{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3577", "width": "2311", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nChap. Copyright No....\\nSheli:....L._B.I0?v5\\nHCnG\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "3436", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3436", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3436", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3436", "width": "2212", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "THE\\nART OF STUDY\\nA MANUAL FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS OF THE SCIENCE\\nAND THE ART OF TEACHING\\nBY\\nB. A. HINSDALE, Ph. D., LL. D.\\nPROFESSOR OF THE SCIENCE AND THE ART OF TEACHING, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN\\nAuthor of Schools and Studies, Studies in Education How to Study ami Teach\\nHistory, Teaching the Language-Arts, ^csus as a Teacher, Horace Mann\\nand the Common School Revival in the United States, The Old North-\\nwest, and The American Government\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "24204\\nLibrary of Congre\\nwo Copies RECEivt\\nJUL S 1900\\nCopyright entry\\nSECOND COPY.\\nOetwered to\\nORDtR DlViSiC;^.\\nC061 :.s m\\n66178\\nCopyright, 1900, by\\nB. A. Hinsdale,\\nArt of Study.\\nE-p 1", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nThe ultimate object of this book is to place the Art of\\nStudy as a tool or instrument in the hands of pupils and\\nstudents in schools. But as this object can be reached\\nonly by way of the teachers, the book is primarily ad-\\ndressed to them, and to students of the science and the\\nart of teaching. It is, therefore, plainly necessary in the\\nfirst place to demonstrate the relations that should exist\\nbetween the pupil and the teacher in the school, and then\\nto present practical methods by which the teacher may\\nestablish and maintain such relations. Only through\\nthese means can the grand end be reached. The book,\\nit will be seen, proposes a partial readjustment of the re-\\nlations existing between the pupil and the teacher. In\\nother words, it proposes to effect a partial shifting of the\\ncenter of gravity in the school, by making the pupil the\\ncenter of the system and placing the teacher in his proper\\norbit.\\nIt would have been easy greatly to multiply the parallel\\nreadings accompanying the chapters, but my observation\\nis that in such a case a small but well-chosen bibliography\\nis better than a large one.\\nB. A. HINSDALE.\\nThk University of Michigan\\n3", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nI. Learning and Teaching 7\\nII. Study and its Relations to Learning and Teach-\\ning 14\\nIII. The Art of Study Defined 20\\nIV. Neglect of the Art of Study 25\\nV. Is Knowledge or Mental Development the End\\nOF Teaching 31\\nVI. The First Stage of Instruction in the Art of\\nStudy 39\\nVII. The Child s First Contact with the Book 47\\nVIII. The Study-Recitation 55\\nIX. The Study-Lesson 68\\nX. Attacking the Lesson 78\\nXI. The Recitation-Lesson 89\\nXII. Attention Its Nature, Kinds, and Value. 105\\nXI I I. Passive Attention Interest 117\\nXIV. The Cultivation of Passive Attention 127\\nXV. Active Attention The Will 141\\nXVI. The Cultivation of Active Attention 152\\nXVII. Thoroughness 170\\nXVIII. The Relations of Feeling to Study and Learn-\\ning 187\\nXIX. Methods of Learning 197\\nXX. Methods of Teaching 219\\nXXI. Formal Teaching of the Art of Study 232\\nXXII. Teaching as a Mode of Learning 254\\n5", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "THE ART OF STUDY\\nCHAPTER I.\\nLEARNING AND TEACHING.\\nOne of the most valuable arts that a boy or a girl,\\na young man or a young woman, can learn is the art of\\nstudy. It is also an art that is nowhere ad-\\nValtte of\\nthe Art of equately taught. It receives little conscious\\nattention on the part of either teacher or pupil\\nin the school, and outside the school it is almost wholly\\nneglected. These facts furnish the reason for the prepa-\\nration and publication of this book, which deals with the\\nleading features of this art.\\nIn entering upon the subject, the first thing that\\ndemands attention is, obviously, to bound and describe\\nthe territory that the book will cultivate. To\\nthis Work. ^^is will require two or three brief chapters.\\nWe must begin with learning, which is the\\nprimary activity of the school, and with teaching, which\\nis so closely connected with learning as almost to form\\na part of it.\\nThe science and the art of teaching assume that there\\nis a duality of existence, the mind and its environment,\\nor the mind and the world. Philosophers sometimes\\n7", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "8 THE ART OF STUDY.\\ndeny that this duaHty exists in reality, and affirm that\\nthere is only one existence, of which mind\\nliiSlf^^^ and the world are only different phases. But\\nthis is a metaphysical, not a pedagogical,\\nquestion. Pedagogy starts with the apparent duality of\\nexistence, and never stops to inquire whether it is real or\\nnot. The problem of learning, or mental growth, then,\\ninvolves the following elements\\nI. The mind, which is self-active and capable of learn-\\ning or of growing by its own activity.\\nProcessor 2. Objects of knowledge or things capable\\nearning. being known. These are of various kinds,\\nas natural objects, the facts of human society, and the\\nfacts of the mind itself.\\n3. A connection between the mind and such an object,\\nfor there is no activity of the mind, and so no knowledge\\nor mental growth, until the two are brought into due\\nrelation. Either the mind must go to the object of knowl-\\nedge, or the object of knowledge must be brought to\\nthe mind.\\nAt this point I should state that many objects of\\nknowledge can be viewed in two ways immediately and\\nmediately. In the first case, the mind and the object are\\nbrought into immediate contact in the sphere of the\\nsenses the individual sees or hears or handles the object\\nfor himself, and is not dependent upon the eyes or ears or\\nfingers of any other person. In the second case, the in-\\ndividual knows the object through some report or repre-\\nsentation of it made by another, that is, through another s\\nmediation. Thus, I have seen Detroit and Lake Erie and\\nhave a first-hand or immediate knowledge of them, but\\nConstantinople and the Black Sea I have not seen, and\\nso know them only mediately or at second-hand, that is,", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "LEARNING AND TEACHING. g\\nthrough language and pictures. In the case of first-hand\\nknowledge there are two terms in the series in\\nSecond- the case of second-hand knowledge there are\\nhand three terms. This distinction of first and second-\\nKnowledge. 1 -1\\nhand knowledge, while important in its own\\nplace, does not, however, touch the core of the learning\\nprocess. No matter whether we know the object directly\\nor indirectly, the object itself or the representation of it\\nmust come into real relation with the mind. Thus our\\nearliest knowledge originates in points of contact between\\nour mental faculties and natural objects lying right about\\nus in the world. Later we learn other objects through lan-\\nguage and other forms of representation. We cannot ex-\\nplain the excitation or activity of the mind that is caused by\\nbringing objects of knowledge into contact with it, any\\nmore than we can explain the excitation of the mouths of\\ncertain animals when particles of food come in their way\\nbut we are certain of the fact the young mind puts out\\nits tentacles, so to speak, and makes these objects of\\nknowledge its own.\\nThe word learn is supposed to come from a root\\nmeaning to go or to go over, and it means to gain knowl-\\nedge or inform.ation in regard to some subject\\nivearn ascertain by inquiry, study, or investigation\\nto fix in the mind to acquire understanding\\nor skill. Activity is involved in the very root idea.\\nThe root of the word teach means to show, and in\\nthe broadest sense it means to secure the desired relation\\nbetween the mind and some appropriate educa-\\nTeach*^ tloii-material. It may be conceived of as leading\\nthe mind to knowledge, or as bringing knowl-\\nedge to the mind. The teacher, accordingly, is merely a\\nmediator between the knowing mind of the pupil, on the", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "lO THE ART OF STUDY.\\none hand, and the matter that is to be known, on the\\nother. He brings the two together and so assists the\\nmind in the generation of knowledge. Hence the defini-\\ntions To teach is to cause to learn; Teaching is\\ncausing another to know Teaching involves the idea\\nof knowledge obtained by an active mental process.\\nLearning and teaching, closely united as they are, are\\nnot inseparable, because a man may learn without a\\nteacher in the school of self-cultivation. It\\nThe Two not y^^ ^^j^ ^j^^^ j^^ ^^^j^ ^j^^ learner is\\nInseparable.\\nself-taught, or is his own teacher, but such use\\nof the words, while consonant with the nature of the teach-\\ning process, is rather outside of the strict line of usage.\\nBut while there may be learningwithout teaching, there\\ncan be no teaching without learning. Learning is not\\nRelations merely the correlative idea of teaching, but is\\naid TeTch? constituent elements. Teaching in-\\ning. volves the idea of a pupil, and this pupil in a\\nstate of mental activity that is produced by the teaching.\\nWhen the pupil s mind ceases to respond to the substance\\npresented, there is no teaching, no matter what the\\nteacher may do. When learning ceases, teaching ceases.\\nA teacher cannot teach a group of absolutely inert pupils\\nany more than he can teach a group of stumps or a pile\\nof bowlders. In fact, such children are not pupils at all.\\nTo appropriate the words of another writer, Teaching is\\nthat part of the two-fold learning-process by which knowl-\\nedge which is yet outside of the learner s mind, is directed\\ntoward that mind and learning is that part of the same\\ntwo-fold process by which the knowledge taught is made\\nthe learner s own. Still, as before, however, there can be\\nno teacher where there is not a learner although, on the\\nother hand, there may be a learner where there is no one\\nelse than himself to be his teacher.", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "LEARNING AND TEACHING. II\\nSo this writer insists that intelligent, purposeful teach-\\ning includes the idea of two persons, both of whom are\\nTeaching active, and not merely active, but active over\\nImplies the same lesson. This end may be secured by\\nearn ng. ^|_^^ teacher hearing a recitation and comment-\\ning on it but this is not necessarily teaching, since\\nthe pupil may be merely exercising his memory, re-\\nciting what he has memorized verbally without under-\\nstanding a word of it, and so is not taught anything because\\nhe does not learn anything. In such case he is not caused\\nto know a single fact or truth that he did not know before,\\neither from the lesson itself or from the teacher s hearing\\nhim recite nor does he learn anything by his teacher s\\nwisest comments or explanations, no matter how valuable\\nthese may be in themselves, if he pays no attention to\\nthem or if he is unable to understand them. There must\\nbe mutual effort directed to the same end. The teacher\\nmust strive to cause the pupil to learn a particular\\nfact or truth that he wants him to know the learner\\nmust seek to learn this particular fact or truth, and\\nuntil the two are enlisted in this common work, the\\nprocess of teaching has not begun. To be sure, teach-\\ning and learning are things of degrees I am here speak-\\ning of the ideal.\\nStrictly speaking there is no such thing as giving or\\nimparting knowledge. Every one must make his own\\nknowledge, for man is a knowledge-maker by nature.\\nAll that one person can do for another, as a teacher for\\na pupil, is to help to do this work. The child is engaged\\nin making knowledge from his earliest days.\\nIn this sense we have all been engaged more or less in original re-\\nsearch from our earliest years and we probably attain greater success\\nin infancy than in youth or in later life. The young child is completely", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "j2 THE ART OF STUD V.\\nLearning governs teaching, as the history of the word\\nsuggests. Once, and this no farther back than Spenser\\nand Shakespeare, learning applied to both efforts, that of\\nthe pupil as well as that of the teacher a man could learn\\na lesson or he could learn a pupil.\\nThe function or office of the pupil and the function or\\noffice of the teacher are therefore perfectly clear. The\\npupil is to learn, the teacher is to teach or help\\nPupil and \\\\^i^ learn both are active about the same thing,\\nbut active in different ways. More definitely,\\nthe function or office of the teacher is to mediate Ibe-\\ntween the pupil s mind and the things that the pupil must\\nlearn or know. The question whether the teacher shall\\nlead the pupil to these things or bring the things to the\\npupil, is much like the question of bringing the horse and\\nthe water together. The teacher s success is measured by\\nthe pupil s success. We shall not here enter into the ele-\\nments that are involved in successful mediation between\\nmind and knowledge, that is, in teaching, further than to\\nsay that the teacher must select matter which is suitable\\nfor the pupil at his stage of advancement, and so com-\\nbine, arrange, and present this matter that the pupil can\\nunderstand and learn.\\nParallel Reading. Teachiiig and Teachers, H. Clay Trum-\\nbull. Philadelphia, John D. Wattles, 1884. Chap. I. The\\nTeaching Process. I have made free use of this chapter in\\npreparing my own.) Studies in Education, B. A. Hinsdale.\\nChicago and New York, Werner School Book Co., 1896. Chap.\\nI. The Sources of Human Cultivation\\ncut off from all external sources of information; audit could acquire no\\nknowledge beyond a remembrance of confused sensations, if it did not", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "LEARNING AND TEACHING. 13\\npossess the power of putting that and that together and finding things out\\nfor itself. By applying this power, however, the child succeeds in bringing\\na large measure of order out of the chaos of sensations which it experi-\\nences. The method that it uses is the scientific or knowledge-making\\nmethod. Prof. A. MacMechan.", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II.\\nSTUDY AND ITS RELATIONS TO LEARNING AND\\nTEACHING.\\nLearning is the activity of the pupil, teaching the ac-\\ntivity of the instructor and in the good school the two\\nactivities are found in constant relation. The pupil is\\nstriving to learn the instructor to teach. We are now\\nto define study and demonstrate its relation to teaching\\nand learning.\\nOur English words study, student, and studious\\nall go back to the Latin verb stndcre^ which means, first,\\nstudy, to be eager, zealous, or diligent about somebody\\nstudent, or somethingr to be friendly, attached, or\\nStudious. 1 1 r t\\nfavorable to a person, or to favor him and\\nsecondly, to apply one s self with zeal and interest to the\\nacquisition of knowledge or learning, or to study. Both\\ndefinitions denote an active state of mind; that is, the\\nelement of zeal or interest found in the original word runs\\nthrough all its changes. In the second sense, therefore,\\na student would be one who pursues some subject with\\ninterest he would study when he devotes himself zeal-\\nously to mastering some subject, while a study would be\\na subject that he could pursue with zeal. The second\\nand later meaning of the word seems remote from the\\n14", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "STUDY, LEARNING, AND TEACHING. 15\\nfirst one, but it is not difficult to explain how it origin-\\nated.i\\nWe shall have no further use for the original meaning\\nof studcre, since our subject lies wholly in the line of the\\nlater meaning or definition of the word. But\\nfnin*^^ even here we must narrow the field for study,\\nin the proper sense of the term, is by no means\\nco-extensive with the pursuit or the zealous pursuit of\\nknowledge. The tendency of usage is to confine the word\\nwithin much narrower limits. Dr. Alexander Bain, for\\nexample, finds the idea of study closely associated with\\nthat of learning from books. To quote a few sen-\\ntences from this writer\\nWe may stretch the word, without culpable license, to comprise\\nthe observation of facts of all kinds, but it more naturally suggests\\nthe resort to book-lore for the knowledge that we are in\\non Study. Q^est of. There is considerable propriety in restricting\\nit to this meaning or, at all events, in treating the art of\\nbecoming wise through reading as different from the arts of observing\\nfacts at first hand. In short, study should not be made co-extensive\\n1 The question to be answered is how studere^ which meant originally\\nmerely to be zealous about something, or to be diligent in general, came to\\nbe limited to diligence about knowledge or learning. Why was not the\\nword limited to plowing, tailoring, or baking bread Obviously, if a man\\nis really eager or zealous about somebody or something, he will naturally\\ngive him or it serious attention that is, he will inquire and try to find out\\nhow he can favor the man or secure the thing and such inquiry is just what\\nconstitutes study in the secondary sense of the word. This gives the pro-\\ncess or method prominence, and it was easy when this point had been\\nreached, if not indeed necessary, to limit shidere in the abstract, or to study\\nas we are accustomed to use the word. Thus it came about that stiidere\\ncame to mean to pursue knowledge zealously, and studium, the correlative\\nnoun, came to mean a subject, a branch of knowledge, or a study. Studium\\nalso meant a place where study is done, or a school. Thus, the institutions\\nthat we now call universities were originally called studia iiniversalia, or\\npublic schools.", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "l6 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nwith knowledge-getting, but with book-learning. In thus narrowing\\nthe field, we have the obvious advantage of cultivating it more care-\\nfully, and the unobvious, but very real advantage of dealing with one\\nhomogeneous subject.\\nThe last remark refers solely to Dr. Bain s own treat-\\nment of the subject, but it is just as applicable to my own.\\nstudy and He says again The mental exercise that we\\nthe Use of j-^qw Call study began when books began, when\\nknowledge was reduced to language and laid\\nout systematically in verbal compositions.\\nSo far the history of the word supports Dr. Bain s view.\\nUnmistakably the tendency has been to confine the\\nstudy not word study to the use of books. When we\\ni^imitedto deal witli real things, as natural objects, we\\ncommonly employ some other word or words.\\nOne may, to be sure, study a daisy, a crab, or a piece of\\ncoral, but he is more apt to say he examines or investi-\\ngates it. When Dr. Bain goes further, however, as he\\ndoes, and says that study relates more to self-education\\nthan to instruction under masters that it supposes\\nthe voluntary choice of the individual rather than the\\nconstraint of an outward discipline, and that the time\\nfor its application is when the pupil is emancipated\\nfrom the prescription and control of the scholastic\\ncurriculum, we cannot yield our assent. This view ex-\\ncludes teachers and the school from the field of study\\nproperly so-called, and confines the word to self-cultiva-\\ntion, which usage, at least in this country, would not\\nsanction, however it may be in England. With us, cer-\\ntainly, usage does not tend even to the partial exclusion of\\nschools and teachers from this field. On the other hand,\\nthe word at once suggests those instruments of education.\\nPractical Essays, New York, 1). Appleton Co., 1884, pp. 203-4.", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "STUDY, LEARNING, AND TEACHING.\\n17\\nStill it is an important fact that study is not limited to\\nschools. Men can study and do study without schools\\nstudy not teachers to suppose that they do not is to\\ni^imitedto commit a blunder even greater than to Say that\\npupils do not study in schools. Unfortunately,\\nmany youths, on taking leave of school, leave study and\\nstudies behind them. They forget that when what Rosen-\\nkranz calls the absolute limit of education is reached,\\nthe original inequality between the pupil and the teacher\\nis canceled, and that the pupil should now enter into\\nthe field of self-culture. The two persons may con-\\ntinue to be friends, but they are no longer teacher and\\npupil. The relation that these words express is a beau-\\ntiful one in its own proper time, but, protracted beyond\\nthat time, it is offensive. It argues patronage upon the\\none part and dependence upon the other. The French\\nphilosopher Condillac, addressing a pupil who had reached\\nthis stage of progress, said Henceforth, Sir, it remains\\nfor you alone to instruct yourself. Perhaps you imagine\\nyou have finished but it is I who have finished. You\\nare to begin anew This is the point of view from which\\nit is sometimes said that the business of the teacher is to\\nmake himself useless, which he does by putting the pupil\\nupon his feet and teaching him to walk alone.\\nWhat has been said suggests the relation to each other\\nof reading and study. As an exercise of mind, they do\\nnot differ save in dee^ree both arts look to\\nReading\\nand Study obtaHimg thought or meanmg from the prmted\\nDiscrimi- page. But study is more than reading: it\\nmay be called intensive reading. The student\\ngoes over the matter more attentively than the reader\\n1 The Philosophy of Ed7icatio7t, New York, D. Appleton Co., 1886, p. 49.\\n2 History of Pedagogy, Compayre, Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1886, p. 318.\\nArt of Shidy 2", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "1 8 THE ART OF STUD V.\\nhe recalls it more fully, possesses himself of it more\\nthoroughly. There is a difference, too, in the subject-\\nmatter of reading and study. We do not commonly ap-\\nply the term reading to text-books and other works of\\na similar character prepared expressly for school use, but\\nto books or other reading matter of a more general char-\\nacter containing literary elements. Thus, the pupil studies\\nhis grammar and arithmetic, reads or studies his Lady of\\nthe Lake or Hamlet, but only reads the daily newspaper\\n(unless it be the scores of the ball games) and the fugitive\\nessay. Still more, reading embraces a wider range of\\nmental interests than study. We read for amusement or\\ndiversion as well as for serious instruction, but that idea\\nis rarely associated with studies, or at least with studies\\ncarried on in the school. Thus there appears in the\\nmodern word study that element of zeal or thorough-\\nness which characterizes the ancient word studcrc.\\nThe remark should be added that in England study is\\nnot used in our peculiar school sense; read is rather\\nThe En word that is employed where we say\\nlish Sense study. Thus, at the universities, the studcnt\\nof Rea reads chemistry and calculus, Demosthenes\\nand Tacitus, as well as Adam Smith and David Hume,\\nwhile the hard student is the hard reader. Again, we\\nhave spoken of knowledge or instruction as though it\\nconstituted the end both of study and of serious reading,\\nnay more, the end of learning itself. This is a contro-\\nverted question as well as an important one, but it will\\nnot be dealt with in this place beyond the promise to\\nconsider it in a future chapter.\\nIn view of the preceding discussion the answer to the\\nquestion. What is the relation of study to learning\\nand teaching is obvious enough. Study is the use of", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "STUDY, LEARNING, AND TEACHING. 19\\nbooks for the serious purpose of gaining knowledge\\nit looks to the mastery of a subject, or of some\\nstudy and r 1\\ni^earning. portion of a subject, by means of what has\\nbeen written about it. More narrowly, pupils\\nand students commonly associate study with text-books,\\nbut the association is not a necessary one. Study is a\\nmode of learning, but not the only mode, for we can\\nlearn by observation, by listening to conversation, or by\\nthe simple reading of an article in the newspaper. Suc-\\ncessful study of a subject is the same thing as learning it\\nif the student succeeds with a lesson, he knows it, not,\\nperhaps, as fully as the author, or as the teacher, but he\\nknows it according to his own measure. Thus the word\\ntends to exclude oral instruction and the direct investiga-\\ntion of facts that is, lectures or other oral lessons and\\nthe work of the laboratory. At the same time, the ex-\\nclusion of these exercises is more formal than real, be-\\ncause intellectual applications never wholly lose their iden-\\ntity. Still, we shall best advance our immediate object\\nby keeping books, and particularly text-books, constantly\\nin mind for while the investigation of things and the\\nstudy of books have much in common, they are, never-\\ntheless, distinct arts. The library is not a laboratory or\\nthe laboratory a library, except in a figure of speech.\\nAnd, still further, notwithstanding the great progress\\nmade in recent years by real study, that is by the direct\\nstudy of objects, as in nature lessons, the book still gives,\\nand will continue to give, the norm to the school.\\nParallel Reading. Practical Essays, Alexander Bain.\\n.New York, D. Appleton Co., 1884. Chap. VIII. The\\nArt of Study (See Chapter XXI. of the present work for\\nfurther references).", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nTHE ART OF STUDY DEFINED.\\nWe have now defined learning, teaching, and study,\\nand demonstrated their relations. The pupil learns when\\nhe acquires knowledge, and the teacher teaches when he\\nassists the pupil to learn. Again, the pupil studies when\\nhe seeks to meet his teacher fairly and squarely on the\\nlesson that has been assigned him by preparing that lesson.\\nBut what is the art of study\\nThe term art is used in two senses. First, it means\\nskill or practical ability actually shown in the pursuit of\\nTwo Senses some calling or activity. Secondly, it means\\nof Art: The ^\\\\^q activity in which such skill is shown con-\\nPractical\\nand the sidcrcd as a subject. Thus, when we speak of\\nReflective, ^j^^ photographer s art we may mean either the\\ndegree of skill or proficience that a particular photographer\\nshows in making photographs, or the making of such\\npictures considered as a vocation to be followed or a\\nsubject to be studied. The same may be said of paint-\\ning, oratory, architecture, teaching, or any other pur-\\nsuit to which the term art is properly applied. To be\\nmaster of one s art is to possess much ability in the prose-\\ncution of some employment called an art. Furthermore,\\nan art in the second sense has its own methods, rules, and\\nhistory that may be made the subjects of investigation or\\nstudy. In this sense the term reflective may be applied\\n20", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "THE ART OF STUDY DEFINED. 2 1\\nto an art, the suggestion being that the cultivator of this art\\nhalts, so to speak, in his practice or activity in order to\\nmake it the subject of examination. Nor is this all cer-\\ntain arts have rules and methods in common, and so we\\napply the term to them collectively, calling them art in a\\ngeneral or abstract sense.\\nThe relations of art as practical skill and art as method\\nor a code of rules is an interesting subject. Experience\\nRelations counts for much in such matters, but the intel-\\nof skm and iJgent practice of any art presupposes a certain\\nMethod. r 1 r 1\\namount of study of, or of acquamtance with, its\\nmethod and rules. The practitioner in such case must be\\nfamiliar with the leading features of his art. He may not\\nhave acquired his knowledge in large degree from books\\nor lectures, but, if not, he must have investigated the sub-\\nject directly for himself. On the other hand, it is equally\\nclear that no mere investigation of an art, no amount of\\nknowledge concerning it, will, of itself, make a skillful\\npractitioner or artist. Knowledge, while invaluable in\\nitself, can never be made to take the place of that practice\\nwhich makes perfect. The student, if he would possess\\nskill, must try his own prentice hand. until it becomes a\\npracticed hand. There are many students of painting,\\nsculpture, and other arts, who are not looking forward to\\nthe practice of these arts at all, but who pursue them be-\\ncause they think the knowledge thus acquired is useful,\\nor because they value the culture that they afford.\\nThe value of practice or experience in what are some-\\ntimes called practical matters is well understood; so\\nwell, indeed, that the theory, as it is often\\n^^gQ^Jy^^ mistakenly called, is greatly undervalued in\\ncomparison with practice; but in other fields\\ntheory is sometimes overrated. In moral training, for", "height": "3395", "width": "2176", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "22 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nexample, it is sometimes assumed that the great thing is\\nthe acquirement of moral ideas, precepts, and rules, or\\nmoral instruction, thus ignoring or undervaluing moral\\nhabits, which can be built up only through activity or\\npractice.\\nWhat has been said of the arts in general is true of the\\nart of study in particular. The phrase means, first, per-\\nTheArtof practical abihty, in carrying on\\nStudy studies, and, secondly, study as a subject of\\nDefined. investigation, consisting of its own peculiar\\nmethod and rules. The student illustrates the first mean-\\ning of the art of study when he studies according to an\\nintelligent plan some subject, such as history or literature\\nand the second, when he seeks by study to find out\\nthe method and rules of the art, whether by his own im-\\nmediate effort or by attending to the instruction of a\\nteacher or an author. In this second sense study is a\\nreflective art.\\nWhat has now been called art in the second or reflective\\nsense, is sometimes called theory or science. This is a\\nReflective gi cat mistake. Theory or science consists of\\nAft and facts anc^ principles reflective art, of rules and\\nmethods; both duly organized. The one an-\\nswers the questions what and why the other the ques-\\ntion how\\nTo the preceding discussion of study as an art, two or\\nthree observations should be added.\\nI. It is not necessary that a student, to be successful in\\nstudy, should study his art in a formal or reflective way.\\nFew good students, even those as far advanced\\nFormaTiTrt! the College, have done so. These students\\nhave acquired their skill in study by the prac-\\ntice of study. It is, to be sure, a fair question whether", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "THE AR T OF STUD V DEFINED.\\n23\\nstudents, or at least advanced students, might not give\\nmore formal attention to their art with advantage to them-\\nselves but we shall not enter upon a discussion of the\\nquestion in this place.\\n2. The student may study his art laboriously and never\\nbecome a good student that is, never learn to practice\\nhis art successfully. Here, as elsewhere, one\\nnot pictice. ^^y acquire knowledge of method, rule, and\\nprecept without acquiring the ability or skill to\\nput it to use. In fact, at a certain stage of progress, such\\nknowledge is a positive disadvantage, as it impedes rather\\nthan accelerates practice. But the main fact is this a\\npupil will learn to study by studying, and not otherwise,\\njust as he will learn to swim by swimming, and not other-\\nwise.\\n3. It is practice and study, then, and not simply study,\\nthat makes one perfect in an art. But everything depends\\nupon the kind of practice. Mere mechanical\\nand^F^o^iai g^ii iding, no matter how long continued, will\\nstudy. never bring perfection. Practice must be intel-\\nligent, or it must be conducted according to a right\\nmethod. Now some happy pupils may, without great\\nloss of time, find out this method for themselves, but the\\nmajority of pupils will not be able to do so. Ac-\\ncordingly the teacher should give much attention to his\\npupils efforts to learn their lessons, looking after the\\nhabits that they are forming, and, as far as possible, assist-\\ning them to form good habits. For this there are two\\nreasons one is that he will secure far better immediate\\nresults, and the other that he will assist the pupils to ac-\\nquire an art which will be useful through life. Such work\\nrequires much oversight the teacher must discover the\\npupils incorrect way of doing things and show them the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "24\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\ncorrect way, and by hint, suggestion, and encouragement\\nhasten them on their road. Nor must it be forgotten that\\nthe teacher may overdo as well as underdo the pupil, in a\\nmost important sense, must learn to study for himself,\\nand all that the teacher can do is to help him. In partic-\\nular, where assistance takes the form of rule and precept,\\nit must, to be effective, be indirect and incidental.\\nParallel Reading. Studies in EducatioJi, B. A. Hinsdale.\\nChicago and New York, Werner School Book Co., 1896.\\nChap. IV. The Science and the Art of Teaching", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nNEGLECT OF THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThis book opens with the two statements that the art\\nof study is one of the most vakiable arts that a child or\\na youth can acquire, and that it is nowhere adequately\\ntaught. Some of the facts that justify the first statement\\nhave been given in the preceding chapters, and some of\\nthose that justify the second one will be given in this\\nchapter.\\nIn the schools, the art of study is taught, for the\\nmost part, indirectly, wholly at random, and very im-\\nNe lect of P^^ fectly. No book or manual is put into the\\nArtof study pupil s hauds, and, if one were, he could not\\nuse it. Furthermore, the ordinary teacher\\ndoes not know how to teach the art well, or even\\nunderstand its importance. It is to be feared that often\\nhe would not be able to set a very good example\\nof practice or skill in the art, if called upon to do so.\\nThe books, articles, and lectures from which the teacher\\nhas gained his own instruction relating to teaching give\\nlittle attention to study, at least under its own proper\\nname and in a practical manner. Outside of the schools,\\nthings are in one respect better than they are inside of\\nthem. The literature of self-culture treats the art of\\nself-culture in a much more helpful way than the liter-\\nature of teaching treats the arts of study and of learn-\\ning. Unfortunately, however, this literature is quite\\n25", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "26 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nbeyond most of the pupils in the schools, and is not much\\nread by the majority of teachers themselves.\\nIn consequence of the general neglect properly to teach\\nthe art of study in the schools, most pupils pick up such\\nknowledge and skill as they actually possess. As a result,\\na large majority of them never become proficient in the\\nPu iisDefi- while everybody can read, we find so-\\ncient in the cicty full of young people, and old people too,\\nwho have no power, or very little, to carry\\non the investigation of any subject by means of books.\\nMiscellaneous reading for diversion, or even for the pur-\\npose of obtaining knowledge, is common enough, but it is\\nnot study.\\nCompetent judges will unhesitatingly assent to the\\nstatements that have just been made. Moreover, they\\nWaste of assent, with equal readiness, to the further\\nTime in statement that multitudes of persons suffer\\ngreatly on account of their ignorance of this\\nart. In the schools, particularly, time is wasted, energy\\nthrown away, and opportunity lost because pupils cannot\\nstudy, that is, cannot properly do their work. Let it not\\nbe supposed that these remarks apply to elementary\\nschools only, to which the name pupil might seem to\\nlimit them they apply also, but in less degree, to high\\nschools and academies and even to colleges and universi-\\nties.\\nNotorious facts lend to these remarks all needed con-\\nfirmation. For example, one of the commonest com-\\nTheTesti- P^^hits made by tcaclicrs relative to their pu-\\nmony of pils is that they are not properly prepared\\ners. their work. This complaint is heard\\nfrom the bottom of the scale to the top, and be-\\ncomes louder as we ascend. It is loud in the upper grades", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "NEGLECT OF THE ART OF STUDY.\\n27\\nof the elementary schools, louder in the high schools, and\\nloudest in the colleges. It takes on two forms. One\\nform is that pupils do not know what they ought to know\\nthe other and more significant form is that these pupils\\ndo not know how to study, or cannot practically do their\\nwork. The relation of these two answers to each other\\nor the relation of positive knowledge to mental power\\nand skill in acquiring knowledge is an important topic;\\nbut for the present purpose the one form of complaint is\\nas serious as the other. It may, perhaps, be said that the\\ncomplaints which teachers make of the lack of preparation\\nin their pupils are exaggerated, and we can readily see that\\nsuch may be the case but it is impossible to dispose of\\nthem all in that way, or, indeed, in any way short of as-\\nsuming that there is a great deal of truth behind them.\\nAt this stage of the discussion there occurs the ques-\\ntion, What is a reasonable rate of progress for the pu-\\nwhat is a P^^ make in school? Or, to put the question\\nReasonable in another form. What is a reasonable require-\\npr^gr^ssin rnent to imposc on him at any given stage of\\nSchools? his educational progress? On this point there\\nis some diversity of both practice and opinion. It is well\\nknown that the French boy or the German boy at the age of\\neighteen or nineteen, trained in the schools of his country\\nand looking forward to the university, is fully two years\\nin advance of the American boy of the same age trained\\nin our schools and having a similar destination. The su-\\nperiority of the foreign boy, however, must not be mis-\\nunderstood it lies exclusively in the education\\nFre^ch^ and that is fumishcd by the schools. In the broader\\nAmerican scusc in which the word is often used the\\ntraining and knowledge that come from imme-\\ndiate contact with the world the French boy or the Ger-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "28 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nman boy is as much inferior to the American boy as he\\nsurpasses him in scholastic attainments and abihty. More\\ndefinitely, the American boy, when he leaves the high\\nschool, is much inferior to the German boy on leaving the\\ngymnasium in two particulars first, the knowledge that\\nis directly obtained in the school, and second, mental\\npower. He is, however, a little younger. What is the\\ncause of this disparity\\nFor one thing, the German and French boys who\\nfinish the studies of the secondary schools are a more\\ncarefully selected class of boys, intellectually considered,\\nthan the boys who graduate from our high schools. A\\nmajority, if not nearly all of them, are in training for the\\nuniversity, while much the larger number of the graduates\\nfrom our high schools pass at once into practical life. For\\nthis reason, these foreign boys, considered as scholars, are\\nsuperior to our American boys who attend the high school.\\nFor another thincr, the tension of the hiq;her in-\\nGertnan 5=\\nand French tcllcctual life is greater in France or Germany\\nSchools. ^j^,^j^ j^ j^ j^^ ^j^^ United States. Then, the French\\nand German courses of study, especially in secondary\\nschools, have been more carefully wrought out and are\\nbetter adapted to their purposes than our courses of study.\\nFrom the day that a German boy at the age of nine\\nyears enters the gymnasium, he probably has his eye fixed\\nupon the university or the technical high school. This\\ntopic has attracted much attention the last few years at\\nthe hands of our specialists, who have been seeking at\\nonce to shorten and to enrich our school programmes.\\nAgain, it may be that the German boy or the French boy,\\nas compared with the American boy, purchases his scho-\\nlastic superiority at the cost of practical knowledge and\\nability but it is plain that the American boy might make", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "NEGLECT OF THE ART OF STUDY.\\n29\\nmore rapid progress in school than he does without\\nimpairing his practical talents, and that there is urgent\\nreason why he should do so, especially if he is looking\\nforward to a liberal education and a professional career.\\nImportant as these considerations are, they do not fully\\nanswer our question. When all has been said, the fact\\nremains that much of the marking time in\\nTeaching, our schools is duc to the relative incompetence\\nof teachers, which again is due to the most\\npatent causes. In Germany, teaching is a serious calling,\\nto be followed for life in the United States, it is only\\ntoo often the vestibule leading to a calling. Comparing\\nmore closely the teaching of our schools with that of\\nthe German schools, it is found to be inferior in two\\nimportant particulars the knowledge that it imparts,\\nand the habits of mind that it generates. For the pres-\\nent purpose, the main, fact is this the American boy\\ndoes not know how to study as well as the German boy,\\nor is not an equal master of his art. Pupils in schools\\noften mark time because they cannot march forward.\\nThe burden of this chapter is the neglect of the art of\\nstudy in the schools. In the first instance, the fault\\nReform to fault of tcachcrs. But why do teach-\\nBegin with ers neglect this art The answer is partly be-\\ncause they do not appreciate its value, and\\npartly because they do not know how to give it the\\nkind of attention that it requires. Moreover, this lack\\nof appreciation and this lack of ability are closely bound\\nup together. Practical reform, therefore, must begin\\nwith the better preparation of teachers, not so much,\\nindeed, in general scholarship or in the studies that they\\nteach, (which is an important topic by itself,) but in the\\nart of study\u00e2\u0080\u0094 what it is, and how it must be taught to", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "^O THE ART OF STUDY.\\npupils. How teachers shall secure this better instruction\\nis a question that will come before us further on.\\nParallel Reading. The School and Society^ John Dewey.\\nSupplemented by a statement of the University Elementary\\nSchool. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1899. Educa-\\ntional Reform, Charles William Eliot. New York, The Century\\nCo., 1888. Chap. VII. Can School Programmes be Short-\\nened and Enriched Chap. XI. Shortening and Enrich-\\ning the Grammar School Course German Higher Schools,\\nJames E. Russell. New York, Longmans, Green Co., 1899.\\nThe Secondary School System of Gcrma?iy, Frederick E. Bolton.\\nNew York, D. Appleton Co., 1900. Teaching the Language-\\nArts, B. A. Hinsdale. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1896.\\n(See remarks in Introduction relative to American, French, and\\nGerman students).", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nIS KNOWLEDGE OR MENTAL DEVELOPMENT THE END\\nOF TEACHING?\\nThe teacher who has gone carefully through the fore-\\ngoing chapters may think that he should now be brought\\nto the consideration of his own relation, as a teacher, to\\nthe art of study. What is my work, my duty in the\\npremises he will naturally ask. It is the main object of\\nthis book to answer this question but the answer will\\nbe all the clearer and stronger if it is preceded by a brief\\ndiscussion of the end or aim of education itself.\\nM. Compayre notices two different tendencies in\\nmodern educational thought and practice. These tenden-\\ncies appear when we consider the question,\\nand objec- What is the end of education Is it a change\\ntivePed- ^Yie mind itself undero;oes, or is it a\\nstore of facts and ideas that the mind re-\\nquires Compayre states the question thus There\\nare those who wish above all to develop the intelligence\\nand there are others who are preoccupied with furnishing\\nthe mind with a stock of positive knowledge. Some\\naffect a subjective pedagogy, and others an objective\\npedagogy. He considers Descartes a leading exponent of\\nthe one school and Francis Bacon of the other. Which\\nof these two tendencies is the true one? Both views are\\nfirmly rooted in language and in mental habit. The\\nsubjective pedagogy emphasizes power and capacity,\\n1 Histojy of Pedagogy, Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1S97, pp. 191-192,\\n31", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "32 THE ART OF STUDY.\\ndiscipline and training, culture, development, and growth,\\nwhile the objective pedagogy dwells on ideas, facts,\\nknowledge, truths, science, and learning. It will not\\nbe difficult to maintain Compayre s claim that they\\nare both equally right so long as they refrain from\\nexaggeration.\\nFirst, mental discipline, power, culture, call it what\\nyou will, is generated by means of mental activity while\\nactivity, self-activity, is indeed the very char-\\ncomes from acteristic of the mind. But the mind acts only\\nAcTivit something; it cannot act, so to\\nspeak, in a vacuum. Furthermore, the object\\nthat the mind acts upon is an object of knowledge, and\\nthe activity itself is knowing. Discipline and knowledge\\nare acquired together.\\nBut secondly, knowledge cannot be passively acquired.\\nKnowing is an active process. The very word study\\nKnowledge implies zcal and thoroughness, as we have\\nand Mental seen. The mind in forming its earliest ideas\\nis something very different from the sensitive\\nplate in the camera that merely receives impressions.\\nKnowledge, then, depends upon the very agent that pro-\\nduces discipline and culture.\\nSo far the path is clear. What difference does it make,\\nthen, whether we regard education as developed mind or\\nas positive knowledge This is the question that we are\\nnow to examine.\\nIt may be strange, but it is true, that mental develop-\\nment and positive attainments are not mutual measures.\\n_ If they were, the teacher s problem would be\\nPower and\\nKnowledge mucli simplified. Development may be in ex-\\nMea^ur^s^^ cess of attainment, and attainment may be\\nin excess of development. It is well known\\nthat men are not efficient in the work of their hands", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "IS KNOWLEDGE THE END OF TEACHING? 33\\nin the ratio of their strength or effort. The strongest\\nman is not necessarily the best chopper, runner, or\\nboxer he may waste his strength in misdirected and\\nunskillful attempts to accomplish what he does not know\\nhow to do well. Again, men are not efficient in the\\nmental sphere in the ratio of their natural powers or of\\ntheir efforts some men do not know how to use their\\nminds. On the other hand, there are those who suc-\\nceed, some in physical and some in mental work, beyond\\ntheir apparent strength. They make their blows tell, work\\nto advantage, strike when the iron is hot, as we are all\\nexhorted to do by the well-known prudential maxims.\\nHere it is that directive intelligence and practical skill\\ncome into play. So fight I, said St. Paul, not as one\\nthat beateth the air. The figure comes from the boxing\\ncontest. The Apostle strove, metaphorically, to land his\\nblows on the body of his antagonist. It is a well-\\nknown fact that habit or training both saves and increases\\npower.\\nIn the schoolroom misdirected and wasted effort is one\\nof the commonest facts. It is one of the most serious of\\nMisdirected the wastcs in education, of which so much is\\nEjnergy in heard. Who that has seen much of schools has\\nnot witnessed the painful inefficiency and\\nlaborious idleness mentioned by Mr. Mill in his St.\\nAndrews Address as characteristic of the schools of Eng-\\nland The sight is a pathetic one that of the pupil or\\nstudent who has plenty of native power, but who does not\\nknow how to use it to advantage. The blind giants that\\nfigure in stories are no unfit types of many pupils found\\nin schools only the giants are generally restrained by\\ntheir blindness from doing mischief, which is more than\\ncan always be said of the pupils.\\nArt of Study. 3,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "24 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nWhat, then, shall be the teacher s aim, mental disci-\\npline or positive knowledge Neither one to the exclusion\\nTheQues- ^he Other; on the contrary, the teacher\\ntion One of sliould Constantly keep his eye on both these\\nmp asis. ^j^^g from first to last. Dr. Thomas Arnold\\nsaid to the boys at Rugby You come here, not to read,\\nbut to learn how to read, that is, to study, for such is the\\nEnglish use of the word and Sir William Hamilton told\\nhis students at the University of Edinburgh that his aim\\nwould be to teach them, not philosophy, but to philoso-\\nphize. But it is very plain that the boys at Rugby could\\nnot learn how to read, or study, as we should say, without\\nreading or studying, or the students at Edinburgh learn to\\nphilosophize if they were kept ignorant of philosophy as\\nthese distinguished teachers knew perfectly well. The\\nmain question relates to emphasis, as so many educational\\nquestions do. The teacher should pay due heed to the\\nway the pupil does his work, his mental habits, the develop-\\nment of his mind see, in a word, that he acquires the art\\nof study but he should also insist upon positive attain-\\nments in knowledge. Study is not marking time, but\\nit is marching, getting somewhere. Education is not a\\nBarmecide feast, but a substantial repast.\\nThe teacher, let it be said again, must be careful how\\nhe places his emphasis. It was thought once that elemen-\\nTheBogma ^^^7 education, and indeed all education, was\\nofFormai mainlv preparative, a preparation for further\\nDiscipline. J Tvr J^ r, 4.4.\\nstudy or for real life. Not so much attention\\nwas paid to the pupil s positive attainments. The con-\\nsummate flower of this view of education was the dogma\\nof formal discipline,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the theory that by pursuing cer-\\ntain studies, as mathematics and classics, mental energy\\ncould be stored up to be drawn upon for any and all", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "IS KNOWLEDGE THE END OE TEACHING? 35\\npurposes. There is now a strong recoil from this posi-\\ntion knowledge, we are told, is the end. This recoil was\\ncertainly needed, but it must not go too far. It will cer-\\ntainly go too far, however, if men are led to deny the pre-\\nparatory function of education and to lose sight of the\\ndevelopment of the mind.\\nIt is probable that in the long run there is no antago-\\nnism, but rather complete concord, between development\\n_ and knowledc^e, and that what is best for the\\nDevelop-\\nmentand one is best for the other; but in the short run\\nKnowledge. j^ always, or indeed generally true.\\nThere are times, for example, when development and\\nattainment should not receive equal emphasis. Elemen-\\ntary education is largely preparatory, looking to discipline,\\npower, method, and skill it is largely occupied with acquir-\\ning a command of certain arts, the perfect use of Vv^hich\\nwill be found in the future. But this is not true, in the\\nsame sense, of university education, the great end of\\nwhich is positive attainments or knowledge. Here the\\nstudent is supposed to have mastered his arts, at least\\nmeasurably. The intelligent teacher does not always look\\nfor the quickest returns. The amount of walking that a\\nchild does until he is two years old is no compensation,\\nin itself, for the cost of his tuition in the art. It would\\nhave been much easier for his parent or nurse to carry him\\nover the short distances that he has covered but the\\npresent sacrifice is future gain. And so it is with the\\nelementary school. As I have said elsewhere\\nTo convey knowledge at first through reading, strictly speaking,\\nis impossible. The fact is, that if all the time which is spent in\\nl/earning to teaching the pupil to read as a mere art were devoted\\nRead. ^q enlarging his real knowledge or mental store by plying\\nhis faculties of observation with objects, and through conversation, he", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "36\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nwould know more at the end of a year of school life than he now\\nknows. To be sure, the art itself contains objects of real knowledge,\\nthough of little value abstractly considered, and also confers dis-\\ncipline still, from the point of view of real knowledge, the time so\\nspent is mainly wasted. But this waste we gladly incur, since this\\nincomparable instrument of acquirement when once gained is a hun-\\ndredfold compensation.\\nObjective pedagogy has its own attractions for\\nteachers, pupils, and patrons of schools. Holding up\\nWeakness knowledge as its end, it produces results of a\\ntjve Ped-^*^ tangible character that can, to a great extent,\\nagogy. be measured out in examinations. It is a very-\\ntaking theory to the practical man, who rejoices in posi-\\ntive knowledge or what he sometimes terms useful in-\\nformation. But it is attended by one peculiar danger\\nIt tends to foster in the teacher the search for quick re-\\nturns, and so stimulates the cramming system. Let a\\nteacher become firmly possessed by the idea that the\\ngreat end to be sought in teaching is increase of the\\npupil s knowledge, and, unless he is also possessed of\\nmoderation and self-restraint, he will, if energetic, surely\\nfall to cramming.\\nOn the other hand, subjective pedagogy has its at-\\ntractions for certain minds. It is much affected by\\nWeakness students of literature, ancient and modern, and\\njective Fed- ^Y cultivators of philosophical studies. These\\nagogy. persons tend to find the goal of education in\\nthe perfection of the mind itself, not in the abundance or\\ncharacter of its attainments. The teacher who takes this\\nview has his own besetting danger, which is that sound\\nideas and practical methods will evaporate in vague no-\\ntions and inefificient teaching. Both the ignorance and\\nTeaching the Lang7iage-Arts, N. Y., D. Appleton Co. 1896, chap. xii.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "IS KNOWLEDGE THE END OF TEACHING? 37\\nthe indolence of the teacher may be veiled, and the lack\\nof substantial attainments on the part of the pupil be ex-\\ncused, by the free use of such pleasant words as develop-\\nment, growth, and culture. In the latter case the\\nimplication is that, although the pupil may not learn any-\\nthing in particular, it is still well with his mind. To\\nsome extent this is now an evil in many schools the\\npupils are believed to be developed, or at least to be\\ndeveloping, no matter whether they know much or little,\\nor whether what they know bears any relation to the\\nend they have in view.\\nThe conclusion is that the teacher who looks directly to\\nknowledge should also remember mental development.\\nThe Two while the teacher who looks directly to mental\\nKnds. development should never forget knowledge.\\nIt should be added that the teacher is under no obliga-\\ntion to disclose his purpose to the pupil. To do so is some-\\nThe Teacher times injurious, and hence ends must not unfre-\\nNeed Not quentlv be sous^ht indirectly. This is particu-\\nDeclare his T\u00c2\u00bb/r 1 f 1\\nPurpose. larly true m the moral sphere. Much depends\\nupon what the end is. Knowledge- may safely be held\\nbefore the ])upirs mind as a thing to be striven for but,\\nas a rule, little good will come, and much harm, from\\nsimilarly holding out to him mental development. On\\nthis point Mr. Latham has some remarks which are so\\nadmirable that I shall venture to quote them\\nThere are some who think it possible to eng-age the interest of\\nyoung people in their own mental culture, as much as in the acquisi-\\nMr. ivatham tion of accomplishment, etc. In the great majority\\nQuoted. of cases, however, entreaties to a youth to take earnestly\\nto a study, in order to expand his mind, are pretty well thrown away.\\nA boy is firmly persuaded that his mind is very well as it is he can-\\nnot for the life of him understand what is meant by its being expanded\\nwhen you begin to talk about studies doing good to his mind, he", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "38\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\ntakes it to show that you have nothing better to say in their favor, and\\nthat in reality they are of no good. You will do more with him,\\nusually, by calling on him to work in pure faith as a matter of duty,\\ntelling him that at that time he cannot be made to see the good of\\nthese studies, but that he must work, taking it on trust that there is a\\ngood, and that you know what it is, and would not worry him with\\nlessons for lessons sake.\\nSometimes a persuasive teacher will lead a few boys in the upper\\nclasses in a school to fancy that they are interested in the training of\\ntheir minds. The result too often is that they are made self-conscious\\nprigs. They will tell you that they are studying this and that to give\\nthem method, or accuracy, or a command of language. They are fre-\\nquently discovering peculiarities in their own mental structure they\\nwill consult their tutor on the way to remedy certain defects of which\\nthey are conscious which defects, by the way, are mostly of that kind\\nwhich they in their hearts believe to be only excellencies transformed\\nand so they get positively injured, either by the habit of retrospec-\\ntion in reality, or by the affectation of watching the action of their\\nminds, and by boundless talking about themselves.\\nThe point of view taken in this chapter is that of the\\nteacher in the schoolroom. It is assumed that the end of\\neducation as preparation for complete living has been\\nchosen and the school set in order to gain that end.\\nThis done, the question presents itself to the teacher\\nShall knowledge or discipline be my immediate end\\nParallel Reading. On the Correlation of Studies, W. T.\\nHarris. {Report of Coininittee of Fifteen on Elementary Educa-\\ntion). New York, American Book Company, 1895. Studies\\nin Education,B. A. Hinsdale. Chicago and New York, Wer-\\nner School Book Co., 1896. Chap. H. The Dogma of\\nFormal Dscipline Chap. IH. The Laws of Mental Con-\\ngruence and Energy Applied to Some Pedagogical Problems\\n1 Oh the Action of Exaniinations Considered as a Means of Selection,\\nLondon, George Bell Sons, 1S77, pp. 33-34-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nTHE FIRST STAGE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE ART OF\\nSTUDY.\\nIt was stated in the first chapter that the sole func-\\ntion of the teacher, as an instructor, is to mediate be-\\ntween the pupil s mind, on the one part, and\\nHow shall\\nthe Teacher the things that the pupil should learn or know,\\nPerform his Qj^ the Other. He should either brin^ the\\nFunction fc.\\nthings that are to be known to the pupil,\\nor lead the pupil to the things, whichever way one may\\nprefer to put it. How shall the teacher perform this\\nfunction\\nTo answer this question we must recall the distinction\\nmade in the same chapter between the knowledge that re-^\\n_ suits when the mind and the thine: are brous^ht\\nTwo Spheres\\nofKnowi- into direct contact, and the knowledge that\\nedge again. j.gg^||-g ^yi^^en there is merely a representation of\\nthe thing, such as a report, description, or picture pres-\\nent to the mind. Manifestly there is a difference between\\nknowing Niagara Falls from looking at it, and knowing it\\nthrough another person s oral or written account, or even\\nfrom a picture. But there is a difference in the apprehen-\\nsion of things some I may know in both ways, some\\nonly in one way. Some external objects I know both\\ndirectly and indirectly through my own faculties, and\\nthrough representation but many more I can know\\nonly indirectly, since it is impossible for me to go to them\\n39", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "40 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nor for them to be brought to me. Perhaps the object\\ndoes not now exist, perhaps it is too distant for contact\\nbetween it and me to be established, and perhaps it eludes\\nme owing to my lack of expertness or skill in observation.\\nI cannot directly know Nero s palace at Rome, because\\nit perished long ago, or the Philippine Islands, because\\nthey are thousands of miles distant, or microbes, because\\nI am not a microscopist. Again, internal objects, or the\\nstates of my own mind, I know only directly through\\nconsciousness; no one can report these objects to me\\nfaithfully, because no one but myself really knows them.\\nThere are, then, two great spheres of knowledge, the\\nfirst-hand and the second-hand. Next, it must be observed\\nTeaching education must move in both these\\nMoves in sphcrcs. The child first Icams things dircctly,\\np eres.^^^^ knows them for himself he is an origi-\\nnal investigator and discoverer, using his own eyes, ears,\\nand other senses in acquiring sensations, and his own\\nfaculties of mind in working these sensations up into\\nideas. Such knowledge is the first that the child ac-\\nquires. What is more, in the earlier period of a child s life,\\nall that a second person can do to promote the knowing\\nprocess is through the selection and presentation to him\\nof appropriate objects; explanations he will not under-\\nstand. But soon the child begins to learn at second-hand\\nthat is, he begins to know things through the accounts\\nthat others give him, instead of the things themselves.\\nThese accounts he understands through his stock of facts\\nand ideas gained at first-hand. Second-hand knowledge\\nis, therefore, supplementary to first-hand knowledge.\\nWhat the individual can learn directly, for himself, is not\\nenough to answer his purposes. Besides, he can learn\\nmany things much better, and more quickly, indirectly", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "THE FIRST STAGE IN THE ART OF STUDY. 41\\nfrom others than he can learn them directly for himself\\nwhile through oral communication with others, through\\nthe newspaper, the magazine, the book, and the library,\\nhe can reenforce his meager but invaluable store of facts,\\nideas, and thoughts by drawing upon the vast store that\\nthe race has been some thousands of years in accumulat-\\ning. In this way the feeble individual arms himself with\\nthe might of the human race.\\nLet us next inquire how all this affects the work of the\\nteacher. The child comes to school with his own Httle\\nstock of facts, ideas, and thouHits of men and\\nThe Child on\\ncoming to things, some of them received at first-hand,\\nSchool. some at second-hand, and some partly in one\\nway and partly in the other. His mind is growing in\\nboth of the two spheres of knowledge, but more rapidly\\nin the first than in the second sphere. He has as yet no\\nother means of communicating with the store of collect-\\nive knowledge or thought than oral language. This, it\\nmay be observed, is a fortunate circumstance, since the\\ntendency and effect of it is to keep first-hand knowledge\\nwell in advance. Still, the normal child is eager to learn\\nnew things indirectly he does not soon tire of pic-\\ntures and stories of things and scenes that touch in any\\nway his own experience.\\nThe simple facts that have just been told determine\\nthe work of the teacher as a mediator between the child\\nand objects of knowledcre. He is to promote.\\nThe Teach- 1\\ner s Double as bcst he Can, the child s mental advance-\\nDuty, ment in both spheres of knowledge. More\\ndefinitely, he will, through object lessons and nature\\nteaching, assist the child to increase his stock of\\nobject knowledge, or to come into closer relation with\\nthe external world while through tales, stories, and ex-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "42 THE AR T OF STUD V.\\nplanations he will help the child to increase his second-\\nhand knowledge and so bring him into fuller communion\\nwith the experience of the race.\\nThe first of these duties devolving upon the teacher\\nlies outside of our proper field, and so will not occupy\\nThe First attention save incidentally but it should\\nDuty not In- not be dismisscd until one strong note of\\nstudy. warning has been sounded. The teacher must\\nnot suppose that he has nothing to do in the direction\\nof teaching^real knowledge. Entrance into the school\\nshould not mark a sudden change or break in the child s\\nmental life. Mental growth in the second sphere depends\\nintimately upon the growth in the first sphere. Accord-\\ningly, the pupil s mental life should not be allowed to\\nstarve and dry up at the roots.\\nThe teacher s main duty embraces two processes. The\\nfirst of these is the oral communication of knowledge,\\nwhich assumes the well known form of explanations of\\nobjects that are present, and of reports of objects that\\nare absent. Oral instruction is the easiest, quickest, and\\ncheapest way in which much knowledge can be acquired,\\nand the best way also, provided it is properly correlated\\nwith real things, on the one hand, and books on the other.\\nIf we consider the present only, we must certainly agree\\nwith Dr. Bain s statement of the case.\\nUndoubtedly, the best of all ways of learning anything is to have\\na competent master to dole out a fixed quantity every day, just suffi-\\n_ _ cient to be taken in, and no more the pupils to apply\\nDr. Bam on\\nOral Teacli- themselves to the matter so imparted, and to do nothing\\ning. else. The singleness of aim is favorable to the greatest\\nrapidity of acquirement and any defects are to be left out of account,\\nuntil one thread of ideas is firmly set in the mind. Not unfrequently,\\nhowever, and not improperly, the teacher has a text-book in aid of his\\noral instructions. To make this a help, and not a hindrance, demands", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "THE FIRST STAGE IN THE ART OF STUDY. 43\\nthe greatest delicacy the sole consideration being that the pupil must\\nbe kept in one single line of thought, and never be required to com-\\nprehend on the same point conflicting or varying statements.\\nThe other teaching process is to put books into the\\npupil s hand and show him how to use them. They\\nare the great repositories of the knowledge that\\nThe Teacher 1 1 t -t-i\\nto Teach the the race has accumulated. Ihe meaning of\\ni^anguage- ^his is that the teacher much teach the pupil to\\nArts.\\nread and write. Time was when to teach these\\nelementary arts was thought to be almost the sole func-\\ntion of the primary school nor is it an exaggeration to\\ncall it now the most important function of that school.\\nFor the child, reading is the primary school art.\\nStrictly speaking, the pupil s first lessons in reading are\\nalso his first lessons in study, as we are using that word.\\nThe First Reading, however, is of two kinds, or the word\\ni^esson in jg understood in two ways. To teach a child to\\nReading, the r 11-1 1\\nFirst also in read, m the hrst sense, is to teach him the tech-\\nstudy, nical art that bears this name to teach the\\nmechanical apparatus of letters, words, sentences, and punc-\\ntuation by which thought is conveyed or it is to put into\\nthe pupil s hand the key that unlocks the printed page, the\\nbook, and the library. But in the second and higher sense,\\nteaching a pupil to read consists in showing him how to\\nuse this key in unlocking these mysteries. The distinc-\\ntion is the same as that between any tool and the prac-\\ntical use of the tool. Fundamentally, then, the art of\\nstudy is the same thing as the art of reading, as was ex-\\nplained in an earlier chapter. The teacher s practical\\nquestion is how to teach reading in that intensive sense\\nwhich constitutes study. We are not here concerned with\\nthe technical aspects of the subject.\\n^Practical Essays, New York, D. Appleton Co., 1884, p. 218.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "44 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nIt will be remembered that the term art is used in\\ntwo senses, skill in some kind of activity or practice,\\nand the method to which skill conforms. Hence\\nsfudy in-^ the art of study is either skill in study or it is\\nvoives skui the method of study. Complete mastery of\\nand Method. involves both elements, and so would\\ncomplete instruction in the art. If a good teacher were to\\ndirect a boy through his whole course of study from the\\nfirst primar}^ grade to graduation from college, he would\\nteach him both elements. But in what order would he\\nteach them The answer to this question, while plain\\nenough, is still sometimes mistaken.\\nHow did all the simple arts originate Obviously, in\\npractice or doing, and not in rules or formal method.\\nHistorically, the race bleached cloths, tanned\\nthe^rts. hides, constructed shelters for themselves and\\nornamented these shelters, and fought battles\\nbefore they thought of the rules relating to these arts.\\nAnd so with the individual man he walks, talks, and\\nsings before he knows anything about the appropriate\\nrules or formal methods. The child cannot at first un-\\nderstand or reduce to practice even the simplest rules. He\\nlearns to talk by talking, to walk by walking, to sing by\\nsinging; that is, using the faculties with which Nature\\nhas endowed him, he imitates the similar actions that he\\nsees his seniors perform.\\nConsider how. it is with the technique of reading.\\nThere is an extensive body of rules relating to this art,\\nm rules for the sounds of letters, for inflections\\nTne Tecn-\\nniqiie of and slides, for accent and emphasis, for artic-\\nReading. elation and pronunciation, for pauses and\\nmodulation. Now what does the teacher who teaches a\\nchild to read do with all this apparatus? Why, he simply", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "THE FIRST STAGE IN THE ART OF STUDY.\\n45\\nturns his back upon it. He calls the child to a chart con-\\ntaining a few simple words and sentences, or to a black-\\nboard on which he writes the lessons as they are required.\\nOr, he puts a primer into the child s hand, and begins to\\nexercise him in the simplest elements of the art. The\\nteacher sets an example here and corrects a fault there\\nhe gives a few simple directions, but no rules until the\\nwork is far advanced. Thus the child learns to read by-\\nreading. In course of time he may learn the formal\\nmethod of reading or he may not; but it is very clear\\nthat he will learn to read well, if he ever learns at all, be-\\nfore he knows much about rules and method-\\nThe Child\\ni;earns to ized procedure. Suppose this sensible practice\\nReadby were reversed that the child were required to\\nlearn the rules before he learned to read\\nwhat would happen This, unmistakably, that his prog-\\nress would be greatly retarded, if, indeed, he ever learned\\nto read at all. Reading is a consummate art, which the\\nchild learns by practice under intelligent direction. And\\nso it is with the art of study. The child learns how to\\nlearn by actually learning, and how to study by actually\\nstudying he cannot acquire the art in any other way. In\\nthis first stage, instruction in the art must run in the line\\nof the pupil s work, it must blend with the daily exer-\\ncises of the school.\\nWhat, then, is the teacher s function at this stage of\\nthe child s education Obviously, to help the pupil to\\nThe study or to learn. He is not to conceive of\\nTeacher s \\\\y^ duty as being; accomplished when he as-\\nFunction.\\nSigns lessons and hears them recited. On the\\nother hand, these things at first do not properly enter\\ninto his duty at all.\\nThe teacher is to help the pupil to learn his lesson by", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "46 THE ART OF STUDY,\\nexplaining its language, by correlating it with his previous\\nlessons and general knowledge, and by illus-\\nThe Teacher\\nto Help the trating It from the outside world. He should\\nPupil to j-jQ^ gQ much work for the pupil as work with\\nhim. He should guide him, not by directing\\nhim to go forward, but by leading him forward. He\\nshould not fall to lecturing him on the art, but see that\\nhe actually practices it, and practices it in the proper way.\\nThe teacher may, indeed, drop a hint here and offer a sug-\\ngestion there that is taken from formal method, but noth-\\ning more at this stage of progress. The reflective or formal\\nart of study belongs to a later stage of development.\\nTalking about the art of study is no more teaching a\\nyoung pupil the art than lectures about gymnastics will\\nmake an athlete. Habit comes from practice. There are\\nindeed rules that apply to studies at this stage of knowl-\\nedge these the teacher should understand, and also see\\nthat the pupil observes them as far as possible, but he\\nshould, for the most part, keep them to himself. He\\nshould teach according to method, but not teach method.\\nParallel Reading. Coimnon Sense in Education and\\nTeaching, P. A. Barnett. New York, Longmans, Green Co.,\\n1899. Chap, II. The Influence of Character Chap. VI.\\nAudible Speech The Limits of Oral Teachi?ig, John W.\\nDickinson. Syracuse, C. W. Bardeen, 1890. Teaching the\\nLanguage-Arts, B. A. Hinsdale. New York, D. Appleton\\nCo., 1896. Chap. VII. The Language-Arts in the Lower\\nGrades", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nTHE child s first CONTACT WITH THE BOOK.\\nThe child that we have in view comes to school at the\\nage of five or six years not knowing how to read. The\\nTeaching book is more of a mystery to him than an As-\\nthe Pupil to Syrian inscription would be to the common\\nlaborer. He cannot study the book because\\nhe cannot read it, and he cannotTearn to read it without\\na teacher.\\nThe teacher understands his task and sets about it he\\nworks with the pupil. There is, in the ordinary school-\\nroom sense, no study and no recitation, but a single homo-\\ngeneous exercise that is compounded of both. The\\npupil is trying to learn the mechanism of the printed\\npage, or the technical art of reading, and also to grasp the\\nmeaning that this mechanism conveys. The teacher, on\\nhis side, does the best he can to assist the pupil in both\\nendeavors. No matter what the method may be, al-\\nphabetic, word, or phonic, such is the process in all\\nschools.\\nWe have here exemplified the art of teaching in its\\nsimplest and purest form two minds are active over the\\nThe Pure same matter, one striving to learn, the other to\\nForm of teach. It is the type of all teaching before the\\nTeaching. r\\ninvention of writing and the composition of\\nbooks. Then instruction was direct and personal, ad-\\ndressed either to a single mind or to a group of minds.\\n47", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "48\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nBut the introduction of books brought changes. For\\none thing, it tended to put the sources of knowledge\\nand the teacher farther away from the pupil than they had\\nbeen and, for another thing, it ushered in the art of study.\\nPerhaps the statement should be limited by the qualifica-\\ntion that it was the original or primary sources of knowl-\\nedge that were now removed farther away from the pupil.\\nThere had been learning from the time when minds and\\nthe world were first brought into contact, but there had\\nbeen no study, in our sense of the term, previous to the\\ninvention of reading and writing. Dr. Bain is quite right\\nwhen he says that our art began when books began\\nwhen knowledge was reduced to language, and laid out\\nin verbal compositions. The farther removal of the\\nsources of knowledge and the teacher from the learner, were\\ndisadvantages that have never been wholly removed to\\nthis day but, fortunately, they have been far more than\\ncompensated for by the great blessings that books have\\nconferred upon men.\\nIn this early stage of instruction the teacher understands\\nhis business, and, we will say, performs it in a satisfactory\\nThe Pas- rn^nner. He teaches the pupil to read. The\\nsage from trouble begins, however, when the pupil has\\nReading learned to read his readinq; lesson, or his\\nto study.\\nreader, and when other books, as an elementary\\ngeography and arithmetic, are put into his hands. In one\\nsense the trouble antedates this stage in the pupil s prog-\\nress. That is, the simple homogeneous work of the\\nprimary class, which ran along one line, early began to\\ndivide into two lines of work, one of them called study\\nand the other teaching, or the lesson and the recitation.\\nThe division was not sharp at first, but it became sharper\\nas time went on the pupil and the teacher began to sep-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "THE CHILD S CONTACT WITH THE BOOK. 49\\narate slightly at the very moment when the teacher gave\\nthe pupil work to be done at his desk, or, as the phrase is,\\nset him a lesson to prepare for recitation. Now this dif-\\nferentiation is quite in the nature of things and is alto-\\ngether right and necessary. The pupil must learn to work\\nby himself independently this is the very core of the art\\nof study and he can learn to do such work only by\\ndoing it. He will never become an independent student\\nwithout abundant practice of this kind. In fact, the pupil\\nand the teacher must move on lines more or less divergent\\nfrom an early period in the child s school life, until\\nthey finally separate, but they ought not to diverge too\\nrapidly or separate too quickly. Let us see how it was\\nin the old-fashioned district school that is sometimes\\npraised with little discrimination.\\nIn that school, in the first place, there were no proper\\nbooks for teaching reading, no graded series of readers,\\nsuch as are now found in every schoolhouse.\\nReading in\\nthe Old The pupil learned his letters, his a-b, abs, his\\nSchool. words and short sentences, in the spelling book,\\nand was then hurried, perhaps to the New Testament,\\nand next to the English Reader. Up to the point when the\\npupil could read his short sentences in the speller, the\\nteacher worked with him, but now the work suddenly\\ndivided into the lesson and the recitation. The pupil could\\nstumble along his own way a lesson was assigned him to\\nprepare, and, this done, he was called up, either in class,\\nor by himself, to read. In the recitation he received more\\nor less help on the mechanical side he was drilled in the\\nsounds of letters, corrected in pronunciation and accent,\\nand practiced in articulation and inflection he heard his\\nclassmates, schoolfellows, and the teacher read, and\\nlearned something from them through imitation. But the\\nArt of study.\u00e2\u0080\u0094", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "50 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthought side, or the reading proper, was greatly neglected.\\nSometimes there were formal exercises in defining words,\\nbut the definitions were commonly synonyms or strings\\nof words that took little hold of reality.\\nIn arithmetic the teacher gave the pupil some instruc-\\ntion in the fundamental rules, and then practically aban-\\ndoned him to his fate. Henceforth the pupil.\\nArithmetic i i i i\\nin the Old oi i comiug to a ncw subjcct, nrst looked up\\nSchool. the rule; then he began, in the most me-\\nchanical fashion, to do his sums, as working the ex-\\namples and problems was called. If he could get on\\nalone, well but if not, he called upon the teacher, who\\nexplained the rule or did the sum, generally in a purely\\nmechanical manner. To cipher through the book\\nwas a notable achievement and considered quite equal to\\nmastering arithmetic.\\nSo the pupil brought his geography to the school-\\nhouse, and, perhaps without any conference with the\\nGeography tcachcr, fell to memoriziufj the first lesson\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nin the Old r r\\nSchool. After the first recitation the teacher assigned\\nthe lessons, always in the order in which they stood\\nin the book. The recitations consisted of dreary lists of\\nquestions and equally dreary answers. The pupil gave,\\nfrom memory, definitions of the leading terms, located\\ncountries and bodies of water, described rivers and moun-\\ntains, named capitals and other important cities, bounded\\nstates, and produced a variety of statistical information\\nrelating to distances, areas, latitude and longitude, popu-\\nlation, etc. The total result, if the pupil had a good\\nmemory, was a collection of facts more or less valuable in\\nthemselves, but wholly undigested and furnishing in no\\nsense a correct and lively picture of the earth or of any\\nportion of the earth. If the pupil failed to find a lake or", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "THE CHILD S CONTACT WITH THE BOOK.\\n51\\ntown on his map to-day, he was told to hunt it up to-\\nmorrow. Indeed, the study of geography consisted\\nlargely of hunting up things that were of no earthly\\nconsequence to the pupil when they had been found.\\nAgain, the pupil brought to the schoolhouse his copy-\\nbook, his ink bottle, and his goose quills the teacher set\\nhis copies and made his pens and this was often prac-\\ntically all the help that the pupil received.\\nIt was much the same way with the other studies. The\\nbest work was perhaps done in spelling, because spell-\\nli. i: ino- was the most mechanical. There were\\nResults of fc\\nthe Regi- teaclicrs and teachers in those days, as there\\nare now, but intelligent survivors of that dis-\\nmal period will hardly deny that the foregoing account\\nof the old district school is typically correct. There was\\nmuch study, provided only the student had ability and\\nambition, and could get enough incidental help, at home\\nand in school, to set him on his feet but there was little\\nteaching. On the whole, one is rather surprised that the\\npupils learned as much as they did learn. It must be con-\\nfessed, in fact, that some of them did exceptionally well.\\nThose who had strong intellects and determined wills,\\nbeing thrown upon their own resources, developed their re-\\nserved strength and became independent students. But it\\nis pathetic, even at this distance of time, to recall the boys\\nand girls who never learned how to study and never got\\nbeyond the merest rudiments of an education. Some of\\nthem never even learned to read with much intelligence,\\nand as for arithmetic, which was the other leading study,\\nthey acquired little more than the elementary operations\\nand were by no means proficient in them. The old dis-\\ntrict school was of great value, but in studying this chap-\\nter of educational history the student must not allow", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "52 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nhimself to be misled by the sentiment that has grown\\nup around the little red schoolhouse.\\nThe old school illustrates, in an exaggerated degree,\\none trouble with the new school the pupil and the\\nr ti n teacher are not properly adjusted to each\\nof Teacher otlicr, and especially from the time the pupil\\nand Pupil, jg ^y^ ^gg j^jg book. Pupil and teacher\\nstart out together on the same road, hand in hand.\\nSoon their paths begin to divide, and the two companions\\nto separate and this process goes on until they part\\ncompany. For the larger part of the time that\\nthey are together in the school they meet and touch\\nhands, perhaps, only at the assignment and the recita-\\ntion of the lessons. This system may properly be set up\\nas a distant goal, but it has no place in the early stages\\nof education. What the pupil needs when books are put\\nin his hands as sources of knowledge, is that the teacher\\nshall go along with him and help him to use them.\\nWhat he frequently receives is a set lesson in a book,\\nwhich perhaps interests him but little, but which he must\\nlearn and then recite. He receives little or no help\\nwhen he most needs it the person who should help him\\nto learn his lesson really hears him recite it, or so much of\\nit as he learns himself. He asks for bread and is given\\na stone.\\nI am not unaware that important changes have been\\nmade in the schools since the good old times, as they\\nare affectionately called. Instruction is far\\nChanges m J\\nthe School, less abstract and far more concrete and real than\\nit was fifty years ago. In good schools such subjects as\\nprimary geography and arithmetic are first presented in\\noral lessons, so that the pupil is not wholly ignorant of the\\nsubject when he first takes up the book. It is also true", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "THE CHILD S CONTACT WITH THE BOOK. 53\\nthat good teachers work with their pupils, showing them\\nhow to use their books. Nor am I forgetting that, as a rule,\\nthe most skillful teaching to-day is found in the primary\\nschools. But to ingraft book instruction on oral teach-\\ning is a delicate art, and no one can claim that the teachers\\nin our schools have generally mastered it. Sometimes\\nthe transition is too abrupt, too little help being given;\\nthen, again, the help that is rendered is given in such\\na manner as to engender the continued dependence of the\\npupil upon the teacher.\\nPerhaps it will be said that the plan here recommended\\nwill create, or tend to create, in the pupil constant depend-\\nThe Teach- cnce Upon the teacher; that we have too\\ner s Help niuch Combination work at present rather than\\nNeed not Be-\\nget Depend- too little and that this is the very source of\\nence. ^j^^ weakness in study and learning that marks\\nthe schools at the present time. There may well be too\\nmuch help as well as too little. Moreover, the present\\ntrouble in the best schools is not that too much help\\nor too little help is given, but that it is not rendered\\nin the right way. Weakness and dependence are not\\nnecessary accompaniments of the assistance that the\\nteacher renders the pupil on the other hand, such assist-\\nance, if given in the right manner and measure, will rather\\nengender strength and independence. The main difficulty\\nat present is that teachers do not so much work zvitJi the\\npupil as work/ ?r him, which is fatal to good habits of\\nstudy and to good scholarship. The teacher s function is\\nnot to fill up the pupil with knowledge as a demijohn is\\nfilled with water, but to enlist his faculties actively, and to\\nguide them wisely, in the acquisition of knowledge. The\\nlate General F. A. Walker, in his celebrated Address on\\nArithmetic in the Boston Schools, said", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "54 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThe notion that exercises, either mental or physical, prescribed\\nfor young children, should be often up to the full limit of their powers,\\nand should at times exceed those powers, is distinctly false. The true\\ng-ymnastic for the growing child is through exercises easy and pleas-\\nant, w^hich lead insensibly up to ever higher planes of attainment, as\\nthe faculties are expanded and strengthened, according to their own\\nlaw of growth, through gentle and agreeable exercise. Wherever\\nfatigue, confusion, and the sense of strain begin, there the virtue of\\nthe exercise ceases, whether for promoting the growth of the powers\\nor for the training and disciplining of the powers as they exist. Loss\\nand waste it may be much, it may be little begin at this point, and\\ngo forward, from this point, at a constantly accelerating ratio. i\\nParallel Reading. Lectures on Teachmq, Sir J. G. Fitch.\\nNew York, E. L. Kellogg Co., 1886. Chap. VII. Prepar-\\natory Training Chap. IX. The English Language\\nTeaching the Language-Arts, B. A. Hinsdale. New York, D.\\nAppleton Co., 1896. Chaps. IV., V., VI.\\nDiscussions in Education. New York, Henry Holt Co., 1S99, pp.\\n251-252.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIIL\\nTHE STUDY-RECITATION.\\nThe two words lesson and recitation are so\\nclosely associated in the minds of teachers and pupils\\nthat either one almost necessarily suggests the other.\\nNor is it easy to define either word without referring to\\nthe other.\\nThe first definition of lesson is anything read or\\nrecited by a pupil or learner, as a portion of a book\\nassigned to a pupil to be studied or learned\\nThe Word ^^i r it-\\ni^esson. at one tmie. ine word comes from the Latm\\nIcgcre, to read, and suggests at once the art of\\nstudy, as that art has been defined in the third chapter\\nof this work. Not all the definitions of lesson, how-\\never, involve the idea of reading or the idea of a book,\\nbut they all do involve the idea of something to be\\nlearned through effort. Still, the word suggests a book to\\nthe pupil, and I shall still continue to regard the lesson\\nas a portion of a book assigned to a pupil to be learned\\nat one time, or at least as a portion of knowledge that is\\nassigned with reference to a book. Much of what will be\\nsaid, however, is just as true of other lessons that are not\\ntaken from a book.\\nThe school-definition of recitation is the rehearsal of\\na lesson by a pupil to his instructor. The word is com-\\nposed of the Latin re, again, and citarc, to tell or to say,\\nand means, according to its etymology, to tell or say\\n55", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "56\\nTHE ART OF STUDY\\nsomething a second time. In the case of a pupil, the\\nfirst telling or saying occurs, or is supposed to occur,\\nwhen he prepares his lesson. Frequently the\\nThe Word i j i a\\nRecita- word IS used in a wider sense to denote any\\ntion. teaching exercise in which both the pupil and\\nthe teacher take part. But, properly speaking, the word\\nimplies previous preparation, and so is much narrower in\\nits application than teaching. Socrates conversational\\ndiscussions and Jesus* similar teachings, while both\\nhighly educative, were in no real sense either lessons or\\nrecitations.\\nThe two words are then correlative, and the two proc-\\nesses supplement one another. The lesson looks forward\\nto the recitation the recitation backward to the\\nThe two\\nWords Cor- lesson. In their strict sense the two words\\nrelative. niark the completion of the process by which\\nthe original homogeneous work of the school, which was\\nlearning on the one side and teaching on the other, has\\nevolved into the study and the recitation of a portion\\nof a book in which the pupil and the teacher touch each\\nother only at two points that is, at the assignment and at\\nThe Differ- the recitation of the lesson. That this measur-\\nstudy and^ able Separation of the teacher and the pupil\\nTeaching, is inevitable and desirable was clearly pointed\\nout in the last chapter as, also, that the separation\\nshould not be forced or be effected at too early a\\nday. Instead of a teacher unduly hastening the differen-\\ntiation, thus throwing the pupil almost wholly upon his\\nbooks as a source of teaching, he should seek rather to\\nprolong their closer relation, only taking care that the\\ncharacter of the work done shall keep full pace with the\\npupil s expanding powers. In other words, between the\\nhomogeneous work of the first primary grade and the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-RECITATION. 57\\ndifferentiated work of a later time should come a period\\nmarked by what I shall venture to call the study-recita-\\nThe study- name suggests, this exercise is\\nRecitation neither all study nor all recitation, but is a com-\\npound of the two, and so does not differ from\\nthe original work of the teacher and pupil except in its\\ngreater difificulty and the fact that the matter is drawn\\nfrom a text-book.\\nReference was made on an earlier page to the German\\nschools. The American teacher, when his attention is\\ncalled to these schools for the first time, is\\nGerman 1 1 1\\nSchools surprised by two circumstances one the time\\nOnce More. pupils spend each day in school work\\nthe other the excellent results that they achieve. The\\nIcJirplan or programme of a German gymnasium, for\\ninstance, includes some thirty hours of exercises a\\nweek, but our high school course includes about eighteen\\nperiods of forty-five or fifty minutes of such exercises,\\nwhile the German boy on leaving the gymnasium is two\\nyears in advance of our boy on leaving the high school.\\nThe German elementary schools compared with our own\\npresent similar differences, save in the age of the pupils.\\nNow what is the explanation of these strong contrasts\\nIn the first place, the hours set down in the German pro-\\ngramme cover both the study and the recitation periods,\\nThe Teacher should Call them, while our programme in-\\nin German cludcs the rccitation periods only. The fact\\nis, however, that German teachers, unlike our\\nown, do not hasten the division of school work into study\\nand recitation, but rather seek to check it. The teacher\\nand the pupil go on together learning and teaching just\\nas they began until long after the period where our formal\\nlesson and recitation appear. The Germans, in a word,.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "58 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nmake much less of the book in the school, and much more\\nof the teacher, than we are accustomed to do. Their\\ngreat instrument of teaching is the study-recitation.\\nThis fact explains in great part the large amount of time\\nthat the school exercises cover per day or per week.\\nSecondly, the boys that pass through the German gym-\\nnasium, as has been already stated, are a more select body\\nof scholars than the boys who pass through\\nof^throer^ scliools. Still, whcu all due allow-\\nman Teach- aucc is made for this difference, there remains\\na considerable advantage on the German side.\\nAgain, no such reason can be given for the superiority of\\nthe pupils in the elementary schools. Perhaps it would\\nbe going too far to ascribe all this advantage to the su-\\nperior teaching in the foreign school, as other elements\\nmay enter into the case, but, unquestionably, this is the\\nmain cause of such superiority. Moreover, there is good\\nreason to think that the superiority of the German teach-\\ning consists largely in the constant employment, through\\na series of years, of the study-recitation. To explain\\nmore fully my meaning, I shall present some concrete ex-\\namples of German lessons or parts of lessons, prefacing\\nthem with the remark that there are differences in schools\\nin Germany as in the United States, and that the diver-\\nsities of method and practice are considerable.\\nMy first example will be an account of an exercise on\\nthe geography of Germany which I quote from the well-\\nknown work of Dr. L. R. Klemm\\nThe teacher began by making a few simple lines representing the\\nso-called mountain-cross in Central Europe. After first drawing\\nthe Fichtel Mountains (see map), he added the Erz Mountains\\ntoward the northeast, the Franconian and Thuringian Forest toward\\nthe northwest, the Bohemian and Bavarian Forest toward the south-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "THE STUD Y-RECITA TJON.\\n59\\neast, the Franconian and Swabian Jura toward the southwest. A\\nfew peaks were mentioned, as were also the character-\\nistics of these mountains. Thus, for instance, the\\nsilver mines in Saxony, the dense forests in Bohemia, the\\nlovely scenery in Thuringia, the caves in the Jura, etc.,\\na few well-remembered remarks. The teacher always\\nA Study-\\nRecitation\\nin Geog-\\nraphy.\\ncame\\nin for\\nknew when to stop he was discretion personified.\\nNASSAU\\nNow, the teacher drew thefour rivers which rise in the Fichtel\\nMountains, namely Main, Saale, Eger, and Naab showing and indi-\\ncating on the map into what main rivers they empty. A few impor-\\ntant cities and the countries around the cross were named. All this\\ninformation was partly given, partly asked for, as the case suggested.\\nNow, the complete map, a printed one, was hung up and all the\\ninformation just gained was looked up. Each item was noted and it\\nmade the children fairly glow with enthusiasm when they were able to\\ncorroborate the facts of the two maps. In a few points the map on\\nthe board was corrected, improved and completed then the lesson\\nclosed, and now followed the recitation that is to say, the pupils\\nwere called upon to state, in answer to leading questions, what they\\nremembered of the lesson. My heart was filled with joy when I", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "6o THE ART OF STUDY.\\nheard them speak out, not like human parrots who had memorized,\\nbut like rational beings who had learned by experience. The hour\\nwas brought to a close by an imaginary journey all over the section\\nthe acquaintance of which they had just made. Many little items of\\ninformation were added on this journey. Photographic views of rocks\\nand mountain scenery were exhibited, and they proved to be of in-\\ntense interest to these children, who had no opportunities of seeing a\\nmountain in nature\\nMy next example is an account of an exercise in geom-\\netry for which I am indebted to a professor of pedagogy\\nA study- in one of our universities. The first thing that\\nRecitation the visitor remarked was that the pupils had no\\neome ^y-^(;.;s^j-_|)QQ]^ jj-^ their hands such as an American\\nteacher puts into the hands of his class (that is, a book of\\ntheorems and fully developed demonstrations), but only a\\nbook of theorems to be demonstrated by the pupils and\\nteacher working together. The particular lesson on this\\noccasion was the Pythagorean theorem the square des-\\ncribed on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is\\nequal to the sum of the squares described on the other\\ntwo sides, and it proceeded somewhat as follows\\nTeacher. What have we given in this proposition to base our\\nwork on\\nA?ts wer. A right-angled triangle.\\nTeacher. You may draw such a figure\\non the board and letter it.\\nTeacher. What does our proposition say\\nabout this figure\\nAnswer. That the square described on\\nthe hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the\\nsquares described on the other two sides.\\nTeacher. Is Fig.i. sufficient to illustrate this\\nA?iswer. No.\\nTeacher. Why not\\nEiiropeajt Schools, New York, D. Appleton Co., 1S97, pp. 14-16.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-RECITATION.\\n6i\\nThe sides of the triangle must have squares erected on\\nyou think necessary, adding\\nAnswer.\\nthem.\\nTeacher. Complete the figure as\\nletters, (Fig. 2).\\nTeacher. We will now try to prove our theorem. In each square\\nwhat are the relations of the sides\\nAnswer. The sides of each\\nsquare are equal.\\nTeacher. If we try to prove our\\ntheorem by triangles, can you sug-\\ngest any lines that might help us\\nPerhaps the relation of the sides of\\nthe squares will help us.\\nAnswer. If we draw diagonals\\nfrom J to B and from E to C (Fig. 3)\\nwe shall have AC of one triangle\\nequal to JA of the other, and AB of\\nthe second triangle equal to AE of\\nthe first.\\nTeacher. Will that prove the\\nequality of those triangles\\nAnswer. No.\\nTeacher. Why not\\nAnswer. Wlien we have two\\nsides of one triangle equal to two\\nsides of another triangle, the tri-\\nangles will not necessarily be equal\\nunless there is an angle in one equal\\nto an angle in the other.\\nTeacher. Have we such an\\nangle\\nAnswer. The angle CAE of the\\nfirst triangle equals the angle JAB\\nof the second since each of these\\nangles is made up of a right angle and the angle CAB.\\nTeacher. What can you say of line HC\\nAnswer. It is the continuation of CB because the angles ACH\\nand ACB are both right angles.\\nFig. 2.\\nFig.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "62\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nTeacher. Can you see any relation between the triangle JAB and\\nthe square AH\\nAnswer. The triangle JAB has the same base, JA, as square AH,\\nand the same altitude AC.\\nTeacher. What does that prove\\nAnswer. That the triangle JAB is one half of square AH.\\nTeacher. Let us draw CK intersecting AB in L (Fig. 4). Can\\nyou see any relationship between the triangle CAE and the rectangle\\nAK?\\nAnswer. It is the same relation that we have above i. e., triangle\\nCAE has the same base, AE as the\\nrectangle AK, and the same altitude\\nAL. Hence, triangle CAE is one\\nhalf of AEKL.\\nTeacher. What relation have we\\nnow between the rectangle AEKL\\nand the square AH\\nAnswer. They are equi\\\\ alent, as\\nthey are twice the equal triangles\\nCAE and JAB respectively.\\nBut it is not necessary to\\nfi n i s h the demonstration.\\nThe teacher will get the idea.\\nDr. Klemm gives a long\\ndescription of a lesson in grammar that he witnessed. I\\nshall quote a part of it only.\\nA simple sentence was taken, such as\\nFather called. First the essential elements\\nof the sentence, subject and predicate, were\\nmentioned.\\nA study\\nRecitation\\nin Gram-\\nmar.\\nTeacher. What question does father answer to\\nAnswer. To the question, Who called\\nTeacher. If I say Fatheif came, would the question be the same\\nAnswer. No, sir it would be, Who came\\nTeacher. Is not the interrogative, the questioning word who,\\nthe same in both questions", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-RECITATION. 63\\nAnswer. Yes, and that word is always answered by the subject.\\nTeacher. We will note this in the corner of our blackboard\\nthus Subject answers to the question who But is that the only\\nquestion the subject may answer\\nAnswer. If the subject is an animal or inanimate thing, we can-\\nnot ask who does this or that, but must say 7aha^ does As, for\\ninstance, The water bubbles. What bubbles We can therefore\\nadd the word what to the rule, so that it reads Subject answers to\\nthe questions who or what? (Teacher does so.)\\nTeacher. Why do you say who or what Why not who\\na7id what\\nAnswer. Because it cannot do both it can only do one of the\\ntwo.\\nTeacher. Are there any other questions to which the subject of a\\nsentence may answer? Let us see. Open your Readers at page 17.\\nRead, John.\\nJohn reads. The sun shines. Sun, the subject, answers to What\\nshines?\\nFred reads. The physician hurried to the spot. Here the sub-\\nject answers to the question who\\nOther sentences are looked up. All the pupils agree that\\nwho and 7ahat are the only questions to which a subject may\\nanswer.\\nTeacher. Then we have found a means by which we are able to\\ndetect the subject of any sentence.\\nPupils are then led to state that the nominative is the JVho or\\nJlViat case, and that the subject is invariably in that case. A note is\\nmade of the fact.\\nNext, the predicate was taken up in the same manner, and after-\\nwards the modifiers. At the end of the lesson the blackboard con-\\ntained notes of all the results that had been reached, which the boys\\ncopied down in their note-books. The home lesson given out, says\\nDr. Klemm, was to furnish a sentence from the history or reader\\nwhich would illustrate these rules.\\nThe excellence of the German instruction in history is\\nEtiropeati Sc-/ioo/s, New York, D. Appleton Co., 1S97, pp, 114, 115.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "64 THE ART OF STUD V.\\nwell known to all competent students and teachers of that\\nsubject. I shall therefore introduce a sketch of\\nA German\\nCourse in the work in history in the elementary schools\\nHistory. ^f Baden, furnished me by a student who has\\nstudied in one of these schools.\\nFz rs/ Year (Third Grade). Historical tales related by the teacher\\nand repeated by the pupils several times.\\nSecond and Third Years (Fourth and Fifth Grades), Historical tales\\ncontinued, their number augmented. Brief outline of the history of\\nthe village or town and the district, the latter connected with the geo-\\ngraphy of the district. Short biographies of national heroes.\\nFourth Year (Sixth Grade). Brief outline of Grecian and Roman\\nhistory. Several parts dealt with in a more detailed, way e. g., the\\nPersian wars, Alexander the Great, the wars between the Romans\\nand Germans, the invasion of the barbarians, historical compositions\\nembracing both biographies and tales. Historical essays in the read-\\ning book read and explained.\\nFifth Year (Seventh Grade). History of the Middle Ages in Ger-\\nmany dealt with in the same way as the ancient history in the fourth\\nyear. Much stress laid upon the Crusades and the end of the Middle\\nAges. Historical tales, biographies, essays in the reading book, as in\\nthe fourth year.\\nSixth Year (Eighth Grade). Modern times, especially in Germany.\\nHistory of the Thirty Years War, the Seven Years War, the wars\\nagainst Napoleon, and the war of 1870-71 dealt with in a complete\\nmanner. History of France from 1648 to 181 5, chiefly the French\\nRevolution. Tales, biographies, essays continued longer composi-\\ntions from the pupil than previously.\\nIn teaching history no text-book is used only oral\\ninstruction by the teacher, and a few notes taken by the\\npupils.\\nSuch exercises could be greatly multiplied, but, as this\\nis not a book of methods, I shall take leave of the subject\\nby referring my readers to the books that deal with the\\npedagogical side of the German schools.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "THE STUD Y-RECITA TION. 65\\nThe method of the study-recitation is well illustrated\\nby the laboratory method of instruction. The great\\nvalue of such instruction is its concreteness\\nratory^ and reality, since it brings the pupil into con-\\ntact immediately, not with words and language,\\nbut things. However, the teacher, if a competent one,\\ndoes not turn his class loose in the laboratory to see what\\nthey will stumble upon, if left to themselves he rather\\nselects for his pupils, not only the line of work to be fol-\\nlowed, but the particular experiments to be performed,\\nand shows them how to perform them. He works with\\nhis pupils, just as the teacher of arithmetic, history, and\\ngrammar, at the same or an earlier stage of their ad-\\nvancement, should do. As the pupils progressively\\nlearn the art of the laboratory, he leaves them more and\\nmore to themselves. The same method is followed in\\nteaching bookkeeping and arithmetic in some commercial\\nschools the class room is made a sort of laboratory.\\nAgain, the seminar of the German university, the sem-\\ninary of the American university, exemplifies the same\\nideas. The great value of this instrument of\\ninary.^* education is that it enables the experienced\\nteacher to teach a limited number of selected\\nstudents the best method of carrying on original investi-\\ngations, including especially the choice and handling of\\nmaterials. The seminary stands to the library in the\\nsame relation that the laboratory stands to nature.\\nPerhaps some critics will charge me with parading as a\\ndiscovery a method that is perfectly well known in Amer-\\nThe study- ican scliools. Not at all; I am well aware that\\nRecitation J^^^|-^ work is done in our schools that answers\\nin American\\nSchools. in a general way to the study-recitation. Still,\\nmuch of this work seems to me to fail at the vital\\nArt of Shidy.\u00e2\u0080\u0094s.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "ee THE ART OF STUDY.\\npoint of grounding the pupil in the art of study, at\\nthe same time that he is immediately assisted in acquiring\\nknowledge. Telling a pupil the contents of a lesson is not\\nteaching him. The telling, if telling it be, must be done\\nin such a way as thoroughly to arouse the pupil s active\\npowers of acquirement. Those persons who are most\\nfamiliar with the facts will be the first to deny that the\\nstudy-recitations which have been given above lead merely\\nto an easy receptivity on the part of the pupil and the\\nfirst to assert that they do inculcate the art of study.\\nCome and let me show you how, says Professor James,\\nis an incomparably better stimulus than Go and do it\\nas the book directs.\\nA physician and professor in a medical college, who has\\nhad much experience, also, as a common-school teacher,\\nhas remarked to me upon the eminent suitability of the\\nterms demonstrator and demonstrate to express\\none of the teacher s most important functions. There\\nare demonstrators of anatomy and physiology, he says,\\nin the medical schools, whose business it is to defnon-\\nstratCy that is, point out or make plain, the facts of the\\nhuman anatomy and physiology. Why should not the\\nteachers of geography, history, etc., be considered as dem-\\nonstrators of their subjects in so far as it is their busi-\\nness to show to their pupils the facts comprising those\\nstudies\\nParallel Reading. Eiuvpean Sckon/s, L. R. Klemm. New\\nYork, D. Appleton Co., 1897. (Particularly those portions\\nof the book that deal with the study-recitation). The Teaching\\nof Elementary Mathematics^ David Eugene Smith. New York,\\nThe Macmillan Co., 1900. (See Chap. X. for Methods of\\nTeaching Elementary Geometry). Educational Aims and Edu-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "THE STUD] -RECI TA TION.\\n67\\ncational Values, Paul H. Hanus. New York, The Macmillan\\nCo., 1899. Chap. VI. The Preparation of the High School\\nTeacher for Mathematics The Study of History in Schools.\\nReport to the Ajuerican Historical Association by the Committee of\\nSeveji. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1899. How to Study\\nand Teach History, B. A. Hinsdale. New York, D. Appleton\\nCo., 1898. Studies in Education, B. A. Hinsdale. Chicago\\nand New York, The Werner School Book Co., 1896. Chap.\\nX. History Teaching in Schools", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX.\\nTHE STUDY-LESSON.\\nIt must not be supposed that the pupil s ettorts to\\nlearii should end with the study-recitation. There is\\nanother and a more advanced stage of study that may be\\ncalled the study-lesson, or simply the lesson in the cus-\\ntomary sense of that word. The value or need of such\\nan exercise, which has been more than hinted at already,\\ncalls for a word or two of emphasis.\\nThe educated person, in the accepted sense, must know\\nhow to use books as means of instruction, discipline, and\\ncultivation. He is, measurably speaking, an in-\\n^ib^a^rfes^.* dependent student. Reference may be made\\nto the great efforts that have been made in re-\\ncent years to bring the library into closer relation with\\nthe school. Thus, an excellent authority has said that\\nMr. S. S. Green, of Worcester, Massachusetts, had some\\nyears ago succeeded in linking the schools so closely with\\nthe public library of that city, of which he was the head,\\nthat he and the teachers, acting in concurrence, indirectly\\ncontrolled the reading of the whole rising generation.\\nTo sketch the methods by which this great work had\\nbeen accomplished is beside the present purpose, except\\nto say that Mr. Green s part of it was to bring suitable\\nbooks in abundance within easy reach of the school chil-\\ndren, while the teachers of the city inspired them with\\n68", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-LESSON. 69\\na love of good books and guided them in making their\\nchoice. The reading the pupils did alone.\\nNow it is clear that the end set forth in the last para-\\ngraph cannot be reached as a rule, that is, pupils cannot\\nbe brought to use books independently, unless\\nChildren to 1 1 a h\\nlyearnthe they are so habituated in the schools. A well-\\nuse of Books ]^i-jQ^yj-^ American educator some years ago\\nin Schools. r 11 1\\nwrote At least three-fourths of all the time\\nspent by a boy of twelve in trying to learn a hard lesson\\nout of a book is time thrown away. Perhaps one-fourth\\nof the time is devoted to more or less desperate and con-\\nscientious effort but the large remaining portion is\\ndwindled away in thinking of the last game of ball and\\nlonging for the next game of tag. This is certainly\\na true presentation of the case, only I should hesitate\\nto fix rigidly the age limit. Moreover, the fact stated\\nis the great reason for the skillful employment in the\\nschool of the study-recitation. This impotence of the\\npupil to use books by himself must be overcome if he\\nis ever to become a scholar and it can be done in only\\none way first, by preparing him to use books, and then\\nsetting him to use them himself. In making the transi-\\ntion from the study-recitation to the study-lesson some\\ntime will necessarily be lost, but the pupil will be abun-\\ndantly repaid if he really gets a firm hold of the art of study.\\nThe cardinal fact at this stage of the pupil s progress\\n^.-u is that he must be left to learn his lessons\\nValue of the\\nStudy- practically alone with his books. Whether he\\ni^esson. ^^jii succeed or not in this endeavor will de-\\npend upon a number of circumstances, some of which\\n1 Libraries and Schools, Samuel S. Green, New York, Publishers Weekly.\\n2 Methods of Teaching History, G. Stanley Hall, Boston, D. C. Heath\\nCo., 1885, p. 206.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "70 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nshould be formally stated. First, however, a word of in-\\nsistence upon the daily lesson as a factor in the school\\nregimen at the proper stage of progress. First and last,\\nthis embraces three stages, assignment of the lesson,\\nstudy, and the recitation. The assignment of the lesson\\ncan hardly be treated in too practical a manner.\\nThe first thing to be considered is that the pupil shall\\nbe ready for the lesson or, to reverse the form of state-\\nThe Pupil i ^ent, that the lesson shall be adapted to the\\nReady for pupil. It is a wcU-known law of the human\\nmind that in learning we proceed from the\\nknown to the related unknown. The meaning of this is\\nthat when once a start has been made we acquire new\\nfacts, ideas, and thoughts by means of the facts, ideas, and\\nthoughts that we already possess. It follows, therefore,\\nthat, if the new matter which we wish to learn is too\\nwidely separated from the old matter which we have\\nlearned or, in other words, if the interval between the\\ntwo is too great, we can learn it only imperfectly, or with\\ngreat difficulty, or possibly not at all, as the case may\\nbe. To ask a pupil to learn a lesson in any subject that\\nis not connected with his former lessons, and especially\\nhis last one, is like asking him to jump to the top of a\\nrock that is above his head. This law of mind lies at the\\nroot of the pedagogical doctrine of apperception.\\nWhat is more to our purpose, however, this law under-\\nlies all graded courses of study and graded schools, all\\ngraded series of lessons and text-books, and all\\nSchool Idea, gi ^duated teaching. From first to last sound\\neducation leads the pupil gradually, that is,\\nby grades, up the ascending heights of study or learn-\\ning. The words grades and grading are derived\\nfrom the Latin noun gradus, a step or pace. We get the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-LESSON.\\n71\\nconception in a flight of stairs by which one ascends to\\nan elevation that one could never reach if left to clamber\\nup a perpendicular surface or, better still, in a railroad\\ntrack that ascends from a lower to a higher level by a\\nmoderate rate of ascent, or a moderate grade.\\nThis conception of fitness or adaptation of the pupil to the\\nlesson, or of the lesson to the pupil, is of first importance\\nThe Natural education. The practical problem involved\\nOrder of is a difficult ouc. Such questions as the natural\\norder of studies arithmetic, geography, his-\\ntory, and the like the natural order of topics or divisions\\nof the study the length of the successive steps both in\\nthe study and in the course of study, have received a\\ngreat amount of careful attention from teachers and\\neducators since the beginning of the common school\\nrevival, sixty or more years ago. Before that time little\\nhad been done to solve them.\\nFor example, Horace Mann, who attended a district\\nschool in Massachusetts early in the century, afterwards\\nHorace Complained bitterly that what was called the\\nMann on lovc of knowledge was, in his times, cramped\\nand School ^^vc of books, bccausc there was no such\\nReaders of thing as Oral instruction that, moreover, books\\ndesigned for children were few and their con-\\ntents meager and miserable and that, of all the mental\\nfaculties, the memory for words was the only one espe-\\ncially appealed to, while the most comprehensive general-\\nization intended for men were given to the children in-\\nstead of the facts from which these generalizations were\\nformed.^ Still more, Mr. Mann, characterizing in one of\\nhis reports the school readers that were in vogue in his\\nschoolboy days, said\\n1 Life of Horace Mann, by his Wife. Boston, Lee Shepard, 1891, pp. 1 1, 12.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "^2\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nIn many of the reading books now in use in the schools, the most\\npithy sayings of learned men, the aphorisms in which moralists have\\ndeposited a life of observation and experience, the maxims\\nHorace of philosophers embodying the highest forms of intellect-\\nann an truth, are set down as First Lessons for children\\nbcnool\\nReaders, r though, because a child was born after Bacon and\\nFranklin, he could understand them, of course. While a\\nchild is still engrossed with visible and palpable objects, while his ju-\\nvenile playthings are yet a mystery to him, he is presented with some\\nabstraction or generalization, just discovered, after the profoundest\\nstudy of men and things, by some master intellect. Erudite and\\nscientific men, for their own convenience, have formed summaries,\\ndigests, abstracts of their knowledge, each sentence of which contains\\na thousand elements of truth that have been mastered in detail and,\\non inspection of these abbreviated forms, they are reminded of, not\\ntaught, the individual truths they contain. Yet these are given to\\nchildren, as though they would call up in their minds the same ideas\\nwhich they suggest to their authors.\\nThe same practice that Mr. Mann condemned in the\\nschools of his time is sometimes seen in the Sunday-\\nSunday- schools of our time. Pupils are filled with\\nSchool hard, dry, abstract lessons, which appeal to the\\nlogical faculties or to experience, when they\\ncrave incident, tale, or parable. The practical man, if of\\na religious turn, is apt to hold the prudential maxims of\\nthe Book of Proverbs in high esteem maxims that sum\\nup in the tersest form the reflections of sages upon the ex-\\nperiences of human life maxims that are often paradox-\\nical, and many of which are not universally true. But\\nthere can hardly be found in the Bible materials that are\\nless adapted to the pupil s powers of digestion and assim-\\nilation, unless it may be the genealogies of the Books of\\nChronicles. Every qualified teacher knows full well how\\n1 Life and Works of Horace Mann, Boston, Lee Shepard. 1891, Vol. II.\\np. 536.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-LESSON.\\n73\\nutterly at variance with the laws of the human mind and\\nsound educational practice are the reading books used by\\nyoung Horace Mann, and Sunday-school lessons for chil-\\ndren selected from the wisdom literature of the Orient.\\n1. It is assumed, then, at the outset, that the pupil is\\nabreast of the lesson to be assigned in ability and attain-\\nThe Pupil ments or, at least, that he is within such dis-\\nmrwork. ^y ^t ^^ith advantage. If\\nthis is not the case, the remedy should be\\nsought in his reclassification. Still it is not meant to\\ndiscourage teachers from assisting pupils to overtake the\\nclass, who are not too far in the rear, but the .contrary.\\n2. It is also assumed that the text-book is a suitable one\\nfor the pupil to use. We do not here raise the question\\nA Suitable of the relation of oral and book teaching, as we\\nText-Book, ^j-g dealing expressly with book teaching. If\\nthe book is not suitable, then the proper authority should\\nsupersede it with one that is suitable. But even if this is\\nnot done, or done at once, the teacher must still use some\\nbook, for few are the teachers who are able to dispense\\nwith it. Still sections of a book may be so faulty that\\nthe teacher who is able to do so will be justified in pass-\\ning them by and teaching the subject orally.^\\n3. At the beginning of the term or semester, the teacher\\nshould look carefully over the work to be don^e before its\\nThe close and proceed accordingly. This is not as-\\nTeacher suminff that the metes and bounds of the terms\\nto Recoil-\\nnoiterthe are fixed, that they shall not be passed. The\\nField. j.^j|g applies to the teacher who enjoys perfect\\nfreedom in the premises, for, if he is competent, and knows\\nhis subject and his pupils, he can judge in advance about\\n1 For remarks on the use of text-books, see Studies in Education, B. A.\\nHinsdale, Chicago and New York, Werner School Book Co., 1896, pp. 80-84.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "74 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nhow muck ground the class will cover in a given period of\\ntime and will seek to apportion it properly. He will have\\nhis landmarks ahead. In a system of public schools, how-\\never, it is no doubt necessary to have the work marked off\\nyear by year and term by term but these divisions need\\nnot, and should not, be strictly observed.\\n4. In assigning the daily lesson, the teacher should\\nconsider carefully the character of the work to be done\\nThei^esson adjust the lesson to the ability of the\\nand the pupils.\\nAbility. Paragraphs three and four may seem so simple\\nand obvious as to make it unnecessary to cumber\\nthe page with them. The experienced superintendent,\\nto his sorrow, knows better. The necessity for such\\nelementary instruction may point to the presence of in-\\ncompetent teachers in the schools, but the inference does\\nnot nullify the fact. The heedlessness that teachers, even\\nof considerable service, sometimes show in these simple\\nmatters is discouraging. Some of them let the work drag\\nalong in the first part of the term and then, waking up to\\nthe situation, try to recover the opportunity that has been\\nlost by driving at a reckless rate of speed to the end of\\nthe journey. Again, some teachers are vigorous in the\\nbeginning of the term or year feeble in the\\nof^Poilfts*^ end. Others seem never to understand that\\nThree and different portions of the subject differ greatly\\nin difficulty, that one page may require more\\nstudy than five or ten other pages, and that, therefore, the\\nlength of a lesson is no measure of the amount of work\\nthat its preparation involves. High-school teachers some-\\ntimes measure off a lesson in Caesar or in Algebra with\\nthe page rule, without stopping to inquire whether the\\none is a piece of easy narrative or a difficult technical", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-LESSON.\\n75\\ndescription or the other, part of an ordinary demonstra-\\ntion printed in full or a nest of hard problems. In oppo-\\nsition to these mistakes must be set the rule that the\\nteacher should assign each day a fair day s work, and then\\nsee that this work is done. If the lessons are too light,\\nthe pupils are retarded in their progress and they become\\ndissatisfied if the lessons are too heavy, the pupils will\\nnot be able to finish them, and so must go over them a\\nsecond time, losing thereby interest and courage. Every-\\nthing depends upon the tone of the school. If its inter-\\nest and courage are to be maintained, the pupils must ac-\\ncomplish something day by day must, as a rule, actually\\ndo the work that is assigned them to do. Occasional fail-\\nures are valuable as a discipline and a spur but no teacher\\ncan hold a class up to the work on a regimen of failures.\\nSuccess is the note of the good school. Too long lessons\\nare harmful, even if the pupil finally accomplishes them,\\nsince he tends to lose his appetite for work. To keep pu-\\npils at work on lessons two or three days old is much like\\ngiving them dinners that have attained the same age. The\\nmeasuring worm, as he ascends the wall, or moves along\\nthe ceiling, is no proper exampler for the teacher to fol-\\nlow in assigning lessons.\\n5. Before assigning the lesson for the next recitation\\nthe teacher should carefully inquire whether the pupils\\nneed assistance in preparing it and, if the\\nRendering 1 r t5\\nHelp when auswcr is in the afifirmative, he should furnish\\nthei/esson g^^j-^ assistance before they leave the recita-\\nls Assigned. -.tt 1\\ntion benches. Words m the lesson may need\\nto be explained, points of difficulty to be set in a proper\\nlight, or important features to be pointed out. Frequent\\nare the cases when a hint or two, a few suggestions, a\\nshort explanation, taking, perhaps, three or five minutes,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "^6 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nwill save the class from falling to pieces or from flunk-\\ning, as the college expression is, at the next recitation.\\nMuch depends upon the relation of the last lesson to the\\nnew lesson. Subjects and lessons as presented in text-\\nbooks do not always ascend by an easy grade, at least\\nas measured by the pupil s ability some subjects and\\nlessons hardly admit of such presentation. Not unfre-\\nquently the proper figure to apply to the new lesson\\nwould be to call it a precipitous cliff, up which the\\nclass is expected to climb. If, in such a case, the class\\nare left unaided, the best scholars may be found, when\\nrecitation time comes, on top of the rock, but the majority\\nwill be found at the bottom.\\n6. Another fundamental requirement is that the pupil\\nmust know how to read and write, not only in the\\nKnowing mcclianical sense, but also in the intellectual\\nhow to sense that is, he must know how to get thought\\nout of the printed page with a reasonable\\ndegree of certainty and facility, and to express his own\\nthoughts in written language. To put my meaning in\\nanother way, it is assumed that the pupil has, in a measure,\\nmastered the art of reading as an instrument of acquiring\\nknowledge, and the art of writing as an instrument of im-\\nparting knowledge. Upon these arts I shall not here\\nenlarge, but only refer the reader to another work in which\\nI have dealt with those important subjects.^\\nNote. Some accounts of schools, as schools were at the beginning\\nof the century, seem almost incredible. See for example the one\\nthat Horace Mann gave of his early education. Page 7 1\\nDr. Francis Wayland wrote a still more striking history of the\\nteaching that he received from the master of a private school in New\\nYork, from which the following is an extract\\n1 Teaching the Language- Arts. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1896.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "THE STUDY-LESSON.\\n77\\nHe used but one motive to obedience terror. The ferule\\nand thie cowhide were in constant use. He never taught us any-\\nthing; indeed, he seemed to think it below his dignity. I do not\\nremember anything approaching explanation while I was at the school.\\nA sum was set, and the pupil left to himself to find out the method\\nof doing it. If it was wrong, the error was marked, and he must try\\nagain. If again it was wrong, he was imprisoned after school, or\\nhe was whipped.\\nIn other studies the text of the book must be repeated without\\na word of explanation. Geography was studied without a map, by\\nthe use of a perfectly dry compendium. I had no idea what was\\nmeant by bounding a country, though I daily repeated the boundaries\\nat recitation. I studied English grammar in the same way. I had\\na good memory, and could repeat the grammar (Lowth s, I think)\\nthroughout. What it was about, I had not the least conception.\\nOnce the schoolmaster was visiting at my father s, and I was called\\nup to show my proficiency in this branch of learning. I surprised\\nmy friends by my ability to begin at the commencement and to\\nproceed as far as was desired yet it did not convey to me a single\\nidea. Years afterwards, when I began to study Latin, and found\\nthe relation of words to each other designated by terminations, and\\nwhen the matter was explained to me, the whole of my past study\\ncame to me like a new revelation. I saw the meaning of what I\\nhad formerly, in utter darkness, committed to memory.\\nParallel Reading. Mental DeveIop7iient in the Child, W.\\nPreyer. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1894. Psychology and\\nPsychic Culture, Reuben Post Halleck. New York, American\\nBook Company, 1895. The Essentials of Method, Charles De\\nGarmo. Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1889.\\nA Memoir of the Life and Labors of Francis Way land, Francis and H.\\nL. Wayland. New York, Butler, Sheldon Co., 1868, Vol. I., pp. 24-25.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nATTACKING THE LESSON.\\nA quarter of a century ago the late Dr. Paul A.\\nChadbourne, President of Williams College, delivered an\\nable address before the American Institute of\\nr. Chad-\\nbourne on Instruction which he entitled Waste of Labor\\nWaste m ^j^^ Work of Education. He bes^an with\\n[Education\\npointing out that, while education is supposed\\nto prevent waste of labor, it is itself accompanied by a\\ngreat amount of such waste. He found the principal\\nsources of this waste in imperfect teaching, teaching un-\\nimportant things, want of thoroughness, a misapprehen-\\nsion of the real purposes of study, errors in text-books,\\nbad classification of pupils and students, irregularity of\\nattendance, want of enthusiasm on the part of the teacher,\\nand neglect of moral training. These are all undoubted\\nsources of waste, and still others can be enumerated.\\nThere are several sources of waste in the schoolroom\\nwaste, that is, of the pupil s time and energy. One of\\nthese sources is ill-constructed courses of study\\nThe study-\\ni^esson a a sccond, ilhchosen text-books a third, ill-as-\\nSourceof sicrned lessons. And then, when these are\\nWaste.\\nstopped, if stopped they are, there remain\\nstill others, as the study-lesson, the recitation-lesson, the\\nreview, and the examination. Now it is in the study-\\nlesson that the pupil shows his mastery of his art. It is\\nhere that he reveals his ability or inability to study and\\n78", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "ATTACKING THE LESSON.\\n79\\nlearn his lesson. The study-lesson is therefore the\\ngreatest of all the possible sources of waste in the school-\\nroom. Some of this waste is unavoidable, as the pupil\\nmust, in a sense, learn to save time and effort as he learns\\nto save money, by wasting but the amount of such\\nwaste in the schools at the present time is far in excess\\nof all reasonable requirements on this score.\\nCareful investigation shows that the waste which ac-\\ncompanies the study-lesson is due to one of two causes, or\\nto both of them. One is lack of ability prop-\\nIgfnorance\\nand lack of ^rly to attack the lesson, and the other lack\\nInterest and q[ ability to sustain the attack when made.\\nCourage.\\nAgain, these two defects are due to different\\ncauses. Inability to make the attack, or to make it as it\\nshould be made, is due primarily to ignorance while in-\\nability to sustain it is due primarily either to lack of\\ninterest or to a feeble will. Ignorance here means failure\\nto see and to grasp the question or questions that the\\nlesson holds out to the learner. The two defects are not\\nnecessarily connected, since they spring from different\\nroots, but they tend to run together and are often, if not\\ncommonly, found in conjunction. If a pupil fails to\\nmaster his lesson because he does not know how to attack\\nit, his failure will generally tell disastrously upon his\\ninterest or courage while feeble interest or courage\\nshown in following up an attack is almost sure to appear\\nin the attack itself.\\nIt is, therefore, quite clear that these are important\\nmatters, deeply concerning, first, the teacher and then the\\nTh Phrase P^pi^- Much that has been said in preceding\\nAttacking chapters relates more or less directly to attack-\\nthei,esson. jj^g the lesson but it will be well, even at the\\ncost of partially retracing our steps, to devote a special", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "8o THE ART OF STUDY.\\nchapter to the topic. Afterwards, sustaining the attack\\nupon the lesson will occupy our attention through a\\nseries of chapters, which will not, however, bear that\\nname. Let us form a clear idea of what the phrase, at-\\ntacking the lesson, means.\\nThe first rule for the guidance of the pupil is to find out\\nthe subject of the lesson. What is it all about is the\\nWhat the question to be asked. If the pupil has\\ni/esson is been well trained in the study-recitation he will,\\nfrom habit, as well as interest, ask this ques-\\ntion and, if the lesson has a fair degree of unity and com-\\npleteness in itself, he will have little or no difficulty in\\nanswering it. For example, the lesson is on Washington s\\nVirginia Campaign of 1781 on the method of solving a\\nquadratic equation or on the attributes of the adjective.\\nSome persons may think this rule is too obvious to\\nbe put in a book. Experienced teachers, however,\\nknow that pupils in the higher grades of the elementary\\nschools, and in the high schools too, come to the reci-\\ntation bench with only confused and general ideas of the\\nsubject of a lesson, to say nothing of the subject-matter\\nwhen they suppose they have mastered the lesson. Rela-\\ntive to these points, there is now a vast amount of\\nblundering and heedlessness in the schools. Pupils begin\\nto figure on mathematical questions and problems before\\nthey have half read them or they begin to analyze sen-\\ntences In grammar without having at all grasped their\\nmeaning. This is often seen in written examinations.\\nWe shall go back for a moment to consider the study-\\nBarnett recitation. Here it Is the teacher s first business\\nTn ^Le*- place directly and clearly before the pupil s\\nsons. mind the end or aim In view. Mr. P. A.\\nBarnett, condemning the practice of those trained", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "ATTACKING THE LESSON. 8l\\nteachers who, in giving a set lesson, think it necessary to\\nbeat about the bush, in order to get the class to guess what\\nthey are driving at by a process recalling the animal,\\nvegetable, or mineral game of our youth, gives the fol-\\nlowing wholesome counsel\\nIn fact, the pupils begin by putting themselves into a thoroughly-\\nfalse attitude. They enter on a kind of guessing competition, striving\\nto tind out what is in the teacher s mind, wkat he wants Ikem to say.\\nThis is bad teaching. Once upon a time, for instance, a master was\\nabout to give a lesson on marble to some small boys, and began, for\\nsome occult reason, by asking his class to tell him the names of vari-\\nous stones. He thus, eUcited, hearthstone, bluestone, granite, kerb-\\nstone, sandstone everything but marble. At last he tried another\\nattack. Do you ever, he asked, go for walks on Sunday in the\\nchurchyard Yes, sir, said a little boy. And what do you see\\nthere The tombstones. Well, don t those remind you of another\\nkind of stone Think, boys think Please, sir, brimstone.\\nMr. Barnett very justly says this teacher should have\\ntold his boys without any preface that he was going\\n:Exceptions to give them a lesson on marble there was\\nto the Rule, ^q^ ^]^q least reason for beginning his work by\\ngetting them to guess what was in his mind. He is\\nequally right in saying that(nothing can be gained by con-\\ncealing from the class the immediate object of the instruc-\\ntion; He makes an exception in the case of very young\\nchildren, with whom the teacher, as a whet to the appetite,\\nmay start with a little brief mystery before he produces\\nthe apple which is to be the subject of the lesson but\\neven here he cautions the teacher not to tire out the\\nslender powers of the children by setting them to guess-\\nwork before he comes to real instruction. Perhaps another\\nexception may be made. With older pupils the teacher\\nmay sometimes, in order to arouse curiosity or to enkindle\\nArt of study.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 6.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "82 THE ART OF STUDY.\\ninterest, keep the subject dangling for a little time before\\ntheir eyes but the practice easily degenerates into abuse.\\nFor the kind of lessons that he has before his mind, Mr.\\nBarnett s model questions are right WJio caii tell vie\\nanything about this apple F the equator Milton s\\nversification\\nThe next rule is that the pupil should seize the leading\\nsubdivisions of the lesson. The author of a text-book, if\\nhe understands his business, will present his\\nsions^of the flatter in such a form as to facilitate the process.\\ni/esson to be He will, for example, express the general sub-\\nSeized.\\nject of his chapter in the title or heading, and\\nthen treat its leading features or subdivisions in single\\nparagraphs or closely related paragraphs, each with its\\nown side-head or sub-title. If the author has omitted these\\nconvenient aids handles they may be called, that\\nenable the pupil to take hold of the lesson the teacher\\nshould show him how to make them for himself. Thus\\nthe fourth of Sir Joshua Fitch s Lectures on Teaching\\nis on the subject of Discipline. The side-heads are The\\nTeacher as an Administrator or Ruler, Obedience not\\nto be had by Demanding It, Commands to be Well Con-\\nsidered before They are Given, and so on to the end of\\nthe chapter. To fix the subject of such a lecture and the\\nsub-heads firmly in mind is to make an attack upon the\\nlesson that promises the fullest success.\\nThe next fact to be stated is that most lessons present\\nCentral points wliicli are so central that they are\\nPoints to be keys to the whole subject while the next rule\\nis that the pupil should seek to discover such\\npoints and make them his own. We are using a military\\n1 Common Sense ifi Ediicatio7t and Teaching. New York, Longmans,\\nGreen Co., 1899, pp. i-ii.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "ATTACKING THE LESSON.\\n83\\nmetaphor. When General Grant had carried Missionary-\\nRidge, the whole Confederate position far to the right\\nand far to the left fell easily and speedily into his hands.\\nReturning to an old topic, while the pupil should be\\nprepared by the study-recitation to attack the lesson, still,\\nover and above such preparation, the teacher\\nHelp at the -n r 1 a 1\\nAssignment Will ottcn 11110 it ncccssary to render special\\nassistance when the lesson is assisrned, as has\\nIvesson.\\nbeen remarked in the last chapter. As there\\nstated, in substance, a few words serving to focalize the\\npupil s mind upon the proper point or points of attack\\nwill make all the difference between a lesson well pre-\\npared and a total failure. Teachers do not always appre-\\nciate the difficulties that new lessons offer to the minds of\\npupils, and especially when the specific subjects are new.\\nMany lessons may be likened to balls that are too large\\nfor the catcher s hands, so that he is unable to seize and\\nhold them.\\nPerhaps the main point of the present chapter can be\\nmade still more definite and concrete. Let us take a\\nproblem in mathematics.\\nOur word problem is from the Greek nonn prob/ana,\\nwhich comes from the verb proballein, to throw forward.\\nA Prob- The problem is conceived of as something that\\nlem. jg thrown forward by a questioner to an\\nanswerer. The two stand in the relation of the pitcher\\nand the catcher in a game of base-ball. The pitcher is\\nthe teacher or author; the catcher is the pupil. And the\\npupil catches the ball when he understands the problem,\\nor sees what it means, no matter whether he can solve it\\nor not. Similarly, many other lessons may be looked\\nupon as balls thrown to pupils for them to catch.\\nIt will be seen, of course, that the attack upon a lesson is", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "84\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nalways an act of analysis. The mind bites into the lesson,\\nso to speak, with a view to separating it, as the teeth bite\\ninto an apple.\\nOnce more, the successful student must have correct\\nideals of study and of preparation. He must know what\\nis required of him must know when a lesson\\nCorrect\\nIdeals of is prepared, or what preparation consists in.\\nple ^arau^n possiblc but easy, as experienced\\nteachers know, for pupils, especially if they have\\naffluence of language, to talk or write quite entertainingly\\nabout things that they do not at all understand. Knowing\\nabout a thing is not the same as knowing the thing. A\\npupil may have considerable knowledge about the cru-\\nsades, or about geysers, and not have a clear idea of\\nwhat a crusade was or a geyser is. No rule relating to\\nthe subject is more important than that pupils shall know\\nwhat they are doing.\\nIt may be said that .in these matters much depends\\nupon the subject and the study, and that there are differ-\\nSuch Ideals ^nt ideals of preparation rather than a single\\nVary with ideal. This is perfectly true. Manifestly the\\npupil who should prepare his lessons in arith-\\nmetic, history, and grammar in the same way would\\nmake a mess of it. Mathematics, and to a great extent\\nthe sciences as well, present to the mind definite ques-\\ntions to be answered, or strict chains of reasoning to be\\nfollowed and mastered. No element can be omitted in\\neither case without vitiating the whole process. To a log-\\nical mind the method is perfectly intelligible. At the\\nsame time, this method is wholly inapplicable to history,\\ngeography, or literature. For example, a lesson in history\\nis something like a landscape, a learner of the lesson like\\na painter. The painter, after due examination, selects", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "ATTACKING THE LESSON. 85\\nsome favored spot from which he can take in the whole\\nscene the ground rises and falls the river winds here,\\nMathe- and the road runs there field and wood, village\\nmatics and ^nd farm, fill in the view, as it presents itself to\\nHistory. tt 1\\nhis eye. He does not attempt to reproduce\\non his canvas all that he sees, but only those features\\nof the scene which give it character and individuality,\\nwhat may be called the essentiai elements of the land-\\nscape. The amount of filling in will depend upon the\\nscene itself and the size of his canvas. No doubt this\\nillustration may be so pressed as to make it teach error.\\nMy contention is only that the fruitful study of the his-\\ntory of a country or an age leaves the pupil s mind in\\nmuch the same state that the painter of the landscape\\nleaves his canvas.\\nThere is one rule which is of universal application,\\nviz. the teacher must remember that words are not ideas.\\nWords not enough that words, in a secondary\\nIdeas. sense, are things, and so are proper subjects of\\nstudy, as in etymology, but the primary office of words is\\nto convey meaning. Montaigne said that to know by\\nheart is not to know, while learning by heart is equally\\nnot to learn. There are indeed certain exceptions to\\nbe mentioned hereafter. To some minds the verbal\\nclothing of ideas and thoughts will cling to them as the\\nbark clings to a tree, or the skin to an animal, but this is\\nnot true of most minds and it is not desirable that it\\nshould be. The ordinary pupil will emphasize either\\nsubstance or form, and if he emphasizes form he will not\\nemphasize substance. After his teaching days were over,\\nGeneral Garfield used to tell a story of a member of a\\nclass in surveying that he had taught. The text-book used\\ncontained a picture and a detailed description of a theod-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "86 THE ART OF STUD Y.\\nolite, both of which the class were required to study since\\nthe school did not possess a real theodolite. The student\\nGeneral question, ou being called upon, gave a full\\nGarfield s descfiption of the instrument and then sat\\ndown, having made what was considered a very\\nbrilliant recitation. But before the close of the hour\\nsome incident, as a remark by the student, or perhaps a\\nquestion by the teacher, revealed the fact that this student\\nhad no idea whatever of the construction or the use of the\\ninstrument that he had described so minutely. He had\\nextraordinary power of verbal memory, and had simply\\nmemorized the author s description as he would have mem-\\norized a declamation. The language had adhered to his\\nmind just as paint will sometimes adhere to the hand.\\nThe teacher must remember that the pupil s attack\\nupon the lesson is different from the teacher s own attack.\\n\u00c2\u00ab^t. -r, -i. The pupil is interested in the academical, the\\nThe Pupil s\\nAttack and tcaclicr in the pedagogical, view of the lesson,\\ner ^s Attack to Icam the lesson, the\\nupon a aim of the other to teach it. The academical\\nview necessarily precedes the professional one.\\nEven the normal school, when it teaches academical\\nstudies, has its own way, or should have its own way, of\\nlooking at them. It is the work of the normal school, as\\nDr. Harris has said, to lead the student to reexamine all\\nhis elementary branches in their relations to the higher\\nones. He goes on to say\\nThe Normal school, therefore, took up just this work at the be-\\nginning, and performed it well. It induced in the young\\non the ii^en and women, preparing for the work of teaching,\\nNormal the habit of taking up the lower branches in their re-\\nSchool, lations to the higher taking them up constructively, as\\nit were. For, to study arithmetic in the light of algebra and", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "ATTACKING THE LESSON.\\n87\\ngeometry is to study it constructively. Its rules are derived from\\nalgebraic formulae, and are to be demonstrated by algebraic processes.\\nSo the details of geography have their explanation in the formative\\nprocesses of land and water as treated in physical geography,\\nand the sciences of which it is a compend. Of course this demands\\na high standard of preparation in those who enter the Normal school.\\nThe higher the better, for they should be able to review the lower\\nbranches in the light of all human learning. 1\\nThis is true enough in its own place, but the teacher\\nmust not forget to return to the place of beginning. The\\nsuccessful teacher is always able to place himself at the\\npupil s point of attack.\\nThe character of the pupil is formed, so far as the\\nschool serves to form it, by the regimen and tone that\\nRegimen of habitually maintained. Every teaching ex-\\nthe School ercise should be considered under two aspects\\nPupil s direct contribution that it makes to\\nCharacter, the pupil s knowledge and the other its dis-\\nciplinary results, or its effect upon his habits and char-\\nacter. The two results, while causally connected, are not\\nmeasures one of another. Now the good school gener-\\nates courage and self-reliance, which it can do only upon\\nthe condition that the pupils shall succeed in their\\nlessons far more frequently than they fail. It is well\\nenough for the pupil to be stumped occasionally,\\nand there is a discipline in temporary failure, perhaps in\\npermanent failure, but success should be the habit of the\\nschool. Moreover, success cannot be the habit if too\\nmuch is required of the pupil. The regimen under which\\nthe child grows up should not be flabby, but relatively\\nstrenuous. Still, in the early period of character forming,\\n1 Oration delivered at the semi-centennial celebration of the State Normal\\nSchool, Framingham, Mass., July 2, 1899.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "88 THE ART OF STUDY,\\nhe should be shielded as far as possible from excessive\\ndemands upon his attention, his faculties of judgment\\nand thinking, and especially his power to resist tempta-\\ntion nor should he be overexposed to them in a later\\nperiod, when his character is better formed.\\nParallel Reading. Waste of Labor in the Work of Educa-\\ntion, Paul A. Chadbourne, (Circulars of Information of the\\nBureau of Education, No. 4). Washington, Government Print-\\ning Office, 1885. The School and Society, John Dewey. Chicago,\\nUniversity Press, 1899. Lecture III. Waste in Education", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL\\nTHE RECITATION-LESSON.\\nWhat the recitation means to American teachers and\\nwriters on teaching has been explained in a general way\\non an earher page. How important they con-\\nThe Recita- ^^j^^ j^ 1^^ gi-^Q^y^ by the place that is\\ntion in\\nAmerican accorded to it in the school and in books and\\nlectures on teaching. It is no exaggeration to\\nsay that a large majority of them look upon it as the prin-\\ncipal feature of the school. Authors who have never a\\nword to say about the art of study have whole chapters\\non the recitation, while a great many teachers, failing to\\nrender their pupils needed assistance in learning their\\nlessons, see the fulfillment of their duty in assigning\\nlessons and hearing recitations.\\nIt is, therefore, curious to observe that English teach-\\ners and writers on teaching never use the word recita-\\nunknownin tion at all in our familiar sense of it. A\\nEnglish leading London journal, speaking of a new\\nAmerican book on education not long ago,\\nthought it necessary to explain to its readers the author s\\nuse of the word. English teachers have the thing but\\nnot the name; they call it the lesson.\\nIt may be said that if English teachers have the thing\\nit cannot matter whether they have the name or not. I\\nam not so sure that this is the case, but rather think that\\nthey have the advantage over us. First, I am not quite", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "QO THE ART OF STUDY.\\nsure that they do have precisely the same thing, but\\nhowever that may be, it is certainly easier for the English\\nteacher to avoid the fatal habit of thinking that his\\ngreat function is to conduct recitations or to hear\\nlessons than it is for the American teacher. If we\\ncould in some way get rid of the word it would be easier\\nto free the American school from the slavery that the\\nrecitation now imposes upon it. Since, however, that is\\nundoubtedly impossible, we must make up our minds to\\naccept the name with all its unfortunate associations, and\\ndo what we can to improve the recitation itself. So I\\nsubmit to my fate, and contribute my chapter to the liter-\\nature of the subject.\\nAnd first, I must emphasize the fact that the recitation\\nshould not be thrown out of the school. This becomes ap-\\nparent when it is remembered that the recita-\\ntion should tion, or recitation-lesson, as I have ventured to\\nnot be (.^11 j^^ jg exercise in which the pupil meets his\\nthrown out. 1111 1 1\\nteacher to report what he has learned m the\\nstudy-lesson, and to receive needed instruction in connec-\\ntion with the subject. In view of what was said early in\\nthis book, it should not now be necessary to do more than\\nrepeat that such an exercise has no place early in the\\nschool course, and that often the mistake is made of\\nthrowing it too soon and too far to the front. At the\\nsame time, the study-recitation, valuable as it is, will not\\ndo either one of two things, which must, however,\\nbe done at the same time, ground the pupil in knowl-\\nedge or ground him in the art of study. There comes\\na time in the progress of the pupil when he can learn\\nmore in half an hour in the study-recitation than in\\nan hour in the study-lesson, and yet should make the\\npresent sacrifice since it is essential to future progress.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "THE RECITA TION-LESSON. ^I\\nThe pupil will never become an independent worker un-\\nless he learns to work independently he will never get\\nmuch real hold of the art of study as an instrument save\\nby practicing that art. Hence the great importance of\\nthe transition from oral teaching to the book, and of the\\npassage from the study-recitation to the study-lesson and\\nthe recitation-lesson. Perhaps at no point is the teach-\\ner s art more severely taxed. So much for prelimi-\\nnaries.\\nAttacking our subject directly, we find that it can be\\nseparated into two main subdivisions aim and method,\\nor the objects of the recitation-lesson and\\nObjects of the means or steps by which those objects shall\\nthe Recita- j^g readied. The relations of the two topics,\\ntion. r\\nand of the order in which they should be\\ntreated, are too obvious to call for formal remark.\\nI. THE OBJECTS OF THE RECITATION-LESSON.\\nThis topic opens a considerable breadth of educational\\nterritory, but we must confine ourselves to essential fea-\\ntures. The main objects of the recitation-lesson are the\\nfollowing\\n1. To give pupils an opportunity to report to their\\nteacher what they have learned of the lesson previously\\nassigned, or to reveal to him what they know\\nReporting.\\nof the subject. That is, to enable them to\\nshow how they have employed their time, or to give an\\naccount of their stewardship. Here the pupil holds the\\nfloor. That this is the first object of the recitation\\nresults from the relations of the exercise to past lessons\\nand future lessons.\\n2. To enable the teacher to discover and correct the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "Q2 THE ART OF STUDY.\\npupils* ignorance of the lesson, including their errors and\\nmisconceptions. The teacher now becomes\\nCorrecting.\\nmore promment than beiore he not only re-\\nceives but also criticises and corrects the reports that the\\npupils make him.\\n3. To enable the teacher to add to the pupils knowl-\\nedge of the lesson or subject, by means of a more\\nthorough discussion of the knowledge that the\\npupils have themselves acquired, and by pro-\\nducing new knowledge. It is clear that the teacher now\\nbecomes still more prominent than in the function\\nof criticism and correction.\\n4. To enable the teacher to prepare the way for the\\nnext lesson and recitation. To be sure, the ends already\\nnamed constitute a part of such preparation,\\nPreparing. y,r 1,\\nbut it IS only a part. Mention must also be\\nmade of the assignment of the next lesson, such explana-\\ntion as it may call for, and any special knowledge that\\nthe pupil may need in the ensuing study-lesson.\\n5. To enable the teacher to observe the \\\\Vays in which\\npupils do their work, and to correct them when neces-\\nsary in other words, to give the teacher an\\nPupils^ opportunity to see that, along with knowl-\\nedge, his pupils are also getting the art of\\nstudy.\\n6. To enable the members of the class to compare their\\nfacts and ideas, to bring their views of the lesson to-\\nC^ether, to supplement one another s knowl-\\nPupils Com-\\nparisons of edge, in a word, to enter into that legitimate\\nijach other s emulation without which a good school is\\nResults.\\nimpossible. This is by no means the least\\nbenefit flowing from the recitation perhaps some would\\nsay it is the greatest.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE REGIT A TION-LESSON,\\n93\\nThese are the primary objects of the recitation-lesson,\\nstated in their natural order. They have been presented,\\nit will be observed, in terms of knowledge rather than of\\npower, in the phraseology of objective not of subjective\\npedagogy, for the very obvious reason that for the present\\npurpose this is the most effecti.ve form of statement. The\\npropositions, however, can be readily expressed in the\\nother form.\\nAgain it will be seen that the recitation, like man\\nhimself, looks before and after, and that, like him, it looks\\nafter for the sake of before. What the pupil\\nlyOokitigBe-\\nfore and has donc, from the teacher s point of view, is\\nvaluable chiefly because it is the platform on\\nwhich he will stand while carrying his structure still\\nhigher.\\nThe principal subordinate ends of the recitation can\\nonly be enumerated. They are such as these to enable\\nSubordinate the teaclier to judge of the efificacy of his\\n:^nds. method and to test his own skill to furnish a\\nvaluable language lesson to give the pupil an opportunity\\nto classify and expand his thoughts through expression\\nto develop confidence and self-command in the pupil to\\nimprint the lesson more deeply on the mind to develop\\nquickness of apprehension and thought to stimulate the\\npupils to renewed activity, and to disclose to the teacher\\ntheir mind and character.\\nII. STEPS OF THE RECITATION-LESSON.\\nHere, as before, the view must be confined to the most\\nMethod of iiTiportant features of the subject.\\nConducting The first question is whether there is any\\nRecitations, m-^iyersal method, or an}^ order to which\\nall recitations, or all good recitations, must conform.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "94 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nStated in this way, the question must be answered\\nin the negative. Much depends upon the subject, the\\nNoinflex- stage of the subject that has been reached, the\\nibie Method, pupil, the teacher s aim, and the means at hand.\\nTo quote from Mr. P. A. Barnett\\nThere are no methods which we can apply rigidly to stated\\ncases. The only infallible prescription is that the teacher should be in-\\nfallible for so we come back to the greatest of all teaching rules\\nto become good teachers we must teach well. The best we can\\ndo is to take the pupil by the hand and to feel the way with him,\\nnot merely for him. i\\nAnd yet we must agree with the common opinion that,\\nas this writer expresses it, in the midst of all diversity\\nBut a Gen- the true type of teaching is constant. The\\neraiType. diversity arises inside the universal scheme,\\nwhich all good teachers follow the differences are in de-\\ntails, which are modified to suit individual cases, but in\\ndetails only. The main process alters only in so far as its\\nstages are more explicit or less explicit. This type is\\nuniversal because good teachers have always tended to\\napproximate it, but few of them have given it an articu-\\nlate form. In fact, it was first formulated by Herbart and\\nhis disciples, in what they called the formal steps of\\nteaching, viz. preparation, presentation, comparison,\\ngeneralization, and application. These steps will now be\\nbriefly explained.\\nFirst, however, the aim of the lesson should be clearly\\nstated to the pupil, because (i) the pupil s\\nAim of i- \\\\r v/ii\\ni^esson mind is thus focalized upon the subject (2)\\nstated. ^j^^ pupil is placed in the midst of a new circle\\nof ideas that claim his attention and which at once call up\\n1 Common Sense in Education and Teaching, New York, Longmans,\\nGreen Co., 1899, p. 6.\\n2 Ibid, p. 7.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "THE RECITATION-LESSON.\\n95\\nhis old and related ideas (3) expectation, which is an\\nimportant form of interest, is excited, while (4) the\\nchild, stimulated by a clear perception of what he is\\nexpected to do, makes an effort to do it, or to use his\\nwill.\\n1. Preparation. This consists in freshening up and call-\\ning clearly to the mind of the child older ideas that\\nprepara- bear Upon the new ones, and, by their simi-\\ntion. larity, explain and assist the understanding of\\nthe new. In the language of our special subject, the rela-\\ntion of the last lesson to the present one is made plain.\\nIn this way the soil of the mind, if the expression may be\\nallowed, is gotten ready for the new seed. This step con-\\nsists plainly enough of analysis.\\n2. Presentation. This step involves joining on the\\nnew lesson to the old one, or the new ideas and facts\\npresenta- to the old ideas and facts or, to employ the\\ntion. former figure, the new seed is cast into the\\nground which has been prepared for it.\\n3. Comparison (also called Association^. This step\\nbrings together in the mind the newly-won ideas, com-\\nCompari- pares them with one another, with older ideas\\nand with additional new ideas that will be pre-\\nsented it compares the new and the old and combines\\nthem into one complete whole. This step is analytic in\\nthe beginning, but synthetic in the end.\\n4. Generalization (also called System). This means\\nthe inference from the data now present in the mind of\\nGeneraii25a- principle, law, general statement, or what in\\ntion. matters of practice is called a rule. This is an\\nact of induction, and, in the narrow sense of the term in-\\nduction, is synthetic, since the particulars are made to\\nconverge in one general truth.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "96 THE ART OF STUDY,\\n5. Application (or Practical Application). The fourth\\nstep leaves the mind in possession of a general or ab-\\nstract idea. But e^eneral ideas are not of prac-\\nApplication.\\ntical value until they are applied to new cases\\nor particulars. And teaching is incomplete until the pupil\\nis shown how to make such applications for himself.\\nThis step, which is purely deductive, will claim our atten-\\ntion again in a future chapter.\\nSuch are the steps involved in the complete teaching\\nprocess. It is almost needless to say that many teaching\\nprocesses do not embrace all these steps, and so are in-\\ncomplete they are, for the time, defective at the begin-\\nning, middle, or end. Still more, it is often perfectly\\nproper that teaching processes should not embrace all\\nthese steps since that is neither possible nor necessary.\\nThese are abridged teaching processes.^\\nWe may now put the three learning exercises of the\\nschool and the five formal steps of teaching in parallel lines.\\nIt is plain that the steps may all fall into the study-recita-\\ntion, although that is not so much the properplace for ap-\\nplications as it is for the earlier steps. Plainly, too, the five\\nA recent review of Mr. Barnett s, Conwion Sense in Educatiojt and\\nTeaching, illustrates the five formal steps in the following manner Take,\\nfor instance, a proposition of Euclid. The first step, that of Preparation,\\nis found in the preceding propositions. The second step, of Presentation,\\nappears in the general enunciation, followed by the construction and the\\napplication of the enunciation to that construction. The third step, Com-\\nparison, follows when the subsidiary lines are drawn and the different\\nparts of the figure are considered, with the result for the construction.\\nThe fourth step. Abstraction, is taken when it is considered that the like\\nwould be true of any similar construction, so that the proposition may be\\nstated in general terms. But the theorem is certainly not yet understood,\\nunless the pupil is now able to take for himself the fifth step, that of\\npractical Application. The Nation, No, 181 1, p. 210.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE RECITATION-LESSON. gy\\nsteps may all occur in the study-lesson, if we may speak\\ni^earning oi the pupil as being his own teacher. And,\\nfngin^par- equally plain that all the steps\\naiieiwnes. may be taken in the recitation-lesson, although\\nmost of the work involved in preparation, and\\nmuch of that involved in presentation, falls naturally into\\nthe study-recitation and the study-lesson.\\nIntimately connected with the recitation is the art of\\nasking questions. Questioning is sometimes called a probe\\nArtofQues- with which the teacher examines the pupil s\\ntioning. mind as a surgeon examines a wound and some-\\ntimes a plummet with which the teacher sounds the depths\\nof the mind, as a sailor measures the sea with his lead. It is\\nindeed both a probe and a plummet, but it is far more\\nit is a magician s wand with which new knowledge is sum-\\nmoned into life. Skillful questions cause the pupil to\\ndefine his facts to clarify his ideas to put facts and ideas\\ntogether in new relations to compare to judge, and to\\ndraw inferences, mental operations which develop our\\nhigher knowledge. Socrates, borrowing the name from\\nhis mother s trade, called his method maieutic, and the in-\\nstrument with which he assisted his pupils to give birth to\\nthe children of their minds was questioning. We must,\\ntherefore, pay more than passing attention to this art.\\nSir J. G. Fitch recognizes three kinds of questions, the\\nThree kinds preliminary, or experimental the one employed\\ntions. in instruction and the one employed in ex-\\namination and defines them as follows\\nThere is, first, \\\\}i\\\\^ preliminary or experi7ne?ital quQsXXon, by which\\nan instructor feels his way, sounds the depths of his pupil s previous\\nknowledge, and prepares him for the reception of what it is designed\\nto teach.\\nThen, secondly, there is the question employed in actual insfruc-\\nArt of study \u00e2\u0080\u00947.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "98 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nHon, by means of which the thoughts of the learner are exercised, and\\nhe is compelled, so to speak, to take a share in giving himself the\\nlesson.\\nThirdly, there is the question of examination, by which a teacher\\ntests his own work, after he has given a lesson, and ascertains whether\\nit has been soundly and thoroughly learned. i\\nThe first of these questions goes naturally with what\\nthe Herbartians call preparation, the second with presen-\\ntation, the third with comparison. While all\\nEjach Kind ^hrcc may be used in the study-recitation, the\\nfirst and second fall there more naturally.\\nAgain, the third question belongs especially to the reci-\\ntation-lesson, and here it is employed mainly in testing\\nwhat the pupil has learned. The instruction question\\nis serviceable in imparting real knowledge. The emi-\\nnent teacher referred to by Fitch, who said he first\\nquestioned the knowledge into the mind of the child and\\nthen questioned it out again, used, in the first instance, the\\ninstruction question, and in the second one, the examina-\\ntion question.\\nAs to the character of the teacher s questions, we need\\nonly repeat the same writer s admonitions, that such\\nquestions should be clear, terse, pointed, and capable of\\nbeing answered not with a mere yes or no or with a single\\nword. They should be continuous, and such that the\\npupil may fairly be expected to answer them.\\nStill another rule is that the questioning should not all\\nFitch on j^g confined to the teacher. This rule. Sir T. G.\\nQues-\\ntioning. Fitcli puts in a paragraph so admirable that I\\nshall venture to quote it in full\\nThe art of putting a good question is itself a mental exercise of\\n1 The Art of Questioning, New York, E. L. Kellogg Co., iSSS.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE RECITATION-LESSON. qq\\nsome value, and implies some knowledge of the subject in hand. You\\nare conscious of this when you yourselves interrogate your class.\\nBear this in mind, therefore, in its application to the scholars. Let\\nthem occasionally change their attitude of mind from that of receivers\\nand respondents to that of inquirers. Remember Bacon s aphorism,\\nPriidcns quaestio, dlmidium scientiae. You are half way to the knowl-\\nedge of a thing, when you can put a sensible question upon it. So I\\nhav^e sometimes heard a teacher towards the end of a lesson appeal to\\nhis pupils, and say to them one by one, Put a question to the class\\non what we have learned To do this, a boy must turn the subject\\nround in his mind a little and look at it in a new light. The knowl-\\nedge that he is likely to be challenged to do it will make him listen to\\nthe lesson more carefully, and prepare himself with suitable questions\\nand whether he knows the answer or not, there is a clear gain in\\nsuch an effort. The best teachers always encourage their scholars to\\nask questions. The old discipline in the Mediaeval Universities of\\nposers and disputations, in which one student proposed a thesis or a\\nquestion, and another had to answer it, was not a bad instrument for\\nsharpening the wits. In a modified way, it may be well to keep this\\nin view, and to set scholars occasionally to question one another. i\\nIt may be added that Alcuin, the great teacher at the\\ncourt of Charlemagne, required his scholars to ask the\\nquestions while he answered them.\\nIt is important to remember that questions may be in\\nexcess of the legitimate use of the school. They are\\nMr Barnett ^-Imost purely analytical, and therefore leave\\non Ques- knowledge in fragments. The excessive use\\nonmg. questions, says Mr. Barnett, is a worship\\nof mere machinery. In particular, the habit that puts all\\nor most of the questions in the mouth of the teacher is a\\npar.t of that ill-adjustment of the teacher to the pupil\\nwhich it is the purpose of this book to correct. In the\\nwords of the author just quoted\\n1 Lectures on Teaching, New York, E. L. Kellogg Co., i8S6, Chap. vi.\\np. 172.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "lOO THE ART OF STUDY.\\nAfter all, it should be remembered that in the common order of\\nnature it is the person needing instruction who usually asks questions,\\nnot the person giving it. Why should the nature of things be topsy-\\nturvy in the schoolroom It is not so at home. Why should the\\nquestioner in school be almost always the teacher instead of the\\nlearner Our business is to make our scholars feel the lack of infor-\\nmation, desire to ask questions to encourage them to find out what\\nthey can for themselves, and to be keen to hear w^hat we have to add\\nto their stock. They must, in fact, question tis or, at all events,\\nstand in the attitude of those who want to know. i\\nNowhere is it more important than in the recitation to re-\\nmember that language is not knowledge. Hobbes has said\\nthat words are the counters of wise men, the\\nI/anguage\\nnot Knowi- money of fools. To study is to get knowledge\\nout of the printed page to recite is to express\\nknowledge in oral or written words but experience shows\\nthat, comparatively speaking, knowledge may be omitted\\nin both cases. The pupil, especially if gifted with verbal\\nmemory, naturally falls into that mistake, since he must,\\nat recitation time, have something to say the regimen\\nof the school often invites the mistake, and fond parents\\nsometimes glory in its results. Hence the teacher must\\nstand guard at this point, resorting freely to the two great\\ncorrectives, questioning and the study of concrete real-\\ni Covunon Sense in Education and Teaching, New York, Longmans,\\nGreen Co., 1899.\\n2 None but those who have looked curiously into the matter have much\\nidea of the extent to which children, and even adults, are ignorant of\\nthe meaning of words that are perfectly familiar to them. Dr. Trumbull,\\nthe distinguished writer on Sunday-schools, tells some amusing anecdotes\\nthat illustrate the fact. First, he mentions the boy in Mrs. Horace Mann s\\nschool who didn t want to be good because he thought it meant ter-be\\nwhipped. He tells of an old church member, commonly supposed to be\\nintelligent in Scripture, who did not know what Christ s passion men-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE RECITA TION-LESSON. lOI\\nAt the same time, to say that a child should learn\\nnothing by heart is to commit an error almost equal to\\nsaying he should never be told anything that\\ni^earmng j^^ himself. Some thin^^fs he\\nby Heart.\\nshould learn by heart, as many of the formulas\\nin which knowledge is compactly expressed. Mention\\nmay be made of the multiplication table, mathematical\\ndefinitions and axioms, the definitions and rules of gram-\\nmar, some of the symbols of chemistry, the canons of\\nformal logic about these there can be no question, pro-\\nvided always the pupil s studies take so wide a range.\\nThen the child should, first and last, memorize a certain\\namount of literature, especially poetry. Literature con-\\nsists of two elements, the conceptions of the author and\\nthe words in which he expresses those conceptions the\\nsubstance and the form. The thought is in the words,\\njust as the painter s thought is in the canvas, or the sculp-\\ntor s in the marble, and the two cannot be separated with-\\nout destroying the literature. The inference is not that\\nthe pupil should commit to memory all the literature that\\nhe studies, much less all that he reads, but that he should\\ncommit enough to furnish his mind with a fund of beauti-\\nful literary forms. To this end, what are technically\\ntioned in the first chapter of Acts of the Apostles was. Another story is\\nof a bright wSunday-school scliolar, twenty-five years old, who asked who\\nthe despised Galilean was. The Doctor found also that one of his own\\ndaughters, who was familiar with trees and meadows, did not know what\\nthe woods was, and winds up with a farm boy who, as he left for church\\non Sunday morning, was directed by his mistress to remember where the\\nminister s text was. He reported on his return, I don t quite know,\\nMa am, but I think it was somewhere down by the door The fact was,\\nhe had spent the morning, not in listening to the sermon, but in trying to\\ndiscover place of the text. See Teaching and Teachers, H. Clay Trum-\\nbull, Philadelphia, John D. Wattles, 1884.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "102 THE ART OF STUDY.\\ncalled recitations, which are so prominent a feature on\\nexhibition days, are to be encouraged within proper\\nbounds. Still more, the admonition that children should\\nunderstand what they learn, which is a plain intimation\\nthat, to the popular mind, learning does not always in-\\nvolve understanding, need not be too rigidly insisted\\nupon. The child should not be allowed to fill his mind\\nwith words, but literary appreciation is a thing of degrees,\\nand we grow up to great literary compositions.\\nThe language of the lesson, like the matter itself,\\nshould be adapted to the pupil s capacity. The\\nvoun pupil, for example, cannot take his\\nI/anguage to fa r i i\\nbe Adapted mental food in abstract forms, or in large\\ntothePupi qu^j-j^ities^ Xo present to him a large subject,\\nespecially in unfamiliar words, is like holding out to him\\na loaf of bread, expecting him to eat it at a single mouth-\\nful. As Dr. Harris has said The child s mind cannot\\nseize great syntheses. He bites off, as it were, only small\\nfragments of truth at best. He gets isolated data, and\\nsees only feebly the vast network of interrelations in the\\nworld. This fragmentary, isolated character belongs\\nespecially to primary education.\\nA sentence or two will suffice respecting the relative\\nvalue of oral and written recitations. Both should be\\nOral and used in proper proportions oral recitations\\nWritten dcvclop quickuess of thoujjht and expression,\\nRecitations. r n r^^\\nversatility, and fullness of ideas written reci-\\ntations develop definiteness and accuracy of knowledge\\nand terseness and compactness of expression.\\nA few words will suffice also for what the pupil forgets.\\nIt is true enough that, in so far as he uses his knowl-\\nedge as he goes along, it has present practical value, but\\nin respect to his future lessons the knowledge that he", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE RECITATION-LESSON. 1 03\\ngains to-day is but a step to the knowledge that he is to\\ne^ain to-morrow. Thus viewed, knowledp-e that\\nForgotten f 1 r\\nKnowledge. IS forgotten, it may be forever, has its lasting\\nuses. The builder s scaffolding is temporary,\\nbut it is still necessary to the erection of the permanent\\nstructure.\\nIn answering questions the time element is important.\\nSome pupils are quick, others slow, and neither the quick-\\nness of the one nor the slowness of the other\\nThe time\\nElement in is a proper gauge of his ability or knowledge.\\nQuestion- Some teachers, again, require prompt answers,\\nothers are content with slow ones the proper\\nrule is the golden mean. If the teacher allows too little\\ntime to pupils they tend to become agile but superficial;\\nif too much time, they tend to inattention and indolence.\\nRadestock says The child must be accustomed to give\\none impression time to take root, and not follow it im-\\nmediately by a corresponding action, that it may not pass\\naway with that action into air. He also quotes Lazarus\\nDeep thinking requires time it is, therefore, a great\\npedagogical mistake if teachers as is now generally done\\nurge their pupils to answer rapidly, and praise those\\nwho immediately have an answer ready. This causes\\neverything to be lowered to a mere effort of me-\\nchanical memory. The pupils should be given time for\\nindividual contemplation, for deep and energetic thought-\\nlabor. 1 If a strong scholar, the teacher is apt to over-\\nestimate the ability of his class, especially in connection\\nwith the time that they require to see through things, or to\\nthink them out. This is one reason why strong scholars\\nare not always strong teachers. This tendency is well\\n1 Habit and its Importance in Education^ Boston, D. C. Heath Co.,\\n1887, pp. 36, Zl", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "104 THE ART OF STUDY,\\nillustrated by an interesting passage in the sketch of\\nProfessor Pierce, perhaps the greatest mathematical\\ngenius our country has produced, found in Dr. A. P.\\nPeabody s pleasant volume entitled Harvard Reminis-\\ncences. The two men were at one time charged with\\nteaching all the mathematics then taught in Harvard\\nCollege, and alternated in some of the classes. Peabody\\nsays he was in one respect Pierce s superior because he\\nwas in other respects so much his inferior.\\nNo one was more cordially ready than he to give such help as he\\ncould but his intuition of the whole ground was so keen and compre-\\nhensive, that he could not take cognizance of the slow and tentative\\nprocesses of mind by which an ordinary learner was compelled to\\nmake his step-by-step progress. In his explanations he would take\\ngiant strides and his frequent You see indicated that he saw\\nclearly that of which his pupil could get hardly a glimpse. I, on\\nthe other hand, though fond of mathematical study, was yet so far\\nfroni being a proficient in the more advanced parts of the course,\\nthat I studied every lesson as patiently and thoroughly as any of my\\npupils could have done. I, therefore, knew every short step of the\\nway that they would be obliged to take, and could lead them in the\\nvery footsteps which I had just trodden before them.\\nParallel Reading. The Method of the Recitation, C. A.\\nMcMurry and F. M. McMurry. Bloomington, III, Public\\nSchool Publishing Co., 1898. Hcrhaj t a7id the Herbartians,\\nCharles DeGarmo. New York, Charles Scribner s Sons, 1895.\\nChap. V. Method in Teaching Common Sense in Edu-\\ncation and Teaching, P. A. Barnett. New York, Longmans,\\nGreen Co., 1899. Chap. I. Instruction as Discipline\\nPractical Hints for the Teachers of Public Schools, George How-\\nland. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1889. Chap. VIII.\\nThe Class Recitation Lectures 07i Teaching, Sir J. G. Fitch.\\nNew York, E. L. Kellogg Co., 1886. Chap. VI. Examin-\\ning\\nHarvard Reminiscences. New York, Houghton, Mifflin Co., pp. 183, 184.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nATTENTION ITS NATURE, KINDS, AND VALUE.\\nThere have been writers who maintained that atten-\\ntion is a special faculty of the mind, like perception,\\nThe General ^^^^^^y* imagination. None, that I am\\nSense of aware of, now hold that view, but all regard\\nattention rather as a state or condition of\\nmind in which any one of the intellectual faculties may\\nmanifest itself. It is a predominant intellectual state.\\nIn a broad sense every act of consciousness is an act of\\nattention you attend to the object that you know, al-\\nTwo Kinds though you may know it feebly, as compared\\nof Con- with the object that you do not know and so\\ndo not attend to but this is not the com-\\nmon acceptation of the word. Usage limits it rather to\\nacts of knowing that have a certain character or possess\\na certain quality. Attention is a narrower term than\\nknowledge or consciousness; we know things, or are\\nconscious of things, to which we do not give attention\\nin the accepted sense of the word.\\nThe matter may be put in another way. Conscious-\\nness is a name that we give to all states of mind, or to\\nall mental operations. It is seen in two forms diffused\\nconsciousness and concentrated consciousness, the second\\nbeing what we call attention. Messrs. Dexter and Garlick\\npresent the simple facts in this way", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "I06 THE ART OF STUDY.\\n(a) Suppose I am looking at a small object by artificial light. I\\ncannot see it distinctly. I interpose a lens between my eye and the\\nobject. The light is concentrated on the object and I see it dis-\\ntinctly. Now consciousness, like light, seems to increase in vividness\\nin proportion as it is concentrated on one spot.\\n(b) Two boys are talking in an undertone in the class. The\\nteacher is dimly conscious of a noise in the room he thinks there\\nis a noise, but is not certain. He begins to listen, to concentrate his\\nmind, as it were, upon the supposed sound. He identifies it as a sound\\nof conversation, and localizes the sound as coming from the two boys\\nwho are talking. The boys are talking no louder at the conclusion\\nthan at the beginning of the incident, but the teacher has by his act\\nof attention given greater distinctness and vividness to his conscious-\\nness.\\nAttention, then, involves energetic or intensive know-\\ning, and it results from fixing some measure of mental\\nAttention power upon one object or a small group of ob-\\niiiustrated. jects, and withholding it from the other objects\\nin the field of consciousness. Thus, as I ride along the\\nroad I notice a flock of sheep and a herd of horses in the\\nfield my mental state is one of diffused consciousness.\\nBut I may attend to the horses alone, allowing the sheep\\nto fall largely or wholly out of my mind, and vice versa\\nor I may attend to some one particular horse or sheep\\nthat captures my eye, to the partial or total exclusion of\\nall the others, and of all competing objects of knowledge.^\\nAccordingly, attention is a selective act of the mind, one\\nor more objects being chosen for intensive knowing to\\nthe exclusion of the others. It involves abstraction, that\\n1 Psychology in the Schoolroofu. New York, Longmans, Green Co.,\\n1898, page 28.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "A TTENTION.\\n107\\nis, the withdrawing of mental power from certain objects\\nto fix it upon one or a small number of others.\\nThe word attention is derived from the Latin ad,\\nmeaning to, and tcndcrc, meaning to stretch, and so\\nEtymology ctymological meaning of stretcJiing to\\nof Atten- something. Tension, which means primarily\\na strain upon some material thing, as a rope or\\na muscle, comes from the same Latin verb. Thus atten-\\ntion shows us, in a figure, the mind in a state of tension or\\nstrain, similar to that placed upon the rope or muscle.\\nMoreover, the strain that comes upon the mind in atten-\\ntion is often, if not commonly, accompanied by a similar\\nphysical experience.\\nThe external signs of attention are not to be mistaken.\\nThus, in certain forms of attention, the eyes, the ears, the\\nExternal ^rms Sometimes, the whole body perhaps.\\nSigns of converge towards their object, all motions\\nAttention. li. 1\\nare arrested our personality is captured,\\nthat is, all the tendencies of the individual, all his avail-\\nable energy, aims at the same point. Again, it has been\\nremarked that in extreme cases the mouth opens wide,\\nwhile in children and in many adults close attention\\nproduces protrusion of the lips, a kind of pouting. The\\nword tension no doubt passed from the material into\\nthe mental sphere because of a supposed resemblance be-\\ntween the bodily and the mental states.\\nStill other similitudes are employed to explain the\\nnature of attention. One of the most common, as well\\nAttention most effective, is that of the lens.\\ntiiei,ensof Attention is to consciousness what contrac-\\ntion of the pupil is to light, says Sir William\\nHamilton or to the eye of the mind what the microscope\\nis to the bodily eye. Professor Dewey speaks to the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "I08 THE ART OF STl/DY.\\nsame effect. In attention we focus the mind, as the\\nlens takes all the light coming to it, and, instead of al-\\nlowing it to diffuse itself evenly, concentrates it in a point\\nof great light and heat.\\nThe action of the mind in attention may also be likened\\nto the action of the machine used in the laboratory to\\nAttention a condcnse air, or to produce high degrees of\\nCondensing atmosplieric pressure. A pressure of fifteen\\npounds on the square inch, which is normal,\\nis called one atmosphere; multiples, as thirty pounds and\\nforty-five pounds, are called two and three atmospheres,\\netc. So we might by analogy speak of one or more at-\\nmospheres of consciousness or of knowing power.\\nAttention presents to our view many interesting phases.\\nFor one thing, it is difficult to know when it begins\\nand when it ends, so insensible is the transition\\nBeginning\\nand Bnd of from the Ordinary state of consciousness to at-\\ntention, and again from attention to the ordi-\\nnary state of consciousness. It embraces all degrees,\\nfrom the transient instant accorded to the buzzing of a fly\\nto the state of complete absorption.\\nAnother interesting question is. To how many things\\ncan the mind attend at once But this is of little interest\\nfor us here, because it is well known that effective study\\ndemands as close a limitation of the mind to the objects\\nof study as possible.\\nAgain, it is important to remark that attention is not\\nlimited to external or material objects, but relates to\\nBxtendsto ^^al objects as well. It is just as easy, or\\nInternal even more so, to attend to a man s thoughts or\\nfeelings provided he gives expression to them,\\nas it is to attend to his attire or bodily actions. Then,\\nI can attend to my own unexpressed thoughts and feelings", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "ATTENTION. IO9\\nin consciousness, and am often compelled to attend to\\nthem to the exclusion of external objects.\\nFurthermore, attention may take the direction of any\\ncognitive faculty, as perception, memory, or thought.\\nMay Take Attentive perception is energetic perception\\nthe Direc- attentive memory, energetic memory attentive\\nCognitive^ reflection, energetic reflection. The effects of\\nFaculty. attention are well known they give a fuller\\nand better knowledge of the object than the diffused con-\\nsciousness. My ordinary observation of a horse, for ex-\\nample, gives me a general idea of the horse, my attentive\\nobservation gives me a minute and thorough knowledge\\nand so of the other kinds of attention.\\nWe have seen that attention involves the fixing of the\\nmind upon some object or objects, or that it is the con-\\ncentration of the mind upon such object or\\nAuentiim objects. But this is not all the element of\\ntime enters into the activity. Attention, as\\ncommonly understood, involves, not merely the fixing of\\nthe mind upon an object, but also the holding of it upon\\nthis object. The second element is as important as the\\nfirst one. We may go back to the similitude of the lens\\nto be effective, the glass must be constructed so that it\\nwill focalize the rays of light and heat, and must then\\nbe held in one position long enough to make this focal\\npoint a burning point. The most powerful burning\\nglass will not set gunpowder on fire if it is kept in active\\nmotion, while an instrument of much inferior power will\\nignite substances not accounted inflammable if it is\\nheld steadily in one place.\\nAs there are two states or kinds of consciousness, so\\nthere are two kinds of attention. The distinction be-\\ntween them refers to the effort involved in the act.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "I lo THE ART OF STUD V.\\nSome acts of attention are not marked by conscious\\neffort; other acts are so marked, and sometimes very\\nstronp;ly. Attention shown in the first class\\nPassive and o\\nActive At- of cases is called passive that shown in the\\nsecond class, active. The first kind is also\\nknown as reflex, spontaneous, automatic, and involuntary\\nattention the second as voluntary or volitional attention.\\nThe central fact is this in passive attention the will is not\\npresent, while in active attention it is always present, and\\noften in a very energetic form. But we must take a closer\\nview of the subject.\\nIn passive attention some object is present to the mind\\nthat draws to itself the mind s energy or power. Another\\nway to state the same thing is to say that\\nPassive ^j^j^ object attracts the mind and still an-\\nAttention.\\nother that it controls or commands the at-\\ntention. The word attract used in this connection\\nsuggests a familiar fact which has perhaps prompted its\\nuse. If you bring a magnet within a certain distance of\\na bit of iron or steel that is free to move, it attracts the\\nmetal to itself and holds it in its own grasp. In passive\\nattention the object may come into the mind s way inci-\\ndentally, or it may be thrown into its way intentionally by\\nsome outside cause it does not matter so long as the\\nobject chooses the mind or attracts it. Still further, the\\nobject may be an external or an internal one it may be\\nthe discharge of a cannon or the mental image of some\\nabsent friend; but, whether the object be external or in-\\nternal, it makes no difference so long as it holds the mind\\nin its own firm embrace.\\nIn active attention, on the other hand, the mind itself\\nselects the object of knowledge and holds it captive.\\nThere is an act of choice or volition. In other words,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "ATTENTION, HI\\nthis act of selection proceeds from the will, and this fact\\ngives to this species of attention its name,\\nActive voluntary. As before, the object may be\\nexternal or internal, but the act is voluntary\\nif it proceeds directly from choice.\\nA French writer has said that passive or reflex atten-\\ntion makes the child seem to belong less to himself than\\nto every object which happens to catch his\\nofTm^Sse. notice. But active or voluntary attention\\nmakes the object the mind s own possession.\\nThe impulse in the one case is from without inward, in\\nthe other case from within outward. The two kinds of\\nmovement may be likened to the impulses that move on\\nthe afferent and the efferent nerves, the first running from\\nthe surface of the body to the brain, the second from the\\nbrain to the surface of the body.\\nIt is apparent, therefore, that, while passive attention is\\nspontaneous, active attention springs from cultivation..\\nActive P^ey^i points out that, in the earliest period\\nAttention of its life, the child is capable of spontaneous\\nCultivated. i- r\\nattention only it fixes its gaze upon shin-\\ning objects and upon the faces of its mother or nurse\\nand it is only about the end of the third month that it\\nexplores its field of vision more fully and by degrees rests\\nits eyes upon objects that are less interesting. Volitional\\nattention comes much later. Ribot remarks that it\\noriginates of necessity, under the pressure of need, and\\nwith the progress of intelligence. It is an instrument\\nthat has been perfected, a product of civilization.\\nWhat Ribot says of attention as a whole, viz., that it\\nsupposes the existence of a master idea drawing to it-\\nself all that relates to it and nothing else, allowing solici-\\ntations to produce themselves only within very narrow", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "112 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nlimits, and on condition that they converge toward a\\ncommon point, is more particularly true of passive\\nattention.\\nThe high value of attention, its necessity to high attain-\\nments of any kind, above all, its relations to study and\\neducation, both as a cause of success in the\\nof^Att^ntion student, and again as an object to be sought\\nafter in discipline these things flow from the\\nvery nature of the act. Sir William Hamilton has dis-\\ncussed this branch of the subject with great ability, pre-\\nsenting many interesting historical examples of what\\nattention may accomplish. It will be well worth our\\nwhile to transcribe a portion of his discussion.\\nThe difference between an ordinary mind and the mind of a New-\\nton consists principally in this, that the one is capable of the applica-\\ntion of a more continuous attention than the other, that\\nSir William Newton is able without fatig-ue to connect inference\\nHamilton on\\nAttention. i^h inference m one long series towards a determinate\\nend while the man of inferior capacity is soon obliged\\nto break or let fall the thread which he had begun to spin. This is,\\nin fact, what Sir Isaac, with equal modesty and shrewdness, himself\\nadmitted. To one who complimented him on his genius he replied\\nthat, if he had made any discoveries, it was owing more to patient at-\\ntention than to any other talent. There is but little analogy between\\nmathematics and play-acting; but I heard the great Mrs. Siddons,\\nin nearly the same language, attribute the whole superiority of her\\nunrivaled talent to the more intense study which she bestowed upon\\nher parts. If what Alcibiades, in the Symposium of Plato, narrates of\\nSocrates were true, the father of Greek philosophy must have pos-\\nsessed this faculty of meditation or continuous attention in the highest\\ndegree. The story, indeed, has some appearance of exaggeration\\nbut it shows what Alcibiades, or rather Plato through him, deemed\\nthe requisite of a great thinker. According to this report, in a mili-\\ntary expedition which Socrates made along with Alcibiades, the phi-\\nlosopher was seen by the Athenian army to stand for a whole day and", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "ATTENTION. II3\\na night, until the breaking of the second morning, motionless with a\\nfixed gaze, thus showing that he was uninterruptedly engrossed with\\nthe consideration of a single subject. And thus, says Alcibiades,\\nSocrates is ever wont to do when his mind is occupied with inquiries\\nin which there are difficulties to be overcome. He then never inter-\\nrupts his meditation, and forgets to eat, and drink, and sleep, every-\\nthing, in short, until his inquiry has reached its termination, or, at\\nleast, until he has seen some light in it. In this history there may\\nbe, as I have said, exaggeration but still the truth of the principle\\nis undeniable.\\nThese examples and authorities concur in establishing the im-\\nportant truth, that he who would, with success, attempt discovery,\\neither by inquiry into the works of nature, or by meditation on the\\nphsenomena of mind, must acquire the faculty of abstracting him-\\nself, for a season, from the invasion of surrounding objects must be\\nable even, in a certain degree, to emancipate himself from the dominion\\nof the body, and live, as it were, a pure intelligence, within the circle of\\nhis thoughts. This faculty has been manifested, more or less, by all\\nwhose names are associated with the progress of the intellectual\\nsciences. In some, indeed, the power of abstraction almost degener-\\nated into a habit akin to disease, and the examples which now occur\\nto me would almost induce me to retract what I have said about the\\nexaggeration of Plato s history of Socrates.\\nArchimedes, it is well known, was so absorbed in a geometrical\\nmeditation that he was first aware of the storming of Syracuse by his\\nown death-wound, and his exclamation on the entrance of Roman\\nsoldiers was Noli turbare circulos meos. In like manner, Joseph\\nScaliger, the most learned of men, when a Protestant student in Paris,\\nwas so engrossed in the study of Homer, that he became aware of the\\nmassacre of St. Bartholomew, and of his own escape, only on the day\\nsubsequent to the catastrophe. The philosopher Carneades was\\nhabitually liable to fits of meditation, so profound, that, to prevent him\\nfrom sinking from inanition, his maid found it necessary to feed him like\\na child. And it is reported of Newton that, while engaged in his\\nmathematical researches, he sometimes forgot to dine. Cardan, one\\nof the most illustrious of philosophers and mathematicians, was once,\\nupon a journey, so lost in thought, that he forgot both his way and\\nthe object of his journey. To the questions of his driver whither he\\nshould proceed, he made no answer and, when he came to himself at\\nArt of study.\u00e2\u0080\u0094", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "1 14 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nnightfall, he was surprised to find the carriage at a standstill, and di-\\nrectly under a gallows. The mathematician Vieta was sometimes so\\nburied in meditation that for hours he bore more resemblance to a\\ndead person than to a living, and was then wholly unconscious of\\neverything going on around him. On the day of his marriage the\\ngreat Budasus forgot everything in philological speculations, and he\\nwas only awakened to the affairs of the external world by a tardy em-\\nbassy from the marriage party, who found him absorbed in the com-\\nposition of his Commetitarii.\\nIt is beautifully observed by Malebranche, that the discovery of\\ntruth can only be made by the labor of attention because it is only\\nthe labor of attention which has light for its reward and in another\\nplace The attention of the intellect is a natural prayer by which we\\nobtain the enlightenment of reason.\\nDr. W. B. Carpenter relates that John Stuart Mill\\nthought out, or mentally composed, much of his great\\nJohn Stuart work on Logic while walking between his lodg-\\nM^iii- ings in London and the India House, picking\\nhis way through the crowded thoroughfares, so unmind-\\nful of what was going on about him that he even failed\\nto notice his familiar acquaintances who chanced to meet\\nhim in the throng of passengers.\\nThe terms absent-minded and absent-mindedness,\\nare often used in connection with such facts as are\\nrelated in the stories told of Socrates and\\nAbsent- -n/r-n t-i i 1 -1\\nMindedness Mr. Mill. 1 he implication is that the mind\\nand Distrac-Qf the pcrson tlius employed has in someway\\nescaped from him is absent, in a word. This\\nis just as you look at it the fact is that his mind is\\nabsent from the things right about him because it is ab-\\nsorbed in things of another description. Ribot applies to\\nthis state of mind the word distraction. Thus there\\nare people, he says, who, wholly absorbed by some idea,\\n1 Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic. New York, Butler, Sheldon Co.,\\n1868, Lecture XIV.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "ATTENTION.\\n115\\nare also really distracted in regard to what takes place\\naround them they afford no hold to external events,\\nand allow the latter to flit by them without penetrating\\ntheir mind. Such people appear incapable of attention\\nfor the very reason that they are very attentive.\\nThe effects of attention and absorption of mind are by\\nno means confined to the mental sphere on the con-\\ntrary some of the most striking of such effects\\nPhysical relate to the body. For example, it is well\\nEJflFectof At- -11 1 1\\ntention. known that mental preoccupation will deaden\\nfor the time physical pain. A public speaker,\\nbecoming interested in his theme, forgets the toothache\\nor rheumatism that was torturing him when he began\\nhis discourse, and that is sure to return, perhaps with re-\\ndoubled effect, when he has finished speaking. A boy\\nwho is eagerly pursuing a rabbit, or playing ball, does not\\nnotice at the time the severe cut or bruise that he has\\nreceived on his bare foot from a pointed stick or a sharp-\\nedged stone while soldiers in the heat of battle do not\\nalways become immediately sensible of the wounds that\\nthey have received. It is well known, also, that bodily\\nailments, even severe ailments, may be brought on by\\nthinking intently, long, and often, of some particular part\\nof the body. In this way it often happens, says Dr.\\nCarpenter, that a real ma\\\\d.dy supervenes upon the fancied\\nailments of those in whom the want of helpful occupa-\\ntion for the mind leaves it free to dwell upon its mere\\nsensations whilst, on the other hand, the strong expecta-\\ntion of benefit from a particular mode of treatment will\\noften cnrc diseases that involve serious organic change.\\n1 The Pyschology of Atteiition. Chicago, Open Court Pub. Co., 1890, p. 78.\\nPrinciples of Mental Physiology. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1886,\\np- 145-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "Il6 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nParallel Reading. Talks to Teachers on Psychology and\\nto Studefits on Some of Life s Ideals, William James. New\\nYork, Henry Holt Co., 1899. Chap. XH. Attention\\nLectures on Metaphysics and Logic, Sir William Hamilton. New\\nYork, Butler, Sheldon Co., 1868. Lecture XIV. Atten-\\ntion in General Psychology in the Schoolrootn, T. F. G. Dex-\\nter and A. H. Garlick. New York, Longmans, Green Co.,\\n1898. Chap. III. Attention", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII.\\nPASSIVE ATTENTION INTEREST.\\nThe last chapter was devoted to defining attention,\\ndiscriminating its kinds, and marking out its scope and\\nRecapitti- value. More definitely, we saw that attention\\nlation. is the act of the mind when concentrated or\\nfocused on some particular thing or subject that there\\nare two kinds of attention, passive and active, and that\\nthey sometimes assume forms of great energy. We also\\nremarked the place that attention holds in the mental life.\\nWe must not suppose, however, that the value of atten-\\ntion is limited to intellectual pursuits it extends to the\\nValue ofAt-^ practical world as well. In fact, it is no\\ntentionin exaggeration to say that a man s power of at-\\n^cation. tej-^^-iQi-j Qften determines his successor failure in\\nlife, involving his ability to use effectively his powers,\\nboth of mind and body. It is, therefore, obvious that\\nthe cultivation of the child s attention is a matter of\\nprime importance in the conduct of his education, and\\nthat the subject needs careful study. We shall deal first,\\nin two chapters, with passive attention, and afterwards, in\\ntwo more, with active.\\nThere are some elementary facts relating to the subject\\nthat should be dealt with before we take up the practical\\n117", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "Il8 THE ART OF STUDY,\\nquestion of the development or cultivation of the passive\\nattention.\\nI. The first of these facts is that the earliest acts of at-\\ntention on the part of the child are reflex or passive acts.\\nAs is well known, the human infant is born\\nChild s t 1. 1 1 1 11\\nFirst Acts blind, but he gradually acqun es sight and the\\nof Attention ^yorld of vision is slowly opened to him. At\\nPassive.\\nfirst this world, or the very small portion of it\\nthat comes within his range, floats before him vague and\\nindefinite but ere long he begins to notice particular\\nthings, or they begin to arrest his mind. At a very\\nearly age indeed, says M. Compayre, there are moments\\nof keen consciousness when all the intelligence the child\\npossesses is concentrated on one point, when he is fasci-\\nnated, for instance, by a light or bright color. The ex-\\nternal signs of attention show themselves then the eye\\nis fixed the child is motionless, plunged into a sort of\\nstupor of ecstasy. He may be fascinated also by\\nsounds as well as sights. Wc have a report of a girl three\\nmonths old who was attentive to all about her, even to\\nthe very noise of a step on the floor; and another of a\\nboy who, when a month old, noticed the gestures of those\\nthat spoke to him and was perceptibly influenced by their\\nwords. These simple acts of attention are the beginnings\\nof that power to focus the mind which reaches its fully\\ndeveloped form in such examples as those narrated in the\\nlast chapter. But they are distinctly reflex at this stage\\nof life the child has no will that can focus his mind or\\nperform any similar act his mind is focused from with-\\nout and not from within and this continues to be the\\ncase for a considerable period.\\ni Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child. New York, D. Apple-\\nton Co., 1896. Part I., p, 272.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "PASSIVE ATTENTION: INTEREST. ug\\n2. It is clear that in passive attention the object has\\nsome pecLiHar attraction for the mind or some pecuHar influ-\\nence over it. Fascination is M. Compavre s\\nFasci- IT-\\nnation. word. T or example, as a pupil in school is\\nof the Ob- toiling away at his arithmetic, a brass band that\\nis passing on the street suddenly strikes up\\na tune, and his attention at once forsakes his lesson\\nand follows the music. Under the circumstances the\\nboy brings his mind back to the arithmetic only with\\ngreat difficulty, if at all. Indeed, it may be with dif-\\nficulty that he resists the impulse to leave his seat\\nand rush to the window to see the band. It is evident,\\ntherefore, that there is something for the boy s mind in\\nthe music that is not in the arithmetic. Now what is this\\nsomething? We have for this question no better answer\\nthan that the band is interesting, while the arithmetic is\\nnot, or that the band is more interesting than the arith-\\nmetic. The question why the one is more interesting\\nthan the other, we shall for the present postpone.\\n3. It is also well known that objects which attract the\\nattention of some minds do not attract the attention\\nof others, or do not attract them with equal\\nFactors Strength. In other words, what is interesting\\nto one person is not necessarily interesting, or\\nequally interesting, to another person. Much depends upon\\nage, association, individual pursuits, range of experience,\\nindividual temperament, and a variety of other circum-\\nstances. What takes the attention of a child may not\\ntake the attention of a man what takes the attention of\\na boy may not take the attention of a girl, and so on.\\nThe teacher of the school referred to above will probably\\nbe less interested in the band than the school children, or\\nhis interest may be of a wholly different kind, relative", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "I20 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nto keeping school in order. Again, what takes one child s\\nattention may not take another s. One child in a clover\\nfield will run after the blossoms, another after the butter-\\nflies. A dozen persons, we will suppose, look out of the\\nwindows of the same railway car as it moves from station\\nto station across the country the same panorama passes\\nbefore the eyes of all of them they all form a general\\npicture or idea of this panorama, perhaps, but even if so,\\nthey do not see that is, give attention to the same things.\\nOne attends to the forests and fields, a second to the\\ngrowing crops, a third to the vehicles and people on the\\nroads, a fourth to the animals in the fields, while a fifth\\nobserves two or more of these groups of objects. The\\nexplanation of such familiar facts as these is easy these\\npersons do not, generally speaking, consciously select the\\nobjects that they particularly observe, but follow their in-\\nterests, which differ one from another that is, their atten-\\ntion is reflex. Again, a dozen persons reading the same\\nnewspaper will be impressed, perhaps, by some of the same\\nthings, because they have some interests in common, but\\nbeyond this there is great diversity, one attends to the\\nfashion pictures, another to the reports of games, and still\\nanother to the market reports. Here, however, the will\\nis likely to play a part, as indeed it may in the case of the\\nrailway passengers, different persons selecting different\\nthings.\\n4. Equally well known is the fact that an object which\\nis attractive to a child or a man at one time is not attract-\\nTime and ive to him at another time. Here, too, much\\nPlace. depends upon circumstances. There are, per-\\nhaps, no absolutely persistent interests. A child is not in-\\nterested in his picture-book, or a man in his newspaper, if\\nhe is very sick. Ordinarily a man may not closely observe", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "PASSIVE ATTENTION INTEREST. 121\\nthe carriages that roll along the street, but he will be likely\\nto do so if he is about to purchase one himself. A band\\nplaying in the park of a great city may not even be heard\\nby thousands of people, but it would be pretty sure to\\nattract them if they were on a country road. Then, some\\nobjects are more attractive at one time than another. The\\nboy in school forgets for a moment his arithmetic in\\nthe presence of the band, but if his mother, whom he has\\nnot seen for a year, were at the same moment to enter\\nthe schoolroom, he would probably not even notice the\\nband in joy at seeing her. Still another important ob-\\nservation is that objects change in their attractiveness\\nwith the passage of time, some becoming more and\\nsome less interesting. The characteristic interests of\\nchildhood are very different from the characteristic in-\\nterests of manhood, and vice versa. Tops, marbles, and\\nhoops please us when we see them in the hands of chil-\\ndren, but in the hands of men they are ridiculous.\\nThe interest that attaches to language is often alto-\\ngether out of proportion to its intrinsic importance who\\nSignifi- utters it, and when, and where are decisive\\ncance of questions. A whole family will wait for the\\nbaby s first spoken word with almost bated\\nbreath. And yet that word is pure imitation and, to the\\nchild, means nothing. Again, a man s last words are lis-\\ntened to with a very different but perhaps an equal inter-\\nest.\\nO, but they say, the tongues of dying men\\nEnforce attention like deep harmony.\\nBut it is well known that the tongues of dying men often\\nmove automatically and convey no real meaning. Interest\\nis therefore no measure of value.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "122 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThe question has been asked why certain objects attract\\nthe minds of children in greater or less degree, while\\nothers do not. The answer has been s^iven that\\nInterest.\\nthe attractive objects are interestmg to children\\nwhile the unattractive are not interesting. This brings\\nthe subject of interest fully before us. No better defini-\\ntion can be given than the one furnished by Dexter and\\nGarlick. Interest is the name given to the pleasurable\\nor painful feelings which are evoked by an object or idea,\\nand which give that object or idea the power of arousing\\nand holding the attention. These authors quote another\\nwriter to this effect Whatever does not interest the\\nmind, that the mind is indifferent to, and whatever it is\\nindifferent to is to that mind as if it had no existence.\\nBut why are some objects or ideas more interesting\\nthan others This question cannot be answered in any\\nSource of final or conclusive sense. Sir William Hamilton\\nInterest. ^^j^^ wonder the mother of knowledge other\\nwriters speak of novelty, curiosity, and astonishment,\\nmuch in the same way while M\u00e2\u0080\u009e Compayre, seeking the\\ncauses that turn the child s mind from one object to an-\\nother, writes\\nThe first is the novelty of impressions, for novelty renders impres-\\nsions more intense. As a general rule, anything that is presented to\\nthe child for the first time v^ill captivate him and occupy\\nCompayre j^j^^ several moments at least. Astonishment, the\\non Novelty.\\nsurprise which every unexpected appearance causes, are\\nattentive states.\\nStill other stimuli, he says, are the different emotions\\nthat the child is capable of feeling. He mentions\\n^Psychology in the Schoolroom. New York, Longmans, Green Co.,\\n1898, p. 31.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "PASSIVE ATTENTION: INTEREST. 123\\nThe agreeable emotions above all, those that naturally captivate\\nthe senses, because the desire for pleasure is satisfied for instance,\\nall that tickles the appetite of hunger or of thirst later, all that calls\\nforth sympathy and affection. But the disagreeable emotions, too,\\nare, to a certain extent, the starting point of the attentive emotions.\\nThis is all very true novelty, for example, is a source\\nof interest. The family horse may not attract much at-\\ntention in the pasture or stable, but he cer-\\nSotTril^f tainly will become interesting if he finds his\\nInterest. way into the pantry. But this is only carry-\\ning the difficulty one step farther back. The\\nquestion comes up at once, Why the novel or unexpected,\\nwhy wonder or astonishment, is a source of interest and\\nwe cannot give any final answer we only know that it is\\nso.\\nIt is quite clear, then, that passive attention is a feature\\nof great interest or value in human life. What are the\\nthings that interest us What are the objects, external\\nor internal, that steal away our minds and hold them cap-\\ntive Upon this question, in no small degree, do indi-\\nvidual usefulness and happiness depend. Let us follow\\nthe topic a little farther.\\nI. Attention is not a continuous, but a discontinuous,\\nstate. No mind can be strained continuously without\\nserious consequences. Every attentive state\\nAttention n 1\\nDiscontin- of mmd, even if only reflex, is accompanied\\nuous. Y^y. Qj-^ |-|^g physical energies, the nerves\\nand brain and if such states were continuous, and espe-\\ncially if intense, the body would soon tire out. For a\\nconsiderable part of our waking hours, to say nothing of\\n1 T/ie hitellectual and Moral Development of the Child. New York, D.\\nAppleton Co., 1896. Part I., pp. 276, 278.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "124\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nour sleeping ones, we merely float upon the stream of\\nconsciousness. Objects external and internal pass before\\nus without waking us up to real acts of attention but\\nwe are liable at any moment to be thus waked up by\\nsome object that appeals to us, or the will may arouse us\\nby an act of choice. Were it not for these periods of\\nmental rest, or comparative mental rest, we should soon\\nwear out we could not bear the waste of nervous power\\nthat would result from continuous, severe mental applica-\\ntion. It is true that minds differ greatly in their capacity\\nfor continuous activity, but no mind will long bear in-\\ntense stimulation.\\nEvery one knows by experience that, as Ribot says, at-\\ntention is always accompanied by a feeling of effort,\\nwhich bears a direct proportion to the dura-\\npaniedby tiou of the State of mind, and the difficulty of\\nFeeling of maintaining; it. Whatever the cause may be,\\nthe fact IS unmistakable. In many mstances\\nthe feeling of effort is for the time swallowed up in the\\nvery depths of attention but when the end comes and\\nthe strain is over, weariness, or exhaustion, or collapse\\neven, follows.\\nSo those states in which the mind acts, but does not\\nact with vigor, have an important function in the econ-\\nomy of life in many conditions they furnish all the cogni-\\ntive activity that, for the time, is needed. Indeed, the\\nmind does most of its work without paying attention to\\nsuch work that is, it does it in a state of diffused con-\\nsciousness. Thus, I do most of my walking without\\ntaking real heed to my steps. Hence, from this point of\\nview, it is difficult to exaggerate the importance of the\\nautomatic mental machinery.\\n2. But these comparatively inactive states of mind do", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "PASSIVE ATTENTION INTEREST. 125\\nnot always answer the purpose. There are times and\\nAttention places where fleeting mental impressions will\\nEssential to not suffice our well-being, our very safety or\\nlife, depends upon the mental powers being\\nthoroughly aroused and in such cases we must give\\nheed, or pay attention, to what concerns us. Many of\\nthe most serious interests of life fall into this class of ob-\\njects. Mere drifting, mere living, never made a success-\\nful man in the proper sense of that term. Action wise,\\nwell-directed action is the key to success. Other things\\nbeing equal, or greatly unequal, for that matter, men are\\nsuccessful in the work of their hands or minds in the\\nratio of the serious attention that they give to such work.\\nBut the attention that is so essential to success need\\nnot be, and cannot be, all voluntary attention. In the\\nfirst place, if the will must exert itself every\\nAll Atten-\\ntion Cannot time an act of attention is called for, the\\nbe voiun- mind will soon tire out, because the vie^orous\\ntary.\\naction of the will is an operation that involves\\nmuch waste of nerve and brain force. The reflex, or au-\\ntomatic, acts of the mind are easier, and, so to speak,\\ncheaper than the voluntary acts. Again, the reflex activ-\\nities of the mind are always swifter and sometimes more\\nvigorous than the voluntary activities. Accordingly, re-\\nflex attention appears in the common and necessary func-\\ntions when ease and promptness of action are necessary.\\nIt appears also in emergencies. Thus a man attends to\\nhis toilet on arising in the morning without formally will-\\ning to do or, as he walks along the street, he mechan-\\nically dodges a shower of bricks and mortar when a work-\\nman on a scaffold above him cries out, Stand from\\nunder It is with the mind somewhat as it is with the\\nbody. The fly that lights upon your cheek is dislodged", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "126 J^HE ART OF STUDY.\\nby the involuntary twitching of the muscle that is dis-\\nturbed, perhaps without your knowing that the fly is\\nthere, or a crumb of bread lodged in your windpipe is\\nexpelled automatically the will rendering no service\\nwhatever in either case.\\nThe voluntary attention, as we shall see in a succeed-\\ning chapter, is especially reserved for those important\\nOffice of matters that admit of more or less delay or\\nVoluntary hesitation. It marches side by side with de-\\nAttention.\\nliberation. In comparison with this noble\\noffice, reflex attention may seem to play but a humble\\npart in the economy of life. The fact is, however,\\nthat it plays a very important part. It is the very\\nhighest form of mental activity in the child, and it gives\\ncharacter to the life of the savage. In truth, as time goes\\non, the field of reflex attention widens, or the mental life\\nbecomes more automatic, as will be explained hereafter.\\nParallel Reading. The Fsychology of Attention, Th.\\nRibot. Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1890. Herbart\\nand the Hcrbartians, Charles DeGarmo. New York, Charles\\nScribner s Sons, 1895. Part I., Chap. V. The Doctrine of\\nInterest The Elements of General Method Based on the\\nPrinciples of ITerbart, C. A. McMurry. Bloomington, 111.,\\nPublic School Publishing Co., 1897. Chap. III. Nature of\\nInterest Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Students on\\nSo7fte of Life s Tdeals, William James. New York, Henry Holt\\nCo., 1899. Chap. X. Interest", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV.\\nTHE CULTIVATION OF PASSIVE ATTENTION.\\nWe meet at the threshold of our inquiry the law that\\nruns through all mental cultivation and growth, the law\\nMental Ac- of activity. The mental faculties, in other\\nlylw^of words, increase through appropriate action.\\nGrowth. The activity of one faculty may strengthen\\na second and a third faculty, but the rule is that the\\nfaculties are most invigorated by their own specific ex-\\nercise. While the mental faculties are in no sense sepa-\\nrate and distinct, but are all the manifestations of the same\\nmind, it is still true that perception grows mainly through\\nperception, thought through thinking, memory through\\nremembering, etc. At most, an inactive mind, in respect\\nto volume and power, either remains stationary or loses\\npower. Attention is not, indeed, a mental faculty in the\\nsense that perception or memory is, but it is the ener-\\ngetic activity of any faculty, and so is subject to the gen-\\neral law of growth. Indeed, the growth of the faculties\\nconsists very largely in the increase of this very power of\\nattention. Attention becomes strong through attending\\nto things a habit is formed and habit makes activity\\nquick and easy. This is the case with passive and active\\nattention alike.\\n127", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "1 28 THE ART OF S TUD V.\\nComing to reflex attention, the first fact to be stated\\nis that the mind responds to objects in the ratio of their\\ninterest or attractiveness the more attractive or interest-\\ning the object, the quicker and fuller the response will be.\\nFrom this very familiar fact are derived several important\\nrules of teaching.\\nOne of these rules is that, at first, the objects or lessons\\nto be taught to a child should be chosen with reference to\\nTake the interests. Advantage should be taken of\\nChild where such preparation for instruction as he has al-\\nhe is. ready received. Take the child where he is,\\nmust be the teacher s sole motto but only at first, for at a\\nlater stage this rule must, in some measure at least,\\nbe set aside.\\nA second rule is that, if the child does not respond,\\nreadily enough to the object or lesson, the teacher\\nmust contrive in some way to make it more\\ni^essonsto attractive. Printed languap-e, oral explana-\\nbe Made In- Jd fc i\\nteresting. tion, real objects, pictures or other graphic\\nforms of illustration, offer him a large range\\nin respect to modes of presentation. Moreover, there\\nis an equal range in respect to the combination of facts\\nand ideas old ideas reenforce new ones, and new ideas\\ngive life and energy to old ones. One test, and a very\\nhigh test, of the teacher s ability is his skill in making\\nhis instruction attractive.\\nA third rule is that the teacher should take advantage\\nof favoring times and circumstances in the selection and\\npresentation of teaching material. It is well\\nPlaces.^** known that instruction which would be rejected\\nat one time will be welcomed at another time.\\nThis is but another way of saying that the instruction\\nthat will make little or no impression under some cir-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "CUL TI VA TION OF PA SSI VE A TTENTION, 1 29\\ncumstances will make a deep and lasting impression under\\nother circumstances. The teacher, like other people,\\nshould strike while the iron is hot. This important rule\\nhas numerous applications.\\nA fourth rule springs from the fact that the interest of\\nthe pupil in a subject depends in some degree upon the\\nhour of the day when it is presented. Fresh-\\nthe^Da^^ ucss of mind, which is often only freshness of\\nbody, is to be considered. As a rule, the\\nheavier school subjects should come in the earlier part of\\nthe day. Then, special instruction should be made to\\nharmonize, to a great extent, with the passing occurrences\\nof interest, either of the school or the larger world. A\\ndispatch in the morning s newspaper will often make the\\npupils eager for a particular lesson in geography or his-\\ntory, civics or literature. When the body of the late\\nPresident Faure lay in state at the Elysee in Paris, and\\nthe election of his successor was impending, the time\\nwas evidently opportune for teaching the proper pupils in\\nthe school the leading facts relative to the election of the\\npresident of the French Republic. A good time to ^iwo.\\nsome special instruction in the geography of Cuba would\\nhave been when our army and fleet were carrying on war\\nagainst the Spaniards in that island. Good teachers are\\nalways on the outlook for these opportune times and\\nseasons. The value of moral instruction, in particular, de-\\npends almost wholly on its opportuneness, or on the im-\\nmediate preparation of the pupils to receive it.\\nA fifth rule is that if the teacher cannot after a suf-\\nficient trial make a subject interesting to a child, he\\nDropping should drop it, at least for the time. This as-\\nSubjects. sumes, of course, that the teacher is a com-\\npetent one and that the pupil will continue in his care.\\nArt of Study. 9.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "1 30 THE AR T OF STUD K\\nNo doubt this rule is a difficult one to apply judiciously,\\nand we shall soon have occasion to refer to it again.\\nIt will be said no doubt that school instruction, to be\\nvaluable, must be systematic, that there must be a pro-\\ne^ramme, and that the number, kind, and order\\nThe School 1 1\\nProgramme, of the exercises cannot be determmed by the\\nmental states or affections of the children.\\nThis is perfectly true and should never be lost sight of.\\nHaphazard, go-as-you-please teaching is necessarily poor\\nteaching instruction must conform to a general order.\\nBut this is a very different thing from denying the teacher\\nthe right to study the moods and tenses of his pupils, and\\nto adapt the work of the school to them, within reasonable\\nlimits. The programme should never be allowed to be-\\ncome tyrannous, which it does when it is followed with-\\nout variableness or shadow of turning. The teacher is,\\nin general, the leader of the school, and not the school\\nof the teacher. He is not passively to follow the whims\\nand caprices of the pupils, or even their more lasting and\\nsecondary interests. He is rather to create interests, to\\ncontrol states of mind, to lead his flock but this by no\\nmeans implies that his regimen shall be fixed or arbitrary\\nit rather implies close observation of the minds of pupils\\nand the adjustment of the instruction and discipline, to\\nthem. There is a sense in which every one who leads\\nmust follow. Moreover, these remarks are particularly\\nimportant in primary schools, where pupils have little\\npower of self-regulation.\\nThe course of study, if a good one, conforms in a gen-\\neral way to the rule that advantage shall be taken of\\nThe Course favoring times and tides in arranging instruc-\\nof study. ^JQj^^ yj-^g qJ(^ doctrine that specific lessons\\nshould be used for specific purposes, as memory lessons", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "CUL TIVA TION OF PASSIVE A TTENTION. 1 3 1\\nfor the memory, observation lessons for the perceptive\\nfaculties, and so on, has been greatly overdone, since any\\ngood lesson reaches more than one faculty of mind at\\nthe same time certain subjects are adapted to certain\\nkinds and stages of mental development. Nature lessons\\nand historical tales are presented to the child when his\\nfaculties of observation and imagination are quick and\\nactive, and his curiosity is alert while lessons of a more\\nabstract character, as grammar and theoretical arithmetic,\\nare held in reserve until his powers of reflection are more\\nfully developed.\\nThere are still other important facts relating to our\\nsubject that we must not fail to consider. In itself, in-\\nterest is a very changeful thing, as all practical psycholo-\\ngists know nor is it possible to understand it even meas-\\nurably without indulging in some analysis going behind\\nthe abstraction called interest to consider concrete\\ninterests.\\nThere are two ways in which interests may be divided\\nwith reference to the extent of their prevalence, and\\nT o wa s respect to the time of their continuance.\\nof Dividing Divided in the first way, interests are general\\nInterests. individual divided in the second way, they\\nare permanent and temporary.\\nGeneral interests are those that belong to all normal\\nminds at some stage of their development. Desire for\\nGeneral knowledge, lovc of old things, interest in new\\nInterests, tilings, and particularly interest in the junction\\nof the new and the old these are universal facts. These\\ngeneral interests vary greatly in strength and in the par-\\nticular direction which they take, but they belong, never-\\ntheless, to the human mind. Unless the desire for knowl-\\nedge is universal, universal education is a vain hope.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0096\u00a0J32 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nAgain, there are certain kinds of knowledge that are of\\ngeneral interest no normal mind, for example, is indif-\\nferent to what immediately concerns itself.\\nIndividual interests are those that belong to particular\\npersons. All minds are not interested in knowing the\\nIndividual same things, nor are all minds responsive to the\\nInterests, same kinds of novelty. Every schoolmaster has\\nhis repertoire of illustrative examples. Sir Walter Scott\\ntook little interest in the regulation studies of the high\\nschool at Edinburgh, but was absorbed in the history,\\nantiquities, and legends of Scotland. Sir Humphry\\nDavy cared little for the studies of the school, and was\\naccounted dull, but he became a great chemist. Charles\\nDarwin was not interested in the work of the school that\\nhe attended, and got little out of it, as he said, except the\\nknowledge of chemistry that he taught himself by private\\nexperiments. St. Bernard, says Dean Farrar, is so\\ndead to outer impressions that he travels all day along\\nLake Geneva, and then asks where the lake is while\\nLinnaeus is so sensitive to the beauties of Nature that,\\nwhen he beholds a promontory standing boldly forth\\nand teeming with beauty, he can not help falling upon\\nhis knees and thanking God for such a world.\\nPermanent interests are either inherited, and so belong\\nto the original character, or they originate in early habit,\\nPermanent ^i d SO Constitute a part of second nature. De-\\ninterests. gire for knowledge in some form, love of novelty\\nof some kind, are permanent interests. So, desire for\\nparticular kinds of knowledge, as of animals or plants, or\\nparticular species of animals or plants, may be permanent.\\nTemporary interests arise from a variety of causes.\\nSome of them continue for a considerable time, while\\nothers are wholly fleeting and transient. They do not,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF PASSIVE ATTENTION,\\n133\\ntherefore, reflect, as permanent interests do, the real char-\\nTetnporary acter of the person, either native or acquired,\\nInterests, j-^^^ indicate only the stage of growth, or mental\\nmoods dependent upon bodily conditions or upon environ-\\nment. Relatively, the interests of adults, as a whole, are\\nfar more permanent than the interests of children and\\nyouth. This is owing to the solidifying of the character,\\nthe development of the power of internal control, and the\\nelimination of miscellaneous activities from the mental life.\\nThe distinctions that have now been made, while often\\noverlooked or undervalued, are of the utmost conse-\\nquence in education since to treat individual interests\\nas though they were universal, and temporary ones as\\nthough they were permanent, or vice versa, must lead to\\nserious evils if persisted in.\\nEnvironment is of two kinds, natural and moral, and\\nboth affect most profoundly our interests, and through\\nInfluence o^-^T interests our character. The immeasurable\\nof Nature, effect of thcsc environments is largely summed\\nup in the word imitation, which is partly unconscious\\nand partly conscious the first being a kind of silent ab-\\nsorption or assimilation, the second a process of purpose-\\nful copying. As is well known, a child s two environ-\\nments have very much to do, but not everything, with\\ndetermining his interests in studies. Nature has inspired\\nthe great students of Nature. This is well expressed in\\nLongfellow s poem, TJie FiftietJi BirtJiday of Agassiz.\\nBut it is with the mor^l environment that we are more\\nespecially interested, meaning by moral whatever per-\\nMorai En- tains to man as a spiritual being. As a rule,\\nvironment. children adapt themselves readily to the ideas,\\nfeelings, and practices of the home and the school. Such\\nadaptation comes from imitation, which lies so near the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "134 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nroot of civilization itself. For instance, children brought\\nup in families where, on Sunday morning, it is never asked\\nwhether the members of the family who are old enough\\nwill go to church, but it is silently assumed that they will\\ngo and the assumption acted upon, naturally fall into\\nthe habit of church going themselves, commonly with in-\\nterest, or at least without resistance. It is the same way\\nwith attendance upon the school. Under favorable condi-\\ntions children show little of that distaste for school of which\\nso much is sometimes heard. With respect to both\\nchurch going and school attendance, different parents\\ngive very different accounts. Nor is the fact acciden-\\ntal or wholly due to the inherited interests of children\\nit is largely due rather to the regimen and atmosphere\\nof the home. In other words, much of the current dis-\\ninclination for church and school is purely artificial, and\\nin no sense a permanent interest, unless it is made per-\\nmanent by habit.\\nWe may go much further. Children who grow up ex-\\npecting to find interest in their books and studies com-\\nHomeand rnouly find it, while children who fail to find\\nSchool. interest are often prepared for the failure by\\nthe habitual tone of the home or the school, or both.\\nSo-called interests are marked by the artificiality men-\\ntioned in the last paragraph. It is significant how much\\nmore trouble some parents and teachers have with the\\nstudies of their children or pupils than others. Sometimes\\nthe familiar tone of the home, or it may be of the school\\nitself, tends to engender whims and notions in the heads\\nof pupils. Sometimes the direct suggestion comes from\\nparent or teacher that the child will not find such or\\nsuch a study interesting, or that he cannot master it,\\nwhen in fact he has made no real effort to find it interest-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF PASSIVE ATTENTION. 135\\ning or to master it. In strong confirmation of this view\\nis the fact that the studies in which pupils take Httle\\ninterest are Hkely to be those in which their teachers take\\nlittle interest, while their favorite studies are also likely to\\nbe the favorite studies of their teachers. These facts are\\nno doubt due in part to the quality of the teaching, but\\nby no means wholly so. Broadly speaking, the ques-\\ntion how far the school is itself the parent of its own\\ndifficulties, is a curious one.\\nAgain, the likes and dislikes of pupils for certain\\nstudies are due even more to the influence of their fellow-\\nimitation pupils than to the influence of their parents and\\nand studies, teachers. A boy of my acquaintance, living in\\none town, could not be persuaded to study Latin, but on\\nremoval to another town he entered upon the study and\\npursued it with pleasure. The study, certainly, was the\\nsame nor had his mind changed, except in a super-\\nficial sense. The explanation of the change of mind was\\nsimply that his companions in the one town did not\\nstudy Latin, while those in the other town did. This fact is\\nbut one of many showing that interest is often immediately\\ndependent upon sympathy and imitation. These two\\nfactors are just as potent in the sphere of studies as\\nthey are in the sphere of behavior or conduct. Boys go\\naway from home to school, resolutely determined that\\nthey are not interested in certain subjects, and will not\\nstudy them, who, within a year or two, find great pleasure\\nin prosecuting these very studies, while neglecting others\\nthat they had intended to pursue. Some interests die out,\\nwhile others spring up and take their places. Still it\\nmust be said that the change is not always due to change\\nof fashion, that is, to imitation, but is often the result of\\nmental growth,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "136 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nIt is the same way with vocations in America there\\ncould hardly be a more fallible guide to the callings that\\nVocations, young boys will pursue when they become men\\nthan their present ideas and protestations. Even when\\nthe man follows the vocation that the boy had chosen, the\\nfact is due oftener to the pressure of necessity or to imita-\\ntion than it is to the working of permanent interests.\\nIn respect to school studies, a personal element of\\nimportance is involved. A subject is attractive to a\\nPersonal pupil when taught by one teacher, but is un-\\nBiementin attractive whcu taught by another. In\\nmany cases this is due to the different ways in\\nwhich the subject is presented, but not unfrequently it\\nis due to the personality of the teacher. In truth, an\\nunattractive subject is frequently only an unattractive\\nteacher. This is an important topic, which will come\\nbefore us again.\\nIt is perfectly true that interests often root far\\ndeeper down in the mind than these superficial facts\\nThe Deeper would suggest. Aptitudes and inaptitudes for\\nInterests, studies and vocations are sometimes inborn,\\nand not unfrequently declare themselves at an early age.\\nHere are found the geniuses and semi-geniuses that\\nNature gives to the world. But this description does not\\napply to the large majority of children and youth in\\neither particular. The average boy is not singled out by\\nNature as especially fitted for this study or for that pur-\\nsuit if he were so singled out, he would not be the\\naverage boy. He is cut off by Nature from the success-\\nful prosecution of many studies and vocations, but, within\\nwide limits, he can become interested in and can succeed\\nin a large variety of things. In respect to vocations, the\\nboy who becomes a miner in Wales or a fisherman in", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF PASSIVE ATTENTION. 137\\nHolland, becomes a dairyman in Wisconsin or a wheat-\\ngrower in Dakota, succeeding equally well, so far as we can\\ndiscover, in all these vocations. It is not the intention to\\nminimize the variation that comes from Nature, but only\\nto keep it within its proper limits. It is one of the topics\\nof educational interest that are treated with much exag-\\ngeration. Deep-sea currents carry vast icebergs against\\nboth wind and tide, while surface currents are themselves\\nthe creations of wind and tide.\\nTo discriminate between the permanent and the tem-\\nporary interests of school children is an important mat-\\nimportance teacher will produce small results\\nofDiscrim- w^orking against strong permanent interests,\\nma ion. ^yhilc temporary interests are to a great ex-\\ntent placed in his own hands. Often, too, it is a dififi-\\ncult and sometimes an impossible matter to make this\\ndiscrimination. Externally the two classes of interest\\nare very much alike, although so different in essential\\ncharacter. Accordingly, the various signs of interest in\\npupils is a subject that the teacher should constantly\\nstudy. One very practical question is, What shall the\\nteacher do when he cannot decide whether a pupil s pres-\\nent dislike for a study is permanent or transient Ob-\\nviously, if the study is an important one, he should\\nmake all reasonable efforts to arouse interest and over-\\ncome the dislike. If he fails the subject may be dropped\\nfor a time, and then the effort to awaken interest be\\nrenewed. If reasonable effort thus renewed fails to ac-\\ncomplish the end, it is safe to infer that the dislike is\\nnot a superficial one. But it is fortunate that the normal\\npupil, with infrequent exceptions, can be interested in the\\nessential studies of the elementary school. In fact, as we\\nhave already seen, looking at the subject from another", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "38\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\npoint of view, the interests of the normal child are the\\ngreat criterion in selecting the studies of the school.\\nIn the course of the preceding remarks it has become\\nperfectly clear, if it was not clear before, that the inter-\\nests of the child are to a great degree in the\\nT^^f^oll^ hands of the teacher. Within limits, and these\\nInterests in\\nthe Hands by no mcans narrow ones, he can augment,\\nTeacher. diminish, or destroy old interests, or create new\\nones. The fact is that the skillful teacher, so\\nfar from being bound by predetermined facts of child-\\nnature, can exercise over young children an influence that\\nis almost magical. Fenelon, for example, waved his wand\\nover the young Duke of Burgundy until he completely\\nchanged his character. The teacher s influence may even\\nbe too great, destroying all strength and individuality of\\ncharacter, as in the case just referred to. Fenelon s\\nmethod, as a royal tutor, was indirect instruction, which\\nworks wholly through the reflex attention, and it was suc-\\ncessful to a fault. Attention that works solely through\\nthe automatic nature naturally leads to this very result.\\nThe last sentences suggest certain dangers that lie at one\\nend of the doctrine of interest. Many more dangers no\\ndoubt lie at the other end. Practically the\\nEvils flow-\\ningfrom fleeting impressions, the mere notions, whims,\\nInterest. capriccs of children are not unfrequently mis-\\ntaken for permanent attractions or repulsions, and are\\nmade criteria for conducting their education. There\\ncould be no greater mistake. Temporary interests are by\\nno means to be disregarded even the most fleeting im-\\npressions of the child have some significance but often\\nthe teacher s first duty is to see how soon and how far\\nhe can turn the tide of interest into a new channel. The\\nteacher s duty is negative as well as positive. While he", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "CUL TIVA TION OF PASSIVE A TTENTION. 1 39\\ndevelops some interests he weakens, or, it may be, even\\ndestroys others. He works through stimulus which he\\nmust in some cases supply, and in others withhold.\\nThe subject may be viewed from another quarter. It\\nis now common to denounce the old regimen for children,\\nThe Puritan that of the Puritans, for instance, as repressive,\\nRegimen, qj. even Oppressive. We are told that children\\ndid not enjoy the liberty to which they were properly en-\\ntitled, and were dwarfed or made lopsided in their develop-\\nment. No doubt there is much truth in this view of the\\nmatter. At the same time, it is possible to go too far\\nin the opposite direction, with the result that children,\\nwith all their liberty or freedom, will suffer from weakness\\nand enfeebled character.\\nIt is not meant to deny either that children do differ\\nin their capacities and interests, or that the fact should\\nbe recognized both in the home and in the school. The\\nsole purpose of what has been said is, rather, to call a halt\\nlong enough to inquire seriously how much room shall be\\nmade in elementary education for what is called interest.\\nThe tendency that is seen in some quarters to look\\nupon what are deemed interests with something of\\nfatalistic awe is to be deplored. Hard work, and plenty\\nof it, and not the passive resignation of the mind to the\\nstream of interest, is the condition of thorough scholar-\\nship. A gelatinous regimen will not suffice. The lesson\\nof strenuous endeavor will receive due emphasis in due\\ntime but now, to keep the strenuous teacher in heart, I\\nwill say that I endorse every word of the following pas-\\nsage quoted from a recent book, only the doctrine of the\\npassage must not be reduced to practice too soon\\nPride and pugnacity have often been considered unworthy passions\\nto appeal to in the young. But in their more refined and noble forms", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "I40\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nthey play a great part in the schooh-oom and in education generally,\\nbeing in some characters most potent spurs to effort. Pugnacity need\\nnot be thought of merely in the form of physical combativeness. It\\nProfessor taken in the sense of a general unwillingness to\\nJames on be beaten by any kind of difficulty. It is what makes us\\nPride and fggj stumped and challenged by arduous achievements,\\nPugnacity i i i i\\nand IS essential to a spmted and enterpnsmg character.\\nWe have of late been hearing much of the philosophy of tenderness in\\neducation interest must be assiduously awakened in everything,\\ndifificulties must be smoothed away. Soft pedagogics have taken the\\nplace of the old steep and rocky path to learning. But from this luke-\\nwarm air the bracing oxygen of effort is left out. It is nonsense to\\nsuppose that every step in education cati be interesting. The fighting-\\nimpulses must often be appealed to. Make the pupil feel ashamed of\\nbeing scared at fractions, of being downed by the law of falling\\nbodies; rouse his pugnacity and pride, and he will rush at the difficult\\nplaces with a sort of inner wrath at himself that is one of his best\\nmoral faculties. A victory scored under such conditions becomes a\\nturning point and crisis of his character. It represents the high-water\\nmark of his powers, and serves thereafter as an ideal pattern for his\\nself-imitation. The teacher who never rouses this sort of pugnacious\\nexcitement in his pupils falls short of one of his best forms of useful-\\nParallel Reading. The Frinciples of Psychology, Wil-\\nliam James. New York, Henry Holt Co. Chap. XI.\\nAttention Habit and its Importance in Education, Dr.\\nPaul Radestock. Translated by F. A. Caspari. Boston, D.\\nC. Heath Co., 1 886. Principles of Mental Physiology, William\\nB. Carpenter. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1886. Chap.\\nVIH. Of Habit Talks to Teachers on Psychology a?id to\\nStudents on Some of Life s Ideals, William James. New York,\\nHenry Holt Co., 1899. Chap. VHI. The Laws of\\nHabit\\n1 Talks to Teachers on PsycJiology and to Students o)i Some of Lifers Ideals,\\nWilliam James. New York, Henry Holt ev Co., 1899, pp. 54-55.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV,\\nACTIVE ATTENTION THE WILL.\\nBefore we take up the cultivation of the active atten-\\ntion as a practical problem, we must consider yet further\\nits value or its place both in educational theory and prac-\\ntice. Our thesis is that its proper cultivation is tJie edu-\\ncational problem. We must, however, first take a single\\nlook backward.\\nThe reflex mental life is the mental life characteristic of\\nchildhood and immaturity. Contrary to the common\\nThe Child s Opinion, perhaps, the child has little will pow er\\nlyife Reflex, qj- power of sclf-directiou at first he has abso-\\nlutely none, but is the sport of the world about him, the\\ncreature of circumstances. To a degree his environment\\nmay be shaped by his seniors, as his parents, for an edu-\\ncational purpose, but the principle is the same. He knows\\nand pursues the things that fascinate him, and his educa-\\ntion is wholly negative. Now he is absorbed in one\\nthing, and now in another. He flits from object to object\\nas the bee or the butterfly flits from flower to flower.\\nOnly two things can be said of him with certainty he is\\nsure to have many interests in the course of a day, and\\nnone of them will continue long. This reflex life is also\\ncharacteristic of the undeveloped man and the savage,\\n141", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "142 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nboth of whom live in their senses, or in the external world,\\nto such an extent that they belong to Nature rather than\\nto themselves. Furthermore, this spontaneous, passive\\nlife of the mind is the only mental life that the child or\\nthe undeveloped man is, for the time, capable of living.\\nStill more, it contains the germs out of which the regulated\\nlife of the judgment and the will is developed. Neither\\nwill it ever come to an end while life itself lasts. In a\\nsense, it will in time even encroach upon the later con-\\nscious and voluntary activities that are characteristic of\\nthe higher life of the soul, and that are built up at the\\nexpense of the lower life.\\nBut, interesting and important as it is, this reflex life is\\nstill distinctly inferior to the active or voluntary life of\\nReflex i,ife mind. The child or man who leads it\\nInferior to is in no scusc a law unto himself. The\\nhigher mental life proceeds from within out-\\nw^\\\\rd, not from without inward, and it never dawns until\\nself-direction, that is, the will, begins to assert itself.\\nSuch assertion is the beginning of self-discipline. Volun-\\ntary directive power over the current of thought and\\nfeeling, as Dr. W. B. Carpenter says, is the characteristic\\nof the fully developed man, and the acquirement of this\\nDr Car- powcr, whicli is within the easy reach of every\\npenter on one, should be the primary object of all mental\\ndiscipline. It is thus, he says, that each\\nindividual can perfect and utilize his natural gifts by\\nrigorously training them in the first instance, and then\\nby exercising them only in the manner most fitting to\\nexpand and elevate, while restraining them from all that\\nwould limit or debase. This is the center of character.\\nIt is, in fact, he continues, in virtue of the will\\nthat we are not mere thinking automata, mere puppets", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "ACTIVE ATTENTION THE WILL. J43\\nto be pulled by suggesting strings, capable of being\\nplayed upon by every one who shall have made him-\\nself master of our springs of action.\\nDr. Harris writes to the same effect. To grasp his\\nmeaning fully, however, we must remember that he does\\nnot recognize passive attention as attention at all, but\\nbounds the activity by the exercise of the will.\\nThe person without a well-developed power of attention is in a\\nstate of passivity toward invading external influences. He is a prey\\nto impressions that come from his environment. Most\\nDr. Harris q\u00c2\u00a3 these early impressions of which we hear so much\\non Atten- 5\\ntion. were received at a time when trivial things could seize upon\\nus and absorb our powers of observation to the neglect\\nof more essential things. Such passive impressibility, the condition\\nof the childish memory, it is the object of education to eradicate. The\\npupil must learn to exclude and ignore the many things before him, and\\nto concentrate all his powers of mind on the one chosen subject.\\nIntellectual culture begins when the will first commences to act\\non the senses. Its first action produces what is called attention.\\nAttention selects one object out of the manifold and collects the vari-\\nous impressions made upon its senses, while it wilfully neglects the\\nmultitude of other objects that are in its presence it inhibits the con-\\nsideration of these others. Attention, then, may be regarded as the\\nname of the first union of the will with the intellect. It turns the\\nchaos of sense-impressions into a system by connecting them with a\\nfocus arbitrarily chosen.\\nIntellectual training begins with the habit of attention. In this ac-\\ntivity will and intellect are conjoined. The mind in this exercises its\\nfirst self-determination. It says to the play of sense and idle fancy\\nStop and obey me neglect that, and notice this. The indefinitely\\nmanifold objects always present before the senses vanish, and one ob-\\nject engrosses the mind. This is the sine qua non of intellectual\\nculture, 2\\n1 Principles of Mental Physiology. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1877,\\npp, 25-27, 147.\\n2 Psychologic Foundations of Education. New York, D. Appleton\\nCo., 1898, pp. 1S7, 237, 238.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "144 STUDY.\\nTo quote Ribot also\\nVoluntary or artificial attention is a product of art, of education, of\\ndirection, and of training. It is grafted, as it were, upon spontaneous\\nor natural attention, and finds, in the latter, its condition of\\nRibot on existence, as the graft does in the stalk into which it has\\nAttention.\\nbeen mserted. In spontaneous attention the object acts\\nby its intrinsic power in voluntary attention the subject acts through\\nextrinsic, that is, through superadded powers. In voluntary attention\\nthe aim is no longer set by hazard or circumstances it is willed,\\nchosen, accepted or, at least, submitted to it is mainly a question of\\nadapting ourselves to it, and of finding the proper means for main-\\ntaining the State and hence, voluntary attention is always accom-\\npanied by a certain feeling of effort. The maximum of spontaneous\\nattention and the maximum of voluntary attention are totally anti-\\nthetic the one running in the direction of the strongest attraction,\\nthe other in the direction of the greatest resistance. They consti-\\ntute the two polar limits between w^hich all possible degrees are\\nfound, with a definite point at which, in theory at least, the two forms\\nmeet.\\nThese quotations show the estimation in which these\\ndistinguisheci thinkers hold the active attention, and its\\nproper education. They suggest, also, the reason why\\nthe cultivation of the active attention is emphatically the\\neducational problem. We must, however, look more in-\\ntently into the matter.\\nThe will is the mental faculty or power that makes and\\nexecutes choices. The will is the mind choosing. It is\\nthe will, therefore, that selects the object in\\nchoo^s. active attention, holds it in the focus of the\\nmind, and so determines the point from which\\nthe Avhole intellectual movement proceeds. The intellect\\ndoes not attend to the object primarily because the object\\nis interesting, but because the will issues a mandate that\\nThe Psychology of Attention. Chicago, Open Court Pub. Co., 1890, p. 35.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "ACTIVE ATTENTION: THE WILL. 145\\nit shall do so. A score of objects more interesting than\\nthe one selected may clamor for recognition, but the will\\nexcludes them all, more or less effectually, and holds the\\nchosen object in the focus of consciousness. In the early\\nstage of culture, as we have seen, the child s will is weak,\\nand the competition for his attention strong but as the\\nwill strengthens, or voluntary attention q;rows,\\nPassive At- fc\\ntention not the mind centers itself upon objects of its own\\nSufficient. choice, and thus proves its superiority to en-\\nvironment. This stage of keen competition for the\\nchild s attention should be closely watched by the teacher.\\nIt is the most critical period in his education, both men-\\ntal and moral. Professor James is on firm ground when\\nhe tells teachers that the reflex, passive attention, which\\nseems to make the child belong less to himself than to\\nevery object which happens to catch his notice, is the first\\nthing which they have to overcome. Such is the first\\nfact to be firmly grasped.\\nBut the will alone cannot long hold the mind to any\\nobject that it may have chosen the effort is too great,\\nActive At- waste of brain and nerve substance too rapid.\\ntention not Or, to change the expression, the mind cannot,\\non inuous. ^\\\\^^x force of will, or bearing on as it is\\nsometimes called, cling to any matter hour after hour, or\\neven minute after minute. The choice or act of selection\\nmust be constantly renewed. In fact, what is called sus-\\ntained attention is nothing but a series of choices or elec-\\ntions of the object chosen. Still more, this series is of\\nnecessity short, particularly in the cases of school chil-\\ndren, for the same reason that the single act of choice is\\nshort it is an exhaustive mental operation. This is the\\nsecond fact to be grasped.\\nThat fixed volitional attention is difficult is perfectly\\nArt of SUidy .\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\\\o.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "146 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nwell understood by all persons who have ever given\\nsuch attention to serious matters. It is par-\\nActive At- -1\\ntention ticularly SO in the cases ot children, for rea-\\nHard to gQj-^g |-j^^^ have already been stated. But,\\nObtain.\\nno matter how hard it is for the child in school\\nto give attention, his attention we must have, and his\\nactive attention at that. The concentration of power\\nthat comes directly from interest will not suffice, for that\\nfinally leaves the mind unregulated and roaming at large\\nthe will must focus the mind if there is to be any real\\neducation or discipline. There is no getting on without\\nattention if the school is to accomplish its purpose. Un-\\nless, therefore, the teacher can get and can hold the\\nchild s attention he may dismiss immediately the idea of\\ndoing him anj^thing more than temporary, fleeting good.\\nWhat then shall be done? Fortunately, the answer to\\nthis question is as decisive as it is important.\\n1. It is plainly necessary to recnforce the active at-\\ntention from some source outside of itself, or, at least,\\nIt Needs outside of the will. Nor is there any room\\nReenforce- for doubt as to the quarter where we are\\nto seek and find such recnforcement. We\\nare to seek and to find it in interest. Unless some ele-\\nment of interest can be found in the object of attention\\nthat the will has chosen, or can speedily be brought into\\nit, attention will flag and will soon defy all the teacher s\\nefforts to renew it. The school child cannot hold on to\\nsome chosen object of attention as a monkey can cling\\nwith its tail to the branch of a tree. This element of in-\\nterest that is so indispensable may be either old or new\\nif old, it will at first pass unnoticed; if new, it must still\\nbe something like an old interest.\\n2. It is, then, the appearance of some element of in-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "ACTIVE ATTENTION: THE WILL. 147\\nterest, old or new as the case may be, that makes pro-\\ntracted voluntary attention possible. In other\\nunUon^uch words, active attention must be buttressed at\\nReenforce- ^^gj- upon passivc attention. In fact, the dif-\\nference between the active and the passive atten-\\ntion may, in one sense, be easily exaggerated. In-\\nterest is involved in both, sooner or later, if attention is\\nprotracted or sustained. The question will therefore oc-\\ncur to some readers, Why then make so much pother\\nabout the matter In dealing with attention, why\\nnot drop all talk about passive and active, reflex and\\nvoluntary, and confine the discussion wholly to interest\\nThe question is a fair one, and the answer important.\\nMoreover, it is an answer that can be given in few and\\ndecisive words.\\n3. In passive attention objects of interest, one after\\nanother, dominate the mind. It matters not what these\\nThe Will objects are or why they are interesting nor is\\nFocuses the there any necessary relation existing between\\nA^tive^At-*^ their influence over the mind and their real\\ntention. valuc, especially in early life. The sway of\\ninterest is the abandonment of the life to environment.\\nIn active attention, on the other hand, the will first\\nchooses some object that is deemed worthy to be chosen,\\nand then, although it cannot by its unbroken authority\\nhold this object in the focus of the mind without the\\nhelp of interest, it can renew the choice once and again,\\nand, what is more, summon interest to its assistance. In\\nthis case the will both chooses the path and checks\\nattempts to abandon it in the other, there is no choice\\nor attempt at self-regulation. To some this difference\\nmay seem unimportant and trivial. Not so on the\\nother hand, this difference measures the whole interval", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "148\\nTHE AR T OF STUD V.\\nthat separates, in effect, the untrained and the trained\\nman. The common admonitions, Try again, Per-\\nsevere, Do not become discouraged, Hold on, and\\nthe Hke, all of which are addressed to the will, show the\\nestimation in which this voluntary element is held. Popu-\\nlar speech testifies to its efficacy and value. The same may\\nbe said, also, of the examples of courage, resolution, and\\nfortitude that play so important a part in the development\\nof the child-life they energize the will as well as en-\\nkindle interest. Thus popular usage, as well as popular\\nspeech, bears its testimony to the importance of will-de-\\nvelopment as an element in education.\\n4. It may be said that the choice which the will makes\\nin respect to attention is only a choice among interests.\\nIn the long run, there is some truth in this view\\nChoice of of the subject, since voluntary attention, if con-\\ninterests.\\ntinned, tends to pass into habit, and so to be-\\ncome reflex attention but it is by no means wholly true.\\nThe well-disciplined man, no matter how thoroughly his\\nmind becomes grooved, always has a considerable capac-\\nity for action wholly outside of his immediate interests.\\nThe man who can do nothing except what interests him,\\nno matter what his interests are, is not even half a\\nman.\\nIt has appeared very plainly in the course of our dis-\\ncussion that the cultivation of the pupil s attention is a\\ndifficult matter, involving much skill in the teacher. As\\nCompayre says\\nNothing is so delicate or so fragile as the attention in its first\\nmanifestations. If you employ unskillful methods if,\\non the Bdu- example, you seek by force to hold the child s mind\\ncation of on books which do not interest him, or on abstractions\\nAttention, ^yhich he hardly comprehends, you run the risk of ren-\\ndering him inattentive for life you provoke him to seek in distrac-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "ACTIVE ATTENTION THE WILL. 149\\ntion a refuge or defense against the ennui caused by studies illy\\nadapted to his age.\\nThis is perfectly true. The springing plant must be\\ncultivated with peculiar care, but if forcing the child to\\nhold his mind on uninteresting things leads to permanent\\nhabits of inattention, the abandonment of the child to his\\nfancies leaves his mind unsettled and fickle.\\nThe truth is, as Ribot says, that spontaneous attention,\\nand, above all, voluntary attention are exceptional states\\nof mind. Eliminate from consciousness, as he\\nAttention Joes, the general routine of life that enorm-\\nan ^xcep-\\ntionai State ous mass of habits that move us like automatons,\\nof Con- \\\\^j\\\\i]\\\\ vap;ue and intermittent states of conscious-\\nsciousness.\\nness the periods of our mental life in which\\nwe are purely passive simply because the order and suc-\\ncession of our states of consciousness are given to us from\\nwithout, and because their serial connection is imposed\\nupon us that state of relative intellectual repose in\\nwhich people think of nothing, or when the states of\\nconsciousness have neither intensity nor clear determina-\\ntion, and finally, all states of passion and violent agita-\\ntion, with their disorderly flux and diffusion of move-\\nments, eliminate all these things, with perhaps a few\\nothers, and we may then credit to the general account\\nof attention that which remains. In this general ac-\\ncount, he continues, the cases of spontaneous attention\\nmake up by far the greater number the clear and indis-\\nputable cases of voluntary attention constitute the\\nminority in many men and women they amount almost\\nto nothing. Moreover, the cause of the difference he\\nPsychology Applied to Education. Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1894,\\np. 58.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "1^0 THE ART- OF STUDY.\\nfinds, in part, in the fact of common experience that in\\nthe state of fatigue, the state of exhaustion, attention is\\nvery difficult, often impossible, and always without dura-\\ntion. And the reason is, that attention, by its very nature,\\nmore than any other intellectual state requires a great\\nexpenditure of physical force, which has to be produced\\nunder particular conditions. While this account is true\\nin the main, it in no way disproves, but rather confirms,\\nthe contention that the highest aim of education is to\\ndevelop volitional control of the mind. Small as may\\nbe the portion of life that falls under the head of volun-\\ntary attention, it is still incalculably the most productive\\nand valuable part of life.\\nGreat indeed is the waste of time and energy caused by\\nindecision and irresolution. I speak now not of practical\\nmatters, but of studies. Said Professor Moses Stuart\\nWhile one man is deliberating whether he had better\\nstudy a language, another man has obtained it. To the\\nsame effect are the well-known words of Dr. Johnson\\nWhilst you stand deliberating which book your son\\nshall read first, another boy has read both. Read any-\\nthing five hours a day, and you will soon become\\nlearned.\\nThe value of vigorous will is abundantly shown jn his-\\ntory. It is the backbone of character more than any-\\nvaiueof thing else it is character. Intellectual pursuits\\nVigorous sometimes tend to break down the will. Mr.\\nLowell mentions an engineer who knew how to\\nbuild a bridge so well that he could never build one.\\nHamlet could not screw his courage to the sticking point\\nbecause he had so many ideas in his head.\\n1 The Psychology of Attention. Chicago, the Open Court Publishing\\nCo., 1890, i^p. iiS, 119.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "ACTIVE ATTENTION: THE WILL, 151\\nAnd thus the native hue of resolution\\nIs sicklied o er with the pale cast of thought;\\nAnd enterprises of great pith and moment,\\nWith this regard their currents turn awry,\\nAnd lose the name of action.\\nColeridge is often given as a conspicuous example of a\\nman of great gifts, who never accomplished what he should\\nhave accomplished because he was indolent and of feeble\\nwill. Mr. Lowell, in his address on Coleridge delivered in\\nWestminster Abbey, expresses doubt whether he was a\\ngreat poet and a great teacher, but says he had the almost\\noverabundant materials of both. Lowell characterizes him\\nhappily in the sentence No doubt we have in Coleridge\\nthe most striking example in literature of a great genius\\ngiven in trust to a nervous will and a fitful purpose.\\nParallel Reading. Talks to Teachas on Psychology and\\nto Students on some of Life s Ldcals, William James. New York,\\nHenry Holt Co., 1899. Chap. XV. The Will Frin-\\nciples of Alental Physiology^ William B. Carpenter. New York,\\nD. Appleton Co., 1886. Chap. IV. Of the Will Psy-\\nchology of the Schoolroom, T. F. G. Dexter and A. H. Garlick.\\nNew York, Longmans, Green Co., 1898. Chap. XXI.\\nThe Will Psychology Applied to Education, Gabriel Com-\\npayre, translated by W. H. Payne. Boston, D. C. Heath\\nCo., 1894.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI.\\nTHE CULTIVATION OF ACTIVE ATTENTION.\\nStated from the pupil s point of view, the problem\\nof cultivating the active attention is this to develop,\\nTheProb- through repeated acts of choice and persistent\\nlem stated, application, the power to apply the mind vigor-\\nously to the appointed work of the school. Success in the\\nattempt leads to mastery of this work, as well as to the\\nformation of the habit or the development of the power\\nof attention. Stated from the teacher s point of view, the\\nproblem is this to establish and maintain in the school\\na regimen that shall help the pupil to gain the foregoing\\nend. We shall now consider the problem as it shapes itself\\nto the teacher s mind. This wc do because growth or\\ndevelopment on the pupil s part is unconscious, being\\nacquired while he is engaged in the pursuit of his ordinary\\nschool work.\\nThe first fact to be stated is that talk about cultivating\\nattention is not at all the same thing as cultivating it.\\nThe two things are different, and there is no\\nAttention ucccssary counectiou between them. There\\nIs Not may be much talk about attention in the school\\nAttention. i i i\\nand little attention, or there may be much at-\\ntention and no talk about it whatever. Cries of Atten-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "CUL TIVA TION OF A CTIVE A TTENTION. i 5 3\\ntion and lectures by the teacher addressed to the pupila\\nabout attention, defining and extolHng it, do not avail.\\nPupils are not influenced for good by such exclamations\\nor such homilies. The teacher will not get attention by\\ndemanding it as his right, or begging for it as a favor by\\nurging upon pupils the importance of the thing, or the\\nvalue of the lessons that he has to teach. When the\\nmoment arrives for the session of the school to open,\\nmorning or afternoon, the call Attention like the\\nstroke of the bell or other signal, may bring the school\\nto order and settle the scholars down to their work. The\\nsame may be said of other similar occasions during the\\nday, as when there is a change of classes, or some unusual\\ncause has thrown the school into temporary confusion.\\nBut beyond this, such calls as Order Attention and\\nthe like, do harm rather than good. As a rule, the nois-\\niest and least attentive schools are those in which such\\ncries are most frequently heard. The psychology of the\\nmatter is briefly presented by Professor J. M. Baldwin in\\nthese sentences\\nIt is a familiar principle that attention to the thought of a move-\\nment tends to start that very movement. I defy any of my readers\\nProfessor think hard and long of winking the left eye, and not\\nBaldwin have an almost irresistible impulse to wink that eye.\\nQuoted. There is no better way to make it difficult for a child to\\nsit still than to tell him to sit still for your words fill up his attention,\\nas I have occasion to say above, with the thought of movements, and\\nthese thoughts bring on the movements, despite the best intentions of\\nthe child in the way of obedience.\\nTo adapt Professor Baldwin s language to the present\\ncase, there is no more effective way to make it hard or\\n1 The Story of the Mind. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1898, p. 180.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "154\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nimpossible for a pupil in school to give attention to a sub-\\nject than continually to exhort him to do so.\\nThe next thing to be stated is that the teacher should\\nappreciate the difficulty as well as the importance of the\\npractical problem. After remarking that attention is fixity\\nof thought, and that it is hard for adults to give it, Sir Jo\\nG. Fitch observes\\nWe are accustomed to make very heavy demands upon the child s\\nfaculty of attention. We expect him to listen to teaching from nine\\nSir J. G. o clock until twelve then, after a brief interval, to compose\\nFitch himself into stillness and attention again, often giving him\\nQuoted. instruction, the greater part of which is above his compre-\\nhension, and adapted to cases and experiences very different from his\\nown. He is naturally very impulsive about things that immediately sur-\\nround him he is curious to learn about the sun, and the moon and the\\nstars about distant countries about the manners of foreigners about\\nbirds, and beasts, and fishes nay, about machines and many other\\nhuman inventions but he is not prepared at first to perceive that the\\nknowledge which you impart is related to his daily life. You do not\\nfind the appetite for such knowledge already existing. You have to\\ncreate it, and, until you have created it, he cannot give you the fixed\\nand earnest attention you want without an effort which positively\\npainful to him.\\nIn his picturesque way, Professor James characterizes\\nthe objects that attract the mind of the normal child as\\nstrange things, moving things, wild animals, bright\\nthings, pretty things, metallic things, words, blows, blood,\\netc., etc., most of which, it is almost needless to say, are\\nwidely separated from the ordinary work of the school-\\nroom, at least as schools are commonly carried on.\\nConsidering the urgency of the problem of interest, it\\nis fortunate that we become interested, or at least tend to\\n1 The Art of Securing Attciitiou. Syracuse, C. W. Barden, 1885.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "CUL TI VA TION OF A CTI VE A TTENTJON. i 5 5\\nbecome interested, in our choices because we have made\\nthem. In reaHty they are a part of ourselves. The\\nmental law that whatever costs us effort\\nChoices\\nTend to almost ucccssarily becomes valuable to us,\\nBecome causcs the succulcut plant of interest to erow\\nInteresting.\\nup out of the dry ground of irksome employ-\\nments. Not only does activity spring from interest, but\\ninterest springs from activity. Nor does the series neces-\\nsarily begin with interest it may begin with choice. The\\nmother loves best the child that has cost her most care\\nthe minister or the Sunday-school teacher cannot be in-\\ndifferent to the church or the school that has been an\\nobject of thought and sacrifice while the veteran scholar\\nbecomes so much interested in his favorite study that\\nhe tends to exaggerate its relative importance. We\\nread that Jacob served seven years for Rachel, and they\\nseemed unto him but a few days for the love he had for\\nher. Yes, but his love grew the more by reason of his\\nlong, hard service. The interests, like the passions, grow\\nwith what they feed on. No matter how we are brought\\nto follow any course of action, unless it is forced upon\\nus, we can hardly look upon it with utter indifference,\\nand, even when it is compulsory, we tend to become rec-\\nonciled and even interested. This is one of the reactions\\nof the will upon knowledge. No man can compute the\\nextent to which this simple law of mind smooths the path-\\nway of life, making tolerable or even pleasant employ-\\nment of what would otherwise be intolerable servi-\\ntude. The principle underlies the great lesson that\\nJesus taught It is more blessed to give than to re-\\nceive.\\nPerhaps it may be said that interest is necessarily in-\\nvolved in making a choice. We do not need nicely to", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "56\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nweigh that question. It is a fact, at least, that choice does\\nnot always move in the line of the strongest attraction or\\nof the least resistance, that when the decision lies be-\\ntween two interests the will does not always prefer the\\nstronger one. The contrary is distinctly true.\\nMotives Thus, a student who would prefer to go to\\nthan In- ^j^g links to play golf can sit down at his\\ntable and prepare his lesson. If men were\\nnot capable of so acting life would not be worth living.\\nThe choice that is made may be a hard one, but when\\nonce the will decides, if it persists in the decision, new\\nmotives begin to rally to its support. Interest be-\\ngins to grow, as remarked above. One can even become\\ninterested in Hobson s Choice. More than this, self-\\nrespect, the shame following defeat, love of success and\\nvictory, pride, pugnacity, the delight that comes of con-\\nflict, all rally to the standard that has been set up. More-\\nover, these are perfectly legitimate motives for the teacher\\nto appeal to in such contests.\\nContinuity and intensity of mental effort are involved\\nin effective attention. Continuous, intense application\\nwill completely master a problem or a les-\\nContinuity i-\\nand rnten- SOU that casual and disconnected attention\\nsity of Men- ^^j|| j^q|- mucli as toucho This every scholar\\ntal Effort.\\nand teacher knows full well.\\nPerhaps most teachers are content if only their pupils\\nlearn their lessons. But this is not enough how do they\\nlearn them Does the pupil spend more time and en-\\nergy on the lesson than is really necessary The man\\nwho constructs a good building is not of necessity a good\\nbuilder, for questions of cost involving material and time\\nmust always be considered. So he is not a good\\nteacher who gets pupils to learn their lessons regardless of", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "CUL TIVA TION OF A CJIVE A TTENTWN. i 5 7\\ntime and method. If a pupil can learn a lesson in thirty\\nminutes, he should not be given an hour in which to do\\nthe work. If superfluous time is allowed him, he is\\nalmost certain to become careless, his wits go wool-\\nThe Time gathering, and he may not even prepare the\\nElement lesson as Well as he would have done had\\nmpor an been limited to a shorter time. The case\\nmay be stated still more strongly. As a rule, pupils will\\nprepare their work better in thirty minutes than, in\\ndouble the time, provided thirty minutes is enough,\\nunless they are held to a very close account by the teacher.\\nBeyond a certain point the kind of preparation that the\\npupil makes for his recitation is quite apt to vary in-\\nversely as the amount of time that is allowed him to\\nprepare it is lengthened. But this is not the most im-\\nportant thing. The pupil forms his habits of study\\nwhile preparing his lessons, or he acquires his art of\\nstudy while actually studying and, in the long run, his\\nart is of greater importance than the immediate lessons\\nthat are mastered. The habits of mind that he forms in\\nthe school mark the pupil long after his formal lessons\\nare forgotten. Moreover, there is no worse habit for pu-\\npils to acquire than that of dawdling or dreaming over\\ntheir books or lessons.\\nTeachers should, therefore, allow their pupils time\\nenough to do their work, but not more than enough.\\nFurthermore, they should see to it that the\\nTeachers to 1 r 1\\nAUow Pu- work IS done at the expiration of the time,\\npiis Suffi- Yn this way they will secure continuous and\\ncient Time.\\nvigorous application. It is true enough that\\npupils of the same grade or class differ in the amount of\\ntime that they require to accomplish the work that is set\\nfor them some are quicker, some slower. The difficulty", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "158 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthat the facts suggest is incidental to the graded system\\nof schools, and, in fact, to all class instruction nor is it\\naltogether easy to overcome this difficulty. It is an ob-\\nvious suggestion, however, that extra work may be as-\\nsigned to the brighter and quicker pupils, so as to give\\nthem ample employment while the slower and duller\\npupils are preparing their regular lessons.\\nSomething will be said in another place about the\\nemotional climate of the school here a word or two\\nis called for relative to its intellectual atmos-\\nThe Intel- i i\\nlectuai At- phcrc. This should be electrical with curios-\\nth\u00c2\u00b0^s^h^^r^ ity, energy, vigor, application. Pupils should\\nbe on their mettle. If these elements are se-\\ncured, present lessons will be better learned, future habits\\nof study will be better formed, and those intellectual\\nconditions will be established which are most conducive\\nto mental health. On the other hand, in the slack, feeble,\\nnerveless school, the intellectual and moral vices thrive\\napace.\\nMuch depends upon the character and conduct of the\\nteacher. The teacher who has a well-developed power of\\nattention will be much more successful than the one who\\nhas no such power. If the pupils see the teacher consist-\\nently pursuing a chosen end, if they perceive\\n^Factor^^^^ unity of purpose and determination in all that\\nhe does, they are strongly influenced by the\\nexample. It may be due to sympathy, to imitation, or to\\nsome other cause, but there is no disputing the fact. The\\npupils fall into the prevailing current. This may be merely\\na result of automatic action, but it helps wonderfully on\\nthe active, voluntary side. On the other hand, if the pu-\\npils see that the teacher is vacillating or irresolute, if\\nthey discover that he has no settled aim, or, having one,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "CUL TIVA TION OF ACTIVE A TTENTION. 59\\ncannot pursue it, they respond to his spirit, unconsciously\\nto themselves and to him. An energetic teacher\\nwill energize pupils, while a limp-minded one will\\nmake pupils like himself. There is a mental as well as\\na physical fatherhood and motherhood, and it is alto-\\ngether of a hiq-her character. This is one reason why\\nthe ancient Jews set the teacher above the parent\\nthe one gave the child spiritual life the other only\\nnatural life.\\nAttention depends largely upon favorable physical\\nconditions. The health of the pupil, his physical tone,\\nicai suitability or unsuitability of the school\\nConditions, furniture, the comfort or the discomfort of the\\nschoolroom, the order in which the pupils are seated,\\nthe occurrence of recess or recreation periods these are\\nall things to be carefully considered. If children are\\nsick, if the seats in which they sit keep them in continual\\npain, if the air is highly impure, if the temperature is\\nmuch too high or much too low, if the light is painful to\\ntheir eyes, it is plain, or should be plain, that they can-\\nnot give close attention to their lessons. Men are begin-\\nning to understand much better than in former times\\nthe extent to which these physical factors directly affect\\nstudy and school education, and thus become moral causes\\nthemselves. The new psychology is amplifying and\\nenforcing the old lessons, if not discovering new ones.\\nWhen a distinguished physician of London said that he\\nregulated the number of blankets on his bed by the ther-\\nmometer and not by his sensations, he may have been\\nrather absurd, or at least mechanical but to find moral\\ncauses in degrees Fahrenheit is a strictly rational pro-\\nceeding.\\nTeachers often make serious mistakes in seeking to", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "l6o THE ART OF STUDY.\\nrepress unduly the physical activities of children while in\\nschool. So far from such activities always re-\\nPhysical t i r i r -i-\\nMovements tarduig, they often accompany and facilitate\\nand Atten- sustained attention. Changes of position not\\ntion.\\nonly relieve the body but stimulate brain activ-\\nity. On this point Ribot has written\\nEverybody knows that attention, at least in its reflected form, is\\nat times accompanied by movements. Many people seem to And that\\nwalking to and fro helps them out of perplexity others\\nRibot strike their forehead, scratch their head, rub their eyes,\\nQuoted.\\nmove their arms and legs about in an incessant, rhyth-\\nmical fashion. This, indeed, is an expenditure, not an economy,\\nof motion. But it is a profitable expenditure. The movements thus\\nproduced are not simple mechanical phenomena acting upon our ex-\\nternal surroundings they act also through the muscular sense upon\\nthe brain, which receives them as it receives all other sensorial im-\\npressions, to the increase of the brain s activity. A rapid walk, a race,\\nwill also quicken the flow of ideas and words, i\\nA full discussion of the subject would involve the rela-\\ntion of the motor activities to the intellectual activities.\\nThe child s growing voluntary attention must be pro-\\ntected against his spontaneous interests. If he is trying\\nto fix his mind upon some chosen or appointed\\nInfluences, objcct, such as a lessou, he should be shielded\\nas far as possible from other objects which may be of\\ngreater immediate attractiveness. It would be well in-\\ndeed if such things could for the time be altogether ex-\\ncluded from his view. Dr. Harris speaks of invading\\nexternal influences, and the phrase is happily chosen,\\nsuggesting the opposition that exists between external\\nobjects that are immediately present to the senses and\\nreal intellectual activities, such as judgment and thinking,\\n1 The Psychology of Attentioti. Chicago, The Open Court Pub. Co., 1890,\\np. 24.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF ACTIVE ATTENTION. i6i\\nAt a time when much is said, and very properly too,\\nabout cultivating the senses through objective teaching, it\\nis important to remember that the higher faculties cannot\\ngrow unless, for the time being, the world of sense is shut\\nout from the mind. In fixing the mind upon a subject,\\nit is sometimes of advantage to close the eyes, thus shut-\\nting out the sense world altogether. Some persons\\nhave even found a compensation for blindness in the\\ngreater command that they thus gained over their own\\nminds. President Dwight, the distinguished scholar and\\ntheologian, who lived early in the century, accord-\\ning to Dr. John Todd, used to consider the loss of his\\neyes a great blessing to him, inasmuch as it strength-\\nened the power of attention and compelled him to\\nthink.\\nThe principle that has been presented has many im-\\nportant applications, both in the home and in the school.\\nTern ta- mucli interested in skating, and but\\ntionstobe little interested in books, it would plainly be\\nemove folly to dangle a pair of skates before\\nhis eyes at the very moment that he is trying to learn\\nhis lesson. The girl who is more interested in attending\\nsocial parties than she is in learning grammar and history\\nshould not be tempted to indulgence in that direction,\\nbut those interests should rather be repressed. The rule\\ninvolves the exclusion from the school of what are called\\ndistracting influences. Order should be maintained, not\\nmerely for the sake of moral discipline, but so that the\\npupils may be able to learn and to recite their lessons.\\nSilence is one of the moral virtues in school. Then, the\\nschool environment is only less important than the in-\\nternal regimen. Reverting to a former illustration, the\\nboy who Is trying to prepare his arithmetic lesson\\nArt of Study. ii.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "1 62 THE ART OF STUD Y.\\nshould be protected, if it can be done, against the\\ninvading external influences of the brass band on the\\nstreet.^\\nTo be sure these matters are often difficult to regulate,\\nand are sometimes wholly beyond the teacher s control.\\nDistrac- Bands of music, for instance, do not generally\\ntions. confer with teachers in the schoolhouses as\\nto where and when they shall play All that can be said\\nis that teachers must do the best they can in view of all\\nthe premises. Certainly it is fortunate that the phrase\\ndistracting influences, like so many other phrases, is\\npurely relative. What distracts A does not distract B, or\\ndistract him to the same extent while what distracts either\\nA or B does not distract him or distract him to the same\\nextent at all times. Much depends upon association.\\nChildren accustomed to the life of a large city are not\\n1 The principles set forth in this paragraph are even more important in\\nthe moral than in the intellectual life. To quote from Dr. Bain\\nThe peculiarity of the moral habits, contradistinguishing them from\\nthe intellectual acquisitions, is the presence of two hostile powers, one to\\nbe gradually raised into the ascendant over the other. It is necessary,\\nabove all things, in such a situation, if possible, never to lose a battle.\\nEvery gain on the wrong side undoes the effect of several conquests on the\\nright. It is therefore an essential precaution so to regulate the two op-\\nposing powers that the one may have a series of uninterrui^ted successes,\\nuntil repetition has fortified it to such a degree as to cope with the opposi-\\ntion under any circumstances. This is the theoretically best career of\\nmoral progress, not often realized in practice. We gain nothing by\\nleaving a hungry child within reach of forbidden fruit the education not\\nbeing yet sufficiently advanced strengthto give to the motive of restraint.\\nWe begin by slight temptations on the one side, while strongly fortifying\\nthe motives on the other; and if there are no untoward reverses to throw\\nback the pupils, we count upon a certain steady progress in the ascendency\\nthat we aim at establishing. The Emotions aiid the Will. New York,\\nD. Appleton Co., 1876, pp. 440, 441.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "CUL riVA TION OF ACTIVE A TTENTION. 163\\ndisturbed by the noises that surge around the school-\\nhouse, while country children translated to such a spot\\ncan do little or nothing until the novelty of the situation\\nhas worn off. It is very important for young people to\\nlearn to control their minds, even in the midst of con-\\nfusion and excitement, but they will never learn that\\nlesson if they are distracted beyond measure.\\nMuch is said nowadays about beautifying school\\ngrounds and the schoolroom. The subject is an im-\\nAesthetics portant one, and shares the new interest that\\nin the 1-ias sprung^ up of late years in aesthetic develop-\\nSchoolroom. 1 1 t\\nment. But the matter may be overdone. In\\nfact, there is reason to fear that schoolroom decoration\\nwill become a fad, if it has not already done so. At least\\none thing is clear, viz. the schoolroom may be made so\\nattractive to the eye or the ear, sensuous elements may be\\nso accumulated, that real intellectual labor will either be\\ncarried on with much difficulty or be wholly stifled. A\\npiano is a desirable piece of schoolroom furniture, if\\nproperly used, but a singing canary would be a nuis-\\nance.\\nIt is a painful state of affairs in school when active\\nattention draws the pupil in one direction and passive at-\\nThe Two tention in another. Will and interest are now\\nfhoum rct opposed each to the other. When a teamster\\nTogether, wislics to move a heavily loaded wagon he does\\nnot hitch one team of horses at the front, and another\\nat the back, and then start them in opposite directions, but\\nhe hitches both teams at the front and starts them in the\\nsame direction. This is one of the teacher s most practical\\nproblems to get the two attentions, active and passive, to\\nwork freely together towards the same point. How is\\nthis to be done How shall the teacher bring interest to", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "l64 THE ART OF STUD V.\\nhis side in the struggle to focalize, and to keep focalized,\\nthe pupil s mind Many suggestions have already been\\noffered that bear more or less directly upon this point,\\nbut the time has now come for a more direct and a\\nmore practical answer to the question.\\nThe teacher s first duty is to lay hold of such of the\\npupil s old interests as can be made available. Atten-\\nThe Teacher t ion is possible Only on the two conditions,\\nto Summon tj-j^t the child shall have something to pay at-\\nOld Inter- fc r .y\\nests. tention zvi^/i and something to pay attention to.\\nAt this point we meet the doctrine or the fact of ap-\\nperception and its application to learning and teaching.\\nAs Professor James says, the teacher who wishes to en-\\ngage the attention of his class must knit his novelties on\\nto the things of which the pupils already have perceptions.\\nThe old and familiar is readily attended to by the mind\\nand helps, in turn, to hold the new. To apperceive is to\\nperceive a new thing through an old one. Accordingly,\\nthe more a pupil knows, the greater his store of facts and\\nideas, the wider his range of experience, that is, the more\\nnumerous and the richer his apperceiving centers, the\\neasier it is to interest him in new things. Still the new\\nthings must not be too new, that is, too unlike the old\\nthingSo The progress of knowledge is from the known to\\nthe related unknown.\\nThe teacher s second duty is to develop new interests\\nor new centers of interest. Still, the fact just stated must\\nThe Teach- be bornc in mind the new must not be too\\ner to Create ^j^|jj^,^ ^j^^ ^j^^ j^^ ^^j^^ jj^^\\nNew Inter-\\nests. creation of new interests is not so much, per-\\nhaps, their absolute creation as it is their transference from\\none subject to another subject, or from one thing to an-\\nother thing. Perhaps it can be psychologically shown", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "CUL TIVA TION OF ACTIVE A TTENTION. 165\\nthat all interests, wide and diversified as they become,\\nare developed from a few ultimate roots. Characterized\\nfrom the teacher s point of view, the transference of inter-\\nests is sometimes called borrowing. Every person who\\nhas given particular thought to the matter has been sur-\\nprised to see the extent to which such borrowing is actu-\\nally carried on in the mental life. It is a process of first\\nimportance to teachers.\\nAn example of a borrowed interest may be taken from\\ncommon life. A lady who was in feeble health for a\\nBorrowing number of years found congenial employment,\\nInterests: relief from pain, in the care of a\\nAn D^x-\\nample. small Collection of potted plants. Her in-\\nterest, which was a pure outgrowth of ill health and\\nenforced abstinence from her accustomed employments,\\ntended to grow beyond the limits of her own small collec-\\ntion. On her death, her mother, an elderly woman, who\\nhad never shown any real interest in flowers, and had\\nfound plenty of occupation in other things, became at-\\ntached to this collection of plants solely because they had\\nbelonged to her dear daughter. Nor was this all these\\nparticular plants created a growing interest in other plants,\\nwhich ended only with the lady s life. Coming back\\nagain to an old topic interests far from being deter-\\nminate in number and permanent in character, are rather\\nof easy propagation and of a plastic nature.\\nComing nearer to the school, Ribot gives this interest-\\ning example of using one interest to build up another\\nA child refuses to learn how to read it is incapable of keeping\\nits mind fixed upon letters that have no attraction for it but it will\\nA Second gaze with eagerness upon pictures in a book. What\\nExample. do those pictures mean Its father answers When\\nyou know how to read, the book will tell you. After a few talks of", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "1 66 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthis kind the child finally gives up at first it sets about the task\\nlazily, but afterwards it becomes accustomed to its work, and finally\\nevinces an eagerness that needs to be checked. In this we have an\\ninstance of the genesis of voluntary attention. It was necessary to graft\\nupon a desire natural and direct, a desire artificial and indirect.\\nReading is an operation that does not possess an immediate attrac-\\ntion, but as a means to an end it has an attraction, a kind of bor-\\nrowed attraction, and that is sufficient the child has been caught in\\na wheel-work, as it were, and the first step has been accomplished.\\nRibot also quotes an example from Perez as follows\\nA child six years old, habitually very inattcnthu\\\\ went to the\\npiano one day, of its own accord, to repeat an air that pleased its\\nA Third mother and it remained there for over an hour. The\\nExample. same child, at the age of seven, seeing its brother engaged\\nabout some of his holiday duties, entered and seated itself in its\\nfather s study. What are you doing asked the nurse, astonished\\nat finding the child there. I am doing a page of German it is not\\nvery amusing, but I wish to give mamma a pleasant surprise. i\\nIn the first of Ribot s cases, the child is desirous of read-\\ning that he may understand the pictures. In the second\\nRemarks on case, the child practices the music lesson and\\nSecond and Jeams the paq-e of German that he may please\\nTliird Ex- ir o j\\nampies. his mother. The first is a selfish, the second\\na sympathetic, motive but both well illustrate how the\\nteacher may gain his ends by borrowing a force that\\nalready exists. The second example suggests the reflec-\\ntion that sympathy is a force that may be drawn upon\\nalmost ad libitum. A pupil who will not learn a lesson\\nfrom personal interest, will often learn it to surprise his\\nmother or to please his teacher. This bei^ig so, the\\nemotional adjustment of the pupil to his teacher be-\\ncomes at once an important and practical question, as\\nwe shall see more clearly in another place.\\n1 T/ie Psycholoi^y of Attentioii. Chicago, Open Court Pub. Co., 1890, p.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "CUL riVA TION OF ACTIVE A TTENTION. 167\\nWhat has been said about building up one interest\\nthrough another one suggests the dependence of studies\\nA Question Upon oue another, or what is known in the\\nof correia- science of education as the problem of correla-\\ntion.\\ntion, or of correlated studies. The practical\\nsignificance of this problem, which will not be treated in\\nthis place at length, is that the wise teacher uses one\\nstudy to teach another. Changing the form of the\\nexpression, correlation consists in organizing studies, or\\nthe teaching of studies, so as to make work done in one sub-\\nject contribute to progress in one or more other subjects.\\nPassing by a larger topic, or correlation proper, a pupil s\\ninterest in geography is invoked by the teacher of his-\\ntory, and vice versa or the teacher lays all the pupil s\\nattainments under contribution in teaching literature,\\nwhich comes nearer than any other subject to being a\\nfull expression of human life.\\nRibot thus describes the methods to be employed in\\ncalling out and solidifying voluntary attention\\nIn the first period, the educator acts only upon simple feelings.\\nHe employs fear in all its forms, egotistic tendencies, the attraction of\\nRibot on rewards, tender and sympathetic emotions, as well as our\\nCaUing Out innate curiosity, which seems to be the appetite of intel-\\nActive ligence, and which to a certain degree no matter how\\nAttention.\\nweak IS found m everybody.\\nDuring the second period, artificial attention is aroused and main-\\ntained by means of feelings of secondary formation, such as love of\\nself, emulation, ambition, interest in a practical line, duty, etc.\\nThe third period is that of organization attention is aroused and\\nsustained by habit. The pupil in the class room, the workman in his\\nshop, the clerk at his office, the tradesman behind his counter, all\\nwould, as a rule, prefer to be somewhere else but egotism, ambition,\\nand interest have created by repetition a fixed and lasting habit. Ac-\\nquired attention has thus become a second nature, and the artificial\\nprocess is complete. The mere fact of being placed in a certain", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "1 68 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nattitude amid certain surroundings brings with it all the rest atten-\\ntion is produced and sustained less through present causes than\\nthrough an accumulation of prior causes habitual motives having ac-\\nquired the force of natural motives. Individuals refractory to educa-\\ntion and discipline never attain to this third period in such people vol-\\nuntary attention is seldom produced, or only intermittently, and cannot\\nbecome a habit.\\nThus far, I have conducted the argument as though,\\nin developing attention, everything depended upon the\\nThe Pas- teacher. In the early stage of education this\\nsage from is the precise fact. The child s will is feeble,\\nActive At- while external attractions are strong; and it is\\ntention. \\\\ong before he can direct his own attention.\\nThe teacher must, therefore, direct it for him. But in time\\nthe child will become able to take a part in the work, and\\nstill later to take complete charge of it. Hence the teacher\\nshould progressively withhold his direction and throw the\\npupil more and more upon his own resources. It is only\\nby using his own will that the pupil learns how to use it.\\nThe transition is one to be closely watched, for it is hard\\nto say whether it is more harmful for the teacher to with-\\ndraw assistance too soon or too rapidly, than to continue\\nit too long. Sooner or later the pupil will become self-\\nconscious in the matter he will observe the fact of at-\\ntention, reflect upon it more or less, and, in some measure,\\nshape his own course accordingly. At this stage the\\nteacher can render him some real assistance by furnishing\\njudicious instruction concerning attention and habits of\\nstudy. But this stage of development must not be antic-\\nipated.\\nIt is therefore necessary for us to give attention to this\\nmore advanced stage of mental growth the stage when\\n1 T/ie Psychology of Attrition. Chicago, The Open Court Publishing Co.,\\n1890, pp. 39, 40.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF ACTIVE ATTENTION. 169\\npupils are able to consider what is good for them, and so\\nto pay some attention to the art of study in a reflective\\nsense. Furthermore, teachers are directly concerned in\\nthe subject, for they are, or should be, students them-\\nselves, interested in all that relates to their own self-culti-\\nvation. A future chapter will be devoted to the subject.\\nParallel Reading. The Principles of Psychology., William\\nJames. New York, Henry Holt Co., 1890. Chap. XXYI.\\nThe Will The Art of Securing Attention, Sir J. G. Fitch.\\nSyracuse, C. W. Bardeen, 1885.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII.\\nTHOROUGHNESS.\\nThoroughness is the frequent theme of lecturers and\\nwriters on education, and of critics outside of the profes-\\nsion who essay to pass judgment upon teachers and\\nschools. The pupil and the teacher alike are praised\\nor blamed according as they are judged to be thorough or\\nthe contrary, the pupil in learning, the teacher in teach-\\ning. There are three decisive reasons for emphasizing\\nthoroughness in education.\\nI. Thoroughness is essential to a correct understanding\\nof the matter immediately in hand, whether it be a study,\\nlesson, or even some subdivision of a lesson.\\nvIliTof Without it there can be no correct ideas, no\\nThorough- clear, sound knowledge. All competent per-\\nsons who have had an opJDortunity to test it\\nknow full well how incorrect, or vague and untrust-\\nworthy, is much of what popularly passes for knowledge.\\nThe ideas that many men form of things that they see, the\\nmeaning that they get out of an article or even a para-\\ngraph read in the newspaper, their general understanding\\nof a speech or sermon that they have heard\u00e2\u0080\u0094these would\\nbe surprising if they were not such familiar facts. The\\nexplanation is that these persons do not give real atten-\\n170", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THORO UGH NESS.\\n171\\ntion to the matter, or do not give attention enough to en-\\nable them to get a sound understanding of it. The mind\\nis Hke the quick, sensitive plate of the camera, but it is\\nnot quick enough to receive clear, strong pictures of ob-\\njects on a single short exposure.\\nWhat has now been said is true of perceptive or simple\\nconcrete ideas, but if possible, it is even more true of gen-\\neral ideas, and of the conclusions that are reached by\\nthinking. One reason why so much thinking is wrong is\\nthat it starts with imperfect ideas of the things that are\\nmade the objects of thought. In the following passage\\nDr. Faraday shows how necessary clear and precise ideas\\nare to secure the proper exercise of the judgment\\nOne exercise of the mind wiiich largely influences the power and\\ncharacter of the judgment is the habit of forming clear and precise\\nideas. If, after considering a subject in our ordinary\\nDr. Faraday manner, we return upon it with the special purpose of\\nIdeas. noticing the condition of our thoughts, we shall be\\nastonished to find how little precise they remain. On\\nrecalling the phenomena relating to a matter of fact, the circum-\\nstances modifying them, the kind and amount of action presented,\\nthe real or probable result, we shall find that the first impres-\\nsions are scarcely fit for the foundation of a judgment and that\\nthe second thoughts will be best. For the acquirement of a good\\ncondition of mind in this respect, the thoughts should be trained to a\\nhabit of clear and precise formation, so that vivid and distinct impres-\\nsions of the matter in hand, its circumstances and consequences,\\nmay remain. 1\\nOne who understands the nature of the child mind and\\nwho considers the defects and tendencies of teachers,\\n1 See a valuable paper entitled The Education of the Judgment, in\\nThe Cidtiire Demanded by Modern Life, edited by E. L. Youmans. New\\nYork, I). Appleton Co., 1S67, p. 206.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "1/2\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nshould feel no surprise that school work is often anything\\nbut thorough.\\nThe training of the judgment is a matter of the first\\nimportance. Dr. Franklin invented a device for handling\\ndoubtful questions, or questions arising in daily life, that\\nhe entitled Moral Algebra. When circumstances ad-\\nmit of its use, it is really an admirable method of reach-\\ning sound conclusions and of disciplining the judgment.^\\nThese are its essential elements\\nDivide half a sheet of paper into two perpendicular\\ncolumns by a straight line, writing over the one /r^ and\\nFranklin s ovcr the Other T^;/. Then set down the various\\nMoral reasons, arguments, or motives that are in fa-\\nvor of the pending question, and those that are\\nagainst it, allowing several days, if necessary, for them to\\npresent themselves to the mind. When this process\\nhas been completed, estimate carefully the weight of\\nthe several arguments. Next, if two opposing arguments\\nseem to be equal, strike them off, or if one on one side\\nappears to balance two on the other side, or if two on one\\nside balance three on the other side, strike off the three\\nor the five. In this way a determination is reached in\\nthe same manner as in the familiar arithmetical operation\\ncalled cancellation. The advantage of this method is\\nthat it leads to diligence in collecting proofs affecting\\nthe question pro and con^ compels care in weighing them,\\nand brings them all before the mind in one view before\\ndetermination is reached. These so called doubtful\\nquestions are difficult, as Franklin explains, chiefly be-\\n1 Franklin s letter explaining this method is quoted by Dr. Bain in\\nThe Emotions and the Will. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1S76,\\npp. 413-414-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THORO UGH NESS.\\n173\\ncause all the reasons pro and con are not present in the\\nmind at the same time. This is the source of the vari-\\nous purposes or inclinations that alternately prevail, and\\nthe uncertainty that perplexes us.\\n2. Thoroughness in the matter immediately in hand is\\nessential to future thoroughness and progress in knowl-\\nedge. What is learned to-day is the founda-\\nvaiueof tion of what will be learned to-morrow and, if\\nThorough- foundation is weak and insecure, so will the\\nsuperstructure be. The pupil s theoretical or\\nscientific arithmetic is an outgrowth of his concrete num-\\nber work. His knowledge of the natural and physical\\nsciences is built up on the basis of his first contacts with\\nthe natural or physical world. His history and his civics\\nare developed out of his daily observations of men in the\\nlittle society or social world about him. His moral and\\nreligious conceptions originate in his personal experi-\\nences in the home and in the social circle. If a man love\\nnot his brother whom he hath seen, it has been asked,\\nhow can he love God whom he hath not seen What\\ncould be more natural or inevitable, then, than that the\\nfalse or imperfect ideas which characterize these early sub-\\njects of knowledge should more or less mark the whole\\nlater mental and moral development\\n3, The final reason why school work should be well\\ndone is that, while the pupil is doing it, he is building up\\nmental habits which will cling to him through life. This\\npoint has been dwelt upon in dealing with attention, but\\nthe fact should again be emphasized that good teaching\\nleads to two results one, the acquisition of knowledge\\nthe other, mental discipline. The mind is furnished and\\nformed at the same time, but only too often in its forma^\\ntion the element of discipline is overlooked in whole", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "174 STUDY.\\nor in part. It is not true, indeed, that there is a formal\\nmental habit called thoroughness. The boy who is\\nthorough in studies at school does not always make a\\nthorough business or professional man neither does\\nthoroughness in one study or pursuit necessarily imply\\nthis habit in another, though it tends to beget it in re-\\nlated things.\\nTo recur to a topic that has already come before us,\\nthe complaint by teachers in the schools is incessant\\nand insistent, that pupils, as a class, or at least in\\nlarge numbers, cannot do their proper work\\nThorough- bccausc they have not been properly prepared\\nness in the [q^ it. The cry becomes louder rather than\\nSchools. r 1 1 1\\nfamter as we near the top of the educational\\nladder. No doubt some, and probably many, of these\\nmurmurings are unreasonable. Sometimes they proceed\\nfrom inefficient teachers who seek thus to conceal their\\nown defects and failures sometimes, from enthusiastic\\nteachers who place their standards too high and have\\nfailed to reach them but, taken together, they represent\\na large amount of undeniable truth. Some of the work\\nattempted in schools is not done at all, and much of it is\\nbut half done.\\nNow the worst of it is that, as a rule, it is difficult\\nto substitute sound knowledge for unsound knowledge.\\nIdeas that are lacking in clearness do not\\nUnsound, always become clarified or definite with time.\\nKnowledge Pqj- ti^js there are two reasons, one of them\\nbeing that the pupil or adult is too impatient to go for-\\nward to be too willing go back and clear up his mind. It\\nis hard for him to believe that he does not understand the\\nmatter already, and he is often restrained by a false pride\\nfrom taking what he considers backward steps, although", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THOROUGHNESS. 1 75\\nsuch steps may in reality lead forward. What is more, a\\nfalse or an erroneous idea once lodged in a person s mind\\nstands in the way of his forming a true or a correct idea.\\nHis mind is littered up, so to speak; or, as the physio-\\nlogical psychologists say, the nervous currents are\\nrunning in wrong channels and it is hard to change\\nthem. It is the same way with thought. In thinking,\\nthe mind runs over a certain path connecting certain ideas,\\nand if, for any reason, this path swerves to the right or to\\nthe left, it will be found a hard thing to straighten it after-\\nwards. The process called thinking consists simply in\\nputting things or ideas together in certain relations, and\\nif they are not properly related a false view of the whole\\nsubject is given, which it is not easy to change. Ex-\\nperience teaches us how difficult it is to change a man s\\nfixed ideas, judgments, or opinions, that is, to make over\\nhis mind. Here we strike the psychological fact that lies\\nback of the stress which is so deservedly placed upon first\\nimpressions they are apt to be lasting, no matter how\\npartial or imperfect they may be. All experienced teach-\\ners know how hard a task it is to teach a subject prop-\\nerly to a pupil who has already been taught improperly.\\nThe common opinion is that it is easier to take the pupil\\nfresh, at the beginning, and there is much evidence to\\nsupport that opinion.\\nThe relations of the intellect and the will, or of knowl-\\nedge and choice, have already come before us in a former\\nchapter. However, it is important to state here\\nIdeas and that One of tlicsc relations involves the practical\\nt e wi 1. question of will-training. Promptness in making\\nthe choice, and firmness in the pursuance of chosen ends, are\\ngreatly promoted by a clear understanding of the objects\\nfrom which the choice is to be made, and of the nature", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "\\\\j6\\nTHE AR T OF STUD V.\\nand relations of the object chosen. It is just as absurd to\\nask a man to choose among objects of which he is igno-\\nrant as it is to ask him to beheve a proposition that he\\nhas never heard. A clear perception of the end or aim\\nof a lesson, (see the chapter on Attacking the Lesson,\\ncontributes greatly to the ability of the pupil both in\\nmaking the attack and in sustaining it.\\nSome readers may think that enough has now been said,\\nand that the subject should be dropped. The fact is,\\nhowever, that much that is important still remains to be\\nconsidered.\\nFirst, it must be taken into account that the word\\nthoroughness has no fixed meaning, but is a relative\\nterm. Thoroughness at one time and place is\\nThorough- i i\\nness a Hot thoroughness at another tnne and place.\\nRelative Thoroughness in one person is not thorough-\\nTerm, fc. r- fc\\nness in another person, and thoroughness in the\\nsame person is not the same thing at different times.\\nThe text-books used in schools contain a very small part\\nof the matter that is found in the great works written on\\nthe same subjects. Compare, for example, the school\\nhistories of the United States with Dr. Winsor s Nar-\\nrative and Critical History of America, or the school\\ngeographies with Reclus great work entitled TJie\\nEartli and its Inhabitants. Still more, even such mon-\\numental works as these by no means exhaust the subjects\\nto wdiich they are devoted. Furthermore, different minds\\ndiiTer in respect to the matter that the book actually\\npresents the teacher s grasp is less strong than that of\\nthe author, while the pupil s grasp is still weaker than\\nthat of the teacher. The growing mind learns to know\\nfamiliar things better than it knew them at first, as\\nwell as it learns to know new things. Thus words and", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THORO UGH NESS.\\n177\\nnames constantly come to express more and more mean-\\ning. Our early ideas may be likened to forms or vessels\\ninto which experience is continually pouring new meaning\\nor new thought. The pupil in the eighth grade cannot\\nhave Francis Parkman s conception of the French and\\nIndian War, or Carl Ritter s conception of the Continent\\nof Europe, no matter how long or how intensely he may\\ndwell upon the subject. The clear and precise ideas for\\nwhich Dr. Faraday so justly pleads are not fixed ideas or\\nquantitative ideas. Perhaps not one man in a million\\nhas Faraday s own clear and precise conceptions of the\\nfundamental facts of physics and chemistry. Accordingly,\\nthe teacher in the school constantly faces the question.\\nHow far shall clear ideas and clear thinking be insisted\\nupon\\nThe matter may be put in another way. Mental ac-\\ntion tends to fixity and permanence tends to flow in\\nGroov- habitual channels, or, as one may say, tends to\\nitig the groove and channel the mind. Now a certain\\namount of such grooving or channeling is\\nessential to mental efficiency. It is just as necessary that\\nmental energy, to be effective, shall be concentrated in\\nparticular lines or at particular points as it is that steam,\\nto be effective, shall be confined in a steam chest and cylin-\\nder diffusion or dissipation of force is just as fatal in the\\none case as in the other. Without this tendency to per-\\nmanence in modes of mental action, education would be\\nimpossible, and there could be no such thing as acquired\\ncharacter. At the same time, the mind may be over-\\ngrooved, that is, the grooves may become so deep and\\nso narrow that the man is practically incapable of effect-\\nive action outside of his routine, or, as the saying is, out-\\nside of his ruts. Sound education oscillates between the\\nArtoJ Sttidy~iz", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "178\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\ntwo extremes of too slight and too deep grooving of the\\nmind, the result being that the teacher faces the very\\npractical question, How far shall this work of grooving\\nbe carried\\nDr. W. T. Harris has given much attention to this\\nsubject the last few years, approaching it, however, by\\na somewhat different path. It is easy, he\\nHarris on ^rgucs, for any special formal discipline, when\\novergroov- continued too long, to paralyze or arrest the\\ngrowth of the mind at any stage. The overcul-\\ntivation of the verbal memory tends to arrest the growth\\nof critical attention and reflection. Memory of accessory\\ndetails, so much prized in the school, is often cultivated\\nat the expense of an insight into the organizing prin-\\nciple of the whole and the causal nexus that binds the\\nparts. So, too, the study of quantity, if carried to excess,\\nmay warp the mind into a habit of neglecting quality in\\nits observation and reflection. He contends that an ex-\\ncess of parsing and grammatical analysis of works of liter-\\nary art tends to destroy literary appreciation and to de-\\nvelop bad habits of mind. A child, overtrained to analyze\\nand classify shades of color, as is sometimes done in\\nprimary schools where stress is laid on objective teach-\\ning, might, in later life, visit an art gallery and make an\\ninventory of colors without getting even a glimpse of a\\npainting as a work of art. Similarly, an excess of experi-\\nments in teaching science may render the pupils incapable\\nof grasping the principle involved. Touching mathemat-\\nics. Dr. Harris writes as follows\\nThe law of apperception, we are told, proves that temporary\\nmethods of solving problems should not be so thoroughly mastered\\nas to be used involuntarily, or as a matter of unconscious habit\\nfor the reason that a higher and a more adequate method of", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THOROUGHNESS. lyg\\nsolution will then be found more difficult to acquire. The more thor-\\noughly a method is learned, the more it becomes part of the mind, and\\nthe greater the repugnance of the mind toward a new method. For\\nthis reason, parents and teachers discourage young children from the\\npractice of counting on the lingers, believing that it will cause much\\ntrouble later to root out this vicious habit, and replace it by purely men-\\ntal processes. Teachers should be careful, especially with precocious\\nchildren, not to continue too long in the use of a process that is be-\\ncoming mechanical for it is already growing into a second nature, and\\nbecoming a part of the unconscious apperceptive process by which\\nthe mind reacts against the environment, recognizes its presence, and\\nexplains it to itself. The child that has been overtrained in arithme-\\ntic reacts apperceptively against his environment chiefly by noticing\\nits numerical relations he counts and adds his other apperceptive\\nreactions being feeble, he neglects qualities and causal relations.\\nAnother child, who has been drilled in recognizing colors, apperceives\\nthe shades of color to the neglect of all else. A third child, exces-\\nsively trained in form studies by the constant use of geometric solids\\nand much practice in looking for the fundamental geometric forms\\nlying at the basis of the multifarious objects that exist in the world,\\nwill, as a matter of course, apperceive geometric forms, ignoring the\\nother phases of objects.\\nThe subject can be pursued indefinitely, but one or two\\nfurther instances will answer the present purpose.\\nLord Karnes, for example, advanced the proposition\\nthat capacious memory and sound judgment are seldom\\nMemory fouud in Company. His argument is that\\nandjudg- memory involves the slight or loose relations\\nof ideas, while judgment rests upon the strong\\nor close relations, and that the two mental habits are in-\\ncompatible. The truth turns, no doubt, upon the extent\\nto which the individual relies upon his memory or his\\njudgment. Either one may be cultivated, and especially\\n1 Report of the Conimittee of Fifteen on Elemeiitary Education. New\\nYork, American Book Company, 1895, pp. 56, 57.\\n2 Elements of Criticism. New York, American Book Co., 1S70, p. ^^t^.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "l8o THE ART OF STUDY,\\nthe memory, at the cost of the other, but there is no neces-\\nsary antagonism between the two mental faculties.\\nIt is a familiar fact that precocious development in\\nchildren is commonly followed by arrested development.\\nPrecocious Inheritance has here something to answer for,\\nChildren. ^ut something is no doubt due to the early\\novergrooving of the child s mind. Two practical ques-\\ntions that deeply affect the teacher s work arise at this\\npoint, and will be briefly considered. How long shall a\\npupil be kept on the same lesson How long on the same\\nstudy\\nA teacher, we will suppose, keeps a pupil still at work on\\na lesson or study to which he has already devoted much\\nKeeping time for the reason that the pupil is not yet\\nChildren tliorough in his knowledge. This may be per-\\non a i;es- fcctly right, or it may be wholly wrong. If the\\npupil s knowledge is really defective, when meas-\\nured by a proper standard, he should, as a rule, be required\\nto dwell upon the work still longer. But if his knowl-\\nedge is, comparatively, as perfect as he is likely at present\\nto make it, then such a course will involve a waste of both\\ntime and energy. Worse even than this, it may involve\\nthe impairment or destruction of interest in the lesson or\\nstudy, or even in the school itself. When a pupil has\\nreached a certain degree of excellence in a lesson or sub-\\nject, the increased knowledge gained by longer pegging\\naway is no compensation for the effort that it costs and\\nthe risk of disgust that it involves. In teaching reading,\\nfor example, the blunder is often committed of keeping\\nthe pupil at work on the same old lesson, when he is weary\\nof the monotony and is craving something fresh, be-\\ncause, as the teacher thinks, he can still learn to read it\\nbetter. It is the same in literature. The teacher here", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THORO UGHNESS,\\nI8l\\nnot unfrequently tries to make the work too intensive, and\\ndoes not cover enough ground either to give breadth of\\nview or to keep up the interest of the class. It must be\\nremembered that a child looks upon a lesson much as he\\nlooks upon a picture he tires of it, and demands some-\\nthing new. It is very true that to overcome this love of\\nchange, or to hold the pupil to his work, is the great prob-\\nlem of cultivating the attention but the teacher must\\nremember that this can be done only in a measure and\\nby degrees.\\nIt is obvious enough that the principle involved has an\\nimportant application in the matter of promotion. It is\\noften necessary to require pupils to zo a\\nPromotions.\\nsecond tmie over a certam portion of the work\\nthat they have done. The good of the pupil and the tone\\nof the school both demand that this shall be done. Still,\\npupils should by no means be refused promotion in the\\nflippant spirit that is characteristic of some teachers and\\nsuperintendents. It sometimes happens that the pupil in\\ngoing over this work a second time falls below the record\\nthat he made the first time. At the close of a term s work\\nin algebra I once thought it my duty to deny a young\\nman promotion with his class, and did so. It so happened\\nthat he made the same journey with me the second time,\\nand what was my surprise when I found that his work the\\nsecond term was inferior to what it had been the first\\nterm. He had actually lost ground and was less deserving\\nof promotion now than he had been three months before.\\nThis experience led me to study the subject with more care\\nthan I had done before, and to be more careful in decid-\\ning upon such questions. It is no doubt true that such a\\ncase as this is exceptional, but still it teaches a lesson.\\nExperienced teachers know how difficult it is to maintain", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "182 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthe interest of pupils in their work when they have been\\nrefused promotion. Many actually fall out of school al-\\ntogether for this reason. These facts do not constitute\\na reason why all pupils should be promoted when the set\\ntime for making promotions comes, but certainly there can\\nbe no good reason for maintaining a regimen in the\\nschools that involves going backward rather than for-\\nward. The question of promotion, as well as the question\\nof daily progress, faces both ways backward and for-\\nward. What has the pupil done What is he capable\\nof doing? These are- the two questions that teacher and\\nsuperintendent must answer. Moreover, teachers and\\nsuperintendents do not always see clearly that the first\\nof these questions is of importance mainly, if not solely,\\nbecause it bears upon the second.\\nWhat has now been said relative to repeating lessons\\nand refusing promotion in no way invalidates what was\\nsaid in the earlier part of this chapter about the value of\\nthoroughness. The key thought of the whole discussion is\\nthat thoroughness is relative, and that teachers and superin-\\ntendents must learn to take all the facts into account.\\nPerhaps a cautionary remark should be made in regard\\nto a single point. It must not be understood that a se-\\nries of promotions necessarily involves final\\nCaution graduation. Graduation in any formal sense,\\nstands for the completion of a certain amount\\nof work in a reputable manner, which again is a relative\\nexpression. It means this or it means nothing. It fol-\\nlows, therefore, that if a pupil has not done this work\\nin a way that is measurably satisfactory he should not\\nbe given a diploma certifying that he has done so. That\\nwould both lower the standard of the school and be im-\\nmoral into the bargain. There may be, and often are,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THORO UGH NESS. I g 3\\ngood reasons for allowing the pupil to pass along in a\\nstudy until he stands upon the verge of graduation, and\\nthen declining to graduate him. As a matter of course, the\\nteacher or principal should cause the pupil to understand\\nwhen he is promoted exactly what his status is and the\\ncauses that have produced it. Naturally, too, the pupil s\\nfamiliar friends should be duly informed of the facts in the\\ncase. It is true enough that the presence of a pupil who\\nhas not done satisfactory work in a class may impede the\\nprogress of the class, and this fact is to be taken into the\\naccount in settling the question of promotion. The prac-\\ntical disposal of questions of promotion and graduation\\nis difificult, calling for clear discrimination, sound judg-\\nment, good feeling, and no little moral courage. The\\nmore rigid the classification the greater the difficulty.\\nThe public often takes a hand in the discussion of pro-\\nmotions in schools. Upon the whole there can be no\\nPublic In- doubt that it favors a liberal policy. At the\\nterest in same time, men are found in almost every\\nPromotions. r-n 1 1\\ncommunity who gruttly ask such questions as\\nthese Why should pupils be sent to the high school\\nbefore they have mastered the studies in the grades\\nWhy should a boy take up algebra before he is perfect\\nin arithmetic Why should he begin a foreign lan-\\nguage before he has first mastered his own language\\nWhile mistakes are frequently made at these points, those\\nwho ask such questions, as a class, imperfectly understand\\nthe matter. They do not see that the pupils whom they\\nhave in mind cannot, save in a very limited sense, master\\ntheir elementary studies, or that such a thing as over-\\ngrooving is not only possible but easy. Still less do\\nthey understand the dependence of the lower studies\\nupon the higher ones, as of arithmetic upon algebra.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 84 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThey fail to comprehend how it is that, in a certain very\\nimportant sense, imperfect knowledge is absolutely neces-\\nsary to progress in knowledge. It is perfectly true that\\nschool children should know more than they do know,\\nand that the schools should be brought up to a higher\\nstandard. The true remedy, however, is not to refuse\\npupils promotion more frequently than at present, or to\\ncompel them to drum longer over the same lessons,\\nbut it is rather to teach them better while they are making\\ntheir daily progress.\\nIn a practical sense, thoroughness does not mean that\\nthe pupil shall seek to cover the whole field, or even that\\nhe shall cultivate intensively so much of it\\nDr. Bain on i i\\nNarrowness as he sccks to compass. To attempt either the\\none or the other may be fatal to the very\\nBreadth. -r- i i\\nthoroughness that he seeks. Touching the art\\nof study. Dr. Alexander Bain lays down three funda-\\nmental propositions which may be stated as follows\\n1. In the early stages of education, instruction must\\nbe narrow.\\n2. Instruction must be thorough.\\n3. Only when the pupil is completely at home in the\\nmain ideas only when one single line of thought has\\nbeen wrought into his mind should the teacher begin to\\nbe discursive and widen the path.\\nDr. Bain explains these propositions as follows\\nOur first maxim is Select a Text-book-in-chief. The meaning\\nis that, when a large subject is to be overtaken by book study alone,\\nsome one work should be chosen to apply to, in the first instance,\\nwhich work should be conned and mastered before any other is taken\\nup. There being, in most subjects, a variety of good books, the\\nthorough student will not be satisfied in the long run without con-\\nsulting several, and perhaps making a study of them all yet, it is un-\\nwise to distract the attention with more than one, while the elements", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THORO UGH NESS.\\n185\\nare to be learnt. In Geometry, the pupil bec^ins upon Euclid, or\\nsome other compendium, and is not allowed to deviate from the\\nsingle line of his author. If he is once thoroughly at home on the\\nmain ideas and the leading propositions of Geometry, he is safe in\\ndipping into other manuals, in comparing the differences of treat-\\nment, and in widening his knowledge by additional theorems, and by\\nvarious modes of demonstration.\\nIf we remember that narrow, broad, and thor-\\nough are all relative terms, having no quantitative mean-\\nRemarks on ing, we must assent to all these propositions.\\nQuotation. Narrowness must precede breadth, and super-\\nficiality, depth. To attempt too much is to fail in every-\\nthing. What folly it is, for example, in teaching history,\\nto accustom the pupil to compare, interpret, and discuss\\nfacts before he has any sufificient supply of them on which\\nto exercise his reflective faculties In dealing with the\\nhistory of a country or nation, the first thing to be done,\\nafter the purely story period is passed, is to fix in the\\npupil s mind firmly the main points an outline, a frame--\\nwork, in which he can dispose and arrange minor facts\\nand details as he acquires them or, to change the figure,\\nto provide his mind with a supply of hooks and pegs on\\nwhich he can hang up in proper order and in due relation\\nnew facts and ideas as he masters them. To quote Dr.\\nBain once more\\nHistory is preeminently a subject for method, and, therefore, in-\\nvolves some such plan as is here recommended. Every narrative read\\notherwise than for mere amusement, as we read a novel, should\\nleave in the mind (i) the chronological sequence (more or less\\ndetailed); and (2) the causal sequence, that is, the influences at work\\nin bringing about the events. These are best gained by application to\\na single work in the first place other works being resorted to in due\\ntime.\\n1 Practical Essays. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1884, pp. 215, 216.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a02 Ibid., p. 220.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "1 86 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nParallel Reading. On the Co7 relatio7i of Studies, W. T.\\nHarris, {Report of Committee of Fifteeji on Elementary Edu-\\ncation.) New York, American Book Company, 1895. The\\nEducation of the Judg7nent, Dr. Faraday, in The Culture De-\\nmanded by Modem Life, edited by E. L. Youmans. New York,\\nD. Appleton Co, 1867.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIIL\\nTHE RELATIONS OF FEELING TO STUDY AND LEARNING.\\nThe human mind is one, but it has three facul-\\nties, the intellect, the feeling, and the will. What\\nIntellect mean when we call these mental fac-\\nFeeiing, ultics is that the mind acts or manifests it-\\nself in three ways it knows, it feels, and it\\nwills. The same faculties are also called knowledge, sen-\\nsibility, and choice. These three forms of mental activity\\nare also known as elements or phases of consciousness.\\nIt will be seen that each of the three words is used in\\na double sense it is used as the name of a faculty or\\nprocess and also as the name of a product. Thus, will\\nmay be regarded both as a particular power or kind of\\nmental activity, and as the result of such activity.\\nIn preceding chapters much has been said of the rela-\\ntions of the will to the intellect, that is, to study and\\nlearning, and reference has also been made to\\nRelations of r r 1\\nthe Primary the relations of the feeling to the same factors.\\nFaculties, f j^^ time has now come to subject the second\\nof these topics to formal treatment. The fact is, how-\\never, we have already dealt with some of its aspects, for\\ninterests are but forms of feeling. We shall do well first\\n187", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "1 88 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nto look at the relations of the three primary mental\\nfaculties or elements of consciousness in a general way.\\nDr. James Sully gives these illustrations\\nA boy sees a flower growing on the wall above his head. He\\nraises his body and stretches out his hand to pluck it. This is a\\nDr. James voluntary act. What happens here The sight of the\\nSully flower calls up to his mind a representation of the\\n$2uoted. pleasure of smelling it or carrying it in his button-\\nhole. This at once excites a desire for or impulse towards the\\nobject. The desire again suggests the appropriate action which\\nis recognized as the means which will lead to the desired end. In\\nother words there is the belief (more or less distinctly present) that\\nthe action is fitted to secure the result desired.\\nA girl playing in the garden suddenly feels heavy drops of rain\\nand hears the murmurs of thunder. She runs into the bower. Here\\nthe action is similar only that it is due rather to an impulse away\\nfrom a disagreeable experience than to an impulse towards an agree-\\nable one. We say that the force at work here is not a desire for\\nsomething pleasurable, but an aversion to something painful,\\nThese examples reveal the presence, in each of the two\\ncases, of the three elements of consciousness. The boy\\nRemarks knows the flowcr, the girl the drops of water\\non These\\nExamples, and the thunder their knowledge awakens, in\\nthe mind of the one an impulse towards the object, in the\\nmind of the other an impulse away from it. The result of\\nthe impulse in the one case is the choice to pluck the\\nflower, in the other the choice to go into the bower, fol-\\nlowed in either case by the appropriate action. The\\ncircle is completed in both cases. The examples are per-\\nfectly true as far as they go, but they do not bring out\\nclearly the one important fact of the reaction of feeling\\n1 Outlines of Psychology. New York, D, Appleton Co,, 1884, p, 574.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "FEELING, STUDY, AND LEARNING. 189\\nand will upon knowing. We will invent illustrations of\\nour own.\\nI am sitting at my desk engaged in writing, when the\\ndoor of the room begins to open my attention is ar-\\nxew Exam- rested and my curiosity aroused; I turn my\\npies. eyes towards the door to see who is about to\\nenter, and discover, by his dress, that it is a messenger\\nfrom the telegraph office. I see a dispatch in his hand,\\nwhich he holds out to me my curiosity or desire is\\nfurther stimulated I stretch out my hand, seize the dis-\\npatch, tear it open and read it the dispatch informs me that\\na business venture in which I am engaged has turned out\\nfavorably, or that a friend is sick. This information begets\\nfresh interest, and this again leads on to new choices,\\nsuch as the decision to send a return dispatch or to under-\\ntake a journey, until the whole cycle is completed.\\nA child playing on the floor gets a music box in his\\nhands his curiosity is awakened by the object and he be-\\ngins to experiment with it, turning it over and beating\\nthe floor with it he strikes by accident a key and a sound\\nis produced, thus enlarging his knowledge; his interest\\nis increased and he strikes again and thus his knowledge,\\nhis feeling, and his will go on acting and reacting upon\\none another until the series of experiences is worked out\\nand the child is for the time satisfied.\\nThere is perhaps nothing more wonderful in the opera-\\ntions of the human mind than the action and interaction\\nof the elements of consciousness. In the last\\nKnowledge\\nand Feel- two examples the three faculties are all pres-\\nent and active intellect, feeling, and will;\\nor the examples present to our view, in perfect com-\\nbination, the three elements of consciousness knowledge,\\nsensibility, and choice.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "1^0 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThe central thought of this chapter is that the teacher\\nmust cultivate in the pupil those states of feeling that\\nDirect vari- harmonize with study and the acquisition of\\nation. knowledge. In certain conditions the three\\nelements of consciousness move together, upward and\\ndownward, on a sliding scale. The more one knows the\\nmore he feels, and the more energetic is his will. The\\ndirect stimulation to activity of any one of the so-called\\nfaculties is the direct stimulation of the other two. But\\nthis is true only so long as the stimulation and the re-\\nsulting activity are comparatively moderate in their meas-\\nure. This is an important law of mental action.\\nIn the second place, when a certain stage of stimula-\\ntion and activity has been reached, the three elements be-\\nindirect gi^^ to vary inversely the more of any one ele-\\nvariation. mcnt, the less of either of the other two. Ex-\\ncluding the will for the present, we find that strong\\nintellectual activity is accompanied by weak feeling,\\nstrong feeling by weak intellectual activity. In a sense, the\\nmore one knows the less, for the time, he feels, and the more\\none feels the less he knows. There are apparent exceptions,\\nperhaps real ones, but such is the rule or the law. Thus, you\\ndo not feel deeply when you are absorbed in a mathematic-\\nal problem or in a difficult piece of translation neither\\ndo you think clearly and strongly when you are moved by\\nexcited feelings, no matter whether pleasant or painful.\\nFresh news of some great good fortune or great evil fortune\\nincapacitates the mind for its best intellectual effort. Cold\\nindeed is the student who can apply himself to his studies\\nwith vigor the very hour that he hears of his father s\\ndeath. Wordsworth thought slightly of the man who\\ncould botanize on his mother s grave it is the place, he\\nthought, for emotion rather than for scientific investiga-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "FEELING, STUDY, AND LEARNING. 191\\ntion. The cause of these inverse variations of men-\\ntal forces is, perhaps, that the mind lias so much power\\nto expend, and that, if much of this power is used in one\\nway, little can be used in another way. But, no mat-\\nter what the explanation is, there is no mistaking either\\nthe law or its interpretation.\\nThere are still other facts to be considered. Age is a\\nfactor in the problem. A child s feelings are more active\\nA Tr in man s, not only absolutely but rela-\\ning, and In- tively, in the same way that his logical facul-\\nstruction. ^j^^ activc. Training and discipline\\nalso enter into the problem. Persons of the same age\\ndifTer widely in the coordination of the primary mental\\nfaculties. The savage and the undeveloped man show\\nmuch of the spontaneity and impulse that mark the\\nchild. Nor is this all inheritance remains to be con-\\nsidered. Persons of equal general cultivation, as well\\nas of the same age, differ sometimes almost as widely\\nas children differ from adults. Some persons show habitual\\nself-control from an early age, while others have little\\nself-control when far advanced in life. It is a matter of\\ntemperament. In fact we classify men with respect to\\nthe relative prominence in their make-up of the elements\\nof consciousness one man is intellectual, another emo-\\ntional, a third active or practical.\\nSo it is not strange that the feelings should present to\\nthe educator some very important problems. Perhaps\\nProblems the most important is the proper coordination,\\nPresented throucrh habit, of the primary faculties. Con-\\nby Feeling J 1\\nventionalized society compels men to set re-\\nstraints upon the sensibility. The whole subject is com-\\nparatively new, having received far less attention than\\nit deserves, but it lies beyond our path. The main facts", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "192 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nfor us to consider are that the feelings of children are\\neasily excited, that they have little control over them,\\nand that, when strongly excited, they are largely in-\\ncapable of intellectual activity, and wholly incapable of\\nstudying and learning lessons.\\nFrom the facts that have been set forth we shall now\\ndeduce some important rules of teaching.\\n1. A gentle glow or wave of pleasant feeling should\\nplay through the schoolroom, and over the mind of the\\nindividual pupil while he is engaged in study.\\nFeeling to Courage, hopefulness, appreciation, should mark\\nbe cuiti- tJ^e emotional climate rather than discourasfe-\\nment or despan It is quite true that these\\nfactors, or any one of them, may be in excess of what is\\ndesirable. Appreciation may be carried to the point of\\nteaching the pupil false ideas concerning himself and his\\nrelations to the world. He may be transported by the\\nteacher into a fool s paradise. The objections to this\\nfolly are both intellectual and moral. Pupils should\\nnot be led to form exaggerated ideas of themselves\\nand their attainments, but they should be led to believe\\nthat much can be done in the school, and that they can\\ndo it.\\n2. Pupils in school should be fortified as strongly as\\npossible against strong excitement of the feelings, no mat-\\nter whether the excitement is their own or that\\nFeeling to another into which they enter through sym-\\nbe Discour- patliy. The wheels of the intellect, so to speak,\\nwill not revolve freely in a flood of turbulent\\nemotion. No gusts of anger, no cyclones of passion,\\nno tempests of sympathetic impulse, should vex the pupil\\nor disturb the atmosphere of the school. For one thing,\\nsuch disturbances are followed by serious moral results", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "FEELING, STUDY, AND LEARNING.\\n93\\nthey make character. Bui; here the immediate point is\\nthat they kill or impair, for the ti.me, the intellectual life\\nof the pupil. No young pupil can stuuy ^r recite when\\nhe is deeply grieved or thoroughly angry. This p.iase\\nof the subject Dr. Carpenter has treated in an admirable\\npassage.\\nThose strong-minded teachers who object to these modes of\\nmaking things pleasant, as an unworthy and undesirable weak-\\nDf. Car- ness, are ignorant that, in this stage of the child-mind,\\npenter on the will that is, the power of self-covAxoX is weak and\\nWiUful- primary object of education is to encourage and\\nstrengthen, not to repress, that power. Great mistakes\\nare often made by parents and teachers, who, being ignorant of this\\nfundamental fact of child-nature, treat as willfubicss what is in reality\\njust the contrary of will-fullness being the direct result of the want\\nof volitional control over the automatic activity of the brain. To\\npnnish a child for the want of obedience which it has not the power to\\nrender, is to inflict an injury which may almost be said to be irrepar-\\nable. For nothing tends so much to prevent the healthful develop-\\nment of the moral sense as the infliction of punishment which the\\nchild ?^/jr/^ be imjiist and nothing retards the acquirement of the\\npower of directing the intellectual processes so much as the emotional\\ndisturbance which the feeling of injustice provokes. Hence the de-\\ntermination often expressed to break the will of an obstinate child\\nby punishment is almost certain to strengthen these reactionary in-\\nfluences. Many a child is put into durance vile for not learning\\nthe little busy bee who simply ca7inot give its small mind to the\\ntask, whilst disturbed by stern commands and threats of yet severer\\npunishment for a disobedience it cannot help when a suggestion\\nkindly and skillfully adapted to its automatic nature, by directing the\\nturbid current of thought and feeling into a smoother channel, and\\nguiding the activity which it does not attempt to oppose, shall bring\\nabout the desired result, to the surprise alike of the baffled teacher,\\nthe passionate pupil, and the perplexed bystanders.\\nPrinciples of Mental Physiology. New; York, D. Appleton Co., 1886,\\npp. 134, 135.\\nArt of SUidy. 13", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "194 THE ART OF STUDY.\\n3. The emotional adjustment of the young pupil to the\\nteacher shovl.^ receive attention. Whether the\\nEmotional 1 im 1 1\\nAriiustn-eni pupil or studcnt likes the teacher or not is al-\\nof Teacher ^yays an important question. Young men and\\nwomen in college may get a great deal of good\\nout of old Professor Crusty, whom they hate, even pre-\\nferring him to young Professor Good-Nature, whom they\\nlike, because they recognize the ability of the former and\\nsubdue their personal feelings but young children are\\nwholly incapable of making any such discrimination.\\nTheir relation to their teacher is determined wholly by\\ntheir feelings, and not at all by scientific interest. The\\nresult is that they get little or no good, and much harm,\\nfrom a teacher whom they thoroughly dislike, no matter\\nif the teacher be an admirable person or even a good\\nteacher in another school. Even in colleges and universi-\\nties this emotional factor plays no small part.\\nAccordingly, the temper of a teacher and his power of\\nadaptation to pupils are among the things to be con-\\nsidered in assigning him to a school, or even in his em-\\nployment. This is particularly the case in\\nMak^such lo^^^e^ g^^^G schools. Then it is one of the\\nAdjust- f^rst duties of the teacher, and of the primary\\nteacher especially, to adjust himself to his schol-\\nars, winning their confidence, respect, and love. Once\\nmore, when a teacher, after a fair trial, has failed to effect\\nsiich an adjustment between himself and the school, the\\ntime has come for the school authorities to consider\\nwhether he should not be transferred to another school,\\nor, if circumstances require, be discontinued altogether.\\nSuch transference or discontinuance may involve some\\nhardship to the teacher, but it is the right of the pupils.\\nIn another school or in another place he may do excel-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "FEELING, STUDY, AND LEARNING.\\nf95\\nlent work, but not in this school or place. No doubt a\\nword of caution is needed. School administration and\\ndiscipline should by no means be abandoned to the\\nwhims, notions, and caprices of school children neither\\nshould the studies be determined with sole reference\\nto their so-called interests. Still, their real feelings, like\\ntheir real interests, must be respected within reasonable\\nbounds. No man can estimate the harm that has been\\ndone to the minds and characters of children, and espe-\\ncially of sensitive children, through association with\\nnurses, tutors, and teachers who were distasteful or re-\\npulsive to them. On that point, biography, and still\\nmore autobiography, tells its own story.\\nHope and fear sometimes lead to the same result.\\nThey may strengthen one man and weaken another.\\nEffects of energetic by nature says,\\nHope and The outlook is cncouraging, we must make\\nthe most of it or, It is discouraging, we\\nmust exert ourselves to the utmost. The feeble man\\nsays, The prospect is hopeful, everything will come out\\nright anyway or, Nothing can be done, and it is useless\\nto try. The effect of hope and fear upon men depends\\nupon the native tone, or the character, of the man. Some\\nmen are never so strong as when in the presence of danger,\\nnever so weak as when in the presence of security. The\\none situation nerves them to do their utmost the other lulls\\nthem to sleep. Others are strongest when animated by\\nhope, weakest when depressed by fear. Such are some of\\nthe effects upon different minds of optimistic and pessimis-\\ntic tones of thought and feeling.\\nIt is easy to see how what has just been said applies to\\nchildren. They are rarely strengthened by any form of\\nfear, and young children never are. They require a", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "196\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nwarmer emotional climate. They need encouragement\\nand hopefulness. And yet this is one of the places where\\nit is important for the teacher to remember Solon s maxim,\\nNothing in excess.\\nParallel Reading. The Story of the Mind, James Mark\\nBaldwin. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1898. Outlines of\\nPsychology, Harold Hoffding. London, The Macmillan Co.,\\n1892. Chap. IV. Classification of the Psychological Ele-\\nments /^r/w^r^/Vj^r/^^/^^j, George Trumbull Ladd. New\\nYork, Charles Scribner s Sons, 1884. Studies in Education,\\nB. A. Hinsdale. Chicago, Werner School Book Company,\\n1896. Chap. in. The Laws of Mental Congruence and\\nEnergy Applied to Some Pedagogical Problems", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX.\\nMETHODS OF LEARNING.\\nNo word employed in educational literature or discus-\\nsion, or at least no word relating to teaching, has been\\nAbuse of more abused than the word method. This\\nthe Word abusc is sceu in the irrational emphasis that is\\nMethod.\\nplaced upon it, and the absurdity of its applica-\\ntions. Teachers borrowed the word from philosophy and,\\nhaving done so, proceeded to degrade it. They have not\\nhesitated, for example, to apply it to the commonest ex-\\npedients and devices, and even tricks, of the schoolroom.\\nWe have the letter method, the word method, and\\nthe sentence method of teaching reading the oral\\nmethod and the written method of teaching spelling;\\nthe oral method and the book method of teaching\\nelementary science, and I know not how much more be-\\nsides. In the literature of teaching, particularly the minor\\nliterature, the word is repeated ad naiiseam, and, if possi-\\nble, still more frequently in lectures and class instruction.\\nAnd then the stress that the advocates of different methods\\nplace on their little devices As though men were never\\ntaught anything, or could be taught anything, except ac-\\ncording to their particular prescriptions It is no wonder\\nthat many sensible teachers, weary of methods, have\\n197", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "198\\nTHE AR T OF STUD V.\\nturned their faces away from method, as they hope, for-\\never.\\nBut the subject cannot be gotten rid of in this easy\\nfashion. Any man of sense will see this the moment he\\nMethod De- takes one real look into the heart of the matter,\\nfined and Compayre defines method in s^eneral as the\\nVindicated.\\norder that we voluntarily mtroduce mto our\\nthoughts, our acts, and our undertakings. To act me-\\nthodically, he says, is the contrary of acting thoughtless-\\nly, inconsiderately, without continuity, and without plan.\\nPort Royal justly defined method as the art of rightly ar-\\nranging a series of several thoughts. And again In a\\nmore precise and particular sense, method designates a\\nwhole body of rational processes, of rules, or means which\\nare practiced and followed in the accomplishment of any\\nundertaking. This brief account of the matter will\\nshow sufficiently that method is indispensable, and\\nthat it relates to the matter of our thoughts and their ex-\\npression rather than to the dexterities, physical or mental,\\nof the daily life. Perhaps it is impossible, so strong is\\nthe power of habit, to rescue the word wholly from the\\nhands of those who are degrading it, or to bring it back\\n1 Lectures on Peda^i^oifv, Theoretical and Practical. Translated by W. H.\\nPayne. Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1891, pp. 265, 266. A French writer,\\nM. Marion, quoted by Compayre, thus states the three great advantages of\\nthe man who proceeds rationally in every kind of practical work over him\\nwho lives on expedients. Starting with a fixed purpose, he runs less risk\\nof losing sight of it and of missing his way. Having reflected on the\\nmeans at his command, he has more chances of omitting none of them,\\nand of always choosing the best. Finally, sure both of the end in view,\\nand of the means of attaining it, it depends only on himself to reach it as\\nsoon as possible. A lame man on a straight road, said Bacon, reaches\\nhis destination sooner than a courier who misses his way.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING. 199\\nto its pristine meaning; but it is possible to do something\\nin this direction. In this chapter we shall hold strictly\\nto the original and proper meaning of the term.\\nIt is perfectly clear that methods of teaching depend\\nupon methods of learning, or of acquiring knowledge, and\\nMethods of that the teacher s function is to help the pupil\\nand^of to learn. Furthermore, the art of study must\\nivearning. recognize also the methods of learning, or of\\nacquirement, because study is only a means of learning.\\nPupils do not study simply for the sake of studying, but\\nfor the sake of gaining knowledge and discipline. Accord-\\ningly, it becomes necessary for us to give an account of\\nthe methods by which we learn or gain knowledge. This\\naccount will be as brief as is consistent with clearness.\\nThe first things that a child learns, or that he knows,\\nare the sense-objects right about him in the world. These\\nPerception, objects impress his senses, or they produce sen-\\nsations in the appropriate organ touch, sight,\\nhearing, taste, or smell and these sensations the mind\\nchanges into mental pictures called perceptions, or they\\nare ideated, as the text-books say. It is not at all\\nnecessary for our purpose to give a minute account of the\\nway in which all this is done, but one or two facts should\\nbe strongly grasped.\\nThe child observes sense-objects, receives impressions,\\nand these impressions or sensations are elaborated into\\nperceptive ideas. These ideas are mental pictures of\\nsingle, concrete, unrelated, things.\\nThus the child learns to know his toe, his thumb, his\\nhand his mother or nurse his rattle, his spoon, and many\\nFirst-Hand Other things that go to make up his environ-\\nKtiowiedge. ment. Such are the humble beginnings of all\\nour knowledge. This knowledge does not come throuf^h", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "200 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nteaching or words. The child learns at first without\\nother help than is furnished when those who minister to\\nhim put sensible objects before him in the manner that\\nhe can best understand. His only lessons are object\\nlessons. This knowledge is slow, but it is sure; it is\\nfirst-hand, original knowledge. The child is not dependent\\nupon another for it, but gets it through the active ex-\\nercise of his own faculties. It originates in the contacts\\nbetween his own mind and the surrounding world, and is\\nreal knowledge in the most vital sense of that term. This,\\nno doubt, is a sufficient account of simple sense-percep-\\ntion. It will be seen that at first the child makes his own\\nknowledge with little help.\\nThe process of perception does not go very far before\\nit is strongly recnforced by another process that is called\\nAppercep- apperception. This word is composed of ad\\ntion. meaning to, and percipcrc, meaning to see\\nor perceive, and it expresses the well-known fact that\\nnew things are grasped Avith the help of old things, or new\\nideas are acquired by the way of old ideas. Thus, a child\\nwho has formed an idea of a familiar object, say a cat, is\\nbrought into contact with an unfamiliar object, say a dog.\\nImmediately his faculties set to work to understand this\\nnew object, bringing it into relation with his idea of the\\nold object, and never really leaving it until he has satis-\\nfied himself that the two are alike or unlike or, in other\\nwords, that they belong, or do not belong, to the same\\nclass. If the same idea or mental picture, somewhat\\nchanged, will not fit both objects, he must begin anew\\nand form a new and independent idea of the new object.\\nInterpretation and classification are thus both involved\\nin apperception. Accordingly, our ideas once formed\\nare in no sense dead, mechanical things, heaped up in", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING. 201\\nthe mind, but living powers that help us mightily in\\ngetting new ideas. Once an idea is brought into contact\\nwith new facts, things, or objects, it tends to promote the\\nformation of ideas of these also.\\nTwo or three further explanations should be offered.\\nA group of ideas through which the mind apperceives\\nor interprets new experiences is called an apperceptive\\ncenter or an apperceiving mass.\\nIn the process of apperception new facts or objects\\noften become warped or distorted, that is, they are put\\nValue of same classes as old facts or objects,\\nAppercep- differences being for the time being over-\\nlooked. The child who sees flakes of snow for\\nthe first time may call them butterflies, if he has already\\nformed that idea or, under similar conditions, he may\\ncall a snake a tail, or stalks of grass trees. Better ideas\\ncome with fuller experience and the frequent correction\\nof error. The more nearly the new facts or objects are\\nlike the ideas making up the apperceiving mass, the nar-\\nrower is the margin for error. But in spite of the fact\\nthat apperception is the source of many temporary or\\neven permanent errors, it still accelerates the acquisition\\nof knowledge to a prodigious degree. Without this\\npower of the mind to assimilate one thing with another,\\nwe could never know very many things while what little\\nwe did know would consist wholly of single and isolated\\nideas. Of things in classes or by classes we could know\\nnothing whatever.\\nA still more important fact has been implied, but it\\nremains to be fully stated. This is the fact that apper-\\nGenerai ception brings into the mind, or causes to\\nIdeas. emerge in the mind, a new class of ideas.\\nThese are concepts, sometimes called general ideas, be-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "202 THE ART OF STUDY.\\ncause they fit all the objects that make up the particular\\nclass. They are best understood when placed in contrast\\nwith percepts, which are ideas of simple, concrete things.\\nThere is some controversy about the origin of con-\\ncepts. It answers our purposes, however, to know that\\nthey originate at this early stage of mind development,\\nand that they are general in their nature. The meaning\\nof it all is that the child who has reached this stage knows\\nnot only a cat, a spoon, a man, etc., but cat, spoon,\\nman, as classes or species. Language marks the differ-\\nence between the two classes of ideas by assigning to per-\\ncepts proper nouns or their equivalents, but to concepts\\ncommon nouns. Just as soon as a child uses intelligently\\nthe plural number just as soon as he knows the differ-\\nence between a man and men he has passed from the\\nstage of single ideas to the stage of general ideas or\\nfrom perceptive to conceptive knowledge.\\nAll, or nearly all, the intellectual processes are involved\\nby implication in the formation of clear percepts and\\ncompreheti- conccpts. Observation, or the examination of\\nsivenessof objccts analysis, or the separation of a whole\\ncreep ion. j^^^^ parts synthesis, or the combination of\\nparts into a whole memory, or the recalling of things once\\nknown imagination, or the selection and combination of\\ndisconnected elements comparison, or the discovery of\\nlikeness and unlikeness judgment, or inference, all are\\nhere. Some of them, however, are present in a very\\nrudimentary form. It is not until a later stage of mental\\ndevelopment that these elements fully declare them-\\nselves.\\nWe shall now proceed to give a fuller examination\\nof the processes of comparison and judgment, two very\\nimportant steps in the attainment of knowledge.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING. 203\\nIn another chapter, much emphasis is laid upon the\\nvalue of clear and precise ideas it is there shown that\\nComparison sound judgment and correct thinking are\\nand judg- strictly dependent upon such ideas. We must\\nnow look into the matter a little more closely.\\nA single judgment is a comparison of two things or\\ntwo ideas, or of one thing and one idea. When I lay a\\nyardstick upon a piece of carpet to measure it, I compare\\nthings when I apply to a certain path that I remember\\na measure that I carry in my mind, or measure the path\\nmentally, I compare ideas when I measure the path\\nthat is before me with a mental standard, I compare a\\nthing and an idea. This tree is taller than that one\\nElephants are sagacious beasts This horse is an animal,\\nare other examples. In respect to ideas, percept may be\\ncompared with percept, as The river is a mile wide con-\\ncept with concept, as The dog is the companion of man\\npercept with concept, as This specimen is a star fish.\\nBut all judgments are not affirmative judgments some\\nare negative. Every judgment contains two parts\\nthe two thins^s that are compared while\\nAffirmative r 1\\nandNeg-- a judgment expressed in words is called a\\nativejudg- proposition, which also consists of two parts.\\nOne of these two parts, whether of the judg-\\nment or of the proposition, is called the subject, or that\\nof which something is said the other the predicate, or\\nthat which is said of the subject and these two parts\\nare bound or coupled together by a copula, which is com-\\nmonly some form of the verb to be. In thought, all\\npropositions can be reduced to one of two forms A is B,\\nor A is not B. Properly speaking the judgment is the\\nthought or soul that resides in the proposition, while\\nthe proposition is the body of this soul.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "204 STUDY.\\nJudgments are of two kinds, primary and secondary.\\nThey may also be called immediate and mediate, direct\\nand indirect. In primary judgment the mind\\nand Second- pcrceivcs and declares directly the agreement\\naryjudg- qj. disagreement of the two things compared.\\nThis tree is green, This cloth is not white,\\nare such judgments. In indirect judgment the mind\\ncircuitously discovers the agreement or the disagreement\\nof two objects by comparing each of them with a third\\nobject, as will now be explained.\\nThinking proper is inferring, which means the derivation\\nof a new judgment from old ones, or the carrying into a\\nnew judgment of what was contained in pre-\\nindu^cUve^ vious oues. Judgments reached by the way\\nand of other judgments are the secondary or\\nmediate judgments mentioned above. The\\nderivation of such judgments is the province of proper\\nthinking. Furthermore, thinking, or inference, is of two\\nkinds, inductive and deductive, which will now be ex-\\nplained. Moreover, while this is being done we shall see\\nmore clearly what is the real nature of thinking. Still\\nit is quite impossible and unnecessary to go into the nice-\\nties of the subject.\\nThe nature of the two methods of thinking, or the two\\nkinds of inference, and their relations to each other, can\\nThe be seen at once on examining a common syl-\\nSyiiogism. logism, whicli is the perfect type of deduction.\\nWe will take the following for an example\\n1. Iron pokers when heated to a certain degree become red hot\\n2. This tool is an iron poker\\n3. Therefore this tool when so heated will become red hot.\\nThe first two propositions are called the premises, the\\nthird one the conclusion, of the argument. Now no man", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING.\\n205\\nwho accepts these premises will think of denying the\\nthird proposition. This is not at all because he has ex-\\namined, or proposes to examine this tool, when heated\\nthe third proposition is a conclusion that follows or is in-\\nferred irresistibly from the other two. It is a secondary\\nor thought-out judgment that is, the tool is compared\\nwith red hot indirectly through the thing called iron.\\nWe may represent the process in symbols thus\\nAll B is A,\\nAll C is B,\\nAll C is A.\\nC and A are compared by means of B. Deduction, it\\nwill be seen, is an inference from the general to the par-\\nticular. But the truth of the conclusion depends upon\\nthe truth of the premises what they are worth the con-\\nclusion is worth no more and no less. But what is the\\norigin of these premises. How do we know that they are\\ntrue To be definite, how do we know that all iron\\npokers when heated to the prescribed degree become red\\nhot To answer this question we must consider the\\nother method of thought that is, induction.^\\nI have observed that all the pokers which I have seen\\nheated to a certain degree have become red hot\\nInduction, hence I infer that whenever this one is so\\nheated it will become red hot. Again, I have observed\\n1 The word inference, says Mr. Fowler, is employed in no less than\\nthree different senses. It is sometimes used to express the conclusion in\\nconjunction with the premise or premises from which it is derived, as when\\nwe speak of a syllogism or an induction as an inference sometimes it is\\nused to express the conclusion alone sometimes the process by which the\\nconclusion is derived from the premises, as when we speak of induction or\\ndeduction as inferences, or inferential processes. The Elements of Deduct-\\nive Logic. Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 187 1, p. 65,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "2o6 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthe same thing of numerous other pieces of iron hence\\nI infer that all pieces of iron so heated become red hot.\\nFurthermore, people who have had experience with\\nheated iron tell me the same thing. Their experience\\nconfirms my experience. Accordingly, I am so very pos-\\nitive that this proposition or reasoned judgment is true\\nthat I call it a general fact or a law of nature, unless, in-\\ndeed, some new cause shall come into play that will\\nprevent the poker becoming red hot.\\nBut why am I at liberty to infer from the few instances\\nin which I have seen this poker become red hot that it\\nwill always do so under the same circum-\\ni^ucUifn. stances Or why may I conclude that what I\\nhave observed of several pieces of iron is true\\nof the pieces which I have not observed This question\\nlies aside from our path, and it suffices to say that my\\nright to make the inference depends upon the uniformity\\nof nature; that is, the law that under the same circum-\\nstances the same cause produces the same effects. More-\\nover, every valid induction involves two steps or stages.\\nOne is the observation of particular objects or facts the\\nother the inference from these particular facts of a general\\ntruth or proposition, which may be variously called a defini-\\ntion, a rule, a principle, a general truth, or a law. Induction,\\nthen, is an inference from particulars to generals or univer-\\nsal, as deduction is an inference from generals or universals\\nto particulars. In other words, induction leads to new gen-\\neral truths; deduction, through the combination of two\\npropositions, develops a third which they contain between\\nthem. Induction leaves off where deduction begins, and the\\ntwo together make up the one complete method of thought.\\nBut what about the second premise of the syllogism\\nThis, too, happens to be a mediate proposition or judg-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING.\\n207\\nment, or one reached by a previous deduction. That is,\\nori in of havc learned (i) by induction that a body\\nthe Second having such and such properties is iron (2) by\\nPremise. immediate observation that the body before me\\nhas these properties and (3) conclude, or infer, accord-\\ningly, that it is iron.\\nDeductive inferences assume many different forms,\\nsome of them quite puzzling but it is not at all neces-\\nsary that we should consider these forms in or-\\nAbridgment\\nof Deductive der that we may understand the nature of de-\\nArguments. ductivc thinking-. It mav, however, be said\\nExamples.\\nthat such arguments are not always, or indeed\\ngenerally, stated at full length, but if they are legitimate\\narguments they may be so stated. Take the reply that\\nJesus made to his tempters when they demanded that he\\nshould show them a sign from heaven. He answered\\nand said unto them, When it is evening, ye say, It will be\\nfair weather, for the sky is red. And in the morning. It\\nwill be foul weather to-day, for the sky is red and lower-\\ning. This brief passage can be readily expanded into\\ntwo syllogisms by supplying the omitted major premises.\\nFirst syllogism\\n1. A red sky at evening betokens fair weather;\\n2. The sky is red this evening\\n3. Therefore to-morrow will be a fair day.\\nSecond syllogism\\n1. A red and lowering sky in the morning points to a foul day\\n2. It is red and lowering this morning\\n3. Therefore the day will be foul.\\nThe major premise thus supplied in either case depends\\nupon observation and inference. It is an induction. It\\nsums up the experience of men under the existing con-\\nditions. The minor premise in either case is the result of", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "2o8 THE AR T OF STUD V.\\nan immediate act of observation. It is an original prop-\\nosition. The conclusions are valid within the limits of\\nthe premises. Often, however, the minor premise is also\\nan induction.\\nIt is accordingly clear that induction is a method of\\ndiscovery a method by which new general truths are\\nestablished. That is, we take the facts that\\nInduction a\\nMethod of observation and experiment furnish, and induct-\\niscovery. j^^jy [^[qy from them general conclusions. In\\nthis way the laws of nature, and many other laws, are\\nestablished. Induction stores up the experience of men\\nin general propositions, rules, maxims, principles, or laws\\nwhere it can be made serviceable.\\nIt is quite as plain, on the other hand, that it is de-\\nduction which reduces these truths so stored up to\\npractice. For illustration, we may refer to the phy-\\nsician in the sick room, the sanitary engineer, the mer-\\nchant, the general in the field, the teacher in\\nMethod^ o^ schoolroom, the man of practice wherever\\nAppiica- you find him. The process by which the phy-\\nsician discovers a disease from which a patient\\nis suffering, or makes a diagnosis of it as the professional\\nsaying is, is simply this He has learned from his own ex-\\nperience and the experience of others that a certain group\\nof symptoms means consumption, a second group typhoid\\nfever, etc. he discovers by an examination of his patient\\nthat one of these groups of symptoms is present in whole\\nor part and so he infers that the trouble is the disease\\nthat produces this group of symptoms. The process\\nmay be thus exhibited\\n1. Such and such symptoms mean typhoid fever;\\n2. This patient has these symptoms\\n3. Therefore this patient has typhoid fever.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING.\\n209\\nAgain, as induction is a method of discovery, so deduc-\\ntion is a method of practical application, and the two to-\\ngether make up the one complete method of thought.\\nBut it is time to return to the child. As we have seen,\\nhis first knowledge is a knowledge of facts born of his\\nown experience. He observes objects, tries\\nThe Child 1\\nan Original various experiments upon them, forms per-\\nDiscoverer. cepts, brings apperception to reinforce percep-\\ntion, compares one thing with another, and finally reaches\\nsome very loose and indefinite generalizations. His per-\\nceptions as well as his generalizations are more or less\\nincorrect and false, but he corrects or rectifies them by\\nfurther observation, experiment, and inference. There\\nis no mistaking the road on which he travels. The young\\nchild groping about in his dark world- to find out the\\nmeaning of things proceeds inductively, just as does\\nthe trained man of science, the chemist, the astron-\\nomer, or the biologist, standing upon the confines of\\nknowledge and seeking to make new discoveries. What\\nthe child is doing is to store up experience, that is, facts\\nand ideas, by which he may interpret and understand\\nthe world. He is a learner who is doing original work.\\nThose who have charge of him turn his mind to this ob-\\nject or to that by placing it before him and thus teach\\nhim indirectly but to all intents and purposes he is a\\nsolitary worker, groping his way out into the world alone.\\nHe cannot take things at second-hand, or upon authority,\\nbut he must find them out for himself. Thus he makes\\nhis own knowledge without other assistance than is shown\\nin the selection of his environment.\\nBut deduction does not lag far behind. It is in fact\\nimplicitly involved in apperception. In this process the\\nideas that the child has formed are deductively applied\\nArt of Study. 14", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "210 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nin forming new ideas. That is, he perceives that a\\nnew object which is presented to him is more\\nHe learns J\\nthe Deduct- or less like the idea of an old object, and so he\\nive Method, ^i^ggif^eg ^-^e two together the snowflake with\\nthe butterfly, the serpent with the tail. He assumes that\\nthings which are alike belong to the same class.\\nWe have seen that the child s first tuition is wholly\\nnegative. He is taught by his tutors only through the se-\\nThe Method lection and combination of the objects that are\\nh^^d^K^^ iP*^^ way. We are dealing, of course,\\nedge. with the material world. Words to the young\\nchild are but sounds, not language they convey no\\nmeaning. But, progressively, language becomes significant\\nto him, which means that he now begins to enjoy\\ndirect tuition. He is still taught indirectly through his\\nenvironment as before but his tutors, as his mother and\\nother members of the family, greatly facilitate his knowl-\\nedge of things by explaining them to him as well as they\\nare able. Still more, in due time, he is told about things\\nthat he has never seen or heard of, and that lie wholly\\nbeyond his sphere of observation. He is told things that\\nhe has had no part in finding out, and various means are\\nemployed to cause him to understand them. Pictures\\nare shown him, or he is told that these unseen things\\nare like such and such things that he has seen. In a sense,\\nthis is second-hand knowledge to the child he takes it from\\nanother, and so on authority. It comes from a quarter that\\nhe has not explored and that he may be incapable of explor-\\ning. Moreover, what he is told will be helpful or harmful to\\nhim according as it fits into what he knows already. If it\\nis sufificiently like what he knows, he will learn something\\nuseful but, if not, the effort will be worse than thrown\\naway. It is only through the facts and ideas he already", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING. 2 1 1\\nhas that he can understand new facts and ideas, which\\nbrings us back to apperception. Thus a child who has\\nlearned directly what a dog is will get some idea of a wolf\\nwhen he is told that a wolf is an animal like a dog. This\\nis a critical time in the child s mental development\\nthe time when his tutors begin to fit into his narrow\\nexperience some of their broader experience.\\nNow what is the method of thought that the child fol-\\nlows in acquiring second-hand knowledge? Obviously\\nthe same that he employed in acquiring first-hand knowl-\\nedge. At first, words spoken within his hearing are but\\nsound or noise, signifying nothing. But in time the child\\nlearns to listen to what he hears, and seeks to find out\\nits meaning. He connects certain sounds with certain\\nvisual or audible objects; he correlates gestures and other\\nforms of expression with words he puts this and that\\ntogether, slowly, patiently, and with many a blunder,\\nuntil he begins to spell out the meaning of oral language.\\nThis is a part of the process by which\\nThe manikin feels his way\\nOut from the shore of the great unknown,\\nBUnd, and waihng, and alone,\\nInto the light of day.\\nThe end is discovery, the method is induction. Still\\ndeduction begins as soon as a fair beginning has been\\nmade. The first ideas are used apperceptively, and\\nthrough the door of apperception deduction enters. The\\nchild interprets what he hears, and interpretation, when\\nonce a beginning has been made, is mainly deductive.\\nConcepts, rules, principles, as fast as they are acquired,\\nare used to solve new problems. The completed process\\nof apperception in the realm of secondary knowledge\\nmay be analyzed as follows", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "212 THE ART OF STUDY.\\n1. Any animal that resembles a clog in such and such particulars\\nis a wolf\\n2. This description or picture presents these resemblances\\n3. Therefore it is a description or a picture of a wolf.\\nThe third proposition is inferred from the other two\\nthe second is the result of an immediate observation. The\\nconcept dog is part of the child s first-hand knowledge,\\nbut the fact that wolf is the name of the animal bearing\\nthe resemblance to the dog is taken at second-hand, or on\\nauthority, as indeed is the fact that there is such an\\nanimal as a wolf.\\nNo one can tell at what time this fitting of second-hand\\nknowledge to first-hand knowledge begins. It differs in\\ndifferent children, and all we can say is that it begins just\\nas soon as the mother or other tutor is able to impart to\\nthe child any bit of knowledge through language of any\\nkind. But in every case it antedates the child s ar-\\nrival in the schoolroom or even in the kindergarten. It\\nis, as said above, a critical time in the child s mental devel-\\nopment. In the larger sense, it is the beginning of his\\ntuition. Let us see more fully what it really involves.\\nSo far we have dealt mainly with the natural world.\\nBut there is a living social world as well, a world of men\\nThe Social women, and it is quite as important that\\nWorld. the child shall understand this social world as\\nthat he shall understand the natural one. The child, in\\nother words, is a social being, and he must become ad-\\njusted to the social world about him. The men and\\nwomen who constitute this world are all thinking, feeling,\\nand doing, and he can be efificient, helpful, and happy only\\nas he learns to cooperate with them. The meaning of\\nthis, in the field of labor, is that he shall help them while\\nthey help him, or serve them while they serve him and", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF LEARNING.\\n213\\nso with respect to education, morals, politics, and re-\\nligion. The individual is a part of the social whole, and\\nhis strength lies in his cooperation with that whole. It is\\nno exaggeration to say that, to a degree, he must cooperate\\nor perish he has no choice in the premises but the extent\\nto which he does his own work and becomes efficient in\\nthe world depends upon the completeness of such cooper-\\nation. If he cooperates but feebly, he is, comparatively\\nspeaking, weak, helpless, useless, and miserable.\\nNor is this all there is an historic human world as well as\\na living one. For thousands of years men have been accu-\\nThe His- mulating knowledge in the form of facts, ideas,\\ntoric World, laws of nature and of society, and rules of con-\\nduct. This accumulation is the store of human experi-\\nence that descends, increasinsf as it sfoes, from g-eneration\\nto generation. It represents the opportunities and striv-\\nings, the successes and failures, the thoughts and deeds\\nof men, so far as these have been preserved. It is the\\ngarnered wealth of civilization, which, educationally con-\\nsidered, is one of the three great sources of culture-\\nmaterial that are accessible to men, the other two being\\nthe natural world and the living world of human spciety.\\nThe historic world and this living world may be called\\nthe one world of humanity under two aspects. Now the\\nchild at birth is just as ignorant of the historic world as\\nhe is of the natural and social worlds. Moreover, it is\\nalmost as important that he shall become acquainted\\nwith history as that he shall become acquainted with\\nnature and society. This means that he shall early be in-\\ntroduced to the garnered store of human experience, and\\nshall come to know it as thoroughly as possible for, if\\nhe is to remain separated from it as he is at birth, which\\nis indeed to a great degree impossible, he must begin life", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "214\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nas though he were the first human being in the world,\\nhaving everything to learn for himself. To be in league\\nwith history, to join hands with the men and Avomen of\\nthe past, is to enter into a still larger cooperation with\\nthe human world than is possible by merely being in\\nleague with the society of to-day. And, moreover, it is\\na more difificult adjustment to make.\\nHow then shall suitable connections between the child\\nand the social and historic worlds be effected Here\\nare two questions, and we shall deal with them in the\\norder in which they occur.\\nThe social world presents to the child very different\\nmaterials or facts from those that Nature presents.\\nHow the The methods of acquirement, however, are the\\nchiidEn- sanie The child begins with observing^ the\\nters the\\nSocial simple, concrete human facts right about him\\nWorld. ^1^^ ^^^g mother, nurse, or of any other per-\\nsons who make up the little social world in which he lives\\nand from this small beginning he passes to the larger social\\nworld about him. Perception is followed by appercep-\\ntion, percepts by concepts, observation by comparison and\\njudgment, and these again by thought and generalization.\\nAs in the world of nature, so here, the child begins alone,\\na solitary investigator, since none can render him any as-\\nsistance save in the indirect and negative way of throwing\\nfacts before him. Soon, however, he learns to take social\\nfacts, like natural facts, at second-hand, or on authority.\\nThus, in the simple contacts of the nursery and the home\\nthe child s education in social adaptation, in politics and\\nin morals begins. The steps are precisely the same as\\nthey are in the natural world, and are taken in the same\\norder.\\nIn a word, the child learns the laws of the social world", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "ME THODS OF LEARNING. 2 1 5\\nin the same way that he learns the laws of the natural\\nObservation world. And SO it is with the rules, maxims,\\nand Indue- and proverbs that embody and perpetuate the\\npractical or prudential wisdom that the race\\naccumulates. In this way he comes to such generaliza-\\ntions as these The fool and his money are soon parted\\nHonesty is the best policy Despotism tends to cor-\\nrupt the people Freedom tends to national strength\\nand prosperity Experience is a dear school, but fools\\nwill learn in no other Barking dogs never bite. The\\nfamiliar saying of Francis Bacon, Reading maketh a\\nfull man, writing a correct man, and discourse a fluent\\nman, contains three such generalizations. These rules\\nand maxims may have many exceptions, but they flow\\nfrom observation and experience and serve a very useful\\npractical purpose. It is perfectly plain that the process\\nby which these generalizations are reached is induction,\\nusing that term in a sense broad enough to include the\\ncollecting of data.\\nBut, while the laws and rules relating to the existing\\nsocial world are reached and proved by induction, they\\nDeduction ^1 applied to particular cases, or reduced to\\nin Social practice, by means of deduction. A man learns\\nWorld. t\\nby experience to associate such and such quali-\\nties or acts with dishonesty; he observes that Mr. A. has\\nthese qualities, or performs these acts, and therefore in-\\nfers that he is dishonest. This is a pure syllogism. Every\\nadult person performs scores of such acts of reasoning as\\nthis every day of his life.\\nWhile it is more difficult for the child to effect a union\\nwith the historic world than with the living, social world,\\nthe method is the same. In one sense he cannot himself\\nobserve the facts of history, because these occur once and", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "2 1 6 THE ART OF STUD V.\\nare not repeated. The battle of Philippi was fought\\nHow the once for all; the Congress of Vienna sat\\nChild En- once for all, and neither can be reproduced.\\nters the\\nHistoric 1 here can be no expernnents in the history\\nWorld. class. It is this that makes historic facts\\nhistoric. But the child may observe, and does observe,\\nhis own acts and the acts of others, which differ in no es-\\nsential feature from historic facts, and which are con-\\nstantly passing into history. One of the great merits of\\nComenius, the educational reformer, was that he demon-\\nstrated how all the great departments of knowledge have\\ntheir beginnings in the experiences of infant life. The\\nbeginning of history, he said, will be to remember what\\nwas done yesterday, what recently, what a year ago, what\\ntwo or three years ago. Similarly, the child s first in-\\nstruction in chronology will be to know what is an hour,\\na day, a week, a month, a year what is spring, summer,\\netc. As respects the past, the child must take his facts\\nat second-hand, upon authority. He will find them at\\nfirst in the tales told by his seniors, but later in books and\\nother historical records. His own observation gives him\\na store of apperceiving material. He interprets the oral\\nreports that come to him of what has been by his own\\nexperience of what is, and he reads his book by the light\\nof such experience, and of the knowledge that he receives\\nby word of mouth. Thus, both oral tradition and written\\ndocuments become the child s teacher, spreading before\\nhim the lessons of the past.\\nThe processes of induction and deduction act upon\\nhistoric facts just as they do upon other facts. From\\nhistoric data the child learns to derive general proposi-\\nScAoo/ o/ Infancy, edited by W. S. Monroe. Boston, D. C. Heath\\nCo., 1896, p. 20,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "ME THODS OF LEARNING. 2 1\\ntions, and then to apply these propositions to new cases,\\njust as in dealing with the facts of direct personal ex-\\nperience. Induction and deduction, as before, make up\\nthe one complete method of thought.\\nWe have devoted some space to explaining how the\\nchild learns. His methods are precisely the methods that\\nUnity of he will use in after life. Still more, these\\nMethods. methods are essentially the same in respect to\\nall subjectSo It is important to emphasize these two\\nfacts, for many persons seem to associate induction and de-\\nduction with philosophers and men of science, never dream-\\ning that the child or the ordinary man is capable of per-\\nforming such daring mental feats. There are differences\\nin respect to the facts used, or in respect to the greater or\\nless perfect application of the method, but nothing more.\\nFor example, a writer commenting upon the wonderful\\nintuition of the Indian of the great fur land of the\\nNorth, which enables him to forego the advantage to\\nbe derived from a compass, and yet rarely to miss his\\nway, says The trees he knows were all bent to the\\nsouth, and the branches on that side were larger and\\nstronger than on the north, as was also the moss. It is\\nindeed by these signs, among others,that the ignorant sav-\\nage chooses his way, but there is no intuition about\\nit. By induction, based on repeated observations, he\\ncomes to the conclusions that the trees on the wind-swept\\nplain, as a class, lean to the south, etc., and these gen-\\neralizations, by pure process of deduction, enable him\\nto adjust himself to all the points of the compass.\\nParallel Reading. Psychology Applied to Eduaition,\\nGabriel Compayre. Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1894. Peda-\\ngogy, Theoretical and Practical, Gabriel Compayre. Boston,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "2 1 8 THE ART OF STUD V.\\nD. C. Heath Co., 1888. ApperceptioJi A Motiograph o?i Psy-\\nchology and Pedagogy, Dr. Karl Lange, edited by Charles De\\nGarmo. Boston, D. C. Heath Co., 1893. Herba7-t and the\\nHe7 bartia?is Charles DeGarmo. New York, Charles Scribner s\\nSons, 1895. Part H., Chap. VH. Apperception Talks\\nto Teachers on Psychology and to Students on So7?te of Lifers Ideals,\\nWilliam James. New York, Henry Holt Co., 1899. Chap.\\nXIV. Apperception The Psychologic Foundations of Edu-\\ncation, W. T. Harris. New York, D. Appleton Co., 1898.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX.\\nMETHODS OF TEACHING.\\nThe preceding chapter was devoted to an exposition\\nof the methods of learning as brief as seemed consistent\\nwith clearness. We are now to consider the bear-\\ning of this exposition upon the art of study and the art\\nof teaching. The answers to the questions implied are as\\ndirect and plain as they are important.\\nFirst, the art of study is but a mode of learning and\\nconforms to the same general method. It is true that we\\nstudy a ^^^y^ confined our definition of study to books,\\nMode of which lie in the field of secondary knowledge\\nearning. ^l^^ methods by which the contents of\\nbooks are appropriated by the mind have also been ex-\\nplained as not differing essentially from those employed\\nin the acquisition of the knowledge of things. Moreover,\\nwe have kept real knowledge and the use of the senses\\ncontinually in view, as giving support to the more refined\\nprocesses of the book.\\nSecondly, teaching must conform in general to the\\nsame methods as learning. The teacher, to be successful,\\nTeachingto ^^st take his method from the pupil. If the\\nspring from teacher s method of teaching is not the\\nearning, pj^^pjj g method of learning, the two will work\\nat cross-purposes, and little progress will be made. From\\nthis main fact some important rules of teaching follow.\\n219", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "220 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThe first of these rules is that induction and deduction\\nshould be judiciously combined in teaching, from first to\\nlast. In one sense the teacher has no option\\nInduction i i i\\nand Deduc- HI the premises, since induction and deduction\\ntion to be \\\\2,\\\\ss of the human mind that cannot be set\\nCombined.\\naside. Still, the teacher may fail in combina-\\ntion, using one method where the other should be em-\\nployed, or in emphasizing one at the expense of the other.\\nThe second rule is that the ratio of combination must\\nfluctuate as the studies, the pupil s stage of progress, and\\nThe Ratio the end that the teacher has in view fluctuate,\\ntifem^^ This rule, which involves much difficulty in its\\nFluctuates, application, demands, in consequence, a some-\\nwhat full elucidation.\\nIn the early stages of school instruction the method of\\nreal knowledge, observation, experiment, and induction\\nInduction should be made prominent. As yet the\\ncomes child has not accumulated either a large stock\\nof apperceiving material with which to inter-\\npret second-hand knowledge, or worked out a large num-\\nber of laws, rules, maxims, for use in practical life. He\\nis engaged in learning at first hand the two worlds\\nabout him, nature and society. But he is also receiving\\nknowledge at second-hand, which he assimilates by means\\nof his own observation and thought. Furthermore, he is\\nlearning the great art of the school, the art of reading,\\nand by means of this instrument, also, he augments his\\nstore of second-hand knowledge.\\nNow the teacher may strive to make his oral instruc-\\ntion mainly inductive, putting facts before general ideas.\\nDeduction the author of the text-book may have the\\nFollows. same aim in view, but it is not possible to make\\neither form of instruction as objective as lessons upon ob-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF TEACHING. 221\\njects or lessons drawn from nature may be made. The acts\\nby which the mind primarily interprets language, oral or\\nwritten, are essentially deductive, as was shown in the last\\nchapter. The same may be said of pictures and other\\nillustrations that appeal to the senses. It will, perhaps,\\nbe said that deduction also plays a part in the formation\\nof new ideas of natural objects, but this is not the case to\\nthe same extent as when language is the medium of in-\\nstruction. It is also to be observed that book instruction\\nis more deductive and formal than oral instruction.\\nIt is, therefore, clear that induction will be less promi-\\nnent, deduction more prominent, in education the greater\\nthe dependence that is placed upon books and\\nof Formal- formal study. An education that is drawn\\nT^ching- mainly from books almost of necessity becomes\\nbookish, abstract, and formal. To counteract\\nthis strong tendency recourse has been had to various\\nagencies.\\nThe most important of these agencies is real or ob-\\njective teaching. Comenius, in modern times, pointed\\nObjective out that the way to free education from the\\nTeaching, bondage of the book was to go back to nature.\\nHe demanded:\\nDo we not dwell in the Garden of Eden as well as our predeces-\\nsors Why should not we use our eyes, and ears, and noses as well\\nas they and why need we other teachers than these in learning to\\nknow the works of nature Why should we not, instead of these\\ndead books, open to the children the living book of Nature Why\\nnot open their understanding to the things themselves, so that from\\nthem, as from living springs, many streamlets may flow? i\\nThe stress that is now laid upon scientific teaching, and\\nparticularly laboratory methods, is a part of the great\\n1 The School of Infancy. Boston., D. C. Heath Co., 1896, pp. 36, 1,7.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "222 THE ART OF STUDY,\\neducational movement that Comenius had so much to\\ndo with inaugurating.\\nA second means of overcoming the formalism of book\\ninstruction is oral teaching. While it is true that the\\nOral process of interpretation is deductive, the oral\\nTeaching, method, notwithstanding its own defects, tends\\nstrongly to relieve the book of its formalism and to keep\\nteaching from degenerating into mere word cramming.\\nBut nobody has ever proposed to throw aside books\\nas instruments of teaching and discipline. Such a proposi-\\ninductive would iuvolvc Cutting the child off, in great\\nText-books, degree, from the past. It would involve the\\nrenunciation of the major part of civilization, and would\\nbe a long step towards barbarism. The book must be re-\\ntained to this all agree. Educators really differ on only\\ntwo points the extent to which the book shall be used,\\nand the manner in which it shall be used. Attempts to\\nanswer this second question, have led to a third device\\nfor overcoming the defects of book teaching, viz. induct-\\nive text-books, or text-books written according to the\\ninductive method. The characteristic feature of these\\nbooks is not that deduction is thrown wholly aside, in-\\nduction being made all in all, but it consists rather in the or-\\nder in which the two methods are used, and the relative\\nstress laid upon each.\\nLess than fifty years ago text-books on arithmetic\\nwere prepared on the deductive plan. The author began\\nwith definitions, proceeded to rules, and closed\\nArithmetics examples and problems. Few illustra-\\nandGram- tious of the rulcs wcre given, and there was\\nmars. \\\\\\\\i\\\\\\\\Q explanation of methods. Arithmetic was\\nthus made as abstract and formal as it could be, con-\\ncrete elements being found only in the examples and", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF TEACHING, 223\\nproblems. The pupil ordinarily passed by the definitions\\nand took up the rules. By dint of effort and such as-\\nsistance as he received from the teacher or at home, he\\nlearned to do the sums, as the phrase was, which\\nfell under the rules. Study was almost wholly me-\\nchanical. When a group of miscellaneous examples was\\nreached, the pupil did not so much seek to handle them\\naccording to their nature as he strove to find rules that\\nwould fit them. If the proper answers were obtained,\\nthe assumption was that the work was correct. Of course,\\nthere were exceptions to this plan of procedure.\\nThe same description will apply to the books on gram-\\nmar. The order of study was definitions, rules, and prac-\\ntice in parsing and analysis. But parsing and analysis are\\npurely deductive processes. For example\\n1. All names are nouns;\\n2. John is a name\\n3. Therefore John is a noun.\\nThis method was pursued until the last property\\nof the word had been disposed of and the final rule\\nof syntax been applied. If possible, the grammar\\nwas even more formal than the arithmetic. The geog-\\nraphy and history, when there was any history, were less\\nabstract, because they are not thought-studies but fact-\\nstudies. Still, they were taught wholly from books, as was\\nalso the little science that found its way into the schools.\\nIt is easy to see how men came to write such books as\\nthese, and to teach in such a fashion. For one thing, the\\nCauses most Convenient method of discourse or teach-\\nThat Pro- 1 -r i\\nduceSuch Hig IS not the method of discovery. The dis-\\nText-Books. coverer goes on accumulating details until he\\nfeels justified in summing them up in a general state-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "224 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nment or proposition. He now wishes to impart to\\nothers what he has learned, and, instead of repeating the\\nsteps that he has taken, as a discoverer, slowly adding fact\\nto fact, he begins with stating the general proposition that\\ncontains all that he has found out, and then, if he thinks\\nit necessary, he gives one or two facts to illustrate his\\nmeaning. By this process generalizations are put before\\nfacts or instances.\\nThis is precisely what the authors of the old arith-\\nmetics and grammars did, only they often failed to add\\nexplanatory examples, or to add them in sufficient num-\\nber. It was the same way with teaching. The result\\nwas the formalism and barrenness that marked such\\nschools as those described by Horace Mann and Francis\\nWayland on previous pages.\\nThe new inductive books and inductive teaching under-\\ntake to bring the method of instruction back to the\\nInductive method of discovery. The author of one of\\nArithmetics the ucw arithmetics begins with an operation,\\nmars. or what teachers sometimes call work. He\\nrepeats the operation a second, and a third\\ntime he gives similar examples that the pupil may repeat\\nit for himself; and then, when the process has been well\\nmastered, he sums up the whole in a rule or method, and\\ngives some additional examples for the pupil to work out\\nin order that the process may be well fixed in his mind.\\nAn arithmetical rule, it may be observed, is simply a his-\\ntory or account of what is done in performing a typical\\nexample falling under the rule. Such is also the method\\nof the new grammar. Instead of beginning with defini-\\ntions of parts of speech, properties, etc., and advancing to\\nrules of etymology and syntax, the writer of the book\\nbegins rather with language itself, and from his investiga-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF TEACHING. 225\\ntion of sentences and words works out the rules and defini-\\ntions. As before, the abstract elements follow the concrete.\\nIt may seem difficult to exaggerate the importance of\\nthe new step in education which is involved in the read-\\niustment of induction and deduction, and in\\nBxaggera- J\\ntion of the larger employment of oral teaching. It\\nInduction. really the first step in the path of the new\\neducation. Still, the importance of this step Jias been\\nexaggerated. Authors and teachers have sometimes lost\\nsight of the fact that deduction is an essential part of the\\none method of thought that in teaching it is not always\\nthe best way to repeat all the steps taken in the discovery\\nof knowledge, since doing so involves a great waste of time\\nand labor and that inductive teaching itself may also be\\nmade formal. As respects the waste of time and labor, it\\nis the same thing as waste of opportunity and of knowl-\\nedge.\\nWe have seen that it is by means of deduction that the\\nindividual who is prepared for such a step enters into the\\nResults of great inheritance that his predecessors have\\nOld and prepared for him, or, in other words, joins\\nNew\\nMethods. hands with the historic world. It is necessary,\\nof course, that he shall gather sufficient apperceiving\\nmaterial by his own personal efforts to enable him to effect\\na union with the past. But, beyond this, he need not go\\nfor the purposes of the practical life. To insist upon be-\\nginning at the beginning in everything to cause the child\\nto trudge along the long inductive road to be satisfied\\nwith nothing short of his learning everything by his own\\nindividual effort, means that the child must be cut off from\\nthe past altogether and live wholly in the present. More\\nthan this, insistence upon such a course would cut the\\nchild off from his own contemporaries as well as his pred-\\nArt 0/ study.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1$.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "226 THE ART OF STUDY.\\necessors and leave him alone, to perish in the world.\\nFortunately, the thing is practically impossible. But at\\nthe same time it is not difficult to go to such a length on\\nthis road that serious loss of time and effort will be incurred\\nwith the necessary consequence of loss of knowledge.\\nHence, it is the part of wisdom to make use of the\\nshort-cuts rather than to keep to the inductive road.\\nIt may be added that knitting together the new and the\\nold, adjusting the individual to the world, is essential\\nto the very conception of history. To effect such an\\nadjustment is one of the prime objects of education. Its\\nattainment lies partly within and partly without the school.\\nThe methods by which this adjustment must be effected\\nhave no doubt been explained at sufficient length. We\\nmay dismiss the topic with a few sentences quoted from a\\nwriter who has investigated it with much ability\\nPedagogy might be defined as the art of adapting new genera-\\ntions to those conditions of life which are the most intensive and\\nfruitful for the individual and the species. From this\\non Short- point of view, the educational function may be described,\\nCuts. though possibly not defined, as a purposeful social effort to\\neffect short-cuts in the mental development of the individual as well\\nas to hasten the whole process so that he inay, in the briefest time, and\\nin a thoroughly natural way, attain the standpoint of the race\\nThe short-cut theory in its extreme form relies upon deduction. It\\nwould save the time consumed in reaching generalizations. These,\\nformulated by the race, should be transferred at once to the individual\\nin order that society may advance in knowledge. In the earlier\\nperiod chief emphasis may belaid on induction, but with the growth\\nof self-activity and consciousness, deductive short-cuts may be eco-\\nnomically introduced.\\nBesides its value for practical direction, what has now\\n1 The Social Mind and Education. G. E. Vincent. New York, The Mac-\\nmillan Co., 1897.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF TEACHING. 22/\\nbeen said is an answer to the demand that the individual,\\nin his education, shall throughout repeat the history of\\nindi race, and learn everything by experience,\\nviduai and For a time, the child must absolutely conform to\\nthe Race. order, but after a time he should not, and\\nin fact cannot, save in a limited degree. In other words,\\nhe learns to take the deductive short-cuts in education\\nfurthermore, to refuse them entails infinite waste and is a\\nvirtual denial that man is a social being. In the words\\nof Professor L. F. Ward\\nNothing is calculated more forcibly to impress upon us the\\nconviction that the mass of mankind must get their knowledge through\\ninstruction and not through experience, nor yet through personal ob-\\nservation and research, than to note how such great minds as those of\\nCopernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Bacon, and Newton groped about in\\ndarkness and doubt respecting the questions of planetary revolution,\\ntides, gravitation, light, etc., with which every schoolboy is now\\nfamiliar. i\\nIt is therefore evident that the teacher, for the sake of\\nboth knowledge and discipline, should employ induction\\nand deduction from the beginning of the child s\\nBoth Indue-\\nlion and De- tram mg, but not in a constant ratio. Ine\\nauction to be ^l^jl J should be left to find out some things for\\nEmployed.\\nhimself, but other things he should be told.\\nHe should find out some things for himself, because there\\nis no other way for him to find them out, and because this\\nis the way leading to the teachings of human experience.\\nHe should be taught other things, because he would not\\nbe able to find them out, or could find them out only by a\\nwasteful expenditure of time and effort. But what things\\nshall he find out; what things shall he be told? No\\n1 Quoted in Vincent s The Social Mind and Education. New York, The\\nMacmillan Co., 1897, p. 102, Note.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "228 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nformal answer can be made to these questions each case\\nmust be decided on its own merits. However, two serious\\nmistakes have been made in attempting an answer.\\nOne of these is the mistake made by the old authors\\nand teachers in making teaching too formal, too bookish,\\ntoo deductive. The other mistake is of a di-\\n^nducHon Tcctly Opposite character. The child is kept\\nfinding out things that he already knows, or\\nthings that he had better be told. There is too much ob-\\nservation and induction. We have been told that a child\\nshould never be told anything that he can find out for\\nhimself. Even Pestalozzi said we should read nothing,\\ndiscover everything. No man has ever brought up a\\nchild in accordance wdth these precepts no man will ever\\ndo so, because it is impossible. These precepts are gross\\nexaggerations of the important truths that the child\\nshould not be told, and should not read, too many things,\\nbut should be led to exercise his own powers of observa-\\ntion and thought. I do not need to measure the Michigan\\nCentral Railroad from Ann Arbor to Chicago to find the\\ndistance betw^een these points, because others have already\\nmeasured it much better than I can do, while the greater\\nsense of reality that I should have in doing it myself\\nwould be no compensation for the time and money that it\\nwould cost me. But I do need to measure enough distances\\nto learn the process called measuring, and the value of\\ndifferent measures or standards. Such knowledge as this\\ncan come only by personal experience. Moreover, such\\nexperience saves the pupil from that facile use of words\\nwithout ideas which has been called the clatter of ma-\\nchinery in a factory in which raw materials are scanty and\\npoor. It is only too easy to tell children too much, but it\\nis not mending matters to refuse to tell them anything", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF TEACHING. 229\\nthat they can find out for themselves. Investigation is a\\ngreat instrument of teaching, but it may be, and sometimes\\nis, overdone. Teachers of physics in high schools, for\\nexample, are already recoiling from the extreme to which\\nteaching by experiment was at one time carried, and\\nare placing more stress upon the formal elements of\\na good text-book. They find that the experimental\\nmethod tends to overvalue raw facts, and to under-\\nvalue those principles and laws which constitute the\\nframework of the science. Sir J. G. Fitch tells the story\\nof an English teacher who, to show the interest of his\\nscholars in science, spoke of their fondness for the chem-\\nistry of the explosive substances. But interest in the\\nexplosive substances does not necessarily show an interest\\nin chemistry. Back of phenomena, such as explosions, lie\\nthe ideas that give the science its character, and science\\ncan never be fully understood until these ideas have been\\nconsidered under both their inductive and deductive rela-\\ntions. One merit of the Herbartian analysis of the\\nteaching process is the fact that application, the last\\nof the formal steps, is wholly deductive.\\nPerhaps some readers of this chapter who are teachers\\nwill ask for more definite directions as to the manner in\\nwhich they shall take the short-cuts in their instruc-\\ntion. The demand is a fair one and easily met.\\nIt is not necessary always to follow the rule Put\\nthe facts before the principle, the operation before the\\nFacts Be- method. The time comes in the pupil s pro-\\nfore Pritici- gress w^ien that order may be, and should be,\\npies not 1.11 r\\na Universal reversed, With such recurrence to the tormer\\nRule. order as may be necessary to keep knowl-\\nedge fully alive. In this way the pupil s time and\\nstrength be saved. However, this change should", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "230 ^^T OF STUDY.\\nnot be made until the pupil has acquired as much\\nknowledge and mental capacity as will enable him to\\ngrasp a general statement and, at least with proper illus-\\ntrations, to understand and even to apply it. In general,\\nit is best to follow the inductive plan in teaching arith-\\nmetic and grammar in common schools. Geometry, too,\\nmay be approached on the concrete or inventional side\\nbut geometry, like algebra, is properly a deductive science,\\nand must be taught as such or much of its educational\\nvalue will be sacrificed. Again, the best teachers of\\nphysics do not now lead their pupils to extract the general\\nideas that constitute the science from the experiments\\nof the laboratory. They give them, progressively, these\\nideas in book or lecture, and then send them to the\\nlaboratory to test and establish them. They very prop-\\nerly assume that the pupils know enough of the physical\\nqualities of things to enable them to make a beginning.\\nAt this stage of progress the teacher is careful to keep\\nthe doctrine fully abreast, and sometimes even a little\\nahead, of the experiments but at an earlier time this\\nwould be bad teaching. It is folly, as one author has\\nsaid, to set the learner to rediscovering the laws of\\nphysics. He adds\\nBefore the pupil is in any degree fit to investigate a subject ex-\\nperimentally, he must have a clearly defined idea of what he is doing,\\nan outfit of principles and data to guide him, and a good degree of\\nskill in conducting an investigation.\\nClosely connected with this topic is another one the\\nrelation of the word and the idea. In the earliest stage\\nof learning the order is, first the object, then the idea,\\nthen the word. This is a strictly necessary order the\\nchild can proceed in no other way. But in course of", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "METHODS OF TEACHING. 23 1\\ntime the order of the series may be reversed ideas may\\nbe given before objects, words may even come before\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2First the ideas. Now some enthusiastic souls have\\nIdea, then gone SO far on the objective road as to tell\\nnot a uni- early order should always be fol-\\nversai Rule, lowed, that the word should never come before\\nthe idea, the language never before the thought. This\\ndictum is an exaggeration of a very valuable idea, and is\\nas impossible of application as is the dictum never to tell\\nthe child anything that he can find out for himself. At\\none stage of progress this rule is to be closely followed, and\\nat no stage of progress is it to be forgotten but there\\nare times- when the inverse order of the terms of the\\nseries facts, ideas, words should be followed. For one,\\nI am sure that I knew the word boomerang- be-\\nfore I knew the idea, and I am not sure that I have\\nseen the thing even yet. What is more, I have never\\nsuffered any loss because I acquired first the word and\\nthen the idea, although under some circumstances I might\\nhave done so.\\nParallel Reading. The Elements of Genej-al Method\\nbased o?i the Frinciples of Herbart, C. A. McMurray, Blooming-\\nton, Illinois, Public School Publishing Co., 1897. The\\nHerbartia7i Psychology Applied to Education, John Adams.\\nBoston, D. C. Heath Co., 1897. Teaching and Teachers, H.\\nClay Trumbull. Philadelphia, John D. Wattles, 1884.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXI.\\nFORMAL TEACHING OF THE ART OF STUDY.\\nIt was pointed out in an early chapter of this work\\nthat the phrase art of study, like the term art, stands\\nTwo stages things. First, it means skill or acquired\\nin the Art of aptitude in study. Secondly, it means this\\nstudy. ^j^.^^ acquired aptitude itself as a subject of\\nstudy. In the first case, w^e have an activity that con-\\nstitutes art in the primitive, original sense of the term in\\nthe second case, we have the rules or the methods to which\\nsuch activity conforms. The first may be called practical\\nart, the second formal or reflective art. The art of study\\nin the one sense is exemplified by pupils in school rooms\\nin the other sense it is treated in books and lectures as\\na subject of instruction or discourse. It is clear, there-\\nfore, that this art, like every other art, presents to our\\nminds two stages the stage of practice and the stage\\nof study, which may, indeed, overlap.\\nSo far we have been dealing with the first of these two\\nstages. It is true enough that some rules have been laid\\ndown and that much has been said about\\nstage so far method but this has been done solely for the\\nConsidered. jiifonTiation and guidance of the teacher, not for\\nthe immediate use of the pupil. This instruction will\\nbe useful to the pupil in the second stage of progress,\\n232", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY. 233\\nthat is, when he begins to study his art. Such matter\\nwill not, however, help, but rather hinder, him in the\\nfirst stage of progress. It cannot be too strongly asserted\\nthat the pupil must learn to study by actually studying,\\njust as he must learn any other art by actually practicing\\nit. It is the teacher s business to see that he does study.\\nWhat is more, the teacher must see that the pupil studies\\nin the right way, that is, according to right rules or sound\\nmethod. What right method is has been told in great\\npart on previous pages; but the teacher is not, at this\\nstage, to attempt to teach the pupil method as method.\\nIt will be seen that so far the pupil s method is implied\\nin his work. He is, in fact, wholly unconscious that he\\nhas any method at all. He does what he is\\nThe Pupil\\nuncon- set to do, and does it as he is directed, but he\\nsciousofhis j^^s little sense, if any, of the reasons why he\\nMethod.\\ndoes it or does it in the manner directed. The\\nteacher, it is assumed, conforms to the laws of the pupil s\\nmind in all that he does. In what has now been said\\nthere is nothing peculiar to the art of study it is the same\\nwith all the other arts of life. John Locke may be quoted\\nas follows\\nBut pray remember, children are not to be taught by rules which\\nwill be always slipping out of their memories. What you think nec-\\nessary for them to do, settle in them by an indispensable practice as\\noften as the occasion returns and, if it be possible, make occasions.\\nThis will beget habits in them which, being once established, operate\\nof themselves easily and naturally, without the assistance of the\\nmemory. 1\\nIt would be even worse if the rules did not slip out of\\nthe child s memory, for if retained they would only serve\\nto distract him. So much at least is clear. But, more\\n1 Some Thoughts Concerning Education, New York, The Macmillan\\nCompany, 66.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "234 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthan this, practice on the part of the pupil must continue\\nto the very end of his course. Study of the art can never\\ntake the place of the study of any subject as a means\\nof mastering the art.\\nIn the beginning, as we have seen, the wise teacher\\nsimply directs, or, what is better, leads, the pupil to do\\nThe Teacher ^vork in a prescribed manner. He assigns\\nthe Pupil s no reasons, makes no explanations, says noth-\\ning about rule and method. To do more\\nthan this would be folly. To talk to immature pupils\\nabout discipline, culture, mental habits, and good meth-\\nods either falls flat or makes them self-conscious and\\npriggish. The only thing for the teacher to do is to see\\nthat they do their work well, leaving these other consid-\\nerations to a later time. If the teacher does this, the\\npupil will be working into the very constitution of his\\nmind the art of study as practical ability or power.\\nAgain, the art of study involves a general and a partic-\\nular element, corresponding to the general and the special\\nmethodology of teaching. The first element consists of\\nrules and precepts that are of general application the\\nsecond constitutes the rules and precepts that relate to\\nparticular subjects. Then there is a practical skill in-\\nvolved in handling a subject that can be acquired only\\nby handling that particular subject. Save in a general\\nsense, the student does not learn how to handle the\\nfacts of history by handling the facts of science. A stu-\\ndent may know how to study mathematics and not know\\nhow to study history or he may succeed with grammar\\nand not with literature. Every subject has its own tech-\\nnique. Some remarks on the relative difficulties of mathe-\\nmatical and scientific method and historical and literary\\nmethod have been made in another place.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY. 235\\nBut the time comes when it is necessary or advanta-\\ngeous for the pupil to enter upon the second stage of his\\nFormal formal or reflective stage.\\nstage. Hitherto the teacher has silently guided his\\nwork according to rule and method. Now he takes the\\npupil into his confidence, explaining to him in some\\nmeasure the processes that he has been mastering by\\npractice, and the rules that govern them. As a result,\\nthe pupil begins to consider his studies in relation to\\nhis own mind, and so to become somewhat self-conscious.\\nTo be more explicit, the teacher has hitherto seen to\\nit that the pupil does not become absorbed in his environ-\\nment, that he is protected against distract-\\nHow Rules i\\nof Study ing influences, and that he applies himself as\\nOriginate, ^j^g^j^ ^3 possible to his lessons. The teacher\\nnow causes him to understand that the things he has been\\ndoing are conditions of successful study, and so are es-\\nsential to learning. They are now brought before him as\\nrules to be observed. To take another example, the\\nteacher has been in the habit of leading the pupil to def-\\ninitions and rules by the way of examples, or he has em-\\nployed the method of induction but now he causes the\\npupil to understand the nature of what he has been doing,\\nand the difference between induction and deduction, which\\nreverses the process. He presents the rule that in at-\\ntacking a new subject it is better to begin with facts than\\nwith definitions and rules. It is not indeed desirable for\\nthe teacher to use technical language, to talk about study\\nas a practical art and as a reflective art but he should\\nnot miss treating the things for which these names stand.\\nThe pupil will in some measure anticipate the teacher.\\nHe will of himself attend to the simpler things of method.\\nHe will, that is to say, see that there are rules back of the", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "236 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthings that he does and that these rules have practical\\n\u00c2\u00abx^ -r. -1 vahie. He discovers, for example, that he does\\nThe Pupil\\nAnticipates not get on witli liis studies when he is over-\\ntheTeac ij-j^-ei-ggi-^,^ in external objects, when he is dis-\\nturbed by a noisy or idle companion, or when he al-\\nlows his mind to go wool-gathering. These discoveries,\\nas he becomes reflective, more or less influence his mind\\nand affect his work. They fortify the indispensable prac-\\ntice in which the teacher strives to establish him. He\\nbecomes intelligent and rational in his practice, and takes\\nmore pleasure in it. Intellectually, he is coming to be a\\nlaw unto himself. Nor is this all the pupil may even\\ntake an interest in the rules that relate to his work, be-\\ncause he sees that they embody ideas. He discovers\\norder and system, or rational method, in what the teacher\\nrequires him to do, and is pleased and encouraged in con-\\nsequence. In fact, the quick-witted pupil, well trained\\nin his studies, will make some progress in generalizing\\nhis own experience without the formal assistance of his\\nteacher. In other words, his art of study will pass un-\\nconsciously into the second stage. At the same time, it\\nis the business of the teacher, as already pointed out, to\\nfacilitate this passage.\\nIt will be asked, as a matter of course, at what age or\\nstage of progress in his studies the pupil should enter upon\\nThe Pas- formal study of his art. The question does\\nsage from not admit of a positive answer. Mental growth\\nFirst to\\nSecond IS not sharply divided into periods the very con-\\nstage, ception of growth excludes any such thing.\\nThe pupil does not become a reflective student at a def-\\ninite time, as a man may enter the army, or take up the\\nwork of teaching at a definite time. But some approxi-\\nmation to an answer can be made.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY. 237\\nDuring the first stage of progress in the art of study,\\nand at a comparatively early time, too, the teacher will\\nFirst drop a hint here, and throw out a suggestion\\nFormal In- there, that the pupil will find practically helpful.\\nThese practical hints and suggestions consti-\\ntute the formal art of study in its simplest elements.\\nNaturally, they will become more numerous and com-\\nprehensive as time goes on. By the time that the pupil\\nreaches the high school, or even before, he should have\\nacquired many of the elementary ideas that enter into\\nthe method of study, and have learned to act upon them.\\nThis is especially true of the more mechanical and prac-\\ntical of these ideas. Study as a reflective art, the stu-\\ndent cannot be expected to master until he becomes\\nfamiliar with the main facts and principles of psychology\\nand logic but he may be, and should be, an excellent stu-\\ndent before that time, practically well instructed in his\\nart. Method has culture value as well as guidance value\\nbut there is no good reason for teaching it in the schools\\nsave as it improves practice in the corresponding art. It\\nwould, indeed, be idle or something worse to attempt to\\nteach pupils who have not studied psychology and logic\\nChapters XIX. and XX. of this work. The teacher must\\nnever forget that formal teaching of the methods of\\nstudy is not the same thing as making the pupil proficient\\nin the art of study.\\nWe now reach the question. What is the subject-matter\\nof the art of study that the pupil is to learn and the\\nSubject- teacher to teach At this stage of our work\\nMatter of ^he auswcr should not be difficult. This sub-\\nThe Formal 1 1\\nArt. ject-matter, to a great extent, is the subject-\\nmatter of this book it is methods of study and learn-\\ning, treated as a study or subject.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "238 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nThis book has been written with the teacher immedi-\\nately in mind. It describes the way in which teachers\\nThis Book should teach pupils in order to make them\\nWritten proficient in the art of study. But the art\\nWith the\\nTeacher of teaching and the art of study are related in\\nin Mmd. same way that teaching and learning are.\\nThe teacher takes his methods from the pupil s mind.\\nIt follows, therefore, that much of the knowledge of\\nmethod, which is useful to the teacher in teaching, should\\nalso be useful to the learner in learning, just as soon as\\nhe is able to understand and apply it. A manual for the\\nteacher should also be, in a certain sense, a manual\\nfor the pupil who is able to use it. The matter in the\\npresent work that might be of use to pupils has not been\\nput in the form best suited to their capacity, since\\nthis book has been prepared primarily for the use of\\nteachers. Teachers, however, should know how to select\\nwhat they can use or adapt for the pupil s benefit.\\nThe teacher and the pupil have much more in com-\\nmon than has yet appeared. The teacher who is not\\nWhat the also a studcnt has no business in the school\\nTeacher room. It is a commonplacc that the teacher\\nand Pupil t 1 1 1 1\\nHave in sliould Constantly seek to enlarge his own\\nCommon. knowledge. This work should therefore have\\na double value for those for whom it is expressly written,\\na value for them as teachers, and another, as stu-\\ndents. Since many teachers have a feeble grasp of\\nstudy as a reflective art, and are indifferent students,\\nas was stated in a former chapter, they should lay to\\nheart these lessons for their own sake, as well as for the\\nsake of their pupils. Furthermore, some paragraphs may\\nbe added that teacher-students should find especially\\ninteresting and helpful.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY\\n239\\nThe relative lack on the part of adults of volitional\\ncontrol of their attention, or their minds, is a fact very\\nIntermit- familiar to competent observers. There are\\ntent Minds, intermittent minds, as there are intermittent\\nfevers and intermittent springs. Many persons have never\\ngained, in any proper measure, the power of self-regulation.\\nThey are, for the most part, controlled from without\\nthrough their interests and feelings. Many others have\\ngained this power in a degree, that is, in relation to cer-\\ntain kinds of activity. Voluntary activity, through repeti-\\ntion, has hardened down into routine and habit. These\\npersons now run easily and swiftly, but automatically, in\\ntheir ruts, while outside of their ruts they can hardly run\\nat all. It cannot be said that they have any real self-\\nmastery of their minds. There are still other persons\\nwho, at some time, have attained to good general discipline,\\nbut who, through failing to keep up their training, as an\\nathlete would say, have lost it. Educated men answering\\nto the last two descriptions are by no means unfrequent.\\nSome of them, particularly those of the third class, are\\npersons of much cultivation. Outside of their wonted\\nrounds, however, they cannot set themselves to work, or,\\nif they do, cannot work with efficiency. Such persons are\\nalmost as weak in the power of self-direction as children.\\nThey are good examples of arrested development they\\nhave never won, or having won, have never held the\\nheights of self-discipline. It may be said of persons of\\nthis description that they have permitted their minds to\\nescape from them.\\nAdults who have little volitional control over their\\nminds, either because they have never acquired it, or be-\\ncause they have lost it, may find it necessary to take severe\\nmeasures with themselves. Here is a man, for example,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "240\\nTHE ART OF STUDY,\\nwho, owing to his feeble power of attention, will never\\ndo a piece of work that he is perfectly capable of doing,\\nMethods of unless there is some cogent motive behind him.\\nVolitional What should he do? Obviously, he should\\nControl. -rr\\nstudy to put some such motive behind him. It\\nhe has, say, too much pride to fail if he once begins,\\nthen let him begfin. Or, if he is too conscientious to\\nbreak his promise, then let him promise. In these cases\\nenough will is assumed to make the beginning that\\nmade, pride or moral sense reenforces and steadies the\\nwill until the work is done. It is not uncommon for per-\\nsons of a light, trifling habit and aimless life to become\\ncentered on some line of activity, and so become useful\\nto society, simply by assuming some responsibility,\\nperhaps the care of a flower garden, the protection\\nand education of a waif picked up on the street, or the\\npromotion of a charity. It is a commonplace that mother-\\nhood often changes the whole current of a woman s\\nlife, if it does not make over her character. There are\\nnumerous ways in which men who are doing little or\\nnothing can place themselves in front of moral goads that\\nwill keep them up to a certain standard of efficiency or,\\nto change the figure, numerous ways in which they can\\nput themselves under bonds to do something and be some-\\nbody. If they can work under pressure, and not other-\\nwise, then they should create the pressure. The follow-\\ning is an amusing example\\nThere is an anecdote related of himself by Alfieri, in his very inter-\\nesting autobiography, describing the way in which he compelled him-\\nAnecdote of self to keep at his work. Being very fond of horses and\\nAlfieri. of riding, he often left his desk and writing to take an ex-\\ncursion. No matter what resolution he made, the temptation of a\\nfine day was too strong to be resisted. So he directed his servant", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY.\\n241\\nto tie him in his chair, and to fasten him by knots he could not\\nhimself loosen, and then go out of sight and hearing for a certain\\nnumber of hours. Thus Alfieri was obliged to keep at his desk. He\\nadds that to avoid the ridicule of his being found by chance visitors\\nthus fastened, the servant covered him with a cloak before departing.\\nThus the higher nature conquered the lower. 1\\nThere drifts to me, as I write, a strange but not im-\\nprobable story that teaches a similar lesson. It is the\\nThe Man story of a man who called on the warden of the\\nwho Asked Ohio Penitentiary at Columbus, and asked that\\nto Oie Peni- locked up for six months and be treated\\ntentiary. like a common criminal. As he gave his name\\nand place of residence, was well dressed, and seemed to\\nhave plenty of money, had not been drinking, and did\\nnot appear to be insane, the warden was astonished and\\ndemanded an explanation of his strange conduct. I\\nhave had a good time all my life, said he, and have\\nnever tried to do anything for myself except enjoy my-\\nself. Now I have come to such a pass that I cannot\\nsettle down to work or steady employment of any kind.\\nI am a nuisance to myself and to my friends. I thought\\nthis matter all over and made up my mind to apply to\\nyou. If you will take me in and keep me for the space\\nof six months, Iwill sign any papers you say. I want to\\nbe treated just like a criminal and will work, eat, and\\nsleep with the common herd. I believe that in this way\\nI can get the discipline of which I am so sorely in need.\\nThe warden refused his request, as a matter of course, say-\\ning as he did so, that the State had made no provision for\\nmen like him. Whereupon the man turned away with\\n1 Self-Culture Physical, Intellectual, Moral and Spiritual, James Free-\\nman Clarke. New York, Houghton, MifHin Co., p. 374.\\nArt of Study. 16", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "242 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nthe declaration that he would come to the prison before\\nlong under conditions that would make it impossible for\\nthe officer to deny him the discipline that he needed.\\nThe story may not be a genuine one, or the stranger may\\nhave been practicing upon the officer but there is no\\nquestion that a discipline such as they might receive in a\\nwell-managed penitentiary would be very useful to num-\\nbers of persons who are not criminals. Possibly we need\\ninstitutions for the confinement and discipline of such\\nmen as have no real self-control or power of self-regulation.\\nThe regimen by which mental discipline is maintained is\\nvery like the regimen by which it is first acquired. This\\nis a ref^imen of application, of attention, of\\nThe Mam- t\\ntenance of regulated activity. Some persons make the\\nDiscipline, i^istake of supposing that, mental discipline\\nonce gained, they can safely lapse into routine,\\ninertia, or carelessness. This is by no means so if they\\nwish to keep up their training. The mistake explains, in\\nmany cases, the deterioration in discipline and culture that\\nmarks the passage of the student from college or university\\nto real life. The pressure of the school removed, he falls\\ninto laxity and feebleness. One or two habits of mind\\nmay properly be mentioned that, when carried too far,\\nsubvert the basis of mental discipline, destroy attention,\\nand leave the mind the sport of environment.\\nOne is the habit of cultivating directly or indirectly a\\ngreat number of miscellaneous interests and activities\\nEffects of governed by no real controlling purpose. A\\nMisceiiane- little of this, a little of that, and a little of\\nest^s an*d*^ Other may constitute a very palatable men-\\nActivities, tal diet, but it will not keep up a high degree\\nof mental vigor or tone. The daily newspaper fills an\\nimportant place in current life but it will not nourish", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY.\\n243\\nand sustain a disciplined mind. Much the same may be\\nsaid of the magazine or other Uterary journal. Such litera-\\nture has its value some acquaintance with it seems indis-\\npensable to the most cultivated persons but something\\nmore and something very different is necessary if mental\\ndiscipline is to be maintained. In the very abundance\\nof such material, and the ease with which it can be used,\\nlurks one of the intellectual dangers of the time. Much\\nthe same may be said of the reading of miscellaneous\\nbooks without any settled plan or purpose. It leads to\\nvagrant mental habits, to intellectual Bohemianism.\\nThere is probably no kind of literature that is more harm-\\nful to the intellect, if read indiscriminately, than sensa-\\ntional novels. They excite the emotions, keep the mind\\nfeverish and disturbed, and destroy the intellectual fiber.\\nThe main point is that the easy-going, desultory\\npursuit of miscellaneous interests will neither develop\\npower of attention, or mental discipline, in the first\\nplace, nor maintain it when it has once been developed.\\nMany interests must, for the time at least, be dismissed\\nthe mind must be focused on chosen subjects, and this\\nregimen must be maintained.\\nThe teacher, then, should look after his own will, as\\nwell as the wills of his pupils. His mind needs to be\\ngirded, his attention ree^ulated, as well as\\nThe Teacher 1\\nto Control tlicirs. This IS essential to the highest success\\nhis own jj^ teaching, especially when the lessons ap-\\npeal to thought rather than to perception.\\nA scatter-brained teacher will not focus the minds of\\npupils. Hence the value to the teacher of the admoni-\\ntions Do not let your mind escape from you keep it in\\nhand and, if it has already escaped, pursue it, capture it,\\nand bring it back again.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "244 STUDY.\\nIt is not improbable that some readers will desire some-\\nthing more definite and concrete concerning our subject\\nthan has so far been presented. This desire can best be\\nmet by a slight account of the literature that, taken\\ntogether, comprises, in the formal sense, an art of study.\\nIn his essay on The Art of Study Dr. Bain mentions\\nseveral of the writers who have contributed to this litera-\\nture. He quotes the celebrated remark of\\nDr. Bain on\\nthe loiter- Hobbcs, that if he had read as much as other\\nature of \\\\xv^\\\\\\\\ he would Still have remained as ignorant\\nour Art.\\nas they. This was Hobbes way of empha-\\nsizing the value of personal thought upon subjects of\\nstudy. Bain also quotes these sentences from John\\nLocke\\nThose who have read of everything, are thought to understand\\neverything too but it is not always so. Reading furnishes the mind\\nonly with materials of knowledge it is thinking makes\\no ^tA^ what we read ours. We are of the ruminating kind, and\\nit is not enough to cram ourselves with a great load of\\ncollections unless we chew them over again, they will not give\\nus strength and nourishment. Books and reading are looked\\nupon to be the great helps of the understanding, and instruments of\\nknowledge, as it must be allowed that they are and yet I beg leave\\nto question whether these do not prove an hindrance to many, and\\nkeep several bookish men from attaining to solid and true knowl-\\nedge. To do this (avoid being imposed upon by fallacies) the\\nsurest and most effective remedy is to fix in the mind the clear and\\ndistinct idea of the question stripped of words and so likewise, in\\nthe train of argumentation, to take up the author s ideas, neglecting\\nhis words, observing how they connect or separate those in the ques-\\ntion. 1\\nLocke s Thoughts Concerning Education is also, in\\nsome measure, a contribution to our art.\\n1 The Conduct of the Understanding. New York, The Macmillan Co., i,\\n20, 24, 42.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY. 245\\nDr. Bain mentions Dr. Isaac Watts book, The Improve-\\nment of the Mind, which was well known to our ances-\\ntors a f^eneration or two back, and from which\\nDf. Watts\\nImprove- many of them derived much benefit. Among\\nmentofthe ^\\\\^q numerous chapters the one entitled Books\\nMind.\\nand Reading was perhaps of greatest practical\\nvalue, but mention may also be made of those en-\\ntitled Study or Meditation, Fixing the Attention,\\nand Improvement of the Memory.\\nAnother book belonging to the same class, but a later\\none, was Dr. John Todd s Student s Manual, which ob-\\ntained an enormous circulation both in this\\nTodd s\\nStudent s couutry and in England. Dr. Bain disparages\\nManual. while it is full of homilies and other anti-\\nquated matter, still, a large part of the little treatise may\\nyet be read by students with advantage. Often the pre-\\ncepts and homilies of the author are set off by appropriate\\nexamples, incidents, and anecdotes. In the chapter on\\nstudy. Dr. Todd presents these phases of the subject The\\nnumber of hours of daily study Have regard to the\\npositions of the body while engaged in study Let\\nthere be no conversation in the hours of study Be thor-\\nough in every study Expect to become familiar with\\nhard study Remember that the great secret of being\\nsuccessful and accurate as a student, next to perseverance,\\nis the constant habit of reviewing Be faithful in ful-\\nfilling your appointed exercises Learn to rest the mind\\nby variety in your studies, rather than by entire cessation\\nfrom study. No doubt these lessons are extremely com-\\nmonplace to practiced scholars but they are new to every\\nnew generation of pupils and must be learned afresh by\\nthem. This is one of the cases where the individual does re-\\ncapitulate, and must recapitulate, the experience of the race.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "246 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nParticular attention should be given to Dr. Bain s\\nown essay, which is the very best one that we have\\nDr. Bain s ^u the specific subject, The Art of Study.\\nEssay. Some paragraphs have been quoted on previous\\npages illustrating his practical method, and furnishing\\nmatter valuable in itself.\\nIt will be seen that we have entered the domain of self-\\nculture, of which there is a large and constantly growing\\nliterature. Reference may be made to the books\\nI/iterature\\nof Self- and articles coming from the press which deal\\nCulture. ^^..^j^ g^j^j^ ^^pj^g ^g -pj^^ Ug^ Qf Books, Thc\\nSelection of Books, The Hundred Best Books,\\nReading and Self-cultivation, and to the multitude\\nof dictionaries, cyclopedias literatures, indexes, and\\nbibliographies that so greatly lighten the labor and multi-\\nply the resources of the scholar. It is much to be desired\\nthat teachers, and older pupils too, should become ac-\\nquainted with some of the books that deal with self-\\nculture in its broadest phases. There is Professor John\\nStuart Blackie s Self -Cult lire Intelleetiial, Physical and\\nMoral, and Rev. James Freeman Clarke s Self-Culture\\nPhysieal, Ijitellectual, Moral and Spiritual. The last\\ncomprises a series of twenty-one lectures, covering the\\nwhole field of self-cultivation. The author deals with the\\nimagination, the conscience, the temper, the will, hope,\\nreverence, and several other topics of the most practical\\ncharacter. Favorable mention may also be made of Hoiv\\nto Do It, by Edward Everett Hale, Self-Cultivation in\\nEnglish, by G. H. Palmer, TJie Choice of Books and O titer\\nLiterary Pieces, by Frederic Harrison, and Books TJiat\\nHave Helped Me, by various writers.\\nThen there is the class of books represented by the two\\nsmall volumes entitled Libraries and Readers, by William", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY. 247\\nE. Foster, and Libraries and Schools, by Samuel S.\\nGreen. Both books contain much excellent matter re-\\nlating to method.\\nI may mention, too, Mr. Harry Lyman Koopman s little\\nvolume, The Mastery of Books. This book consists of sev-\\nKoopman s helpful essays or chapters, including a\\nMastery classified Hst of books, that is the more useful\\nbecause it is not overgrown. Chapter XL con-\\nsists mainly of a judicious list of books that deal with\\nthe subject of reading.\\nMuch of the best literature relating to self-cultivation\\nis found in essays and periodical articles. These may be\\nreadily found, if the books and periodicals are\\nPeriodicals. t^ 1 x\\nat hand, by the use of roole s Lidex and other\\nsimilar works. Good articles on phases of the subject fre-\\nquently appear in the numerous magazines and other\\nsimilar publications, and the good teacher should be on\\nthe lookout for them.\\nThe mention of dictionaries, cyclopedias, and indexes\\nsuggests the obvious remark that, when pupils become\\nold enough to use such helps, teachers should\\nI essons in 111 1 rr^i\\nthe Use of teach them now to use them. This is a part of\\nthe Diction- the art of study which is much neMected. An\\nary.\\noccasional lesson in the practical use of an un-\\nabridged dictionary could be given with advantage to\\npupils who are learning to use that important work.\\nHowever, the wise instructor who essays to teach the\\nuse of this work will not be content to have his students\\nsimply learn definitions. He will show them progress-\\nively how the dictionary itself was made, and for what\\nit stands. He will point out the relation existing be-\\ntween the dictionary and language and literature. He\\nwill not permit his pupils to think that language or liter-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "248 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nature was made from the dictionary, but he will show\\nthem that the dictionary is merely an embodiment of the\\nlanguage. In other words, he will bring the pupils to see\\nthat good usage is the law of language, and that diction-\\naries and grammars only reflect this law. He will show\\nthem that such books, if sound and useful, merely em-\\nbody the inductive studies of language and literature\\nthat scholars have made. In particular, he will be sure to\\nlead his pupils to examine the examples collected by the\\nauthor illustrative of definitions. These examples, rather\\nthan the greater number of words and definitions, consti-\\ntute the best feature of an unabridged dictionary in com-\\nparison with the smaller dictionaries. They give a dis-\\ntinct flavor of induction to the study of definitions, and\\nso tend to prevent that dependence upon formalism and\\nauthority which still kills so many schools. The small\\nschool dictionaries are probably useful, but their use is\\nattended with serious dangers.\\nIt has long been common for authors to insert in text-\\nbooks Directions to Teachers, Hints to Teachers, and\\nHints to tl^e like. It did not seem to occur to them until\\nTeachers, lately that the scholars themselves stand in need\\nof such assistance even more than the teachers. But the\\nauthors of such works are gradually learning the lesson.\\nIt is now not uncommon for them to insert matter relat-\\ning to the art of stud}^, as well as matter relating to the\\nart of teaching.\\nCarlyle once suggested a professorship of things in\\ngeneral. He had in mind, I suppose, the thousand\\nProfessor- and One things more or less valuable that, in all\\nship of schemes of teaching;, fall between chairs\\nBooks and t\\nReading. and SO are never taught at all. Mr. F. B.\\nPerkins and Mr. William Mathews one a distin-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY.\\n249\\nguished librarian, the other a well-known man of letters\\nonce urged a more practical proposition, namely, the\\nestablishment of chairs of books and reading. The pro-\\nfessors who hold these chairs, these gentlemen said, should\\nteach a method and not a subject/ Perhaps it would be\\nbetter to say that they should teach the method of using\\nbooks and reading as a subject for they could not, if\\nthey did their duty, confine themselves to the practical\\nside of the work, that is, mere reading, helpful as that\\nwould be.\\nIf I understand them aright, Mr. Perkins and Mr. Math-\\news mean by the professorship of books and reading,\\nt of something in the nature of a professorship of\\nthe Pro- studies. Now, why not have in colleges and\\nessors ip. universities such a professorship a chair whose\\noccupant shall teach the Art of Study Why leave this\\nincomparable art, which really embraces all the other arts\\nand studies of the school, mainly to be picked up by\\npupils, as it is at present Some may say that the propo-\\nsition is impracticable and some that it is unnecessary.\\nThose who give the second answer may concede the\\n1 Mr. Perkins and Mr. Mathews answer the question, What shall the\\nnew chair teach as follows Not the history of literature, nor any one\\nliterature, nor any one department of literature, nor the grammar of any\\nlanguage, nor any one language, nor language itself, nor any form of its\\nuse, nor even any particular form of thought. It is something higher than\\nany of these it is not any one subject, any one field of investigation, but\\nit is a method for investigating any subject in the printed records of human\\nthought. It might be compared with the calculus in applied mathematics\\nit is a means of following up swiftly and thoroughly the best researches in\\nany direction and of then pushing them further it seeks to give a last and\\nhighest training for enlarging any desired department of recorded human\\nknowledge. It is the science and art of reading for a purpose it is a cal-\\nculus of applied literature. Public Libraries in the United States of Atner-\\nica. Washington, Bureau of Education, 1876, p. 231,", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "250\\nTHE ART OF STUDY.\\nvalue of such instruction, but hold that teachers of all\\ngrades should themselves give this instruction in their\\nschools. And this is the exact truth. Teachers should\\nteach their pupils and students how to study, but to a\\ngreat extent they fail to do so.\\nNow, why do they neglect this art Partly, no doubt,\\nbecause they do not appreciate its importance, and partly\\nFailure of because they do not know how to perform\\nRe^ecrto Moreover, their lack of apprecia-\\nthe Art. tion and lack of ability are closely bound up\\ntogether. Hence, the beginning of practical reform\\nmust be the better preparation of teachers in the art of\\nstudy not their better preparation in general, or in the\\nstudies that they teach. And this at once brings into\\nview the professor who is to teach teachers this sub-\\nject.\\nThe question will surely be asked, Is it not the duty of\\nthe professor of pedagogy to do this work Undoubt-\\nDut ofthe ^^^y duty, or a part of his duty, and a\\nProfessor of part that at present he is not performing very\\nPedagogy, ^^.^jj^ Unfortunately, he does not always\\nsee clearly that there are two points of view from which\\npedagogical instruction may be regarded, viz., the learner s\\npoint of view and the teacher s point of view. It is true\\nenough that the fields which are before those who hold\\nthese two points of view are very much the same.\\nThe teacher is to teach what the pupil is to learn, and\\nvice versa. Still, they are not practically the same thing,\\nfor learning and teaching, closely connected as they are,\\nare not the same activity. Again, the art of study and\\nthe art of teaching, while closely connected, are still two\\ndifferent arts.\\nPedagogical instruction, as everybody knows, is com-", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY. 25 I\\nmonly given from the teacher s point of view. This is\\nthe outlook of writers and lecturers on the sub-\\nBooks and\\nTeachers. ject. To a Certain extent this is perfectly right\\nand proper, since instruction that is to help teachers or\\nother intelligent workers must bring their own distinct\\nand separate art clearly before them. But the difficulty\\nis this the teacher s outlook is too exclusive. The reader\\nof the book or the hearer of the lectures on teaching is not\\nmade to see, from the pupil s point of observation, the\\nground that he and the pupil are to occupy in common,\\nand the result is that he does not see as he should the\\npupil s peculiar difficulties and needs.\\nWe must return to the relations of learning and teach-\\ning. Learning, we have seen, is the primary activity, and,\\nas such, controls the teaching processes. The\\nof i^eaming teacher s whole business as an instructor is to\\nand Teach- promote learning, and he must go first to the\\npupil s mind for his theory and art of teaching.\\nIt may seem strange, therefore, that the teacher s point of\\nview is so thoroughly dominant in the literature of the pro-\\nfession. There are in the pupil s peculiar line of activity\\nno words corresponding to the words pedagogy and\\npedagogical in the teacher s line. The pupil has no\\nscience of learning, no art of study. It will probably be\\nsaid that the pupil has no need of such a science or art\\nthat his business is to learn and not to occupy himself\\nwith theories and methods of learning, and this, in the\\nmain, is perfectly true. It will be said, too, that the whole\\nfield of learning is included in psychology, and this state-\\nment contains much truth. Again, it will be said that\\nthe science of psychology is too difficult for the pupil,\\nand that, even if he could learn it, the knowledge which\\nhe would acquire would render him little if any assistance", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "252 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nin his work as a learner. This is equally true with the\\nother propositions.\\nBut these concessions do not cover the whole ground.\\nThe theory and the art of teaching are based directly\\nupon psychology. The teacher s most familiar\\nPoint of rules and methods, if good, run back to the\\nView to be f ^g Qf l-|^g human mind. Indeed, teaching\\nConsidered.\\nis sometimes expressly called applied psychol-\\nogy. But the rules and methods of learning are applied\\npsychology in a still closer sense. Learning, let it be\\nsaid again, is the primary fact to be considered. Then\\nwhy do not writers on education, following this line of\\ntreatment, give us a literature of learning, including study,\\nas they have already given us a literature of teaching\\nIf it is said that psychology is a literature of learning,\\nand that teaching implies learning, my reply is that im-\\nplication is not enough. We need to have these arts\\nrecognized in their own right, and this will not be done\\nuntil teachers and writers on education come to look upon\\nthe operation of acquiring knowledge, or the development\\nof the mind (whichever you see fit to call it), more from\\nthe pupil s and less from the teacher s point of view.\\nHow far the art of study could be formally taught to the\\npupil with advantage is a question that has already been\\nconsidered but I must insist that, if teachers generally\\ncould be brought around to the present point of view, it\\nwould be a decided advantage to their schools. They\\nwould see that their principal function as instructors is\\nnot so much to furnish their pupils with positive knowl-\\nedge, as it is to show them where knowledge is, how it is\\nto be gained, and to inspire them with a love of it. It\\nis with the hope of accomplishing something useful in\\nthis direction that these pages have been written.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "FORMAL TEACHING OF ART OF STUDY.\\n253\\nParallel Reading. Thoughts Concerning Education^ John\\nLocke. New York, The Macmillan Co. The Conduct of the\\nUnderstanding, John Locke. New York, The Macmillan Co.\\nOn Self-Culture Intellectual, Physical and Moral, John Stuart\\nBlackie. New York, Charles Scribner s Sons, 1875. vade\\n77iecum for young men and students). Self-Culture: Physical,\\nIntellectual, AIo7 al, and Spiritual, James Freeman Clarke.\\nNew York, Houghton, Mifflin Co. Libmries and Readers,\\nWilliam E. Foster. New York, Publishers Weekly. Libraries\\nand Schools, Samuel S.Green. New York, Publishers Weekly.\\nThe Mastery of Books, Harry Lyman Koopman. New York,\\nAmerican Book Company, 1896. How to Do It, Edward Ev-\\nerett Hale. New York, Houghton, Mifflin Co. Self Cul-\\ntivation in Efiglish, G. H. Palmer. New York, Thomas Y.\\nCrowell Co., 1897. The Choice of Books a?id Other Literary\\nPieces, Frederic Harrison. New York, The Macmillan Co.\\nBooks That Have Helped Me, Edward Everett Hale and Others.\\nNew York, D. Appleton Co., 1888. Public Libraries in the\\nU?iited States of Aftierica. Washington, Bureau of Education,\\n1876. Chap. IX. On Professorships of Books and Read-\\ning, by F. B. Perkins and William Mathews).", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXII.\\nTEACHING AS A MODE OF LEARNING.\\nIt is not proposed in this chapter to enlarge upon the\\ngeneral opportunities for mental cultivation that the\\nteacher enjoys, which are an outgrowth of his vocation,\\nbut only to emphasize the natural reflex effect of this\\nvocation upon his own knowledge or mental discipline, or\\nto hold up to view teaching as a mode of learning.\\nIt is, first of all, an old saying that one cannot teach\\nwhat one does not know. There is, indeed, high authority\\nOne Cannot OR the Other sidc. Pestalozzi, for example,\\nTeach What \\\\^q\\\\(^ t^^t perfection of method would make it\\nOne Does\\nnot Know, possible to dispense with intelligence in the\\nteacher, at least in elementary instruction.\\nMethod, he held, owes its results to the nature of its own\\nprocesses, and not to the skill of him who employs it.\\nHe did not hesitate to affirm that a schoolbook has no\\nvalue except in so far as it can be employed by a teacher\\nwithout instruction, as well as by one who is well in-\\nstructed. A greater than Pestalozzi, Comenius himself,\\nwhile not going quite so far as his enthusiastic disciple,\\nstill committed the same mistake, even giving one of his\\ntreatises the alternative title, A Didactic Machine,\\nMechanically Contrived with a View to No Longer Stick-\\n254", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "TEACHING AS A MODE OF LEARNING. 255\\ning Fast in the Work of Teaching and Learning, but\\nMistakes of of Advancing in Them. He regards his\\nPestaioz^i, method, says Professor Laurie, as so absolute\\nComenius 1\\nand Dr. ni its character tliat it may be likened to a ma-\\nchine a clock, or a ship, or a mill. Set it going*\\nand keep it going, and you will find the result certain.\\nMany attempts have been made by distinguished men to\\nmechanize instruction, especially elementary instruction,\\nbut they have failed, one and all, as they were doomed\\nto fail from the nature of the case. Dr. Andrew Bell\\nsaid that if you would give him twenty-four pupils to-day,\\nhe would give you back twenty-four teachers to-morrow,\\nbut his confidence did not prevent monitorial instruction\\nfrom becoming a dismal failure.\\nLearning is the free action of the spirit upon objects of\\nknowledge, and so cannot be mechanized, while teach-\\ninstruction ii ig is, perhaps, the most strictly spiritual act\\nCannot be q{ g, social character that a man is capable of\\nMechan-\\ni\u00c2\u00abed. performing. 1 he attempt to mechanize in-\\nstruction is part of the monstrous error that\\nfree minds can be coerced it has really the same root as\\nreligious persecution. The mind must be taught as the\\nAuthor of Mind must be worshiped, in spirit and in\\ntruth. Method, indeed, holds an important place in edu-\\ncation, as has been remarked more than once in these\\npages, but its place always and everywhere is in strict sub-\\nordination to the teacher. Give me a log hut with only\\na simple bench, Mark Hopkins on one end and I on the\\nother, said Garfield, and you may have all the build-\\nings, apparatus, and libraries without him. And yet\\n^Jo/in Amos CoTneniiis His Life and Educational Works, S. S. Laurie.\\nBoston, New England Publishing Co., pp. 54, 55.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "256 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nGarfield understood perfectly the use of books, appa-\\nratus, and buildings. The learner may learn more than\\nthe teacher knows, but not from the teacher. So\\nfar, in fact, is the teacher from being able to teach\\nwhat he does not know, that he cannot even teach all\\nthat he does know. His knowledge is greater than his\\npower of expression in language. Something is always\\nlost in the act of communication, just as an engine uses\\nup much of its own power in friction. In cases where\\nconfiding souls suppose they know each other perfectly,\\nno small part of their knowledge comes about in ways\\nthat they cannot explain they simply understand each\\nother.\\nIn the next place, the fact has long been recognized\\nthat teaching is a most effective means of learning. Sir\\nTestimony William Hamilton once collected many strik-\\nto Value of jj testimonies of disting;uished men bearing\\nI/earningby o\\nTeaching, on this poiut. The following are some of\\nthe anonymous ones\\nKnowledge stored away decays shared with others it increases.\\nIf you seek to learn, teach thus, you shall be taught yourself, for\\nby such pursuit you will profit both yourself and your companion,\\nTo seek out many things, to retain the things sought out, to teach\\nthe things retained, these three things cause the master to surpass\\nthe pupil.\\nLearn and teach others, thus you shall be safely taught yourself\\nand you shall be more certain of your art than are the ordinary.\\nHe who teaches learns he who learns thoroughly his studies\\nteaches. That you may go forth learned, I counsel you learn, teach.\\nWe learn while we teach.\\nHe gives additional testimonies, assigning them to their\\nauthors.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "TEACHING AS A MODE OF LEARNING.\\n257\\nPlato To teach is the way in which we learn most and best.\\nSeneca Men learn while they teach.\\nClement of Alexandria The teacher adds to his learning and is\\nfrequently a fellow-disciple with those whom he instructs.\\nBishop Sanderson, who appears to have borrowed the quotation from\\none of the Jewish Rabbis I have learned much from my master,\\nmore from my equals, but most of all from my disciples.\\nIt is well known to all students of educational history\\nthat the mediaeval universities made extensive use of\\nThe Prac- teaching as a learning process, setting their stu-\\nticeofthe Jents to imparting their knowledsfe that thev\\nMediaeval r t=, j\\nXJniversi- might increase it. The first teaching at these\\nties. universities does not appear to have been so\\nmuch professional teaching as a system of mutual instruc-\\ntion. A student who had found repute among his fellows\\ngathered a little body of pupils round him, and thus\\nsupported himself for a few years until something better\\noffered.^ University degrees were first instituted for a\\npractical purpose, being the first mode of certificating\\nteachers used in the modern world. The doctor s and\\nmaster s degrees were one and the same thing, as the\\ndoctor, the master, and the professor were one and the\\nsame person looked at from different points of view. As\\na doctor this person was learned or instructed, as a\\nmaster he taught, as a professor he professed or held\\nhimself open to teach.\\nI shall venture to summarize an instructive passage\\nfrom Sir William Hamilton, which bears upon our sub-\\nject.\\nThe older universities regarded the exercise of teaching as a neces-\\nsary condition of a perfect knowledge in recent times, the universities\\nO71 the Action of Examinations Considered as a Means of Selection, Henry\\nLatham. London, George Bell Sons, p. 92.\\nArt of Study. \u00e2\u0080\u0094XT.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "258 THE ART OF STUDY.\\nhave with equal unanimity neglected this exercise. Yet there can be\\nPassajre doubt of the superior wisdom of the more ancient prac-\\nFrom Ham- tice. Teaching, like the quality of mercy, is twice blest,\\nilton Sum- blessing him that gives and him that takes. No one can\\nrightly teach who is not fully cognizant of the matter\\nto be taught but, on the other hand, the preparation for, and the\\nvery process of, instruction reacts most beneficially on the knowl-\\nedge of the instructor, if the instructor be intellectually and morally\\nwhat he ought to be. If so, teaching constrains him to a clear and\\ndistinct consciousness of his subject in all its bearings it brings\\nto his observation any want or obscurity lurking in his comprehension\\nof it as a whole and urges him to master any difficulty the solution of\\nwhich he may have previously adjourned. The necessity of answering\\nthe interrogations of others compels him, in fact, to interrogate and to\\nanswer himself. In short, what he has learned synthetically, he\\nmust now study analytically but a combination of analysis and syn-\\nthesis is the condition of a perfect knowledge. Still, it must not be\\nsupposed that the older universities, while enjoining the practice of\\ninstruction as a means of learning, abandoned the higher academical\\nteaching to student-doctors. On this point, their practice was to re-\\nquire the student to learn from the learned, while he himself taught\\nthe unlearned. With many academical instructors, teaching is at best\\na mechanical effort, a mere pouring out of what has been previously\\npoured in professing to teach, teaching is for them no self-improving\\nprocess, and as to their pupils, they teach the young parrots to\\nwhistle the same as they were taught to whistle when they learned to\\nbecome parrots. 1\\nIt is easy to see that student-teachers could not in the\\nlong run compete with professional teachers, but would\\nhave to yield to them in the end. I am in no\\nxlachets sense advocating the introduction of such teach-\\nnot Advo- ers into schools, or defending their retention\\nwhere they are found. My thesis is that teach-\\ning is an admirable mode of learning for those prepared to\\n1 Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, Education and Ujiiversity\\nReform. Edinburgh, William Blackwood Sons, 1866, p. 774.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "TEACHING AS A MODE OF LEARNING. 259\\nprofit by it. The student that I have in mind is not an im-\\nmature pupil in school practicing upon his fellow-pupils,\\nbut a properly equipped teacher, regularly engaged in the\\nwork of instruction. Such teacher, as we have seen,\\nmust have a sufficient stock of knowledge with which to\\nbegin, but the beginning once made he has an admirable\\nopportunity both to improve the quality and increase the\\nquantity of his knowledge and a strong incitement to\\nmake the most of it. These more practical remarks will\\nclose the subject\\n1. The teacher will commonly discover, at least if his\\nwork is not very elementary, that much of what he\\nImperfect knows needs to be improved in its quality it\\nQuality of is rnarked by a certain generality and indefinite-\\nTeacXr s Hcss. He uow finds out that the step from\\nKnowledge. \\\\\\\\^q pupil s chair to the teacher s platform is a\\nlong one. He does not feel so sure of his knowledge in\\nthe new place as he did in the old one. The questions of\\nthe pupils, like the arrows of the archer, find the weak\\nspots in his harness, and he sees the need of knowing\\nmany things better than he actually does know them.\\n2. He also discovers that his knowledge is insufficient\\nin quantity, as well as inferior in quality. Under the\\nchanged conditions, the questions of the pupils\\nOften Insuf- \\\\y\\nficientin rcvcal his limitations much more thoroughly\\nQuantity. x\\\\\\\\2in the qucstions of his own instructors have\\never done. Subjects are brought before him in new ways\\nnew vistas open to his vision that he never saw be-\\nfore and he feels the constant pressure of a great re-\\nsponsibility. Unconsciously, perhaps, he has become a\\npupil along with his pupils.\\n3. The teacher now learns, what he could not have\\nfully understood before, that studies may be regarded from", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "26o THE ART OF STUDY.\\ntwo points of view, the academical and the pedagog-\\np d o icai pupil s view and the teacher s view\\nstudy of a and that the two prospects, which lie open to\\nPerfectiot^ sight, while they have much in common, still\\nof i/earning. differ. The practical question for the teacher\\nnow is not how to learn a subject for himself, but how to\\nteach it to another, or how to help another to learn\\nit. He is led to study the delicate art of asking questions\\nin its concrete relation to the subject-matter and to the\\nmind of the pupil, and thus begins to understand Bacon s\\nfamous saying that the skillful question is the half\\nof knowledge. As Sir William Hamilton says, the in-\\nterrogations of others compel the teacher to interro-\\ngate himself. In a word, the pedagogical element of a\\nsubject is so essential to complete knowledge that one can\\nhardly be said to understand fully what one has not\\ntaught.\\nParallel Reading. Discussions o?i Philosophy and Lit-\\nerature, Education and University Reform, Sir William Hamilton.\\nEdinburgh and London, William Blackwood Sons, 1866, pp.\\n402-404 766-783.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nAesthetics, in the schoolroom, 163.\\nAlfieri, anecdote of, 240, 241.\\nApperception, defined, 200.\\nvalue of, 201.\\nArithmetic, in the old school, 50.\\nArithmetics, deductive, 222.\\ninductive, 224.\\nArt, defined, 20.\\nformal, 22, 23.\\nreflective, 22.\\nArt of Questioning, 97.\\nBarnett, P. A., on, 99, 100.\\nFitch, Sir J. G., on, 97.\\ntime element in, 103.\\nArt of Study, Bain, Alexander, on\\nliterature of, 244-246.\\ndefined, 22.\\nfailure of teachers in respect to,\\n250.\\ninvolves skill and method, 44.\\nneglect of, in the schools, 25.\\npupils deficient in, 26.\\nreform in, 29.\\nstage of, formal, 235.\\nstage of, practical, 232, 233.\\nvalue of, 7.\\nArts, origin of, 44.\\nAttention, a condensing machine,\\n108.\\nactive, no, in.\\nactive and passive, combined\\naction of, 163\\nactive, cultivation of, 152.\\nactive, hard to obtain, 146.\\nactive, needs reenforcement, 146.\\nactive, not continuous, 145.\\natmosphere of school a factor in,\\n158.\\nBaldwin, J. M., on, 153.\\nbeginning and end of, 108.\\nCarpenter, W. B., on, 142.\\nchild s first acts of, 118.\\n26\\nAttention, Compayre, Gabriel, on the\\neducation of, 148.\\ncontinued, Tog.\\ncontinuity and intensity of effort\\nin, 156.\\nDexter and Garlick, on, 105, 106.\\ndiscontinuous, 123.\\ndistractions in the way of, 162, 163.\\nessential to success, 125.\\netymology of word, 107.\\nexceptional state of consciousness,\\n149, 150.\\nexternal signs of, 107.\\nfeeling of effort accompanies, 124.\\nFitch, Sir J. G., on, 154.\\ngeneral sense of, 105.\\nHamilton, Sir William on, 112-\\n114.\\nHarris, Dr. W. T., on, 143.\\nillustrated, 106.\\ninterest and, 122.\\ninvading influences in, 160.\\nlens of the mind, 107.\\nmental objects of, 108.\\npassage from passive to active, 168.\\npassive, no.\\npassive, cultivation of, 127.\\npassive, not sufiicient, 145.\\npassive, reenforces active, 147.\\nPerez on, 166.\\npersonal factors in, 119, 120.\\nphysical conditions of, 159.\\nphysical effects of, 115.\\nRibot on, 144, 160, 165, 166, 167.\\ntakes direction of any cognitive\\nfaculty, 109.\\ntalk about, 152, 153.\\nteacher a factor in, 1 58, 1 59.\\ntemptations in the way of, 161.\\ntime and place factors in, 120, 121.\\ntwo kinds of, no, ni, 163, 164.\\nvalue of, in education, 117,\\nI", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "262\\nINDEX.\\nAttention,voluntary, \\\\2\\\\\\nwill in active, 147, 148\\n[26.\\nBain, Alexander, on history, 185.\\non literature of art of study, 244-\\n246.\\non oral teaching, 42, 43.\\non study, 15, 16.\\non thoroughness, 184, 185.\\nBaldwin, J, M,, on attention, 153.\\nBarnett, P. A., on methods, 94.\\non questioning, 99, 100.\\non quizzing lessons, 80-82.\\nBlackie, J. S., Self -Culture, 246.\\nBooks and teachers, 251,\\nBoys, German, French, American,\\ncompared, 27, 28.\\nCarpenter, W. B., on attention, 114,\\n115, 142.\\non willfulness, 193.\\nChadbourne, P. A., on waste in edu-\\ncation,\\nChild, an original discoverer, 209.\\ndeductive methods learned by, 210,\\nfirst acts of attention of, passive,\\n118.\\nfirst appearance in school, 41.\\nin the historic world, 213, 216.\\nin the social world, 212, 214.\\nreflex mental life of, 141.\\nsecond-hand knowledge acquired\\nby, 210, 211.\\nChildren, kept too long on a lesson,\\n180.\\nprecocious, 180.\\nshould learn the use of books in\\nschool, 69.\\nChoices tend to become interesting,\\n155-\\nClarke, Rev. J. F., Self-Culttcre, 246.\\nComenius, quoted, 216, 221, 254.\\nComparison and judgment, 203.\\nCompayre, Gabriel, on attention, 1 18.\\non novelty and other stimuli, 122,\\n123.\\nConsciousness, defined, 105.\\nCourse of Study, 130, 131.\\nDeduction, abridgment of process of,\\n207.\\na method of application, 208.\\nin apperception, 211.\\nDeduction, induction, combined with\\n220, 227.\\ninduction precedes, 220, 221.\\nin historic world, 216.\\nin old arithmetics and grammars,\\n222, 223.\\nin social world, 215.\\nsyllogism a perfect type of, 204,\\n205.\\nDemonstrator, teacher as, 66.\\nDevelopment and knowledge, 35, 36.\\nDexter and Garlick, on attention,\\n105, 106.\\nDictionary, lessons in the use of,\\n247, 248.\\nDiscipline, formal, 34, 35.\\nDropping subjects, 129.\\nEnergy, misdirected in schools, T^ i^.\\nFacts before principles, not a uni-\\nversal rule, 229, 230.\\nFaraday, on clear ideas and judg-\\nment, 171.\\nFeeling, active in the child, 189.\\nrelation of, to intellect and will,i87.\\nproblems presented by, 191.\\nproper kind of, to be cultivated in\\nthe school, 192.\\nviolent, to be repressed, 192.\\nField of this work defined, 7, 8.\\nFirst the idea, then the word, not\\na universal rule, 231.\\nFitch, Sir J. G., on attention, 154.\\non questions and questioning, 98,\\n99.\\nForgotten knowledge, uses of, 103.\\nP ormal stage of art of study, 232,\\n235-\\nfirst instruction m, 237.\\npassage to, from practical stage,\\n236.\\nsubject-matter of, 237.\\nFoster, W. E., Libraries and Readers^\\n246.\\nFranklin, Benjamin, Moral Al-\\ngebra, 172.\\nGarfield, General, story told by, 85,\\n86.\\nGeography, in the old school, 50, 51.\\nstudy-recitation in, 58-60.\\nGeometry, study-recitation in\u00c2\u00bb 60-62.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n263\\nGraded school idea, the, 70.\\nGrammar, study-recitation in, 62, 63.\\nGreen, S. S., Libraries and Schools^\\n247.\\nGrooving the mind, 177.\\nHarris, Dr. W. T,, on, 178, 179.\\nHale, E, E., How to Do It, 246.\\nHamilton, Sir William, on attention,\\n1 1 2-1 1 4.\\non learning by teaching, 257, 258.\\nHarris, Dr. Wo T., on attention,\\n143-\\non grooving the mind, 178, 179.\\non the normal school, 86, 87.\\nHarrison, Frederic, The Choice of\\nBooks, 246.\\nHistoric world, 213, 216.\\nHistory, German course in, 64.\\nHope and fear, effects of, 195.\\nHours of the day, factor in attention,\\n129.\\nIdeals of study, correct, 84.\\nin mathematics and history, 85.\\nvary, 84.\\nIdeas, clear, value of, 171.\\ngeneral, 201, 202.\\ninfluence of, on the will, 175, 176.\\nIgnorance, 79.\\nImitation, 135.\\nImpulse, two kinds of, 1 11.\\nIndividual, and the race, 227,\\nInduction, abuses of, in teaching,\\n228, 229.\\ncombined with deduction, 220, 227.\\ndeduction follows, 220, 221.\\nexaggerated use of, in teaching,\\n225.\\nin historic world, 213, 214.\\nin new arithmetics and grammars,\\n224.\\nin social world, 214, 215.\\nin text-books, 222.\\nmethod of discovery, 208.\\nInferences, inductive and deductive,\\n204.^\\nInstruction, cannot be mechanized,\\n-55-\\nIntellect, relations of, to feeling and\\nwill, 187.\\nInterest, defined, 122,\\nenvironment a factor in, 133.\\nInterest,evils flowing from, 138.\\nhome and school factors in, 134.\\nimitation, a factor in, 135.\\nnovelty, a source of, 122.\\nother motives than, 156.\\npersonal element in, 136.\\nInterests, borrowed, 165, 166.\\nchild s, in hands of teacher, 138.\\nchoice of, 148.\\ncorrelation of, 167.\\ndeeper, 136, 137.\\ngeneral, 131.\\nimportance of discriminating, 137.\\nindividual, 132.\\nmiscellaneous, 242, 243.\\nnew, teacher to create, 164, 165.\\nold, teacher to summon, 164.\\npermanent, 132.\\ntemporary, 133.\\ntwo ways of dividing, 131,\\nIntermittent minds, 239.\\nJames, Professor William, on atten-\\ntion, 154, 164.\\non pride and pugnacity, 139, 140.\\nJudgments, affirmative and nega-\\ntive, 203.\\nprimary and secondary, 204.\\nKarnes, Lord, on memory and judg-\\nment, 179.\\nKlemm, Dr. L. R., on German\\nSchools, 58-60, 62, 63.\\nKnowledge, first and second-hand,\\n8,9.\\nsound and unsound, 174, 175.\\nteaching moves in the two spheres\\nof, 40.\\ntwo spheres of, 39.\\nKoopman, H. L., Mastery of Books,\\n247.\\nLanguage, significance of, 121.\\nLearn, etymology of the word, 9.\\nLearning, by heart, loi.\\nin parallel lines, 97.\\nrelations of, and teaching, 7-12,\\n219, 251, 254.\\nstudy and, 14-19.\\nLesson, aim of, 94, 95.\\nassignment of, 83.\\nattacking the, 78-88.\\ncentral points of, 82.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "264\\nINDEX.\\nLesson, correlative of recitation, 56.\\netymology of the word, 55.\\npupil and, 70.\\nquizzing, 80-82.\\nshould be made interesting, 128.\\nsubdivisions of, 82.\\nsubject of, 80.\\nSee Recitation-Lesson and Study-\\nLesson.\\nLife, reflex, of the child, 141.\\nreflex, inferior to active, 142.\\nLocke, John, quoted, 233, 244.\\nMann, Horace, on schools and school\\nreaders, 71, 72.\\nMathews, on professorship of books\\nand reading, 248, 249.\\nMediaeval Universities, 257.\\nMemory, and judgment, Lord Kames\\nquoted, 179.\\nMental activity, growth, the law of,\\n127.\\nMental discipline, effects of miscel-\\nlaneous activities on, 242, 243.\\nmaintenance of, 242,\\nMethod, abuse of word, 197.\\ndefined and vindicated, 198,\\ndeductive, 20S.\\ninductive, 208.\\nof learning, 197-217.\\nof new text-books, 224.\\nof old text-books, 222-224.\\nof teaching, 219-231.\\nresults of old and new, 225, 226.\\nskill and, 21.\\nunity of, 217.\\nMiscellaneous interests, 242, 243.\\nMoral Algebra, Benjamin Frank-\\nlin s, 172.\\nNovelty a source of interest, 122.\\nObjects of the recitation-lesson,\\nprimary, 91-93.\\nsubordinate, 93.\\nObservation and induction, 215.\\nOld schools, arithmetic as taught in,\\n50.\\ngeography as taught in, 50, 51.\\nreading as taught in, 49, 50.\\nresults of regimen in, 51, 52.\\nOrder of studies, the natural, 71.\\nPalmer, G. H., Self-Cultivation in\\nEfiglishy 246.\\nPedagogical study, 260.\\nPedagogy, kinds of, 31.\\nobjective, 31, 32.\\nprofessor of, should teach art of\\nstudy, 250.\\nsubjective, 31, 32.\\nweakness of objective, ^d.\\nweakness of subjective, 36, 37.\\nPenitentiary, admittance to, solicited,\\n241,242.\\nPerception, defined, 199,\\ncomprehensiveness of, 202.\\nPerez, on borrowed interests, 166.\\nPeriodicals, use of, 247.\\nPerkins, on professorship of books\\nand reading, 248, 2^19.\\nPestalozzi, mistake in theory of teach-\\ning, 255.\\nPhysical effects of attention, 115.\\nPlace, as a factor in attention, 120,\\n121.\\nPower, and knowledge, 32, 33.\\nPractical stage of art of study, 232,\\nPractice, and theory, 21.\\nnot formal art, 22.\\nPreyer, Dr. W., on attention, in.\\nPrimary faculties, examples of, dis-\\ncussed, 188, 189.\\nfactors in, 191.\\nSully, Dr. James, quoted on, 188.\\nvariation of, direct, 190.\\nvariation of, indirect, 190.\\nProblem, etymology of word, 83.\\nProfessorship of books and reading,\\n248, 249.\\nPromotions, 181, 182.\\ncaution concerning, 182.\\npublic interest in, 183.\\nPupil, character of, formed by regi-\\nmen of school, 87.\\ndeficient in art of study, 26.\\ndependence of, on teacher, 53.\\nemotional adjustment of, to\\nteacher, 194.\\nfirst formal instruction of, in art of\\nstudy, 237.\\nlanguage of lesson to be adapted\\nto, 102.\\nnon-adjustment of, to teacher,.\\n52.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n265\\nPupil, passage of, from first to second\\nstage of art of study, 236.\\npoint of view of, to be considered,\\n252.\\nready for the lesson, 70, ^t,, 74.\\nsuitable text-books for, 73.\\nteacher and, function of, 12.\\nteacher anticipated by, 236.\\nteacher to lead, 234.\\nunconscious of method, 233.\\nPuritan regimen, 139.\\nQuestioning, see Art of Qiiestioiting.\\nQuestions, three kinds of, 97, 98.\\nuse of each kind, 98.\\nReading, art of, child learns, 45.\\nas taught in the old school, 49, 50.\\nfirst lesson in, 43.\\npassage from, to study, 48.\\nstudy and, 17, 18.\\ntechnique of, 44, 45.\\nuse of term, in England, 18.\\nRecitation, correlative of lesson, 56.\\nin American schools, 89.\\noral and written, 102.\\nto be retained in the school, 90.\\nunknown in English schools, 89, 90.\\nuse of the word, 56.\\nRecitation-Lesson, 89.\\nobjects of, 91-93.\\nsteps in, 93-96.\\nRibot, Th., on attention, iii, 144,\\n149, 150, 160, 167.\\non borrowed interests, 165, 166.\\nRules of study, origin of, 235.\\nSchool, changes in the, 52, 53.\\nprogress in, 27.\\nprogramme of, 130.\\npupil s character formed by, 87.\\nShort-cuts in learning and teach-\\ning, 226.\\nSkill and method, 21.\\nSocial world, 212, 214, 215.\\nStudent-teachers, 258, 259.\\nStudy, Bain, Alexander, on, 15, 16.\\netymology of the word, 14.\\nlearning and, 15, 19.\\nnot limited to schools, 17.\\npassage to, from reading, 48, 49.\\npractical and formal, 23.\\nreading and, discriminated, 17, t8.\\nStudy, teaching and, differentiated, 56.\\nuse of books and, 16.\\nSee A7-t of Study.\\nStudy-Lesson, defined, 68.\\nsource of waste, 78.\\nvalue of, 69.\\nStudy-Recitation, compared to labora-\\ntory method of instruction, 65.\\ndefined, 57.\\nexamples of, 58, 64.\\nin American schools, 65, 66.\\nin German schools, 57, 58.\\nSee Art of Study.\\nSully, Dr. James, on primary facul-\\nties, 188.\\nSyllogism, examples of, 204, 207, 208\\nTeach, etymology of the word, 9.\\nTeacher, anticipated by pupil, 236.\\ncannot teach what he does not\\nknow, 254.\\ncharacter of books written for, 238,\\n251.\\ndependence of pupil on, 53.\\ndouble duty of, 41, 42.\\nemotional adjustment of, to pupil,\\n^94-\\nfactor in pupils interest, 1 58.\\nfailure of, in respect to art of\\nstudy, 250.\\nfield of work should be reconnoi-\\ntered by, 74-\\nfunction of, 39, 45.\\nhints to, 248.\\nin German schools, 57, 58.\\nknowledge of youthful, imperfect,\\n259-\\nlanguage-arts should be taught\\nby, 43-\\nLatham on method of, 37, 38.\\nmental control of, 243.\\nnon-adjustment of pupil to, 52.\\npupil and, function of, 12.\\npurpose of, need not be disclosed,\\n37.\\nreform in art of study must be led\\nby, 29.\\nregarded as a student, 238.\\nshould allow pupils sufiicient time,\\n157-\\nshould help pupils at assignment\\nof lesson, 75, 76.\\nshould work with pupils, 46.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "266\\nINDEX,\\nTeacher, testimony of, as to pupils\\ndefects, 26, 27.\\nTeaching, a mode of learning, 254-\\n260.\\ncorrectives of formalism in, 221.\\nHamilton, Sir William, on, 257, 258.\\nin Germany, 29.\\nin Sunday-school, 72, 73.\\nmoves in two spheres of knowl-\\nedge, 40, 41.\\nobjective, 221.\\nold and new methods of, 225.\\noral, 222.\\npure form of, 47, 48,\\nrelations of, and learning, 7-12,\\n219, 251, 254.\\nstudy and, differentiated, 56.\\nsuperiority of, in Germany, 58.\\nTestimony to value of learning by\\nteaching, 256, 257.\\nText-books, deductive, 222, 223.\\ninductive, 222, 224.\\nTheory, and practice, 2i.\\nThoroughness, 170-185.\\nclear ideas, and, 171.\\nfuture value of, 173.\\nThoroughness, lack of, in schools, 174.\\npresent value of, 170.\\npromotions and, 181,\\nrelativity of the term, 176, 177.\\nTime, as a factor in attention, 120.\\nTodd, Dr. John, Student s Majiualy\\n245-\\nVincent, Dr. G. E., on Short-cuts,\\n226.\\nVocations, 136.\\nVolitional control, value of, 240.\\nWalker, General F. A., on children s\\nexercises, 53, 54.\\nWard, Professor L. F., on instruc-\\ntion and experience, 227.\\nWatts, Dr. Isaac, Improvement of the\\nMind, 245.\\nWayland, Dr. Francis, on his early\\ninstruction, 77.\\nWill, focuses the intellect, 147.\\nrelations of, to intellect and feel-\\ning, 187-191.\\nWorld, historic, 213, 216.\\nsocial, 212, 214, 215.", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "Books for Teachers\\n^OR THE STUDY OF PEDAGOGY\\nCalkins s Manual of Object Teaching\\nHailmann s History of Pedagogy\\nHewett s Pedagogy for Young Teachers\\nHow to Teach (Kiddle, Harrison, and Calkins)\\nKing s School Interests and Duties\\nKriisi s Life and Work of Pestalozzi\\nMann s School Recreations and Amusements\\nPage s Theory and Practice of Teaching\\nPalmer s Science of Education\\nPayne s School Supervision\\nPayne s Contributions to the Science of Education\\nSheldon s Lessons on Objects\\nShoup s History and Science of Education\\nSwett s Methods of Teaching\\nWhite s Elements of Pedagogy\\nWhite s School Management\\n^0R THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY\\nHalleck s Psychology and Psychic Culture\\nHewett s Psychology for Young Teachers\\nPutnam s Elementary Psychology\\nRoark s Psychology in Education\\nfOR THE TEACHER S DESK\\nSchaeffer s Bible Readings for Schools\\nEclectic Manual of Methods\\nSwett s Questions for Written Examination\\nAppletons How to Teach Writing\\nMorris s Physical Education\\nSmart s Manual of School Gymnastics\\nWhite s Oral Lessons in Number\\nDubbs s Arithmetical Problems. Teachers Edition\\nDoerner s Treasury of General Knowledge. Part I.\\nThe Same. Part II\\nWebster s Academic Dictionary. New Edition.\\nAny of the above books sent, prepaid, on receipt of the price by\\nthe Publishers\\nNEW YORK\\nfx6)\\nAmerican Book Company\\nCINCINNATI\\nCHICAGO", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "Psychology in Education\\nRoark s Psychology in Education\\nBy RuRic N. RoARK, Dean of the Department of\\nPedagogy, Kentucky State College.\\nCloth, i2mo, 312 pages $1.00\\nThis new work is designed for use as a text-book in\\nSecondary and Normal Schools, Teachers Training Classes\\nand Reading Circles. The general purpose of the book is\\nto give teachers a logical and scientific basis for their daily\\nwork in the schoolroom. The teacher will gain from it\\nknowledge for present needs, and stimulus and inspiration\\nfor further study of mind growth. While this is the special\\npurpose of the book, it contains such a clear and accurate\\nexposition of psychological facts and processes as to make\\nit an interesting work for the general reader as well as for\\nthose who have to do with schools and education.\\nIt is elementary in treatment, but every subject is\\npresented in a most thorough, logical, and psychological\\nmanner. It makes a distinct departure from the methods\\nheretofore in vogue in the treatment of Psychology and the\\napplication of its principles and processes to mind study\\nand the philosophy of teaching. It is justly regarded as\\nthe most important contribution to pedagogical science and\\nliterature in recent years, and is the only work of its kind\\nwhich brings the subject within the comprehension and\\npractical application of teachers.\\nCopies of Roark s Psychology in Education will be sent prepaid to any\\naddress^ on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(38)", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "New Books for Teachers\\nKing s School Interests and Duties\\nDeveloped from Page s Mutual Duties of Parents and\\nTeachers, from various Public Records and Documents,\\nand from the Bulletins of the National Bureau of Edu-\\ncation. By Robert M. King.\\nCloth, i2mo, 336 pages $1.00\\nThis new work, original in its scope and plan, presents in one volume\\ninteresting and valuable expositions of the modern demands, the best\\nmethods, and most important interests of our Public School System.\\nIts central idea is to show the importance and value of co-operation\\nin school work and the mutual duties of teachers, school officers, and\\nparents. It also embodies synopses of the discussions on leading educa-\\ntional topics from the various fugitive reports and manuals issued, from\\ntime to time, by school officials and State Departments of Education. It\\nwill be found an invaluable manual and guide for school superintendents,\\nofficers, and patrons, and, indeed, for every one interested in educational\\nwork.\\nMann s School Recreations and Amusements\\nBy Charles W. Mann, A.M., Dean of the Chicago\\nAcademy. Cloth, i2mo, 352 pages $1.00\\nThis volume not only opens up a new field of much needed informa-\\ntion and direction in the matter of physical training of pupils, but also\\nfurnishes suggestions for intellectual recreations which will greatly add\\nto the interest and value of school work and lend a charm to school life\\nin all its phases. Some of the subjects treated in this work are: Morning\\nExercises, Care and Equipment of Schoolrooms, Singing Games and\\nSongs, Indoor Exercises and Outdoor Games, Experiments in Physics\\nand Chemistry, Recreations in Latin, Outline for Reading Circles, etc.\\nCopies of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address^ on receipt\\nof the price by the Publishers\\nAiT^-ican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(41J", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "Halleck s Psychology and\\nPsychic Culture\\nBy REUBEN POST HALLECK, M.A. (Yale)\\nCloth. 12mo, 368 pages. Illustrated Price, $1.25\\nThis new text-book in Psychology and Psychic Culture\\nis suitable for use in High School, Academy and College\\nclasses, being simple and elementary enough for beginners\\nand at the same time complete and comprehensive enough\\nfor advanced classes in the study. It is also well suited\\nfor private students and general readers, the subjects being-\\ntreated in such an attractive manner and relieved by so\\nmany apt illustrations and examples as to fix the attention\\nand deeply impress the mind.\\nThe work includes a full statement and clear exposition\\nof the coordinate branches of the study physiological and\\nintrospective psychology. The physical basis of Psychol-\\nogy is fully recognized. Special attention is given to the\\ncultivation of the mental faculties, making the work\\npractically useful for self-improvement. The treatment\\nthroughout is singularly clear and plain and in harmony\\nwith its aims and purpose.\\nHalleck s Psychology pleases me very much. It is short, clear,\\ninteresting, and fun of common sense and originality of illustration.\\nI can sincerely recommend it.\\nWILLIAM JAMES,\\nProfessor of Psychology, Harvard University.\\nCopies of Halleck s Psycholos;y will be sent prepaid to any address on\\nreceipt of the price by the Publishers\\nAmerican Book Company\\nI few York Cir\u00c2\u00bbcinnati Chicago\\n(4 J", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "Seeley s History of Education\\nBy Dr. LEVI SEELEY\\nProfessor of Pedagogy, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.\\nCloth, i2mo, 350 pages. Price, $1.25\\nNearly 400,000 active teachers in the United States\\nare required to pass an examination in the History of\\nEducation. Normal schools, and colleges with peda-\\ngogical departments lay particular stress upon this sub-\\nject and the Superintendents of Education in most states,\\ncounties, and cities, now expect their teachers to possess a\\nknowledge of it.\\nThis book is not based on theory, but is the practical\\noutgrowth of Dr. Seeley s own class-work after years of\\ntrial. It is therefore a working book, plain, comprehen-\\nsive, accurate, and sufficient in itself to furnish all the\\nmaterial on the subject required by any examining board,\\nor that may be demanded in a normal or college course.\\nIt arranges the material in such a manner as to appeal\\nto the student and assist him to grasp and remember\\nthe subject.\\nIt gives a concise summary of each system discussed,\\npointing out the most important lessons.\\nIt lays stress upon the development of education,\\nshowing the steps of progress from period to period.\\nIt begins the study of each educational system or\\nperiod with an examination of the environment of the\\npeople, their history, geography, home conditions, etc.\\nIt gives a biographical sketch of the leading edu-\\ncators, and their systems of pedagogy, including those of\\nHorace Mann and Herbart.\\nIt treats of the systems of education of Germany,\\nFrance, England, and the United States, bringing the\\nstudy of education down to the present time.\\nIt furnishes the literature of each subject and gives\\nan extensive general bibliography of works for reference.\\nCopies of Seeley s History of Education will be sent, prepaid, to any\\naddress on receipt of the price by the Publishers\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\n(49)", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "Webster s School Dictionaries\\nREVISED EDITIONS\\nWebster s School Dictionaries in their revised form constitute a\\nprogressive series, carefully graded and especially adapted for Primary\\nSchools, Common Schools, High Schools, Academies, etc. They have\\nall been thoroughly revised, entirely reset, and made to conform in all\\nessential points to the great standard authority Webster s International\\nDictionary.\\nWEBSTER S PRIMARY SCHOOL DICTIONARY 48 cents\\nContaining over 20,000 words and meanings, with over 400 illustrations.\\nWEBSTER S COMMON SCHOOL DICTIONARY 72 cents\\nContaining over 25,000 words and meanings, with over 500 illustrations.\\nWEBSTER S HIGH SCHOOL DICTIONARY 98 cents\\nContaining about 37,000 words and definitions, and an appendix giving a pronounc-\\ning vocabulary of Biblical, Classical, Mythological, Historical, and Geographical\\nproper names, with over 800 illustrations.\\nWEBSTER S ACADEMIC DICTIONARY $1.50\\nAbridged directly from the International Dictionary, and giving the orthography,\\npronunciations, definitions and synonyms of the large vocabulary of words in common\\nase, with an appendix containing various useful tables, with over 800 illustrations.\\nThe Same, Indexed $1.80\\nSPECIAL EDITIONS\\nWebster s Condensed Dictionary. Cloth\\nThe Same, Indexed\\nWebster s Condensed Dictionary. Half calf\\nWebster s Handy Dictionary. Cloth\\nWebster s Pocket Dictionary. Cloth\\nIn Roan Flexible\\nIn Roan Tucks\\nWebster s American People s Dictionary and Manual\\nWebster s Practical Dictionary. Cloth\\nWebster s Countinghouse Dictionary. Sheep, Indexed $2.40\\n$1.44\\n1.75\\n2.40\\n15 cents\\n57 cents\\n69 cents\\n78 cents\\nal 48 cents\\n80 cents\\nCopies of any of Webster s Dictionaries will be sent prepaid to any\\naddress on receipt of the price by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(77)", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "JUL 24 1900", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3280", "width": "2067", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3504", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "artofstudy00hins_0284.jp2"}}