•H^'f 



I'loo 



.ART'S 

Elementary Graa^mar 

•I- 



AN 

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



WITH AN 



ANALYSIS OF THE SENTENCE. 

BY 

JOHN S. HART, LL.B., 

liATE PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND 
LITERATURE IN THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY. 

REVISED EDITION, 

By Edward Gideon, A. M., Supervising Principal op George G. Meade 
School, Philadelphia. 




PHILADELPHIA: 

Eldredge & Brother, 

No. 17 North Seventh Street. 

1900. 



25634 






jLibrsiry of Covi^e,; 

; JUL 27 1900 

■ Copyr.ght entry 



SECOND COPY, 

D«iliver(xi to 

ORDER DiVISiON, 

-iUL^8_J900 



7. 



»»0^0«' 



^ 



Entered, according to Act ol Congress, in the year 1900, by 

ELDREDGE & BROTHER, 

in the OflSce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

••o^o* — ■ 



ELECTROTYPED BY 
WESTCOTT & THOMSON, PHILADA. 



PRESS OF 
FERGUSON BROS. & CO., PHILADA. 




Preface to the Original Edition. 

In this volume the author has selected from his larger 
Grammar those portions which are purely of an elementary 
character, and which are studied by beginners in first going 
over the subject. The whole of Prosody, all of the chapter 
on the Derivation of Words, and the fine print matter of the 
other portions, are omitted. On the other hand, copious 
explanations, and a complete series of practical exercises, are 
appended to the several definitions and rules. The knowl- 
edge of each rule and definition is thus thoroughly tested and 
impressed on the memory before the pupil is allowed to pro- 
ceed to more advanced knowledge. 

The work, as now offered, is the result of long experience 
in the class-room, and of no little reading and study. The 
English language and its literature have been for many years 
the main subjects of the author's inquiry, and he has 
endeavored in this volume to give the results of his observa- 
tions in the form which his experience as a teacher has con- 
vinced him to be the best adapted to the wants of the learner. 

A word as to the method pursued. The author has en- 
deavored to bear in mind that he was writing, not a treatise 
for the learned, but a text-book for learners. For such a 
book, — 

The first and most imperative demand is clearness, — clear- 
ness of arrangement, and clearness of expression. 

Next and hardly less imperative is the demand that the 
more and the less important should be carefully discrimi- 
nated, and the difference plainly set forth to the eye. 



IV PREFACE. 

A third imperative demand is that the rules, definitions, 
and other matter to be committed to memory, should be ex- 
pressed with the utmost possible conciseness. 

A fourth requisite is that every rule and definition should 
be supported and illustrated by a goodly array of apt practical 
examples. These are as necessary in teaching grammar as 
sums are in teaching arithmetic. 

How far these things have been secured is for the reader 
to judge. 



Preface to the Revised Edition. 

0K>>a<O<. 

The demands of modern life for a better and quicker 
acquisition of the principles governing the construction of 
the English language necessitate a revision of the old forms 
and methods of technical grammar. While some advocate 
the retention of the extreme technicality of the past, others 
insist that it has no place in the elementary school. A third 
part advocate the acquisition of a knowledge of the essentials, 
combined with an extensive use of exercises, bearing upon 
all the vital points of the construction of the language. 

To meet this last requirement this revision has been made. 
Much unnecessary matter has been eliminated. Numerous 
exercises have been added, and the phraseology has been 
changed to meet the demands of modern methods with the 
hope that the change will be acceptable. The revision is sub- 
mitted to the teachers of the schools, who are the only judges 
of the value of a school-book. 

E. G. 




Preface, iii, iv 

Introduction, . . . . , 7 



First Part. 



oX»<o 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Orthography, 8 



Second Part 



-«K)>«<0 



ETYMOLOGY. 

The Article, 16 

The Noun, 17 

The Adjective, 27 

The Pronoifn, 31 

The Verb, 37 

The Adverb, 68 

The Conjunction, 71 

The Preposition, 72 

The Interjection, 74 

Words used as Different Parts of Speech, 75 

V 



vi CONTENTS. 



Third Part. 



^v^OO 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

PAGE 

Syntax, • 78 

Rule 1. The NomiDative, 80 

Rule 2. The Verb, '84 

Rule 3. The Objective Case and the Verb, . 88 

Rule 4. The Objective Case and the Preposition, 91 

Rule 5. The Possessive Case, 93 

Rule 6. Apposition, 95 

Rule 7. Case after the Verb To he, 97 

Rule 8. The Pronoun, 99 

Rule 9. The Article, 106 

Rule 10. The Adjective, 107 

Rule 11. The Adjective Pronoun, 109 

Rule 12. The Participle, Ill 

Rule 13. The Adverb, 114 

Rule 14. The Infinitive Mood, 116 

Rule 15. The Conjunction, 118 

Rule 16. The Interjection, 119 

Analysis, 120 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing, 139 




Elementary 



English Grammar. 



oj*:o 



Grammar is the science which treats of Language.* 
Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, Or- 

THOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SyNTAX, and PrOSODY. 

Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, 
Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification, 



^ The matter in this book is divided into two kinds, indicated by 
two varieties of type, and it is important that the object of this 
arrangement should be clearly understood. 

It is intended that the pupil should first go through the book, learn- 
ing the matter in the larger type, the declensions and conjugations, 
such portion of the matter in the smaller type, and such portions of the 
Exercises, as may be found expedient, with such oral explanations 
from the teacher as may be necessary. 

Having gone over the whole ground once, or perhaps twice, in this 
way, the pupil will be prepared to take up profitably the remaining 
portion of the Exercises, and the matter in the smaller type. 

7 




First Part. 



-<K>5«<0 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Orthography treats of Letters. 

I. LETTERS TAKEN SEPARATELY. 

Letters are written characters or signs used to rep- 
resent certain sounds of the human voice. 

A letter that is not sounded in speaking is called a silent 
letter. 

The letters of any language are called its Alphabet. 
The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 
Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
A Vowel can be fully sounded by itself. 
A Consonant cannot be fully sounded unless in 
connection with a vowel. 

Vowels. 

The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and 
y. All the other letters are Consonants. 

8 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 9 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel sound 
in the same syllable; as, won, young; but are vowels in all 
other places; as, hoy^ law. 

A Diphthong" is the union of two vowels in one 
sound; as^ oi in voice, 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
sound; as, ieu in adieu. 

The triphthongs are three in number, eau^ ieu, lew ; as in 
beauty y lieutenant^ review. 

U after q is never counted as part of a diphthong or of a 
triphthong. 

Exercises. — Which of the letters in the word Philadelphia 
are vowels? Which are consonants? Name the vowels, con- 
sonants, diphthongs, and triphthongs in the following words : 

Sounding Lieutenant Separation 

Abundant Loitering Boisterous 

Write three words in which w is used as a consonant, three 
in which y is used as a consonant, three in w^hich w is used as 
a vowel, three in which y is used as a vowel. 

Write five w^ords each containing a diphthong, five each 
containing a triphthong. 

II. WORDS AND SYLLABLES. 

A Word is a collection of letters used together to 
represent some idea. 

A Syllable is so much of a Avord as can be pro- 
nounced by one impulse of the voice ; as^ co7i in con- 
tain. 

Spelling is putting letters together correctly so as to 
form syllables and words. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so as 
to make complete sense ; as, John wrote a letter. 



10 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; of 
two, a Dissyllable; of three, a Trisyllable; of more 
than three, a Polysyllable. 

Example. — Truth is a monosyllable; truth-ful, a dissyllable; 
truth-ful-ness, a trisyllable ; un-truth-ful-ness, a polysyllable. 

Exercise.— To what class does each of the following words 
belong ? 

Nation, uprightness, incomprehensible, authority, frequent, 
plague, opportunity, horse, element, elementary, robber, vowel, 
consonant. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE I.— Y final. 

Part 1. — 1^ final, preceded by a consonant, is changed 
into i on taking a suffix ; as, fanc-y, fanc-i-fuly (not 
fanc-y-ful). 

A suffix is a letter or syllable added to the end of a word. 
Exception 1. — Before ous, y sometimes becomes e; as, 
beaut-y, beaut-e-ous. 

Exception 2. — Before m^, y is not changed; as, tarr-y, 
tarr-y-ing. 

Part 2. — Y final, preceded by a vowel, is not changed 
on taking a suffix ; as, play, play-er. 

Exceptions. — Day, which makes daily ; lay, pay, and say, 
which make laid, paid, and said, together with various other 
derivatives and compounds, as mislaid, unpaid, unsaid. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding ful to 
mercy, plenty, bounty, duty, pity ; by adding es and ing to cry, 
pry, try, apply, deny, rely ; by adding er and est to merry, sorry, 
saucy, holy ; by adding hood to likely ; craft to handy ; ed to 
quarry, journey ; ful to beauty, pity ; ous to glory, pity ; es tq 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

melody; ous to melody; ety to gay; ly to gay, witty ; er to betray, 
witty ; ing to journey. 

Write five examples of y final changed to ^, under Part 1 
of the Kule. 

Five examples of y final becoming e, under Exception 1. 

Five examples of y final not changed, under Exception 2. 

Five examples of y final not changed, under Part 2 of the 
Kule. 

RULE II.— E final, silent. 

Part 1. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a vowel, is dropped ; as, carCy car-ing. 

Exception 1. — le, on taking the suffix m^, is changed into 
y ; as, die, dy-ing. 

Exception 2. — Dye (to color), hoe, and shoe do not drop e 
on taking the suffix ing ; as, dye-ing, hoe-ing, shoe-ing. 

Exception 3. — Singe, swinge, and tinge do not drop e on 
taking the suffix ing. This is to retain the soft sound of the 
g, and to distinguish them from the corresponding forms of 
sing, swing, ting. Thus: sing-ing, swing-ing, ting-ing ; singe-ing, 
swinge-ing, tinge-ing. 

Exception 4. — Ce and ge, on taking a suffix beginning with 
a, 0, or u, do not drop the e. This is to retain the soft sound 
of the c and g. Thus : service-able, not servic-able ; change-able, 
not chang-able. 

Part 2. — E final, silent, on taking a suffix beginning 
with a consonant, is not dropped ; as, care^ care-fuL 

Exceptions. — Judgment, lodgment, abridgment, ax^knowledg- 
ment, argument; wisdom, nursling; duly, truly, awful, with some 
corresponding derivatives of due and true, such as duty, dutiful, 
truth, truthful. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding ing to bite, 
force, revive; by adding able to admire, adore, deplore; en to 
ripe; ing to smoke, tie, pave, trace, lie ; ness to ripe, repulsive; 
ical to sphere ; ant to dispute ; some to ti7X ; ment to pave ; able 



12 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

to service, cure, marriagCy trace; ible to defense; ous to fame 
courage; less to defense. 

Write five examples of e final dropped, under Part 1 of the 
Rule. 

Five examples of ie changed to y, under Exception 1. 
Five examples of e final not dropped, under Part 2 of the 
Ruleu 

RULE III.— Words ending in IL 

Words ending in U drop one I on taking a suffix be- 
ginning with a consonant ; as, fuU^ ful-ness ; also some- 
times on taking a prefix ; as, full^ hand-ful ; till, un-tiL 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding to all the 
words though, together; by combining with and all; by com- 
bining a7in and fidl; all and most; all and ways; full and 
fill ; well and come ; use and fidl. 

Write five examples of / dropped on taking a suffix. 

Five examples of / dropped on taking a prefix. 

RULE IV. — Doubling the final consonant. 

In words accented on the last syllable, a final conso- 
nant, if single, and if preceded by a single vowel, is 
doubled on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, 
permity permit-t-ing. 

Monosyllables, being always accented, come of course 
under this Eule. 

Here are four conditions : 

1. The last syllable must must have the accent. 

2. It must end in a single consonant. 

3. This single consonant must be preceded by a single 

vowel. 

4. The suffix must begin with a vowel. 

Exercises. — Write the words formed by adding ing and ed 
to remit, impel; ist to drug, machine, novel, natural ; er to revel; 
ed to fulfil, rub, fail, refer ; ing to squat, sail, gallop, hum ; ant 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

to assist; ent to excel; ine to adamant; ate to alien ^ origin; en 
to red J moist, fright ; ar to consul; er to 'propel; ous to mountain; 
y to mwd, mealy sleep ; ee to commit, absent, patent ; ard to slug, 
drunk. 

In forming each combination, give the Kule applicable 
to it. 

Exercises. — Write : — Ten examples of doubling the final 
consonant under the Kule. Five examples in which the first 
condition only is wanting. Five, in which the second only is 
wanting. Five, in which the third only is wanting. Five, in 
which the fourth only is wanting. 

RULE v.— The terminations ciVC and teve. 

In such words as receive^ relieve, ei is used if the 
letter c precedes ; as, receive, deceive ; but ie is used if 
any other letter precedes ; as, relieve, believe. 

Miscellaneous Exercises. 

Combine the following words and suffixes, making the 
necessary changes; and show in each case the application 
of the Eule. 

1. Add i7ig to live, assail, compel, repent; est to lively; so to 
all; ish to boy; ed to commit; ment to commit. 

2. Add ness to happy, lovely; full to art; some to whole; y to 
smoke, trick; able to love; th to true; full to truth; ness to truth- 
ful; ty to due; full to duty ; ly to dutiful. 

3. Add ing to copy, induce, propel, embroil, infer ; ed to copy, 
delay ; ly to ivhole ; ment to induce; ence to infer. 

4. Add er to refine, libel; ment to amaze, refine; ing to amaze, 
whip; ous to glory, beauty; ed to sulphuret; ful to beauty. 

5. Add some to full; full to awe; fare to tvell ; ing to abet, 
consent, remit, differ ; ment to fulfil. 

Write the words so combined. 

Draw a line through the silent letters. , 

Mark the accented syllable. 



Second Part. 



^>^o 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of Words. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

The classes of words in English are nine ; namely 
Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, 
Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Inter- 
jections. These classes of words are sometimes called 
The Parts of Speech. 

The Parts of Speech may be classed and defined as 
follows : 

1. Name Words. 

Nouns. — A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing; as, Johrij school, hook, 

2. Representative Words. 

Pronouns. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; 
as, The man is happy because he is benevolent. 

3. Action Words. 

Verbs. — A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm ; as, John 
strikes the table ; Mary studies her lesson. 

14 



ETYMOLOGY, 15 

4-. Modifyingr Words. 

Articles. — An Article is the word a, an, or thCj placed before 
a noun to show whether the noun is used in a definite, or in 
an indefinite sense. 

Adjectives. — An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun 
or a pronoun ; as, A green tree, A wise man, Brave soldiers. She 
is studious. 

Adverbs. — An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb ; as. He writes rapidly^ A very fast 
horse, He wrote very rapidly. 

5. Relation Words. 

Prepositions. — A Preposition is a word placed before a noun 
or a pronoun to show its relation to some other word ; as. He 
writes with a pen. He lives in a tent. He spoke to them. 

6. Connecting Words. 

Conjunctions. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, sentences, and parts of sentences ; as, John and James 
study, John writes and James reads. He is neither strong in 
body nor sound in mind. 

7. Independent Words. 

Interjections. — An Interjection is a word used in making 
sudden exclamations ; as, oh ! ah ! alas ! 

Name the part of speech to which each of the following 
words belongs : 

River, sea, see, men, committee, eat, look (2), armory, arm 
(2), arms, tiger, leopard, sergeant, we, who, my, mine (3), 
with, great, kind (2), crowd (2), large, and, or, neither, ah, 
centre, how, up, that, nobody, hill, hilly, mountainous, great- 
est, an, action, charge (2), giant (2), down, whether, wharf, 
music, musician, musical, musically, now, never, more. 

In the following sentences, name the part of speech of 
each word : 
The enemy is upon us. I did not see him. He lifted his 



16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

hand. He will come when he is called. I have no friends 
who will help me. How can I help my friend ? Who is he ? 
What sort of a man is he ? Have you heard the news ? 



I. THE ARTICLE. 

An Article is the word a, an^ or the placed before a 
noun to show whether the noun is used in a definite, or 
in an indefinite sense. 

The articles are a and the. 

A is the Indefinite Article, the is the Definite 
Article. 

The Article a is written before a consonant sound ; 
as, a man^ a bird. 

The Article a is written an before a vowel sound ; as, 
an eagle^ an old man. 

O and t^ sometimes have a consonant sound at the 
beginning of a word ; as, one^ unit. 

H before a vowel is sometimes silent; as, houvy 
honor. 

A or an means one, and is used only before the sin- 
gular number ; as, a man, an apple. 

The is used before both numbers ; as, the many the men. 

Articles are sometimes called limiting or definitive adjectives. 
As a limiting word an article modifies the word to which it 
relates. 

Exercises. — Name the appropriate indefinite article to be 
used before each of the following words : 

Ewe, yew, eye, ear, watch, one-eyed man, European, In- 
dian, umbrella, use, end, day, opening, engineer, horse, 



ETYMOLOGY, 17 

honest, hiatus, human, humble, onion, orchard, usury, unit, 
eagle. 

Write each t)f these words in a sentence. 
Write the following sentences and fill the blanks with the 
proper article : 

old man and boy walked on highway. 

eagle is noble bird. 

mills of gods grind slowly. 

water rushed like torrent down hillsides. 

honest man is noblest work of God. 

Borneo is island. 

Philadelphia is city. 

man is known by company he keeps. 

What word does each of the articles used in the preceding 
sentences modify ? 

11. THE NOUN. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, Johuy school, book. 

In the sentence, '' Charles Avent to Boston in the boat," 
what part of speech is Charles? Wliy? Boston? Why? 
Boat? Why? 

In the following sentences state which words are nouns, 
and why ? 

In coming from Trenton to Philadelphia, I saw John on the 
boat with a satchel of books in his hand. 

The book had good covers, but bad print. 

The boy had a knife with a small blade. 

The horse in the stable has a good disposition. 

Temperance and industr}^ promote health. 

Religion exalts a nation. 

Beauty is a fading flower. 
2 



18 elementahy guammar. 

Write ten nouns, names of persons. 
Write ten nouns, names of places. 
Write ten nouns, names of things. 

I. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 
Nouns are divided into two general classes, Proper 
and Common. 

A Proper noun is a name given to only one of a 
class of objects ; as, John, London , Delaware, 

A Proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. 

A Common noun is a name given to any one of a 
class of objects ; as, boy, city, river, 

A Collective noun is the name of a collection of 
objects considered as one ; as, army, crowd. A col- 
lective noun is also called a Noun of Multitude. 

Exercises. — Which of the following nouns are Proper? 
which Common? and which Collective? james, isaiah, 
prophet, australia, island, regiment, plymouth, town, herd, 
Washington, england, county, flock, elizabeth, woman, class, 
table, chair, book, hudson. 

Which of the foregoing nouns should begin with a capital 
letter? Write each of these nouns in a sentence. 

Write six proper nouns, six common nouns, six collective 
nouns, and write each one in a sentence. 

II. ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 
Nouns have the attributes of Gender, Number, 
Person, and Case. 

I. OENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns in regard to Sex. 
Nouns have three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



19 



The Masculine Gender denotes objects of the male 
SEX ; as, boyy man. 

The Feminine Gender denotes objects of the fe- 
male SEX ; as, girly woman. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects without sex ; 
as, bookf river. 

Modes of Distinguishing Gender. 
There are three ways of distinguishing gender : 

1. By the use of different words; as, bachelor^ maid; son, 
daughter, 

2. By difference of termination ; as, giants giantess ; editor, 
editress, 

3. By prefixing or affixing another word; as, man-servant, 
maid-servant; land-lord, land-lady. 



1. By the use of different words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


King 


queen 


Beau 


belle 


Lad 


lass 


Boy 


girl 


Lord 


lady 


Brother 


sister 


Male 


female 


Bull 




Man 


woman 


Bullock 


cow 


Master 


miss, mistress 


Ox 

Steer 


' or 
heifer 


Nephew 
Papa 


niece 
mamma 


Colt 


filly 


Ram 


ewe 


Earl 


countess 


Sir 


madam 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar, monk 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Swain 


nymph 


Horse 


mare 


Uncle 


aunt 


Husband 


wife 


Wizard 


witch 



and many others. 



20 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



2. By difference of termination. 



Masculine, 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Heir 


heiress 


Actor 


actress 


Hero 


heroine 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Lion 


lioness 


Author 


authoress 


Negro 


negress 


Baron 


baroness 


Poet 


poetess 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Count 


countess 


Tailor 


tailoress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Testator 


testatrix 


Duke 


duchess 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Editor 


editress 


Czar 


czarina 


Founder 


foundress 


Don 


donna 


Giant 


giantess 


Sultan 


sultana 


3. 


By prefixing or 


affixing another word. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Gentleman 


gentleivoman 


Male-child 


female-child 


Gmndfather 


grandmother 


Man-servant 


m,aid-sery£int 


He-gosit 


she-gout 


Tesicock 


lpea.hen 


Land/ord 


Isindlady 


Schoolmaster 


schoolmistress 



Some nouns denote objects which may be either male or 
female ; as, bird, parent. These are said to be of the Common 
gender. 

Exercises. — Name each of the nouns in the following sen- 
tences, state whether it is a proper noun or a common noun, 
and state the gender of each. 

The teacher explained the lesson to the boys and the girls. 

Mary made a fan of the feathers of a peacock. 
. The hunter killed a deer and its fawn. 

The king and the queen were on the throne. 

The landlord turned the man, his wife, and their children 
out of the house. 

Mr. Dale bought a horse and a colt for two hundred dollars. 

The shepherdess kept watch over her sheep. 



ETYMOLOGY, 21 

John caught a fish in the lake. 

My uncle, aunt, and cousin have gone home. 

Write five nouns of the masculine gender, five of the fem- 
inine gender, five of the neuter gender, and five of the com- 
mon gender. 

II. NUMBER. 

Number is that attribute of Nouns which indicates 
whether One or More than One is meant. 

Nouns have two numbers; the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes One, the Plural 
Number denotes More than one. 

Modes of Forming the PluraL 

1. Plural in S» 

Nouns are usually made Plural by adding s to the 
Singular; as, book, books. 

Exercise. — Write the phiral of house, room, cliair, book, 
bee, bird, dog, cat, pen, pencil, noun, poet, tree, flower, ship. 

2. PliAral in es. 

Nouns ending in ch soft, s, sh, x, and z, are made 
Plural by adding es ; as, church, churches ; miss, misses ; 
lash^ lashes ; box, boxes ; topaz, topazes. 

Nouns ending in o differ as to the mode of forming the 
plural. Some form the plural by adding es ; as, cargo, car- 
goes. Others form the plural by adding simply s ; as, canto ^ 
cantos. 

Exercises. — Write the plural of dish, peach, larch, match, 
latch, dash, lash, kiss, mess, moss, loss, muss, mass, fuss, rush, 
hiss, wish, sash, fish, quiz, fox, miss, lynx, radish, rhombus, 
negro, Cato, echo, buffalo, bamboo, lasso, potato, trio, motto, 
halo. 



22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Write sentences each containing one or more of these 
nouns. 

Ee-write the sentences changing the number of the nouns. 

3. Plural in Ves» 

Most nouns ending in single /, or in /e, are made 
Plural by changing / or fe into ves ; as, loaf^ loaves ; 
life, lives. 

Nouns ending in double / form the plural according to the 
general rule ; as, muff', muffs. 

Exercises. — Write the plural of wharf, half, cuff, leaf, beef, 
calf, thief, wife, roof, life. 

Write sentences each containing one or more of these 
nouns. 

Ke-write the sentences, changing the number of the nouns. 

4. Plural in ies. 

Nouns ending in y after a consonant are made Plural 
by changing y into ies ; as, lady, ladies. 

Nouns ending in y after a vowel do not change y into ieSy 
but form the plural by the general rule; as, day, days. 

Exercises. — Write the plural of ray, toy, chimney, tray, 
artery, Monday, February, buoy, boy, attorney, valley, money, 
whisky, whiskey, fancy, fairy, sky, penny. 

Write sentences each containing one or more of these 
nouns. 

Change the number to the plural form and re-write the 
sentences. 

5. Nouns irregular in the Plural. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men Tooth teeth 

Woman women Goose geese 

Child children Mouse mice 

Foot feet Louse lice 

Ox oxen 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

Write sentences each containing one or more of these nouns. 

Exercises. — Change the following nouns into the plural, 
and give the rule for each change : 

Sky, church, army, wolf, knife, leaf, wish, crucifix, fish, 
crutch, monarch, peach, patriarch, kiss, sex, pony, ox, calf, 
muff, loaf, radish, valley, turkey, half, money, thief. 

Name all the nouns in the following sentences, and state 
in regard to each (1) whether it is proper or common, (2) its 
gender, and (3) its number : 

James and his sister study their lesson in the same book. 

I learned the facts from Mary while going home. 

Many pigeons were seen on the top of the house. 

Mice are great thieves; they exercise their nimble feet 
when they hear the cat coming. 

III. PERSON. 

Person is the distinction of nouns in their relation to 
the speaker. 

Nouns have three persons, First, Second, and Third. 

The First person is the Speaker; the Second 
person is the one spoken to; the Third person is 
the one spoken of. 

Examples. — First person, "J, Paul, beseech you;" second 
person, "Children, obey your parents;" third person, ^'The 
children obey their parents." 

Exercises. — Indicate all the nouns in the following sen- 
tences, and state in regard to each (1) whether it is proper or 
common, (2) its gender, (3) its number, and (4) its person : 

I, the captain of this company, gave the order. 

John, take the slate into the next room. 

Parents are kind to their children. 

Parents, be kind to your children. 

Write five sentences containing nouns of the second person, 
five of the third person. 



24 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

IV. CASE. 

Case distinguishes the relation of a noun or a pro- 
noun to other words in the satne sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, Nominative, Possessive, 
and Objective. 

The Nominative Case is that in which a noun is 
THE SUBJECT OF A VERB ; as, The girl reads. 

The Possessive Case is that which denotes own- 
ership OR POSSESSION ; as, Mary^s book. 

The Objective Case is that in which the noun IS 

THE OBJECT OF SOME VERB OR PREPOSITION ; aS, 

" Mary wrote a letter, '^^ " William went into the 

street:' 

How to find the Nominative. — The subject of the verb 
may be found by putting '' who " or '' what " before the verb 
and asking the question. Example : ^^ A man bought a hat." 
Who bought? Ans. Man. Therefore, '' man " is the subject 
of the verb ''bought," and is in the nominative case. 

Exercises. — Name the subject of each verb in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

A butcher killed a calf. 
John hurt William. 
William hurt John. 
A horse kicked a man. 
A man kicked a horse. 
Idleness produces poverty. 
Poverty produces idleness. 

How to find the Objective. — The object of a verb or of 
a preposition may be found by putting ''whom " or "what" 
after the verb or the preposition and asking the question. 
Examples : " WilHam hurt his sister." Hurt whom ? Ans. 
Sister. Therefore, "sister" is the object of the verb "hurt." 



ETYMOLOGY, 25 

"William went into the street." Into what? Ans. Street. 
Therefore, ''street'' is the object of the preposition ''into." 

Exercises. — Name the object of each verb and preposition 
in the following sentences : 

John lost his book in the street. 

Mary studied her lesson from the book, 

WilHam gave a ball to John. 

The horse kicked the man. 

The butcher killed the calf. 

Lucy found a dollar on the floor. 

Henry caught a fish in the creek. 

The leaves fall from the trees in Autumn. 

Name the object of each of the prepositions in the follow- 
ing sentence : 

William placed his hat on the table in the parlor at the 
time of recess when the boys w^ere at dinner. 

Name all the nouns in the following sentences, and tell in 
regard to each (1) whether it is common or proper, (2) its 
gender, (3) its number, (4) its person, (5) its case : 

John's dog caught a rabbit in the meadow. 

Samuel has a pencil in the pocket of his vest. 

Elizabeth saw a man in the field. 

The boys found a nest on a tree in the grove. 

Harry and his cousin caught a large fish in the lake. 

Mary's brother lost his knife in the road. 

Charles rode in his brother's carriage. 

The boys caught a squirrel in the hedge. 

John's friend left his books in the car. 

Write fi\e sentences containing a noun in the nominative 
case ; five in the possessive case ; ^\q in the objective case in 
which the noun is the object of a verb, five in which the noun 
is the object of a preposition. 



26 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 



Formation of the Possessive. 

The Possessive Singular is formed from the nomi- 
native singular by adding an apostrophe (') and s. 

The Possessive Plural is formed from the nomi- 
native plural by adding an apostrophe only when the 
plural ends in Sy and by adding both the apostrophe 
and s when the plural does not end in s. 

Exercises. — Write the following nouns in the possessive 
case singular: dog, man, baby, boy, James, Thomas, Jane. 

Write the following nouns in the possessive case plural : 
attorney, lawyer, mother, beauty, ox, monarch, dandy, dray. 

Declension of Nouns. 

An arrangement of the different forms of the gender, 
number, person, or case of a noun or a pronoun is called 
its Declension. 



Singular. 



Plural^ 



Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Friend 


friend's 


friend 


Friends 


friends' 


friends 


Man 


man's 


man 


Men 


men's 


men 


Church 


church's 


church 


Churches 


churches' 


church 


Lady 


lady's 


lady 


Ladies 


ladies' 


ladies 



Jones Jones's Jones 



Joneses Joneses' Joneses 



Exercises. — Decline fox, farmer, Benjamin, James, city, attor- 
ney, lass, miss. 

Write the possessive case, singular, of Agnes, Robert Morris, 
Roger Williams, Martin Van Buren, John Quincy Adams, maid- 
of-all-work. 

Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of hahy, 
colony, landlady, dray, calf, mulatto, ox, ox-cart, mouse. 

Write the singular and plural forms of each of these words 
in sentences. 



, ETYMOLOGY. 27 

Name all the Articles and the Nouns in the following sen- 
tences. Name the gender, number, person, and case of each 
noun. Name the verb and give its subject : 

Mary's dress was torn. 

John's knife is sharp. 

Mary lost a book in the street. 

John's dog caught a rabbit in the grove. 

Mary's kitten ran dow^n the stairs. 

The boys caught a fish in the lake. 

John caught a squirrel in a trap. 

Lucy's sister found a dollar on the floor. 

Henry's cousin killed a snake in the meadow. 

Mary's book was found by John in the street. 



-o>Ko 



III. THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a Noun or a 
Pronoun ; as, A green tree, A wise man, Brave soldiers, 
She is studious. 

The adjective does not always stand immediately before 
the noun which it modifies or describes. Thus we may say, 
The studious girl, or, The girl is studious. In either case, the 
word '' studious " describes or modifies girl. 

Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express 
some quality of another noun ; as, gold ring, sea water. 

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and admit of 
number and case ; as, our superiors, his betters, by fifties, for 
twenty^s sake. 

Exercises. — You have a pretty book. What part of 
speech is book? What word is here used to describe the 
book? What part of speech is pretty? What is an adjec- 
tive? 



28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Name three other words that you can put before the word 
book, telling what kind of a book it is. 

Put a modifying word in the blank space before each of the 

nouns in the following sentence : I saw a boy with a 

knife cutting a stick. What are these three modifying 

words ? 

Name the adjective in each of the following sentences : 

Jane has a new dress. 

John has a sharp knife. 

The lesson is not difficult. 

They went home by the wrong road. 

The bird was thought to be beautiful. 

How hot you have made the fire. 

Name the nouns, articles, and adjectives in the following 
sentences : 

This new slate is broken into many pieces. 

I had a pleasant dream last night. 

Wicked men do not have good thoughts. 

A merry heart maketh a glad countenance. 

The old window is so dirty that you cannot see the new 
houses on the hill. 

Use the following adjectives with a noun : fast, rich, bad, 
new, wise, black, first, clean, happy, old, beautiful, industrious, 
troublesome, soft, plentiful, hungry. 

Write five sentences, each containing an article, an adjec- 
tive, and a noun. 

I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives which express number are called Numer- 
als. 

Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, Cardinal, 
Ordinal, and Multiplicative. 



ETYMOLOGY, 29 

The Cardinal Adjectives denote the number or 
quantity ; as, one^ two, three, four. 

The Ordinal Adjectives denote the order or arrange- 
ment ; as, first, second, third, fourth. 

The Multiplicatives denote how many times ; as, 
single, double, triple. 

II. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are varied by Comparison. 

The Degrees of Comparison are three. Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive Degree expresses the quality ; as, small, 
wise. 

The Comparative Degree expresses the quality in a 
higher or lower degree ; as, smaller, wiser. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the quality in the 
highest or lowest degree ; as, smallest, wisest. 

Regular Comparison. 

The Comparative Degree of Adjectives of one syllable 
is usually formed by adding er, and the Superlative by 
adding est, to the Positive ; as, great, greater, greatest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually 
compared by prefixing to the Positive the words more 
and most, less and least ; as, numerous ; more numerous, 
most numerous; less numerous, least numerous. 

Dissyllables ending in oiv, y, or e are usually compared by 
adding er and est ; as, narrow, nartvwer, na7rowcst ; happy, hap- 
pier, happiest; able, abler, ablest. 

Some adjectives form the Superlative by adding most to the 
end of the word ; as, upper, uppermost. 



m 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Irregular Comparison. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much 


more 


most 


"Fnr 


farther 
. further 


farthest 
. furthest 


IJ Oil 



Compare the following adjectives: large, small, straight, 
high, long, wide, deep, heavy, happy, wealthy, lovely, lonely, 
beautiful, beloved, foolish, troublesome, unhappy, little, good, 
bad. 

Exercises. 

Name the Nouns, Articles, and Adjectives in the following 
sentences. Name the gender, number, person, and case of 
each of the nouns. What does each of the adjectives and 
articles modify? Name the degree of the adjectives used. 
Name the verb and its subject: 

A wise son maketh a glad father. 

William wanted a sweeter orange. 

A large vessel came to New York. 

The beautiful landscape resembles a bright picture. 

He gave a double eagle for a silk dress for his third 
daughter. 

Twenty large vessels sailed up the river in one day. 

Write five examples of adjectives used in the positive 
degree. 

Write these adjectives in the comparative and in the 
superlative degrees. 

Write five sentences, each containing one of these adjec- 
tives. 

Write three sentences, each containing a cardinal adjec- 
tive; three, each containing an ordinal adjective; three, each 
containing a multiplicative adjective. 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

IV. THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
"The man is happy, because he is benevolent/^ 

Pronouns are divided into three classes ; Personal,, 
Relative, and Adjective. 

Personal and Relative Pronouns have Gender, Number, 
Person, and Case. Adjective Pronouns have Number only. 

L PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Personal Pronouns are, /, thou, he, she, it; and 
their plurals, tve, you, they. 

The Personal Pronouns are so called because they 
denote person by themselves, without reference to any 
other word. / 

The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely, that is, 
without referring to any other word; as, It snows. 

Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 
First Person — Masc. or Fem. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


NomTi^yt 


Nom. we 


Poss. m^/, or mine 


Poss. our^ or ours 


Obj. me. 


Obj. us. 


Second Person 


— Mas. or Fem. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. thou 


Nom. you 


Poss. thy^ or thine 


Poss. youvy or yours 


Obj. thee. 


Obj. you. 


Third Persoi 


^ — Masculine. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Nom. he 


Nom. they 


Poss. his 


Poss. their^ or theirs 


Obj. him. 


Obj. them. 



32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Third Person— Feminine. 



Singular. 
Nom. she 
Poss. her J or hers 
Obj. her. 


Plural. 
Nom. ^/ie^/ 
Poss. /TiezV, or theirs 
Obj. ^/iem. 


Third Person — Neuter. 


Singular. 
Nom. it 
Poss. its 
Obj. ^7. 


PZwraL 
Nom. they 
Poss. ^/i6ir, or theirs 
Obj. ^/lem. 



Remarks on the Personal Pronouns. 

The person, gender, number, and case of a personal pro- 
noun are usually indicated by the form of the pronoun. 

Exception 1. — In the first and second persons, however, 
the gender is not indicated by the form of the pronoun, " I, 
thou, we, you." The prDnoun will be of the same gender as 
the noun to which the pronoun refers. Thus, in the sen- 
tence, "Mary, will you bring me the book?" ''you" is femi- 
nine, because it refers to Mary. If the noun referred to is 
not given, as, ''Will you bring me the book?" we say that 
the pronoun is either masculine or feminine. 

Exception 2. — So in the third person plural, "they, 
theirs, them," the gender is not indicated by the form of 
the pronoun, but must be found by referring to the noun for 
which the pronoun stands. Thus, in the sentences, "The 
boys were here when you saw them/^ " The girls were here 
when you saw them,^ " The books were here when you saw 
them'' the pronoun " them " in the first sentence is mascu- 
line, feminine in the second, and neuter in the third. 

Exception 3. — In the second person plural, "you," and 
in the third person singular neuter, "it," the nominative and 
objective cases have the same form. Therefore, in any par- 
ticular instance, to know whether " you " and " it " are nomi- 
native or objective, we must refer to the general meaning of 
the sentence. 



ETYMOLOGY, 33 

Exercises. 

In the following sentences, name the nouns, pronouns, ad- 
jectives, and articles. Name the class, properties, and use of 
each. State what each article and each adjective modifies. 
To what noun does each pronoun refer? In what case is 
each pronoun ? Name the verbs in each sentence, and name 
the subject of each. 

Mary lent her book to her cousin. 

John lost his knife in the grove. 

My cousin brought her books with her. 

The girls recited their lessons to the teacher. 

The teacher said to the boys of her class, " I wish you to 
take your slates and raise them quietly.'' 

See how it rains. It is a dark night. 

Write eight sentences, each containing one or more per- 
sonal pronouns. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself , thyself ^ 
himself y herself y and itself ^ with their plurals, ourselves, 
yourselves, themselves. 

Exercise. — Write eight sentences, each containing one or 
more of the compound personal pronouns. 

II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Relative Pronouns are, who, which, what, and 
that. 

The Relative Pronouns are so called because they 
relate to some word going before, called the anteced- 
ent ; as, " The boy who wishes to be learned must be 
studious.^^ 

A Relative Pronoun is always of the same gender, number, 
and person as its antecedent. 



34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The gen- 
tleman who called/^ ^^Tlie lady who sang.'^ 

Which is used in speaking of inferior animals, or of 
things without life ; as, '' The horse which was bought/^ 
'' The pencil which you gave to meJ' 

That is sometimes used instead of who or which. 

What, as a relative, takes the place of which when- 
ever the antecedent is omitted, and is equivalent to the 
thing which or the things which, hence, may be either 
singular or plural. 

"This is the thing which I wanted. '^ If we omit the ante- 
cedent (thing), which must be changed to what. " This is what 
I wanted/' 

Who and which -are alike in both numbers, and are 
thus declined : 



Sing, and Plur. 
Nom. who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom 



Sing, and Plur. 
Nom. which 
Poss. whose 
Obj . which. 



What and that are indeclinable. 

Exercise. — Write four sentences, each containing one or 
more relative pronouns. 

Compound Relatives, 

The Compound Relatives are, whoever, whosoever, 
whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. Tliey are 
formed by adding ever and soever to the relatives who, 
which, and what. 

Whosoever is regularly declined like who ; thus, 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

Sing, and Plur. 
Nom. whosoever 
Poss. whosesoever 
Obj. whomsoever. 

The other Compound Relatives are indeclinable. 

Exercise. — Write six sentences, each containing one or 
more of the compound relative pronouns. 

Interrogatives and Responsives. 

In ashing questions, who^ which , and what are called 
Interrogatives, 

In answering questions, whoy whichy and what are 
called Responsives. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, name the nouns, 
pronouns, articles, and adjectives. Give the class, properties, 
and use of each. 

We should avoid all habits which injure the health. 

A thief, who stole a cow which belonged to a poor man, was 
caught in the trap which had been laid for him. 

Children, who fear the Lord, obey their parents. 

The man, of whom I bought the knife, which I lost, gave a 
better knife to me in its place. 

The bird, whose nest John robbed, uttered pitiful cries. 

Write three sentences, each containing an interrogative; 
three, each containing a responsive. 

III. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Adjective Pronouns are so called because they 
modify or limit a noun in the manner of an adjective; 
they are frequently called Pronominal Adjectives. 

The Adjective Pronouns are subdivided into three 
classes : Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 



36 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

I. DISTRIBUTIVES. 

The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are each, every, 
either, neither. 

The Distributive Adjective Pronouns are so called, because 
they refer separately and singly to each person or thing of a 
number of persons or things. The Distributives, therefore, 
are all in the singular number. 

Each is used when speaking of two or more; as, ^^ Each of 
you must go directly home." This will be correct whether it 
is addressed to two persons, or to more than two. 

Every is never used except when speaking of more than 
two. Example : ^^ Every one of you must go directly home." 
This would not be correct if addressed to only two persons. 

Each and every mean all that make up the number, although 
taken separately. 

Either means one or the other, but not both. It is used, 
therefore, when speaking of but two persons or things. 

Neither means not either. 

Exercise. — Write four sentences, each containing a distrib- 
utive adjective pronoun. 

II. DKMONSTRATIVES. 

The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are this and 
that, with their plurals, these and those. 

The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns are so called, be- 
cause they point out in a definite manner the objects to 
which they relate ; as, ^^ This boy recited well, but that boy 
did not;" '^ These men are officers, but those men are pri- 
vates." 

Bxercise.^Write four sentences, each containing a demon- 
strative adjective pronoun. 

III. INDEFINITES. 

The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are ar)y, all, such, 
somCy both, one, none, other, another. 



ETYMOLOGY, 37 

The Indefinite Adjective Pronouns are so called because 
they point out in an indefinite manner the objects to which 
they relate. 

One, other, another are sometimes used as nouns. When 
thus used, they are declined. Thus: 

r Nom. One C Nom. Other 

Sing. I Poss. One^s Sing. < Poss. Other^s 

(Obj. One (obj. Other 

ilSTom. Ones ( Nom. Others 

Poss. Ones* Plur. I Poss. Others' 

Obj. Ones. (obj. Others. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences, name the nouns, 
pronouns, articles, and adjectives used. Give the class, 
properties, and use of each. Give a reason for your answer 
in each case. What does each article and each adjective 
modify? To what does each pronoun refer? Name each 
verb and its subject: 

Every person who receives these favors, should be thankful 
for them. 

The father said to his son, '' Do you remember any of those 
stories which your teacher told in either of his lectures?" 

Where is that book which I gave to you on Monday, and 
that other book which you received on Tuesday? Ans. I 
have both books; each is in its right place. 

Write ten sentences, each containing one or more of the 
indefinite adjective pronouns. 



-»o>»^o 



V. THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word used to assert or affirm ; as, ^^ John 
strikes the table." 

Exercises. — Suppose I say, ''John walks;" w^hat do I 



38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

assert or affirm of John ? Ans. That he walks. What part 
of speech is walks? What is a verb? 

In the following sentences, what words are subjects? What 
words assert or affirm something of the subjects? What are 
these words called ? Why ? 

The man rode on a horse. 

The girl spoke to me. 

Clouds move over the earth. 

The man eats his dinner. 

The boy went to school early. 

The slate fell and broke. 

Water runs down hill. 

I heard a loud noise. 

William looks sick. 

Charles is here. 

The horse was in the field. 

The fish are in the lake. 

John was in the boat. 

The boys were in the barn. 

The girls are in the parlor. 

The horses were in the stable. 

Exercises. — A verb is necessary to make a complete sen- 
tence, that is, a sentence in which something is asserted or 
affirmed. In the following sentence, supply some word 
which will complete the sentence and make it affirm some- 
thing : Susan — into the house. What part of speech is 

the word ? What is a verb ? 

Supply a verb in each of the following sentences : 

The rain upon the earth. 

I you there. 

They him in the field. 

The cows in the meadow. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

Birds in the air. 

The boys ^ in school. 

Summer hotter than winter. 

The horse the wagon. 

I. ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. 

Verbs have the attributes of Voice, Mood, Tense, 
Number, and Person. 

Certain parts of the verb are called Participles. 

I. VOICE. 

Voice is that attribute of the verb which denotes 
whether the subject of the verb acts, or is acted upon. 

Verbs have two voices, the Active, and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject acts, or does the thing men- 
tioned ; as, John strikes the table. 

The Passive Voice is that form of the verb which 
denotes that the subject is acted upon ; as, " The table 
is struck by John.'^ 

Exercises. — In what voice is the verb in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences? Change the voice of the verb where pos- 
sible, and write the sentence with the verb so changed. 

The birds flew over the house. 

Mary studies her lessons. 

The lessons were studied by Mary. 

Henry caught a fish in the lake. 

The squirrel was caught in the trap by John. 

The sheep were watched by the shepherd. 

The soldiers marched to the fort. 



40 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

The fish were caught in a net by the sailor. 
The army is commanded by the general. 

Write three sentences containing a verb in the Active 
Voice. Three, containing a verb in the Passive Voice. 

II. MOOD. 

Mood is that attribute of a verb by which it denotes 
the manner or way in which the assertion is expressed. 

Verbs have five Moods: the Indicative, the Subjunc- 
tive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mood is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed directly and without 
limitation ; as, He writes. 

The Indicative mood is also used in asking direct ques- 
tions ; as. Does the sun shine ? Does my mother love me ? 
This is sometimes called the Interrogative form. 

The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb in 
which the assertion is expressed as a supposition, a 
wish, or a future contingency ; as, If it rain this after- 
noon, you must not go. I would I were a boy again. 
Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 

The Subjunctive mood is generally preceded by a conjunc- 
tion, such as if J though, although, unless, except, whether, lest. 

The Subjunctive mood is always accompanied by another 
verb in some other mood. Without this it cannot make com- 
plete sense. Thus, If he study diligently, he will improve. 

The Potential Mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses possibility, liberty, power, willingness, or obli- 
gation ; as, he can write ; he may write ; he must write ; 
you could write. 

Explanation. — To say, A thing may he, or might he, ex- 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

presses possibility. To say, You may do it, or You might do 
it, is giving liberty to do it. To say, You can do it, or You 
could do it, shows that you have the power to do it. To say, 
You would do it, expresses a willingness to do it. To say, You 
must do it, expresses an obligation to do it. 

The Potential mood is also used in asking questions ; as, 
May I write ? Must I write ? 

A verb in the Potential mood is always accompanied 
by some one of the words, may^ can, must, might, could, 
would, should ; and this accompanying word is consid- 
ered a part of the verb. 

The Imperative Mood is that form of the verb 
which is used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit ; 
as, Write the copy according to the directions ; Father, 
forgive us. 

The subject of a verb in the Imperative mood is always 
thou or you, but it is seldom expressed. Example : ^' Sit still," 
means ^^ Thou or you sit still." 

The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb w hich 
is not limited to a subject, or which has no subject ; as. 
To write. 

Exercises.— In the following sentences select all the verbs, 
and state the voice and mood of each : 
Charles studies his lesson. 
The boys caught a rabbit in the woods. 
The rabbit was caught by the boys. 
The lesson was assigned by the teacher. 
If he study his lesson he will improve. 
Though he slay me yet will I trust him. 
If the lesson be recited properly, the class will be dismissed. 
Mary must return home when her task is finished. 
The letter may be returned by the postman. 



42 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

If I had a book I would study the lesson. 

Charles, bring me that book. 

Boys, study your lessons. 

God said, ^'Children, obey your parents." You should 
keep this commandment, if you wish to obtain the reward, 
which he promises, that your days may be long in the 
land. 

The shepherd takes care of his sheep. If they wander 
near a precipice, he uses a crook to draw them away, for 
they are timid animals. If he ran towards them, they might 
fall over into the gulf. 

Listen to the merry bells. I listen to them with delight. 
You may listen to them without growing weary, if you de- 
light to listen to sweet music. 

Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the In- 
dicative mood; three in each of the other Moods. 

With a given subject write five sentences containing verbs 
in the indicative mood. 

With other given subjects write five sentences in the sub- 
junctive mood, — in the potential mood, — in the imperative 
mood. 

III. TENSE. 

Tense is that attribute of a verb by which it ex- 
presses distinctions of Time. 

There are six Tenses : the Present, the Past, the 
Future, the Present-Perfect, the Past-Perfect, and the 
Future-Perfect. 

The Present, Past, and Future are called Primary 
Tenses ; the Present-Perfect, Past-Perfect, and Future- 
Perfect are called Secondary Tenses. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply present time ; as, I write. 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply past time ; as, I wrote. 

The Future Tense is that form of the verb which 
denotes simply future time ; as, I shall write. 

The Present-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what is past and finished, but which is 
connected also with the present time ; as, I have written 
a letter this week. 

Explanation. — An event may be past and finished, when 
the period of time referred to is not all past, but comes down 
to the present moment. Thus : ^' I have recited my lesson 
this morning/^ Here ''this morning" is the period of time 
referred to, and this period is not all past yet. But the recit- 
ing of the lesson was completed in a period of time of which 
the present time is a part. It is therefore a past and finished 
act, but connected also with the present time. 

The Past-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes what was past and finished, before some 
other event which is also past; as, I had written the 
letter, before it was called for. 

Explanation. — An event may have happened some time 
ago, and before another event which also happened some 
time ago. Thus : *' I had washed my hands when they called 
me to breakfast." Here the washing and the calling both 
occurred in past time, but the washing occurred before the 
calling. 

The Future-Perfect Tense is that form of the verb 
which denotes a future time prior to some other time 
which is itself future ; as, I shall have written the letter 
before it will be called for. 

Explanation. — Here, the writing of the letter and the 
calling for it are both future. They are both to take place 



44 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

hereafter. But the writing will be done and finished before 
the calling for it. 

Exercises. — Name the tense of each of the verbs con- 
tained in the following sentences : 

I have many friends. 

He is strong in hope. 

John was hopeful of the result. 

We have studied our lessons to-day. 

Will you read so that you can be heard? 

Washington determined to attack the enemy. 

Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 

Rainy and cold as it was, we were compelled to go out. 

James should have answered when his name was called. 

He had reached this decision after he came to the place. 

I shall have studied my lesson before you are prepared to 
go out. 

In what voice and mood is each verb given? 

Write sentences each containing one or more of the fol- 
lowing verbs: 

Speak, hear, bring, obey, praise, blame, whistle, rejoice, 
deceive, betray, sleep, go, play, retire, listen. 

Change the tense of the verbs used in the sentences given. 

IV. PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is that form of the verb which partakes 
of the nature both of a verb and of an adjective. 

The Participles are three : the Present, the Past or 
Perfect, and the Compound-Perfect. 

The Present Participle denotes that which is now 
in progress ; as, going , being, livingy working. The Pres- 
ent participles all end in ing. 

The Past or Perfect Participle denotes that which 



ETYMOLOGY, 45 

is complete or finished ; as, written^ stolen^ added. It 
either ends in ed, or has an irregular form, as shown 
in the list of irregular verbs. 

The Compound-Perfect Participle denotes that 
which is finished before something else mentioned ; as, 
having writteUy having stolen, having added. 

Exercises. — In the following examples, name the partici- 
ple, tell the kind, and state how it is used : 

The bells are ringing. 

She sat near him, writing a letter. 

Stones came rattling from the clifi*. 

Mary, being disgusted, retired from the room. 

A cunning fox, prowling around a farmyard, saw some 
chickens scratching vigorously for the grain hidden among 
the chaff. 

Having concealed his valuables, he came from his hiding 
place and, approaching the visitors, desired to know their 
mission. They, surprised at his appearance, and becoming 
alarmed, left him standing in the road. 

V. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have variations of form, to correspond with 
the number and person of their subject. These varia- 
tions are called the Numbers and Persons of the verb. 

Verbs have two numbers, Singular and Plural ; and 
three Persons : First, Second, and Third. Thus : 



Singular. 
First Person, I am. 
Second Person. Thou art. 
Third Person, He is. 



Plural. 
First Person. We are. 
Second Person. You are. 
Third Person. They are. 



II. CLASSES OF VERBS. 
Verbs are divided into the following classes : Transi- 
tive, Intransitive ; Regular, Irregular ; De- 
fective, and Auxiliary, 



46 ELEMENTARY GBAMMAE. 

I. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

A Transitive Verb is one which requires an objec- 
tive case to complete the meaning ; as, James writes a 
letter. 

An Intransitive Verb is one which does not require 
an objective case to complete the meaning ; as, John 
sleepsJ^ 

Explanation. — In the sentences, " James touched Peter y^ 
^* James touched him,,'^ if the object is left out, and we say 
simply ** James touched,'' the meaning is incomplete. 

Some verbs are used both transitively and intransitively; 
as, '*He reads well," ^^He reads a book." 

Intransitive verbs are not used in the Passive Voice : thus, 
we may say to laugh^ but not to be laughed. 

Exercises. — Which of the following verbs are transitive, 
and which are intransitive? Hurt, lift, walk, sit, believe, 
forget, say, rise, raise, fly, go, depart. 

In the following sentences, state which verbs are transitive 
and which are intransitive : 

The fire burns. 

Bees make honey. 

The eagle screams. 

Foxes eat chickens. 

James caught a fish. 

Roses bloom in June. 

The boy raked the field. 

Thou shalt not destroy life. 

The eagle eats small animals. 

Iron is found in Pennsylvania. 

Tall oaks grow from little acorns. 

The hunter found the crowd's nest and destroyed it. 



ETYMOLOGY, 47 

Write sentences, each containing one or more of the fol- 
lowing verbs in the active voice : 

Lead, know, see, fear, pursue, punish, contemplate, desire, 
build, scare. 

Rewrite the sentences, changing the verb to the passive 
form. 

II. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Tense 
and its Past Participle by the addition of ed to its 
present tense ; as, Present, walk ; Past, walked ; Past 
Participle, walked. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its 
Past Tense and Past Participle by the addition of ed 
to its present tense ; as. Present, write ; Past, wrote ; 
Past Participle, written. 





Exampl 


as of Regular 


Verbs. 


Present Tense. 




Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Live, 




lived, 


lived. 


Love, 




loved, 


loved. 


Instruct, 




instructed. 


instructed. 


Portray, 




portrayed. 


portrayed. 


Walk, 




walked, 


walked. 



Exercises. — Write ten regular verbs. Write ten sentences, 
each containing one or more of these verbs. 

The Irregular Verbs. 



Present. 




Past. 




Past Part. 


Abide, 




abode, 




abode. 


Am, — Is, 




was, 




been. 


Arise, 




arose, 




arisen. 


Awake, 




awoke, 


awaked, 


awaked. 


Bear {to bring forth) ^ 


bore, bare, 


born. 


Bear {to cm 


rry), 


bore, 




borne. 



48 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Beat, . 


beat. 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began. 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


feesought, 


besought. 


Bestride, 


bestrid, bestrode, 


bestrid, bestridden, 


Bid, 


bid, bade. 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit. 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled. 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew. 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded. 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt. 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst. 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought. 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast. 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catch ed, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid. 


chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, chose. 


Cleave {to split), 


cleft, clove. 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost. 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept. 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare {to venture), 


dared, durst. 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealed, dealt. 


dealed, dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, digged. 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did. 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt. 


dreamed, dreamt. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelled, dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 


eat, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed. 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung. 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew. 


flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


girded, girt. 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved. 


graven, graved 


Grind, 


ground. 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hanged, hung. 


hanged, hung. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard. 


heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, hove. 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid. 


hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, knelt. 


kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded. 


laded, laden. 


Lay,* 


laid. 


laid. 


if 


• Lay (transitive), To place; to put ; 


to cause to lie. 



49 



50 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Past 


Past Part 


Lead, 


led. 


led. 


Leave, 


left. 


left. 


Lend, 


lent. 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie,* 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made. 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met. 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pen (to coop)y 


penned, pent, 


penned, pent. 


Put, 


put. 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, quitted, 


quit, quitted. 


Bead, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, ridded. 


rid, ridded. 


Ride. 


rode. 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


Run, 


ran, run. 


run. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought. 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed. 


seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set,t 


set. 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 



* Lie (intransitive), To be at rest in a horizontal position; to recline, 
to rest; to remain. 

t Set (transitive), To place; to affix; to adjust; to plant; intransi- 
tive), To fall below the horizon, as the sun. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


5 


Present 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Shave, 


shaved. 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined. 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shot. 


Show, 


showed. 


shown, showed. 


Shred, 


shred. 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut. 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang. 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank. 


sunk. 


Sit,^ 


sat. 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept. 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slid, slidden. 


Sling, 


slung. 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk. 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt. 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowed, sown. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, speeded. 


sped, speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt. 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled, spilt. 


spilled, spilt. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat. 


spit. 


Split, 


split, splitted. 


split, splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled, spoilt. 


spoiled, spoilt. 


Spread, 


spread. 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave, 


staved, stove. 


staved, stove. 


* Sit : To be in any local position ; to rest ; 


to hold a session; to incu- 


hate. 







52 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Past 


Past Part 


Stay, 


stayed, staid, 


stayed, staid. 


Steal, 


stole. 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk. 


stunk. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strewed, strewn. 


Stride, 


strid, strode. 


strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck. 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove. 


striven. 


Swear, 


swore. 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, sweated, 


sweat, sweated. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled. 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


swam, swum. 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung. 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought. 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived. 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust. 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod. 


trod, trodden. 


Weave, 


wove. 


woven, wove. 


Weep, 


wept. 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted. 


wet, wetted. 


Win, 


w^on. 


won. 


Wind, 


wound. 


wound. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought. 


Wring, 


wrung. 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



Exercises. — Fill the blanks with the proper verb sit or set 
in the following sentences : 
down and rest. 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

A hen on eggs. 

We on a horse. 

We around the table. 

The sun at five o'clock. 

We the duck on her nest. 

He down to take a short rest. 

The boys by the lake watching the fish. 

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A Defective Verb is one that is not used in all the 
Moods and Tenses ; as, must, ought, quoth. 

IV. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
Moods and Tenses of other verbs. 

The auxiliary verbs are, shall, may, can, must, be, do, 
have, and will. 

Exercise. — Give the meaning of each of the auxiliary 
verbs, and write each of them in a sentence. 

Remarks on the Auxiliary Verbs. 

Auxiliary, or helping, verbs are so called because by their 
help the other verbs form most of their moods and tenses. 

BCj do^ havSy and sometimes will, are also used as princi- 
pal verbs ; as, they unay he here ; they do nothing ; they hxive 
nothing ; they will it to be so. As principal verbs, they have 
all the moods and tenses which other verbs have. 

Be, as an Auxiliary, is used in all its moods, tenses, num- 
bers, and persons, in forming the passive voice of other verbs ; 
as, I am loved, I was loved, I have been loved. 



54 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



III. CONJUGATION. 
The Conjugation of a verb is the orderly arrange- 
ment of its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

The verb " To Be ^^ is irregular and intransitive, and has no 
voice. Voice is an attribute of transitive verbs only. 

Conjugation of the Verb To Be. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular, 

1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 



Singular. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Singular. 

1. I shall be. 

2. Thou wilt be. 

3. He will be. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 

Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

Future Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. They will be. 



Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had heen. 

3. He had heen. 3. They had been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



56 



Future-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If he be. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 



Singular. 

1. If I were. 

2. If thou wert. 

3. If he were. 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



Singular. 

1. I may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 

3. He may be. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 



Singular. 

1. I might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 

3. He might be. 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 

3. They might be. 



Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 



5G ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Past-Perfect Tense, 
lingular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. : 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, To be. Present- Perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being. Past or Perfect. Been. 

Compound-Perfect. Having been. 

Remarks on the Conjugation. 

In the formation of the Futures, we have two Auxilia- 
ries, shall and will. For the expression of simple futurity, 
we use shall in the First Person, and will in the Second and 
Third Persons, as given in the table. On the other hand, by 
using will in the First Person, we express the determination 
of the speaker for himself and associates ; by using shall in 
the Second and Third Persons, we express the determination 
of the speaker as to the actions or states of others. In other 
words, shall in the First Person, and will in the Second and 
Third Persons, foretell or express a future action. Will in 
the First Person, and shall in the Second and Third Persons, 
express a promise or a threat. 

The singular form, thou art, is now used only in acts 
of worship, or on other solemn occasions. In ordinary dis- 
course, in addressing one person, we say you are, you were^ 
etc., the meaning being singular, although the form is plural. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

In the third person, the subject of the verb may be any 
of the personal pronouns, he^ she, it; any of the relative pro- 
nouns, who, which, what, that, etc., or any noun. For conven- 
ience in reciting the conjugations, one subject only is in- 
serted. 

In the Potential mood the auxiliary may be — 

In the Present tense, may, can, or must ; 

In the Past tense, might, could, would, or should ; 

In the Present-Perfect tense, may have, can have, or must 
have ■; 

In the Past-Perfect tense, might have, could have, would have, 
or should have. 

Exercises.— Fill the blanks with shall or will: 

I set the table ? 

I go to town this afternoon, but my sister go 

to-morrow. 

How old you be in October? 

Mary is determined that the boy help her. 

I call the boys ? 

We have to run to catch the train. 

She meet you at her cousin^s house. 

I call for you as I pass the house ? 

If you come into the next room, I think we see 

him. 

I be permitted to speak to the lady ? 

I drown, nobody help me. 

we be contented ? 

You be satisfied. 

I go to the circus. 

There be no danger as father go. 

When I receive the money ? 

What dress I wear ? 

They not remain in the house. ^ 



58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



you take part in the exercises ? 



I wonder if Lucy remember to tell her mother. 

Do you think we — — have a good time ? 

Conjugation of the verb To Love. 

I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 







Present Tense. 




Singular, 


Plural, 


1. 


I love. 


1. We love. 


2. 


Thou lovest. 


2. You love. 


3. 


He loves. 


3. They love. 
Past Tense, 




Singular, 


Plural. 


1. 


I loved. 


1. We loved. 


2. 


Thou lovedst. 


2. You loved. 


3. 


He loved. 


3. They loved. 
Future Tense, 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


1 shall love. 


1. We shall love. 


2. 


Thou wilt love. 


2. You will love. 


3. 


He will love. 


3. They will love, 



Present-Perfect Tense. 
liar. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



59 



Future-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 





SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Present Tense. 


1. 


Singular. 
If I love. 


Plural. 
1. If we love. 


2. 


If thou love. 


2. If you love. 


3. 


If he love. 


3. If they love. 
Past Tense. 


1. 


Singular. 
If I loved. 


Plural. 
1. If we loved. 


2. 


If thou loved. 


2. If you loved. 


3. 


If he loved. 


3. If they loved. 




POTENTIAL MOOD. 






Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 


Singular. 
I may love. 
Thou niaj^st love. 


Plural. 

1. We may love. 

2. You may love. 


3. 


He may love. 


3. They may love. 
Past Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I might love. 
Thou mightst love. 
He might love. 


Plural. 

1. We might love. 

2. You might love. 

3. They might love. 



Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plurah 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 



60 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 



Past-Perfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightet have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 



Singular. 
Love, or love thou 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 
Love, or love you. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To love. Present- Perfect. To have loved. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Past or Perfect. Loved. 

Compound-Perfect. Having loved. 



II. PASSIVE VOICE. 



The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by placing 
before its Past Participle the various moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons of the verb To be. 



Singular. 

1. I am loved. 

2. Thou art loved 

3. He is loved. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We are loved. 

2. You are loved. 

3. They are loved. 



Singular. 

1. I was loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 

3. He was loved. 



Past Tense. 

1. 

2. 
3. 



Plural. 
We were loved. 
You were loved. 
They were loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou wilt be loved. 2. You will be loved. 

3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PaM'Perfect Tense. 
Singtdar. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 



62 ELEMENTARY GBAMMAE. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense, 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

Present-Perfect Tense, 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

INFIlSriTIVE MOOD. 
Present, To be loved. Present-Perfect. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. Past or Perfect. Loved. 

Compound-Perfect, Having been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

Exercises. 

Conjugate the verb 

Come, in the Active voice, Indicative mood, Present tense. 

Do, in the Active voice, Potential mood, Present-Perfect 
tense. 

Study, in the Active voice. Subjunctive mood. Past tense. 

Know, in the Passive voice. Indicative mood, Future-Per- 
fect tense. 

Leave, in the Passive voice. Potential mood, Past-Perfect 
tense. 

Tell, in the Passive voice, Subjunctive mood, Past tense. 

Write all the Participles of the verbs given in the preceding 
exercises. 

III. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that form which 
represents the action as in progress, or incomplete. 

The Progressive form of any verb is made by placing before 
its Present Participle the various moods, tenses, numbers, and 
persons of the verb to be. Thus : I am writing, I was writing, 
I shall be writing. 

Exercises in the Progressive Form. 

Conjugate the verb " sing " through all the tenses of the 
Indicative mood, in the Progressive form. 

Conjugate ''learn'' through the Subjunctive mood. Pro- 
gressive form. 

Conjugate " write " through the Potential mood. Progress- 
ive form. 

Conjugate "stand " through the Imperative and Infinitive 
moods, Progressive form. 

IV. EMPHATIC FORM. 

The Emphatic Form of a verb is that in which the 
assertion is expressed with emphasis. 



64 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



The Emphatic Form of a verb is made by placing before it 
the verb do as an auxiliary. 

The Emphatic Form is used only in the Present and Past 
tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods, Active voice, 
and in the Imperative mood, both Active and Passive. 



Conjugation of the verb To Love^ in the Em- 
phatic Form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 



Singular, 

1. I do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 

3. He does love. 



Plural. 

1. We do love. 

2. You do love. 

3. They do love. 



mr. 

1. I did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 

3. He did love. 



Past Tense, 

Plural. 

1. We did love. 

2. You did love. 

3. They did love. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 
liar. Plural. 

1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 

2. If thou do love. 2. If you do love. 

3. If he do love. 3. If they do love. 



Singular. 

1. If I did love. 

2. If thou did love. 

3. If he did love. 



Past Tense, 



Plural. 

1. If we did love. 

2. If you did love. 

3. If they did love. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

IMPERATIVE. 

Active — Present Tense. 
Singular, Do (thou) love. Plural. Do (you) love. 

Passive — Present Tense. 
Singular. Do (thou) beloved. Plural. Do (you) be loved. 

The participle of a transitive verb, with its object, is called 
a participial phrase, and is adjectival in character. 

The infinitive form of a transitive verb is called an infinitive 
phrase J and is adverbial or adjectival in character. 

Exercises. — In the following sentences and paragraphs, 
name each part of speech, its class, its properties, and its 
' use. State what each article and each adjective modifies. 
Name the word to which each pronoun refers. Name the 
voice, mood, tense, number, and person of each verb. Name 
the gen*der, number, person, and case of each noun and pro- 
noun. Name the subject of each verb. Name the partici- 
ples. Name the phrases, and tell the kind, its use, and state 
what it modifies. 

Mary loves her mother. 

Charles lent his book to his brother. 

George has studied his lesson. 

Henry had studied his lessons before the teacher arrived. 

I shall have finished my task before my father returns. 

Charles will read his book. 

If John study, he will improve. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Unless you hurry, you will be left. 

The boys may go into the woods to play. 

William could attend to the business for you, if he were 
here. 

The soldiers must obey the orders of their officers. 
You must study, if you desire to excel. 
5 



66 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

Fear God and keep his comnandments. 

Mary is loved by her friends. 

The teacher was respected by his pupils. 

The lesson has been recited by each member of the class. 

You will be promoted, if you persevere in your endeavor 
to improve. 

The prisoner will be brought before the judge, to-morrow, 
to hear his sentence. . 

Be industrious, and you will succeed. 

Be studious, and you will improve. 

Charles is studying his lesson. 

The boys are hunting for rabbits in the w^oods. 

If he were more attentive, he might have escaped the pun- 
ishment, which, he thought, was so grievous to be borne. 

When the mail shall have arrived, I will send immediately 
for my letters ; and I will send replies to them by the next 
mail. 

Charles had sufficient time to study his lesson before he 
was called to his breakfast. William appears to have studied 
his lesson, and to have had time for exercise. 

I have not seen my dictionary ; do tell me where it is, if 
you know. I did not use it at home. I cannot learn my 
lesson without it. Somebody must have hidden it to vex 
me. Ask the maid; perhaps she put it away. I will take 
care, to-morrow, to put it in the closet before I go out to 
play. 

If it were raining while you were walking to the city, you 
should have carried your umbrella, or you should have waited 
under some shelter until the rain had ceased. Be more pru- 
dent, or you may impair your health. 

The child, seeing its mother, ran to meet her. 
Mary, walking in the woods, found a beautiful fern. 
The snow, falling rapidly, soon covered the ground. 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

A man deserving blame should be censured. 

Washington died honored by all his countrymen. 

The house, destroyed by fire, was soon rebuilt. 

The laborer, fatigued with the toil of the day, returned to 
his home. 

The exercise written by Charles was admired by all. 

The boys, having recited their lessons, were dismissed. 

The thief, having stolen the horse, made his escape. 

John, having written his composition, gave it to the 
teacher. 

The sun having risen, the clouds disappeared. 

The general, being advised of the approach of the enemy, 
ordered his troops into line of battle. 

The father being informed of his son's death, exhibited 
great sorrow. 

Charles, being aroused from his slumber, discovered that 
the house was on fire. 

The day being far spent, we returned to our homes. 

The lesson having been recited, the class was dismissed. 

The fire having been extinguished, the crowd dispersed. 

War having been declared, the regiments were rapidly 
mustered into service. 

The physician having been called, pronounced it a hopeless 
case. 

He had a dagger concealed under his coat. 

Honor, defined by Cicero, is the approbation of good men. 

William, being successful in his examination, expects pro- 
motion. 

William, having been successful in his examination, was 
promoted. 

William, having succeeded in his examination, expects to 
be promoted. 

The fire breaking out in the night, and the night being 
dark, the house was destroyed, the inmates barely escaping 



68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

with their hves, with their clothing scorched, and some with 
Umbs broken or bodies mutilated. 

Thomas being employed at his studies, could not engage in 
the sports of the younger members of the family ; but, having 
completed his lessons, he looked on their sports delighted, 
and joined in them with pleasure. 

Having been informed that the enemy was approaching, 
and being without arms, the general ordered his men to pre- 
pare to retreat to a place concealed from the enemy's view, 
lest the enemy, seeing their defenceless condition, should 
make an easy conquest. 

Exercises. — Write three sentences each containing a 
Present Participle, Active ; three, Compound-Perfect, Active : 
three, Present-Passive; three, Perfect-Passive; three, Com- 
pound-Perfect, Passive. 



-iK>><KO 



VI. THE ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a Verb, an 
Adjective, or another Adverb ; as, He writes rapidly. 
A very fast horse. He wrote very rapidly. 

Some words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes 
as adjectives. Among these are the following : little, less, least, 
better, best, much, more^ most, no, only, well, ill, still, first. If any 
of these words modifies a noun, it is an adjective; but, if it 
modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, then it is an 
adverb. 

Examples. — " I have no money, and I can support you no 
longer." The first ''no" is an adjective, modifying the noun 
''money." The second "no" is an adverb, modifying the 
adverb "longer." 

" He could not behave worse, nor deserve a worse punish- 
ment." The first "worse" is an adverb, modifying the verb 



ETYMOLOGY, 



69 



"behave.'^ The second ''worse" is an adjective, modifying 
the noun "punishment.'^ 

Exercises. — Write sentences containing the words little, 
less, least, better, more, first, ill, best, used as adjectives. 
Write sentences containing the same words used as adverbs. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

Many Adverbs are varied by Comparison. 

Some Adverbs are compared by adding er and est to 
the Positive ; as, soon, sooner, soonest. 

Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing 
more and most, less and least; as, happily, more hap- 
pily, most happily ; less happily, least happily. 

Irregular Comparison. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Well 


better 


best 


111 


worse 


worst 


Badly 


worse 


worst 


Much 


more 


most 


Far 


farther 


farthest. 



Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs are divided into classes, according to their signi- 
fication. The most important of these classes are 

1. Adverbs of Manner or Quality ; as, well, ill, swifthj, 
smoothly, truly, with a great many others formed from adjec- 
tives by adding the termination ly. This is by far the most 
numerous class of adverbs. 

2. Adverbs of Place ; as, here, there, where, hither, thither, 
whither, hence, tuhence, somewhere, noivhere. 

3. Adverbs of Time ; as, noiv, then, tvhen, ever, never, soon, 
often, seldom, lately, yearly, yesterday, to-morrow. 



70 ELEMENTARY GEAMMAB. 

4. Adverbs of Quantity ; as, much, little ^ sufficiently^ 
enough, scarcely. 

5. Adverbs of Direction ; as, downward, upward, fonvard, 
backivard, homeward, heavenward, hitherward, thitherward. 

6. Adverbs of Number, Order, etc., including all those 
formed from the Numeral Adjectives; as, first, secondly, 
thirdly ; once, twice, thrice; singly, doubly, triply. 

7. Adverbs of Affirmation and Neg-ation ; as, yes, no, 
verily, indeed, nay, nowise, doubtless. 

8. Adverbs of Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, where, 
whither, whence. 

9. Adverbs of Comparison; as, more, most, less, least, 
better, best, very, exceedingly, nearly, almost. 

10. Adverbs of Uncertainty ; as, perchance, perhaps, per- 
adventure, possibly, probably. 

Exercises. — Write ten or more verbs ; write each of these 
verbs in a sentence. Modify each of them in the sentence 
given by an adverb. 

Write ten or more adjectives ; write each of them in a sen- 
tence. Modify each of these adjectives in the sentence by an 
adverb. 

Write ten or more adverbs ; write each of them in a sen- 
tence. Modify, if possible, each of the adverbs given in the 
sentence by another adverb. 

Write three sentences, each containing an adverb of Man- 
ner or Quality ; three, each containing an adverb of Place ; 
three, each containing an adverb of Time ; three, each con- 
taining an adverb of Quantity. 

In the following sentences, name the part of speech of 
each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. Name each 
verb used and give its subject. Name the articles, adjectives, 
and adverbs used as modifiers, and tell what they modify. 

Charles reads well. 

Mary sang sweetly. 

The horse runs swiftly. 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

He was to meet me here. 

Great men are greatly admired. 

Thus the farmer sows his seed. 

The lady sang so very sweetly that she was greatly ap- 
plauded. 

Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

John knows where to catch the largest fish. 

I know a spot where the wild rose blooms. 

We had scarcely reached the wharf when the boat left. 

The boys will return from school to-morr(3w. 

Mary will probably arrive promptly. 

Softly, slowly, toll the bell. 

He will certainly secure the reward. 

Probably he will return in time. 

He was absent twice in one week. 

We had nearly reached our destination when the sun set. 

Perhaps the excursion will be postponed. 

You must write more carefully ; you are the least careful 
writer in the class. 

You will first recite the first paragraph on the first page. 

How can you behave so badly? 

Why do you neglect your duty ? 

The farmer homeward turned his weary steps, and cast his 
eyes upward to gaze upon the sky, while he thought cheer- 
fully of those at home. 



-«o>^o 



VII. THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
sentences, and parts of sentences ; as, John and James 
study ; John writes and James reads ; He is neither 
strong in body nor sound in mind. 



72 



ELEMENTARY GUAMMAR. 



The following are the principal Conjunctions. 



Also 


but 


nor 


therefore 


Although 


either 


or 


though 


And 


for 


since 


unless 


As 


if 


than 


wherefore 


Because 


lest 


that 


whether 


Both 


neither 


then 


yet 



Exercises. — Write ten sentences, each containing one or 
more of the Conjunctions named in the list. 

In the following sentences, name the part of speech of each 
word, its class, its attributes, and its use. Name the conjunc- 
tions, and tell what they connect : 

Any coward can fight a battle when he is sure of winning. 

Mary and John have gone to town. 

John and James study. 

James writes and John reads. 

Charles studies his lessons carefully, but John is very negli- 
gent with his lessons. 

The boy wrote well, though his hands were badly injured. 

He supported his mother, though he was quite young. 

I cannot go to school, because the weather is so bad. 

It is so dark that I cannot see. 



oJ^Koo 



VIII. THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some other word ; as, 
He writes iijith a pen ; He lives in a tent ; He spoke 
to them. 

The principal relations indicated by Prepositions are 
time, place, cause, possession, manner, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY, 



73 



There are two classes of Prepositions, Simple and Compound. 

Simple Prepositions are those which are not compounded 
with any other word. 

A preposition with its related word is called a prepositional 
phrase. Phrases of this kind are adjectival or adverbial, and 
modify nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs after the manner 
of adjectives and adverbs. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen, viz. : 



At 


from 


past 


to 


After 


in 


round 


under 


By 


of 


since 


up 


Down 


on 


through 


with 


For 


over 


till 





Exercises. — Write ten sentences, each containing one or 
more of the simple prepositions. 

Write five or more sentences, each containing a preposi- 
tional phrase. 

State whether the phrases in the sentences you have writ- 
ten are used as adjectives or as adverbs. 

Compound Prepositions are those wdiich are formed by 
uniting two words or parts of words. 

The Compound Prepositions are 



Above 




before 




toward 


About 




behind 




towards 


Across 




below 




unto 


Against 




beneath 




into 


Along 




beside 




within 


Amid or amidst 


besides 




without 


Among or 


amongst 


between or 


betwixt 


throughout 


Around 




beyond 




underneath 


Athwart 




upon 







Exercises. — Write ten sentences, each containing one or 
more of the Compound Prepositions named in the list. 



74 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

In the following sentences and paragraphs, name the part 
of speech of each word, its class, its attributes, and its use. 
Select the prepositional phrases, and state whether they 
modify as adjectives or as adverbs : 

John went to Boston on the boat. 

The old mill stood beside the road. 

The city of Philadelphia is situated between two rivers. 

He went in a carriage, drawn by two horses, on a fine day 
in the morning, into the city after his sister. As he rode 
over the roads and through the streets, he saw objects before 
him with which he was greatly pleased. 

When the widow stood beside the grave of her husband, 
she thought over his many acts of kindness towards her. 
Now he was to rest beneath the clods of the valley, and she 
was to be left without a partner. The good minister told her 
to look for comfort in her affliction unto her heavenly Father, 
and to think of that blissful abode above the weary world, and 
of that better life beyond the grave. 



IX. THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word used in making sudden 
exclamations ; as^ oli ! ah ! alas ! 

The principal Interjections are 



Adieu 


ha 


hist 


lo 


Ah 


hail 


ho 





Aha 


halloo 


hum 


oh 


Alack 


hark 


hush 


pshaw 


Alas 


he 


huzza 


see 


Begone 








Bxercise.- 


—Write ten sentences 


5, each conti 


aining one c 



more of the interjections. 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 

As, meaning because, or since, is a Conjunction. Example : 
As the wind was favorable, we set sail. It is also a 
part of the Correlative Conjunction as — so, and of sev- 
eral Complex Conjunctions, as ivell as, etc. 

As, in all other cases, is an Adverb. 

Before, After, Till, and Until, when followed by a noun or 
a pronoun in the objective case, are Prepositions; as, 
Come before dinner. 
Come after dinner. 
Wait till midnight. 
Wait until your turn. 
Before, After, Till, and Until, when not followed by a 
noun or a pronoun in the objective case, are Ad- 
verbs; as, 

Come before I have dined. 
Come after 1 have dined. 
Wait till I have dined. 
Wait until I have dined. 
Both is an Adjective, when it means the tivo ; as. Both shoes 

need mending. 
Both is a Conjunction in all other cases ; as, I both love and 

respect him. 
But is a Preposition, when it means except; as. He lost all his 

books but (except) his dictionary. 
But is an Adverb, when it means only; as, I but (only) 

touched him and he cried. 
But is a Conjunction in all other instances. 
Either is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means 

07ie of the two; as. Either of the boys may do it. 
Either is a Conjunction in all other cases. 
Neither is a Distributive Adjective Pronoun, when it means 
not one of the tivo. 



76 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Neither is a Conjunction in all other cases. 

For is a Conjunction when it means because, and is used in 

giving a reason ; as, I obey him, for he is my father, 

that is, because he is my father. 
For is a Preposition in all other cases. 
Since, meaning for the reason that, is a Conjunction; as, Since 

it is your wish, I will certainly do it. 
Since, when placed before a noun denoting a period of time, 

is a Preposition ; as, I have had no food since Monday. 
Since, in other cases, is an Adverb. 
Then, meaning in that case, or therefore, is a Conjunction ; as, 

If all this be so, then I am right. 
Then, in all. other instances, is an Adverb. 
That is a Relative Pronoun when who, whom, or which may 

be used in its place ; as. He is the wisest man that lives 

in our village. 
That is a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun when the may 

be used instead of it ; as, ^' That house which I see," 

means ^'the house which I see.'' 
That is a Conjunction in all other cases ; as. He wears warm 

clothes that he may not catch cold. Here, who, ivhom, 

which, or the, could not be used for that. 
What is a Relative Pronoun when that which or those which 

can be used in its stead ; as, Eat ivhat is set before you. 

That is. Eat that ivhich is set before you. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun when used to ask a ques- 
tion ; as, What do you see ? 

What is an Adjective Pronoun when joined with a noun, 
but not asking a question ; as, What wonders he per- 
formed. He gave what money he had to the poor. 

What, when uttered as a mere exclamation, and to denote 
surprise, is an Interjection; as. What! abuse your 
mother! 

While, meaning to pass or spend time, is a Verb; as, They 
managed to 2vhile away the hour very pleasantly. 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

While, meaning a jportion of time, is a Noun ; as, Let us sing 
a while. 

While, meaning during the time that, is an Adverb ; as. The 
act was done while I was absent. 

Yet, meaning nevertheless, notwithstanding, is a Conjunction; 
as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Yet, meaning up to a certain time, or over and above, is an Ad- 
verb ; as, Has the boy come yet f I will give you yet 
one more reason. 




Third Part. 



o><Ko 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 

Syntax treats of putting words together into sen- 
tences. 

Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence into 
the parts which compose it. 



-^>^o 



1. SYNTAX. 
General Observations. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so 
as to make complete sense; as, Man is mortal. 

The principal parts of a sentence are the Subject (or 
nominative) and the Predicate (or verb). 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a predicate, and not making by 
themselves complete sense ; as, " The good man, in the 
midst of his usefulness, has departed. In this sentence, 
the words, in the midst of his usefulness, form a phrase. 

78 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 79 

Phrases in their office or use are either adjectival or 
adverbial. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence, containing a predi- 
cate with its subject, making by themselves complete 
sense, yet not independent, being used to modify some 
other part or parts of the sentence of which it is a 
part ; as, " The good man, who had gained great renown, 
has departed." In this sentence, the words, who had 
gained great renown, form a clause. 

A Simple sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate; as. Life is short 

A Complex sentence is one which contains a simple 
sentence, with one or more clauses modifying either its 
subject or its predicate; as, A life which is spent in 
doing good cannot be a failure. 

A Compound sentence is one which contains two 
or more sentences, connected by one or more conjunc- 
tions ; as, Life is short, but art is long. 

The sentences which compose a compound sentence 
are called its Members. 



80 ELEMENTARY GEAMMAB. 

RULE I. 

The Subject of a Verb must be in the J^ominative 

Case. 

NOTES. 

1. The subject of a verb may be, 1. A noun ; as, 
John wrote. 2. A pronoun ; as, She is happy. 3. A 
verb in the infinitive mood or an infinitive phrase ; as, 
To study seemed his greatest desire. To see the sun is 
pleasant. 4. A participle or a participial phrase ; as, 
Reading usefid books promotes knowledge. 5. A sen- 
tence or a part of a sentence ; as, Thou shalt not kill is 
the sixth commandment. In all these instances the 
subjects are used as nouns. 

2. The subject of a verb is usually placed before the 
verb. 

3. Rule I. is violated by using the subject of the verb in 
any other case than the nominative. 

4. Complex names, such as George Washington, Charles 
Henry Grant, etc., should be taken together in parsing, as if 
they were one word. Thus, '^ Charles Henry Grant," a com- 
plex name, is a proper noun. 

5. A noun or a pronoun addressed, and not the subject of 
any verb, is in the Nominative Case Independent; as, 
"Father, forgive them.'' "Boys, go home." 

6. A noun or a pronoun put before a participle as its sub- 
ject, and not being the subject of any verb, is in the Nomi- 
native Case Absolute ; as, " My father dying, I was left 
an orphan." 

Parsing. 

Parsing consists in stating the grammatical properties 
and relations of words and the rules of syntax which apply 
to them. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 81 

General Directions for Parsing. 

Part of speech, and why; the class, and why; the 
properties, and why; the relation it holds to any other 
word or words in the sentence; the rule of syntax appli- 
cable. 

This form of parsing may be abridged by excluding all 
reasons. It may be still further abridged by simpl}^ stating 
the use or office of the word in the sentence.* 

Models for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter." *' James " is a proper noun, mas- 
culine gender, singular number, third person, nominative 
case, subject of the verb ''wrote," according to Rule I. The 
subject of the verb must be in the nominative case. 

"He will write a letter." "He" is a personal pronoun, 
masc. gen., sing, n., 3d p., nom. case, subject of the verb 
"will write," according to Rule I. (Quote the Rule.) 

"To study seemed his greatest desire." "To study" is a 
verb in the infinitive mood, used as a noun. It is in the 
neut. gen., sing, n., 3d per., nom. c, and is the subject of the 
verb " seemed," according to Note under Rule I. (Quote the 
Note.) 

"Thou shalt not kill is a divine command." "Thou shalt 
not kill," is a part of a sentence, used as a noun. It is in 
the neut. gen., sing, n., 3d per., nom. c, and is the subject of 
the verb "is," according to Note under Rule I. (Quote the 
Note.) 

"Father, forgive them." "Father" is a com. noun, masc. 
g., sing, n., 2d p., and in the nominative case independent, 
according to Note under Rule I. (Quote Note.) 

" The sash falling suddenly, his finger was crushed." 
"Sash" is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the 
nominative case absolute before the participle "falling," 
according to Note under Rule I. (Quote Note.) 

* The models for parsing herein given are suggestive only, and may 
be changed in such manner as the teacher may think best. 
6 



o 

t4-t 



82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a noun ; 
three, each containing a pronoun ; three, each con- 
taining a verb in the infinitive mood; three, each 
containing an infinitive phrase ; three, each contain- 
ing a participle; three, each containing a partici- 
pial phrase; three, each containing a sentence or a 
part of a sentence — 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a complex noun 
used as the subject of a verb. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in the 
nominative case independent. 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a noun or a pro- 
noun in the nominative case absolute. 

Name the predicates of each of the following sentences. 
Name the adjectival modifiers of the subjects. Name the 
adverbial modifiers of the predicates. Parse all the Subjects 
and Nominatives : 

Mary wrote a letter. 

The child loves its mother. 

The letter was written by Mary. 

Our neighbors have sold their property. 

The boys are hunting in the woods. 

Perseverance overcomes difficulties. 

Difficulties are overcome by perseverance. 

God loves a cheerful giver. 

She has gone home. 

Has he not said it, and will he net do it ? 

Keading good books is an aid to culture. 

Christopher Columbus discovered North America. 

George Washington was the first President of the United 
States. 

John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United 
States. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 83 

Napoleon, at the head of a large army, crossed the Alps. 
To study seemed his only desire. 
To deceive is always wrong. 
To skate is healthful amusement. 
To play is pleasant. 
To despair is madness. 
Never despair is a good motto. 
Thou shalt not steal, is a divine command. 
To cultivate the ground is a pleasant occupation. 
Henry, have you studied your lesson? 
Welcome, little stranger. 
Sarah, be quiet. 

Fellow-citizens, listen to my cause. 
Teach me, O Lord, to serve thee aright. 
Show pity, Lord ; O, Lord, forgive. 
Our Father, who art in heaven. 
Supper being finished, they left the table. 
My father being w^eary, I relieved him. 
The sun having risen, the clouds disappeared. 
Napoleon being banished, peace w^as restored to Europe. 
The teacher having been so long ill, his friends feared he 
would not recover. 

The lieutenant led the men, the captain having been dis- 
abled. 



84 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

RULE II. 

A Verb agrees with its Subject in Jfumber and 
Person. 

NOTES. 

1. Rule II. is violated by using the verb in any other num- 
ber or person than its subject; thus, ''They was present," 
should be, *'They were present." 

2. When the subject of the verb is an infinitive mood, or 
a part of a sentence, the verb should be singular; as, *'To 
skate is healthful amusement." ''Thou shalt not kill, is a 
divine command." But if there are two or more infinitives, 
or clauses, making distinct subjects, then the verb should be 
plural ; as, " To skate and to play cricket are healthful amuse- 
ments," " Thou shalt not kill, and Thou shalt not steal, are 
divine commands." 

3. When a verb has for its subject a collective noun, the 
verb should be singular if the idea expressed by the subject is 
singular, that is, if the assertion is made of the collection as 
one thing ; as, " The class is large." But, if the idea expressed 
by the subject is plural, that is, if the assertion is made of 
the individuals composing the collection, the verb should be 
plural; as, "The multitude pursue pleasure as their chief 
good." 

4. Two or more subjects, connected by and, require a verb 
in the plural ; as, "Socrates and Plato were wise." 

5. Two or more subjects, connected by and, if used to ex- 
press only one person or thing, require a verb in the singular; 
as, " That eminent statesman and orator is dead." 

6. Two or more subjects in the singular, connected by or or 
nory require a verb in the singular ; as, " Ignorance or preju- 
dice has caused this mistake." 

7. If any one of several subjects connected by or or nor is 
plural, the verb must be plural; as, "Either he or they were 
mistaken." 

8. When a verb has subjects of different persons, connected 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 85 

by andf the verb agrees with the first person rather than the 
second, and with the second rather than the third; as, ^^He 
and I shared the peach between us." *' Shared," here, should 
be parsed as in the first person. 

9. When a verb has subjects of different persons, connected 
by or or nor, the verb agrees in person with the subject near- 
est to it ; as, *^ Either thou or I am mistaken." 

Models for Parsing. 

" James wrote a letter." ** Wrote " is a transitive verb, ir- 
regular (Pres. write, Past wrote, Past P. written), active voice, 
indicative mood, past tense, and is in the singular number, 
third person, to agree with its subject ** James," according to 
Rule II. (Quote the Rule.) 

**To study seems his greatest desire." "Seems " is an in- 
trans. verb, reg., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., 
to agree with its subject 'Ho study," a verb in the inf. mood 
used as a noun, according to Note under Rule II. (Quote 
Note.) 

** Thou shalt not steal, is the eighth commandment." " Is " 
is an int. v., irr. (Am, was, been), ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., sing. 
n., to agree with its subject, " Thou shalt not steal," a part of 
a sentence used as a noun, according to Note under Rule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

**The multitude pursue pleasure." "Pursue" is a trans, 
verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the pi. n., to 
agree with its subject "multitude," a collective noun express- 
ing a plural idea, according to Note under Rule II. (Quote 
Note.) 

"Socrates and Plato were wise." "Were" is an intrans. 
verb, irr. (Am, was, been), ind. m., past t., 3d p., and in the 
pi. n., because it has two subjects, "Socrates" and "Plato," 
connected by "and," according to Note under Rule II. 
(Quote Note.) 

" If that skilful painter and glazier is in town, be sure to 
employ him." " Is " is an intrans. verb, irr. (Am, was, been), 
ind. m., pres. t., 3d p., and in the sing, n., because its two 



86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

subjects, ''painter" and ''glazier," express only one personj 
according to Note under Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" Ignorance or prejudice has caused the mistake." ^' Has 
caused" is a trans, verb, reg., act. v, ind. m., pres.-perf. t., 3d 
p., and in the sing, n., because its two subjects, "ignorance" 
and "prejudice," are in the singular, connected by or, accord- 
ing to Note under Rule II. (Quote Note.) 

" He and I shared the peach between us." " Shared " is a 
trans, verb, reg., act. v., ind. m., past t., in the pi. n., because 
it has two subjects connected by "and," according to Note 
under Rule II. (quote Note), and in the 1st p., according to 
Note under Rule II. (Quote Note.) , 

Note. — Verbs in the Infinitive mood may be parsed for 
the present as follows : 

"James expects to win the prize." "To win" is a trans, 
verb, irr. (Win, won, won), act. v., infin. m., pres. t. 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a verb having an 
infinitive verb for its subject; three, each containing a sen- 
tence or a part of a sentence used as the subject. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a verb having 
for its subject a collective noun in the singular number; 
three, each containing a collective noun in the plural num- 
ber used as the subject. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
plural number having two or more subjects connected by 
"anc?;" three, each containing a verb in the singular num- 
ber having two or more subjects connected by "aiid." 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
singular number having two or more subjects connected by 
"or" or "nor;" three, each containing a verb in the plural 
number having two or more subjects connected by **or^^ 
or ^^nory 

Name the subject or subjects in each of the following sen- 
tences. Name the predicate. Is the predication made of 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 87 

one thing or of more than one thing? What single words 
modify the subject? What part of speech is each? What 
single words modify the predicate ? What part of speech is 
each ? Parse all the Verbs and all the Subjects : 

Perseverance overcomes difficulties. 

Difficulties are overeome by perseverance. 

Forgive your enemies. 

The lesson was recited by the class. 

North America was discovered by Columbus. 

Bless them that persecute you. 

To study seemed his only desire. 

To skate is a healthful amusement. 

To contradict persons older and wiser than ourselves, vio- 
lates the rules of politeness. 

To be carnally minded is death. 

A gunner and his dog were seen in the woods. 

The father and daughter were buried in the same grave. 

Famine, pestilence, and death follow in the warrior's path. 

My friend and teacher has gone to England. 

That distinguished poet, orator, and scholar has fallen. 

Neither kindness nor harshness had the desired effect. 

Neither gold nor silver is found in that country. 

Neither time nor tide waits for man. 

Neither the troops, nor their commander, were rewarded. 

Neither John nor his friends were present. 

Either the general or the soldiers are worthy of reward. 

You and he are of the same opinion. 

You and Susan have studied your lessons. 

You and I have forgotten our books. 

Either thou, or the teacher, or I am mistaken. 

Either thou, or I, or the teacher is mistaken. 

Either the teacher, or I, or thou art mistaken. 

The teacher, I, and you are mistaken. 



88 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

RULE III. 

A Transitive Verb in the Active Voice requires 
an Object in the Objective Case, 

NOTES. 

1. The noun or pronoun in the objective case is said 
to be governed by the verb. 

2. The object of the verb may be^ 1. A noun; as, 
John wrote a letter. 2. A pronoun ; as, We saw him. 

3. A verb in the infinitive mood or an infinitive phrase; 
as, He tried to win the prize. Boys love to play ball. 

4. A participle or a participial phrase ; as, We should 
avoid talking nonsense. 5. A sentence or a part of a 
sentence; as, God said, "Let there be light J^ In all 
these instances the objectives are used as nouns. 

3. The object of a verb is usually placed after the 
verb. 

4. The object of a transitive verb, whether noun, 
pronoun, or part of a sentence, is called a modifier or 
adjunct of the predicate. It is sometimes called the 
object complement of the verb. 

5. Eule III. is violated in four ways, namely : 

a. By using the object of the verb in any other case than 
the objective; ^^She asked him and I to do it," should be, 
'*She asked him and me to do it." 

h. By using a transitive verb in the active voice without 
an object; **He ingratiates with people," should be, *^He 
ingratiates himself with people." 

c. By inserting a preposition between the verb and its 
object; "I shall premise with a few observations," should 
be, '*I shall premise a few observations." 

d. By using an objective with a verb that is not transi- 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 89 

tive; "I lie me down to sleep/' should be, '^ I lie down to 
sleep." 

6. A participle of a Transitive verb in the Active voice 
requires an object in the objective case; as, ''The boy, having 
eaten unripe fruity became sick.'' 

7. The Relative Pronoun, when in the objective case, usu- 
ally precedes the verb by which it is governed; as, ''The 
book tvhich you see is mine." Here "which" is the object 
of the verb "see," and is placed before it. 

Models for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter." "Letter" is a com. noun, n. g., 
sing, n., 3d p., and is in the obj. c, governed by "wrote," a 
transitive verb in the active voice, according to Eule III. 
(Quote Rule.) 

"The boy, having eaten unripe fruit, became sick." 
"Fruit" is a com. noun, n. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the 
obj. c, governed by the participle "having eaten," accord- 
ing to a note under Rule III. (Quote Note.) 

"James saw him." "Him" is a pers. pronoun, masc. g., 
sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c, governed by "saw," a trans, 
v. in the act. v., according to Rule III. (Quote Rule.)^ 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a 
noun ; three, each containing a pronoun ; three, 
each containing an infinitive verb or an infinitive 
phrase ; three, each containing a participle or a 
participial phrase; three, each containing a sen- 
tence or a part of a sentence — 

Name the subject in each of the following sentences. 
Name the predicate or verb agreeing with the subject. 

* The parsing of the Pronoun here is complete as far as it goes. But 
there are other things to be learned concerning it under Eule VIII., 
before it can be parsed in full. 



?r. O > 



90 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

Which of these verbs are transitive? What is the object of 
each of these transitive verbs? Parse the Objectives which 
are the objects of verbs and participles, and all the Subjects 
and Verbs : 

Charles lost his knife. 

Mary found a book. 

William has recited his lesson. 

John caught a bird in the trap. 

A good conscience fears nothing. 

If you love God, keep his commandments. 

Temperance promotes health. 

Perseverance and industry will surmount every difficulty. 

We saw them go into the house. 

The child, seeing its mother, ran to meet her. 

The boys, having recited their lessons, were dismissed. 

The thief, having stolen the horse, made his escape. 

The merchant sold a yard of cloth. 

The teacher observed a boy breaking the rules. 

After capturing the fort, the troops entered the city. 

The man whom I saw, informed me that he had a collec- 
tion of wild beasts, which he would exhibit if you permit 
him. 

God said, " Let there be light." 

Boys love to play. 

Charles desires to learn. 

Every child should learn to read. 

Paul said, " Children, obey your parents." 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS, 91 

RULE IV. 

A Preposition requires an Object in the Objective 
Case, 

NOTES. 

1. The noun or pronoun in the objective case after a 
preposition is said to be governed by the preposition. 

2. The preposition and the word governed by it is 
called a Prepositional Phrase or an Adjunct. As such 
it may be either adverbial or adjectival in character, 
and may modify a verb, an adverb, an adjective, or a 
noun. 

3. When a preposition is followed by an adjective without 
a noun, supply the noun, and parse the preposition accord- 
ingly ; as, *' Keep to the right," meaning '' Keep to the right 
side.'^ 

4. The preposition is frequently omitted, particularly after 
verbs oi giving and procuring; after adjectives of likeness or 
nearness ; and before nouns denoting iime^ place, price, meas- 
ure, etc. When it is practicable to supply the ellipsis, the 
noun or pronoun is parsed as in the objective, governed by 
the preposition thus supplied. Thus, ''Give me a book." 
'*Get me an apple." ''Like his father." "Books worth a 
dollar," meaning, "Give to me a book." "Get /or me an 
apple." " Like to his father." " Books to the worth of a dol- 
lar." But when no such preposition can be supplied, we say 
the noun is in the objective, expressing time, place, price, meas- 
ure, etc., without any governing word. 

5. Sometimes one preposition immediately precedes an- 
other; as, ^^ From before the altar." The two prepositions in 
such cases should be considered as one, just as in the case of 
the compound prepositions upon, within, etc. 

Models for Parsing. 
"James wrote a letter to his father." "To" is a preposi- 
tion, showing the relation between " wrote " and " father," 



92 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

and governs *^ father'^ in the obj. c, according to Rule IV. 
(Quote.) 

*' Father'' is a com. noun, mas. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in 
the obj. c, governed by the preposition *'to," according to 
Rule IV. (Quote.) 

'' God seeth in secret.'' ^* In " is a preposition, showing the 
relation between '' seeth" and ^'places," or some such noun 
understood. The meaning is, '' God seeth in secret places." 

**Give your brother the book." ^^ Brother" is a common 
noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the obj. c, governed by 
the preposition "to," understood, according to note under 
Rule IV. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a preposition 
followed by an adjective without any noun expressed. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in the 
objective case, the object of some omitted preposition. 

Name the prepositions in the following sentences. Name 
the word governed by each. Name the phrases formed by 
the preposition and the word governed by it. State whether 
adjectival or adverbial in character, and what they modify. 
Parse all the Prepositions, Subjects, Verbs, and Objectives : 

The soldier was true to his country. 

His absence from school was the cause of his failure. 

His promotion depends upon his industry, 

I can depend upon your support. 

Turn to the left. 

He selected an apple from the best in his orchard. 

Mary looks like her mother. 

Charles, give me that book. 

His ability won him much renown. 

The clouds seemed like piles of snow. 

A bird can fly twenty miles an hour. 

Children near the sea gather shells. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 93 

RULE V. 

A JVoun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case is 
dependent upon the Jfoun signifying the things 
possessed. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun or pronoun in the possessive case is said 
to be governed by the noun signifying the thing pos- 
sessed. 

2. The noun governing the possessive case is often omit- 
ted; as, *'I bought this slate at the bookseller's," meaning, 
" at the bookseller's store." In such cases, supply the omis- 
sion, and parse according to the general rule. 

3. In complex names and in complex titles, the sign 
of the possessive is put only at the end, and the whole 
complex name, or title, is parsed as one word. Thus, 
''George Washington's farewell address," not ''George's 
Washington's." 

4. A complex title sometimes consists of several words, 
some of which may be different parts of speech, and may 
have an independent construction of their own; thus, "The 
captain of the guard's horse was slain." In parsing such a 
sentence, " of the guard " should be parsed first, each word 
separately, "guard" being in the objective. Then, "captain 
of the guard's " should be parsed as one complex title, in the 
possessive case, governed by "horse." The 's belongs not to 
"guard," but to the whole expression. 

5. The possessive is sometimes governed by a participle 
used as a noun; as, "The cause of John's forgetting the 
lesson w^as his anxiety about the excursion." Here " John's " 
is in the possessive case, governed by *' forgetting " used as a 
noun. It would not be correct to put "John" in the object- 
ive case governed by "of." "Of" governs "forgetting," not 
"John." "The cause of John forgetting the lesson," should 
be, " the cause of John's forgetting the lesson." 



94 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

Models for Parsing. 
" James wrote a letter by his father^s permission." *^ Fath- 
er's " is a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., and in the poss. 
c, governed by ^^ permission," according to Rule V. (Quote.) 

"George Washington's Farewell Address has just been 
read." ^' George Washington's," a complex name, is a prop, 
noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., poss. c, governed by "Ad- 
dress," according to Eule V. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in the 
possessive case with the governing noun omitted. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a complex name 
in the possessive case. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a complex title 
in the possessive case. 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in the 
possessive case governed by a participle. 

Name all the nouns in the following sentences that are in 
the possessive case. Name all the subjects and predicates. 
Name the single word modifiers of each. How used? Name 
the phrase modifiers of each. How used ? Parse all the Pos- 
sessives. Subjects, Verbs, Objectives, and Prepositions: 

Cruel boys rob birds' nests. 

The widow's friend will not defraud her children. 

The boy's politeness caused his friends to respect him. 

Mary's friend arrived home safely. 

The girl, who lost her book, has found it. 

He preferred a shepherd's life to a monarch's throne. 

Benjamin Franklin's grave is in Philadelphia. 

My father-in-law's house was destroyed by fire. 

My brother's behavior is better than my sister's. 

She went to the baker's and bought bread for her children. 

He spends his spare time at the lawyer's. 

They stopped at the bookseller's and made their purchases. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS, 95 

RULE VI. 

A Jfoun or a Pronoun in Apposition with an- 
other, agrees with it in Case, 

NOTES. 

1. A word is said to be in apposition with another when 
it is used to explain the other, or when it is repeated for 
emphasis; as, ''Smith, the bookselleVy Uves in that house." 
''Cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.'' "We, 
the people of the United States." 

2. The words in apposition may be in any case, nominative, 
possessive, or objective. 

3. A noun may be used in apposition with a whole sen- 
tence; as, "He promptly acceded to my request, an act 
which redounds greatly to his honor." "Act" is here 
nominative, in apposition with the whole of the preceding 
sentence. 

4. One of the most frequent instances of apposition is 
where the proper noun of an object is appended to its 
common name; as, "The river Delaware." 

5. The phrases "They love one another," "They love 
each other," etc., afford instances of apposition that very 
frequently occur. In the first of these examples, " one " is 
in the nominative, and is in apposition with "they;" and 
"another" is in the objective, governed by "love." The 
meaning is, "One loves another." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter to his brother John." "John " is a 
prop, noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., obj. c, in apposition with 
the noun " brother," according to Rule VI. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in appo- 
sition with another noun in the nominative case. 



96 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in appo- 
sition with another noun in the possessive case. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in appo- 
sition with another noun in the objective case. 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a noun in appo- 
sition with a sentence or a part of a sentence. 

In the following sentences, name the word in apposition 
and the word which it explains. The word in apposition is a 
modifier or adjunct of the word explained. In what partic- 
ular does the latter agree with the former ? Does it agree in 
gender? Number? Person? Name the subjects and the 
predicates. Name all the modifiers (single words and 
phrases) of each. Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in Appo- 
sition, and all the Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Objectives, and 
Prepositions : 

Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm. 

My brother, James, has gone home. 

Washington, the first President, was buried at Mount 
Vernon. 

My cousin, Mary, has written me a letter. 

Kidd, the notorious pirate, suffered the felon's reward, 
death upon the gallows. 

William bought a book for his sister Mary. 

Mr. Embury crossed the river Delaware in the ferry-boat 
• Eagle. 

The steamer Pennsylvania will sail on Monday. 

We should make our business our pleasure. 

Why do you assail me, your only brother ? 

Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, lies on the east 
bank of the river Susquehanna. 

Preserve your health, the poor man's wealth, the rich 
man's bliss. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS 97 

RULE VII. 

The Verb To Be has the same Case after it as 
before it, 

NOTES. 

1. The noun or pronoun after the verb to he is not in appo- 
sition with the noun or pronoun before it, but is a part of the 
predicate of the verb ; as, '' James is commander of the troops.^' 
" Commander " should be parsed as nominative after the verb 
is, and forming a part of the predicate. As a part of the 
predicate, the words so used after the verb to he are consid- 
ered adjuncts or modifiers of the predicate. 

2. This rule applies to all the variations of the verb to 
he, such as, am, art, is, luas, were, etc. It applies also to the 
verb hecoyne and to several other intransitive verbs, and also 
to the passive voice of some transitive verbs, such as to he 
named, to he called, etc. 

3. The verb to he in the infinitive mood used as a noun 
may have a noun or a pronoun after it without any other 
noun before it; as, ''To be a good man, is not so easy a 
thing as many people imagine." Here inxin should be 
parsed as used indefinitely after the verb to 6e, without .say- 
ing what its case is. The infinitive mood of many other 
intransitive verbs, and likewise the infinitive passive of 
some transitive verbs, may also have a noun or a pronoun 
after them used indefinitely ; as, '' To live a consistent Chris- 
tian is not easy," " To be called a Roman was counted a great 
honor." 

Model for Parsing. 

"James is commander of the troops." "Commander" is 
a com. noun, masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., nom. c, after the verb 
"is," according to Rule VII. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing the verb to he 
or one of its variations, having a noun or pronoun after the 

7 



98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

verb, not in apposition with the noun or pronoun before the 
verb. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing the verb to he 
used as a noun, having a noun or a pronoun after it used 
indefinitely. 

What words in the following sentences have the same case 
as the word before the verb? Name the subject and predi- 
cate in each sentence. What words or phrases modify each 
subject and predicate ? In each sentence, parse the Nouns 
and Pronouns after the verb in the same case as the noun or 
pronoun before it, and all the Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, 
Objectives, and Prepositions : 

Ellen is the best scholar in the class. 

Arnold was a traitor to his country. 

I am the owner of this property. 

Nathan said unto David, '' Thou art the man." 

Godliness, with contentment, is great gain. 

It was he that did it. 

It was she that told us the story. 

It was Charles that we saw on the boat. 

Washington w^as the first President. 

I am sure it was John who passed. 

Thomson, the author of ''The Seasons," is a delightful poet. 

Intemperance has been the ruin of many. 

He was considered to be a suitable person. 

To be called a coward does not make one so. 

To be a good citizen should be ever}^ man's desire. 

The Senate caused Scylla to be proclaimed dictator. 

To die a hero is better than to live a coward. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS, 99 

RULE VIIL 

A Pronoun agrees with the Koun or the Pronoun 
for which it stands, in Gender, JYumber, and Per- 
son, 

NOTES. 

1. When a pronoun stands for a Collective noun, the pro- 
noun should be singular if the idea expressed by the noun is 
singular, and should be in the neuter gender; as, **The class 
is too large ; it must be divided." But if the idea expressed 
by the noun is plural, the pronoun should be plural. ''Send 
the multitude away that they may buy themselves bread." 

2. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, con- 
nected by and, the pronoun should be plural. Thus, ** Wil- 
liam and Mary were both there; I saw them'' ''He and 
Mary were both there ; I saw ihemJ' " He and she were 
both there ; I saw them,'' " Them " in the first example 
stands for two nouns, in the second, for a noun and a pro- 
noun, and in the third, for tw^o pronouns. 

3. When a pronoun stands for tw^o or more words, con- 
nected by and, but used to express only one subject, the 
pronoun should be singular. Thus, " He knew his Lord 
and Saviour, and loved Him." 

4. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, in the 
singular, connected by or or nor, the pronoun should be sin- 
gular. Thus, "Either play or work is injurious, if it is car- 
ried to excess." If one of the words connected by or or nor 
is plural, the pronoun should be plural ; as, " Neither the 
captain nor the crew knew their danger." 

5. When a pronoun stands for two or more words, con- 
nected by and, but of different persons, the pronoun agrees 
with the first person rather than with the second, and with 
the second rather than with the third. Thus, " William and 
I had our skates with us." " Our " and " us " are plural, be- 
cause they stand for two subjects, " William " and " I." But 
one of these subjects, "William," being in the third person, 
and the other, "I," being in the first person, the pronoun 



100 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

which stands for both must be in the first person. We would 
not express the meaning, if we were to say, '' William and 
I had their skates with them.^' 

6. A pronoun may stand for an infinitive mood ; as, ^* To 
contradict may be rude, but it is not criminal.'^ A pronoun 
may stand also for a part of a sentence ; as, '' He is very 
witty, but unfortunately he is aware of it.'' The pronoun in 
such cases should be in the neuter gender, singular number, 
and third person. But if there are two or more infinitives, 
or parts of sentences, making distinct subjects, then the pro- 
noun should be plural; as, '^To be temperate, and to use 
exercise in the open air, are good preservatives of health, 
but they are not infallible." 

7. The pronoun it is sometimes used indefinitely, that is, 
without standing for any particular noun. When so used, it 
is in the neuter gender, singular number, and third person. 
Thus, ''Come and trip it as you go," ''It rains," ''See how it 
snows," ''It is he." 

8. Who is used in referring to persons; Which is used in 
referring to inferior animals, to things without life, to infants, 
to collective nouns expressing a singular idea, and to persons 
in asking questions where the particular individual was in- 
quired for. "Which" was formerly applied to persons as 
well as things ; as, " Our Father, which art in heaven." 

9. That is used instead of Who or Which in the following 
cases : 

a. After two antecedents, one requiring whOj and the other 
requiring which; as, "The 7nan and the house that we saw 
yesterday." 

b. After the Superlative; as, "It is the best book that can 
be got." 

c. After /Same; as, "He is the same kind-hearted mantliat 
he used to be." 

d. After All^ or any similar antecedent expressing a gen- 
eral meaning, limited by the following verb; as, "All that 
heard me can testify." 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 101 

e. After WhOj used interrogatively; as, "Who^thathsiS seen 
anything of human nature, can beUeve it?'^ 

/. After Itj used indefinitely; as, ^' It was he that did it." 

10. The relative is sometimes omitted; as, ^'The letter 
you wrote me on Saturday, came duly to hand," meaning, 
"The letter which you wrote me." 

11. The antecedent is sometimes omitted ; as, *' Who lives 
to nature, rarely can be poor," meaning, '' The person who 
lives." 

Models for Parsing. 

" Mary lost her book." " Her " is a pers. pron., relating to 
" Mary;" it is in the fem. gen., sing, numb., 3d per., to agree 
with ''Mary," according to Rule VIII. (Quote), and is in the 
possessive case, governed by ''book," according to Eule V. 
(Quote.) 

*' John, who was at school, wrote a letter to his father." 
"Who" is a rel. pron., relating to "John" for its antecedent; 
it is in the masc. g., sing, n., 3d p., to agree with "John," ac- 
cording to Rule VIII. (Quote), and is in the nom. c, subject 
of the verb "was," according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

"The class is too large; it must be divided." "It" is a 
pers. pron., relating to " class;" it is in the neut. g., sing, n., 
3d p., to agree with " class," a collective noun expressing a 
singular idea, according to a Note under Rule VIII. (Quote 
Note), and is in the nom. c, subject of the verb "must be 
divided," according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

"Charles and Henry were both there; I saw them." 
"Them" is a pers. pron., relating to "Charles and Henry;" 
it is in masc. g., plur. n., 3d p., to agree with " Charles " and 
"Henry," two words connected by "and," according to a 
Note under Rule VIII. (Quote), and is in the obj. c, object 
of the verb " saw," according to Rule III. (Quote.) 

'* William and I had our skates with us." " Us " is a 
pers. pron., relating to "William" and" I," two words of 
different persons ; it is therefore in the 1st p., according to 
a Note under Rule VIII. (Quote), plur. n., according to a 



102 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 

Note under Rule VIII. (Quote), and is in the obj. c, gov- 
erned by the preposition '' with," according to Rule IV. 
(Quote.) 

'* To contradict may be rude, but it is not criminal. " It " 
is a pers. pron., relating to '' To contradict," a verb in the 
infinitive mood used as a noun ; it is therefore in the neut. g., 
sing, n., 3d p., according to a Note under Rule VIII. (Quote), 
and is in the nom. c, subject of the verb '4s," according to 
Rule I. (Quote.) 

" It rained all night." *' It " is a pers. pron., used indefi- 
nitely; it is in the neut. g., sing, n., 3d p., according to a Note 
under Rule VIII. (Quote Note), and is in the nom. c, subject 
of the verb '' rained," according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

"The man and the house that we saw yesterday." '' That " 
is a rel. pron., relating to two antecedents, " man " and 
"house," and used instead of 'Svho " or "which," accord- 
ing to a Note under Rule VIII. (Quote), plur. n., accord- 
ing to a Note under Rule VIII. (Quote Note), 3d p., and is 
in the obj. c, governed by the verb "saw," according to Rule 
III. (Quote.) 

"Give me what I want." "What" is a rel. pron., and 
relates to the object of "give," understood, for its ante- 
cedent; it is in the neut. g., sing, n., 3d p., to agree with 
the omitted antecedent, according to Rule VIII. (Quote), 
and is in the obj. c, object of the verb "want," according to 
Rule III. (Quote.) 

" Whoever hopes to win the prize, must labor hard." "Who- 
ever" is a compound rel. pron., composed of who and ever^ 
relating to "person," or some other like w^ord omitted, for its 
antecedent; in the com. g., sing, n., 3d p., to agree with the 
omitted antecedent, according to Rule VIII. (Quote), and is 
in the nom. c, subject of the verb " hopes," according to Rule 
I. (Quote.) 

" Who wrote the letter ? John." " Who " is an interroga- 
tive pronoun, relating to the subsequent w^ord "John;" it is 
in the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, 
to agree with "John," according to Rule VIII. (Quote), and 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 103 

is in the nominative case, subject of the verb "wrote," ac- 
cording to Kule I. (Quote.) 

" Who wrote the letter ?" " Who " is an interrogative pro- 
noun, relating to some noun contained in the answer, and 
not yet given; its gender, number, and person, therefore, 
cannot be determined; it is in the nominative case, subject 
of the verb '^ wrote," according to Rule I. (Quote.) 

''I do not know who wrote it." "Who" is a responsive 
pronoun, not relating to any word, either antecedent or sub- 
sequent; its gender, number, and person cannot be deter- 
mined; it is in the nom. c, subject of the verb "wrote/' 
according to Eule I. (Quote.) 

Exercises, 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun stand- 
ing for a collective noun. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun in the 
plural number standing for two or more words connected by 
" and.'' 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun in the 
singular number standing for two or more words connected 
by "and.'' 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun in the 
singular number standing for two or more words connected 
by "or" or "nor." 

5. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun in the 
plural number standing for two or more words connected by 
"or" or "nor." 

6. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun stand- 
ing for two or more words of different persons connected by 

"and." 

7. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun stand- 
ing for a verb in the infinitive mood used as a noun. 

8. Write three sentences containing the pronoun "it" used 
indefinitely. 

9. Write twelve sentences, two of each class (see 2 8, page 



104 ELEMENTARY GHAMMAR. 

100), each containing the pronoun "that^' used instead of 
''who" or '^ which.'^ 

10. Write three sentences, in each of which the relative 
pronoun is omitted. 

11. Write three sentences, in each of which the antecedent 
is omitted. 

In the following sentences, name the pronouns. To which 
class of pronouns does each belong? Name the gender, 
number, person, and case of each of the personal pronouns. 
Name the clause which is introduced by each relative pro- 
noun. In relation to each clause, state whether it is used 
in an adjectival sense, in an adverbial sense, or as a substan- 
tive or noun. Divide each of the sentences containing a rel- 
ative pronoun into two or more separate sentences. Parse 
all the Pronouns, Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Objectives, and 
Prepositions : 

John sold his colt to his brother. 

Lucy gave her book to her cousin. 

While Charles was at school he wrote a letter to his brother. 

The boy was arrested by the officer who detected him in 
the act. 

I lost my knife in the woods. 

The general, who knew the treachery of the enemy, cau- 
tioned his troops of their danger. 

The boy who studies will improve. 

George received the letter which Charles wrote to him. 

Trust not him whose friendship is bought. 

" We come to you to complain of your soldiers ; they have 
destroyed our playground. We requested them not to dis- 
turb it, but they called us rebels, and told us to help ourselves 
if we could." 

The regiment is now in winter quarters, but it will soon be 
ordered to the front. 

The captain reproved the company because they came 
without their muskets. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 105 

Mary wrote to Charles and John, and advised them to 
return to their homes. 

He and Lucy are in the city, for I saw them. 

The captain and the crew were nearly exhausted when 
they were discovered. 

He remembered his benefactor and friend, and loved him 
for his kindness. 

The tyrant and coward is despised by all that know him. 

Charles wrote to his friend and playmate, and promised to 
visit him. 

Neither Mary nor Lucy studied her lesson. 

Either the officer or the men have failed to perform their 
duty. 

Henry and I took our books to school with us. 

Mother and I took our friends with us to see the painting. 

You and Henry must study your lessons. 

To swear is as impolite as it is wicked. 

It is snowing very fast. 

It is useless to search further. 

Who broke the slate ? John. 

Who won the prize ? Mary. 

Who recited the lesson? 

Whose book was lost ? 

I do not know who recited the lesson. 

I cannot tell whose book was lost. 

You may do what you please, say whatever you will, and 
take whatsoever you like, but what you do, or whatever you 
say, and whatsoever you take, you must account for. 



106 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

RULE IX. 
^n Article Tnodifies the Koun to which it relates. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun to which the article relates is sometimes omit- 
ted ; as, •'* Turn neither to the right nor to the left /' meaning, 
"Turn neither to the right side nor to the left side." In 
such cases, supply the noun, and parse the article according 
to the rule, as modifying the noun thus supplied. 

2. A is often an abbreviation for some other short word, 
ai^ in, on; as, "His greatness is a ripening." In such cases 
it is not an article, but a preposition, and is to be parsed 
accordingly. 

Model for Parsing. 

'* James wrote a letter." "A" is the ind. art., modifying 
the noun " letter," to which it relates, according to Eule IX. 
(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing the definite arti- 
cle, with the related noun omitted. 

2. Eewrite the sentences, inserting the omitted noun. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the follow- 
ing sentences. Xame the modifiers of each. Add clauses to 
each of the subjects. Parse all the Articles, Pronouns, Sub- 
jects, Verbs, Possessives, and Objectives : 

A book. A good man. The new coat. The fast horse. 

A is an indefiite article. 

The is a definite article. 

In crossing a bridge, you must always keep to the right. 

James the Second was banished from the kingdom. 

Give glory to God in the highest. 

The poor have claims on the rich. 

The less you spend, the more you will have. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 107 



RULE X. 



,^71 Adjective modifies the Koun or the Pronoun 
to which it relates. 

NOTES. 

1. The noun to which the adjective belongs is sometimes 
omitted; as, ''Of many evils, choose the least," meaning, 
*'0f many evils, choose the least evil." In such cases, sup- 
ply the omission, and parse the adjective according to the 
Rule, as modifying the noun thus supplied. 

2. An adjective sometimes modifies a verb in the infin- 
itive mood, or a part of a sentence, used as a noun ; as, 
*'To play is pleasant." ''To use profane language is both 
foolish and wicked." In such cases the adjective should 
be parsed as modifying the infinitive verb, or the part of 
a sentence used as a noun. 

Models for Parsing. 

'* James wrote a long letter." "Long" is an adj., in the 
pos. deg. (long, longer, longest), modifying the noun "letter," 
to which it relates, according to Rule X. (Quote.) 

"Of many evils, choose the least." "Least" is an adj., in 
the superlative deg. (little, less, least), modifying the noun 
" evil " understood, to which it relates, according to Rule X. 
(Quote.) 

"To play is pleasant." "Pleasant" is an adj., pos. deg. 
(pleasant, more pleasant, most pleasant), modifying "To 
play," a verb in the infin. m., used as a noun, to which it 
relates, according to Note under Rule X. (Quote Note.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing an adjective, 
and omitting the noun which the adjective modifies. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing an adjective 
modifying a verb in the infinitive mood used as a noun. 



108 ELEMENTARY GBAMM^^- 

3. Write three sentences, each conti^ining an adjective 
modifying a part of a sentence used as ^ noun. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the single words whi(-h modify the sub- 
jects. Name such as modify other noui^^j ^ot used as sub- 
jects. Name the phrases found in th^ sentences. How 
used? Name the pronouns, and state the attributes of 
each. Name the clauses. Parse all the Adjectives, Arti- 
cles, Pronouns, Subjects, Verbs, PossessiV^s, and Objectives: 

A large reward was offered. 

John is a rapid writer. 

She is a good girl. 

John is a better writer than Charles. 

The darkest night will pass away. 

The example is not difficult. 

The train went to New York at a rapid i^te. 

His new slate was broken into many sm.^^l pieces. 

A merry heart maketh a glad countenai^ce. 

Charles is the most industrious boy in his class. 

Mary is a better writer than Charles. 

The poor have claims upon the rich. 

In crossing a bridge keep to the right. 

Henry the Eighth was then on the throne- 
James the Second was banished from the kingdom. 

The less you spend, the more you will ha^e. 

To steal is wicked. 

To eat unripe fruit is injurious. 

The window is so located that you can see the beautiful 
new houses on the opposite side of the river. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS, 109 

RULE XI. 

An Adjective Fronoun modifies the Moun or 
the Pronoun to which it relates, 

NOTES. 

1. The Distributives and Demonstratives agree in number 
with the nouns to which they relate ; as, '' This sort of per- 
sons," not '' These sort." The distributives, each, every, either, 
neither, are all singular. Of the demonstratives, this and that 
are singular, these and those plural. 

2. The noun is often omitted after adjective pronouns; as, 
''Let each do his duty," meaning ''Let each man do his 
duty." In such cases, supply the noun, and parse as usual. 

Model for Parsing. 

"James wrote this letter." "This" is a dem. adj. pron., 
modifying the noun "letter," to which it relates, according 
to Kule XL (Quote), and is in the singular number, to agree 
with "letter," according to Note under Rule XL (Quote). 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing an adjective pro- 
noun modifying some omitted noun. 

2. RcAvrite the sentences, inserting the omitted noun. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the single words which modify the sub- 
jects. Name such as modify other nouns not used as sub- 
jects. Which of these are adjective pronouns or pronominal 
adjectives? Name the phrases found in these sentences. 
How used? Parse all the Adjective Pronouns, Articles, Ad- 
jectives, Subjects, Verbs, Possessives, Objectives, Pronouns, 
and Prepositions : 

Those men only are great who are good. 
This house belongs to my father. 
That style of dress is admired. 



110 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

Those books are not in their places. 

Such boys are worthy of respect. 

Some rivers are shallow. 

Give me the other hat. 

Every station in life has its cares. 

All men must die. 

Each boy took his book and went home. 

Neither of the boys has arrived. 

That horse which you see is mine. 

That statement is not correct. 

John, you can take one book, and Mary can take the other. 

Such conduct deserves reproof. 

Both boys have arrived in time. 

This knife w^as given to me by my brother. 

These books were purchased for our library. 

Some live in poverty, some in wealth. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. Ill 

RULE XII. 

^ Participle modifies the JVoun or the Pronoun 
to which it relates, 

NOTES. 

1. The participle is often used as a noun, either in the 
nominative or in the objective case, and at the same time as 
part of a verb, it retains its government of the objective; as, 
^'Writing letters is easier than writing compositions" (nom.); 
*^ In writing letters he soon became expert " (obj.). 

2. The participle used as a noun, is frequently found gov- 
erning another noun in the possessive case; as, ''Much 
depends on John's writing his letters rapidly." 

3. The participle is sometimes used simply as a noun ; as, 
''Avoid foolish talking and jesting.'' When so used, parse the 
word as a participial noun in the third person, neuter gender. 

4. The participle is sometimes used simply as an adjective ; 
as, ^^ Singing birds abound in summer," "He is a learned 
man." When a participle is so used, call it a participial 
adjective, and parse it as any other adjective. 

5. A participle of the verb to he may have a noun or a 
pronoun after it in the same case as the one before it; as, 
"Thomas, being an apt scholar, won the favor of his 
teacher." This rule applies also to the participles of many 
other intransitive verbs, and likewise to the participles of the 
passive voice of some transitive verbs; as, "Solomon, while 
reigning kingy built the temple," "Washington, being ap- 
pointed commander-in-chiefs proceeded at once to Cam- 
bridge." 

Models for Parsing. 

" The child, seeing its mother, ran to meet her." " Seeing " 
is the present participle, active, of the irregular transitive 
verb "to see" (see, saw, seen), modifying "child," to which 
it relates, according to Rule XI I. (Quote.) 

"Writing letters is easier than writing compositions." 
"Writing" is the pres. part., active, of the irreg. trans. 



112 ELEMENTARY GEAMMAE. 

verb ''to write" (write, wrote, written). It is here used as 
a noun, according to a note under Rule XII. (Quote 
Note.) It is in the nom. case, subject of the verb ''is," 
according to Eule I. (Quote.) 

"Avoid fooUsh talking and jesting." "Talking " is a par- 
ticipial noun, in the neut. gen., sing, numb., 3d per., obj. c, 
object of the verb " avoid," according to Hule III. (Quote.) 

" Singing birds abound in summer." "Singing "is a par- 
ticipial adj., not compared, modifying the noun "birds," to 
which it relates, according to Rule X. 

" James, having written a letter, sent it to the post-office." 
"Having written" is the comp. perf. part., active, of the irr. 
trans, verb "to write " (write, wrote, written), modifying the 
noun "James," to which it relates, according to Rule XII. 
(Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a participle used 
as a noun in the nominative case, and retaining its govern- 
ment of the objective case. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a participle used 
as a noun in the objective case, and retaining its government 
of the objective. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a participle used 
as a noun, and governing another noun in the possessive 
case. 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a participle used 
simply as a noun. 

5. Write three sentences, each containing a participle used 
simply as an adjective. 

6. Write three sentences, each containing a participle of 
the verb to be, having a noun or pronoun after it in the 
same case as the one before it. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the follow- 
ing sentences. Name the phrases. Which of the phrases 
are introduced by a preposition? Which by a participle? 
Which of the participles in the sentences are used ^s sub- 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS, 113 

jects? Which are used as objects of prepositions? As 
objects of transitive verbs? Name the clauses. What is 
their use? Parse the Participles, Subjects, Verbs, Objectives, 
Possessives, Prepositions, Articles, Adjectives, and Adjective 
Pronouns : 

The snow, falling rapidly, soon covered the ground. 

A man deserving blame should be censured. 

The laborer, fatigued with the toil of the day, slept soundly. 

The exercise written by Charles was admired by all. 

The boys, having recited their lessons, were dismissed. 

John, having written his composition, gave it to the 
teacher. 

The day being far spent, we returned to our homes. 

The lesson having been recited, the class was dismissed. 

The fire having been extinguished, the crowd dispersed. 

Honor, defined by Cicero, is the approbation of good men. 

William, being successful in his examination, expects pro- 
motion. 

William, having been successful in his examination, was 
promoted. 

William, having succeeded in his examination, expects to 
be promoted. 

Reading good books promotes knowledge. 
In catching fish he soon became expert. 
Charles takes pleasure in studying his lessons. 
Much depends on Mary's reaching the city promptly. 
John's writing is worthy of commendation. 
The astronomer spent the night in studying the heavens. 
Loud talking and laughing are rude. 
Bryant is a distinguished poet. 
The roaring lion is an object of fear. 
Charles, being the first boy to arrive, was rewarded. 
Mary, being an industrious girl, was commended by her 
teacher. 
8 



114 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

RULE XIII. 

An Adverb modifies the Verb, Adjective, or other 
Adverb to which it relates, 

NOTES. 

1. Adverbs are usually placed before adjectives, after verbs, 
and often between the auxiliary and the verb; as, ''He is 
very attentive/' " She behaves welV^ ^' They are much es- 
teemed." This rule is far from being universal in its appli- 
cation. 

2. There is often used indefinitely, its only force being to 
introduce the verb ; as, ''There is truth in the old proverb." 
In such sentences, there does not mean in that place. 

3. Nay^ no, yea, yes, expressing simply negation or affirma- 
tion, contain in themselves a complete sense, and do not 
modify any verb. The same is true of Amen. In parsing 
such words state merely that they are adverbs. 

4. Adverbs should not be used where adjectives are re- 
quired, that is, to modify nouns or pronouns. Thus, " The 
dress looked pretty,'^ not ^'prettily.'' "Pretty," here, is an 
adjective describing "dress," and does not modify the verb 
" looked." It does not express the manner of looking. 

5. Two negatives are improper, if intended to express the 
same negation. When so used, they destroy each other, 
and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus, "I CRunoi by 
no means allow it," should be, " I can by no means allow it," 
or " I cannot by any means allow it." 

6. An adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition ; as, 
at once, for ever. In such cases the two words should be taken 
together and called an adverb or an adverbial phrase. 

Models for Parsing. 

"James wrote a letter hastily." "Hastily" is an adv. in 
the pos. deg. (hastily, more hastily, most hastily), modifying 
the verb "wrote," to which it relates, according to Rule XII. 
(Quote.) 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS, 115 

"A thoroughly bad man.'^ '' Thoroughly ^' is an adv. in the 
pos. deg. (thoroughly, more thoroughly, most thoroughly), 
modifying the adj. ''bad," to which it relates, according to 
Rule XII. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a preposition 
and an adverb to be taken together as an adverb. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
sentences. What single words modify the predicate ? What 
phrases modify the predicate? What clauses modify the pred- 
icate ? What adjectives, if any, are modified by single words ? 
What phrases are found in the sentence ? What kind ? What 
use ? Parse all the words in the following sentences except 
Conjunctions: 

Live temperately. 

She is particularly careful. 

This horse runs very rapidly. 

The most cautious are often deceived. 

Thus the farmer sows his seed. 

Great men are greatly admired. 

How can you behave so badly ? 

Why do you neglect your duty ? 

A smart child may learn more rapidly than is desirable. 

Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

You must try to write more carefully; you are the least 
careful writer in the class. 

Cherish me kindly, cheer my young heart, 
I will follow thee ever, and never depart. 

There was a man sent from God whose name was John. 

There is truth in the old proverb. 

There is nothing to be seen. 

Did you recite the lesson ? Yes. 

Has Charles returned from school ? No. 



116 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

RULE XIV. 

The Infinitive Mood depends upon some Verb, 
Adjective, or J^oun. 

Explanation. — *^He delights to tease his companions." 
Here, *Ho tease '^ depends on the verb "delights.'^ That 
is the word with which it must be connected in order to 
make sense. 

*' His time to die had not yet come." In this example, '' to 
die " depends on the nomi '' time.'" 

'^ He was too stupid to learn," Here, *' to learn " depends 
on the adjective '^stupid" 

NOTES. 

1. The preposition <o, which is used in making the form 
called the infinitive mood, and which is generally called the 
sign of the infinitive mood, is not to be parsed by itself, but 
with the verb. 

2. Toy the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted after 
the active voice of the verbs hid, dare (to venture), need, make, 
see, hear, feel, let, and some others ; as, ''I saw him (to) doit." 
In the passive voice of these verbs, however, the *^ to " is 
usually expressed ; as, ** He was seen to do it." 

3. The infinitive mood is frequently used as a noun, and at 
the same time retains its government of the objective case. 
Thus, ^' To write letters is easy." Here, *^ to write," as a 
noun, is the subject of the verb '^ is," and at the same time, 
as a verb, governs ^' letters." 

Model for Parsing. 

" Charles expects to win the prize." " To win " is a trans, 
verb, irr. (win, won, won), act. v., inf. m., pres. t., and depends 
upon the verb '' expects," according to Eule XIV. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
infinitive mood depending upon some other verb. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 117 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
infinitive mood depending upon an adjective. 

3. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
infinitive mood depending upon a noun. 

4. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
infinitive mood, with the sign of the infinitive omitted. 

5. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the 
infinitive mood used as a noun in the nominative case, and 
retaining its government of the objective. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name all the single word modifiers of each. 
Name all the phrases. How used? Name the infinitives. 
What does each one modify ? Parse all the words in the fol- 
lowing sentences except the Conjunctions : 

Charles expects to return to school. 

Mary tried to catch the train. 

Henry wanted to borrow my knife. 

The sinner was not prepared to die. 

He was too scurrilous to be tolerated in decent societ5\ 

The President was to have been inaugurated last Friday. 

She seemed to love her child, and yet she was seen to treat 
it badly. 

It was too late to travel any farther. 

It is too early to visit her. 

It was too wet to go out. 

I saw him take the book. 

I heard him recite the lesson. 

They need not call her. 

I bade him go home. 

Employ your time judiciously, and you will not find it pass 
so slowly. 

To write letters is easy. 

To write a good composition requires care. 

To love our friends is natural. 



118 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

RULE XV. 

A Conjunction connects the Words, Sentences, 
Phrases, or Clauses, between which it stands. 

NOTES. 

1. The words connected by conjunctions must be of the 
same class. Nouns are connected with nouns, adjectives with 
adjectives, verbs with verbs, adverbs with adverbs, etc. 
Nouns and pronouns are here considered as belonging to one 
class. 

2. Words and clauses are often connected not by a single 
conjunction, but by two conjunctions, or by a conjunction and 
an adverb, corresponding to each other; as, *'Give me neither 
poverty nor riches." ^' The method proposed was defective, 
inasmuch as it did not provide the means for carrying the 
plan into effect." 

Models for Parsing. 

" James and John are brothers." ^' And " is a conjunction, 
connecting ^' James " and " John," according to Rule XV. 
(Quote.) 

^* It is neither cold nor hot." ^' Neither " and *^ nor " are 
corresponding conjunctions, connecting '' cold " and " hot," 
according to a note under Rule XV. (Quote.) 

Exercises. 

Name the subject and predicate in each of the following 
sentences. Name the clauses in each. How connected? 
Tell how each is used — principal or dependent ? If dependent, 
what does it modify? Is it adverbial or adjectival in its use? 
Name all phrases, and tell what each modifies and give its 
use. Name all other modifiers. Parse all the words in the 
sentences : 

John and James have gone to school. 

The farmer sold his wheat and corn to the miller. 

Forget the faults of others, and remember your own. 



SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. 119 

You shall never fail, if you do these things. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

He is a friend to-day, but may be an enemy to-morrow. 

As he treats others, so will he be treated by them. 

Washington was a better man than Napoleon. 

Unless it blossom in the spring, the tree will not bear fruit. 

The hour has arrived, therefore we must depart. 

RULE XVI.— INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection has no dependence upon other 
words. 

NOTES. 

1. In parsing an interjection, all that is necessary is to tell 
what part of speech it is. 

2. Sometimes interjections have the appearance of govern- 
ing the objective case; as, "Ah, me!" But such sentences 
are always elliptical, some verb or preposition being under- 
stood; as, '*Ah! (pity) me." 



II. Analysis 



-«»o>a<o 



1. Analysis treats of the separation of a sentence 
into the parts which compose it. 

I. PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 

A Sentence is a number of words put together so 
as to make complete sense ; as, ^^ Man is mortal.'^ 

A sentence may consist of a single word ; as, ^' Depart/' 

The Essential Parts of a Sentence are the Subject 
and the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The Predicate is that which is affirmed or asserted 
of the Subject. 

In the sentence, " Man lives," man is the Subject, lives is 
the Predicate. 

There cannot be a sentence without a Subject, 
expressed or understood. 

In the sentence, *' Depart,'^ the subject is thou or you under- 
stood. 

There cannot be a sentence without a Predicate, 

expressed or understood, 

120 



ANALYSIS, 121 

A Subject and a Predicate, together, make a sen- 
tence. 

I. THE SUBJECT. 

Distinction of Grammatical Subject and Logical 

Subject. 

The Grammatical Subject is simply the noun or 
the pronoun which is the subject of the verb. 

Examples. — " Man lives." " The good old man still lives." 
"IT^ lives.*' '^ He, the eloquent and able defender of Chris- 
tianity, still lives." In the first two examples, the Gram- 
matical Subject is man; in the other two, it is he. 

The Logical Subject is not simply the noun or pro- 
noun which is the subject of the verb, but includes also 
all the attendant words which in any way modify the 
meaning of the subject. 

In the second example above, the Logical Subject is The 
good old man ; in the fourth example, it is -He, the eloquent and 
able defender of Christianity. 

The Logical Subject of the sentence includes all the 
words which, taken together, form the subject of dis- 
course. 

The Logical Subject is the one treated of in Analysis. 

The Subject is of three kinds. Simple, Complex, and 
Compound.* 

I. SIMPLE SUBJECTS. 

A Simple Subject is a single noun or pronoun, the 
subject of a verb, with no modifying word or words. 

Examples.— *' James wrote the letter." ''He wrote the 

• In the remainder of this chapter, it will be understood that the 
term Subject, unless otherwise specified, means the Logical Subject. 



122 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

letter." '* Henry Clay rose in his place, and addressed the 
House." " Rivers flow into the sea." 

The Logical Subject and the Grammatical Subject are here 
the same. 

II. COMPLEX SUBJECTS. 

A Complex Subject is one in which the noun or 
pronoun which is the subject of the verb is accompanied 
by some other word or words which in some way limit 
or modify its meaning. 

Example. — *' The miserable man, overwhelmed with dehtj and 
convicted of crime, lived a most unhappy life." Here the sub- 
ject is ^'man" with all the other accompanying words in 
italics. These accompanying words modify or limit the word 
*'man." They all, taken together, form the subject of which 
the affirmation is made. 

Adjuncts to the Subject. 

Adjuncts are the accompanying words which make 
a Subject complex. 

The Adjuncts of the Subject are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in meaning, 
but not containing a predicate, and not making by them- 
selves complete sense. Phrases, in their office or use, are 
either adjectival or adverbial. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a predicate 
wath its subject, making by themselves complete sense, yet 
not independent, being used to modify some other part or 
parts of the sentence of which it is a part. 

Clauses, in their office or use, are either substantive, adjec- 
tival, or adverbial. 

The following are examples of each of these three kinds of 
adjuncts. 

1. Single Words. — *' The good man has departed." Here 



{ 



ANALYSIS, 123 

"the" and "good'' are single words, modifying the subject 
" man/' 

2. Phrases. — " The good man, in the midst of his usefulness^ 
has departed." Here the words, " in the midst of his useful- 
ness," form a modifying phrase. 

3. Clauses. — " The good man, who had gained great renown, 
departed." Here the words, " who had gained great renown," 
form a modifying clause. 

Ways in which Adjuncts Modify the Subject. 
The Subject is modified by Adjuncts, as follows : 

1. By an article; as, " The man has arrived." 

2. By an adjective ; as, " Good men are few." 

3. By a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, '' James Brown, 
artist, is dead " ; '' Elizabeth herself has arrived." 

4. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; as, '' Winter's 
frosts have disappeared " ; '' Your time has come." 

5. By a participle ; as, " Brothers divided are a sad sight." 

6. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, " The time to study should 
not be lost." 

7. By a phrase, which may be — 

1. A preposition and its object; as, " The lessons of the 

day were not recited." 

2. Appositive ; as, *' John, the Baptist, preached in the 

wilderness." 

3. Participial ; as, '' The sun, shining through the mist, 

looked white and ghastly." 

8. By a clause; as, ''Lessons which are easy are apt to be 
neglected " ; '' The fear that he might he detected kept him from 
committing the crime." 

Model. — " A large increase of wealth might make him 
careless." 
In this sentence, 
1. The simple subject is increase. 



124 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the article a. the adjective 
large, and the preposition and its object, of wealth, 

3. The whole complex subject is a large increase of wealth. 
Exercises. — Name in each of the following sentences : 

(1) The simple subject. 

(2) The adjuncts or modifiers of the simple subject. 

(3) The whole complex subject. 

1. The thorough knowledge of Scripture helps us in under- 
standing all other truth. 

2. An anxious desire to do right was manifest in all his 
conduct. 

3. James's impetuous disposition, which ought to have 
been checked, was allowed to have free sway. 

4. The great apostle Paul himself was subject to calumny. 
6. A selfish desire for wealth, unchecked, is apt to pervert 

the moral principles. 

6. A neat little cottage, standing by the river's brink, at- 
tracted his attention. 

7. The tallest oak must bend before the mighty power of 
the wind. 

8. Henry, an English king, was considered to be a great 
scholar because he could write his name. 

Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Subject are 
Modified by other Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts of the Subject may themselves be modified by 
other words, as follows : 

1. A Noun used as an adjunct of the subject may be modi- 
fied in all respects as the principal noun. 

Example. — " James Applegate, the old man that you spoke 
of, has left for parts unknown." 

2. An Adjective used as an adjunct of the subject may be 
modified : 

(1) By a preposition and its object. 



ANALYSIS, 125 

(2) By an infinitive. 

(3) By an adverb. 

Examples. — " A man merciful in disposition.'^ " A man 
quick to resent injury.^' " A very abundant harvest.'' 

An adverb used to modify an adjunct adjective may itself 
be modified : 

(1) By another adverb. 

(2) By a preposition and its object. 

Examples. — " Most thoroughly wicked." " An essay re- 
plete, agreeably to expedationy with varied knowledge." 

3. A Participle, or an Infinitive, used as an adjunct of the 
subject, may be modified : 

(1) By an object. 

(2) By a preposition with its object. 

(3) By an infinitive. 

(4) By an adverb. 

Examples of the Participle. — "The man, having written 
the letter y mailed it." " The man, living in ease, became indo- 
lent." "The man, wishing to sleep, retired to his room." 
" The man, thoroughly frightened, fled from the house." 

Examples of the Infinitive. — " A desire to gain honor.'' 
" A desire to live in ease." " A resolution to cease to do evil." 
"A resolution to cease immediately from evil courses." 

NOTES. 

1. A Participle, or an Infinitive, with its adjuncts, may be 
used as a subject; as, ^^ Learning Latin thoroughly requires 
much time." " To learn Latin thoroughly requires much 
time." 

2. A Participle, when used as a subject, may be modified 
by a noun, or an adjective, having no other grammatical 
dependence ; as, " Being a hero requires courage." " Being 
heroic requires courage." 

3. An Infinitive, when used as a subject, may be modified 
by a noun, an adjective, or a participle, having no other 



126 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

grammatical dependence ; as, '' To be a hero requires courage." 
'' To be heroic requires courage." ^* To live constantly fearing 
death requires patience." 

Model. — '' The desire of the aspiring boy to receive in his 
youth a suitable education was natural." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple subject is desire (*' desire was natural "). 

2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this subject are the fol- 
lowing : 

[a) The article the ('^ the desire "). 

[h) The preposition and its object, of hoy, (" the desire of 
boy"). 

[c) The infinitive to receive (''the desire of boy to re- 
ceive "). 

3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, 
as follows : 

(a) The adjunct of hoy is modified by the article the and 
the adjective aspiring (" of the aspiring boy "). 

(6) The adjunct to receive is modified by the object educa- 
tion and the preposition and its object, in youth 
(" to receive in youth education "). 

(c) The adjunct in youth is modified by the possessive 

pronoun his (" in his youth "). 

[d) The Sidi]MnQ,i education is modified by the article a and 

the adjective suitahle (" a suitable education "). 

4. The whole complex subject is, The desire of the aspiring 
hoy to receive in his youth a suitahle education. 

Exercises. — In each of the following sentences, name — 

(1) The simple subject. 

(2) Its adjuncts or modifiers. 

(3) The adjuncts of the adjuncts. 

(4) The whole complex subject. 

1. The earnest conviction of Christopher Columbus that he 



ANALYSIS. 127 

would reach land by sailing westward led to the discovery of 
the new world. 

2. Paul, the apostle of the gentiles, rejoicing steadfastly in 
the hope set before him, suffered martyrdom. 

3. The birds with their bright feathers, sailing through the 
air, gladden the heart of man. 

4. Careless of fame, the youth pursues the even tenor of 
his way. 

5. In the centre was a vast hollow square filled with innu- 
merable flowering plants. 

Note.— The Subject is often transposed and placed after 
the predicate, as in this last example. 

III. COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two 
or more subjects, either simple or complex, connected 
by one or more conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1. Sometimes the separate subjects which form the Com- 
pound Subject may make separate sentences, by repeating the 
predicate. 

Example. — *' Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." 
This may be separated into two sentences, thus : " Lakes are 
large bodies of water." *^ Oceans are large bodies of water." 

2. Sometimes the several subjects cannot be thus separated, 
because the predicate does not admit of it. 

Example. — ''The Raritan river, the Delaware river, and 
the connecting canal, form a continuous line of inland navi- 
gation between New York and Philadelphia." Here the pred- 
icate is true of the compound subject as a whole, but not of 
any of the single subjects taken by itself. 

3. This separation into distinct sentences may be made 
whenever the predicate is true of each subject taken by itself, 
but cannot be made when the predicate is true of the different 
subjects only when taken togetlier as a whole. 



128 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

4. Each of the separate subjects which form a compound 
subject may be complex, and as such may be modified by 
adjuncts in all the different ways already described under the 
head of Complex Subjects. 

Exercises. — Write simple sentences with simple subjects. 
Write simple sentences with complex subjects. Write simple 
sentences with compound subjects. Write separate sentences 
in which the subject will be modified (1) by an article ; (2) by 
an adjective; (3) by a word in apposition; (4) by a word in 
the possessive case; (5) by a participle; (6) by a verb in the 
infinitive ; (7) by a prepositional phrase ; by an appositive 
phrase ; by a participial phrase ; (8) by a clause. 



II. THE PREDICATE. 

Distinction of Grammatical Predicate and 
Logical Predicate. 

The Grammatical Predicate is simply the finite 
verb to which the noun or pronoun forming the gram- 
matical subject is nominative. 

Examples. — ^^ The man lives.^^ ^^ The man has at length 
reached home safely/' '' Caesar wa^ the conqueror of Gaul.'' 
The grammatical predicates here are the verbs liveSj has 
reached, and was. 

The Logical Predicate is not simply the verb of 
which the noun or pronoun is the subject^ but includes 
also all the attendant words which in any way modify 
the meaning of the verb. 

In the second example above, the Logical Predicate is, has 
at length reached home safely ; in the third example it is, was 
the conqueror of Gaul, 

The Logical Predicate, then, includes all the words 
which, taken together, tell what is said or affirmed of 
the subject. 



ANALYSIS. 129 

The Logical Predicate is the one treated of in 
Analysis. 

The Predicate is of three kinds, Simple, Complex, 
and Compound. 

I. SIMPLE PREDICATES. 

A Simple Predicate is a single finite verb, having 
some noun or pronoun for its nominative. 

The Logical Predicate and the Grammatical Predicate here 
are the same. 

Examples.—'' The sun has risen,'' *' The illustrious general, 
who had been victorious in a hundred fights, was defeated.'' 

II. COMPLEX PREDICATES. 

A Complex Predicate is one in which the predicate 
verb is accompanied by some other word or words which 
in some way limit or modify its meaning. 

Example. — " The life of such a man will at length come to 
an end in the midst of shame and sorrow." Here the predicate 
is the verb ''will come," with all the other accompanying 
words in italics. These accompanying words modify or limit 
the verb " will come." They all, taken together, form the 
affirmation which is made in regard to *' the life of such a 
man." 

Adjuncts to the Predicate. 

Adjuncts are the accompanying w^ords which make 
a Predicate complex. 

The Adjuncts of the Predicate are of three kinds, 
namely, Single Words, Phrases, and Clauses. 

The following are examples of each of these three kinds of 
adjuncts : 

1. Single "Words. — ** The old man went hack slowly." Here 
9 



130 ELEMENTARY GBAMMAB. 

**back" and ^'slowly" are single words modifying or quali- 
fying the predicate '^ went." 

2. Phrases. — ^' The old man went to his home in great 
lorath.'" Here the phrases, *' to his home," and '^ in great 
wrath," modify the predicate *' went." 

3. Clauses. — '' The man lived in the house which was upon 
the hill-side^ Here the clause, '^ which was upon the hill- 
side," is one of the modifiers of the predicate ** lived." 

Ways in which Adjuncts Modify the Predicate. 
The Predicate is modified by Adjuncts, as follows : 

1. By an adjective relating to the subject-nominative; as, 
" Good men are/e^t;." The adjective in this case is called the 
adjective-predicate, and is parsed as belonging to the noun or 
pronoun which is the subject of the verb. 

2. By a participle relating to the subject-nominative ; as, 
'' He sat watching y 

3. By a noun or pronoun in the nominative after the verb ; 
as, '^ The men have become drunkards,'' '' It is J." The noun 
or pronoun in this case is called the nominative-predicate. 

Note 1. — The nominative-predicate after a verb is some- 
times introduced by the conjunction as. ''He was regarded 
as a scholar." 

Note 2. — A noun or pronoun can be nominative-predicate 
only after intransitive verbs and after the passive voice of 
transitive verbs ; as, '' He was called a villain.'' 

Note 3. — A noun-predicate after an infinitive may be in 
the objective, if the word which it represents is in the objec- 
tive ; as, '' We allowed them to become drunkards." 

4. By a noun or pronoun which is the object of the verb; 
as, ''We saw him" " We heard noises." 

Note. — An objective-predicate can occur only after a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice, or after an intransitive verb 
having the same meaning as the object ; as, " He runs a race." 

5. By a preposition with its object; as, " The man has gone 
to town." 



ANALYSIS. 131 

6. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, '' He continued to move." 

7. By an adverb ; as, " He writes rapidly." 

8. By a clause ; as, " He asked that the time might be ex- 
tended." 

.O^^OO 

Model. — '* No man can truly say that he is without sin." 
In this sentence, 

1. The simple predicate is, can say. 

2. Its adjuncts or modifiers are the adverb tridyy and the 
clause, that he is without sin. 

3. The whole complex predicate is, can truly say that he is 
without sin. 

Exercises. — In each of the following sentences name — 

(1) The simple predicate. 

(2) The adjuncts or modifiers of the simple predicate. 

(3) The whole complex predicate : 

1. Wealth begets desire for wealth. 

2. Men of learning have often been unwise. 

3. The lark rises toward heaven singing. 

4. Fishes glide rapidly through water by swimming. 

5. Christopher Columbus believed after study that the 
earth was round. 

Ways in which the Adjuncts of the Predicate 
are Modified by other Adjuncts. 

Adjuncts of the predicate may themselves be modified by 
other words. 

The several parts of speech, when used as adjuncts to the 
predicate, are modified in the same manner as the same 
words are when used as adjuncts to the subject. 

okjV«<o« 

Model. — '*The wrestler found in the city a young man 
willing to compete with him." 



132 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

In this sentence, 

1. The simple predicate is the verb found (** wrestler 
found "). 

2. The adjuncts or modifiers of this predicate are the fol- 
lowing : 

(a) The noun man, object of the verb (*' wrestler found 

man''). 

(b) The preposition and its object, in the city (''The 

wrestler found in the city man "). 

3. The adjuncts are themselves modified by other adjuncts, 
as follows : 

(a) The adjunct 77ian is modified by the article a and the 

adjectives young and willing (" a young man 
willing "). 

(b) The adjunct willing is itself modified by the infini- 

tive to compete, and that again by the preposition 
and object with him (" willing to compete with 
him "). 

4. The whole complex predicate is, found in the city a young 
man willing to compete with him. 

Exercises. — In each of the following sentences name — 

(1) The simple predicate. 

(2) Its adjuncts or modifiers. 

(3) The adjuncts of the adjuncts. 

(4) The whole complex predicate : 

1. The silver mines of Mexico and Peru far exceed in value 
the whole of the European and Asiatic mines. 

2. The distance from the earth to the sun is, in round 
numbers, one hundred millions of miles. 

3. The ordinary processes of direct instruction are of im- 
mense importance, presupposing in the mind to which they 
are applied an active co-operation. 

4. The faith of the first Christians expressed itself in vehe- 
ment reaction against the prevailing tendencies of an exceed- 
ingly corrupt civilization. 



ANALYSIS, 133 

5. The genius for disorder, which shows itself in some 
young persons, is not a hopeful sign for their future comfort 
in life. 

III. COMPOUND PREDICATES. 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of 
two or more predicates, whether simple or complex, 
united by one or more conjunctions. 

NOTES. 

1. The several predicates which form the compound predi- 
cate may generally make separate sentences, by repeating the 
subject. 

Examples. — ''The Atlantic ocean is the large body of 
water lying between Europe and America, and is traversed 
continually by steamers and sailing vessels.'^ This may be 
separated into two distinct sentences, thus : *[ The Atlantic 
ocean is the large body of w^ater lying between Europe and 
America.'' '' The Atlantic ocean is traversed continually by 
steamers and sailing vessels." 

*' Drunkenness enslaves and debases a man." This may be 
separated into the two sentences, " Drunkenness enslaves a 
man," '' Drunkenness debases a man." 

2. Each of the separate predicates which form a compound 
predicate may be complex, and as such may be modified by 
adjuncts, in all the different ways described under the head 
of Complex Predicates. 

Exercises. — Write simple sentences containing simple 
predicates. Change these simple predicates to complex 
predicates. Write them again with compound predicates. 
Write separate sentences in which the predicate will be modi- 
fied : (1) by a predicate adjective ; (2) by a participle ; (3) by 
a noun or pronoun nominative after the verb ; (4) by a noun 
or pronoun which is the object of a verb ; (5) by a prepositional 
phrase ; (6) by a verb in the infinitive ; (7) by an adverb ; 
(8) by a clause. 



134 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

II. KINDS OF SENTENCES. 
Two Ways of Classifying Sentences. 

Sentences are divided into classes or kinds, first in 
reference to their use, secondly in reference to their 
structure. 

I. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into three 
kinds, namely, Declarative, Interrogative, and Im- 
perative. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used simply to 
declare or to deny. 

A Declarative sentence must always contain a verb in the 
Indicative or the Potential mood ; as, *^ He has not failed," 
*' A life spent in doing good could not be a failure." 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask 
a question. 

An Interrogative sentence must always contain a verb in 
the Indicative or the Potential mood; as, ''Has he failed?" 
*' Could a life spent in doing good be a failure ?" 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to com- 
mand, exhort, entreat, or permit. 

An Imperative sentence must always contain a verb in the 
Imperative mood ; as, '' Write the copy according to your 
directions," '' Father, forgive us," ''Go, if you desire it." 

II. Sentences, as to their structure, are divided into 
three kinds. Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate. 

The subject and the predicate may have any kind and de- 
gree of complexity, except that arising from the introduction 
of a clause, and yet the sentence be simple. 



ANALYSIS. 135 

"The Delaware, the Raritan, and the connecting canal 
form a continuous line of navigation.'^ This is a sim- 
ple sentence, because, although three things are named, 
they constitute but one inseparable subject. The prop- 
osition would not be true, if made of any one of them 
separately. 

" Lakes and oceans are large bodies of water." This is not 
simple, because it may be resolved into the two sentences, 
" Lakes are large bodies of water," " Oceans are large bodies 
of water." 

"A canoe which is made of bark is easily broken." 
This is not simple, because the subject is modified by a 
clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, is made, and 
is broken. 

*'The man learned that the canoe was made of bark." 
This is not simple, because the predicate is modified by a 
clause. The sentence thus has two predicates, learned, and 
was made. 

" The foolish young man, in the flush of a momentary 
excitement, rushing into the surging stream, at the time of 
high water, in a frail canoe made of bark, was rapidly whirled 
by the impetuosity of the descending current into the yawn- 
ing abyss below." Here, both the subject and the predicate 
are very complex, yet the sentence is simple. It has but one 
subject and one predicate. 

II. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains a 
simple sentence, with one or more clauses modifying 
either its subject or its predicate. 

''A life which is spent in doing good cannot be a failure." 
This is a complex sentence, because the subject is modified 
by the clause, tuhich is spent in doing good. 

^' He was at the station when the train arrived." This is 
complex, because the predicate is modified by the clause, 
when the train arrived. 



136 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

III. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two 
or more sentences, connected by one or more con- 
junctions. 

" He left home in good season, and was at the station when 
the train arrived." This is a compound sentence, containing 
the simple sentence, He left home in good season, and the com- 
plex sentence, [He] was at the station when the train arrived, the 
two being connected by the conjunction and. 

The sentences which compose a Compound Sentence are 
called its Members. 



-^>o<o 



III. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

The terms Phrase, Clause, and Member frequently 
occur in speaking of Sentences. These terms have 
been already defined, but some additional illustration 
seems desirable. 

I. PHRASES. 

A Phrase is a number of words, connected in mean- 
ing, but not containing a predicate, and not making by 
themselves complete sense. 

The principal Phrases are the following : 

1. The Appositional Phrase ; as, " June, the month of roses, 
has come at length." 

2. The Prepositional Phrase ; as, " The cause of all this 
misery was bad temper.'^ 

3. The Adjective Phrase; as, ^' Youth , full of expectation, is 
ever sanguine." 

4. The Participial Phrase ; as, " Living on vegetables, he was 
not strong." 



ANALYSIS. 137 

5. The Infinitive Phrase ; as, '* He determined to live on vege- 
tables only^ 

6. The Subject Phrase. This is where a Participial Phrase 
or an Infinitive Phrase is used as the subject to the 
verb ; as, '* Living on vegetables only is not conducive to 
strength," " To live on vegetables only is not conducive to 
strength." 

" The Absolute Phrase ; as, ^^ The king being dead^ his oldest 
son succeeds to the throne," 

8. The Independent Phrase. This includes all mere excla- 
mations, and all words addressed to persons or things, and 
not grammatically dependent upon the other parts of the 
sentence ; as, "' Out upon the villain I he deserves the halter," 
** Detestable villain ^ you deserve the halter." These exclama- 
tions and addresses often consist of a single word; as, ''Vil- 
lainy leave the house." 

II. CLAUSES. 

A Clause is a part of a sentence, containing a verb 
and its subject, making by themselves complete sense, 
yet not independent, being used to modify some other 
part or parts of that sentence of which it is a part. 

The principal Clauses are the following : 

1. The Relative Clause; as, **The man who is faithful to 
duty is to be honored." 

2. The Appositional Clause; as, ''The maxim. Put not off 
till to-morrow ivhat can be done to-day, has much wisdom." 

3. The Subject Clause; as, *' That life is uncertain is known 
to all." 

4. The Object Clause; as, ''They knew that the nian was a 
villain.^ ^ 

5. The Adverbial Clause ; as, " He remained at the station 
until the train left.'^ 

6. The Conjunctional Clause ; as, " He will meet you at 
the station, if you come in timey 



138 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

III. MEMBERS. 

A Member is a sentence, complete and independent 
in itself, and not used to modify any word or clause, 
yet united by a conjunction with some other sentence 
to form a compound sentence. 

The difference between Members and Clauses is this : 
Members are parts of compound sentences ; Clauses, of com- 
plex sentences. A Member of a sentence can stand alone as 
an independent sentence ; a Clause, though containing a sub- 
ject and predicate, is yet always dependent upon something 
outside of itself. 

The sun, when it had riseUy scorched the grass." " When it 
had risen '' cannot stand alone, as an independent sentence, 
it is, therefore, a clause. 

*^ The sun had risen, and the grass was scorched." Here 
are two sentences, each complete and independent in itself, 
but both united to form a Compound sentence. These two 
sentences, taken separately, are called the Members of the 
Compound sentence. 

A complex sentence may be reduced to a simple sentence 
by abridging the dependent clause to the form of a phrase. 

The phrase may be reduced to the form of a single word 
modifier. 

Examples. — " A generous man has many admirers." *' A 
man of generosity has many admirers." ^^ A man who is 
generous has many admirers." 

The general rule for the abridgement of a dependent clause 
is to take away the connective and change the predicate 
either to an infinitive or to a participle. 

The abridged form thus becomes a participle and a parti- 
cipial noun, and a nominative absolute or an infinitive. 



oj^o 




Selections 

FOR 

Analysis and Parsing. 

00^:^0^,^ 

In the following extracts name the subjects and predicates 
in each proposition. Name the single word modifiers. Name 
the phrase modifiers, and state how they are used. If the 
sentence is complex, name the clause modifier, and state how 
it is used. If the sentence ig compound, name its members. 



o>«o.- 



OTRAIGHT from the mighty bow this truth is driven : 
^^ ^' They fail, and they alone, who have not striven.'^ 

— C. Urmy. 



N 



O rock so hard, but that a little wave 
May beat admission in a thousand years. 

— Tennyson. 

*^^^CK^ 



"TTOWE'EK it be, it seems to me, 

"^ 'Tis only noble to be good ; 
Kind hearts are more than coronets. 
And simple faith than Norman blood. 

— Tennyson 

139 



140 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

TZTEKE the fringed gentian of the poet blows, 
-*~^ Yielding dim odor ; yellow violets still 
Jewel Spring's naked bosom till it glows, 
While yet the air holds fast its wintry chill. 

—Bryant. 



f pHE little toy dog is covered with dust, 
-^ But sturdy and stanch he stands ; 
And the little boy soldier is red with rust, 

And his musket moulds in his hands. 
Time was when the little toy dog was new, 

And the soldier was passing fair ; 
And that was the time when our Little Boy Blue 

Kissed them and put them there. 

— Eugene Field. 



-*o>d^o 



" TTTHAT are you good for, my brave little man?'' 
' ^ Answer that question for me if you can. 

Over the carpet the dear little feet 

Came with a patter to climb in my seat ; 

Two merry eyes, full of frolic and glee. 

Under their lashes looked up unto me ; 

Two little hands pressing soft on my face, 

Drew me down close in a loving embrace ; 

Two rosy lips gave the answer so true, 
''Good to love you, mamma, — good to love you." 

— Emily Hartington Miller 

OO^I^OO 



" /^ REAT, wide, beautiful, wonderful world, 
^^ With the wonderful water round you curled, 
And the wonderful grass upon your breast, 
World, you are beautifully dressed. 



SELECTIONS, 141 

The wonderful air is over me, 
And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree, 
It walks on the water, and whirls the mills, 
And talks to itself on the tops of the hills." 

" LiLLiPUT Lectures." 
^v^o<^ 

rpHE frost looked forth on a still clear night, 
-*- And whispered, *' Now, I shall be out of sight ; 
So, through the valley, and over the height, 

In silence I'll take my way. 
I will not go on like that blustering train, 
The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain, 
That make such a bustle and noise in vain ; 

But I'll be as busy as they ! " 

— Hannah F. Gould. 



»o>a<o« 

A MONG the beautiful pictures 
■^-^ That hang on memory's wall, 
Is one of a dim old forest, 

That seemeth the best of all ; 
Not for its gnarled oaks olden. 

Dark with the mistletoe ; 
Not for the violets golden 

That sprinkle the vale below ; 
Not for the milk-white lilies 

That lean from the fragrant hedge, 
Coquetting all day with the sunbeams, 

And stealing their golden edge ; 
Not for the vines on the upland 

Where the bright red berries rest ; 
Nor the pinks, nor the pale, sweet cowslip, 

It seemeth to me the best. 

— Anonymous. 

^>^o<^ 



142 ELEMENTARY GBAMMAB, 

rpHREE little noses are flattened against the pane ; 
-*- Three little rosy mouths are bemoaning the rain ; 
Saint Swithin is christening the apples with might and with 
main. 
*' O Saint Swithin, Saint Swithin," the children say, 
'* Surely yau've christened the apples enough to-day." 

*' Kain, rain," say the children, "be off to Spain ! 

Never, never, we charge yovi, come back again ! 

We want to run in the garden, and down comes the rain ! 

Saint Swithin, Saint Swithin," the children plead, 
" We want our run in the garden, we do indeed." 

— E. H. HiCKEY. 

TZTE had played for his lordship's levee. 

He had played for her ladyship's whim, 
Till the poor little head was heavy. 
And the poor little brain would swim. 

And the face grew peaked and eerie, 
And the large eyes strange and bright ; 

And they said — too late — *' He is weary ! 
He shall rest, for at least to-night ! " 

—Austin Dobson. 

TDIPED the blackbird on the beech wood spray : 
'' Pretty maid, slow wandering this way, 

'' What's your name?" quoth he — 
What's your name ? Oh, stop and straight unfold, 
Pretty maid with showery curls of gold," — 

'' Little Bell," said she. 

Little Bell sat down beneath the rocks — 
Tossed aside her gleaming golden locks — 
'' Bonny bird," quoth she, 
'' Sing me your best song before I go." 
'' Here's the very finest song I know, 
Little Bell," said he. 



SELECTIONS, 143 

And the blackbird piped ; you never heard 
Half so gay a song from any bird — 

Full of quips and wiles, 
Now so round and rich, noAv soft and slow, 
All for love of that sw^eet face below, 

Dimpled o'er with smiles. 

— T. B. West WOOD. 



^^a<o 



rpHE dear God hears and pities all, 
-*- He knoweth all. our wants ; 
And what we blindly ask of him, 
His love withholds or grants. 

And so I sometimes think our prayers 

Might well be merged in one ; 
And nest and perch, and hearth and church, 

Eepeat, '' Thy will be done ! '' 

— John G. Whittier. 

OK5>^00 



OOME murmur, when their sky is clear 
'^ And wholly bright to view, 
If one small speck of dark appear 
In their great heaven of blue ; 

And some with thankful love are filled. 

If but one streak of light. 
One ray of God's good mercy, gild 

The darkness of their night. 

— KicHAKD C. Trench. 



rpHEY say that God lives very high, 
-^ But if you look above the pines 



You cannot see our God ; and why ? 



144 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

And if you dig down in the mines, 

You never see him in the gold ; 
Though from him all that glory shines. 

God is so good, he wears a fold 

Of heaven and earth across his face — 
Like secrets kept, for love, untold. 

But still I feel that his embrace 

Slides down by thrills, through all things made, 
Through sight and sound of every place ; 

As if my tender mother laid 
On my shut lids her tender pressure. 

Half- waking me at night, and said, 

" Who kissed you in the dark, dear guesser V 

—Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 

^>»4oc 



I 



rpHEY drive home the cows from the pasture, 
-^ Up through the long shady lane, 
Where the quail whistles loud in the wheat-fields, 

That are yellow with ripening grain. 
They find in the thick waving grasses. 

Where the scarlet-lipped strawberry grows. 
They gather the earliest snowdrops, 

And the first crimson buds of the rose. 

— M. H. Krout. 
^>©-oo 

/^VER and over again, 

^^ No matter which way I turn, 

I always find in the book of life, 

Some lesson I have to learn. 
I must take my turn at the mill, 

I must grind out the golden grain, 
I must work at my task with a resolute will, 

Over and over again. 

—Anonymous. 



SELECTIONS. 145 

rpHE children crowned themselves with roses, 
-*- And all the roses died ! 
Pale on the soft brown locks they lay, 
Like a dream of spring on a cold white day, 

In the barren winter-tide : 
Throw the fading vision by ! 
Make a crown that cannot die. 

The children crowned themselves with diamonds, 

And could not bear the weight ; 
Down they droop their weary curls, 
Like a leaf that falls or a sail that furls. 

When the night is dark and late. 
Throw away the useless things ! 
Crowns should be as light as wings. 

The children crowned themselves with wishes, 

And every wish came true ; 
Love lies soft on each fair head. 
Kisses dry the tears they shed, — 

Hope each day is new. 
Keep that crown, nor keep in vain! 
If it dies, it grows again. 

A FAIR little girl sat under a tree, 
-^-^ Sewing as long as her eyes could see ; 
Then smoothed her work and folded it right, 
And said, ''Dear work, good-night, good-night!" 

Such a number of rooks came over her head. 
Crying " Caw !" *' Caw !" on their way to bed. 
She said, as she watched their curious flight, 
" Little black things, good-night, good-night !" 

The horses neighed, and the oxen lowed. 
The sheeps' '' Bleat! Bleat !" came over the road; 
All seeming to say, with a quiet delight, 
*' Good little girl, good-night, good-night !'' 



146 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

She did not say to the sun, ^'Good-night!" 
Though she saw him there hke a ball of light; 
For she knew he had God's time to keep 
All over the world, and never could sleep. 

— Lord Houghton. 



-<K)>«<0 



f~\ THE Broom, the yellow Broom, 
^^ The ancient poet sung it. 
And dear it is on summer days 
To lie at rest among it. 

I know the realms where people say. 
The flowers have not their fellow ; 

I know where they shine out like sunSj 
The purple and the yellow. 

I know where ladies live enchained 

In luxury's silken fetters, 
And flowers as bright as glittering gems 

Are used for written letters. 

But ne'er was flower so fair a« this. 

In modern days or olden ; 
It groweth on its nodding stem 

Like to a garland golden. 

—Mary Howitt. 

oo>^o.> 

T ADY-BIED, lady-bird ! fly away home 1 
^^ The field-mouse has gone to her nest. 
The daisies have shut up their sleepy red eyes, 
And the bees and the birds are at rest. 

Lady-bird, lady-bird ! fly away home ! 

The glow-worm is lighting her lamp, 
The dew's falling fast, and your fine speckled wings 

Will flag with the close-clinging damp. 

— Caroline B. Southey. 



SELECTIONS. 147 

TTTHEN cats run home and light is come, 

^ ^ And dew is cold upon the ground, 
And the far-off stream is dumb, 

And the whirring sail goes round, 

And the whirring sail goes round ; 
Alone and warming his five wits. 
The white owl in the belfry sits. 

When merry milkmaids click the latch. 

And rarely smells the new-mown hay. 
And the cock hath sung beneath the thatch 

Twice or thrice his roundelay, 

Twice or thrice his roundelay ; 
Alone and warming his five wits, 
The white owl in the belfry sits. 

—Alfred Tennyson. 



/^VER the river and through the wood, 
^-^ To grandfather's house we go ; 

The horse knows the way 

To carry the sleigh 
Through the white and drifted snow. 

Over the river and through the wood — 
Oh, how the wind does blow ! 

It stings the toes 

And bites the nose. 
As over the ground we go. 

— Lydia Maria Child. 



o>«<o^ 



"/^ OOD-NIGHT, Sir Rook V said a little lark, 
^^ '' The daylight fades ; it will soon be dark ; 
I've bathed my wings in the sun's last ray, 
I've sung my hymn to the parting day ; 
So now I haste to my quiet nook 
In yon dewy meadow — good-night. Sir Rook !" 



148 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

'* Good-night, poor Lark," said his titled friend, 
With a haughty toss and a distant bend ; 
I also go to my rest profound. 
But not to sleep on the cold, damp ground : 
The fittest place for a bird like me 
Is the topmost bough of yon tall pine-tree. 

—Anonymous. 

A FAIEY was mending a daisy 
-^-^ Which some one had torn in half; 
Her sisters all thought her crazy, 

And only looked on to laugh. 
They showed her scores in the hedges, 

And scores that grew by the tarn, 
And scores on the green field-edges. 

But she went on with her darn. 

— Anonymous. 

•o'^iKcx^ 

QTAND by the flag ! Its stars, like meteors gleaming, 
^ Have lighted Arctic icebergs, southern seas, 
And shone responsive to the stormy beaming 
Of old Arcturus and the Pleiades. 

Stand by the flag ! Its stripes have streamed in glory, 

To foes a fear, to friends a festal robe, 
And spread in rhythmic lines the sacred story 

Of Freedom's triumphs over all the globe. 

—John Nicholas Wilder. 



-<K)><KO 



TTAVE you heard the tale they tell of the swan, 
-*--*- The snow-white bird of the lake ? 
It noiselessly floats on the silvery wave, 

It silently sits in the brake ; 
For it saves its song till the end of life. 

And then in the soft, still even, 



SELECTIONS. 149 

'Mid the golden light of the setting sun, 

It sings as it soars into heaven, 
And the blessed notes fall back from the skies ; 
Tis its only song, for on singing it dies. 

— Harbaugh. 

«K>>^0<> 



A 



MAN defends the truth with his right hand ; 
The coward only is the tyrant's slave. 

— Inglis. 

^>^o<. 

rpHE consul's brow was sad, 
-*- And the consul's speech was low, 
And darkly looked he at the wall, 

And darkly at the foe : 
" Their van will be upon us 

Before the bridge goes down ; 
And if they once may win the bridge, 

What hope to save the town?" 

Then out spake brave Horatius, 
The captain of the gate : 
" To every man upon this earth 
Death cometh soon or late. 
And how can man die better 

Than facing fearful odds 
For the ashes of his fathers, 
And the temples of his gods ?" 

—Thomas Babington Macaulay. 

T MHE sky is clouded, the rocks are bare ; 
-■■- The spray of the tempest is white in air 
The winds are out with the waves at play 
And I shall not tempt the sea to-day. 

The trail is narrow, the wood is dim. 
The panther clings to the arching limb ; 
And the lion's whelps are abroad at play, 
And I shall not join in the chase to-day. 



150 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

But the ship sailed safely over the sea, 
And the hunters came from the chase in glee ; 
And the town that was builded upon a rock 
Was swallowed up in the earthquake-shock. 

—Bret Harte. 

"TTTINGS for the angels, but feet for men ! 
^ ^ We may borrow the wings to find the way — 
We may hope and resolve and aspire and pray, 
But our feet must rise or we fall again. 

Only in dreams is a ladder thrown 

From the weary earth to the sapphire walls ; 
But the dreams depart, and the vision falls, 

And the sleeper wakes on his pillow of stone. 

Heaven is not reached at a single bound ; 
But we build the ladder by which we rise 
From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies. 

And we mount to its summit round by round. 

— JosiAH Gilbert Holland. 

*' TTAD I wist," quoth Spring to the swallow, 
XJ_ u rpj^^i- earth could forget me, kissed 
By Summer, and lured to follow 
Down ways that I know not of, I, 
My heart had not waxed so high : 
Mid-March would have seen me die, 
Had I wist!" 

*' Had I wist, Spring," said the swallow, 
*' That hope was a sun-lit mist. 
And the faint light heart of it hollow. 
Thy woods had not heard me sing, 
Thy winds had not known my wing ; 
It had faltered ere thine did. Spring, 
Had I wist ! " 

—Algernon Charles Swinburne. 



SELECTIONS. 151 

IVyT'OENING, evening, noon, and night, 
J3lL h Praise God !" sang Theocrite. 

Then to his poor trade he turned, 
Whereby the daily meal was earned. 

Hard he labored, long and well : 
O'er his work the boy's curls fell. 

But ever, at each period, 

He stopped and sang, " Praise God !" 

Then back again his curls he threw, 
And cheerful turned to work anew. 

Robert Browning. 



-<>0>^00-— — 



Tj^OETUNE will not come with seeking ; 
-^ I have sought it, and I know : 
I have looked for four-leaved clover 
All the hillside on and over ; 
By the brook, and in the meadow, 
In the sunshine, in the shadow, 
But my clover does not grow. 

Fortune will not come with seeking ; 

Here beside my open door 
I will rest, my search is over ; 
I can find no four-leaved clover ; 
On, through the deceitful meadow. 
In the sunshine, in the shadow, 

I shall never seek it more ! 

—Anonymous. 

«M5>a<00 

TTTHO counts himself as nobly born 
^ ^ Is noble in despite of place. 
And honors are but brands, to one 

Who wears them not with Nature's grace. 



152 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

Then, be thou peasant, be thou peer. 
Count it still more, thou art thine own ; 

Stand on a larger heraldry 

Than that of nation or of zone. 

What though not bid to knightly halls ? 

Those halls have missed a courtly guest ; 

That mansion is not privileged, 

Which is not open to the best. 

— Anonymous. 

A CLOUD possessed the hollow field, 
-^-^ The gathering battle's smoky shield. 
Athwart the gloom the lightning flashed. 
And through the cloud some horsemen dashed, 
And from the heights the thunder pealed. 

Then at the brief command of Lee, 
Moved out that matchless infantry. 
With Pickett leading grandly down, 
To rush against the roaring crown 
Of those dread heights of destiny. 

God lives ! He forged the iron will 
That clutched and held that trembling hill. 
God lives and reigns ! He built and lent 
The heights for Freedom's battlement 
Where floats her flag in triumph still ! 

Fold up the banners ! Smelt the guns ! 

Love rules. Her gentler purpose runs. 

A mighty mother turns in tears 

The pages of her battle years, 

Lamenting all her fallen sons ! 

—Will. H. Thompson, 



-^^>^o 



/^ OD give us men ! A time like this demands 
^-^ Strong minds, great hearts, true faith, and ready hand^- 
Men whom the lust of oflice will not kill ; 
Men whom the spoils of office cannot buy ; 



SELECTIONS, 153 

Men who possess opinions and a will ; 

Men who have honor ; men who will not lie ; 
Tall men, sun-crowned, who live above the fog ; 

In public duty and in private thinking. 

—J. G. Holland. 



o>a<o<v- 



A TIRED little worm went to sleep one day 
-^^^ In a soft little cradle of silken gray, 
And he said, as he snugly curled up in his nest, 
" Oh, crawling was pleasant, but rest is the best." 

He slept through the winter, long and cold. 
All tightly up in his blankets rolled 
And at last awoke on a warm spring day, 
To find that winter had gone away. 

He woke to find he had golden wings. 
And no longer need crawl over sticks and things. 
" Oh, the earth was nice," said the glad butterfly, 
" But heaven is best when we learn to fly." 

—"Our Little Folks Vb.im.e^.''— Educational Pub, Co. 



A GRIM old king, 

-^-^ Whose blood leapt madly when the trumpets brayed 

To joyous battle ^mid a storm of steeds, 

Won a rich kingdom on a battle-day ; 

But in the sunset he was ebbing fast. 

Ringed by his weeping lords. 

—Alexander Smith. 

«K)><KO« 



/^NE day at a time ! That's all it can be : 
^-^ No faster than that is the hardest fate : 
And days have their limits, however w^e 

Begin them too early and stretch them too late. 



154 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

One day at a time ! Every heart that aches 
Knows only too well how long it can seem, 

But it's never to-day when the spirit breaks — 
It's the darkened future, without a gleam. 

One day at a time ! But a single day, 

Whatever its load, whatever its length : 
And there's a bit of precious Scripture to say, 
That according to each shall be our strength. 

—Helen Hunt Jackson. 
«K)XKo<^ 

T KNOW a land where the streets are paved 

-^ With the things we meant to achieve ; 

It is walled with the money we meant to have saved 

And the pleasures for which we grieve ; 
The kind words unspoken, the promises broken, 

And many a coveted boon. 
Are stowed away there in that land somewhere — 

The land of '' Pretty Soon." 

There are uncut jewels of possible fame 

Lying about in the dust, 
And many a noble and lofty aim 

Covered with mold and rust ; , 

And O, this place, while it seems so near 

Is farther away than the moon ; 
Though our purpose is fair, yet we never get there — 

The land of '' Pretty Soon." 

The road that leads to that mystic land 

Is strewn with pitiful wrecks, 
And the ships that have sailed for its shining strand 

Bear skeletons on their decks. 
It is farther at noon than it was at dawn. 

And farther at night than at noon ; 
O, let us beware of that land down there — 

The land of " Pretty Soon." 

— Ella Wheeler Wilcox. 



SELECTIONS. 155 

AND clip it round the edge, and challenge him 
Whose 'twas to swear to it. To serve things thus 
Is as foul witches to cut up old moons 
Into new stars. Some never rise above 
A pretty fault, like faulty dahlias ; 
And of whose best things it is kindly said, 
The thought is fair. 



-Festus. 



-^\^o 



ONE morn a Peri at the gate 
Of Eden stood disconsolate ; 
And as she Hstened to the Springs 

Of Life within, like music flowing, 
And caught the light upon her wings 

Through the half-open portal glowing, 
She wept to think her recreant race 
Should e'er have lost that glorious place ! 

— Lalla Rookh. 

•o»<o<^ 

OOUND the loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea ! 
'^ Jehovah has triumphed — his people are free. 
Sing — for the pride of the tyrant is broken, 

His chariots, his horsemen, all splendid and brave. 
How vain was their boasting ! the Lord hath but spoken. 

And chariots and horsemen are sunk in the wave. 

— MOOKE. 
^XKcx* 

"TTTHAT plant we in this apple tree ? 

^ ^ Buds, which the breath of summer days 
Shall lengthen into leafy sprays; 
Boughs where the thrush, with crimson breast, 
Shall haunt and sing and hide her nest; 

We plant, upon the sunny lea, 
A shadow for the noontide hour, 
A shelter from the summer shower. 

When we plant the apple tree. 

— Bryant. 



156 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

npHE stars rush forth in myriads as to wage 
-^ War with the Knes of Darkness ; and the moon, 
Pale ghost of Night, comes haunting the cold earth 
After the sun's red sea-death — quietless. 

— Festus. 

«<>>KO<D 

rpHE earth was green, the sky was blue ; 
-■- I saw and heard one sunny morn 
A skylark hang between the two, 
A singing speck above the corn ; 

A stage below, in gay accord, 
White butterflies danced on the wing, 

And still the singing skylark soared 
And silent sank, and soared to sing. 

— C. EOSSETTI. 

1" HAVE read, in the marvelous heart of man, 
-*- That strange and mystic scroll, 
That an army of phantoms vast and wan 
Beleaguer the human soul. 

Encamped beside Life's rushing stream. 

In Fancy's misty light, 
Gigantic shapes and shadows gleam 

Portentous through the night. 

And when the solemn and deep church-bell 

Entreats the soul to pray. 
The midnight phantoms feel the spell, 

The shadows sweep away. 

—Longfellow. 

o-oj^oo— 

"FUST as of old ! The world rolls on and on ; 
^ The day dies into night — night into dawn — 
Dawn into dusk — through centuries untold — 
Just as of old. 



SELECTIONS, 157 

Lo ! where is the beginning, where the end 
Of living, loving, longing ? Listen, friend ! 
God answers with a silence of pure gold — 
Just as of old. 

— ElLEY. 
, ooV^Koo 

r^VER the river, on the hill, 
^-^ Lieth a village white and still ; 
All around it the forest trees 
Shiver and whisper in the breeze, 
Over it sailing shadows go 
Of soaring hawk and screaming crow, 
And mountain grasses low and sweet 
Grow in the middle of every street. 

— KosE Terry. 

oo^Xoo 

ry^HE wise and active conquer difficulties 
-*- By daring to attempt them ; sloth and folly 
Shiver and shrink at sights of toil and hazard. 
And make the impossibility they fear. 

— EOWE. 

«o>^o« 

nnHE heathery hills are covered with snow, 
-*- The flakes are floating, and falling slow* 
The tame wee robin is cheeping low, 

Bare hedges give no cover ; 
The ice-pond chirps, the cold winds sweep ; 
I pity the poor little mountain-sheep ; 
So slumber. Baby, slumber and sleep 

Till winter days are over. 

—SiGERSON. 

"TT7"E, the People of the United States, in order to form a 
^ ^ more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the 
general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America. 

— Preamble to Constitution. 



158 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 

"TTTHEI^, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- 
^ ' sary for one people to dissolve the political bands 
which have connected them with another, and to assume, 
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal sta- 
tion to which the laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankiVid requires 
that they should declare the causes which impel them to the 

separation. 

Declaration of Independence. 

npHE day is done, and the darkness 
-^ Falls from the wings of Night 
As a feather is wafted downward 

From an eagle in his flight. 
I see the lights of the village 

Gleam through the rain and the mist, 
And a feeling of sadness comes o'er me 

That my soul cannot resist. 

— Longfellow. 
c«3>a<oo— — 

/^HIDHAR, the prophet, ever young, 
^^ Thus loosed the bridle of his tongue : 
I journeyed through a noble town 

With many a mansion fair and good, 
And asked of one w^ho sat him down 

To rest, how long the town had stood. 
He roused himself; 'twas but to say, 
''The town has stood for many a day. 
And will be here for ever and aye." 
A thousand years went by, and then 
I went the selfsame road again. 

EUCKERT. 

npHE accusing spirit that flew up to Heaven's chancery 
-^ with the oath, blushed as he gave it in, and the Record- 
ing Angel dropped a tear upon the word as he wrote it down 
and blotted it out forever. 

— Sterne. 



SELECTIONS. 159 

A BOU Ben Adhem (ma}^ his tribe increase !) 
-^--^ Awoke one night from a sweet dream of peace, 
And saw, within the moonUght in his room, 
Making it rich, and Hke a lily in bloom, 
An angel writing in a book of gold. 
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 
And, to the Presence in the room, he said : 
" What writest thou ?" The vision raised its head, 
And, with a look made all of sweet accord, 
Answered, ^' The names of those who love the Lord ! " 
''And is mine one?" asked Abou. '' Nay, not so," 
Replied the angel. Abou spake more low, 
But cheerily still ; and said, '' I pray thee, then. 
Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 
The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night 
It came again, with a great wakening light, 
And showed the names whom love of God had bless'd ; 
And, lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest ! 

— Leigh Hunt. 




The "^MtllL End. 




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