{"1": {"fulltext": "6^^", "height": "3508", "width": "2321", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "t i\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^.s. ,,x\\nA^^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\\n~.i-\\noo\\ny\\nx\\nV./\\n:.o^\\nc^^", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "^0\\n4- -^^t\\n.0 .Oo.\\n.^ol\\no\\n,1 N\\n.x-^^\\n1.\\n0^\\nv^-^", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "ihp:\\nGreat Salt Lake\\nt\u00c2\u00bbKKH;i^^ rr aivd i ast", "height": "3352", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "II. Map of the Great Salt Lake.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "III. Flock of Young- Pelicans, Hat Island.\\nt\\nX\\n_ ^r\\n,^^fc^\\n\u00c2\u00bb-/i vr.^.v.*^ rf -1 Pi\\nIV. Gulls on Hat Islanel.\\nPhotograph by Johnson.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "L_.\\nI\\nG^\\nV. Saltair Pavilion: bircVs-eye view.\\nCir\\ni. i(le iew di Saltair Pavilion. (.Salt Lake and Los Angeles Kailway.)", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "X. Inland Crystal Salt Co. s Works. (Salt Lake and Los Angeles Railway.)\\nXI. Coarse Salt. Inland Crystal Salt Co. s Ponds.\\n(On line of Salt Lake and Los Anj^eles Railway.)", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "i^m\\n^iH\\nXII.\\nXIII.\\nBrine Shrimp, Artemia fertUis (Verril): or Artemia gracilis; from the Great\\nSalt Lake. XII, male; XIII, female.\\nFrom photomicrographs hy J. E. Talmage.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "XIV. Map of the Great Basin and its Lakes.\\nCopied from U. S. G. S., Monograph I; Phitell.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "r\\n^AA lit id. t\\n4 V )K ---^r*\\nXV. Map of Lake Bonneville.\\nCopied from Gilbert s map: U. S. G. S., Monograph I.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "XVI. Shore Lines on Oquirrh Mountains. West Salt Lake Valley.\\nm\\n.i^lfe\\n.J^\\n0W-:\\n.^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2#PI\\nMam^mmam\\nv^^.-^\\nIHI\\nI\\ni^\\nw\\n^s.\\nC\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n#ri\\nli*--\\nmm.\\nT^im:J .i. \u00c2\u00a3C\\n^x-:. ^fv^/\\nv\\nXVII. .Shore Lines of Lake Bonneville: north end of Oquirrh Mountains.\\nAfter sketch by Holmes (U. S. G. S., Monograph I; Plate I.)", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "F\\nXVin. Bonneville and Intermediate Embankments, near Wellsville,\\nUtah, showing contrast between littoral and sub-aerial\\ntopography.. (After Gilbert, U. S. G. S.,\\nMonograph I; Fig. 21.)\\nXIX. View on Salt Lake Desert, showing mountains half buried by lake\\nsediments. (After Gilbert, see U. S. G. S.. Monograph I: PI. XXXVI.)", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "XX. Ripple Marks in Argillaceous Sandstone.\\nShore of Lake Bonneville.\\nXXI. Section of Moraine, Mouth of Little Cottonwood Canyon,\\nSalt Lake Valley.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "XXII. Glaciated Stone, from Little Cottonwood Moraine.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "THE\\nGreat Salt Lake\\nFRESKIS^T AlSrr PAST.\\nJAMES E. TALMAGE,\\nV. R. S. E., F. G. S.\\nPROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY, tJNiVERSITY\\nOF TJTAET.\\nThe Dsserbtt News,\\nSalt Lakid Cixy, TJtah.\\nIGOO.\\n1", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "29580\\nl.ibrapy of Concfrsss\\ni v/o Copies REcrr^EO\\nAUG 3 1900\\nCopyright entry\\nSLCOND COPY.\\nDelivered io\\nOSDtR DIVISION,\\nAUG 7 1900\\n67149\\nCopyright, 1900,\\nBy J. E. Talmage.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "PPCrATOPY.\\nIn some parts the following pages are reprints of\\narticles that have appeared over the writer s signature\\nin local and scientific periodicals in other portions they\\nare little more than a compilation of facts already of\\nrecord. Perhaps suiSicient excuse for the present publi-\\ncation may be found in the fact that reliable informa-\\ntion regarding the Great Salt Lake is of difficult access\\nto the general reader, inasmuch as it is mostly con-\\ntained in the valuable though ponderous tomes of the\\nnational surveys. The popular writings on the subject,\\nwith some exceptions, have been criticized as extrava-\\ngant and untrustworthy. The truth regarding Utah s\\nDead Sea is sufficiently impressive without recourse to\\nfabulous embellishment, even if such were in any sense\\njustifiable.\\nThe writer has drawn freely on the valuable records\\nof investigators, and acknowledgment of authorities has\\nbeen made in place. J. E. T.\\nSalt Lake City, Utah,\\nJuly, 1900.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nPAGE.\\nI. Introductory 21\\nII. Descriptive 26\\nIII. The Lake as a Pleasure and Health Resort. 33\\nIV. Statistical and General 43\\nV. The Lake Water 55\\nVI. Life in the Lake 67\\nVII. Economic Importance of the Lake 77\\nVIII. The Great Basin 87\\nIX. The Ancient Lake Lake Bonneville 96", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nPRESENT AND PAST.\\nI.\\nINTRODUCTORY.\\nThe record of fact and tradition concerning the\\nGreat Salt Lake, as written by the hand of man, dates\\nback a little more than two centuries; but a history of\\ntimes far more remote may be read from Nature s manu-\\nscript, inscribed on the stony pages of ancient shores\\nand in the sediment which formed the floor of the lake\\nof by-gone days.\\nThough generally designated by the adjective\\nGreat, the Salt Lake, as we shall presently see, is but\\na shrunken remnant of a vastly larger water body, which\\nonce existed as a veritable inland sea, completely filling\\nthe valley in the lowest portion of which the modern\\nlake rests, and extending beyond the northern and\\nwestern boundaries of the present State of Utah. To\\nthis ancient sea the name Lake Bonneville has\\nbeen applied.\\nBut the geological past of the Dead Sea of Ameri-", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "22 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nca may well be left for later consideration; we can the\\nbetter interpret such after an examination of existing\\nconditions. It is, therefore, the lake of present and his-\\ntoric times to which attention is first invited.\\nLong prior to the time at which white men first\\ntrod the shores of this briny sea, strange stories of its\\nexistence and of the marvelous properties of its waters\\nhad found their way into civilized lands. In 1689 Baron\\nLa Hontan, a French traveler and explorer of note,\\ngathered from the Indian tribes of the Mississippi val-\\nley their traditioi-^^ of a great salt sea lying amid the\\nsolitude of the western mountains; and these stories,\\ndoubtless embellished by additions from his own imagi-\\nnation, the traveler sought to perpetuate. His narra-\\ntive was first published in English in 17.35. j^o facts\\nof value were given by La Hontan concerning the lake;\\nindeed there is room for doubt as to whether the water-\\nbody about which the Indians had talked to him was\\nthe Great Salt Lake.\\nIn 1776 Padre Escalante, a Spanish official exploring\\nfor routes of travel, crossed the south-eastern rim of the\\nGreat Basin region, and followed the Timpanogos or\\nProvo River (by him named Purisima) down to its\\ntermination in Utah Lake. From the Indian tribes\\nof what is now Utah Valley he learned of a lake many\\nleagues in extent, with waters extremely noxious and\\nsalty, lying in the valley northward. Escalante appears\\nto have contented himself with this hear-say informa-", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTORY. 23\\ntion, for there is no record of his having reached the\\nshores of Great Salt Lake.\\nPerhaps the truth regarding the first white man s\\nvisit to the lake may never be known. There have\\nbeen many rival claimants for the honor of having dis-\\ncovered the briny waters, and historians have failed\\nin their efforts to decide the question of priority.\\nThere are many accounts of occasional visits to the\\nlake or its vicinity by traders and trappers between 1820\\nand 1833; among such venturesome travelers may be\\nnamed Miller of the Astor company; Provost (after\\nwho Provo City has been named), and Bridger, for\\nwhom some strongly claim the honors of discovery.\\nHubert Howe Bancroft, the voluminous writer on\\nPacific Coast history, is one who accords this credit to\\nColonel James Bridger. Bridger is said to have de-\\nscended Bear Eiver to its mouth in the lake, the jour-\\nney having been undertaken to settle a wager as to the\\ncourse of the river named.\\nBetween 1831 and 1833 Captain Bonneville, a\\nFrenchman in the service of the United States as an\\narmy officer, while traA^eling on leave, explored portions\\nof the lake shores and wrote short descriptions, mostly\\ngeographical, which have proved of value. Several\\nyears later an account of Bonneville s explorations was\\ngiven publicity by Washington Irving, whose book,\\nAdventures of Captain Bonneville, is well known.\\nAn attempt was made to attach Bonneville s name to", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "24 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nthe salty lake, but without success. As already stated,\\nthe designation Lake Bonneville has now been ap-\\nplied to the ancient sea which preceded the Salt Lake\\nof today.\\nIn 1843 John C. Fremont, then Brevet-Captain U.S.\\nA., sighted the lake from an elevation in Weber County\\nnow known as Little or Low Mountain, and considered\\nhimself the nrst discoverer of this mountain-sea. He\\nlikened himself to Bilboa discovering the Pacific.\\nFremont reached the lake and rowed upon its waters;\\nbut history denies him the distinction of having been\\nfirst to discover or to navigate the lake. Fremont s\\nvisit was made in the course of a government expedi-\\ntion to the Eocky Mountains; and his report* is re-\\ngarded as the earliest authentic record of the physical\\nconditions of the region. His party included the re-\\nnowned hunter and scout. Kit Carson, and tradition has\\nit that a rude boat consisting of a tree-trunk hollowed-\\nout Indian fashion, which was found on the shores of\\nthe lake after the settlement of the region by the Mor-\\nmon people, was the identical craft used by Kit Carson.\\nThe boat in question is now to be seen at the Deseret\\nMuseum, Salt Lake City. There is much doubt as to\\nthe truth of the story, however, for more authentic ac-\\ncounts say that the explorations of Fremont and Carson\\nReport of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in\\nthe year 1842, and to Oregon and North California in the years 1843-44.\\nby Brevet-Capt. J. C. Fremont. Washington, 1845.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTORY. 25\\non the waters of the lake were accomplished in rubber\\nboats.\\nIn 1849 and 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury, U. S.\\nA., under government commission made a fairly thor-\\nough survey of the lake and the region contiguous. His\\nreport contained valuable data concerning the lake\\narea, the depth, density, and composition of the water,\\nand the extent of the shore line.*\\nSince the advent of the Mormon pioneers in 1847,\\nand during the phenomenally rapid settlement of the\\nregion and the development of its varied resources, re-\\nliable observations have been recorded, both by resi-\\ndents and by competent investigators operating under\\nprivate or government auspices. To Grove Karl Gilbert\\nmuch praise is due for his elaborate and masterly study\\nof the Great Salt Lake, particularly in relation to its\\npast history. His work, Lake Bonneville, is and\\nwill ever be a classic in the geological literature of\\nAmerica.\\nExploration and Survey of the VaUey of the Great Salt Lake of\\nUtah, etc., by Howard Stansbury, Capt. Corps Topographical En-\\ngineers, U. S. A. Philadelphia, 1852.\\nt Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Vol.1:\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nLake Bonneville by Qrover Karl Gilbert; Washington, Government\\nPrinting Office, 1890.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "II.\\nDESCRIPTIVE.\\nThe Great Salt Lake today is an object of very geaer-\\nal interest, attracting as it does the attention of scientist,\\nlay-scholar, and curiosity-seeker alike. In the popu-\\nlar mind it holds a place as one of the strongest natural\\nbrines known, and as the site of attractive bathing re-\\nsorts. To the chemist this remarkable body of water\\nrepresents a practically inexhaustible reservoir of vaiu-\\nable material awaiting the potent influences of manu-\\nfacturing industry. To the geologist it appeals as the\\ndwarfed remains of an ancient sea, with the fossil evi-\\ndence of its past history preserved in the deposits and\\nsculpturing of its abandoned shores, and in the sedi-\\nments of its desiccated floor.\\nThe events characterizing its principal epochs may\\nbe determined with a fair measure of accuracy, and the\\nstory of its fluctuations recounts the succession of mar-\\nvelous climatic changes through which the region of the\\nGreat Basin has passed.\\nAs is generally known, the Great Salt Lake is the\\nlargest inland water body existing within the United\\nStates west of the Mississippi valley. It lies in the\\nnorth central part of the State of Utah, between the\\nparallels 111.8 degrees and 113.2 degrees longitude\\nwest from Greenwich, or 34.7 degrees and 36.1 degrees", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "DESCRIPTIVE. 27\\nwest from Washington, and between 40.7 degrees and\\n41.8 degrees north latitude.\\nOwing to the frequent and great fluctuations in vol-\\nume incident to climatic variations and other conditions\\nof change, its area is inconstant, and the recorded sur-\\nveys of the water surface show great discrepancies. In\\ngeneral terms its present dimensions have been recorded\\nas follows: Average length, 75 miles; greatest width, 50\\nmiles; extent of surface, 2,135 square miles.\\nThe altitude of the lake surface is 4,210 feet above\\nsea-level; and this fact alone is promise sufficient of\\nmany interesting results to the investigator, for at\\nsuch a height the general conditions are unusual. The\\nremarkable clearness of the atmosphere throughout the\\nlake region appeals with force to the visitor, whose\\npersistent underestimating of distance may be either\\namusing or annoying. From any convenient point of\\nvantage the observer may survey the lake as a glassy\\ncontinuation of the valley floor, with mountain-walled\\nback grounds, which are broken on the central part of\\nthe western shore where the Great Salt Lake Desert and\\nthe lake itself have a margin in common.\\nISLANDS OF THE LAKE.\\nRising from the water surface are precipitous is-\\nlands, appearing in their true character of mountain\\npeaks and ranges, the lower part of their masses being\\nsubmerged. Of these water-girt mountain bodies. Ante-", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "28 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nlope and Stansbury islands are the largest; and the\\nothers are Carrington, Fremont, Gunnison, Dolphin,\\nMud, and Hat or Egg islands, and Strong s Knob. The\\nislands appear as continuations of the mountain ranges\\nwhich diversify the contiguous land area, and an exami-\\nnation of their structure confirms this inference.\\nAt present, communication between main-land and\\nislands is effected by boat; though at low water periods,\\nAntelope and Stansbury islands have been accessible\\nby fording. Limited areas of the larger islands are un-\\nder cultivation, and the regions have long been utilized\\nas pasture lands. Some discoveries of mineralized de-\\nposits have been reported from the lake-washed moun-\\ntains but thus far no profitable mining for metals has\\nbeen accomplished.\\nThe tiny hill whose summit rises from the briny\\nwaters as a rocky knoll, known as Hat or Egg island, is the\\nprincipal rookery of the feathered frequenters of the\\nlake. There congregate during the breeding season\\nthousands of pelicans and gulls, and when they depart\\nthey are accompanied by the new generation of their\\nkind, in uncounted numbers. A visit to this isle of\\nnests at the proper time reveals the spectacle of great\\nflocks of half-fledged pelicans, awaiting the arrival of\\ntheir fisher-parents, or ravenously devouring the scaly\\ncontents of the parental pouches. The fish thus sup-\\nplied are caught by the old birds at the mouths of the\\nfresh water streams which feed the lake reservoir.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "ISLANDS, RIVERS. 29\\nOn the islands, v.hich tor ages have been monopo-\\nlized by the birds as a nesting-ground, great deposits of\\nguano have accumulated; and this material is now util-\\nized as a valuable fertilizer.\\nThe rivers which feed the lake all enter it on the\\neastern side; they depend upon the supplies furnished by\\nthe Wasatch and Uintah mountains. Of these streams\\nthe most important are the Jordan, which brings down\\nfrom the south the surplus waters of Utah Lake, the\\nWeber, and the Bear. Beside these there are several\\nsmall streams locally designated as creeks, which deliver\\na moderate contribution during high-water seasons. Gen-\\nerally, however, the lower portions of the creek-beds are\\ndry, the water having been diverted at higher levels for\\nirrigation purposes. From the west no streams reach the\\nlake, the few that rise on this side losing themselves in\\nthe desert plain, or disappearing entirely through evap-\\noration.\\nThe scenic glories for which the lake region is most-\\nly famed depend not alone on mountain heights, or\\nvalley floor, neither on water expanse nor island cameos;\\nnot on one nor two nor all of these combined, pleasing\\nthough the combination be; these are but the canvas\\non which Nature paints with a richness beyond the\\ncolors of purely earthly origin. Tis when the sun-", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "30 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nbeams fall aslant in the freshening dawn, or when the\\norb of day is sinking in the west, that the landscape and\\nthe water blaze forth with tints and shades which the\\nartist strives in vain to catch and imitate.\\nA description of such a scene is a fit theme for the\\npoet; the picture ought to be attempted by the master-\\nhand alone. But the poet frail as the rest of us\\nmay substitute his witchery of rhythm and rhyme for\\nthe actual harmonies of the desert scene; and the\\npainter may intrude his ideal into the picture. The\\ntruth here declared in Nature s language and colors\\ncalls for no embellishments. I trust rather the scien-\\ntific observer, whose love for the beautiful,while no whit\\nless than that professed and held by his brothers, poet\\nand painter, is kept within the bounds of truthful\\ndecorum.\\nLet us call to our service the words of Prof. Eussell,\\nwhose geological researches in these and contiguous\\nparts have afforded him abundant opportunity for ob-\\nservation.*\\nThe scenery about this great lake of the Mormon\\nland and in the encircling mountains is unusually fine,in\\nspite of the aridity and the generally scant vegetation\\nof the region. The sensation of great breadth that the\\nlake inspires, together with the picturesque islands\\ndiversifying its surface, and the utter desolation of its\\nLakes of North America by Israel C. Russell, Professor of Geol-\\nogy, University of Michigan; Boston, Ginn Co., 1895. pp. 78-79.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "SCENIC BEAUTIES. 31\\nshores, give it a hold on the fancy and waken one s\\nsense of the artistically beautiful in a way that is un-\\nrivaled by any other lake of the arid region. The un-\\nusually clear air of Utah, especially after the winter\\nrains, renders distant mountains remarkably sharp and\\ndistinct, particularly when the sun is low in the sky and\\nar strong side-light brings the sharp serrate crests into\\nbold relief and reveals a richness of sculpturing that\\nwas before unseen. At such times the colors on the\\nbroad deserts and amid the purple hills and mountains\\nare more wonderful than artists have ever painted, and\\nexceed anything of the kind witnessed by the dweller\\nof regions where the atmosphere is moist and the native\\ntints of the rock concealed by vegetation. The hills\\nof New England when arrayed in all the gorgeous pano-\\nply of autumnal foliage are not more striking than the\\ndesert ranges of Utah when ablaze with the reflected\\nglories of the sunset sky. The rich native colors of the\\nnaked rocks are then kindled into glowing fires, and\\neach canyon and rocky gorge is filled with liquid pur-\\nple, beside which even the imperial dyes would be dull\\nand lusterlese.\\nAt such times the glories of the hills are mirrored\\nin the dense waters of the lake, their duplicate forms\\nappearing in sharp relief on the paler tints of the\\nreflected sky. As the sun sinks behind the far-\\noff mountains, range after range fades through innumer-\\nable shades of purple and \\\\dolet until only their highest", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "32 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nbattlements catch the fading glory. The lingering\\ntwilight brings softer and more mysterious beauties.\\nRanges and peaks that were concealed by the glare of\\nthe noon-day sun start into life. Forms that were be-\\nfore unnoticed people the distant plain like a shadowy\\nencampment. At last each remote mountain crest ap-\\npears as a delicate silhouette, in which all details are\\nlost, drawn in the softest of violet tints on the fading\\nyellow of the sky.\\nTo one who only beholds the desert land bordering\\nGreat Salt Lake in the full glare of the unclouded sum-\\nmer sun, when the peculiar desert haze shrouds the land-\\nscape and the strange mirage distorts the outline of the\\nhills, the scenery will no doubt be uninteresting and per-\\nhaps even repellent. But let him wait until the cool\\nbreath from the mountains steals out on the plain and\\nthe light becomes less intense, and a transformation will\\nbe witnessed that will fill his heart with wonder.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "III.\\nTHE LAKE AS A PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORT.\\nThe peculiar advantages and attractions of the Great\\nSalt Lake for bathing purposes were known to the earli-\\nest white explorers; and even prior to their visits, the\\nIndians, who are not famous for their love of ablutions,\\nhad discovered the difference between a dip in fresh\\nvrater and a bath in this natural brine. The abori^nes\\nwho dwelt near the shores of Utah lake forty miles to the\\nsouth, specifically known as the Timipanogotzis,informed\\nPadre Escalante of the strange properties of the water.\\nThe Padre writes, The other lake with which this one\\ncommunicates is, as they informed us, many leagues\\nin extent; and its waters are noxious and extremely salt,\\nso that the Timpanogotzis asserted to us that when any\\none rubbed a part of his body with it he would feel\\nan itching sensation in the moistened part.\\nThe peculiarity of the lake water as a medium for\\nthe bath lies in its rich content of dissolved mineral\\nmatter,and in the consequent high degree of density. Dr.\\nL. D, Gale reported a specific gravity of 1.17 on a sam-\\nple collected in 1850; with the rise of the lake and the\\ncorresponding dilution of the brine, the specific gravity\\nTranslation from the original manuscript- journal of Padre Esca-\\nlante, describing his journey ings from Santa Fe to Utah Lake, etc., in\\n1776; by Philip Harry; published in Capt. Simpson s Report, 1876; p. 494.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "34 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nfell to 1.111 in 1869 (Prof. 0. D. Allen), and to 1.102 in\\n1873 (Bassett); then the density increased as the lake\\nAvaters became more concentrated, reaching 1.1225 in\\n1885, 1.261 in 1888, and 1.679 in 1892. In December\\n1894, the density was J.1538, and in May 1895, 1.1583;\\nin June 1900, it was 1.1576. These data will be pre-\\nsented in greater detail on a subsequent page.\\nIt is seen that the Salt Lake brine is among the most\\nconcentrated and therefore the densest of natural\\nwaters; indeed it is surpassed in point of density by but\\none large water body the Dead Sea.\\nAs would be surmised of a liquid possessing so high\\na specific gravity, the Salt Lake water is extremely buoy-\\nant, and this fact the bather soon demonstrates to his\\nfullest satisfaction. It is a physical impossibility for the\\nhuman body to remain submerged, and the skilful swim-\\nmer may float without effort, rather upon than in the\\nbrine. One of the earliest accounts of bathing in the\\nlake is that given by Captain Howard Stansbury in his\\nofficial report; an abstract therefrom is presented here-\\nwith, with the simple comment that the multiplied ex-\\nperiences of many confirm his statements as to general\\nproperties and effects of the water, and show the cir-\\ncumstances of the individual experience described to be\\nconsistent and probable:\\nWe frequently enjoyed the luxury of bathing in the", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "LAKE BATHING. 35\\nwater of the lake. No one without witnessing it can form\\nany idea of the buoyant properties of this singular\\nwater. A man may float, stretched at full length, upon\\nhis back, having his head and neck, both his legs to the\\nknee, and both arms to the elbow, entirely out of the\\nwater. If a sitting position be assumed, with the arms\\nextended to preserve the equilibrium, the shoulders will\\nremain above the surface. The water is nevertheless ex-\\ntremely difficult to swim in, on account of the constant\\ntendency of the lower extremities to rise above it. The\\nbrine, too, is so strong, that the least particle of it get-\\nting into the eyes produces the most acute pain; and if\\nacidentally swallowed, strangulation must ensue. I\\ndoubt whether the most expert swimmer could long pre-\\nserve himself from drowning if exposed to a rough sea.\\nUpon one occasion a man of our party fell over-\\nboard, and although a good swimmer, the sudden im-\\nmersion caused him to take in some mouthfuls of water\\nbefore rising to the surface. The effect was a most\\nviolent paroxysm of strangling and vomiting, and the\\nman was unfit for duty for a day or two afterward. He\\nwould inevitably have been drowned had he not received\\nimmediate assistance. After bathing it is necessary to\\nwash the skin with fresh water, to prevent the deposit of\\nsalt arising from evaporation of the brine. Yet a bath\\nin this water is delightfully refreshing and invigor-\\nating.^^*\\nExploration and Survey of the VaUey of the Great Salt Lake of\\nUtah, by Howard Stansbury, 1852, p. 212.", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "36 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nThe force of waves on the lake is astounding to one\\nwho has had experience in troubled waters of ordinary\\ndensity alone. Even a moderate disturbance gives to\\nthe shore breakers prodigious power, and affords the\\nbather the exciting experience of heavy surf-fighting.\\nStorms on the open lake are serious happenings to the\\nsmall boats that navigate its surface, even though the at-\\nmospheric disturbance may be that of but an insignifi-\\ncant squall at sea.\\nAs will be readily understood, boats for service on\\nthe lake must he of special construction, affording\\nproper displacement in the dense water. A craft that\\nwould sink to the water line in sea-water would ride so\\nhigh on the lake brine as to be top-heavy and unsafe.\\nThe natural attractions of the lake as a pleasure re-\\nsort have been recognized from the time of the first set-\\ntlement of the valley. Long prior to the erection of\\nbath houses and pavilion piers, the shores were fre-\\nquented by pleasure-seekers with whom boating and\\nbathing were favorite sports. At the present time there\\nare a number of resorts at different places along the\\nshore, but of these two only are of considerable propor-\\ntions. These in the order of their establishment are G-ar-\\nfield Beach and Saltair Beach resorts. They are both\\nsituated at the southern extremity of the lake, mthin\\neasy access by rail from Salt Lake City.", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "SALTAItl. 37\\nIn this part, the lake shore and bottom, free from\\nrocky irregularities and mud, is covered with a peculiar\\nand uniform deposit of oolitic sand, which forms an\\nideal bathing floor. Firm to a moderate degree, it is\\nyet conveniently soft and elastic, affording to the wader\\nand to all who desire to keep within the limits of shallow\\nwater the advantages of a prepared bottom.\\nSALTAIK.\\nThe Saltair Beach resort is a monumental testimoni-\\nal to the enterprising energy of Utah capitalists. The\\npavilion is situated thirteen miles due west from Salt\\nLake City, and may be reached by a twenty minute ride\\non the Salt Lake and Los Angeles railroad. The rail-\\nway here runs over a recently desiccated portion of the\\nold lake bottom, which preserves many features of actual\\ndesolation, and affords an illustration of what the entire\\nvalley was in the geological yesterday. Saline pools\\nand playas appear as the shore is approached, and vege-\\ntation dies away, save occasional patches of wild sage,\\n{Artemisia tride^itata), gresisewood {Sarcohatus verrni-\\ncularis), and rabbit brush (Lynosyris).\\nThe train runs on a pile-supported track 4,000 feet\\ninto the lake before the pavilion is reached. The build-\\nings form a symmetrical group, with a large central\\nstructure connected with a semicircular extension at\\neach end curving toward the lake. The architecture is af-", "height": "3487", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "38 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nter the Moorish style, and the general effect is as beauti-\\nful as the structure is substantial and serviceable. The\\npavilion was erected in 1893 at a cost of a quarter of a\\nmillion dollars.\\nIn length the buildings extend over 1,115 feet, with\\na maximum width of 335 feet. The top of\\nthe main tower is 130 feet above the water sur-\\nface. Part of the lower floor serves as a lunch and\\nrefreshment pavilion; the area thus utilized is 151 by\\n252 feet. The upper floor in the main building is used\\nas a ball roona; its dimensions are 140x250 feet. The\\ndancing floor is domed by a roof constructed after the\\nplan of that covering the famed Salt Lake City Taber-\\nnacle, and the proportions of the two vast assembly\\nrooms are nearly the same.\\nOn the semi-circular sweeps which flank the central\\npavilion 620 bath-rooms are provided. The bathing\\nappointments are of the best, and the many flights of\\nstairs leading to the water reach the bottom at points\\ngiving a range of depth from fifteen inches to four feet.\\nDeeper water may be reached at some distance outward.\\nDuring the bathing season the observed temperature\\nof the water ranges from 50 degrees to 86 degrees F.\\nAt night the pavilion is brilliantly illuminated by\\nmeans of electric lamps. There are 1,250 incandescent\\nlights and 40 ordinary arc lights, with one arc light of\\n2,000 candle power surmounting the main tower.\\nAs would be naturally expected, a resort of such at-", "height": "3461", "width": "2187", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "SALTAIR. 39\\ntractiveness is secure in the matter of patronage. The\\nrecords show an annual total of over 160,000 visitors.\\nThe buildings are supported on 2,500 piles each 10\\ninches in square cross-section, and driven 14 feet into\\nthe lake bottom. Owing to the peculiar nature of -the\\nformation, the piles are of unusual stability. To a depth\\nof a few inches the bottom consists of loose or slightly\\ncompacted, oolitic sand; for two feet or more beneath\\nthis is a layer of sand cemented by calcareous matter;\\nthen with a thickness of seven or eight feet comes a\\nlayer of sodium sulphate^ ^the mirabilite of the miner-\\nalogist and the glauber salts of commerce doubtless\\nprecipitated from the lake water during an earlier stage\\nof its history.\\nIn the work of pile-driving it was found to be prac-\\ntically impossible to penetrate this layer of soda,^ even\\nwith the best steel-pointed instruments. A method at\\nonce simple and efficient was adopted. Through pipes,\\nsteam under moderate pressure was conveyed to the\\nsodium sulphate bed; the substance dissolved at once,\\nand the driving of piles became easy. Concerning the\\nstability of the piles when driven, Mr. C. W. Miller,\\nmanager for the Saltair Beach Company, writes, After\\nthe piling has been allowed to set for twenty-four hours,\\nit is impossible to drive it even a quarter of an inch,\\nthough you might hammer the piling until you^wore it\\ndown. This bed of mirabilite extends for an undeter-\\nmined though certainly a very considerable area inland,", "height": "3477", "width": "2191", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "40 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nfor wherever canals have been cut to a sufficient depth\\nin connection with the salt ponds inshore, the substance\\nhas been encountered as a continuous layer, though of\\nvarying thickness.\\nGAKFIELD.\\nThe present Garfield Beach resort may be regarded\\nas a development of years, the stages of which were\\nmarked by the successful operation of many minor es-\\ntablishments. As early as 1876 a small pavilion and\\nabout a hundred bath-rooms were erected at Lake\\nPoint a little less than two miles beyond the site of the\\nexisting pavilion, on the line of the Utah and I^evada\\nrailway. This enterprise was carried on under railway\\nauspices, at the instance of Hon. W. W. Eiter. In\\n1885 Captain Thomas Douris built a pier, and provided\\nbathing and boating facilities near the present location\\nof Garfield pavilion. A year or so later the railway\\ncompany constructed bath-rooms at Black Rock. But\\nall of these temporary acommodations were superceded,\\nin 1887 by the construction of the commodious pavilion\\nnow in service. This comprises two hundred bath-\\nrooms, and ample provisions for promenades and halls.\\nIts original cost was over $70,000, to which may be add-\\ned nearly half as much more for subsequent improve-\\nments. The attendance of pleasure-seekers at the\\nBeach has reached a total of 84,000 in a single year. The\\nresort is on the line of the Utah and Nevada road,", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "GARFIELD. 41\\nwliich now is operated as a branch of the Oregon Short\\nLine railway.\\nIn driving the piles for Garfield pavilion a layer of\\nsodium sulphate, locally known as soda, was struck,\\nas already described in connection with the work at Salt-\\nair. As the simple method of using steam in penetra-\\nting the soda layer was not suggested, steel-shod piles\\nhad to be used; and even with such the work was not ac-\\ncomplished without difficulty and high cost.\\nAttempts have been made to procure a supply of\\nartesian water at Garfield and at Saltair. Pipes have\\nbeen driven on shore, and into the lake bottom. Good\\nflows are generally struck at a depth of from 100 to 150\\nfeet, but the water is always salty or brackish. All\\nthe potable water used at the resorts named is con-\\nveyed from a distance.\\nBeside boating and bathing, the lake offers attrac-\\ntions to the lover of the gun. Wild duck and other water\\nfowl congregate in the brackish water near the mouths\\nof inflowing streams, and on many of the lake islands.\\nThe lake is steadily growing in popularity and favor\\nas a pleasure and health resort. Situated in close prox-\\nimity to the high roads of trans-continental travel, it is\\nvisited every year by multitudes. From the east it is\\nreached by the Union Paciflc and the Rio Grande West-", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "42 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nern railways^ and from the west by the Southern Pacific\\nline.\\nThe general purity of the atmosphere, the exhilar-\\nating effect of the lake-breezes, the benefits of altitude,\\nand the pleasing climate unite in making the lake region\\na natural sanitarium. Lovers of pleasure and health-\\nseekers flock to this mountain-girt lake in rapidly in-\\ncreasing numbers every year.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "IV.\\nSTATISTICAL AND GENERAL.\\nIt is well known that an enclosed water body, such\\nas a lake devoid of an outlet, is particularly sensitive\\nto climatic changes. Such a lake rises and falls as\\nevaporation increases or diminishes in relation to sup-\\nply by precipitation. The variations in volume as\\nshown by the shore-records of the Great Salt Lake are\\nunusually large.\\nThe fluctuations in surface area are even greater\\nthan would be expected from a study of the variable re-\\nlations between supply and loss; and this fact is ex-\\nplained by the very gradual inclination of the shores.\\nThe entire valley is remarkable for its flatness, as any\\nobserver may see for himself if he will climb one of the\\nhills in the vicinity of Salt Lake City; but even more\\nstriking is the small increase of water depth as one\\npasses from the lake-shore outward.\\nA slight rise in the lake level results therefore in a\\ngreat increase of water surface. As was pointed out by\\nStansbury, a rise of but a few feet would enable the lake\\nto reclaim a large part of its former domain over what\\nis now the Great Salt Lake Desert.\\nThe writer has conversed with residents of towns\\nnear the shore who remember when the water s edge was\\nin places two miles beyond its present line; and the", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "44 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nsame people are able to point out the ruins of farm\\nfences a mile inland from the present margin, marking\\nthe location of fields which were destroyed by the rising\\nwaters, and which are now left dry and barren.\\nWe have of ready access two reliable maps of the\\nlake, by comparison of which recent variations in the\\nwater area may be demonstrated. The earlier of these\\nis Stansbury s map, based on work done in 1849 and\\n1850, at which time the lake stood at the lowest level\\nobserved by man and the later map is that prepared\\nunder the direction of Clarence King in connection with\\nthe field work of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, dated\\n1869, when the water was approaching the highest\\nstage of recent times. According to the first of these\\nthe lake covered 1,750 square miles; the second survey\\nshowed an area of 2,170 square miles.\\nAs would be inferred from the foregoing facts, the\\naverage depth of the lake is subject to small and slow\\nvariations only. On the whole the lake is extremely\\nshallow. In 1850 the greatest depth found was but\\n36 feet, and the average but 13 feet. Later, the lake\\nrose 10 feet, with a consequent increase of water area\\nthrough the submergence of the flat shore-borders, but\\nwith an increase of average depth not exceeding 5 feet.\\nThe maximum depth observed at the highest stage was\\n49 feet. The average depth of Salt Lake today is prob-\\nably not more than 15 feet.\\nThe fact that the lake is a closed water body with no", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "FLUCTUATIONS IN VOLUME. 45\\nout-flowing stream, woiilrl indicate the certainty of\\nvariations in its volume, unless indeed the improbal)le\\nchance of a constant balance between the supply fur-\\nnished by precipitation, and the loss through evapora-\\ntion were realized. A body of water provided with a\\nchannel of ready discharge may maintain a tolerably\\nconstant level, the outlet acting as a regulator and per-\\nmitting the escape of the surplus water; but the level of\\na lake entirely enclosed will depend, as stated, upon the\\nrelation between the supply and the loss through evapor-\\nation.\\nFor an undetermined period prior to 1850 or there-\\nabouts, the Salt Lake had been steadily diminishing in\\nvolume. For ten or fifteen years after the time named\\nthe water oscillated with a tendency to rise; then it rose\\nrapidly and reached its maximum height in the course\\nof this increase of volume about 1872 or 1874. Al-\\nthough it is now sinking year by year, it has not yet\\nreached its low level of 1850.\\nAntelope Island, one of the land bodies of the lake,\\nis connected by a bar with the delta of the Jordan River;\\nthis bar is now under water at a depth of 3 to 8 feet.\\nFremont records that on August 13, 1845, he rode\\nacross the bar to Antelope Island, the water being in\\nno part more than 3 feet in depth.*\\nThere is a well-defined and regularly recurring an-\\nnual oscillation of the lake, marked by a higher water\\nFremont s Memoirs I, p. 431.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "46 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nlevel in May and June, and a low stage in the late sum-\\nmer months; but beside this, oscillations of wider dur-\\nation are known to occur. A combination of evidence\\nfrom many sources points to the following facts; they\\nare presented in Gilbert s words:\\nTrom 1847 to 1850 the bar was very dry during\\nthe low stage of each winter, and in summer covered\\nby not more than 20 inches of water. Then began a\\nrise which continued until 1855 or 1856. At that time\\na horseman could with difficulty ford in winter, but all\\ncommunication was by boat in summer. Then the\\nwater fell for a series of years, until in 1860 and 1861 the\\nbar was again dry in winter. The spring of 1862 was\\nmarked by an unusual fall of rain and snow, whereby\\nthe streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface\\nwas raised several feet. In subsequent years the rise\\ncontinued, until in 1865 the ford became impassable.\\nAccording to Mr. Miller, the rise was somewhat rapid\\nuntil 1868, from which date until the establishment of\\nthe guages, there occurred only minor fluctuations.\\nA bar connecting Stansbury Island with the main-\\nland was dry in 1850. Since the rise of the lake in or\\nabout 1865, the bar has never been entirely above water,\\nthough at present it is fordable during the entire year.\\nThe islands have been used as herd grounds by the in-\\nhabitants of Salt Lake Valley, the cattle being trans-\\n-Lake Bonneville, p. 240; Lands of the Arid Regions, ch. iv.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "ARIDITY OF THE REGION. 47\\nferred from the shore or back during the low water\\nperiods. The Stansbury bar is 7 feet higher than the\\nbar running to Antelope Island.\\nThese fluctuations, while surprisingly great when\\nplaced in comparison with ordinary lake oscillations, are\\ntrifling as compared with the great variations in volume\\nwhich marked the stages of Bonneville history. We\\nobserve current changes actually in progress, while the\\nvariations of, earlier times we can but picture in imagi-\\nnation.\\nThe aridity of the Great Basin is due to the very\\nsmall precipitation of moisture and to the great evap-\\noration resulting from the high temperature. Humid\\nair ciirrents traveling eastward from the Pacific suffer a\\ncondensation of their vapor before reaching the Basin;\\nwhen they arrive their condition is changed to that of\\ndrying winds.\\nAn estimate of the energy of the evaporation process\\nmay be made as follows: The preparation of salt from\\nthe lake water constitutes at present an important in-\\ndustry. In the process of manufacture, the lake brine\\nis pumped into elevated conduits through which it is\\nconveyed to large ponds; in the ponds it evaporates\\nwithout artifical heat. The pond area, the pump dis-\\ncharge per hour, and the length of time during which\\nthe pumps have to be operated in order to keep the", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "48 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nwater at the same level in the ponds, may all be deter-\\nmined. From the official reports of one of the salt\\ncompanies, it is learned that their ponds cover 971 acres;\\nthat the pumps discharge 14,000 gallons of water per\\nminute, and that when the ponds have been filled, it is\\nnecessaiy to operate the pumps to their full capacity\\nfrom ten to twelve hours daily during the summer\\nmonths in order to maintain the level. Making allow-\\nance at the start, as a guard against over-estimate, let\\nus assume that the evaporating surface of the ponds is\\n1,000 acres in area. At the rate of 14,000 gallons per\\nminute, 8,400,000 gallons would be delivered in ten\\nhours. This represents the loss by evaporation per day\\nof 24 hours. Considering the lake surface to be 2,125\\nsquare miles the usually accepted area the rate of\\nevaporation shown above would indicate a daily removal\\nfrom the lake of 11,424,000,000 gallons of water, or\\n342,720,000,000 gallons per month of 30 days. The\\nweight of the water so lifted is 95,447,916 tons per day\\nor 2,863, 437,500 tons per month. The same high\\nrate of evaporation continues through at least three\\nmonths of the year. The estimate here indulged in is\\nfounded on the unproved supposition that the rate of\\nloss is the same over the deep parts of the lake body as\\nfrom the shallow pond waters; it is evident indeed that\\nsuch cannot be the case; but even if the numbers would\\nmore nearly represent the truth when halved, quartered,\\nor divided by ten, the result is sufficiently astounding.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "INCREASE OF WATER-SUPPLY 49\\nAs is now generally known, there has heen a notable\\nincrease in the water supply of the Salt Lake valley,\\nand indeed of the entire Basin Eegion, within the period\\nof human occupancy. The supply keeps ahead of the\\ndemands of the growing population. By way of ex-\\nample, I cite the following items of traditional history,\\nfor which information I am indebted to the Historian s\\nOffice, Salt Lake City: Between 1850 and 1860 the site\\nof the present town of Kaysville was first occupied for\\nhabitation. For years after the time of first settle-\\nment, a dozen families composed the entire population,\\nand the settlers were loath to welcome additions to their\\nnumbers, owing to scarcity of water. The tiny creek\\non the banks of which the diminutive and scattered vil-\\nlage had been established, scarcely furnished water\\nenough for the irrigation of the few small farms owned\\nby the settlers. Kaysville now is a thriving little town\\nwith a population of over 1,800. Similar conditions\\nhave prevailed in the history of other towns on the lake\\nmargin. Forty-five years ago ten families composed the\\npopulation of Farmington and fourteen that of Bounti-\\nful. These places are at present prosperous towns, the\\nfirst with over a thousand inhabitants, the second sup-\\nporting over 2,500 souls. The prevailing pursuit of the\\npeople is agriculture, and water is needed for every\\nfarm. Yet there is enough and to spare, and additions\\nto the farming population are regarded as desirable\\nTo account for this remarkable increase in the waicr", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "50 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nsupply, numerous theories have been proposed, most\\nof them meeting with temporary favor, soon to be lost.\\nOf such theories three are generally current; these are\\ncalled respectively, the volcanic theory, the climatic\\ntheory, and the theory of human agencies.*\\nThe volcanic theory supposes the increase to be\\nmerely an apparent rise in the lake volume, and this is\\nascribed to orogenic disturbances whereby the lake bot-\\ntom has been deformed, and the water caused to recede\\nfrom some parts and to overflow others. The hypothesis\\nis untenable in the light of the fact that the elevation of\\nlake level is real, indicating an actual increase in the\\nwater volume. The water has risen along the entire\\nshore line. On the islands and along the mainland\\nmargin old storm lines are now submerged, and every-\\nwhere the shore has been transferred inland. Independ-\\nent observation confirms the belief that the rising of the\\nlake is due to an increase in the water supply of the\\nentire hydrographic basin, for the streams have all\\ngrown in volume to a degi^ee commensurate with the\\nlake growth. The water body not only rose with com-\\nparative rapidity above a height which for an indefinite\\nperiod had marked its maximum limit, but it main-\\ntained its higher level for more than a decade; and such\\na condition is not explicable on the supposition of a\\nsimple deformation of the bed. With reference to the\\ngeneral and actual rising of the water in opposition to\\nLands of the Arid Regions, p. 67.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "INCREASE OF WATER-SUPPLY. 51\\nany supposed increase which is apparent only, I quote\\nfrom the Lands of the Arid Regions, page 67:\\nThe farmers of the eastern and southern margins\\nhave lost pastures and meadows by submergence. At\\nthe north. Bear Eiver Bay has advanced several miles\\nupon the land. At the v/est, a boat has recently sailed\\ni\\\\ number of miles across tracts that were traversed by\\nCaptain Stansbury s land parties. That officer has de-\\nscribed and mapped Strong-^s Knob and Stansbury Island\\nas peninsulas, but they have since become islands. An-\\ntelope Island is no longer accessible by ford, and Egg\\nIsland, the nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans,\\nhas become a reef. Springs that supplied Captain\\nStansbury with fresh water near Promontory Point are\\nnow submerged and inaccessible; and other springs\\nhave been covered on the shores of Antelope, Stansbury,\\nand Fremont Islands.\\nThe climatic theory refers the phenomenon of in-\\ncrease to a permanent change in the conditions control-\\nling precipitation and evaporation within the drainage\\nbasin. AVhile the recorded observations of rainfall are\\nfew, an actual increase in precipitation is indicated. An\\nincrease of less than ten per cent would probably ac-\\ncount for the observed phenomena, and the influence of\\nclimatic change appears to be a probable explanation, in\\npart at_ least, of the greater supply.\\nMajor Powell has advocated the claim of the theory\\nof human agency. By the cultivation of the land, and", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "52 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nthe deforesting of the hill slopes, man favors the rapid\\nremoval of the precipitated moisture through the in-\\ncrease of stream volume. Well covered soil retains\\nthe moisture whether it fall as rain or as snow, and in\\ntime returns it to the atmosphere through the medium\\nof evaporation. The more completely the precipitated\\nwater is so held, the less reaches the lake through\\nstream discharge; and conversely, as the streams are aug-\\nmented the lake rises. Considering the theory of cli-\\nmatic change and that of human agency as the two hy-\\npotheses most worthy of credence, the writer of chap-\\nter iv of Lands of the Arid Eegions, says:\\nOn the whole, it may be most wise to hold the ques-\\ntion an open one whether the water supply of the lake\\nhas been increased by a climatic change or by human\\nagency. So far as we now know, neither theory is in-\\nconsistent with the facts, and it is possible that the truth\\nincludes both. The former appeals to a cause that may\\nperhaps be adequate, but is not independently known to\\nexist. The latter appeals to causes known to exist,\\nbut quantitatively undetermined. It is gratifying to\\nturn to the economic bearings of the question, for the\\ntheories best sustained by facts are those most flattering\\nto the agricultural future of the Arid Region. If the\\nfilling of the streams and the rising of the lake were due\\nto a transient extreme of climate, that extreme would\\nbe followed by the return to a mean condition, or per-\\nhaps by an oscillation in the opposite direction, and a", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "INCREASE OF WATER-SUPPLY. 53\\nlarge share of the fields now productive would be\\nstricken by drought and returned to the desert. If the\\nincrease of water supply is due to a progressive change of\\nclimate forming part of a long cycle, it is practically per-\\nmanent, and future changes are more likely to be in\\nthe same advantageous direction than in the opposite.\\nThe lands now reclaimed are assured for years to come,\\nand there is every encouragement for the work of utiliz-\\ning the existing streams to the utmost. And finally, if\\nthe increase of w^ater supply is due to the changes\\nwrought by the industries of the w^hite man, the pros-\\npect is even better.\\nAs has been stated, the lake is now steadily decreas-\\ning in volume. This cannot be regarded as evidence\\nof a turn in the series of climatic changes toward a\\nstate of increasing aridity, nor as proof of less potent\\nhuman influences. As population grows, the area of\\nland brought under cultivation enlarges very rapidly,\\nand many of the streams, which but a few years ago made\\nimportant contributions to the lake volume, now send\\nbut an insignificant tribute; and in other instances the\\nstream channels below the uplands are entirely dry dur-\\ning the greater part of the year. There is little ground\\nfor doubt that in the near future even the flood season\\ncontributions of water will be practically cut off, for the\\nincreasing demands of the growing irrigation system", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "64 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nwill compel the construction of artificial reservoirs in\\nthe upper stream regions, and thus the water will be\\nstored for subsequent distribution upon the land.\\nThe geological evidence of a former desiccation of\\nthe lake is conclusive, and the industrial energy of man\\nis assuredly contributing in a very effective manner to the\\nprocess of present shrinkage; but that the desiccation\\nshall again reach completion in the near future is by\\nno means certain. As the lake surface diminishes, the\\narea exposed to solar evaporation is lessened, and a\\nlevel may be reached at which the loss by evaporation\\nwill be more nearly met by the stream supply.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "V.\\nTHE LAKE WATER,\\nThe variation in volume and the consequent oscilla-\\ntions in level characterizing a lake without outlet, and\\nthe particularly striking example of such at^orded by\\nthe Great Salt Lake have been already referred to. As\\nshown by geological investigation, the lake has shrunk,\\nfrom a level approximately 600 feet above the present\\nsurface to its existing volume, by desiccation alone.\\nThus through long ages the solid matter leached from\\nrock and soil and carried into the lake by streams has\\nbeen undergoing concentration, until the water has\\nreached its present condition of unusual density.\\nAnalyses of samples of lake water collected at times of\\nhigh and low level show great variations in dissolved\\nsolids, and these variations are of course approximately\\ncommensurate with the fluctuations in volume.\\nThe first recorded determination of the solids dis-\\nsolved in the lake water is that of Dr. L. D. Gale, pub-\\nlished in Stansbury^s report. Gale s results together\\nwith those of later examinations are presented here.*\\nFor compilation of analyses of Salt Lake water with a discussion\\nof the same, see Moaograph. I., U. S. Geological Survey,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Lake Bonne-\\nville, by G. K. Gilbert, pp. 25:2-254.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "56\\nTHE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nSolid contents and specific gravity of water taken\\nfrom the Oreat Salt Lake:\\nDate of\\nCollection.\\n1850\\n1869 (summer)\\nAugust, 1873\\nDecember, 1885....\\nFebruary. 1888\\nJune, 1889\\nAugust, 1889\\nAugust, 1892\\nSeptember, 1892..\\n1893\\nSpecific\\nGravity.\\n1.170\\n1.111\\n1.102\\n1.1225\\n1.1261\\n1.148\\n1.1569\\n1.156\\n1.1679\\nTotal Solids.\\nPer cent by Grams per\\nweight. litre of\\nsample.\\n22.282 260.69\\n14.9934 166.57\\n13.42 147.88\\n16.7162 187.65\\nAuthority.\\nL. D. Gale.\\nO. D. Allen.\\nH. Bassett.\\nJ. E. Talmage.\\n19.5576\\n20.51\\n21.47\\n20.05\\n21.16\\n21.39\\n20.90\\n226.263\\n238.12\\n250.75\\n244.144\\n247.760\\n241.98\\nE. Waller.\\nJ. E. Talmage.\\nJ. T. Kingsbury.\\nDecember, 1894...,\\nMay, 1895\\nJune, 1900\\n1.1538\\n1.1583\\n1.1576\\nJ. E. Talmage.\\nH. N, McCoy and*\\nThomas Hadley.\\nThe difference existing between the writers results\\nfrom the sample collected September 1892, and those\\nobtained by Waller on a sample taken during the pre-\\nceding month, is greater than would be expected from\\nthe progressive concentration during so short an inter-\\nval. It is more likely due to an actual difference between\\nthe samples, they probably having been taken from dif-\\nferent parts of the lake.\\nThe statements most commonly current regarding\\nthe solid contents of the lake water are based on the\\nearliest examination by Gale. In 1889f the present\\nwriter protested against this excessive estimate of aver-\\nage composition, as at that time the lake was and for\\nSpecific gravity determined by Dr. McCoy; total solids by Mr.\\nHadley.\\nt The Waters of the Great Salt Lake, by J. E. Talmage, Sci-\\nence (New York), December, 1889; vol xiv\u00e2\u0080\u009e pp. 444\u00e2\u0080\u0094446.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "THE LAKE WATER. 57\\nmany years preceding had been at a relatively high\\nlevel and of corresponding dilution. The opinion was\\nthen expressed that it would be more correct to quote\\nthe average contents of the Salt Lake water at six-\\nteen per cent solid matters, than at twenty-two per\\ncent as was at that time most commonly done. It\\nwas pointed out however that the lake was then under-\\ngoing a process of rapid shrinkage, and the inference\\nis plain that the proportion of tot^l solids was corres-\\npondingly increasing. At the present time (June,\\n1900) the water has not yet reached the degree of rich-\\nness chronicled by Dr. Gale. It would appear safe to\\nsay that the average of solid matter dissolved is about\\ntwenty-one per cent by weight at present.\\nInasmuch as solids dissolved in natural water are\\nfrequently expressed in terms of grains per gallon, it\\nmay be interesting to transform some of the foregoing\\nreadings into the more common expressions. Let it\\nbe remembered that 10 grains of solid matter to the\\nimperial gallon is the equivalent of .014 per cent by\\nweight. The mean of the vrriter s analyses quoted\\nabove of samples taken in December 1SS5, (16.71G2 per\\ncent solids) and in August 1881), (19.5576 per cent)\\nis 18.1369 per cent; this corresponds to 11,777.64 grains\\nper gallon. For convenience of comparison these re-\\nsults are given below in connection with the re-", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "58\\nTHE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nsuits of anal3 ses of other waters, potable and mineral,\\nfrom ITtah and other places. The gallon here referred\\nto is the imperial gallon, containing 277,27 cubic inches;\\nsuch a measure of pure water at the temperature of\\n62 degrees F. weighs 10 pounds avoirdupois, or 70,000\\ngrains.*\\nTotal Solids\\nSource. eocjyressed in Authority,\\ngrains per gallon.\\nRiver Loka, Sweden 0.05 WeUs.\\nBoston, U. S., Waterworks L22 .Johnston.\\nLocli Katrine, Scotland 2.3 Vv^anklyn.\\nSchuylkiU River at Philadelphia 4.26 Johnston.\\nDetroit River, Michigan 5.72\\nOhio River at Cincinnati 6.74\\nLoire at Orleans 9.38\\nDanube, near Vienna 9.87\\nLake Geneva 10.64\\nRiver Rhine at Basel 11.8 Wanklyn.\\nThames at London 18.5\\nAverage of 12 artesian wells, Provo,\\nUtah 18.6 J. E. Talmage.\\nSalt Lake City supply 16.92\\nSpring water, Provo, Utah 23.3\\nFormation Springs, Idaho 27.8\\nOctagon Spring, at Soda Springs,\\nIdaho 126.66\\nWell water, Gunnison, Utah 148.01\\nNinety per cent Spring, at Soda\\nSprings. Idaho 198.41\\nWarm Springs, Spanish Fork Canyon,\\nUtah 413.72\\nAtlantic Ocean 2,688,00 Wanklyn.\\nSalt Lake 11,777.64 J. E. Talmage.\\nDead Sea 17,064.42\\nAs comparisons between the Great Salt Lake and\\nthe Dead Sea are common, the two lakes representing\\nthe highest known condition of natural concentration\\nin large water bodies, the content of solid matter in the\\nSee Domestic Science, by J. E. Talmage, second edition, p. 200\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094201; George Q. Cannon Sons Co., Salt Lake City, 1892.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "THE LAKE WATER. 59\\nDead Sea water is of interest in the present connection.\\nIt mupt be remembered, however, that great discrep-\\nancy exists among published accounts of the compo-\\nsition of this water. Bernan gives 14,025.48 grains per\\ngallon; Captain Lynch collected a sample at a depth\\nof 1,110 feet, and found it to contain 18,902 grains per\\ngallon. The amount given in the foregoing statement,\\n(1T,0G4.42 grains per gallon) was determined by the\\nauthor in a sample taken from the Dead Sea in April\\n1886, by Dr. J. M. Tanner.\\nThe composition of the solid matter existing in the\\nlake water is a subject of importance. Some results\\nof analyses are here given:\\nAnalyses of Salt Lake ioatei\\\\ acids and bases theoretically\\ncombined; expressed in percentage of iveight of\\nsamples:\\nSodium chloride 20.20\\nSodium sulphate\\nMagnesium chloi-ide\\nCalcium sulphate\\nPotassium sulphate\\nPotassium chloride\\nExcess of chlorine\\nTotal 22.28 14.99 13.42 16.716 19.557\\nAllen reports traces of boric and phosphoric acids.\\nLithiai r1=:o present in quantities sufficient to give the\\nspectroscopic effect with little difficulty.\\nGale.\\nAllen.\\nBassett.\\nTalmage.\\n1850.\\n1869.\\n1873.\\n1885.\\n1889.\\n20.20\\n11.86\\n8.85\\n13.586\\n15.743\\n1.83\\n0.93\\n1.09\\n1.421\\n1.050\\n0.25\\n1.49\\n1.19\\n1.129\\n2.011\\n0.09\\n0.20\\n0.148\\n0.279\\n0.53\\nl .89\\n0.20\\n0.432\\n0.474", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "60\\nTHE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nIn the analyses given on the authority of the writer,\\nthe data represent in most instances averages of several\\ndeterminations.\\nOne of the most comprehensive of the anal3rses pub-\\nlished is that by E. Waller, giving the results of ex-\\namination on a sample collected August 9, 1892.* The\\nreport is as follows:\\nAnalysis of a sample of the water of Great Salt\\nLake collected August 9, 1892.\\n[Expressed in grams per litre Specific Gravity, 1.156]\\nElements and Radicals.\\nSodium\\n75.825\\nPotassium\\nLithium\\n3.925\\n0.021\\nMagnesium\\nCalcium\\n4.844\\n2.424\\n128.278\\nSulphur trioxide\\nOxygen in sulphates.\\nFerric oxide and\\n12.522\\n2.494\\n004\\nSilica\\n018\\nBoron oxide\\nBromine\\nTrace\\n..Faint trace\\nProbable Combination.\\nSodium chloride NaCl 192.860\\nPotassium sulphate Kg SO4.... 8.756\\nLithium sulphate, Lij SO4 0.166\\nMagnesium chloride, Mg Clg. 15.044\\nMagnesium sulphate, Mg SO4 5.216\\nCalcium sulphate, Ca SO4 8.240\\nFerric and aluminium oxides ^n^\\nFe^Gs AlaOa J 0.004\\nSilica, Si Go 0,018\\nSurplus sulphur trioxide, SG3 0.051\\nTotal 230.355\\nTotal solids by evaporation. ..238.12\\nTotal solids [duplicate] 237.925\\nThe most striking discrepancy between the results\\nof Waller s analysis and those recorded in the table on\\npage 59, is the absence of sodium sulphate in the list of\\nprobable combinations presented by Waller, and the\\npresence of this substance in every other analysis herein\\nrecorded. As is generally understood, an ultimate\\nSee School of Mines Quarterly (Columbia College, New York,)\\nvol. 14, 1892. p. 58. Quoted with approving comment by I. C. Russell in\\nLakes of North America, Boston, 1895, p. 81.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "THE LAKE WATER. 61\\nchemical analysis gives the proportions of elements and\\nradicals present; the combinations of these into definite\\nsalts, etc., is attended with some uncertainty as to ac-\\ncuracy. Waller has evidently combined all the sodium\\nwith chlorine, as sodium chloride or common salt,\\nwhich certainly is the most abundant substance in the\\nsolid residue yielded by the lake water. Nevertheless\\nsodium sulphate is known to exist in the lake brine,\\nfor, as shall be hereafter shown, a copious precipitation\\nof the sulphate occurs whenever the water falls to a\\ncertain critical degree of low temperature. It is safe\\nto say that many thousands of tons of the substance\\nare deposited, some of it thrown by wave action upon\\nthe shores, in the course of every cold winter. And that\\nan abundant deposition of sodium sulphate has taken\\nplace during a prior period of lake history has been\\nalready aflfirmed on the conclusive evidence afforded by\\nthe thick bed of the substance encountered in the driv-\\ning of piles at Saltair and Gai-field and in the cutting of\\ncanals on the neighboring shore lands. (See pp. 39,41)\\nGilbert estimates the quantity of sodium sulphate con-\\ntained in the lake water at thirty millions of tons.*\\nThe source of the solid matter contained in natural\\nwaters is found to be the rock and soil through which the\\nwater passes, either by downward percolation and flow,\\nor by upward passage under pressure. If such rocks\\nLake BonneviUe, Monograph I, U. S. G. S., 1890: p. 253.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "C2 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nsupply alkaline chlorides in excess, the evaporation of\\nthe water so charged will 3deld salt; if alkaline carbon-\\nates be the principal substances dissolved out from the\\nrocks, alkaline residues will result from evaporation.\\nIt is evident that the streams supplying Great Salt Lake\\nhave traversed salt-bearin formations.\\nThe composition of the waters flowing into the lake\\npresents itself as a subject of interest in this connection.\\nThe streams from the Wasatch and Uintah mountains,\\nwhich constitute the greater part of the lake suppty,\\nwhile carrying in solution nearly double the quantity\\nof dissolved solids usually present in river water, (due\\nrather to the unusual evaporation from their surface\\nincident to the arid conditions than to more active\\nsolution from the rocks) give nevertheless no indication\\nof mineral contents to the taste or other senses. An-\\nalyses of the principal waters supphdng the lake give\\nan average of about 0.2446 part of dissolved mineral\\nsolids per thousand.\\nBeside the rivers and creeks from the adjacent\\nmountains, the lake has other sources of supply from\\nfissure springs, which open at points on the shore or on\\nthe bottom. Few of these springs are markedly saline,\\nand but one is known to be excessively so. Their con-\\ntent of salt is probably derived from the former sedi-\\nments of the region.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "THE LAKE WATER. 03\\nIt is estimated that the combined waters from sur-\\nface streams and springs would probably contain less\\nthan double the percentage of solids held by the surface\\nstreams alone. Prof. Russell s assumption* is, that on\\nthe evidence now within reach, the combined spring\\nand stream waters supplying the lake contain about\\n0.3 part solid matter in a thousand, or three one-\\nhundredths of one per cent. Such a proportion of\\nmineral matter, even if wholly common salt, would not\\nreveal itself to the taste; and it is safe therefore to con-\\nclude that but for the concentrating effect of evapor-\\nation the lake would l)elong to the category of fresh-\\nwater bodies.\\nThe enormous quantity of saline matter held in this\\nlake of brine affords a striking example of the effect of\\nconcentration long continued. As stated, few of the\\ninflowing streams are rich in salt. The Malad river is\\nan exception; in its lower part this stream becomes\\nbrackish from the contributions of saline springs.\\nThe evaporation, which has been in uninterrupted\\nprogress for ages past, has produced a nearly saturated\\nbrine. Along the lake margins, in partly-isolated areas,\\nthe shallow water has already begun to deposit salt; but\\nin the open lake the water yet holds its salt in perma-\\nnent solution. Russell records that in 1880 the water\\nLakes of NTorth America, p. 82.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "64 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nbetween Stansbury Island and the mainland was floored\\nby a glistening pavement of salt, strong enough to sup-\\nport a horse and rider over the greater part of the area.\\nIt is evident that the Salt Lake, while approaching a\\ndegree of concentration equal to that of 1850, has not\\nyet become a thoroughly saturated brine. Neverthe-\\nless, at low temperatures an abundant precipitation of\\nsodium sulphate occurs, as already stated. During the\\nwinter season, as the temperature sinks below a critical\\npoint, somewhere near the freezing point of fresh\\nwater, the sulphate separates from the water in the\\ncrystallized form as Mirabilite. As the separation\\ntakes place, the lake water becomes opalescent. Much\\nof the precipitate is heaped upon the shore by wave\\naction; and under- particularly favorable conditions the\\nshore deposit is over a foot in depth. When the water\\nis warmed to the critical point of temperature, the crys-\\ntalline substance is rapidly re-dissolved. Clusters of\\nlarge and perfectly formed crystals may be found during\\ncold w^eather on the posts supporting the bath houses,\\nand on other stationary solid objects submerged in the\\nlake.\\nThe analytical data given show that the lake\\nwater is a concentrated brine, with sodium chloride\\ngreatly predominating, and with magnesium chloride\\nand sodium sulphate existing also in large proportions.\\nMost of the saline lakes of the Great Basin hold alka-\\nline and earthy carbonates in solution, and the absence", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "THE LAKE WATER. 65\\nof such from the Salt Lake water has been a subject of\\nmuch comment. In this respect the Salt Lake com-\\npares closely with the Dead Sea, though widely differ-\\ning in other respects, notably in the predominance of\\nsodium over magnesium salts. The sulphates delivered\\nto the lake by the contributing streams remain in solu-\\ntion, except, as specified, at low temperatures. Calcium\\ncarbonate, however, is precipitated as soon as the stream-\\nwater which carries it reaches its briny receptacle. A\\nsimilar phenomenon is observed in the calareous sedi-\\nments at the mouths of many rivers.\\nThe calcium carbonate which analysis proves to ex-\\nist in no inconsiderable quantity in most of the inflow-\\ning streams, and which diligent search has thus far\\nfailed to reveal in the lake water, is accounted for by\\nthe accumulation of calcareous particles along portions\\nof the shore, particularly at the southern extremity.\\nThis material, commonly known as oolitic sand, is found\\nin spherules, ranging between the size of No. 10 and\\nNo. 8 shot. By wave action it is drifted upon the\\nshore and in some places it constitutes dunes several\\nyards in depth. The fact that it is confined to the\\nshore suggests the possibility of the rounded form being\\nthe result of rolling. The globular bodies possess a\\nconcentric structure, and in many cases a nucleus of\\nsilica is detectable. Dr. A. Rothpletz has advanced the\\ntheory that the eoliths of the Salt Lake are a product\\nof the algae which exist along the shores. He claims", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "66 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nthat the stones are generally covered with colonies of\\nGrlaeocapsa and Gloeothecae, which organisms are\\nknown to excrete calcium carbonate; and he holds that\\nmost of the marine eoliths, at least those characterized\\nby concentric and radial structure, are the produ.cts of\\nlime-excreting schizophytes.* Eothpletz s views have\\nnot been generally approved. While the oolitic sand is\\nthe only abundant shore accumulation of calcium\\ncarbonate, it is probable that a marly deposit is form-\\ning with other lake sediments in the deeper parts.\\nBotanisches Ceutralblatt, 1892, p. 35.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "VI.\\nLIFE IN THE LAKE.*\\nThe popular literatui-e of the day persists in assert-\\ning that no living thing exists or can exist in the dense\\nbrine of the Great Salt Lake. There is little excuse\\nfor the perpetuation of such an error; yet cyclopedias\\nand school geographies and magazines continue to re-\\niterate the false statements. It is readily seen that the\\nconditions prevailing in the lake are not favorable to\\nthe existence of the ordinary aquatic forms of life; and\\nthat cases of adaptation to life in the brine would natur-\\nally be rare.\\nOf animals but few species have been found in the\\nlake, but of these few two are represented by swarming\\nnumbers. Among the animal forms already reported\\nas common to the lake, the writer has confirmed the\\npresence of four: (1) Artemia fertilis^ Verril; (2) the\\nlarvae of one of the Tipulidae, probably Chironomus\\noceanicus, Packard; (3) a species of Corixa, probably\\nCorixa decolor, Uhler; (4) larvae and pupae of a fly,\\nEphydra gracilis, Packard.\\nThe larvae of the Ephydra are found in abundance\\namongst the algae that strew the shores or appear as\\nsurface patches in the shallow parts; while the mature\\nA portion of the matter presented under this sub-title has already\\nappeared as an article by the writer in The American Monthly Micro-\\nscopical Journal, vol. 13, pp. 284-286.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "6 8 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\ninsects, as small black flies, swarm along the shores where\\nconditions have proved favorable for their develop-\\nment. The larvae of the tipula may be taken anywhere\\nnear shore during the warm months; and the pupa cases\\nof both species are often washed ashore in great num-\\nbers, where they undergo decomposition with disagree-\\nable emanations.\\nOf the lake animals, the Artemia fe7 tilis (or Artemia\\ngracilis) commonly known as the brine shrimp, exists\\nin greatest numbers. They are tiny crustaceans, sel-\\ndom exceeding one-third inch extreme length. They\\nmay be found in the lake at all seasons, though they\\nare most numerous between May and October. I have\\ntaken them in the midst of winter, when the tempera-\\nture of the water was far below freezing point; it will be\\nremembered that the concentrated brine of the lake\\nnever freezes. The females greatly preponderate; in\\nfact, during the colder months it is almost impossible\\nto find a male. In the latter part of the summer tlie\\nfemales are laden with eggs, from four to sixteen having\\nbeen repeatedly counted in the egg pouch. The males\\nare readily recognized by the very large claspers upon\\nthe head. (See plate XII). The shrimps are found near\\nshore during calm weather, but rain or wind drives\\nthem into the lake. At times they congregate in such\\nnumbers as to tint the water over wide areas.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE BRINE SHRIMP. 69\\nThey are capable of adapting themselves to great var-\\niation in the composition of the water, as must necessar-\\nily be the case \\\\^dth any tenant of the Salt Lake. I have\\nspecimens orf the artemiae gathered from the lake in\\nSeptember 1892, and the water then taken sho^wed on an-\\nanlyses, 14,623.23 grains of dissolved solids to the im-\\nperial gallon, the greater part of this being salt. Indeed,\\nI have captured the creatures in the evaporating ponds\\nof the salt works, where the brine was near its point\\nof saturation.\\nIt is not difficult to accustom them to a diluted\\nmedium; I have kept them alive for days in lake water\\ndiluted with 25, 50, 80 and 90 per cent fresh water, and\\nfrom eight to eighteen hours in fresh water only. Of\\ncourse the changes from brine to fresh water were\\nmade gradually, though a sudden transfer from the\\nlake brine to fresh water or even to distilled water is not\\nfollowed by speedy death. On the contrary, the\\ncreatures live for hours after such sudden change, with\\nfew signs of discomfort or inconvenience except their\\ninability to rise in the water of low density.\\nThe ability of the shrimps to withstand the effects of\\nrapid dilution of the medium is surprising if we assume\\nthat their tissues are ordinarily impregnated with the\\nsalt of the lake brine. The violent osmosis between\\nthe dense fluids of the tissues and the fresh water with-\\nout would appear to insure disruption. It is possible,\\nhowever, that the tissues do not absorb the brine in", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "70 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nits entirety; indeed, if the shrimps just taken from the\\nlake be subjected to a single quick rinsing with fresh\\nwater, they are but slightly salty to the taste.\\nDuring a cruise upon the lake in September 1892,\\nour party found the crustaceans swarming in the open\\nwater. When near the middle of the lake, with a small\\ntow-net we gathered a quart of the shrimps in the course\\nof a few minutes. Thereupon we resolved upon an ex-\\nperiment the subsequent recital of which has shocked\\nthe gastronomic sensibilities of many friends. Eeason-\\ning that the bodies of the artemiae are composed largely\\nof chitin, we concluded that the question of their\\npalatability was at least worthy of investigation. By a\\nsimple rinsing with fresh water the excess of lake brine\\nwas removed, after which the shrimps were cooked with\\nno accompaniments save a little butter and a suggestion\\nof pepper. They were actually delicious. If the\\nshrimps could be caught and preserved in quantity, I\\ndoubt not they would soon be classed as an epicurean\\ndelicacy. Repeated washings for five minutes removed\\nthe brine so completely that salt had to be added to\\nmake the dish palatable.\\nAs to their food in captivity they live upon meat,\\nbread, or vegetables, in fact upon almost anything in\\nthe nature of food; and they are not slow in attacking\\nthe bodies of their own dead. In the lake they proba-\\nbly subsist upon the organic particles brought down by\\nrivers, upon the algae which flourish about the shores,", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE BRINE SHRIMP. 71\\nand upon the larvae and pupae of the insects tenanting\\nthe water.\\nThe mounting of specimens of the brine shrimp for\\npermanent microscopical use requires considerable care\\nand some modification of the ordinary procedure. Most\\nof the common mounting media cause the delicate struc-\\nture to become distorted, or produce such a degree of\\ntransparency as to render the object invisible. A\\nmethod which has given the writer good results consists\\nin mounting the specimen in a preparation of lake\\nbrine with corrosive sublimate and an alcoholic solution\\nof carbolic acid. To this fluid, placed upon the slide,\\nthe living artemia is transferred directly from the lake\\nbrine; the creature dies quickly, and in so doing spreads\\nitself most perfectly. While objects so prepared are\\nof admirable arrangement and definition as temporary\\nmounts, the structure is liable to break down after a\\nlapse of months.\\nA better permanent result may be secured as follows:\\nPlace the artemiae inPeryeni s fluid; they will be quickly\\nkilled, and will be hardened by the action of the fluid\\nin from 12 to 20 hours. They should then be trans-\\nfered to alcohol, the strength of which should be in-\\ncreased by degrees, beginning ith 40 per cent and run-\\nning to 95 per cent. The structure will take some of the\\nanaline stains quite readily; it may then be carried", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "72 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nthrough absolute alcohol with phenol, then through\\nphenol and turpentine, and be permanently mounted in\\nbalsam.\\nIn point of zoological classification it may be said\\nthat the brine shrimp is a crustacean, and is generally\\nreferred to the order PJiyllopoda one of the divisions\\nof the sub-class Entomof^traca. In all phyllopods ex-\\ncept those of the highest family of the order, a carapax\\ncovers the greater part of the body. To this highest\\nfamily the Branchipodidae the artemia belongs.\\nThe Artemia is distinguished from a nearly allied\\nform, the BrancMnecta in the following particulars:\\n^Wemt a possesses eight abdominal segments; the second\\npair of antennae or claspers, which are highly developed\\nin the male, are flat and of triangular shape in the sec-\\nond joint; the ovisac of the female is short. BrancM-\\nnecta has nine segments composing the abdomen; the\\nclaspers are simple and cylindrical; the ovisac is long\\nand slender.\\nCommenting on the structural and other relations\\nbetween these two forms,* Prof. J. S. Kingsley says:\\nUnder ordinary circumstances these [differences]\\nwould be considered as of generic value; but what shall\\nwe say when we know the results of the observations and\\nexperiments of the Eussian naturalist, Vladimir Sch-\\nRiverside Natural History, vol ii\u00e2\u0080\u009e pp. 40-41.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "THE BRINE SHRIMP. 73\\nwankewitsch Condensed from his account these were\\nas follows: In 1871 the spring flood broke down the\\nbaniers separating the two different lakes of the salt-\\nworks near Odessa, diluting the water in the lower por-\\ntion to 8 degrees Baume, and also introducing into it a\\nlarge number of the brine shrimp, Artemia salina.\\nAfter the restoration of the embankment the water rap-\\nidly increased in density, until in September 187-1:, it\\nreached 25 degrees of Beame s scale and began to de-\\nposit salt. With this increase in density a gradual\\nchange was noticed in the characters of the artemiae,\\nuntil late in the summer of 1874, forms were produced\\nwhich had all the characters of a supposed distinct\\nspecies, Arternia muehlausenii. The reverse experi-\\nment was then tried. A small quantity of the water\\nwas gradually diluted, and though conducted for only\\na fe^y weeks, a change in the direction of Artemia salina\\nwas very apparent.\\nLed by these experiments he tried still others:\\nliQkmg Artemia salina^ which lives in brine of moder-\\nate strength, he gradually diluted the water, and ob-\\ntained as a result a form which is known as Bran-\\nchinecta shaeferi^ the last segment of the abdomen\\nhaving become divided into two. Nor is this change\\nproduced by artificial means alone. The salt pools\\nnear Odessa, after a number of years of continued wash-\\ning, became converted into fresh water pools, and with\\nthe gradual change in character, Artemia salina pro-", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "74 THE GREAT SALT^IiAKE.\\nduces first a species known as Branchinecta spinosus^\\nand at a still lower density Branchinecta fer ox and an-\\nother species described as Branchinecta medius.\\nObservations on the artemiae of the Salt Lake under\\nconditions of slow increase or decrease of the brine den-\\nsity indicate the occurrence of changes in structure,\\nbut no long continued experiments of conclusive re-\\nsults have been reported.\\nThe artemia is interesting to the zoologist as furnish-\\ning an example of parthenogenesis, i, e., reproduction\\nby means of unfertilized eggs. Siebold of Munich has\\ninvestigated this subject, and he announces that with\\nthe entomostracans, Apus and Artemia^ this partheno-\\ngenic reproduction is common. He reared several\\nbroods composed entirely of females; yet from these,\\neggs were produced which hatched vigorous young.\\nPackard treats parthenogenesis as a modified process of\\nreproduction by budding.\\nThe eggs of the artemia are capable of sustaining\\nlong continued drought without losing their vitality.\\nEggs have been sent in mud from the Salt Lake to\\nMunich, Germany, where they have been successfully\\nhatched by Siebold. It would be interesting to deter-\\nmine whether the fertilized eggs and those of parthen-\\nogenetic origin are of equal vitality under unfavorable\\nconditions. In the light of known facts concerning\\nreproduction among other forms, it would be reasonable", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "THE BRINE SHRIMP. 75\\nto expect that unfertilized eggs would prove less able\\nto withstand vicissitude.\\nThe following remarks by Gilbert* regarding the\\nbrine shrimp are of interest: Packard ascribes the\\nphenomenal abundance of the Artemia to the absence\\nof enemies, for the brine sustains no carnivorous species\\nof any sort. The genus is not known to live in fresh\\nwater or water of feeble salinity, but commonly makes its\\nappearance when feebly saline waters are concentrated\\nby evaporation. It has been ascertained that a European\\nspecies takes on the characters of another genus,\\nBranchinecta when it is bred through a series of genera-\\ntions in brine gradually diluted to freshness; and con-\\nversely, that it may be derived from Branchinecta by\\ngradual increase in the salinity of the medium. It is\\nfound, moreover, that its eggs remain fertile for indefi-\\nnite periods in the dry condition, so that whatever may\\nhave been the history of the climate of the Bonneville\\nBasin, the present occurrence of the Artemia involves\\nno mystery. During the Bonneville epoch its ancestors\\nmay have lived in the fresh waters of the basin, and dur-\\ning the epoch of extreme desiccation, when the bed of\\nGreat Salt Lake assumed the playa condition, and was\\ndry a portion of the year, the persistent fertility of its\\neggs may have preserved the race. Or, if the playa\\nLake Bonneville, p. 259. See also Twelfth Annual Report U. S.\\nGeol. and Geogr. Survey of the Territories, 1883, Part 1, pp. 295-592, par-\\nticularly pp. 330-334.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "76 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\ncondition with its concomitant sedimentation was fatal\\nto the species, it may be that the alternative fresh water\\nform survived in upper lakes and streams of the basin\\nso as to re-stock the lower lake whenever it afforded\\nfavorable conditions.\\nThe lake flora has received even less attention than\\nhas been bestowed upon its limited fauna. The exist-\\nence of plant-life in the water is indicated by the abund-\\nance of animal life therein, and examination confirms\\nthe inference. The shore waters show an extensive\\nvegetable growth, principally, perhaps entirely, of algae.\\nA number of species seem to be indicated from tlie wide-\\nly varying colors of the vegetable masses, and three have\\nbeen recognized. Diatoms have been found in the\\nbrackish waters of the playa-pools ashore, and diatom-\\naceous deposits make up part of the old lake beds.\\nMuch has been said at different times as to the possi-\\nbility of adapting fish to a life in the lake. In the ab-\\nsence of experimental data it would be rash to conjec-\\nture; though it would appear unlikely that fish could\\nthrive in such a brine. Yet the fear expressed, that\\neven if fish could be accustomed to the lake water they\\nwould starve unless artificially fed, is unfounded, for the\\nwaters contain an abundant food supply crustaceans,\\ninsect larvae and pupae, and algae.\\nThe fauna and flora of the Great Salt Lake are sub-\\njects inviting thorough investigation.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "VII.\\nECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE LAKE.\\nThe composition of Salt Lake water is such as to\\nwaiTimt the assurance of the lake becoming a valuable\\nsource of useful products. Indeed these briny waters\\nhave already begun to yield of their chemic riches,\\nwhich, as guaged by the standard of human needs, are\\ninexhaustible. The most abundant solids dissolved in the\\nwater are sodium chloride (common salt,) magnesium\\nchloride, and sodium sulphate. Of these the first and the\\nlast named are easily separable.\\nThe preparation of common salt from the lake\\nwater has been carried on since the early set-\\ntlement of the region. The salt first produced acquired\\na bad reputation owing to its impurity; but this defect\\nv,as due to carelessness or ignorance in the process of\\nmanufacture. The most primitive method consisted\\nin constructing low dikes along the shore; over these\\nbarriers the waves carried large quantities of brine dur-\\ning times of storms, and the water thus imprisoned\\nwas allowed to evaporate by solar heat resulting in an\\nabundant yield of impure salt. The evaporating pools\\nwere in some instances below the lake level, and little\\nopportunity was given for the removal of the mother", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "7$ THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nliquors after the crygtallization of the salt. The brine\\nwas allowed to evaporate to dryness, or at best the salt\\ndeposit was gathered from the mother liquor with little\\nchance of purification, by draining. The crude product\\nthus obtained contained, of course, all the impurities\\nwhich ought to have been separated by the removal of\\nthe mother liquor. In consequence. Salt Lake salt was\\nin ill favor; it was pronounced unfit for dairy use be-\\ncause it refused to remain properly incorporated with\\nthe butter, some of its ingredients appearing as an\\nefflorescence on the surface.\\nPrior to very recent times, Utah presented an un-\\nenviable spectacle by importing salt into this, the richest\\nsalt region of earth. jSTow, however, the refined salt is\\nin demand as one of the best and purest products in the\\nmarket. A number of large salt-works have been estab-\\nlished on the shores of the lake, and the industiy is of\\nassured and increasing success.\\nThe most important producers of salt from the lake\\nhave been, in the order of their successful operation, the\\nJeremy Salt Co., the Inland Crystal Salt Co., and the In-\\ntermountain Salt Co. The first named has suspended,\\nand the other two are consolidated under the name, In-\\nland Crystal Salt Company. This company is now\\noperating its plant on a large scale, producing all grades\\nof salt from the coarse product used for metallurgical\\nand packing purposes, to the finest table salt. Another\\nestablishment, the Saginaw Salt Co., is in business on", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "SALT FROM THE LAKE. 79\\nthe east shore, in Davis county, but there crude coarse\\nsalt only is produced.\\nThe process of manufacture employed by the Inland\\nCrystal Salt Company is thoroughly efficacious and sat-\\nisfactory; and as it represents the highest attainment in\\nsalt manufacture from natural brine here or elsewhere,\\nand at the same time demonstrates the profits of this\\nimportant industry in this region^ it merits attention.\\nThe lake brine is lifted by means of centrifugal\\npumps to a height of fourteen feet above lake level; it is\\nthen conveyed through flumes to the settling and evap-\\norating ponds which are situated from one to two miles\\ninland. The ponds cover about fourteen hundred\\nacres of land, not all of which, however is in use every\\nseason. The pumps pour into the flumes about fourteen\\nthousand gallons of brine per minute, and are kept in\\noperation about ten hours daily during the pumping\\nseason of about 150 days beginning usually in March.\\nBy the time the ponds have been filled the evaporating\\nseason is well advanced, and about the same supply of\\nwater is required during the warmer months to main-\\ntain a constant level. No accurate record of pumping\\nhours is kept at the plant, the work being regulated\\nso as to maintain the level of the brine in the ponds.\\nLong continued rains, which, however, are of rare oc-\\ncurrence except in the early part of the season, cause a.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "80 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nrise in the ponds, and at times necessitate the return of\\npart of the brine to the lake to prevent overflow.\\nA portion of the pond area is used as a settling\\nbasin wherein the water deposits its suspended matters;\\nthence is is conveyed to the evaporating ponds\\nproper. The evaporation is accomplished by solar heat\\nalone. The season lasts about four months during\\nwhich a layer of salt with an average depth of six inclie-\\ndeposits. This affords a practical yield of about 900\\ntons to the acre, or at the rate of 150 tons per inch\\ndepth per acre. The saline mud forming the pond\\nfloor is practically water-tight.\\nAbout one-tenth of the amount of brine carried to the\\nponds is returned to the lake as a mother-liquor after\\nthe deposition of the crystals. This frees the salt from\\nmost of the magnesium compounds, and from sodium\\nsulphate; it will be remembered that these were the\\nsubstances which rendered the product of the more\\nprimitive methods unfit for use.\\nThe salt harvest begins in late August or early\\nSeptember. Movable rails are laid into the ponds, and\\nthe crop is gathered into hand cars. The material\\nis then piled in symmetrically shaped heaps, and, as\\nrequired is conveyed to the refinery or to the railway\\nfor shipment as crude salt.\\nWith the entire pond area in service a yearly crop of\\nover a million tons is possible. For such a supply there", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "SALT FROM THE LAKE. 81\\nhas been as yet no adequate demand, and the richest\\nharvest reported for any year is 150,000 tons.\\nThe manager of the plant reports on cost of produc-\\ntion as follows: Common labor is paid for at a rate\\nranging from $1.50 to $2.00 per day. The expense\\nof manufacture is the cost of pumping the brine from\\nthe lake to the harvesting ponds, which, estimating in-\\nterest on cost of apparatus for pumping, flumes, ponds,\\netc., is as near as can be estimated 50 cents per ton. In\\naddition to the foregoing the salt after depositing\\nmust be harvested and piled, which, under contract costs\\n25 cents per ton. The coarse salt is sold on the cars at\\nthe works at a dollar per ton.\\nd\\nThe refinirrg process may be summarized under the\\nfollow/operations:\\n(1.) The crude salt is run through a Hersey dry-\\ning cylinder, heated by steam.\\n(2.) The dried salt is subjected to fan action,\\nwhereby the fine powder, which includes practically all\\nthe objectionable sodium sulphate, is removed.\\n(3.) The granular salt is then ground to the vary-\\ning degrees of fineness required for dairy salt, table\\nsalt, etc.\\nThe lake salt so prepared is of a particularly high\\ngrade of purity; indeed, it challenges comparison with\\ncommercial salt from any other source. The company", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "82 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nreports analyses showing for the lower grades 98 per\\ncent and for the better kinds 99 per cent sodium chlor-\\nide. Analyses made by the writer a few years ago\\nshowed the following composition of samples procured\\nby purchase in the retail market:\\nReHned salt Table salt Coarse salt Table salt\\nmade by the In- Inland Salt Jeremy Salt Jeremy Salt\\nland Salt Co. Company. Company. Company.\\n1889.\\nSodium chloride 98.407 98.121^ 98.101 98.300^\\nCalcium chloride 371 .311 .322 .345\\nCalcium sulphate 650 .422 .364 .680\\nMagnesium sulphate.. .030 .022 .021 .042\\nMoisture 442 .911 .952 .158\\nInsoluble matters 102 .201 .214 .472\\nLoss and error .012 .026 .003\\n100.002 100.000 100.000 100.000\\nThe powder separated by fanning after the drjdng\\nprocess affords material for a valuable by-product. This\\npowder consisting mostly of fine salt mixed with sodium\\nsulphate, is worked up with sulphur and is molded into\\nlarge blocks for use on cattle and stock ranges. The\\ndemand for this cattle-salt is said to be greater than\\nthe supply from the fan-powder alone.\\nCommon salt is practically the only chemical com-\\npound derived from the lake on a commercial scale,\\nthough the possibility of obtaining cheaply from the\\nbrine an extensive array of chemical products is readily\\napparent. In the statement of the composition of lake\\nwater before given (see page 59) the presence of sodium\\ngulphate is shown. This substance in a prepared state", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "GLAUBER-SALT FROM THE LAKE. 83\\nis kno wn as Glauber-salt; as a naturally-occurring min-\\neral it is called Mirabilite.\\nThe deposition of glauber-salt from the brine has\\nbeen mentioned as a regular winter occurrence. The\\nsubstance separates in the crystalline condition, and\\neven as found upon the shores where it has been heaped\\nby the waves, it is of a remarkable degree of purity.\\nVery pure samples may be broken off as crystalline ag-\\ngregates from any submerged support. The following\\nfigures represent the averages of the writer s analyses\\non a number of samples collected from opposite sides\\nof the lake:\\nSodium sulphate\\nSodium chloride\\nCalcium sulphate\\nMagnesium sulphate.\\nWater\\nInsoluble matters\\nLoss and error.\\n1.\\nEast shore\\ndeposit.\\n2.\\nWest shore\\ndeposit.\\n43.060\\n.699\\n.437\\n.025\\n55.070\\n.700\\n.009\\n42.325\\n.631\\n.267\\n.018\\n55.760\\n.756\\n.243\\n100.000\\n100.000\\nFor purposes of comparison it should be knowTi that\\nchemically pure Mirabilite consists of anhydrous sodium\\nsulphate, 44.1 per cent, water, 55.9 per cent.\\nWhen the temperature falls to the critical point the\\nlake-water rapidly assumes an opalescent appearance\\nfrom the separation of the sulphate. The substance\\nsinks as a crystalline precipitate, and large quantities are\\nthrown by the waves upon the beach. Under favorable\\nconditions the shore may be covered to a depth of", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "84 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nseveral feet with crystallized mirabilite. On several\\noccasions the writer has waded through the crystalline\\ndeposit sinking at every step to the knees.\\nThe substance must be gathered, if at all, soon after\\nthe deposit first appears; for if the water reach the\\ncritical temperature on the ascending scale, the whole\\ndeposit is again taken into solution. The re-solution\\nis a rapid process, a single day sometimes sufficing\\nfor the complete disappearance of all the deposit within\\nreach of the waves. Warned by experience, the col-\\nlectors heap the stuff upon the shores above the lap of\\nthe waves; in this situation it is comparatively secure.\\nThe work is easily accomplished by the use of horse-\\ndrags and scrapers. Large quantities of the mirabilite\\nare yet to be seen in heaps remaining from the harvest-\\ning of years ago. To a depth of a few inches the ma-\\nterial effloresces, but within the heaps the hydrous crys-\\ntalline condition is maintained.\\nThe temperature at which the mirabilite separates\\nhas not been accurately determined. That we are con-\\ncerned with but a small range of temperature is evident\\nfrom the sudden appearance and disappearance of the\\nsolid precipitate as the temperature varies. Gilbert says*\\nthat the precipitation begins when the Avater falls below\\n20 degrees I have reason to believe that the critical\\ntemperature is higher than this.\\nLake Bonneville, p. 253.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "GLAUBER-SALT FROM THE LAKE. 85\\n1 camped with a party by the hike sliore in the early\\ndays of January 1895, with the main purpose of ascer-\\ntaining the temperature of the mirabilite separation; but\\nthe weather, which for days prior to our visit had been\\ncold, moderated and soon grew unusually warm. The\\nfollowing observations are incorporated for illustration:\\nJanuary 3, 11 a. m., temperature of water off pier as\\ndetermined by five thermometers, 35.8 degrees F.; tem-\\nperature of air in neighborhood, 41 degrees F.; during a\\nperiod of two hours the temjDerature of the water as indi-\\ncated by self-registering instruments, reached a mini-\\nmum of 35.5 degrees F.; yet the sulphate was then sep-\\narating and crystals were readily obtained by dredging.\\nOn the same day crystals of mirabilite formed on the\\ncord attached to the submerged self-registering ther-\\nmometer when the instrument recorded 35 degrees F.\\nAt the same time large clusters of well-formed crystals\\nwere taken from the pavilion posts. During the night\\nof January 3-4, the mirabilite crystals attached to the\\npier were partly dissolved; the temperature readings\\nrecorded were, maximum 37.5 degrees F., minimum 35\\ndegrees F. I believe the critical temperature of the\\nseparation to be within a few degrees of the freezing\\npoint of fresh water.\\nAt present there is no demand for the mirabilite,\\nand no effort is made to gather it. Should use be found\\nfor it however, no fears as to possible insufficiency of sup-\\nply need be entertained. Even though the enormous\\namounts cast up by the waves during the winter", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "86 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nmonths prove insufficient, the shallow water near shore\\ncould be dredged with profit; and should this fail, re-\\ncourse may be had to the bed of the material already\\nstored at a moderate depth beneath the lake bottom,\\nand below the recently abandoned bottom now inshore.\\nThe manufacture of sodium carbonate from the\\nmirabilite would seemingly promise rich returns. In\\nthe time-honored and efficient Le Blanc process of car-\\nbonate preparation, sodium sulphate is first produced\\nfrom common salt by an expensive treatment with sul-\\npuric acid. That stage of the operation is accom-\\nplished by Nature in the lake and the sulphate is throwTi\\nup in lavish quantities in a manner favorable for easy\\ncollection. The limestone and the coal required for\\nthe conversion of the sulphate into carbonate are cheap\\nand of ready access in the region; and in the sodium\\ncarbonate market Utah ought to be able to undersell\\nmost other producers.\\nYears ago a sodium carbonate plant was established\\nin Salt Lake City, and an excellent product was ob-\\ntained. Caustic soda and sodium hyposulphite have also\\nbeen prepared from the lake water. But the high\\ncost of railway transportation has killed this in com-\\nmon with many other industrial undertakings in this\\nnaturally favored region. Sooner or later, however,\\na market is sure to be found, and the briny waters of\\nUtah s Dead Sea shall then 3neld their riches to the\\nhand of chemie industry.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "VIIL\\nTHE GREAT BASIN.\\nGreat Salt Lake has been mentioned as the largest\\nwater body existing in the Great Basin region^ and inci-\\ndentally the Great Basin has been otherwise referred to\\nin the i3receding pages. A brief consideration of geo-\\ngraphical basins in general, and of the Great Basin in\\nparticular may prove of interest.\\nThe term basin^ is employed by the student of earth-\\nscience to designate the area comprised in a drainage\\nsystem, or that which forms a local unit of drainage as\\na distinct part of a drainage system. Thus the terms\\nbasin and drainage area or drainage district are\\nseen to be practically synonymous. A lake basin is a de-\\npression in the crust occupied by the waters of a lake,\\nand the expression hydrographic basin is applied to\\nthe region drained by a river and its tributaries, includ-\\ning the lake, if there be such, in which the waters collect.\\nIn the case of rivers emptying into a lake, if the\\nlatter have an outlet the out-flowing stream and the\\nregion drained by it below the lake will be included in\\nthe hydrographic basin, and if the river reach the sea\\nthe drainage basin will extend to the shore. If how-\\never, the lake be without an outlet, as long as the loss of\\nwater by evaporation be equal to or less than the amount\\nreceived, so that the lake cannot rise and find an out-", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "88 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nlet, the hydrographic basin is spoken of as a closed,\\nan interior, or a drainless basin.\\nThe largest closed drainage area in North America is\\nthe Great Basin now under consideration. The region\\nto which this name is applied is of outline roughly tri-\\nangular as indicated on the map. (See plate XIV). It\\nextends about 880 miles in greatest length running\\neast of south and west of north, and 572 miles in ex-\\ntreme width from east to west. The area thus in-\\ncluded is about 210,000 square miles, comprising the\\nwestern half of Utah, the greater part of Nevada, and\\nportions of eastern California, south-eastern Oregon,\\nsouth-eastern Idaho, and south-western Wyoming. The\\nsouthern part of the Great Basin has not been definitely\\nserveyed; its approximate outline is indicated by a\\ndotted line on the map.\\nThe name basin suggests the typical form of a\\ndepression with a well-defined rim, and drainage basins\\nare actually walled in by water-partings, which however\\nmay not be of conspicuous height. But the Great\\nBasin is no such single depression, nor is the topo-\\ngraphy of the region suggestive of the basin structure.\\nThe area is characteristically mountainous, presenting\\na great number of depressions, many of them occupied\\nby lakes; yet the region is a unit from the standpoint\\nof drainage, for it sends no stream beyond its borders,\\nand the removal of water from the surface is wholly due\\nto evaporation. The central part is elevated above the", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT BASIN. 89\\nmarginal portions, as was shown by the geologists of the\\nFortieth Parallel Exploration. Summarizing part of the\\nexcellent work done by these geologists, Gilbert sa3^s:\\nThe work of this corps covered a belt one hundred\\nmiles broad, spanning the Great Basin in its broadest\\npart, and within this belt the Pleistocene lakes were\\nstudied, and for the first time approximately mapped.\\nIt was shown that the corrugated surface of the Great\\nBasin in this latitude is higher in the middle than at the\\neast and west margins, warranting general subdivision\\ninto the Utah Basin, the Nevada Plateau, and the Ne-\\nvada Basin; that the Utah Basin formerly contained a\\nlarge lake, Bonneville, extending both north and south\\nbeyond the belt of survey; that the Nevada Basin con-\\ntained a similar lake, Lahontan, likewise exceeding the\\nlimits of the belt; and that the valleys of the central\\nplateau held within the belt no less than eight small\\nPleistocene lakes.\\nCaptain Bonneville explored part of the Great Basin\\narea in 1833, and his map, while necessarily crude and\\nimreliable as to detail, suggests the existing conditions\\nof interior drainage. To Fremont, f however, belongs\\nthe credit of having first clearly shown the true ehar-\\nLake BonneviUe, by G. K. GUbert, p, 17. For citations made\\nabove see Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel Vols. I and II.\\nWashington, 1877, 1878.\\nt Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the\\nyear 1812, etc., by Brevet-Captain J. C. Fremont. Washington, 1845.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "do THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nacter of the region with respect to drainage, and by\\nhim the name Great Basin was first applied.\\nOur present knowledge of the Basin region rests on\\nthe work of Fremont just cited, and that of Stansbury\\nin 1850, Simpson in 1859, the parties in charge of the\\n40th Parallel Survey and the Survey West of the 100th\\nMeridian, and the labors of the Great Basin division of\\nthe U, S. Geological Survey as at present constituted.\\nA glance at the map shows that the closed area of\\nthe Basin is bounded by the drainage district of the\\nColumbia river on the north, by Colorado river drainage\\non the east, and by Pacific drainage on the west. While\\nthis is by far the largest closed drainage basin in North\\nAmerica, eight times greater indeed than the estimated\\narea of all other closed basins of the United States com-\\nbined, it must be remembered that North America as\\ncompared with other continents is not characterized by\\ninterior drainage. According to data compiled by\\nMurray, the closed basins in Australia aggregate 52 per\\ncent of its area, those of Africa 31 per cent, of Eurasia\\n28 per cent, of South America 7.2 per cent, of North\\nAmerica 3.2 per cent. The Great Basin is great only\\nin comparison with similar districts of our own conti-\\nnent. The interior district of the Argentine Eepublic\\nis half as large again, and that of central Australia ex-\\nceeds the Great Basin seven times. Sahara exceeds", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT BASIN. 91\\nit sixteen times, and the interior district of Asia twenty-\\nthree times.\\nMost of the existing lakes within the Basin area are\\nalkaline or salt; though a few having outlets to lower\\nlevels are fresh. Among the fresh water-bodies are\\nUtah Lake, which sends the Jordan Kiver to Great Salt\\nLake; Bear Lake discharging through Bear River into\\nSalt Lake, and Lake Tahoe, the gem of the Sierras,\\nwhich overflows through Truckee canyon into Pyramid\\nand Winnemucca lakes, 2,400 feet below. Among the\\nsalt and alkaline lakes of the Basin are Great Salt Lake\\nand Sevier Lake in Utah; Soda, Walker, Winnemucca,\\nand Pyramid Lakes in Nevada; Albert Lake, Oregon,\\nMono Lake and Owen s Lake, California.\\nThe term saline lakes is used in a generic sense\\nand includes both salt and alkaline lakes. There are\\ntwo principal ways by which saline lakes may be\\nformed: (1.) By the isolation of a part of the sea,\\nas for example by the cutting off of bays, or by the ele-\\nvation of a portion of the ocean floor, carrying up sea-\\nwater in the depressions. (2.) By the accumulation of\\nriver or spring water in depressions without outlet,\\nwith concentration of the water by evaporation. Lakes\\nresulting from the first process may be said to be of\\nLake Bonneville; p. 12. For citations from Murray see Scot-\\nti.sh Geog. Mag. vol. Ill, pp. 6.5-77.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "92 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\noceanic origin; then those of the other class are of\\nterrestrial origin.\\nSaline lakes of oceanic origin are of necessity salt;\\nthose of the terrestrial type are salt or alkaline accord-\\ning to the predominating minerals washed from the\\nrocks and accumulated by evaporation. Alkaline chlo-\\nrides produce salt lakes, and alkaline carbonates result\\nin alkaline lakes. Alkaline lakes are relatively rare,\\nthough notable occurrences of the sort characterize the\\nGreat Basin. The California lakes, Mono and Owen,\\nare perhaps the best examples; they both contain con-\\nsiderable quantities of sodium carbonate together with\\nother carbonates and some salt. Borax lakes also occur\\nin California and Nevada.\\nBut whatever may be the nature of the dissolved\\nsolids, the lake will not become saline unless it is entire-\\nly enclosed, so that its loss of water by evaporation\\nexceeds its supply. Should the water supply of a saline\\nlake increase, as by climatic changes, the lake will rise,\\nand if the process continue will find an outlet and in\\ntime be rinsed out, thus becoming a fresh-water body.\\nThe aridity of the Great Basin is a matter of gen-\\neral knowledge. The subject is thus stated by com-\\nparison and estimate by Gilbert: On the broad\\nplain bounded east and west by the Appalachian Moun-\\ntains and the Mississippi Eiver, 43 inches of rain falls\\nin a year. On the lowlands of the Great Basin there\\nLake Bonneville, p. fi-7.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT BASIN. 93\\nfalls but 7 inches. In the former region the average\\nmoisture content of the air is 69 per cent of that neces-\\nsary for saturation; in the lowlands of the Great Basin\\nit is 45 per cent. From the surface of Lake Michigan\\nevaporation removes each year a layer of water 22\\ninches deep. The writer has estimated that 80 inches\\nare 3^early thus removed from Great Salt Lake, and Mr.\\nThomas Russell has computed from annual means of\\ntemperature, vapor tension, and wind velocity, that in\\nthe lowlands of the Great Basin the annual rate of evap-\\noration from water surfaces ranges from 60 inches at\\nthe north to 150 inches at the south.\\nISTo sketch of the Great Basin would be complete\\nwithout some reference to the peculiar mountain struc-\\nture of the region. Geographical maps show that the\\nmountainous character predominates from the Wasatch\\nto the Sierra. The ranges within the Basin are short,\\nand strikingly uniform in their general trend north and\\nsouth. The structure of these mountain ranges is so\\ndifferent from the usual order, and so characteristic of\\nthis particular region, that mountains of the kind\\nwherever found are to be classed as belonging to the\\nBasin Eange type.\\nOrdinary mountain ranges consist essentially of\\nstratified rocks, the strata of which have been crushed\\nand crumpled by lateral pressure, so as to appear in see-", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "94 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\ntion as complicated folds. Anticlinal arches and\\nsynclinal troughs follow each other in close or more\\nopen folds according to the degree of compression. Such\\nmountain ranges were originally sea sediments, and their\\nsituation marks old marginal sea-bottoms. This, the\\ncommon mountain structure, is spoken of as the anticli-\\nnal type.\\nBut the Basin ranges are of monoclinal structure,\\nas if great crust blocks had been tilted on edge. One\\nface of a mononclinal ridge is relatively steep,it is in fact\\nthe rough face of the crust block which has been\\nbroken by faulting; the other slope is gentler, following\\nin general the dip of the upturned beds. Mononclinal\\nmountain masses result from tension by which the crust\\nis broken up into great blocks.\\nOf the origin of the Basin ranges, and of the Wa-\\nsatch and Sierra mountains which yirtually form the\\nwalls of the Basin, Le Conte* writes: The Sierra re-\\nceived its present form and altitude by the upheaving\\non its eastern side of a great mountain block 300 miles\\nlong and 50 to 70 miles wide forming there a normal\\nfault, with a displacement of probably not less than\\n15,000 feet. On the other boundary of the\\nBasin region the Wasatch was at the same time also\\nheaved up on its western side, forming there one of the\\n\u00e2\u0099\u00a6Elements of Geology, 4th ed., p. 277. See also American Journal of\\nScience, Vol. 3S, p. 262 for an article by the same author.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE GREAT BASIN. 95\\ngreatest faults known. [40,000 feet displacement ac-\\ncording to King.] rpi-^g whole Basin region,\\nincluding the Sierra on one side and the Wasatch on the\\nother, was lifted, probably by intumescent lavas, into an\\narch, and by tension split into great oblong crust blocks.\\nThe arch broke down, the crust blocks re-adjusted them-\\nselves to form the Basin ranges, and left the abutments,\\nviz, the Sierra and the Wasatch, with their raw faces\\nlooking toward one another across the intervening Basin.\\nIt must not be imagined, however, that this took place\\nat once as a great cataclysm, but rather that it took place\\nvery slowly the lifting, the breaking down, and the re-\\nadjustment, all going on at the same time.\\nIn some of the depressions between these displaced\\ncrust blocks water has accumulated and thus have the\\nlakes of the Great Basin been formed. Other depres-\\nsions, the receptacles of but limited drainage may hold\\nwater for a short period only immediately after a rainy\\nseason or following the heavy storms known as cloud-\\nbursts; such ephemeral water bodies are called playa-\\nlakes.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "IX.\\nTHE ANCIENT LAKE-LAKE BONNEVILLE.\\nThat the Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a larger\\nbody of water which once filled the entire valley\\nand extended beyond the valley walls to the north,\\nsouth, and west, is apparent to even the unscientific ob-\\nserver. Yet our knowledge of this ancient water body\\nhas been accumulated but gradually, and many investi-\\ngators and observers have contributed thereto.\\nCapt. Fremont in 1842 recorded the occurrence of a\\nline of drift-wood observed by him a few feet above the\\nlevel of the existing lake; and in this he read the indi-\\ncations of variation in level at that time recent, but he\\nmade no record of the grander phenomena of ancient\\nshore lines on the adjacent mountains.\\nCapt. Howard Stansbury, whose valuable labors in\\nconnection with the survey of Great Salt Lake in 1849-\\n1850, have been mentioned, observed the lines of early\\nshore action, and inferred therefrom the former exist-\\nence of a great lake or sea. Keferring to a particular\\nplain near Lakeside on the line of the Southern Pacific\\nrailway, he wrote:\\nThis extensive flat appears to have formed at one\\ntime the northern portion of the lake, for it is now^ but\\nslightly above its present level. Upon the slope of a\\nridge connected with this plain, thirteen distinct succes-", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 9?\\nsive benches, or water marks, were counted, which had\\nevidently at one time been washed by the lake, and must\\nhave been the result of its action continued for some\\ntime at each level. The highest of these is now about\\ntwo hundred feet above the valley which has itself been\\nleft by the lake, owing probably to gradual elevation\\noccasioned by subterraneous causes. If this supposition\\nbe correct, and all appearances conspire to support it,\\nthere must have been here at some former period a vast\\ninland sea, extending for hundreds of miles; and the iso-\\nlated mountains which now tower from the flats,forming\\nits western and southwestern shores, were doubtless huge\\nislands similar to those which now rise from the dimin-\\nished waters of the lake.\\nIn 1852 Lieut. E. G. Beckwith visited portions of\\nthe Great Basin in charge of a government expedition.\\nHe w^as im^pressed by the distinctness of the old beach\\nlines, and correctly concluded that the Salt Lake had\\nstood at a higher level. He says:\\nThe old shore lines existing in the vicinity of\\nthe Great Salt Lake present an interesting study. Some\\nof them are elevated but a few feet (from five to twenty)\\nabove the present level of the lake, and are as distinct\\nand as well defined and preserved as its present beaches;\\nand Stansbury speaks, in the Report of his exploration,\\npages 158, 160, of drift wood still existing upon those\\nExploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of\\nUtah, etc., by Howard Stansbury. Philadelphia, 1852, p. 105.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "98 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nhaving an elevation of five feet above the lake, which\\nunmistakably indicates the remarkably recent recession\\nof the waters which formed them, whilst their magni-\\ntude and smoothly-worn forms as unmistakably indi-\\ncate the levels which the waters maintained, at their\\nrespective formations for very considerable periods.\\nIn the Tuilla [Tooele] Valley at the south end of\\nthe lake, they are so remarkably distinct and peculiar in\\nform and position that one of them, on which we trav-\\neled in crossing that valley on the 7th of May, attracted\\nthe observation of the least informed teamsters of our\\nparty to whom it appeared artificial. Its elevation we\\njudged to be twenty feet above the present level of the\\nlake. It is also twelve or fifteen feet above the plain to\\nthe south of it, and is several miles long; but it is nar-\\nrow, only affording a fine road-way, and is crescent-\\nformed, and terminates to the west as though it had once\\nformed a cape, projecting into the lake from the moun-\\ntains on the east in miniature, perhaps, not unlike the\\nstrip of land dividing the sea of Azofi from the Putrid\\nSea. From this beach the Tuilla [Tooele] Valley ascends\\ngradually towards the south, and in a few miles becomes\\npartly blocked up by a cross-range of mountains with\\npassages at either end however, leading over quite as\\nremarkable beaches, into what is known to the Mormons\\nas Eush Valley, in which there are still small lakes or\\nponds, once, doubtless, forming part of the Great Salt\\nLake.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 99\\nicn\\nThe recessions of the waters ol the lake Iroiii the\\nbeaches at these comparatively slight elevations, took\\nplace beyond all doubt, within a very modern geological\\nperiod; and the volume of the water of the lake at each\\nsubsidence by whatever cause produced, and whether\\nby gradual or spasmodic action seems as plainly to\\nhave been diminished; for its present volume is not\\nsufficient to form a lake of even two or three feet in\\ndepth over the area indicated by these shores, and, if\\nexisting, w^ould be annually dried up during the sum-\\nmer.\\nBut high above these diminutive banks of recent\\ndate, on the mountains to the east, south, and west, and\\non the islands of the Great Salt Lake, formations are\\nseen, preserving, apparently, a uniform elevation as far\\nas the eye can extend, formations on a magnificent\\nscale, which, hastily examined, seem no less unmistaka-\\nbly than the former to indicate their shore origin.\\nThey are elevated from two or three hundred to six or\\neight hundred feet above the present lake; and if upon\\na thorough examination they prove to be ancient shores,\\nthey will perhaps afford (being easily traced on the\\nnumerous mountains of the Basin) the means of deter-\\nmining the character of the sea by which they were\\nformed, etc.*\\nLieut. E. G. Beckwith, in Pacific Railroad reports, vol. 2, p, 67:\\nWashington, 1855,\\nLofa", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "100 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nObservations were accumulated by Blake, Simpson\\nand bis assistant, Englemann, by King, Hague, Em-\\nmons, Hayden, Bradley, Poole, Peale, and others, all in-\\ncreasing our stock of information regarding the ancient\\nlakes of the Great Basin, and bearing more or less di-\\nrectly on the early history of what is now the Great\\nSalt Lake.* But it is to Grove Karl Gilbert and his\\nassociates to whom we owe the greater part of our pres-\\nent knowledge of the Great Salt Lake and its geological\\nhistory. His report, forming the first volume of the U.\\nS. Geological Survey monographs, is the standard work\\non the subject.\\nCareful examination furnishes evidence at once\\nabundant and conclusive that tliis ancient lake extended\\nsouthward over the Sevier Desert, and probably over the\\nEscalante Desert also, nearly to the Arizona line; west-\\nward over the Great Desert, into N evada; and northward\\nto the upper limit of Cache valley and therefore 25 miles\\nbeyond the Idaho boundary. It formed the largest of\\nthe many flooded Pleistocene lakes of the Basin region.\\nIn 1876, Gilbert named this inland sea Lake Bonneville,\\nin honor of Captain Bonneville, who gave the first au-\\nthentic description of the existing lake as a result of his\\nexplorations in 1833, and after whom Washington\\nIrving endeavored to establish the name Lake Bonne-\\nFor an excellent summary of investigations on the past of the\\nGreat Salt Lake, see Lake Bonneville, pp. 12-19.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 101\\nville as the designation of the existing Great Salt Lake.\\nWhen at its highest level, Lake Bonneville had an\\nextreme north and south length of 300 miles, a greatest\\neast and west extent of 180 miles; it presented an area\\nof 19,750 square miles. The lake reached from 42 de-\\ngrees 30 minutes to 37 degrees 30 minutes north lati-\\ntude, and was divided almost equally by the line of 113\\ndegrees west longitude.\\nThe Great Salt Lake, while it is the largest and most\\nimportant, is not the only existing fragment of Lake\\nBonneville. Utah and Sevier lakes remain, occupying\\nthe lowest parts of their separate Valleys to the south.\\nLake Utah is a body of fresh water with 127 square miles\\nsurface; it sends its overflow through the Jordan River\\nnorthward to the Great Salt Lake. Sevier Lake is a\\nsaline body of variable dimensions, attaining during hu-\\nmid seasons a considerable area. In 1872, it covered 188\\nsquare miles; while in dry times it practically evaporates\\naway, leaving a crystalline residuum of impure sodium\\nchloride and sulphate five inches in depth, to mark the\\nlowest part of its site.\\nThe principal divisions of Lake Bonneville were: (1)\\nThe main body, comprising the area of the existing lake\\nand that of the Salt Lake Desert; (2) Cache bay to the\\nnorth; (3) Sevier bay, and (4) Escalante bay, to the", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "102 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nsouth. The names used are identical with the existing\\ngeographical designations. These parts of the great lake\\nwere defined by peninsulas and archipelagos, which ap-\\npear today as hills and mountain spurs, while the con-\\nnecting straits are represented by valley passes. These\\nfacts are shown on the accompanying map. Some of\\nthe hills rising from the plain, which constitutes the\\nSalt Lake Desert, have their bases deeply buried beneath\\nlake sediments; they rise from the land level as abruptly\\nas the islands of the present lake above the water, and\\nthe popular names by which they are known, designate\\nthem as islands still. (See plate XIX.)\\nThe shore lines appearing upon the mountain sides\\nagainst which the ancient waters beat, are, throughout\\nthe greater part of their extent, so distinct that even the\\nschool boy is led to think of them as old water margins.\\nAlong these terraces abundant proofs of littoral struc-\\nture may be found. In places pebbly beaches tell of\\nlapping waves, while the covering and cementing tufa\\nattached to the worn stones testifies to chemical precip-\\nitation or deposit by evaporation. Ripple marks are as\\nclearly shown in the sandstones and hardened clays as on\\nthe shores which are at present washed by the briny\\nwaters. ICmbankments, wave-cut caves, and all the other\\nusual phenomena of littoral action exist in a state of im-\\npressive perfection. In many places, especially along", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 103\\nthe eastern margin, where the waters beat against the\\nface of the Wasatch mountains, the lines have suffered\\nextensive deformation through fault disturbances; in-\\ndeed, in the immediate neighborhood of Salt Lake City,\\nthe fault scarp is so fresh as to still present the rough\\nface of recent fracture.\\nThe work of stream erosion is apparent in the trans-\\nverse gashing of the shore terraces; this and the erosive\\naction of atmospheric agencies are operating toward a\\ngeneral degradation of the terrace structure. These de-\\nstructive processes, however, have not as yet been able to\\nhide, or even to seriously disfigure the evidence of for-\\nmer conditions. The map of Lake Bonneville can be\\ndrawn with as great an assurance of accuracy as attends\\nthe charting of any existing water body. (See plate\\nXV.)\\nEach shore line indicates, of course, a practically\\nconstant level of the lake during a considerable length\\nof time, or a periodical return to the same level at short\\nintervals during a long cycle of years. There is, however,\\nlittle evidence of interruption in the process of shore\\nsculpture, and a constancy of level rather than a return\\nof the water to the same height at each of the stages\\nmarked by a shore line is indicated. On the Oquirrh\\nmountains bounding the Salt Lake valley on the westjten\\ndistinct lines have been counted, sketched, and photo-\\ngraphed by the writer; but here, as indeed all along the\\nold sJiore margin, three principal levels appear and a", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "104 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nfourth is seen with great distinctness on one of the large\\nislands of the lake. These have been designated as fol-\\nlows:\\n1. The Bonneville shore line, the highest and most\\nconspicuous; this is at a height of 1,000 feet above the\\npresent mean level of the water.\\n2. Provo shore line, 375 feet below the Bonneville.\\nThis was named by Howell from the great size and per-\\nfection of the delta constructed at this level by the\\nProvo Eiver as it enters Utah valley from the canyon.\\n3. Intermediate shore lines, between the Bonneville\\nand the Provo. These lines show a series of fluctuations\\nin lake level each of comparatively short duration.\\nWhile the embankments are large they are devoid of\\ngreat sea cliffs and caves such as characterize the Bonne-\\nville and the Provo. On Stansbur}^ Island, one of the\\nlargest bodies of land rising from the waters of the Salt\\nLake, a lower level has left a clearly defined terrace, 300\\nfeet above the present water surface; this has been\\ncalled:\\n4. Stansbury shore line.\\nThe chronological order of the principal shore line\\nformation is as follows: 1. Intermediate; 2. Bonneville;\\n3. Provo; 4. Stansbury. While the Bonneville level is\\nthe highest and most conspicuous of the shore\\nterraces, it marks a shorter duration of constant level\\nthan does the Provo. It is in fact the most conspicuous\\nbecause it is the highest, deriving its prominence from", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 106\\nits clearly defined contrast with the features of sub-aerial\\ntopography immediately above it. (See plate XVIII.)\\nYears prior to the discovery of any outlet through\\nwhich the great lake could have discharged its surplus\\nwaters, the existence of such an escape channel was pre-\\ndicted. Gilbert declared (1) that the Bonneville shore\\nlines would be found to have been determined by an\\noverflow of lake water, and (2) that the Provo line would\\nbe traceable to a similar determining cause.*\\nWriting in 1890 he says: The first of these pre-\\ndictions has been verified in its letter, but not in its\\nspirit; the second has proved to have full warrant. My\\nanticipation was based on the following consideration:\\nA lake without overflow has its extent determined by\\nthe ratio of precipitation to evaporation within its basin;\\nand since this ratio is inconstant, fluctuating from year\\nto year and from decade to decade, it is highly improb-\\nable that the water level will remain constant long\\nenough to permit its waves to carve a deep record. I\\nfailed to take account of the fact that the highest shore-\\nmark of the series is conspicuous by reason of the con-\\ntrast there exhibited between land sculpture and littoral\\nsculpture. We know that the height of the Bonneville\\nshore-line was determined in a certain sense by overflow,\\nsince a discharge limited the rise of the water; but the\\nExploration West of the 100th Meridian, III., p, 90.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "106 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\ncarving of the shore was essentially completed before the\\ndischarge, and as soon as that began the water fell. At\\nthe Provo horizon, on the contrary, a constant or nearly\\nconstant water-level was maintained by discharge for a\\nlong time.\\nThe search for the Bonneville outlet was prosecuted\\nwith the assurance that such a channel existed. A num-\\nber of passes were found but slightly above the required\\nlevel, and indeed a difference of only a few feet deter-\\nmined the actual point of discharge. On the northern\\nrim of Cache valley at Red Rock Pass, near Oxford,\\nIdaho, the outlet channel was discovered. The topo-\\ngraphical features and the erosion record were so dis-\\ntinct as to place the question of the source of Bonneville\\nRiver practically beyond doubt. The honor of this dis-\\ncovery is accorded to Gilbert, though Peale has\\ndisputed Gilbert s rights of priority on the basis\\nof Bradley s suggestion, made in 1872. f Bonne-\\nville River flowed through Marsh Valley, be-\\ning joined in this part of its course by the\\nPortneuf. The combined streams then followed\\nPortneuf Pass to Snake River, thence to the Columbia.\\nAbove its junction with the Portneuf the Bonneville\\nRiver must have equalled and possibly exceeded in size\\nthe Niagara. Regarding the duration of the river s ex-\\nistence Gilbert says:\\nLake Bonneville, p. 171.\\nAmerican Journal of Science, June, 1878.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 107\\nHow long the discharging river maintained its col-\\nossal dimensions can not be learned, but the period cer-\\ntainly was not great. The entire prism of water between\\nBonneville and Provo planes would be discharged by the\\nNiagara channel in less than twenty-five years; and if\\nthe Bonneville River reached a greater size, it would\\nhave maintained it only for a shorter time.\\nAlluvial fans and deltas exist at the mouths of can-\\nyons opening into the valley. Of the fans or cones,\\nsome were constructed prior to the Bonneville epoch,\\nwhile others show by the absence of shore lines and lake\\nsediments that they are more recent than the high water\\nmarks. A typical alluvial cone of large dimensions oc-\\ncurs at the base of a prominent spur of the Wasatch\\nrange a mile north of Salt Lake City. This cone de-\\nrives additional interest from the fact that its surface\\nshows the course of a well developed fault scarp. In\\nSalt Lake valley and elsewhere the alluvial cones formed\\nby the streams issuing from canyon openings at short\\nintervals coalesce and present the appearance of almost\\ncontinuous terraces. In such cases the existing stream\\nreveals a section of the deposit, a study of which, to-\\ngether with an examination of the slope and general\\nconfiguration will enable the observer to distinguish be-\\nLake Bonneville, ^p. 177,", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "108 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\ntween the cone formation on the one hand and the lake\\nterrace and delta on the other.\\nThe existence of deltas along the old lake shores\\nwas pointed out by Bradley in 1872;* but it remained for\\nHowell and Gilbert to give the subject full and careful\\nstudy. While in places delta formations are preserved at\\nthe Bonneville level, the best and largest belong to the\\nProvo stage. The streams following the receding lake\\nwould indeed destroy much of their own delta construc-\\ntion at higher levels and earlier periods. However, at\\nsome places the delta structure presents a record of In-\\ntermediate, Bonneville, and Provo stages complete. Fol-\\nlowing the American Fork river from the canyon to-\\nward the mouth of the stream in Utah Lake,the observer\\nmay read the history of delta formation and destruction\\nwith comparative ease. As revealed by the stream-made\\nsection the Bonneville delta shows a height of 120 feet\\nat its outer margin, and a radius of over 4,800 feet. The\\nIntermediate delta being the first formed, was partly\\ncovered by the later Bonneville; both were cut through\\nby the stream as the lake fell to the Provo level, and the\\nmaterial so removed was built into a still younger delta.\\nThe deltas of the Logan river form a series of sloping\\nterraces extending downward from the mountain face.\\nEach delta indicates the partial destruction of earlier de-\\npositions above. In Salt Lake valley, the delta formed\\nGeological Survey of the Territories, 1872, p. 19?.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 109\\nby City Creek (the main source of the water supply for\\nSalt Lake City today), reveals itself as high benches\\nthrough which the stream has kept for itself a passage.\\nWave-action appears to have been unusually strong at\\nthis place, and consequently the typical delta form is\\nconsiderably modified. The delta constructed by the\\nProvo river in Utah valley, covers over 20,000 acres, and\\nanother occurs a few miles to the south the work of\\nthe Spanish Fork stream with an area of 8,000 acres.\\nThe occurrence of calcium carbonate, usually as cal-\\ncareous tufa, is common to the shores of most of the\\nGreat Basin lakes. The extensive accumulation of this\\nmaterial in Lake Lahontan has received due attention\\nfrom King and Russell.* InLakeBonneville,however,the\\ndeposition has taken place on a small scale only. Where\\nthis material occurs at all it is found as an incrustation\\non the faces of cliffs, or as a cement coating the pebbles\\nand forming them into a coherent conglomerate. None\\nof the calcareous deposit is found in spots which once\\nwere quiet coves or bays; while the largest quantities\\noccur where the waves must have produced the strongest\\nsurf action. It has been suggested that the aeration of\\nthe water probably promoted the precipitation of the\\ncalcium carbonate, and that the particles coalesced at\\nExploration of the 40tli Parallel, I., p. 514.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "110 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nthe instant of separation.* In the open lake\\nthe deposition of calcium carbonate went on in\\nthe usual manner, the particles remaining sep-\\narate and forming an ordinary sediment. None of\\nthe Thinolite, named and described by King in connec-\\ntion with Lahontan and Mono lakes, has thus far been\\nfound within the Bonneville district.\\nThat the diminution of lake volume from the height\\nof the Provo line to the present level, is due to desic-\\ncation and not to a process of emptying by overflow,\\nis shown by the absence of any break or notch in the rim\\nbelow the level of the shore named, through which the\\nwater could have found an outlet, and from the deposits\\nof mineral matter in the lake floor. In the parts recently\\nvacated by the receding waters, the saline matters\\neffloresce upon the soil during dry seasons, and disap-\\npear in times of abundant precipitation. Careful analy-\\nses of these substances show marked correspondence with\\nthe mineral contents of today. As the retreating waters\\ndivided the lake into separate areas, each lakelet pro-\\nceeded in the process of desiccation according to its own\\nrelative conditions of supply and evaporation.\\nIn some parts, particularly in the region of the old\\nSevier body of Lake Bonneville, deposits of gypsum are\\nfound. These may not be the effect of any chemical de-\\nLake BonneviUe, p. 169.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. Ill\\nposition; as Gilbert suggests, they may be the result of\\nevaporation of water that had derived the material by\\nsimple solution from the rocks. The gj^psum is occas-\\nsionally found in the form of small free crystals, and as\\nin the Sevier desert, these may be drifted by wind action\\ninto glistening dunes. The author of the monograph on\\nLake Bonneville says:\\nPerhaps no g3rpsum deposit in the world is so easily\\nexploited as this; it needs merely to be shoveled into\\nwagons and hauled away. Mr. Eussell estimates that\\nthe dunes contain about 450,000 tons, and a much larger\\namount can be obtained from the playa.^\\nWhile the exposure of an extensive series of forma-\\ntions and systems of rocks is made visible by the oro-\\ngenic disturbances which have resulted in the elevation\\nof the Wasatch and contiguous ranges, these aid us but\\nlittle in determining the time of the Bonneville epoch\\nor the age of the lake beds. In the lake floor, however,\\nfairly conclusive evidence as to the true geological age\\nmay be found. Tertiary strata of well determined age\\nexist within the Bonneville basin and in places these are\\nfound unconformably overlaid by the lake sediments.\\nThe Tertiary deposits, while presenting a wide variety\\nof texture, are quite readily distinguishable from the\\nLake BonneviUe, p.223.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "112 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nlater lacustrine beds by lithological character and by\\ntheir disturbed positions. It is evident therefore that\\nthe lake deposits are post-Tertiary. Moreover the Bon-\\nneville beds are thus seen to be the latest lacustrine de-\\nposit of the basin, and this fact indicates their synchron-\\nism with the latest littoral evidence of a lacustrine con-\\ndition.^^\\nOver the valley surface the beds are practically un-\\ndisturbed; in some parts they rise by gentle slopes almost\\nto the level of the shore lines. Gilbert has carefully\\nstudied the section exposed along the old river bed, run-\\nning northwest from the Sevier desert, between Mc-\\nDowell and Simpson mountains to the Salt Lake desert,\\nand this he announces as almost a typical sec-\\ntion.* Through this channel a stream connected\\nSevier Lake with the larger Salt Lake, after\\nthe division of Lake Bonneville into separate bodies in\\nits shrinkage course. This river existed in post-Provo\\ntimes, for the shore lines extend along the bordering\\nhillsides, the Bonneville line being fully 700 feet above\\nthe highest banks of the channel. Gilbert states that his\\nexploration demonstrated that the entire site of the\\nchannel was submerged during both Bonneville and\\nProvo epochs. The channel walls of the old river bed\\nreveal the following members in ascending order:\\n1. Yellow clay with local dashes of sand sedi-\\nLake Bonneville, p. 190.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNEVILLE. 113\\nment and nodular aggregates of selenite crystals. Of this\\na depth of ninety feet is exposed, hut the bottom has not\\nbeen reached.\\n2. White marl, a layer ten feet in thickness, over-\\nlying the yellow clay, on an eroded surface. The lower\\nlayers of the rnarl contain shells of nearly the same\\nspecies as occur in the clay below.\\n3. Free sand; a top layer grading without break of\\ncontinuity into the marl below; an average thickness of\\nten feet is recorded. This succession of beds is less dis-\\ntinct on the slopes and particularly so near the shore\\nlines where the true sedimentary deposits are mixed\\nwith littoral material. The eroded surface of the yellow\\nclay indicates a break in the process of lake deposition,\\nand this interruption is further shown by the alluvial de-\\nposits and all the proofs of sub-aerial erosion between\\nthe yellow clay and the w^hite marl. It is evident there-\\nfore that there are two distinct flood times in the Bonne-\\nville history, two periods of greatest operation of lacus-\\ntrine agencies separated by a perior of dryness. The\\nsecond of these periods was probably not more than one-\\nfifth of the duration of the first. Gilbert sums up the\\nevidence on the subject as follows:*\\nThen followed two epochs of high water, with an\\ninterval during w^hich the basin was nearly or quite\\nempty. The first of these epochs was at least five times\\nLakeBonneviUe, p. 317.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "114 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nas long as the second. The second scored its water mark\\nninety feet higher than the first, and would have en-\\ncroached still farther on the basin sides had it not been\\nchecked by outflow. During the epoch of outflow, the\\ndischarging current eroded the rim,and thus lowered the\\nlake 375 feet; and after the outflow had ceased, the water\\nfell by desiccation, with one notable interruption, to its\\npresent level in Great Salt Lake. The inter-Bonneville\\nepoch of low water vv-as of greater duration than the time\\nthat had elapsed since the final desiccation.\\nA similar dual flooding has been demonstrated by\\nthe labors of King and Russell in the region of Lake\\nLahontan, a body of water which may be regarded as a\\ntwin sister to Lake Bonneville.*\\nThe correlation of these periods of maximum flood-\\ning with the prime divisions of the Glacial Epoch has\\nbeen established with considerable certainty. The evi-\\ndence points to periods of low temperature correspond-\\ning with the times of greatest water surface. Low tem-\\n])erature with consequent decrease of loss by evaporation\\nis an important factor, if not indeed, the most effective\\nfiraong the causes which determined the successive max-\\nima of Lake Bonneville and its related water bodies in\\nthe Basin.\\nThe fossils, particularly the fresh water shells, tes-\\ntify to unfavorable conditions of growth. They are few\\nExploration of tlie 40th Parallel, T., p. 524.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "LAKE BONNKVILLF,. 115\\nand in the individuals are dwarfed, as would be ex-\\npected of species struggling for life under the rigors of\\na glacial climate. Quoting again:*\\nIn the case of Lake Lahontan, and in the case of\\nthe first Lake Bonneville, the unfavorable condition\\nmay possibly have been impurity of water, but the sec-\\nond Lake Bonneville was freshened by outflow, and the\\ndwarfing of its mollusks is best explained by low temper-\\nature. These phenomena sustain the\\ntheory that the Pleistocene lakes of the western United\\nStates were coincident with the Pleistocene glaciers of\\nthe same district, and were produced by the same cli-\\nmatic changes. It follows as a corollary that the glacial\\nhistory of this region was bipartite, two maxima of gla-\\nciation being separated, not by a mere variation in in-\\ntensity, but by a cessation of glaciation.\\nWell-defined ice deposits occur in a few places along\\nthe old shore, below the high water marks. One of the\\nbest examples is found at the mouth of Little Cotton-\\nwood Canyon but a few miles south of Salt Lake City (See\\nplates XXI) Emmons first directed attention to the fact\\nthat the glacier here referred to deposited its moraines\\nwithin the Bonneville area, f The south lateral moraine is\\nwell preserved; the other has lost its typical form, prob-\\nLake Bonneville, p. 318.\\nt Exploration of the40tli Parallel, II., p. 354.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "AUG 3 1900\\n116 THE GREAT SALT LAKE.\\nably through an expansion or a change of direction of\\nthe glacier whereb} the north moraine was disfigured.\\nThe moraine material is traceable do WTiward from the\\ncanyon gateway for a full mile upon the plain, and in its\\nlower parts it is covered by alluvium to a depth of sixty-\\nfive feet at least, and by a lacustrine deposit of sand.\\nThe glacier existed during a period of high water prob-\\nably that of the Provo shore line.\\nMajor Powell presents a summary of the labors of\\nhis associates on Bonneville history in this concise way:*\\nFirst, the waters were lov.^, occupying, as Great Salt\\nLake now^ does, only a limited portion of the bottom of\\nthe basin. Then they gradually rose and spread, form-\\ning an inland sea, nearly equal to Lake Huron in extent,\\nwith a maximum depth of 1,000 feet. Then the waters\\nfell, and the lake not merely dwindled in size, but abso-\\nlutely disappeared, leaving a plain even more desolate\\nthan the Great Salt Lake Desert of today. Then they\\nagain rose, surpassing even their former height, and\\neventually overflowing the basin at its northern edge,\\nsending a tributary stream to the Columbia Eiver; and,\\nlast, there was a second recession, and the waters shrunk\\nav\u00c2\u00bb^ay, until nov/ only Great Salt Lake and two smaller\\nlakes remain.\\nU. S. Geological Survey, report for 1880-81, p. xvii.", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3477", "width": "2196", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS\\niilliiillliiii Hi mill I II\\n013 641 630 3\\nlliilpi", "height": "3524", "width": "2384", "jp2-path": "greatsaltlakepre00talm_0132.jp2"}}