■^ .^ ■^'"^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 'liap.. pATight 1q., UNFTED STATES OF AMERICA. r«^ M^- -^'::-:;: THE History and Romance OF Ancient Enipires The Rise to Power, the Conquest, Domin- ion and Downfall, of the Powerful Nations of Antiquity. BY d\ M: STEVANS CHICAGO: THE POPULAR PUBLISHING CO., PUBLISHERS. 19279 JL-Jtorary of Congress I "^ Wo Copies Received JUL 13 1900 Coftyrigfit «ntry SECOND COPY. OeKvered to ORDER DIVISION, JUL 25 1900 66217 Copyright, 1900, BY C. M. STEVANS. BEQAN PRINTING HOUSE, CHICAGO TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction - - - - - 5 The; Chai^d^ans - - - - 15 Thb PHmNiciANS - - - - 19 The; Carthage;nians - - - 27 The; Ethiopians - - - - 31 The; Egyptians - - - - 36 The; He;bre;ws - - - - - 49 Th^ Arabians .... 66 The I^YDiANS - - . - - 78 The Assyrians - - - - 85 The Babylonians - - - - 100 The Medes ----- 108 The Persians - - - - -115 The Parthians - - - - 132 The Hindoos - - - - - i47 The Orientals - - - - 153 (3) 4 Table of Contents. PAGE The Grecians - - - • - i68 The Romans - - - - 229 * The Byzantine Empire - - - 307 The Dark Ages - - - - 314 The Feudal System . - • - 318 Chivalry - - - - - 321 The Crusades . - • - 324 INTRODUCTION. THE ARYANS. The Aryan family of nations occupy most of the first six thousand years of the world's history. From the earliest obtainable sources of information, it is shown that this Indo-European branch of the human race has always possessed, wherever it spread, the finest and most fruitful portions of the earth. The story of the strange races these people encoun- tered in their pre-historic migration from their primi- tive home, what wars they fought, what triumphs they won, what heroes they developed, can never be recov- ered from that ancient night of human life. But there is evidence enough to satisfy the seeker into the past that this energetic and superior people subjugated the native population wherever they went, and gradually absorbed it into one consanguineous body. The original Aryan language was correspondingly affected ; and, at the dawn of authentic history, Europe was peopled with vast hordes of different Aryan tribes knowing no relationship or similarity of interests. For more than a thousand years Aryan fought Aryan for the glory of supremacy, and in turn the different divisions of the Aryan family became powerful and (5) 6 Ancient Empires. then fell under a greater rival power. When the world- wide Greek dominion was broken, the Latin rose and in its turn gave way to the Teutonic. In the Latin family the Spanish and French seemed, in more recent times, about to become world conquerors, but grad- ually lost in comparative strength before the expansion and progress of the German and English. The close of the nineteenth century shows the Aryan race in its most rapid development with the Teutonic nations far in advance. The inclination of the Teutonic family is for peace and, in the evolutions of nations, the fittest is doubtless prevailing toward the ends of the best civilization obtainable among men. THE SOURCES OF HISTORY. Architectural monuments, sculptured records and household fragments, are the three chief sources of in- formation concerning the fabulous period of ancient history. The world has been the home of many races of men that have disappeared, leaving no trace which gives any accurate knowledge of their character or achievements. A few weapons, household utensils and ornaments found in their tombs and in the ruins of their dwelling places are all that remain to indicate the existence of these forefathers of the human race. The lake dwellers of Switzerland, the numerous in- habitants of the age of stone and the age of bronze, the mound builders of the Mississippi Valley and the build- ers of shell mounds in Denmark and India are exam- ples of those extinct races. Introduction. . 7 Recent discoveries of the fragmentary remains of these ancient people have added greatly to our meager knowledge of them. The Earl of Arundel brought to England from Smyrna the Parian Marble which con- tains, chronologically, the most important events in Grecian history from the earliest period to 355 B. C. Sir Henry Rawlinson discovered the Assyrian Canon which consists of numerous chronological tablets made during the reign of Sardonapalus. It contains the As- syrian chronology in which is the verified date of a solar eclipse occurring June 15, 763 B. C. Fragments of the Fasti Capitolini unearthed at Rome in 1547, 1817 and 1818 contain lists of Roman Magistrates and triumphs between the beginning of the Roman Repub- lic and the close of the reign of Augustus. During Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition into Egypt in 1798, a French military engineer discovered a cu- riously carved tablet of basalt near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. This precious relic was captured by the English when they defeated the French forces in Egypt. Copies were at once made and distributed among the learned societies of Europe. It was soon discovered that the inscription was in Hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek. It was found that this tablet after- ward known as the Rosetta stone was engraved 136 B. C. in order to announce an ordinance to the Egyptian Priests decreeing certain honors to Ptolemy Epiphanes, one of the famous Greek dynasties, beginning with Ptolemy and ending with Cleopatra. The Hieroglyphic inscription was deciphered by means of the accom- panying Greek translation and the key to the Egyptian 8 Ancient Empires. Hieroglyphics was thus at hand. The learned Egypt- ologists, Champollion, Marietta, Dr. Young and others, soon opened the way to the enormous treasury of Egyptian history to be found on their monuments and in their tombs. Much light on Phoenician history comes from the fragmentary writings of Sanchoniathon, from Baby- lonia and Assyria through Berosus ; on Egypt, from Manethos lists of the thirty dynasties of Egyptian kings, and on the ancient nations in general from the works of Herodotus. The learned archeologists and Egyptian chronologists, Layard and Rawlinson, have reformed the history of Assyria, Chaldsea and Baby- lonia through their exhaustive researches. Dr. Schlie- mann, between the years 1869 and 1873, discovered many valuable historical relics in the site of ancient Troy. The Hebrew scriptures, the Greek and Latin writers, Josephus, and the historians of the early Chris- tion church furnish nearly all the information to be had from the more reliable periods of ancient history. PRIMITIVE SOCIETY. Two very opposite opinions prevail regarding the primitive conditions of mankind. One represents hu- man life as beginning in the Golden Age of innocence and bliss ; the other insists that the present civilization of man has been evolved from a state of wild and sav- age barbarism. The first theory is upheld in the sacred writings of all the oriental nations. Jews, Chinese, In- dians, Persians, Babylonians, Egyptians and the nations Introduction. 9 of every country having a well defined religious faith, concur in the belief that man has fallen from a former high estate. Some begin their history with dynasties of gods and heroes who came to earth and dwelt among men. According to the other theory man was orig- inally in the lowest estate and has. gradually, but slowly and painfully, reached the present forms of judicial ad- ministration and mental development. The origin of man, as recorded in the pagan religions of antiquity, abounds in such gross absurdities as to lead only to absolute darkness. The pre-historic races led a pastoral and agricultural life. They formed vast communities and were divided only when irreconcilable quarrels arose among the heads of families. The first step known to have been made towards the methods of modern civilization, from the purely family hfe, was in the formation of villages by the Aryans. ORIGIN OF GOVERNMENT. The first form of government known in history is that of the patriarchal, which leads by easy steps to the monarchial. In the beginning, some primitive pa- triarch caused his office to be given to his eldest son, and thus it was made hereditary in his family. In time the hereditary patriarch became an hereditary king. These first monarchies were very weak, and their terri- tory was extremely limited ; but from the security thus attained by the centralization of power proceeded the idea of conquest, and the boundaries of authority there- by became greatly enlarged. In the chronicles of ancient times the reader is often 10 Ancient Empires. misled by attributing power to the kings of that period similar to that held by the rulers of a more modern age. The kings of scripture were merely the chiefs of tribes. In the valley of Sodom alone there were five kings. In the narrow territory of Joshua, that martial ruler defeated thirty-one kings, and Adonizedec, an- other petty ruler, overthrew seventy kings. Doubtless the regal office was at first elective, but the troubles arising from the aspirations of ambitious men tended to make the office hereditary. The shepherds, from the necessity of their frequent change of pasture, were the first to develop the idea of conquest. This was the impulse which caused the Arabians and Phoenicians to leave their ancestral homes and become invaders and conquerors. Under the name of Shepherd Kings, they conquered Egypt, but their dominion could have only short duration, since their character lacked all that is essential for the stability of government. From the nomadic condition of society to the stability of civilization is a long and slow process. Every step in such a progress results from the demands of want, or the injurious experiences of error. ORIGIN OF CIVIL LAW. The laws of the primitive inhabitants of the world were essentially arbitrary and barbarous. Offences were magnified or ignored according to the state of ignorance and superstition in the judges. Doubtless the selfish desire for safety has done as much or more than conscience to secure equality before the law. The earliest laws of all states have been those regard- Introduction. ii ing marriage. The institution of marriage began with the formation of society and was the first to be regu- lated by unalterable codes. In many of the ancient nations the husband procured his wife by purchase or personal services. Among the Assyrians, when the women arrived at a marriageable age they were put up at- auction, but the history of the Jews shows the gradual development of the modern ideas of marriage. The laws of succession were the next to be embodied in an absolute code. The father had full power in the division of his property, but there were certain rights that were often inalienable in primogeniture. The in- tegrity of society makes imperative the integrity of law. The relationship of jurisprudence and history is thus shown to be very close, and each becomes a pow- erful interpreter of the other. METHODS OF AUTHKNTICATING CONTRACTS. Testaments, sales, contracts, marriages and the like were in the earliest times transacted in pubHc, so that they might be authenticated by witnesses. Many bar- barous nations authenticated their bargain by exchang- ing certain symbols. The Peruvians accomplished this by knotted cords of various colors. The Mexicans used a method of painting, and the Egyptians employed hieroglyphics. After the invention of writing, the learned priesthood of the Egyptians still continued to transmit and- record certain knowledge by the use of hieroglyphics in order to conceal it from the laity. 12 Ancient Empires. METHODS FOR RECORDING HISTORICAL FACTS AND PUBI.ISHING I.AWS. History was first embalmed in poetry and song. Many of the ancient nations published their laws through the means of verse. Historical facts were sculptured in stone, but many of the barbarous tribes of ancient times had no other records of history than scattered tumuli and mounds of earth. All we know of many of the more refined nations is to be found in the remains of their columns, triumphal arches, coins and medals. THE DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. History may be divided as to its treatment into gen- eral and particular, as to its material into sacred and secular. With respect to time into ancient, mediaeval and modern. Ancient history ends, as is usually con- ceded, with the destruction of the Roman Empire in the West, A. D. 476. Mediaeval history extends from that date until the discovery of America in 1492. Mod- ern history embraces the period from the discovery of America to the present time. Ancient history is divided into two ages, called the fabulous and the historic. The fabulous age cover* the period previous to the foundation of Rome B. C. 753. The historic age dates from the foundation of Rome, because from that time on dates and events be- came more clearly authentic and subject to corrobora- tion. The most stupendous revolutions known in the his- tory of man came to pass in the early periods of the Introduction. 13 historic age. In that time occurred the entire destruc- tion of the Assyrian Empire and upon its ruins arose thi ^e great monarchies. It covers the marvelous his- tory of Greece with its astonishing progress of legisla- tion and its remarkable strides in the cultivation of the fine arts. MODERN EUROPE. The history of modern Europe embraces nine re- markable periods, the epochs of which may be enu- merated as follows : A. D. A. D. 1. The fall of the Western Empire 476 to 800 2. The re-establishment of that empire by Charlemagne . . , 800 to 962 3. The translation of the Empire to Ger- many, by Otho the Great 962 to 1074 4. The accession of Henry IV to the impe- rial crown, and the Crusades 1074 to 1273 5. The elevation of Rudolph of Hapsburg to the imperial throne 1273 to 1453 6. The fall of the Empire of the East. . . . 1453 to 1648 7. The peace of WestphaHa 1648 to 1713 8. The peace of Utrecht 1713 to 1789 9. The French Revolution to the present time 1789 to 1900 BRANCHES OF THE ARYAN FAMILY. 1. Hindus. i 2. Medes and Persians. 3. Hellenes, or Greeks. 14 Ancient Empires. 4. Latin, or Romanic Nations. (i) Ancient Romans. (2) Italians. (3) French. (4) Spaniards and Spanish Americans, (5) Portuguese and Brazilians. (6) Flemings, or Belgians. (7) Roumanians. 5. Germanic, or Teutonic Nations. (i) Germans. (2) Danes. (3) Swedes. (4) Norwegians, (5) Dutch, or Hollanders. (6) England and Anglo-American (Anglo- Saxon). (7) Scotch Lowlanders. (8) Norman-French. 6. Celtic Nations. ( 1 ) Ancient Britons, Gauls, and Spaniards. (2) Irish, Welsh, and Scotch Highlanders. (3) Bretons (West of France). 7. Slavonic Nations. (i) Russians. (2) Poles. (3) Bohemians. (4) Servians. (5) Bulgarians. (6) Bosnians. (7) Croatians. V ANCIENT EMPIRES THE CHALDEANS. Chaldsea was the most ancient monarchy in Asia of which we have any knowledge. This kingdom occu- pied the fertile district through the broad belt of des- ert, traversing the Eastern Hemisphere from the At- lantic Ocean on the southwest, to the Yellow Sea on the east. The great western plain between the Arabian Desert and the mountain ranges of Kurdistan was the site of three of the greatest empires of the world. This country was known to the Jews as Aram-Naharaim, or "Syria of the Two Rivers." The Greeks and Romans called it Mesopotamia. The Euphrates and Tigris rivers gave it all the dis- tinctive features of importance and fertility. Lower Mesopotamia, like Egypt, was acquired land, being the actual gift of the streams which wash it on either side. Chaldsea was in the southern portion of this great plain. It extended from the Persian Gulf on the south, to the natural line of division between Upper and Lower Mesopotamia on the north, and extended east and west between the Arabian Desert and the Tigris. ' The climate of this region is moderate and pleasant. Frost is known, but ice rarely forms. The warm season (15) 16 Ancient Empires. begins early in May and usually lasts through Novem- ber. In ancient times rich crops were raised on the fer- tile soil, and modern investigators all agree that by proper irrigation and cultivation this whole region could be made a garden spot of the world. Wheat is supposed to be indigenous in Chaldsea, where it may be mowed twice and then used as pasturage for cattle. As Chaldaea is destitute of stone or metals, and had an inexhaustible supply of bituminous clay, remains of the ancient Chaldsean civilization are to be found al- most altogether in clay tablets. The early history of Chaldsea abounds in the fabu- lous and obscure. The most clearly defined traditions point to Nimrod, the descendant of Ham, as being the father of the Chaldsean nation. Nimrod is said to have founded Babylon in the year B. C. 2286. He was a monarch of great personal power and ambition, who was called in the Hebrew Scriptures, "A mighty hunter before the Lord." We know nothing further of his reign than that he built the cities of Erech or Hurak, Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar. From the impression which he made upon his country it is evi- dent that he was one of the greatest men of the ancient world. He was defied by his nation, and until the latest times was one of the principal objects of worship under the title of Bel-Nimrod. Rawlinson says that the name given by the Arabic astronomers to the constellation of Orion, El Jabbar, the giant, was in memory of Nimrod. The only ancient heroes still remembered by the As- syrians are Nimrod, Solomon and Alexander the Great. The period immediatelyfollowing the reign of Nimrod The ChaldaBans. 17 has been lost, but there was evidently an emigration of the Semitic and Haniitic tribes to the northward. The Assyrians or Semites, went into Upper Mesopotamia, while the Phoenicians or the Hamitic people passed into Canaan and settled along the shores of the Med- iterranean. The Hebrews originated from the tribe which passed into northern Mesopotamia. The earliest Chaldaean monarch of whom any traces have been found was Urkham. His reign began about B. C. 2326. He built numerous gigantic temples, mass- ive in size, but rude in construction. The bricks are rough and put together in the most awkward manner. Rawlinson says : "In his architecture, though there is much that is rude and simple, there is also a good deal which indicates knowledge and experience." The capi- tal of his kingdom was at Ur, Babylon having not yet risen to a prominent position. Urkham was suc- ceeded by his son, Egli. He styled himself king of Ur. The signet cylinder of this king has been found, and is now in the British Museum. The blank that follows the reign of Egli in Chaldaean history is broken by the conquering of the country B. C. 2286 by an Elamitic Dynasty from Susa. A third dynasty of eleven kings began about B. C. 2052. This marks the period betwen the conquest of the Elamitic kings and the independence of the Chaldseans. Be- twen the years ~B. C. 1546 and B. C. 1300 an Arab chief, Khammurabi, made himself master of the country. He ruled wisely and was the first to introduce a proper sys- tem of irrigation. One of his inscriptions says that the canals he constructed changed desert plains into 18 Ancient Empires. well-watered fields. Many large buildings were also constructed by him. During the existence of this dy- nasty, Babylon was the seat of the court, and intimate relations were maintained with Assyria. About the year B. C. 1300 Tiglathi-Nin, king of Assyria, invaded and conquered Chaldsea, which became a part of the Assyrian monarchy, and continued so for centuries. The temples of the chief dties were pyramidal in shape, and built in successive steps to considerable height. Legends were stamped on the baked bricks, thus showing that a form of writing was then in use. The art of working on metals was known and textile fabrics were manufactured from delicate tissues. They had a considerable commerce on the Persian Gulf, and their civilization, science, letters and art extended in every direction. Chaldsea thus stands forth without a rival, as the parent of Asiatic civilization. Their religion was a polytheism of the grossest kind, although their prin- cipal gods numbered but sixteen, their inferior deities were legion. Their system, shows a remarkable resem- blance to classic mythology, and there is scarcely a doubt that the mythological notions and ideas of the Greeks and Romans had their origin among the primi- tive tribes of the Tigris and Euphrates. THE PHCENICIANS. A narrow strip of land extending along the Mediter- ranean from the ladder of Tyre on the South, to the • Island of Aradus, called Arvad in the Bible, consti- tutes the territory occupied by the ancient Phoenicians. The Lebanon range on the East was covered with great cedars and afforded an inexhaustible supply of timber for ship building. The Phoenicians originated in the Hamitic race and were descended from Canaan. They came to the shores of the Mediterranean about the time of Nimrod, built many cities and were finally united into a confederacy. Each city was free, but in time of war one was ac- knowledged as the leader. Sidon was the oldest, and was the first to reach the greatest height of wealth and power. It was early a commercial city and entered upon great enterprises by land and sea with neighbor- ing nations. In time it engaged in a system of found- ing colonies which subsequently made the influence of the Phoenicians upon the destinies of the world of in- estimable value. Until the year B. C. 1050 Sidon re- mained chief of the cities, but at that time it was cap- tured and destroyed by the Philistines, who over- ran the country from the Southern part of Palestine. Tyre, the first of the Phoenician colonies, then be- came the principal city. The original city of Tyre stood on the main land, but this being captured and destroyed the inhabitants rebuilt the city on an island about one (19) 20 Ancient Empires. mile from the shore. In a short time it surpassed all other cities in wealth, splendor and commercial great- ness. The Phoenicians were the earliest navigators, and for many centuries the commerce of the world was ex- clusively in their hands. Their first commercial ven- tures were doubtless made with Egypt, which was easily reached by land. Many bronze implements of undoubted Phcenician origin have been found in Egyp- tian tombs that were contemporary with the Pyramids. Tin being one of the component parts of bronze, and being found no nearer to Egypt than in the Caucasus, India or Spain, it must have been brought into Egypt from one of these regions, with which the Phcenicians probably had exclusive trade. The search for this metal, which was at that time in great demand, caused the Phoenicians to seek it in less difficult fields than those of the Caucasus and of India. An open sea af- forded a safe way to the Spanish coast where tin was found in abundance. When the Phoenicians had ac- quired great wealth and power, they still carried on and sought to increase the commerce which they had opened up in the East. At a very late period the Phoenicians still held the exclusive privilege of furnishing Italy and Greece with tin. At last the mines of Spain were ex- hausted, and then the Phoenician navigators passed the Pillars of Hercules and made frequent visits to the coast of Cornwall. Following their profitable sea trade they established colonies at advanced points and trading stations in distant countries, which ultimately devel- oped into important cities. The vast extent of the Phoe- The Phoenicians. 21 nician trade is thus indicated by the position of these colonies. Some of the cities arising in these colonies soon rose to such prominence as to surpass the mother country in the extent of their trade. Voyages were made to the West coast of Africa for apes, and to the Scilly Isles and Cornwall for tin. Other vessels went to India and Ceylon, returning with diamonds and pearls. Gold was obtained from Ophir on the South- east coast of Arabia. They entered the Black Sea and established relations with Thrace, Scythia and Colchis. The land traffic was begun between these colonial sta- tions, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, which very likely extended to all the neighboring nations. The great wealth obtained from their commerce was swelled by their domestic manufactories. They originated the famous dye known as Tyrian purple, which they ob- tained in minute drops from two shell fish, Buccinum and Murex. This dye, being very costly, was used only to obtain the most beautiful effects in silk fabrics and woolen goods. Homer speaks of his heroes being ar- rayed in Sidonian robes dyed in this gorgeous purple of deep-red violet. The art of glass blowing was also an invention of the Phoenicians, and they attained a high degree of skill in its exercise. Specimens of their glassware still exist attesting their skill and workmanship. They were well advanced in the manufacture of pottery, and the Greeks learned from them the art of making painted vases. Many of them were skillful jewelers, and they were noted for their beautiful carvings in ivory. They produced excellent wines. Canaan was 32 Ancient Empires. noted for its profusion of fruits, and the production of silk became a source of increasing wealth. At this time the writing of the Eastern nations was ideographic, but the Phoenicians used an alphabet of twenty-two letters, each of which represented an in- variable articulation. There is considerable reason to believe that the Phoenician alphabet was invented dur- ing the reign of Avaris, one of the Shepherd Kings of Egypt, several centuries before the exodus of the Israelites. As this is the first true alphabet known, to the Phoenicians belongs the honor of its use, whether they were the inventors or not. Wherever their com- mercial enterprises took them they introduced the use of this alphabet, and so spread the knowledge of writ- ing over the world. Although the Phoenicians were descendants of Ham, they spoke a Semitic language, the idioms of which differed but little from that of the Hebrews ; in fact, the similarity in grammatical forms and vocabulary is so marked that they cannot properly be considered as two distinct languages. Among their accomplishments, so remarkable for that early period, may also be included a well ad- vanced literature. They had treatises on religion, agri- culture and the useful arts ; many of the cities pos- sessed regular records in writing, and the principles of their religion, social and political organizations were embodied in a written law. The people of Sidon were noted for their skill in mathematics, philosophy and architecture. Immense stones were used in the con- struction of their buildings, as may still be seen in the temple platforms at Jerusalem, and in the sea walls The Phoenicians. 23 of Tyre, which were built by Phoenician architects and masons. Although they aimed at the massive and enduring in their buildings, large statues were very rare. Some of their stone sculpture exhibit great artistic skill, but their statuettes of baked clay and bronze are rough and coarse in design and execution. They recognized one universal divine being, usually termed Baal, the lord. He was the great agent of creative power, and repre- sented the sun. Fire was venerated, and the solar and sideral deities were fire gods. The Phoenician deities were worshiped with the most licentious and horrible rites. As the people were themselves servile, gloomy and cruel, their customs and manners were likewise selfish and corrupt. The com- mercial spirit possessed them to the exclusion of every finer feeling, and displaced every generous emotion and elevating sentiment. The location of Phoenicia, as well as its enormous wealth, made it the battleground of the ages. In an early day it was subjugated by Egypt, and in turn was devastated and conquered by all the warlike powers of the ancient world. In the eleventh century before Christ, Tyre became the leading city of Syria. Its first king was Abibaal, who was contemporary with David. His son, Hiram, succeeded him B. C. 1025, and reigned during the re- mainder of the century. Hiram maintained intimate relations with both David and Solomon of Israel, and supplied most of the costly materials for the construc- tion of the Jewish temple. The supremacy of Tyre 24 Ancient Empires. caused the king of Tyre to be known as the king of the Sidonians, although there was a local monarch, known as king of Sidon. The king of Tyre had charge of all the business with other nations relating to Phoenicia. Hiram died in B. C. 991, and the following fifty years were full of constant domestic intrigue and insurrec- tions until Eth-Baal, known as Ithobalus, the High Priest of Astarte, slew Phales, the last pretender, and made himself king of the Sidonians from the throne of Tyre. It was his daughter, Jezebel, who married Ahab, king of Israel. She exerted such influence over the mind of her husband that Israel practically came under the control of Phoenicia. Eth-Baal died about B. C. 909, and was succeeded by his son, Matgen. This king died B, C. 871, leaving a son called Pygmalion, and a daughter known to history as Dido. It was Matgen's wish that his children should reign together, but the people claimed Pygmalion king to the exclusion of his sister. At this Dido married the High Priest of Melcarth, who was next in rank to the king, and at the head of the aristocratic and opposing party. Dido's husband, Zicharbaal, spoken of by Virgil as Ichseus, was soon after assassinated by order of Pygmalion. Dido then organized a conspiracy, composed of Phoe- nician nobles, who were bent On dethroning Pygmalion, and avenging the death of Dido's husband. However, the conspirators were defeated, and in their extremity several thousand of them seized the ships lying in the harbor of Tyre and sailed away under the leadership of Dido, this name being given to her at that time, and signifying the fugitive. Reaching the northeastern The Phoenicians. 35 coast of Africa, they became the founders of Carthage, Although Pygmalion's reign ended B. C. 824 we have no information of any other Phcenician monarch for more than one hundred years. During this time they were subject to Assyria, but the prosperity and mari- time power of the country seems in no wise to have been injured. There was an unsuccessful revolt in B. C. 743, under Hiram of Tyre from the rule of Tiglath- Pileser II. In B. C. ^2^ Elulseus endeavored to wrest Phoenicia from Shalmaneser IV. The Assyrian king at once oc- cupied old Tyre and laid siege to the city on the island. As the Assyrians had no fleet and could not take it from the land, their siege was merely a blockade. They destroyed the aqueduct from the main land which sup- plied the city with water, and the people subsisted on such rain water as they were able to catch from the clouds during the five years of their resistance. Mean- while Shalmaneser was dethroned, but the siege was continued by Sargon, his successor. Sargon collected a fleet of sixty ships from the other Phoenician cities which he had captured, and endeav- ored to attack the island city from the sea, but the Tyrians met him with their fleet of twelve ships and totally destroyed his entire force. Unable to overcome Tyre, Sargon abandoned the siege, but as the Assyrians had subjugated all the remaining territory the power of Tyre was almost destroyed. In B. C. 704, soon after Sennacherib had ascended the throne, Elulseus reasserted the supremacy of Tyre and proclaimed the independence of Phoenicia. Four 26 Ancient Empires. years later Sennacherib invaded the country with a powerful army, and all the cities but Tyre at once sub- mitted. After a determined resistance, in which all the resources of the Island of Tyre were exhausted, the city was compelled to submit to Sennacherib, and Elulseus found safety in flight. After the assassination of Sen- nacherib, Sidon rebelled and made an attempt to secure the supremacy formerly held by Tyre. Essar-haddon, B. C. 68 1, moved against the rebellious Sidon, de- stroyed it and enslaved the people. Phoenicia threw off the Assyrian yoke at the death of Essar-haddon, and made an alliance with Egypt. But in B. C. 666 the Assyrian supremacy was again restored. In B. C. 630 a Scythian invasion ravaged the whole country of Phoe- nicia, but was unable to take any of the fortified cities. This unhappy territory for many years following was alternately the pray of Egypt and Assyria. In the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 598, Tyre resisted an Assyrian siege of thirteen years, but was at last carried by assault and reduced to ruins. Most of the popula- tion fled to Carthage, taking with them their wealth and their industry. In later years the country fell a pray to the conquest of Alexander the Great, which terminated the national existence of Phoenicia. Rome held that territory through many generations until it was at last included in the Empire of the Mohammedans. THE CARTHAGENIANS. Dido with her aristocratic friends, flying from the wrath of her brother, Pygmalion, at Tyre, arrived at the head of a peninsula which projected eastward into the Gulf of Tunis, and founded the city of Carthage, B. C. 869. For two centuries the history of this city is a mere woof of fables, but its power was gradually ex- tending, and in the sixth century before Christ it be- comes known to history as a flourishing metropolis having acknowledged supremacy over the northern coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules to the ter- ritory of Cyrene, and from the sea to Lake Triton on the south. It is clear that from the beginning Carthage aimed at nothing less than the establishment of a great em- pire on the land and over the sea. It won the allegiance of the nomadic tribes on the main land, and caused them to engage in agricultural pursuits. Colonies were established among them and intermarriages were en- couraged. In the course of time a strong mixed race arose, which yielded ready submission to Carthage, adopting its language and customs. As early as the founding of Carthage, a number of Phoenician colonies were in existence along the coast, which afterward be- came Carthagenian territory. Carthage never entirely subjugated them, but held a position toward them very similar to that of Tyre over the old Phoenician cities. This was an element of weakness which in her (27) 28 Ancient Empires. destructive wars with Rome weighed terribly against her. At a very early day Carthage established a strong influence over Sicily. Sardinia near the close of the sixth century B. C. was conquered, and about the same time Carthagenian colonies were established in the islands lying in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. A little later other colonies were planted in Cor- sica and Spain. As most of the Carthagenians were actively engaged in commercial enterprises, the con- quests of this city were largely effected by the employ- ment of foreign troops. Carthage early maintained a powerful navy, which was formed at first to protect its commerce from the Mediterranean pirates. The ves- sels were rowed by slaves, but the officers in charge were native Carthagenians. However ambitious the Carthagenians were for conquests, they very prudently never attempted to acquire more territory than their commerce required. Carthage very early in its career adopted the policy of founding colonies on islands, recognizing the fact that such a colony is easier protected than one on the main land. The western part of the Mediterranean was an open field to them, and in harmony with their ambitions and resources. According to the principles of its founders, Carthage was always an aristocratic Repub- lic, the chief distinction between the classes being that of wealth. Every Carthagenian was eligible to office, but as there was no salary attached to official positions no poor man could afford to be an officeholder. In consequence all political power was lodged in the hands of the rich, and public opinion was kept steadily op- posed to the elevation of a poor man to office. The Carthagenians. 29 The Carthagenians held to the same religion as the Phcenicians, the worst features of that faith being adopted, and the most barbarous rites practiced. One of the first measures exacted by the conquering Romans was in the suppression of human sacrifices to Baal. Sicily was early an object greatly desired by the Carthagenians. Settlements were made in the western corner of the island, and a steady policy was pursued that looked toward its final conquest. No force was used, however, against the Greek inhabitants until the fifth century B. C. When Xerxes invaded Greece, Carthage believed that the time had come to conquer the Greek cities of Sicily. Hamilcar, son of Mago, attempted the conquest, but was heroically defeated by Gelo at Himera, B. C. 480. The Carthagenian army was then sent against the Libyan tribes, and they were reduced to subjection, thus ending the tribute which Carthage had until that time paid as rental for the ground on wTiich the city stood. Seventy years after the first invasion of the Island of Sicily the Carthagenians, at the invitation of Egesta, again invaded that island to assist the city Egesta in her contest with Sehnus. Both the fleet and the army were under command of Hannibal, grandson of Hamilcar. The Greeks were defeated, Selinus and Himera were destroyed, and the Carthagenians returned home in triumph. Encouraged by their successes, the Cartha- genians put forth all their power to conquer Sicily. The wars that followed occupied the most of the four cen- turies before the Christian Era. The end of the war came in B. C. 340, when Carthage was compelled to make peace. 30 Ancient Empires. Agathocles, king of Syracuse, in B. C. 311, deter- mined to drive the Carthagenians out of Sicily. He was defeated the next year by Hamilcar, and a deso- lating war with various successes continued for six years, when peace was declared. At this time Carthage barely held its original possessions in Sicily, which were about one-third of the island. In these wars the Carthagenians learned their weak- nesses, and received an excellent training for the com- ing struggle of life or death with its great Latin rival. Meantime the new power was rapidly rising in Italy, that was destined to destroy Carthage and conquer the world. Henceforth the history of that unfortunate city practically belongs to the history of Rome. THE ETHIOPIANS. Nubia and Abyssinia are now the political divisions covering the territory that was occupied by the An- cient Ethiopians. The origin of these people is veiled in the impenetrable obscurity common to ancient na- tions. Splendid monuments, colossal statues, obelisks, sphinxs and rock-cut temples show that this ancient Hamitic family was as advanced in art and civilization as its Egyptian neighbors. The region occupied by the Ethiopians also contained nomadic Arab tribes, even at that date, as much out of touch with the neighboring civilization as are the wan- dering Arab tribes of the present time. The civilized Ethiopians possessed a civil govern- ment, dwelt in cities and executed with justice their laws. They used hieroglyphics, and their progress and wealth was such as to give them considerable fame over other portions of the civilized world. That part of the Nile valley wherein they lived was as fertile and rich as the territory occupied by the Egyptians. Meroe, an island almost surrounded by rivers, was the breeding ground for camels, and a considerable commerce in ivory, ebony and spices was carried on both between the negroes of Central Africa and the Egyptians. A flourishing Ethiopian kingdom had its seat at Meroe about 1,000 years A. D., and all upper Egypt was in- cluded in its dominion. As the Ethiopians were, through most of their (31) 33 Ancient Empires. existence, a peaceful people, the little we know of their history comes from their invaders. They were several times conquered by Egyptian kings, but the Egyptian rule over them was only for comparatively short periods. About the nth century B. C, according to the Greek historians, Ethiopia was invaded by Semi- ramis, the Assyrian queen, who was one of the fabulous heroines of ancient times. One of the first facts known to a certainty about the Ethiopians is that they aided Shishak, king of Egypt, when he sought to subjugate Rehoboam, king of Judah, in 957 B. C. It is said that sixteen years later Zerah, king of Ethiopia, again invaded Judah with a great army, but was totally defeated. We learn from the Jewish scriptures that the Ethio- pians at one time controlled the navigation of the Red Sea, and were masters of a large part of Arabia. To have carried on such an extensive and distant cam- paign is proof that the Ethiopian kingdom was strong in resources and military power. It was some time dur- ing this period that King Sobaco conquered Egypt. One of his successors, called So in scripture, was so powerful that Hoshea, king of Israel, was encouraged to revolt against the Assyrians. As the Ethiopian king did not come to his assistance, Hoshea and his people were carried into Assyrian captivity. Another Ethio- pian king of Egypt, known as Tirhakah in scripture, led an army against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, in an attempt to raise the siege of Jerusalem. The Ethiopians came into notice again during the reign of Psammetichus in Egypt, sometime during the The Ethiopians. 33 7th century, B. C, because of the emigration of 240,000 Egyptian soldiers into Ethiopia. This great body of the warrior-castev left their country because they be- came offended at the invitation their king had extended to certain Greek merchants to settle in Egypt. This immigration added greatly to the prosperity and strength of the state. They adopted the Ethiopian cus- toms and were of great assistance in resisting the for- midable invasion of the Persians. After conquering Egypt, Cambyses, in 525 B. C, in- vaded Ethiopia, without having made adequate pro- vision for the unknown dangers of the expedition. In consequence the Persian army was destroyed by famine in the desert. The religion of the Ethiopians was very similar to that of their neighbors, the Egyptians. Several temples were erected to the worship of Ammon. The priest- hood comprised the sacred caste, and in them was vested all political power. The king was chosen from among themselves, and in the name of the Gods his life was always at their disposal. The superstitious African tribes stood in great awe of the Ethiopian priests, and when a priest was at the head of a caravan it was never molested by the savage Nigritians. Ergamenes became king early in the 3rd century B. C. He had lived for a time in Greece and was well instructed in the Greek philosophy. He had also visited Jerusalem, and while there was so impressed with the Jewish faith that he adopted it as his own. Despising the professions of the priesthood, he stormed their fortresses, massacred most of them, and established the Jewish religion. 34 Ancient Empires. That many of the sovereigfns of Ethiopia were queens, we learn from the chronicles of Augustus Csesar, who was opposed about twenty years B. C, by a horde of undisciplined Ethiopians led by a woman. The superior arms of the Romans brought an easy triumph, but an honorable peace was given by the con- queror to the queen, whose name was Candace. Another Queen Candace followed Ergamenes, and it is known that during her reign her confidential ad- visor went to worship at Jerusalem. While there he came under the instruction of St. Philip, and thus be- came a convert to Christianity. On his return to Ethi- opia, A. D. 53, he made Christianity the state religion. Since that time the Christian religion, corrupted by many native principles and rites, has prevailed among the descendants of the Ethiopians, now known as the Abyssinians and Nubians. Their sculpture and architecture, in its rough and colossal forms, very much resembles that of the An- cient Egyptians. In Nubia, near Derr, is the remark- able rock-temple of Ipsambul. This massive temple is cut from a mountain of solid rock. The inside is adorned with immense statues and painted sculptures which represent triumphal processions, religious pageants, battles and castles. Four colossi are on the outside, larger than any in Egypt except the Sphinx. As a curious incident, it may be noted that' this rock- temple resembles the famous excavated structures of the Hindus in the Island of Elephanta, near Bombay. The social estate of the ancient Ethiopians and the modern Abyssinians contain little to be admired. The The Ethiopians. 35 Christianity of the modern Abyssinian has had a con- stant struggle against Mohammedanism in regard to marriage, but the polygamist practice of the Arabs pre- vails. Through the study of their language, modern schol- ars' have learned much of the ethnic relationship of the Ethiopians. The Abyssinian language, being so nearly one with the Hymyarite Arabs, indicates the same ultimate origin as the Hebrews, and the Ethiopic tongue, as learned from the Amharic inscriptions, shows it to be a member of the southern group of Semitic languages. In the early ages the Abyssinians were Aryans. In the 6th century the Abyssinian church became Mono- physite, and in this form spread over Nubia. In the i6th century the Portuguese, through their missionaries, endeavored to convert the Abyssinians to \he orthodox standard. Jesuit missionaries were established, and in the year 1624, the Abyssinian church went over entirely to the Roman Catholic faith. The authority of the Pope was acknowledged, however, only for a short time, when ecclesiastical independence was again proclaimed. THE EGYPTIANS. Misraim, one of the sons of Ham, is supposed to have been the progenitor of the Egyptians. His gov- ernment was under the control of an aristocratic Priest- hood whose members were the patrons of arts and sciences. There seems to have been three distinct classes. The Priests, the soldiers and the artisans. The Priests held a powerful influence over the people through the means of religion, and the military to have upheld the Priesthood by a wholly arbitrary power. For the first two centuries there does not survive the name of a single ruler. The ancient sacerdotal despot- ism is supposed to have been overthrown by Menes, a military chieftain. In its place he established the first civil monarchy about twenty-four hundred years be- fore Christ. Menes was first in the long line of Pharaohs. Herodotus and Josephus both attribute the founding of Memphis to Menes. This is probably the most ancient Egyptian city. Others also attribute to his enterprise the building of Thebes. Most of the reign of Menes seems to have been occupied in foreign wars with nations unknown to history. Numerous tra- ditions record that he cultivated the arts of peace. Beyond question he protected religion and erected many temples. The frontiers of his kingdom he defended with great walls. He dug numerous canals, and con- structed dikes to prevent inundations and for regulating the overflows of the Nile upon the cultivated lands. (36) The Egyptians. 37 His name is the most prominent in all ancient records, many of the subsequent monarchs being entirely ig- nored. That he was held in great veneration by his im- mediate posterity is attested by the numerous monu- ments which still endure. The period betwen the reign of Menes and the en- trance of Abraham into Egypt, about the twenty-first century before Christ, is almost blank in the records of that country. The interpretation of hieroglyphic in- scriptions has corroborated many of the vague tradi- tions and established the fact that the greatest Egyptian Pyramids were erected three or four hundred years be- fore the time of Abraham, and not less than eight hun- dred years before Moses. Abraham on his visit to Egypt was received with the hospitality that betokens a highly advanced nation. Nearly a century before Abraham's visit, the Hycsos or Shepherd Kings had conquered Lower Egypt. These roving people came from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, and were probably of that family of people known in the sacred scriptures as the Philistines, and still later in ancient history as Phoenicians. The Hycsos kings continued in their rule over Lower Egypt for a period of two hundred and sixty years, when they were expelled and driven back to Asia. Dur- ing this period Thebes was the capital of Upper Egypt, and it appears to have remained wholly under the gov- ernment of native Egyptians. It was a few years after the expulsion of the Shep- herd Kings when Joseph became governor under one of the Pharaohs, and the family of Jacob was given the land of Goshen. 38 Ancient Empires. SESOSTRIS. While the IsraeHtes were wandering in the wilder- ness, Sesostris was the King of Egypt. Ancient histo- rians represent him as being not only the most powerful ruler Egypt ever produced, but also one of the most extensive conquerors. Amenophis, the father of Sesos- tris, having a presentiment of the coming glory of his son, omitted nothing that might contribute to his popu- larity and power. Among the things done to insure a faithful following of his son, Amenophis ordered all the male children born on the same day with Sesostris to be taken to Court. Under the influence of the wisest teachers to be procured, Amenophis caused these chil- dren to be brought up with the young prince, receiving the same attention and education. It is said that seven- teen hundred v/ere thus trained as a body-guard for Sesostris. They were inured from infancy to hard and laborious life that they might one day be prepared for the fatigues of war. No meal was allowed to be taken until they had given certain time to vigorous exercise. Hunting and horseback riding were their chief diver- sions ; and, as soon as they were old enough, they ac- companied military expeditions against the neighboring tribes. When Amenophis died, Sesostris was well pre- pared for the great career that followed. The plans of Sesostris embodied nothing less than* the conquest of the whole world. His first care, however, was to pro- vide for the interior tranquillity of his country, and espe- cially to win the love and devotion of his people by unexempled aflfability and equity. Egypt was divided by him into thirty-six provinces ; The Egyptians. 39 the governor of each being intrusted to a wisely selected person whose uprightness and fidelity were beyond doubt. During the time when he was thus securing the faithful integrity of his people, he made careful and adequate preparation for the execution of his vast de- signs. Troops were assembled and drilled in all the military evolutions then known, and made a part of the great machine through which he hoped to become mas- ter of the world. His army consisted of six hundred thousand infantry and twenty-four thousand cavalry, with twenty-seven thousand war chariots. This army was first thrown into Ethiopia, a country south of Egypt, which he made tributary, and then forced the inhabitants to pay him large revenues in ivory and gold. He next attacked the maritime cities along the Ara- bian Gulf and the shores of the Indian Ocean with a fleet of three or four hundred vessels. His conquests by land still continued, and in a short time he had over- run Asia and advanced into Eastern Judah beyond the points reached by Hercules or Alexander. Turning north he conquered Armenia, Cappadocia and subdued the Scythians in the ancient kingdom of Colchos. Near the Euxine Sea he founded a colony which caused the Egyptian manners to prevail in that country for many years. Herodotus states that in his travels through Asia Minor he found many monuments erected by Sesostris in commemoration of victories. In several Asiatic countries there were found columns containing the following inscription : "Sesostris, king of kings, and lord of lords, subdued this country by the power of his arms." Several pillars of this kind were found in 40 Ancient Empires. Thrace, and others show that Sesostris penetrated as far as the Tamais, and that his empire extended from the Ganges to the Danube. Unlike other conquerors he made no effort to con- tinue his power in the countries he subdued, but was contented, after having taken possession and exacted tribute, to allow the subjugated territory to resume its former government. For the space of nine years he was occupied in overrunning the world, and then, as if satisfied with his invasions, returned to Egypt. There is no evidence to show that any of the subjugated ter- ritories were retained under his control. When Sesostris returned to his kingdom he was crowned with glory and loaded with the spoils of a sav- age and depopulating war, in which he had despoiled whole provinces and reduced peaceful nations to the ut- most misery and distress. The rest of his life was spent in the quiet and single government of his own people. When Egypt passed under the control of the Roman emperors, there still remained many monuments testi- fying to the splendor and opulence of his kingdom. It is said that in his old age he became blind, and, wearied with the infirmities of years, he committed suicide, after a brilliant reign of thirty-three years. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION. Much of the cultivation and attainments of the an- cient nations is traceable directly to the influence of the Egyptians. The Greeks were instructed by the Egyp- tians, and the Romans by the Greeks. The influence exerted upon modern civilization by the cultivation and The Egyptians. 4i preservation of Egyptian art and thought through ihe Greeks and Romans cannot be estimated, but was un- questionably very powerful. Aside from the chronicles of Manetho and other sources of Egyptian history, the nature of Egyptian remains affords adequate presump- tion that the civilization of that country dates from great antiquity. The functions of the king were partly civil and partly religious. He had the chief regulation of all that per- tained to the worship of the gods. Priests were his deputies, and filled the offices of state. They were both legislators and civil judges; they imposed taxes and regulated weights and measures. The penal laws of Egypt were uncommonly severe. The sacred funeral rights were not conferred until a thorough scrutiny into the life of j;he deceased admitted a judicial decree proving his character. One extraor- dinary regulation regarding the borrowing of money may be mentioned. The borrower was accustomed to pledge the body of his father as security, and all funeral rights to the parent were denied if the son failed to re- pay his creditor. The increase of population was everywhere encour- aged by law, and every man was bound not only to maintain and educate his children, but also those of his slaves. The Egyptians had a singular attachment to ancient usages. They disliked innovations, and strangers were always objects of jealousy and abhorrence. The knowledge of the useful arts and the cultivation of the sciences preceded, among the Egyptians, many 42 Ancient Empires. of the most ancient nations. Architecture was early brought to the greatest perfection, especially in their public buildings, pyramids and obelisks. Owing to the mildness of climate, these structures suffered but little injury from time. Thebes, probably the oldest of the great Egyptian cities, was one of the most magnificent ever built. The Pyramids, far south of Thebes, were erected nearly three thousand years before Christ, and were doubtless the sepulchral monuments of the earliest sovereigns. Such great care was taken of the dead, because the Egyptians believed that the soul never entirely aban- doned the body. A process of embalming was there- fore brought to the utmost perfection, and the bodies were entombed in caves and catacombs, where they were guarded by stupendous structures, too massive to be the object of art. Though art in Egypt is venerable from its great antiquity, yet it is extremely deficient in beauty and elegance, as endurance seemed to be the chief object to be attained. In painting and sculpture the Egyptians were but slightly proficient, and they were entirely ignorant of the construction of the arch. In mathematics they possessed considerable knowledge. They calculated eclipses, divided the zodiac into twelve seasons, and had some idea of the motion of the earth. The theology and sacred documents of the Priests were in many re- spects rational and sublime, but the worship of the people was debased into the most absurd superstitions and their morals were very depraved. The national character was extremely low, and was much despised The Egyptians. 43 among the contemporary nations. The cause of this may be attributed to their isolation, their hatred for the arts and improvements of foreign people, and their an- tipathy to all innovations. PROCESS OF EMBALMING. Diodorus gives us the first circumstantial account of the Egyptian process of embalming. He says that many persons were employed. One drew the brain through the nostrils, by an instrument prepared for that purpose; another emptied the bowels and intes- tines through the side by the use of some sharp instru- ment, while others filled these cavities with desiccating and preservative perfumes and odoriferous drugs. This process appearing in many respects both cruel and in- human, they were compelled to run away as soon as the operation was over in order to avoid the resentment of the relatives and mourners. Those who were employed in filling the body with murrh, cinnamon and the dif- ferent spices were very honorably treated. There were many processes varying in completeness and cost, the perfection as to details depending upon the rank and wealth of the deceased. In the course of a few days after the first part of the preparation was done, the corpse was swathed in long fillets, and glued together with thin glue, which was then crusted over with perfumes as exquisite as could be afforded. Through this means the eyelids, brows and lineaments of the face were preserved in a natural state. After the completion of the process the body was delivered to the relatives, who placed it in an open chest, which was 44 Ancient Empires. made to fit very closely the body. This casket was then set upright against the wall, either in the home of the relatives or in a specially prepared sepulchre. The sacred asylum of the tomb could not be pro- faned by the body of one that had not lived an upright' life. Therefore when the body was ready for the sepulchre, a trial was held before judges appointed for that purpose, in which the entire life of the deceased was canvassed. If it was found that the body was un- worthy of being buried among the justified, it was re- turned to the relatives to be disposed of otherwise. If the judgment was favorable it was at once placed in the sacred tombs. In the ceremonies of interment a panegyric on the life of the deceased was pronounced, but in it there was no mention of the birth of the deceased, because every Egyptian was believed to be born equally noble. As a curious instance of their moral ideas it may be men- tioned that gratitude was the highest esteemed virtue. They believed that happiness in the coming life de- pended entirely upon well doing in the present life. They believed in the transmigration of souls, but at last the soul must come to trial before the judgment- seat of the gods. Osiris presided over the trial, at which there were forty-two gods present as examining judges. If the decision of this divine tribunal proved favorable the soul was sealed as justified and perfect. The Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the Hall of the Two Truths, where this last trial takes place. Addressing the Lord of Truth the soul denies having done evil, saying "I have not afflicted any, I have not The Egyptians. 45 told falsehoods. I have not made the laboring man do more than his task. I have not been idle. I have not murdered. I have not committed fraud. I have not injured the images of the gods. I have not taken scraps off the bandages of the dead. I have not com- mitted adultery. I have not cheated by false weights. I have not kept milk from sucklings. I have not caught the sacred birds." Then turning to each god he makes the following assertions : "I have not been idle. I have not boasted. I have not stolen. I have not counter- feited, nor killed the sacred beasts, nor blasphemed, nor refused to hear the truth, nor despised God in my heart." Other texts in the Book of the Dead represent the soul as saying : "I have loved God. I have given bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, garments to the naked and an asylum to the abandoned." Brugsch declares that a thousand voices from the tombs teach most of the sacred virtues of the Chris- tians. An inscription in Upper Egypt says : "He loved his father, he honored his mother, he loved his brethren, and never went from his home in bad temper. He never preferred the great man to the low one." Another says : "I was a wise man, my soul loved God. I was a brother to the great men and a father to the humble ones, and never was a mischief-maker." At Sais there is an inscription on the tomb of a priest who lived in the days of Cambyses, which says : "I honored my father, I esteemed my mother, I loved my brothers. I found graves for the unburied dead. I instructed little chil- dren. I took care of orphans as though they were my own children. For great misfortunes were on Egypt in 46 Ancient Empires. my time, and on this city of Sais." The reHgious creed of a Pharaoh at Thebes is thus described : "I lived in truth, and fed my soul with justice. What I did to men was done in peace, and how I loved God, God and my heart well knew. I have given bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothes to the naked, and a shelter to the stranger. I honored the gods with sacrifices, and the dead with offerings." MONUMENTS OF EGYPT. The obelisks are quadrangular pyramids cut out of a single block of granite, raised perpendicularly and cov- ered with inscriptions and hieroglyphic symbols. Many of them are two hundred feet high, and were made the chief ornaments of Rome by the conquerors. The pyramids are more lofty and still more astonishing in their structure. Their enormous bulk and strength enabled them to survive the dissolutions of time, and the inroads of barbarians. The largest of the three great pyramids forms a perfect square, each side of which measures about 700 feet at the base. The per- pendicular height is 500 feet, and its summit, although appearing from below as only a sharp point, is a square platform measuring twenty .feet on each side. This amazing structure is composed of stones of extraor- dinary size; large numbers of- them being thirty feet long, four feet high, and three feet wide. Herodotus estimated that one hundred thousand workmen were employed at the same time in erecting this stupendous monument. Diodorus and Pliny both assert that there were even a greater number of workmen than this, who The Egyptians. 47 were employed for three months and then dismissed, to be followed by another levy of an equal number of men, continuing in this succession until the completion of the pyramid. At this rate it took thirty years to complete the work. As an incident of the cost, we are told that the single item of vegetables furnished to workmen amounted to sixteen hundred talents ; that is, nearly one million, seven hvindred thousand dollars. Herodotus, however, says that this stupendous work was exceeded by the labyrinth which he himself exam- ined. This structure contained within the same en- closure three thousand rooms, twelve of which were so elaborately and magnificently constructed as to be justly called palaces. Fifteen hundred of these rooms were under ground, all communicating with one another by such a complication of circuitous passages as to make it impossible for a stranger to find his way out unless as- sisted by a skillful guide. The ceiling and walls were all composed of white marble, embellished with costly carvings. Another of the remarkable monuments of ancient Egypt was the mausoleum of Osymandias, one of the Egyptian kings. This curious structure was encom- passed with a circle of gold 22 inches wide and about six hundred and seventy feet in circumference. On every side was depicted the rising and setting sun, the" moon and the constellations. Even at that remote period the Egyptians divided the year into twelve months, consisting each of thirty days. At the end of the year they added five days to complete the total num- ber of 365 days. The precious ornaments of the sub- 48 Ancient Empires. lime and costly mausoleum of Osymandias were car- ried away by Cambyses, king of Persia, when he con- quered Egypt. In Upper Egypt was the city of Thebes, which, in its extent and magnificence, was itself a world of won- ders. Even if allowance is made for the exaggeration of some ancient writers that it had one hundred gates and could send forth to war through each of them at the same time, two hundred chariots with ten thousand warriors — enough is certain to show that it had far more than one million inhabitants. The evidences ob- tained by recent explorers prove that it had a pro- digious variety of gigantic statues, porticos, columns and obelisks sufficient for the highest idea of the glory, riches and splendor of the grandest of ancient mon- archies. THE HEBREWS. ABRAHAM THE FOUNDER OF THE JEWISH NATION. Noah sent forth his son Shem with the prophetic benediction that he was more blessed than his breth- ren. From this stock came Abraham, the progenitor of the Messiah, and the father of the faithful. He was born in the country of the Chaldees, and in the midst of an idolatrous and corrupt people he retained the wor- ship and knowledge of the true God. With his family and his flocks he journeyed from the Chaldaean country and remained for a while at Haran and Gerah, where his father died. At this place God bade him depart from his people and go into the land of Canaan where he would find a country which his pos- terity should inhabit. Abraham took his family and his nephew, Lot, and lived for a time in the promised land. At last a famine compelled him to go to Egypt for corn, and on his return to Canaan he divided the country they inhabited with Lot, taking the plain of Mamre for himself and giving the valley of Jordan to Lot. Not long after Chedorlaomer, King of Elam, the territory afterward called Persia, invaded Canaan and took Lot prisoner. Abraham immediately armed his trained servants and making an unexpected assault on the conqueror recaptured Lot and all the spoils. The limited domains of the kings at that time may be well understood from the fact that in this military ex- cursion Abraham's army consisted of only three hun- (49) 50 Ancient Empires. dred and eighteen fighting men. Sodom had now be- come so wicked that Lot, by divine command, abandoned the Valley of Jordan, and the wicked cities of the plain were destroyed by fire. Abraham then removed from Mamre and went to Gerar where he led a peaceful life among his herds. Abraham had two sons : Ishmael, who is classed as the father of the Arabians, and Isaac, who became his father's heir. After the death of Abraham the family increased in numbers, power and property, so that the sons of Isaac were among the strongest in the land. Chief among them was Jacob, who afterward was called Israel. Jacob had twelve sons, among whom he distinguished Joseph with blamable partiality. The brethren envied and hated this favored one and at the first opportunity sold him as a slave into Egypt. After various vicissitudes, as learned in Bible history, he be- came Prime Minister, to Pharaoh, the king. Famine again recurring in the land of Gerar, Jacob sent . his remaining sons into Egypt to buy bread. Joseph treated them with much seeming severity until he had made them sensible of his power ; then, in order to show them that he was too generous and noble to harbor re- venge, he said t© the brethren, "I am Joseph, your brother; be not grieved, God sent me before you." With the next year Jacob removed to Egypt with his whole family, including Judah, in whose line was the Messiah. The Egyptians esteemed very Hghtly their pastoral occupation and Joseph gave them all a resi- dence in the land of Goshen. After the death of the reigning king there arose an- The Hebrews, 51 other who it is said "Knew not Joseph." From this date the IsraeHtes were very cruelly treated, neverthe- le^ss they increased greatly in numbers. In the course of time a deliverer arose in the person of Moses. A command had gone forth that all the male infants of the Jews should be slain. Jochebed, the wife of Amram, had given birth to a son, which she con- cealed in her home for a time ; but, this being exceed- ingly dangerous, she committed him in pious trust to God, and then, m.aking a little ark of wicker work, she placed the child within it and set him among the flags on the bank of the Nile. Miriam, his younger sister, sat at a distance and watched to see what might befall him. Pharaoh's daughter, the Princess of Egypt, came to the stream with her maidens to take her daily bath. Hearing the child cry, some of her attendants found it and brought it to the Princess, whose compassion and tenderness was moved by its beauty. Seeing Miriam the Jewish girl sitting not far away, the Princess sent for her to come and tell her if she knew of a Jewish woman who could be the child's nurse. Miriam imme- diately suggested Jochebed. The Princess not know- ing that it was the child's mother, took her as its nurse, adopting the child as her son, and causing him to be educated in all the learning of the Egyptians. With- out doubt Moses was duly informed of his birth by Miriam, who was his constant attendant, and by his mother who continued to be his nurse ; for, midst all the splendors of the Court, he cherished with bitterness the wrongs of his kindred and planned to set them free. His indignation could no longer be restrained when he 52 Ancient Empires. was compelled to witness, in one of his walks along the Nile, the brutal treatment of a Hebrew by an Egyptian. Striking the offender dead, he at once fled from Egypt and went into the land of Midian. Here God spoke to him from the burning bush and commanded him to re- turn to Egypt for the deliverance of the Israelites. This he did, and after the visitation of many judgments upon the obstinate Pharaoh that king was compelled to con- sent to the departure of the Hebrews. No sooner had they left the borders of the country, however, than Pharaoh repented of his permission and pursued them into the Red Sea, through the miraculously divided waters. When the Israelites had passed out on the far side, the wall of waters closed over the pursuers and destroyed them. In commemoration of this deliverance of the Israelites the Feast of the Passover was insti- tuted by the command of Jehovah. THE JEWISH THEOCRACY. . Under the guidance of Moses the Israelites left Egypt and directed their course toward Canaan. In the neighborhood of Mt. Sinai the Ten Commandments, known as the Moral Law, were given to Moses under the most impressive circumstances. Through divine command, Moses formed a civil constitution and made laws for the government of the new nation. The gov- ernment thus formed acknowledged no head but that of Jehovah, thus constituting a pure theocracy. The vital principle of their laws was purity in religious wor- ship, which presented an insuperable barrier to poly- thesism. One of the most stringent restrictions was The Hebrews. 53 that they should, under no conditions, intermingle with other nations, which at that time were universally idolatrous. During the following forty years the nation wandered in the wilderness and the fathers who had come out of Egypt descended to their graves, while the children were fitted by their constant hardships, to contend with the poweiful tribes, who were then in possession of Canaan. After learning strict obedience to the laws given them through Moses they were permitted to emerge from the wilderness and behold before them the Land of Promise. After obtaining a victory over the Midianites on the borders of the land of Canaan, Moses died. He was incomparably the greatest law- giver of all time, the first of historians and favored beyond all other men in his personal intercourse with the Deity. Moses was succeeded by Joshua who car- ried on a seven years' war of conquest successfully against the Canaanites. The divine command had called for a total extermination of the idolatrous na- tives. This had not been fulfilled and its result was fatal for the future peace of the Israelites. The land was soon surveyed and divided equally among the tribes. After the death of Joshua the government was carried on by chiefs called judges. During this period the Jews frequently lapsed into the idolatry of the sur- rounding nations, and were compelled to contend con- tinually with the tribes who dwelt upon their borders. The most renowned among these judges were Deborah, Gideon, Jepthah and the prophet Samuel. At the end of four hundred and sixty years of government by these 54 Ancient Empires. judges the rebellious Israelites demanded a king and Saul was appointed. He carried on wars successfully against the Amalekites and the Philistines, who for more than forty years had held the Israelites in subjec- tion. After the death of Saul, David, the son of Jesse, hav- ing distinguished himself in the Philistine wars, suc- ceeded to the throne of Judah. David was a young man, cool, deliberate and strong in counsel. He was of tender sensibility and felt keenly all the emotions of love, friendship and parental fondness. He also pos- sessed qualities seemingly incompatible. His physical beauty was delicate almost to femininity, and yet he was bold, and terrible in arms. His accomplishments were various and conspicuous. His knowledge of war and politics was profound, and his skill in music was such that it could calm the madness of Saul. His talent for poetry was of. a superior order, and his sacred songs have never been equaled. To him we owe the inimi- table beauty and sublimity of the Pslams. Such a man was David, who came to the throne of Judah beloved by God and man. Having sinned he was rebuked by the Prophet Nathan, after which he bitterly repented in great personal humility. Throughout his poems there is to be found the deepest strain of penitence and piety. Under Saul the purity of Jewish worship had degen- erated, but David, becoming sole m.onarch of all the tribes of Israel, restored the original worship of the fathers. On the site of Jebus, a strong fortress which he took from the Jebusites, he built the city of Jeru- salem, and made it the capital of his dominion. Syria The Hebrews. 55 was made a Jewish province and the frontiers of his sovereignty were extended to the limits of the promised land. Commerce revived and valuable articles of mer- chandise came into his kingdom through his alliance with the Syrians. With him originated the idea of building a great and costly temple for the v/orship of God. He made extensive preparations to this purpose, but left the execution of his plans to his son and suc- cessor, Solomon. This eminent ruler made wisdom his chief,and during his reign the Jewish nation came to its utmost height of splendor and power. Although he was in the midst of bold and designing enemies his triumph over all obstacles was complete an