": "3593", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\nTHE special activity of all the organs of the body (the vol-\\nuntary and involuntary actions which together make up\\nthe total activity of the organism) is controlled and regulated\\nby a system of organs known as the nervous system. Through\\nthis control each motion of the muscles is regulated, and the\\nsecretion of a gland and the constriction of a blood vessel\\naccomplished. Through the medium of this system all the\\norgans work together for the common good.\\nWhen we desire an object tliat we see, as an apple, the\\nidea of obtaining it is aroused in the mind. This thought\\nof getting the apple sets in motion the nuichinery for ob-\\ntaining it. Messages from the brain go to the leg muscles,\\nand we walk toward it. Then messages go to tlie hands,\\nand we reach out and take it a message from the eyes goes\\nto the brain, telling us wliei e to grasp. We put it to the\\nmouth. Then from the brain messages go to the jaws and\\ntongue, and we eat and swallow the apple. So far all these\\nacts, with the exception of a part of the act of swallowing,\\nhave been voluntary. The nervous system has been direct-\\ning our motions, but we have had to think about the process,\\nand could have stopped it at any time. After the apple is\\nswallowed, a message from the stomach goes to the nerve\\ncenters, and the machinery for secretion of juice to digest\\n214", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 216\\nit is set in action. Then the digested apple is absorbed and\\ncarried to the cells by the circnUxtion, the machinery of which\\nis always going.\\nThe action of secretion is an involnntary action. It is\\nregnlated by the nervous system, just as is walking, but it\\nis done without our consciousness. So with the circulation\\nof the blood.\\nThus the whole process of taking in food and using it is\\nunder direction of the nervous system. If the connection\\nbetween this system and the muscles is cut off, these muscles\\ncannot act. We may desire the apple, but we cannot get it.\\nIf the connection with the stomach is cut off, the stomach\\nwill be there and the food will be there just the same as\\nbefore, but no secretion will occur, and the food will not be\\ndigested.\\nThe nervons system not only regulates each separate act,\\nbut by its connections and mental processes enables all the\\nvarious functions, sight, movement, secretion, to work to-\\ngether for a common end.\\nI. THE ORGANS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\nThe nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal\\ncord, and the nerves.\\nSpeaking in a general way, the nerves carry impulses to\\nthe organs from the brain and cord, and from the organs\\nback again. The brain and cord receive impulses by the\\nnerves and send out impulses by them. They are the cen-\\ntral office where all the reports are received, records kept,\\nand directions issued. Thus, if the sole of the foot itches,\\nthis message goes to the central system. It is recorded\\nhere that scratching stops this itching, so the machinery\\nfor scratching the sole is set going and the itching\\nrelieved.\\nHEWES, P. .to H.~U", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "216\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe Irain lies in tlie bony sknll. Continuons with the\\nbrain, the spinal cord extends downward from the foramen\\nmagnum of the sknll, in the spinal\\ncanal of the vertebral colnmn, to\\nthe base of the spine.\\nTo and from the brain and cord\\nrnn the nerves. They are distrib-\\nuted throughout the organs and\\nstructures of the body, connecting\\nthese with the central nervous sys-\\ntem, the brain and cord.\\nThe central system consists of\\nnerve cells, and nerve fibers con-\\nnecting these cells with one another\\nand with the nerves. The nerves\\nconsist of nerve fibers continuous\\nwitli the fibers of the brain and cord.\\nThe nerves. The nerves of the\\nbody are of two kinds. One set\\ncarries sensations from the skin\\nand organs to the central system.\\nThese are called afferent (Latin ad,\\ntoward, iuidfero, I bear nerves.\\nOthers carry impulses from the cen-\\nters to the parts. These are efferent\\n(Latin ex, from, and /^ro, I bear\\nnerves. The afferent nerves arise\\nin the organs of sense, as the eye,\\nthe taste papillae of the tongue, the\\nskin, and carry sensations from\\nthese inward. They are sensory\\nnerves. The efferent nerves arise\\nin the nerve cells of the brain and\\ncord, and carry impulses outward.\\nBrain and cord, showin\\nnerves cut close to cord.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n217\\nThe structure of both sets of nerves is the\\nsame. Most nerves consist of bundles of fine\\nfibers hehl together by connective tissue.\\nEach fiber consists of a central column or\\nstrand of soft protoplasmic substance, called\\nthe axis cjjUnder. This is inclosed in a\\nsheath known as the medullary {medulla, the\\nsubstance of the central canal of bone) sheath.\\nOutside of this is another sheath, the neuri-\\nlemma (Greek neuron, nerve, and lemma,\\nhusk The central axis cylinder and the\\nouter neurilemma sheath are continuous\\nthroughout the nerve. The medullary sheath\\nis broken at regular intervals. These breaks\\nare called nodes. In the parts of the nerve\\nbetween the nodes a nucleus may be found\\njust beneath the sheath. The fibers have a\\nwhite appearance and are called medtdlated\\nnerve fibers.\\nIn some nerves there is but one sheath, the\\nneurilemma. These are called nonmedullated\\nfibers.\\nNerve ganglia. In the course of some nerves\\noccurs a slight enlargement called a ganglio7i.\\nA ganglion is made up of cells mixed with\\nfibers. These ganglion (Greek gagglion, a\\nknot cells are nerve cells. They are large\\ncells with a nucleus and an irregular outline.\\nEach cell has many branching processes. One\\nprocess of each cell is continuous with the\\naxis cylinder of a nerve.\\nThe cord. The spinal cord is a column of\\nwhite appearance, lying in the spinal canal\\nof the vertebral column. It is continuous at\\nAxis cylinder\\nat node\\nMedullary\\nsheath\\nOuter sheath\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nA nerve fiber.", "height": "3593", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "218\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nSection of spinal cord, Math nerves.\\na, ganglion in root s, sensory root m, motor root.\\nthe top witli the brain. At the base it tapers to a fine fila-\\nment. Its length is about eighteen inches, its width half an\\ninch. Its shape is cyhndrical.\\nAlong the front runs a deep furrow, the anterior fissure.\\nAt the back is a similar furrow, the posterior fissure. Be-\\ntween these fissures is an isthmus of cord substance con-\\nnecting the right and\\nm\\nleft halves of the\\ncord. In these fis-\\nsures runs connec-\\ntive tissue carrying\\nblood vessels.\\nIn cross section the\\ncord is seen to con-\\nsist of a superficial layer of wdiite substance aud a central\\nzone of gra}^ substance arranged in the forin of an H, each\\nbar of the H being a crescent with two horns.\\nThe white matter consists of nerve fibers, most of which\\nrun lengthwise in the cord.\\nThe gray matter consists of cells, among which many\\nwhite nerve fibeis and gray nonmedullated fibers run in all\\ndirections. The cells are nerve cells, resembling those de-\\nscribed as ganglion cells.\\nThe spinal nerves. From the spinal coi-d thirty-one pairs\\nof spinal nerves are given off at intervals along the cord.\\nThese nerves emerge through the intervertebral foramina be-\\ntween the vertebral arches. Each nerve has two roots\u00e2\u0080\u0094 an\\nanterior root w^hich enters the anterior region of the cord,\\nand a ijosterior which enters the posterior part of the cord.\\nUpon the posterior root is an enlargement known as a\\nganglion. The two roots unite in the bony foramen to\\nform the nerve, which proceeds to the muscles or skin or\\nsome organ.\\nIn the anterior root the white fibers of the nerve run to", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n219\\nthe anterior horn of the gray matter of the cord. Here a\\nfiber unites with a cell of the gray matter. As described in\\nconnection with gangli-\\non cells, one fiber from\\na nerve cell becomes\\nthe axis cylinder of a\\nnerve fiber. The ante-\\nrior root carries the sen-\\nsory nerve fibers of the\\nspinal nerve.\\nIn the posterior root\\nthe fibers take their origin\\nfrom the cells of the gan-\\nglion on the root. These\\nganglion cells are con-\\nnected again with the cells\\nof the posterior horn of\\nthe cord, bnt by fibers of\\nthe nonmedullated kind.\\nThe posterior roots carry\\nthe motor nerve fibers,\\nwhich take messages from\\nthe cord to the parts. If\\nthis root is cut there will\\nbe feeling in the part sup-\\nphed by this nerve, but no\\npower to move. Each spi-\\nnal nerve, then, consists of\\na nerve trunk carrying both\\nsensory and motor, afferent\\nand efferent nerve fibers,\\nwhich decussate, or cross, at the cord, the sensory fibers\\nentering the cord by the anterior root, the motor by the\\nposterior root.\\nNerve cell.\\na, axis cylinder.", "height": "3596", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "220\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe cord is thus made up of nerve ceUs connecting with\\nthe fibers of the nerves, and also of fibers connecting these\\nsame cells with the cells of the brain above.\\nThe brain. The brain lies in the skull. It consists of\\nseveral parts. The low^er part, attached to the cord, is called\\nthe medulla oblongata. Attached to the medulla and lying\\nThe brain.\\nmostly behind it is the cereheUiim (Latin, little brain\\nThe two lateral parts of the cerebellum are connected by\\na fibrous bundle running in front of the medulla, the pons.\\nAbove the pons the bundles of nerve fibers of the medulla\\nare collected into two pillars, the crura (Latin crus,^ leg^\\nlegs of brain) rerehri. These pillars diverge and run up-\\nward to the cerebrum (Latin, brain one to each hemi-\\nsphere.\\nThe cerebrum makes up the larger part of the brain. It\\nconsists of two hemispheres connected by a band of fibers,", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n221\\nthe coi jms (Latin, body callosum. The surface of the\\nhemispheres is furrowed by convolutions (Latin con., to-\\ngether/ and volvere, to roll separated by fissures (Latin\\nfindere, to split Be-\\ntween the two hemispheres\\nis a deep median fissure.\\nThe surface of the brain\\nis gray, being composed of\\ngray matter. The deeper\\nparts of the brain are\\nwhite, consisting of fibers\\nrunning from the cells of\\nthe gray substance into\\nthe crura and cord below.\\nThe outer gray part, or\\ncortex (Latin, bark of\\nthe cerebrum consists of\\nmany nerve cells con-\\nnected by many nonmed-\\nullated nerve fibers.\\nThe deeper white part consists mostly of white medul-\\nlated nerve fibers, each with an axis cylinder starting from\\na nerve cell in the cortex.\\nThe lower parts of the brain, the crura and medulla, con-\\nsist, like the cord, of mixtures of these gray and white sub-\\nstances. The white fibers run from the cerebrum through\\nthe crura and medulla, to become fibers of cranial nerves or\\nto join cells of the cord, which are the origin of spinal\\nnerves. Both the fibers which leave the brain, the motor,\\nand those which come to it, the sensory, cross to the other\\nside of the body from that on which they started before\\nreaching the organ or nerve cells to which they go. This\\nis called the decussation (Latin decussare, to divide cross-\\nwise of the nerves. Consequently an injury to the right\\nUpper surface of cerebrum, showing\\nconvolutions and fissures.", "height": "3593", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "222 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nside of the brain causes a paralysis of the left side of the\\nbody.\\nThe cranial nerves. Twelve pairs of nerves arise from\\nthe brain, each nerve snpplying a corresponding part of the\\nbody on the right or left.\\nThe first pair are called the olfadonj (Latin olfacere, to\\nsmell nerves. They arise from the olfactory bnlbs on the\\nunder side of the cerebral hemispheres and run to the nose.\\nThey are the nerves of the sense of smell.\\nSection of brain cells and fibers.\\nThe second pair are the nerves of sight. They arise from\\nthe region of the crura and run to the eyeballs.\\nThe third smd fourth pairs supply the eye muscles. Tliey\\nare motor.\\nThe fifth pail arise by a motor and sensory root like\\nthe spinal nerves.- Each nerve divides to three principal", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 223\\nbranches. It supplies motion to the face and jaw, and is a\\nsensory nerve of part of the face, eyelid, and tongue.\\nThe sixfh pair sup^^ly one muscle for each eye.\\nThe last six pairs arise from the medulla.\\nThe seventh supply the muscles of the face and scalp.\\nThe eighth are the nerves of hearing-, running to the ears.\\nThe ninth sup])ly the })liarynx with motion, and are tlie\\nsensory nerves of taste.\\nThe tenth supply the larynx, the muscles of respiration,\\nand the heart, stomach, intestines, and liver. They are called\\nthe pnemnogastnc (Greek imeunwn, lung, and gaste);\\nstomach )ie)-i es, from their important connection with the\\nlungs and stomach also the ragus, or wandering nerves,\\nbecause they go to so many organs.\\nThe eleventh supply the muscles of the neck.\\nThe twelfth supi)ly the muscles of the tongue.\\nThe meninges. The brain and cord are surrounded by\\nprotecting membranes. Closely adherent to the brain and\\ncarrying the blood vessels is a delicate membrane, the pia\\nn}((ter (hditiw, tender mother Outside, close to the skull\\nwall, is a firm membrane, the dura mater (Latin, hard\\nmother A thin layer of cells lining the pia, and another\\nlayer lining the dura, together make the third membrane,\\nthe arachnoid (G-reek arachne, a spider s web, and eidos,\\nresemblance In the space between the two layers of\\nthe arachnoid is a liquid, the cerehro-sjnnal flnid.\\nInside the brain and cord is a continuous canal which\\ncontains fluid. In the brain this canal expands to several\\nlarge spaces called ventricles.\\nThe sympathetic (Greek sun, together, and pathos, feel-\\ning nervous system. In addition to this main nervous\\nsystem of brain, cord, and nerves, there is a second nervous\\nsystem appended to it, the sympathetic system. This is\\nmade up of a series of nerve ganglia which lie along the", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "224 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\noutside of the vertebral column from skull to coccyx. Each\\nganglion is connected to the ganglia above and below, thus\\nforming a chain. Branches from many spinal nerves and\\nsome of the cranial nerves connect this system with the\\ncentral system. From this chain nerves pass to the viscera\\nof the abdomen and thorax. It is principally the nerves\\nfrom this system which control the muscular action in the\\nblood vessels.\\nThe fibers of many of these nerves of the sympathetic\\nsystem are nonmedullated.\\nII. THE FITNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN AND THE SPINAL CORD\\nPsychical (Greek psuclie, mind centers. The cerebral\\nliemisplieres are the seat of sensation, volition, and in-\\ntelligence.\\nAny contact with the outer world, as a toucli, a taste, a\\nsound, a pin prick, or a blow, is perceived here. If the\\nbrain is benumbed, touch or even pain is not felt. A\\nman whose brain is benumbed by the administration of\\nether does not know that the dentist is pulling his tooth, or\\nfeel any pain when it is pulled.\\nAll voluntary acts originate here. The cells from which\\nvoluntary movements of the hand originate are situated in\\na certain part of the hemispheres. If this region of the\\nbrain is injured the hand cannot be moved, however hard\\nthe man may try to move it.\\nAll consideration of the meaning of things is here. A\\nman whose brain is stupefied by alcohol does not know the\\ndifference between a hat and an umbrella. He does not\\nunderstand what is said to him.\\nReflex (Latin re, ^back, and flectere, to bend centers.\\nThe spinal bulb or medulla and the cord are the seat of many\\nof the processes of life which we call mitomatic and reflex", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 225\\nacts (Experiments 1 and 2, p. 233). The act of breathing is an\\ninstance of an automatic action. This process goes on with-\\nout our consciousness or will. We can stop it for a short\\ntime, or change its rate by the act of the higher brain, but as\\na rule it is regulated from the medulla. It goes on in frogs\\nafter the cerebrum has been removed. There are many in-\\nstances of reflex action, as the drawing tip of the foot when\\nthe sole is tickled, the working of the eyelid at a bright\\nlight. The person does not stop to think before acting in\\nthese cases. The parts act for themselves. These reflex\\nacts can be controlled by the will, as we need not draw np\\nthe foot if we previously determine not to. There are fibers\\nwhich run from the cerebrum to these centers. If we send\\na current from the brain through these, we stop the act;\\nbut as a rule the act goes on without interference. There\\nare some actions with which the conscious will cannot nor-\\nmally interfere, as, for instance, the beating of the heart or\\nthe secretion of the intestine. They are purely automatic,\\nbut they are regulated by the nervous system. The secretion\\nof the intestine is a reflex act. This is not going on con-\\ntinuously. When food reaches the intestine a message goes\\nto the reflex center, the machinery of secretion is set in\\nmotion by a counter message from the nerve center, the\\nsecretion of the pancreas begins to flow, the bile which has\\nbeen stored in the gall bladder begins to pour into the\\nintestine, and digestion is accomplished. Most of the pro-\\ncesses essential for existence are of this nature. They do\\nnot require the attention of the psychical centers, the mind.\\nMetabolism in the brain. Whenever we think or act, per-\\nceive an odor or hear a sound, some change takes place in\\na cell of the nerve tissue in the brain or cord. There is\\na combustion of tissue here, just as in the muscle cells\\nwhen those organs contract. The brain cells are wasting\\nand building all the time, just as are the cells elsewhere.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "226 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nLocalization. Tlie different functions of tlie body have\\ntheir own center in a special area of the brain. Tims, the\\nfunction of speech is in one place, that of writing in another\\nthe movements of the hand have their centers in one part,\\nthose of the foot in another. Sometimes we have an injury\\nor disease of the brain which affects a small part, perhaps\\none of these special centers only, and then the mail can pei*-\\nform every function as before, except the function whose\\ncentc is affected. Thas, he may be able to think, walk,\\ntalk, but not move his right hand: He may know what he\\nwishes to say, but not be able to say it, if his speech center\\nis affected.\\nHygiene of the nervous system. The nervous system, like\\nthe muscular sj stem and the skeleton, is developed by use.\\nJust as the muscles are made stronger by running and row-\\ning, the brain is made stronger and more efficient by study\\nand thought and action; and, like the other organs of the\\nbody, the brain, if it is not exercised and cared for, will be\\nless developed and less useful than it should be.\\nThe soundness and training of the nervous system are of\\nfirst importance, since all the functions and actions of the\\nbody and its organs are regulated by it. A body with a\\nweak or untrained brain is like an army with an incompetent\\ngeneral. However strong a man s muscles may be, unless\\nhe has a sound nervous system to control them, he cannot\\ndo good work or endure sustained exercise with them. Un-\\nless he has a brain which has been trained by thought and\\nexperience, he cannot properly direct his work, and much of\\nhis strength will be wasted. Thus, a trained carpenter can\\nbuild a house twice as quickly and twice as well as a much\\nstronger man who has not learned the trade.\\nA man may sustain the health or soundness of his nervous\\norgans by taking plenty of food to nourisli them, plenty of\\nsleep to rest them, by exercising them in thought and action,", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 227\\nand by avoiding all practices which iujure them, as over-\\nwork or indulgence in alcohol and other substances which\\npoison them.\\nEducation. The training or exercise of the nervous system\\nis the business of education (Latin ex^ out, and ducere, to\\nlead to lead forth).\\nNature s method of training or education consists in the\\nformation of habits (Latin habere, to have Thus, the child\\nlearns to walk, to talk, and to swim by imitation of others.\\nAt the start the processes take some thought and many trials\\nfor their accomplishment, but when learned the}^ are accom-\\nplished automatically, without any conscious thought as to\\nthe process. They become habits. In the same way the\\nchild acquires the habits of obedience and of conscience. He\\ngrows up to obey his parents without reasoning why in each\\ninstance. He feels that he must not do anything which he\\nknows to be wrong, must not tell a lie to avoid punishment.\\nThis is his conscience habit, which keeps him upright with-\\nout his reasoning about it.\\nIn the further education of the child or man, we adopt and\\nutilize this same method of nature, the formation of habits.\\nObject of training. Thus, in learning to write, the child\\nstudies the formation of each letter in repeatedly copying\\nthe letters and putting them together. Finally he writes\\nthem offhand without thinking about their formation and\\nmthout a copy. The wood carver or the weaver becomes\\nso expert that the fingers work almost without thought.\\nAt first we think much about the right way to do a thing.\\nWe study each step carefully, and then we dp it frequently.\\nFinally we do not think of the steps at all; we wish to do\\nit, and the thing is done almost without thought.\\nAs the result of such education the child or man becomes\\nso accustomed to these right habits of doing and thinking\\nthat he becomes confirmed in good habits and well doing.", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "228 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nObject of study. The mind is trained by the study of\\nmathematics, language, physics, philosophy, to develop its\\npowers of reasoning and thinking. It is not so much the\\nfa(;ts which the child learns as the habits of quick and\\naccurate thinking which count. With these habits he is in a\\nposition to make the most of the knowledge and experience\\nwhich he acquires later. If he has gained the habits of ac-\\ncurate observation and of perseverance and industry, he is\\nwell equipped for his progress through the world.\\nEducation is b}^ no means confined to the schools. The\\ngreater part of it is obtained in the home and in the com-\\nmunity about us. At home the boy is given good books,\\nthat he may read of the good deeds and noble lives of the\\nworld s history. He is taught courtesy and charity, that he\\nmay make those about him happier. He is taken to walk\\nin the woods and fields, and instructed in the story of the\\nrocks and plants and animals, that he may come to love na-\\nture and to find an interest in studying its works. He is\\ntaken to see great works of art and to hear good music,\\nand taught to care for poetry, that he may acquire refined\\ntastes and see more of the grace and beauty in life.\\nIn this education it is not enough that children shall\\nread books or see paintings or sculptures. They must be\\ntaught to appreciate the meaning which is in the work, to\\nfeel the spirit which inspired the writer or painter who\\nconceived it, and to understand the thoughts and ambitions\\nand passions which have molded the lives of the men and\\nwomen who have made the history of which they read. If\\nthey learn these things, to them life becomes filled with an\\ninterest and a joy which can never die.\\nHe ate and drank the precious words,\\nHis spirit grew robust,\\nHe knew Ji6 more that he was poor\\nOr that his frame was dust", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 229\\nHe danced along the dingy days\\nAnd that bequest of wings\\nWas but a book. What liberty\\nA loosened spirit brings\\nA most important habit to acquire is that of self-control.\\nIt is this quality perhaps beyond all others which distin-\\nguishes manhood. The emotions of sympathy, love, pity,\\nenthusiasm, religion, are all excellent elements of our char-\\nacters. They help to ennoble us and to lead us to strong\\nendeavor, high thought, and worthy action. But they lose\\nmuch of their usefulness if they are not controlled by judg-\\nment and a sense of justice and right, so that they are\\nallowed to sway us only for the greater good of those about\\nus. More especially should the passions of anger, jealousy,\\nsensuality, and the many ignoble impulses which arise from\\nthe desire of possession be controlled.^ In the submission\\nto these lies a great part of the woe and crime which darken\\nthe pages of history.\\nTrue happiness comes not through the gratification of the\\ndesires for the material things of the world about us, but\\nfrom the possession of a well-balanced mind which can dis-\\ncern the real treasures of life, and a spirit inspired with the\\npursuit of truth.\\nEverybody has affinities for truth and cultui-e. If they\\nare developed the man will take his pleasure in good pur-\\nsuits if not, he will indulge in sensual pleasures. Every-\\nbody should be athletic, but he should also be clever and\\n1 There is pliysiologica,! necessity for con-eet emotional conditions of the mind.\\nProfessor Gates of the United States Commission of Biological Research has shown by\\nchemical tests that the human tissues and fluids are affected by emotions. He has\\nfound that the blood of a large number of people after an attack of ill temper responds\\nuniformly to a certain chemical test the blood of a large number after attacks of jeal-\\nousy responds to another chemical test; of others, after gi ief, to another; and so on\\nthrough the line of emotional conditions. And never has it failed that the chemical\\ngenerated by any malevolent, inharmonious mental condition is of an acid, acrid, poi-\\nsonous nature. Maria L. Pratt, M.D., of Durant Gymnasium, in Report of National\\nEducational Association, 1896, p. 931.", "height": "3600", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "230 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nrefined. In these days a clever head and a well-trained\\nmind will accomplish far more than mnscular strength.\\nOne-sided development. Care mnst be observed in this\\ntraining not to become developed entirely in one direction.\\nWe see too many men whose brains are admirably developed\\nfor bnsiness, bnt who have no interest in art or literatnre.\\nToo many, on the other hand, are so engrossed in the pnrsnit\\nof one kind of knowledge that they are ignorant of the\\ntruth wliich underlies development in the more practical and\\nessential aptitudes of human nature.\\nSleep. In exercise of the nervous system we must be\\ncareful not to overwork. We must be sure to get\\nenough sleep. The muscles rest between periods of exer-\\ncise, the stomach rests between meals, but the nervous sys-\\ntem is always active during waking hours. Whenever we\\nthink or move or see or feel the nervous system is in action.\\nTherefore it gets complete rest only in sleep. Even here\\nparts of it are active, but the most of it rests. Every\\none should allow eight hours for sleep, and the sleep\\nshould be taken at a regular time, as nature likes regularity.\\nW^e sleep best at night, as the darkness is favorable to the\\ncondition.\\nIt is reasonable to suppose that the cells of the brain and\\nnerve tissue become depleted after labor and need a period\\nof rest in which to rebuild their substance. Careful histo-\\nlogical investigations show that this svipposition is a true one.\\nChanges in the character and contents of the cells can be\\nobserved during the working or resting stages.^\\nThe danger of overworking the brain or the body is espe-\\n1 Professor C. F. Hodge of Clark University, with other physiologists, has conducted\\nnumerons experiments relating to the subject, which are full of interest. One of the\\nresults reached has been the observation that after a severe effort a rest of twelve\\nhours is required to enable the cell to return to its normal condition that often even\\ntwenty-four hours is scarcely sufiScient for this purpose. It thus appears that there is\\nphysiological basis for a periodical rest day in which the worn-out cells may be able to\\nrecover their store of energy. Dietetic and Hygienic Gazette, August, 1898, p. 518.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 231\\ncially great in these days of the telephone, the telegraph, and\\nexpress trains. A business man to-day can transact many\\ntimes as much business in twenty-four hours as his grand-\\nfather could in a week. To do this, however, he has to use\\nhis mental faculties to the utmost. Every one, especially\\nbrain workers, should make a point of taking a good va-\\ncation twice 3^early.\\nOne of the best means of rest is a change of occupation.\\nTo rest the brain it is not necessary to vegetate. It is\\nsimply necessar} to take the interest off one set of ideas\\nand place it upon another. A man gets more rest in read-\\ning a good book or in seeing a good entertainment after a\\nhard day s work than if he sat about doing nothing. Travel,\\nor sojourn in the country where he can ride and climb, play\\ngolf or ball or cricket, will do a business man far more good\\nthan sitting about the piazzas of summer hotels at fashion-\\nable watering places.\\nIn connection with this subject the custom observed in\\nChristian countries of suspending all business every seventh\\nday is a most beneficial one, one which doubtless adds ma-\\nterially to the health and longevity of the people.\\nAlcohol. The nervous system is very susceptible to the\\ninfluence of alcohol. Much of the harm which this substance\\ndoes is accomplished through its influence here.\\nThe first effect of the drinking of alcoholic liquors upon\\nthe nervous system is to cause a sense of exhilaration. The\\nman feels lively and like making effort. Now, this very first\\neffect of alcohol is a bad one, for the sense of exhilaration\\nand power is a false sign. The man thinks that he can do\\nmore work, but in reality he can do less. His sense of\\nfatigue is paralyzed, so that he does not know w^hen the\\nmuscle centers have exhausted themselves.^ Thus he goes\\n1 The view of Schmiedeberg that the action of alcoliol upon the nerve centers is\\nalways a paralyzing one is now accepted by most physiologists.\\nHEWES. P. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 15", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "232 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\non working at the expense of liis health. In this way one\\nof nature s safeguards against overwork is broken down by\\nthe creation of this false sense of exhilaration. The heart\\nand other organs work more rapidly for a time and wear\\nthemselves out the sooner.\\nIn the second place, this sense of exhilaration which people\\nget from alcohol is followed by a sense of relaxation and\\ninertia. When the effect of the alcohol is gone, the man\\nfeels less able to work than before. To get rid of this feel-\\ning of laziness and distraction he frequently takes more\\nliquor. After a time small amounts of liquor cease to\\nrelieve the relaxation.\\nAlcohol habit. The man begins to take larger amounts,\\nand thus what is known as the alcohol habit is formed. The\\nman has so relaxed his system by the use of alcohol, and\\nhas become so dependent upon it for the feeling of energy\\nwhich he desires, that he thinks he jannot get along without it.\\nNow he finds that the constant or large doses which he\\ntakes are injuring his health and capacity to work. His\\nheart is less able to stand exertion, his mind is less clear.\\nHe determines to stop the use of liquor, or reduce it. But\\nnow he finds that he cannot. The alcohol appetite has so\\ngrown upon him that he cannot resist it. His will has been\\nweakened by the indulgence, and cannot defend him against\\nhis enemy. Thus he may go on until his health is gone and\\nhis business affairs are ruined through incapacity and neglect.\\nSuch a career as the above is no uncommon one. Many\\nmen who begin by drinking beer or wine or cider in what is\\ncalled moderation acquire tlie alcohol habit. It is this\\npower of alcohol upon the nervous system to establish a\\nhabit which is one of its most dangerous qualities, and\\nwhich makes it a thing to be avoided. No man knows, when\\nhe takes his first glass, whether it may not be his fate to\\nbecome a victim of this habit.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 233\\nDEMONSTRATIONS\\n1. Cross one knee over the other, and let the leg hang loosely.\\nStrike the upper leg sharply with the hand just below the kneecap.\\nThe lower leg will jerk suddenly forward. This is an example of a\\nmuscular movement occurring without the intervention of any thought\\nupon the part of the individual.\\n2. Tickle the nose with a feather. The sneeze which follows is a\\nreflex act of the body to rid itself of the source of irritation to the\\nmucous membrane of the nose.\\n3. Pass the hand rapidly close to the eyes of the pupil next you.\\nThe rapid winking of the lids is an example of an involuntary action\\nestablished to protect the eye.\\n4. Note the deep and rapid respiration which replaces the ordinary\\nrespiration after exertion, as running. This is an automatic action in\\nresponse to the need of more respiratory exchange to supply the in-\\ncreased combustion resultine: from the increased muscular action.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. How are all the vital processes of the body, the digestion, circula-\\ntion, and so forth, regulated so that they all go on together in time and\\nplace for the common good? In what part of the body must there first\\nbe an action that a muscle may contract, or that an arm or leg may be\\nmoved? What are the organs of the nervous system? What is the func-\\ntion of each part of this system? Of the nerves? The cord? The brain?\\nHow are nerves classified according to their functions? Describe a\\nnerve. What is a nerve ganglion?\\nII. Describe the spinal cord. How many nerves join the cord?\\nWhat two sets of fibers does each spinal nerve carry? Where is the\\nbrain situated? Describe the brain. In which side of the brain are\\nlocated the cells which regulate the action of the right side of the body?\\nIII. Name some of the cranial nerves. What are the meninges? Is\\nthe nei ve of sight motor or sensory? Is the nerve of hearing motor or\\nsensory? Is the pneumogastric nerve motor or sensory? Classify the\\nspinal nerves as motor or sensory.\\nIV. What is the sympathetic nervous system? What is the function\\nof the cerebral hemispheres? What kind of acts originate here? Can.", "height": "3600", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "234 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe muscles act if the nerve which connects them with the brain or cord\\nis cut? What kind of acts take place without the use or intervention\\nof the brain? Describe a reflex act. Name some of our actions which\\nare done without our thinking. What occurs in the brain cells when-\\never we think or perform a voluntary action?\\nV. Can the brain and nerve system be developed? How? What is\\nthe training of the nervous system called? What are habits? What is\\nthe chief end of the study of mathematics and grammar? Why should\\nwe read good books? When does the nervous system rest? Wliy is the\\nnervous system susceptible to the action of alcohol? What is the most\\ndangerous feature in regard to the action of alcohol upon the nervous\\nsystem? Can a man tell when he is forming the alcohol habit?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII\\nTOBACCO OPIUM- COCAINE\\nBESIDES alcohol there are other substances used by\\nmen against the use of which, on account of their\\nharmfulness to health and development, every one should\\nbe warned. Such substances are tobacco, opium, cocaine,\\nTobacco. Among- these substances the one most com-\\nmonly used in this part of the world is tobacco. It contains\\na very poisonous substance known as nicotine. The smoke\\nof tobacco contains several irritant substances formed from\\nthe combustion of the tobacco fiber and the nicotine. When\\nthis smoke comes in contact with the mucous membranes of\\nthe mouth and upper air passages it has an irritant action\\nupon them. In constant smokers this irritation results in a\\nrelaxation of the structures of the membrane, Tvnth changes in\\nthe cells and the secretions. These changes frequently end\\nin a condition of chronic pharyngitis. If you look at the\\nthroat of habitual smokers you will often see pearly patches\\non the membrane, showing areas of chronic inflammation.\\nThe, throat will have a red, beefy appearance, instead of the\\nmoist, pink appearance of the normal throat. This chronic\\ncondition of the membrane makes the throat susceptible to\\nexposure to cold and disease infection, so that the smoker\\nis less able to resist the diseases of the mouth and throat\\nthan the abstainer.\\n235", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "236 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThis condition of irritation of the mucons membranes is\\nvery detrimental, but it is not the most serious effect of\\ntobacco smoking. The pyridine and other substances which\\nare taken in with the smoke, and the nicotine which is\\nsucked in from the tobacco, are absorbed into the system,\\nwhere the\\\\^ act as poisons. These substances ap])ear to\\npoison the red corpuscles of the blood, destroying their\\nhemoglobin and diminishing their oxygen-carrying capacity.\\nLack of oxygen in the tissues follows, and tlnis develo})-\\nment of the organs and the body is hindered. Y^ou will\\noften notice the pallor and stunted development of youths\\nw4io are habitual smokers. The skin has a sallow, unhealthy\\nlook. This is particularly true of those who smoke in boy-\\nhood, before their development has been completed. The\\ngrowing tissues are especially susceptible to the influence of\\npoisons. Any boy who smokes before the age of twenty-one\\nruns the risk of growing up with stunted development, with\\nweak muscles, a poor braiu and nervous system, a weak\\nheart, and no power of endurance.\\nThe poison of tobacco has a marked effect upon the heart.\\nThe action of the heart is much weakened its beat becomes\\nirregular and rapid with any exertion. Many a boy or\\nman who has smoked without any thought of harm from\\nit finds, when he comes to be examined for admission to\\nsome athletic contest or to the army, that he is debarred\\nowing to the fact that he has a tobacco heart.\\nSmoking has a bad effect upon the nervous system. The\\neffect may appear to be sootliing or even stimulating for\\nthe time, but it ends by making the person irritable.\\nThrough its poisonous effect upon the nervous system, the\\nfunctions which are regulated through this system are dis-\\nturbed. The hand becomes unsteady, the eye less sure. An\\narcher or rifleman has often had his skill fail through the\\neffect of tobacco. Athletes in trainino- are forbidden its use.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "TOBACCO OPIUM COCAINE 237\\nThe sickness, faintness, dizziness, and vomiting which\\noften accompany the first trials at the use of tobacco onglit\\nto be a warning of its poisonons natnre. But if this fails\\nto deter a boy or man from the practice, the knowledge\\nthat it stunts the growth, lessens the strength, injures the\\nmind and the power of endurance, should do so.\\nStatistics made among large numbers of men in the great\\nseats of learning of the world tend to show that a large\\nproportion of the rankholders are tobacco abstainers. If\\nmen who have got their development find that tobacco is\\ninjuring their health, they can stop the use, provided their\\ncraving for it has not become stronger than their wills,\\nand may regain their health. But the boy who has hin-\\ndered the growth of his bones and brain and muscles by the\\nuse of tobacco can never gain the development wliich he\\nhas lost. There is a time for development, which he has\\nwasted, and for every year of that time which he has mis-\\nused he must pay during his whole life. He has left only\\nso much room for strength, and work as he may in later\\nyears he can never reach the strength which he might have\\nhad if he had not hindered the growth of his organs in 3 outh.\\nOpium is a gummy substance which contains several poi-\\nsonous constituents, as morphine and codeine. Laudanum\\nand paregoric are familiar preparations of this substance.\\nMan 3^ people take it first for the relief of pain, and get in\\nthe habit of using it, so that when they try to stop the}^\\nfind that they cannot. They have formed what is known as\\nthe opium habit. For, like alcohol, this substance forms a\\nhabit in the consumer, so that after he has taken it for\\nsome time he is unhappy and even ill without it. If he\\ncontinues to take it, it mil destroy his health, his capacity\\nfor work, and finally his mind. He lies, steals, and com-\\nmits other crimes without compunction.\\nThe effect of a single dose of opium or morphine is to", "height": "3597", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "238 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncause a diminislied sensibility, to allay pain, and to produce an\\nunnatural sleep. A person who has taken it once is tempted\\nto try it again and to take it for all sorts of pain, and thus\\nhe finally forms the opium habit.\\nThe use of opium as a habit is less common with us than\\nin some Eastern countries, but it is too common.\\nSome other substances which are used for the relief of\\npain are chloral and cocaine.\\nThe use of chloral may lead to the chloral habit. It is used\\nby peoj^le to procure sleep as well as to relieve pain.\\nCocaine is likewise used to relieve pain, and leads to the\\ncocaine hahif, which is very difficult to cure.\\nIn addition to the above drugs there are several other so-\\ncalled medicines against the indiscriminate use of which\\npeople should be warned. Among these are phenacetine,\\nantipyrine, and many other headache medicines. These\\nmedicines may relieve the trouble for the time, but they are\\ndangerous. In getting rid of the headache you may get some\\nnew disturbance from the poisonous action of the drug.\\nMany of the patent medicines for the relief of cough or\\npain contain opium. There is but one safe rule, which is to\\ntake medicines only under a physician s advice. You will\\nsuffer less in the end from taking no medicine than from\\nthe use of medicines without professional advice.\\nQUESTIONS\\nIs tobacco ever useful from the point of vievr of the body needs? Is\\nit ever harmful? What are its effects upon the membranes of the\\nthroat and air passages? What may the effect of smoking be upon the\\nnutrition of the body if practiced during the period of growth? What\\nare the dangers attending the use of opium? Of cocaine? What are\\nthe objections to taking drugs without a physician s advice?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nTHE SPECIAL SENSES\\nSensation. When any impulse is brought by the afferent\\nnerves to the brain from any part of the body and causes a\\nfeeling there, a consciousness that something is happening,\\nwe call it a sensation (Latin sentire, to feel, perceive\\nThus, when a piece of ice touches the hand we have a sen-\\nsation of cold. When sugar is placed upon the tongue we\\nhave a sensation of taste.\\nSome sensations are very definite. We can localize the\\npart of the body from which they come, and can recognize\\nthe object which causes them. Such are the sensations of\\ntouch, of pain, of cold, of sight. When anything touches\\nthe hand, Ave have the sensation of touch; we know where\\nthe touch takes place, and we may be able to tell from the\\nspecial nature of the sensation what the object is which is\\ntouching us.\\nOther sensations are indefinite in their character and\\nlocalization. Such are the sensations of hunger, of mental\\npleasure, of fatigue. We cannot say that these sensations\\ncome from a particular part or a particular outside object.\\nThe special senses. A large proportion of our definite\\nsensations come to us through what are known as the special\\nsenses. Almost all our knowledge of the outer world comes\\nto us through these.\\n239", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "240\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nThe special senses are usually described as five in number,\\nsight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. To these must be\\nadded the sense of temperature, the sense of pressure, and\\nperhaps the muscular sense.\\nAll of these special senses have special organs in which\\nthe sensory impulses originate.\\nSense organs. Each special sense organ may be placed in\\na special part or may be distributed in several parts. Thus,\\nsight is located in the eyeball, hearing in the ear. The\\nspecial organ of touch may be located in the skin or in the\\nmucous membranes. Taste has a special nerve organ lo-\\ncated in the mucous\\n|ft^\u00c2\u00ab?S^MS\\nof the\\nmembrane\\ntongue.\\nThe special sense\\nimpulse originates\\nin the special organ,\\nand is carried by\\nthe nerve from that\\norgan to the brain,\\nwhere the sensation\\noccurs.\\nTouch. The or-\\ngans of the sense\\nof touch are located\\nin the skin and in\\nsome mucous mem-\\nbranes. In some pa-\\npilla of the dermis\\nare placed small oval structures composed of cells from\\nwhich a sensory nerve arises. These oval structures are\\ncalled the tactile (Latin tangere, to touch corpuscles.\\nSome of the fine endings of these nerves of touch run\\neven into the cells of the ej^idermis. The organ of touchy\\nTactile corpuscle in the skin.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES\\n241\\nhowever, is always the cells over a nerve ending, not the\\nnerve itself. The touch of the nerve end itself causes pain,\\nnot the distinguishing sensation of touch. This sensation\\nnot only tells that an object touches us, but also the char-\\nacter of the object, whether hard or soft or rough.\\nThis sense is most delicate at the tips of the fingers, the\\ntip of the tongue, and on the face. It is least delicate upon\\nthe back, owing to the smaller\\nnumber of tactile corpuscles\\nthere and the thicker epider-\\nmis. If we place the two points\\nof a compass one tenth of an\\ninch apart upon the tip of the\\nfinger or tongue, we can feel\\neach point upon the back, the\\npoints even two inches apart\\nfeel as one point.\\nThe sense of temperature al-\\nso is placed in the skin. This\\nsensation arises from special\\norgans distinct from those of\\ntouch. The fact that these\\nsensations of touch, pain, and\\ntemperature, which are received\\nin the skin, are carried by sep-\\narate nerve fibers, is demon-\\nstrated by certain diseases.\\nThus, there is a disease of the\\nspinal cord in which the patient nir^l^r^.^^t^m^\\nloses the sense of pain, but not\\nthat of touch, in a certain part also one in which the sense\\nof touch is lost, while that of pain is intact.\\n1 This sense can be cultivated. The blind by training acquire a very delicate sense\\nwhich enables them to.distinguish by touch objects which to our sense are alike.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "242\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nTaste. The organs of the sense of taste are located in the\\nmncous membrane of the tongue and pahxte. This mem-\\nbrane is raised into numerous elevations, or papillae. In\\nthese papillae are the endings of the nerves of taste.\\nThe papillaB are of three kinds. The Jil if orni {hsitui filum,\\nthread, smd forma, form papillae are long and slender,\\nand placed over the front of the tongue. They contain the\\norgans of the sense of touch in the tongue. The fungiform\\n(Latin fungus, mushroom papilla? are mushroom-shaped,\\nwith broad crowns and slender stems. The circuni vallate\\n(Latin c/rc?r\u00c2\u00bb^, aroiuid, and valJuni,^^Si trench papillae\\nare large mound-shaped papillae with a ditch or moat about\\nthem. They are sit-\\n~\\\\Y ZZ^^^^^^^J ^^^T^^^^^^yr uated in double rows,\\nforming a V on the\\nback of the tongue.\\nThese fungiform and\\ncircumvallate papillae\\ncontain the taste huds.\\nEach taste bud is\\nmade up of epithelial\\ncells arranged like the\\npetals of a rosebud,\\nthe inner cells having\\nfine processes reaching to the surface of the papilla. The\\nfine nerve ending of tlie glossopharyngeal nerve of taste\\nruns into these inner cells. When sugar is placed upon the\\ntongue the fine processes of the buds are stimulated, and\\nthis sensation is transmitted by the nerve to the brain.\\nTastes. These taste buds have to act for four kinds of\\ntaste\u00e2\u0080\u0094 sweet, bitter, sour, salt. With most people the bit-\\nter tastes are perceived at the back of the tongue, the sweet\\nat the tip. Substances to be tasted must be in solution.\\nWhen the mouth is dry, as in fevers, the taste is very weak.\\nTaste buds.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 243\\nMany so-called tastes are flavors, and are really distinguished\\nby the sense of smell. Such are the flavors of meat or vege-\\ntables. If we hold the nose when we eat an onion we cannot\\ntell what we are eating.\\nSmell. The organs of the sense of smell are situated in\\nthe mucous membrane lining the upper part of the cavity of\\nthe nose. The outer openings of the nostrils, which we see,\\nlead to the nasal chambers. Behind, these chambers open\\ninto the pharynx. Into these chambers from the sides pro-\\ntrude three spongy, scroll-like bones, the turbinates. Over\\nthe wiiole inner surface of the chambers lies a mucous\\nmembrane. In this membrane in the upper chambers many\\nof the epithelial cells on the surface are rod-shaped. To\\nthese rod-shaped cells the nerve endings of the olfactory\\nnerve go. Any odor which floats in the air and is drawn\\nthrough the nose stimulates these rod cells, and produces the\\nsensation of smell. The lower part of the nostril near the\\nopening is lined with columnar cells having cilia.\\nThe air is warmed in passing through the nose to the\\nlungs. It takes up moisture from the walls. It is freed\\nfrom dust and bacteria by the hairs at the entrance to the\\nnostril.\\nThe sense of smeU is often useful in enabling us to dis-\\ncover the presence of noxious substances, as decaying mat-\\nter, coal gas, etc.\\nThe sense of sight. The organ of the sense of sight is\\nthe eyeball. The eyeball is a globular structure lying in the\\nbony orbit of the skull. It is placed well forwa-rd in the\\nface so that all objects in front or at the sides of the head\\nwill come in sight of it. At the back it is connected with\\nthe brain, so that it may be called a bay window of the\\nbrain, thrown out to command a clear and full view of the\\nworld about.\\nThe eyeball is covered in front by the eyelids. These lids", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "2U PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nare curtains whicli may be raised or lowered before the eye\\nto protect it from light or dust. Tliey are made up of\\nfibrous connective tissue lined with skin on the outside, and\\non the inside by a membrane of thin epithelial cells, the cou-\\npmctiva. Tliis membrane lines the inside of the lids and\\npasses from these over the front of the eyeball. At the\\nedge of the lids are the eyelashes, which serve to keep dust\\nfrom the eye.\\nThe lids contain striate muscle and can be opened and\\nclosed at will. When a strong light strikes the eye they\\nclose by a reflex, as described in the chapter on the nervous\\nsystem.\\nMotions of the eyeball. The eyeball is moved by six mus-\\ncles which attach to the walls of the orbit. One muscle, the\\nexternal rectus, turns the ball outward, as when we look off\\nto the right with the right ej^e. The internal rectus turns\\nthe ball in toward the nose. The superior rectus turns the\\nball upward, the inferior rectus downward. Two other\\nmuscles, the superior and inferior oblique muscles, aid in turn-\\ning the eye.\\nWhen we look at a near object close to the nose, the inter-\\nnal rectus of each eye contracts and points both eyeballs\\ninward.\\nEach orbital cavity is padded with fat, which makes a soft\\ncushion for the eyeball. At the outer side of each orbit is\\na small gland, the lachrymal (Latin lachtijma, a tear gland,\\nwhich secretes the tears. This gland is continually secret-\\ning a small amount of fluid w^hicli washes the front of the\\neyeball and di ains away by small lachrymal ducts to a cis-\\ntern sac, which empties it through the nasal duct to the\\ncavity of the nose.\\nThe structure of the eye. The eyeball is a sphere with a\\nprominent bulging portion in front; that is, it consists of\\nthe segments of two spheres. The front bulging part,", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 245\\nthrough which we see the mottled-colored ring and the dark\\ncircle in the center, is the cornea. This is attached all about\\nto the white coat of the eye, the sclera (Greek sMeros,\\nhard The cornea and sclera are made up of fibrous\\nmaterial, and together form the outer coat of the eye.\\nJust inside the cornea, and seen through it, is a colored\\nring, the iris, inclosing a dark circular opening, the pupil\\nBetween the cornea and iris is a clear watery substance,\\nthe aqueous (Latin aqua, water humor.\\nPlan of eyeball.\\nO, optic nerve 72, retina; F, vitreous humor; L, lens; O, cornea; (7on, conjunctiva;\\nSc, sclera; iris; A, aqueous humor; Cin, ciliary muscle Ch, choroid.\\nThe iris is differently colored in different people. Thus\\nwe have blue eyes or gray eyes. The iris contains muscle,\\nand can contract and dilate, changing the size of the pupil.\\nThe iris is continuous with a second coat of the eye, which\\nruns inside the sclera, the choroid. Tliis choroid coat, at\\nits junction with the iris, is thrown into folds, like the", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "246 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ntucks of a dress. These folds are called the ciliary (Latm\\nciliiDii, hau processes. The choroid coat carries blood\\nvessels to feed the eye. Its inner layer is black, being lined\\nwith pigment granules.\\nThe 2^upil is a circular opening bounded by the iris. At\\nthe back of this opening is the crystalline (Greek I r us f alios,\\nclear ice lens. This is a double convex, transparent\\nstructure, like the lenses of magnifying glasses. It is held\\nby a sheet ligament from the choroid, the suspensory (Latin\\nsuh, under, and 2)e)idere, to hang ligament.\\nAt the back of the eye, behind the lens and inside the\\nchoroid coat, is the third coat of the eye, the retina (Latin\\nrete^ a net This is a thin membrane in which the libers\\nof the optic nerve, entering through the walls of the eyeball\\nbehind, radiate in all directions. Between the lens and the\\nretina is a clear fluid substance, i\\\\\\\\Q vitreous (Latin vitrutn,\\nglass humor.\\nStructure of retina. The retina is reaUy an expansion of\\nthe optic nerve, with structures uilt up upon it to receive\\nand transmit the impressions of light, which come froin with-\\nout through the pupil and lens, on to the brain in such a way\\nthat we get there an image of the thing before our eyes.\\nThese stru(^tures which receive the light impressions are\\nknown as the rods and cones. Over the whole surface of the\\nretina is a layer made up of numerous rodlike cells, with\\ntapering threadlike processes running toward the front of\\nthe eye, and of sugarloaf-shaped bodies with short processes,\\nthe cones. The processes of both rods and cones give out\\ndelicate threads which run to cells deeper in the retina, and\\nthese again attach to the fibers of the nerve. The structures\\nof the retina are laid down in eleven layers. The nerve\\nlayer is in front. The light passes in through all these\\nstructures to the layer (^f rods and cones. Here the im-\\npression is taken and the cell processes set vibrating. This", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES\\n247\\nvibration is transmitted from the rods and cones to the\\nnerve fibers, and thns to the brain\u00c2\u00ab\\nOuter or churuidal surface\\nI, Layer of pigment cells\\n7 aycr of rods and i\\nMemftrana limitans externa\\nOuter nuclear layer\\nOuter molecular layer\\n4. Inner nuclear layer\\n3. Inner molecular layer\\n2. Layer of nerve cells\\n1. Layer of nerve fibers\\n.Membrana limitans interna\\nInner surface\\nSection of retina.\\nIn the center of the retina is an oval spot, the yellotv spot.\\nHere the laj^ers of the retina, except the layer of the rods and\\nHEWES, P. H, 16", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "248 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncones, are thin, and the cones are, contrary to the condition\\nelsewhere, thicker than the rods. This is the part of the\\neye where the image strikes when we look straight at an\\nobject so as to get the clearest vision of it.\\nThe blind spot. There is one part of the retina where\\nthe optic nerve passes through it from the back to the ante-\\nrior surface of the retina, where it spreads out. This spot\\nhas no rods and cones, and therefore takes no impressions.\\nIt is called the blind spot. This spot can be found by the\\nfollowing experiment Place upon a piece of paper a cross\\nand a round black spot, three inches apart, as upon this page\\nHold the sheet about twelve inches in front of the eyes.\\nClose the left eye and look at the cross with the riglit you\\nwill see the dot at the same time. Move the sheet slowly\\ntoward you, keeping the right eye fixed upon the cross. At\\na certain distance from the eye the dot will disappear, and\\nwiU reappear as the sheet is brought still nearer. When the\\nsheet is at the place where the dot cannot be seen, the light\\nfrom the dot is falling upon the blind spot. When the\\nsheet is farther or nearer, the light is upon the retina to the\\nright or left of this.\\nMechanism of sight. The coats of the eye, the sclera and cho-\\nroid, serve to carry vessels for the nourishment of the retina,\\nand also for protection and for the formation of a chamber\\nfor the reception of the light images. The refracting media,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094the aqueous humor, the lens, and the vitreous humor,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the\\ncornea, and the accommodation (Latin accommodo, adapt\\nmechanism of the iris are for the purpose of bringing the\\nrays of light upon the retina in such a way as to form a clear\\nimage of the thing seen. The cornea and refracting media\\nof the eye collect the rays of light from the object seen, and", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 249\\nfoous these rays upon the retina. In this way an inverted\\nimage of the object is formed upon the retina. The lens and\\nother refracting media simply bend the rays of light from the\\nobject seen in such a manner that they all fall within the space\\nof tlie retina, so that, unless it is too near, a very large ob-\\nject can be focused upon the small area of the retina. Light\\nconsists of vibrations of the ether. When these waves of\\nvibration strike the convex surfat^e of the refracting media,\\nthey are bent inward. The amount of bending depends\\nupon the convexity of the lens. If the object is near the eye,\\nthe rays need to be more bent to focus upon the retina that\\nis, we need a very convex lens. If the object is far away, the\\nrays need less bending and the lens must be less convex.\\nThat we can focus both near and far objects perfectly in our\\neyes is due to the faculty of the eye of changing the convex-\\nity of the lens. This is known as accommodation.\\nThe mechanism of accommodation is regulated by the\\naction of the ciliary muscles of the lens supports. The lens\\nis an elastic body which tends naturally to take a very con-\\nvex shape. It is inclosed in a capsule, to Avhich is attached\\nthe suspensory ligament. The ligament is so adjusted that\\nwhen the ciliary muscles of the choroid processes contract,\\nthe ligament is slackened and the lens is free to take its\\nnatural shape. This occurs when we accommodate the eye to\\na near object. When the muscles relax, the ligament is\\ndrawn tight, pulling on the lens capsule and flattening the\\nlens, so that it is less convex. This occurs when we look at\\na far object.\\nShort and long sight. Most people cannot see objects\\nclearly which lie nearer than five inches from the eye.\\nThis is because the lens cannot be made convex enough to\\nfocus all the rays from such an object upon the retina. The\\nrays from the sides of the object go by. Some people, how-\\never, see close objects better than more distant ones. These", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "250\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nare shortsighted people. Their peculiarity is due to the\\nfact that the retiua is farther off thau normal from the\\nlens, so that near objects can be bent to it. Owing to this\\ndistance of retina from lens, these people cannot focus a\\ndistant object. No matter how much the lens is flattened\\nit focuses ill front of the retina, where the normal retina\\nwould be. To correct this difficulty such people have glasses\\nmade with a concave lens. This throws the rays outward\\nand causes them to focus farther back.\\nIn a long-sighted person the ball is shorter than the rule,\\nand near objects focus behind the retina. An additional\\nconvex lens has to be used to correct tliis.\\nDiagram of refraction,\\no, object; b, lens; c, image upon retina.\\nAction of the iris. The lens is not a perfect instrument.\\nSome of the rays are brought to a focus in front of most of\\nthe rays. To remedy this defect the eye is provided\\nwith the iris curtain. This curtain shuts off more or less\\nof these rays which do not focus on the retina, and thus\\nleaves a clear image there. The amount of light which\\nmust be cut off differs with the distance of the image. If\\nthe image is near, much light is cut off if distant, little", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 251\\nlight. To meet these varying conditions the iris is made to\\ngrow larger or smaller, so that when an object is far away\\nthe iris is pulled back and the pupil is large, and when the\\nobject is near the iris closes and the pupil is small. You can\\nsee the pupil change if you watch the eye of some one who\\nis looking at your finger as you draw it gradually away from\\nhis face. To change in this way, the iris is provided with a\\nsphincter (Greek spMggeiu, to contract muscle which\\ncontracts it, and other muscles which draw it back.\\nThe formation of a clear image in the eye may be illus-\\ntrated by the following experiment: In a dark room fix a\\nlens a few feet in front of a candle flame. If a sheet of\\npaper is held at the right distance in front of the lens a\\nclear inverted image of the candle flame will appear upon\\nthe paper. The paper here represents the retina of the eye,\\nthe lens the refracting media. If the candle were held\\nbefore the eye, the image would appear upon the retina as\\nupon the paper.\\nNow, if the candle is held nearer the lens, the image upon\\nthe paper will grow indistinct. To get a clear image we\\nhave to move the paper awa}^ from the lens or replace the\\nlens by a stronger, more curved one. In the eye the latter\\nmethod is adopted the lens is made more convex by the\\nmechanism of accommodation. If the candle is moved\\nfarther from the lens, the paper has to be moved nearer to\\nget the clear image, or the lens made weaker, less curved.\\nYou can demonstrate this action of accommodation in\\nyour own eyes by the following experiment: Place two\\npegs in a board, one about a foot from the end and the other\\neighteen inches farther away. Close one eye, and with the\\nother look along the board with the pegs nearly in a line.\\nIf you look at the farther peg this will be clear and the\\nnearer indistinct. If you accommodate to the nearer, the\\nfarther will be indistinct.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "252 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nHygiene of the eye. The eye, like all the organs of the\\nbody, can be trained by exercise. Constant practice in shoot-\\ning, in ball playing and tennis, gives a man what is known\\nas a true eye. A trained eye compared with an untrained\\none is like a high-power microscope compared with one of\\nlower power. And yet the eye is only the instrument; it is\\nthe mind that sees. While the more perfect the instrumeut\\nthe more the mind can see, yet a keen mind is necessary to\\na keen eye.^\\nThe eye suffers from improper exercise or overwork, and\\nwant of care. A child must hold the book which he is read-\\ning at the correct distance from the eye, neither too near\\nnor too far, else he will strain the apparatus of accommoda-\\ntion. He must read with proper light, and with the bright\\nlight behind him. Disregard of these precautions may lead\\nto impaired eyesight for life.\\nIn school the desks should be so placed that the light\\ncomes from the rear or the side. A cross light which daz-\\nzles the eye should be avoided by means of window shades.\\nThe pupil nmst not sit with the head and body bent for-\\nward over the desk while reading. Well-printed books with\\ntype of good size should be chosen.\\nAt home the child should never read by candlelight or\\nby light from any flame which flickers. Eeading in bed\\nwhile lying upon the back is a bad plan. Reading in the\\ncars, where the book is being constantly jolted, is harmful\\nit tires the muscles of the eyeball and of accommodation.\\nObjects which get into the eye should be carefully\\nremoved. The eye should not be rubbed in such instances\\nor upon any occasions when it smarts or tingles.\\nThe eye is the most expressive part of the face. However pronounced the smile\\nabout the mouth, if it is unaccompanied by a kindly light from the eyes it has an un-\\npleasant effect. So responsive are the muscles about the eyes to the thoughts of the\\nmind that the lines formed there by their habitual position come to show the kind\\nof thoughts that the mind harbors most, and thus character is revealed by the face.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 253\\nIf cliildren are found to be nearsighted or farsighted\\nthey should be placed under the direction of an oculist.\\nPeople may injure themselves by wearing glasses when they\\ndo not need them or by wearing improper glasses. They\\nshould get their glasses in accordance with the advice of a\\ncompetent physician.\\nAs people grow old changes occur in the lens which limit\\nits accommodation. It cannot be made so convex as before\\nto accommodate to near objects. When this trouble ap-\\npears, glasses should be worn fitted to the eyes.\\nThe signs of eye strain are apt to be sharp neuralgic\\npains about the eyes and a sense of fullness in the eyeballs.\\nWhen these signs appear regularly after reading the eyes\\nshould be examined.^\\nThe effect of alcohol upon the eyes is seen in the blood-\\nshot conjunctivae and relaxed watery lids of topers. Alco-\\nhol may cause disease of the retina, with marked disturb-\\nance of vision .2\\nTobacco smoking tends to bring about inflammation of\\nthe conjunctivae and lids by the irritation of the smoke.\\nThe absorption of poison from constant smoking may bring\\non a diseased condition of the retina, resulting in diminu-\\ntion or even loss of vision.\\nHEARING\\nSound is caused by the vibrations of a substance. When\\na bell rings, the vibrations of the metal set up waves of\\n1 Little children shoiild not be allowed to loot at very fine objects with the head\\ndown. The use of printed books before a child is eight years old is a menace to the\\neyes. Students should make it a rule to stop for a few minutes at the end of every\\nhour to rest the eyes. In very close work a stop should be made every ten minutes\\nafter a person is thirty years old; a few seconds will suffice.\\n2 Drs. Nicol and Mossop of Edinburgh conducted a series of experiments on each\\nother, examining the eye by means of the ophthalmoscope while the system was tinder\\nthe influence of various drugs. They found that the nerves controlling the delicate\\nblood vessels of the retina were paralyzed by a dose of about a tablespoonf ul of brandy.", "height": "3602", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "254\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nvibration in the air, which are transmitted to the ear. When\\nthese vibrations in the ear are taken up by the sense organ\\nand converted to nerve impulses, which are carried to the\\nbrain by the auditory nerve, we have the sensation of sound.\\nWe hear the bell ring.\\nThe organ of hearing is the ear. The ear consists of the\\nexternal ear, the middle ear, and the internal ear.\\nThe external ear consists of a cartilage shell covered by\\nconnective tissue and skin. This shell collects the sound.\\nExternal ear\\nSemicircular\\ncanals\\nSection of ear, showing auditory canal, middle ear,\\ninternal ear, and Eustachian tube.\\nFrom this outer shell a canal runs inward into the temporal\\nbone. At the inner end of the canal is a membrane, the\\ntympanum, which stretches across the canal and shuts it\\noff from the middle ear. The canal is lined with skin, and\\na substance called wax is secreted in it from glands in its\\nwalls.\\nThe middle ear is a cavity in the temporal bone. The", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 255\\ndrmn, or hjmpanum (Greek timipanom, a drum shuts it off\\nfrom the outei* ear. Froin its inner side a tube, the Eusta-\\nchian tube, k juls to the upper part of the pharynx. We can\\nfeel the air go into the ear by tliis tube sometimes when we\\nswallow.\\nIn tli(^ inner wall are two openings, the fotestra (Latin\\nfenestra, window ovalis oval and fenestra rotunda\\nround which lead to the cavity of the inner ear. They\\nare closed eacli ])y a membrane.\\nStretching from the tympanum to the fenestra ovalis\\nacross the middle ear is a chain of three small bones. The\\nfirst is shaped like a hammer and is called tlie malleus (Latin,\\nmallet The handle of the hammer attaches to the\\ntympanum, the claw to the wall of the cavity, the head to\\nthe next bone, the incus.\\nThe incus (Latin, anvil is anvil-shaped. The head\\narticulates with the hammer, one process with the wall, and\\none witli the third bone, the stapes.\\nThe stapes (Latin, stirrup is stirrup-shaped. The top\\nof the arch attaches to the incus; the foot plate fits into the\\nfenestra ovalis against the nn^mbrane there.\\nTwo muscles attach to these bones\u00e2\u0080\u0094 one to the hammer\\nhandle, which by contracting tightens the drum of the ear,\\nanother to the arch of the stirrup, which tightens the menu\\nbrane of the fenestra ovalis.\\nThe internal ear is a cavity in the temporal bone. It con-\\nnects with the middle ear by the two fenestra openings,\\nwhich are covered by membranes. In this cavity lies a\\nmembranous sac filled with fluid and floating in fluid, which\\nfills the cavity. The sac is attached to the walls of the\\ncavity in several places. This sac contains the essential\\norgan of hearing, by which the vibration waves of sound\\nare taken up and transmitted to the ear.\\nThe sac, or membranous labyrinth, consists of several cham-", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "256 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nbers. The middle cliainber, the vestibule (Latin vestihulum),\\nlies opposite the fenestra ovalis, where the sthTup bone\\nof the middle ear abuts. From the\\nvestibule open three canals, the semi-\\ncircular (Latin semi, half, and cir-\\ncularej to encircle canals, which are\\nclosed tubes circling round and return-\\ning to the vestibule again. One canal\\nhas a horizontal position, two have a\\nvertical position. At the end of each\\nand cochlea caual is a bulb attached by fibrous\\ntissue to the bone. At these bulbs,\\nbranches of the auditory nerve enter. From another part\\nof the vestibule a tube in the form of a spiral coil with a\\nblind end is given oif. This is the cochlea (Latin, snail\\nThe membrane of the ear sac, the vestibule, canals, and\\ncochlea is made up of connective tissue lined within by\\nepithelial cells. In patches over the walls of the canals and\\ncochlea are collections of cells known as the andifory (Latin\\naudire, to hear epitlieJium. The cells which make up\\nthese patches are cylindrical and spindle-shaped, and have\\nprocesses projecting into the lymph which fills the sac. The\\nends of the auditory nerve, which enter the sac at the bulbs\\nof the canals and in several other places, connect with these\\nceUs. A special tract of this auditory epithelium is situated\\nin the cochlea. It is called the organ of Corti.\\nThe nerve fibers end here in cells known as hair cells, which\\nare placed in rows beside a central row of rod-shaped cells.\\nThe sac is filled with a fluid called the endohfmph (Greek\\nendon, within, and Latin hjmplia, water About the sac\\nin the bom^ cavity is a fluid, the jjerilijmph (Greek j)eri,\\naround This perilymph lies against the fenestra ovalis\\non one side of the cochlea and igainst the fenestra rotunda\\nupon the other.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 257\\nTransmission of sound in the ear. The waves of sound are\\ncollected by the external ear, pass in through the external\\ncanal, and set the tympanum in vibration. This vibration\\nis transmitted by the three bones, the malleus, incus, and\\nstapes, to the fenestra ovalis. Here the vibration is trans-\\nmitted to the perilymph, and thus to the walls of the vesti-\\nbule, canals, cochlea, and endolymph. The vibrations of\\nthe endolymph agitate the cells of the auditory epithelium,\\nespecially the hair cells of the cochlea, and are trans-\\nmitted by these to the nerve endings, and thus to the brain,\\nwhere the sensation of sound is aroused.\\nCharacter of sound. Sounds differ according to the char-\\nacter of the vibrations which are set up in a body. When a\\nbell is struck the vibrations follow each other at regular\\nintervals, and the sound is called a musical sound. When\\na lot of crockery falls the vibrations are irregular, and we\\ncall the sound a noise.\\nPitch. What is called the pitch of a sound dependfe upon\\nthe number of vibrations in a given time. If the vibrations\\nfollow one another slowly the pitch is low; if they follow\\nrapidly the pitch is high. The ear can perceive notes of a\\npitch so high that the vibrations occur from twenty to thirty\\nthousand in a second, or so low that the vibrations are thirty\\na second.\\nHygiene of the ear. The acuteness of the ear may be\\ntrained. The Indian of the forest hears sounds which we\\ncannot hear. The trained musician distinguishes notes and\\npitch much more accurately than an ordinary person.\\nNo one should ever shout close to a person s ear, or set\\noff a firecracker or pistol near the ear, as the sound may\\nproduce serious injur^r. Hairpins and other articles should\\nnot be put into the ears to relieve itching. They inflame\\nthe canal and may puncture the drum.\\nChildren not infrequently have so-called gatherings in", "height": "3597", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "258 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nthe middle ear cavity. This is an inflammation of the\\nmembrane of the cavity. The fluid which is exuded by the\\ninflammatory process often bursts the drum and discharges\\nby the outer ear. In babies who are feverish and restless\\nwe should always think of this trouble. Where the trouble\\nis suspected a physician should be called at once.\\nChildren with adenoids or large tonsils are apt to have\\ntrouble with the ears. These abnormal growths should\\ntherefore be removed at an early age.\\nTobacco smokiug, by inflaming the throat, often causes\\nirritation about the openings of the Eustachian tubes from\\nthe ears, thus diminishing the circulation of air in the middle\\near and making the part more subject to disease.\\nThe muscle sense is the perception which we have of the\\nposition of a limb or a part of the body. The organs and\\nnerve endings of this sense are situated in the muscles and\\nin the tissues about the joints.\\nThe pressure sense is the perception which we have of\\nthe weight of an object. The nerve endings in the skin and\\nmuscles of the region supporting the weight transmit the\\nimpression to the brain.\\nDEMONSTRATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS\\nA number of experiments to illustrate the phenomena of the special\\nsenses have been given in the course of the chapter.\\n1. The organs of the sense of touch are very numerous in some parts,\\nas upon the finger tips or upon the end of the tongue. Here you can feel\\nboth points of a compass even when they are but an eighth of an inch\\napart. In other parts, as the back, however, the sense of touch is\\nmuch less acute. Here the two tips of the compass often feel as one\\nobject even when three fourths of an inch apart.\\n2. Determine the relative sensitiveness to touch of the palm and back\\nof the hand, the forehead, the back of the neck. (Use a hair.)\\n3. Determine what is the least distance that the two points of a com-\\npass may be separated and still recognized as two when applied to the\\nfinger tip, the tongue, the back of the neck.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 259\\n4. Place a drop of vinegar upon the tongue. Note how it starts np the\\npapilli\u00c2\u00a9 into prominence.\\nNote that sugar is tasted best at the front of the tongue salt or\\naloes at the back.\\n5. Hold the nose and close the eyes while some one puts a piece of\\napple or potato into your mouth. You will be unable to tell which\\nyou have received, as the so-called taste of these substances is in reality\\na sensation of smell.\\n6. With a common hand lens (a burning glass) throw the image of a\\nwindow upon a sheet of paper. This represents the mechanism by\\nwhich the image of an object seen is thrown upon the retina.\\n7. Look through a pinhole at a bright light with a shade about it. The\\nspecks which you will note floating before your vision are made by\\nopaque particles floating about in the vitreous humor in front of the\\nretina.\\n8. Accommodation. Close one eye. Hold up both forefingers, not ex-\\nactly in line, one six inches from the open eye, the other about eighteen\\ninches away. Look at the near finger. A clear image of this is ob-\\ntained, while the farther one is indistinct. Now look at the far finger.\\nThis now becomes distinct, while the near one becomes indistinct.\\n9. Place a watch between the teeth. Note that the ticking is readily\\nheard with both ears closed. The sound is conducted by the solid bone\\nof the jaws.\\n10. Place the right forefinger in hot water, the left forefinger in cold\\nwater. Note the difference in the sensations.\\n11. Determine which of the following substances stimulate the sense\\nof taste and which that of smell, which are recognized by their taste,\\nwhich by their odor sugar, onion, cabbage, dilute ammonia (one drop\\nto six ounces), quinine, salt, vinegar.\\n12. The formation of an image upon the retina can be illustrated with\\nthe eye of a white rabbit.\\n13. The formation of an image upon the ground glass of a camera, and\\nthe influence of focusing upon the clearness of the image, may be\\ndemonstrated with a photographic camera.\\n14. The color vision of the pupils may be tested with different-colored\\nworsteds.\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. What is sensation? Through what channels do we become aware\\nof the world about us? Name the special senses. Where are the organs", "height": "3600", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "260 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nof touch located? Where is the sense of touch located? How does\\nthe knowledge that we are touching anything get to the brain? Where\\nare the organs of the sense of taste? Describe the papillae of the\\ntongue.\\nII. ^ATiere are the organs of the sense of temperature located? What\\nis the difference between a taste and a flavor? Has an onion any taste?\\nWhere are the sense organs of smell? What is the function of the\\neye? When we get a sight of any object, where do we really see it\\nOf what use are the eyelids\\nIII. Why is the eyeball so prominent? Why is it movable? Where\\nare the tears secreted? What is the white of the eye? What in reality\\nis the dark center of the eye which we call the pupil? What is the part\\nof the eye which gives it its color? What object lies at the back of the\\npupil?\\nIV. When an object comes before us, what does the eye do? Where\\nis the image of the object cast When an image strikes the retina, what\\nhappens in the brain? Of what use is the lens of the eye? To what\\npart of a photographic camera does the retina correspond?\\nV. What is the use of the iris? What is meant by the blind spot? How\\nis it arranged that the image of so large an object as a house can be\\ncast upon so small a surface as the retina? What happens to the lens\\nwhen the object is very near the eye? Very far away? Describe this\\nmechanism of accommodation. How can we avoid straining the eyes?\\nVI. What is sound? Describe the three parts of the ear. Which is\\nthe most important part? Trace the sound waves from a bell to the\\nbrain. What is the difference between a musical sound and a noise?\\nWhat is pitch?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV\\nTHE VOICE\\nBY the action of tlie inspired and expired air in setting\\nlip vibration of the folds of membrane in the larynx\\ncalled the vocal cords, the sounds are produced which we\\ncall the voice.\\nThe larynx consists of a framework of cartilages articu-\\nlated together to form a chamber in the course of the air\\ntube between the lungs and the nose\\nand mouth. Stretched across tliis\\nchamber are the vocal cords, and\\nthe air passino- these cords can be\\nmade to vibrate them at will.\\nJust above the last incomplete\\nCricoi\\ncartilage ring of the trachea we have\\nthe first cartilage of the larynx.\\nThis is a complete ring, narrow in\\nfront, broad behind, like a signet\\nring. It is called the cricoid (Greek\\nJcriJios, a ring car^iZa^e. Above\\nthis is a V-shaped cartilage with\\nbroad sides, the thyroid (G-reek tJiu-\\nreos, a shield The open part of\\nthis cartilage is filled in by the broad posterior part of\\nthe cricoid. At the back of the larynx, on each side of\\nthe broad part of the cricoid, is a small cartilage, the aryte-\\n261\\nLarynx.", "height": "3598", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "16J PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nnoid (Grreek arutaina, a pitclier Attached to the top of\\nthe thjToid is the epiglottis, which closes the entrance be-\\ntween the larynx and pharynx. These and several smaller\\ncartilages, joined together by connective tissue and muscles,\\nmake up the larynx.\\nThe inside of the chamber is lined with a mucous mem-\\nbrane continuous with that of the pharynx above. Running\\nacross the tube from the arytenoids at the back to the thy-\\nroid at the front are two bands of\\nelastic tissue covered by the epi-\\nthelium of the larynx. These are\\nthe rocal (Latin vox, voice cords.\\nThrough the V-shaped interval be-\\ntween these cords, narrow in front,\\nbroad behind, the air passes.\\nWhen the cords are relaxed, the\\nVocal cords.\\nair passes by freely and does not\\ncause them to vibrate but if the posterior ends are drawn\\ntogether, the interval between the cords is reduced to a\\nnarrow slit, and the air passing through sets up vibrations\\nin them, producing sound. This is what occurs in voice.\\nMechanism of voice. By the action of muscles which attach\\nto the cartilages and move them upon one another, the pos-\\nterior ends of the cords are brought together. The cords\\nat the same time are tightened b}^ another set of muscles.\\nThen the air pressed forcibly between the cords causes\\nthem to vibrate.\\nIn accordance with the action of these muscles the tension\\nof the cords is varied, and consequently the pitch of the\\nsound is produced. A low voice sound means a looser cord,\\na high sound a tighter.^\\n1 In the production of a high-pitched sound the whole larynx is raised. This can\\nbe demonstrated by placing the fingers upon the throat when the sound is made. In\\nthe production of low tones the air in the chest is set in vibration. You can feel with\\nthe hand the thrill of this chest ibration when a low tone is made.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE VOICE 263\\nThe difference in the character of voices depends upon\\nthe differences in the sliape of the larynx. Thus, a wo-\\nman s hirynx is smaller and the cords are shorter than a\\nman s.\\nSpeech. Speech is produced by modifying, by the shape\\nof the pharynx and month cavities, the voice formed in\\nthe larynx. The mouth cavity is a sonnding box. By\\nthe action of the tongue and lips the cavity may be varied\\nin size and shape, and according to this variation different\\nsounds are produced. Thus, to make the sound of the long\\na the mouth is opened wide, the lips drawn back. To make\\nthe sound of the o the lips are protruded and the cavity of\\nthe mouth made long.\\nThe sounds of some consonants are regulated by the lips,\\nas p, 1). These are called labials. The consonants t, d are\\nmade by placing the tongue against the teeth. They are\\ncalled dentals. The consonants k and g are formed in the\\nthroat by the root of the tongue and soft palate. They are\\ncalled gutturals.\\nHygiene of the voice. Much attention should be directed\\nto the training of the voice. A soft, full voice with musical\\nsounds should be cultivated. A rough voice, or a nasal\\ntone which appears to come from the head, produces an un-\\nfavorable impression.^\\nDEMONSTRATIONS\\n1. A very good illustration of the principle of the action of the vocal\\nbands in the production of the voice may be given by means of a piece\\nof bamboo or any hollow wooden tube and a strip of rubber about\\nan inch or an inch and a half wide, cut from the pure sheet rubber\\nused by dentists.\\n1 In impatience or anger the voice rises, betraying the loss of temper or self-control.\\nAmericans have a tendency to a high tone of voice, owing probably to the high nervous\\ntension developed by our active business enterprises. It is interpreted abroad as an\\nindication of our crudity as a nation. Tlius the term the American voice is a kind\\nof national reproach, which we should seek to remedy by cultivating purer and lower\\ntones, more quiet manners, and self -poise.\\nHEWES, P. H. 17", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "264 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nOne end of the tube is to be cut sloping in two directions, and the\\nstrip of sheet rubber is then wrapped around the tube so as to leave a\\nnarrow slit terminating at the upper corners of the tube.\\nBy blowing into the other end of the tube the edges of the rubber\\nbands will be set in vibration, and by touching the vibrating membrane\\nat different points, so as to check its movements, it may be shown that\\nthe pitch of the note emitted depends upon the length and breadth of\\nthe vibrating portion of the vocal bands.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Dr. H. P. Bowditch.\\n2. Pinch the nose and speak some words like something or pud-\\nding. This illustrates the usefulness of the nasal cavity as a resonant\\ncavity in speech.\\n3. The effect of a resonance chamber, as the mouth, can be demon-\\nstrated by striking a tuning fork and holding it before the mouth and\\nbefore several resonance chambers.\\n4. The relation of pitch to rapidity of vibration, and of volume of\\nsound to extent of vibration, can be illustrated by a violin, or a piece\\nof catgut which is stretched tightly between two fixed points.\\nQUESTIONS\\nWhat is the organ of the voice? How are the voice sounds produced?\\nHow are the voice sounds modified into speech?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV\\nFERMENTS AND FERMENTATION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THEIR PLACE IN NATURE.\\nBACTERIA AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH DISEASE\\nWith Earth s first Clay They did the Last Man knead,\\nAnd there of the Last Harvest sow d the Seed\\nAnd the first Morning of Creation wrote\\nWhat the Last Dawn of Destiny shall read.\\nThe indestructibility of matter. Everything in .the world\\nis in a constant process of change. Mountains which to-day\\nlift their snowcapped peaks among the clouds were once\\ncovered by the sea. Plains and valleys once spread with\\nforests and inhabited by men and beasts are now deep be-\\nneath the ocean, the abode of the seaweeds and shellfish.\\nOnce stateh^ cities, the abodes of wealth and power, now lie\\nburied beneath the soil piled upon them from their own\\nruins and the ceaseless labor of the earthworms. The water\\nwhich, yesterday fell as rain is to-day a part of the leaf of\\nsome plant or the blood of some animal, and to-morrow will\\nrise again to the clouds. The vegetables or fruit which we\\ngather for food will be built up into bone and muscle, and\\nin turn be burned until their elements are scattered again\\nto the air and the soil.\\nEverything is continuously building up and crumbling\\nagain. The elements of which all things are composed, such\\nas the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, calcium, and hydrogen,\\n265", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "206 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nalone of all materials upon. the earth, are never destroyed;\\nbut, forever driven by the ceaseless force which in a thou-\\nsand forms everywhere pervades the universe, these atoms^\\ncontinue their unending journey through the realm of na-\\nture, now taken from the air to form a part of the fiber\\nof some moss, now lying for thousands of years stored in\\ncoal beneath the earth s surface, now restored to the air and\\nsoil by the burning of this coal to-day a part of your bones\\nor brain, to-morrow in the petal of some flower or the water\\nof some woodland fountain.\\nIn the mineral world, the rocks and sands, these changes\\noccur slowly during years and centuries; but in the world\\nof living things, the plants and animals, the changes are\\nvery rapid and complete.\\nEach year millions of plants which grow in the spring die\\nand crumble away in the summer and autumn, and thousands\\nof men and beasts which have been liuilt up through long\\nyears are dying and their bodies returning to the dust from\\nwhich they came. Within these Jiving bodies of animals\\nnew tissues are constantly being built and burned from day\\nto day.\\nA part of this process of change which goes on in the\\nworld of living things has been minutely described. We\\nhave seen how the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and\\nother elements in the air and soil and water are taken up by\\nthe plants and built into wheat or potato or some fruit also\\nhow these plant substances are built up to bone and flesh\\nin the animal body finally how some of these body sub-\\nstances are broken up again by l)urninc: in the body, and\\ndistributed -back to the air and soil. But we have not yet\\nlearned how these full-grown plants and animal bodies,\\nwith their fiber and leaf and bone and flesh, are reduced\\n1 The word atom (Greek a, privative, and temno, I ciit \u00e2\u0080\u0094not to be cut) is used\\nto describe tlie forms of matter which cannot be further divided.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "FERMENTS AND BACTERIA 267\\nagain, when they die, to carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and so\\nforth. This has to be done, otherwise the supply of these\\nelements in the air and soil would soon become all stored\\nup in existing plants and animals, and none be left for the\\nbuilding of new ones or the repair of the old.\\nFerments and fermentation. To do this work nature pro-\\nvides certain agents known as ferments. These ferments\\nwhich play this important role in the scheme of nature are\\nminute living organisms, so small that they can be seen\\nonly with the aid of a powerful magnifying lens. Because\\nthey are bodies possessing life they are called organized\\nferments.\\nOne of these ferments, the yeast plant, has already been\\ndescribed in Chapter VII. (see also pp. 274-276). Another\\nclass consists of the molds which you have often seen\\ngrowing upon old fruit or grain. A third class of organized\\nferments is that of the bacteria.\\nThe process by which these ferments act in fulfilling their\\nwork in the scheme of nature is known as fermentatioii\\n(Latin fermentitmy^^ leaven The decay of fruit or vege-\\ntables, the putrefaction (Latin putris, rotten, and facere,\\nto make of meat, the souring of milk, the decomposition\\nof sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide, the conversion of\\nalcohol to acetic acid, are all examples of fermentation.\\nThe process is essentially one of decomposition (Latin de,\\n^from, and componere^ to place together breaking apart).\\nAs we have explained in a previous chapter, the organic sub-\\nstances which compose the tissues of animals or plants are\\ncompound substances. They are made up of simpler chemi-\\ncal substances (elements) bound together. These compound\\nsubstances the ferments attack^ feeding upon them and\\nbreaking the bonds which hold them together, so that they\\nfall to pieces.\\nThe method which the ferment adopts in separating the", "height": "3602", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "268 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncompound into its constituents is too complex to be de-\\nscribed here. It works in quite a different manner from\\nthat in which an ax splits a piece of wood for the ax\\nsimply gives us two smaller pieces of the same substance,\\nwhile the ferment gives us two or more new substances.\\nBut the process is one of splitting up in both cases. And\\nwhen the ferment has split one molecule it still remains to\\nsplit more. It is not used up in the process, as is an acid\\nwhich splits up a salt b}^ chemical combination. Thus, in\\ncider in which the sugar has been fermented, the j^ast fer-\\nments can still be found at the bottom of the liquid, ready\\nfor action upon a new mixture.\\n(Unorganized ferments. In addition to these organized\\nferments there is another class of ferments, represented by\\nthe digestive ferments, ptyalin, pepsin, rennin, and so forth,\\nalready mentioned, which are simple chemical substances,\\nnot living organisms. In contradistinction to the organized\\nferments these non-living agents are called unorganized fer-\\nments. They are produced by the activity of gland ceUs,\\njust as many organic substances, proteids, sugars, and gly-\\ncogen, are produced. Their method of action is similar to\\nthat of the organized ferments.^)\\nIn addition to their work in assisting in the decomposi-\\ntion of the dead organic matter, these organized ferments\\nhave another action which makes them of special interest\\nto us. They cause certain diseases in men and animals\\nknown as the infectious (Latin inficere, Ho infect, corrupt\\ndiseases. These diseases are due to certain of these low\\nforms of organisms which lodge in the body and set up\\nprocesses of fermentation there similar to those which are\\nset up in the dead organic matter and most of them are\\ndue to the special class of ferment known as the bacteria\\n1 The fermentative action of the organized ferments is probably due to an un-\\norganized ferment, which is secreted by the ferment organism which is a li\\\\ang cell.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "FERMENTS AND BACTERIA\\n(Greek hoMeriou, a little staff This name was given\\nbecause the first bacteria found were the rod-shaped forms\\nknown as bacilli.\\nBacteria. Bacteria are minute vegetable organisms, so\\nsmall that the} can be seen only by the aid of a powerful\\nmagnifying- lens. You can gain some\\nidea of their size from the fact that\\nthousands of them could find lodgment\\nupon the head of a pin. Some of them\\nare shaped like round balls, some like\\nlittle rods, some like spiral threads\\n(Experiment 6, p. 275).\\nThese organisms are alive and grow\\nand multiply. Many of them are every-\\nwhere about us, in the air and soil and\\nwater, and within our own bodies.\\nOtliers, like most of those bacteria which\\ncause special diseases, as typhoid fever\\nor smallpox, are not generally distribu-\\nted, but are found only in regions where\\nthese diseases have been, or in substances\\nwhich have come from such regions.\\nThe manner of action of bacteria is that of fermentation,\\ndescribed on page 267 and also in Chapter VII.\\nWhen the bacteria act upon the dead plants or dead\\nanimal tissues lying about on the ground, they break up\\nthese substances into simpler substances. So also when the\\nbacteria of disease enter and effect a lodgment in our bodies,\\nthey break down our tissues in the same manner.\\nSome of the common diseases caused by these bacteria\\nacting in this way are diphtheria, consumption, scarlet fever,\\nmeasles, whooping cough, typhoid fever, smallpox, and\\nprobably influenza.\\nIn diphtheria (Greek diphtJiera, parchment membranes\\nSpirilH\\nBacteria.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "270 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nresembling parchment are formed in the throat in this dis-\\nease), for instance, the httle rod-shaped bacilli which cause\\nthis disease lodge in the membrane of the pharynx or\\nlarynx, and feeding upon the body substances, grow and\\nmultiply. Thus feeding, they irritate and decompose the tis-\\nsues and set up inflammation and necrosis (that is, death of\\nthe tissue cells) therein, so that the membrane of the throat\\nbecomes swollen and disintegrated. The throat becomes\\nvery sore, and the passages are often obstructed by the in-\\nflammatory products formed. At the same time, in thus\\nfeeding upon and disintegrating the tissues, the bacteria pro-\\nduce or bring about the production of poisonous substances\\n(toxines), which are absorbed into the system and make the\\npatient very ill with fever, headache, nausea, and other\\nsymptoms.\\nAll these processes, the inflammation in the throat and\\nthe absorption of the poison, may bring about the death of\\nthe patient. But if he is strong, in time his body will begin\\nto produce a substance which offsets the action of the diph-\\ntheria poison and kills the bacteria in the throat. This\\nantidote is called an antitoxine (Greek anti, against, and\\ntoxikon, poison When this is formed in sufficient amount,\\nthe patient begins to get well. Often, but not always, the\\npower of keeping or forming this antitoxine remains there-\\nafter with the patient, so that he cannot have diphtheria\\nagain. This condition is called immunity (Latin niunire, to\\nfortify\\nNow, out of all this study of diphtheria and the bacteria\\nwhich cause it, some very important results have come. Men\\nhave learned how to compel these bacteria to produce this\\nantitoxine for them in animals, as horses, and so to-day when\\na patient has diphtheria Ave do not have to watch him die in\\nspite of our care, or to wait a week or a month until his own\\ncells form antitoxine enough to stop his disease, but we can", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "FERMENTS AND BACTERIA 271\\nput some of this antitoxine which has been prepared from\\nhorses into him, and cure him within a few days.\\nAll the infectious diseases are caused in a similar manner\\nby their special organisms, and perhaps by studying these\\nbacteria we shall be able to compel them to provide antitox-\\nine for us, as we have the diphtheria bacillus, or to produce\\nimmunity, as we have the cowpox organism.^ But whether\\nwe obtain this end or not, we have by a study of tlieir habits\\nlearned a great deal which will help us in preventing (Latin\\nprefix jpr^, and venire, to come to come in advance) the\\ndiseases which they cause.\\nSome of the facts concerning the habits of bacteria are of interest\\nin connection with some of the common practical customs of o ur daily\\nlife. For instance, we find that many bacteria are more active in warm\\ntemperature than in cold. This fact explains to us why meat is harder\\nto keep in summer than in winter, and teaches us the reason for the\\nuse of ice and refrigerators for keeping milk and meat.\\nIf the action of ferments is absent, some foods will keep for an in-\\ndefinite period. We find that freezing stops the action of the ferments\\ntherefore we freeze our meat when we wish to keep it for a long time.\\nMuch of the meat shipped across the ocean is treated in this way. Such\\nmeat will keep as long as it is frozen. The meat upon a mammoth\\nwhich was found frozen in northern Russia, where the animal had died\\nthousands of years ago, was so fresh that the dogs ate it.\\nCooking also kills the bacteria in food and stops all fermentation for\\nthe time. In canning food the bacteria are first killed by cooking or\\nheating the food. The food is then closed in cans, where no new bac-\\nteria can get to it, and thus keeps (Experiments 5 and 6, p. 275).\\nMost ferments need water for their life and activity. Drying meat\\nrapidly will therefore keep it, as the bacteria cannot act without the mois-\\nture. This is a common method of keeping meat in warm countries.\\nMaking fruit into preserves also keeps it in the same way, as the\\nsugary syrup which is formed has depleted the substance of the water.\\nStudy of bacteria in the infectious diseases. In studying\\nthese bacteria of disease we find that they pass from the\\n1 This is the organism used in vaccination against smallpox.", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "272 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nbody of the sick person in the excreta the diphtheria and\\nthe tnbercnlosis organism in the exudations from the mouth\\nand throat and nose, the typhoid organism in the faeces, the\\nscarlet fever organism probably in the scales of skin which\\ncome away. The bacteria which are scattered in these ways\\ncan live for a long time in the air or soil, float about in dust,\\nand then if they happen to get into another person s body\\ncan cause the same disease there.\\nThe knowledge of these facts shoidd lead us to be very\\ncareful of the disposal of excreta and of all materials\\nwhich have been in contact with a sick person. They\\nshould, if possible, be subjected to some treatment which\\nkills the bacteria in them. Such treatment is known as\\ndisinfection (Latin dis, privative prefix, and inficere, to cor-\\nrupt to remove corruption).\\nDisinfection. The disinfection of any substance can be\\naccomplished in various ways. One method of disinfection\\nis burning. This method should be applied to all the cloths\\nupon which a patient with phthisis or diphtheria expectorates\\n(Latin ex, from, and ijedus, the breast Anotlier\\nmethod is steaming or placing in boiling water and boiling\\nfor twenty minutes. The prolonged high temperature\\nkills the bacteria (Experiment 6, p. 275). This method may\\nbe applied to the clothes and bedding of any person ill\\nwith an infectious disease. A third method of disinfection is\\nwashing or mixing Avith chemical substances which kill the\\nbacteria.\\nAmong these substances the most important are corro-\\nsive sublimate, carbolic acid, chlorinated lime, formaldehyde\\n(formalin), sulphur. These substances are widely used for\\ndisinfection. Thus, the fecal discharge of a typhoid pa-\\ntient should be thoroughly mixed with one ounce of chlori-\\nnated lime before being disposed of. Articles from the\\nroom of the sick person which cannot be boiled or steamed", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "FERMENTS AND BACTERIA 273\\nmay be washed with corrosive sublimate solution (1 part to\\n1,0(30) or carbolic acid (1 part to 20).\\nThe room itself and the furniture in it may be disinfected\\nby filling the room for twenty-four hours or more with for-\\nmaldehyde gas or sulphur funics.^\\nContagion (Latin contingere, to affect by contact The\\nknowledge of the fact that diseases may be carried from\\none person to another by the excreta, by articles which\\nhave been in contact with the sick person, by people who\\nhave been with the patient, and by means of the air,\\nteaches us to be careful not only in dealing with patients\\nsuffering from severe infectious diseases, to isolate them\\nand disinfect all things in contact with them, but also\\nto exert the utmost care in regard to our ordinary hab-\\nits of life. People apparently in good health ma}^ have\\ndisease germs about them which if conveyed to another\\nmay give the latter disease. The air and soil about us con-\\ntain many germs Avhich are capable of causing disease if\\nthey get a chance to enter the body, as in an open wonnd\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nIt must be our care to diminish as much as possible by good\\nhabits of hygiene these opportunities for infection.\\nWe must never take into our mouths any article which\\nhas been in the mouth of another without first washing it.\\nPenholders and pencils in common use in schools should be\\nplaced in disinfectant solutions after use.\\nWhen we have coughs we must never expectorate upon the\\nsidewalk or floor, but into a cloth which can be boiled or burned\\nWe must keep clean, for filth is a great breeding ground\\nof disease.\\n1 Mode of fiimigation (hRtin fumigare, to smoke vnth formaldehyde of room\\nwhere a patient lias been ill with an infectious disease\\nHang np and loosely spread out clothing, bedding, and rugs, leaving chair* and bed-\\nstead imcovered. Spray everything thoroughly with water. Close tightly all open-\\nings to the room then distill through keyhole five ounces of formaldehyde solution for\\nevery ten square feet of space, or burn in the room paraform pastils one sixty-grain\\npastil for every hundred cubic feet of space.", "height": "3589", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "274 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nWhenever we get an open wound we must wash it care-\\nfully.\\nMost of all, we must keep ourselves m good health and\\navoid all undue exposure to cold or poisoning or to disease in\\nothers, for a healthy condition of the body is the first pre-\\nventive of disease.\\nSTUDY OF ORGANIZED FERMENTS\\nYEAST\\n1. Add a little baker s yeast to a five per cent solution of grape\\nsugar. Place in a wide-mouthed, loosely stoppered bottle, in a temper-\\nature from 70\u00c2\u00b0 to 95\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nAfter a few hours take up some of tlie sediment with a pipette, and\\nplace upon a glass slide. Cover with a cover slip and examine with a\\nmicroscope (three hundred to five hundred diameters).\\nNote the yeast cells.\\nNote the younger cells budding from the parent cells.\\nYEAST FERMENTATION\\n2. Observe the changes which occur in the appearance of a mixture\\nof yeast and sugar during the day.\\nThe increased amount of sediment and scum is due in great part to\\nthe multiplication of yeast cells.\\nNote the bubbles rising through th(^ liquid. Tliese are bubbles of\\ncarbon dioxide gas, formed iu Mie splitting up of the sugar to carbon\\ndioxide and alcohol.\\nNote the change in the odor of the li(|ui(l.\\n3. Pass a U tube through the cork of the bottle, so that the\\nend within the bottle lies above the mixture. Place the other end in\\nsome limewater in a test tube. Note the change which occurs in\\nthe limewater. This is the same change, due to the same agent,\\nwhich you have noted iu Experiment 6, page 34, and Experiment 2,\\npage 194.\\nThe alcohol which is formed by the yeast remains in the mixture. It\\ncan be separated by distillation.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "FERMENTS AND BACTERIA 275\\nHABITS OP YEAST\u00e2\u0080\u0094 KFFliCT OF COLD UPON ACTIVITY OF CELLS\\n4. Add some yeast to a grape-sugar mixture. Place in the ice\\noliest. Observe the mixture from time to time, and compare its condi-\\ntion with that of the mixture used in Experiment 1.\\nWliat conclusion can you draw from the result of this experiment?\\n5. Place some yeast in a sugar mixture. Boil mixture. Then set\\naside in a warm place, as in Experiment 1. Note results during the\\nday as compared with those in Experiment 1. Draw conclusions.\\nDEMONSTRATION OF BACTERIA\\n6. Boil some finely chopped hay in water for ten minutes (not\\nlonger). Take a little of the scum which floats upon the surface of the\\ncooled mixture upon the end of a glass rod which has previously been\\npassed through a flame, and place it upon the surface of an agar slant\\nculture. (Agar is a substance which serves as food for bacteria. If\\nsome of it is kept in a stoppered test tube it can be used at any time to\\ngrow the bacteria upon. Get some agar tubes with water of condensa-\\ntion present.) Keep the agar tube upon which the hay scum has been\\nplaced stoppered with cotton in a warm place. The next day a\\nwhite creamy substance will appear upon the surface of the agar. This\\nwhite substance consists of millions of little bacteria which are\\ngrowing rapidly upon the agar. This bacterium is known as the hay\\nbacillus, or Bacilhis subtnis. These bacilli are present upon hay and\\ncollect in tlie scum upon boiling. The few of these contained on the\\nend of the rod produce the myriads wliich form the white growth\\nupon the agar.\\nTake some of the water of condensation from the tube and place\\nupon a glass slide, over with a cover slip and examine with a high-\\npower lens. The bacilli, which look like rods, will be seen. They are\\nmotile and can be seen to move.\\nIf some of the white growth or this water of condensation is placed\\nupon a second clean agar culture, a similar growth w ill appear.\\nEffect of high temperature upon bacteria. If the culture tube con-\\ntaining the bacilli is boiled for half an hour and then some of the\\ngrowth is transplanted, the bacilli will fail to grow upon the new tube,\\nas they have been killed by the prolonged high temperature.", "height": "3596", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "276 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nQUESTIONS\\nI. Is any form of matter or force in the world ever really lost? What\\nbecomes of the elements of the matter which makes up the leaves and\\nthe flowers when these die and decay? What agents bring about this\\ndisintegration and decay of organic matter? What are bacteria? Are\\nthey useful? When do these small organisms do harm? Describe their\\ngrowth upon and in the matter of living bodies.\\nII. ^Tiat class of diseases do they cause How can we protect our-\\nselves against these diseases? Is vaccination a good thing? Why?\\nWhat is immunity? What is antitoxinef What is disinfection?\\nWhat is isolation?", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI\\nDISEASE -ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE\\nAS we have learned, disease is some disorder of the struc-\\njLJL tnres ov the functions of the body. The causes of these\\ndisorders are very numerous.\\nDisease may arise from some mechanical injury from\\nwithout. Such disorders are fractures and contusions or\\nsprains resulting from blows or falls, or open sores result-\\ning from cuts or bullet wounds.\\nIt may arise from exposure to cold and wet. Such dis-\\norders are colds and inflammation of the throat or of the\\nlungs. Exposure of this kind is a very important element\\nin the contraction of many diseases of serious nature, as\\npneumonia, sore throat, rheumatism (Greek rhemna, a flow-\\ning exudation), nephritis (Greek nephros, kidney con-\\nsumption (Latin consumere, to waste away influenza\\n(grippe). The exposure to cold or damp is often not the real\\ncause of these diseases, but it reduces the vitality (Latin vita,\\nlife of the body and its power of resistance, and so gives\\nthe disease a chance to gain a foothold. Thus, pneumonia is\\ncaused by a minute live organism belonging to the class of\\nbacteria already described. This germ is everywhere about\\nus in the air, even in our mouths and throats. While the\\nbody is in a state of health it cannot gain a foothold in it,\\nbut the moment the vitality of the body is reduced by cold\\n277", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "278 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nor some other cause this little enemy may find its chance\\nand invade the lungs, causing an inflammation there which\\nis called pneumonia {Greek pneumon, 4ung\\nAnimal and vegetable parasites, as the bacteria, are a\\ncommon cause of disease.\\nThe bacteria of some diseases, like those of pneumonia,\\nare everywhere about us in the air and soil. Our only\\nmethod of preventing these diseases is therefore to keep our\\nbodies in perfect health, or when some disorder, as a cold or\\na wound, arises in spite of our precautions, to use extra care\\nagainst the invasion of the disease germs.\\nThus, if we receive a cut we can take great care to wash\\nit thoroughly and to cover it, so that the germs which may\\nbe in the air or on objects which we may touch may gain\\nno entrance or we can even apply to the wounds the sub-\\nstances known as antiseptics (Greek antiy against, and\\nsepo, putrefy or disinfectants, which destroy these germs.\\nThe bacteria of many of these diseases, however, as\\ntyphoid fever and smallpox, do not live generally in the\\nair and soil about us. They get to us only by being\\ncarried from some other person suffering from the dis-\\nease. The observance of the ordinary rules of hygiene is\\nnot the sole means of preventing these diseases. We can\\naid in their prevention by keeping away from persons\\nsuffering from them, or by ourselves keeping away from\\nother people if we are suffering from these diseases or have\\nbeen exposed to them for the germs of some of these dis-\\neases, as scarlet fever, may be carried from one person to\\nanother on the clothes of one who has seen the sick person.\\nOther general causes of disease are improper feeding,\\noverwork, taking insufficient rest, or the taking of sub-\\nstances which poison the body, such as alcohol, tobacco,\\nopium, decayed meats, or arsenic. These causes themselves\\nmay give rise to disorder, or they may, like exposure to cold", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "DISEASE ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 270\\nand wet, reduce the vitality of the body, and so offer a\\nchance for the contraction of infectious or other diseases.\\nThus, people who are overworked or underfed are more apt\\nto contract influenza or septicaemia when exposed to it. Al-\\ncohol drinkers are more prone to contract diseases of the\\nthroat and lungs and heart than abstainers.\\nGENERAL PRINCIPLES OP PREVENTION OF DISEASE\\nThe first preventive against all disease is the observance of\\nthe laws of health. The knowledge of these laws is obtained\\nby the study of the body.\\nThe rules of living which you have learned from this\\nstudy, in brief, are to eat plenty of good food to observe\\nregularity in meals, in work, in sleep to take plenty of out-\\nof-door exercise to avoid all substances which can injure\\nthe body to avoid all undue exposure to cold or wet or con-\\nditions of disease.\\nThe second method of prevention of disease is to stop the\\ncarrying of disease germs from one person to another. This\\nwork in great part is the office of the boards of health and\\nthe physicians of our communities. Physicians and scien-\\ntists have been studying for years the nature of diseases\\nwhich are due to these bacterial germs. As a result of the\\nknowledge gained by these studies, they are now able to do\\nmuch toward the prevention of many of them.\\nThe first method which they use is that of isolation. When\\na physician discovers that his patient has scarlet fever or\\ndiphtheria, he has him separated from other people as much\\nas possible, so that the bacteria from his disease may not\\ninfect any one else. A sign is placed upon the house, to keep\\npeople from it. The other children of the family are kept\\nfrom school, that they may not carry the disease germs to\\nthe children in school.\\nHEWES, P. H. 18", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "280 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nAnother method which is used to prevent the spread of\\ndisease is disinfection. This method and tlie means of its\\napplication have been described in the chapter npon bacteria\\nand the infectious diseases.\\nA third method of tlie prevention of these diseases is by\\nthe production of immunity. Thus, people are made immune\\nto smallpox by the process known as vaccination (Latin\\nvacca, a cow serum fi om a cow with cowpox is used in\\nvaccination). By having all children vaccinated before\\nentering school it has been found possible practically to\\nstamp out this disease from our communities.\\nChildren can also be made immune to diphtheria by treat-\\ning them mth the substance known as diphtheria antitoxine.\\nIt is the duty of each one of us to assist in every way pos-\\nsible the boards of health and physicians in the work of\\npreventing and restricting disease.\\nThe following directions for the prcA^ention and restriction\\nof dangerous communicable diseases are issued by the Michi-\\ngan Board of Health for the use of teachers of that State in\\ngiving instructions to the children in the schools.\\nDANGEROUS COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN THE ORDER OF\\nTHEIR IMPORTANCE, MODES BY WHICH THEY ARE\\nSPREAD, AND BEST METHODS FOR THEIR\\nRESTRICTION AND PREVENTION\\nConsumption is now known to be a communicable disease. It is\\nspread by the dust of dried sputa, and also by milk and meat of tuber-\\nculous animals. The most important measure for the restriction of\\nconsumption is the disinfection or destruction of all sputa of every\\nconsumptive person.\\nIt is best that all persons who have a cough should carry small pieces\\nof cloth (each just large enough properly to receive one sputum), and\\nparaffined paper envelopes or wrappers in which the cloth, as soon as\\nonce used, may be put and securely inclosed, and, with its envelope,\\nburned on the first opportunity.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "DISEASE ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 281\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Pneumonia is spread by a germ whicli is in the sputum of those who\\nhave the disease (and of some wlio do not have the disease, unless, pos-\\nsibly, after exposure to the inhalation of cold air). Care should always\\nbe taken to destroy or disinfect all sputa of those who have pnemnonia.\\nInfluenza is now believed to be spread by a germ which finds its way\\nfrom infected handkerchiefs and other articles and places into the nose,\\nthroat, and air passages of persons susceptible to this disease. The\\nmeasures for its restriction are therefore obvious isolation and disin-\\nfection.\\nDiphtlteria is spread by the sputa, saliva, and whatever comes from\\nthe throat and mouth of the patient, and by the dust which results from\\nthe drying of such saliva. The germs of diphtheria sometimes remain\\nin the throat weeks after apparent complete recovery. For its restriction\\nand prevention, isolation and disinfection are the important measures\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094isolation of every infected person and thing, and complete disin-\\nfection.\\nTyplioid fever. Unlike typhus fever, typhoid fever is not so often\\ncontracted directly from the sick person, but usually from the dis-\\ncharges from the bowels and bladder of the sick person. These always\\nshould be properly disinfected. Undisinfected discharges, if dried and\\nformed into dust, may spread the disease through the air. Tlie chief\\nsoua ce of danger, however, is believed to be drinking water contami-\\nnated by sewage or leachings from privies, etc. The germs permeate\\nthe entire body of an infected person, and sometimes are found some\\ntime after apparent recovery. The germs of typhoid fever are not\\nalways killed by freezing, but are killed by boiling. All suspected\\nwater should be boiled.\\nScarlet ferer. The germ of scarlet fever is not yet identified but\\nthat there is a germ seems to be proved by the well-known communi-\\ncability of the disease from person to person. It is spread by the dis-\\ncharges from the nose, mouth, and throat, and probably also by the\\nminute scales which are thrown off from the surfaces of the body.\\nIsolation and disinfection are the measures by which this disease is\\nrestricted.\\nMeasles is spread from person to person, directly and indirectly.\\nIsolation and disinfection should be enforced.\\nSmallpox. Smallpox is a contagious disease it spreads by means of\\nparticles given off from the surfaces of the body. By vaccination and\\nrevaccination smallpox may be and should be almost wholly prevented.\\nOne vaccination or once having smallpox does not protect for life. Re-\\nvaccination should be had once in about five years, also whenever small-", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "282 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\npox is prevalent, and certainly immediately after one has been exposed\\nto the disease.\\nCholera is spread in much the same way as is typhoid fever. The\\nsame precautions recommended to prevent the spreading of typhoid\\nfever should be taken as soon as cholera appears or threatens.\\nWHAT TO DO UNTIL THE PHYSICIAN COMES\\nEverybody should have some general knowledge of the\\ncare of illness, of wounds and injuries, so that he may\\nassist the physician or act in his place in emergencies.\\nThere are many slight indispositions or injuries for which\\nthere is no need of sending for a phj- sician. Thus, if a per-\\nson has a cold in the head, he can often give it all the care\\nit needs by avoiding hot rooms and drafts, by staying in at\\nnight, going out in the daytime for vigorous exercise, and\\nperhaps applying vaseline regularly for a day or two to his\\nnostrils. If he has an indigestion he can help it by being\\ncareful to eat only good mild foods, as milk, soft eggs, toast,\\nor well-cooked beef or chicken, for a few days. If lie\\nreceives a slight cut from a knife, or a bruise from a fall, he\\ncan care for it himself.\\nEven in cases of more severe illness or injury it is almost\\nalways possible to do something to help the sufferer before\\nthe physician arrives, if you only know how to set about it.\\nIn many accidents, such as a lacerated artery or suffocation\\nfrom drowning, it is often necessary to act before the arrival\\nof the physician to save tlie life of the patient.\\nThe instructions for action in these emergencies given\\nhere are very brief, so that they may be easily carried m\\nthe memory.\\nCuts and lacerated wounds. Where a cut is made with a\\nsharp mstrumeni it bleeds freely. If such a cut is small it\\nis sufficient to bind it firmly m a bandage so that the two\\nedges of the wound are brought together. Healing will take", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "DISEASE ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 283\\nplace in a short time. Where the bleeding is not free, or\\nwhere the instrument which made the cut is dirty, it is well\\nto wash the wound thoroughly with an antiseptic solution.\\nSuch a solution may be made by putting a seven-grain tab-\\nlet of corrosive sublimate into a quart of hot water. All\\nlacerated wounds, or tliose made by tin cans, rust} nails,\\nor glass, should be so washed before they are bound up.\\nWhere the cuts are large or deep, it is frequently necessary\\nto stitch together the edges of the wound. When a wound\\nheals promptly it leaves no scar. When there is loss of\\ntissue, so that the wound has to heal from the bottom upward,\\na scar is left.\\nIf the wound severs a large blood vessel the bleeding is\\nmore difficult to control. This is especially tri;e if the ves-\\nsel is an artery. You can always tell when the cut vessel\\nis an artery by the fact that the blood leaps in spurts from\\nthe wound and is of a bright-red color. The blood from a\\nvein flows in a steady stream and is of darker color.\\nWhere an artery is bleeding it is necessary to apply some\\npressure to the vessel between the point of injury and the\\nheart. Thus, if the cut be in the leg or arm, seize the limb\\nhigh up as firmly as possible in the hands until a large (one-\\nhalf inch) cord or knotted handkerchief can be twisted round\\nit. The cord can be made to press very tightly by twisting\\nit with a stick. A half-inch soft rubber tube makes the best\\nband of this kind. Often it is necessary to place a pad of\\ncloth beneath the band over the artery, so as to obtain a\\ndirect pressure. A physician should be sent for at once in\\nall such cases. Where the edges of cuts or wounds are\\nmuch swollen and painful during the period of healing, fre-\\nquent applications of hot-water compresses will give much\\nrelief and hasten resolution.\\nA bruise or contusion is an injury to the soft parts of the\\nbody. Frequently there is escape of blood beneath the skin,", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "28J: PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ncaiising a black-and-blue spot. The best treatment for a\\nbruise is frequent applications of very hot compresses. This\\neases the pain and hastens resohition (Latin e, again/\\nand solvere, to dissolve removal or disappearance of dis-\\nease). Bathing in witch-hazel often gives relief. Applica-\\ntions of ice or ice-water compresses are sometimes useful\\nwhere there is much inflammation of the tissues.\\nBurns ani scalds. These are ver}^ painful and oftentimes\\nvery serious injuries. Where the burn is due to heat the\\npart must be covered with soft linen cloths npon which some\\naseptic soothing ointment, as boracic acid ointment or car-\\nbolized vaseline, has been freely spread. Where the skin\\nis unbroken, great care shonld be taken to keep it so. In\\nsuch cases the burn may be covered with l)aking soda.\\nCov^er or Innd up the part in such a manner as to avoid\\nfriction. Where the burn is due to acids, the x)art must be\\nwashed with an alkaline fluid, as diluted solutions of am-\\nmonia or soda. If due to alkalis, as lime or potash, wash\\nthe part in vinegar and water, or dilute acetic acid.\\nFire. When the clothing catches fire, the person should\\nbe thrown to the ground and enveloped in a rug or coat to\\nsmother the flames.\\nFrostbites. When the ears or nose or toes or fingers arc\\nfrost-bitten, they should be rubbed in snow or cold water\\nuntil the circulation of the parts is restored. No warm ;ni-\\nor warm applications should be allowed to strike the pni-is\\nuntil the sense of feelmg has returned. They should tlicn\\nbe protected as in cases of burns and bruises.\\nSprains. These injuries are very painful. The joint sliould\\nbe immersed in very hot water as soon as possible, and ke])t\\nthere until pain is relieved. The part or limb should after-\\nwards be kept m a horizontal position and protected from\\npressure. The injured joint should be carefully massaged\\nonce or twice a day from the very start. This hastens the", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "DISEASE ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 285\\nresolution of the swelling and the cure, for the parts regain\\ntheir tone more quickly under mild use. This active treatment\\nis much superior to the old method of keeping the joints im-\\nmovable in bandages or plaster. By this treatment the use\\nof the part may be regained in one or tivo weeks.\\nDislocation. When a joint is dislocated the part should\\nbe supported until a physician arrives.\\nFracture. When a bone is l)roken the part or limb should\\nbe bound up in such a manner as to prevent all motion of\\nthe injured bone, and a physician sent for. If the part be\\nsupported by splints the patient may be carried to his home\\nwithout danger. If the injury is to the arm, place it in\\na sling after the splints are applied, as the dependent\\nposition increases the swelling and pain. Barrel staves,\\npasteboard, or even an umbrella or cane may be so bound\\nto a limb as to serve for a temporary splint.\\nBleeding from the nose. This is a frequent occurrence. The\\nloss of a little blood in this way does no harm to a healthy\\nperson.- To control the bleeding, the patient should sit up-\\nright, breathe quietly through the nose, and avoid blowing it.\\nIf the bleeding does not soon cease, wrap a cloth dipped in\\ncold water about the neck, and hold the nostrils with the\\nthumb pressed upward upon the upper lip. It may be nec-\\nessary to insert cotton pings into the nostrils. Insufflation\\n(Latin m, in, and svfflare, to blow up of powdered\\nalum into the deep nostril may hasten matters, but is rarely\\nnecessary.\\nBleeding from the lungs or stomach is a serious matter.\\nIf blood is coughed up or vomited the patient should be\\nkept perfectly quiet upon the back, and a physician sum-\\nmoned at once. Ice may be freely eaten, but no other sub-\\nstances given by mouth until the physician arrives. Above\\nall, no alcoholic liquors, the so-caUed stimulants, should be\\ngiven.", "height": "3599", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "286 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nForeign bodies in the throat. Fishbones and particles of\\nfood sometimes stick in the throat. They may be removed\\nby conghing and by slapping the patient on the back, or\\nthey may be reached from above by forceps. If they canse\\ntrouble with breathing, immediate aid should be summoned.\\nWhen foreign bodies, as coins, are swallowed, it is best to eat\\nplenty of food to surround them and carry them onward.\\nForeign bodies, as buttons or peas, which have been in-\\nserted into one nostril by children can often be dislodged\\nby closing the other nostril and blowing forcibly into the\\nchild s mouth.\\nForeign bodies in the ear are often difficult to remove.\\nThe removal may be accomplished by syringing out the\\ncanal. If insects get into the ear, they can often be coaxed\\nout by holding a light close to the ear. If this fails, a little\\noil or glycerin as hot as can be borne should be dropped\\ninto the canal, and the head turned to one side to allow it\\nto run out again.\\nDog bites. The bite of a healthy dog should be treated\\nlike any unclean wound, that is, washed with an antiseptic\\nsolution and dressed. If there is probability that the dc)g is\\nmad, active treatment should be at once applied. If the bite\\nis in a limb, the limb above the wound should be ligatured.\\nThe wound should be wiped out thoroughly and the surface\\nburned with silver caustic or a red-hot poker. The part is\\nthen poulticed. Where the case is taken in time the patient\\ncan escape hydrophobia by being subjected to the Pasteur\\ntreatment, even though the virus from the dog has entered\\nthe system.\\nFainting. Fainting is a condition of unconsciousness due\\nto disturbance of the circulation following weakness or to\\nsome sudden emotion or pain. A fainting person must be\\nlaid flat on the back, with the hips slightly elevated. Give\\nplenty of fresh air, loosen the clothing, thi ow cold water", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "DISEASE ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 287\\nupon the face and cliest. The hokling of ammonia (smelling\\nsalts) to the nose may help revive the patient.\\nFits. Fits are, as a rule, spasms in which the person\\ntrembles and shakes all over and becomes unconscions.\\nThey may be a symptom of a disease called epilepsy, or of a\\nnerv^ous condition called hysteria. In such cases all that\\nyou can do, as a rule, is to prevent the patient injuring him-\\nself while in a fit. A plug of clotli should be inserted be-\\ntween the teeth to prevent biting the tongue. The clothing\\nshould be loosened. In a short time the patient will come\\nout of his own accord. If the trouble is hysteria the patient\\nma}^ not shake, but lie quiet and rigid, with staring eyes.\\nThis is a cataleptic fit. Such a patient can often be awakened\\nby pressure upon the supraorbital nerve just above the eye.\\nConvulsions in children are common with many dis-\\norders, as indigestion or worms, or even the swelling and\\npain caused by a new tooth coming through the gums.\\nChildren suffering from convulsions should be immersed at\\nonce in a hot bath, and a physician sent for.\\nSunstroke. This condition is due to an abnormal eleva-\\ntion of the body temperature as the result of exposure to\\ncontinuous heat. People who are working upon a hot day\\nand feel dizziness or nausea, with excessive languor, should\\nstop work at once, and seek quiet and cold water, else they\\nmay suffer a real sunstroke. Where the patient is very hot\\nthe chief object of the treatment of sunstroke is to reduce\\nthe temperature. The patient should be stripped and\\npacked in ice, or in cloths dipped in ice water. The ice\\nand water must be applied for an hour or more, with con-\\nstant rubbing of the body. In some cases the patient is\\nsimply exhausted and the body cold instead of hot. In\\nsuch cases heat has to be applied and hot drinks given.\\nCroup. This is a very common affection in infancy and\\nchildhood. It is an inflammatory condition of the throat,", "height": "3601", "width": "2389", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "288 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nand may be due to several separate causes. The child s\\nthroat appears to be stopped up, and there is great diffi-\\nculty in breathing. In such cases a physician should be\\nsummoned at once. In the meantime hot compresses should\\nbe placed about the throat and chest, and a hot mustard\\nfootbath given.\\nToothache. Insert in the hollow of the tooth a plug of\\ncotton wet with carbolic acid or laudanum or oil of cloves.\\nAsphyxia. Asphyxia may be due to drowning or smother-\\ning, or to coal gas. The treatment is in general the same.\\nIf it be a case of drowning, turn the person upon his face and\\nallow the water to run from the air passages. Then place\\nhim on the back with clothing loosened, and begin artificial\\nrespiration. Hold the tongue well forward. To induce\\nartificial respiration, grasp the arms just below the elbows,\\nraise them in a line. above the head until they meet, then\\nlower them to the sides, pressing in upon the chest walls, as\\nyou come down, to expel the air. Repeat this movement\\nfifteen times a minute, for two hours at least. Respiration\\nhas been restored after a much longer intervfd. At the\\nsame time the i)atient must be kept as warm as possible\\nwith l)lankets and hot- water bottles. As soon as the patient\\nbegins to breathe, he can be given aromatic spirits of\\nammonia in hot water.\\nPoisoning. A poison is any substance whose nature it is\\nwhen taken into the body to injure health or destroy\\nlife. Many of the snbstanees used about a house, as oxalic\\nacid, ammonia, Paris green, Rough on Rats, the brimstone of\\nmatches, and carbolic acid, are violent poisons. It is not an\\nunusual occurrence for a. person to take some one of tliese\\nsubstances, or some medicine which is poisonous in large\\namount, by mistake. In such cases prom})t measures are\\nnecessary.\\nThere are two things to do. One is to give the antidote", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "DISEASE -ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 289\\nof the poison; the other is to get the poison out of the\\nbody.\\nAn antidote (Greek anti, against/ and dkJouai, to\\ngive is a substance which will render the poison inactive\\nor offset its effects. Where we know the nature of the\\npoison Avhich has been taken, we must give the antidote at\\nonce, and then set to work to rid the body of the poison.\\nWhere we do not know the poison, or have not the antidote\\nat hand, we must set to work at once to remove the poison\\nfrom the stomach.\\nThis may be accomplished b}^ gi\\\\dng the patient a table-\\nspoonful of mustard in a glass of warm water, or a tea-\\nspoonful of ipecac. TJiese mixtures will cause almost im-\\nmediate vomiting and expulsion of the poison. A better\\nmethod of emptying the stomach is by the introduction of a\\nstomach tube to the organ, and the subsequent siphoning\\nout with warm water.\\nIn cases where the poisoning is due to acids or alkalis,\\nno emetics or tubes should be used.\\nA list of the common poisons, with their antidotes and the\\nmethod of treatment in cases where they have been intro-\\nduced, is here given.\\nAcids, nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, oxalic. Antidote,\\nalkalis. Drink a mixture of soapsuds. Get some magnesia\\nor soda, and mixing a tablespoonful with a glass of water,\\ndrink at once. If no magnesia be handy, use lime or clialk,\\nor plaster from the wall. Then drink large amounts of warm\\nwater. No emetic.\\nAlMUs, soda potash, ammonia, lye. Antidote, acids.\\nDrink lemon juice or vinegar in solution. Follow wdth olive\\noil or castor or linseed oil, or thick cream. No emetic.\\nArsenic. This is present in Paris green, Rough on Rats,\\nScheele s green, and the medicine known as Fowler s solution.\\nAntidote, hvdrated oxide of iron. Give milk and white", "height": "3603", "width": "2392", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "290 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nof egg, and induce vomiting at once. Then give the hy-\\ndrated oxide of iron, which you can get at the nearest drug-\\ngist s. Follow with a solution of salt and water.\\nCopper^ blue vitriol, vertigris. Give white of Qg^ and milk.\\nMercury, corrosive sublimate, calomel. Give raw eggs\\nand milk.\\nLead^ sugar of lead. Induce vomiting. Give Epsom salts.\\nMatches. The heads of matches contain phosphorus.\\nInduce vomiting. Give soa.psuds or magnesia or soda in\\nvv^ater. Follow with mucilaginous drinks.\\nKerosene. Induce vomiting. Give warm milk.\\nOpium {morphine). This is a common drug. Some of\\nits preparations are laudanum, paregoric, Dover s powder.\\nDiarrhea mixtures and soothing syrups also often contain\\nir. To treat, induce vomiting. Give permanganate of pot-\\nash, one grain for each grain of m()ri)liine taken. Give\\nstrong coffee, and keep patient awake by all means.\\nCarbolic acid. Give milk or white of egg.\\nAconite. Induce vomiting. Aromatic spirits of ammonia.\\nBelladonna. Induce vomiting. Strychnine.\\nThere are several plants which grow alK)ut us which are\\npoisonous, such as poisonous mushrooms whicli may be\\ntaken for the edible varieties, wild ])arsley, and the berry of\\nthe mountain ash. When these have been taken, vomiting\\nshould be at once induced.\\nS)i(d-e hites are very serious affairs to deal with. Tie a\\nhandkerchief above the wound if on a limb. Suck the\\nwound as strongly as possible, wash it thoroughly, and\\napply some lunar caustic or a red-hot iron to the wound.\\nInsect hites. Apply ammonia or spirits of camphor, or\\nsoda. Cover the wound, if a severe one, lest it become\\ninfected with bacteria. Apply cold compresses.\\nPoison ii ij. Wlien a person is poisoned with ivy the\\npoisoned surface should be thorouglily scrubbed with soap", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "DISEASE -ITS PREVENTION AND ITS CARE 291\\nand water and covered with a liglit ganze dressing which\\nadmits the air. Ointments and oils are to be avoided.\\nThere are some substances which are poisons to some\\npeople and harmless to others. Thus some people are\\nViolently poisoned by certain kinds of shellfish which\\nothers eat without disorder.\\nIn the sick room. It is the duty of the strong to minister\\nto the sick. When there is an invalid in the house every\\nmember of the household shares in his care with the phy-\\nsician. If we are wise and thoughtful in this ministration\\nit may be the fortune of any one of us to aid materially in\\nmaking the illness of some sufferer less irksome and his\\nrecovery more rapid and sure.\\nTo fit ourselves for this task the first lesson which we\\nmust learn is that of cheerfulness and hopefulness. Each\\ntime that we enter the sick room we must bring courage and\\ncheering words. Never before the patient or elsewhere,\\neven in the face of the most hopeless conditions, must we\\ngive way to despondency or grief. Onty those who have\\nstood at many bedsides and w^atched many hard battles\\nfor life can have any idea of the power of courage and\\nhope to win through a serious illness. These have saved\\nmore lives than all the medicines in the world, ten times\\nover. They are the shining light which the physician bears\\nalways before him, and which we too must bear.\\nThe sick room should be upon the quiet and sunny side\\nof the house, if possible. The bed should be so placed that\\nthe patient shall not be exposed to drafts and that he may\\nbe reached upon both sides. The temperature of the room\\nshould be kept between 60\u00c2\u00b0 and 70\u00c2\u00b0 F. Fresh air should\\nbe coming in constantly through an open window or ven-\\ntilator.\\nThe furniture of the room should consist of cane chairs\\nor lounges, and a light bed of single size with a hair mat-", "height": "3603", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "292 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ntress. A bare floor, with rugs to deaden the noise, is prefer-\\nable to a carpeted floor.\\nThe odors of the si(?k room should be removed by venti-\\nlation, not by burning pastils or sprinkling scents, which\\nsimply cover one odor with another. In all weather the\\nwindows should be opened for periods at least, if not all\\nthe time.\\nCare should be observed to have the medicines labeled,\\nso that no mistake can be made in their administration.\\nIf the disease is of an infectious nature all the precau-\\ntions detailed in the chapter upon infectious diseases must\\nbe observed.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII\\nPHYSICAL CULTURE\\nHOME OR GYMNASIUM EXERCISES\u00e2\u0080\u0094 GAMES AND ATHLETICS\\nIN view of the great advance in the study of physical\\nculture which has come during recent years, and of\\nthe undoubted improvement in health and physical develop-\\nment of the race which appears to be coming as the result\\nof the application of the principles of this training in our\\nschools and colleges and association gymnasiums, no book\\nof hygiene would be complete without some account of\\nthese methods of systematic physical training.\\nThe object of the various systems of physical culture which\\nare used in some of our schools and all our large colleges is\\nthe achievement in each individual of the best possible\\ndegree of physical culture which is compatible with an even\\ndevelopment on all sides of life. It is not intended primarily\\nto produce trained athletes. That is a special branch of\\ntraining which may follow this primary culture. But it is\\nthe end of all systems to give to each and all a strength of\\nconstitution, of frame and muscle and heart and lungs,\\nwhich will fit them for the endurance of the necessary work\\nof life, and to i-esist disease.\\nAt the same time that the strength is developed, the pupil\\ngains the poise and grace, the control and coordination of\\n293", "height": "3601", "width": "2393", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "294 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\naction, which should go with health and strength, also sym-\\nmetry of form and richness of the skin and the complexion.\\nFormerly this development was obtained almost wholly\\nthrough practice in games and athletic sports, or by the\\nlabor which each special individual s occupation entailed.\\nMuch of it to-day we obtain from games. There is no better\\nway. But in addition to these games a certain amount of\\nsystematic exercise at home or in school gymnasiums is now\\nprescribed. Games were not planned to develop each\\nand every muscle in the body. Even when a variety of\\nsports, as running, rowing, football, is indulged in, certain\\nnniscles and parts of the body are likely not to get their\\nfull share of development; but in prescribed physical exer-\\ncise each and every part can be attended to and have some\\nspecial motion produced for its development. Special exer-\\ncise should therefore go hand in liand with outdoor games.^\\nFor many these physical exercises sliould precede the\\ngames. There are children who are not strong enough to\\ngo into active sports without some physical preparation\\nbut after a period of training by the milder methods they\\nbecome capable of entering them.\\nA system of physical development may be followed out\\nat home or in some school or gj^mnasium. A mild but very\\nefficient system may be followed without the use of any\\napparatus. For progressive development, however, and for\\nadvanced work, a certain amount of simple apparatus is\\nnecessar3^\\nA very simple apparatus and one sufficient for all pur-\\nposes is found in what is known as the Whitely Exerciser,\\nor some apparatus made upon a similar plan. This appa-\\nA strikins: demonstration of the effect of regular physical exercise practiced under\\ncompetent directions is found in the results reported by Dr. Beyer, surgeon in charge\\nat Annapolis Naval Academy. From these reports we leai-n that even so fundamental\\na matter as gi-owth of the bones increase in height is greatly influenced by regular\\nphysical training.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "PHYSICAL CULTURE 295\\nratns consists of an elastic cord with handles at each end,\\narranged upon a system of pulleys which can be attached to\\nthe wall by hooks. One hook is placed at about six feet\\nfrom the floor, the other about six inches. By changing the\\nattachments of the two pulleys to the upper or lower hooks\\nin turn, the apparatus can be used for exercise of the arms,\\nneck, or legs, and can be adjusted to the standing or sitting\\npositions. There are several sets of apparatus, graded for\\ndifferent strengths. Such an apparatus is desirable, but if\\nnecessary one can get along with a set of dumb-bells. In-\\ndian clubs, a horizontal bar, or a set of parallel bars entail\\nrather heavy exercise to begin with. They may be used to\\nsupplement or follow the primary routine exercises.\\nThe aim of physical culture is the achievement of even\\ndevelopment. This entails the selection of sets of exercises\\nto develop each part of the body. In the regulation of\\nexercise the principle of progression is adhered to. The\\npupil begins with a set of mild exercises and gradually\\nworks up to the more severe ones. In each period the\\nexercise is light at first, growing more vigorous after the\\nheart and body are warmed up.\\nThe time of exercise should not be directly after a meal,\\nbut may be at any other time.\\nThe parts of the body which must be exercised in turn are\\nthe legs, the arms, the neck, the shoulders, the thorax, the\\nwaist, the back, the abdomen. For each part a special set\\nof movements is prescribed.\\nIn each set of exercises you will find some which are per-\\nformed without any apparatus. These represent the mild-\\nest forms of exercise. If taken out and grouped together these\\nexercises make a good system for home use. These simpler\\nexercises may be performed with light dumb-bells if desired.\\nIt is best to begin with the exercises for the legs. The pupil\\ntakes the proper standing posture, namely, heels together,\\nHEWES, P. H. 19", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "296 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\ntoes out at an angle of 90^, knees straight but not stiff, hips\\nback, chest expanded, shoulders even and back, arms hang-\\ning at the sides, with palms resting upon the thighs. The\\nbody weight should rest upon the baUs of the feet, not upon\\nthe heels.\\nCalf muscles\\n1. Raise body from floor on toes thirty or forty times.\\n2. Circle foot from thirty to forty times.\\n3. Raise foot behind and kick alternately.\\n4. Stoop and rise alternately, bending at knees (front thigh muscles).\\nWith apparatus\\n5. With foot in attachment of apparatus, flex (front leg).\\n6. With foot attached, flex thigh (back thigh).\\n7. Stand AA-ith side to wall, attach farther foot to exerciser, and\\nabduct leg (outer thigh muscles).\\n8. In same position, attach to inner leg and adduct (inside thigh\\nmuscles).\\nArm muscles\\n9. Circle hands at wrist.\\n10. Clasp and extend fingers forcibly.\\n11. Flex and extend forearms forcibly.\\n12. Raise arms extended from sides to side of head.\\n13. Circle arms.\\n14. Lie face to floor and raise body upon arms extending at elbow.\\nWith apparatus\\n15. Flex fingers.\\n16. Flex forearm.\\n17. Extend forearm with fingers extended. Back to wall.\\n18. Stand side to wall. Raise arm to side of head.\\n19. Stand side to wall. Grasp exerciser with farther hand behind\\nand pull outward.\\nNos. 18 and 19 also exercise chest muscles and thorax.\\nBack of neck and upper back\\n20. Bend head forward and back forcibly.\\n21. Twist neck.\\n22. Lie face down, and raise face from floor, keeping chest down.\\nWith apparatus\\n23. Holding attachment of exerciser behind head, bend head back-\\nward.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "PHYSICAL CULTURE 297\\nShoulders\\n24. Extend arms forcibly, throwing them well back.\\nNos. 18 aud 19, given under arm muscles.\\nNo. 23, given under back of neck and upper back.\\n25. Face wall, palms together. Circle arms backward to utmost with\\nexerciser.\\n26. Back to wall, one hand over head, one at side grasping exer-\\nciser. Advance together.\\n27. Back to wall, arms extended. Flex at slioulder.\\nChest\\nAll exercise of arms and shoulder, Nos. 18, 19, 25, 26, 27.\\n28. Raise arms at full length from sides to head without or with\\nexerciser.\\n29. Throw arms forcibly back, keeping straight out from shoulder,\\nbring palms together and thus forward and back without, then with,\\nexerciser, both facing and with back to wall.\\n30. Lie on back on floor. Eaise arms above head with exerciser,\\nkeeping palms together.\\n31. Lie on back. Eaise arms, keeping straight out from body.\\nWaist, abdomen, back\\nAll full-arm movements, Nos. 18, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.\\n32. Hands on hips. Bend forward and back to limit.\\n33. Hands on hips. Bend sidewise to limit.\\n34. Twist trunk on hips.\\n35. Sit on floor. Drop backward and resume sitting posture.\\n36. Lie on back. Raise legs extended over body.\\nWith apparatus\\n37. Eaise hands from sides, straight out and then to sides of head,\\nkeeping straight.\\n38. Bend forward and back, facing wall.\\n39. Eowing posture. Bend back forward and back.\\n40. Lie on back. Eaise arms straight over head, bring over face\\nto sides.\\nIn addition to the above exercises, certain breathing exer-\\ncises with the use of the voice may be practiced under direc-\\ntion. At schools, also, exercises in drill are desirable, since\\nthey teach proper methods of standing and walking, and re-\\nquire strict attention in regard to the performance of each\\nseparate movement.", "height": "3601", "width": "2388", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "298 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nWhere special defects exist, as round shoulders, high\\nshoulders, a weak waist or abdomen, special exercises are to\\nbe taken. These must be prescribed by competent directors.\\nBefore taking up a course of home exercise, one should be\\nexamined by some competent person, and obtain directions\\nin regard to the time which he should employ in exercise,\\nthe weights which he should use, etc. If a boy begin with\\ntoo heavy exercise he may injure himself.\\nAt the end of a period of exercise the pupil may take a\\nrun or a row, or, after cooling off, a swim.\\nIn regard to the other matters concerning physical culture,\\nthe proper food, the observance of regular habits, the general\\ndirections upon these subjects which are given in the chap-\\nters on hygiene of the various organs are to be followed out.\\nGAMES AND ATHLETICS\\nIn certain ways the best methods of exercise are found m\\nthe out-of-door games of childhood and youth.\\nThese games are entered into as a pleasure, not as a task.\\nThere can be no question that more benefit is derived from\\nexercise or labor of any kind in which the interest and pleas-\\nure form a constant spur to endeavor, and the mind works\\nin harmon} with the muscles.\\nAlmost all of these games entail a certain amount of\\nmental, together with phj -sical, exercise. They teach quick\\nand decisive action, systematic or combined action (team\\nplay), in which the individual learns to use liis strength in\\nharmony with that of his fellows for the attainment of a\\ncommon end. They teach discipline, forethought, self-con-\\ntrol, the husbanding of one s forces until the proper time for\\naction. They should teach also forbearance, moderation, and\\neven self-sacrifice.\\nThe exercise and training consequent to these games, the", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "PHYSICAL CULTURE 299\\nopen-air life and regular habits, bring about a splendid\\ngeneral development of the muscular system, the heart,\\nlungs, and vital organs. They give the soundest kind of con-\\nstitutional strength. In this latter regard they are, if care-\\nfully controlled and regulated (not carried to excess), more\\nefficient than gymnasium exercises. Lastly, the participa-\\ntion in these games develops a fine ambition for excellence\\nin physical manhood or womanhood.\\nTo serve their purpose, however, these games must be care-\\nfully regulated. There must be no excess. The incentive\\nto excess which competition gives must be offset by the\\nwatchful discipline of the supervisor or trainer. All boys\\nwho participate should first undergo medical examination.\\nThose whom physical disabilities make unfit should be\\ndeveloped by methods more susceptible to absolute reg-\\nulation.\\nThe moral side of the sport should be kept at the highest\\nlevel. The men should go in to win, but by fair means\\nonly. Everything should be in a friendly spirit and above-\\nboard. All elements of trickiness, of brutality, of hard feel-\\ning, should be eliminated.\\nThe glory of physical effort and the pleasure of the sport,\\nnot the desire to win, should be the chief incentives to par-\\nticipation and to play.\\nFinally, the athletic interest should be but a part of the\\ngeneral interest in the development. The ideal of physical\\nculture should go side by side with that of mental and moral\\nculture. One part of each twenty-four hours should be de-\\nvoted to study, one to athletics, one to social intercourse,\\none to sleep. The athletics should be taken as a pleasure?\\nnot as a task. The desire for the outlet of physical energy\\npent up during the pursuit of other interests should carry\\nmen out unbidden.\\nThe tendency of our modern methods in athletics has", "height": "3593", "width": "2388", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "300 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nbeen, in part away from these best ideals of sport. Espe-\\ncially in our college systems, athletics has become too much an\\nend instead of a means. Some men go to college to become\\nfamous as athletes, not to get a full and even development.\\nStudy and the other interests of life are neglected. The\\nsystems of training entailed by the serious competitions are\\nexcessive. Men take special summer training before the col-\\nlege year begins. The work becomes a task rather than a\\npleasure. The desire to win leads to the employment of\\nunsportsmanlike methods. The intense feeling leads to bru-\\ntality. The contests become battles rather than friendly\\ncompetitions.\\nThe system turns out good athletes and well-developed\\nmen. It leads to greater excellence from the one point in\\nview, the athletic standpoint. But it injures and, to a cer-\\ntain extent, disables for life a certain number who partici-\\npate. It inculcates a one-sided ideal, an incorrect sense of\\nproportion. The physical harm which results is not a ne-\\ncessity of the sport. It is due to the improper regulation of\\nit. The blame for this improper method lies partly, as we\\nhave already hinted, with public opinion at the colleges.\\nThe exactions of competition, and the sacrifices which are\\nrequired to uphold college honor or attain athletic fame, are\\nexcessive. But the blame lies also in great part in the ab-\\nsolutely incorrect and inefficient methods of medical super-\\nvision employed in our college athletics.\\nThe subject of the training of athletes is not established\\nupon a scientific basis. It ought to be worked out from a\\nphysiological as well as from an empirical standpoint. The\\nmedical directors of college athletics, as a rule, are medical\\nmen chosen because they have been themselves athletes.\\nThey are apt to be men of surgical training whose knowl-\\nedge of physiology and internal medicine is limited.\\nThere should be associated with these men physiologists", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "PHYSICAL CULTURE 301\\nwho could work out the scientific physiological side of train-\\ning at the same time that the trainer is working out the\\nempirical side. If this were done we could in the end per-\\nhaps gJiin some accurate knowledge in regard to the proper\\ntime and strength (labor) limits of athletic contests, and be\\nable to tell in advance, by examination, what men are capable\\nof standing a certain amount of training and labor in contest\\nwithout detriment, and what men are not. At present the\\nsystem is very much one of the survival of the fittest.\\nHappily this matter of the proper regulation of athletics\\nis now receiving the attention it deserves in some of the col-\\nleges, and there is a marked improvement in the methods of\\ntraining and in the manner of conducting the contests.", "height": "3593", "width": "2395", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY\\nSpecial terms are explained in the context, and can be looked np\\nthrough the Index. Only such terms are explained in the Glossary as\\nhave a general meaning or have more than one meaning.\\nAbdominal cavity, the large cavity of the mammalian body lying\\nbelow the diaphragm, which contains the liver, stomach, and intes-\\ntines, spleen, and several other organs. It is continuous below with\\nthe pelvic cavity.\\nAbduction, the removal of anything from a substance or body; the\\nmotion of drawing a limb or pai t away from the midline of the body.\\nAbsorption, the process of taking up nutritive or waste products by\\nthe cells or tissues of the body.\\nAccumulation, the storing up of substances.\\nAdduction, the motion of drawing a limb or part toward the midline\\nof the body.\\nAfferent, a term applied to anything traveling or conducting from the\\nperiphery (surface) of the body to the interior or to the central\\norgans afferent impulses, afferent vessels, afferent nerves.\\nAlbumen, or Albumin, a special kind of proteid substance contained\\nin food and in the body tissues.\\nAmoeboid motion. The amoeba is an animal consisting of a single cell\\nwhich has the power of changing its form and of moving about in\\nwater by protrusions and withdrawals of its substance. Any living\\ncell which performs similar motions is said to have the property of\\namoeboid motion.\\nAntiseptic (Latin \u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00bbfi, against, and sejjsis, poison inhibiting the\\naction of a poison. The term is applied specially to substances\\nwhich inhibit the action of bacteria or other organized ferments.\\nApparatus, a device, usually a mechanical one, for the accomplish-\\nment of some function or some special aim.\\nAppendage (Latin ad, to, and pewc?eo, I hang any part attached\\nto a central body or part.\\n303", "height": "3592", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "304 GLOSSARY\\nAreolas (Latin dim. of area, a small space a term applied to con-\\nnective tissue so constructed as to contain many spaces.\\nArticulate, to join in a joint.\\nArticulation (Latin artimdo, 1 form a joint a joint.\\nArticulatory surfaces, surfaces of bones Avhich enter into the forma-\\ntion of a joint.\\nAssimilation (Latin to,^ and si miUs, like tlie conversion of\\nfood substances into living tissue.\\nBladder (Saxon hleddra, a bladder a bag or sac serving as a recep-\\ntacle of a secreted fluid.\\nCanal (Latin canaUs), a tube or passage through which a substance\\nmay flow.\\nCardiac, pertaining to the heart.\\nCatarrh, an inflammatory condition of a membrane, usually attended\\nAvith an increased secretion of the cells of the membrane.\\nChemistry, the study of the force by which matter becomes perma-\\nnently altered in its properties that is, the science of the compo-\\nsition of matter and of the changes which it undergoes in this\\ncomposition.\\nThe chemistry of muscle, for example, is the study of its compo-\\nsition and of the changes which occur in the substances which com-\\npose muscle in the processes of metabolism.\\nComposition. The composition of a substance is its make-up. As ordi-\\nnarily used the term means the client iad make-up. Thus, water is\\ncomposed of hydrogen and oxygen. The statement, milk is com-\\nposed of proteids, carbohydrate fat, and mineral substances, refers\\nalso to the chemical comjyosition, though not to the ultimate compo-\\nsition, as in the statement in regard to water.\\nWe sometimes use the term in a physical sense. Thus, skin is\\nsaid to be composed of epithelial tissue and connective tissue.\\nCompress, a pad or bandage applied directly to an injury to com-\\npress it.\\nConcentrated. A substance, as, for example, the urine, is said to be\\nconcentrated when its density is greater than normal.\\nCongestion (Latin con, together, and gei o, I bring an abnormal\\naccumulation of blood in a part.\\nConstipation (Latin con, together, and stijm, I crowd retardation\\nor sluggishness of the actions of the intestine, causing accumulation\\nof the ffeces in the body.\\nConstituent, any substance which enters into the composition or\\nstructure of a greater whole.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY 305\\nConsumption, a disease of the lungs due to the bacterium known as\\nthe tubercle bacillus.\\nContraction (Latin co)i, together, and traho, I draw the drawing\\ntogether of any substance, as protoplasm, or any body, as a muscle.\\nDecomposition, the breaking up of a substance into its constituents\\n(its chemical constituents).\\nDegeneration (Latin dcgcuerarc, to deteriorate a change in an\\norganism or structure which makes it less tit to perform its function\\nor fulfill its usefulness.\\nDensity. The density of a substance is its comparative bulk as com-\\npared with an equal weight of some standard substance. Thus, in\\nExperiment 16, page 126, the white of egg is of greater density than\\nthe water, a given weight of the former being of less bulk than an\\nequal weight of water.\\nDetritus, structural material cast off by the tissues or unused portions\\nof food, which make up the excreta of the body.\\nDextrin, a carbohydrate substance formed by the digestion of starch.\\nDiffusion, the flowing apart or separation of substances into other\\nmedia.\\nDigestion, the breaking apart of the constituents of a substance a\\nterm usually confined to the breaking up of food in the alimentary\\ncanal of the body.\\nDissection (Latin clis, apart, and seco, 1 cut the cutting up of a\\nplant or animal for purposes of studying its structure.\\nDuct (Latin duco, 1 lead a tube which carries substances away\\nfrom organs, usually from glands.\\nEfferent, a term applied to anything traveling or conducting from the\\ninterior or center of the body to the periphery.\\nElastic, possessing the property of stretching, under strain, and return-\\ning to its natural condition when the strain is relaxed.\\nElimination (Latin e, out of, and limeu, threshold the expulsion\\nor passing out of substances, especially waste substances.\\nEmetic (Greek eweo, I vomit a medicine used to produce vomiting.\\nEmulsion (Latin cinuJgere, to milk a fat suspended in a liquid in a\\nvery finely divided condition.\\nEpidemic, the prevalence of a large number of cases of a disease in a\\ncommunity.\\nEquilibrium, balance. The equilibrium of the nutrition of the body\\nis maintained when the supply of food and the expenditure of tissue\\nbalance each other.\\nExcreta, the refuse which is passed from the body in any way.", "height": "3601", "width": "2390", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "306 GLOSSARY\\nExperiment, a trial the operation of subjecting objects or sub-\\nstances to certain conditions and observing the results, to test some\\nprinciple or supposition, or to discover some fact.\\nFumigation (LRtin fumigare, to smoke the use of the fumes of a\\nsubstance to disinfect.\\nFuse, to reduce a solid substance to a liquid form.\\nGastric (Greek gaster, stomach pertaining to the stomach.\\nGerm (Latin f/erntoi, a sprout a term applied to organized ferments\\nas first causes of disease.\\nGermicidal, the power of killing germs (organized ferments).\\nGlycogen, a carbohydrate substance produced in the liver also stored\\nup in the muscles.\\nGram, the unit of the metric system of \\\\Yeights. It is equivalent to\\n15.43 grains troy.\\nGranule, a small particle of material.\\nGymnasium (Greek fjumnazo/ I exercise an establishment fitted for\\nconducting muscular exercises.\\nHepatic, pertaining to the liver.\\nHeredity, the tendency of the protoplasm of one individual to possess\\nthe inherent characteristics of that of its ancestors.\\nHomogeneous (Greek homos, the same, and geuos, kind a sub-\\nstance of uniform composition or appearance.\\nHydrogen, a gaseous element which enters into the composition of\\nmany substances.\\nHydrophobia (Greek hudor, water, and 7)/ o os, fea.r a disease\\noccurring in animals, especially dogs, which may be transmitted to\\nman and otlier animals by the bite of the affected animals.\\nIdiosyncrasy, a characteristic peculiar to a special individual as dis-\\ntinct from the majority of individuals.\\nIndestructibility of matter. This term refers to the fact that, in all\\nthe chan i: s which matter may undergo, none of the matter is ever\\nlost.\\nInfectious disease, a disease due to some organism obtaining settle-\\nment in the bod\\\\\\\\\\nInflammation (Latin i\u00c2\u00bb, and flamuw, I flame a pathological (dis-\\neased) condition of a tissue, usually manifesting itself by redness and\\nswelling of the part.\\nIntelligence, the power of reasoning and of understanding the rela-\\ntions of things.\\nLens, a piece of a transparent substance so arranged as to converge or\\ndisperse the rays of light.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "GLOSSARY 307\\nLiberation, setting free.\\nLocomotion, the property or act of moving about from place to place\\nby one s own action.\\nMembrane, a cellular layer of tissue used to cover the surface of some\\npart of the body.\\nMicrobe (Greek w/Atos, little, and bios, life a microscopic or-\\nganism, as a bacterium.\\nMixture, a physical combination of tv/o substances.\\nMolecule, the smallest quantity into which the mass of any suostance\\ncan be physically divided, or in which any substance can exist in a\\nfree state. Thus, a molecule of sugar is the smallest particle of\\nsugar which can exist. This molecule may be broken into smaller\\nparts called atoms, but these atoms are not sugar, but portions of\\nthe elementary substances which are built up together to make the\\nsugar molecule.\\nMotor (Latin moveo, 1 move a term applied to nerves which con-\\nduct impulses which produce motion in a part.\\nNostril (Anglo-Saxon nosn, nose, and thyrl, a hole one of the two\\nouter openings of the nose.\\nNutrition (Latin nutrio, 1 nourish the process of the nourishment\\nof the body and its parts. The term is also used to describe the con-\\ndition of the body; thus, *^the nutrition of the body is good,\\nmeaning that the body is well nourished.\\nOlfactory (Latin oJfacio, 1 smell pertaining to the sense of\\nsmell.\\nOptic (Greek opsis, sight pertaining to the sense of sight.\\nOrganism, a term applied to any individual entity having the property\\nof a separate life, as an animal body, a plant, or a bacterium.\\nOssification, the transformation of any living substance, as, for ex-\\nample, cartilage, to bone.\\nParalysis (Greek 2Mr\u00c2\u00ab7 ^o, ^^I loosen, disable the loss of function-\\nusually applied to a loss of muscular power.\\nParasite, an organism which lives upon another plant or animal.\\nPeriphery, the external part or surface.\\nProcess (LoXin procedo, I go forth a projection of substance; also\\na method or manner of action by which some end is fulfilled.\\nRudimentary. A rudimentary structure is one incomplete in its\\nmake-up or function, the vestige of some structure useful iii the\\neconomy of the bodies of some ancestral race.\\nShock. The term is used here to describe any impression or impulse of\\na disturbing nature received by any sensitive object or structure.", "height": "3601", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "308 GLOSSARY\\nSlant culture, a preparation of some nutrient media for some organism,\\narranged with an oblique or slanting surface.\\nStimulation, increase of vital activity.\\nStructure. The structure of a body means its building plan. We speak\\nof a muscle as a structure, meaning a thing built up by the physical\\nassociation of several parts.\\nSuspension. A substance is said to be in suspension when its physical\\nj)articles are maintained floating throughout a liquid.\\nSystem, a combination of structures and organs for the accomplish-\\nment of a definite purpose.\\nSystemic, belonging to the whole body.\\nTransformation, change of nature or form.\\nTranslucent, alloAving light to pass through.\\nUtilization, the making use of.\\nVessel, a structure which carries materials not a part of itself. In\\nphysiology the term is applied to tubes which carry the food and\\nwaste substances to and from the tissues, as the blood vessels, the\\nlymph vessels.\\nViscera, a term applied to the internal organs.\\nVital, endowed with life, or pertaining to living things.\\nVolition, the power of choice will.\\nWater of condensation, the water which collects upon cooling.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAbdominal cavity, 50.\\nAbduction, 52.\\nAbduction of heat, by evaporation,\\n203 in respiration, 188.\\nAbscess of ear, 258.\\nAbsorption, 92, 112, 113; physical\\nprocess of, 127 by osmosis, 120,\\n126 of salt, 126 of su^^ar, 126\\nof water, 103 the villi in, 113.\\nAccommodation, 248, 259.\\nAchilles, tendon of, 73.\\nAcid, 121 in gastric juice, 111,\\n121; reaction, 121.\\nAcids, poisoning by, 289.\\nAdduction, 52.\\nAdenoids, 193.\\nAfferent nerves, 216.\\nAgar culture, 275.\\nAir, 179 expired, 187 inspired,\\n186 temperature of expired,\\n188 temperature of inspired,\\n188 volume of expired, 188\\nvolume of inspired, 188.\\nAir passages, 180.\\nAir pressure, 185,\\nAlbumin, egg, 127 in blood, 117\\nof food. 111, 116.\\nAlbumose, 111.\\nAlcohol, 143 action of, in body,\\n149-151; distillation of, 147;\\npoisonous action of, 148 source\\nof, 143; value of, as food, 151.\\nAlcohol drinking, effects of, upon\\nthe body temperature, 211 upon\\nthe bones, 60, 61 upon the diges-\\ntion and digestive organs, 107\\nupon the heart and blood vessels,\\n174, 175 upon muscular work,\\n79, 80 upon the nervous sys-\\ntem, 231 upon the respiratory\\nsystem, 190 upon the vital func-\\ntions, 150.\\nAlcohol habit, 152, 231, 232.\\nAlcoholic beverages, 145-149.\\nAlcoholic (vinous) fermentation,\\n144-149 use of, by man, 145.\\nAlimentary tract (canal), 93.\\nAlkaline reaction, 121 of saliva,\\n110.\\nAlkalis, 121 in pancreatic juice.\\n128 poisoning by, 289.\\nAlveolus, 181.\\nAmoeba, 92.\\nAmoeboid motion, 17, 116, 129.\\nAmylopsin, 112.\\nAnabolism, 30.\\nAntemia, 173.\\nAnatomy, 14.\\nAneurism, 175.\\nAnkle, 46.\\nAnterior nerve roots, 218.\\nAntidote (of poisons), 288, 289.\\nAntipyrine, 238.\\nAntiseptics, 272, 278.\\nAntitoxine, 270, 280.\\nAorta, 162 abdominal, 163 arch\\nof, 162 thoracic, 162.\\nApex of heart, 155.\\nApparatus, for illustrating action\\nof muscles and joints, 85 for\\nexercise, 294.\\nAqueous humor, 245.\\nArachnoid membrane, 223\\nArch of aorta, 162.\\nArm, 45.\\nArterial, blood, 119 system, 162.\\nArteries, 118 elastic tissue in, 162\\nmuscle in, 162; named, 162-165;\\nstructure of, 161, 162.\\nArticular surfaces of bone, 57.\\n309", "height": "3593", "width": "2388", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "310\\nINDEX\\nArtificial respiration, 194, 288.\\nArytenoid cartilage, 261.\\nAseptic, 284.\\nAsh, 123 of milk, 124.\\nAsphyxia, 194, 288.\\nAssimilation, 115.\\nAtheroma, 175.\\nAthletics, 298, 299; training in,\\n300.\\nAtlas, 41.-\\nAtmospheric pressure, 185.\\nAtoms, 20, 266.\\nAuditory, canal, 254; ei)itholium,\\n256.\\nAuricles of heart, 155, 156.\\nAutomatic, action, 103 acts, 224.\\nAutomatic regulation of blood\\nsupply, 169.\\nAxis, 41.\\nAxis cylinder, 217.\\nAzygos vein, 163.\\nBacilli, 269.\\nBacillus suhtilis (hay bacillus), 275.\\nBacteria, 111, 147, 267, 269, 275;\\nagents of decomposition, 267;\\nand infectious diseases, 268, 270\\nas causes of disease, 268, 278\\nhabits of, 271 methods of de-\\nstruction of (disinfection), 271,\\n285 of diphtheria, 270 of pneu-\\nmonia, 277 of typhoid, 208, 278\\nuses of, in nature, 267, 268.\\nBall and socket joint, 52.\\nBathing, 83, 205.\\nBaths, 205.\\nBeans, as food, 134, 140.\\nBeef, 140.\\nBeer, 146.\\nBeverages, 141.\\nBiceps, 67, 73, 78.\\nBicuspid teeth, 95, 96.\\nBicycling, 83.\\nBile, 101, 102, 114; duct, 102.\\nBiuret test for proteids, 122.\\nBlack-and-blue spot, 284.\\nBladder, 200.\\nBladder, gall, 102.\\nBleeding, 282 arterial, 283 coag-\\nulation and, 117 from lung, 285\\nfrom stomach, 285.\\nBlind spot, 248.\\nBlood, 115, 128, 129; arterial, 119;\\ncarbohydrates of, 129 circula-\\ntion of, 117 coagulation of, 116\\ncorpuscles, 115, 129, 177; defi-\\nbrinated, 129 germicidal power\\nof, 173; plaques, 115, 116; plas-\\nma, 115; pressure, 168; prooeids\\nof, 117; salts of, 117; serum,\\n117 tests for constituents of,\\n129 venous, 119 vessels, 161.\\nBody, the, a machine, 10 food\\nand the heat production in, 211\\nstructure and parts of, 13.\\nBody heat, 28, 29, 209 source of,\\n210.\\nBone, composition of, 53, 54, 62\\nstructure of, 54, 57, 61.\\nBone cells, 56.\\nBones, 13, 37 flat, 53 forms of,\\n53 irregular, 53 long, 53 num-\\nber of, 38 short, 53.\\nBowels, regulation of, 206.\\nBrain, 14, 215, 216, 220.\\nBrandy, 148.\\nBread, 147 digestion of, 110.\\nBreathing. See licdpi ration.\\nBronchi, 181.\\nBronchitis, 171.\\nBruise, 283.\\nBurns, 284.\\nButter, 133, 140.\\nCabbage, 134.\\nCalcium, 21.\\nCalf of leg, 73.\\nCalories, 138-140.\\nCanalicnli, 56.\\nCane sugar, 112.\\nCanine, 95, 96.\\nCapillaries, 118, 119, 160, 161, 163;\\nin frog, 177.\\nCapsule, of joint, 51 of kidney,\\n199.\\nCarbohydrates, 21, 89; digestion\\nof, 112; tests for, 123.\\nCarbolic acid, as a disinfectant,\\n272 poisoning by, 290.\\nCarbon, in body, 20, 90; in food,\\n27, 90, 91.\\nCarbonate of lime in bone, 62.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n311\\nCarboncates, 21 in Wood, 117 tests\\nfor, 02.\\nCarbon dioxide, 35; as index of\\nimpurity of air, 191 exchange\\nof, in res])irntion, 1S6, 1H7; ex-\\ncretion of, 1S7; formation of,\\nin ak oliolic fcrmentalion, 144;\\nformation of, in boilv, 197; in\\nblood, 187.\\nCardiac orifice of stomach, 99.\\nCarnivora, 109.\\nCarpal bones, 45.\\nCartilage, 37 costal, 43 in bron-\\nchi, 182; in trachea, 182; of\\nhxrynx, 261 of thoracic wall, 43\\nossification of, 58 upon articu-\\nlar surfaces, 5G, 57, 61 structure\\nof, 57.\\nCasein, 89, 111.\\nCell, the, 17.\\nCell activity, 18; processes, 15.\\nCells, 15, 16, 22 as unit of struc-\\nture, 15, 16; blood, 116; bone,\\n56; division of, 18; ganglion,\\n217; parts of, 17; properties of,\\n17 varieties of, 17.\\nCellulose, 90.\\nCement, 95.\\nCereals as food, 134.\\nCerebellum, 220.\\nCerebral hemisjdieres, 220.\\nCerebro-spiiial fluid, 223.\\nCerebrum, 220.\\nCervical vertebra?, 41.\\nCheese, 133.\\nChemical composition, of body, 19\\nof matter, 20, 265.\\nChewing gum, 109.\\nChloral, 238.\\nChloride of sodium, 21, 117.\\nChlorinated lime, 272.\\nChlorine, 21.\\nChocolate, 135, 141.\\nCholera, 282.\\nChorda? tendinea\\\\ 156.\\nChoroid coat, 245.\\nChyle, 113. 166.\\nChyme, 102, 112.\\nCider, 145, 146.\\nCilia, 182.\\nCiliary processes, 246.\\nHEWES, p. H.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 20\\nCirculation, in lymphatics, 166; in\\nvessels, 168; of blood, 117, 154;\\nportal, 163; i)ulnu)nary, 165; va-\\nsomotor regulation of, 169.\\nCirculatory system, 118, 154.\\nCircumvallate papillas, 242.\\nClavicle, 44.\\nClot, 117, 128.\\nClothing, 59, 83, 206.\\nCloves, 141.\\nCoagulation, of blood, 116, 128; of\\nmilk. 111.\\nCocaine, 238.\\nCoccyx, 41.\\nCochlea, 256.\\nCocoa, 135, 1*1.\\nCodeine, 237.\\nCoffee, 142.\\nCold, taking, 171.\\nCollar bone, 44.\\nCombustion, 29; evidences of, 34;\\nin muscle, (58.\\nCompound, a chemical, 20.\\nCondiments, 141.\\nCones, 246.\\nCongestion, 171.\\nConjunctiva, 244.\\nConnective tissue, 16, 58.\\nConscience, habit of, 227.\\nConsonants, 263.\\nConstipation, 207.\\nConsumption, 269, 277, 280.\\nContagion, 273.\\nContraction of muscle, 65, 74.\\nContusion, 283.\\nConvolution, 221.\\nConvulsions, 287.\\nCooking, 105.\\nCord, spinal, 215-217.\\nCords, vocal, 261, 262.\\nCorium, 201.\\nCorn, 134, 140.\\nCornea, 245.\\nCoronary arteries, 158.\\nCorpus callosum, 221.\\nCorpuscles, of blood, 115; tactile,\\n240.\\nCorrelation of energy, 29.\\nCorrosive sul^limate, 272.\\nCortex, of brain, 221; of kidney,\\n198.", "height": "3593", "width": "2394", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "312\\nINDEX\\nCorti, organ of, 256.\\nCoryza, 171.\\nCostal cartilage, 43.\\nCoughs, 190.\\nCranial nerves, 222.\\nCranium, 47.\\nCream, 133.\\nCricoid cartilage, 261.\\nCroup, 287.\\nCrown, of head, 49; ot teeth, 95.\\nCrura cerebri, 220.\\nCrypts of Lieberkiihn, 100.\\nCrystalline lens, 246.\\nCulture, mental, 227 physical,\\n293.\\nCulture (nutrient media), 275.\\nCuticle, 200.\\nCuts, 282.\\nDeath, 24.\\nDecomposition, 144, 267.\\nDecussation. 221.\\nDefibrinate, 129.\\nDeformity, 61.\\nDeglutition, 98.\\nDeltoid, 73.\\nDentals, 263.\\nDentine, 95.\\nDermis, 201.\\nDextrose, 112.\\nDiabetes, 106.\\nDialysis, 126, 127.\\nDiaphragm, 50, 184.\\nDiastole, 159.\\nDiet, 138.\\nDiffusion, 127.\\nDigestion, 92; gastric, 111, 125; in\\nintestine. 111, 112, 128; in\\nmouth, 110; in stomach, 111,\\n125; of carbohydrates, 110, 112,\\n124; of fats, 112, 125, 128; of\\nstarch, 124; of sugar, 112; pan-\\ncreatic, 112, 128; salivary, 110,\\n124, 125.\\nDigestiv^e ferments, 111, 124.\\nDiphtheria, 269, 270, 281; anti-\\ntoxine, 270 bacillus of, 270.\\nDisease, 33, 277 care of, 282-292\\ncauses of, 277-279 prevention\\nof, 279-282.\\nDiseases, infectious, 208, 271, 280\\n208, 272 of room, 273 of wound,\\n274, 283.\\nDislocation, 60, 285.\\nDisposal of excreta, 207, 272.\\nDistillation, 147.\\nDistilled liquors, 147.\\nDog bites, 286.\\nDorsal, cavity, 50 vertebrEe^ 38.\\nDress (clothing), 206.\\nDrowning, 194, 288.\\nDrugs, use of, 137, 207, 238.\\nDrum of ear, 254.\\nDuct, bile, 102 hepatic, 102 tho-\\nracic, 166.\\nDuodenum, 112.\\nDura mater, 223.\\nEar, 254, 255.\\nEducation, 227.\\nEfferent nerves, 216.\\nEgesta, 204.\\nEggs, 37 as food, 133.\\nElastic tissue, in arteries, 162 in\\nlungs, 182.\\nElbow, 53.\\nElement, 20, 265.\\nEmotions, 229.\\nEmulsion, 112, 126, 128.\\nEnamel, 95.\\nEndocardium, 158, 161.\\nEndolvmph, 256.\\nEndothelium, 158, 161.\\nEnergy, 10, 25, 26 as heat, 26, 29\\nas work, 26, 29 correlation of,\\n27; dynamic, 87; in food, 27;\\nlatent, 87 source of, 26 use of,\\nin body, 28.\\nEpidermis, 200.\\nEpiglottis, 98, 180.\\nEpilepsy, 287.\\nEpithelial cells, 16 action of, in\\nabsorption, 113; of glands, 94;\\nof mucous membrane, 93 of\\nvenal tubules, 199, 200.\\nEpithelial tissue, 16.\\nEsophagus, 93, 98.\\nEthmoid bone, 48.\\nEustachian tube, 255.\\nExcreta, 207 disinfection of, in\\ninfectious diseases, 208, 272.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n813\\nExcretion, 197, 200 by intestines,\\n204 by kidnov, 198 by lungs,\\n187, 188, 198 f by skin, 200; of\\ncarbon dioxide, 187 of nitrogen,\\n197 of urea, 197, 200 of water,\\n188.\\nExcretory organs, 197.\\nExercise, mental, 226 muscular,\\n79.\\nExercises, physical, 293-297.\\nExpiration, 186.\\nExposure, a cause of disease, 277.\\nExtension, 53.\\nExtensors of hand, 67.\\nExternal rectus, 244.\\nEveball, 243 motions of, 244 mus-\\ncles of, 244.\\nEyelashes, 244.\\nEyelids, 243 muscles of, 244.\\nFace, 48.\\nFfBces, 103, 204, 207.\\nFainting, 172, 286.\\nFang, 95.\\nFascia, 73.\\nFasciculi, 73.\\nFat, 21, 90, 123, 128; absorption\\nof, 113 as food, 136, 211 diges-\\ntion of, 112, 126, 128; emulsion\\nof, 112, 126, 128 energy in, 211\\nin blood, 117 in milk, 124 tests\\nfor, 123.\\nFatigue, muscular, 82.\\nFatty acid, 112.\\nFauces, 97.\\nFehliug s test, 123.\\nFemur, 46.\\nFenestra, ovalis, 255 rotunda, 255.\\nFerment, fibrin, 117.\\nFermentation, 144, 267, 274 alco-\\nholic (vinous), 144-149 as cause\\nof disease, 268 in body, 111 in\\nmouth, 104 use in nature, 267.\\nFerments, 111, 144, 267; digestive,\\n111; effect of cooking upon, 271,\\n275 effect of freezing upon, 271,\\n275; organized. 111, 267; unor-\\nganized, 111, 268.\\nFever, 270.\\nFiber, muscle, 74.\\nFibers of nerve, 217.\\nFibrillae, 74.\\nFibrin, 117, 129; ferment, 117.\\nFibula, 46.\\nFiliform papilkp, 242.\\nFire, 284.\\nFish as food, 134.\\nFissures, 221.\\nFits, 287.\\nFlavors, 243.\\nFlexion, 52.\\nFlies as vehicles of disease, 208.\\nFloating ribs, 43.\\nFocus, 22, 249.\\nFollicle, 202.\\nFood, 25 choice of, 91 classes of,\\n89; definition of, 132; digestion\\nof, 92 for use as energy, 28 for\\nuse as tissue, 25 in blood, 113,\\n117; quantity of, necessary, 90,\\n106 sources of, 25, 27 tests of,\\n122 utilization of, in bodv, 30,\\n90.\\nFoods, heat energy in, 211 inor-\\nganic, 122, 135 iron content of,\\n173 nutritive value of, 138, 139\\norganic, 88, 89, 122.\\nFoot, 46.\\nForamen magnum, 50, 216.\\nForamina, 48.\\nForeign body, in ear, 286 in nose,\\n286 in throat, 286.\\nFormaldehyde (formalin), disin-\\nfection (fumigation) by, 273.\\nFossa, 54.\\nFracture, 59, 285 healing of, 59.\\nFreezing, effect of, upon meat,\\n271 upon organized ferments,\\n271, 275.\\nFrontal bone, 47.\\nFrostbites, 284.\\nFruits as food, 134.\\nFulcrum, 68.\\nFumigation, 273.\\nFunction, 31.\\nFungiform papillge, 242.\\nGall bladder, 102.\\nGames, 294, 298.\\nGanglia, nerve, 158, 217 of heart,\\n158.\\nGanglion cells, 217-219.", "height": "3589", "width": "2404", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "314\\nINDEX\\nGas exchange in respiration, 186,\\n187.\\nGastric, digestion, 111, 125;\\nglands, 94, 98.\\nGastric juice, 111; action of 1 1 1, 1 25.\\nGills, 181.\\nGin, 148.\\nGlands, 93; lymph (nodes), 166;\\nracemose, 90 salivary, 93 se-\\nbaceous, 202 structure of, 94\\nsweat, 202.\\nGlobulin, 117.\\nGlomeruli, 199.\\nGlossoi)haryngeal nerve, 242.\\nGlottis, 180.\\nGlucose (dextrose, grape sugar),\\n112; test for, 123.\\nGluten, 89.\\nGlycerin, 112.\\nGlycogen, 102, 115 in muscle, 78.\\nGout, 61.\\nGrains, ]34.\\nGrains (weight), 140.\\nGrams, 140.\\nGrape sugar. See Glucose.\\nGravel, 205.\\nGray matter, 218, 221.\\nGrowth, 18, 29.\\nGum, 109.\\nGutturals, 263.\\nGymnasium exercises, 293.\\nHabits, 227.\\nHair, 201, 202.\\nHand, bones of, 45.\\nHaversian, canals, 56; system, 56.\\nHay bacillus, 275.\\nHead, 13, 47, 49.\\nHeadache, 206, 238, 270; medi-\\ncines, 238.\\nHealth, 32.\\nHearing, 253.\\nHeart, 14, 118, 154 action of, 158\\nbeat, 159 muscle, 75, r)^\\nsounds, 159\\nwork of, 161.\\nHeat, of body, 28, 209 elimination\\nof, by skin, 203 elimination of,\\nby lungs, 188 energy in foods,\\n211 source of, 210.\\nHemispheres, cerebral, 220.\\nHemoglobin, 116, 173, 187.\\nHemorrhage, 172, 282.\\nHepatic, artery, 102; vein, 114:\\nduct, 102.\\nHerbivora, 109.\\nHilus, 198.\\nHinge joint, 52, 53.\\nHip, 45.\\nHistological structure, 56.\\nHome training, 228.\\nHorny layer of skin, 201.\\nHumerus, 45.\\nHumor, aqueous, 245.\\nHimger, sensation of, 239.\\nHydrochloric acid, 111, 125.\\nHydrogen, 20, 21.\\nHygiene, of circulatory system,\\n170; of digestive organs, 103; of\\nar, 257 of excretory organs.\\n204; of eye,\\nof muscular\\nsystem, 82; of nervous system,\\n226; of nutrition, 132; of respi-\\nratory system, 189 of skeleton,\\n58 of skin, 205 of the voice,\\n263.\\nHysteria, 287.\\nIce water, 108.\\nIleocfecal valve, 102.\\nImbibition, 127.\\nImmunity, 270, 280.\\nIncisors, 95, 96.\\nIncus, 255.\\nIndestructibility of matter, 265.\\nIndigestible elements of food, use\\nfor, 104, 138.\\nIndigestion, 105, 108.\\nIndustrv, 228.\\nInfection, 174, 268.\\nInfectious diseases, 268-274, 280.\\nInferior, maxillary, 49; rectus,\\n244: vena cava, 157.\\nInflammation, 106, 108, 270.\\nInfluenza, 279, 281.\\nInfundibulum, 181.\\nIngestion, 92.\\nInnominate, artery, 162; bone, 45;\\nvein, 163.\\nInorganic, substances, 20, 21, 54.\\nInsensible perspiration, 203.\\nInsertion of muscle, 73.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n315\\nInspiration, 185.\\nInstep, 46, 49.\\nInsufflation, 285.\\nIntelligence, 224.\\nIntereelhilar substance, 15, 56.\\nIntercostal muscles, external, 184\\ninternal, 186.\\nInternal ear, 255.\\nInternal, oblique, 244 rectus, 244.\\nIntervertebral, disk, 39 foramina,\\n218.\\nIntestinal, ferments, 111, 112;\\njuice, 112.\\nIntestine, large, 102 small, 100.\\nIntestines, 93.\\nInvertebrates, 50.\\nInvert sugar, 112.\\nInvoluntary, action, 72, 225 mus-\\ncle, 72, 75.\\nIodine test, 123.\\nIris, 245 muscle of, 245.\\nIron, 19, 21 in blood, 173 in food,\\n173.\\nIsolation, 279.\\nJoint, 37, 53 ball and socket, 52\\ncapsule of, 51 diseases of, 60\\nhinge, 53 immovable, 48, 51\\nligaments of, 51 movable, 37,\\n51 structure of, 51.\\nJoints, 37, 51, 85.\\nKatabolism, 30.\\nKidueys, 14, 198-200.\\nKneecap, 46.\\nLabials, 263.\\nLabyrinth, membranous, of ear,\\n255, 256.\\nLachrymal, bones, 49 ducts, 244\\ngland, 244.\\nLacteal, 101, 121.\\nLactose, 124.\\nLacunge, 56.\\nLamellae, 56.\\nLarge intestine, 102.\\nLarynx, 180, 181, 261.\\nLeg, skeleton of, 46.\\nLens, crystalline, 246 of micro-\\nscope, 22.\\nLettuce, as food, 134.\\nLeucocytes, 116, 167, 174, 177.\\nLeucocytosis, 174.\\nLever, 68.\\nLevers, classes of, 69.\\nLieberkiihn, crypts of, 100.\\nLife, 24, 32.\\nLigament, suspensory, 246.\\nLigaments, 38, 57 of joint, 53, 57\\nof spine, 39.\\nLight, 248.\\nLimbs, 13.\\nLime, in body, 21, 137; in bone,\\n54, 62 in food, 137.\\nLitmus, 121.\\nLiver, 93, 101, 113; action of, 114;\\nstructure of, 114.\\nLobules, 114.\\nLocalization in brain, 226.\\nLong bone, 55.\\nLong sight, 249.\\nLumbar vertebras, 39.\\nLungs, 14, 180 excretion by, 191.\\nLymph, 115, 118-120, 165, 166;\\nnodes (glands), 166.\\nLymphatics, 113, 120, 165; struc-\\nture of, 166.\\nMagnesium, 21.\\nMalar bone, 48.\\nMalleus, 255.\\nMalpighian, capsule of kidney,\\n199 layer, 201.\\nMammals, 50.\\nMarrow, 55.\\nMastication, 96, 104.\\nMatrix of nail, 204.\\nMaxillar3% inferior, 49.\\nMeals, 106, 140.\\nMealtime, 106.\\nMeasles, 269, 281.\\nMeat, 91 as food, 134.\\nMedulla, oblongata, 220 of bone,\\n55 of kidney, 198.\\nMedullary, cavity of bone, 55;\\nportion of kidney, 198 sheath\\nof nerve, 217.\\nMedullated nerve fibers, 217.\\nMembrane, mucous, 93 pleural,\\n181; seroas, 155; synovial, 52.\\nMembranous labyrinth, 255, 256.\\nMeninges, 223", "height": "3589", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "316\\nINDEX\\nMental training, 227.\\nMesentery, 100.\\nMetabolism, 30 in brain, 225 in\\ninternal respiration, 188.\\nMetacarpal, 45.\\nMetatarsals, 46.\\nMicroscope, 22.\\nMiddle ear, 254, 255.\\nMilk, 91 as food, 133 constitnents\\nof, 124; Pasteurization of, 133;\\nsterilization of, 133; tests for\\nconstituents of, 124.\\nMineral foods, 90, 135.\\nMineral salts, 90.\\nMineral substances, in body, 21,\\n90 in food, 88, 123 in milk, 124\\ntests for, 123.\\nMitral valve, 156.\\nMolar teeth, 95, 96.\\nMolecule, 92, 112, 113, 124.\\nMorphine, 237.\\nMotion, 65 mechanism of, 68.\\nMotor nerve, 218, 219.\\nMouth, 95, 179.\\nMucous membrane, 93 of stom-\\nach, 98.\\nMucus, 93.\\nMumps, 96.\\nMuscle, chemical composition of.\\n75 combustion in, 65, 68, 75\\ncontraction of, 74 control of,\\n68 glycogen in, 75 heart, 75,\\n158 insertion of, 74 involun-\\ntary, 72, 75 metabolism in, 68,\\n75 nonstriate (involuntary), 72\\norigin of, 74 respiration in, 68,\\n188 striate (voluntary), 72, 73\\nvoluntary, 72, 73.\\nMuscles, 13, 65 antagonistic, 66\\ndiaphragm, the, 184; in rest, S5\\nin stomach, 98 intercostal, 184\\nin trachea, 182 in training, 82\\nlist of, 76, 78 of arm, 67, 78 of\\neyeball, 244 of f a e e. 76 of hand\\n67, 78 of head, 76 of leg, 78\\nof neck, 76 of trunk, 76.\\nMuscle sense, 258.\\nMuscular exercise, 79, 81 in phys-\\nical culture, 293-300.\\nMuscular system^ 65 hygiene of,\\n79.\\nNails, 204.\\nNasal, bone, 49 duct, 244.\\nNephritis, 205. 277.\\nNerve, cell, 218, 219 ganglia, 217\\nstructure of a, 217.\\nNerve fibers, 217; afferent, 216;\\nefferent, 216; medullated, 217;\\nmotor, 218, 219 nonmedullated,\\n217: sensory, 216, 219.\\nNerves, list of cranial, 222, 223;\\nspinal, 218.\\nNeryous system, 214.\\nNeural arch, 39.\\nNeurilemma, 217.\\nNicotine, 235.\\nNitrogeu, 21, 88, 91, 197.\\nNodes, Ivmph, 166 of nerve fiber.\\n217.\\nNonmedullated nerve fiber, 217,\\n224.\\nNose, 179, 180, 243.\\nNose bleed, 285.\\nNostrils, 243.\\nNucleolus, 17.\\nNucleus, 17.\\nNutrition, 87 hygiene of, 132.\\nObedience, habit of, 227.\\nObservation, 228.\\nOccipital bone, 47.\\nOdontoid process, 41.\\nOdor, 243.\\nOils, 90.\\nOlfactory nerve, 222, 243.\\nOpium, 237 habit, 237.\\nOptic nerve, 222, 246.\\nOrgan, 31 of Corti, 256 of hear-\\ning, 254 of sight, 243 of taste,\\n242.\\nOrganic substances, 20, 88, 122;\\nas foods, 88, 122 in bone, 54, 62.\\nOrganized ferments, 111, 267.\\nOrgans, nerve, 214; of circulatiou.\\n14, 154; of digestion, 14, 92; of\\nexcretion, 14, 197 of motion, 65\\nof respiration, 41, 179.\\nOrigin of muscle, 74.\\nOsmosis, 120, 126; in intestinal\\nabsorption, 120.\\nOssification, 57, 58.\\nOvereating, 105,", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n317\\nOverwork, 230.\\nOxidation, 28, 179; in mnsele, 65,\\n75 in tissues, 188.\\nOxygen, 20, 21, 179 in blood, 187\\nin respiration, 187.\\nOxyhemoglobin, 116.\\nPain, 241.\\nPalate, 49, 95.\\nPancreas, 93, 101, 102.\\nPancreatic, digestion, 112, 128\\njuice, 112.\\nPapillae, of skin, 201 of tongue,\\n242.\\nParasites, 33, 278.\\nParietal bone, 47.\\nParotid gland, 96.\\nPasteur cure for hydrophobia, 286.\\nPasteurization of milk, 133.\\nPatella, 46.\\nPatent medicines, 238.\\nPeas, 134.\\nPectoral girdle, 44.\\nPelvic cavity, 45.\\nPelvic girdle, 44, 45.\\nPelvis of kidney, 198.\\nPepper, 141.\\nPepsin, 111, 125.\\nPeptones, 111.\\nPericardium, 154.\\nPerilymph, 256.\\nPeriosteum, 54.\\nPeritoneum, 100.\\nPermanent teeth, 96.\\nPerspiration, 203.\\nPeyer s patches, 101.\\nPhagocytosis, 174.\\nPhalanges, 45, 46.\\nPharynx, 93, 97, 180.\\nPhenacetine, 238.\\nPhosphates, 21; in blood, 117; in\\nbone, 54, 62 test for, 62.\\nPhosphorus, 21.\\nPhthisis. See Consumption.\\nPhysical culture, 293.\\nPhysiologv, 31.\\nPia mate/, 223.\\nPitch, 257.\\nPivot joint, 41.\\nPlain muscle. See Muscle, non-\\nstriate.\\nPlants, metabolism in, 27 respira-\\ntion of, 191 storage of energy\\nin, 27.\\nPlasma of blood, 115.\\nPleural membrane, 181, 182.\\nPneumogastric nerve, 223.\\nPneumonia. 277, 278 bacteria of,\\n277, 281.\\nPoison, definition of a, 288.\\nPoisoning, 289, 290.\\nPons, 220.\\nPores of skin, 202.\\nPortal vein, 102, 113, 163.\\nPosterior root of nerve, 219.\\nPotassium, 21.\\nPotatoes, 123; as food, 134.\\nPrecipitate, 122.\\nPressure, atmospheric, 185 blood,\\n168 sense, 258.\\nPrevention of disease, 207-209,\\n277-292.\\nPronation, 53.\\nProteids, 21, 89 as food, 124 di-\\ngestion of. 111, 124; in blood,\\n117 tests for, 122.\\nProtoplasm, composition of, 19.\\nPsychic centers, 224.\\nPtomaines, 136.\\nPtyalin, 110.\\nPulmonary, artery, 165 circula-\\ntion, 165 vein, 165.\\nPulp of teeth, 95.\\nPulse, 168.\\nPupil, 245, 246.\\nPutrefaction, 136, 267.\\nPylorus, 99.\\nPvramids of kidney, 199.\\nPyridine, 236.\\nRacemose glands, 94.\\nRadius, 45.\\nReaction, chemical, 121 of muscle\\nto stimulation, 85.\\nRectum, 103.\\nRectus, external, 244 internal, 244.\\nRed corpuscle of blood, 115.\\nReduction of dislocation, 60.\\nReflex, act, 224 action, 224 cen-\\nters, 224.\\nRefracting media, 248.\\nRefraction, 248-250.", "height": "3583", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "318\\nINDEX\\nRegularity of bowels, 206.\\nRegurgitation, 157.\\nRelishes, 107.\\nReiinin, 111.\\nRespiration, 179 artificial, 194,\\n288 excretion by, 187, 188 ex-\\nternal, 179 in fishes, 181 inter-\\nnal, 188; mechanism of, 183.\\nRest, muscular, 83 of brain, 230,\\n231.\\nRetina, 246.\\nRheumatism, 60, 277.\\nRibs, 41, 43 floating, 43.\\nRice, 134, 140.\\nRickets, 59.\\nRigor mortis, 75.\\nRods, 246.\\nRoots, of hair, 202 of motor\\nnerves, 219 of sensory nerves,\\n219.\\nRotation, 52.\\nRum, 148.\\nRunning, 71.\\nSaccharomyeetes, 144.\\nSacrum, 41.\\nSaliva, 95, 96, 110 digestion by,\\n110 reaction of, 121.\\nSalivarv glands, 96.\\nSalt (sodium chloride), 21, 90, 122,\\n123 absorption of, 127 as food,\\n135 reaction of, 121.\\nSalt lick, 135.\\nSarcolemma, 74.\\nScalds, 284.\\nScapula, 44.\\nScarlet fever, 281.^\\nSchool seats, 59.\\nSclera, 245.\\nSclerosis, 175.\\nSebaceous glands, 202.\\nSecretion, 94.\\nSecretions, effect of alcohol upon,\\n107 gastric, 111 intestinal, 102,\\n112 of bacteria (ferments), 268\\nof liver, 101 salivary, 96.\\nSelf-control, 229.\\nSemicircular canals, 256.\\nSemilunar valves, 156, 157.\\nSensation, 239 center of, 224 of\\ncold, 239; of fatigue, 239; of\\nhunger, 239 of pain, 239, 241\\nof taste, 242 of touch, 240.\\nSensations, mental, 239.\\nSense organs, 240.\\nSenses, special, 239 hearing, 253\\nmuscular, 258 pressure, 258\\nsight, 243; smell, 243; taste,\\n242 temperature, 241 touch,\\n240.\\nSensible perspiration, 203.\\nSensory, nerve, 216, 219.\\nSerous membrane, 155.\\nSerum, 117, 128, 129.\\nShaft of bone, 54.\\nShort sight, 249.\\nShoulder joint, 52.\\nSight, 243; long, 249; nerve of,\\n222 organ of, 243 short, 249.\\nSkeleton, 13, 37 of lower limbs,\\n46 of upper limbs, 45.\\nSkin, 13, 200 excretion by, 200.\\nSkull, 47-49.\\nSleep, 230.\\nSmallpox, 269, 271, 281 vaccina-\\ntion against, 271, 280.\\nSmell, 243 organ of, 243.\\nSnake bite, 290.\\nSoap, 112, 126.\\nSoap baths, 206.\\nSodium, 21.\\nSoluble substance, 121.\\nSolution, 121.\\nSore throats, 190, 277.\\nSound, 253 transmission of, 257.\\nSounds, miisical, 257.\\nSpasms, 287.\\nSpecial senses, 239.\\nSpeech, 263.\\nSphenoid bone, 48.\\nSphincter muscle of eye, 251.\\nSpinach, 134.\\nSpinal, cord, 40, 216; nerves, 218.\\nSpine, 38.\\nSpinous process, 39.\\nSpleen, 167.\\nSpongy tissue, 55.\\nSport, athletic, 294, 298, 299.\\nSprains, 60, 284.\\nStapes, 255.\\nStarch, 27, 110, 111, 123; tests for,\\n123.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n319\\nSteapsin, 112.\\nSterilize, 129, 133, 272.\\nSternum, 43.\\nStimulation of muscle, 85.\\nStomaeli, 14, 93, 98 glands of,\\n94 membrane of, 98.\\nStriate muscle, 74.\\nStudy, object of, 228.\\nSubcutaneous tissue, 201.\\nSublingual glands, 96.\\nSubmaxillary glands, 96.\\nSuffocation, 194, 288.\\nSugar, 27 cane, 112 grape (glu-\\ncose), 112 invert, 112 tests,\\n123.\\nSulphur, 21 disinfection by, 273.\\nSunstroke, 152, 287.\\nSuperior, oblique, 244 rectus, 244\\nvena cava, 157.\\nSupination, 53.\\nSuspensory ligament, 246.\\nSutures, 48.\\nSwallowing, 98.\\nSweat, 202, 203 glands, 202.\\nSympathetic nervous system, 223.\\nSynovial membrane, 52.\\nSystole, 158.\\nTactile corpuscle, 240.\\nTarsals, 46.\\nTartar, 104.\\nTaste, buds, 242; nerve of, 242;\\norgan of, 242 sense of, 242.\\nTastes, 242.\\nTea, 142.\\nTears, 244.\\nTeeth, 95; care of, 104; milk, 96;\\nof earnivora and herbivora, 109\\npermanent, 96.\\nTemperature, of body, 34, 209,\\n210 regulation of, 210 sense of,\\n241.\\nTemporal, bone, 47 muscle, 76.\\nTendon of Achilles, 73.\\nTendons, 66, 73, 85.\\nThoracic, aorta, 162 duct, 166.\\nThorax, 41, 183.\\nTibia, 46.\\nTight lacing, 59.\\nTissue, 14 connective, 16, 58\\nepithelial, 16 muscular, 73, 75.\\nTissues, 11, 14; structure of, 15;\\nvarieties of, 15.\\nTobacco, 235 poisoning by, 237.\\nTobacco, effect of use of, upon ap-\\npetite, 108 upon blood, 236\\nupon development, 236 upon\\ndigestion and digestive organs,\\n108 upon heart, 176, 237 upon\\nmuscular development and\\nstrength, 84 upon nervous sys-\\ntem, 236 upon respiratory\\norgans. 189.\\nTongue, 95, 96, 241, 242.\\nTonsils, 193.\\nToothache, 288.\\nTouch, 240.\\nToxines, 270.\\nTrabeculee, 55.\\nTrachea, 181, 182.\\nTraining, mental, 227 physical,\\n82, 300.\\nTransverse processes, 39.\\nTriceps, 66, 78.\\nTricuspid valve, 157.\\nTrunk, 13 skeleton of, 42.\\nTrypsin, 111, 112; digestion by,\\n128.\\nTuberculosis, 272, 273.\\nTubule of kidney, 199.\\nTurbinate bones, 49, 243.\\nTurmeric paper, 121.\\nTympanum, 254, 255.\\nTyphoid fever, 208, 269.\\nUlna, 45.\\nUremia, 205.\\nUrea, 114, 197, 200.\\nUreter, 198.\\nUrine, 200.\\nUvula, 97.\\nVaccination, 271, 280.\\nVagus, 283.\\nValves, mitral, 156 of heart, 156,\\n157 of veins, 169 semilunar,\\n156, 157 trienspid, 157.\\nValvulse conniventes, 100.\\nVaricose veins, 171.\\nVasomotor regulation of circula-\\ntion, 169.\\nVegetables as food, 134.", "height": "3592", "width": "2345", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "320\\nINDEX\\nVeins, 118, 161, 162; azygos, 163;\\nhepatic, 165 inferior vena cava,\\n163 innominate, 162, 163 jugu-\\nlar, 163 of arm, 165 portal,\\n163 pulmonary, 163 structure\\nof, 162 subclavian, 163 supe-\\nrior vena cava, 163.\\nVensB cav\u00c2\u00a3e, 157, 163.\\nVenous blood, 119.\\nVentilation, 190, 191.\\nVentral cavity, 50.\\nVentricles of heart, 155, 156.\\nVertebra, 38, 39 body of, 39.\\nVertebrae, cervical, 38 dorsal, 38\\nlumbar, 39.\\nVertebrate, 50.\\nVestibule of ear, 256.\\nVilli, 101, 113.\\nVitreous humor, 246.\\nVocal cords, 261, 262.\\nVoice, 261 mechanism of, 262.\\nVolition, 224.\\nVoluntary acts, 224.\\nVomer, 49.\\nVomiting, to induce, 289.\\nWalking, 71, 83.\\nWaste, 197; disposal of, 207;\\nelimination of, 103, 206.\\nWater, as food, 135; composition\\nof, 20 drinking, 105 in bone,\\n63 in food, 90 in muscle, 85\\nreaction of, 121.\\nWater, excretion of, by lungs,\\n188 by kidneys, 200.\\nWax, 254.\\nWheat, 134.\\nWhiskey, 148.\\nWhite blood corpuscle, 115, 116^\\n172 amoeboid, 129.\\nWhitelv Exerciser, 294.\\nWhite matter (nerve), 218, 221.\\nWindpipe (trachea), 181.\\nWine, 144, 145.\\nWork of heart, 161.\\nWrist, 45.\\nXanthoproteic test forproteids, 122.\\nYeast, 144, 267, 274; fermentation\\nby, 144, 274.\\nYellow spots, 247.", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3562", "width": "2280", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3583", "width": "2265", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "JUL 21 1900", "height": "3601", "width": "2272", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3582", "width": "2402", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3629", "width": "2404", "jp2-path": "anatomyphysiolo00hewe_0332.jp2"}}