{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2696", "width": "1639", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\n(Jhap.__?^- Copyrig-ht No.\\nShelf /__v4_^\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2690", "width": "1726", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "A SMALLER\\nHISTORY OF ROME\\nSir WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.\\nNEW AND THOROUGHLY REVISED EDITION\\nBY\\nA. H. J. GREENIDGE, MA.\\nLecturer and Late Fellow of Hertford College\\nLecturer in Ancient History at Brasenose College, Oxford\\nBROUGHT DOWN TO 476 A.D.\\nBY\\nG. MIDDLETON, MA.\\nLate Lecturer in Latin in the University of Aberdeen\\nAND\\nF. M. COLBY, M.A.\\nFormerly Professor of Economics, New York University\\nNEW YORK CINCrNNATI CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "51059\\nSEP 24 1900\\nS\u00c2\u00a3COND COfy.\\n0(iOi t OtViSION,\\nOCT 1 1900\\nCopyright, 1900, by\\nAmerican Book Company\\nw. p. I\\nt 0!o o.\\ni^", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PEEFACE.\\nIn this new edition of the Smaller History of Rome care\\nhas been taken not to alter any of the essential characteristics\\nwhich have long made this book such a valuable instrument\\nof education. Its original proportions have been, as far as\\npossible, preserved, and no special department of history has\\nbeen allowed to curtail the space which was due to others.\\nSuch alterations as those which deal with the original populations\\nof Italy and the constitutional arrangements of Rome, are merely\\nthe inevitable result of the progress of recent historical research\\nin these directions.\\nThroughout the work the language has been simphfied as\\nmuch as possible, and the quantities of names, where necessary,\\nhave been added in the index.\\nAll the maps and a large proportion of the illustrations have\\nbeen specially prepared for this edition. Some of the latter\\nwere suggested by the editor but whatever merit this feature\\nof the work may possess is due far more to the publishers than\\nto him.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "Julius Caesar.\\nCONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nThe Peoples of Italy.\\nPage\\nPosition of Italy 1\\nIts boundaries 1\\nIts two Divisions 2\\nThe name Italia 2\\n1. The Gauls 2\\n2. The Ligurians 3\\nThe Veneti 3\\n3. The Etruscans 3\\n4. The Italian races 4\\nThe Unibrians 5\\nThe Volscians 5\\nThe Aequians 5\\nThe Hernicans 5\\nThe Sabines 5\\nThe Picentines 5\\nThe Paeligni and neighbouring\\ntribes 5\\nThe Sabellian races 5\\nThe Samnites 5\\nThe Lucanians 6\\nThe Bruttii 6\\nThe Latins 6\\nThe Latium 6\\n5. The lapygians 7\\n6. The Greeks 7\\nCHAPTEE n.\\nThe Early Kings and the Okiginal Constitution of Rome, 753-617 b.o.\\nB.C.\\nPosition of Rome 8\\nIts inhabitants 8\\n1. Latins 8\\n2. Sabines 8\\n3. Etruscans 9\\nRemarks on early Roman his-\\ntory 9\\nLegend of jEneas 9\\nLegend of Ascanius 10\\nFoundation of Alba Longa 10\\nLegend of Rhea Silvia 10\\nBirth of Romulus and Remus 10\\nTheir recognition by Numitor 10\\n7r3 Foundation of Rome 11\\nRomaQuadrata 11\\nPomerium 11\\nDeath of Remus 11\\nB.C.\\n753-716. Reign of Romulus\\nAsylum\\nRape of Sabines\\nWar with Latins\\nWar with Sabines\\nTarpeia\\nSabine women\\nJoint reign of Romulus\\nand Titus Tatius\\nDeath of Titus Tatius\\nSole reign of Romulus\\nTranslation of Romulus\\n715-673. Raignof NumaPompilius\\nInstitutions ascribed to\\nNumaPompilius\\nFlamens 14\\nVestal Virgins.. 14\\n13\\n14", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "Vlll\\nCONTENTS.\\nB.C. Page\\nSalii 14\\nTemple of Janus 14\\n673-642. Reign of Tullus Hostilius 14\\nWar with Alba Longa 14\\nBattle of the Horatii\\nand Curiatii 14\\nWar with the Etrus-\\ncans 15\\nPunishment of Mettius\\nFuffeiius, Dictator of\\nAlba Longa 15\\nDestruction of Alba\\nLonga 15\\nSemoval of its inhabit-\\nants to Rome 15\\nDeath of Tullus Hos-\\ntiliuB 15\\nB.C. Page\\n642-617. Reign of A ncuB Marcius 15\\nWar with the Latins.. 15\\nInstitution of Fetiales.. 16\\nOsiia 16\\nJaniculum 16\\nPons Sublicius i6\\nDeath (if Ancus Murcius 16\\nThe original constitution of\\nRome 16\\nThe Patricians 16\\nThe Plebeians 16\\nThe king 17\\nThe Patrician tribes 17\\nThe Curiae 18\\nThe Comitia Curiuta 18\\nThe Senate 18\\nThe priestly colleges 18\\nCHAPTER III.\\nThe Last Three Kings op Rome, and the Establishment of the Republic,\\nDOWN to the Battle of the Lake Reoili us, 616-498 b c.\\n616-579. Reign of Tarquinius\\nPriscus 20\\nHis early history. 20\\nHis removal to Rome. 21\\nBecomes king 21\\nHis wars 21\\nTheCloacK 21\\nCircus Maximus 21\\nIncrease of the Seuate. 21\\nIncrease of the Vestal\\nVirgins 21\\nEarly history of Servius\\nTuUius .,21\\nDeath of Tarquinius\\nPriscus 22\\n678-535. Reign of Servius TuUius 22\\nI. Reform of the Roman\\nConstitution.. 23\\n1. Division of the Ro-\\nman teriitory into\\nFour Tribes 23\\n2. Census 23\\nFive Classes 24\\nThe Equities 24\\nNumber of the Cen-\\nturies 24\\nComitia centuriata, 25\\nTwo assemblies\\nComitia CentUTiata,\\nComitia Curiata 25\\nII. Increase of the city\\nwalls of Servius Tul-\\nlius 25\\nIII. Alliance with the Latins 26\\nDeath of Servius TuUius 26\\n535-510. Keijin of Tarquinius Su-\\nperbus 27\\nHis tyranny 27\\nHis alli\u00c2\u00a3.nce with tlie\\nLatins 27\\nHis war with the Vol-\\nscians 27\\nFoundation of the temple\\non the Oftpitoline Hill 28\\nThe Sibylline books 28\\nLegend of the Sibyl 28\\nCapture of Gabii 28\\nKing s sons and Brutus\\nsent to consult the\\noracle at Delphi 28\\nLucretia 29\\nExpulsion of the T.ir-\\nquins 30\\n509. Establishment of the Rf public 30\\nThe Consuls 3U\\nfirst attempt to restore the\\nTarquins 31\\nExecution of the sons of\\nBrutus 31\\nWar of the Etruscans with\\nRome 31\\nDeath of i rutus 31\\nDefeat of the Etruscans 31\\nValerius Pulilicola 32\\nDedication of the Capitoline\\nTemple by M. Horatius 32\\n508. Second attempt to restore the\\nTarquins 32\\nLars Porsena 32\\nHoratius Cucles 32", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nIX\\nB.C. Page\\nMucius Scaevola 33\\nCloelia 33\\n498. Third attempt to restore the\\nTarquins 33\\nB.C. Page\\nWar with the Latins 33\\n496. Battle of the Lake Eegillus 34\\nDeath of Tarquinius Superbus 34\\nCHAPTEK IV.\\nFbom the Battle of the Lake Regillus to the Decemvikate,\\n498-451 B.C.\\nStruggles between the Patri-\\ncians and Plebeians\\nAscendency t)f the Patricians\\nSufferings ot the t lebeians\\nLaw of debtor and crt ditor\\nAger Publicus 36\\nObject of the Plebeians to ob-\\ntain a share in the political\\npower and in the public\\nland 37\\n494. Secession to the Sacred Mount 37\\nFable of Menenius Agrippa 37\\n36\\nInstituiions of the Tribunes\\nof the i lebs 37\\n486. Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius 38\\nLeague between the Romans,\\nLatins, and Hernicans 38\\nForeign wars 38\\n488. I. Coriolanus andtlie Vol-\\nscians 39\\n477. n. The Fabia Gens and\\nVeientines 40\\n458. III. Cincinnatus and the\\nAequians 40\\nCHAPTER V.\\nThe Decemvikate, 451-449 b.c.\\n471. Publilian Law, transferring\\nelection of the Tribunes from\\nthe Comitia of Curite to the\\nConcilium ol the Tribes 44\\n462. Proposal ol the Tribune Teren-\\ntilius Arsa lor the appoint-\\nment orDecemviri 44\\n454. Appointment of three Com-\\nmissi U-^rs to visit Greece. 44\\n452. Their return to Rome 44\\n451. Appointment of the Decemviri 44\\nThe Ten Tables 45\\n450. New Decemviri appointed 45\\nTheir tyranny 45\\nTwo new Tables added,\\nmaking twelve in all 45\\n449. The Decemviri continue in\\noffice 45\\nDeath of Sicinius Dentatus 46\\nDeath of Verginia 46\\nSecond secession to the Sacred\\nllount 47\\nResignation of the Decem-\\nvirs 47\\nElection of ten Tribunes 47\\nValerian and Iloratian Laws 48\\nDeath of Appius Claudius 48\\nThe Twelve Tables 48\\nCHAPTEE VI.\\nFrom the Decemvieate to the Capture of Rome by the Gauls,\\n448-390 B.C.\\n445. Third secession to the Janic-\\nulum 50\\nLex Canulela for inte-\\nmarriage between the\\ntwo orders 50\\nInstitution of Military\\nTribunes with consular\\npowers 51\\n443. Institution of the Censorship 51\\n421. Quaestorship thrown open to\\nthe Plebeians 51\\n440. Famine at Rome 51\\n439. Death of Sp. Maelius 52\\nForeign wars 52\\nRoman colonies 52\\nWar with the Etruscans 52", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nB.C. I age\\n437. Spolia Opima wod by A. Cor-\\nnelius Cossus 53\\n426. Capture and destruction of\\nFldenae 53\\n406. Commencement of siege of\\nVeil 53\\nTale of Alban Lake 63\\nB.C. Page\\n396. Appointment of Camillus as\\nDictator 53\\nCapture of Veil 53\\n394. Surrender of Falerii 53\\nUnpopularity of Camillus 54\\n391. He goes into exile 54\\nCHAPTER VII.\\nFrom the Capture of Rome by the Gauls to the Final Union of the\\nTwo Orders, 390-367 B.C.\\nThe Gauls 55\\n391. Attack of Clusium by the\\nSenones 56\\nRoman ambassadors sent to\\nClusium 56\\nThey take part in the fight\\nagainst the Senones 56\\nThe Senones march upon\\nRome 56\\n390. Battle of the Allia 56\\nDestruction of Rome 57\\nSiege of the Capitol 57\\nLegpnd of M. Manlius 57\\nAppointment of Camillus as\\nDictator 57\\nLegend of his delivering\\nRome from the Gauls 58\\nRebuilding of the city 58\\nFurther Gallic wars 58\\n361. Legend of T. Manlius Tor-\\nquatus 59\\n349. Legend of M. Valerius\\nCorvus 59\\n385. Distress at Rome 59\\n384. M. Manlius comes forward as\\na patron of the poor 59\\nHis fate 60\\n376. Licinian Rogations proposed 60\\nViolent opposition of the Pa-\\ntricians 61\\n367. Licinian Rogations passed 61\\n366. L. Sextius first Plebeian\\nConsul 61\\nInstitution of the Praetorship 61\\n356. First Plebeian Dictator 62\\n351. First Plebeian Censor 62\\n337. First Plebeian Praetor 62\\n300. Lex Ogulnia, increasing the\\nnumber of the Pontiffs and\\nAugurs, and enacting that\\na certain number ol them\\nshould be taken from the\\nPlebeians 62\\n339. Publilian Laws 62\\n287. Lex Hortensia ._ 63\\nEqualisation of the orders 63\\nCHAPTER VIIL\\nFrom the Licinian Rogations to the End of the Samkite Wars,\\n367-290 B.C.\\n362. Pestilence at Rome 64\\nDeath of Camillus 64\\nTale of M. Curtius 64\\nExtension of Koinan dominion\\nover Southern Etruria, Vol-\\nsci, and Latins 65\\nThe Samnites 65\\nTheir history 65\\nConquer Campania and Lu-\\ncania 65\\nSamnites of the Apennines\\nattack the Sidicini 65\\nCampanians assist the Sidicini 65\\nThey are defeated by the Sam-\\nnites 65\\nThey solicit the assistance of\\nRome\\n343-341. First Samnite War\\nBattle of Mount Gaurus\\nPeace concluded\\nReasons for the conclu\\nsion of peace\\n340-338. The Latin War\\nThe armies meet near\\nMount Vesuvius\\nTale of Torquatus\\nDecisive battle\\nSelf-sacrifice of De\\ncius\\nBattle at Trifanum", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nB.C. Page\\nCapture of Latin towns 68\\nConclusion of the war 68\\nDissoluiion of the Latin\\nleague 68\\n330. Conquest of tbe Volscian town\\nof Privernum 69\\nOrigin of the Second Samnite\\nWar 69\\n327. The Romans attack Palaeo-\\npolis and Neapolis 69\\n326-304. Second Samnite War 69\\nFirst Period.\\nRoman arms successful 69\\n326. Quarrel between L. Pa-\\npirins Dictator and Q.\\nFabius, his master of\\nthe horse 69\\n321-315. Second Period.\\nSuccess of the Samnites 70\\n321. Defeat of the Romans at\\nthe Caudine Forks by\\nC.Pontius 70\\nB.C. Page\\nIgnominious treaty re-\\njected by the Romans 71\\n314-304. Third Period.\\nSuccess of the Romans 71\\n311. War with the Etruscans 71\\nDefeat of the Etruscans 71\\nDefeat of the Samnites 71\\n304. Peace with Rome. 71\\n300. Conquests of Rome in Central\\nItaly T2\\nCoalition of Etruscans, Umbri-\\nans, and Samnites, against\\nRome 12\\n298-290. Third Samnite War 72\\n295. Decisive battle of Sen-\\ntinum 72\\nSelf-sacrifice of the\\nyounger Decius.. 72\\n292. C. Pontius taken pri-\\nsoner and put to\\ndeath 72\\nResults of the wars 73\\nCHAPTER IX.\\nFrom the Conclusion of the Samnite War to the Subjugation of Italy,\\n290 265 B.C.\\n283. War with the Etruscans and\\nGauls 74\\nBattle of the Lake Vadimo 74\\n282. State of Magna Graecia 74\\nThe Romans assist Thurii 74\\nTheir fleet is attacked by the\\nTarentines 75\\nRoman embassy to Tarentum 75\\n281.AVar declared against the Ta-\\nrentines 75\\nThey apply for aid to Pyrrhus 75\\nPyrrhus arrives in Italy 75\\n280. Plis first campaign against the\\nRomans 76\\nBattle near Heraclea 76\\nRemarks of Pyrrhus on the\\nvictory 77\\nHe attempts to make peace\\nwith Rome 77\\nFailure of his minister Cineas 77\\nHe marches upon Rome 77\\nRetires into winter-quarters at\\nTarentum 78\\nEmbassy of Fabricius 78\\n279. Second campaign of Pyrrhus 78\\nBattle near Asculum 78\\n278. Treachery of the servant of\\nPyrrhus 79\\nTruce with Rome 79\\nPj rrhus crosses over into Sicily 79\\n276. He returns to Italy 79\\n275. Defeat of Pyrrhus 80\\nHe returns to Greece 80\\n272 Subjugation of Tarentum 80\\nSupremacy of Rome in Italy 80\\n273. Embassy of Ptolemy Philadel-\\nphus to Rome 81\\nOrganisation of Italy 81\\nThree classes of Italian popu-\\nlation\\nI. Cives Romani, or Ro-\\nman Citizens 81\\n1. Of the Thirty-three\\nTribes 81\\n2. Of the Roman Co-\\nlonies 81\\n3. Of the Municipal\\nTowns 81\\nII. Municipia 81\\nni. Socii, or Allies 81\\n(i.) Latini 81\\n(ii.) VivlatesUberaeand\\nfoederatae 81\\n312. Censorship of A ppius Claudius 82\\nHis dangerous innovation as to\\nthe Freedmen 82\\n304. Repeiiled in the C nsorship of\\nQ. Fabius Maximus and P.\\nDecius Mns 82\\n312. The Appian Way 8:i\\nThe Appian Aqueduct 82\\nPublication of the forms of\\nlaw by Cn. Flavins 83", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS,\\nCHAPTER X.\\nThe First Punic War, 264-241 B.C.\\n825. Foundation of Carthage. 84\\nIts empire SH\\nIts government 85\\nits army 85\\n3ts fort-ign conquests 85\\nConquest of Messana by the\\nMamertini 85\\nHiero attacks the Mamer-\\ntini 86\\nThey apply for assistance to\\nRome 86\\n264. The Consul Ap. Claudius\\ncrosses over to Sicily to aid\\nthem\\nHe defeats the forces of Syra-\\ncuse and Carthage\\n263. Hiero makes peace with the\\nRomans\\n262. Capture of Agrigfntum by the\\nRomans\\n260. The Romans build a fleet\\nNaval victory of the Consul\\nDuilius 88\\n256. The Romans invade Africa 89\\nNaval victory at Ecnomus 89\\nlirilliant success of Regulus in\\nAfrica 89\\nThe Carthaginians sue in vain\\nfor peace 90\\n255. Arrival of the Lacedaemonian\\nXanthippus 90\\nB.C. Page\\nHe restores confidence to the\\nCarthaginians 90\\nDefeat and captui e of Regulus 90\\nDestruction of the Roman fleet\\nby a storm 90\\nThe Romans build another\\nfleet 90\\n253. Again desiroyed by a storm 90\\nThe war confined lo Sicily 91\\n250. Victory of Metellus at Panor-\\nmus 91\\nEmbassy of the Carthaginians\\nto Rome 91\\nHeroic conduct of Regulus 91\\n250. Siege of Lilybaeum 92\\n249. Defeat of the Consul Claudius\\nat sea 92\\nDestruction of the Roman fleet\\na third time 92\\n247. Appointment of Hamilcar Bar-\\nca to the Carthaginian com-\\nmand 93\\nHe entrenches himself on\\nMount Hercte, near Panor-\\nmus 93\\nHe removes to Mount Eryx 93\\n241. Roman victory off the Aegatian\\nislands 93\\nPeace with Carthage 94\\nEnd of the War 94\\nSicily a province 94\\nCHAPTER XL\\nThe CoNQtTBST of Northern Italy. The Carthaginians in Spain.\\n240-219 B.C.\\n240-238. War of the Mercenaries\\nwith Carthage 95\\nShe owes her safety to Hamil-\\ncar 95\\n238. The Romans seize Sardinia\\nand Corsica 96\\nHamilcar goes to Spain 96\\n235. Temple of Janus closed 96\\nCompletion of the Thirty-five\\nRoman Tribes 96\\n229.IlltrianWar 96\\nConquest of Teuta, queen\\nof the lUyrians 96\\n228. Honours paid to the Romans\\nin the Greek cities 97\\n232. Agrarian law of the Tribune\\nKlaminius 97\\n225. Gallic War 97\\nDefeat of the Gauls at Tela-\\nmon in Etruria 97\\n224. Conquest of the Boii 97\\n223. The Romans cross the Po 97\\n222. Conquest of the Insubres 98\\nMarcellus wins the Spolia\\nOpiraa 98\\n220. The Via Flaminia from Rome\\nto Ariminum 98\\n218. Foundation of Colonies at\\nPlacentia and Cremona 98\\n236. Hamilcar in Spain 98\\nOath of Hannibal 98\\n228. Death of Hamilcar 98\\nHasdrubal succeeds him in\\nthe command 98", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nB.C. I\\n228. Treaty with Rome\\n221. Deatli of Hasdrubal\\nHannibal t-uccecds liini in ttie\\ncommand\\nB.C. Page\\n219. Siege of Saguntum 99\\nits capture 99\\nWar declared against Carthage 100\\nCHAPTER XII.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0The Second Punic War First Period down to the Battle of Cannae,\\n218-216 B.C.\\n218. Preparations of Hannibal 101\\nHis march to the Rhone 102\\nArrival of the Consul Scipio\\nat Massilia 102\\nHannibal crosses the Rhone 102\\nScipio sends his brother to\\nSpain, and returns himself\\nto Italy\\nHannibal crosses the Alps\\nSkirmish on the licinus\\nBattle of the Trebia\\nDefeat of the Romans\\n217. Hannibiil s march through\\nEtruria\\nBattle of the Lake Trasi-\\nmenus 105\\n102\\n103\\n103\\n104\\n104\\n104\\nGreat defeat of the Ro-\\nmans 105\\nQ. Fabius Maximus appointed\\nDictator 106\\nHis policy 106\\nRashness of Minucius the\\nMaster of the Horse 106\\n216. Great preparations of the\\nRomans 107\\nBattle of Cannae Iu7\\nGreat defeat of the Ro-\\nmans 107\\nRevolt of Southern Italy 108\\nHannibal winters at Capua 108\\nNote on Hannibal s passage\\nacross the Alps 108\\nCHAPTER XIII.\\nSecond Punic War: Second Period, from the Revolt of Capua to\\nTHE Battle of the AIetaueus, 215-207 b.c.\\n215 Plan of the war Ill\\nHannibal s repulse before\\nNola la\\nMacedon and Syracuse nego-\\ntiate with Hannibal Ill\\n214. He attempts in vain to sur-\\nprise Tarentum 112\\n213. He obtains possession of Ta-\\nrentum 112\\nWar in Sicilv\\n216. Death of Hiero 112\\nSuccession of Hipronymus 112\\nHis assassination 112\\n214. Arrival of Marcellus in\\nSicily 1:2\\nHe takes Leontini 113\\nHe lays siege to Syracuse il. l\\nDefence by Archimedes 113\\n212. Capture of Syracuse 1x3\\nWar in Spain\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n212. Surprise and death of the\\ntwo Scipios 116\\nSiege of Capua 116\\n211. Hannibal marches upon Rome 116\\nIs compelled to retreat Ii7\\nTiie Romans recover Capua 117\\nPunishment of its inhabitants 117\\n209. The Romans recover Ta-\\nrentum 117\\n208. Defeat and death of Marcellus 118\\n207. Hasdrubal marches into Italy 118\\nHe besieges Plao ntia 118\\nMarch of the Cons 1 Nero to\\njoin his lolleagie Livius\\nin Umbria 118\\nBattle of the Metaurus lin\\nDefeat and death of Hasdrubal 119", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XIV.\\nSecond Punic Wak Third Period, from the Battle of the Metaurus\\nTO the Conclusion of the War, 206-201 b.c.\\nB.C. Page\\nCharacter and early life of\\nScipio 120\\n210. He is elected Proconsul for\\nSpain 121\\nHe takes New Carthage 121\\n206. He subdues Spain 121\\nHe crosses over into Africa\\nand visits Syphax 123\\nSurrender of liades 123\\nScipio returns to Rome 123\\n205. His Consulship 123\\nHe prepares to invade Africa 123\\nB.C. Page\\nHis project is opposed by the\\nSenate 123\\nPreparations in Sicily 124\\n204. He arrives in Africa 124\\n203. He defeats the Carthaginians\\nand Syphax 126\\nMasiuissa and Sophonisba 125\\nThe Carthaginians recall Han-\\nnibal 126\\n202. Battle of Zama, and defeat of\\nHannibal 126\\n201, Peace with Carthage 12V\\nCHAPTER XV.\\nWars in the East: the Macedonian, Syrian, and (xAlatian Wars,\\n214-188 B.C.\\nResults of the Punic Wars 128\\nState of the East 128\\nSyria 128\\nPontus 128\\nGalatia 128\\nPergamus 128\\nEgypt 129\\nState of Greece 129\\nMacedonia 129\\nAchaean League 129\\nAetolian League 129\\nRhodes 129\\nAthens 129\\nSparta 129\\n214-205. First Macedonian War\\n1 ts indecisive character 130\\n211. Treaty of the Romans\\nwith the Aetolian\\nLeague 130\\n205. Conclusion of the war 130\\nPhilip renews hos\\ntilities 130\\nHe assists the Cartha-\\nginians at the battle\\nof Zama 130\\nHis conduct in Greece\\nand Asia 130\\n200-196. Second Macedonian War\\n300. First campaign the\\nConsul Galba 131\\n199. Second Compaign the\\nConsul Villius 131\\n198. Third compaign t the\\nConsul Flamininus 131\\n197. Battle of Cynosce-\\nphalae 131\\n196. Peace with Philip 131\\nDeclaration of Greek\\nindependence at the\\nIsthmian Games 130\\n191-190. Syrian War\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nAntiochus the Third 132\\nIntrigues of the Ae-\\ntolians in Greece 133\\nThey invite Antiochus\\nto Greece 133\\nHannibal expelled from\\nCarthage 133\\nHe arrives in Syria 133\\nHis advice to Antio-\\nchus 133\\n192. Antiochus crosses over\\nto Greece 133\\n191. The Romans defeat\\nhim at Thermopylae 133\\nHe returns to Asia 133\\n190. The Romans invade\\nAsia 134\\nBattle of Magnesia 134\\nDefeat of Antiochus by\\nScipio A siaticus 134\\nTerms of peace 134\\nHannibal flies to Pru-\\nsias, king of Bithy-\\nnia 134\\n189. Aetouan War\\nFulvius takes Ambracia 134\\nTerms of peace 134", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nB.C. I\\n189. Galatian Wae\\nManlius attacks the Gala-\\ntians without the autho-\\nrity of the Senate or the\\nPeople\\nB.C. rage\\n188. Organisation of Asia 135\\n187. Manlius returns to Rome 135\\nEffects of the Eastern con-\\nquests upon the Boman\\ncharacter 136\\nCHAPTER XVI.\\nAVaes in the West: the Gallic, Ligurian, and Spanish Wars,\\n200-175 B.C.\\n197. Two Provinces formed in\\nSpain 139\\n195. The Spanish War\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe Consul M. Porcius Cato\\nsent into Spain 139\\nHis success 139\\nThe Spaniards again take\\nup arms 140\\n179. The war brought to a con-\\nclusion by Ti. Sempro-\\nnius Gracchus 140\\n178. The Istkian War 140\\n177-175. The Sardinian and\\nCoKsrcAN War 140\\n200.\\nThe Gallic War\\nThe Gauls take Placentia\\nand lay siege to Cre-\\nmona\\n188\\n196.\\nConquest of the Insubres\\nand Cenomani\\ni:w\\n191.\\nConquest of the Boii\\n138\\n189.\\nColony founded at Bono-\\n138\\n180.\\nVia Aemilia\\n1.38\\n200.\\nThe Ligueian War\\nContinued with intermis-\\nsions for nearly 80 years\\n138\\nCharacter of the war\\n138\\nCHAPTER XVII.\\nThe Roman Constitution and Aemt.\\nReview of the history of the\\nRoman Constitution\\nPolitical equality of the Patri-\\ncians and Plebians\\nI. The Magistrates\\nThe Lex Annalis\\nCurule and non-curule\\nOrdinary and extraordi-\\nnary\\n1. The Quaestors\\n2. The Aediles\\n3. The Praetors\\n4. The Consuls\\n5. The Dictator\\n6. The Censors\\n(a) The Census\\n(6) Control over the\\nmorals of the\\ncitizens\\n(c) Administration\\nof the finances\\nof the state\\nII. Tpe Senate\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nIts number 145\\nIts mode of election 145\\nIts power and duties 146\\nIII. The Popular Assemblies\\n1. The Comitia Curiata 146\\n141\\n141\\n142\\n142\\n142\\n142\\n142\\n143\\n143\\n144\\n144\\n144\\n144\\n145\\n2. The Comitia Centuriata\\nchange in its constitu-\\ntion 146\\n3. The Comitia Tributa and\\nthe Concilium Plebis 147\\nThe Tribunes 147\\nIV. Finance\\nTributum 147\\nVectigalia 148\\nV. The Provinces 148\\nVI. The Army\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nNumber of the Legion 149\\n1. First Period Servius\\nTullius 149\\n2. Second Period The\\nGreat Latin War, B.C.\\n340 149\\nHastati 149\\nPrincipes 149\\nTriarii 149\\n3. Third Period During\\nthe wars of the young-\\ner Scipio 149\\nTwo legions as-\\nsigned to each\\nConsul 149\\nDivision of the le-\\ngion 150", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "Annour and mode\\nof fighting\\nThe Horse-soldiers\\nInfantry and caval-\\nry of the Socii\\n4. Fourth Feriod ITrom\\nCONT\\nPage\\nENTS.\\nB.C.\\nthe times of the Grac-\\nPag6\\n150\\nchi to the downfall of\\n150\\nthe Kepublic\\nChanges introduced\\n151\\n150\\nby Marius\\n161\\nA Roman triumph\\n152\\nCHAPTEE XVIII.\\nInternal History of Rome during the Macedonian and Syrian Wars.\\nCato and Scipio.\\nEffectof the Roman conquests\\nin the East 153\\nDebasement of the Roman\\ncharacter 154\\n1 S6. Worship of Bacchus 154\\nGladiatorial exhibitions 154\\nRise of the new nobility 154\\n181. Law against bribery 155\\nDecay of the peasant proprie-\\ntors 155\\nM. Porcius Cato 156\\n234. His birth 156\\nHis early life 156\\n204. His Quaestorship 156\\n198. His Praetorship 156\\n195. His Consulship 157\\nRepeal of the Oppian Law 167\\n191. Cato serves in the battle of\\nThermopylae 157\\nProsecution of the two Scipios 158\\nHaughty conduct of Scipio\\nAfricanus 158\\nCondemnation of Scipio Asia-\\nticus 158\\nProsecution of Scipio Afri-\\ncanus 158\\nHe leaves Rome 159\\n183. His death 159\\nDeath of Hannibal 160\\n184. Censorship of Cato 160\\nHe studies Greek in bis old\\nage 160\\nHis character 160\\nCHAPTEE XIX.\\nThe Third Macedonian, Achaean, and Third Punic Wars, 179-146 B.C.\\n179. Death of Philip and accession\\nof Perseus 162\\n172. Attempted murder of Eu-\\nmenes king of Pergamus. 163\\n171-168. Third Macedonian War\\n168. Battle of Pydna.. 163\\nDefeat of Perseus by L.\\nAemilius Paullus 163\\n167.Aemilius PauUus punishes\\nthe Epirotes 164\\nHis triumph 164\\nHis domestic misfortunes 1 64\\nRelations of Rome with\\nEastern powers 16 4\\nEmbassy to Antiochus Epi-\\nphanes 164\\nTreatment of Eumenes king\\nof Pergamus 164\\nMean conduct of Prusias king\\nofBithynia 165\\nTreatment of the Rhodians. 165\\n166. One thousand Achaeans sent\\nto Italy 165\\n150. The survivors allowed to re-\\nturn to Greece 165\\n149. A pretender lays claim to the\\nthrone of Macedonia 166\\nHe is defeated and taken pri-\\nsoner 166\\n147-146. Thr Achaean War\\n146. Corinth taken by L.\\nJVIummius 167\\nFinal conquest of\\nGreece 167\\nCreation of the pro-\\nvince of Mace loiiia\\nand Achaea 167\\nRome jealous of Garbage 167\\nAdvice of Cato 167\\n151. War between Masinissa and\\nCarthage 168\\nConduct of the Romans 168", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nxvn\\nB.C. Page\\n149-146. Thikd Punic Wae\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n147. Scipio Africanus the\\nyounger. Consul 169\\nHis parentage and\\nadoption 169\\nB.C. Page\\nHis character 170\\n146. He takes Carthage 170\\nFormation of the Soman pro-\\nvince of Africa 171\\nLater history of Carthage 171\\nCHAPTEE XX.\\nSpanish Waes, 153-133 b.c First Servile War, 134-132 B.C.\\n1 fiS. War with the Celtiberians 173\\n152. Peace with the Celtiberians. 173\\n151. War with the Lusitanians 173\\n150. Treacherous murder of the\\nLusitanians by Galba 174\\nSuccess of Viriathus against\\nthe Romans 1 74\\nThe Celtiberians again take\\nup ani.s the Numantine\\nWar 174\\n140. Murder of Viriathus 1 75\\n138. Brutus conquers the Gallaeci 175\\n137. The Consul Ho^tilius Manci-\\nnus defeated by the Mu-\\nmantines 175\\nHe signs a peace with the\\nNumantines 175\\nThe Senate refuse to ratify it 175\\n142. Censorship of Scipio Afri-\\ncanus 175\\n134. Consul a second time 176\\nHe carries on the war against\\nNumantia 176\\n133. He takes Numantia 176\\nIncrease of slaves 176\\nI hey rise in Sicily 177\\nThey elect Eunus as their\\nleader 177\\nEunus assumes the title of\\nking 177\\n134. He defeats the Eoman gene-\\nrals 177\\n132. Is himself defeated and taken\\nprisoner 177\\n133. Deatli of Attains, last king of\\nPergamus 177\\nHe bequeaths his kingdom\\nto the Romans 177\\n131. Aristonicus lays claim to the\\nkingdom of Pergamus 177\\n130. Is defeated and taken pri-\\nsoner 178\\n129. Formation of the province of\\nAsia 178\\nExtent of the Roman domi-\\nnions 178\\nCHAPTER XXI.\\nThe Geacchi and the Attack on the Government, 133-121 B.C.\\nNecessity for reform 179\\nEconomic condition of Italy 179\\nEarly life of Tiberius Grac-\\nchus 180\\n137. Quaestor in Spain 181\\n133. Tribune 181\\nBrings forward an Agrarian\\nLaw 181\\nOp])osition of the landowners 182\\nThe Tribune Octavius puts\\nhis veto upon it 182\\nDeposition of Octavius.. 182\\nThe Agrarian Law enacted. 183\\nThree Commissioners elected 183\\nProposed distribution of the\\ntreasnreB of Pergamus\\namongst the Eoman people 183\\nR newed opposition to Tibe-\\nrius 183\\nHe becomes a candidate for\\nthe Tribunate a second time 183\\nRiots 184\\nDeath of Tiberius 184\\n132. Return of Scipio to Rome 184\\nHe opposes the popular party\\nand champions the Italians 185\\n129. Death of Scipio 185\\n126. Expulsion of the AUii s from\\nRome 186\\n125. M. Fulvius Flaccus proposes\\nto give the franchise to the\\nItalians 186\\nRevolt and destruction of\\nFregellae 186\\nb", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "xvni\\nCONTENTS.\\nB.C. Page\\n126. C. Gracchus goes to Sardinia\\nas Quaestor 187\\n124. He reiurns to Rome 187\\n123. Enters on the Tribunate 187\\nHis legislation 187\\n1. Laws for improving the\\ncondition of the people 187\\n1. Extension of the\\nAgrarian Law 187\\n2. State provision for\\nthe poor 187\\n3. Soldiers equipped at\\nthe expense of the\\nRepublic 188\\nII. Laws to diminish the\\npower of the Senate 188\\n1. Transference of the\\njudicial power\\nfrom the Senators\\nto the Equites 188\\nB.C. rage\\n2. Distribution of the\\nProvinces before\\nthe election of the\\nConsuls 188\\n122. C. Gracchus Tribune a second\\ntime 189\\nProposes to confer the citizen-\\nship upon the Latins, and\\nLatin rights on the Italians 189\\nUnpopularity of this proposal 189\\nThe Tribune M. Livius Dru-\\nsus outbids Gracchus 189\\nFoundation of a colony at\\nCarthage 190\\nDecline of the popularity of\\nGracchus 190\\n121. His murder 190\\nFate of the Gracchan legisla-\\ntion 191\\nCHAPTER XXII.\\nThe Juguethine War and the Defeat of the Government, 118-104.\\nC. Marius 193\\n134. Serves at the siege of Nu-\\nmantia 193\\nAttracts the notice of\\nScipio Africanus 193\\n119. Tribune of the Plebs 193\\n115. Praetor 193\\n149. Death of Masinissa 193\\nAccession of Micipsa 193\\n134. Jugurtha serves at the siege\\nof Numantia 193\\n118. Death of Micipsa 194\\nJugurtha assassinates Hi-\\nempsal 1 94\\nWar between Jugurtha and\\nAdherbal 194\\n116. Roman commissioners divide\\nNumidia between Jugurtha\\nand Adherbal 194\\nFresh war between Jugurtha\\nand Adherbal 194\\nSiege of Cirta 194\\n112. Death of Adherbal and mas-\\nsacre of Italian merchants 195\\n111. The Romans declare war\\nagainst Jugurtha 195\\nJugurtha bribes the Consul\\nCalpurnius Bestia 195\\nIndignation at Rome 1 95\\nJugurtha comes to Rome 195\\nHe murders Massiva 195\\nRenewal of the war 195\\n110. Incapacity of the Consul Sp.\\nPostumius Albinus 195\\nDefeat of his brother Aulus 196\\nBill of the Tribune C. Mami-\\nlius 196\\nMany Romans condemned 196\\n109. The Consul Q. Caecilius Me-\\ntellus lands in Africa 196\\nAccompanied by Marius as\\nhis lieutenant 196\\nMetellus defeats Jugurtha 196\\nAmbitious views of Marius 197\\n108. He quits Africa and arrives\\nin Rome 198\\nIs elected Consul 198\\nAttacks the nobility 198\\nCampaign of Metellus as Pro-\\nconsul 198\\nThr- people give Marius the\\ncommand of the Numidian\\nWar 198\\n107. First Consulship of Marius 198\\nHe arrives in Africa 198\\nHe defeats Jugurtha and Boc-\\nchus king of Mauritania 199\\n106. Bocchus surrenders Jugurtha\\nto Sulla, the Quaestor of\\nMarius 199\\nEarly history of Sulla 199\\nHis character 199\\n104. Triumph of Marius 200\\nHis second Consulship 200", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XXIII.\\nThe Cimbri and Teutones, 113-101 b.c. Second Servile War in Sicilt,\\n103-101 B.C.\\nB.C. Page\\nInvasion of the Cimbri and\\nTeutones 201\\nTheir probable origin 2Jl\\n113. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Pa-\\npirius Carbo 202\\n109. Defeat of the Consul M. Ju-\\nnius Silanus 202\\n107. Defeat of the Consul L. Cas-\\nsius Longinus 202\\n105. Defeat of the Consul Cn. Mal-\\nlius Maximus and the Pro-\\nconsul Cn. Servilius Caepio 202\\n104. Second Consulship of Marius 202\\nThe Cimbri invade Spain 202\\n103 Third Consulship of Marius 203\\n102. Fourth Consulship of Marius 203\\nThe Cimbri return from\\nSpain 203\\n102. Marius takes up his position\\nnear Aries 203\\nThe Cimbri enter Italy by the\\nPass of Tridentum\\nGreat defeat of the Teutones\\nby Marius at Aquae Sextiae\\n101. Fifth Consulship of Marius\\nGreat defeat of the Cimbri at\\nVercellae by Marius and\\nthe Proconsul Catulus\\nTriumph of Marius and Ca-\\ntulus 204\\n103-101. Second tervile War in\\nSicily\\nTryphon king of the Slaves\\nSucceeded by Athenio as king\\n101. The Consul Aquillius puts\\nan end to the war 205\\n203\\n203\\n204\\n204\\n204\\n205\\n205\\nCHAPTER XXIV.\\nThe Downfall of the Opposition, and the Attempt of Drdshs at Reform,\\n100-91 B.C.\\n100. Sixth Consulship of Marius 20S\\nHis league with the dema-\\ngogues Saturninus and\\nGlaucia 206\\nAgrarian Law of Saturninus 207\\nBanishment of Metellus 207\\nAssassination of Memmius 207\\nSaturninus and Glaucia de-\\nclared public enemies 208\\nThey are put to death 208\\nMarius visits the East 208\\n92. Condemnation of Eutilius\\nRufus 209\\n91. Tribunate of M. Livius Dru-\\nBUS 209\\nHis measures 209\\nProposes to give the franchise\\nto the Italian allies 209\\nHis assassination 21 n\\nThe Varian commission 210\\nCHAPTER XXV.\\nThe Social or Marsic War, and the Incorporation of Italy, 90-89 B.C.\\n90. The Allies take up arms 211\\nThe war breaks out at Ascu-\\nlum in Picenum 211\\nCorfinium the new capital of\\nthe Italian confederation 212\\nQ. Pompaedius Silo, a Mar-\\nsian, and C. Papius Mu-\\ntilus, a Samnite, the Italian\\nConsuls 212\\nDefeat and death of the Roman\\nConsul P. Rutilius Lupus 212\\nExploits of Marius 213\\nThe Lex Julia 213\\n89. Success of the Romans 213\\nThe Lex Plautia Papiria 213\\nThe franchise given to the\\nAllies 214\\nAll the Allies lay down their\\narms except the Samnites\\nand Lucanians 214\\nThe incorporation of Italy 214", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XXVI.\\nFiBST Civir. War, 88-86 B.C.\\nB.C. Page\\n88. Consulship of Sulla 215\\nReceives the command of the\\nMithridatic War 216\\nThe Tribune P. Sulpicius\\nRufus 216\\nHe proposes to distribute the\\nItalians among the tliirty-\\njive tribes 216\\nSulla flies from Rome to Nola 2 6\\nThe people give Marius the\\ncommand of the Mithridatic\\nWar 217\\nSulla marches upon Rome 217\\nSulpicius put to death. 217\\nMarius flies from Rome 217\\nB.C. Page\\nHis adventures 217\\nIs seized at Minturnae.. 218\\nEscapes to Africa 219\\nRepeal of the Sulpician laws 219\\nSulla sails to the East 219\\n87. Riots at Rome 219\\nThe Consul Cinna invites the\\nassistance of Marius 220\\nMarius and Ciima march\\nupon Rome 220\\nThey enter the city 220\\nMassacre of their enemies 220\\n86. Seventh Consulship of Marius 220\\nHis death 220\\nCHAPTER XXVII.\\nFirst Mithridatic War, 88-84 B.C.\\nKingdom of Pontus 221\\nIts history 221\\n120. Accession of Mithridates\\nVI 222\\nHis early life 222\\nHis attainments 222\\nHis conquests 222\\nHis disputes with the Ro-\\nmans 222\\n88. He invades Cappadocia and\\nBithynia 223\\nHe invades the Roman pro-\\nvince of Asia 223\\nMassacre of Romans and\\nItalians 223\\n87. The Greek states declare in\\nfavour of Mithridates 224\\nSulla lands iu Epirus 224\\nHe lays siege to Athens and\\nthe Piraeus 224\\n86. Takes these cities 224\\nDefeats Archelaus, the gene-\\nral of Mithridates, at Chae-\\nronea 224\\n85. Again defeats Archelaus at\\nOrchomenus 224\\n84. Peace wilh Mithridates 225\\nSulla attacks Fimbria, the\\nMarian general, in Asia 225\\n83. He returns to Italy 225\\nCHAPTER XXVIII.\\nSecond Civil War. Sulla s Dictatorship, Legislation, and Death,\\n83-78 B.C.\\n84. Consulship of Cinna and\\nCarbo 227\\nDeath of Cinna 227\\n83. Consulship of Scipio and Nor-\\nbanus 226\\nPreparations for war 226\\nThe Italians support the Ma-\\nrian purty 228\\nSulla marches from Brundu-\\nsium to Campania 228\\nDefeats the Consul Norbanus 228\\nPompey, Metellus Pius, Cras-\\n8U8, and others, join Sulla\\n82. Consulship of Papirius Carbo\\nand the j ounger Marius\\nDefeat of Marius, who takes\\nrefuge in Praeneste\\nMurder of Senators in Rome\\nby order of Marius\\nGreat battle before the Colliue\\ngate at Rome between Sulla\\nand the Samnites", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS,\\nxzi\\nB.C. Page\\nDefeat of the Samnites 229\\nSurrender ol Praeneste 2:\\nDeath of Marius 230\\nEnd of the war 23 j\\nSulla master of Rome 2\\nPrescription 230\\nDreadful scenes 23\\n81. Sulla Dictator .sSl\\nHe celebiatPS bis triumph\\nover Mithiidates 131\\nHis treatment ol Italy. 232\\nHis military colonies 232\\n79. He resigns the Dictat rship 232\\nHe retires to Puteoli 233\\n78. Hisaeath 233\\nHis funeral 233\\nLeges Cornellae\\n1. (a) Changes in the magis-\\ntracy 234\\n(V) Right of initiative\\ntaken from the Tri-\\nbunes, and their power\\nof veto shackled.. 234\\nPage\\nTribunate made a\\nbar to all higl er\\noffices 234\\n(c) Lex Annalis and\\nsepai ation oi home\\nirom loreign com-\\nmands 234\\nIJ. In the priestly colleges 234\\nRepeal i.l the Lex Do-\\nmitia 234\\nHI. In the Senate 235\\nIncrease in numbers, cor-\\nresponding increase of\\nquaestors and abolition\\nof censors choice 235\\nIV. In Jurisdiction 235\\nQuaestiones Perpetuae.. 235\\nTransference of the Ju-\\ndicia from the Equites\\nto the Senators 235\\nGeneral view of the Sullaii\\nconstitution 236\\nCHAPTEE XXIX.\\nFrom the Death of Sulla to thf. Consulship of Pompet and Ceassus,\\n78-70 B.C.\\n78. Consulship of Lepidus and\\nCatuliis 237\\nLepidus attempts to repeal\\nthe laws of SiiUa 237\\nIs opposed by Catulus 237\\nIs defeated at the Mulvian\\nBridge 238\\nRetires to Sardinia 238\\nHis death 238\\n82 Sertorius in Spain 238\\n79. Carries on war against Me-\\ntellus 238\\nCn. Pompeius Magnus 238\\nHis birth 238\\n89. Fights against the Italians\\nunder his father 238\\n83. Joins Sulla 239\\n81. Is sent into Sicily and Africa 239\\n80. Enters Home in triumph. 239\\n78. Supports the aristocracy\\nagiinst Lepidus 239\\n76. Is sent into Spain to assist\\nMetellus 240\\n72. Assassination of Sertorius by\\nPerperna 240\\n72. Pompey finishes the war in\\nSpain 240\\n73. War of the Gladiators Spar-\\ntacus 241\\n72 Spartacus defeats both Con-\\nsuls 241\\n71. Crassus appointed to the com-\\nmand of the war against\\nthe Gladiators 241\\nDefeats and slays Spartacus 241\\nPompey cuts to pieces a body\\nof Gladiators 242\\n70. Consulship of Pompey and\\nCrassus.. 242\\nPompey restores the Tribuni-\\ntian power 242\\nLaw of L. Aurelius Cotta\\ntransferring the Judicia to\\nthe Senators, Equites, and\\nTribuni Aerarii 242", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XXX.\\nThied or Great JIithuidatic War, 74-61 B.C.\\nB.C. I tige\\n83. Second MrTHRiDATrc War\\nMurena invades Pontus 244\\n82. Mithridates defeats Murena 244\\nEnd of the Second Mithridatic\\nWar 245\\nPreparations of Mitbridatss 245\\n74 Third Mithridatic War\\nMitiiridates defeats the Consul\\nCotta 246\\nHe lays siege to Cyzicus 246\\n73. The siege is raised by Lucull us 246\\nLucullus defeats Mithridates 246\\n72. Mithridates talces refuge in\\nArmenia 246\\nLucullus settles the affairs of\\nAsia 246\\n69. He invades Armenia and de-\\nfeats Tigranes 2 47\\n68. Lucullus defeats Tigranes\\nand Mithridates, and lays\\nsiege to Nisibis 2 17\\n67. Mithriiiates returns to Pon-\\ntus, and defeats the gene-\\nrals of Lucullus 248\\nMutiny in the army of Lu-\\ncullus 248\\nThe command of the Mithri-\\ndatic War given to Glabrio 248\\nWar with the Pirates.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nAccount of the Pirates 219\\nCommand of the war given\\nby the Gabinian Law to\\nPompey 249\\nB.C. Page\\nSuccess of Pompey 250\\nHe finishes the war 250\\n66. Third Mithridatic War,\\ncontinued 250\\nCommand of the Mithridatic\\nWar given by the Manilian\\nLaw to Pompey 250\\nIt is opposed by the aris-\\ntocracy 251\\nIt is supported by Cicero 251\\nPomppy defeats Mithridates 251\\nMithridates retires into the\\nCimmerian Bosporus 252\\nPompey invades Armenia 252\\nSubmission of Tigranes 252\\n65. Pompey pursues Mithridates 232\\nHe advances as far as the\\nriver Pliasis 252\\nHe returns to Pontus, which\\nhe reduces to the form of a\\nRoman province 252\\n64. He marches into Syria, which\\nhe makes a Roman pro-\\nvince 252\\n63. He subdues Phoenicia and\\nPalestine 253\\nHe takes Jerusalem 253\\nPreparations of Mithridates 253\\nConspiracy against him 253\\nHis death 254\\nPompey settles the affairs of\\nAsia 254\\nCHAPTER XXXI.\\nInternal History, trom the Cons^dlship of Pompey and Crassus to the\\nReturn of Pompey from the East the Conspiracy of Catiline.\\n69-61 B.C.\\nState of parties at this time 255\\nC. Jdlius Caesar 256\\n100. His birth 256\\nHis early history 256\\nHis life endangered by\\nSulla 216\\n81. He serves in Asia 256\\n77. Accuses Dolabella 256\\nTaken by the Pirates 256\\n75. Studies in Rhodes 256\\n68. Quaestor 257\\n66. Curule Aodile 257\\nRestores the statues of Ma-\\nrius 257\\nM. Tdllius Cicero\\nHis birth 257\\nServes in the Social War. 257\\nHis speech for Sfx. Ri scius\\nof Ameria 258\\nHe studies in Athens 258\\nHe studies in Rhodes 258\\nHe returns to Rome. 258\\nQuaestor in Sicily 258\\nHe accuses Verrcs 258", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nB.C. i age\\n69. Aedile 259\\n66. Praetor 259\\nHe speaks on behalf of the\\nManilian Law 259\\nFirst conspiracy of Catiline 259\\nHistory of Catiline 260\\n63. Consulship of Cicero 261\\nAgrarian law of RuUus 261\\nSecond conspiracy of Catiline 262\\nB.C. Page\\nCataline quits Rome 262\\nCicero seizes the conspirators 263\\nThey are put to death 263\\n(;2. Defeat and death of Cataline 264\\nPopularity of Cicero 264\\nIllegality of the execution of\\nthe conspirators 264\\nRumoured complicity of the\\ndemocratic leaders 265\\nCHAPTEK XXXII.\\nFrom Pompet s Return from the East to Cicero s Banishment and\\nRecall, 62-57 B.C.\\n62. Pompey arrives in Italy\\n61. Triumph of Pompey\\nState of parties in Rome\\n60. The Senate refuses to sanction\\nPonipey s measures in Asia\\n61. Caesar as Propraetor in Spain\\nHis vittories in Spain\\n60. He returns to Rome\\nFirst Triumvirate\\n59. Consulship of Caesar\\nAgrarian Law for the division\\nof the Campanian land\\nRatification of Pompey s acts\\nin Asia\\nMarriage of Julia, Caesar s\\ndaughter, with Pompey\\nCaesar gains over the Equites\\n266\\n266\\n267\\n267\\n268\\n268\\n268\\n268\\n268\\n269\\n269\\nVatinian Law, granting to Cae-\\nsar the provinces of Cisalpine\\nGaul and lUyricum for five\\nyears 269\\nTransalpine Gaul added.. 269\\n62 Clodius profanes the rites of\\nthe Bona Dea 270\\n61. His trial and acquittal 270\\nHis enmity against Cicero 270\\n58. Tribune of the Plebs 270\\nHe accuses Cicero 270\\nBanishment of Cicero 271\\n57. Riots at Home between Clo-\\ndius and Milo 271\\nReturn of Cicero from banish-\\nment 272\\nCHAPTER XXXIII.\\nCaesar s Campaigns in Gaul, 58-51 B.C.\\n6S. First Campaign 274\\nHe defeais the Helvetii 274\\nHedefeats Ariovistus and the\\nGermans 274\\n57. Second Campaign 274\\nThe Belgic War 274\\nGreat victory over the Nervii 275\\n56. Third Campaign 275\\nHe defeats the Veneti. 275\\nHe deff-ats the Morini and\\nMenapii 275\\n55. Fourth Campaign 275\\nCaesar crosses the Rhine 276\\nHis first invasion of Britain 276\\n51. Fifth Campaign 277\\nHis second invasion of Britain 277\\nRevolt of the Eburones and\\nKervii 277\\nThey destroy the detachment\\nof T. Tituriiis Sabinus and\\nL. Aurunculeius Cotta 277\\nThey attack the camp of Q.\\nCicero 277\\n53. Sixth Campaign 278\\nCaesar puts down the revolt\\nin Gaul 278\\nHe crosses the Rhine a f econd\\ntime 278\\n52. Seventh Campaign 278\\nRevolt of all Gaul 278\\nHeaded by Vercingetorix 278\\nCaesar takes Alesia and Ver-\\ncingetorix 279\\n51. Eighth Campaign 280\\nPacification of Gaul 280", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XXXIV.\\nInternal History from the Return of Cicero from Banishment to the\\nCommencement of the Civil War: Expedition and Death of Crasbds.\\n57-50 n.c.\\nB.C. Page\\n57. Cicero supports the Triumvirs 281\\nCicero s revult from the Trium-\\nvirs 281\\n56. Pompey and Crassus meet Cae-\\nsar at Luca 231\\nFresh arrangements for the\\ncontinuance of their power 281\\n55. Second Consulship of Pompey\\nand Crassus 282\\nThe Trebonian Law, giving\\nthe two Spains to Pompey\\nand Syria to Crassus, and\\nthe Pompeio-Licinian Law,\\nprolonging Caesar s govern-\\nment for five years more 282\\nDedication of Pompey s theatre 282\\n54. Crassus crosses the Euphrates 283\\nHe winters in Syria 283\\n53. He again crosses the Euphrates 283\\nB.C. Page\\nIs defeated and slain near\\nCarrhae 233\\n54. Death of Julia 284\\n53. Riots in Rome 284\\n52. Murder of Clodius by Milo 284\\nPompey sole Consul 285\\nTrial and condemnation of Milo 285\\n51. Rupture between Caesar and\\nPompey 285\\nPompey joins the aiistocratical\\npaity 286\\n49. Proposition that Caesar should\\nlay down his command 287\\nThe Senate invest the Consuls\\nwith dictatorial power 287\\nThe Tribunes Antony and\\nCassius fly to Caesar s camp 287\\nCommencement of the Civil\\nWar 287\\nCHAPTER XXXV.\\nThe Beginning of the Civil War to Caesar s Death, 49-44 B.C.\\n49. Caesar at Ravenna 288\\nHe crosses the Rubicon. 288\\nHis triumphal progress through\\nItaly 289\\nPompey and his party fly from\\nRome to Brundusium. 289\\nThey are pursued by Caesar. 289\\nThey embarlt for Greece 289\\nCaesar goes to Rome 289\\nHe sets out for Spain 290\\nHe conquers L. Afrainius and\\nM. Petreius, Pompey s lieu-\\ntenants in Spain 290\\nHe takes Massilia 290\\nIs appointed Dictator, which\\noffice he holds only eleven\\ndays 291\\n48. He sails from Brundusium to\\nGreece 291\\nHe besieges Pompey at Dyrr-\\nachium 292\\nIs compelled to retire 292\\nBattle of Pharsalus and defeat\\nof Pompey 292\\nPompey flies to Egypt 293\\nHis death 293\\nCaesar is appointed Dictator a\\nsecond time 294\\nThe Alexandrine War 294\\n47. Conclusion of the Alexandrine\\nWar 294\\nCaesar marches into Pontus\\nand defeats Pharnaces 294\\nHe sails to Africa 295\\n46. Battle of Thapsus and defeat\\nof the Pompeians 295\\nSiege of Utica 295\\nDeath of Cato 295\\nCaesar returns to Rome 295\\nHonours voted to Caesar 295\\nHis triumph 296\\nHis reformation of the Calendar 296\\nInsurrection in Spain 296\\nCaesar sets out for Spain 296\\n45. Battle of Munda and defeat of\\nthe Pompeians 296\\nCaesar returns to Rome 297\\nNew honours voted to Caesar 297\\nHe is undisputed master of the\\nRoman world 297\\nUse he made of his power 297\\nHis vast projects 298\\n44. Conspiracy against Caesar s life 298\\nBrutus and Cassius 298\\nAssassination of Caesar on the\\nIdes of March 299\\nReflections on his death 299\\nHis character and genius 299", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nCHAPTER XXXVI.\\nFrom the Death of Caesar to the Battls of PniLippi, 44-^2 B.C.\\nB.C. Page\\n44. Proceedings of tbe conspirators 301\\nAntony and Lepidus 301\\nPretended reconciliation 3^2\\nCaesar s will 3l2\\nHis funeral 302\\nPopular indignation against\\nthe conspirators 302\\nThey fly from Rome and talce\\npossession of their provinces 302\\nOcTAVins, Caesar s nephew, at\\nlUyricum 303\\nIs made Caesar s heir 303\\nHe proceeds to Rome 303\\nHis opposition to Antony 3o3\\nHe courts the Senate 303\\nCicero s opposition to Antony 304\\n43. Antony proceeds to Cisalpine\\nGaul, and lays siege to\\nMutina 304\\nOctavian and the Consuls Hir-\\ntiuB and Pansa march against\\nAntony 304\\nThey fight with Antony 304\\nDeath of Hirtius and Pansa 305\\nAntony is defeated, and crosses\\nthe Alps 305\\nB c. Page\\nOctavian marches to Rome 305\\nIs declared Consul 305\\nBreaks with the Senate, and\\noutlaws the murderers of\\nCaesar 305\\nMarches against Antony and\\nLepidus 305\\nIs reconciled with them 305\\nSecond Triumvirate 306\\nThe Triumvirs enter Rome 306\\nDreadful scenes 30fi\\nDeath of Cicero 307\\nSextus Pompeius master of\\nSicily and the Mediterranean 301\\nHe defeats the fleet of the Tri-\\numvirs 308\\nBrutus obtains possession of\\nMacedonia 308\\nCassius, of Syria 308\\nTheir proceedings in the East 308\\nThey plunder Asia Minor 308\\n42. They return to Europe to meet\\nthe Triumvirs 309\\nBattles at Philippi 309\\nDeath of Brutus and Cassius 309\\nCHAPTER XXXVn.\\nFrom the Battle of Philippi to the Battle of Actium, 41-30 b.c.\\n41. Antony remains in the East 311\\nHe meets Cleopatra at Tarsus 311\\nHe accompanies her to Alex-\\nandria 312\\nOctavian returns to Rome 311\\nConfusion in Italy 312\\nConfiscation of lands 312\\nFulvia the wife of Antonj\\nandL. Antonius, his brother,\\nrise against Octavian 312\\nThey take refuge in Perusia.. 312\\n40. Capture of Perusi\u00c2\u00ab, and end of\\nthe war 312\\nThe Parthians invade Syria 313\\nAntony joins Sextus Pompeius\\nand lays siege to Brun-\\ndusium 313\\nReconciliation between Antony\\nand Octavian 313\\nFresh division of the Roman\\nworld 313\\nAntony marries Octavia.. 313\\n39. Peace with Sextus Pompeius\\nat Misenum 314\\nVentidius, the Legate of An-\\ntony, defeats the Parthians 314\\n38. He again defeats the Parthians 314\\nDeath of Pacorus 314\\nWar with Sextus Pompeius 315\\nHe destroys the fleet of Oc-\\ntavian 315\\n37. Antony comes to Tarentum. 315\\nTriumvirate renewed for an-\\nother period of five years 315\\n36. Renewal of the war with Sex-\\ntus Pompeius 315\\nHis defeat 316\\nHe flies to Asia 316\\nLepidus deprived of his Tri-\\numvirate 316\\n35. Death of PompeiU 316\\n30. Antony joins Cleopatra 316\\nHis infatuation 317\\nHe invades Partbia 317", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "XXVI\\nCONTENTS.\\nB.C. Page\\nHis disastrous retreat 317\\n34. He invades Armenia 317\\nOctavian subdues the Dalma-\\ntians 317\\nHis prudent corn I uct 317\\n33. Rupture between Octavian\\nand Antony 318\\n32. War against Cleopatra 318\\n31. Battle of Actlum 318\\nDefeat of Antony 318\\nB.C. Page\\nHe flies to Alexandria 318\\n30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra 319\\nEgypt made a Roman posses-\\nsion 320\\nEnd of the Republic 320\\n29. Triumph of Octavian 320\\n27. He receives the title of Au-\\ngustus 320\\nHis policy 320\\nThe Principate 32ii\\nCHAPTER XXXVIII.\\nSkktch of tee History op Roman Literature from the Earliest Times\\nTO the Death of Augustus.\\nPOETRT\\nFolk-songs in the Satumian\\nMetre 322\\nCommencement of Roman\\nLiterature 322\\nThe Drama\\n240. M. Livius Andronicus.. 323\\n235. Cn. Naevius 323\\n239-169. Q. Ennius 323\\n254-184. T. Maccius Plautus 324\\n195-159. P. TerentiusAfer.. 325\\n168 {died). Statius Caecilius 325\\n\\\\m {flourished), h. Xiramas 325\\n220-131. M. Pacuvius 325\\n140 {born). L. Accius 325\\nComoediae Togatae 325\\nComoediae Palliatae 325\\nFabulae Praetextatae 325\\nAtellanae Fabulae 326\\nMimes 326\\n45 {acted). D. Laberius 326\\nP. Byrus 326\\nFescennine Songs 326\\nSatire 326\\n180-103. C. Lucilius 327\\n96-55. T. Lucretius Carus 327\\n87-54. Valerius Catullus 328\\n70-19. P. VergiliusMaro.. 328\\n65-8. Q. Horatius Flaccus 330\\n30 {flourished). Albius Ti\\nbuUus 332\\n51 Sextus Propertius 332\\nB.C. a.d.\\n43 18. P. Ovidius Naso 333\\nB.C.\\nProse Writers\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe Annalists 334\\n210 {flourished). Q. Fabius\\nPictor 334\\nL. Cincius Alimentus 33 1\\n234-149. M. Porcius Cato 331\\n106-43. M. TuUlus Cicero.. 334\\n117-28. M. Terentius Varro 335\\n100-44. C. Julius Caesar 336\\n86-34. C. Sallustius Crispus 336\\nCornelius Nepos 33ij\\nB.C. A.D.\\n59-17. Titus Livius 336\\nCHAPTER XXXIX.\\nThe Empire from Augustus to Trajan, b.c. 29 to a.d. 117.\\nPrepared by Mr. G. Middleton, M.A., late lecturer in Latin in the University oj\\nAberdeen, under the direction of Professor W. if. Ramsay, M.A., D.C.L.\\nAugustus retains command of\\nthe soldiers 339\\nThe Senate control the peace-\\nful provinces 339\\n26. Augustus goes to Spain 3i0\\n22. Maecenas position 342\\n21. Augustus goes to regulate the\\nEast anew 342\\nThe Parthians submit 342\\n18. Leges Juliae passed reforming\\nsociety 342\\n29. Octavian consolidates the ad-\\nministration of tlie pro-\\nvinces and enters Rome in\\ntriumph.. 338\\nHe effects a transformation of\\nthe government 338\\nHe retires into private life 338\\nThe Senate refuse to accept his\\nresignation 338\\n29. Title of Augustus conferred\\nupon Octavian 339", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nB.C. Page\\n10-13. Augustus visits Gaul 342\\nAgrippa has charge of Eastern\\nfrontier countries. Northern\\nwars entrusted to Tiberius\\nand Drusus 343\\n15. Tribes of Tyrol, Rhaeti, Vin-\\ndelici, conquered 343\\nDeath of Agrippa and Drusus 343\\nA.D.\\n9. Revolt of Arminius in north-\\nwest Germany 34\\nAnnihilation of Varus legions 343\\n13. Germanicus succeeds Tiberius\\nin command 343\\nElbe frontier abandoned and\\nRhine-Danube frontier sub-\\nstituted 343\\nAugustus later life unevent-\\nful succeeds Lepidus as\\nPontifex Maximus, 12 b.c.\\nIn 2 B.C. receives title of\\npater patriae 343\\n14. Death of Augustus 344\\nAccession of Tiberius 344\\nDiscontent in the army.. 345\\nComitia discontinued 345\\nGermanicus defeats the Marsi 345\\n17. Germanicus sent to the East,\\nmakes terms with Parthia 345\\n19. Germanicus dies at Antioch. 345\\n17-24. Junius Blaesus defeats\\nTacfarinas 346\\nC. Silius crushes insurrection\\nin Gaul 346\\n28. Revolt of the Frisii suppressed 316\\nIncrease of the influence of the\\ndelatores 346\\n23. Rise and influence of Aelius\\nSejanus 346\\n26. Tiberius leaves Rome for\\nCapreae 346\\n31. Fall and execution of Sejanus 347\\nCharacter of Tiberius 347\\n37. His death 347\\n37. Accession of Caligula 347\\nHis good intentions not realized 347\\nHis inordinate vanity and folly 348\\n41. Assassinated by conspirators 348\\nAccession of Claudius 348\\nPasses useful reforms and\\ncompletes public works 348\\nMakes changes in the Eastern\\nadministration 349\\n43. Claudius invades Britain and\\nconquers the southern part 349\\nIntrigue and fall of Messalina 349\\nClaudius marries Agrippina\\nthe younger 349\\n54. Death of Claudius 349\\nAccession of Nero 349\\nHis dissipation 349\\nA.D. Page\\nThe State administered by\\nSeneca and Burrus 349\\n59. Nero puts his mother to death 349\\n61. Iceni under Boadicea defeated\\nin Britain 350\\n64. Great fire in Rome 350\\nAccusation and persecution of\\nthe Christians 350\\n66. Nero visits Greece 350\\n68. Revolt of Gaul under Vindex\\nand Spain under Galba 350\\nSuicide of Nero 350\\nAccession of Galea 350\\nHis unpopularity and revolt\\nof the Praetorian guards\\nunder Otho 350\\n69. Galba put to death in the\\nForum 351\\nAccession of Otho in Rome 351\\nOtho s army defeated by Vi-\\ntellius 351\\nDeath of Otho and accession of\\nViTELLins 351\\nVespasian proclaimed emperor\\nby the Eastern legions 351\\nVitellius defeated by Primus 351\\nDisturbances among the Batavi 351\\n70. Arrival of Vespasian in Rome 352\\nCampaign of Titus against the\\nJews 352\\nSack of Jerusalem, Judaea\\nmade a province 352\\nGood government of Vespasian 352\\nProvincial administration vi-\\ngorously managed 352\\n77. Vespasian continues the con-\\nquest of Britain 352\\n79. Death of Vespasian 352\\nAccession of Titus 352\\nHis popularity and munifi-\\ncence 352\\nThe great eruption of Vesuvius\\nand destruction of Pompeii 352\\n81. Early death of Titus 353\\nAccession of Domitian 353\\n83. Leads campaign against the\\nChatti, and assumes title of\\nGermanicus 353\\n84. Caledonian chief Calgacus de-\\nfeated 353\\nContinued wars against the\\nSuevi 353\\n96. Assassination of Domitian 353\\nHis character, and persecution\\nof the Christians 353\\nSpread of Christianity 354\\nAccession of Nerv a 354\\nAdopts Trajan as his consort\\nand dies 354\\n98. Accession of Trajan 354\\nHis vigour and greatness 354", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\n101-104. His conquest of Dece-\\nbalus in Dacia 354\\n106-114. Trajan s good work at\\nRome 354\\nHis attention to roads\\nand public buildings. 355\\nHis excellent control of\\nthe provinces 355\\nA.D. Page\\n112. Trajan forbids hetaeriae of\\nChristians in Bithynia 355\\n113. Trajan goes to the East and\\nsubdues Parthia with great\\nsuccess 355\\n117. Trajan dies on his homeward\\njourney in Cilicia 355\\nCHAPTERS XL, XLI.\\nThe Empire from Hadrian to Constantine. The Barbarian Invasions. The\\nDecline and Pall of the Empire.\\nPrepared hy F. M. Colby, Formerly Professor of Economics, New York University.\\n117. Accession of Hadrian 356\\nHadrian gives up Parthia 356\\n119-138. His visits to the pro-\\nvinces his public\\nworks 356\\n131-135. Revolt of the Jews 356\\n138. Accession of Antoninus\\nPius his peaceful reign 356, 357\\n161. Accession of Marcus Aure-\\nLius his character 357\\n162-166. War with the Parthians 357\\n167-175. War with the Marco-\\nmaniii, Quadi, etc. 357\\n178-180. Further defeats of the\\nMarcomanni 357\\n180-193. Reign of Commodus 357, 358\\n193. Sway of the Praetorians 358\\n193. Accession of Septimius Se-\\nverus 358\\n211-217. Despotism of Cara-\\nCALLA 359\\n251. Invasion of the Goths 359\\n260-273. The Thirty Tyrants 359\\n284. Accession of Diocletian 360\\nThe new system of admin-\\nistration two Augusti and\\ntwo Caesars 360\\n303. Persecution oi the Chris-\\ntians 360\\n323. Constantine becomes sole\\nemperor, after several wars\\nwith rivals 361\\n324. Christianity the state re-\\nligion 361\\nCapital of the empire re-\\nmoved to Constantinople 361\\n325. Council of Nice 361\\n337. Death of Constantine mas-\\nsacre of his relatives di-\\nvision of the empire and\\ncivil war 362\\n361. Accession of Julian 363\\nBrief restoration of pa-\\nganism 363\\n364. First division of the empire\\ninto East and West 363\\n376. The Goths admitted into\\nMoesia 363\\n378. Battle of Adrianople 364\\n379. Theodosius becomes em-\\nperor of the East 364\\nHe restores order, and\\nbecomes supreme also in\\nthe West 364\\n395. Death of Theodosius, and\\nfinal division of the empire 364\\nThe real power passes into\\nthe hands of barbarian\\nministers 365\\n396-412. Invasions of Alaric and\\nthe Visigoths 365\\n403. Defeat of Alaric at Pollentia,\\nby Stilicho, minister of\\nthe Western Empire 365\\n406. Stilicho defeats the Vandals\\nand Goths 365\\n410. Alaric sacks Rome 366\\n419. Visigothic monarchy found-\\ned in Gaul 366\\n429-439. Vandal kingdom found-\\ned in Africa 367\\n451. Defeat of the Huns, under\\nAttila, at Chalons 367\\n452. Attila invades Italy 367\\n455. The Vandals sack Rome 367\\n476. The last emperor of the West\\nis deposed, and Italy be-\\ncomesa barbarian kingdom 368\\nGenealogical Tables of the House of Augustus 369, 370\\nIndex 371", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "Vergil.\\nLIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.\\nThe Roman Forum\\nPnteal on a coin of the Scribonia Gens\\nFrontispiece\\nTitle Page\\nJulius Caesar vii\\nVergil xxix\\nUrn showing forms of cottages of\\nthe ancient Latins 1\\nPrehistoric gate at Arpinum 1\\nThe wolf of the Capitol 8\\nSalii carrying the ancilia 13\\nAugur s victims 19\\nRemains of the Servian wall 20\\nThe Cloaca Maxima 22\\nCoin representing the children\\nof Brutus led to death by\\nlictors 34\\nThe Campagna 35\\nTarpeian Rock 43\\nView from the neighbourhood of\\nVeil 50\\nFragment of sculpture from the\\npediment of the Temple of\\nJupiter Capitolinus 55\\nTemple of Jupiter Capitolinus\\n(from a coin) 63\\nSamnite warriors (from a mural\\npainting at Paestum) 64\\nCoin of Pyrrhus 74\\nCoin representing Temple of Vesta 83\\nRoman galley (from Trajan s\\nColumn) 84\\nColumna Rostrata 88\\nFighting elephant making a pri-\\nsoner (gem in Cabinet de\\nFrance, No.l911 (Chabouillet)) 94\\nCoin of Carthage 95\\nCoin of Hiero 100\\nLake Trasimenus 101\\nCapua 110\\nHannibal 120\\nSoldiers blowing Tubae and Cornua\\n(from Column of Trajan).\\nCoin of Antiochus the Great\\nDying Galatian (so-called dying\\ngladiator). From the original\\nin the Museum of the Capitol.\\nRoman soldiers (from Column of\\nTrajan)\\nA Roman general addressing his\\nsoldiers\\nLictors\\nScipio Africanus 153\\nHead of Perseus. From a gem in\\nthe British Museum 162\\nThe Roman Forum, looking west 179\\nA Roman trophy ]92\\nGerman priestess in chariot drawn\\nby oxen (from Antonine Column 201\\nFasces (from the original in the\\nCapitol of Rome) 205\\nCaius Marius 206\\n127\\n128\\n136\\n137\\n140\\n141", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.\\nCoin of the eight Italian nations\\ntaking the Oath of Federation 211\\nRoman in toga 214\\nTerracina 215\\nMount Argaeus in Cappadocia 221\\nCoin of Nicomedes III., king of\\nBithynia 225\\nBrundusium 226\\nCoin of Sulla 236\\nCn. Pompeius Magnus 237\\nCoin of Mithridates 244\\nCoin of Tigranes 254\\nCicero 255\\nCoin of Pompey 265\\nC. Julius Caesar 266\\nTemple of Nomausus {Nimes),\\nnow called the Maison Carrie 273\\nOutline view of the Maison Carree\\nat Nimes 280\\nCoin of Caesar 281\\nBrutus 288\\nStatue of a Roman, representing\\nthe toga (from the Louvre) 300\\nM. Antonius 301\\nCoin of Antony and Cleopatra 310\\nCoin of Augustus, with head of\\nM. Agrippa on the reverse 311\\nCoin of Augustus commemor.iting\\nthe conquest of Egypt 321\\nMedal of Horace 322\\nMaecenas (from the Carlisle gem) 338\\nCoin of Augustus 349", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "LIST OF MAPS.\\nPAGE\\nColoured Map of Italy and the adjoining coasts, with plan of\\nRome To face 1\\nMap of Rome and surrounding country 40\\nMap of Italy, Spain, and Africa, after the First Punic War, show-\\ning Hannibal s route To face 100\\nPlan of Syracuse 115\\nPlan of Carthage 171\\nMap of the Roman Empii e at fhe death of Caesar To face 300\\nPlanofActium 318\\nMap of the Roman Empire during the later years of Augustus\\nTo face 344", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "ABBREVIATED FORMS OF ROMAN PERSONAL NAMES (praenomina)\\nA. represents\\nAulus.\\nAp.\\nAppius.\\nc.\\nCaius, or GaiuE\\nCn.\\nCnaeus, or Gnaeus.\\nD.\\nDecimus.\\nL.\\nLucius.\\nM.\\nMarcus.\\nM\\nManius.\\nP.\\nPublius.\\nQ.\\nQuintus.\\nSer.\\nServius.\\nSp.\\nSpurius.\\nT.\\nTitus.\\nTi.\\nTiberius.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2679", "width": "1726", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2684", "width": "1678", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "Ura showing forms of cottage of the ancient Latins.\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nTHE PEOPLES OF ITALY.\\nItaly is the central one of the three great peninsulas \u00e2\u0096\u00a0which\\nproject from the south of Europe into the Mediterranean Sea.\\nIt is bounded on the north by*the chain of the\\nAT 1 u r J. 1 1 4. The peninsula\\nAlps, which form a natural barrier against in- ^f j^^jy\\nvasion on the west its shores are washed by the\\nTjTrhenian Sea, called by the Romans the Lower Sea (Mare\\nInferum), on the east by the Adriatic or Upper Sea (Mare\\nSuperum). All its best harbours lie on the west, and con-\\nsequently it is in this direction that Rome s earliest trade-routes\\nlay, and her earliest imperial acquisitions were made.\\nThe peninsula itself may be divided into two parts, the northern\\nconsisting of the great plain drained by the river Padus or Po\\nand its numerous tributaries, and the southern being a long", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "2 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. I.\\ntong;ue of land, with the Apennines as a back-hone running down\\nits whole extent from north to south. The extreme length of\\nthe peninsula from the Alps to the Straits of Messina is 700\\nmiles. The breadth of Northern Italy is 350 miles, while that\\nof the southern portion is on an average not more than 100\\nmiles. But till the time of the Empire the Romans never\\nincluded the plain of the Po in Italy. To this country they\\ngave the name of Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul on this (the\\nRoman) side of the Alps, in consequence of its being inhabited\\nby Gauls. The westernmost portion of the plain was peopled\\nby Ligurian tribes, and was therefore called Ligukia, while its\\neastern extremity was inhabited by the Veneti.\\nThe name Italia was originally apphed to a very small\\ntract of country. It was confined to the extreme south of the\\npeninsula, which at a still earlier period had been\\nIt^ U\u00c2\u00b0*\u00c2\u00b0^* called Oenotria by the fifth century B.C. it had\\ncome to include the territory, subsequently known\\nas Lucania and Bruttium, stretching along the shores of the\\nTarentine gulf south of a line drawn from Metapontum to\\nPaestum, and by the time of the Punic wars, in the third\\ncentury B.C., it had spread over the whole peninsula south of\\nthe rivers Rubicon and Macra, which parted Umbria and Etruria\\nfrom the northern districts of the valley of the Po. Italy,\\nproperly so called, is a very mountainous country, being filled\\nup more or less by the broad mass of the Apennines, the ofi\\nshoots or lateral branches of which, in some parts, descend quite\\nto the sea, but in others leave a considerable space of level or\\nlow country. There are fewer land-locked valleys than in\\nGreece, and the open plains are eminently suitable for the\\ngrowth of leagues or federations between towns.\\nThe population of the peninsula south of the\\nItaly Alps was of a very varied character. It may be\\ndivided into no less than six great branches.\\n1. The Gauls represent at once the most northerly and the\\nyoungest of the races of Italy. They belong to the great family\\nof the Celts, whose presence in the peninsula was\\ndue to two separate migrations, both of which\\ntook place long after the other races of Italy had been settled\\nin their separate localities. Tradition says that the first swarm\\nof Celts passed the Alps in the reign of the elder Tarquin", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "Chap. I.] THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 3\\n(616-578 B.C.) a second migration, which planted the Senones,\\nthe most southerly of these tribes, on the shores of the Adriatic\\neast of Umbria, is connected with the great Gallic invasion\\nwhich ended in the capture of Kome (390 B.C.). Previously to\\nthese movements the northern regions of Cisalpine Gaul had\\nbeen in the hands of the Ligurians, the southern in those of the\\nUmbrians, while the Etruscans possessed scattered settlements\\nnorth of the Apennines. The result of the migrations was to\\nspread the Gallic name from the Alps to the Apennines and\\nthe Adriatic. The most important of the Gallic tribes were the\\nInsubres and Cenomani to the north of the Po, and the Boii and\\nLingones to the south of that river,\\n2. West and south of Gaul lay Liguria, the country of the\\nLigures (or Ligues, as they were called by the Greeks). The\\norigin of this race is quite unknown it had once y\\noccupied much of the territory subsequently over-\\nrun by the Gauls, and in historical times it extended at least\\nfrom the upper reaches of the Po, but possibly even from the\\nPoenine Alps (the Great St. Bernard) to the river Macra on\\nthe south. The chief northern tribe was that of the Taurini, but\\nthe tribes with which we find Kome most frequently brought\\ninto hostile contact were those of the south, the Intemilii,\\nIngauni, and Apuani, lying between the Apennines and the sea,\\nand the Friniates to the east of this range.\\nThe north-eastern portion of Italy, from the river Athesia\\n(Adige) to the Julian Alps was occupied by the Veneti. They\\nwere doubtless of the same race as the Istrians and Liburnians\\non the other side of the Adriatic, and are said to have belonged\\nto the great Ligurian stock.\\n3. The Etruscans were known as Etrusci or Tusci to the\\nRomans, as Tyrrheni to the Greeks but their own native name\\nfor themselves was Rasena. They formed a\\nThe\\nstriking contrast to the nations of Central and x-tmsoaiiB\\nSouthern Italy for their language is wholly\\ndifferent from that of the other Italian tribes, and shows no\\nresemblance to the languages of the Indo-European group, while\\ntheir manners and customs clearly prove them to be a people\\noriginally quite distinct from the Greek and Italian races,\\nalthough they showed themselves very susceptible to Greek\\nculture. Their influence on the early customs of Rome was", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "4 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. I.\\nnecessarily great, for the Etruscans possessed a fully developed\\ncivilization when Kome was but an infant state but it was an\\ninfluence that, so far as we can see, affected little beyond the\\nceremonies and religious institutions of Kome. It was from them\\nthat she derived the science of augury, and perhaps the very\\nidea of priestly colleges or guilds while tradition adds that the\\nsymbols of Roman royalty, the purple robe, the ivory sceptre, and\\nthe curule chair, came from Etruria. The origin of this strange\\nrace is wholly uncertain. Most ancient writers relate that the\\nEtruscans were Lydians who had migrated by sea from Asia to\\nItaly it is now more generally believed that they descended\\ninto Italy from the Ehaetian Alps. Yet Etruscan civilization\\nshows the deepest traces of Oriental influence, and, if the hypo-\\nthesis that connects the Etruscans with the Rhaeti is correct, it is\\nprobable that they were an Alpine people, whose art and customs\\nwere profoundly modified by intermixture with immigrants from\\nthe East. In early times they had maintained settlements in the\\ngreat plain of the Po, until they were expelled or subdued by the\\ninvading Gauls. The country known as Etruria in historic\\ntimes extended along the coast of the Lower Sea from the\\nriver Macra on the north to the Tiber on the south. Inland, the\\nTiber also formed its eastern boundary, dividing it first from\\nUmbria, afterwards from the Sabines, and, lastly, from Latium.\\n4. We next come to the Italian races proper, which inhabited\\nthe centre and most of the south of the peninsula. The evidence\\nof language proves that the common stock from\\nTne tauan ^rjiich these races sprang falls into two great\\nbranches (1) the Umbrian and Sabelhan (2) the\\nLatin. The differences between- these groups of languages are\\nlittle more than the differences between dialects of the same\\ntongue, and show the clearest traces of a common origin. They\\nare closely related to the Greek, but still more closely to the Celtic;\\nand this connection, combined with the great resemblance between\\nthe fundamental social and political institutions of the Greeks and\\nRomans, make it probable that the Italian, Celtic, and Greek\\nraces dwelt together for a long period during their journey from\\nthe East, and that when the Greeks parted from their kinsmen\\nat the head of the Adriatic, Italians and Celts still continued for\\na time in close contact with one another. The Gauls, in fact,\\nwere not only near neighbours, but near kinsmen of the Romans.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "Chap. I.] THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 5\\nThe Umbrians dwelf, in historic times, in Eastern Italy between\\nEtruria and the Adriatic. The district of Umbria had once\\nbeen far more extensive, but its possessions west rpt, tt i,\\nof the Apennines had fallen to Etruria, and the\\nGallic tribe of Senones finally annexed the territory on the\\nAdriatic coast. The language of the Umbrians is the most\\nancient tongue of the family to which it belongs, and verifies the\\ntradition that the Umbrians were one of the oldest nations of Italy.\\nThe VoLScrANS, a race afterwards merged in Latiura, show\\nthe nearest resemblance in language to the Umbrians. They were\\nat first a nation distinct from the Latins, and, my^ tt i\\nthough they lost their independence as a separate\\nstate, inscriptions show that they long preserved their language\\nunimpaired. Other tribes bordering on Latium are the Aequians\\nand Hernicans. We know little of them beyond their close\\ninternational relations with the Volscians.\\nIt is doubtful to which division of the family of the Umbrians\\nand Sabellians the Sabtnes belonged for their language early\\nfell into disuse, and only a few words have been\\npreserved. But they probably belonged to the\\nSabellian branch. They are said to have been originally a\\nmountain race dwelling near the sources of the Arnus on the\\nridge of the Apennines which lies between Umbria and Etruria.\\nThence they descended into the valleys between Umbria and\\nLatium, which they occupied in historic times. They preserved\\ntheir simple mountaineering habits, and are described as brave,\\nhardy, and frugal. Tradition has much to tell of their early in-\\nfluence on Rome, and this is natural, for the Sabine city of Cures\\nwas but twenty-four miles from Rome. Amongst Sabine tribes\\nwe may, perhaps, reckon the Picentines, occupying a fertile strip\\nof territory on the coast of the Adriatic and the Paeligni,\\nMarsi, Marrtjcini, and Vestini, lying south of this district.\\nThe Sabellian races are those which are known to have\\nspoken a common tongue, sometimes called Oscan. They spread\\nover the greater part of Central and Southern Italy, q v iv\\nand are represented by the Samnites, with their j^^^gg a e an\\noffshoots the Campanians and Lucanians.\\nThe Samnites, the most powerful of these races, occupied\\nan inland district in the region of the central Apennines. On\\nthe west they commanded the valley of the Vulturnus bordering", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. 1.\\non Campania. On the east they early extended beyond the\\nlimits of Saranium proper to the sea for the Frentani on the\\nnorth-east were a Samnite people, and it is probable that at\\nleast the northern part of Apulia was conquered and occupied\\nby Samnite tribes. But their greatest conquests were on the\\nwest and south. In the fifth century B.C. they conquered the\\nwhole of the rich province of Campania, the garden of Italy.\\nThis district, stretcliing from the Liris to the Silarus, forms, for\\nthe most part, an unbroken plain, celebrated in ancient as well\\nas in modern times for its extraordinary beauty and fertility.\\nThe Greek cities of this coast alone retained their independence\\nand their territories. Shortly alterwards the Samnites spread\\nthrough the whole of Lucania. But, although the Lucanians\\nappear in history as a Samnite people, they have broken away\\nfrom the control of the main body of their countrymen. They\\nhave formed a state of their own, and they rule not only over\\nLucania, but oyer the native peoples to the south as far as the\\nstrait which separates Italy from Sicily.\\nThese native peoples at last threw off the Lucanian yoke, and\\nappear in history as the Brutii.\\nThe Latins, like the Samnites, are represented as having\\nbeen originally a mountaineering race dwelling in the central\\n_, _ Apennines, from which they descended into the\\nregions between the mountains and the sea. Even\\nhere the Latins were for a time but an insignificant people over-\\nshadowed by the gi eat Etruscan power in the north and sur-\\nrounded on all other sides by hostile tribes. The original\\nLatium was a narrow territory extending from the Tiber to the\\nVolscian mountains, and from the Apennines about Praeneste\\nto the sea. But Latin conquest subsequently absorbed the\\nVolscians and Aurunci, and the name Latium was spread to\\nthe Liris on the borders of Campania. The original abode of\\nthe Latins is of volcanic origin. The Alban mountains are a\\ngreat volcanic mass, and several of the craters have been filled\\nwith water, forming lakes, of which the Alban lake is one of the\\nmost remarkable. The plain in which Rome stands, now called\\nthe Campagna, is not an unbroken level, but a broad undulating\\ntract, intersected by numerous streams, which have cut them-\\nselves deep channels through the soft volcanic tufa of which the\\nsoil is composed. The climate of Latium was not healthy even", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "Chap. I.] THE PEOPLES OF ITALY. 7\\nin ancient times. The malaria of the Campagna renders Rome\\nitself unhealthy in the summer and autumn and the Pontine\\nmarshes, which extend along the coast in the south of Latium\\nfor a distance of thirty miles, are still more pestilential.\\n5. A primitive people, whose language, as known from\\ninscriptions, differs widely from those of the Umbrians and\\nSabellians, were represented by the lapygians and\\nThe\\nlapygians.\\nMessapians of Calabria. Yet the language shows\\nresemblances to both Greek and Latin, and bears\\nout the tradition that the lapygians were Pelasgi, or pre-historic\\ninhabitants of Italy. They were probably the earliest Aryan\\nsettlers who were driven towards the extremity of the peninsula\\nas the Latins and Sabellians pressed further to the south.\\n6. The Greeks planted so many colonies upon the coasts\\nof Southern Italy that they gave to that diptrict the name of\\nMagna Graecia. The most ancient, and at the mi, p i^\\nsame time the most northerly Greek city in Italy\\nwas Cumae in Campania. Most of the other Greek colonies\\nwere situated farther to the south, where many of them\\nattained to great power and wealth. Of these some of the\\nmost distinguished were Tarentum, Croton, Metapontum, and\\nSybaris, which was destroyed in 510 B.C., and was replaced in\\n443 B.C. by the town of ihurii.\\nPrehistoric gate at Arpinum.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "The wolf of the Capitol.\\nCHAPTER II.\\nTHE EARLY KINGS AND THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION OF\\nROME.\\nThe history of Rome is that of a city which originallj^ had only\\na few miles of territory, and gradually extended its dominion\\nat first over Italy and then over the civilized\\nEom?*^ ^oM. The city lay in the central part of the\\npeninsula, on the left bank of the Tiber, and\\nabout fifteen miles from its month. It appears from the first\\nas the most important town of Latium, and this importance\\nmust have been due to its site. Its commercial greatness was\\ndue to its situation on a navigable river, which provided a safe\\nrefuge for ships at a time when the Lower Sea was swept by\\nEtruscan fleets its military strength was due to its position\\nupon the borders of two of the most powerful races in Italjf^, the\\nSabines and the Etruscans.\\nThough originally a Latin town, it received at an early period\\na considerable Sabine population, while it appears nearly certain\\nthat a part of its population was of Etruscan origin, and that the\\ntwo Tarquins represent the establishment of an Etruscan djmasty\\nat Rome.* But Roman civilization is in all essential points\\ndifferent from the Etruscan, and that the Latin element pre-\\ndominated over the Sabine is evident from the fact that the\\nSee ch. iii. p. 20.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "Chap. II.] EARLY TRADITIONS. 9\\nlanguage of the Komans was a Latin and not a Sabellian\\ndialect.\\nThe early history of Rome as given by the Roman writers\\nis a mass of popular tradition worked up by poets, annahsts,\\nand antiquarians into a professed record of fact.\\nNot only is it full of marvellous tales and poetical dit^ons\\nembellishments, of contradictions and impossi-\\nbilities, but it wants the very foundation upon which all history\\nmust be based. Many of tiie legends are simply attempts to\\nexplain the origin of certain political and religious customs\\nexisting in the Republic and, although the political civilization\\nof early Rome can be discovered with some degree of certainty,\\nit is not until we come to the war with Pyrrhus that we can\\nplace fuU reliance upon the narrative as a trustworthy statement\\nof events. With this caution we now proceed to relate the\\ncelebrated legends of the foundation and early history of Rome.\\nRome is thought to have arisen with the fall of Troy, for,\\non the capture of that town, Aeneas, son of Anchises and\\nVenus, fled to seek a new home in a foreign land.\\nHe carried with him his son Ascanius, the Penates Aeneas\\nor household gods, and the Palladium of Troy.*\\nUpon reaching the coast of Latium he was kindly received by\\nLatinus, the king of the country, who gave him his daughter\\nLavinia in marriage. Aeneas now built a city, which he\\nnamed Lavinium, in honour of his wife. But Lavinia had been\\npreviously promised to Turnus, the leader of the Rutulians.\\nThis youthful chief, enraged at the insult, attacked the strangers.\\nHe was slain, however, by the hands of Aeneas; but in a new\\nwar which broke out three years afterwards, the Trojan hero\\ndisappeared amid the waters of the river Numicius, and was\\nhenceforward worshipped under the name of Jupiter Indiges,\\nor god of the country.\\nAscanius, who was also called lulus, removed from Lavinium,\\nthirty years after its foundation, and built Alba\\nLonga, or the Long White City, on a ridge ^iba Lofga\\nof the Alban Mount about fifteen miles south-east\\nof Rome. It became the most powerful city in Latium, and the\\nThe Palladium was a statue of Pallas, or Minerva, which was said to have\\nfallen from heaven, and was preserved at Kome with the most sacred ewe.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "10 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II.\\nhead of a confederacy of Latin cities. Twelve kings of the\\nfamily of Aeneas succeeded Ascanius. The last of these,\\nnamed Procas, left two sons, Numitor and Amulius. Amulius,\\nthe younger, seized the kingdom and Numitor, who was ot a\\npeaceful disposition, made no resistance to his brother.\\nAmulius, fearing lest the children of Numitor might not\\nsubmit so quietly to his usurpation, caused his only son to be\\nmurdered, and made his daughter, Ehea Silvia, one of the\\nvestal virgins, who were compelled to live and die unmarried.\\nBut the maiden became, by the god Mars, the mother of twins.\\nShe was in consequence put to death, because she had broken\\nher vow, and her babes were doomed to be drowned in the\\nriver. The Tiber had overflowed its banks far and wide and\\nthe cradle in which the babes were placed was stranded at the\\nfoot of the Palatine, and overturned on the root of a wild\\nfig tree. A she-wolf, which had come to drink of the stream,\\ncarried them into her den hard by, and suckled them and\\nwhen they wanted other food, the woodpecker, a bird sacred\\nto Mars, brought it to them. At length this marvellous spectacle\\nwas seen by Faustulus, the king s shepherd, who\\nKemus children home to his wife, Acca Larentia.\\nThey were called Romulus and Remus, and grew\\nup along with the sons of their foster-parents on the Pala-\\ntine hill.\\nA quarrel arose between them and the herdsmen of Numitor,\\nwho stalled their cattle on the neighbouring hill of the Aventine.\\nRemus was taken by a stratagem, and carried off to Numitor.\\nHis age and noble bearing made Numitor think of his grand-\\nsons; and his suspicions were confirmed by the tale of the\\nmarvellous nurture of the twin brothers. Soon afterwards\\nRomulus hastened with his foster-father to Numitor suspicion\\nwas changed into certainty, and the old man recoenized them\\nas his kindred. They now resolved to avenge the wrongs which\\ntheir family had suffered. With the help of faithful comrades\\nthey slew Amulius. and placed Numitor on the throne.\\nRomulus and Remus loved their old abode, and therefore left\\nAlba to found a city on the banks of the Tiber. But a dispute\\narose between the brothers where the city should be built, and\\nafter whose name it should be called. Romulus wished to build\\nit on the Palatine, Remus on the Aventine. It was agreed that", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "Chap. IL] FOUNDATION OF ROME. 11\\nthe question should be decided by the gods and each took his\\nstation on the top of his chosen hill, awaiting the pleasure of\\nthe gods by some striking sign. The night passed away, and\\nas the day was dawning Kemus saw six vultures but at sun-\\nrise, when these tidings were brought to Romulus, twelve\\nvultures flew by him. Each claimed the augury in his own\\nfavour but the shepherds decided for Romulus, and Remus\\nwas therefore obliged to yield. Such was the legendary ex-\\nplanation of the later Roman custom of the taking of auspices\\nby a magistrate.\\n1. Reign of Romulus, 753-717 b.c. Romulus, on gaining\\nthis divine sanction, proceeded to mark out the boundaries of\\nhis city. He yoked a bullock and a heifer to a\\nplough, and drew a deep furrow round the Palatine, -^qj^^q\\nThis formed the sacred limits of the city, and was\\ncalled the Pomerium. To the original city on the Palatine\\nwas given the name of Roma Quadrata, or Square Rome, to\\ndistinguish it from the one which subsequently extended over\\nthe seven hills.\\nThe traditional date for the founding of Rome was the 21st\\nof April, 753 vears before the Christian era-\\nOn the line of the Pomerium Romulus began to raise a wall.\\nOne day Remus leapt over it in scorn whereupon Romulus slew\\nhim, exclaiming, So die whosoever hereafter\\nshall leap over my walls. Romulus now found his gatines.\\npeople too few in numbers. Accordingly, he set\\napart on the Capitoline hill an asylum, or a sanctuary, in which\\nhomicides and runaway slaves might take refuge. The city thus\\nbecame filled with men, but they wanted women, and the inhabit-\\nants of the neighbouring cities refused to give their daughters\\nto such an outcast race. Romulus accordingly resolved to\\nobtain by force what he could not gain by entreaty. He pro-\\nclaimed that games were to be celebrated in honour of the god\\nConsus, and invited his neighbours, the Latins and Sabines,\\nto the festival. Suspecting no treachery, they came in numbers\\nwith their wives and children when suddenly the Roman\\nyouths rushed upon their guests and carried off the virgins. The\\nbereaved parents hastened home and prepared for vengeance.\\nThe inhabitants of three of the Latin towns, Caenina, Antemnae,\\nand Crustumerium, took up arms one after the other, but were", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "12 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II.\\ndefeated by the Romans. Eomulus slew with his own hand\\nAcron king of Caenina, and dedicated his arnas\\nWars with ^nd armour, as spoUa opima, to Jupiter. These\\nrt S^V^^es were offered when the commander of one army\\nslew with his own hand the commander of\\nanother, and were only gained twice afterwards in Roman\\nhistory.\\nAt last Titus Tatius, the king of Cures, the most powerful of the\\nSabine states, marched against Rome. His forces were so great\\nthat Romulus, unable to resist him in the field, was obliged to\\nretire into the city. Besides the city on the Palatine, Romulus\\nhad also fortified the top of the Capitoline hill, which he in-\\ntrusted to the care of Tarpeius. But his daughter Tarpeia,\\ndazzled by the golden bracelets of the Sabines, promised to\\nbetray the hill to them if they would give her what they\\nwore on their left arras. Her offer was accepted. In the\\nnight-time she opened a gate and let in the enemy, but when\\nshe claimed her reward they threw upon her the shields\\nwhich they wore on their left arms, and thus crushed her\\nto death. Thus was explained the later custom of hurling\\ntraitors from the Tarpeian rock.\\nOn the next day the Romans endeavoured to recover the\\nhill. A long and desperate battle was fought in the valley\\nbetween the Palatine and the Capitoline. At one time the\\nRomans were driven before the enemy, when Romulus vowed\\na temple to Jupiter Stator, the Stayer of Flight, whereupon\\nhis men took courage and returned again to the combat.\\nAt length the Sabine women, who were the cause of the\\nwar, rushed in between them, and prayed their husbands and\\nfathers to be reconciled. Their prayers were heard the two\\npeople not only made peace, but agreed to form only one nation.\\n_ The Romans dwelt on the Palatine under their\\nthe Sabines Romulus, the Sabines on the Capitoline\\nunder their king Titus Tatius.* The two kings\\nand their senates met for deliberation in the valley between the\\ntwo hills, which was hence called Comitium, or the place of\\nmeeting, and which afterwards became the Roman Forum.\\nBut the double monarchy did not last long. Titus Tatius\\nThe Sabines were called Quirites, and this name was afterwards applied\\nto the Roman people in their civil capacity.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "Chap. II.] ROMULUS AND NUMA. 13\\nwas slain at Laviniiim by some Latins to whom he had refused\\nsatisfaction for outrages committed by his kinsmen. Hence-\\nforward Romulus ruled alone over both Romans and Sabines.\\nHe reigned in all thirty-six years.\\nOne day, as he was reviewing his people in the Campus\\nMartins, near the Goat s Pool, the sun was suddenly eclipsed,\\nand a dreadful storm dispersed the people. When\\ndaylight returned Romulus had disappeared, for 5t?^\\n1 r^i TV r 11 1 ot Komulos.\\nms lather Mars had carried him up to heaven m\\na fiery chariot. Shortly afterwards he appeared in more than\\nmortal beauty to the senator Proculus Sabinus, and bade him tell\\nthe Romans to worship him under the name of the god Quirinus.\\n2. Reign of Numa Pompilius, 715-673 b.c\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The choice of\\nthe people next fell upon the wise and pious Numa Pompilius, a\\nSalii carrying the ancilla.\\nnative of the Sabine Cures who had married the daughter of\\nTatius. The forty-three years of Numa s reign glided away in\\nquiet happiness without any war or any calamity.\\nNuma was regarded as the author of the chief religious in-\\nstitutions of the state. Instructed by the nymph\\nEgeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of Aricia,\\nhe instituted three priests called Flamens, each of Numa.\\nwhom attended to the worship of separate deities\\nJupiter,* Mars, and Quirinus four Vestal Virgins, who kept\\nalive the sacred fire of Vesta brought from Alba Longa and\\nThe Flamen of Jupiter was called Flamen Dialis.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "14 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II.\\ntwelve Salii, or priests of Mars, who had the care of the sacred\\nshields.* Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged agriculture,\\nand marked out the boundaries of property, which he placed\\nunder the care of the god Terminus. He also built the temple\\nof Janus, a god represented with two heads looking different\\nways. The gates of this temple were to be open during war\\nand closed in time of peace.\\n3. Reign of Tullus Hostilius, 673-642 b.c. Upon the\\ndeath of Numa, Tullus Hostihus, a Roman, was elected king. His\\nreign was as warlike as that of Numa had been\\nAn!^ T peaceful. The most memorable event in it is the\\ndestruction of Alba Longa. A quarrel having arisen\\nbetween the two cities, and their armies having been drawn up\\nin array against each other, the princes determined to avert the\\nbattle by a combat of champions chosen from each army.\\nThere were in the Roman army three brothers, i)orn at the same\\nbirth, named Horatii and in the Alban army, in like manner,\\nthree brothers, born at the same birth, and called Curiatii. The\\ntwo aets of brothers were chosen as champions, and it was\\nagreed that the people to whom the conquerors belonged should\\nrule the other. Two of the Horatii were slain, but the three\\nCuriatii were wounded, and the surviving Horatius, who was\\nunhurt, had recourse to stratagem. He was unable to contend\\nwith the Curiatii united, but was more than a match for each of\\nthem separately. Taking to flight, he was followed by his three\\nopponents at unequal distances. Suddenly turning round, he\\nslew, first one, then the second, and finally the third. The\\nRomans were declared the conquerors, and the Albans their\\nsubjects. But a tragical event followed. As Horatius was\\nentering Rome, bearing his threefold spoils, his sister met him\\nand recognized on his shoulders the cloak of one of the Curiatii,\\nher betrothed lover. She burst into such passionate grief that\\nthe anger of her brother was kindled, and stabbing her with\\nhis sword he exclaimed, So perish every Roman woman who\\nbewails a foe. For this murder he was condemned by the\\ntwo judges of blood to be hanged upon the fatal tree, but he\\nappealed to the people, and they gave him his hfe.\\nTheBe shields were caUed Ancilia. One of these shields is said to have\\nfallen from beaven and Numa ordered eleven others to be made exactly like it,\\nthat it might not be known and stolen.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "Chap. 11.] TULLUS HoSTlLI US\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ANGUS MARClUS. 15\\nShortly afterwards Tullus Hostilius made war against Fidenae\\nand the Etruscans of Veii. The Albans, under their dictator\\nMettius Fuffetius, followed him to tlie war as the\\nsubjects of Rome. In the battle against the o/lib^*\\nEtruscans the Alban dictator, faithless and in-\\nsolent, withdrew to the hills; but when tlie Etruscans were\\ndefeated he descended to the plain, and congratulated the\\nRoman king. Tullus pretended to be deceived. On the follow-\\ning day he summoned the two armies to receive their praises\\nand rewards. The Albans came without arms, and were\\nsurrounded by the Roman troops. They then heard their\\nsentence. Their dictator was to be torn in pieces by horses\\ndriven opposite ways their city was to be razed to the ground\\nand they themselves, with their wives and children, transported\\nto Rome, Tullus assigned to them the Caelian hill for their\\nhabitation. Some of the noble families of Alba were enrolled\\namong the Roman patricians, but the gi eat mass of the Alban\\npeople were not admitted to the privileges of the ruling\\nclass.\\nAfter carrying on several other wars Tullus fell sick, and\\nsought to win the favour of the gods, as Numa had done, by\\nprayers and divination. But Jupiter was angry with him, and\\nsmote him and his whole house with fire from heaven. Thus\\nperished Tullus after a reign of thirty-one years.\\n4. Reign of Angus Maecius, 642-617 b.c. Ancus Marcius,\\nthe successor of Tullus Hostilius, was a Sabine, being the son\\nof Numa s daughter. He sought to tread in the\\nfootsteps of his grandfather by reviving the re- t*\\nligious ceremonies which had fallen into neglect\\nbut a war with the Latins called him from the pursuits of\\npeace. He conquered several of the Latin cities, and removed\\nmany of the inhabitants to Rome, where he assigned them the\\nAventine for their habitation. Ancus instituted the Fetiales,\\nwhose duty it was to demand satisfaction from a foreign state\\nwhen any dispute arose, to determine the circumstances under\\nwhich hostilities might be commenced, and to perform the\\nproper religious rites on the declaration of war. He also\\nfounded a colony at Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, built a\\nfortress on the Janiculum as a protection against the Etruscans,\\nand united it with the city by a bridge across the Tiber, called", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "l\u00c2\u00ab HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. It.\\nthe Pons Sublicius because it was made of wooden piles, and\\nhe erected a prison to restrain offenders. He died after a reign\\nof twenty-five years.\\nThe Oeigwal Constitution of Rome.\\nFrom the earliest times the population of Eome was divided\\ninto two distinct classes, the patricians and plebeians. The\\npatricians were the members of a certain limited\\npai 1- number of noble clans (qentes). Those clans may\\nhave represented the chief families in the tribes\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2which amalgamated to form Rome, or may have been composed\\nof all the original settlers in the territory, but there is no clear\\nevidence to show how they attained their pre-eminence. The\\npatricians, who may originally have formed quite the larger\\nportion of the population, alone possessed full political and\\nreligious privileges. They had the exclusive right of voting in\\nthe assembly of the people, of serving in the army, and of filling\\nthe priesthoods of the state.\\nAll outside this select circle were known as the plehs, or\\nplebeians. They did not, however, form a simple, uniform\\n_. class for their condition depended on their origin.\\nSome of the plebeians were sprung from emanci-\\npated slaves, and, where this servile taint could be proved to\\nexist, they were clients {clientele) of the patrician who had\\nemancipated them, remained dependent members of his clan,\\nand owed personal duties to him as their patron (patronus) and\\nto his descendants after him. A large number had also sprung\\nfrom the inhabitants of conquered cities who had been deported\\nto Rome. These, too, seem to have been attached as clients to\\npatrician gentes. But one class, at least, of the plebeians, which\\nwas composed of individuals who had voluntarily migrated to\\nRome from allied cities, seems to have been personally free.\\nThese plebeians formed clans of their own, did not attach them-\\nselves to the gens of a patrician, were under no obligation to a\\npatron, and bequeathed this freedom from clientship to their\\ndescendants. Yet they, too, were, like the other members of\\nthis order, devoid of political privileges.\\nThe earliest constitution of Rome was a limited monarchy.\\nThe word cUentes is connected with clvere to bear They were de-\\npendants who listened to their masters bidding.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "Chap. II.] THE KING, 17\\nThe king was in theory only a magistrate, to whom the people\\nhad given the management of the chief business of the state\\nbut he was a sole magistrate holding office for\\nlife, and his powers were so enormous that they\\nrequired very little straining to make his rule degenerate into a\\ntyranny. The authority of the king was expressed in the word\\nImperium, and included supreme command in war, with the\\npower of life and death over the citizens, supreme civil and\\ncriminal jurisdiction, and the sole right of summoning the people\\nand laying measures before them for their approval.\\nAlthough the actual mode of appointment of the king is\\nsomewhat uncertain, it seems best to consider that it was both\\nthe right and the duty of the reigning monarch to nominate his\\nsuccessor. But this nomination was not final. The new king\\nhad no right to reign until he had challenged the allegiance of\\nthe people and his appointment had been ratified by them.\\nThis ratification was expressed in a law of the comitia of the\\ncuriae {lex curiata).* In the case of a king s dying without\\nnominating a successor, this duty fell to the senate. That body\\nappointed a series of interim-kings (inter-reges) (never less than\\ntwo), who held office for five days in turn, and the last of whom\\nnominated a candidate for the throne. This nomination had\\nthen to be ratified by the curiae. Although tradition represents\\nthe Sabine Numa, the foreigner Tarquin, and the slave s son\\nServius as having been elected kings of Rome, it is almost certain\\nthat the king had to be both a Roman citizen and a patrician\\nqualifications that we know were required for the inter-rex.\\nAs the king was sole magistrate, all the other officials of the\\nstate were merely delegates appointed by him. Chief of these\\nwas the prefect of the city, an official left behind for the control\\nof the capital when the king was absent in the field.\\nThe whole of the patrician population of Rome is said to\\nhave been divided by Romulus into three tribes (trihus), each\\nof which was held to represent one of the three\\nnationalities present in the Roman state. The w* rician\\nRamnes were the original Romans of Romulus,\\nthe Titles (or Titienses) the Sabines of Titus Tatius, while the\\nLuceres were regarded as Etruscan. Closely connected with\\nthis division was the corps of 300 knights {equites), each tribe\\nSee next page.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "18 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. II.\\nsupplying a century of 100 men. The number is said to have\\nbeen doubled by Tiillus HostiHus, and 600 probably remained\\nthe maximum for this corps until the time of Servius Tulhus.\\nEach of the tribes was further subdivided into ten parishes\\ncalled curiae. Each of these thirty curies had its peculiar\\n_ worship and chapel but their importance was\\nchiefly political. In the popular assembly the\\nvotes of each curia were first taken, and all questions were\\ndecided by a majority of these groups. Hence this assembly,\\ncomposed at this time exclusively of patricians,\\ncoriata known as the comitia curiata. This was\\nnominally the sovereign body of Rome, which the\\nking was morally bound to consult on all questions of legislation\\nand all changes in the constitution. It also listened to appeals\\nfrom the king s criminal jurisdiction, but only on his permission,\\nfor there was as yet no law giving every one the right of\\nappealing against his judgments.* The comitia had no power\\nof debate, and could only answer Yes or No to the\\nquestion put before it by the king.\\nThe assembly, fettered as it was by its dependence on the\\nking, could be no real check on his authority. The greatest\\n_, limitation on his power was supplied by the ever-\\npresent council of elders, the senate, composed,\\nwe are told, originally of 100, afterwards of 200 members. This\\ncouncil was chosen by the king from the heads of the patrician\\nfamilies (hence its members were called patres), and, though\\nin theory only an advising body, the age and experience of its\\nmembers led it to gain certain definite prerogatives. One of the\\nfundamental principles of the Roman commonwealth, that a\\nmagistrate should never undertake an important matter without\\nconsulting a body of advisers, was the reason both of the\\nexistence and of the power of the senate.\\nMost of the foregoing institutions were naturally attributed\\nto the founder Romulus. Another series of creations, all of a\\nreligious character, were attached to the name of the priest-king\\nNuma. Besides the priesthoods and the worships\\nThe priestly\\ncolleges.\\nwhich we have already mentioned, he was held to\\nhave instituted the two gi eat religious colleges of\\nPontiffs and Augurs. The four Pontiffs were the interpreters of\\nCompare ch. iii. p. 32.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "Chap. II.]\\nTHE PRIESTLY COLLEGES.\\n19\\nthe sacred law {jus divinum), which, besides directing the ritual\\nof the priesthoods, inchided in these early times most of the\\ncriminal and civil law. The four Augurs were the interpreters\\nof omens and portents. The Romans believed that relicrious\\nguidance could be obtained for almost every act of their daily\\nlife. When starting on an enterprise they looked for the will\\nof the gods in the changing expressions of the sky, in the flight\\nof birds or the manner in which they fed, and in the marks on\\nthe vitals of slain animals. The meaning of these signs was\\ninterpreted by the Augurs, and thus they largely guided the\\nactions of the state. The king himself was Chief Pontiff\\n{Pontifex Maximns), and thus the head of the religious as\\nhe was of the civil life of the community.\\n^^==^^iP^\\nAugur s victims.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "Bemains of the Servian walli\\nCHAPTER III.\\nTHK LAST THREE KINGS OF ROME, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OP\\nTHE REPUBLIC DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE KE61LLUS.\\n616-498 B.C.\\nThe Etruscan\\ndynasty.\\n5. Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, or the Elder Tar-\\nQoiN, 616-579 B.C. The fifth king of Rome was an Etruscan\\nby birth, but .a Greek by descent. His father\\nDemaratus was a wealthy citizen of Corinth,\\nwho settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii,\\nwhere he married an Etruscan wife. Their son wedded\\nTanaquil, who belonged to one of the noblest families in Tar-\\nquinii, and himself became a Lucumo* or a noble in the state.\\nBut he aspired to still higher honours; and, urged on by his\\nwife, who was an ambitious woman, he resolved to try his\\nThis was an Etruscan word originally meaning an insane or frenzied\\nperson. It was thus applied to any one supposed to be inspired.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.] TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. 21\\nfortune at Eome. Accordingly he set out for this city, accom-\\npanied by a large train of followers. When he had reached\\nthe Janicuhim an eagle seized his cap, and, after carrying it\\naway to a great height, placed it again upon his head. Tanaquil,\\nwho was skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade her\\nhusband hope for the highest honours. Her predictions were\\nsoon verified. He took the name of Lucius Tarquinius, and\\ngained the favour both of Ancus Marcius and the people.\\nAncus appointed the stranger guardian of his children and,\\nwhen he died, the senate and the people unanimously elected\\nTarquin to the vacant throne.\\nThe reign of Tarquin was distinguished by great exploits in\\nwar and by great works in peace. He defeated the Sabines, and\\ntook their town Collatia, which he placed under\\nhis nephew Egerius, who was thence called Colla- Tarauin\\ntinns. He also captured many of the Latin towns,\\nand became the ruler of all Latium but the important works\\nwhich he executed in peace have rendered his name still more\\nfamous. The great cloacae, or sewers, by which he drained\\nthe lower parts of the city, still remain, after so many ages,\\nwith not a stone displaced. He laid out the Circus Maximus,\\nand instituted the Great or Roman games performed in the\\ncircus. He also made some changes in the constitution of\\nthe state. He added to the senate 100 new members, taken\\nfrom the Luceres, the third tribe, and called patres minornm\\ngentium to distinguish them from the old senators, who were\\nnow termed patres majorwa gentium the numbers of this\\ncouncil were thus raised to 300. The number of vestal virgins\\nwas also increased from four to six, the two new vestals being\\nprobably taken from the Luceres.\\nTarquin had a favourite, Servius Tullius, said to have been\\nthe son of a female slave taken at the capture of the Latin\\ntown Corniculum. His infancy was marked by prodigies which\\nforeshadowed his future greatness. On one occasion a flame\\nplayed around his head, as he was asleep, without hurting him.\\nTanaquil foresaw the greatness of the boy, and from this time\\nhe was brought up as the king s child. Tarquin afterwards\\ngave him his daughter in marriage, and left the government in\\nhis hands. But the sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest Tarquin\\nshould transmit the crown to his son-in-law, hired two country*", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "22\\nHISTORY OP ROME.\\n[Chap. III.\\nmen to assassinate the king. These men, feigning to have a\\nquarrel, came before the king to have their dispute decided;\\nand while he was listening to the complaint of one, the\\nother gave him a deadly wound with his axe. But the sons of\\nAncus did not reap the fruit of their crime for Tanaquil, pre-\\ntending that the king s wound was not mortal, told them that\\nhe would soon return, and that he had, meantime, appointed\\nThe Cloaca Maxima.\\nServius to act in his stead. Servius forthwith proceeded to\\ndischarge the duties of king, greatly to the satisfaction of the\\npeople and when the death of Tarquin could no longer be\\nconcealed, he was already in firm possession of the regal power.\\nTarquin had reigned thirty-seven years.\\n6. Servius Tullius, 578-535 b.c. Servius thus succeeded\\nto the throne by the strictly recognized method of nomination.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.] THE SERVIAN CONSTITUTION. 23\\nThe reign of this king is almost as barren of military ex-\\nploits as that of Numa. His great deeds were those of peace;\\nand he was regarded by posterity as the author\\nof the later Roman constitution, jnst as Romulus 1,^^,7?\u00e2\u0084\u00a2^\\nwas of the earlier. Three important acts are\\nassigned to Servius by universal tradition. Of these the greatest\\nwas\\n(1) The reform of the Roman constitution. In this reform his\\nmain object was to distribute the burdens of taxation and military\\nservice as evenly as possible amongst all the\\nmembers of the state. The effect of his scheme ^Qs^ution^*\\nwas to give to the wealthy classes as a whole the\\ninfluence which had formerly depended on patrician birth, and\\nthus to grant privileges to the well-to-do plebeians. To carry\\nhis purpose into effect he made a twofold division of the Roman\\npeople, one according to their residence, the other according to\\ntheir property.\\n(a) It must be recollected that the only existing political\\norganization was the division into three tribes, and of these\\ntribes into thirty curiie, composed exclusively of patrician\\ngentes but Servius now divided the whole Roman territory\\ninto Four Tribes, and, as this division was simply local, these\\ntribes contained plebeians as well as patricians. But though\\nthe institution of these local tribes made the plebeians members\\nof the state, it conferred upon them no right to take part in\\nthe elections, or in the management of public affairs, for the\\npowers of electing the king and of ratifying the laws were\\npossessed exclusively by the purely patrician comitia curiata.\\n(b) The means by which Servius indirectly gave the plebeians\\na share in the government was by dividing the whole body of\\ncitizens into classes according to their wealth for\\nthe purposes of taxation and the military levy. Servian\\nBut this new arrangement was soon made the\\nbasis of a new Popular Assembly, in which patricians and ple-\\nbeians alike voted. The result of the arrangement was that the\\nwealthiest persons, whether patricians or plebeians, possessed the\\nchief power. In order to ascertain the property of each citizen,\\nServius instituted the Census, which was a register of Roman\\ncitizens and their property. All Roman citizens possessing a\\ncertain amount of landed property afterwards valued at 12,500", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "24 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III.\\nasses and upwards were divided into five great Classes. The\\nFirst Class contained tlie richest citizens, the Second Class the\\nnext in point of wealth, and so on. The whole arrangement was\\nof a military character. Each of the five Classes was divided\\ninto a certain number of Centuries or Companies, half of which\\nconsisted of Elders (Seniores) from the age of 46 to 60, and half\\nof younger members {Juniores) from the age of 18 to 46. All\\nthe Classes had to provide their own arms and armour, but the\\nexpense of the equipment was in proportion to the wealth of\\neach Class. The Five Classes formed the infantry {fedites).\\nTo these five classes were added two centuries of smiths and\\ncarpenters, and two of trumpeters and horn-blowers. These four\\ncenturies voted with the Classes. Those persons whose property\\ndid not amount to 12,500 asses were not included in the Classes,\\nand formed a single century.\\nAt the head of the Classes were the Equites or cavalry. These\\nconsisted of eighteen centuries, six being the old patrician\\nEquites, as founded by Romulus and augmented by Tarquinius\\nPrisons, and the other twelve being chosen from the chief\\nplebeian families.f\\nThe as was originally a pound weight of copper of twelve ounces. Although\\nthe census is always given in terms nf cupper money, there is little doubt that\\noriginally it was an assessmeut on hides of land (^jugera), and perhaps on sheep\\nand cattle.\\nt The following table will show the census of each class, and the number of\\ncenturies which each contained\\nEquites. Centuriae 18\\nFirst Class. -^Ceusvis, 100,000 asses and upwards.\\nCenturiae Seiiiorum 40^\\nCenturiae Juniorum 4ol82\\nCenturiae Fabrum (smiths and carpenters) 2/\\nSecond Class. Census, 75,000 asses aLd upwards.\\nCenturiae Seniorum l. n\\nCenturiae Juniorum 10/\\nThird Cktsi. Census, 50,000 asses and upwards.\\nCenturiae Seniorum IsD\\nCenturiae Juniorum 10 i\\n20\\nFourth Class. Census, 25,000 asses and upwards.\\nCenturiae Seniorum 101\\nCenturiae Juniorum\\nFifth Class.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Census, 12,500 asses and upwards.\\nCenturiae Seniorum 15\\nCenturiae Juniorum 15 32\\nCenturiae cornicinum, tubicinum 2 I\\nCenturia capite censorum 1\\n^um total of the centiiriae 193", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.] THE COMITIA CENTURIATA. 25\\nThe Centuries formed the new National Assembly, They\\nmustered as an army in the Campus Martins, or the Field of\\nMars, on the banks of the Tiber outside the city.\\nThey voted by Centuries, and were hence called \u00e2\u0080\u009eeIf^.^ri\u00c2\u00b0t\\nthe Comitia Centuriata. Each Century counted\\nas one vote, but did not consist of the same number of men.\\nOn the contrary, in order to give the preponderance to wealth,\\nthe first or richest class contained a far greater number of\\ncenturies than any of the other classes (as will be seen from\\nthe table on p. 24), althougli they must at the same time have\\nincluded a much smaller number of men. The Equites and\\nFirst Class alone amounted to 100 centuries, or more than half\\nof the total number; so that, if they agreed to vote the same\\nway, they possessed at once an absolute majority. An advantage\\nwas also given to age for the Seniores, though possessing an\\nequal number of votes, must of course have been very inferior\\nin number to the Juniores.\\nThis system, therefore, only admitted to power the classes\\nwho possessed a certain amount of wealth, but it was far more\\na government by the people than the rule of the patrician nobles\\nwhich it replaced. The Comitia Centuriata became the sovereign\\nassembly of the nation it finally usurped from the Comitia\\nCuriata the right of ratifying the election of kings and magistrates,\\nof enacting and repealing laws, and of deciding in cases of appeal\\nfrom the sentence of a judge. Eventually the Coinitia Curiata\\ncame itself to include plebeians. This old assembly was not\\nabolished, and a trace of its ancient ascendency remained in the\\nformality of the lex curiata* which even in the Republic was\\nrequired to ratify the election of a magistrate with imperium.\\n(2) The second great work of Servius was the extension of\\nthe Pomerium, or hallowed boundary of the city, and the\\ncompletion of the city by incorporating with it\\nthe Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills.f He t^e^crty\\nsurrounded the whole with a stone wall, called\\nafter him the wall of Servius Tullius and from the Porta\\nCollina to the Esquiline Gate, where the hills sloped gently to\\n.See p. 17.\\nThe celebrated seven hills upon which Rome stood were the Palatine, A ventine,\\nCapitoline, Caelian, Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline. The Mons Pincius was\\nnot included within the Servian Wall,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "26 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III.\\nthe plain, he constructed a gigantic mound nearly a mile in\\nlength and a moat 100 feet in breadth and thirty in depth, from\\nwhich the earth of the mound was dug. Rome thus acquired\\na circumference of five miles, and this continued to be the legal\\nextent of the city till the time of the emperors, although suburbs\\nwere added to it.\\n(3) An important alliance with the Latins, by which Rome\\nand the cities of Latium became the members of\\nthe L^^lfii^ one great league, was one of the great events\\nwhich distinguished the reign of Servius.\\nServius gave his two daughters in marriage to the two sons\\nof Tarquinius Priscus. Lucius, the elder, was married to a\\nquiet and gentle wife Aruns, the younger, to an aspiring and\\nambitious woman. The character of the two brothers was the\\nvery opposite of the wives who had fallen to their lot for\\nLucius was restless and haughty, but Aruns retiring and un-\\nambitious. The wife of Aruns, enraged at the long life of her\\nfather, and fearing that at his death her husband would tamely\\nresign the sovereignty to his elder brother, resolved to murder\\nboth her father and husband. Her fiendish spirit put into the\\nheart of Lucius thoughts of crime which he had never enter-\\ntained before. Lucius made away with his wife, and the\\nyounger Tullia with her husband and the survivors, without\\neven the show of mourning, were straightway joined in un-\\nhallowed wedlock. Tullia now incessantly urged her husband\\nto murder her father, and thus obtain the kingdom which he\\nso ardently coveted. Tarquin formed a conspiracy with the\\npatricians, who were enraged at the reforms of Servius and\\nwhen the plot was ripe he entered the forum arrayed in the\\nkingly robes, seated himself in the royal chair in the senate-\\nhouse, and ordered the senators to be summoned to him as\\ntheir king.\\nAt the first news of the commotion Servius hastened to the\\nsenate-house, and, standing at the doorway, bade Tarquin to\\ncome down from the throne but Tarquin sprang\\ng forward, seized the old man, and flung him down\\nthe stone steps. Covered with blood, the king\\nstaggered home but, before he reached it, he was overtaken\\nby the servants of Tarquin, and murdered. Tullia drove to\\nthe senate-house and greeted her husband as king; but her", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.] DEATH OF SERVIUS TULLIUS. 27\\ntransports of joy struck even him with horror. He bade\\nher go home and, as she was returning, her charioteer\\npulled up and pointed out the corpse of her father lying in\\nhis blood across the road. She commanded him to drive\\non the blood of her father spurted over the carriage and\\non her dress and from that day forward the place bore the\\nname of the Wicked Street. The body lay unburied; for\\nTarquin said scofSngly, Romulus too went without burial\\nand this impious mockery is said to have given rise to his\\nsurname of Superbus, or the Proud. Servius had reigned forty-\\nthree years.\\n7. Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or The Proud,\\n535-510 B.C. Tarquin commenced his reign without any of\\nthe forms of election. One of his first acts was\\nto abolish all the privileges which had been con- ^l^^^^ ^s\\nferred upon the plebeians by Servius. He also\\ncompelled the poor to work at miserable wages upon his\\nmagnificent buildings, and the hardships which they suffered\\nwere so great that many put an end to their lives. But he did\\nnot confine his oppressions to the poor. All the senators and\\npatricians whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he coveted,\\nwere put to death or driven into exile. He surrounded himself\\nwith a body-guard, by whose means he was enabled to carry\\nout his designs.\\nBut, although a tyrant at home, he raised the state to great\\ninfluence and power among the surrounding nations, partly by\\nhis alliances and partly by his conquests. He\\ngave his daughter in marriage to Octavius Supremacy or\\nMamilius of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latium.\\nLatins, by whose means he acquired great influ-\\nence in Latium. Any Latin chiefs like Turnus Herdonius,\\nwho attempted to resist him, were treated as traitors, and\\npunished with death. At the solemn meeting of the Latins\\nat the Alban Mount, Tarquin sacrificed the bull on behalf\\nof all the allies, and distributed the flesh to the people of the\\nleague.\\nStrengthened by this Latin alliance, Tarquin turned his arms\\nagainst the Volscians. He took the wealthy town of Suessa\\nPometia, wiih the spoils of which he commenced the erection of\\na magnificent temple on the Capitoline hill, which his father", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "28 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III.\\nhad vowed. This temple was dedicated to the three gods of\\nthe Latin and Etruscan rehgions, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.\\nA human head {caput), fresh bleeding and undecayed, is said\\nto have been found by the workmen as they were digging\\nthe foundations, and being accepted as a sign that the place\\nwas destined to become the head of the world, the name of\\nCapitoltum was given to the temple, and thence to the\\nhill. In a stone vault beneath were deposited the Sibylline\\nbooks, containing obscure and prophetic sayings. One day\\na sibyl, a prophetess from Cumse, appeared before the king\\nand offered to sell him nine books. Upon his refusing to\\nbuy them she went away and burned three, and then de-\\nmanded the same sum for the remaining six as she had\\nasked for the nine. But the king laughed, whereupon she\\nagain burnt three, and then demanded the same sum as before\\nfor the remaining three. Wondering at this strange conduct,\\nthe king piirchased the books. They were placed under the\\ncare of two patricians, and were consulted when the state was\\nin danger.\\nTarquin next attacked Gabii, one of the Latin cities which\\nrefused to enter into the league. Unable to take the city by\\nforce, he had recourse to stratagem. His son, Sextus, pretending\\nto be illtreated by his father, and covered with the bloody marks\\nof stripes, fled to Gabii. The infatuated inhabitants intrusted\\nhim with the command of their troops; and when he had\\nobtained the unlimited confidence of the citizens, he sent a\\nmessenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the\\ncity into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden\\nwhen the messenger arrived, made no reply, but kept striking\\noff the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took\\nthe hint. He put to death or banished, on false charges, all\\nthe leading men of the place, and then had no difficulty in com-\\npelling it to submit to his father.\\nIn the midst of his prosperity Tarquin was troubled by a\\nstrange portent. A serpent crawled out from the altar in the\\nBrutus rojdl palace, and seized on the entrails of the\\nvictim. The king, in fear, sent his two sons,\\nTitus and Aruns, to consult the famous oracle of the Greeks at\\nDelphi. They were accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius\\nBrutus. One of the sisters of Tarquin had been married to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.]\\nTARQUINIUS SUPERBUS.\\n29\\nM. Brutus, a man of great wealth, who died, leaving two sons\\nunder age.* Of these the elder was killed by Tarquin, who\\ncoveted their possessions the younger escaped his brother s\\nfate only by feigning idiotcy. On arriving at Delphi, Brutus\\npropitiated the priestess with the gift of a golden stick enclosed\\nin a hollow staff. After executing the king s commission, Titus\\nand Aruns asked the priestess who was to reign at Rome after\\ntheir father. The priestess replied, whichsoever should first kiss\\nhis mother. The princes agreed to keep the matter secret from\\nSextus, who was at Rome, and to cast lots between themselves.\\nBrutus, who better understood the meanmg of the oracle, fell,\\nas if by chance, when they quitted the temple, and kissed the\\nearth, the mother of them all.\\nSoon afterwards Tarquin laid siege to Ardea, a city of the\\nRutulians. The place could not be taken by force, and the\\nRoman army lay encamped beneath the walls.\\nHere, as the king s sons, and their cousin Tar- g\\nquinius Collatinus, were feasting together, a dis- quinius.\\npute arose about the virtue of their wives. As\\nnothing was doing in the field, they mounted their horses to\\nvisit their homes by surprise. They first went to Rome, where\\nthey surprised the princes wives at a splendid banquet.\\nThey then hastened to Collatia, and there, though it was late\\nin the night, they found Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus,\\nspinning amid her handmaids. The beauty and virtue of\\nLucretia excited the evil passions of Sextus. A few days after\\nhe returned to Collatia, where he was hospitably received by\\nLucretia as her husband s kinsman. In the dead of night he\\nThe following genealogical table exhibits the relationship of the family\\nDemaratus of Corinth.\\nTaequinius PRiscns.\\nI\\nTarquinia,\\nmarried\\nServius Tullius.\\nM. Brutus,\\nput to\\ndeath by\\nTarquinius.\\nI\\nTarquinia,\\nmarried\\nM. Brutus.\\nI\\nL. Brutus,\\nthe\\nConsul.\\nL. Tarquinius\\nSUPEBBUS.\\nAruns.\\nEgerius,\\ncommander of\\nCollatia.\\nTitus. Sextus. Aruns.\\nTarquinius\\nCollatinus,\\nmarried\\nLucretia;", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "30 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III.\\nentered her chamber with a drawn sword, threatening that, if\\nshe did not yield to his desires he would kill her and lay by her\\nside a slave with his throat cut, and would declare that he had\\nkilled them both taken in adultery. Fear of such a shame\\nforced Lucretia to consent but, as soon as Sextus had departed,\\nshe sent for her husband and father. Collatinus came, accom-\\npanied by L. Brutus her father, Lucretius, brought with him\\nP. Valerius. They found her in an agony of sorrow. She told\\nthem what had happened, enjoined them to avenge her dis-\\nhonour, and then stabbed herself to the heart. They all swore\\nto avenge her. Brutus threw off his assumed stupidity, and\\nplaced himself at their head. They carried the corpse into the\\nmarket-place of Collatia. There the people took up arms, and\\nrenounced the Tarquins. A number of young men attended\\nthe funeral procession to Rome. Brutus summoned the people,\\nand related the deed of shame. All classes were inflamed with\\nthe same indignation.\\nA decree was passed deposing the king, and banishing him\\nand his family from the city. Brutus now set out for the army\\nat Ardea. Tarquinius meantime had hastened\\njjown to Rome, but found the gates closed against him.\\nthe monarcliy. a -^-u a j j\\nBrutus was received with joy at Ardea and\\nthe army renounced their allegiance to the tyrant. Tarquin,\\nwith his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took refuge at Caer^,\\nin Etruria. Sextus fled to Gabii, where he was shortly after\\nmurdered by the friends of those whom he had put to death.\\nTarquin had reigned twenty-five years when he was driven\\nout of Rome. In memory of this event an annual festival was\\ncelebrated on the 24th of February, called the Regifugium or\\nFugalia.\\nThe Republic. Thus ended monarchy at Rome. Here,\\nhowever, the revolution stopped. The form of the constitution\\nremained unaltered; but the power of the chief\\nconsuls magistrate was limited in three ways. The office\\nwas no longer entrusted to a single individual, the\\ntime for which it might be held was shortened, and direct election\\nby the people was substituted for the older principle of nomina-\\ntion. Two men of equal authority, who held office only for a\\nyear, were entrusted with the regal imferium. Each was given\\nthe power of commanding, judging, and proposing laws, and each", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.] THE REPUBLIC. 31\\nwith the power of overriding his colleague s actions. In later\\ntimes they were called Consuls, but at their first institution they\\nwere named Praetors.* They were elected by the Comitia Cen-\\nturiata, and possessed the honoui s and most of the emblems of\\nauthority {insignia) of the king. The first consuls were L.\\nBrutus and Tarquinius Collatinus (509 B.C.). But the people\\nso hated the very name and race of Tarquin, that Collatinus\\nwas obliged to resign his office and retire from Kome. P. Valerius\\nwas elected consul in his place.\\nMeantime ambassadors came to Rome from Tarquin, asking\\nthat his private property should be given up to him. The\\ndemand seemed just to the senate and the people but while\\nthe ambassadors were making preparation for carrying away\\nthe property, they formed a conspiracy among the young\\nRoman nobles for the restoration of the royal family. The plot\\nwas discovered by means of a slave, and among the con-\\nspirators were found the two sons of Brutus himself. But the\\nconsul would not pardon his guilty children, and ordered the\\nlictors t to put them to death with the other traitors. The\\nagreement to surrender the property was made void by this\\nattempt at treason, and the royal goods were given up to the\\npeople to plunder.\\nAs the plot had failed, Tarquin now endeavoured to recover\\nthe throne by arms. The people of Tarquinii and Veil espoused\\nthe cause of their Etruscan kinsmen, and marched\\nVTar with th6\\nagamst Rome. The two consuls advanced to xjtniscans\\nmeet them. When Aruns, the king s son, saw\\nBrutus at the head of the Roman cavalry he spurred his horse\\nto the charge. Brutus did not shrink from the combat and\\nboth fell from their horses mortally wounded by each other s\\nspears. A desperate battle between the two armies now\\nfollowed. Both parties claimed the victory, till a voice was\\nheard in the dead of night, proclaiming that the Romans had\\nconquered, as the Etruscans had lost one man more. Alarmed\\nat this, the Etruscans fled and Valerius, the surviving consul,\\nreturned to Rome, carrying with him the dead body of Brutus.\\nCf. p. 62.\\nThe lictores were public officers who attended upon the Roman magistrate.\\nEach consul had twelve lictors. They cnrried upon their shoulders fasces,\\nwhich were rods bound in the form of a bundle, and containing an axe in the\\nmiddle.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "32 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III.\\nThe matrons mourned for Brutus a whole year, because he had\\nrevenged the death of Lucre tia,\\nValerius was now left without a colleague and as he began\\nto build a house on the top of the hill Velia, which looked\\ndown upon the forum, the people feared that he was aiming at\\nkingly power. Thereupon Valerius not only pulled down the\\nhouse, but, calling an assembly of the people, he ordered the\\nlictors to lower the fasces before them, as an acknowledgment\\nthat their power was superior to his. He likewise brought\\nforward a law enacting that every citizen who was condemned\\nby a magisti ate to be executed, should have a right of appeal to\\nthe people. Valerius became in consequence so popular that he\\nreceived the surname of Publicola, or The People s Friend.\\nValerius then summoned an assembly for the election of a\\nsuccessor to Brutus and Sp. Lucretius was chosen. Lucretius,\\nhowever, lived only a few days, and M. Horatius was elected\\nconsul in his place. It was Horatius who had the honour of\\nconsecrating the temple on the Capitol, which Tarquin had left\\nunfinished when he was driven from the throne.\\nThe second year of the republic (508 B.C.) witnessed the\\nsecond attempt of Tarquin to recover the crown. He now\\napplied for help to Lars Porsena, the powerful\\nbesiece Borne Etruscan town of Clusium, who\\nmarched against Rome at the head of a vast army.\\nThe Romans could not meet him in the field; and Porsena\\nseized without opposition the Janiculum, a hill immediately\\nopposite the city, and separated from it only by the Tiber.\\nRome was now in the greatest danger, and the Etruscans\\nwould have entered the city by the Sublician bridge had not\\nHoratius Codes, with two comrades, kept the\\nwhole Etruscan army at bay while the Romans\\nbroke down the bridge behind him. When it was giving way\\nhe sent back his two companions, and withstood alone the\\nattacks of the foe till tbe cracks of the falling timbers and the\\nshouts of his countrymen told him that the bridge had fallen.\\nThen praying, Father Tiber, take me into thy charge and\\nbear me up he plunged into the stream and swam across in\\nsafety amid the arrows of the enemy. The state raised a\\nstatue in his honour, and allowed him as much land as he could\\nplough round in one day. Few legends are more celebrated ia", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "Chap. III.] ATTEMPTS TO RESTORE THE TARQUINS. 33\\nRoman story than this gallant deed of Horatius, and Roman\\nwriters loved to tell\\nHow well Horatius kept the bridge\\nIn the brave days of old.\\nThe Etruscans now proceeded to lay siege to the city, which\\nsoon hegan to suifer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman,\\nnamed C. Mncius, resolved to deliver his CQuntry hy murdering\\nthe invading king. He accordingly went over to the Etruscan\\ncamp but, ignorant of the person of Porsena, killed the royal\\nsecretary instead. Seized and threatened with torture, he thrust\\nhis right hand into the lire on the altar, and there let it burn,\\nto show how little he heeded pain. Astonished at his courage,\\nthe king bade him depart in safetj and Mucins, out of gratitude,\\nadvised him to make peace with Rome, since three hundred\\nnoble youths, he said, had sworn to take the life of the king,\\nand he was the first upon whom the lot had fallen. Mucins\\nwas henceforward called Scaevola, or the Left-handed, because\\nhis right hand had been burnt off. Porsena, alarmed for his\\nlife, which he could not secure against so many desperate men,\\nforthwith offered peace to the Romans on condition of their\\nrestoring to the Veientines the land which they had taken from\\nthem. These terms were accepted, and Porsena withdrew hia\\ntroops from the Janiculum, after receiving ten youths and ten\\nmaidens as hostages from the Romans. Cloelia, one of the\\nmaidens, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and swam across\\nthe Tiber to Rome. She was sent back by the Romans to\\nPorsena, who was so amazed at her courage that he not only\\nset her at liberty, but allowed her to take with her those of the\\nhostages whom she pleased.\\nThus ended the second attempt to restore the Tarquins by\\nforce.*\\nAfter Porsena quitted Rome, Tarquin took refuge with his\\nson-in-law, Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum. The\\nthirty Latin cities now espoused the cause of the ratinleaB ne*\\nexiled king, and declared war against Rome.\\nThe Romans in their peril had recourse to a dictatorship.\\nThere is, however, reason to believe that these brilliant stories conceal one\\nof the earliest and greatest disasters of the city. It is probable that Rome was\\nreally conquered by Porsena, and lost all the territory which the kings had\\ngained on the right side of the Tiber.\\nD", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "34 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. III.\\nThis was a temporary revival of the monarchy for the purpose\\nof meeting some emergency, whether within or without the\\ncity, which seemed beyond the powers of the\\nof ft d ctfttor ordinary magistrates with their divided authority.\\nThe dictator was nominated by one of the consuls,\\nand held office only for six months. His absolute power was\\nshown by the fact that the lictors attending him bore the axes\\nin the fasces even within the city, to signify that from him, as\\nfrom the kings, there was no appeal. From the time of his ap-\\npointment the independent powers of all other magistrates ceased,\\nand the only other authority was exercised by his lieutenant,\\nthe Master of the Horse, who commanded the cavalry. A.\\nPostumius was appointed Dictator, and he named T. Aebutius\\nMaster of the Horse at the head of the Latins were Tarquin\\nand Octavius Marailius. The armies met near the lake Regillus,\\nand the struggle was fierce and bloody, but the Latins at length\\nfled. Almost all the chiefs on either side fell in the conflict,\\nor were grievously wounded. Titus, the son of Tarquin, was\\nkilled and the aged king was wounded, but escaped with his\\nlife. It was related in the old tradition, that the Romans gained\\nthis battle by the assistance of the Great Twin Brethren,\\nCastor and Pollux, who were seen charging the Latins at the\\nhead of the Roman cavalry, and who afterwards carried to Rome\\nthe tidings of the victory. A temple was built in the forum\\non the spot where they appeared, and their festival was cele-\\nbrated yearly.\\nThis was the third and last attempt to restore the Tarquins.\\nThe Latins were completely humbled by this victory. Tar-\\nquinius Superbus had no other state to which he could apply\\nfor assistance. He had already survived all his family and he\\nnow fled to Cumae, where he died a wretched and childless old\\nman (496 B.C.).\\nCoin representing the children of Brutus led to death by lictors.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "The Oampagiia.\\nCHAPTER IV.\\nFROM THE BATTLE OF THE LAKE REGILLU8 TO THE\\nDECEMVIRATE. 498-451 B.a\\nThe infant Republic was now saved from its immediate danger,\\na forcible restoration of the monarchy but the state was for\\na long time in the most grievous peril it needed consolidation\\nfrom within, and was at the same time mercilessly attacked by\\nenemies from without.\\nThe internal history of Rome during this period is marked\\nby the strng2:le between the patricians and plebeians, who\\nformed two distinct orders in the state. After the\\n1 i J Grievances of\\nbamshment of the kmgs, the patricians retained plebeians.\\nexclusive possession of political power. The\\nplebeians, it is true, could vote in the Comitia Centnriata but,\\nas they were mostly poor, they were outvoted by the patricians\\nand their clients. The consulship and all other magistracies", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "36 HISTORr OF ROME. [Chap. IV.\\nwere legally confined to the patricians, so that the executive\\npower was entirely in their hands, while the pontiffs, who were\\nthe authorized interpreters of the law, were drawn entirely from\\nthat order. The state was still practically governed by a\\nhandful of nobles, and there was no possibility of bridging\\nthe gulf between the classes; for intermarriage between the\\norders was forbidden, and in the sacred rites of the patrician\\nclans the plebeians had no share.\\nThe plebeians had to complain, not only of disadvantages in\\nsocial and public life, but also of private wrongs. The law of\\ndebtor and creditor was very severe at Rome. An agreement\\ncalled nexum was often concluded, by which the debtor pledged\\nhis body and his future services for the repayment of the loan,\\nand if the borrower did not refund the money by the time\\nagreed upon, his person was seized by the creditor, and he was\\nobliged to work as a slave.* Slavery was also the penalty for\\nordinary debts and if there were more creditors than one, the\\ndebtor s body might be cut in pieces and divided among them.\\nThe whole weight of this oppressive law fell upon the plebeians\\nand what rendered the case still harder was that they were\\nfrequently compelled, through no fault of their own, to become\\nborrowers. They were small landholders, living by cultivating\\nthe soil with their own hands but as they had to serve in the\\narmy without pay, they had no means of engaging labourers in\\ntheir absence. Hence on their return home they were left\\nwithout the means of subsistence or of purchasing seed for the\\nnext crop, and borrowing was their only resource.\\nAnother circumstance still further aggravated the hardships\\nof the plebeians. The state possessed a large quantity of land\\ncalled Ager Publicus, or the PubHc Land. This land origin-\\nally belonged to the kings, partly for their own use, partly in\\ntrust for the people and it was constantly increased by con-\\nquest, as it was the practice, on the subjugation of a people, to\\ndeprive them of a certain portion of their land. This public\\nland was either divided amongst the poorer citizens or left by\\nthe state to any occupier subject to a rent but as the patricians\\npossessed the political power, they occupied the pubHc land\\nthemselves, and paid for it only a nominal rent. Thus the\\nplebeians, by whose blood and unpaid toil much of this land\\nDebtors thus given over to their creditors were called next.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "Chap. IV.] FIRST SECESSION OF THE PLEBS. 37\\nhad been won, were excluded from all share in the fruits of\\ntheir conquest.\\nThe struggle that ensued was, therefore, partly social, partly\\npolitical. But protection was what the plebeians desired even\\nmore than power; the cruelty of the patrician\\ncreditors was the most pressing evil, and led to V\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2r An ,1 11- fi sion 01 tne\\nthe first reform. In 494 b.c. the plebeians, after plebeians.\\na campaign against the Volscians, instead of\\nreturning to Eome, suddenly turned aside to the Sacred Mount,\\na hill about three miles from the city, near the junction of the\\nAnio and the Tiber. Here they determined to settle and found\\na new town, leaving Rome to the patricians and their clients\\nThis event is known as the Secession to the Sacred Mount.\\nThe patricians, alarmed, sent several of their number to per-\\nsuade the plebeians to return. Among the deputies was the\\naged Menenius Agrippa, who had great influence with the\\nplebeians. He related to them the celebrated fable of the Belly\\nand the Members\\nOnce upon a time, he said, the Members refused to work\\nany longer for the Belly, which led a lazy life and grew fat upon\\ntheir toils. But receiving no longer any nourishment from the\\nBelly, they soon began to pine away, and found that it was to\\nthe Belly they owed their life and strength.\\nThe fable was understood, and the plebeians agreed to treat\\nwith the patricians. It was decided that existing debts should\\nbe cancelled, and that all debtors in bondage\\nshould be restored to freedom. Slavery for debt Appointment\\n1 1 1 1 -i of tribunes.\\nwas not, however, lorbidden, and as it was neces-\\nsary to provide security for the future, the plebeians insisted that\\ntwo of their own number should be elected annually, to whom\\nthe plebeians might appeal for assistance against the decisions\\nof the patrician magistrates. These officers were called Tribunes\\nof the Plebs. They were not magistrates, and had no iiwperium.\\ntheir sole duty was that of protection the} could forbid the\\nfulfillment of any decree aimed against a citizen a right which\\ngradually became a power of declaring any proposal made by a\\nmagistrate to be null and void.* Their persons were declared\\nsacred and inviolable they were never to quit the city during\\nThis was called the right of intercessio, from intercedo, to come\\nbetween.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "38 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IV.\\ntheir year of office and their houses were to remain open day\\nand night, that all who were in need of help might apply to them.\\nTheir number was soon afterwards increased to four, and at a\\nlater time to ten.* At the Sacred Mount the plebeians also ob-\\ntained the privilege of having two aediles of their order appointed.\\nThese officers had at a later time the care of the public build-\\nings and roads, and the superintendence of the police of the city.\\nEmboldened by this success, the plebeians now demanded a\\nshare in the public land. And in this they found an unexpected\\nsupporter among the patricians themselves. Sp.\\nof^Snurlus Cassius, one of the most distinguished men in the\\nCassius. state, brought forward in his third consulship a\\nlaw by which a portion of the public land was\\nto be divided among the plebeians (486 B.C.). This was the\\nfirst Agrarian Lam mentioned in Koman history. It must be\\nrecollected that all Agrarian laws dealt only with the pubhc\\nland, and, though often infiinging private rights, never touched\\nwhat was actually private property. Notwithstanding the\\nviolent opposition of the patricians, the law was passed but\\nit was never carried into execution, and the patricians soon\\nrevenged themselves upon its author. In the following year\\nhe was accused of aiming at the kingly power, and condemned\\nto death. He was scourged and beheaded, and his house razed\\nto the ground.\\nWe now turn to the external history of Rome. Under the\\nkings Rome had risen to a superiority over her neighbours she\\nhad extended her dominion over the southern\\ntiorfsof Rome P*^* Etruria, and she had acquired the head-\\nship of the Latin league this headship taking\\nthe form of an alliance between Rome on the one hand and\\nall the cities of the league on the other. The early history of the\\nRepublic presents a very different spectacle. She is now isolated,\\nand for the next 100 years engaged in a constant defensive\\nwar with her neighbours, the Etruscans on the one hand and the\\nVolscians and Aequians on the other.\\nAn attempt to break this isolation was made by Sp. Cassius\\nin the days of his power by the alliance which he effected\\nThe tribu^ies were orig nally elected by the assembly of the Plebs which\\nmet by curiae (rovciHum p ebis curiat nn) but by tho Puislilian l,aw, pn posed\\nby the tribune Publilius VoUm, and passed 471 B.f., the election was transfened\\nto the assembly of the Plebs meeting by tribes {concilium plebis tributirn).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "Chap. IV.] WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS. 39\\nbetween Rome and the Latin and Hernican leagues (486 B.C.).\\nIt was this union which kept the Volscians and Aequians at\\nbay in the defensive contest now carried on by\\nRome. It would be unprofitable to relate the l^^f^^^^^\\ndetails of these petty campaigns but there are igaeue.\\ntliree celebrated legends connected with them\\nwhich must not be passed over.\\n1. CoRioLANUs AND THE VoLSCiANS, 488. B.C. C. Marcius,\\nsiirnamed Coriolanus, from his valour at the capture of the Latin\\ntown of Corioli, wasa brave but haughty patrician v, i,\\nyouth. He was hated by the plebeians, who re- VQi sciaiis\\nfused him the consulship. This inflamed him with\\nanger; and accordingly, when the city was suffering from\\nfamine, and a present of corn came from Sicily, Coriolanus\\nadvised the senate not to distribute it among the plebeians,\\nunless they gave up their tribunes. Such insolence enraged\\nthe plebeians, who would have torn him to pieces on the\\nspot, had not the tribunes summoned him before the Assembly\\nof the Plebs. Coriolanus himself breathed nothing but\\ndefiance and his kinsmen and friends interceded for him in\\nvain. He was condemned to exile. He now turned his steps\\nto Antium, the capital of the Volscians, and offered to lead them\\nagainst Rome. Attius Tullius, king of the Volscians, persuaded\\nhis countrymen to appoint Coriolanus their general. Nothing\\ncould check his victorious progress town after town fell before\\nhim and he advanced within five miles of the city, ravaging\\nthe lands of the plebeians, but sparing those of the patricians.\\nThe city was filled with despair. The ten first men in the\\nsenate were sent in hopes of moving his compassion. But they\\nwere received with the utmost sternness, and told that the city\\nmust submit to his absolute will. Next day the pontiff s, augurs,\\nflamens, and all the priests, came in their robes of office, and in\\nvain prayed him to spare the city. All seemed lost, but Rome\\nwas saved by her women. Next morning the noblest matrons,\\nheaded by Veturia, the aged mother of Coriolanus, and by his\\nwife Volumnia, holding her little children by the hand, came to\\nhis tent. Their lamentations turned him from his purpose.\\nMother, he said, bursting into tears, thou hast saved Rome,\\nbut lost thy son He then led the Volscians home. Some\\nsay that they put him to death because he had spared Rome.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "40 HISTORY OF KOME. [Chap. IV.\\nBut others tell that he lived among the Volscians to a great\\nage, and was often heard to say that none but an old man can\\nfeel the misery of living in a foreign land.\\n2. The Fabia Gens and the Veientines, 477 b.c. The\\nFabii were one of the most powerful of the patrician houses.\\nFor seven successive years one of the consuls was\\nY^ji always a Fabius. This clan had furnished the\\nleading opponents of the Agrarian Law; and\\nKaeso Fabius had taken an active part in obtaining the con-\\ndemnation of Sp. Cassins. But shortly afterwards we find this\\nsame Kaeso the advocate of the popular rights, and proposing\\nthat the Agrarian Law of Cassius should be carried into effect.\\nHe was supported in his new views by his powerful house\\nthough the reasons for their change of opinion we do not knov/\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nBut the Fabii made no impression upon the great body of the\\npatricians, and only earned for themselves the hearty hatred\\nof their order. Finding that they could no longer live in peace\\nat Eome, they determined to leave the city, and found a separate\\nsettlement, where they might still be useful to their native land.\\nOne of the most formidable enemies of the Republic was the\\nEtruscan city of Veil, situate about twelve miles from Rome.\\nAccordingly the Fabian house, consisting of 306 males of full\\nage, accompanied by their wives and children, chents and\\ndependents, marched out of Rome by the right-hand arch of\\nthe Carmental Gate, and proceeded straight to the Cremera, a\\nriver which flows into the Tiber below Veil. On the Cremera\\nthey established a fortified camp, and sallying thence, they laid\\nwaste the Veientine territory. For two years they sustained\\nthe whole weight of the Veientine war and all attempts to\\ndislodge them proved in vain. But at length they were enticed\\ninto an ambuscade, and were all slain. The settlement was\\ndestroyed, and no one of the house survived except a boy, who\\nhad been left behind at Rome, and who became the ancestor\\nof the Fabii, afterwards so celebrated in Roman history. The\\nFabii were sacrificed to the hatred of the patricians for the\\nconsul T. Menenius was encamped a short way off at the time,\\nand he did nothing to save them.\\n3. CiNciNNATus AND THE Aequians, 458 B.C. The Aequians\\nin their numerous attacks upon the Roman territory generally\\noccupied Mount Algidus, which formed a part of the group of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "PoitusAx\\nTJberJi", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "Harper Brothers, New York London", "height": "2949", "width": "2377", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "Chap. IV.] WAR WITH THE AEQUIANS. 41\\nthe Alban hills in Latiura. It was accordingly upon this mount\\nthat the battles between the Romans and Aequians most fre-\\nquently took place. In the year 458 b.c. the -th fh\\nRoman consul L. Minucius was defeated on the Aequians.\\nAlgidus, and surrounded in his camp. Five\\nhorsemen, who made their escape before the Romans were\\ncompletely encompassed, brought the tidings to Rome. The\\nsenate forthwith appointed L. Cincinnatus dictator.\\nL. Cincinnatus was one of the heroes of old Roman story.\\nWhen the deputies of the senate came to him to announce his\\nelevation to the dictatorship, they found him driving a plough,\\nand clad only in his tunic or shirt. They bade him clothe\\nhimself, that he might hear the commands of the senate. He\\nput on his toga, which his wife Racilia brought him. The\\ndeputies then told him of the peril of the Roman array, and\\nthat he had been made dictator. The next morning, before\\ndaybreak, he appeared in the forum, and oidered all the men\\nof military age to meet him in the evening in the Field of Mars,\\nwith food for five days, and each with twelve stakes. His orders\\nwere obeyed and with such speed did he march, that by mid-\\nnight he reached Mount Algidus. Placing his men around the\\nAequian camp, he told them to raise the war-cry, and at the\\nsame time to begin digging a trench and raising a mound, on\\nthe top of which the stakes were to be driven in. The other\\nRoman army, which was shut in, hearing the war-cry, bui st\\nforth from their camp, and fought with iho Aequians all night.\\nThe dictator s troops thus worked without interruption, and com-\\npleted the entrenchment by the morning. The Aequians found\\nthemselves hemmed in between the two armies, and were forced\\nto surrender. The dictator made them pass under the yoke,\\nwhich was formed by two spears fixed upright in the ground,\\nwhile a third was fastened across them. Cincinnatus entered\\nRome in triumph, only twenty-four hours after he had qUiited\\nit, having thus saved a whole Roman army from destruction.\\nIt is impossible from the scattered legendary notices to gauge\\naccurately the result of these struggles. We can\\nonly say that Rome issued from the contest ^^cline of the\\nwith unimpaired strength a result partly due to -oI|Iil*\\nthe renewed consolidation of the Latin league,\\npartly to the weakening of her great rival Etruria. The", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "42 HISTORY OF EOME. [Chap. IV.\\nEtruscans had been defeated in a p eat naval battle off Cumae\\nby Hiero, king of Syracuse, in 474 B.C., and from this event\\ndates the decline of their power. Henceforth Etruria v^as the\\nobject of attack, and not the aggressor, and Rome was left free\\nto cope with the Aequians and Volscians, her warlike neighbours\\non the east and south.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "Tarpeian Kook.\\nCHAPTER V.\\nTHE DECEM^^RATE. 451-449 B.C.\\nFrom the Agrarian Law of Sp. Cassius to the appointment of\\nthe decemvirs was a period of more than thirty years. At the\\nclose of this period the contest between the Renewed\\npatricians and the plebeians had reached an struggle be-\\nacute stage. The latter had constantly demanded, tween the\\nand the former as firmly refused, the execution orders,\\nof the Agrarian Law of Cassius. But though the plebeians", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "44 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. V.\\nfailed in obtaining this object, they nevertheless made steady\\nprogress in gaining for themselves a more important position\\nin the city. In 471 B.C. the Publilian Law, passed by the\\nTribune Publihus Volero,* had enacted that the election of the\\ntribunes and plebeian aediles should take place in an Assembly\\nof the PJebs which met by tribes.f From this time the Con-\\ncilium of the Plebs, presided over by the tribunes, may be\\nregarded as one of the political assemblies of the state, ranking\\nwith those of the centuries and the curies. But the patricians\\nstill retained exclusive possession of the powers of carrying out\\nthe laws and of giving judgments, and there were no written\\nrules to limit their authority and to regulate their decisions.\\nUnder these circumstances, the Tribune C. Terentilius Arsa\\nproposed, in 462 B.C., that a Commission of Ten Men (Decemviri)\\nshould be appointed to draw up a code of laws, by\\nProposal to -^i;,ich a check might be put to the arbitrary power\\ncodify the law. m\\nof the patrician magistrates, ihis proposition,\\nas might have been expected, met with the most vehement\\nopposition from the patricians. But the plebeians were firm\\nand for five successive years the same tribunes were re-elected.\\nAt length, after a struggle of eight years, a compromise was\\neffected, and it was arranged that Three Commissioners\\n(Triumviri) were to be sent into Greece to collect information\\nrespecting the laws of Solon at Athens, as well as of the other\\nGreek states.\\nAfter an absence of two years the three commissionera\\nreturned to Rome (452 B.C.), and it was now resolved that a\\nCouncil of Ten, or Decemvirs, should be appointed\\nAppointment ^^^g ^f Ig^^g a,nd at the same time\\nto carry on the government and administer justice\\nwithout appeal. All the other magistrates were obliged to\\nabdicate, and no exception was made even in favour of the\\ntribunes. The decemvirs were thus entrusted with supreme\\npower in the state. They entered upon their office at the\\nbeginning of 451 B.C. They were all patricians. At their\\nhead stood Appius Claudius and T. Genucius, who had been\\nThis Publilian law must be carefully distinguished from the leges Puhliliae\\nof the dictator Q. Publilius Philo, passed in 339 B.C. See p. 62.\\nt See note on p. 38, and cf. p. 63. This assembly was the concilium plehis\\ntributim (sometimes loosely called the comitia tributa). Strictly the word con-\\ncilium denotes an assembly of part of the people the word comitia, au assembly\\nof the whole people.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "Chap. V.] TYRANJSY OF IHE DECEMVIRS. 45\\nalready appointed consuls for the year. They discharged the\\nduties of their office with dihgence, and dispensed justice with\\nimpartiality. Each administered the government day by day\\nin succession, and the fasces were carried only before the one\\nwho presided for the day. They drew up a Code of Ten Tables,\\nin which equal justice was dealt out to both orders. The Ten\\nTables received the sanction of the Comitia of the Centuries,\\nand thus became law.\\nOn the expiration of their year of office all parties were so\\nwell satisfied with the manner in which the decemvirs had\\ndischarged their duties, that it was resolved to\\ncontinue the same form of government for reap-\\nanother year; more especially as some of them\\nsaid that their work was not finished. A new Council of Ten\\nwas accordingly elected, of whom Appius Claudius alone be-\\nlonged to the former body. He had so carefully concealed his\\npride and ambition during the previous year that he had been\\nthe most popular member of the council, and the patricians, to\\nprevent his appointment for another year, had ordered him to\\npreside at the Comitia for the elections, thinking that he would\\nnot receive votes for himself. But Appius set such scruples at\\ndefiance, and not only returned himself as elected, but took care\\nthat his nine colleagues should be subservient to his views.\\nHe now threw off the mask he had hitherto worn, and acted\\nas the tyrant of Eome. Each decemvir was attended by twelve\\nlictors, who carried the fasces with the axes in\\nthem, so that 120 lictors were seen in the city\\ninstead of twelve. The senate was rarely summoned. No\\none was now safe, and many of the leading men quitted Rome.\\nTwo new Tables were added to the Code, making twelve in all\\nbut these new laws contained clauses which confirmed the\\npatricians in their most odious privileges.\\nWhen the year came to a close, the decemvirs neither re-\\nsigned nor held Comitia for the election of. successors, but\\ncontinued to hold their power in defiance of the senate and of\\nthe people. Next year (449 B.C.) the Sabines and Aequians\\ninvaded the Roman territory, and two armies were despatched\\nagainst them, commanded by some of the decemvirs. Appius\\nremained at Rome to administer justice. But the soldiers\\nfought with no spirit under the command of men whom they", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "46 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap V.\\ndetested, and two acts of outrageous tyranny caused them to\\nturn their arms against their hated masters.\\nIn the army iighting against the Sabines was a centurion\\nnamed L. Sicinius Dentatus, the bravest of the brave. He had\\nfought in 120 battles he had slain eight of the\\nDentalus. enemy in single combat he had received forty\\nwounds, all in front; he had accompanied the\\ntriumphs of nine generals; and had war-crowns and other\\nrewards innumerable. As Tribune of the Plebs four years\\nbefore, he had taken an active part in opposing the patricians,\\nand was now suspected of /plotting against the decemvirs. His\\ndeath was accordingly resolved on, and he was sent with a\\ncompany of soldiers as if to reconnoitre the enemy s position.\\nBut in a lonely spot they fell upon him and slew him, though\\nnot until he had destroyed most of the traitors. His comrades,\\nwho were told that he had fallen in an ambush of the enemy,\\ndiscovered the foul treachery that had been practised when\\nthey saw him surrounded by Roman soldiers who had evidently\\nbeen slain by him. The decemvirs prevented an immediate out-\\nbreak only by burying Dentatus with great pomp, but the troops\\nwere ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first provocation.\\nIn the other army sent against the Aequians there was a\\nwell-known centurion named Verginius. He had a beautiful\\ndaughter, betrothed to L. Icilius, an eminent\\nleader of the plebeian order. The maiden had\\nattracted the notice of the Decemvir Appius Claudius. He at\\nfirst tried bribes and allurements, but when these failed he had\\nrecourse to an outrageous act of tyranny. One morning, as\\nVerginia, attended by her nurse, v/as on the way to her school,\\nwhich was in one of the booths surrounding the forum, M.\\nClaudius, a client of Appius, laid hold of the damsel and claimed\\nher as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help brought a crowd\\naround them, and all parties went before the decemvir. In his\\npresence Marcus repeated the tale he had learnt, asserting that\\nVerginia was the child of one of his female slaves, and had been\\nimposed upon Verginius by his wife, who was childless. He\\nfurther stated that he would prove- this to her father as soon\\nas he returned to Rome, and he demanded that the girl should\\nmeantime be handed over to his custody. Appius, fearing a\\nriot, said that he would let the cause stand over till the next", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "Chap. V.] SECOND SECESSION OF THE PLEBS. 47\\nday, but that then, whether her father appeared or not, he\\nshould know how to maintain the laws. Straightway two\\nfriends of the family made all haste to the camp, which they\\nreached the same evening. Verginius immediately obtained\\nleave of absence, and was already on his way to Rome when\\nthe messenger of Appius arrived, insti ucting his colleagues to\\ndetain him. Early next morning Verginius and his daughter\\ncame into the forum with their garments rent. The father\\nappealed to the people for aid, and the women in their company\\nsobbed aloud. But, intent upon the gratification of his passions,\\nAppius cared nought for the misery of the father and the girl,\\nand hastened to give sentence, by which he consigned the\\nmaiden to his client. Appius, who had brought with him a\\nlarge body of armed patricians and their clients, ordered his\\nlictors to disperse the mob. The people drew back, leaving\\nVerginius and his daughter alone before the judgment-seat.\\nAll help was gone. The unhappy father then prayed the\\ndecemvir to be allowed to speak one word to the nurse in his\\ndaughter s hearing, in order to ascertain whether she was really\\nhis daughter. The request was granted. Verginius drew them\\nboth aside, and, snatching up a butcher s knife from one of the\\nstalls, plunged it in his daughter s breast, exclaiming, There\\nis no way but this to keep thee free. In vain did Appius call\\nout to stop him. The crowd made way for him, and, holding\\nhis bloody knife on high, he rushed to the gate of the city and\\nhastened to the army. His comrades espoused his cause, ex-\\npelled their commanders, and marched towards Rome. They were\\nsoon joined by the other army, to whom Numitorius and Icilius\\nhad carried the tidings. The plebeians in the city flocked to them,\\nand they all resolved to retire once more to the Sacred Mount.\\nThis second secession extorted from the patricians the second\\ngreat charter of the plebeian rights. The patricians compelled\\nthe decemvirs to resign, and sent L. Valerius and\\nM. Horatius, two of the most eminent men of Second seces-\\n1 1 I 1 1 T sion of the\\ntheir order, to negotiate with tlie plebeians. It plebeians.\\nwas finally agreed that the tribunes should be\\nrestored, that the authority of the Concilium Plebis should be\\nrecognized, and that the right of appeal to the people against\\nthe power of the supreme magistrates should be confirmed.\\nThe plebeians now returned to the city, and elected ten tribunes", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "48 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. V.\\na number which remained unchanged down to the latest\\ntimes. Verginius, Icilius, and Numitorius were among the new\\ntribunes.\\nTwo consuls were elected in place of the decemvirs, and the\\nchoice of the Comitia Centuriata naturally fell upon Valerius\\nand Horatius. The new consuls now redeemed\\ntian Laws\u00c2\u00b0^ promises to the plebeians by bringing forward\\nthe laws which are called after them, the Valerian\\nand Horatian Laivs. These celebrated laws enacted\\n1. That every Koman citizen should have a right of appeal\\nagainst the sentence of the supreme magistrate within the hmits\\nof the city. This was, in fact, a solemn confirmation of the\\nold law of Valerius Publicola, passed in the first year of the\\nRepublic. The reason for its re-enactment on this occasion was\\nthe recent existence of the decemvirate, from the members of\\nwhich there had been no appeal. But, as great difficulty was\\nfound in controlling the executive officials, it was enacted again\\na third time in 300 B.C., on the proposal of M. Valerius, the\\nconsul. The Roman soldier in the field {militiae) had no right\\nof appeal, and was still subject to martial law.\\n2. That the Plehiscifa, or resolutions passed by the plebeians\\nin the Concilium Plebis, should have the force of laws, and\\nshould be binding alike upon patricians and plebeians.\\n3. That the persons of the tribunes, aediles, and other plebeian\\nmagistrates, should be sacred, and whoever injured them should\\nbe outlawed.\\nVerginius now accused Appius Claudius, who was thrown into\\nprison to await his trial. But the proud -patrician, seeing that\\nhis condemnation was certain, put an end to his own fife.\\nOppius, another of the decemvirs, and the personal friend of\\nAppius, was condemned and executed. The other decemvirs\\nwere allowed to go into exile, but they were all declared guilty,\\nand their property confiscated to the state.\\nThe Twelve Tables were always regarded as the foundation\\nof the Roman law, and long continued to be held in the highest\\nestimation. They probably did little more than\\nTables fix in a written form a large body of customary\\nlaw but this was plebeian law, and in most of\\nthe relations of private life the two orders were now on an\\nequality. The patricians still, however, retained their exclusive", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "Chap. V.] THE TWELVE TABLES. 49\\npolitical privileges; and the eleventh table even gave the\\nsanction of law to the old custom which prohibited all inter-\\nmarriage {conuhium) between the two orders, since this pro-\\nhibition was thought to be connected with the maintenance of\\nthe state religion.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "tg-_~ijj^\\n^-^mm:\\nView from me ueigiibourboou oi Veil.\\nCHAPTER VI.\\nFROM THE DECEMVIRATE TO THE CAPTUEE OF KOME BY THE\\nGAULS. 448-390 B.C.\\nThe efforts of the leaders of the plebeians were now directed to\\nremoving disadvantages, based in the main on religious prejudice,\\n_ under which their order laboured they aimed at\\nsecuring the permission of intermarriage between\\npatricians and plebeians, and at opening the consulship to their\\nown order. The first object was attained four years after the\\ndecemvirate by the Lex Canuleia, proposed by Canulcius, one\\nof the tribunes (445 B.C.). But the Plebs did not carry this law\\nwithout a third secession, in which they occupied the Janiculum.\\nAt the same time, a compromise was effected with respect to\\nthe consulship.\\nThe patricians agreed that the supreme power in the state\\nshould be entrusted to new officers bearing the title of Military", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "Chap. VL] APPOINTMENT OF MILITARY TRIBUNES. 51\\nTribunes with Consular Power, who might be chosen equally\\nfrom patricians and plebeians. Their number varied in different\\nyears from three to six. In 444 b.c. three Mill- Appointment\\ntary Tribunes were nominated for the lirst time, of Military\\nIn the following year (443) two new magistrates, Tribunes and\\ncalled Censores, were appointed. They were always Censors,\\nto be chosen from the patricians and the eflect of their institu-\\ntion was to deprive the Military Tiibunes of some of the\\nmost important functions which had been formerly discharged\\nby the consuls. The original duty of the censors was that\\nof registering the names of Roman citizens in their various\\ntribes and centuries. This was done once every five years,\\nthe interval being called a lustrum, from the sacrifice of purifi-\\ncation which closed the ceremony but the censors tenure of\\noffice was fixed at eighteen months, as early as ten years after\\ntheir institution, by a law of the Dictator Mamercus Aemilius,\\nthough they continued to be appointed only once in five years.\\nAs the taxation of citizens depended on their place in the\\ncensus, the duty of registration gave the censors important\\nfinancial functions.\\nThough the Military Tribunes could from their first institution\\nbe chosen from either order, yet such was the influence of the\\npatricians in the Comitia of the Centuries that it was not till\\n400 B.C., or nearly forty years afterwards, that any plebeians\\nwere actually elected. In 421 B.C. the quaestorship was also\\nthrown open to them. The Quaestores were the paymasters of\\nthe state and as the custom was now growing up of filling up\\nthe senate from ex-magistrates, the plebeians thus became\\neligible for a seat at the great council of the Republic.\\nIn spite of these concessions, there was soon ground for fear\\nthat plebeian discontent might give rise to tyranny. In the year\\n440 B.C. there was a great famine at Rome. Sp.\\nMaelius, one of the richest of the plebeian knights,\\nexpended his fortune in buying up corn, which\\nhe sold to the poor at a small price, or distributed among\\nthem gratuitously. The patricians thought, or pretended\\nto think, that he was aiming at kingly power and in the\\nfollowing year (439) the aged Quinctius Cincinnatus, who\\nhad saved the Roman army on Mount Algidus, was appointed\\ndictator to save the state from this supposed internal danger.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "52 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VI.\\nHe nominated C. Servilius Ahala- his Master of the Horse.\\nDuring the night the Capitol and all the strong posts were\\ngarrisoned by the patricians, and in the morning Cincinnatus\\nappeared in the forum with a strong force, and summoned\\nMaelius to appear before his tribunal. But seeing the fate\\nwhich awaited him, he refused to go, whereupon Ahala rushed\\ninto the crowd and struck him dead upon the spot. His property\\nwas confiscated, and his house levelled to the ground. The\\ndeed of Ahala is frequently mentioned by Cicero and other\\nwriters in terms of the highest admiration, but it was regarded\\nby the plebeians at the time as an act of murder. Ahala was\\nbrought to trial, and only escaped condemnation by a voluntary\\nexile.\\nIn their foreign wars the Romans continued to be successful,\\nand, aided by their allies the Latins and Hernicans, they made\\nsteady progress in driving back their old enemies\\ncolonie^ the Volscians and Aequians. About this time\\nthey planted several coloniae in the districts which\\nthey conquered, to consolidate their dominion. These Roman\\ncolonies differed widely from those of ancient Greece and of\\nmodern Europe. They were of the nature of garrisons estab-\\nlished in conquered towns, and served both to strengthen and\\nextend the power of Rome. The colonists, who remained\\ncitizens of Rome, received a portion of the conquered territory,\\nand lived as a ruling class among the old inhabitants, who\\nretained the use of the rest of the land, and probably possessed\\na partial citizenship.\\nThe league now turned its attention to Etruria, its great\\nenemy in the north, and a war ensued, in the course of which\\nRome made her first acquisition in the territory of an alien\\nnationality.\\nNorthern Etruria was at this time hard pressed by the Gauls,\\nand Veil, which was the chief object of the Roman attack, was\\nalmost isolated. It was, however, closely allied\\nSiege a^ cap- ^-jj^ Fidenae, a town of Latium, not more than\\nfive or six miles from Rome. The two cities\\nfrequently united their arms against Rome, and in one of\\nthese wars Lars Tolumnius, the king of Veii, was slain in\\nsingle combat by A. Cornelius Cussub, one of the Military\\nTribunes, and his arms dedicated to Jupiter the second of the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "Chap. VI.] CAPTURE OF VEIL 53\\nthree instances in which the Spdlia Opima were won (437 B.C.).\\nA few years afterwards Fidenae was taken and destroj ed\\n(426 B.C.), and at the same time a truce was granted to the\\nVeientines for twenty years. At the expiration of this truce\\nthe war was renewed, and the Romans resolved to subdue Veii,\\nas they had done Fidenae. The siege of Veii, Hke that of Troy,\\nlasted ten years, and the means of its capture was almost as\\nmarvellous as the wooden horse by which Troy was taken. The\\nwaters of the Alban Lake, close to the ancient town of Alba\\nLonga, rose to such a height as to deluge the neighbouring\\ncountry. An oracle declared that Veii could not be taken until\\nthe waters of the lake found a passage to the sea. This reached\\nthe ears of the Romans, who thereupon constructed a tunnel to\\ncarry off its superfluous volume.* The formation of this tunnel\\nis said to have suggested to the Romans the means of taking Veii.\\nM. Furius Camillus, who was appointed dictator, commenced\\ndigging a mine beneath the city, which was to have its outlet in\\nthe citadel, in the temple of Juno, the guardian deity of Veii.\\nWhen the mine was finished, the attention of the inhabitants\\nwas diverted by feigned assaults against the walls. Camillus led\\nthe way into the mine at the head of a picked body of troops,\\nand emerged on the Veientine Capitol in time to complete an\\nunfinished sacrifice which the priest was offering to Juno. The\\nsoldiers who guarded the walls were now taken in the rear, the\\ngates were thrown open, and the city soon filled with Romans.\\nThe booty was immense, and the few citizens who escaped the\\nsworcl were sold as slaves. The city was abandoned, and its\\nterritory divided amongst the plebeians. Falerii was almost\\nthe only one of the Etruscan cities which had assisted Veii,\\nand she was now exposed single-handed to the vengeance of the\\nRomans but she avoided the fate of her sister city by a timely\\nsurrender, and the Etruscan war was over (394 B.C.)\\nTwo circumstances, of great importance for later history,\\noriginated from the long campaign against Veii. As the soldiers\\nWere obliged to pass the whole year under arms, in order to\\ninvest the city during the winter as well as the summer, they\\nnow for the first time received pay, and to this circumstance\\nThis remarkaWe work, which, after the lapse of more than two thousand\\nyears, still continues to serve the purpose for which it was originally designed,\\nis cut through the soft volcanic tufa of which the Alban hill is composed.\\nTbe length of the tuunel is about 6000 feet, and it is 4 feet 6 inches wide.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "54 HISTORY OF HOME. [Chap. VI.\\nwe may trace the beginnings of a standing army at Rome. At\\nthe same time, the cavalry was increased by allowing any one\\npossessed of a certain income to serve on horseback at his own\\nexpense {eques equo privato), and thus the term equites, ori-\\nginally applied to the horsemen of the eighteen centuries, was\\nextended to the wealtliy members of the middle-class.\\nCamillus celebrated a splendid triumph for his conquest of\\nVeii. He entered the city in a chariot drawn by white horses,\\nand he brought with him from the conquered\\ntown the statue of Juno, for whom a splendid\\ntemple was now erected on the Aventine. But the victories of\\nCamillus did not win him popularity. His extravagant triumph\\nwas taken as a sign of more than human pride, and he now\\nincurred the hatred of the plebeians by calling upon every man\\nto refund a tenth of the booty taken at Veii, because he had\\nmade a vow to consecrate to Apollo a tithe of the spoil. He\\nwas himself accused of having appropriated the great bronze\\ngates at Veii, and was impeached by one of the tribunes. Seeing\\nthat his condemnation was certain, he went into exile, with the\\ndisloyal prayer that the Eepublic might soon have cause to\\nregret him (391 B.C.). His prayer was heard, for the Gauls\\nhad already crossed the Apennines, and next year Rome was iu\\nashes.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "Fragment of sculpture from the pediment of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,\\nCHAPTER VII.\\nFROM THE CAPTURE OF ROME BY THE GAULS TO THE FINAL\\nUNION OF THE TWO ORDERS. 390-367 B.C.\\nThe Gauls were a branch of the Celtic race which in ancient\\ntimes spread over the greater part of Western Europe. It\\ninhabited Gaul and the British Isles, and it bad,\\nas we saw, in the time of the Tarquins crossed iJ^Jiy^^^y j^g\\nthe Alps and taken possession of Northern Italy. Qa^^^g^\\nThese Gallic invaders now spread further south,\\ncrossed the Apennines, and laid waste with fire and sword the\\nprovinces of Central Italy. Rome fell before them, and was\\nreduced to ashes; but the details of its capture are clearly\\nlegendary. The common story runs as follows\\nThe Senones, a tribe of the Gauls, under the leadership of\\nthe Brennus, laid siege to Clusium, the powerful Etruscan\\ncity over which Lars Porsena once reigned. Such reputation\\nBrennus, given by our authorities as a proper name, is probably a titde, tUo\\nCymric brenhin, or king.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "56 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII.\\nhad Rome gained through her conquests in Etruria, that Clusium\\napphed to her for aid (391 b.c). The senate sent three ambas-\\nsadors of the Fabian house to warn the barbarians not to touch\\nan ally of Rome. But the Gauls treated their message with\\nBcorn and the ambassadors, forgetting their sacred character,\\nfought in the Clusine ranks. One of the Fabii slew with his own\\nhands a Gallic chieftain, and was recognized while stripping off\\nhis armour. The Brennus therefore sent to Rome to demand\\nsatisfaction. It might have been granted by the senate, but\\nthe current of popular feeling was too strong the Roman people\\nnot only refused to give it, but elected the guilty ambassadors\\nMilitary Tribunes for the following year. On hearing of this\\ninsult, the Gauls broke up the siege of Clusium, and hastened\\nsouthwards towards Rome. All the inhabitants fled before them\\ninto the towns. They pursued their course without injuring any\\none, crying to the guards upon the walls of the towns they\\npassed, Our way lies for Rome.\\nOn the news of their approach the Roman army hurried out\\nof the city, and on the 16th of July (390 b.c), a day ever after\\nmarked with black letters on the calendar, they\\nAUia* Gauls on the Allia, a small river which\\nflows into the Tiber, on its left bank, about eleven\\nmiles from Rome. The Roman legions, unfamiliar with the\\nimpetuous character of the Celtic attack, broke at the first\\nfurious onset of the Gauls. Most of the soldiers were cut\\ndown, others turned and fled even such as escaped by crossing\\nthe Tiber found themselves on the wrong side of the river, and\\nthe path to Rome lay open to the Gauls.\\nThe loss at the Allia had been so great that enough men were\\nnot left to guard the walls of the city. It was therefore resolved\\nthat those in the vigour of their age should withdraw to the\\nCapitol, taking with them all the provisions in the city that the\\npriests and vestal virgins should convey the objects of religious\\nreverence to Caere and that the rest of the population should\\ndisperse among the neighbouring towns. But the aged patricians\\nwho had held high rank, seeing that their lives were no longer\\nof any service to the state, sat in the porches of their houses in\\nfull official robes, awaiting death. When the Gauls entered the\\ncity they found it desolate and deathlike. They marched on,\\nwithout seeing a human being, till they came to the forum.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "Chap, VII.] THE GALLIC INVASION. 67\\nHere they beheld the aged senators sitting immovable, like\\nbeings of another world. For some time they gazed in awe at\\nthis strange sight, till at length one of the Gauls ventured to go\\nup to M. Papirius and stroke his white beard. The old man\\nstruck him on the head with his ivory sceptre whereupon the\\nbarbarian slew him, and all the rest were massacred. The\\nGauls now began plundering the city fires broke out in several\\nquarters and with the exception of a few houses on the Pala-\\ntine, which the chiefs kept for their own residence, the whole\\ncity was burnt to the ground.\\nThe Capitol was the next object of attack. There was only\\none steep way leading up to it, and all the assaults of the\\nbesiegers were easily repelled. They thereupon\\nturned the siege into a blockade, and for seven J\\nmonths were encamped amid the ruins of Rome.\\nBut their numbers were soon thinned by disease, for they had\\nentered Rome in the most unhealthy time of the year, when\\nfevers have always prevailed. The ftiilure of provisions obliged\\nthem to ravage the neighbouring countries, the people of which\\nbegan to combine for defence against the marauders. Meantime\\nthe scattered Romans took courage. They collected at Veii, and\\nhere resolved to recall Camillus from banishment, and appoint\\nhim dictator. In order to obtain the consent of the senate, a\\ndaring youth, named Pontius Cominius, offered to swim across\\nthe Tiber and climb the Capitol. He reached the top unper-\\nceived by the enemy, obtained the approval of the senate to the\\nappointment of Camillus, and returned safely to Veii. But next\\nday some Gauls observed the traces of his steps, and in the dead\\nof night they climbed up the same way. The foremost of them\\nhad already reached the top, unnoticed by the sentinels and the\\ndogs, when the cries of some geese roused M. Manlius from\\nsleep. These geese were sacred to Juno, and had been spared\\nnotwithstanding the gnawings of hunger and the Romans were\\nnow rewarded for their piety. M. Manlius thrust down the Gaul\\nwho had clambered up, and gave the alarm. The Capitol was\\nthus saved and down to latest times M. Manlius was honoured\\nas one of the greatest heroes of the early Republic.\\nStill no help came, and the Gauls remained before the Capitol.\\nThe Romans suffered from famine, and at length agreed to pay\\nthe barbarians 1000 pounds of gold, on condition of their", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "58 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII.\\nquitting the city and its territory. The Brennus brought false\\nweights, and, when the Romans exclaimed against this injustice,\\nthe Gallic chief threw his sword also into the scale,\\nt R crying, Woe to the vanquished Vae victis\\nThe Gauls then retired, having bartered victory\\nfor gold. Tradition, indeed, tells that at this very moment\\nCamillas marched into the forum, ordered the gold to be taken\\naway, and drove the Gauls out of the city, and that another\\nbattle was fought on the road to Gabii, in which the Gauls were\\ncompletel^ destroyed, and their leader Brennus taken prisoner.\\nBut this is an invention of Roman vanity. We learn from\\nother sources that the Gauls retreated because their settlements\\nin Northern Italy were attacked by the Venetians nor was\\ntheir withdrawal final they frequently repeated their inroads,\\nand for many years to come were the constant dread of Rome.\\nWhen the Romans returned to the heap of ruins which was\\nonce their city, their hearts sank within them. The people\\nshrank from the expense and toil of rebuilding\\no rr** houses, and loudly demanded that they\\ninvasion should all remove to Veil, where the private\\ndwellings and public buildings were still stand-\\ning. But Camillus strongly urged them not to abandon the\\nhomes of their fathers and tliey were at length persuaded to\\nremain. Within a year the city rose from its ashes but the\\nstreets were narrow and crooked tlie houses were frequently\\nbuilt over the sewers and the city continued to show, down to\\nthe great fire of Nero, evident traces of the haste and irregularity\\nwith which it had been rebuilt.\\nRome was now deprived of almost all her subjects, and her\\nterritory was reduced to nearly its original limits. The Latins\\nand Hernicans dissolved the league with thu Romans, and wars\\nbroke out on every side. In these difficulties and dangers Camillus\\nwas the soul of the Republic. Again and again he led the Roman\\nlegions against their enemies, and always with success.\\nThe rapidity with which the Romans recovered their power\\nafter so terrible a disaster would seem unaccount-\\nEenewed in- gi^jg^ ^^^t f^j, t^g f^cts that the other nations had\\nQj^j^g also suffered greatly from the inroads of the\\nGauls, who still continued to ravage Central\\nItaly, and that these Gallic invasions forced the Italians to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "Chap. VlL] MANLIUS. 59\\nrecognize in Rome their bulwark against the barbarians. Two\\nfamous family legends grew out of these invasions, which may\\nbe related here, though they belong to a later period.\\nIn 361 B.C. the Gauls and Eomans were encamped on either\\nbank of the Arno. A gigantic Gaul stepped forth from the\\nranks and insultingly challenged a Roman knight. T. Manlius,\\na Roman youth, obtained permission from his general to accept\\nthe challenge, slew the giant, and took from the dead body the\\ngolden chain {torques) which the barbarian wore around his neck.\\nHis comrades gave him the surname of Torquatus, which he\\nhanded down to his descendants.\\nIn 349 B.C. another distinguished Roman family earned its\\nsurname from a single combat with a Gaul. Here again a\\nGallic warrior of gigantic size challenged any one of the\\nRomans to single combat. His challenge was accepted by\\nM. Valerius, upon whose helmet a raven perched and as they\\nfought, the bird flew into the face of the Gaul, striking at him\\nwith his beak and flapping his wings. Thus Valerius slew the\\nGaul, and was called in consequence Corvus, or the Raven.\\nMeanwhile, Rome, though she had survived the stress of war,\\nwas again on the verge of a social revolution. Great suffering\\nand discontent prevailed. Returning to ruined\\nhomes and ravaged lands, the poor citizens had resso\\nbeen obliged to borrow money to rebuild their\\nhouses and cultivate their farms. The law of debtor and\\ncreditor at Rome, as we have already seen, was very severe,\\nand many unfortunate debtors were carried away to bondage.\\nUnder these circumstances, M. Manlius, the preserver of the\\nCapitol, came forward as the patron of the poor. This dis-\\ntinguished man had been bitterly disappointed in __\\nhis claims to honour and gratitude. While\\nCamillus, his personal enemy, who had shared in none of the\\ndangers of the siege, was repeatedly raised to the highest\\nhonours of the state, he, who had saved the Capitol, was left\\nto languish in a private station. Neglected by his own order,\\nManlius turned to the plebeians. One day he recognized in the\\nforum a soldier who had served with him in the field, and whom\\na creditor was carrying away in fetters. Manlius paid his debt\\nupon the spot, and swore that, as long as he had a single\\npound, he would not allow any Roman to be imprisoned for", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "60 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII.\\ndebt. He sold a large part of his property, and applied the\\nproceeds to the liberation of his fellow-citizens from bondage.\\nSupported now by the plebeians, he came forward as the accuser\\nof his own order, and charged them with appropriating to their\\nown use the gold which had been raised to ransom the city\\nfrom the G-auls. The patricians, in return, accused him, as they\\nhad accused Sp. Cassius, of aspiring to the tyranny. When he\\nwas brought to trial before the Comitia of the Centuries, in the\\nCampus Martius, he proudly showed the spoils of thirty warriors\\nwhom he had slain, the forty military distinctions which be had\\nwon in battle, and the innumerable scars upon his breast, and\\nthen, turning towards the Capitol, he prayed the immortal gods\\nto remember the man who had saved their temples from\\ndestruction. After such an appeal his condemnation was im-\\npossible and his enemies therefore contrived to break iip the\\nassembly. Shortly afterwards he was arraigned on the same\\ncharges before the Comitia, at a place without the walls from\\nwhich the Capitol could be no longer seen. Here he was at\\nonce condemned, and was hvu led from the Tarpeian rock. His\\nhouse, which was on the Capitol, was razed to the ground\\n(384 B.C.).\\nThe death of Manlius, however, was only a temporary check\\nto the cause of reform. The agitation was now taken up by\\nthe rich plebeians, who aspired to public office;\\nRofi-ations necessary to enlist the rank and file of\\ntheir order in the cause by proposing social\\nreforms. In 376 b.c. C. Licinius Stolo and his kinsman L.\\nSextius, being Tribunes of the Plebs, brought forward three\\nlaws, which are celebrated in history under the name of The\\nLiCTNiAN Rogations.* These were\\nI. That in future consuls, and not Military Tribunes, should be\\nappointed, and that one of the two consuls must be a\\nplebeian.\\nn. That no citizen should possess more than 500 jugera f of\\nthe public land, nor should feed upon the public pastures\\nmore than 100 head of large and 500 of small cattle, under\\npenalty of a heavy fine.\\nA Rogatio differed from a Lex, as a Bill from an Act of Parliament.\\nA rogatio was a law submitted to the assembly of the people, and only became\\na lex when enacted by them.\\nt A jugerum was rather more than half an acre.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "Chap. VII.] THE LICINIAN ROGATIONS. 61\\nIII. That the interest already paid for borrowed money should\\nbe deducted from the principal, and that the remainder\\nshould be repaid in three yearly instalments.\\nThese great reforms naturally excited the most violent\\nopposition, and the patricians induced some of the tribunes\\nto put their veto upon the measures of their political\\ncolleagues. But Liciniue and Sextius were not struggle be-\\nto be baffled in this way, and they exercised tween the\\ntheir veto by preventing the Comitia Centuriata o\u00e2\u0084\u00a2ers.\\nfrom electing any magistrates for the next year. Hence no\\nconsuls, military tribunes, censors, or quaestors, could be ap-\\npointed; the tribunes and the aediles of the plebs, who were\\nelected by the Concilium PJebis, were the only magistrates in\\nthe state, most of the public business was suspended, and all\\nthe courts were closed. For five years did this anarchy con-\\ntinue. C. Licinius and L. Sextius were re-elected annually, and\\nprevented the Comitia of the Centuries from appointing any\\nmagistrates. At the end of this time they allowed Military\\nTribunes to be chosen in consequence of a war with the Latins;\\nbut so far were they from yielding any of their demands, that\\nto their former Kogations they now added another: That the\\ncare of the Sibylline books, instead of being entrusted to two\\nmen {duumviri), both patricians, should be given to ten men\\n{decemviri), half of whom should be plebeians.\\nFive years more did the struggle last, but the firmness of the\\ntribunes at length prevailed. In 367 B.C. the Licinian Eoga-\\ntions were passed, and L. Sextius was elected\\nthe first plebeian consul for the next year. But ConsiUsMp\\nthe patricians made one last effort to evade the plebeians\\nlaw. By the Koman constitution the consuls,\\nafter being elected by the Comitia Centuriata, required the\\nratification of their imperium from the Comitia Curiata. The\\npatricians, who exercised great influence in this assembly,\\npersuaded it to nullify the election of L. Sextius and they\\nhad already made Camillus, the great champion of their order,\\ndictator, to support them in their new struggle. But the old\\nhero saw that it was too late, and determined to bring about\\na reconciliation between the opposing parties. A compromise\\nwas effected. The imperium was conferred upon L. Sextius\\nbut the judicial duties were taken away from the consuls, and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "62 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VII.\\ngiven to a new magistrate, called praetor.* Camillus vowed\\nto the goddess Concord a temple for his success.\\nThe long struggle between the patricians and plebeians\\nwas thus brought to a virtual close. The patricians still clung\\nobstinately to the exclusive privileges which they\\nFurther oon- gj.jjj poggggggfj but when the plebeians had once\\nobtained a share in the consulship, it was evident\\nthat their participation in the other offices of the state could\\nnot be much longer delayed. We may therefore anticipate the\\ncourse of events by narrating in this place that the first plebeian\\ndictator was C. Marcius Rutilus, in 356 B.C., that the same man\\nwas the first plebeian censor five years afterwards (351 b.c.)\\nthat the praetorship was thrown open to the plebeians in 337 B.C.\\nand that the Lex Ogulnia in 300 B.C., which increased the\\nnumber of the pontiffs from four to eight, and that of the\\naugurs from four to nine, also enacted that four of the pontiffs\\nand five of the augurs should be taken from the plebeians.\\nAbout thirty years after the Licinian Rogations, another\\nimportant reform, which abridged still further the privileges of\\nthe patricians, was effected by the Publilian\\nLaws^*^ Laws, proposed by the Dictator Q. Publilius\\nPhilo in 339 b.c. These were\\nI. That the resolutions of the plebs (plebiscita) passed in the\\nConcilium Plebis should be binding on all the Quirites.f\\nII. That all laws passed at the Comitia Centuriata must\\nreceive the sanction of the patrician members of the senate\\n(patrum auctoritas) before and not after their enactment\\nthis sanction was soon reduced to a mere formality.\\nIII. That one of the censors must be a plebeian.\\nThe first of these laws seems to be little more than a re-\\nenactment of one of the ValerianoHoratian Laws, passed after\\nClose of the expulsion of the decemvirs;:]: but it is\\nstruggle be- possible that those measures, and even the Publi-\\ntween the Han Law of 339 B.C., merely provided facilities\\norders. f^j. bringing plebiscita before the Comitia Centu-\\nriata, there to be passed into law. It was an enactment of\\nthe Dictator Q. Hortensius in 287 e.g. that first gave plebiscita\\nthe force of leges. In this year the last secession of the\\nplebeians took place, and the Lex Hoktensia is always\\nCf. p. 31. t Ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent. t See p. 49.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "Chap. VII.] EQUALISATION OF THE ORDERS.\\n63\\nmentioned as the law which gave to plebiscita passed at the\\nConcilium of the Tribes the full power of laws binding upon\\nthe whole nation. During this period we can also trace the\\ngrowth of a third assembly composed of patricians and plebeians,\\nand meeting by tribes (Coviitia Trihuta), which possessed legis-\\nlative and judicial power and elected the lower magistrates.*\\nThe close of the long struggle between the orders had left\\nvictory with the plebeians. Thej formed the majority of two of\\nthe sovereign assemblies (the Comitia Centuriata and Tributa),\\nand the whole of the third (the Concilium Flebis) one place\\nin the highest magistracies and half the vacancies in the priestly\\ncolleges Avere assured them, the other places and vacancies\\nthey might secure. Rome was now nearer a democracy than\\nat any other period of her history, for the great power of the\\nsenate had not yet cast its shadow over the state.\\nSee note on p. 44.\\nTemple of Jupiter Capitolinus (froni a coiny", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "*m: w*i^w*j ^imwm\\n^i5iM15M5MiSTMEi^ |r ^^^^ffllg^E j^TaJOT\\nSamnite warriors ^frum a oiural paiuiiug at Paustum).\\nCHAPTER VIII.\\nTHE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS. 367-290 B.C.\\nUnited at homo, the Romans were now prepared to cany on\\ntheir foreign wars with more vigour. But the years which\\nimmediately followed the Licinian Laws were times of great\\nsuffering. A pestilence raged in Rome, which carried off many\\nof the most distinguished men, and among others tlie aged\\nCamillus (362 B.C.). The Tiber overflowed its banks, the city\\nwas shaken by earthquakes, and a yawning chasm opened in\\nthe forum. Superstitious fears were excited, and the sooth-\\nsayers declared that the gulf could never be filled up except by\\nthrowing into it that which Rome held most valuable. The\\ntale runs that, when every one was doubting what the gods\\ncould mean, a noble youth named Mettus Curtius came forward,\\nand, declaring that Rome possessed nothing so valuable as\\nher brave citizens, mounted his steed and leaped into the\\nabyss in full armour, whereupon the earth closed over him\\n(362 B.C.).\\nDuring the next few years the Gauls renewed those inroads, in", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "Chap. Vm.] PifiST SAMNITE WAtl. ^S\\nwhich Manlius Torquatus and Valerius Corvus gained such glory.\\nThe Romans steadily extended their dominion over the southern\\npart of Etruria and the countr}^ of the Volscians\\nthe alHance with the Latin league stood firm, Extension of\\nand the cities of this league were rapidl} be- dominion\\ncoming mere dependencies of Eome, for she\\nremodelled their constitutions and treated defection from the\\nleague as revolt from herself. Fifty years had elapsed since the\\ncapture of the city by the Gauls, and Rome was now strong\\nenough to enter into a contest with the most formidable enemy\\nwhich her arms had yet encountered.\\nThe Samnites were at the height of their power, and the\\ncontest between them and the Romans was virtually for the\\nsupremacy of Italy. The Samnites, as we have\\nalready seen, were a people of Sabellian origin,\\n1 1 the Samnites.\\nand had emigrated to the countries which they\\ninhabited at a comparatively late period. Not contented with\\ntheir mountain-homes, they had, as we saw, overrun the rich\\nplains which Jay at their feet already they had become the\\nmasters of Campania and Lucania, and had spread themselves\\nalmost to the southern extremity of Italy. But the Samnites of\\nCampania and Lucania had in course of time broken ofl* all\\nconnection with the parent nation, and were sometimes engaged\\nin hostilities with the lattei-.\\nIt was a contest of this kind that led to the war between the\\nEomans and the Samnites of the Apennines. On the borders\\nof Campania and Samnium dwelt a people called\\nthe Sidicini, who had hitherto preserved their Campa-\\nindependence. Being attacked by the Samnites, Rome\\nthis people implored the assistance of the Cam-\\npanians, which was readily granted. Thereupon the Samnites\\nturned their arms against the Campanians, and, after occupying\\nMount Tifata, which overlooks the city of Capua, they descended\\ninto the plain, and defeated the Campanians in a pitched battle\\nat the very gates of Capua. The Campanians, being shut up\\nwithin the city, now applied for assistance to Rome, and offered\\nto place Capua in their hands. The Romans had only a few\\nyears previously concluded an alliance with the Samnites but\\nthe bait of the richest city and the most fertile soil in Italy was\\nirresistible and they resolved to comply with the request. Thus", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "6\u00c2\u00ab HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VIII.\\nbegan the Samnite Wars, which, with a few intervals of peace,\\nlasted fifty-three years.\\nFmsT Samnite Wak, 343-341 b.c. The Eomans commenced\\nthe war by sending two consular armies against the Samnites\\nand the first battle between the rival nations was\\nIJrst Sammte ^t the foot of Moimt Gaurus, which Hes\\nabout three miles from Cumae. The Samnites\\nwere defeated with great loss and it has been justly remarked\\nthat this battle may be regarded as one of the most memorable\\nin history, since it was a kind of omen of the ultimate issue of\\nthe great contest which had now begun between the Samnites\\nand Romans for the sovereignty of Italy. The Romans gained\\ntwo other decisive victories, and both consuls entered the city\\nin triumph. But two causes prevented the Romans from prose-\\ncuting their success. In the first place, the Roman army, which\\nhad been wintering in Capua, rose in open mutiny and the\\npoorer plebeians in the city, who were oppressed by debt, left\\nRome and joined the mutineers. In .the second place, the\\nincreasing disaffection of the Latins warned the Romans to\\nhusband their resources for another and more terrible struggle.\\nThe Romans, therefore, abandoning the Sidicini and Campanians,\\nconcluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the Samnites in\\n341 B.C., so that in the great Latin war, which broke out in the\\nfollowing year, the Samnites fought on the side of the Romans.\\nThe LATm War, 340-338 b.c. The increasing power of\\nRome had excited the alarm of the Latin states and it became\\nevident to them that, though nominally on a\\ntheTatins* footing of equality, they were in reality becoming\\nher subjects. This feeling was confirmed by the\\ntreaty of alliance which the Romans had formed with the\\nSamnites. The Latins, therefore, determined to bring matters\\nto a crisis, and sent two praetors, who were their chief magis-\\ntrates, to propose to the Romans that the two nations should\\nhenceforth form one state, that half of the senate should consist\\nof Latins, and that one of the two consuls should be chosen\\nfrom Latiura. These requests excited the greatest indignation\\nat Rome, and were rejected with the utmost scorn. The senate\\nmet in the temple of Jupiter, in the Capitol, to receive the Latin\\ndeputation, and, after hearing their proposals, the consul T.\\nMaalius Torquatus, the same who had slain the Gaul in single", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "Chap. VIII.] THE LATIN WAR; 67\\ncombat, declared that, if the Republic should be so cowardly\\nas to yield to these demands, he would come into the senate-\\nhouse sword in hand, and cut down the first Latin he saw there.\\nThe tale goes on to say that in the discussion which followed,\\nwhen both parties were excited by anger, the Latin praetor\\ndefied the Roman Jupiter; that thereupon an awful peal of\\nthunder shook the building; and that, as the impious man\\nhurried down the steps from the temple, he fell from top to\\nbottom, and lay there a corpse.\\nWar was now declared, and the most vigorous efforts were\\nmade on both sides. The contest was to decide whether Rome\\nshould become a simple member of the Latin\\nleague, or the Latins be subject to Rome. The Y^^\\nRomans had elected to the consulship two of\\ntheir most distinguished men. The patrician consul was, as\\nalready mentioned, T. Manlius Torquatus his plebeian colleague\\nwas P. Decius Mus, who had gained great renown in the recent\\nwar against the Samnites. Meantime Capua, freed from fears\\nof the Samnites, had thrown off its half-hearted allegiance to\\nRome and joined the Latins in their revolt. The two consuls\\nnow marched straight on Capua, and the contest was thus with-\\ndrawn from the territory of Rome and transferred to Campania,\\nwhere the Romans could receive assistance from the neighbour-\\ning country of their Samnite allies.\\nIt was at the river Veseris near the foot of Mount Vesuvius\\nthat the two armies met, and here the battle was fought which\\ndecided the contest. It was like a civil war.\\nThe soldiers of the two armies spoke the same ^***1^^\\nlanguage, had fought by each other s sides, and Xrifanum.\\nwere well known to one another. Under these\\ncircumstances, the consuls pubhshed a proclamation that no\\nRoman should engage in single combat with a Latin on pain of\\ndeath. But the son of Torquatus, provoked by the insults of a\\nTusculan oflScer, accepted his challenge, slew his adversary, and\\ncarried the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. The consul\\nhad within him the heart of Brutus; he would not pardon\\nthis breach of discipline, and ordered the unhappy youth to\\nbe beheaded by the lictor in the presence of the assembled\\narmy.\\nIn the night before the battle a vision appeared to each", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "68 History of rome. [Chap. viii.\\nconsul, announcing that the general of one side and the army\\nof the other were doomed to destruction. Both agreed that the\\none whose wing first began to waver should devote himself and\\nthe army of the enemy to the gods of the lower world. Decius\\ncommanded the left wing and when it began to give way, he\\nresolved to fulfil his vow. Calling the Pontifex Maximus, he\\nrepeated after him the form of words by which he devoted\\nhimself and the army of the enemy to the gods of the dead and\\nthe mother earth; then leaping upon his horse, he rushed into\\nthe thickest of the fight, and was slain. The Romans gained a\\nsignal victory. Scarcely a fourth part of the Latins escaped\\n(340 B.C.).\\nYet this victory (decisive as the legend makes it) did not\\nconclude the war. It required another battle fought at Trifanum\\nin the same year to make the Romans masters of\\nf th\u00c2\u00b0 T t Latium and Campania. The war continued two\\nleague. years longer, each city confining itself to the\\ndefence of its own walls, and hoping to receive\\nhelp from others in case of an attack. But in 338 B.C. all the\\nLatins had laid down their arms, and garrisons were placed in\\ntheir towns. The Romans were now absolute masters of Latium,\\nand their first act was to dissolve the league. For this purpose\\nnot only were all assemblies for political purposes forbidden;\\nbut separate treaties were made with the separate states, and in\\norder to keep the cities completely isolated, the citizens of one\\ntown were forbidden to marry or make a legal contract of bargain\\nor sale with another.* Tibur and Praeneste, the two most\\npowerful cities of the league, which had taken the most active\\npart in the war, were deprived of a portion of their land, but\\nwere allowed to retain a nominal independence, preserving\\ntheir own laws and renewing their treaties {foedera) with\\nRome. The inhabitants of several other towns, such as Aricia,\\nPedum, and Lanuvium, lost their independence and received\\nthe full Roman franchise. In Campania the private rights\\nof citizenship were given to Fundi, Formiae, Cumae, and\\nCapua.\\nTwelve years elapsed between the subjugation of Latium and\\nthe commencement of the Second Samnite War. During this\\nAccording to the Boman expression, the Jus Conubii and Jus Commercii\\nwere prohibited.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "Chap. VJII.] SECOND SAMNITE WAR. 69\\ntime the Eoman arms continued to make steady progress. One\\nof their most important conquests was that of the Volscian\\ntown of Privernum in 330 B.C., from which time\\nthe Volscians, so long the formidable enemies of greek ^oities^\\nRome, disappear as an independent nation. The\\nextension of the Roman power naturally awakened the jealousy\\nof the Samnites and the assistance rendered by them to the\\nGreek cities of Palaeopolis and Neapolis was the immediate\\noccasion of the Second Samnite War, These two cities were\\ncolonies of the neighbouring Cumae, and were situated only\\nfive miles from each other. The position of Palaeopolis, or the\\nOld City, is uncertain but Neapolis, or the New City,\\nstands on the site of a part of the modern Naples. The\\nRomans declared war against the two cities in 327 B.C., and\\nsent the Consul Q. Publilius Philo to reduce them to subjection.\\nThe Greek colonists had previously formed an alliance with\\nthe Samnites, and now received powerful Samnite garrisons.\\nPublilius encamped between the cities and as he did not succeed\\nin taking them before his year of office expired, the important\\nstep was for the first time taken of continuing the consul in his\\ncommand with the title of proconsul. At the beginning of the\\nfollowing year Palaeopolis surrendered and with Neapohs was\\nadmitted to alliance with Rome on favourable terms. Mean-\\nwhile the Romans had declared war against the Samnites.\\nSecond or Great Samnite War, 326-304 e.g. The Second\\nSamnite War lasted twenty-two years, and was by far the most\\nimportant of the three wars which this people\\nwaged with Rome. During the first five years \u00e2\u0096\u00a0^^TyjJa.r\\n(326-322 B.C.) the Roman arms were generally\\nsuccessful. The Samnites became so disheartened that they\\nsued for peace, but obtained only a truce for a year. It was\\nduring this period that the well-known quarrel took place\\nbetween L. Papirius Cursor and Q. Fabius Maximus, the two\\nmost celebrated Roman generals of the time, who constantly\\nled the armies of the Republic to victory. In 326 B.C. L. Papirius\\nwas dictator, and Q. Fabius his Master of the Horse. Recalled\\nto Rome by some defect in the auspices, the dictator left the\\narmy in charge of Fabius, but with strict orders not to venture\\nupon an engagement. Compelled or provoked by the growing\\nboldness of the enemy, Fabius attacked and defeated them with", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "70 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VIII.\\ngreat loss. But this victory was no extenuation for his offence\\nin the eyes of the dictator. Papirius hastened back to the\\ncamp, burning with indignation that his commands had been\\ndisobeyed, and ordered his lictors to seize Fabius and put him\\nto death. The soldiers, whom Fabius had led to victory, rose\\nin his defence and in the night he escaped to Rome, to implore\\nthe protection of the senate. He was stating the case to the\\nFathers, when Papirius entered the senate-house followed by\\nhis lictors, and demanded that the offender should be delivered\\nup for execution. But the senate, the people, and the aged\\nfather of Maximus interceded so strongly for his life, that the\\ndictator was obliged to give way, and to grant an ungracious\\npardon.\\nThe year s truce had not expired when the Samnites again\\ntook up arras, and for the next seven years (321-315 B.C.) the\\nbalance of success inclined to their side. Thi^ appears to have\\nbeen mainly owing to the military abilities of their general C.\\nPontius, who deserves to be ranked among the chief men of\\nantiquity. In the first year of his command he inflicted upon\\nthe Romans one of the severest blows they ever sustained in the\\nwhole course of their history.\\nIn 321 B.C. the two consuls, T. Veturius and Sp. Postumius\\nmarched into Samnium by the road from Capua to Beneventum.\\nNear the town of Caudium they entered the cele-\\nDisaster of brated pass called the Caudine Forks (Furculae\\n1 ^j^*^ Caudinae). It consisted of two narrow defiles or\\ngorges, between which was a tolerably spacious\\nplain, but shut in on each side by mountains. The Romans,\\nthinking the Samnites to be far distant, had marched through\\nthe first pass and the plain but when they came to the second\\nthey found it blocked up by works and trunks of trees, so as to\\nbe quite impassable. Retracing their steps to the pass by which\\nthey had entered, they found that the enemy had meantime\\ntaken possession of this also. They were thus blocked up at\\neither end, and, after making vain attempts to force their way\\nthrough, were obliged to surrender at discretion. Thus both\\nconsuls and four legions fell into the hands of the Samnites.\\nC. Pontius made a merciful use of his victory. He agreed to\\ndismiss them in safety upon their promising to restore the\\nancient alliance on equal terms between the two nations, and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "Chap. VIII.] SECOND SAMNITE WAR. 71\\nto give up all the places which they had conquered during the\\nwar. The consuls and the other superior officers swore to these\\nterms in the name of the Repubhc, and 600 Roman knights\\nwere given as hostages. The whole Eoman army was now\\nallowed to depart, and each Eoman soldier marched out singly\\nunder the yoke.\\nWhen the news of this disaster reached Eome, the senate\\nrefused to ratify the peace, on the ground that an imperator in\\nthe field had no power to make a sworn treaty\\non behalf of the state for, according to the f^^^^^\\nconvenient theory of the senate, this could only ^j^^ Samnites\\nbe done by afetialis sent from Eome. The two\\nconsuls and all the officers who had sworn to the peace were\\ndelivered up as scape-goats to the Samnites; but Pontius\\nrefused to accept the persons who were thus offered, and told\\nthem, if they wished to nullify the treaty, to send back the army\\nto the Caudine Forks. Thus Postumius and his companions\\nreturned to Eome, and the 600 knights were alone left in the\\nhands of the Samnites.\\nThe disaster of Caudium shook the faith of many of the\\nEoman alhes, and the fortune of war was for some years in\\nfavour of the Samnites. But in 314 B.C. the\\ntide of success again turned, and the decisive Yictones over\\n1 T Etruscans and\\nvictory 01 the consuls m that year opened the ganmites.\\nway into the heart of Samnium. From this time\\nthe Eomans were uniformly successful and it seemed probable\\nthat the war was drawing to a close, when the Etruscans\\ncreated a powerful diversion by declaring war against Eome in\\n311 B.C. But the energy and ability of Q. Fabius Maximus\\naverted this new danger. He boldly carried the war into the\\nvery heart of Etruria, and gained a decisive victory at Perusia\\nover the forces of the league. The Samnites also were\\nrepeatedly defeated and, after the capture of Bovianum, their\\nchief stronghold, they were compelled to sue for peace. It was\\ngranted them in 304 B.C., and they were admitted to terms of\\nalliance with Rome.\\nAt the conclusion of the Second Samnite War the Hernicans,\\nwho had joined the Samnites in 306 B.C., were reduced to sub-\\njection after a brief struggle, and their league was dissolved.\\nThe Sabellian tribes (the Marsi, Marrucini, Paeiigni, and other", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "72 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. VIII.\\nnations of Central Italy) entered into a league with the Eomans\\non equal terms. Thus, in 300 B.C., the power of Rome seemed\\nfirmly established in Central Italy. But this very\\nJnssmution or povsrer awakened the jealousy of the surrounding\\nleaeae nations, and the Samnites exerted themselves to\\nform a new and formidable coalition. The Etrus-\\ncans and Umbrians agreed to make war against Rome, and\\ncalled in the assistance of the Senonian Gauls.\\nThird Samnite War, 298-290 b.c. As soon as the Etruscans\\nand Umbrians were engaged with Rome, the Samnites invaded\\nLucania. The Lucanians invoked the assistance\\nWar of the Romans, who forthwith declared war against\\nthe Samnites. The Republic had now to contend\\nat one and the same time against the Etruscans, Umbrians,\\nGauls, and Samnites but she carried on the struggle with the\\nutmost energy, attacking the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls\\nin the north, and the Samnites in the south.\\nAt length, in 295 B.C., the Samnites joined their confederates\\nin Umbria. In this country, near the town of Sentinum, a\\ndesperate battle was fought, which decided the\\nof Rome fortune of the war. The two Roman consuls were\\nthe aged Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus,\\nson of the consul who had sacrificed his life at the battle of Veseris\\n(p. 68). The victory was long doubtful. The wing commanded\\nby Decius was giving way before the terrible onset of the Gauls,\\nwhen be determined to imitate the example of his father, and\\nto devote himself and the enemy to destruction. His death\\ngave fresh courage to his men, and Fabius gained a complete\\nand decisive victory. Gellius Egnatius, the Samnite general,\\nwho had taken the most active part in forming the coalition, was\\nslain. But, though the league was thus broken up, the Samnites\\ncontinued the struggle for five years longer. During this period\\na C. Pontius, perhaps the very general who had defeated the\\nRomans at the Caudiiie Forks twenty-seven years before, or\\npossibly his son, appears as the leader of the Samnites, but he\\nwas defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus with great loss and taken\\nprisoner. Being carried to Rome, he was put to death as the\\ntriumphal car of the victor ascended the Capitol (292 B.C.).*\\nThis shameful act has been justly branded as one of the greatest\\nSee p. 153.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "Chap. VIII.] RESULTS OF THE WARS. 73\\nstains on the Eoman annals. Two years afterwards the Sam-\\nnites were unable to continue any longer the hopeless struggle,\\nand were forced to renew their league with Rome (290 B.C.).\\nThe complete incorporation of the conquered nation was not\\ndesired. For the issue of the Latin and Samnite wars had\\ngiven Rome all that she wished. It had enabled her to effect\\nthe dissolution of the two leagues, to control the Campanian\\ncoast, and to reduce to impotence the only rival who could\\ndispute her sway in the peninsula", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "Coin of Pyrrhus.\\nCHAPTER IX.\\nFROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SAMNITE WAR TO THE SUBJUGA-\\nTION or iTALr. 290-265 b.c.\\nTen years elapsed from the conclusion of the Third Samnite\\nWar to the arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. During this time the\\nEtruscans and Gauls renewed the war in the north, but were\\ndefeated with great slaughter near tbe lake Vadimo Vadimonis\\nlacus), in Etruria. This decisive battle appears to have completely\\ncrushed the Etruscan power and it inflicted so severe a blow\\nupon the Gauls that we hear no more of their ravages for the\\nnext sixty years.\\nThe extension of the Roman dominion in the south of the\\npeninsula had brought the state into connection with the Greek\\ncities, which at one period were so numerous aud\\nGreek cities powerful as to give to this part of Italy the name\\nof Magna Graecia.* Many of these cities had now\\nfallen into decay through internal dissensions and the conquests\\nof the Lucanians and other Sabellian tribes but Tarentum,\\noriginally a Lacedaemonian colony, still maintained her former\\npower and splendour, and, jealous of the progress of the Roman\\narms in the south of Italy, had secretly instigated the Etruscans\\nand Lucanians to form a new coalition against Rome. But it\\nwas assistance rendered to the Greek city of Thurii which\\nbrought Rome into immediate conflict with the Tarentines.\\nAttacked by the Lucanians, Thurii applied to Rome for aid, and\\nthe Consul C. Fabricius not only relieved the city, but defeated\\nthe Lucanians and their allies in several engagements (282 B.C.).\\nSee p. 7.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "Chap. IX.] WAR WITH TARENTUM. 75\\nUpon the departure of Fabricius, a Roman garrison was left in\\nThurii. The easiest mode now of maintaining communication\\nbetween Rome and this garrison was by sea this, however, was\\nvirtually forbidden by a treaty which the Romans had made\\nwith Tarentum many years before, in which it was stipulated\\nthat no Roman ships of war should pass the Lacinian promontory.\\nBut circumstances were now changed, and the senate deter-\\nmined that their vessels should no longer be debarred from the\\ngulf of Tarentum. There was a small squadron of ten ships in\\nthose seas under the command of L. Valerius; and one day\\nwhen the Tarentines were assembled in the theatre, which\\nlooked over the sea, they saw the Roman squadron sailing\\ntowards their harbour. This open violation of the treaty roused\\nthe fury of the people, and, urged on by the vehement eloquence\\nof a demagogue, they rushed down to the harbour, quickly\\nmanned some ships, and gained an easy victorx over the small\\nRoman squadron. Only half made their escape, four were sunk,\\none taken, and Valerius himself killed. After this the Taren-\\ntines marched against Thurii, compelled the inhabitants to\\ndismiss the Roman garrison, and then plundered the town.\\nThe senate sent an embassy to Tarentum to complain of these\\noutrages and to demand satisfaction. L. Postumius, who was at\\nthe head of the embassy, was introduced wiih his\\ncolleagues into the theatre, to state to the as- declared\\nsembled people the demands of the Roman senate.\\nHe began to address them in Greek, but his mis-\\ntakes in the language were received with peals of laughter\\nfrom the thoughtless mob. Unable to obtain a hearing, much\\nless an answer, Postumius was leaving the theatre when a\\ndrunken buffoon rushed up to him and sullied his white robe.\\nThe whole theatre rang with shouts of laughter and clapping of\\nhands, which became louder and louder, when Postumius held\\nup his sullied robe and showed it to lhe people. Laugh on\\nnow, he cried, but this robe shall be washed in torrents of\\nyour blood.\\nWar was now inevitable. The luxurious Tarentines sent an\\nembassy to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, begging him,\\nin the name of all the Italian Greeks, to cross 7*^ or\\nPyrrhus.\\nover into Italy in order to conduct the war against\\nthe Romans. They told him that they only wanted a general,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "76 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. IX.\\nand that all the nations of Southern Italy would flock to his\\nstandard. Pyrrhus, whose ambition soared beyond the limits of\\nhis poverty-stricken kingdom of Epirus, readily listened to the\\noffer. The conquest of Italy might lead to the sovereignty of\\nSicily and perhaps of Africa, and to the founding of a great\\nHellenic kingdom in the West. But as he would not trust the\\nsuccess of his enterprise to the valour and fidelity of Italian\\ntroops, he began to make preparations to carry over a powerful\\narmy. Meantime he sent Milo, one of his generals, with a\\ndetachment of 3000 men to garrison the citadel of Tarentum.\\nPyrrhus himself crossed over from Epirus towards the end of\\n281 B.C., taking with him 20,000 foot, 3000 horse, and twenty\\nelephants.\\nUpon reaching Tarentum, he began to make preparations to\\ncarry on the war with activity. The Tarentines soon found\\nthey had obtained a master rather than an ally. He shut up\\nthe theatre and all other public places, and compelled their\\nyoung men to serve in his ranks. Notwithstanding all his\\nactivity, the Romans were first in the field. The Consul M.\\nValerius Laevinus marched into Lucania; but as the army of\\nPyrrhus was inferior to that of the Romans, he attempted to\\ngain time by negotiation, in order that he might be joined by his\\nItalian allies. He accordingly wrote to the consul, offering to\\narbitrate between Rome and the Italian states; but Laevinus\\nbluntly told him to mind his own business and retire to Epirus.\\nFearing to remain inactive any longer, although he was not\\nyet joined by his allies, Pyrrhus marched out against the Romans\\nwith his own troops and the Tarentines. He took\\nHeraclea P position between the towns of Pandosia\\nand Heraclea, on the river Siris. The Romans,\\nwho were encamped on the other side of the river, were the\\nfirst to begin the battle. They crossed the river, and were\\nimmediately attacked by the cavalry of Pyrrhus, who led them\\nto the charge in person, and distinguished himself, as usual,\\nby the most daring acts of valour. The Romans, however,\\nbravely sustained the attack; and Pyrrhus, finding that his\\ncavalry could not decide the day, ordered his infantry to advance.\\nThe battle was still contested most furiously seven times did\\nthe legions and the phalanx meet and it was not till Pyrrhus\\nbrought forward his elephants, which bore down everything", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "Chap. IX.] WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 77\\nbefore them, that the Romans took to flight, leaving their camp\\nto the conqueror (280 B.C.).\\nThis battle taught Pyrrhus the difficulty of the enterprise he\\nhad undertaken. Before the engagement, when he saw the\\nRomans forming their line as they crossed the river, he said to\\nhis officers, In war, at any rate, these barbarians are not\\nbarbarous and afterwards, as he saw the Roman dead lying\\nupon the field with all their wounds in front, he exclaimed, If\\nthese were my Midlers, or if I were their general, we should\\nconquer the world. And, though his loss had been inferior to\\nthat of the Romans, still so large a number of his officers and\\nbest troops had fallen, that he said, Another such victory,\\nand I must return to Epirus alone. He therefore resolved to\\navail himself of this victory to conclude, if possible, an advan-\\ntageous peace. He sent his minister Cineas to Rome, with the\\nproposal that the Romans should recognize the independence of\\nthe Greeks in Italy, restore to the Samnites, Lucanians, Apulians,\\nand Bruttians all the possessions which they had lost in war, and\\nmake peace with himself and the Tarentines. He promised, if\\npeace was concluded on these terms, to retm n all the Roman\\nprisoners without ransom.\\nCineas, whose persuasive eloquence was said to have won\\nmore towns for Pyrrhus than his arms, neglected no means to\\ninduce the Romans to accept these terms. The\\nprospects of the Republic seemed so dark and ^\u00e2\u0080\u009e\u00c2\u00b0i^g\\nthreatening, that many members of the senate\\nthought it would be more prudent to comply with the demands\\nof the king and this party would probably have carried the day\\nhad it not been for the patriotic speech of the aged Ap.\\nClaudius Caecus. He denounced the idea of a peace with a\\nvictorious foe, and stimulated the senate to make the proud\\nreply (now heard for the first time) that Rome never negotiated\\nwith an enemy on Italian soil.\\nCineas returned to Pyrrhus, and told him he must hope for\\nnothing from negotiation, that the city was like a temple of\\nthe gods, and the senate an assembly of kings.\\nPyrrhus now advanced by rapid marches towards ^y^rhus\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2D -XT- J. 1. J. marches on\\nRome, ravagmg the country as he went along, vnme\\nand without encountering any serious opposition.\\nHe at length arrived at Anagnia, in the country of the Hernicans.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "78 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IX.\\nAnother march would have brought him within sight of the\\nwalls of Rome but at this moment he learnt that peace was\\nconcluded with the Etruscans, and that the other consul had\\nreturned with his army to Rome. All hope of compelling the\\nRomans to accept the peace was now gone, and he therefore\\nresolved to retreat. He retired slowly into Campania, and from\\nthence withdrew into winter quarters at Tarentum.\\nAs soon as the armies were quartered for the winter, the\\nRomans sent an embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom\\nor exchange of prisoners. The ambassadors were\\nreceived by P^Trhus in the most distinguished\\nmanner; and his interviews with G. Fabricius, who was at the\\nhead of the embassy, form one of the most famous stories in\\nRoman history. Fabricius was a fine specimen of the sturdy\\nRoman character. He cultivated his farm with his own hands,\\nand, like his contemporary Curius, was celebrated for his incor-\\nruptible integrity. The king attempted in vain to work upon\\nhis cupidity and his fears. He steadily refused the large sums\\nof money offered by Pyrrhus and when an elephant, concealed\\nbehind him by a curtain, waved his trunk over his head, Fabricius\\nremained unmoved. Such respect did his conduct inspire, that\\nPyrrhus attempted to persuade him to enter into his service and\\naccompany him to Greece. The object of the embassy failed.\\nThe king refused to exchange the prisoners but to show them\\nhis trust in their honour, he allowed them to go to Rome in\\norder to celebrate the Saturnalia, stipulating that they were to\\nreturn to Tarentum if the senate would not accept the terms\\nwhich he had previously offered through Gineas. The senate\\nremained firm in their resolve, and all the prisoners returned\\nto Pyrrhus, the punishment of death having been denounced\\nagainst those who should remain in the city.\\nIn the following year (279 B.C.) the war was renewed, and\\na battle was fought near Asculum. The Romans fled to their\\ncamp, which was so near to the field of battle\\nAsculum that not more than 6000 fell, while Pyrrhus lost\\nmore than half this number. The victory yielded\\nPyrrhus little or no advantage, and he was obliged to retire to\\nTarentum for the winter without effecting anything more during\\nthe campaign. In the last battle, as well as in the former, the\\nbrunt of the action had fallen almost exclusively upon his Greek", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "Chap. IX.] WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 79\\ntroops and the state of Greece, which this year was overrun\\nby the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect any reinforce-\\nments from Epirus. He was therefore unwilling to hazard his\\nsurviving Greeks in another campaign with the Romans, and\\naccordingly lent a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in\\nSicily, who begged him to come to their assistance against the\\nCarthaginians. It was necessary, however, first to suspend\\nhostilities with the Romans, and to find a fair pretext for bring-\\ning the war to a conclusion. This was afforded at the beginning\\nof the following year (278 B.C.) by one of the servants of Pyrrhus\\ndeserting to the Romans, and proposing to the consuls to poison\\nhis master. They sent back the deserter to the king, saying\\nthat they abhorred a victory gained by treason. Thereupon\\nPyrrhus, to show his gratitude, sent Cineas to Rome with all\\nthe Roman prisoners without ransom and without conditions\\nhe made fresh proposals for peace, hut Rome was now in\\nalliance with Carthage, and could not make terms with the\\nking.\\nBut the safety of Syracuse was at stake, and, in spite of the\\nprotection which he owed to his Italian allies, Pyrrhus left Milo\\nwith part of his troops in possession of Tarentum,\\nand crossed over into Sicily. He remained there ^y^\\nupwards of two years. At first he met with giciiy.\\nbrilHant success, and deprived the Carthaginians\\nof a great part of the island, although he failed to dislodge them\\nfrom the impregnable fortress of Lilybaeum. He had built a\\nfleet, communications were kept up between Syracuse and\\nTarentum, and evervthing seemed to favour his designs. But\\nPyrrhus ruled the Sicilians as though they were his own Epirote\\npeasants, and the Greeks, unaccustomed to strong government,\\nnow began to form cabals and plots against him.\\nThis led to retaliation on his part, and he soon became as\\nanxious to abandon the island as he had been before to leave\\nItaly. Accordingly, when his Italian allies again\\nbegged him to come to their assistance, he readily t^p^g ^q Italy.\\ncomplied with their request, and arrived in Italy\\nin the autumn of 276 bc. His troops were now almost the same\\nin number as when he first landed in Italy, but very different in\\nquality. The faithful Epirots had for the most part fallen, and\\nhis present soldiers consisted chiefly of mercenaries whom he", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "80 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IX.\\nhad levied in Italy. One of his first operations was the recovery\\nof Locri, which had revolted to the Romans; and, as he here\\nfound himself in great difficulties for want of money to pay his\\ntroops, he was induced to take possession of the treasures of the\\ntemple of Persephone in that town but the ships conveying\\nthe money were wrecked. This circumstance deeply affected the\\nmind of Pyrrhus he ordered the treasures which were saved\\nto be restored to the temple, and from this time became haunted\\nby the idea that the wrath of Persephone was pursuing him and\\ndragging him down to ruin.\\nThe following year (275 B.C.) closed the career of Pyrrhus in\\nItaly. The Consul M Curius marched into Samnium, and his\\ncolleague into Lucania. Pyrrhus advanced against\\na e Curius, who was encamped in the neighbourhood\\nof Beneventum, and resolved to fight with him\\nbefore he was joined by his colleague. As Curius, not wishing\\nto risk a battle with his own army alone, declined to leave his\\ncamp, Pyrrhus planned a night-attack. But he miscalculated\\nthe time and the distance the torches burnt out, the men missed\\ntheir way, and it was alreadj^ broad daylight when he reached\\nthe heights above the Roman camp. Still, their arrival was\\nquite unexpected but as a battle was now inevitable, Curius led\\nout his men. The troops of Pyi-rhus, exhausted by fatigue, were\\neasily put to the rout two elephants were killed and eight more\\ntaken. Encouraged by this success, Curius no longer hesitated\\nto meet the king in the open plain, and gained a decisive\\nvictory. Pyrrhus arrived at Tarentum with only a few horse-\\nmen. Shortly afterwards he crossed over to Greece, leaving\\nMilo with a garrison at Tarentum. Two years afterwards he\\nperished in an attack upon Argos, ingloriously slain by a tile\\nhurled by a woman from the roof of a house.\\nThe departure of Pyrrhus left the Lucanians and other Italian\\ntribes exposed to the full power of Rome. They nevertheless\\ncontinued the hopeless struggle a little longer\\nl il^!?.*?7.f; but in 272 B.C. Tarentum fell, and in a few\\nRome in Italy. x i ^i\\nyears afterwards every nation in Italy, to the\\nsouth of the Macra and the Rubicon, owned the supremacy of\\nRome. She had now becmie the first power of the Western,\\nand one of the first powers in the ancient, world. The\\ndefeat of Pyrrhus attracted the attention of the nations of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "Chap. IX.] ORGANIZATION OP ITALY. 81\\nthe East and in 273 B.C. Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt,\\nsent an embassy to Rome, and concluded a treaty with the\\nRepublic.\\nBut Rome did not mean to rule as a mistress over the subject\\ncities of Italy. Empire was still far from her thoughts, and,\\nthough she continued the policy adopted on the\\ndissolution of the Latin league, destroyed the ftniv^\\nexisting confederations and isolated the cities from\\none another, yet she granted them the rights of self-government,\\nand, where possible, incorporated them more or less completely\\nwith herself. The population of Italy was divided into three\\nbroad classes Cives ii oma/n inhabitants of m^wtcj/ m, and Socii.\\nI. Gives Romani, or Roman Citizens. These consisted (1)\\nOf the citizens of the thirty-three tribes into which the Roman\\nterritory was now divided, and which extended north of the\\nTilier a little beyond Veil, and southwards as far as the Liris;\\nthough even in this district there were some towns, such as\\nTibur and Praeneste, which did not possess the Roman franchise.\\n(2) Of the citizens of Roman colonies planted in different parts\\nof Italy. (3) Of the citizens of municipal towns upon whom\\nthe Roman franchise was conferred.\\nII. The municipia were towns to which the Roman citizen-\\nship without the right of voting {civitas sine mffragio) or of\\nholding office had been given. They possessed, therefore, the\\nrights of trade and intermarriage with Rome {jus conuhii et\\ncommercii).\\nIII. The Socii were divided into the two classes of (1) the\\nLatins, or cities of the Latin name and (2) the free and allied\\ncommunities.\\n(1) The term Latini was appHed to the colonies founded by\\nRome which did not enjoy the rights of Roman citizenship, and\\nwhich stood almost in the same position with regard to the\\nRoman state as had been formerly occupied by the cities of the\\nLatin league. The name originated at a period when colonies\\nwere actually sent out in common by the Romans and Latins,\\nbut similar colonies continued to be founded by the Romans\\nalone long after the extinction of the Latin league. These\\ncolonists possessed privileges in private and public law. In\\nprivate law they had the right of trade {jus commercii), and\\ncould sue and be sued in Roman courts. Their distinctive\\no", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "82 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. IX.\\npublic right was capacity for acquiring Roman citizenship. The\\ncitizen of any Latin colony might emigrate to Rome, and\\nbe enrolled and give his vote in one of the Roman tribes.\\nBut after 267 B.C. this right of exile {jus exsulandi) was\\nabolished and replaced by the later Latin right which gave full\\ncitizenship to any one who had held a magistracy in his native\\ntown.\\n(2) The free and allied cities {civitates Itberae or foederatae)\\nincluded the rest of Italy. Rome had either formed a treaty\\n{foedus) with, or given a charter (lex data) to, each of these\\ncities; and this treaty or charter determined its rights and\\nduties. The relation of all the Italian cities to Rome was that\\nof a very close military alliance. Contingents of men were\\ndrawn from most of the states, and requisitions for ships of war\\nwere made from the Greek cities in the south.\\nThe political changes in Rome itself, from the time of the\\nLatin wars, have been already in great part anticipated. Appius\\nClaudius, afterwards named Caecus, or the Blind,\\nvotes of the introduced a dangerous innovation in the con-\\nartisans, stitution during the Second Samnite War. Slavery\\nexisted at Rome, as among the other nations of\\nantiquity and as many slaves, from various causes, acquired their\\nliberty, there gradually sprung up at Rome a large and, in many\\ncases, indigent population of servile origin. These freedmen,\\nwhose interests became merged in those of the class of landless\\ncitizens and artisans, were enrolled only in the four city-tribes, so\\nthat, however numerous they might become, they could influence\\nonly the votes of four tribes. Appius Claudius, in his censorship\\n(312 B.C.), when making out the lists of citizens, allowed the\\nfreedmen and landless citizens to enrol themselves in any tribe\\nthey pleased; but this dangerous innovation was abolished by\\nthe Censors Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Decius Mus (304 B.C.),\\nwho restored these classes to the four city-tribes. The censor-\\nship of Appius is, however, memorable for the gr(;at public works\\nwhich he executed. He made the great military road called\\nthe Appian Way (Via Appia), leading from Rome to Capua, a\\ndistance of 120 miles, which long afterwards was continued\\nacross the Apennines to Brundusiura. He also executed the\\nfirst of the great aqueducts (Aqua Appia) which supplied Rome\\nwith such an abundance of water.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "Chap. IX.] PUBLICATION OF LEGAL FORMS.\\n83\\nThis period is also remarkable for the growth of a class of\\nlawyers who were no longer members of the sacred guilds.\\nCn. Flavins, the son of a freedman, and secre-\\ntary to Appius Claudius, divulged the forms and PwDlication\\ntimes to be observed in legal proceedings. These jg^_.\\nhad formerly been the monopoly of the priestly\\ncolleges; but Flavins, having become acquainted with these\\nsecrets by means of his patron, published in a book a list of the\\nformularies to be observed in the several kinds of actions, and\\nalso set up in the forum a whited tablet containing a list of all\\nthe days on which the courts could be held. His action was\\na prelude to the final divorce of Roman law from the trammels\\nof the Jus j^ontificium.\\nCoin represeutiag Temple of YeaU.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "Koman galley (from Trajan s Column).\\nCHAPTER X.\\nTHE FIRST PUNIC WAE. 264-241 B.C.\\nCarthage.\\nRome, now the mistress, was also the protectress of Italy, and-\\nthe defence of her Italian dependencies necessarily entailed on\\nher a long and arduous struggle with Carthage,\\nthe undisputed mistress of the western waters of\\nthe Mediterranean. This great and powerful city was founded\\nby the Phoenicians of Tyre in 825 B.C., according to the\\ncommon chronology. Its inhabitants were consequently a\\nThe Phoenicians were called by the Latins Poeni, whence the adjective\\npunicus, like munire from moenia, and punire frova poena.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "Chap. XJ THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 85\\nbranch of tlie Semitic race, to which the Hebrews also belonged.\\nCarthage rose to greatness by her commerce, and gradually\\nextended her empire over the whole of the north of Africa, from\\nthe Straits of Hercules to the borders of Cyrene. Her Libyan\\nsubjects she treated with extreme harshness, and hence they\\nwere always ready to revolt against her so soon as a foreign\\nenemy appeared upon her soil.\\nThe two chief magistrates at Carthage were elected annually\\nout of a few of the wealthiest families, and were called Suffetes*\\nThere was a senate of large numbers but its power was inferior\\nto that of a smaller council of 104, which was created to control\\nthe authority of the generals, and which, by the exercise of its\\njudicial power, held an almost sovereign position. The assembly\\nof the people was sometimes consulted, but the government was\\npractically an oligarchy and a few old, rich, and powerful\\nfamilies divided among themselves the great offices of state.\\nAll power was acquired by commercial wealth, as all policy was\\nsubservient to commercial motives.\\nThe mercantile had also crushed the military spirit, and in\\nher foreign wars Carthage depended upon mercenary troops,\\nwhich her great wealth enabled her to procure in\\nabundance from Spain, Italy, and Greece, as well J^elations of\\nas from Libya. Sardinia and Corsica were among c^iiy^^^\\nher earliest conquests, and her most cherished\\nobject was the possession of Sicily. The Phoenician colonies\\nin this island came under her dominion as the power of Tyre\\ndeclined and having thus obtained a firm footing in Sicily,\\nshe carried on a long struggle for supremacy with the Greek\\ncities. It was here that she came into contact with the Eoman\\narms. The relations of Rome and Carthage had hitherto been\\npeaceful, and a treaty, concluded between the two states in the\\nfirst years of the Roman Republic, had been renewed more than\\nonce. But the extension of Roman dominion had excited the\\njealousy of Carthage it was evident that a struggle was not far\\ndistant, and Pyrrhus could not help exclaiming, as he quitted\\nSicily, How fine a battle-field are we leaving to the Romans\\nand Carthaginians\\nThe city of Messana, situated on the straits which divide\\nSicily from Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini.\\nProbably the same as the Hebrew shofetim, i.e. judges.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "86 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. X.\\nThey were a body of Campanian mercenaries, chiefly of Sabellian\\norigin, who had served under Agathocles, and after the death\\nof that tyrant (289 B.C.) were marched to Mes-\\nTne Mamer- gana, in order to be transported to Italy. Being\\nfrom Rome. hospitably received within the city, they suddenly\\nrose against the inhabitants, massacred the\\nmale population, and made themselves masters of their wives\\nand property. They now took the name of Mamertini, or\\nChildren of Mars, from Mamers, a Sabellian name for that\\ndeity. They rapidly extended their power over a considerable\\nportion of the north of Sicily, and were formidable enemies to\\nSyracuse. Hiero, having become king of Syracuse, determined\\nto destroy this nest of robbers, advanced against them with a\\nlarge army, defeated them in battle, and shut them up within\\nMessana. The Mamertines were obliged to look out for help\\none party wished to appeal to the Carthaginians, and the other\\nto invoke the assistance of Eome. The latter ultimately pre-\\nvailed, and an embassy was sent to implore immediate aid.\\nThe temptation was strong, for the occupation of Messana by a\\nCarthaginian garrison might prove dangerous to the tranquillity\\nof Italy, Still the senate hesitated for only six years before\\nHiero had assisted the Eomans in punishing the Campanian\\nmercenaries, who had seized Ehegium in the same way as the\\nMamertines had made themselves masters of Messana. But,\\nthough the senate hesitated, the popular assembly, to whom the\\nquestion was referred, showed no such scruples it eagerly voted\\nthat the Mamertines should be assisted in other words, that the\\nCarthaginians should not be allowed to obtain possession of\\nMessana and the decisive step was taken which launched Rome\\non her career of conquest beyond the limits of Italy.\\nThe Consul App. Claudius, the son of the blind censor,\\nwas to lead an army into Sicily. But during this delay the\\nOccupation Carthaginian partj in Messana had obtained the\\nof Messana. ascendency, and Hanno, with a Carthaginian garri-\\nWar with son, had been admitted into the citadel. Hiero\\nCarthage. jj^d concluded peace with the Mamertines through\\nthe mediation of the Carthaginians, so that there was no longer\\neven a pretext for the interference of the Romans. But a legate\\nof the Consul App. Claudius, having crossed to Sicily, persuaded\\nthe Mamertines to expel the Carthaginian garrison. Hiero and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 87\\nthe Carthagiuians now proceeded to lay siege to Messana by sea\\nand land, and the Eomans no longer hesitated to declare war\\nagainst Carthage. Such was the corDmencement of the First\\nPunic War (264 B.C.).\\nThe Carthaginians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet,\\nwhile the Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name.\\nBut the Consul App. Claudius, having contrived to elude the\\nCarthaginian squadron, landed near the town of Messana, and\\ndefeated in succession the forces of Syracuse and Carthage. In\\nthe following year (263) the Romans followed up their success\\nagainst Hiero. The two consuls advanced to the walls of\\nSyracuse, ravaging the territory of the city and capturing many\\nof its dependent towns. The king became alarmed at the\\nsuccess of the Romans and thinking that they would prove\\nmore powerful than the Carthaginians, he concluded a peace\\nwith Rome. From this time till his death, a period of nearly fifty\\nyears, Hiero remained the firm and steadfast ally of the Romans.\\nThe Romans, now freed from the hostility of S}^^racuse, laid\\nsiege to Agrigentum, the second ot the Greek cities in Sicily,\\nwhich was now held by the flower of the Car-\\nthaginian troops. They blockaded the town, but ~^P^.^^^\\ntheir supplies were in turn cut off by the Phoe-\\nnician fleet, and the distress on both sides was great. At length\\na battle was fought, and the Romans, gaining a decisive victory\\nover the Carthaginian army which had been sent to raise the\\nsiege, obtained possession of the town (262 B.C.).\\nThe first three years of the war had already made the Romans\\nmasters of the greater part of Sicily. But the coasts of Italy\\nwere exposed to the ravages of the Carthaginian\\nfleet, and the Romans saw that they could not\\nhope to bring the war to a successful termination\\nso long as Carthage was mistress of the sea. To form a fleet in\\nthe ancient world was not the undertaking it is for a modern\\nnation. It required a command of men, money, and materials\\nall of which Rome now possessed in abundance for seaman-\\nship, which is a thing of gradual growth, was, in the coasting\\nvoyages of the time, a secondary consideration. The first\\nnecessity was to build ships of a heavier kind tlian the few\\ntriremes of which the Roman navy was composed a Cartha-\\nginian quinquereme, which had been wrecked upon the coast of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "88\\nHISTOKY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. X.\\nItaly, served as a model. In the short space of sixty days from\\nthe time the trees were felled, 130 ships were launched, and\\nwhile the ships were building, the rowers were trained on\\nscaffolds placed upon the land like benches of ships at sea. As\\nwe may imagine, the sea-going power of these Roman ships was\\ncontemptible all that they could boast was weight and size.\\nIn the fifth year of the war (260 B.C.) one of the consuls,\\nCn. Cornelius, first put to sea with only seventeen vessels, but\\nwas surprised near Lipara, and taken prisoner, with the whole of\\nhis squadron. His colleague, C. Duilius, now took the command\\nof the rest of the fleet. He saw\\nthat the only means of conquer-\\ning the Carthaginians by sea\\nwas to deprive them of all the\\nadvantages of manoeuvring, and\\nto take their ships by boarding.\\nFor this purpose every ship was\\nprovided with a boarding-\\nbridge, thirty-six feet in length,\\nwhich was pulled up by a rope\\nand fastened to a mast in the\\nfore part of the ship. As soon\\nas an enemy s ship came near\\nenough, the rope was loosened,\\nthe bridge fell down, and became\\nfastened by means of an iron\\nspike in its under side. The\\nboarders then poured down the\\nbridge into the enemy s ship.\\nThus prepared, Duilius boldly\\nsailed out to meet the fleet of\\nthe enemy. He found them off\\nthe Sicilian coast, near Mylae.\\nThe Carthaginians hastened to\\nthe fight as if to a triumph,\\nbut their ships were rapidly seized by the boarding-bridges,\\nand when it came to a close fight their crews\\nVictory at match for the veteran soldiers of Rome.\\nMy ae. rpj^g victory of Duilius was complete. Thirty-one\\nof the enemy s ships were taken, and fourteen destroyed; the\\nColumna Rostrata.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 89\\nrest only saved themselves by an ignominious flight. On his\\nreturn to Rome, Duilius celebrated a magnificent triumph.\\nPublic honours were conferred upon him he was to be escorted\\nhome in the evening from banquets by the light of torches and\\nthe sound of the flute, and a column adorned with the beaks of\\nthe conquered ships, and thence called the Columna Rostrata,\\nwas set up in the forum.*\\nFor the next few years the war languished, and nothing of\\nimportance was eff ected on either side but in the ninth year\\nof the struggle (256 b.c.) the Romans resolved by\\nstrenuous exertions to bring it to an end. They __ Ag Africa\\ntherefore made preparations for invading Africa\\nwith a great force. The two consuls, M. Atilius Regulus and\\nL. Manlius, set sail with 330 ships, took the legions on board in\\nSicily, and then put out to sea in order to cross over to Africa.\\nThe Carthaginian fleet, consisting of 350 ships, met them near\\nEcnomus, on the southern coast of Sicily. Never, perhaps, had\\nthe ancient world seen a battle in which such numbers were\\nengaged. The boarding-bridges of the Romans again annihilated\\nall the advantages of maritime skill. Their victory was decisive.\\nThey lost only twenty-four ships, while they destroyed twenty-\\nfour of the enemy s vessels, and took sixty-four with all their\\ncrews. The passage to Africa was now clear and the remainder\\nof the Carthaginian fleet hastened home to defend the capital.\\nThe Romans landed near the town of Clupea or Aspis, which\\nthey took, and there established their head- quarters. From\\nthence they laid waste the Carthaginian territory with fire\\nand sword, and collected an immense booty from the defence-\\nless country. On the approach of winter, Manlius, one of the\\nconsuls, by order of the senate, returned to Rome with half of\\nthe army while Regulus remained with the other half to prose-\\ncute the war. He carried on his operations with the utmost\\nvigour, and was greatlj assisted by the incompetency of the\\nCarthaginian generals. The enemy had collected a considerable\\nforce but the Carthaginian generals avoided the plains, where\\ntheir cavalry and elephants would have given them an advantage\\nover the Roman army, and withdrew into the mountains. There\\nthey were attacked by Regulus, and utterly defeated with great\\nThe inscription upon this column, or at any rate a very ancient copy of H,\\nis still pre8erve4 in the CapltoUn\u00c2\u00ab Museujn at Poni\u00c2\u00a7.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "90 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. X.\\nloss: 15,000 men were killed in battle, and 5000 men, with\\neighteen elephants, were taken. The vanquished troops re-\\ntired within the walls of Carthage Eegulus now overran the\\ncountry without opposition, and began to plan the siege of the\\ncapital. Amongst other towns that fell into his power was\\nTunis, which was at the distance of only twenty miles from\\nCarthage. The Numidians took the opportunity of recovering\\ntheir independence, and their roving bands completed the devas-\\ntation of the country. The Carthaginians in despair sent a\\nherald to Eegulus to solicit peace. But the Eoman general,\\nintoxicated with success, would only grant it on such intolerable\\nterms that the Carthaginians resolved to continue the war, and\\nhold out to the last.\\nIn the midst of their distress and alarm, succour came to\\nthem from an unexpected quarter. Among the Greek mer-\\nDefeat of Re- cenaries who had lately arrived at Carthage was\\ngulus. Loss a Lacedaemonian of the name of Xanthippus.\\nof Roman He emphasized the folly of lurking in the hills\\nfleets. j^jj(j forests and he inspired such confidence in\\nthe government, that he was placed at the head of their troops.\\nEelying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 elephants, Xanthippus\\nboldly marched into the open country to meet the enemy..\\nKeguhis, without even attempting to secure his retreat, readily\\naccepted battle but it ended in his total overthrow 30,000\\nEomans were slain scarcely 2000 escaped to Clupea, and\\nEegulus himself with 500 more was taken prisoner (255 B.C.).\\nAnother disaster awaited the Eomans in this year. Their\\nfleet, which had been sent to Africa to carry off the remains of\\nthe army of Eegulus, had not only succeeded in their object,\\nbut had gained a victorj over the Carthaginian fleet. They\\nwere returning home when they were overtaken off Caraarina,\\nin Sicily, by a fearful storm. Nearly the entire fleet was\\ndestroyed, and the coast was strewn for miles with wrecks and\\ncorpses.\\nThe Eomans, with undiminished energy, immediately set to\\nwork to build a new fleet, and in less than three months 220\\nships were ready for sea. But the same fate awaited them. In\\n253 B.C. the consuls had ravaged the coasts of Africa, but on\\ntheir return were again surprised by a fearful storm of! Cape\\nPalinurus. A hundred and fifty ships were wrecked. This", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 91\\nblow, coming so soon after the other, damped the courage even\\nof the Roman senate it determined not to rebuild the fleet,\\nand to keep only sixty ships for the defence of the coast of Italy\\nand the protection of the transports.\\nThe war was now confined to Sicily, but since the defeat of\\nRegulus the Roman soldiers had been so greatly alarmed by the\\nelephants, that their generals did not venture on\\nattack. At length, in 250 B.C., the Roman pro- p^Jimus\\nconsul, L Metellus, accepted battle under the\\nwalls of Panormus, and gained a decisive victory. The Car-\\nthaginians lost 20,000 men thirteen of their generals adorned\\nthe triumph of Metellus and 104 elephants were also led in the\\ntriumphal procession. This was the most important battle that\\nhad been yet fought in Sicily, and had a decisive influence upon\\nthe issue of the contest. It so raised the spirits of the Romans\\nthat they determined once more to build a fleet of 200 sail.\\nThe Carthaginians, on the other hand, were anxious to bring\\nthe war to an end, and accordingly sent an embassy to Rome\\nto propose an exchange of prisoners, and to offer terms of\\npeace.\\nRegulus, who had been now five years in captivity, was allowed\\nto accompany the ambassadors, with the promise that he would\\nreturn to Carthage if their proposals were declined, .p\\nThis embassy is the subject of one of the most\\ncelebrated stories in the Roman annals. The orators and poets\\nrelate how Regulus at first refused to enter the city as a slave\\nof the Carthaginians how afterwards he would not give his\\nopinion in the senate, as he had ceased by his captivity to he\\na member of that illustrious body how, at length, when induced\\nby his coimtrymen to speak, he endeavoured to dissuade the\\nsenate- from assenting to a peace, or even to an exchange of\\nprisoners and when he saw them wavering, from their desire\\nto redeem him from captivity, how he told them that the Cartha-\\nginians had given him a slow poison, which would soon terminate\\nhis life and how, finally, when the senate, through his influence,\\nrefused the offers of the Carthaginians, he firmly resisted all the\\npersuasions of his friends to remain in Rome, and returned to\\nCarthage, where a martyr s death awaited him. It is related\\nthat he was placed in a barrel covered over with iron nails, and\\nthus perished; other writers state in addition, that, after his", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "92 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. X.\\neyelids had been cut off, he was first thrown into a dark dungeon,\\nand then suddenly exposed to the full rays of a burning sun.\\nWhen the news of the barbarous death of Regulns reached\\nRome, the senate is said to have given two of the noblest\\nCarthaginian prisoners to the family of Regulus, who re-\\nvenged themselves by putting them to death with cruel\\ntorments.\\nThe Carthaginian dominion in Sicily was now confined to the\\nnorth-western corner of the island; and Lilybaeum and Dre-\\n_. panura were the only two towns remaining in\\nLilybaeum. hands. Lilybaeum, situated upon a pro-\\nmontory at the western extremity of the island,\\nwas the stronghold of the Carthaginian power and accordingly\\nthe Romans determined to concentrate all their efforts, and to\\nemploy the armies of both consuls in attacking this city. This\\nsiege, which is one of the most memorable in ancient history,\\ncommenced in 250 b.c, and lasted till the termination of the war.\\nIn the second year of the siege (249 B.C.) the Consul P.\\nClaudius, tired of the delay before Lilybaeum, formed the design\\nof attacking the Carthaginian fleet in the neigh-\\nDreDanum bouring harbour of Drepanum. In vain did the\\nauguries warn him the keeper of the sacred\\nchickens told him that they would not eat. At any rate,\\nsaid he, let them drink, and he ordered them to be thrown\\noverboard. His impiety met with a meet reward. He was\\ndefeated with great loss ninety-three of his ships were taken\\nor destroyed, and only thirty escaped. Great was the indigna-\\ntion at Rome. He was recalled by the senate, ordered to appoint\\na dictator, and then to lay down his office. Claudius, in scorn,\\nnamed M. Claudius Glycias, a son of one of his freedmen. But\\nthe senate would not brook this insult thev deprived the\\nunworthy man of the honour, and caused A. Atilius Calatinus\\nto be appointed in his place.\\nThe other consul, C. Junius, was equally unfortunate. He\\nwas sailing along the coasts of Sicily with a convoy of 800\\nvessels, intended to relieve the wants of the army\\nf th at Lilybaeum, when he was overtaken by one of\\ng^^ those terrible storms which had twice before\\nproved so fatal to the Roman fleets. The trans-\\nports were all dashed to pieces, and of his 105 ships of war", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "Chap. X.] THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. 93\\nonly two escaped. Thus the Roman fleet was a third time\\ndestroyed. Tliese repeated misfortunes compelled the Romans\\nto abandon any fm ther attempts to contest the supremacy of\\nthe sea.\\nAbout this time a really great man was placed at the head of\\nthe Carthaginian army a man who, at an earlier period of the\\nwar, might have brought the struggle to a verj\\ndifferent termination. This was the celebrated Hamilcar at\\nHamilcar Barca,* the father of the still more x-py^\\ncelebrated Hannibal. He was still a young man\\nat the time of his appointment to the command in Sicily\\n(247 B.C.). His very first operations were equally daring and\\nsuccessful. Instead of confining himself to the defence of Lily-\\nbaeura and Drepanum, with which the Carthaginian commanders\\nhad been hitherto contented, he made descents upon the coast\\nof Italy, and then suddenly landed on the north of Sicily, and\\nestablished himself with his whole army on a mountain called\\nHercte (the modern Monte Fellegrino), which overhung the\\ntown of Panormus (the modern Palermo), one of the most\\nimportant of the Roman possessions. Here he maintained him-\\nself for nearly three years, to the astonishment alike of friends\\nand foes and from hence he made continual descents into the\\nenemies country, and completely prevented them from making\\nany vigorous attacks either upon Lilybaeum or Drepanum. All\\nthe efforts of the Romans to dislodge him were unsuccessful\\nand he only quitted Hercte in order to seize Eryx, a town\\nsituated upon the mountain of this name, and only six miles\\nfrom Drepanum. This position he held for two years longer,\\nuntil the Romans realized that the only means of driving the\\nCarthaginians out of Sicily was to recover their supremacy\\nby sea.\\nIn 242 B.C. the Consul Lutatius Catulus put out with a fleet\\nof 200 ships, and in the following year he gained\\na decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet, y^otory at the\\ncommanded by Hanno, off the group of islands jifg^aef\\ncalled the Aegates.\\nThis victory gave the Romans the desired control over the Car-\\nthaginian strongholds. Lilybaeum, Drepanum, and Eryx might\\nBarca is the same as the Hebrew word Barak, lightning.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "94 HISTORY OF ROME, [Chap. X.\\nnow be reduced by famine. The Carthaginians, weary of the\\nwar, and indisposed to make any further sacrifices, sent orders\\nto Hamilcar to make peace on the best terms he\\nC rthaffe could, and it was at length concluded on the con-\\nditions that Carthage should evacuate Sicily and\\nthe adjoining islands that she should restore the Roman\\nprisoners without ransom, and should pay the sum of 3200\\ntalents within the space often years (241 B.C.).\\nThe evacuation of Sicily brought Rome face to face with a\\nnew problem. She could not leave the Sicilian states, like those\\nof Magna Graecia, bound to her by the loose ties\\nSioily a pro- military alliance this was rendered impos-\\nsible by the insular position of the new conquest\\nand the danger from Carthage. So the whole of Sicily, with the\\nexception of the territory of Hiero, was organized as a separate\\ndepartment of administration {provincia), and placed under\\nthe command of an annual praetor and the first stone was laid\\nin the foundation of an empire.\\nFiehtine elephant making a prisoner (gem in Cabinet de France,\\nNo. l911tCliabouUlei)", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "Coin of Carthage.\\nCHAPTEK XI.\\nTHE CONQUEST OF NORTHERN ITALY. THE CARTHAGINIANS IK\\nSP.UN. 240-219 B.C.\\nTwenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second\\nPunic Wars. The power of Carthage, though crippled, was not\\ndestroyed; and Hamilcar returned home, burning\\nwith hatred against Rome, and determined to Mercenary\\nrenew the war upon a favourable opportunity, tj^^-g\\nBut a new and terrible danger threatened Carthage\\nupon her own soil. The mercenary troops, who had been trans-\\nported from Sicily to Africa at the conclusion of the war, being\\nunable to obtain their arrears of pay, rose in open mutiny.\\nTheir leaders were Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, and\\nMatho, a Libyan. They were quickly joined by the native\\nLibyans, and brought Carthage almost to the brink of destruc-\\ntion. They laid waste the whole country with fire and sword,\\nmade themselves masters of all the towns except the capital,\\nand committed the most frightful atrocities. Carthage owed her\\nsafety to the genius and abilities of Hamilcar. The struggle was\\nfierce and sanguinary, but was at length brought to a successful\\nissue, after it had lasted more than three years, by the destruction\\nof all the mercenaries. It was called the War without Peace,\\nor the Inexpiable War (238 B.C.).\\nThe Romans availed themselves of the exhausted condition\\nof Carthage to demand from her the islands of Sardinia and\\nCorsica, and the payment of a further sum of 1200 talents.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "96 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XL\\nThe mercenary troops in Sardinia, who had also revolted, had\\napplied to Rome for assistance and the senate menaced her\\nrival with war unless she complied with these\\nKome seizes unjust demands. Resistance was impossible, and\\nSardinia and o t j nt r\\nCorsica oardmia and Corsica were soon formed into a\\nRoman province, governed, like Sicily, by a\\npraetor, sent annually from Rome. This is almost the only act of\\nunjustifiable acquisition which we shall meet with in Roman\\nannals. But the senate had made up its mind that the Tyrrhenian\\nsea must belong to Rome, and did not shrink from robbery\\nin pursuit of its narrow defensive policy (238 bo.). Hamilcar,\\nwith his resentment against the grasping Republic deepened by\\nthis outrage, now departed for Spain, where, for many years, he\\nsteadily worked to lay the foundation of a new empire, which\\nmight not only compensate for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia,\\nbut enable him at some time to renew hostilities against Rome.\\nRome was now at peace, and in 235 B.C. the temple of Janus,\\nwhich had remained open since the days of Numa, was closed\\nfor a second time. Two new tribes were added to the Roman\\nterritory, making their total number thirty-five.\\nThe temple of Janus did not long remain closed. The\\nIll^ rians, who dwelt near the head of the Adriatic upon its\\neastern side, were a nation of pirates, who ravaged\\nthe coasts of this sea. The senate having sent\\nambassadors to the Illyrian king Agron to complain of these\\noutrages, he declined to attend to their complaints, and the\\nambassadors were murdered on their way home. War was\\nstraightway declared, and a Roman army for the first time\\ncrossed the Adriatic (229 B.C.). Demetrius of Pharos, an\\nunprincipled Greek, who was the chief counsellor of Teuta,\\nwidow and successor of Agron, deserted his mistress, and sur-\\nrendered to the Romans the important island of Corcyra. Teuta\\nwas obliged to yield to the Romans everything they demanded,\\nand promised that the Tllyrians should not appear south of Lissus\\nwith more than two vessels. The suppression of piracy in the\\nAdriatic was hailed with gratitude by the Greek states, and\\ndeserves notice as the first occasion upon which the Romans\\nwere brought into immediate contact with Greece. The Consul\\nPostumius, who had wintered in Illyria, sent envoys to Athens,\\nCorinth, and other Greek cities, to explain what had been done.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "Chap. XL] CONQUEST OF NORTHERN ITALY. 97\\nThe envoys were received with honour, and thanks were returned\\nto Rome (228 b.c).\\nThe Romans had scarcely brought this trifling war to an end\\nwhen they became involved in a formidable struggle with their\\nold enemies the Gauls. Since the conquest of the\\nSenones in 283 B.C., and of the Boii in 282 B.C.,\\nthe Gauls had remained quiet. The Romans had founded the\\ncolony of Sena after the subjugation of the Senones and in\\n268 B.C. they had still further strengthened their dominion in\\nthose parts by founding the colonj- of Ariminum. But the\\ngreater part of the soil from which the Senones were ejected\\nbecame public land. In 232 b.c. the Tribune C. Flaminius\\ncarried an Agrarian Law to the effect that this portion of the\\npublic land, known by the name of the Gallic Land, should\\nbe distributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the Boii,\\nwho dwelt upon the borders of this district. They invoked the\\nassistance of the powerful tribe of the Insubres, and being joined\\nby them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the\\nAlps, they set out for Rome.\\nAll Italy was in alarm. The Romans dreaded a repetition of\\nthe disaster of the Allia. The Sibylline books, when consulted,\\ndeclared that Rome must be occupied twice by a\\nforeign foe whereupon the senate, to allay the xelamon\\nsuperstitious fears of the people, ordered that two\\nGauls should be buried alive in the forum. The allies eagerly\\noffered men and supplies to meet a danger which was common\\nto the whole peninsula. An army of 150.000 foot and 6000\\nhorse was speedily raised. A decisive battle was fought near\\nTelamon, in Etruria. The Gauls were hemmed in between the\\narmies of the two consuls. As many as 40,000 of their men\\nwere slain, and 10,000 taken prisoners (225 b.c). The Romans\\nfollowed up their success by invading the country of the Boii,\\nwho submitted in the following year (224 B.C.), and the plain as\\nfar as the Po was in the hands of Rome.\\nIn 223 B.C. the Romans crossed the river, and the Consul C.\\nFlaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insubres. The\\nconsuls of the next year. On. Cornelius Scipio and M. Claudius\\nMarcellus, continued the war against the Insubres, who called\\nin to their aid a fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. Marcellus\\nGallicusager.\\nS", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "98 HISTORY OF ROME, [Chap. XI.\\nslew with his own hand Viridomaras, the chief of the Insubrian\\nGauls, and thus gained the third Spolia Opima. At the same\\ntime, Scipio took Mediolanium (Milan), the chief\\nExtension of ^.j^g Insubres. This people now submitted\\nbeyond theFo. without conditions, and the war was brought to an\\nend. To secure their recent conquests, the Romans\\ndetermined to plant two powerful Latin colonies at Placentia and\\nCremona, on opposite banks of the Po. These were founded in\\n218 B.C., and consisted each of 6000 men. The Via Flaminia,\\na road constructed by C. Flaminius from Rome to Ariminum\\n(220 B.C.), secured the communication with the north of\\nItaly.\\nThe results of this war were of vast importance, for Italy had\\nnow reached her natural boundaries. Rome s dominion now\\nextended to the Po, and, through the dependent Gallic tribes\\nwho dwelt beyond that river, her sphere of influence reached\\nthe Alps.\\nMeanwhile Hamilcar, as commander-in-chief of the Cartha-\\nginian army in Spain, with powers that rendered him almost\\nentirely independent of the home government, had\\nHamilcar and \\\\^qq^ steadily pursuing a career of conquest. The\\nHasdrnbal in u- i- T ^i 4.\\nSpain subjugation oi this country was only a means to\\nan end. His great object, as already stated, was\\nto obtain the means of attacking, and, if possible, crushing, that\\nhated rival who had robbed his country of Sicily, Sardinia, and\\nCorsica. His implacable animosity against Rome is shown by\\nthe well-known tale, that when he crossed over to Spain in\\n236 B.C., taking with him his son Hannibal, then only nine years\\nold, he made him swear at the altar eternal hostility to Rome.\\nDuring the eight years that Hamilcar continued in Spain he\\ncarried the Carthaginian arms into the heart of the country.\\nWhile he conquered several states in war, he gained over others\\nby negotiation, and availed himself of their services as allies or\\nmercenaries. He fell in battle in 228 B.C., and was succeeded\\nin the command by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. His plans were\\nably carried out by his successor. The conciliatory manners of\\nHasdrubal gained him the affections of the Spaniards and he\\nconsolidated the Carthaginian empire in Spain by the foundation\\nof New Carthage, now Cartagena, in a situation admirably chosen\\non account of its excellent harbour and easy communication with", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "Chap. XL] HANNIBAL IN SPAIN. 99\\nAfrica, as well as from its proximity to the silver-mines, which\\nsupplied him with the means of paying his troops. His trusted\\nlieutenant was the youthful Hannibal, who had been trained in\\narms under the eye of his father, and who already displayed that\\nability for war which Rome was so soon to feel. The successes\\nof Hamilcar and Hasdrubal could not fail to attract the notice\\nof the Romans they did not understand the objects of the\\nPhoenician generals, but, as it dawned on them that Spain might\\npossibly be a battle-ground in the future, they concluded a treaty,\\nby which the river Iberus (Ebro) was fixed as the northern\\nboundary of the Carthaginian empire in Spain (228 B.C.).\\nHasdrubal was assassinated in 221 B.C. by a slave whose\\nmaster he had put to death. Hannibal had now acquired such\\na remarkable ascendency over the army, that the soldiers unani-\\nmously proclaimed him commander-in-chief, and the government\\nat Carthage hastened to ratify an appointment which they had\\nnot, in fact, the power to prevent. There can be no doubt that\\nhe already looked forward to the invasion and conquest of Italy\\nas the goal of his ambition but it was necessary for him first to\\ncomplete the work which had been so ably begun by his two\\npredecessors, and to establish the Carthaginian power as firmly\\nas possible in Spain. This he accomplished in two campaigns,\\nin the course of which he brought all the nations south of the\\nIberus into subjection to Carthage. His army was now in the\\nhighest degree of efficiency, and he felt that the time had come\\nfor the final move. All that was lacking was a pretext for war,\\nand this he soon created.\\nEarly in the spring of 219 B.C. he proceeded to lay siege to\\nSaguntum, a city of Greek origin founded by the Zacynthians.\\nThough situated to the south of the Iberus, and\\ntherefore not included under the Roman protec- ^*^^^\u00c2\u00b0*1\\ntorate established by the treaty with Hasdrubal, Saeuntnm.\\nSaguntum had concluded an alliance with Rome.\\nThe excuse for this aggression was the same of which the\\nRomans so often availed themselves some injury inflicted by\\nthe Saguntines upon one of the neighbouring tribes under the\\nprotection of Carthage. The resistance of the city was long and\\ndesperate, and it was not till after a siege of nearly eight months\\nthat he made himself master of the place.\\nDuring all this period the Romans sent no assistance to their\\nire", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "100\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XI.\\nallies. They had, indeed, as soon as they heard of the siege,\\ndespatched ambassadors to Hannibal, but he referred them\\nfor an answer to the government at home, and\\nWar declared ^^^y. co^jfj obtain no satisfaction from the Cartha-\\nthase. ginians, in whose councils the war party had now\\na decided predominance. A second embassy was\\nsent, after the fall of Sa.i^untum, to demand the surrender of\\nHannibal, in atonement for the breach of the treaty. After\\nmuch discussion, Q. Fabius, one of the Eoman ambassadors,\\nholding up a fold of his toga, said, I carry here peace and\\nwar choose ye which ye will. Give us which you will,\\nwas the reply. Then take war, said Fabius, letting fall his\\ntoga. And the senators of Carthage cried, We accept the gift.\\nCoin of Hiero.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": ".rJ\\n4\\nJG A\\nI A\\\\\\nrfW/^\\nm\\np\\nMis SI a^\\niiesH?\\nMAP or ^i\\nITALY SPAIN AFRICA\\nAFTER 1^ PUBIC WAR\\nALSO\\nSHDWmG HAimiBAiS MARCH\\nB^EUnoan. Possessions\\nCartha^miaiL ,y\\n-IBiannibals march.\\nlA IE\\nHarper Brotheri", "height": "2659", "width": "1660", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "t ork Londo\\nJolni.\u00c2\u00a3ani.olomew Co.,XaiaT", "height": "2659", "width": "1660", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "Lake Trasimenus.\\nCHAPTER XII.\\nTHE SECOND PTJJTTC WAR FIRST PERIOD, DOWN TO THE BATTLE\\nOF CANNAE. 218-216 B.C.\\nIn the Second Punic War we have no longer a distant contest\\nbetween Carthaginians and Romans fought out on neutral\\nground it is the struggle of Italy against the Hannibal s\\nindividual genius of a foreign invader. The posi- preparations\\ntion of Hannibal was indeed very peculiar. His for invading\\ncommand in Spain, and the powerful army there, ^^^^7-\\nwhich was entirely at his own disposal, rendered him in great\\nmeasure independent of the government at Carthage, and the\\nlatter seemed disposed to devolve all responsibility upon him.\\nEven now they did little themselves to prepare for the impend-\\ning contest. All was left to Hannibal, who, after the conquest", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "102 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. Xll.\\nof Saguntum, had returned once more to New Carthage for the\\nwinter, and was there actively engaged in preparations for\\ncarrying the war into the enemy s country. At the same time,\\nhe did not neglect to provide for the defence of Spain and Africa\\nduring his absence. In the former country he placed his brother\\nHasdrubal, with a considerable army, great part of which was\\ncomposed of Africans, while he sent over a large body of Spanish\\ntroops to contribute to the defence of Africa, and even of Car-\\nthage itself.\\nAll his preparations being now completed, Hannibal quitted\\nhis winter quarters at New Carthage in the spring of 218 B.C.,\\nand crossed the Iberus with an army of 90,000 foot and 12,000\\nhorse. The tribes between that river and the Pyrenees offered\\nat first a vigorous resistance, and, though they were quickly\\nsubdued, Hannibal thought it necessary to leave behind him\\na force of 11,000 men under Hanno to maintain this newly\\nacquired province. His forces were further thinned by desertion\\nduring the passage of the Pyrenees, which obliged him to send\\nhome a large body of his Spanish troops. With a greatly\\ndiminished army, but one on which he could securely rely, he\\nnow continued bis march from the foot of the Pj ^renees to the\\nEhone without meeting with any opposition for the Gallic\\ntribes through which he passed were favourably disposed to him,\\nor had been previously gained over by his emissaries.\\nThe Consul P. Cornelius Scipio had been ordered to proceed\\nto Spain, but various causes had detained him in Italy, and\\nupon landing at Massilia (Marseilles) he found\\nHannibal Hannibal was already advancing towards\\nRhone^ the Rhone. Meantime the Carthaginian general\\neffected his passage across the river, notwith-\\nstanding the opposition of the Gauls and when Scipio marched\\nup the left bank of the river, he found that Hannibal had ad-\\nvanced into the interior of Gaul, and was already three days in\\nadvance of him. Despairing, therefore, of overtaking Hannibal,\\nhe determined to sail back to Italy and await him in Cisalpine\\nGaul. But as the Republic had already an army in that pro-\\nvince, he sent the greater part of his own forces into Spain\\nunder the command of his brother Cn. Scipio. This prudent\\nstep probably saved Rome for if the Carthaginians had main-\\ntained the undisputed mastery of Spain, they might have", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "Chap. XII.] HANNIBAL S PASSAGE OF THE ALPS. 103\\nconcentrated all their efforts to support Hannibal in Italj and\\nhave sent him such strong reinforcements after the battle of\\nCannae as would have compelled Rome to submit.\\nHannibal, after crossing the Ehone, continued his march up\\nthe left bank of the river as far as its confluence with the Isere.\\nHere he interposed in a dispute between two rival\\nchiefs of the Allobroges, and, by lending his aid the^AiM^\\nto establish one of them firmly on the throne,\\nsecured the co-operation of an efficient ally, who greatly facili-\\ntated his farther progress. But in his passage across the Alps\\nhe was attacked by the barbarians, and as he struggled through\\nthe narrow and dangerous defiles the enemy destro\\\\ ed numbers\\nof his men. It was some days before he reached the summit of\\nthe pass. Thenceforth he suffered but little from hostile attacks,\\nbut the descent was difficult and dangerous. The natural diflB-\\nculties of the road, enhanced by the lateness of the season (the\\nbeginning of September, at which time the snows had already\\ncommenced in the high Alps), caused him almost as much loss\\nas the opposition of the barbarians on the other side of the\\nmountains. So heavy were his losses from these combined\\ncauses that, when he at length emerged from the valley of Aosta\\ninto the plains of the Po, and encamped in the friendly country\\nof the Insubres, he had with him no more than 20,000 foot and\\n6000 horse.* There were no Roman legions near to attack his\\nthinned and exhausted troops the blunder which had permitted\\nthe passage of the Alps left the frontier of Italy undefended.\\nHannibal s first care was now to recruit the strength of his\\narmy, worn out as it was by the hardships and fatigues it had\\nundergone. After a short interval of repose, he\\nturned his arms against the Taurini (a tribe battles of the\\nbordering on, and hostile to, the Insubres), whom XreMa^\\nhe quickly reduced, and took their principal city\\n(Turin). The news of the approach of P. Scipio next obliged\\nhim to turn his attention towards a more formidable enemy.\\nIn the first action, which took place in the plains westward of\\nthe Ticinus, the cavalry and light-armed troops of the two\\narmies were alone engaged and the superiority of Hannibal s\\nThe pass of the Alps which HaDnibal crossed was probably the Graian Alps,\\nor Little St. Bernard. See note On the Passage of Hannibal across the Alps,\\n\u00c2\u00bbt the end of this chapter.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "104 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XII.\\nNumidian horse at once decided the combat in his favour. The\\nKomans were completely routed, and Scipio himself severely\\nwounded; in consequence of which he hastened to retreat\\nbeyond the Ticinus and the Po, under the walb of Placentia.\\nHannibal crossed the Po higher np, and, advancinc *^o Placentia,\\noffered battle to Scipio but the latter declined the combat, and\\nwithdrew to the hills on the left bank of the Treliia. Here he\\nwas soon after joined by the other consul, Ti. Sempronius\\nLongiis, who had hastened from Ariminum to his support their\\ncombined armies were greatly superior to that of the Cartha-\\nginians, and Sempronius, whose year of office was expiring, was\\neager to bring on a general battle, of which Hannibal, on his\\nside, was not less desirous, notwithstanding the great inferiority\\nof his force. The result was decisive the Eoraans were com-\\npletely defeated, with heavy loss; and the remains of their\\nshattered army, together with the two consuls, took refuge\\nwithin the walls of Placentia. The battles of the Ticinus and\\nTrebia had been fought in December, and the winter had already\\nbegun with unusual severity, so that Hannibal s troops suffered\\nseverely from cold, and all his elephants perished except one.\\nBut his victory had caused all the wavering tribes of the Gauls\\nto declare in his favour, and he was now able to take up his\\nwinter quarters in security, and to levy fresh troops among the\\nGauls, while he awaited the approach of spring.\\nAs soon as the season permitted the renewal of military opera-\\ntions (217 B.C.), Hannibal entered the country of the Ligurian\\ntribes, who had lately declared in his favour, and\\nHannibal descended by the valley of the Macra into the\\nA^?nnines marshes on the banks of the Arno. He had\\napparently chosen this route in order to avoid\\nthe Roman armies, which guarded the more obvious passes of\\nthe Apennines; but the hardships and difficulties which he\\nencountered in struggling through the marshes were immense\\ngreat numbers of his horses and beasts of burthen perished, and\\nhe himself lost the sight of one eye by a violent attack of\\nophthalmia. At length, however, he reached Faesulae in safety,\\nand was able to allow his troops a short interval of repose.\\nThe consuls for this year were On. Servihus and C. Flarainius.\\nThe latter was the author of the celebrated Agrarian Law which\\nQcpasioned the Galhc War, and in his first consulship he had", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "Chap. XII.] BATTLE OF LAKE TKASIMEAE. 105\\ngained a great victory over the Insubrian Gauls (see p. 97).\\nHe had been raised to his second consulship by popular favour,\\nin spite of the opposition of the senate and he hurried from\\nRome before the Ides of March,* lest the senate might throw\\nany obstacle in the way of his entering upon his consulship.\\nHe was a man of great energy, but headstrong and reckless.\\nWhen Hannibal arrived at Faesulao, Flaminius was with his\\narmy at Arretium.\\nIt was always the object of Hannibal to bring the Roman\\ncommanders to a battle after himseli choosing the ground, and\\ntherefore, in moving from Faesulae, he passed\\nby the Roman general, and advanced towards ^^ttle of the\\nPerusia, laying waste the fertile country on his i^\\nline of march. Flaminius immediately broke up\\nbis camp, and, following the traces of Hannibal, fell into the\\nsnare whicb was prepared for him. He found himself in a\\nnarrow defile, both sides of which had been occupied by\\nHannibal s light troops the outlet was barred by Hannibal s\\ninfantry, and the entrance was closed by the Trasimene lake.\\nThe destruction of the imprisoned army was almost complete.\\nThousands fell by the sword, among whom was the consul him-\\nself; thousands more perished in the lake, and no less than\\n15,000 prisoners fell into the hands of Hannibal, who on his side\\nis said to have lost only 1500 men. Hannibal s treatment of\\nthe captives on this occasion, as well as after the battle of the\\nTrebia, was marked by the same policy on which he afterwards\\nuniformly acted: the Roman citizens alone were retained as\\nprisoners, while their Italian allies were dismissed without\\nransom to their respective homes. By this means he hoped to\\nexcite the nations of Italy against their Roman masters, and to\\nplace himself in the position of the leader of a national move-\\nment rather than that of a foreign invader. It was in order to\\ngive time for this feeling to display itself that he did not, after\\nthe conquest of Etruria, push on towards Rome itself; but, after\\nan unsuccessful attempt upon the Roman colony of Spoletium,\\nhe turned aside through the Apennines into Picenum, and thence\\ninto the northern part of Apulia. Here he spent a great part of\\nthe summer, and was able effectually to refresh his troops, who\\nAt this time the consuls entered upon their office on the Ides of March. It\\nwas not till 153 B.C. that the consulship comnjenced on the lialends of January.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "106 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XII.\\nhad suffered much from the hardships of their previous marches.\\nBut no symptoms appeared of the insurrections he had looked\\nfor; the Italians, who might have joined a Western leader, could\\nnot be brought to look on a Phoenician chief as their deliverer.\\nMeantime the Eomans had collected a fresh army, which they\\nplaced under the command of Q. Fabius Maximus, who had, in\\nconsequence of the absence of the consuls from\\nicy Eome, been elected dictator by the Comitia of the\\nCenturies. Fabius formed a different plan for the\\ncampaign. He determined to keep the heights, and not to risk\\na battle, but at the same time to watch the Carthaginian army,\\ncut off its supplies, and harass and annoy it in every possible\\nway. From pursuing this policy he received the surname of\\nCu7ictator, or the Lingerer.\\nHannibal now recrossed the Apennines, descended into the\\nrich plains of Campania, and laid waste, without opposition, that\\nfertile territory. But he was unable either to make himself\\nmaster of any of the towns, or to draw the wary Fabius to a\\nbattle. The Koman general contented himself with occupying\\nthe mountain-passes leading from Samnium into Campania, by\\nwhich Hannibal must of necessity retreat, and believed that he\\nhad caught him as it were in a trap but Hannibal eluded his\\nvigilance by an ingenious stratagem. He had faggots tied to\\nthe horns of 2000 oxen, which were amongst the booty: and\\nwhen night was closing in, he had the faggots lit, and made his\\nlight-armed troops drive the cattle straight up the mountain\\nslopes in the direction of the Roman ambush. The garrison,\\nastonished at what they believed to be a night attack by torch-\\nlight from an unexpected quarter, hastily retreated, and Hannibal\\nrapidty mounted the pass with his whole forces, passed the defiles\\nof the Apennines without loss, and established himself in the\\nplains of Apulia, where he collected supplies from all sides, in\\norder to prepare for the winter.\\nMeantime the popular party at Rome, impatient at the in-\\nactivity of Fabius, had raised Minucius, the Master of the Horse,\\nto an equality in command. The rashness with\\nDiscontent of -^hich he sought to justify the popular choice\\npartjSome. S^ Hannibal the opportunity, for\\nwhich he was ever on the watch, to crush the\\nBoman army by a decisive blow. One of his ambushes had", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "Chap. Xll.] BATTLE OP CAKNAE. iOl\\ntaken the troops of Minucius by surprise, and the Roman army\\nwas being shut in on every side, when Fabius suddenly appeared\\nupon the scene. Tho Pliocnician forces retired before the com-\\nbined armies, and took up their winter quarters at Geronium.\\nMinucius acknowledged his error, and resumed his post of Master\\nof the Horse.\\nDuring the winter the Romans made preparations for bringing\\nan unusually large force into the field. The people thought that\\nit needed only a man of energy and decision at the head of an\\noverwhelming force to bring the war to a close. They therefore\\nraised to the consulship C. Terentius Varro, said to have been\\nthe son of a butcher, who had been for some time regarded as\\nthe champion of the popular party. The senate regarded this\\nelection with dismay, as Varro possessed no military experience;\\nand thej therefore persuaded the people to appoint as his\\ncolleague L. Aemilius Paullus, who had distinguished himself\\nby the way in which he had conducted the Illyrian War during\\nhis consulship.\\nHannibal remained at Geronium until late in the spring (216\\nB.C.), when, compelled to move by the want of provisions, he\\nsurprised the Roman magazines at Cannae, a small\\ntown of Apulia, and established his head-quarters\\nthere until the harvest could be got in. Mean-\\nwhile the two Roman consuls arrived at the head of an army of\\n80,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry. Hannibal s infantry was but\\nhalf the number of the Roman, but his cavalry numbered 10,000.\\nHe offered battle on the left, and, when this was declined, on the\\nright bank of the Aufidus, in a wide plain eminently suited to\\nthe evolutions of cavalry. It was the cavalry that decided the\\nday the immense army of the Romans was not only defeated,\\nbut annihilated and between 40,000 and 50,000 men are said\\nto have fallen in the field, among whom was the Consul Aemilius\\nPaullus, both the consuls of the preceding years, the late Master\\nof the Horse, Minucius, above eighty senators, and a multitude\\nof the knights who composed the Roman cavalry and mounted\\noflicers. The other consul, Varro, escaped with a few horsemen\\nto Venusia, and a small band of resolute men forced their way\\nfrom the Roman camp through the enemy s army to Canusium\\nall the rest were killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. Hannibal\\nhas been generally blamed for not following up his advantage at", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "108\\nHlSTOJ^y OP ROME.\\n[Chap. XII.\\nonce, after so decisive a victory, by an immediate advance upon\\nRome itself a measure which was strongly urged upon him by\\nMaharbal. Only send me on with the cavalry, said this\\nofficer, and within five days thou shalt sup in the Capitol.\\nBut his army was not skilled in siege operations, he had no\\nmeans of investing the city, and an immediate attack on Rome\\nmight have involved a repulse which would have dimmed the\\nglory of his recent victory.\\nHe waited in Apulia to see the effect on Italy and now the\\nallies began to waver. The Hirpinians, all the Samnites (except\\nthe Peiitrian tribe), and almost all the Apulians,\\nDerection of Lucanians, and Bruttians, declared in favour of\\nallies Carthage. The whole of the south of Italy seemed\\nlost to the Romans, but the effect of these defec-\\ntions was not so decisive as might at first appear for the Latin\\ncolonies, which still, without exception, lemained faithful, gave\\nthe Romans a powerful hold upon the revolted districts and\\nthe Greek cities on the coast, though mostly disposed to join\\nthe Carthaginians, were restrained by the presence of Roman\\ngarrisons. Hence it became necessary to support the insurrec-\\ntion in the different parts of Italy with a Carthaginian force.\\nHannibal marched first into Samnium, and from thence into\\nCampania, where he obtained possession of the important city\\nof Capua, the gates of which were opened to him\\nby the popular party. Here he established his\\narmy in winter quarters. Thus ends the first period of the war,\\nin which Hannibal had met with uninterrupted success. Three\\ngreat victories in three years, followed by the revolt of a city\\nscarcely inferior to Rome itself in importance, seemed to promise\\na speedy termination of the war.\\nLoss of Capua.\\nNOTE ON HANNIBAL S PASSAGE ACROSS THE ALPS.\\n(See p. 103.)\\nThe narrative in the text is taken\\nfrom that of the Greek historian Poly-\\nblus, which is certainly by far the most\\ntrustworthy that has descended to us\\nbut that author has nowhere clearly\\nstated by which of the passes across\\nthe Alps Hannibal effected his mnrch\\nand this question has given rise to\\nmuch controversy both in ancient and\\nmodern times. Into this discussion our\\nlimits will not allow us to enter, but\\nthe following mav be briefly stated as\\nthe general results: 1. That after a\\ncareful examination of the text of Poly-\\nbius, and comparison of the different\\nlocalities, his narrative will be foimd", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "Chap. XII] HANNIBAL S EOUTE OVER THE ALPS.\\n109\\non the whole to agree best with the sup-\\nposition that Hannibal crossed the Uraian\\nAlps Little St. Bei nird) by a pass which\\nled into the territory of the Salassi and\\nInsubres. 2. That Caelius Antipater\\ncertainly represented him as taking this\\nroute (Liv. xxi. 38) and as he is known\\nto have followed the Greek history of\\nSilenus, who is said to have accompanied\\nHannibil in many of his campaigns, his\\nauthority is of the greatest weight. 3.\\nThat Livy and Strabo, on the contrary,\\nboth suppose him to have crossed the\\nCottian Alps {Mont Genevre) by a pass\\nwhich led into the territory of the\\nTaurini. But the main argument that\\nappears to have weighed with Livy, as it\\nhas done with several modern writers on\\nthe subject, is the assumption that Han-\\nnibal descended in the first inst-ance into\\nthe country of the Taurini, which is\\nopposed to the direct testimony of Poly-\\nbius, who says expressly that he de-\\nscended among the Insubres, and\\nsubsequently mentions his attack on\\nthe Taurini. 4. That, as according to\\nLivy himself (xxi. 29) the Gallic emis-\\nsaries who acted as Hannibal s guides\\nwere Boii, it was natural that these\\nshould conduct him by the passage\\nI that led directly into the territory ol\\ntheir allies and brothers-in-arms the\\nInsubres, rather than into that of the\\nTaurini, a Ligurian tribe, who were at\\nthis very time in a state of hostility\\nwith the Insubres. And this remark\\nwill serve to explain why Hannibal\\nchose apparently a longer route, instead\\nof the more direct one of Mont Genevre.\\nLastly, it is remarkable that Polybius,\\nthough he censures the exaggerations\\nand absurdities with which earlier\\nwriters had encumbered their narrative,\\ndoes not intimate that any doubt was\\nentertained as to the line of march\\nand Pompey, in a letter to the senate,\\nwritten in b.c. 73, alludes to the route\\nof Hannibal across the Alps as some-\\nthing well known. Hence it appears\\nclear that the passage by which he\\ncrossed them must have been one of\\nthose frequented in subsequent times\\nby the Romans. This argument seems\\ndecisive against the claims of a third\\npossible route, that by the Mont Cenis,\\nwhich have been advocated by some\\nmodern writers, that pass having appa-\\nrently never been used till the Middle\\nAges. See Diet, of Greek and Kmiian\\nBiography, vol. ii. pp. 334, 535.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "Capua.\\nCHAPTEK XIII.\\nSECOND PUNIC WAR SECOND PERIOD, FROM THE REVOLT OF CAPUA\\nTO THE BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. 215-207 B.C.\\nCapua was celebrated for its wealth and luxury; and the ener-\\nvating effect which these produced upon the army of Hannibal\\nbecame a favourite theme of rhetorical exaggera-\\nCaoua ages. The futility of such declama-\\ntions is sufficiently shown by the simple fact that\\nthe superiority of that army in the field remained as decided as\\never. Still it may be truly said that the winter spent at Capua\\n(216-215 B.C.) was in great measure the turning-point of\\nHannibal s fortune, and from this time the war assumed an\\naltered character. The experiment of what he could effect with\\nbis single army had now been fully tried, and, notwithstanding\\nall his victories, it had decidedly failed for Rome was still\\nunsubdued, and still provided with the means of maintaining a", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "Chap. Xin.] SECOND PUNIC WAR; SECOND PERIOD. Ill\\nprotracted contest. But Hannibal had not relied on his own\\nforces alone, and he now found himself, apparently at least, in\\na condition to commence the execution of his long-cherished\\nplan that of arming Italy itself against the Romans, and crush-\\ning the ruling power by means of her own subjects. It was to\\nthis object that his attention was henceforth mainly directed.\\nFrom this time, also, the Romans changed their plan of\\noperations; and, instead of opposing to Hannibal one gi eat army\\nin the field, thej hemmed in his movements on\\nall sides, guarded all the most important towns j \u00c2\u00b0^J\\nwith strong garrisons, and kept up armies all over\\nItaly to thwart the operations of his lieutenants and check the\\nrising disposition to revolt. It is impossible here to follow in\\ndetail the complicated operations of the subsequent campaigns,\\nduring which Hannibal himself frequently traversed Italy in all\\ndirections, appearing suddenly wherever his presence was called\\nfor, and astonishing and often baffling the enemy by the rapidity\\nof his marches. All that we can do is to notice very briefly the-\\nleading events which distinguished each successive campaign.\\nThe campaign of 215 B.C. was not marked by any decisive\\nevents. The consuls were Q. P^abius Maximus (whose plan of\\nconducting the war had been fully vindicated by the terrible\\ndefeat of Cannae) and Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. With\\nthe advance of spring Hannibal took up his camp on Mount\\nTifata, where, while awaiting the arrival of reinforcements from\\nCarthage, he was at hand to support his partisans in Campania\\nand oppose the Roman generals in that province. But his\\nattempts on Cumae and Neapolis were foiled and even after\\nhe had been joined by a force from Carthage (very inferior,\\nhowever, to what he had expected) he sustained a repulse before\\nNola, which was magnified by the Romans into a defeat. As\\nthe winter approached he withdrew into Apulia, and took up\\nhis quarters in the plains around Arpi.\\nBut other prospects were already opening before him. In his\\ncamp on Tifata he had received embassies from Philip king of\\nMacedon and Hieronymus of Syracuse, both of Macedon and\\nwhich he had eagerly welcomed, and thus sowed Syracuse ne-\\nthe seeds of two fresh wars, and raised up two gotiate with\\nformidable enemies against the Iloman power. Hannibal.\\nThese two collateral wars in some degree drew off the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "112 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIIL\\nattention of both parties from that in Italy itself; yet the Romans\\nstill opposed to the Carthaginian general a chain of armies which\\nfettered all his operations and though Hannibal was ever on\\nthe watch for the opportunity of striking a blow, the campaign\\nof 214 B.C. was still less decisive than that of the preceding\\nyear. Fabius was again elected consul, and Marcellus was\\nappointed his colleague. Early in the summer Hannibal\\nadvanced from Apulia to his former station on Mount Tifata\\nto watch over the safety of Capua; from thence he had descended\\nto the Lake Avernus, in hopes of making himself master of\\nPuteoli, when a prospect was held out to him of surprising the\\nimportant city of Tarentum. Thither he hastened by forced\\nmarches, but arrived too late Tarentum had been secured by\\na Roman force. After this his operations were of little impor-\\ntance, until he again took up his winter quarters in Apulia.\\nDuring the following summer (213 B.C.), while all eyes were\\nturned towards the war in Sicily, Hannibal remained almost\\nwholly inactive in the neighbourhood of Taren-\\nTarentum ^-y,^^ g^jn cherishing hopes of making himself\\nH ^^ibal master of that important city. Before the close\\nof the ensuing winter he was rewarded with the\\nlong-looked -for prize, and Tarentum was betrayed into his hands\\nby two of its citizens. The advantage, however, was incomplete,\\nfor a Roman garrison still held possession of the citadel, from\\nwhich he was unable to dislodge them. The next year (212 B.C.)\\nwas marked by important events in Sicily and Spain, to which\\nwe must now direct our attention.\\nHiero, so long the faithful ally of Rome, died shortly after the\\nbattle of Cannae (216 B.C.), and was succeeded by his grandson\\nHieronymus, a vain youth, who abandoned the\\nalliance of Rome for that of Carthage. But he\\nwas assassinated after a reign of fifteen months, and a republican\\nform of government was established in Syracuse. A contest\\nensued between the Roman and Carthaginian parties in the city,\\nbut the former ultimately prevailed, and Epicydes and Hippo-\\ncrates, two brothers, whom Hannibal had sent as his agents to\\nSyracuse, had to quit the town, and took refuge at Leontini.\\nSuch was the state of affairs when the Consul Marcellus arrived\\nin Sicily (214 B.C.). He forthwith marched against Leontini,\\nwhich Epicydes and Hippocrates defended with a considerable", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIII.] SIEGE OF SYRACUSE. 113\\nforce. He took the city by storm and, though he spared\\nthe inhabitants, executed in cold blood 2000 Eoraan deserters\\nwhom he found among the troops that had formed the garri-\\nson. This sanguinary act at once alienated the minds of tlie\\nSicilians, and alarmed the mercenary troops in the service\\nof Syracuse.\\nThe latter immediately joined Hippocrates and Epicydes, who\\nhad made their escape the gates of Syracuse were opened to\\nthem by their partisans within the walls, and the\\nparty hostile to Rome was thus established in the Defection of\\nundisputed command of that city. Marcellus now jjomg\\nappeared before Syracuse at the head of his army,\\nand, after a fruitless summons to the inhabitants, proceeded to\\nlay siege to the city both by sea and land. His attacks were\\nvigorous and unremitting, and were directed especially against\\nthe quarter of Achradina from the side of the sea but, though\\nhe brought many powerful military engines against the walls,\\nthese were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill and\\nscience of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of the\\nbesieged.\\nAll the efforts of the assailants were baffled and the Roman\\nsoldiers were inspired with so great a dread of Archimedes and\\nhis engines,* that Marcellus was compelled to give\\nup all hopes of carrying the city by open force, ^^^S^\\nand to turn the siege into a blockade. The siege Syracuse\\nwas prolonged far on into the summer of 212 B.C.,\\nnor did there appear any prospect of its termination, as the\\ncommunications of the besieged by sea were almost entirely\\nopen. In this state of things Marcellus fortunately discovered\\na part of the walls more accessible than the rest and, having\\nprepared scaling-ladders, effected an entrance at this point\\nduring the night which followed a great festival, and thus made\\nhimself master of Epipolai. The two quarters called Tycha ai\\\\d\\nNeapolis were now at his mercy, and were given up to plunder\\nbut Epicydes still held the main city, composed of the island- citadel\\nand Achradina, which formed two separate and strong fortresses,\\nMarcellus, however, made himself master of the fort of Euryehis,\\nThe Btory that Archimedes set the Roman ships on Are by the reflected rays\\nof the sun is probably a fiction though later writers give an account of this\\nburning mirror.\\nI", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "114 HlbTOR^ OP ROME. [Chap. XIII.\\nand had closely invested Achradina, when the Carthaginian army\\nunder Himilco and Hippocrates advanced to the relief of the\\ncity. Their efforts were, however, in vain all their attacks on\\nthe camp of Marcellus were repulsed, and they were unable to\\neffect a junction with Epicydes and the Syracusan garrison.\\nThe swamps that had so often saved Syracuse gave rise to a\\npestilence which carried off both the generals of the Carthaginian\\narmy, and led to the entire break-up of their forces. Shortly\\nafterwards the treachery of a leader of Spanish mercenaries in\\nthe Syracusan service gave Marcellus the possession of the\\nisland, and the citizens immediately threw open the gates of\\nAchradina. The city was given up to plunder, and Archimedes\\nwas slain by a Roman soldier, being so intent upon a mathe-\\nmatical problem at the time that he did not answer a question\\nthat was asked him. He was deeply regretted by Marcellus,\\nwho gave orders for his burial, and befriended his surviving\\nrelatives.*\\nThe booty found in the captured city was immense besides\\nthe money in the royal treasury, which was set apart for the\\ncoffers of the state, Marcellus carried off many of the works of\\nart with which the city had been adorned, to grace his own\\ntriumph and the temples at Eome. This was the first instance\\nof that practice of violent art-collecting which afterwards became\\nso general and it gave great offence not only to the Greeks of\\nSicily, but to a large party at Rome itself.\\nThe fall of Syracuse was followed, though not immediately,\\nby the subjugation of the whole island by the Romans; but\\nthese successes were counterbalanced by the\\nin Snain defeat and death of the two Scipios in Spain.\\nWe have already seen that P. Scipio, when he\\nlanded at Massilia and found himself unable to overtake Hannibal\\nin Gaul, sent his brother Cneius with the army into Spain, while\\nhe himself returned to Italy. In the following year (217 B.C.)\\nPublius himself crossed over into Spain, where he found that\\nhis brother had already obtained a firm footing. They continued\\nin Spain for several years, during which they gained many\\nvictories and prevented Hasdrubal from marching into Italy to\\nTJpon his tomb was placed the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder.\\nWhen Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (75 B.C.), he found his tomb near one of the\\ngates of the city, almost hid among briars, and forgotten by the Syracusans.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "Chap, XIII.] THE WAR IN SPAIN AND ITALY.\\n115\\nsupport his victorious brother. When Hasdrubal was recalled\\nto Africa to oppose Syphax, one of the Numidian kings, whom\\nRome had stirred up to war against Carthage, the Scipios availed\\nthemselves of his absence to extend their power. They gained\\nEarlier Walls\\nWall of Dionyslus\\nEnglish Miles ^i\\nWan ot Syracuse.\\nover new tribes to the Eoman cause, took 20,000 Celtiberians\\ninto their pay, and felt themselves so strong in 212 B.C. that\\nthey resolved to cross the Iberus and to make a vigorous effort\\nto drive the Carthaginians out of Spain.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "116 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIII.\\nThey accordingly divided theii forces but the result was\\nfatal. Publius was destroyed, with the greater part of his troops\\nand Cneius was also defeated, and fell in battle,\\nand death twenty-nine days after the death of his brother.\\nThese victories seemed to establish the superiority\\nof Carthage in Spain, and open the way for Hasdrubal to join\\nhis brother in Italy.\\nHere the two consuls Appius Claudius and Q. Fulvius began\\nto draw together their forces for the purpose of besieging Capua\\n(212 B.C.). Hannibal advanced to reheve it, and\\nbeslea-e c^^^ compelled the consuls to withdraw but he was\\nunable to force either of them to fight. Shortly\\nafterwards he returned again to the south to urge on the siege\\nof the citadel of Tarentum, which still held out and he spent\\nthe winter and the whole of the ensuing spring (211 B.C.) in its\\nimmediate neighbourhood. But during his absence the consuls\\nhad renewed the siege of Capua, and prosecuted it with such\\nactivity, that the} had succeeded in surrounding the city with\\na double line of entrenchments. The pressing danger once more\\nsummoned Hannibal to its relief. He accordingly presented\\nhimself before the Roman camp, and attacked their lines from\\nwithout, while the garrison co-operated with him by a vigorous\\nsally from the walls.\\nBoth attacks were, however, repulsed, and Hannibal, foiled in\\nhis attempt to raise the siege by direct means, determined on\\nthe manoeuvre of marching directly upon Rome\\nHanmbal itself, in hopes of thus compelling the consuls t6\\nT abandon their designs upon Capua, in order to\\nprovide for the defence of the city. But this\\nscheme failed in its effect the appearance of Hannibal before\\nthe gates of Rome for a moment struck terror through the city\\nbut a considerable body of troops was at the time within the\\nwalls and the Consul Fulvius, as soon as he heard of Hannibal s\\nmarch, hastened, with a portion of the besieging army, from\\nCapua, while he still left with the other consul a force amply\\nsufficient to carry on the siege. Hannibal was thus disappointed\\nin the main object of his advance, and he had no means of\\neffecting anything against Rome itself, where Fulvius and Fabius\\nconfined themselves strictly to the defensive, allowing him to\\nravage the whole country without opposition, up to the very walls.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIII.] RECOVERY OF CAPUA AND TARENTUM. 117\\nNothing therefore remained for him but to retreat, and he\\naccordingly recrossed the Anio, and marched slowly and sullenly\\nthrough the land of the Sabines and Samnites.\\nFrom thence he retired to the Bruttii, leaving Capua\\nCapua to its fate. The city soon after surrendered jj^ Rome\\nto the Romans. Its punishment was terrible. All\\nthe leaders of the insurrection w^ere beheaded the chief men\\nwere imprisoned; and the rest of the people were sold. The\\ncity became a village, its territory part of the Roman domain.\\nThe commencement of the next season (210 B.C.) was marked\\nby the fall of Salapia, which was betrayed by the inhabitants to\\nMarcellus but this loss was soon avenged by the total defeat\\nand destruction of the army of the Proconsul Cn. Fulvius at\\nHerdoniae. The Consul Marcellus, on his part, carefully avoided\\nan action for the rest of the campaign, while he harassed his\\nopponent by every possible means. Thus the rest of that\\nsummer too wore away without any important results. But this\\nstate of comparative inactivity was necessarily injurious to the\\ncause of Hannibal the nations of Italy that had espoused that\\ncause when triumphant now began to waver in their attachment;\\nand in the course of the following summer (209 B.C.) the\\nSamnites and Lucanians submitted to Rome, and were admitted\\nto favourable terms.\\nA still more disastrous blow to the Carthaginian cause was the\\nloss of Tarentum, which was betrayed into the hands of Fabius,\\nas it had been into those of Hannibal. In vain\\ndid the latter seek to draw the Roman general Tarentum\\ninto a snare: the wary Fabius eluded his toils.\\nThe recovery of Tarentum was the last exploit in the military\\nlife of the aged general. From the time of the battle of Cannae\\nhe had directed almost exclusively the councils of his country,\\nand his policy had been pre-eminently successful but the times\\nnow demanded bolder measures, and something else was neces-\\nsary than the caution of the Lingerer to bring the war to a close.\\nAfter the fall of Tarentum, Hannibal still traversed the open\\ncountry unopposed, and laid waste the territories of his enemies.\\nYet we cannot suppose that he any longer looked for ultimate\\nsuccess from any efforts of his own his object was doubtless\\nnow only to maintain his ground in the south until his brother\\nHasdrubal should appear in the north of Italy, an event to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "US HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIII.\\nwhich he had long anxiously looked forward. Yet the following\\nsummer (208 B.C.) was marked by some brilliant achievements.\\nThe two consuls, Crispinus and Marcellus, who were opposed to\\nHannibal in Lucania, allowed themselves to be led into an\\nambush, in which Marcellus was killed, and Crispinus mortally\\nwounded. Marcellus was one of the ablest of the Koman\\ngenerals. Hannibal displayed a generous sympathy for his fate,\\nand caused due honours to be paid to his remains.\\nThe following year (207 B.C.) decided the issue of the war in\\nItaly. The war in Spain during the last few years had been\\ncarried on with brilliant success by the young P.\\nHasdru1}al Scipio, of whose exploits we shall speak presently.\\nItaly Hasdrubal, leaving his colleagues\\nto make head against Scipio, resolved to join his\\nbrother in Italy. As Scipio was in undisputed possession of the\\nprovmce north of the Iberus, and had secured the passes of the\\nPyrenees on that side, Hasdrubal crossed these mountains near\\ntheir western extremity, and plunged into the heart of Gaul.\\nAfter spending a winter in that country, he prepared to cross\\nthe Alps in the spring of 207 B.C., and to descend into Italy.\\nThe two consuls for this year were C. Claudius Nero and M.\\nLivins. Nero was in Southern Italy, keeping a watch upon\\nHannibal Livius took up his quarters at Ariminum to oppose\\nHasdrubal. The latter experienced little loss or difficulty in\\ncrossing the Alps. The season of the year was favourable, and\\nthe Gauls were friendly to his cause. But instead of pushing\\non at once into the heart of Italy, he allowed himself to be\\nengaged in the siege of Placentia, and lost much precious time\\nin fruitless efforts to reduce that colony. When at length he\\nabandoned the enterprise, he sent messengers to Hannibal to\\napprise him of his movements, and concert measures for their\\nmeeting in Umbria. But his despatches fell into the hands of\\nthe Consul Nero, who formed the bold design of instantly march-\\ning with a picked body of 7000 men to join his colleague, and\\nfall upon Hasdrubal with their united forces before Hannibal\\ncould receive any tidings of his brother s movements.\\nThe consul s march was rapid and silent. Hannibal knew\\nnothing of his departure, and in a week Nero covered the 250\\nmiles to Sena, where his colleague was encamped in presence of\\nHasdrubal. He entered the camp of Livius in the night, that", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIII.] BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. 119\\nhis arrival might not be known to the Carthaginians. After\\na day s rest the two consuls proceeded to offer battle; but\\nHasdrubal, perceiving the augmented numbers of\\nthe Eomans, and hearing the trumpet sound J^^ction of\\ntwice, felt convinced that the consuls had united ,,__,;\u00e2\u0080\u009e_\\ntheir forces, and that his brother had been\\ndefeated. He therefore declined the combat, and in the follow-\\ning night commenced his retreat towards Ariminum.\\nThe Romans pursued him, and he found himself compelled to\\ngive them battle on the right bank of the Metaurus. On this\\noccasion Hasdrubal displayed all the qualities of a\\nconsummate general but his forces were gi eatly Turetaurus\\ninferior to those of the enemy, and his Gallic\\nauxiliaries were of little service. The gallant resistance of the\\nSpanish and Ligurian troops is attested by the heavy loss of the\\nRomans but all was of no avail, and seeing the battle irre-\\ntrievably lost, he rushed into the midst of the enemy, and fell,\\nsword in hand, in a manner worthy of the son of Hamilcar and\\nthe brother of Hannibal. The Consul Nero hastened back to\\nApulia almost as speedily as he had come, and announced to\\nHannibal the defeat and death of his brother, by throwing into\\nhis camp the severed head of Hasdrubal. I recognize, said\\nHannibal, sadly, the doom of Carthage.\\nThe victory of the Metaurus was, as we have already said, deci-\\nsive of the fate of the war in Italy and the conduct of Hannibal\\nshows that he felt it to be such. From this time he abandoned\\nall thoughts of offensive operations, and, withdrawing his garrisons\\nfrom Metapontura and other towns that he still held in Lucania,\\ncollected together his forces within the peninsula of the Bruttii.\\nIn the fastnesses of that wild and mountainous region he main-\\ntained his ground for nearly four years, while the towns that he\\nstill possessed on the coast gave him the command of the sea.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "Hannibal.\\nCHAPTER XIV.\\nSECOND PUNIC WAR THIRD PERIOD FROM THE BATTLE OF THE\\nMETAURUS TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 206-201 B.C.\\nAfter the battle of the Metaurus, Italy was no longer the chief\\nbattle-ground, and the main interest of the war was transferred\\nto Spain and Africa. Its conduct is associated\\nScipio. ^j^j^ ^^g name of P. Scipio, one of those excep-\\ntionally gifted men of whom Rome has so few to show, but\\nwhom fate seemed to reserve for her graver crises. The son of\\nthat P. Scipio who had fallen in Spain in 212 B.C., he had, even\\nin his early years, acquired the confidence and admiration of his\\nusually unenthusiastic countrymen. His devout Roman mind\\nled him to believe that he was under the special protection of\\nheaven for all he proposed or executed he alleged the divine\\napproval and the extraordinary success which attended all his\\nenterprises deepened in him this belief in his own destiny, and\\neven imposed it on others.\\nP. Scipio is first mentioned in 218 B.C. at the battle of the\\nTiclnus, where he is reported to have saved the life of his father,\\nthough he was then only seventeen years of age. He fought at\\nCannae two years afterwards (216 B.C.). when he was already a\\ntribune of the soldiers, and was one of the few Roman officers", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIV.J CAPTURE OF NEW CARTHAGE. 121\\nwho survived that fatal day. He was chosen, with Appius\\nClaudius, to command the remains of the army, which had taken\\nrefuge at Canusium and it was owing to his youthful heroism\\nand presence of mind that the Eoman nobles, who had thought\\nof leaving Italy in despair, were prevented from carrying their\\nrash project into effect. After the death of Scipio s father and\\nuncle, C. Nero was sent out as propraetor to supply their place\\nbut shortly afterwards, the senate resolved to increase the army\\nin Spain, and to place it under the command of a proconsul.\\nThe dangerous post was not eagerly sought and when Scipio,\\nwho was then barely twenty-four, presented himself as a candi-\\ndate, his boldness and merit were held sufficient\\nto counterbalance the illegality of his claim. As ^P^\\nhe was not invested with any magistracy which gpj^jjj\\nconferred the imperium, the new device was\\nadopted of creating him Proconsul at the Comitia of the\\nCenturies.*\\nScipio arrived in Spain in the summer of 210 B.C. He found\\nthat the three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal son of Barca,\\nHasdrubal son of Gisgo, and Mago, were not on\\ngood terms, and were at the time engaged in \u00e2\u0080\u009e*P ^^i.\\nI J- 4. A\\\\ NewCarthage.\\nseparate enterprises m distant parts or the pen-\\ninsula. Instead of attacking any of them singly, he formed the\\nproject of striking a deadly blow at the Carthaginian power by\\na sudden and unexpected attack upon New Carthage. He gave\\nthe command of the fleet to his intimate friend Laelius, to whom\\nalone he entrusted the secret of the expedition, while he led the\\nland-forces by extremely rapid marches against the city. The\\nproject was crowned with complete success. The Carthaginian\\ngarrison did not amount to more than a thousand men, and\\nbefore any succour could arrive New Carthage was taken by\\nassault. The hostages who had been given by the various\\nSpanish tribes to the Carthaginians, had been placed for security\\nin the city. These now fell into the hands of Scipio, who treated\\nthem with kindness and the hostages of those people who\\ndeclared themselves in favour of the Romans were restored\\nwithout ransom. Scipio also found in New Carthage magazines\\nof arms, corn, and other necessaries for the Carthaginians had\\nthere deposited their principal stores.\\nA consul was usually, at this time, created proconsul by the senate.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "122 HISTORy OF ROME. [Chap. XIV.\\nThe immediate effects of this brilliant success were immense.\\nMany of the Spanish tribes deserted the Carthaginian cause and\\nVictories at when Scipio took the field in the following year\\nBaecula, and (209 B.C.) Mandonius and Indibilis, two of the\\nconquest of most powerful and hitherto the most faithful sup-\\nSpaia. porters of Carthage, quitted the camp of Has-\\ndrubal Barca, and awaited the arrival of the Roman commander.\\nHasdrubal was encamped in a strong position near the town of\\nBaecula, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquiver), where\\nhe was attacked and defeated by Scipio. But he succeeded in\\nmaking good his retreat, and retired into Northern Spain. He\\nsubsequent^ crossed the P^Tenees, and, as we have already told,\\nniarched into Italy to the assistance of his brother Hannibal.\\nScipio, in spite of his brilliant successes, had not fulfilled his\\ndirect mission he had initiated wonderful enterprises, but failed\\nin defending Italy. His only plan now was to complete the\\nconquest of Spain. This was practically effected in 206 B.C. by\\na second great battle at Baecula, in which a decisive victory was\\nwon over Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, and Mago.\\nThe Carthaginian generals took refuge within the walls of\\nGades, an old Phoenician settlement, which was almost the only\\nplace that now belonged to the Carthaginians and all the\\nnative chiefs hastened to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome.\\nBut Spain had not been won by arms alone. The Spanish\\ntribes, always strangely susceptible to personal influence, had\\nfelt the magnetic attraction of Scipio s character. His courage\\nand energy, his humanity and his courtesy, had won him their\\nadmiration, their obedience, and even their love.\\nThe subjugation of Spain was regarded by Scipio as only a\\nmeans to an end. He had formed the project of correcting his\\ngreat blunder by transferring the war to Africa,\\n^^^***Af*-^\u00c2\u00b0\u00c2\u00b0^ and thus compelling the Carthaginians to recall\\nchiefs Hannibal from Italy. He therefore resolved,\\nbefore returning to Rome, to cross over into\\nAfrica, and secure, if possible, the friendship and co-operation of\\nsome of the native princes. His personal influence had already\\nsecured the attachment of Masinissa, the son of the king of the\\nMassylians, or Western Numidians, who was serving in the\\nCarthaginian army in Spain; and he trusted that the same\\npersonal ascendency might gain the more powerful support of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIV.] CONQUEST OF SPAIN. 123\\nSyphax, the king of the Massaeylians, or Eastern Numidians.\\nWith only two quinqueremes he ventured to leave his province\\nand repair to the court of Syphax. There he met his old\\nadversary, Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, who had crossed over from\\nGades for the same purpose and the two generals spent several\\ndays together in friendly intercourse. Scipio made a great\\nimpression upon Syphax; but the charms of Sophonisba, the\\ndaughter of Hasdrubal, whom the latter offered in marriage to\\nSyphax, prevailed over the influence of Scipio. Syphax married\\nher, and from that time became the zealous supporter and ally\\nof the Carthaginians,\\nDuring Scipio s absence in Africa a formidable insurrection\\nhad broken out in Spain but on his return it was speedily put\\ndown, and terrible vengeance was inflicted upon the town of\\nIlhturgis, which had taken the principal share in the revolt.\\nScarcely had this danger passed away when Scipio was seized\\nwith a dangerous illness. Eight thousand of the Roman soldiers,\\ndiscontented with not having received their usual pay, availed\\nthemselves of this opportunity to break out into open mutiny\\nbut Scipio quelled it with his usual promptitude and energy.\\nHe crushed the last remains of the insun-ection and to crown\\nhis other successes, Gades at last surrendered to the Romans.\\nMago had crossed over into Liguria, to effect a\\ndiversion in favour of his brother Hannibal, and of\\nthere was therefore now no longer any enemy left\\nin Spain.\\nScipio returned to Rome in 206 B.C., and immediately offered\\nhimself as a candidate for the consulship. He was elected for\\nthe foflowing year (205 B.C.) by the votes of the centuries,\\nalthough he had not yet filled the office of praetor, and was only\\nthirty years of age. His colleague was P. Licinius Crassus, the\\nPontifex Maximus, who could not, by the rules of his order,\\nleave Italy. Consequently, if the war was to be carried on\\nabroad, the conduct of it must of necessity devolve upon Scipio.\\nThe latter was anxious to land at once in Africa, and bring the\\ncontest to an end at the gates of Carthage but the older\\nmembers of the senate opposed the project, partly through\\ntimidity and partly through jealousy of the youthful conqueror.\\nAfl that Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with\\npermission to invade Africa if he should think it for the advantage", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "124 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIV.\\nof the Kepublic but the senate resolutely refused him an army,\\nthus making the permission of no practical use. The allies had\\na truer view of the interests of Italy than the\\nipi m Roman senate from all the Italian towns volun-\\nteers flocked to join the standard of the youthful\\nhero. The senate could not refuse to allow him to enlist these\\nvolunteers and such was the enthusiasm in his favour that\\nhe was able to cross over to Sicily with an array and a fleet,\\ncontrary to the expectations and even the wishes of the senate.\\nWhile busy with preparations in Sicily, he sent over Laelius\\nto Africa with a small fleet to concert a plan of co-operation\\nwith Masinissa. But meantime his enemies at Rome had nearly\\nsucceeded in depriving him of his command. Although he had\\nno authority in Lower Italy, he had assisted in the reduction of\\nLocri, and after the conquest of the town had left Q. Pleminius\\nin command. The latter had been guilty of such excesses\\nagainst the inhabitants, that they sent an embassy to Rome to\\ncomplain of his conduct. Q. Fabius Maximus eagerly availed\\nhimself of the opportunity to inveigh in general against the\\nconduct of Scipio, and to urge his immediate recall. Scipio s\\nmagnificent style of living, and his love for Greek literature and\\nart, were denounced by his enemies as dangerous innovations\\nupon old Roman manners and frugality. It was asserted that\\nthe time which ought to be given to the exercise and the train-\\ning of his troops was wasted in the Greek gymnasia or in literary\\npursuits. Though the senate lent a willing ear to these attacks,\\nthey did not venture upon his immediate recall, but sent a com-\\nmission into Sicily to inquire into the state of the army. During\\nthe winter Scipio had been busy in completing his preparations\\nand by this time he had collected all his stores, and brought his\\narmy and navy into the most efficient state. The commissioners\\nwere astonished at what they saw. Instead of ordering him to\\nreturn to Rome, they bade him cross over to Africa as soon as\\npossible.\\nAccordingly, in 204 B.C., Scipio, who was now proconsul, sailed\\nfrom Lilybaeum and landed in Africa, not far\\nScipio s cam- f^^^ Utica. He was immediately joined by Masi-\\nDftiffu in.\\nAMca. nissa, who rendered him the most important\\nservices in the war. He commenced the cam-\\npaign by laying siege to Utica, and took up his quarters on a", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIV.] SCIPIO IN AFRICA. 125\\nprojecting headland to the east of the town, on a spot which long\\nbore the name of the Cornelian Camp. Meantime the Cartha-\\nginians had collected a powerful army, which they placed under\\nthe command of Hasdrubal son of Gisgo, Scipio s old opponent\\nin Spain and Syphax came to their assistance with a great\\nforce.\\nIn the beginning of 203 B.C. Scipio planned a night attack\\nupon the two camps occupied by Hasdrubal and Syphax. With\\nthe assistance of Masinissa, his enterprise was crowned with\\nsuccess the two camps were burnt to the ground, and only a\\nfew of the enemy escaped the fire and the sword. Among these,\\nhowever, were both Hasdrubal and Syphax the former fled to\\nCarthage, where he persuaded the senate to raise another army,\\nand the latter retreated to his native dominions, where he like-\\nwise collected fresh troops. But their united forces were again\\ndefeated by Scipio. Hasdrubal did not venture to make his\\nappearance again in Carthage and Syphax once more fled into\\nNumidia. Scipio did not give the Numidian prince any repose\\nhe was pursued by Laelius and Masinissa, and finally taken\\nprisoner. Among the captives who fell into their hands was\\nSophonisba, the wife of Syphax, whom Masinissa had long loved,\\nand had expected to marry when she was given to his rival.\\nMasinissa now not only promised to preserve her from captivity,\\nbut, to prevent her falling into the hands of the Eomans, deter-\\nmined to marry her himself. Their nuptials were accordingly\\ncelebrated without delay, but Scipio, fearful of the influence\\nwhich she might exercise over his ally, sternly upbraided him\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with his weakness, and insisted on the immediate surrender of\\nthe princess. Unable to resist this command, Masinissa spared\\nher the humiliation of captivity by sending her a bowl of poison,\\nwhich she drank without hesitation, and thus put an end to her\\nown life.\\nThese repeated disasters so alarmed the Carthaginians that\\nthey resolved to recall Hannibal and Mago. Hannibal quitted\\nItaly in 203 b.c, to the great joy of the Romans.\\nFor more than fifteen years had he carried on\\nHannibal,\\nthe war m that country, laymg it waste from\\none extremity to another and during all this period his\\nsuperiority in the field had been uncontested. The Romans\\ncalculated that in these fifteen years their losses in the field", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "128 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIV.\\nalone had amounted to not less than 300,000 men a statement\\nwhich will hardly appear exaggerated when we consider the\\ncontinual combats in which they were engaged by their ever-\\nwatchful foe.\\nAs soon as Hannibal landed in Africa the hopes of the Cartha-\\nginians revived, and they looked forward to a favourable termi-\\nnation of the war. Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate\\nof the real state of affairs he saw that the loss of a battle would\\nbe the min of Carthage, and he was therefore anxious to con-\\nclude a peace before it was too late. Scipio, who was eager to\\nhave the glory of bringing the war to a close, and who feared\\nlest his enemies in the senate might appoint him a successor,\\nwas equall} desirous of a peace. But the war-party had now\\nthe ascendency at Carthage the terras proposed by Scipio,\\nthough moderate in themselves, were rejected and as Hannibal,\\nat a personal interview with the Eoman general, could not obtain\\nany abatement of the conditions, he was forced, against his will,\\nto continue the war. Into the details of the campaign, which\\nare related very differently, our hmits will not permit us to\\nenter.\\nThe decisive battle was at length fought on the 19th of\\nOctober, 202 B.C., on the Bagradas, not far from the city of\\nZama and Hannibal, according to the express\\nBattle or testimony of his antagonist, displayed on this occa-\\nsion all the qualities of a consummate general.\\nBut he was now particularly deficient in that formidable\\ncavalry which had so often decided the victorj^ in his favour\\nhis elephants, of which he had a great number, were ren-\\ndered unavailing by the skilful management of Scipio and\\nthe battle ended in his complete defeat, notwithstanding the\\nheroic exertions of his veteran infantry. Twenty thousand of\\nhis men fell on the field of battle, as many were made prisoners,\\nand Hannibal himself with difficulty escaped the pursuit of\\nMasinissa. Upon his arrival at Carthage he was the first to\\nadmit the magnitude of the disaster, and to point out the impos-\\nsibility of the further prosecution of the war. The terms, how-\\never, now imposed by Scipio were much more severe than\\nbefore. Carthage had no alternative but submission; but the\\nnegotiations were protracted for some time, and a final treaty\\nwas not concluded till the following year (201 B.C.). By this", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "Chap. XlV.]\\nPEACE WITH CARTilAGE.\\n127\\ntreaty it was agreed that the Carthaginians were to preserve\\ntheir independence and territory in Afrnja,, but to give up all\\nclaims to any foreign possessions that they\\nwere to surrender all prisoners and deserters, all S\\np6ac6i\\ntheir ships of war except ten triremes, and all\\ntheir elephants that they were not to make war in Africa or\\nout of Africa without the consent of Home that they were\\nto acknowledge Masinissa as king of Numidia; and that they\\nwere to pay 10,000 talents in silver in the course of fifty years.\\nSoldiers blowing Tubeaand Cornua (from Column of TKy aa).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "Coin of Antiochus the Great.\\nCHAPTER XV.\\nWARS m THE EAST. THE MACEDONIAK, SYRIAN AND GALATIAN\\nWARS. 214-188 B.C.\\nThe Second Pnnic War made the Romans undisputed masters\\nof the western shores of the Mediterranean. Sicily, Sardinia,\\nand Corsica were Roman provinces Spain owned\\np Wars Roman supremacy, and Carthage was com-\\npletely humbled. Rome s immediate object was\\nsecured, and here, had her own wishes been consulted, she might\\nhave paused but it is the fate of a conquering nation not to be\\nable to assign any precise limits to its power. The Roman\\nRepublic was now the most powerful state in the ancient world,\\nand, as such, was necessarily drawn into the vortex of Eastern\\npolitics.\\nThe Greek kingdoms in Asia, founded by the successors of\\nAlexander the Great, bore within them the seeds of decay. The\\nmighty kingdom of Syria, which had once ex-\\nof Asia^^ tended from the Indus to the Aegean Sea, had\\nnow lost some of its fairest provinces. The\\ngreater part of Asia Minor no longer owned the authority of the\\nSyrian kings. Pontus was governed by its own rulers. A\\nlarge body of Gauls, a portion of the migratory hordes which\\nhad burst on Greece and Asia in 280 B.C., had settled in the\\nnorthern part of Phrygia, which district was now called Galatia\\nafter them. A new kingdom was founded in Mysia, to which\\nthe name of Pergamus was given from its chief city and Attains,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "Chap. tV.] THE EASTERN POWERS. l2d\\nwho was king of Pergamus during the Second Punic War,\\nformed an alliance with Rome as a protection against Syria and\\nMacedonia. The king of Syria at this time was Antiochus III.,\\nwho, from his victory over the Parthians, had received the sur-\\nname of the Great.\\nEgypt was governed by the Greek monarchs, who bore the\\nname of Ptolemy. They had, even as early as the time of\\nPyrrhus, formed an alhance with Rome (see p. 81).\\nThe kingdom had since declined in power, and\\nupon the death of Ptolemy IV., surnamed Philopator, in 205 B.C.,\\nthe ministers of his infant son Ptolemy Epiphanes, dreading the\\nambitious designs of the Macedonian and Syrian kings, placed\\nhim under the protection of the Roman senate, who consented\\nto become his guardians.\\nThe Republic of Rhodes was the chief maritime power in\\nthe Aegean Sea. It extended its dominion over a portion of the\\nopposite coasts of Caria and Lycia, and over\\nseveral of the neighbouring islands. Like the\\nking of Pergamus, the Rhodians had formed an alliance with\\nRome as a protection against Macedonia.\\nMacedonia was still a powerful kingdom, governed at this time\\nby Philip V., a monarch of considerable ability, who ascended\\nthe throne in 220 B.C., at the early age of seven-\\nteen. His dominion extended over the greater ond oree^\\npart of Greece, but two new powers had sprung\\nup since the death of Alexandei-, which served as some counter-\\npoise to the Macedonian supremacy. Of these the most important\\nwas the Achaean League, which embraced the greater part\\nof the Peloponnesus. The Aetolian League included at this\\ntime a considerable portion of Central Greece. Athens and\\nSparta still retained their independence, but with scarcely a\\nshadow of their former greatness and power.\\nSuch was the state of the Eastern world when it came into con-\\ntact with the arms of Rome. The challenge came from Macedon.\\nWe have already seen that during the Second Punic War\\nPhilip had been engaged in hostilities with the Roman Republic.\\nDemetrius of Pharos, twice a traitor to his masters, t\u00c2\u00ab.\\nafter he had been driven by the Romans from the\\nman War.\\nIllyrian dominions which he had usurped, had\\ntaken refuge at the court of Philip, and soon acquired unbounded\\nK", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "130 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV.\\ninfluence over the mind of the young king. This wily Greek\\nurged him to take up arms against the grasping Repubhc and\\nthe ambition of Philip was still further excited by the victoriea\\nof Hannibal. After the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) he concluded\\na treaty with Hannibal but, instead of supporting the Cartha-\\nginian army and ileet, his proceedings were marked by an un-\\naccountable degree of hesitation and delay. It was not til!\\n214 B.C. that he appeared in the Adriatic with a fleet, and laid\\nsiege to Oricum and Apollonia, which the Romans had retained\\npossession of at the close of the Illyrian War.* He succeeded\\nin taking Oricum but the arrival of a small Roman force, under\\nthe command of M. Valerius Laevinus, compelled him to raise\\nthe siege of Apollonia, and to burn his own ships to prevent\\ntheir falling into the hands of the enemy. For the next three\\nyears the war was carried on with unaccountable slackness on\\nboth sides; but in 211 B.C. it assumed a new character after the\\nRomans had formed with the Aetolian league an alliance which\\ngave them their first footing in Greece. Into the details of the\\ncampaigns which followed it is unnecessary to enter; but the\\nattention of the Romans was soon afterwards directed to aSairs\\nin Spain, and the Aetolians were left almost alone to cope with\\nPhilip. The Achaeans also joined Philip against the Aetolians,\\nand the latter people were so hard pressed that they were glad\\nto make peace with the Macedonian king. Shortly afterwards\\nthe Romans, who were desirous of turning their undivided\\nattention to the invasion of Africa, also concluded peace with\\nhim (205 B.C.).\\nThe peace, which thus terminated the First Macedonian War,\\nwas probably regarded by both parties as little more than a\\nsuspension of hostihties. Philip even went so far\\nhostiUtie^^^^ Carthaginians in Africa a body\\nof 4000 men, who fought at Zama under the\\ncommand of Hannibal. At the same time, he proceeded to carry\\nout his plans for his own aggrandizement in Greece, without any\\nregard to the Roman alliances in that country. In order to\\nestablish his naval supremacy in the Aegean Sea, he attacked\\nthe Rhodians and Attalus king of Pergamus, both of whom were\\nallies of Rome. He had also previously made a treaty with\\nAntiochus, king of Syria, for the dismemberment of the Egyptian\\nSee p. 96.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "Chap. XV.] SECOiND MACEDONIAN WAR. 131\\nmonarchy, whicli was placed under the guardianship of the\\nRoman people.\\nIt was impossible for the senate to pass over these acts of\\nhostility, and accordingly, in the year after the conclusion of\\nthe Second Punic War, the Consul P. Sulpicius\\nGalba proposed to the Comitia of the Centuries j^^^^ w^\u00c2\u00b0^\\nthat war should be declared against Philip. But\\nthe people longed for repose, and rejected the proposition by\\nthe almost unanimous vote of every century. It was only by the\\nmost earnest remonstrance, and by alarming them with the\\npicture of Philip, like another Hannibal, invading Italy, that\\nthey were induced to reverse their decision and declare war\\n(200 B.C.).\\nPhilip was at this time engaged in the siege of Athens, which\\nhad joined Attains and the Rhodians. The Consul G-alba crossed\\nover to Epirus, and Athens was relieved by a Roman fleet but\\nbefore he withdrew, Philip, prompted by anger and revenge, dis-\\nplayed his barbarism by destroying the gardens and buildings\\nin the suburbs, including the Lyceum and the tombs of the Attic\\nheroes and in a second incursion which he made with large\\nreinforcements he committed still greater excesses. For some\\ntime, however, the war lingered on without any decided success\\non either side. The Consul Villius, who succeeded Galba in\\n199 B.C., effected nothing of importance and it was not till\\nthe appointment of the Consul T. Quinctius Flamininus to\\nthe command that the war was carried on with energy and\\nvigour (198 B.C.). He forced his way through the narrow\\npass of the Aous, which was occupied by the enemy, invaded\\nThessaly, and took up his winter quarters in Phocis and\\nLocris.\\nIn the following year (197 B.C.) the struggle was brought to\\na termination by the battle of Cynoscephalae (Dogs Heads), a\\nrange of hills near Scotussa, in Thessaly. The\\nRomans were at first in a dangerous position from nosceDhalae\\nwhich they were only saved by the excellent\\nAetolian cavalry but, when once the rigid lines of the Mace-\\ndonian phalanx had been broken, the slaughter was terrific\\n8000 Macedonians were killed and 5000 taken prisoners, while\\nFlamininus lost only 700 men. Philip was obliged to sue for\\npeace, and in the following year (196 B.C.) a treaty was ratified", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "132 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV.\\nby which the Macedonians were compelled to withdraw their\\ngarrisons from the Greek towns, to surrender their fleet, to\\npromise to conclude no foreign alliances without Rome s con-\\nBent, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the war, half\\nat once, and half by annual instalments in the course of ten\\nyears.\\nThe war left the cities of Greece at the mercy of Rome but\\nthe senate shrank from undertaking permanent responsibilities\\neven in Eastern Europe, and when at the ensuing\\nclared free Isthmian games Flamininus solemnly proclaimed\\nthe independence and freedom of Greece, this\\ndeclaration was an outcome of policy as well as of the phil-Hel-\\nlenic spirit of the Roman general, whom the throngs of Greeks\\nthat gathered round him hailed as their liberator.\\nFlamininus, who remained two years longer in the country,\\nseems to have been actuated by a sincere desire to restore the\\ninternal peace and welfare of Greece and whenever his actions\\nappear at variance with this object, he was under the influence\\nof the policy of the Republic. Thus, though he made war upon\\nNabis, the tyrant of Sparta, and deprived him of the southern\\nportion of Laconia, he did not depose him, but retained him as\\na useful check upon the Achaeans. When Flamininus returned\\nto Italy in 194 B.C., he withdrew the Roman garrisons from aU\\nthe Greek towns, even from Corinth, Chalcis, and Demetrias,\\nthe three strongest fortresses in the country, which were called\\nthe Fetters of Greece. On his departure he convoked an\\nassembly of the Greeks at Corinth, in which he exhorted them\\nto use their freedom wisely, and to remain faithful to Rome.\\nHe then returned, after an absence of five years, with a reputa-\\ntion second only to that of Scipio Africanus, and celebrated a\\nsplendid triumph.\\nIt has been already mentioned that Philip had formed an\\nalliance with Antiochus III., king of Syria, surnamed the Great,\\nfor the dismemberment of the Egyptian monarchy.\\nSvria During the war between Philip and the Romans,\\nAntiochus had occupied Asia Minor, and was pre-\\nparing to cross into Greece. Upon the conclusion of this war\\nFlamininus sternly forbade him to set foot in Europe, and for\\na time he shrank from a contest with the victorious arms of\\nRome. But the Aetolians, who had fought on the Roman side,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "Chap. XV.] WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS. 133\\nwere discontented with tlie arrangements of Flamininns. Their\\narrogance led them to claim the chief merit of the victory of\\nCynoscephalae, and their cupidity desired a larger share in the\\nspoils of the war. Flamininus had scarcely quitted Greece before\\nthe Aetolians endeavoured to persuade Philip, Nabis, and Antio-\\nchus to enter into a league against the Romans. Philip at once\\nrefused, but Nabis took up arms, and Antiochus willingly entered\\ninto the designs of the Aetolians. At this time Hannibal appeared\\nas an exile at the Syrian court. After the Second Punic War\\nhe had set himself to work, hke his father Hamilcar at the end\\nof the previous war, to prepare means for renewing the contest\\nat no distant period. One of these means was a reform in the\\nconstitution of Carthage to establish his power, he limited the\\nterm of office of the 104 to a year, and thus made the govern-\\nment more democratic but the oligarchs avenged themselves\\nby denouncing him to the Romans as engaged in negotiations\\nwith Antiochus to induce him to take up arms against Rome.\\nThe senate sent envoys to Carthage to inquire into these charges;\\nand Hannibal, seeing that his enemies were too strong for\\nhim, secretly took flight, and reached the Syrian court in\\nsafety.\\nHe was received with the highest honours, and urged the king\\nto place an army at his disposal with which he might invade\\nItaly. But Antiochus was persuaded by the\\nAetolians to cross over into Greece, and landed Antiochus\\nat Demetrias in Thessaly in 192 b.c. The Romans q\u00c2\u00b0^^^q\\nnow declared war, and in the following year\\n(191 B.C.) the Consul Acilius Glabrio marched into Thessaly,\\nThe king had entrenched himself in the passes of Thermopylae,\\nthat he might prevent the Romans from penetrating into Central\\nGreece. But there was, as is well known, a difficult passage\\nacross Mount Oeta, by which the Persians had descended to fight\\nwith Leonidas.\\nThis passage was now forced by M. Cato, who was serving as\\none of the consul s lieutenants, and, as soon as he appeared in\\nthe rear of the Syrian army, they fled in confusion, -a- f\\nand the battle was won. Antiochus now hastened\\nback to Asia, abandoning all further hopes of conquest in Greece.\\nAs soon as he had placed the sea between himself and the\\nRomans, he thought that he was safe but Hannibal warned him", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "134 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV,\\nof his error, and said that he wondered that the Eomans had\\nnot already followed him.\\nNext year (190 b.c.) L. Cornelius Scipio, the brother of the\\ngreat Africanus, and C Laolius, the intimate friend of the latter,\\nwere consuls. L. Scipio was anxious to have the\\nEoman inya- command of the war against Antiochus but the\\nsenate had not much confidence in his abihty, and\\nit was only in consequence of his brother Africanus offering\\nto serve under him as Ms lieutenant that he obtained the com-\\nmand which he desired.\\nMeantime Antiochus had collected a vast army from all\\nparts of his dominions, and, advancing northwards from Ephesus,\\nlaid waste the kingdom of Pergamus. But upon\\nBattle of .jj^g approach of the Roman army, which entered\\nAsia by crossing the Hellespont, Antiochus re-\\ntreated southvi/ards and the decisive battle was fought near\\nMagnesia at the foot of Mount Sipylus. The Romans obtained\\nan easy and bloodless victory over the vast but disorderly\\nrabble of the Syrian monarch. Only 400 Romans fell, while\\nAntiochus lost 53,000 men. He at once gave up the contest\\nin despair, and humbly sued for peace. Rome left him his\\nkingdom of Syria, but forced him to abandon all claim to the\\nterritories west of Mount Taurus with the exception of Cihcia\\n(that is, nearly the whole of Asia Minor) he had besides to\\npay 15,000 Euboic talents within twelve years, to give up his\\nelephants and ships of war, and to surrender to the Romans\\nHannibal and some others who had taken refuge at his court.\\nHannibal foresaw his danger, and made his escape to Crete,\\nfrom whence he afterwards repaired to the court of Prusias,\\nking of Bithynia.\\nL. Scipio returned to Rome in the following year, bringing\\nwith him enormous treasures. In imitation of his brother, he\\nassumed the surname of Asiaticds.\\nThe Romans were now at leisure to punish the Aetolians,\\nwho had to make head against the Romans by themselves. The\\nconsul M. Fulvius Nobilior (189 B.C.) took their\\n-.u ^a \u00c2\u00b0v most important town, Ambracia, after an obstinate\\nthe Aetohans. u a 4.u e\\nresistance, and compelled them to sue lor peace.\\nThis was granted, but on the most humiliating conditions.\\nThey were required to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "Chap. XV,] ORGANIZATION OF ASIA. 135\\nto renounce all the conquests they had recently made, to pay\\nan indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in future to aid the\\nRomans in their wars. The power of the Aetolian league was\\nthus for ever crushed, though it seems to have existed, in name\\nat least, till a much later period.\\nThe colleague of M. Fulvius Nobilior was Cn. Manlius Volso,\\nwho had received command in Asia that he might conclude the\\npeace which had been made with Antiochus, and\\narrange the affairs of the surrendered territories. Jt i^o^^s over\\nBut Manlius was not content with the subordinate\\npart allotted to him and being anxious for booty as much as\\nfor glory, he attacked the Galatians in Asia Minor, without\\nwaiting for any instructions from the senate, and in direct\\nopposition to the ten commissioners who had been sent to assist\\nhim in the work of organization. This was the first instance in\\nwhich a Roman general had made war without the autliority\\nof the senate or the people a dangerous precedent, which was\\nafterwards only too faithfully followed. The Galatians or\\nGallograeci were a body of Gauls, who, after laying waste a\\ngreat part of Asia Minor, had, as we saw, settled in the north of\\nPhrygia, and had there acquired a semi-Greek culture. The assist-\\nance which they had given, as mercenary troops, to Antiochus\\nat Magnesia supplied Manlius with a pretext for marching\\nagainst them. He defeated them in two battles, and compelled\\nthem to sue for peace. The campaign greatly enriched Manlius\\nand his legions, as the Gauls had accumulated enormous wealth\\nby their many conquests.\\nManlius remained another year (188 B.C.) in the East as pro-\\nconsul, and, in conjunction with the ten commissioners, foimally\\nconcluded the peace with Antiochus, and settled\\nthe affairs of Asia. Here, as in Greece, Eome Q^YSa^^^^^\\nsteadily refused to acquire territory for herself;\\nthe principle adopted was that which we now call the balance\\nof power, two existing governments being strengthened to\\ncheck the ambition of the Syrian king. Eumenes, the king\\nof Pergamus, received the Chersonnese, Mysia, Lydia, and part\\nof Caria, and the Rhodians obtained the remaining portion of\\nCaria, together with Lycia and Pisidia. Manlius returned to\\nRome in 187 B.C., and celebrated a magnificent triumph. But\\nhis soldiers, like those of Scipio, had been touched by the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "136\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XV.\\ncorrupting influence of the East, These campaigns, as we shall\\npresently see, exercised a most injurious influence upon the\\ncharacter of the Koman nobles and people, teaching them to\\nlove war for the sake of acquiring wealth, and prompting them\\nto acts of robbery and rapine.\\nDying Galatian (so-callpd dying gladiator). From the Original\\nin the Museum of tlie Capitol.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "Roman Soldiers (from Column of Trajan).\\nCHAPTER XVI.\\nWAKS IN THE WEST. THE GALLIC, LIGURIAN, AND SPANISH\\nWARS. 200-175 B.C.\\nWhile the Roman legions in the East were acquiring wealth\\nand winning easy conquests, their less fortunate comrades in the\\nWest were carrying on a severe struggle with the warlike Gauls,\\nLigurians, and Spaniards. The Romans had hardly concluded\\nthe Second Punic War when they received intelligence that\\nHarailcar, a Carthaginian officer, had excited several tribes in\\nNorthern Italy to take up arms against Rome. These were the\\nGauls on both sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of hardj\\nmountaineers, inhabiting the upper Apennines and the Maritime\\nAlps.* The Gauls commenced the war in 200 B.C. by the\\nSee p. 3.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "138 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVI.\\ncapture and destruction of the Roman colony of Placentia, and\\nby laying siege to that of Cremona, the two strongholds of the\\nRoman dominion in Northern Italy.\\nThe Romans now set themselves to work, with the charac-\\nteristic stubbornness of their nation, to reduce these tribes to a\\nthorough subjection. The Insubres and the Ceno-\\nof tlT^Gauls D^^ ^ij to the north of the Po, were the first to\\nyield but the Boii resisted for some years all the\\nefforts of the Romans, and it was not till 191 B.C. that the Consul\\nP. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their final submission. His\\nprogress through their territory was a pitiless slaughter, and he\\nmade it one of the claims of his triumph that he had left only\\nchildren and old men alive.\\nThis warlike people was now thoroughly subdued, and from\\nhenceforth Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province, and\\ngradually adopted the language and customs of\\nOrganization Rome. The submission of the people was secured\\nGaul ^y foundation of new colonies and the forma-\\ntion of military roads. In 189 B.C. a colony was\\nestablished at Bononia, now Bologna, in the country of the Boii,\\nand six years afterwards others were also founded at Mutina\\n(Modena) and Parma. A military road made by M. Aemilius\\nLepidus, consul for 180 B.C., and called the Via Aemilia, was a\\ncontinuation of t^jio Via Flaminia, and ran from Ariminum past\\nBononia, Mutma, and Parma to Placentia.\\nThe subjugation of the Ligurians was a longer and more\\ndifficult task. These hardy mountaineers continued the war,\\nwith intermissiuus, for a period of eighty years.\\nThe Romans, after penetrating into the heart of\\nLiguria, were seldom able to effect more than the temporary\\ndispersal of the tribes, which took refuge in their villages and\\ncastles the latter being mountain-fastnesses, in which they\\nwere generally able to defy their pursuers. Into the details\\nof these long-protracted and inglorious hostilities it is unneces-\\nsary to enter but the result of these northern wars was of great\\nimportance. Roman influence and Italian civilization were\\nfirmly established up to the Po, which now practically replaced\\nthe Apennines as the boundary of Italy, while the subjection of\\nthe Transpadane Gauls closed the gates of the Alps to further\\nCeltic immigrants.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVl] THE SPANISH PEOVlNCES. 139\\nThe conquests of Scipio Africanus had driven the Cartha-\\nginians out of Spain, and established the Roman supremacy in\\nthat country. Accordingly, soon after the end m,\\nof the Second Punic War (about 197 B.C.), the\\nEomans proceeded to consolidate their dominion\\nin Spain by dividing it into two provinces, each governed by a\\npraetor, which were called Hispania Citerior, or Hither Spain,\\nand Hispania Ulterior, or Further Spain, and divided from each\\nother by the Iberus, or Ebro. But it was little more than the\\neastern part of the peninsula that was really subject to Rome.\\nThe powerful tribes of the Celtiberians in Central Spain, the\\nLusitanians in Portugal, and the Cantabrians and Gallaecians in\\nthe north-west, still maintained their independence. Rome had\\nnow for the first time to establish a permanent garrison in a\\ndependency across the sea for, in order to secure a semblance\\nof tranquillity in Spain, four legions had to be kept in the country.\\nThus originated the principle of taxing a nation to defray the\\nexpenses of its military occupation. A direct tax was imposed\\non Spain, paid partly in money and partly in kind. The division\\nof the country into two provinces, and the army of occupation,\\nshowed that the Romans intended to hold Spain permanently,\\nand this conviction occasioned a general insurrection in both the\\nprovinces.\\nThe Consul M. Porcius Cato, of whom we shall speak more\\nfully presently, was sent to put down this rebellion (195 B.C.).\\nThe whole country was in arms but his military\\ngenius and indefatigable industrv soon re-estab- Jr r.\\nf i. T-. TT 1 1 t^\u00c2\u00ae Spanish\\niisned the superiority ox Rome. He gained several insurrection\\ndecisive victories, contrived to set tribe against\\ntribe, and took native mei cenaries into his pay. The details of\\nhis campaign are full of horrors. We read of the wholesale\\nslaughter of men who had laid down their arms, of multitudes\\nsold as slaves, and of many more who put themselves to death\\nto escape this fate. Cato was not the man to feel any compunc-\\ntions of conscience in the performance of what he considered a\\nrigorous public task. He boasted of having destroyed more\\ntowns in Spain than he had spent days in that country. When\\nhe had reduced the whole of Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen,\\nand temporary submission, he returned to Rome, and was re-\\nwarded with a triumph.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "140\\nHISTORY OF HOME.\\n[Chap. XVI.\\nThe severe measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards.\\nThey again took up arms, and continued to resist the Eoman\\npraetors for the next sixteen years, till Tib. Sem-\\nPacification pronius Gracchus, the father of the celebrated\\nGracchus tribunes, after gaining several brilliant victories\\nover the Celtiberians, granted them an honourable\\npeace. He gave equitable charters to the conquered tribes,\\nwhile he tried to secure the interest of the Spanish chiefs by\\nattaching them to the Roman military service, and to check the\\nroving habits of the people by the founding of towns. By his\\nwise measures and conciliatory conduct he won the affections of\\nthe natives, and induced them to regard the Eoman supremacy\\nwith greater patience (179 B.C.).\\nTwo petty wars in the West then engaged for a time the\\nattention of Rome. The Sardinians and Corsicans revolted, and\\nheld out for two years against the conqueror of\\nI^trS Wars ^P^^ (177-175 B.C.). But Gracchus effected their\\ncomplete subjugation, and brought to Rome so\\nlarge a number of captives for sale as to give rise to the proverb\\nSardi venales for anything that was cheap and worthless.\\nThe Istrians, near the head of the Adriatic Gulf, had been\\nconquered by the Romans just before the Second Punic War.\\nBut their complete subjugation was now necessary, on account\\nof their proximity to the newly-formed province of Cisalpine\\nGanl. Accordingly the consuls invaded Istria in 178 B.C., and\\nin the following year the whole people was reduced to sub-\\nmission.\\nA Roman genpral addressing his soldiers.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "Lictors.\\nCHAPTER XVII.\\nTHE ROMAN CONSTITUTION AND ARMT.\\nThe career of foreign conquest upon which the Rey)ubh c had\\nnow entered continued with httle or no interruption till the\\nestablishment of the Empire. We may here pause to take a\\nbrief survey of the form of government, as well as of the\\nmilitary organization by which these conquests were effected.\\nThe earlier history of the Eoman constitution has been already\\nrelated. We have seen how, after a long struggle, the plebeians\\nacquired more than political equality with the\\npatricians. In the Second Punic War the orders\\nantagonism between the two orders had almost\\ndisappeared, and the only mark of separation between them in\\npolitical matters which was of material importance was the\\nregulation, that, of the two consuls and two censors one must\\nbe a plebeian. The other patrician privileges were merely formal.\\nThe fictitious ratification of laws passed by the Comitia the\\nso-called patrum auctoritas was in the hands of the patrician\\nmembers of the senate it was they, too, who appointed the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "142 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII.\\ninterrex, who must himself be a patrician while certain priestly\\noffices of no political importance those of the Eex Sacrorum\\nand the three great Flamines were closed to the plebeians.\\nI. The Magistrates. Every Roman citizen who aspired to\\nthe consulship had to pass through a regular gi adation of public\\noffices, and the earliest age at which he could\\ntrates become a candidate for them was fixed by a law\\npassed in 179 b.c, and known by the name of the\\nLex Annalis. The earliest age for the quaestorship, which was\\nthe first of these magistracies, was 28 years for the aedileship,\\n37 for the praetorship, 40 and for the consulship, 43.\\nAll magistrates at Rome were divided into curules and those\\nwho were not curules. The Curule Magistrates were so called\\nbecause they had the right of sitting upon the Sella Ourulis,\\noriginally an emblem of kingly power, imported, along with other\\ninsignia of royalty, from Etruria. They were either (i.) ordinary\\nmagistrates, e.g. consuls, praetors, and curule aediles; or (ii.)\\nextraordinary, e.g. the dictator, the magister equitum, and the\\ninterrex.\\n1. The quaestors were the paymasters of the state. It was\\ntheir duty to receive the revenues, and to make all the necessary\\npayments for the military and civil services.\\nThere were originally only two quaestors, but\\ntheir number was constantly increased with the conquests of the\\nRepublic. Besides two quaestors who always remained at Rome\\nin charge of the treasury, every consul, praetor, or pro-magistrate\\nwho conducted a war or governed a province was attended by\\none of these officials.\\n2. The aedileship was originally a plebeian office, instituted\\nat the same time as the tribunate of the plebs.* To the two\\nplebeian aediles two curule aediles were added in\\n365 B.C. The four aediles in common had the\\ncharge of the public buildings,t the care of the cleansing and\\ndraining of the city, and the superintendence of the police.\\nThey had also the regulation of the public festivals and the\\ncelebration of the Lndi Magni, or Great Games, was their especial\\nfunction. Originally they received a sum of money from the\\nstate to defray the expenses of these games, but this grant was\\nwithdrawn about the time of the First Punic War a measure\\nSee p. 38. t Hence their name, from aedes, a temple.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVII.] THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 143\\nattended with important consequences, since the higher magis-\\ntracies were thus confined to the wealthy, who alone could defray\\nthe charges of these costly entertainments. After the Mace-\\ndonian and Syrian wars the curule aediles often incurred a\\nprodigious expense with the view of pleasing the people, and\\nsecuring their votes in future elections.\\nNext come the magistrates with imperium the praetors and\\nconsuls.\\n3. The institution of the praeforship in 366 B.C. has been\\nalready narrated. It was an office modelled closely on the\\nconsulship the praetor had the imperium, with _\\nthe attendant powers of summoning the senate and\\npeople, jurisdiction and military command and he was attended\\nby six lictors. There was originally only one praetor, subse-\\nquently called Praetor Urbanus, whose chief duty was the\\nadministration of civil justice. In 246 b.c. a second praetor was\\nadded, who had to decide cases in which foreigners were con-\\ncerned, and who was hence called Praetor Peregrinus. When\\nthe territories of the state extended beyond Italy, new praetors\\nwere created to govern the provinces. Two praetors were\\nappointed to take the administration of Sicilj and Sardinia\\n(227 B.C.), and two more were added when the two Spanish\\nprovinces were formed (197 B.C.). There were thus six praetors,\\ntwo of whom stayed in the city while the other four went abroad.\\n4. The consuls were the highest ordinary magistrates at Rome,\\nand were at the head both of the state and the army. They\\nconvoked the senate and the assemblies of the\\ncenturies and of the tribes they presided in each,\\nand had to see that the resolutions of the senate and the people\\nwere carried into effect. They had the supreme command of\\nthe armies in virtue of the imperium conferred upon them by\\na special vote of the people. At the head of the army, they\\nhad full power of life and death over their soldiers. They were\\npreceded by twelve lictors, but this outward sign of power was\\nenjoyed by them month by month in turn.\\nThe magistrates above mentioned were elected annually, but\\nit was usual to prolong the command of the consuls or praetors\\nin the provinces under the titles of proconsuls or propraetors.\\nIn the later times of the Republic it was customary for both\\nconsuls and several praetors to remain at Rome during their", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "144 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. ^Vlt.\\nyear of office, and at its close to take the command of provinces,\\nwith the titles of proconsuls or propraetors.\\n5. The dictatorship, which occurs so often in the early history\\nof the Republic, disappears altogether after the Second Punic\\nWar. As the Ilepublic became powerful, and had\\nDictator. longer to dread any enemies in Italy, there\\nwas no necessity for such an extraordinary magistracy as the\\ndictatorship, but whenever internal dangers seemed to require a\\nstronger executive, the senate, with doubtful legality, invested the\\nconsuls with dictatorial power.*\\n6. The censors were two in number, elected every five years,\\nbut holding their office for only eighteen months. The censorship\\nwas the crown of a political career, as the office\\nensors. usually held by an ex-consul. The duties of\\nthe censors, which were very extensive and very important, may\\nbe divided into three classes, all of which, however, were closely\\nconnected.\\n(a) Their first and most important duty was to take the census.\\nThis was not simply a list of the population, according to the\\nmodern use of the word, but a valuation of the property of every\\nEoman citizen. This valuation was necessary, not only for the\\nassessment of the property-tax, but also for determining the\\nposition of every citizen in the state, which was regulated, in\\naccordance with the constitution of Servius Tullins, by the\\namount of his property. Accordingly, the censors had to draw\\nup lists of the classes and centuries. They also made out the\\nlists of the senators and equites, striking out the names of all\\nwhom they deemed unworthy, and filling up all vacancies in both\\norders.\\nThe censors possessed a general control over the conduct\\nand morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this important\\npower they were not guided hj any rules of law, but simply by\\ntheir own sense of duty. They punished acts of private as well\\nas public immorality, and visited with their censure, not ovAy\\noffences against the laws, but everything opposed to the old\\nRoman character and habits, such as living in celibacy, extrava-\\ngance, luxury, etc. They had the power of degrading every\\ncitizen to a lower rank, of expelling senators from the senate,\\nThis was done by the well-known formula, Videant, or Dent operam\\nConsules, ne quid res publica detrimenti capiat.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVI].] THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION. 145\\nof depriving the equites of their horses, and of removing\\nordinary citizens from their tribes, and thus excluding them from\\nall political rights.\\n(c) The censors also had the administration of the finances of\\nthe state, under the direction of the senate. They let out the\\ntaxes to the highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five\\nyears.* They likewise received from the senate certain sums\\nof money to keep the public buildings, roads, and aqueducts in\\nrepair,! to construct nev? public works in Eome and other\\nparts of Italy. Hence we find that many of the great public\\nroads, such as the Via Appia and Via Flaminia, were made by\\ncensors.\\nII. The Senate. The senate, originally a mere advising body,\\nhad by this time become the real executive government of Rome,\\nand the magistrates, of whom we have been speak-\\ning, were only its ministers. This was the result\\nof the inherent weakness of the Roman constitution the com-\\nplete dependence of the comitia on a number of magistrates\\nwith clashing authority, which rendered popular government\\nimpossible. The growth of the senate s power was assisted by\\nthe long wars, in which it proved itself the most capable\\nadministrative authority, and its influence was strengthened by\\nthe mode in which its members were appointed. The senate\\nconsisted of 300 members, who held the dignity for life unless\\nexpelled by the censors for reasons already mentioned, but who\\ncould not transmit the honour to their sons. All vacancies in\\nthe body were filled up by the censors every five years, as a rule\\nfrom those who had held the qiiaestorship or any higher magis-\\ntracy, only in exceptional cases from nominees of their own\\nand, as the censors were thus practically confined in their selec-\\ntion to those who had already received the confidence of the\\npeople, the great majority of those who entered the senate\\nalready possessed considerable knowledge of political affairs.\\nThe power of the senate was very great. It exercised a\\ncontrol over legislation, since custom dictated that no law should\\nbe proposed to the assemblies of the people unless it had first\\nThese farmers of the public revenues were called publicani.\\nt It is not easy to defioe with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and\\naedlles in relation to tlie public buildings but it may be stated in general that\\nthe superintendence of the aediles was more in the way of police, while that of\\nthe censors had reference to all financial matters.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "146 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XV11.\\nreceived the approval of the senate. In many cases Senatus\\nConsulta came to usurp the place of laws, and there vs^ere some\\nspheres of administration in which the senate s right to decide\\nwithout reference to the people was unquestioned. This was\\nespecially the case in matters affecting finance, the provinces,\\nand all foreign relations. It had usurped the direction of finance\\nat an early period, and the quaestors were entirely under its\\ncontrol. The senate assigned the provinces into which the\\nconsuls and praetors were to be sent, it prolonged the command\\nof a general or superseded him at its pleasure, and on his return\\nit granted or refused him a triumph. It determined the manner\\nin which a war was to be conducted, and the number of troops\\nto be levied it alone carried on negotiations with foreign states,\\nand all ambassadors were appointed from its own body.\\nIII. The Popular Assemblies. 1. The Comitia Ouriatd\\nhad become a mere form as early as the First Punic War. The\\ngradual decline of its power has been already\\nComuia traced. It continued to meet for the transaction\\nof certain matters, such as the ratification of the\\nimperium, but was represented simply by thirty Hctors.\\n2, The constitution of the Comitia Oenturiata, as estabhshed\\nby Servius Tullius,t had undergone a great change between the\\ntime of the Licinian Rogations and the Punic\\nOenturiata Wars, the object of which appears to have been\\nto give more power and influence to the popular\\nelement in the state. For this purpose the thirty-five tribes\\nwere taken as the basis of the new constitution of the centuries.\\nEach tribe was divided into five property classes, and each classis\\nwas subdivided into two centuries, one of seniores and the other\\nof jnniores. Each tribe would thus contain ten centuries, and\\nconsequently the thirty-five tribes would have 350 centuries, so\\nthat, with the eighteen centuries of the knights, and five centuries\\nof smiths, horn-blowers, and capite censi,X the total number of\\nthe centuries would be 373.\\nThe Comitia of the Centuries still retained the election of the\\nmagistrates with imperium, the power of declaring war and\\nmaking peace, and also the highest judicial functions. Accusations\\nA Senatus consultum was so called because the consul or other presiding\\nmagistrate who brought a matter before the senate was said Senatum consulere.\\nt See p. 25. J See p. 24.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVll.] THE ROBIAN CONSTITUTION. 147,\\nfor treason were brought before the centuries, and appeals against\\ncapital sentences could be heard only by this body.*\\n3. The assembly of the plebs {concilium plehis tributim)\\nobtained its superior influence and power mainly through its\\ntribunes. The assembly of the whole people by\\ntribes {comitia trihuta populi), being summoned \u00e2\u0084\u00a2*^6 two as-\\nand presided over by consuls or praetors, was, like ^^j^g tribes\\nthat of the centuries, to a great extent an instru-\\nment in the hands of the senate. But the plebeian assembly,\\nbeing guided by its own magistrates, and representing the popular\\nelement, was frequently opposed to the senate, and took an\\nactive part in. the internal administration of the state. The\\nplebiscita of this assembly had the same force as the leges of the\\ntwo assemblies of the populus. There were thus two legal\\nsovereigns at Rome, the populus and the plebs, each independent\\nof the other but this dual control only strengthened the power\\nof the actual sovereign, the senate.\\nThe tribunate had changed its character since its original\\ninstitution, and, though it could still be held only by plebeians, it\\nhad practically become a magistracy of the state.\\nThe right of intercession possessed by the tribunes\\nwas extended to all matters thus they could prevent the consuls\\nfi-om summoning the senate, and from proposing laws to the\\nComitia of the People. As their persons were sacred, the senate\\ncould exercise no control over them, while they, on the contrary,\\ncould seize even a consul or a censor and throw him into prison.\\nBut this vast power really worked in the interest of the senate\\nfor out of the large college of ten tribunes it was certain that\\none at least could be found to put his veto upon the acts of his\\ncolleagues or other magistrates. It was, in fact, through the\\ntribunate that the senate was able to keep all the magistrates in\\ncheck.\\nIV. Finance. The ordinary expenditure of the Eoman state\\nwas not large. All the magistrates discharged their duties with-\\nout pay and the allied troops, which formed so\\nlarge a portion of a Eoman army, were maintained\\nby the allies themselves. The expenses of war were defrayed\\nby a property-tax called tributum, which was usually one in a\\nThe technical word for this appeal was provocatio. The word appellatio\\nsignified an appeal from one magistrate to another.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "148 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII.\\nthousand, or one-tenth per cent., but after the last war with\\nMacedonia the treasury received such large sums from the\\nprovinces that the tributum was abolished. From this time\\nthe expenses of the state were almost entirely defrayed by the\\ntaxes levied in the provinces. The other revenues of the state,\\nwhich bore the general name of vectigalia, were common to\\nItaly and the provinces. They consisted of the rents arising\\nfrom public lands, forests, mines, salt-works, etc., and of harbour\\ndues but no direct taxation, and no indirect tax on private\\nlands, was imposed on the Italian towns.\\nV. The PROvrscES. The provinces were territorial dis-\\ntricts placed under the command of magistrates with iin-\\nperium those where large military forces were\\nprovinces, j-gq^j^-g^ ^gj.g generally under proconsuls, the rest\\nunder propraetors. But it was the cities within the provinces\\nrather than the provinces themselves which were the units of\\ngovernment. Some of these cities were free and paid no\\ntribute, and these were entirely exempt from the governor s\\ncontrol. Far the greater part, however, paid tribute, either a\\ndirect tax (stipendium) paid generally in money, or a proportion\\nof their produce {vectigal), such as the tithes collected in Sicily,\\nSardinia, and afterwards in Asia. Over these tributary states\\nthe governor possessed full criminal and civil jurisdiction, and\\nin the winter months went on circuit, holding courts in the lead-\\ning cities of his province. The summer months were, in the\\ncase of mihtary provinces, usually spent in the camp. When\\nit is remembered that none of the restraints on the imperium\\nwhich existed at Eome such as the veto of a colleague, the\\nprovocatio to the people, or the control of the senate were to\\nbe found in the provinces, it is easy to understand the almost\\nregal position held by the governor, and the evil effects of such\\nuncontrolled power on the character of most of its possessors.\\nVI. The Army. The Roman army was originally called\\nlegio; and this name, which is coeval with the foundation of\\n_, Rome, continued down to the latest times. The\\nlegion was, therefore, not equivalent to what we\\ncall a regiment, inasmuch as it contained troops of all arms,\\ninfantry, cavalry, and, when military engines were eistensively\\nemployed, artillery also. The number of soldiers who, at\\ndifferent periods, were contained in a legion does not appear to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVII.] THE ROMAN ARMY. 149\\nhave been absolutely fixed, but to have varied within moderate\\nlimits. Originally the legion contained 3000 foot-soldiers, and\\nfrom the beginning of the Republic until the second year of the\\nSecond Punic War the i-egular number may be fixed at 400O\\nor 4200 infantry. From the latter period until the consulship\\nof Marius the ordinary number was from 5000 to 5200. For\\nsome centuries after Marius the numbers varied from 5000 to\\n6200, generally approaching to the higher limit. Amid all the\\nvariations with regard to the infantry, 300 horsemen formed\\nthe regular complement of the legion. The organisation of the\\nlegion differed at different periods.\\n1. First Period. Seruius Tullius. The legion of Servius is\\nso closely connected with the Comitia Centuriata that it has\\nalready been discussed,* and it is only necessary to state here\\nthat it was a phalanx equipped in- the Greek fashion, the front\\nranks being furnished with a complete suit of armour, their\\nweapons being long spears, and their chief defence the round\\nArgolic shield {dipens).\\n2. Second Period. The Great Latin War, 340 B.C.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The\\nlegion in 340 B.C. had almost entirely discarded the tactics of\\nthe phalanx. It was now drawn up in three lines. The\\nsoldiers of the first line, called Hastati, consisted of youths in\\nthe first bloom of manhood, distributed into fifteen companies\\nor maniples {manipuli), a moderate space being left between\\neach. The maniple contained sixty privates, two centurions\\n(centuriones), and a standard-bearer {vexillariua). The second\\nline, the Principes, was composed of men in the full vigour of\\nlife, divided, in like manner, into fifteen maniples, all heavily\\narmed. The two lines of the Hastati and Principes taken\\ntogether amounted to thirty maniple, and formed the Antepilani.\\nThe third line, the Triarii, composed of tried veterans, was also\\nin fifteen divisions, but each of these was triple, containing\\nthree maniples.\\n3. Third Period. During the Wars of the younger Scipio.\\nUnder ordinary cii cunistances four legions were levied yearly,\\ntwo being assigned to each consul. But a regular consular\\narmy no longer consisted of Roman legions only, for, as Italy\\nbecame gradually subjugated, the various states under the\\ndominion of Rome were bound to furnish a contingent, and the\\nSee p. 24.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "150 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII.\\nnumber of allies usually exceeded that of the citizens. They\\nwere, however, kept perfectly distinct, both in the camp and in\\nthe battle-field.\\nThe men belonging to each legion were separated into four\\ndivisions. 1. 1000 of the youngest and poorest were set apart\\nto form the Velites, the light-armed troops or skirmishers of\\nthe legion. 2. 1200 who came next in age (or who were of the\\nsame age with the preceding, but more wealthy) formed the\\nHastati. 3. 1200, consisting of those in the full vigour of\\nmanhood, formed the Principes. 4. 600 of the oldest and most\\nexperienced formed the Triarii. When the number of soldiers\\nin the legion exceeded 4000, the first three divisions were in-\\ncreased proportionally, but the number of the Triarii remained\\nalways the same.\\nAll three classes wore a metal helmet, a leathern shield and\\nbreastplate, and all bore the shoit two-edged Spanish sword.\\nBut the Hastati and Principes carried the light\\nArmour, and pjlum, which was hurled against the enemy, while\\nfiffhtinfi Triarii bore the long hasta, or thrusting-spear.\\nThe division into maniples was still continued,\\nthe advantage of this small tactical unit being that it encouraged\\nan individual mode of fighting suited to any emergencj^, and\\nthat, unlike the unwieldy phalanx, it could manoeu\\\\Te on\\nuneven ground. The battle opened with the advance of the\\nHastati, who hurled their pila at a distance of ten or twenty\\npaces from the enemy, and then charged with the sword. If\\nthis charge was not decisive, the Principes advanced, the\\nHastati retiring through the divisions between the maniples.\\nThe Triarii acted as a reserve, to be called out only in the last\\nresort.\\nThree hundred horse-soldiers were apportioned to each legion,\\ndivided into ten troops {turmae), out of which three ofScers\\nwere chosen named decuriones.\\nThe infantry furnished by the Socii was for the most part\\nequal in number to the Roman legions, the cavalry twice or\\nthrice as numerous, and botli were divided equally between\\nthe two consular armies. Eacli consul named twelve superior\\nofficers, Avho were termed Praefecti Sociorum, and corresponded\\nto the Legionary Tribunes.\\n4. Fourth Period. From, the times of the Qracchi until the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "Chat. XVII.] THE ROMAN ARMY. 151\\ndownfall of the Republic* After the times of the Gracchi\\nthe following changes in military affairs may be noticed In\\nthe first consulship of Marius the legions were thrown open to\\ncitizens of all grades, without distinction of fortune. The\\nlegionaries, when in battle-order, were no longer necessarily\\narranged in three lines, each consisting of ten maniples with\\nan open space between each maniple, but sometimes in two,\\nsometimes in three lines, each consisting of cohorts, with a\\nspace between each division. The number of the cohorts,\\nwhich now became the tactical units, was always ten, and, as\\nthe cohorts were always equal to one another, their strength\\nvaried with tlie strength of the legion. The younger soldiers\\nwere no longer placed in the front, but in reserve, the van\\nbeing composed of veterans. As a necessary result of the\\nabove arrangements, the distinction between Hastati, Principes,\\nand Triarii, ceased to exist, and the pilum was now made the\\ncommon weapon of the whole army, the hasta being abolished.\\nThe skirmishers, included under the general term Levis Armatura,\\nconsisted for the most part of foreign mercenaries possessing\\npeculiar skill in the use of some national weapon, such as the\\nBalearic slingers, the Cretan archers (sagittarii), and the\\nMoorish dartmen. When operations requiring great activity\\nwere undertaken, such as could not be performed by mere\\nskirmishers, detachments of legionaries were lightly equipped,\\nand marched without baggage, for these special services.! The\\ncavalry of the legion underwent a change in every respect\\nanalogous to that which took place with regard to the light-\\narmed troops. The Roman eqnites attached to the army were\\nvery few in number, and were chiefly employed as aides-de-\\ncamp, and on confidential missions. The bulk of the cavalry\\nconsisted of foreigners, and hence we find the legions and the\\ncavalry spoken of as completely distinct from each other.\\nAfter the termination of the Social War, when most of th\\ninhabitants of Italy became Eoman citizens, the ancient\\ndistinction between the Legionarii and the Socii disappeared,\\nand all who had served as Socii became incorporated with the\\nlegions.\\nWe anticipate the course of events in order to give under one view the\\nhistory of the Roman legion.\\nt Hence the frequent occurrence of such phrases as expediti, expediti milites,\\nexpeditae cohortes, and even expeditae legiones.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "152 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVII.\\nIn the course of the history the triumphs granted to victorious\\ngenerals have been frequently mentioned, and therefore a brief\\ndescription of them may appropriately close this\\nA Koman sketch of the Homan army. A triumph was a\\nsolemn procession, in which a victorious general\\nentered the city in a chariot drawn by four horses. He was\\npreceded by the captives and spoils taken in war, was followed\\nby his troops, and, after passing in state along the Via Sacra,\\nascended the Capitol to offer sacrifice in the Temple of Jupiter.\\nFrom the beginning of the Republic down to the extinction of\\nliberty, a triumph was recognized as the summit of military\\nglory, and was the cherished object of ambition to every Roman\\ngeneral. After any decisive battle had been won, or a province\\nsubdued by a series of successful operations, the general for-\\nwarded to the senate a laui el-wreathed despatch containing an\\naccount of his exploits. If the intelligence proved satisfactory,\\nthe senate decreed a public thanksgiving.* After the war was\\nconcluded, the general with his army repaired to Rome, or\\nordered his army to meet him there on a given day, but did\\nnot enter the city. A meeting of the senate was held without\\nthe walls, that he might have an opportunity of urging his\\npretensions in person, and these were then scrutinized and\\ndiscussed with the most jealous care. If the senate gave their\\nconsent, they voted a sum of money towards defraying the\\nnecessary expenses, and at the same time, if the general was a\\ncity magistrate such as a consul, recognized the full military\\nimperium, which ceased at the gates of Rome, as vested in\\nhim for the single day. If, on the other hand, the triumphing\\ngeneral was only a pro-magistrate, one of the tribunes applied\\nfor a plebiscitum to enable him to hold the imperium for the\\nsingle day; for such a commander possessed no imperium at\\nall within the walls, and a special enactment was in this case\\nnecessary to render the military pageant possible.\\nCalled supplicatio.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "Sclpio Africanus.\\nCHAPTER XVIII.\\nINTERNAL HISTOKY OF ROME DrRING THE MACEDONIAN AND\\nSYRIAN WARS. CATO AND SCIPIO.\\nThe conquests of the Romans in the East had exercised a most\\npernicious influence upon the national character. Tliey were\\noriginally a hardy, industrious, and religious race. Effects of\\ndistinguished by unbending integrity and love of Eastern con-\\norder. They lived with great frugality upon their quests on\\nsmall farms, which they cultivated with their ^o\u00e2\u0084\u00a2^\\nown hands. But they were stern and somewhat cruel and\\ncared little or nothing for literature and the arts. Upon such\\na people the sudden acquisition of wealth produced its natural\\neffects. They employed it in the gratification of their appetites,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "154 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIH.\\nand in coarse sensual pleasures. Some of the Roman nobles,\\nsuch as Scipio Africainis, Flamininus (the conqueror of Phili])),\\nand others, acquired a love for Greek literature and art. But\\nthe great mass of the nation imitated only the. vices of the\\nGreeks. Cooks, who had formerly been the cheapest kind of\\nslaves at Rome, now became the most valuable. A love of\\nluxury and a general depravity gradually spread through all\\nclasses of society.\\nA striking instance of the growing licentiousness of the times\\nwas brought to light in 186 B.C. It was discovered that the\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0o y, y worship of Bacchus had been introduced from\\nco^nspJacyr^ Southern Italy into Rome and other towns, and\\nthat secret societies were formed, which, under\\nthe cloak of this worship, indulged in the most abominable vices.\\nA stringent inquiry was made into these practices the most\\nguilty were put to death and a decree of the senate was\\npassed, forbidding the worship of Bacchus in Rome and through-\\nout Italy.\\nThe increasing love of gladiatorial combats, the gratification\\nof which was now rendered possible by the new wealth of the\\nstate, was an indication of the gloomier side of\\nCHadiatonal Roman character. These cruel sports are said\\nto have taken their origin from the Etruscans,\\nwho were accustomed to kill slaves and captives at the funerals\\nof their relatives. They were first exhibited at Rome in the\\nbeginning of the First Punic War (264 B.C.). At first confined\\nto funerals, they were afterwards exhibited by the aediles at\\nthe public games, with the view of pleasing the people. The\\npassion for this brutalizing amusement rose to a great height\\ntowards the end of the Republic and under the Empire. Great\\npains were taken with the training of gladiators, who were\\ndivided into different classes according to their arms and modes\\nof fighting.\\nAmong many other important consequences of these foreign\\nwars two which exercised an especial influence upon the future\\nfate of the Republic, were the rise of a new\\nEise of a new jiQijiij^y and the disappearance of the peasant\\nproprietors. The nobles became enormously\\nrich, and the peasant proprietors almost entirely disappeared.\\nThis new nobility rested largely on wealth, and was composed", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVIII.] EFJj ECTS OF THE LOJS^G WARS. 155\\nalike of plebeian and patrician families; but it soon became\\nhereditary. Every one whose ancestry had not held any of the\\ncurule magistracies was called a New Man, and was branded\\nas an upstart.f It became more and more difficult for a New\\nMan to rise to office and thus an aristocracy (hereditary but with-\\nout primogeniture) was found in the exclusive possession of the\\ngovernment. The wealth its members had acquired in foreign\\ncommands enabled them not only to incur a prodigious expense\\nin the celebration of the public games in their aedileship, with\\nthe view of gaining the votes of the people at future elections,\\nbut also to spend large suras of money in the actual purchase of\\nvotes. The first law against bribery J was passed in 181 B.C., a\\nsure proof of the growth of the practice.\\nThe decay of the peasant proprietors was an inevitable conse-\\nquence of these frequent and long-protracted wars. In the\\nearlier times the citizen soldier, after a few\\nweeks campaign, returned home to cultivate his ^.y of\\nland but this became impossible when wars nrietors\\nwere carried on out of Italy. Moreover, the\\nsoldier, easily obtaining abundance of booty, found life in the\\ncamp more pleasant than the cultivation of the ground. He\\nwas thus as ready to sell his land as the nobles were anxious to\\nbuy it. But money acquired by plunder is soon squandered.\\nThe soldier, returning to Rome, swelled the ranks of the poor,\\nand thus, while the nobles became richer and richer, the lower\\nclasses became poorer and poorer. In consequence of the\\ninstitution of slavery there was little or no demand for free\\nlabour and, as prisoners taken in war were sold as slaves, the\\nslave-market was always well suppHed. The estates of the\\nwealthy were cultivated by large gangs of slaves and even\\nthe mechanical arts which give employment to such large\\nnumbers in the modern towns of Europe, were practised in the\\nSee p. 142.\\nt Thp Nohiles were distinguislied from the Igndbiles. The outward distinction\\nof the former was the Jus Imaginuni These imagines were painted maslcs of\\nwax, representing the ancestors who had held any of the curule magistracies.\\nThey were placed on busts in cases in the atrium or reception-hall of the house,\\nand were carried in the funeral procession of a member of the family. Any one\\nwho first obtained a curule magistracy became the founder of the nobility of his\\nfamily. Such a person was himself neither a nobilis nor an ignohilis. He was\\ntermed a JVovus Homo, or a Nen Man.\\nI The Latin word for bribery is ambitus, literally canvassing. It must not be\\nconfounded with repet.undae, the offence of extortion or pecuniary corruption\\ncommitted by magisiratts in the provinces or at Rome.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "156 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIII.\\nmain by slaves or freedmen. The poor at Rome were thus\\nleft almost without resources; their votes in the popular\\nassembly were nearly the only thing they could turn into\\nmoney and it is therefore not surprising that they were ready\\nto sell them to the highest bidder.\\nMany distinguished men saw with deep regret the old Roman\\nvirtues disappearing, and strove vigorously against these corrup-\\n_ tions of the national character. Of this party the\\nmost conspicuous member was M. Porcius Cato,\\nwho set himself up as a type of the old Roman character. He\\nwas born at Tusculum in 234 B.C. When a young man the\\ndeath of his father put him in possession of a small hereditary\\nestate in the Sabine territory, at a distance from his native town.\\nIt was here that he had passed the greater part of his early\\nyouth, hardening his body by healthful exercise, and super-\\nintending and sharing the operations of the farm. Near his\\nestate was a humble cottage, which had been tenanted, after\\nthree triumphs, by its owner, M. Curius Dentatus, whose war-\\nlike exploits and simple character were often talked of with\\nadmiration in the neighbourhood. The ardour of the youthful\\nCato was kindled. He resolved to imitate the character, and\\nhoped to rival the glory, of Dentatus. Opportunity was not\\nwanting. He took his first nsiitary lessons in the campaigns\\nagainst Hannibal, and gained the favour and friendship of\\nFabius Maximus. He was also patronized by L. Valerius\\nFlaccus, a Roman noble in his neighbourhood, and a warm\\nsupporter of the old Roman manners, who had observed Cato s\\neloquence, as well as his martial spirit. Encouraged by Fabius\\nand Flaccus, Cato became a candidate for office, and was\\nelected quaestor in 204 B.C. He followed P. Scipio Africanus\\nto Sicily, but there was not that cordiality of co-operation\\nbetween Cato and Scipio which was supposed to subsist between\\na quaestor and his proconsul. Fabius had opf)Osed the per-\\nmission given to Scipio to carry the attack into the enemy s\\nhome, and Cato, whose appointment was intended to operate as\\na check upon Scipio, adopted the views of h s friend. Cato\\nwas praetor in Sardinia in 198 B.C., where he took the earliest\\nopportunity of illustrating his principles by his practice. He\\ndiminished official expenses, walked his circuits with a single\\nattendant, administered justice with strict impartiality, and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVIII.J CATO S CONSULSHIP. 157\\nrestrained usury with unsparing severity. He had now established\\na reputation for pure morality and strict old-fashioned virtue,\\nand was looked upon as the living type and representative of\\nthe ideal ancient Roman. To the advancement of such a man\\nopposition was vain. In 195 b.c. he was elected consul with\\nhis old friend and patron L. Valerius Flaccus.\\nDuring his consulship a strange scene took place peculiarly\\nillustrative of Roman manners. In 215 B.C., at the height of\\nthe Punic War, a law had been passed, proposed\\nby the Tribune Oppius, that no woman should J^^^q^ ^a^^^\\npossess more than half an ounce of gold, nor\\nwear a garment of divers colours, nor drive a carriage with\\nhorses within a mile of the city, except for the purpose of\\nattending the public celebration of religious rites. Now that\\nHannibal was conquered, and Rome abounded with Carthaginian\\nwealth, there appeared to be no longer any necessity for women\\nto contribute towards the exigencies of an impoverished treasury\\nthe savings spared from their ornaments and pleasures, and two\\ntribunes thought it time to propose the abolition of the Oppian\\nlaw; but they were opposed by two of their colleagues. The\\nmost important afifaii s of state excited far less interest and\\nzeal than this singular contest. The matrons blockaded every\\navenue to the forum, and intercepted their husbands as they\\napproached, beseeching them to restore the ancient ornaments of\\nthe Roman matrons. Even Flaccus wavered, but his colleague\\nCato was inexorable. Finallj the women carried the day.\\nWorn out by their importunity, the two tribunes withdrew\\ntheir opposition, and the hated law was abolished by the suffrage\\nof the tribes.\\nCato s campaign in Spain during his consulship, which added\\ngreatly to his military reputation, has been already related. He\\nafterwards served in Greece under M Glabrio, where he distin-\\nguished himself at the battle of Thermopylae fought against\\nAntiochus (191 B.C.).\\nThe victory of Zama had made P. Scipio Africanus the first\\nman in the Republic, and for a time silenced all his enemies.\\nThey might have remained silenced, had Scipio _\\nknown how to endure prosperity but his obvious\\nconsciousness of his superiority invited attack from his old\\nenemies, headed by Fabius, and supported by Cato. After the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "158 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIII.\\nreturn of P. Scipio and liis brother Lucius from the war against\\nAntiochus, they were charged with having been bribed to give\\nfavourable terms to the king, and of having appropriated to\\ntheir own use a portion of the money which had been paid by\\nAntiochus to the Roman state.\\nThe first blow was directed against Lucius. At the instiga-\\ntion of Cato, the two Petillii, Tribunes of the people, required\\nhim to render an account of all sums of money\\nAttack on tlie ^y^j^ j^g j^^d received from Antiochus. Lucius\\nprepared his accounts, but, as he was in the act\\nof delivering them up, his brother indignantly snatched them\\nfrom his hands, and tore them in pieces, saying it was un-\\nworthy to call to account for a few thousands a man who had\\npaid millions into the treasury. But this act of insolence\\nappears to have produced an unfavourable impression, and his\\nbrother, when brought to trial in the course of the same year,\\nwas declared guilty, and sentenced to pay a heavy fine. The\\ntribune ordered him to be dragged to prison, and there detained\\ntill security was furnished for the payment of the fine; where-\\nupon Africanus, still more enraged at this fresh insult to his\\nfamily, rescued his brother from the hands of the tribune s\\nofficer, and thus committed an act of treason. The contest\\nwould probably have been attended with fatal results had not\\nthe tribune, Tib. Gracchus, the father of the celebrated\\nreformer, had the prudence, although he disapproved of the\\nviolent conduct of Africanus, to release his brother Lucius from\\nthe sentence of imprisonment.\\nThe successful issue of the prosecution of Lucius emboldened\\nhis enemies to bring the great Africanus himself before the people.\\nHis accuser was the Tribune M. Naevius. When the trial came\\non, Scipio did not condescend to say a single word in refutation\\nof the charges that had been brought against him, but descanted\\nlong and eloquently upon the signal services he had rendered to\\nthe commonwealth. Having spoken till nightfall, the trial was\\nadjourned till the following day. Early next morning, when the\\ntribunes had taken their seats on the rostra, and Africanus was\\nsummoned, he contented himself with reminding the people that\\nthis was the anniversary of the day on which he had defeated\\nHannibal at Zama, and called upon them to neglect all disputes\\nand lawsuits, and follow him to the Capitol, there to return", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVllI.] DEATH OF SCIPIO AND HANNIBAL. 159\\nthanks to the immortal gods, and pray that they would grant the\\nRoman state other citizens like himself. Scipio struck a chord\\nwhich vibrated in every heart their veneration for the hero\\nreturned and he was followed by such crowds to the Capitol,\\nthat the tribunes were left alone in the rostra.\\nSatisfied with this triumph over the laws of his countrj^ Scipio\\nquitted Rome, and retired to his country-seat at Liternum. The\\ntribunes wished to renew the prosecution, but\\nGracchus wisely persuaded them to let it drop. t me\\nThere was no room in Rome for a man like Scipio\\nAfricanus he would neither submit to the laws nor aspire to the\\nsovereignty of the state and he therefore resolved to expatriate\\nhimself for ever. He passed his remaining days in the cultiva-\\ntion of his estate at Liternum and at his death is said to have\\nrequested that his body might be buried there, and not in his\\nungrateful country (183 B.C.).\\nHannibal perished in the same year as his great opponent.\\nScipio was the only member of the senate who opposed the\\nunworth)^ persecution which the Romans employed\\nagainst their once dreaded foe. Each of these\\ngreat men, possessing true nobility of soul, could\\nappreciate the other s merits. A story is told that Scipio was\\none of the ambassadors sent to Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose\\ncourt Hannibal was then residing, and that he there had an\\ninterview with the great Carthaginian, who half seriously\\ndeclared him the greatest general that ever lived. Scipio had\\nasked, Who was the greatest general Alexander the\\nGreat, was Hannibal s reply. Who was the second?\\nPyrrhus. Who the third? Myself, replied the Car-\\nthaginian. What would you have said then, if you had\\nconquered me asked Scipio in astonishment. I should\\nthen have placed myself above Alexander, Pyrrhus, and all\\nother generals.\\nAfter the defeat of Antiochus, Hannibal, as we have already\\nseen, took up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and there\\nfound for some years a secure asylum. But the Romans could\\nnot rest so long as their old enemy remained alive and T.\\nFlamininus was at length despatched to the court of Prusias\\nto demand the surrender of the fugitive. The Bithynian king\\nwas unable to resist; but Hannibal, who had long been in", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "160 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XVIII.\\nexpectation of such an event, took poison to avoid falling into\\nthe hands of his implacable foes.\\nThe censorship had always been the organ for the expression\\nof conservative opinion at Eome, and Cato s tenure of this oifice\\n(184 B.C.) marked an epoch in his life. Eeckless\\nCato s censor- ^j^^ enemies he was making, he applied himself\\nstrenuous.y to reform. He repaired the water-\\ncourses, paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the\\nrents paid by the publican! for farming the taxes, and beat down\\nthe prices for the public contracts which they undertook. He\\nattacked at once the capitalist class, which, represented by the\\nequites, had now become a power, and the vicious members of\\nthe new nobility. His position as censor enabled him to check\\nluxury by levying a heavy tax on costly and useless articles\\nand he cleansed the senate by the expulsion of worthless\\nmembers, without regard to rank or name.\\nThe strong national prejudices of Cato appear to have diminished\\nin force as he grew older and wiser. He applied himself in old age\\nto the study of Greek literature, with which in\\nHis attitude youth he had no acquaintance, although he was\\ncult re^^^ not ignorant of the Greek language. Himself an\\nhistorian and orator, the excellences of Demos-\\nthenes and Thucydides made a deep impression upon his kindred\\nmind. But throughout life his conduct was guided by prejudices\\nagainst classes and nations whose influence he deemed to be\\nhostile to the simplicity of the old Eoman character. When\\nEumenes, king of Pergamus, visited Rome after the war with\\nAntiochus, and was received with honour by the senate, and\\nsplendidly entertained by the nobles, Cato was indignant at the\\nrespect paid to the monarch, refused to go near him, and\\ndeclared that kings were naturally carnivorous animals. He\\nhad an antipathjr to physicians, because they were mostly Greeks,\\nand therefore unfit to be trusted with Roman lives. He loudly\\ncautioned his eldest son against them, and dispensed with their\\nattendance. When Athens sent three celebrated philosophers,\\nCarneades, Diogenes, and Critolaus, to Rome, in order to negotiate\\na remission of the 500 talents which the Athenians had been\\nawarded to pay to the Oropians, Carneades excited great atten-\\ntion by his philosophical conversation and lectures, in which he\\npreached the pernicious doctrine of an expediency distinct from", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "Chap. XVIII.] CATO. 161\\njustice, which he illustrated by the example of Rome herself:\\nIf Rome were stripped of all that she did not justly gain, the\\nRomans might go back to their huts. Cato, offended with his\\nprinciples, and jealous of the attention paid to the Greek, gave\\nadvice which the senate followed Let these deputies have\\nan answer, and a polite dismissal as soon as possible.\\nBut the spirit which rejected Greek cultm-e also scorned Greek\\nhumanism, and Cato the old Roman was an unfeeling and\\ncruel master. His conduct towards his slaves was detestable.\\nThe law held them to be mere chattels, and he treated them as\\nsuch, without any regard to the rights of humanity. After supper\\nhe often severely chastised them, thong in hand, for trifling acts\\nof negligence, and sometimes condemned them to death. When\\nthey were worn out, or useless, he sold them, or turned them\\nout of doors. He treated the lower animals no better. His war-\\nhorse, which bore him through his campaign in Spain, he sold\\nbefore he left the country, that the state might not be charged\\nwith the expenses of its transport. As years advanced he sought\\ngain with increasing eagerness, but never attempted to profit by\\ntlie misuse of his public functions. He accepted no bribes he\\nreserved no booty to his own use but he became a speculator,\\nnot only in slaves, but in buildings, artificial waters, and pleasure-\\ngrounds. In this, as in other points, he was a representative of\\nthe old Komans, who were a money-getting and money-loving\\npeople.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "Head of Perseus. From a gem in the British Museum,\\nCHAPTER XIX.\\nTHE THIRD MACEDONIAN, ACHAEAN, AND THIKD PUNIC WARS.\\n179-146 B.C.\\nThe Roman senate may have thought that, with an empire in\\nthe West and a protectorate over the East, the power of Rome\\n_ was for a time consolidated. But a movement\\nnow began, the final issue of which was to extend\\nfar more widely the hmits of imperial rule. Rome had really\\nno hold over the irresponsible despots whom she still permitted\\nto exist in the Eastern world, and the actions of the Macedonian\\nkmg soon attracted her suspicions. The latter years of the\\nreign of Philip had been spent in preparations for a renewal\\nof war and when, in 179 b.c, his son Perseus ascended the\\nthrone, he found himself amply provided with men and money\\nfor the impending contest. But, whether from a sincere desire\\nof peace, or from irresolution of character, he sought to avert\\nan open rupture as long as possible, and one of the first acts\\nof his reign was to obtain from the Romans a renewal of the\\ntreaty which they had concluded with his father. It is probable\\nthat neither party was sincere in the conclusion of this peace,\\nat least neither could entertain any hope of its duration; yet\\na period of seven years elapsed before the mutual enmity of\\nthe two powers broke out into open hostilities. Meanwhile,\\nPerseus was not idle he secured the attachment of his subjects\\nby equitable and popular measures, and formed alliances not", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIX.] THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR. 163\\nonly with the Greeks and the Asiatic princes, but also with\\nthe Thracian, Illyrian, and Celtic tribes which surrounded his\\ndominions. The Romans naturally viewed these proceedings\\nwith jealousy and suspicion and at length, in 172, Perseus\\nwas formally accused before the Roman senate, by Eumenes,\\nking of Pergamus, in person, of entertaining hostile designs\\nagainst the Roman power. The attempt to murder Eumenes\\nnear Delphi, on his return homewards, of which Perseus was\\nsuspected, aggravated the feeling against him at Rome, and in\\nthe following year war was declared.\\nPerseus was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed\\narmy, but of all his allies, only Cotys, king of the Odrysians,\\nventured to support him against so formidable a^ mi^- j -lyr\\nfoe. Yet the war was protracted three years j_j,:\u00e2\u0080\u009ej, w-j.\\nwithout any decisive result nay, the balance\\nof success seemed on the whole to incline in favour of Perseus,\\nand many states, which before were wavering, now showed\\na disposition to join his cause. But his ill-timed parsimony\\nrestrained him from taking advantage of their offers, and in\\n168 B.C. the arrival of the Consul L. Aemilius Paullus com-\\npletely changed the aspect of affairs.\\nPerseus was driven from a strong position which he had taken\\nup on the banks of the Enipeus, forced to retreat to Pydna, and,\\nfinally, to accept an engagement near that town.\\nAt first the serried ranks of the phalanx seemed p\\nto promise superiority but its order having been\\nbroken by the inequalities of the ground, the Roman legionaries\\npenetrated the disordered mass, and committed fearful carnage,\\nto the extent, it is said, of 20,000 men. Perseus fled first to\\nPella, then to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the\\nsacred island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to\\nsurrender himself to a Roman squadron. He was treated with\\ncourtesy,but was reserved to adorn the triumph of his conqueror.\\nSuch was the ending of tfie Macedonian empire but the\\nRomans did not annex the territory, although they imposed, as\\na tribute, one-half of the land-tax that had been\\nformerly paid to the Macedonian kings. The Downfall of\\nsenate decreed that Macedonia should be divided Macedonian\\ninto four independent districts, each under the y*\\njurisdiction of an oligarchical council.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "164 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX.\\nBefore leaving Greece, Paullus was commanded by the senate\\nto inflict a terrible punishtiient upon the Epirotes, because they\\nhad favoured Perseus. Having placed garrisons\\nipirus ^j^g seventy towns of Epirus, he razed them\\nall to the ground in one day, and carried away\\n150,000 inhabitants as slaves. Epirus never recovered from\\nthis blow. In the time of Augustus the country was still a\\nscene of desolation, and the inhabitants had only ruins and\\nvillages to dwell in.\\nPaullus arrived in Italy towards the close of 167 B.C. The\\nbooty which he brought with him from Macedonia, and which\\nhe paid into the Roman treasury, was of enormous value and\\nhis triumph, which lasted three days, was the most splendid\\nthat Rome had yet seen. Before his triumphal car walked the\\ncaptive monarch of Macedonia, and behind it, on horseback,\\nwere his two eldest sons, Q. Fabius Maximus and P. Scipio\\nAfricanus the younger, both of whom had been adopted into\\nother families. But his glory was darkened by the death of his\\ntwo younger sons, one dying a few days before, and the other a\\nfew days after, his triumph.\\nAfter the triumph Perseus was thrown into a dungeon, but,\\nin consequence of the intercession of Paullus, he was released\\nand permitted to end his days in an honourable caplivity at Alba.\\nHis son Alexander learned the Latin language, uad earned a\\nliving as a public clerk in Italy.\\nThe fall of the Macedonian monarchy made Rome the real\\nmistress of the eastern shores of the Mediterra,uean. The most\\nhaught^^ monarchs trembled before the Republic.\\nRelations Antioc hus Epiphanes had invaded Egypt, and\\nwith Eastern i- at a- v.\\nwas marchmg upon Alexandria, when he was met\\nby three Roman commissioners, who presented\\nhim with a decree of the senate, commanding him to abbtain\\nfrom hostilities against Egypt. The king, having read the\\ndecree, promised to take it into consideration with his friends,\\nwhereupon Popillius, one of the Roman commissioners, stepping\\nforward, drew a circle round the king with his staff, and told\\nhim that he should not stir out of it till he had given a decisive\\nanswer. The Ising was so frightened by this boldness that he\\nimmediately promised to withdraw his troops. Eumenes, b ng\\nof Pergamus, whose conduct during the war with Perseus had", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "Chap, XIX.] CONTROL OP ACHAEAN LEAGUE. 165\\nexcited the suspicion of the senate, hastened to make his sub-\\nmission in person, but was not allowed to enter Rome. Prasias,\\nking of Bithynia, had the meanness to appear at Rome with\\nhis head shaven, and in the dress of a liberated slave. The\\nRhodians, who had offered their mediation during the war with\\nPerseus, were deprived of Lycia and Caria.\\nThe immediate question was whether the cities of Greece\\nshould be allowed to maintain their troublesome independence.\\nAnnexation was not immediately resolved on, and\\nRome contented herself with working through Control of\\na party favourable to her interests in the cities, i\u00e2\u0080\u009e^\u00e2\u0080\u009e\u00e2\u0080\u009eg\\nespecially through Callicrates, a man of great\\ninfluence among the Achaeans, who, for many years, had acted\\nas the tool of the Roman government. He now denounced\\nmore than a thousand Achaeans as having favoured the cause\\nof Perseus. Among them were the historian Polybius, and the\\nmost distinguished men in every city of the league. They were\\nall seized and sent to Italy but, without any judicial investiga-\\ntion, they were kept as hostages and distributed among the\\ncities of Etraria. Pol^ bius alone was allowed to reside at Rome\\nin the house of Aemilius Paullus, where he became the intimate\\nfriend of his son Scipio Africanus the younger. The Achaean\\nLeague continued to exist, but it was really subject to Callicrates.\\nThe Achaean exiles languished in confinement for seventeen\\nyears. Their request to be allowed to return to their native\\nland had been more than once refused but the younger Scipio\\nAfricanus at length interceded on their behalf, and prevailed\\nupon Cato to advocate their return. The conduct of the aged\\nsenator was kinder than his words. He did not interpose till\\nthe end of a long debate, and then simply asked, Have we\\nnothing better to do than to sit here all day long debating\\nwhether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to their\\ngraves here or in Achaia A decree of the senate gave the\\nrequired permission but when Polybius was anxious to obtain\\nfrom the senate restoration to their former honours, Cato bade\\nhim, with a smile, beware of returning to the Cyclops den to\\nfetch away any trifles he had left behind him.\\nThe Achaean exiles, whose numbers were now reduced from\\n1000 to 300, landed in Greece (150 b.c.) with feelings ex-\\nasperated by their long confinement, and ready to indulge in", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "166 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX.\\nany rash enterprise against Eome. Pol^bius, who had returned\\nwith the other exiles, in vain exhorted them to peace and\\nunanimit}^, and to avoid a hopeless struggle with\\nevoit ^YiQ Eoman power. Shortly afterwards an adven-\\nturer laid claim to the throne of Macedonia\\n(149 B.C.). He was a man of low origin called Andriscus, but\\nhe pretended to be the son of Perseus, and assumed the name\\nof Philippus. At first he met with some success, and defeated\\nthe Roman praetor Juventius but, after reigning scarcely a\\nyear, he was conquered and taken pi isoner by Q. Metellus.\\nThe temporary success of Andriscus had encouraged the war-\\nparty in the Achaean League. Polybius had quitted the country\\nto join his friend Scipio in Africa and Diaeus and Critolaiis, the\\nmost violent enemies of Rome, had now undisputed sway in the\\nleague. Diaeus incited the Achaeans to attack Sparta, on the\\nground that, instead of appeahng to the league respecting a\\nboundary question, as they ought to have done, they had violated\\nits laws by sending a private* embassy to Rome. The Spartans,\\nfeeling themselves incompetent to resist this attack, appealed to\\nthe Romans for assistance; and in 147 B.C. two Roman com-\\nmissioners were sent to Greece to settle these disputes. The\\ncommissioners decided that not only Sparta, but Corinth, and all\\nthe cities recently acquired, should be restored to independence.\\nSerious riots broke out at Corinth, where the Diet was assembled\\nall the Spartans in the town were seized, and even the Roman\\ncommissioners narrowly escaped violence. On their return to\\nRome a fresh embassy was despatched to demand satisfaction for\\nthese outrages.\\nBut the violent and impolitic conduct of Critolaus, then stra-\\ntegus of the league, rendered all attempts at accommodation\\nfruitless, and, after the return of the ambassadors,\\ne c aean senate declared war against the league. The\\ncowardice and in ^ompetence of Critolaus as a\\ngeneral were only equalled by his previous insolence. On the\\napproach of the Romans from Macedonia under Metellus, he did\\nnot even venture to make a stand at Thermopylae and, being\\novertaken by them near Scarphea in Locris, he was totally\\ndefeated, and never again heard of. Diaeus, who succeeded\\nhim as strategus, displayed rather more energy and courage, and\\nmade preparatioQS to defend Corinth. Metellus had hoped to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIX.] PROVINCE OF MACEDONIA AND ACHAEA. 167\\nhave had the honour of bringing the war to a conclusion, and\\nhad almost reached Corinth when the Consul L. Mummius landed\\non the isthmus and assumed the command. The struggle was\\nsoon brought to a close. Diaeus was defeated in battle and\\nCorinth was immediately evacuated, not only by the troops of\\nthe league, but also by the greater part of the inhabitants.\\nOn entering the city Mummius put to the sword the few males\\nwho remained by orders from the government he sold the\\nwomen and children as slaves and, having carried\\naway all its treasures, consigned the city to the of Cor^nth\\nflames (146 B.C.). Corinth was filled with master-\\npieces of ancient art and Mummius, with an indistinct apprecia-\\ntion of their worth, stipulated with those who contracted to convey\\nthem to Italy, that, if any were lost in the passage, they should\\nbe replaced by others of equal value He then employed him-\\nself in regulating the whole of Greece and ten commissioners\\nwere sent from Eome to settle its future condition.\\nThe whole country, to the borders of Macedonia and Epirus,\\nwas formed into one district, under the name of Achaea, derived\\nfrom that confederacy which had made the last\\nstruggle for pohtical existence, but was united with fjo^^ce of\\nMacedonia as a single province, and the inde- Achaea\\npendent history of Greece was at an end.\\nCarthage, so long the rival of Rome, had fallen in the same\\nyear as Corinth. The reforms introduced by Hannibal after the\\nbattle of Zama had restored some degi ee of prosperity to the\\nstate and, though the Roman party obtained the supremacy\\nafter he had been compelled to fly to Antiochus, the commercial\\nactivity of the Carthaginians restored to the city much of its\\nformer influence. Rome looked with a jealous eye upon its\\nreviving power, and encouraged Masinissa to make repeated\\naggressions upon its territory.\\nAt length the popular party, having obtained more weight in\\nthe government, made a stand against these repeated encroach-\\nments of Numidia. Thereupon Cato recom- q^^^q urges\\nmended an instant declaration of war against the destruc-\\nCarthage but this met with considerable opposi- tion of Car-\\ntion in the senate, and it was at length aiTanged ^^S^-\\nthat an embassy should be sent to Africa to gain information as\\nto the real state of affairs. The ten ambassadors, of whom Cato", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "168 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX.\\nwas the chief, offered then- arbitration, which was accepted by\\nMasinissa, but rejected by the Carthaginians, who had no con-\\nfidence in Roman justice. The deputies accurately observed the\\nwarhke preparations and the defences of the frontier. They\\nthen entered the city, and saw the strength and population it\\nhad acquired since the Second Punic War. Upon their return\\nCato was the foremost in asserting that Rome would never be\\nsafe as long as Carthage was so powerful, so hostile, and so\\nnear. One day he drew a bunch of early ripe figs from beneath\\nhis robe, and, throwing it upon the floor of the senate-house,\\nsaid to the astonished fathers, Those figs were gathered but\\nthree days ago at Carthage so close is our enemy to onr walls.\\nFrom that time forth, whenever he was called upon for his vote\\nin the senate, whatever the subject of debate might be, his\\nclosing words were, Delenda est Carthago Carthage must\\nbe destroyed.\\nCato s opinion prevailed, and the senate only waited for a\\nfavourable opportunity to destroy the city. This soon occurred.\\nThe popular party having driven into exile the\\npretexts powerful partisans of Masinissa, the old Numidian\\nking invaded the Carthaginian territory, and de-\\nfeated the army which had been raised to oppose him (151 B.C.).\\nThis led to a change in the government, and the aristocratical\\nparty, once more restored to power, hastened to make their sub-\\nmission to Rome. But the Romans had resolved upon war and,\\nwhen the Carthaginian ambassadors arrived at Rome, the two\\nconsuls were already levying troops. The ambassadors, knowing\\nthat resistance was hopeless, sought to appease the anger of the\\nsenate by unconditional obedience. They were ordered to send\\n300 youths of the noblest families to meet the consuls at Lily-\\nbaeum, and were told that the consuls would acquaint them with\\nthe further orders of the senate. At Lilybaeum the consuls\\nfound the hostages awaiting them, and then promised the\\nCarthaginian envoys that the decision of the senate should\\nbe announced to them in Africa. Upon reaching Utica,\\nwhich surrendered to them in despair, the consuls informed the\\nThis story appears a strange one until we remember that it was a custom\\nfor Roman senators, when called upon for their votes, to express no matter what\\nthe question any opinion which they deemed of creat importance to the welfare\\nof the state. It was, in fact, the only way iu which the inejividuftl senator could\\ngain the right of initiatiye.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIX.] THIRD PUNIC WAR. 169\\nCarthaginians that, as their state would henceforth be under the\\nprotection of Rome, they had no longer any occasion for arms,\\nand must surrender all the munitions of war. Even this demand\\nwas complied with; and the Roman commissioners who were\\nsent to Carthage brought to the Roman camp 200,000 stands of\\narms, and 2000 catapults. The consuls, thinking that the state\\nwas now defenceless, threw off the mask, and announced the\\nfinal resolution of the senate That Carthage must be destroyed,\\nand that its inhabitants must build another city ten miles distant\\nfrom the coast.\\nWhen this terrible news reached Carthage, despair and rage\\nseized all the citizens. They resolved to perish rather than\\nsubmit to so perfidious a foe. All the Italians _,,\\nwithin the walls were massacred the members\\nof the former government took to flight, and the\\npopular party once more obtained the power. Almost super-\\nhuman efforts were made to obtain means of defence corn was\\ncollected from every quarter arms were manufactured day and\\nnight the women cut off their long hair to be made into strings\\nfor the catapults, and the whole city became one vast workshop.\\nThe consuls now saw that it would be necessary to have recourse\\nto force but they had no military ability, and their attacks were\\nrepulsed with great loss. The j oimger Scipio Africanus, who\\nwas then serving in the army as military tribune, displayed great\\nbravery and military skill, and, on one occasion, saved the army\\nfrom destruction. Still no permanent success was gained, and\\nScipio returned to Rome, accompanied by the prayers of the\\nsoldiers that he would come back as their commander. In the\\nfollowing year (148 B.C.) the new Consul L. Calpurnius Piso was\\neven less successful than his predecessors. The soldiers became\\ndiscontented the Roman senate and people, who had anticipated\\nan easy conquest, were indignant at their disappointment, and\\nall eyes were turned to Scipio. Accordingly, when he became\\na candidate for the aedileship for the ensuing year (147 B.C.),\\nhe was elected consul, tbough he was only thirty-seven years\\nold, and had not therefore altaiued the legal age for the\\noffice.\\nThis remarkable man was, as we have already said, the son\\nof L. Aemilius Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He was\\nadopted by P. Scipio, the son of the great Africanus, and is", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "170 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX.\\ntherefore called Scipio Africanus Minor, to distinguish him from\\nhis grandfather by adoption. To these names that of Aemilianus\\nis sometimes added to mark the family of his birth,\\nso that his full designation was P. Cornelius Scipio\\nyounger. -i-\\nAfricanus Aemilianus. His intimacy with the\\nhistorian Polybius has been already mentioned. He appears\\nfrom his earhest years to have devoted himself with ardour to the\\nstudy of literature and he eagerly availed himself of the superior\\nknowledge of Polybius to direct him in his literary pursuits. He\\nwas accompanied by the Greek historian in almost all his cam-\\npaigns, and, in the midst of his most active military duties, lost\\nno opportunity of enlarging his knowledge of Greek literature\\nand philosophy by constant intercourse with his friend. Nor did\\nhe neglect the literature of his own country, for Terence was\\nadmitted to his intimacy, and he is even said to have assisted hira\\nin the composition of his comedies. His friendship with Laelius,\\nwhose tastes and pursuits were so congenial to his own, has\\nbeen immortalized by Cicero s celebrated treatise On Friend-\\nship.\\nScipio landed in Africa in 147 B.C. His first step was to restore\\ndiscipline to the army. He next took by storm Megara, a suburb\\nof Carthage, and then proceeded to construct a\\nSi3ge or work across the entrance of the harbour to cut\\noff the city from all supplies by sea. But the Car-\\nthaginians defended themselves with a courage and an energy\\nrarely paralleled in history. While Scipio was engaged in this\\nlaborious task, they built a fleet of fifty ships in their inner port,\\nand cut a new channel communicating with the sea. Hence,\\nwhen Scipio at length succeeded in blocking up the entrance of\\nthe harbour, he found all his labour useless, as the Carthaginians\\nsailed out to sea by the new outlet. But this fleet was destroyed\\nafter an obstinate engagement which lasted three days. At\\nlength, in the following year (146 B.C.), Scipio had made all his\\npreparations for the final assault. The Carthaginians defended\\nthemselves with the courage of despair. They fought from\\nstreet to street, and from house to house, and the work of\\ndestruction and butchery went on for six days. The fate of\\nthis once magnificent city moved Scipio to tears, and, antici-\\npating that a similar catastrophe might one day befall Rome, he\\nlis said to have repeated the lines of the Iliad over the flames", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "Chap. XIX.] DESTKUCTION OF CARTHAGE.\\n171\\nof Carthage The day shall come -when sacred Troy shall\\nperish, and Priana and his people shall be slain.\\nA. Inner Harbour.\\nB, Outer or Merchants H:\\nC^Scipio s Mole.\\nD. Outer Wall.\\nE. Inner fortifications\\nround Citadel.\\nF. Scipio s Cnjnp.\\nPl an of Cartha ge\\nRoman Miles\\nScipio returned to Rome in the same year, and celebrated a\\nsplendid triumph on account of his victory. The surname of\\nAfricanus, which he had inherited by adoption, had now been\\nacquired by his own exploits.\\nA portion of the Carthaginian dominions was assigned to Utica.\\nThe remainder was formed into a Roman province under the\\nname of Africa. The city itself was levelled to\\nthe ground, and a curse pronounced upon any ^egj-ro ^d\\nwho should rebuild it.* Corinth and Carthage,\\nC. Grncchus, however, only twenty-four years afterwards, attempted to found\\na new city upon the ancient site, under the namp of Juuonia but evil prodifci S\\nat its foundation, and the subsequent death of Gracchus, intfrrupt d this desiprn.\\nThe project was revivpd by .Julius Caesar, and was carried into effect by Augustus;\\nand Roman Carthage, b lilt at a short distance from the former cit.y, became the\\ncapital of Africa, and one of tbe most flourishing cities in the ancient world.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "172 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XIX.\\nthe two gi eat commercial cities of East and West, had now\\nfallen and perhaps in their overthrow we may see not merely\\nthe narrow jealousy of the Koman statesman, hut the selfish\\ninterest of the capitalist class, which was already a power at\\nEome and aimed at a monopoly of commerce in the conquered\\nworld.\\nThe year 146 bc. marks the close of the second period of\\nKoman imperial policy. The system of a protectorate had\\nbroken down in Eastern Europe, and been succeeded by direct\\nimperial rule. It remained only to be seen how long the dis-\\ncredited system could be maintained in Asia but dangers in the\\nWest and internal troubles deferred this question for a con-\\nsiderable period.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "Chap. XX.] SPANISH WARS. 173\\nCHAPTER XX.\\nSPANISH WARS, 153-133 B.C. FIRST SERVILE WAR, 134-132 B.C.\\nThe next twenty years were occupied by serious disturbances in\\nthe West. The first trouble came from the indomitable province\\nof Spain. Here the generous policy of Tib. Sem-\\npronius Gracchus in 179 B.C.* had secured a long g^!^^^\\nperiod of tranquillity; but in 153 B.C. the inhabi-\\ntants of Segeda having commenced rebuilding the walls of their\\ntown, which was forbidden by one of the articles in the treaty\\nof Gracchus, a new war broke out, which lasted for many years.\\nThe Celtiberians in general espoused the cause of Segeda, and\\nthe Consul Q. Fulvius Nobilior made an unsuccessful campaign\\nagainst them. His successor, the Consul M. Claudius Marcellus,\\ngrandson of the Marcellus who was celebrated in the Second\\nPunic War, carried on the war with vigour, and concluded a\\npeace with the enemy on very fair terms (152 B.C.).\\nThe war now took an aggi essive turn for the consul of the\\nfollowing year, L. Lucinius Lucullus, finding the Celtiberians at\\npeace, turned his arms against the Vaccaei, Can-\\ntabri, and other nations as yet unknown to the i^Qgifania\\nRomans. At the same time, the Praetor Ser.\\nSulpicius Galba invaded Lusitania but, though he met with some\\nadvantage at first, he was subsequently defeated with great loss,\\nand escaped with only a few horsemen.\\nIn the following year (1.50 B.C.) he again invaded the country\\nfrom the south, while Lucullus attacked it from the north. The\\nLusitanians therefore sent ambassadors to Galba\\nto make their submission. He received them with fJ^^t^ ery or\\nkindness, lamented the poverty of their country,\\nand promised to assign them more fertile lands, if they would\\nSee p. 140.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "174 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XX.\\nmeet him in three bodies, with their wives and children, in three\\nplaces which he fixed upon. The simple people believed him.\\nBut he meditated one of the most atrocious acts of treachery and\\ncruelty recorded in history. He fell upon each body separately,\\nand butchered them, men, women, and children, without dis-\\ntinction. Among the very few who escaped was Viriathus, the\\nfuture avenger of his nation. Galba was brought to trial on his\\nreturn to Rome on account of his outrage and Cato, then in the\\neighty-fifth year of his age, inveighed against his treachery and\\nbaseness. But Galba was eloquent and wealthy, and the liberal\\nemployment of his money, together with the compassion excited\\nby his weeping children and ward, obtained his acquittal.\\nViriathus appears to have been one of those able guerilla chiefs\\nwhom Spain has produced at every period of her history. He is\\nViriathus shepherd and afterwards\\na robber, but he soon acquired unbounded in-\\nfluence over the minds of his countrymen. After the massacre\\nof Galba, those Lusitanians who had not left their homes rose\\nas a man against the rule of such treacherous tyrants. Viriathus\\nat first avoided all battles in the plains, and waged an incessant\\npredatory warfare in the mountains and he met with such\\ncontinued good fortune, that numbers flocked to his standard.\\nThe aspect of affairs seemed at length so threatening tint in\\n145 B.C. the Romans determined to send the Consul Q. Fabius\\nMaximus into the country. In the following year Fabius defeated\\nViriathus with great loss but this success was more than counter-\\nbalanced by the revolt of the Celtiberians, the bravest of the\\nSpaniards. The war is usually known by the name of the\\nNumantine, from Numantia, a town on the river Douro, and\\nthe capital of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Celtiberian\\ntribes.\\nHenceforward two Roman armies were employed in Spain, one\\nin the north against the Celtiberians, and the other in the south\\nagainst Viriathus and the Lusitanians. The war\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0oTa- against the Lusitanians was first brought to a con-\\nclusion. In 141 B.C. Viriathus surprised the Pro-\\nconsul Fabius Servilianus in a narrow pass, where escape was\\nimpossible. He used his victory with moderation, and suffered\\nthe Romans to depart uninjured, on condition of their allowing\\nthe Lusitanians to retain undisturbed possession of their own", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "Chap. XX.] NUMANTINE WAR. 175\\nterritory, and recognizing him as a friend and ally of Rome.\\nThis treaty was ratified by the Roman people but the Consul\\nQ. Servilius Caepio, who succeeded Fabius in the command in\\nSouthern Spain, found some pretext for violating the peace, and\\nrenewed the war against Viriathus. The latter sent envoys to\\nCaepio to propose fresh terms of peace but the Roman consul\\npersuaded them, by promises of large rewards, to murder their\\ngeneral. On their return they assassinated him in his own tent,\\nand made their escape to the Roman camp before the Lusi-\\ntanians were aware of the death of their chief. But, when the\\nmurderers claimed their reward, the consul coolly told them that\\nthe Romans did not approve of the murder of a general by his\\nown soldiers. The Lusitanians continued in arms a little longer,\\nbut the war was virtually terminated by the death of Viriathus.\\nTheir country was finally reduced to subjection by the Consul\\nD. Junius Brutus in 138 B.C., who also crossed the rivers Douro\\nand Minho, and received the surname of Callaicus in consequence\\nof his i-eceiving the submission o f the Callaici, or Gallaeci, a\\npeople in the north-west of Spain.\\nThe war against the Celtiberians was at first conducted with\\nsuccess by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, who during his\\npraetorship had defeated the pretender to the\\nMacedonian throne. But the successors of Me-\\ntellus experienced repeated disasters, and at length Mancinus\\nin 137 B.C. the Consul C. Hostilius Mancinus was\\nentirel} surrounded by the Celtiberians, and forced to sign a peace\\nin which he recognized their independence. He only obtained\\nthese terms on condition that his quaestor, Tib. Sempronius\\nGracchus, who was greatly respected by the Spaniards for his\\nfather s sake, should become responsible for the execution of the\\ntreaty. The senate refused to ratify it, and went through the\\nhypocritical ceremony of delivering over Mancinus bound and\\nnaked to the enemJ^ But the Numantines, like the Samnites in\\na similar case, declined to accept the offering.\\nThe war continued to drag on and the people now called\\nupon Scipio Africanus to bring it to a conclusion. We have\\nalready traced the career of this eminent man\\ntill the fall of Carthage. In 142 B.C. he was f/lcfTo\\ncensor with L. Mummius. In the administration\\nof the duties of his office be followed iii the footsteps of Cato,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "176 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XX.\\nand attempted to repress the growing luxury and immorality of\\nhis contemporaries; but his efforts were thwarted by his col-\\nleague. He vainly wished to check in the people the appetite\\nfor foreign conquests and in the solemn prayer which he offered\\nat the conclusion of the lustrum he changed the usual supplica-\\ntion for the enlargement of the Republic into one for its preserva-\\ntion. He was now elected consul a second time, and was sent\\ninto Spain in 134 B.C. In his camp before Numantia were two\\nmen who were soon destined to play a large part on the stage of\\nhistory the Arpinate peasant Marius, and the Numidian prince\\nJugurtha. Scipio s first efforts were directed, as in Africa, to\\nthe restoration of discipline in the army, which had become dis-\\norganized and demoralized by every kind of indulgence.\\nHaving brought his troops into an effective condition, he\\nproceeded, in the following year, to lay siege to the town. It\\nwas defended by its inhabitants with the courage\\nS Msh \\\\s perseverance which has pre-eminently dis-\\ntinguished the Spaniards in all ages in the defence\\nof their walled towns. It was not till they had suffered the\\nmost dreadful extremities of famine, eating even the bodies of\\nthe dead, that they surrendered the place (133 B.C.). Fifty\\nof the principal inhabitants were selected to adorn Scipio s\\ntriumph, the rest were sold as slaves, and the town was levelled\\nto the ground. As a result of the two wars, the whole of Spain,\\nwith the exception of the northern coast, was now nominally\\nsubject to Rome.\\nDuring the Numantine War Rome was menaced by a new\\ndanger, which revealed one of the plague-spots in the Republic.\\nWe have already had occasion to describe the\\ndecay of the free population in Italy, and the\\ngreat increase in the number of slaves from the foreign con-\\nquests of the state.* A system of plantation slavery now grew\\nup, which presented all the worst features of that detestable\\nsystem. The old domestic servitude of the Romans, in which\\nthe slave was a member of the family, had now given place to\\nthe plantation system, which left the slave to the mercy of the\\noverseer. Sometimes, where under the changed economic con-\\nditions land could not be profitably cultivated, vast territories in\\nItaly had been turned into sheep-walks, where the slave was\\nSee p. 155.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "Chap. XX.] FIRST SERVILE WAR. 177\\nleft to shift for himself, getting his food as best he conld and it\\nrequired little to change these men, most of whom had known\\nthe gift of freedom, into brigands.\\nIt was in Sicily, where the proportion of slaves to free labourers\\nwas greater even than in Italy, that the first Servile War broke\\nout. Damophilus, a wealthy landowner of Enna,\\nhad treated his slaves with excessive barbarity.\\nThey entered into a conspiracy against their\\ncruel master, and consulted a Syrian slave of the name\\nof Eunus, who belonged to another lord. This Eunus pre-\\ntended to the gift of prophecy, and appeared to breathe flames\\nof fire from his mouth. He not only promised them success, but\\njoined in the enterprise himself. Having assembled to the\\nnumber of about 400 men, they suddenly attacked Enna, and,\\nbeing joined by their fellow-sufl erers within the town, quickly\\nmade themselves masters of it. Great excesses were committed,\\nand almost all the freemen were put to death with horrid tortures.\\nEunus had, while yet a slave, prophesied that he should become\\nking. He now assumed the royal diadem, and the title of king\\nAntiochus. Sicily was at this time swarming with slaves, a great\\nproportion of them Syrians, who flocked to the standard of their\\ncountryman and fellow-bondsman. The revolt now became\\ngeneral, and the island was delivered over to the murderous\\nfury of men maddened by oppression, cruelty, and insult. The\\npraetors, who first led armies against them, were totally defeated\\nand in 134 B.C. it was thought necessary to send the Consul C.\\nFulvius Flaccus to subdue the insurrection. But neither he, nor\\nthe consul of the following year, succeeded in this object; and\\nit was not till 132 B.C. that the Consul P. Rupilius brought the\\nwar to an end by the capture of Tauromenium and Enna, the\\ntwo strongholds of the insurgents. The life of Eunus was spared,\\nprobably with the intention of carrying him to Rome, but he died\\nin prison at Morgantia.\\nAbout the same time Rome obtained her first possession in\\nAsia. Attains Philometor, the last king of Pergamus, dying\\nchildless, bequeathed his kingdom and treasures\\nto the Roman people (133 B.C.). A vigorous ^f^^^\\nattempt was made by Aristonicus, a natural son\\nof Eumenes, the father of Attains, to resist the bequest. He\\neven defeated the Consul P. Licinus Crassus, who was slain", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "178 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XX.\\n(131 B.C.), but he was himself defeated and taken prisoner in the\\nfollowing year, and the kingdom of Pergamus was formed into a\\nEoman province under the name of Asia (129 B.C.).\\nKome now exercised direct government in three continents\\nover foreign domains which were divided into ten provinces.\\nThese provinces, with the date of their acquisi-\\n;?l^\u00c2\u00b0.Tf tion, were 1. Sicily, 241 b c. 2. Sardinia and\\nCorsica, 238 B.C. 3, 4. The two Spains, Citerior\\nand Ulterior, 205 B.C. 5. Gallia Cisalpina, 191 B.C. 6. Mace-\\ndonia and Achaea, 146 B.C. 7. Illyricura, probably formed at\\nthe same time as Macedonia.* 8. Africa, consisting of the\\ndominions of Carthage, 146 B.C. 9. Asia, including the king-\\ndom of Pergamus, 129 B.C. To these a tenth was added in\\n118 B.C. by the conquest of the southern portion of Transalpine\\nGaul between the Alps and the Pyrenees. In contrast with\\nthe other portions of Gaul, it was frequently called simply the\\nProvincia, a name which has been retained in the modern\\nProvence.\\nlUyricutn was, however, not yet treated as an independent province, but\\nappears to have been regarded as an appendage to Cisalpine (jauL", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "Tabularium with Capito! above !t.\\nThe Roman Forum, looking west.\\nCHAPTER XXI.\\nTHE GKACCHI, AND THE ATTACK ON THE GOVERNMENT.\\n133-121 B.C.\\nWith the year 133 begins the internal revolution at Rome which,\\nwas to find no issue but in the establishment of an Empire.\\nIt took the form of an attempt by the people to regain the\\nsovereignty usurped, and in their view misused, by the senate.\\nThe first point on which its authority was challenged was one\\nof internal reform, and the first evil which seemed to call for\\nreformation was the decay of the yeoman-farmer class.\\nThe more thoughtful Romans had long foreseen the danger\\nwith which Rome was menaced by the impoverish-\\nment of her free population, and the alarming Economic\\nincrease in the number of slaves; but neither ^^^^.liit?^\\n1 n 1 01 Italy,\\nthey nor the reformers of the present age seem\\nto have understood its cause. It is true that the evil would", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "130 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXI.\\nnever have reached its present height if the Licinian Law had\\nbeen ohserved but economic conditions were unfavourable to\\nthe existence of a class of peasant-proprietors. Through the\\nimportation of cheap grain from the provinces, corn could not be\\ngrown productively in Italy the average Roman preferred to\\ninvest his capital in the provinces; and voluntary emigration,\\nwhich accompanied the investment, was responsible for a great\\npart of the depopulation of Italy which the would-be reformers\\ndeplored.\\nStill, the disappearance of the yeoman class, the backbone of\\nthe country, was an undoubted evil, and it was the desire for its\\nrestoration that wholly animated the policy of Tiberius Gracchus\\nand partly that of his younger brother Gains. They perished in\\ntheir attempt at reform, and their violent death may be regarded\\nas the beginning of the Civil Wars which ended in the destruc-\\ntion of freedom, and the establishment of the despotism of the\\nEmpire.\\nTiberius and Gains Gracchus were the sons of Tib. Sempronius\\nGracchus, whose prudent measures gave tranquillity to Spain for\\n_ so many years.* They lost their father at an early\\nage, but they were educated with the utmost care\\nby their mother, Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus the\\nelder, who had inherited from her father a love of literature, and\\nunited in her person the severe virtues of the ancient Roman\\nmatron witli the superior knowledge and refinement which then\\nprevailed in the higher classes at Rome. She engaged for her\\nsons the most eminent Greek teachers and it was mainly owing\\nto the pains she took with their education that they surpassed\\nall the Roman youths of their age.\\nTiberius was nine years older than his brother Caius. The\\nlatter had more ability, but Tiberius was the more amiable, and\\nwon all hearts by the simplicity of his demeanour\\nO ^c^h^s graceful and persuasive eloquence. So\\nhighly was Tiberius esteemed, that as soon as he\\nreached the age of manhood he was elected augur, and at the\\nbanquet given at his installation Appius Claudius, then chief of\\nthe senate, offered him his daughter in marriage. When Appius\\nreturned home and informed his wife that he had just betrothed\\ntheir daughter, she exclaimed, Why in such a hurry, unless you\\nSee p. 140.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXI.] TRIBUNATE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. 181\\nhave got Tiberius Gracchus for her husband? Serupronia, the\\nonly sister of Tiberius, was married to the younger Scipio\\nAfricauus. Tiberius was thus, by birth and marriage, connected\\nwith the noblest famihes in the Republic the grandson of the\\nconqueror of Hannibal, the son-in-law of the chief of the senate,\\nand the brother-in-law of the destroyer of Carthage.\\nTiberius served under his brother-in-law in Africa, and was the\\nfirst who scaled the walls of Carthage. He was quaestor iu 137\\nB.C., and accompanied the Consul Mancinus to Spain, where he\\nsaved the army by obtaining the treaty with the Numantines, which\\nthe senate refused to ratify.* In passing through Etruria, on his\\nway to Spain, Tiberius had observed with grief and indignation\\nthe deserted state of that fertile country. Thousands of foreign\\nslaves were tending the flocks and cultivating the soil of the\\nwealthy landowners, while Roman citizens had not a clod of\\nearth to call their own. He now conceived the design of applying\\na remedy to this state of things, and with this view became a\\ncandidate for the tribunate, and was elected for the year 133 b.c.\\nTiberius, however, did not act with precipitation. The measure\\nwhich he brought forward had previously received the approba-\\ntion of some of the wisest and noblest men in the\\nstate of his own father-in-law Appius Claudius; is agranan\\nof P. Mucins Scaevola, the great jurist, who was\\nthen consul and of Crassus, the Pontifex Maximus. It was\\nproposed to re-enact the Licinian Law of 367 B.C. which had,\\nin fact, never been repealed but with some modifications and\\nadditions. As in the Licinian Law, no one was to be allowed\\nto possess more than 500 jugera of public land but to relax the\\nstringency of this rule, every possessor might hold in addition\\n250 jugera for each of two sons, and the land so retained was to\\nbecome private property. All the rest of the public land was\\nto be taken away from them and distributed, in lots of thirty\\njugera, among the poor citizens, who were not to be permitted\\nto alienate these lots, in order that they might not be again\\nabsorbed into the estates of the wealthJ^ An indemnity was to\\nbe given from the public treasury for all buildings erected upon\\nlands thus taken away. Three commissioners (triumviri) were\\nto be elected annually by the people in order to carry this law\\ninto execution and to adjudicate on all disputes arising from it.\\nSee p. 175.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "182 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXl.\\nThe law affected ouly public lands, but it was none the less\\nregarded as a measure of confiscation. It is true that no pre-\\nscription can, as a general rule, be pleaded against the rights of\\nthe state, but the possessors of the public lands had enjo^ ed\\nthem without question for so long a period that they had come\\nto regard these lands as their private property. In many cases,\\nas we have already said, they had been acquired by bond fide\\npurchase, and the claim of the state, now advocated by Gracchus,\\nwas regarded as downright robbery. Attacks upon property have\\nproduced the greatest convulsions in all states, and the Roman\\nlandowners were ready to have recourse to any measures to\\ndefeat the law. But the thousands who would be benefited by\\nit were determined to support Tiberius at any risk. He told\\nthem that the wild beasts of Italy had their dens, and holes,\\nand hiding-places, while the men who fought and bled in defence\\nof Italy wandered about with their wives and cliildren without a\\nspot of ground to rest upon. It was evident that the law would\\nbe carried, and the government therefore resorted to the only\\nmeans left to them.\\nThe senate, partly in the interest of its landowning members,\\npartly because it objected to a measure of reform emanating\\nfrom the people, induced M. Octavius, one of the\\nOctavius tribunes, to put his veto upon the measure of his\\ncolleague. The contest was felt to be a duel\\nbetween the senate and the people and the immediate result\\nwas a political deadlock. Tiberius, after a vain attempt to\\ninduce Octavius to withdraw his veto, retaliated by forbidding\\nthe magistrates to exercise any of their functions, and by suspend-\\ning, in fact, the entire administration of the government. But\\nOctavius remained firm, and Tiberius therefore determined to\\ndepose him from his office.\\nHe summoned an Assembly of the Plebs and put the question\\nto the vote. Seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had already\\nvoted for the deposition of Octavius, and the addi-\\nOetavius tribe would reduce him to a private\\ncondition, when Tiberius stopped the voting,\\nanxious, at the last moment, to prevent the necessity of so\\ndesperate a measure. Octavius, however, would not yield.\\nComplete what you have begun, was his only answer to the\\nentreaties of his colleague. The eighteenth tribe voted, and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXI.] TRIBUNATE OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. 183\\nTiberius ordered him to be dragged from the rostra. Octavius\\nhad only exercised his undoubted rights, and his deposition was\\nclearly a violation of the spirit, if not of the letter, of the Roman\\nconstitution. This gave the enemies of Gracchus the handle\\nwhich they needed. They could now justly charge him, not\\nonly with revolutionary measures, but with employing revolu-\\ntionary means to carry tliem into effect.\\nThe Agi-arian Law was passed without further opposition, and\\nthe three commissioners elected to put it in force were, un-\\nfortunately for its credit, a family party com-\\nposed of Tiberius himself, his father-in-law Appius\\nClaudius, and his brother Caius, then a youth of\\ntwenty, serving under P. Scipio at Nuraantia.\\nTiberius further proposed that the treasures acquired by the\\nrecent bequest of Attains king of Pergamus should be dis-\\ntributed among the people who had received attacks on\\nassignments of lands, to enable them to stock the preroga-\\ntheir farms and to assist them in their cnltiva- tives of the\\ntion. He thus attacked two of the most funda- senate.\\nmental prerogatives of the senate its control of the provinces\\nand its control of finance. The exasperation of the nobility was\\nintense, and it was evident that his life would be no longer safe\\nwhen he ceased to be protected by the sanctity of the tribune s\\noffice. Accordingly he became a candidate for the tribunate for\\nthe following year.\\nThe tribunes did not enter upon their office till December,\\nbut the election took place in June, at which time the country-\\npeople, on whom he chiefly relied, were engaged\\nin getting in the harvest. Still, two tribes had ^mpt at\\n1 1 1 1 re-election.\\nalready voted m his favour, when the nobility\\ninterrupted the election by maintaining that it was illegal for a\\nman to be chosen tribune for two consecutive years. After\\na violent debate, the Assembly was adjourned till the following\\nday. Tiberius now became alarmed lest his enemies should get\\nthe upper hand, and he went round the forum with his child,\\nappealing to the sympathy of the people and imploring their\\naid. They readily responded to his appeal, escorted him home,\\nand a large crowd kept watch around his house all night.\\nNext day the adjourned Assembly met on the Capitol in the\\nopen space in frorjt of the Temple of Jupiter. Tbe senate also", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "184 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXI.\\nassembled in the Temple of Faith close by. Scipio Nasica,\\nthe leader of the more violent party in the senate, called\\nupon the consul, Mucins Scaevola, to stop the\\njmuraer oi re-election, but the consul declined to interfere.\\nGracchus Fulvius Flaccus, a senator, and a friend of Tibe-\\nrius, hastened to inform him of the speech of\\nNasica, and told him that his death was resolved upon. There-\\nupon the friends of Tiberius prepared to resist force by force\\nand as those at a distance could not hear him, on account of\\nthe tumult and confusion, the tribune pointed v^rith his hand\\nto his head, to intimate that his life was in danger. His enemies\\nexclaimed that he was asking for the crown. The news reached\\nthe seqate. Nasica appealed to the consul to save the Eepublic,\\nbut as Scaevola still refused to have recourse to violence, Nasica\\nsprang up, and exclaimed, The consul is betraying the Republic\\nlet those who wish to save the state follow me. He then\\nrushed out of the senate-house, followed by many of the senators.\\nThe terrified people made way for them and the fathers, break-\\ning up the benches, armed themselves with sticks, and rushed\\nupon Tiberius and his friends. The tribune fled to the Temple\\nof Jupiter, but the door had been barred by the priests, and in\\nhis flight he fell over a prostrate body. As he was rising he\\nreceived the first blow from one of his colleagues, and was\\nquickly despatched. Upwards of 300 of his partisans were sk n\\non the same day. Tiieir bodies were thrown into the Tiber.\\nThis was the first blood shed at Rome in civil strife since the\\nexpulsion of the kings, and it was the beginning of the Civil Wars.\\nNotwithstanding their victory, the nobles did not venture to\\npropose the repeal of the Agrarian Law, and a new commissioner\\nwas chosen in the place of Tiberius. The popular indignation\\nwas so strongly excited against Scipio Nasica that his friends\\nadvised him to withdraw from Italy, though he was Pontifex\\nMaximus, and therefore ought not to have quitted the country.\\nHe died shortly afterwards at Pergamus.\\nAll eyes were now turned to Scipio Africanus, who returned\\nto Rome in 132 b.c. When Scipio received at Numantia the\\nnews of -the death of Tiberius, he is reported to have exclaimed,\\nin the verse of Homer\\nSo perish all who do the like again\\nOd., i. 47.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXL] DEATH OF SCIPIO. 185\\nThe people may have thought that the brother-in law of\\nTiberius would show some sympathy with his reforms and\\nsome sorrow for his fate. They were soon un-\\ndeceived. Being asked in the Assembly of the \u00c2\u00b0^P^\u00c2\u00b0\\nPlebs by C. Papirius Carbo, the tribune, who Haiians\\nwas now the leader of the popular party, what he\\nthought of the death of Tiberius, he boldly replied that he was\\njustly slain. The people, who had probably expected a different\\nanswer, loudly expressed their disapprobation whereupon Scipio,\\nturning to the mob, bade them be silent, since Italy was only their\\nstep-mother.* The people did not forget this insult but for a\\ntime Scipio s unexpected adhesion to the nobility enabled them\\nto prevent the Agrarian Law of Tiberius from being carried into\\neffect. A chance was offered of checking the Agrarian Law on\\ngrounds that did not appear to represent the selfish interests of\\na class. The Italians settled on Roman public land were alarmed\\nat the prospect of being dispossessed, and Scipio skilfully availed\\nhimself of the circumstance to propose in the senate (129 B.C.)\\nthat the judicial powers should be taken out of the hands of the\\ncommissioners and transferred to the consuls. This measure was\\nequivalent to an abrogation of the laws, and excited fierce hatred\\nagainst Scipio. In the forum he was attacked by Carbo, with\\nthe bitterest invectives, as the enemy of the people and u[)on\\nhis again expressing his approval of the death of Tiberius,\\nthe people shouted out, Down with the tyrant In the\\nevening he went home accompanied by the senate and a great\\nnumber of the Italians. He retired to his chamber, with the\\nintention of composing a speech for the following day.\\nNext morning Rome was thrown into consternation by the\\nnews that Scipio had been found dead in his room. The most\\ncontradictory rumours were circulated, but it was\\nthe general opinion that he had been murdered. g\u00e2\u0080\u009ej-,;_\\nSuspicion fell upon various persons, but Carbo was\\nmost generally believed to have been the murderer. There was\\nno inquiry into the cause of his death (129 B.C.).\\nBut, though the opposition leader was thus treacherously\\nremoved, the influence of Scipio s last action was permanent.\\nIt must be recollected that the mob at Eome consisted chiefly of the four\\ncity-tribes, and that slaves when manumitted could be enrolled in these four\\ntribes alone.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "186 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXI.\\nThe introduction of the question of the Italians disorganized the\\ndemocratic party by creating a difference of opinion between the\\npopular leaders and their following. The former,\\nProposal to thinking they had made a tactical mistake in alien-\\nthe Italians ^-ting the Italians from their cause, now attempted\\nto secure their adhesion by offering them the\\nRoman citizenship if they would .support the Agrarian Law.\\nAs Roman citizens they would, of course, be entitled to the\\nbenefits of the law, while they would, at the same time, obtain\\nwhat they had so long desired an equal share in protection and\\npolitical power. -But the proposal was far from popular at Rome,\\nfor the existing citizens saw that their own importance would\\nbe diminished, and their benefits in the Empire lessened, by an\\nincrease in their numbers. So strong was this feeling that,\\nwhen great numbers of the Italians had flocked to Rome in\\n126 B.C., the Tribune M. Junius Pennus carried a law that all\\naliens should quit the city. Cains Gracchus spoke against this\\nlaw, and his friends still remained faithful to the cause of the\\nItalians. In the following year (125 B.C.) M. Fulvius Flaccns,\\nwho was then consul, brought forward a Reform Bill, granting\\nthe Roman citizenship to all the Italain allies. But it was\\nevident that the Assembly would reject this law, and the senate\\ngot rid of the proposer by sending him into Transalpine Gaul.\\nIn the previous year Caius Gracchus had gone to Sardinia as\\nquaestor, so that the senate had now removed irom Rome two\\no f their most troublesome opponents, and the\\n_ Italians had lost their two most powerful patrons.\\nBitter was the disappointment of the Italians, who\\nhad been buoyed up by hopes and probably by injudicious\\npromises. Fregellae, a town of Latium, and one of the eighteen\\nLatin colonies which had remained faithful to Rome during the\\nSecond Punic War, took up arms; but its example was not\\nfollowed, and it had to bear alone the brunt of the unequal\\ncontest. It was quickly reduced by the praetor, L. Opimius\\nthe city was utterly destroyed, and the insurrection, which a\\nslight success would have made universal, was thus nipped in\\nthe bud (125 B.C.).\\nCaius Gracchus had taken very little part in public affairs\\nsince his brother s death. He had spoken only twice on\\npolitical matters; once in favour of a law of Carbo for the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXI.] LAWS OF CAIUS GRACCHUS. 187\\nre-election of tribunes, and a second time in opposition to the\\nAlien Act of Junius Pennus, as already mentioned. But the\\neyes of the people were naturally turned towards\\nhim. His abilities were known, and the senate Qracohna\\ndreaded his return to Rome. He had been already\\ntwo years in Sardinia, and they now attempted to retain him there\\nanother year by sendino^ fresh troops to the province without\\nreleasing his superior officer from his command. But Caius sud-\\ndenly appeared at Rome, to the surprise of all parties (124 B.C.).\\nHis enemies brought him before the censors to account for his\\nconduct, but he defended himself so ably that not only was no\\nstigma put upon him, but he was considered to have been very\\nbadly used. He showed that he had served in the army twelve\\nyears, though required to serve only ten that he had acted as\\nquaestor two years, though the law demanded only one year s\\nservice and, he added, that he was the only soldier who took\\nout with him a full purse and brought it back empty. Caius\\nnow became a candidate for the tribunate, and was elected for\\nthe year 123 b.c. He was not, like his more single-minded\\nbrother, merely a social reformer. His laws, so far as they were\\nnot merely animated by revenge, were meant to weaken per-\\nmanently the authority of the senate and the democratic\\nprogramme which he fixed became, without the change of a\\nsingle item, the heritage of the popular leaders to the close of\\nthe Republic. To this main object even his social legislation\\nwas subsidiary, and his measures for the amelioration of the\\npoor were but bribes given to the masses to secure their support\\nin his vigorous campaign against the government.\\nI. His principal laws for improving the condition of the people\\nwere\\n1. The renewal of his brother s Agrarian Law;\\nand an extension of agrarian relief by planting\\nnew citizen-colonies in Italy and the provinces. This was the\\nfirst attempt made at transmarine colonization and at the\\nextension of citizenship to the provinces.\\n2. A state provision for the poor, enacting that corn should be\\nsold to every citizen at a price much below its market value.\\nThis was the first of the Leges Frumentariae, which, although\\nto some extent justified by the entire absence of any state pro-\\nvision for the poor, were attended with the most injurious effects.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "188 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXI.\\nThey emptied the treasury, at the same time that they taught\\nthe lower classes to become state paupers, instead of depending\\nupon their own exertions for a living.\\n3. Another law enacted that the soldiers should be equipped\\nat the expense of the Republic, without the cost being deducted\\nfrom their pay, as had hitherto been the case.\\nII. The most important laws designed to diminish the power\\nof the senate were\\n1. The law by which the judices were to be taken only from\\nthe equites, and not from the senators, as had been the custom\\nhitherto. This was a very important enactment,\\nex Jutti- needs a little explanation. All offences\\nagainst the state were originally tried in the\\nPopular Assembly; but when special enactments were passed\\nfor the trial of particular offences, the practice was introduced of\\nentrusting the trial to a standing commission formed by a body\\nof judices. This was first done upon the passing of the Cal-\\npurnian Law (149 B.C.) for the punishment of provincial magis-\\ntrates for extortion in their government {De Repetundis). Such\\noffences had to be tried before the praetor and a jury of senators,\\nbut as these very senators either had been or hoped to be pro-\\nvincial magistrates, they were not disposed to visit with severity\\noffences of which they themselves either had been or were likely\\nto be guilty. The equites, to whom Gracchus now transferred\\nthese criminal courts, were not the military order of that name.\\nThe title had been extended to denote the upper middle class in\\nthe state,* composed of capitalists, pubHcani, and rich merchants.\\nIt was to this class, which was sharply contrasted with the sena-\\ntorial nobility, that Gracchus gave political recognition and from\\nthis time is dated the creation of a civil Ordo Equester, whose\\ninterests were frequently opposed to those of the senate, and who\\ntherefore served as a check upon the latter.\\n2. Another law was directed against the arbitrary proceedings\\nof the senate in the distribution of the provinces. Hitherto the\\nsenate had assigned the provinces to the consuls\\nLex de pro- a^gj. their election, and thus had had it in their\\n8ul\u00c2\u00b0^^b PO to grant wealthy governments to their\\npartisans, or unprofitable ones to those opposed\\nto them. It was now enacted that, before the election of the\\nSee p. 64.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXl.J COUNTER-PROPOSALS OF DRUSUS. 189\\nconsuls, the senate should determine the two provinces which\\nthe consuls should have and that they should, immediately after\\nelection, settle between themselves, by lot or otherwise, which\\nprovince each should take.\\nThese laws raised the popularity of Caius still higher, and he\\nbecame for a time the absolute ruler of Rome. He was re-\\nelected tribune for the following year (122 B.C.), j\\nfor, in the interval that had elapsed between the j^Qja\\ndeath of his brother and his first tribunate, re-\\nelection to the office had been made possible. M. Fulvius\\nFlaccus, who had been consul in 125 B.C., was also chosen as\\none of his colleagues. Flaccus, it will be recollected, had pro-\\nposed in his consulship to give the Roman franchise to the\\nItalian allies, and it was now determined to bring forward a\\nsimilar measure. Caius therefore brought in a bill conferring\\nthe citizenship upon all the Latin colonies, and making the\\nItalian allies occupy the position which the Latins had previously\\nheld. This wise measure was equally disliked in the forum and\\nthe senate. Neither the influence nor the eloquence of Gracchus\\ncould mduce the people to view with satisfaction the admission\\nof the Italian allies to equal rights and privileges with themselves.\\nThe senate, perceiving that the popularity of Gracchus had\\nbeen somewhat shaken by this measure, employed his colleague,\\nM. Livius Drusus who was noble, well-educated,\\nwealthy, and eloquent to undermine his influence Counter-\\nwith the people. With the sanction of the senate, of^Drusus\\nDrusus now endeavoured to outbid Gracchus. He\\nplayed the part of a demagogue in order to supplant the true\\nfriend of the people. He gave to the senate the credit of every\\npopular law which he proposed, and gradually impressed the\\npeople with the belief that the nobles were their best friends.\\nGracchus proposed to found two colonies at Tarentum and Capua,\\nand named among the first settlers some of the most respect-\\nable citizens. Drusus introduced a law for establishing no fewer\\nthan twelve colonies, and for settling 3000 poor citizens in each.\\nGracchus, in the distribution of the public land, reserved a rent\\npayable to the public treasury. Drusus abolished even this pay-\\nment. He also gained the confidence of the people by asking\\nno favour for himself; he took no part in the foundation of\\ncolonies, and left to others the management of business in which", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "190 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXL\\nany money had to be expended. Gracchus, on the other hand,\\nsuperintended everything in person and the people, always\\njealous in pecuniary matters, began to suspect his motives.\\nDuring his absence in Africa, whither he had gone as one of the\\nthree commissioners for founding a colony upon the ruins of\\nCarthage, Drusus was able to weaken his popularity still further.\\nOn his return he endeavoured in vain to reorganize his party\\nand recover his power. Both he and Flaccus failed in being\\nre-elected tribunes while L. Opimius and Q.\\nFabius, two personal enemies of Gracchus, were\\nraised to the consulship. The two new consuls\\nhad no sooner entered upon office (121 B.C.) than they resolved\\nto drive matters to extremities. One of the first measures of\\nOpimius was a proposal to repeal the law for colonizing Car-\\nthage, because it had been established upon the site which Scipio\\nhad cursed. It was evident that a pretext was only sought for\\ntaking the life of Gracchus, and Flaccus urged him to repel\\nviolence by force. Caius shrank from this step, but an accident\\ngave his enemies the pretext which they longed for. The tribes\\nhad assembled at the Capitol to decide upon the colony at Car-\\nthage, when a servant of the Consul Opimius, pushing against\\nGracchus, insolently cried out, Make way for honest men, you\\nrascals Gracchus turned round to him with an angry look,\\nand the man was immediately stabbed by an unknown hand.\\nThe Assembly immediately broke up, and Gracchus returned\\nhome, foreseeing the advantage which this unfortunate occur-\\nrence would give to his enemies.\\nThe senate now resorted to its last weapon it declared\\nGracchus and Flaccus public enemies, and invested the consuls\\nwith dictatorial powers. During the night Opimius\\nDeath of Caius possession of the Temple of Castor and\\nGrace us. PoUux, which overlooked the forum, summoned\\na meeting of the senate for the following morning, and ordered\\nall the partisans of the senate to be present, each with two armed\\nslaves. Flaccus seized the Temple of Diana on the Aventine,\\nand distributed arms to his followers here he was joined by\\nGracchus. Civil war was thus declared. After some fruitless\\nattempts at negotiation, the consul proceeded to attack the\\nAventine. Little or no resistance was made, and Flaccus and\\nGracchus took to flight, and crossed the Tiber by the Sublician", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXL] FATE OF THE eRACCHAN LEGISLATION. 191\\nbridge. Gracchus escaped to the Grove of the Furies, accom-\\npanied only by a single slave. When the pursuers reached the\\nspot, they found both of them dead. The slave had first killed\\nhis master and then himself The head of Gracchus was cut off,\\nand carried to Opimius, who gave to the person who brought it\\nits wdight iQ gold. F.accus was also put to death, together with\\nnumbers of his part}^ Their corpses were thrown into the Tiber,\\ntheir houses demolished, and their property confiscated. Even\\ntheir widows were forbidden to wear mourning. After the bloody\\nwork had been finished, the consul, by order of the senate,\\ndedicated a temple to Concord\\nThe measures of social reform projected by the Gracchi did\\nnot long survive their authors. In 121 b.c. the land-allotments\\nwere made alienable, and a great deal of the\\npublic land, which had been distributed, appears\\nto have lapsed again into the hands of its original i\u00e2\u0080\u009e ^^?\u00e2\u0080\u009ef;\\ni- 1 J 111 J 1 legislation.\\npossessors; lor a law oi 111 b.c, passed under\\nthe auspices of the senate, declared all such land private\\nproperty the slave population did not diminish, nor did the\\nyeoman class increase. But, if the final downfall of the Eoman\\nconstitution was a worthy object of Komau ambition, G. Gracchus\\nat least had not lived in vain.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "A Roman trophy.\\nCHAPTEE XXn.\\nMarius.\\nTHE JUGURTHINE WAK AND THE DEFEAT OF THE GOVERNMENT.\\n118-104 B.C.\\nThe first attack on the senate s government had been foiled,\\nand the failure and death of the Gracchi proved that internal\\nreform could not be forced on the governing\\ncorporation. It was now to be assailed on a\\nmore vulnerable point that of imperial administration their\\nconduct in the Jugurthine War raised against the nobility a more\\nterrible opponent than the Gracchi had ever been, and showed\\nthat the leader of the popular party need not be a powerless\\ntribune relying on the fickle votes of the Assembly, but might\\nbe au imperator at the head of an army. This military leader", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXII.] MARIUS AND JUGURTHA. 193\\nwas found in C. Marius. He was a native of Arpinum, first\\nsaw service in Spain, and was present at the siege of Numantia\\nin 134 B.C. Here he attracted the notice of Scipio Africanus,\\nand received from him manj marks of honour. Scipio, indeed,\\nadmitted liim to his table and on a certain occasion, when one\\nof tlie guests asked where tlie Roman people would find such\\nanother general after his death, he is said to have laid his hand\\non the shoulder of Marius, and said, Perhaps here. Througli\\ndistinguished service in the army Marius reached the honours\\ngenerally reserved for birth, and was at length raised to the\\nTribunate of the Plebs in 119 B.C., though not till he had\\nattained the mature age of thirt3 -six. Only two years had\\nelapsed since the death of C. Gracchus and the nobles, flushed\\nwith victory, resolved to put down with a high hand the least\\ninvasion of their privileges and power. But Marius had the\\nboldness to propose a law for the purpose of giving greater\\nfreedom at elections and when the senate attempted to over-\\nawe him, he ordered one of his officers to carry the Consul\\nMetellus to prison. Marius now became a marked man. He\\nlost his election to the aedileship, and with difficult} obtained\\nthe praetorship (115 B.C.) but he added to his influence by his\\nmairiage with Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar, the father of\\nthe future ruler of Rome. His military abilities recommended\\nhim to the Consul Metellus (109 B.C.), who was anxious to re-\\nstore discipline in the army and to retrieve the glory of the\\nRoman name, which had been tarnished by the incapacity and\\ncorruption of the previous generals in the Jugurthine War.\\nThe relations into which Rome had entered with the pro-\\ntected kings of Numidia had drawn her into a miserable\\ndynastic quarrel. The aged Masinissa had died\\nin 149 B.C., leaving three sons, Micipsa, Mas-\\ntanabal, and Gulussa, among whom his kingdom was divided\\nby Scipio Africanus, according to the djang directions of the old\\nking. Mastanabal and Gulussa dying in their brother s hfetime,\\nMicipsa became sole king. Jugurtha was a bastard son of\\nMastanabal but Micipsa brought him up with his own sons,\\nHiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha s distinction and popularity\\nexcited the fears of the king, and in order to remove him to a\\ndistance, and not without a hope that he might perish in the\\nwar, Micipsa sent him, in 134 b.c, with an auxiliary force, to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "194 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII.\\nassist Scipio against Numantia but this only proved to the\\nyoung man a stepping-stone to success. By his zeal, courage,\\nand ability he gained the favour, not only of his commander, but\\nof all the leading nobles in the Eoman camp, by manj^ of whom\\nhe was secretly stimulated to nourish ambitious schemes for\\nacquiring the sole sovereignty of Numidia and notwithstanding\\nthe contrary advice of Scipio, the counsels seem to have sunk\\ndeep into Jugurtha s mind. On his return he was received with\\nevery demonstration of honour by Micipsa nor did he allow his\\nambitious projects to break forth during the lifetime of the old\\nman. Micipsa, on his deathbed, though but too clearly foreseeing\\nwhat would happen, commended the two young princes to the\\ncare of Jngurtha but fierce dissensions soon broke out.\\nShortly afterwards Jugurtha found an opportunity to surprise\\nand assassinate Hiempsal whereupon Adherbal and his partisans\\nrushed to arms but were defeated in battle by\\nJugurtha Jugurtha. Adherbal himself fled for refuge to\\nS61Z6S\\nNumidia Roman province, from whence he hastened\\nto Rome to lay his cause before the senate.\\nJugurtha had now, for the first time, the opportunity of putting\\nto the test the lessons learnt in the camp before Numantia. He\\nsent ambassadors to Rome to counteract, by a lavish distribution\\nof bribes, the efl^ect of Adherbal s complaints; and by these\\nmeans succeeded in averting the indignation of the senate\\nalthough, even without this inducement, the government would\\nprobably not have been unwilling to see the protected kingdom\\nunder an able ruler who had won the confidence of the people.\\nStill, the forms of justice were preserved a decree was passed\\nfor the division of the kingdom of Numidia between the two com-\\npetitors, and a commission of senators sent out but the commis-\\nsioners were worked on by Jugurtha, who obtained, in the partition\\nof the kingdom, the western division adjacent to Mauretania, by\\nfar the larger and richer portion of the two (116 B.C.).\\nThis advantage, however, was far from contenting him, and\\nshortly afterwards he invaded the territories of his rival with a\\nCapture of large army. Adherbal was defeated in the first\\nCirta, and engagement, his camp taken, and he himself with\\nmassacre of difficulty made his escape to the strong fortress\\nItalians. ^f Qj^ta. Here he was closely blockaded by\\nJugurtha. The garrison surrendered on a promise of their lives", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXII.] WAR IN NUMIDIA. 195\\nbeing spared but these conditions were shamefully violated by\\nJugurtha, who immediately put to death Adherbal and all his\\nfollowers (112 B.C.).\\nUnfortunately, a number of Italian merchants were amongst\\nthe massacred, and a piercing cry went up from the all-powerful\\ncapitalists of Rome. With the equites on its side,\\nthe popular party had its chance, and one of the Memmius\\ntribunes, C. Memmius, by bringing the matter opposition\\nbefore the people, compelled the senate to declare\\nwar. In 111 B.C. one of the consuls, L. Calpurnius Bestia,\\nlanded in Africa with a large army, and immediately proceeded\\nto invade Numidia. But both Bestia and M. Scaurus, who acted\\nas his principal lieutenant, are said to have been bribed by\\nJugurtha to grant him a favourable peace, on condition only of\\na pretended submission, together with the surrender of thirty\\nelephants and a small sum of money. The scandal of this trans-\\naction was dwelt on by Memmius, and it was agreed to send the\\nPraetor L. Cassius, a man of the highest integritj to Numidia,\\nin order to prevail on the king to repair in person to Eome, the\\npopular party hoping to be able to convict the leaders of the\\nnobility by means of his evidence.\\nThe safe conduct granted him by the state was religiously\\nobserved; but the scheme failed of its effect, for, as soon as\\nJugurtha was brought forward in an assembly of\\nthe People to make his statement, one of the\\ntribunes, who had been previous!}; gained over\\nby the friends of Scaurus and Bestia, forbade him to speak.\\nHe, nevertheless, remained at Rome for some time longer, and\\nengaged in secret intrigues, which would probably have been\\nultimately crowned with success, had he not in the mean time\\nventured to assassinate Massiva, son of Gulussa, who was putting\\nin a claim to the Numidian throne. It was impossible to over-\\nlook so daring a crime, perpetrated under the very eyes of the\\nsenate. Jugurtha was ordered to quit Italy without delay. It\\nwas on this occasion that he is said, when leaving Rome, to have\\nuttered the memorable words, A city for sale, and destined to\\nperish quickly, if it can find a purchaser.\\nWar was now inevitable but the incapacity of Sp. Postumius\\nAlbinus, who arrived to conduct it (110 B.C.), and still more\\nthat of his brother Aulus, whom he left to command in his", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "196 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII.\\nabsence when called away to hold the elections at Rome, proved\\nas favourable to Jugurtha as the corruption of their prede-\\nWar in Nu- cessors. Aulus, having penetrated into the heart\\nmidia. Defeat of Numidia, suffered himself to be surprised in his\\nof Aulus camp great part of his army was cut to pieces,\\nAlbmus. j^jj(j |.j-,g j.gg|. Qjj]y escaped a similar fate by the\\nignominy of passing under the yoke. The disgrace at once\\nroused all the spirit of the Roman people the treaty concluded\\nby Aulus was instantly annulled, immense exertions were made to\\nraise troops, and one of the consuls for the new year (109 B.C.),\\nQ. Caecilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia to retrieve the\\nhonour of the Roman arms.\\nBut this did not satisfy the people. The scandalous conduct\\nof so many of the nobles had given fresh life lo the popular\\nparty and the Tribune C. Mamilius carried a bill\\n-?f.^^-\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00ab-\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00ab for the appointment of three commissioners to\\ncommission.\\nmqun-e mto the conduct ot all oi those who had\\nreceived bribes from Jugurtha. Scaurus, though one of the\\nmost guilty, managed to be put upon the commission. But he\\ndared not shield his confederates. Many men of the highest\\nrank were condemned, among whom were Bestia, Albinus, and\\nOpimius. The last-named was the Opimius who acted with such\\nferocity towards Caius Gracchus and his party. He died in exile\\nat Dyrrhacium some years afterwards, in great poverty.\\nThe Consul Metellus, who was an able general and a man of the\\nstrictest integrity, landed in Africa, with Marius as his Heutenant,\\nin 109 B.C. As soon as Jugurtha discovered tiie\\nMetellus pro- character of the new commander, he began to\\nsecutes the j-j- jj Ij-i,\\ndespair ot success, and made overtures tor sub-\\nmission in earnest. These were apparently enter-\\ntained by Metellus, while he sought, in fact, to gain over the\\nadherents of the king, and induce them to betray him to the\\nRomans, at the same time that he continued to advance into\\nthe enemy s territories. Jugurtha, in his turn, detected his\\ndesigns, attacked him suddenly on his march with a numerous\\nforce, but was, after a severe struggle, repulsed, and his army\\ntotally routed. Metellus ravaged the greater part of the country,\\nbut failed in taking the important town of Zama before he with-\\ndrew into winter quarters. But he had produced such an effect\\nupon the Numidian king, that Jugurtha was induced, in the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXII.] METELLUS IN NUMIDIA. 197\\ncourse of the winter, to make offers of unqualified submission,\\nand even surrendered all his elephants, with a number of arms\\nand horses, and a large sura of money, to the Eoman general\\nbut when called upon to place himself personally in the power\\nof Metellus, his courage failed him, he broke off the negotiation,\\nand once more had recourse to arms.\\nMarius had greatly distinguished himself in the preceding\\ncampaign. The readiness with which he shared the toils of\\nthe common soldiers, eating of the same food, and working at\\nthe same trenches with them, had endeared him to them, and\\nthrough their letters to their friends at Rome his praises were\\nin everybody s mouth. His increasing reputation and popularity\\ninduced him to aspire to the consulship. His hopes were in-\\ncreased bj^ a circumstance which happened to him at Utica.\\nWhile sacrificing at this place, the officiating priest told him that\\nthe victims predicted some great and wonderful events, and bade\\nhim execute whatever purpose he had in his mind. Marius\\nthereupon applied to Metellus for leave of absence, that he\\nmight proceed to Rome and offer himself as a candidate. The\\nconsul, who belonged to the family which Fate destined for\\nthe consulship, at first tried to dissuade Marius from his pre-\\nsumptuous attempt, by pointing out the certainty of failure and\\nwhen he could not prevail upon him to abandon his design, he\\ncivilly evaded his request by pleading the exigencies of the\\npublic service, which required his presence and assistance.\\nMarius s insistence at last drew from him the impatient remark,\\nYou need not hurrj it will be quite time enough for you to\\napply for the consulship along with my son. The latter, who\\nwas then serving with the army, was a j outh of only twenty\\nyears of age, and could not, therefore, become a candidate for\\nthe consulship for more than twenty years. This insult was\\nnever forgotten by Marius. He now began to intrigue against\\nhis general, and to spread the absurd report that the war was\\npurposely prolonged by Metellus to gratify his own vanity and\\nlove of military power. He openly declared that with one-half\\nof the army he would soon have Jugurtha in chains and, as all\\nhis remarks were carefully reported at Rome, the people began\\nto regard him as the only person competent to finish the war.\\nMetellus at last allowed him to leave Africa, but only twelve\\ndays before the election. Meeting with a favourable wind, he", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "198 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII.\\narrived at Rome in time, and was elected consul with an enthu-\\nsiasm which bore down all opposition. He received from the\\nMarius elected people the province of Numidia, although tlie\\nconsul. Ap- senate had previously decreed that Metellus\\npointed to should continue in his command. The soldier-\\nNumidia. demagogue made the most of the situation. In\\nhis speeches to the public, he gloried in his humble origin. He\\nupbraided the nobles with their effeminacy and licentiousness\\nhe told them that he looked upon the consulship as a trophy\\nof his conquest over them and he proudly compared his own\\nwounds and military experience with their indolence and\\nignorance of war. It was a great triumph for the people\\nand a great humiliation for the aristocracy, and Marius made\\nthem drink to the dregs the bitter cup. While engaged in these\\nattacks upon the nobility, he at the same time carried on a levy\\nof troops with great activity, and formed the first mercenary\\narmj of Rome by enrolling any persons who chose to offer for\\nthe service, however poor and mean, instead of taking them\\nfrom the five classes according to ancient custom.*\\nMeantime Metellus had been carrying on the war in Africa as\\nproconsul (108 B.C.). But the campaign was not productive of\\nsuch decisive results as might have been expected. Jugurtha\\navoided any general action, and eluded the pursuit of Metellus\\nby the rapidity of his movements. Even when driven from\\nThala, a stronghold which he had deemed inaccessible from its\\nposition in the midst of arid deserts, he only retired among the\\nGaetulians, apd quickly succeeded in raising among those wild\\ntribes a fresh army, with which he once more penetrated into\\nthe heart of Numidia. A still more important accession was that\\nof Bocchus, king of Mauretania, who had been prevailed upon\\nto raise an army and advance to the support of Jugurtha.\\nMetellus, however, having now relaxed his own efforts, from\\ndisgust at hearing that C. Marius had been appointed to succeed\\n-him in the command, remained on the defensive, while he sought\\nto amuse the Moorish king by negotiation.\\nThe arrival of Marius (107 B.C.) infused fresh vigour into the\\nRoman arms he quickly reduced in succession ahnost all the\\nstrongholds that still remained to Jugurtha, in some of which\\nthe king had deposited his principal treasures and the latter.\\nOn this important change in the Roman army, see p. 151.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXII.] CLOSE OF THE JUGURTHINE WAR. 199\\nseeing himself thus deprived step by step of all his domiMions,\\nat length determined on a desperate attempt to retrieve his\\nfortunes by one grand effort. He with diffi-\\nculty prevailed on the wavering Bocchus, by w\u00e2\u0084\u00a2^^:^\\nthe most extensive promises in case of success, to\\nco-operate with him in this enterprise and the two kings with\\ntheir united forces attacked Marius on his march, when he was\\nabout to retire into winter quarters. Though the Koman general\\nwas taken by surprise for a moment, his skill, the discipline of\\nhis troops, and the energy of Sulla, Marius s quaestor, who\\nscattered the Mauri under Bocchus, proved triumphant the\\nNumidians were repulsed, and their army, as usual with them\\nin case of a defeat, dispersed in all directions. Jugurtha himself,\\nafter displaying the greatest courage in the action, cut his way\\nalmost alone through a body of Roman cavalry, and escaped\\nfrom the field of battle. He quickly again gathered round hira\\na body of Numidian horse but his only hope of continuing the\\nwar now rested on Bocchus.\\nThe only hope of closing the war was to get possession of\\nJugurtha, for Marius s victories had been as nugatory as those of\\nMetellus. Fortunately, Marius had in his camp\\na man of great diplomatic ability it was his jTigTirtha\\nquaestor Sulla who enabled him to perform his\\nrash promises to the people. After protracted negotiations,\\nBocchus was gained over to the Roman cause. Through his\\ntreachery Jugurtha was surprised and handed over to Sulla,\\nwho conveyed him to the Roman camp (early in 106 B.C.).\\nL. Cornelius Sulla, the quaestor of Marius, who afterwards plays\\nsuch a distinguished part in Roman history, was descended from\\na patrician family which had been reduced to\\ngreat obscurity. But his means were sufficient\\nto secure him a good education. He studied the Greek and\\nRoman writers with diligence and success, and early imbibed\\nthat love of literature and art by which he was distinguished\\nthroughout his life. But he was also fond of pleasure, and was\\nconspicuous even among the Romans for licentiousness and\\ndebauchery. He was in every respect a contrast, to Marius.\\nHe possessed all the accomplishments and all the vices which\\nthe old Cato had been most accustomed to denounce, and he\\nwas one of those advocates of Greek literature and of Greek", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "200 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXII.\\nprofligacy who had since Cato s time become more and more\\ncommon among the Eoman nobles. But Sulla s love of pleasure\\ndid not absorb all his time, nor enfeeble his mind for no Roman\\nduring the latter days of the Republic, with the exception of\\nJulius Caesar, had a clearer judgment, a keener discrimination\\nof character, or a firmer will. Upon his arrival in Africa, Marios\\nwas not well pleased that a quaestor had been assigned to him\\nwho was known only for his profligacy, and who had had no\\nexperience in war but the zeal and energy with which Sulla\\nattended to his new duties soon rendered him a useful and\\nskilful officer, and gained for him the unqualified approbation of\\nhis commander, notwithstanding his previous prejudices against\\nhim. He was equally successful in winning the affections of\\nthe soldiers. He seized every opportunity of conferring favours\\nupon them, was ever ready to take part in all the jests of the\\ncamp, and at the same time never shrank from sharing in all\\ntheir labours and dangers. The enemies of Marius claimed for\\nSulla (apparently with reason) the glory of the betrayal of\\nJugurtha, and Sulla himself took the credit of it by always\\nwearing a signet-ring representing the scene of the surrender.\\nBut the people were not to be baulked of their champion.\\nMarius entered Rome on the first of January, 104 B.C., leading\\nJugurtha in triumph. The Numidian king was\\nMarius Oi^n thrown into a dungeon, and there starved to\\ndeath. Marius, during his absence, had been\\nelected consul a second time, and he entered upon his office\\non the day of his triumph. This signal honour was due to a\\npanic which had seized on Italy at a great danger threatening\\nfrom the north.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "German priestess in chariot drawn by oxen (from Antonine column^,\\nCHAPTER XXTII.\\nTHE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES, B.C. 113-101.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 SECOND SERVILE\\nWAR IN SICILY, B.C. 103-101.\\nA GREATER danger than Rome had experienced since the time of\\nHannibal now threatened the state. Two nations of barbarians,\\nprobably dislodged by some movement of peoples\\nThe Cimbri\\nand Tentones.\\non the Baltic or the Lower Rhine, had gathered\\non the northern side of the Alps, and seemed\\nready to pour down upon Italy. They are spoken of as Cimbri\\nand Teutones, and the traditions of their mode of fighting and\\nreligious rites seem to show that both nations were of Germanic\\norigin, although they had probably gathered to themselves\\nduring their wanderings large numbers of the Celtic ra\u00c2\u00abe.\\nThey came with all their belongings, their wagon-homes, their", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "202 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXIII\\nwobien and children, to seek new settlements in the south and\\nthe whole host is said to have numbered 300,000 fighting men.\\nThe alarm was still further increased by the disaster which\\nhad hitherto attended the attempts to repel these barbarians.\\nArmy after army had fallen before them. The\\nDefeat of Cimbri were first heard of in 113 B.C., in Noricum,\\narmies whence they descended into Illyricum, and de-\\nfeated a Roman army under the command of Cn.\\nPapirius Carbo. They then marched westward into Switzerland,\\nwhere they were joined by the Tigurini and the Ambrones.\\nThey next poured over Gaul, which they plundered and ravaged\\nin every direction. The Romans sent army after army to defend\\nthe south-western part of the country, which was now a Roman\\nprovince but all in vain. In 109 B.C. the Consul M. Junius\\nSilanus was defeated by the Cimbri in 107 B.C. the Tigurini cut\\nin pieces, near the Lake of Geneva, the army of the Consul L.\\nCassius Longinus, the colleague of Marius, who lost his life in\\nthe battle and shortly afterwards M. Aurelius Scaurus was also\\ndefeated and taken prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was\\nstill to come. In 105 B.C. two consular armies, commanded by\\nthe Consul Cn. Mallius Maximus and the Proconsul Cn. Servilius\\nCaepio, consisting of 80,000 men, were completely annihilated\\nby the barbarians only ten men are said to have escaped the\\nslaughter.\\nThese repeated disasters hushed all party quarrels. Every one\\nat Rome felt that Marius was the only man capable of saving the\\nstate, and he was accordingly elected consul by\\nMarius ap- ^j^g consent of all parties while he was still absent\\ncommand* Africa. He entered Rome in triumph, as we\\nhave already said, on the 1st of Jiinuary, 104 B.C.,\\nwhich was the first day of his second consulship. A breathing-\\nspace was granted by the erratic movements of the barbarians.\\nInstead of crossing the Alps and pouring down upon Italy, as\\nhid been expected, the Cimbri marched into Spain, which they\\nravaged for the next two or three years. The interval was\\nemployed by Marius in training the new troops, and accustoming\\nthem to hardships and toil. It was probably during this time\\nthat he introduced the various changes into the organization of\\nthe Roman array which are usually attributed to him. Notwith-\\nstanding the sternness and severity with which he punished the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIIJ.] DEFEAT OF THE TEUTONES. 203\\nleast breach of discipline, he was a favourite -with his new\\nsoldiers, who learned to pkce implicit confidence in their\\ngenera], and were delighted with the strict impartiality which\\nrecognized no distinctions of rank when punishments weie to be\\ninflicted.\\nAs the enemy still continued in Spain, Marius was elected\\nconsul a third time for the year 103 B.C., and also a fourth\\ntime for the following year, with Q. Lutatius\\nCatulus as his colleague. It was in this year Movements\\n(102 B.C.) that the long-expected barbarians ar- horbarians\\nrived. The Cimbri, who had returned from Spain,\\nunited their forces with the Teutones. Marius first took up his\\nposition in a fortified camp upon the Ehone, probably in the\\nvicinity of the modern Aries and as the entrance of the river\\nwas nearly blocked up by mud and sand, he employed his\\nsoldiers in digging a canal from the Ehone to the Mediterranean,\\nthat he might the more easily obtain his supplies from the sea.*\\nMeantime the barbarians had divided their forces. The Cimbri\\nmarched round the northern foot of the Alps, in order to enter\\nItaly by the north-east, crossing the Tyrolese Alps by the defiles\\nof Tridentum {Trent).\\nThe Teutones and Ambrones, on the other hand, marched\\nagainst Marius, intending, as it seems, to penetrate into Italy by\\nNice and the Riviera of Genoa. Marius, anxious\\nto accustom his soldiers to the savage and strange Teutones\\nappearance of the barbarians, would not give them t*qi\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nbattle at first. The latter resolved to attack the\\nRoman camp but as they were repulsed in this attempt, they\\npressed on at once for Italy. So great were their numbers, that\\nthey are said to have been six days in marching by the Roman\\ncamp.\\nAs soon as they had advanced a httle way, Marius followed\\nthem and thus the armies continued to march for a few days,\\nthe barbarians in the front and Marius behind, till\\nthey came to the neighbourhood of Aquae Sextiae eSextiae\\n{Aix). Here the decisive battle was fought. An\\nambush of 3000 soldiers, which Marius had stationed in the rear\\nof the barbarians, and which fell upon them when they were\\nThis canal continued to exist long afterwards, and bore the name of Fossa\\nMariana.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "204 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIII.\\nalready retreating, decided the fortune of the daj^ Attacked\\nboth in front and rear, enervated by the unaccustomed heat,\\nthey at length broke their ranks and fled. I he carnage was\\ndreadful the whole nation was annihilated, for those who es-\\ncaped put an end to their lives, and their wives followed their\\nexample. Immediately after the battle, as Marius was in the\\nact of setting fire to the vast heap of broken arms which was\\nintended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode up to him,\\nand greeted him with the news of his being elected consul for the\\nfifth time.\\nThe Cimbri, in the mean time, had forced their way into Italy.\\nThe colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, despairing of de-\\nfending the passes of the Tyrol, had taken up a\\nThe Cimbri ,i axi n i x\\non the Fadus strong position on the Athesis [Adige) but m\\nconsequence of the terror of his soldiers at the\\napproach of the barbarians, he was obliged to retreat even\\nbeyond the Po, thus leaving the whole of the rich plain of Lom-\\nbardy exposed to their ravages. Marius was therefore recalled\\nfrom the battle-field of Aix to join the army of Catulus on the\\nPo (101 B.C.).\\nThe united forces of the consul and proconsul crossed the\\nriver, and hastened in search of the Cimbri, who had marched\\nslowly up the stream, in search of a convenient\\nVercellae crossing-place, and, perhaps, in hopes of being\\njoined by the Teutones, of whose destruction\\nthey had not yet heard. They were now stationed to the west\\nof Milan near Vercellae. The Cimbri met with the same fate as\\nthe Teutones the whole nation was annihilated and the women,\\nlike those of the Teutones, put an end to their lives. The first\\ntide of Germanic invasion had been stemmed, and Marius was\\nhailed as the saviour of the state his name was coupled with the\\ngods in the libations and at banquets and he received the title of\\nthird founder of Rome. He celebrated his victories by a brilliant\\ntriumph, in which, however, Catulus was allowed to share.\\nDuring the brilliant campaigns of Marius, Sicily had been\\nexposed to the horrors of a second Servile War. The insurrection\\nagain broke out at Enna in the east of the island,\\nWar^in Sicilv^ where the slaves elected as their king one Salvius,\\na soothsayer. He displayed considerable abilities,\\nand in a short time collected a force of 20,000 foot and 2000", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIII.]\\nSECOND SERVILE WAR.\\n205\\nhorse. After defeating a Eoman army, he assumed all the pomp\\nof royalty, and took the surname of Tryphon, which had been\\nborne by a usurper to the Syrian throne. The success of Salvius\\nled to an insurrection in the western part of the island, where\\nthe slaves chose as their leader a Cilician named Athenio, who\\njoined Tryphon, and acknowledged his sovereignty. Upon the\\ndeath of Tryphon, Athenio became king. The insurrection had\\nnow assumed such a formidable aspect that, in 101 B.C., the\\nsenate sent the Consul M Aquillius into Sicily. He succeeded\\nin subduing the insurgents, and killed Athenio with his own\\nhand. The survivors were sent to Rome, and condemned to\\nfight with wild beasts but they disdained to minister to the\\npleasures of their oppressors, and slew each other with their\\nown hands in the amphitheatre.\\nFasces (from the original in the Capitol of Rome).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "Caius Mariua.\\nCHAPTER XXIV.\\nTHE DOWISTFALL OF THE OPPOSITION, AND THE ATTEMPT OF\\nDEUSUS AT REFORM.\\nThe five consulships of Marius had been a gross violation of the\\nconstitution, only to be excused by the dangers of the times\\nbut the democratic party had no hope except\\nMarius and jj^ ^.j^g ^.^jg ^f g^ single man and, as the time\\ndemocrats consular elections approached, Marius\\nbecame again a candidate for the consulship.\\nHe wished to be first in peace as well as in war, and to rule the\\nstate as well as the army. But he did not possess the qualities\\nrequisite for a popular leader at Rome he had no programme\\nand no power of oratory, and he lost his presence of mind in\\nthe noise and shouts of the popular assemblies.\\nTo secure his election he entered into close connection with\\ntwo of the most violent demagogues that ever appeared at Rome,\\nSaturninus and Glaucia. The former was a can-\\nSaturnlims didate for the tribunate, and the latter for the\\npraetorship and by their means, as well as by\\nbribing the tribes, Marius secured his election to the consulship\\nfor the sixth time. Glaucia also obtained the praetorship, but\\nSaturninus was not equally successful. He lost his election", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIV.J ATTEMPTS OF THE OPPOSITION. 207\\nchiefly through the exertions of A. Nonius, who was chosen in\\nhis stead. But assassination as a political weapon was coming\\ninto vogue on the evening of his election Nonius was murdered,\\nand next morning, at an early hour, before the forum was full,\\nSaturninus was chosen to fill up the vacancy.\\nAs soon as Saturninus had entered upon his office (100 B.C.)\\nhe brought forward an Agrarian Law for dividing among the\\nsoldiers of Marius the lands in Gaul which had\\nbeen lately occupied by the Cirabri, and to which s\u00e2\u0080\u009e^!.^-\\nthe state had as little right as the Cimbri them-\\nselves. He added to the law a clause that, if it was enacted by\\nthe people, every senator should swear obedience to it within\\nfive days, and that whoever refused to do so should be expelled\\nfrom the senate, and pay a fine of twenty talents. This clause,\\nwhich completely reversed the established order of legislation,\\nwas employed by Marius to effect the ruin of Metellus. Marius\\nrose in the senate, and declared that he would never take the\\noath, and Metellus made the same declaration but when the\\nlaw had been passed, and Saturninus summoned the senators\\nto the rostra to comply with the demands of the law, Marius, to\\nthe astonishment of all, immediately took the oath, and advised\\nthe senate to follow his example. Metellus alone refused com-\\npliance and on the following day Saturninus sent his beadle to\\ndrag him out of the senate-house.\\nNot content with this victory, Saturninus brought forward a\\nbill to punish him with exile. The friends of Metellus were\\nready to take up arms in his defence but he\\ndeclined their assistance, and withdrew privately w^^^ii\\nfrom the city. Saturninus brought forward other\\npopular measures, such as. had already figured in the Gracchan\\nprogramme. He proposed a Lex Frumentaria, by which the\\nstate was to sell corn to the people at a very low price and\\nalso a law for founding new colonies in Sicily, Achaia, and\\nMacedonia. In the election of the magistrates for the following\\nyear Saturninus was again chosen tribune. Glaucia was at the\\nsame time a candidate for the consulship, the two other can-\\ndidates being M. Antonius and C. Memmius. The election of\\nAntonius was certain, and the struggle lay between Glaucia and\\nMemmius. But this stumbling-block was also removed, and\\nMemmius, murdered openly in the comitia, fell a victim to his", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "208 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIV.\\nown party. All sensible people had previously become alarmed\\nat the mad conduct of Saturninus and his partisans; and the\\nequites, who had hitherto supported Marius, swung over to the\\nside of the government. The senate felt themselves now suffi-\\nciently strong to declare Glaucia and Saturninus public enemies,\\nand invested the consuls with dictatorial power. Marius was\\nunwilHng to act against his associates, but he had no alternative,\\nand his backwardness was compensated by the zeal of others.\\nDriven out of the forum, Saturninus, Glaucia, and the quaestor\\nSaufeius, took refuge in the Capitol but the partisans of the\\nsenate cut off the pipes which supplied the citadel\\nIt water before Marius began to move against\\nthem. Unable to hold out any longer, they sur-\\nrendered to Marius. The latter did all he could to save their\\nlives as soon as they descended from the Capitol, he placed\\nthem, for security, in the Curia Hostilia, but the mob pulled off\\nthe tiles of the senate-house, and pelted them till they died.\\nThe senate gave their sanction to the proceeding, by rewarding\\nwith the citizenship a slave of the name of Scaeva, who claimed\\nthe honour of having killed Saturninus.\\nMarius had lost all influence in the state by allying himself\\nwith such unprincipled adventurers. In the following year\\n(99 B.C.) he left Eome, in order that he might\\nt^Th lF\u00c2\u00b0r witness the return of Metellus from exile a\\nmeasure which he had been unable to prevent.\\nHe set sail for Cappadocia and Galatia, under the pretence of\\noffering services which he had vowed to the Great Mother. He\\nhad, however, a deeper purpose in visiting these countries. He\\nlonged for another military command that might restore him to\\npower, and accordingly repaired to the coui-t of Mithridates,\\nking of Pontus, to discover the lengths to which that monarch\\nwas likely to go in his opposition to Eome, and to make\\nhostilities more certain by exciting the fears of the king.\\nThe mad scheme of Saturninus, and the discredit into which\\nMarius had fallen, had given new strength to the senate. Un-\\nmindful of the fact that it was through the support of the equites\\nthat their recent victory had been won, they judged the oppor-\\ntunity favourable for depriving this order of the judicial power\\nwhich they had enjoyed, with only a temporary cessation, since\\nthe time of C. Gracchus.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIV.] REFORMS OF LIVIUS DRUSUS. 209\\nThe equites had abused their power, as the senate had done\\nbefore them. They were the capitalists who farmed the public\\nrevenues in the provinces, where they committed\\npeculation and extortion with habitual impunity. Abuse of\\nTheir possession of the courts gave them a com- gg^+es\\nplete control over provincial governors, and their\\nunjust condemnation of Rutilius Eufus had shown how unfit they\\nwere to be entrusted with judicial duties. Kutilius was a man of\\nspotless integrity, and while acting as lieutenant to Q. Mucins\\nScaevola, proconsul of Asia in 98 B.C., he displayed so much\\nhonesty and firmness in repressing the extortions of the farmers\\nof the taxes, that he became an object of fear and hatred to the\\nwhole body. Accordingly, on his return to Rome, a charge of\\nmalversation was trumped up against him he was found guilty,\\nand compelled to withdraw into banishment (b.c. 92).\\nThe senate had learnt the lesson of the past ten years that\\nsection of the order which was genuinely desirous of reform was\\nstrong, and its representative, M. Livius Drusus,\\nthe son of the celebrated opponent of C. Gracchus, J^eforms of\\nJ r en i-u n^ 1 i. f I-IVIUS DrUSUS\\nand tribune for 91 B.C., was the lory democrat ot ^.j^^ youneer\\nthe day. Full of aristocratic prejudices, and a firm\\nbeliever in the rule of the nobility, he condescended to take some\\nitems from the current democratic programme. Laws granting\\nthe distribution of corn at a low price, and the establishment of\\ncolonies in Italy and Sicily, were thrown as a sop to the people,\\nand he was thus enabled to carry his measures for the reform\\nof the judicia which were that the senate should be increased\\nfrom 300 to 600 by the addition of an equal number of equites,\\nand that the judices should be taken from the senate thus doubled\\nin numbers. Drusus aimed at a coalition government, which\\nshould keep the Radicals in check but this measure of com-\\npromise was acceptable to neither party. The senators viewed\\nwith dislike the elevation to their own rank of 300 equites\\nwhile the equites, who had no desire to transfer to a select few\\nof their own order the profitable share in the administration of\\njustice which they all enjoyed, were hopelessly alienated.\\nAnother measure of Drusus rendered him equally unpopular\\nwith the people. He had held out to the Latins and the Italian\\nallies the promise of the Roman franchise. It may be doubtful\\nwhat the intention of the similar proposal of C. Gracchus had\\np", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "210 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIV.\\nbeen but there can be no doubt that Drusus was firmly con-\\nvinced that the enfranchisement of Italy, by widening the basis\\nof government, would ensure the safety of the state. The\\nEomau people, however, still looked askance at such a measure,\\nand Drusus foundered on the rock which had proved fatal to\\nC. Gracchus. But promises had been made to the allies it was\\ntoo late to retreat and in order to oppose the formidable coalition\\nagainst him, Drusus had recourse to a device which might easily\\nbe interpreted as treasonable. A secret society was formed, in\\nwhich the members bound themselves by a solemn oath to have\\nthe same friends and foes with Drusus, and to obey all his com-\\nmands. The ferment soon became so great that the public peace\\nwas more than once threatened. The allies were ready to take\\nup arms at the first movement.\\nThe consuls, looking upon Drusus as a conspirator, resolved\\nto meet his plots by counter-plots. But he knew his danger,\\nand whenever he went into the city kept a strong\\nAssassma ion i;)ody-guard of attendants close to his person. The\\nend could not much longer be postponed and\\nthe civil war was on the point of breaking out, when one\\nevening Drusus was assassinated in his own house, while dis-\\nmissing the crowds who were attending him. A leather-cutter s\\nknife was found sticking in his loins. Turning round to those\\nwho surrounded him, he asked them, as he was dying, Friends\\nand neighbours, when will the Commonwealth have a citizen\\nlike me again?\\nEven in the lifetime of Drusus the senate had, by the discovery\\nof a technical flaw, repealed all his laws. The reaction after\\nhis death was terrible. The Tribune Q. Varius\\nTne varian brought forward a law declaring all persons guilty\\nof high treason who had assisted the cause of the\\nallies. Many leading men fell victims to the criminal commis-\\nsion established by this law, and the measure, following the\\nassassination of Drusus, roused the indignation of the allies to\\nthe highest pitch. They saw clearly that the Roman people\\nwould yield nothing except upon compulsion.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "Coin of the eight Italian nations taking the Oath of Federation.\\nCHAPTER XXV.\\nTHE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, AND THE INCORPORATION OF ITALY.\\n90-89 B.C.\\nThe issue of the impending war was to decide whether Eome\\nwas to remain a dominant city in Italy, or to become merged as\\na subordinate state in an Italian confederation.\\nAlone she could hardly have resisted the whole of ^^^T!^*;^-\\nTil f. 1 1 communities.\\nItaly but the insurrection was connned almost\\nexclusively to the Sabellians and their kindred races. The\\nEtruscans and Umbrians, where the capitalist class pre-\\nponderated, stood aloof; while the tribes or cities which had\\nreceived the Roman franchise in whole or in part, such as the\\nSabines and Volscians, with the Latin colonies and the Greek\\ntowns such as Neapolis and Rhegium, were in the main faitliful\\nto the Republic, and furnished the materials of her arm es.\\nThe nations which composed the formidable conspiracy gainst\\nRome were originallj^ eight in number, the Marsians, Paelignians,\\nMarrucinians, Vestinians, Picentines, Samiiites, Apulians, and\\nLucanians. Of these the Marsians were particularly dis-\\ntinguished for their courage and skill in war and from the\\nprominent part which they took in the struggle, it was frequently\\ntermed the Marsic as well as the Social War.\\nThe war broke out at Asculum in Picenum. The Proconsul\\nQ. Servilius, w ho had the charge of this part of Italy, hearing\\nthat the inhabitants of Asculum were organizing a\\nrevolt, entered the town, and endeavoured to per- \u00e2\u0080\u009e\u00e2\u0080\u009eA^j*\\n1 confeaeration,\\nsuade them to lay aside their hostiJe intentions.\\nBut he was murdered, together with his legate, by the exasperated", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "212 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXV.\\ncitizens, and all the Eomans in the place were likewise put\\nto death. This was the signal for a general insurrection. Cor-\\nfiniura, a strong city of the Paeligni, to which the name of\\nItalica was given, was fixed upon as the new capital of the\\nItalian Confederation. The government of the new Italian\\nRepublic was modelled on that of Rome it was to have two\\nconsuls, twelve praetors, and a senate of 500 members. But\\nif, as is probable, magistrates and senate were elected from all\\nthe confederate tribes and cities, Italica was not like Rome a\\ncity state, but the head of a federal government. Q. Pompaedius\\nSilo, a Marsian, one of the chief instigators of the war, and\\nC. Papiiis Mutilus, a Samnite, who cherished the hereditary\\nhatred of his countrymen against the Romans, were chosen\\nconsuls. Under them were many able lieutenants, who had\\nlearnt the art of war under the best Roman generals. Their\\nsoldiers had served in the Roman armies, the weapons and\\ndiscipline of the contending parties were the same, and the\\nstiuggle presented many of the features of a civil war. But the\\nEomans had the advantage of unity of council, which a single\\nstate always possesses over a confederation.\\nOur information of the details of the war is very meagre.\\nBut in the military operations we clearly see that the allies\\nformed two principal groups the one composed of\\nSrwar* Mar^^ians, with their neighbours the Marru-\\ncinians, Paelignians, Vestinians, and Picentines,\\nthe other of the Samnites, with the Lucanians and Apulians.\\nThe two Roman consuls, L, Julius Caesar and P. Rutilius Lupus,\\ntook the field with powerful armies, and under them served\\nMarius, Sulla, and the most experienced generals of the time.\\nThe Romans were fully aware of the formidable nature of the\\nstruggle, which was one for existence, and not for victory. In\\nthe first campaign the advantage was on the side of the allies.\\nThe Samnites, under their consul Papius, overran Campania,\\ntook most of the towns, and laid siege to Acerrae, into which\\nCaesar threw himself. The Italian army in Central Italy was\\nstill more successful. There the Marsians under Cato defeated\\nthe Roman Consul P. Rutilius Lupus with gi eat slaughter at the\\nTolenus, between Tibur and Alba, and Rutilius himself was slain\\nin the battle. This disaster was to some extent repaired by\\nMarius, who commanded a separate army in the neighbourhood.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXV.] THE SOCIAL WAR. 213\\nand compelled the victorious allies to retire. The old general\\nthen intrenched himself in a fortified camp, and neither the\\nstratagems nor the taunts of the Samnites could entice him from\\nhis advantageous position. If you are a great general, said\\nthe Italian consul Pompaedius, come down and fight to\\nwhich the veteran replied, Na^^, do you, if j^ou are a great\\ngeneral, compel me to fight against n\\\\y will. The Romans\\nconsidered that Marius was over-cautious and too slow and\\nPlutarch says that his age and corpulence rendered him incapable\\nof enduring the fatigue of very active service. But it is more\\nprobable that he was not very willing to destroy the allies, who\\nhad been among his most active partisans, and to whom he still\\nlooked for support in his future struggles with the nobility.\\nThe Romans now saw the necessity of making some con-\\ncessions. The Lex Julia, proposed by the consul Julius Caesar\\n(90 B.C.), granted the franchise to those of the\\nallies who had up to that time rema ned faithful\\nto Rome. The effects of this concession were immediately seen.\\nSeveral of the allied cities hastened to avail themselves of it, and\\ndisunion and distrust were produced among the rest.\\nThe next campaign (89 b.c.) as decidedly favourable to the\\nRomans. The consuls were Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of\\nthe great Pompey, and L. Porcius Cato. The\\nlatter, it is true, was slain at the commencement\\nof the can)paign but his loss was more than\\ncompensated by his lieutenant Sulla obtaining, in consequence,\\nthe supreme command in the south. He carried on the war\\nwith the utmost vigour, and completely eclipsed his old com-\\nmander Marius. He drove the enemy out of Campania, subdued\\nthe Hirpini, and then penetrated into the very heart of Samnium.\\nHere he defeated Papius Mutihis, the Samnite consul, and\\nfollowed up his victory by the capture of the strong town of\\nBovianum.\\nMeanwhile Pompeius Strabo had been equally successful in\\nthe north. Asculum was reduced after a long and obstinate\\nsiege. The Marrucinians, Vestinians, Paelignians,\\nand finally the Marsians, laid down their arms pf^iri^^\\nbefore the end of the year. Their submission\\nwas facilitated by the Lex Plautia Papiria, proposed by the\\ntribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo (89 B.C.),", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "214\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XXV\\nwhich completed the arrangements of the Lex Julia, and\\ngranted, in fact, everything wliich the allies had demanded\\nbefore the war. All citizens of a town in alliance with Eome\\ncould obtain, by this law, the Roman franchise, provided they\\nwere at the time resident in Italy, and registered their names\\nwith the praetor within sixty days.*\\nThe war, which had cost the lives of 300,000 men, the flower\\nof Rome and Italy, was virtually concluded within two years,\\nalthough the SamnHes and Lucanians still main-\\nt \u00c2\u00ae^\u00c2\u00b0Pj^^?^^ tained a guerilla warfare in their mountains,\\nand continued to keep possession of the strong\\nfortress of Nola in Campania, from which all the efforts of Sulla\\nfailed to dislodge them. The result was to merge Italy in Rome,\\nand to give the city-state a territory which stretched from\\nthe Padus to the Straits of Messina. But\\nthe franchise was grudgingly accorded;\\nand the incorporation granted was, in\\ndeference to popular opinion at Rome,\\nstill very incomplete. The allies were\\nenrolled in only eight of the thirty- five\\ntribes, to prevent their outnimibering the\\nold citizens nof could the suffrage be\\neffectively exercised in the absence of\\nrepresentative institutions. But the\\nvalue of the Roman citizenship was\\nnot to be measured by the voting power\\nit conferred. The allies had gained the\\nprotection of the provocatio and the\\nsanctity with which the Roman name\\ninvested them in the eyes of Roman\\nproconsuls and barbarian kings.\\nA law of the consul Pompeius bestowed the\\nIjatin franchise upon all the citizens of the Gallic\\ntowns between the Po and Alps, the chief right so\\nconferred being the attainment of Roman citizen-\\nship by any one who had held a magistracy in his\\niloman in toga. native town.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "Terracina.\\nCHAPTER XXVI.\\nFIKST CIVIL WAR.\\n-86 B.C.\\nOne reason which induced the senate to bring the Social War\\nto a conclusion was the necessity of attacking Mithridates, king\\nof Pontus, one of the ablest monarchs with\\nwhom Rome ever came into contact. It was Contest be-_\\nthis foreign war, the origin and history of which SuUa^^\\nwill be narrated in the following chapter, that\\nwas the occasion of the first armed struggle of factions at Rome,\\nfrom the dispute it aroused between Marius and SuUa as to\\nwhich should have the command against Mithridates. The\\nability which Sulla had displayed in the Social War, and his\\nwell-known attachment to the senatorial party, naturally maiked\\nhim out as the man to whom this important dignity was to be\\ngranted. He wis accordingly elected consul for the year 88 B.C.,\\nwith Q Pompeius Rufus as his colleague and he forthwith", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "216 HISTORY OF ROMK. [Chap. XXVI.\\nreceived the command of tbe Mithridatic War. But Marius had\\nlong coveted this distinction he quitted the magnificent villa\\nwhich he had built at Misenum, and took up his residence at\\nKome and, in order to show that neither his age nor his corpu-\\nlence had destroyed his vigour, he repaired daily to the Campus\\nMartins, and went through the usual exercises with the young\\nmen. He was determined not to yield without a struggle to his\\nhated rival. As he had formerly employed the Tribune Satur-\\nninus to carry out his designs, so now he found an able instrument\\nfor his purpose in the Tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus.\\nSulpicius was one of the greatest orators of the age, and had\\nacquired great influence by his splendid talents. He was an\\nintimate friend of the Tribune M. Livius Drusus,\\nand had been himself elected tribune for 88 B.C.,\\nthrough the influence of the senatorial party, who placed great\\nhopes in him it has been suspected that his sudden defection\\nto the democratic party was due to his being overwhelmed with\\ndebt, and to his having been promised by Marius a liberal share\\nof the spoils of the Mithridatic War. Sulpicius now brought\\nforward a law by which the Italians were to be disti-ibuted\\namong the thirty-five tribes. As they far outnumbered the old\\nRoman citizens, they would have an overwhelming majority in\\neach tribe, and would certainly confer upon Marius the command\\nof the Mithridatic War. To prevent the tribune from putting\\nthese rogations to the vote, the consuls declared a Justitium,\\nduring which no business could be legally transacted. But\\nSulpicius was resolved to carry his point with an armed band\\nof followers he entered the forum, and called upon the consuls\\nto withdraw their prohibition and upon their refusal to comply\\nwith his demand, he ordered his satelhtes to draw their swords\\nand fall upon them. Pompeius escaped, but his son Quintus,\\nwho was also the son-in-law of Sulla, was killed. Sulla himself\\ntook refuge in the house of Marius, which was close to the\\nforum, and in order to save his life he was obliged to remove\\nthe jusHlium.\\nSulla quitted Rome and hastened to his army, then besieging\\nNola, which was still held by the Samnites (see p. 214). The\\ncity was now in the hands of Sulpicius and Marius, and\\nthe Redistribution Bill passed into law without opposition, as\\nwell as a further decree conferring upon Marius the command", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVI.] FIRST CIVIL WAR. 217\\nof the Mithridatic War. Marius lost no time in sending some\\nofficers of the legions to assume on his behalf the command of the\\narmy at Nola but the soldiers, who loved Sulla,\\nand who feared that Marius might lead another Passing of\\narmy to Asia, and thus deprive them of their pician\\nanticipated plunder, stoned his deputies to death.\\nSulla found his soldiers ready to respond to his wishes they\\ncalled upon him to lead them to Rome, and deliver the city from\\nthe tyrants. He therefore hesitated no longer,\\nbut at the head of six legions broke up from his Rome^*\\nencampment at Nola, and marched towards the\\ncity. His officers, however, refused to serve against their\\ncountry, and all quitted him, wrth the exception of one quaestor.\\nThis was the first time that a Roman had ever marched at the\\nhead of Roman troops against the city. Marius was taken by\\nsurprise. Such was the reverence that the Romans entertained\\nfor law, that it seems never to have occurred to him or to his\\nparty that Sulla would venture to draw his sword against the\\nstate. Mai ius attempted to gain time for preparations by for-\\nItidding Sulla, in the name of the Republic, to advance any\\nfurther but the praetors who carried this command narrowly\\nescaped bemg murdered by the soldiers and Marius, as a\\nlast resource, offered liberty to the slaves who would join\\nhim.\\nBut it was all in vain. Sulla forced his way into the city, and\\nMarius took to flight with his son and a few followers. Sulla\\nused his victory with moderation. He protected\\nthe city from plunder and only Marius, Sulpicius, j^^^.\\nand ten others of his bitterest enemies, were\\ndeclared public enemies by the senate. Sulpicius was betrayed\\nby one of his slaves, and put to death but Marius and his son\\nsucceeded in making their escape. Marius himself embarked\\non board a ship at Ostia, with a few companions, and then\\nsailed southward along the coast of Italy. At Circeii he and\\nhis companions were obliged to land on account of the violence\\nof the wind and the want of provisions. After wandering\\nabout for a long time they learnt from some peasants that a\\nnumber of horsemen had been in search of them; and they\\naccordingly turned aside from the road, and passed the night in\\na deep wood in great want. But the indomitable spirit of the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "218 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVI.\\nold man did not fail him and he consoled himself and encouraged\\nhis companions by the assurance that he should still live to see\\nhis seventh consulship, in accordance with a prediction that had\\nbeen made to him in his youth. Shortly afterwards, when they\\nwere near to Minturnae, they descried a party of horsemen\\ngalloping towards them. In great haste they hurried down to\\nthe sea, and swam off to two merchant-vessels, which received\\nthem on board. The horsemen bade the crew bring the ship to\\nland or throw Marius overboard; but, moved by his tears and\\nentreaties, they refused to surrender him. The sailors soon\\nchanged their minds and, fearing to keep Marius, they cast\\nanchor at the mouth of the Liris, where they persuaded him to\\ndisembark, and rest himself from his fatigues till a wind should\\nrise but they had no sooner landed him than they immediately\\nsailed away. Marius was now quite alone amid the swamps\\nand marshes through which the Liris flows. With difficulty he\\nreached the hut of an old man, who concealed him in a hole\\nnear the river, and covered him with reeds but hearing shortly\\nafterwards the noise of his pursuers, he crept out of his hiding-\\nplace and threw himself into the marsh. He was discovered^\\nand dragged out of the water and, covered with mud and with\\na rope round his neck, was delivered up to the authorities of\\nMinturnae. The magistrates then deliberated whether they\\nshould comply with the instruction that had been sent from\\nRome to all the municipal towns to put Marius to death as soon\\nas they found him. After some consultation the\\\\ resolved to\\nobey it, and sent a Cimbrian slave to carry out their orders.\\nThe room in which the old general was confined was dark and,\\nto the frightened barbarian, the eyes of Marius seemed to dart\\nforth fire, and from the darkness a terrible vo ce shouted out,\\nMan durst thou slay Cains Marius The barbarian immedi-\\nately threw down his sword, and rushed out of the house,\\nexclaiming, I cannot kill Cains Marius! Straightway there\\nwas a revulsion of feeling among the inhabitants of Minturnae.\\nThey repented of their ungrateful conduct towards a man who\\nhad saved Rome and Italy. They got ready a ship for his\\ndeparture, provided him with everything necessary for the\\nvoyage, and, with prayers and wishes for his safety, placed him\\non board. The wind carried him to the island of Aenaria (now\\nIschia), where he found the rest of his friends and from thence", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVI.] FIRST CIVIL WAR. 219\\nhe set sail for Africa, which he reached in safety. He landed\\nnear the site of Carthage, but he had scarcely put his foot on\\nshore before the praetor Sextilius sent an officer to bid him\\nleave the country, or else he would carry into execution the\\ndecree of the senate. This last blow almost unmanned Marius.\\nGrief and indignation for a time deprived him of speech, and his\\nonly reply was, Tell the praetor that you have seen Caius\\nMarius a fugitive sitting on the ruins of Carthage. Shortly\\nafterwards Marius was joined by his son, and they crossed over to\\nthe island of Cercina, where they remained unmolested.\\nMeantime a revolution had taken place at Rome, which pre-\\npared the way for the return of Marius to Italy. Sulla s soldiers\\nwere impatient for the plunder of Asia, and he\\nhad abruptly to interrupt his great work of the ^^P^^]^\\nreform of the constitution, M hich he had alreadv ]o\u00e2\u0080\u009eg\\ncommenced. After securing the repeal of tlie\\nSulpician laws, he sent forward his legions to Capua, that they\\nmight be ready to embark for Greece he himself remained\\nin Rome till the consuls were elected for the following year, to\\nsecure if possible the support of his interests in the capital during\\nhis absence in Asia. But the candidates whom he recommended\\nwere rejected, and the choice fell on Cn. Octavius, who belonged\\nto the aristocratical party, but was a weak and irresolute man,\\nand on L. Cinna, a professed champion of the popular side.\\nSulla did not attempt to oppose their election to have recalled\\nhis legions to Rome would have been a dangerous experiment\\nwhen the soldiers were so eager for the spoils of\\nthe East and he only took the vain precaution j^j^\\nof making Cinna promise that he would make no\\nattempt to disturb the existing order of things. But as soon as\\nSulla had quitted Italy, Cinna again brought forward the law for\\nincorporating the new Italian citizens among the thirty-five\\ntribes. The two consuls had recourse to arms Octavius to\\noppose, and Cinna to carry the law. A dreadful conflict took\\nplace in the forum. The party of Octavius obtained the victory,\\nand Cinna was driven out of the city with great slaughter. But\\nin spite of this repulse, he was soon at the head of a formidable\\narmy composed chiefly of the new citizens, whose cause he had\\nespoused.\\nAs soon as Marius heard of these changes he set sail from", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "220 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVL\\nAfrica, and offered to serve uuder Cinna, who gladly accepted his\\nproposal, and named him proconsul but Marius refused all\\nmarks of honour. The sufferings and privations\\nCinna^ endured had exasperated his proud and\\nhaughty spirit almost to madness, and nothing but\\nthe blood of his enemies could appease his resentment. He\\ncontinued to wear a mean and humble dress, and his hair and\\nbeard had remained unshorn from the day he had been driven\\nout of Rome. After joining Cinna, Marius prosecuted the war\\nwith great vigour. He first captured the corn-ships, and thus\\ncut off Rome from its usual supply of food. He next took Ostia\\nand the other towns on the sea-coast; then, marching north-\\nward, he encamped on the Janiculura. Famine began to rage\\nin the city, and the senate were obliged to yield. They sent a\\ndeputation to Cinna and Marius, inviting them into the city, but\\nentreating them to spare the citizens. Cinna received the\\ndeputies sitting in his chair of office, and gave them a kind\\nanswer. Marius stood in silence by the side of the consul, but\\nhis looks spoke louder than words.\\nAfter the audience was over they entered the city. The most\\nfrightful scenes followed. The Consul Octavius was slain while\\nseated in his curule chair. The streets ran with\\nftTome^^ the noblest blood of Rome. Every one whom\\nMarius hated or feared was hunted out and put\\nto death and no consideration, either of rank, talent, or former\\nfriendship, induced him to spare the victims of his vengeance.\\nThe great orator, M. Antonius, fell by the hands of his assassins\\nand his former colleague, Q. Catulus, who had triumphed with\\nhim over the Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his own life.\\nCinna was soon tired of the butchery but the appetite of Marius\\nseemed only whetted by the slaughter, and daily required fresh\\nvictims for its gratification.\\nWithout going through the form of an election, Marius and\\nCinna named themselves consuls for the following year (86 B.C.),\\nand thus was fulfilled the prediction that Marius\\njialvivLS should be seven times consul. But he did not\\nlong enjoy the honour he was now in his seventy-\\nfirst year; his body was worn out by the fatigues and sufferings\\nhe had recently undergone and on the eighteenth day of his con-\\nsulship he died of an attack of pleurisy, after a few days illness.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia.\\nCHAPTEE XXVII.\\nFIRST MITHKIDATIC WAR.\\n^-84 B.C.\\nThe kingdom of Pontus, which derived its name from being on\\nthe coast of the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, was originally\\na satrapy of the Persian Empire, extending from\\nthe river Halys on the west to the frontiers of f pontus\\nColchis on the east. Even under the later\\nPersian kings the rulers of Pontus were really independent and\\nin the wars of the successors of Alexander the Great it became\\na separate kingdom. Most of its kings bore the name of\\nMithridates and the fifth monarch of this name formed an\\nalHance with the Romans, and was rewarded with the province\\nof Phrygia for the services he had rendered them in the war\\nagainst Aristonicus (p. 177).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "222 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVIl.\\nHe was assassinated about 120 b.c, and was succeeded by his\\nson Mithridates VI., commonly called the Great, who was then\\nonly about twelve years of age. The young\\n1 ri a es. jj^Qn^^ch grew up to be the type of ruler which\\nis the ideal of the Eastern mind. His vast strength and powers\\nof endurance, his matchless skill in arms and the restless vigour of\\nhis mind were emblems of that power under which the Oriental\\nloves to be crushed, and whose guidance he will ever follow. A\\ncareful training had still further developed these natural gifts.\\nAs a boy, Mithridates had been brought up at Sinope, where he\\nhad probably received the elements of a Greek education, and\\nso powerful was his memory that he is said to have learnt not\\nless than twenty-five languages, and to have been able, in the\\ndays of his greatest power, to transact business with the deputies\\nof every tribe subject to his rule in their own peculiar dialect.\\nAs soon as he was firmly established on the throne, he began\\nto turn his arms against the neighbouring nations. On the west\\nhis progress was hemmed in bj the power of\\nExtMision of Rome, and the minor sovereigns of Bithynia and\\nCappadocia enjoyed the all-powerful protection of\\ntheKepublic. But on the east his ambition found\\nfree scope. He subdued the barbarian tribes between the\\nEuxine and the confines of Armenia, including the whole of\\nColchis and the province called Lesser Armenia and he even\\nadded to his dominions the Tauric Chersonesus, now called the\\nCrimea. The Greek kingdom of Bosporus, which formed a\\nportion of the Chersonesus, likewise submitted to his sway. He\\nfurther strengthened himself by alliances with Tigranes, king of\\nGreater Armenia, to whom he gave his daughter Cleopatra in\\nmarriage, and with the warlike nations of the Parthians and\\nIberians. He thus found himself in possession of power and\\nresources sufficient to make him deem himself equal to a contest\\nwith Rome itself.\\nMany causes of dissension had already arisen. Shortly after\\nhis accession the Eomans had taken advantage of his minority\\nto wrest from him the province of Phrygia. In\\nMithridates 93 ,^_ resisted his attempt to place upon\\nwith Some throne of Cappadocia one of his own nephews,\\nand appointed a Cappadocian named Ariobarzanes\\nto be king of that country. For a time Mithridates submitted,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVII. J MITHRIDATES IN CONFLICT WITH ROME. 223\\nbut the death of Nicomedes II, king of Bithynia brought\\nmatters to a crisis. That monarch was succeeded by his eldest\\nson Nicomedes III., but Mithridates took the opportunity to set\\nup a rival claimant, whose pretensions he supported with an\\narmy, and quickly drove Nicomedes out of Bithynia (90 B.C.).\\nAbout the same time his generals openly invaded Cappadocia,\\nand expelled Ariobarzanes from his kingdom, establishing the\\nPontic pretender Ariarathes in his place. Both the fugitive princes\\nhad recourse to Rome, where they found ready support a\\ndecree was passed that Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes should be\\nrestored to their respective kingdoms, and the execution of it\\nwas confided to M Aquillius and L. Cassius.\\nMithridates again yielded, and the two fugitive kings were re-\\nstored to their dominions but no sooner was Nicomedes replaced\\non the throne of Bithynia than he was urged by the Roman\\nlegates to invade the territories of Mithridates, into which he\\nmade a predatory incursion. Mithridates offered no resistance,\\nbut sent to the Romans to demand satisfaction, and it was not\\nuntil his ambassador was dismissed with an evasive answer that\\nhe prepared for immediate hostilities ^88 B.C.). His first step\\nwas to invade Cappadocia, from which he easily expelled\\nAriobarzanes once more. His generals drove Nicomedes out\\nof Bithynia, and defeated AquilHus.\\nMithridates, following up his advantage, not only made him-\\nself master of Phrygia and Galatia, but invaded the Roman\\nprovince of Asia. Here the universal discontent\\nof the inhabitants, caused by the oppression of the Mithridates in-\\nRoman governors, enabled him to overrun the\\nwhole province almost without opposition. The Roman officers,\\nwho had imprudently brought this danger upon themselves, were\\nunable to collect any forces to oppose his progress and Aquillius\\nhimself, the chief author of the war, fell into the hands of the\\nking of Pontus.\\nMithridates took up his winter quarters at Pergamus, where\\nhe issued the sanguinary order to all the cities of Asia to put to\\ndeath on the same day all the Roman and Italian\\ncitizens who were to be found within their walls, ^^.ssacre of\\nSo hateful had the Romans rendered themselves Italians\\nduring the short period of their dominion, that\\nthese commands were obeyed with alacrity by almost all the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "224 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVII.\\ncities of Asia. Eighty thousand persons are said to have\\nperished in this fearful massacre.\\nThe success of Mithridates encouraged the Athenians to join\\nthe Uberator of the East; and the king accordingly sent his\\ngeneral Archelaus with a large army and fleet into\\nGreek cities Greece. Most of the Greek states had declared\\nfor the king when Sulla landed in Epirus in 87\\nB.C. He immediately marched southwards, and laid siege to\\nAthens and the Piraeus. For many months all his attacks\\nwere resisted but Athens at last surrendered in the spring of\\nthe following year and Archelaus, despairing of defending the\\nPiraeus, withdrew into Boeotia, where he received some powerful\\nreinforcements from Mithridates.\\nThe Eoman array now captured the Piraeus, and Athens\\nand her seaport were given up to plunder. This, however,\\nwas the only penalty which the Athenians suffered\\nMke^ treachery their state, in virtue of the\\nmemories of the past, was still allowed to remain a\\nfree city.\\nSulla then turned against Archelaus in Boeotia, and defeated\\nhim with enormous loss at Chaeronea. Out of the 110,000 men\\nof which the Pontic army consisted, Archelaus\\nBattle of assembled only 10,000 at Chalcis in Euboea, where\\nhe had taken refuge. Mithridates, on receiving\\nnews of this great disaster, immediately set about raising fresh\\ntroops, and was soon able to send another army of 80 000 men\\nto Euboea. But he now found himself threatened with danger\\nfrom a new and unexpected quarter. While Sulla was still\\noccupied in Greece, the party of Marius at Piome had sent a\\nfresh army to Asia under the Consul L. Valerius Flaccus, to\\ncarry on the war at once against their foreign and domestic\\nenemies. Flaccus was murdered by his troops at the instigation\\nof Fimbria, who now assumed the command, and gained several\\nvictories over Mithridates and his generals in Asia (85 B.C.).\\nAbout the same time the new army, which the king had\\nsent to Archelaus in Greece, was defeated by Sulla in the\\nneighbourhood of Orchomenus. These repeated\\nBattle of\\nOrohomen\\n(84 B.C.), when, unmoved by the triumph of his enemies at\\ndisasters made Mithridates anxious for peace, but\\nit was not granted by Sulla till the following year", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVII.]\\nRETURN OF SULLA.\\n225\\nhome, he resolved to finish the work by carrying the war into\\nAsia.\\nThe terms of peace were definitely settled at an interview\\nwhich the l^oman general and the Pontic king had at Dardanus\\nin the Troad. Mithridates consented to abandon\\nall his conquests in Asia, to restrict himself to the lynthridates\\ndominions which he held before the commence-\\nment of the war, to pay a sum of 2000 talents, and to surrender\\nto the Romans his present fleet of seventy ships fully equipped.\\nSulla was now at liberty to turn his arms against Fimbria,\\nwho was with his army at Thyatira. His name was sufficient\\nto cause the troops of Fimbria to desert their\\ngeneral, who put an end to his own fife. Sulla g\u00e2\u0080\u009eji\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nnow prepared to return to Italy. After exacting\\nenormous sums from the wealthy cities of Asia, he left his\\nlegate, L. Licinius Murena, in command of that province, with\\ntwo legions, and set sail with his own army to Athens. While\\npreparing for his deadly struggle in Italy, he did not lose his\\ninterest in literature. He carried with him from Athens to\\nRome the valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which contained\\nmost of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus.\\nOota of Nicomedes III., King of Bithynia.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXVIII.\\nSECOND CniL WAK\\nSulla s dictator-\\nship. LEGISLATION,\\nAND DEATH. 83-78\\nB.C.\\nSulla landed at Brun-\\ndusium in the spring of\\n83 B.C.,\\nFruitless j j^ j, g\\nnegotiations\\nof the senate, consul-\\nship of L.\\nScipio and C. Norbanus.\\nDuring the preceding\\nj^ear he had written to\\nthe senate, recounting\\nthe services he had\\nrendered to the com-\\nmonwealth, complaining\\nof the ingratitude witli\\nwhich he had been\\ntreated, announcing his\\nspeedy return to Italy,\\nand threatening to take\\nvengeance upon his\\nenemies and those of\\nthe Repubhc. The\\nsenate, in alarm, sent\\nan embassy to Sulla to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVIII.] SECOND CIVIL WAR. 227\\nendeavour to bring about a reconciliation between him and his\\nenemies, and meantime ordered the consuls Cinna and Carbo\\nto desist from levying troops and making further preparations\\nfor war.\\nCinna and Carbo gave no heed to this command they knew\\nthat a reconcihation was impossible, and resolved to cross the\\nAdriatic with an army in order to oppose Sulla in\\nGreece but, after one detachment of their troops /j;^Ia^\\nhad embarked, the rest of the soldiers rose in\\nmutiny, and murdered Cinna. The Marian party had thus lost\\ntheir chief leader, but continued nevertheless to make every\\npreparation to resist Sulla, for tliej^ were well aware that he\\nwould never forgive them, and that their only choice lay between\\nvictory and destruction.\\nBesides this the Italians were ready to support them, as these\\nnew citizens feared that Sulla would deprive them of the rights\\nwhich they had lately obtained after so much\\nbloodshed. The Marian party had every prospect I ^P^^^tions\\nof victory, for their troops far exceeded those\\nof their opponent. They had 200,000 men in arms, while Sulla\\nlanded at Brnndusium with only 30,000, or at the most 40,000\\nmen. But, on the other hand, the popular party had no one of\\nsufficient influence and military reputation to take the supreme\\ncommand in the war their vast forces were scattered about\\nItaly, in different armies, under different generals the soldiers\\nhad no confidence in their commanders, and no enthusiasm in\\ntheir cause and the consequence was, that whole hosts of them\\ndeserted to Sulla on the first opportunity. Sulla s soldiers, on\\nthe contrary, were veterans, who had frequently fought by each\\nother s sides, and had acquired that confidence in themselves\\nand in their general which frequent victories always give. Still,\\nif the Italians had remained faithful to the cause of the Marian\\nparty, Sulla would hardly have conquered, and therefore one of\\nhis first cares after landing at Brundusium was to detach them\\nfrom his enemies.\\nFor this purpose he would not allow his troops to do any\\ninjury to the towns or fields of the Italians in his march from\\nBrundusium through Calabria and Apulia, and n\\nhe formed separate treaties with many of the\\nItalian towns, by which he secured to them all the rights and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "228 HISTORV OF ROME. [Chap. XXVIII.\\nprivileges of Eoman citizens which they then enjoyed. Among\\nthe Italians the Samnites continued to be the most formidable\\nenemies of Sulla. They had joined the Marian party, not\\nsimply with the design of securing the supremacy for the latter,\\nbut with the hope of conquering Kome by their means, and then\\ndestroying for ever their hated oppressor. Thus this civil war\\nbecame merely another phase of the social war, and the struggle\\nbetween Rome and Samnium for the supremacy of the peninsula\\nwas renewed after the subjection of the latter for more than\\ntwo hundred years.\\nSulla marched from Apulia into Campania without meeting\\nwith any resistance. In Campania he gained his first victory\\nover the consul Norbanus, who was defeated\\nScff5s\u00c2\u00b0army. obliged to take refuge in\\nCapua. His colleague Scipio, who was at no\\ngreat distance, willingly accepted a truce which Sulla offered\\nhim, although Sertorius, the ablest of the Marian generals,\\nwarned him against entering into any negotiations. His caution\\nwas justified by the event. By means of his emissaries Sulla\\nseduced the troops of Scipio, who at length found himself\\ndeserted by all his soldiers, and was taken prisoner in his\\ntent. Sulla dismissed him uninjured under the pretence that\\nthe convention now concluded bound the whole of the revolu-\\ntionary party, which should lay down its arms immediately or\\nbecome public enemies of Rome. This suborning of Scipio s\\ntroops led Carbo to observe that he had to contend in Sulla\\nboth with a lion and a fox, but that the fox gave him more\\ntrouble. Many distinguished Romans meantime had taken up\\narms on behalf of Sulla. Cn. Pompeius, the son of Cn.\\nPompeius Strabo, then only twenty-three years of age, levied\\nthree legions in Picenum and the surrounding districts and Q.\\nMetellus Pius, M. Crassus, M. Lucullus, and several others offered\\ntheir services as legates. It was not, however, till the following\\nyear (82 B.C.) that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue.\\nThe consuls of this year were Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger\\nMarius the former of whom was entrusted with the protection\\nof Etruria and Umbria, while the latter had to guard Rome and\\nLatium. Sulla appears to have passed the winter at Campania.\\nAt the commencement of spring he advanced against the\\nyounger Marius, who had concentrated all his forces at", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVIIL] SECOND CIVIL WAR. 229\\nSacriportus, and defeated him with gi-eat loss. Marius took refuge\\nin Praeneste and Sulla, after leaving Q. Lucretius Ofella with a\\nlarge force to blockade the town, marched with\\nthe main body of his army to Rome. Marius was pl^eneste\\nresolved not to perish unavenged, and accordingly,\\nl)efore Sulla could reach Rome, he sent orders to L. Damasippus,\\nthe praetor, to put to death all his leading opponents. His\\norders were faithfully obeyed. Q. Mucins Scaevola, the Pontifex\\nMaximus and jurist, P. Antistius, L. Domitius, and many other\\ndistinguished men were butchered, and their corpses thrown into\\nthe Tiber. Sulla entered the city without opposition, and\\nmarched against Carbo, who had been previously opposed by\\nPompey and Metellus. The history of this part of the war is\\ninvolved in great obscurity. Carbo made two efforts to relieve\\nPraeneste, but failed in each and, after fighting with various\\nfortune against Pompey, Metellus, and Sulla, he at length\\nembarked for Africa, despairing of further success in Italy.\\nMeantime Rome had nearly fallen into the hands of the enemy.\\nThe Samnites under Pontius Telesinus and the Lucanians\\nunder M. Lamponius, after attempting to relieve\\nPraeneste, resolved to march straight upon Rome, n^n-^l n\u00e2\u0080\u009e*\u00e2\u0080\u009e^\\n,.,,1, T p Colliiie Gate.\\nwhich had been lert without any army for its pro-\\ntection. Sulla arrived barely in time to save the city. The\\nbattle was fought before the Colline Gate it was a long and\\nobstinate contest, the issue of which was not merely the\\nsupremacy of a party for the very existence of Rome was at\\nstake, and Pontius had declared that he would raze the city to the\\nground. The left wing, where Sulla commanded in person, was\\ndriven oiF the field by the vehemence of the enemy s charge\\nbut the success of the right wing, which was commanded bj^\\nCrassus, enabled Sulla to restore the battle, and at length gain\\na complete victory. Fifty thousand men are said to have fallen\\non each side. All the most distinguished leaders of the Marian\\nparty either perished in the engagement, or were taken prisoners\\nand put to death. Among these was the brave Samnite Pontius,\\nwhose head was cut off and carried under the walls of Praeneste,\\nthereby announcing to the younger Marius that his last hope of\\nsuccour was gone. To the Samnite prisoners Sulla showed no\\nmercy. He was resolved to root out of the peninsula those\\nheroic enemies of Rome. On the third day after the battle he", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "230 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVllI.\\ncollected all the Samnite and Lucanian captives in the Campiis\\nMartius, and ordered his soldiers to cut them down. The dying\\nshrieks of so many victims alarmed the senators, who had been\\nassembled by Sulla in the neighbouring temple of Bellona but\\nhe bade them attend to what he was saying, and not mind what\\nwas taking place outside, as he was only chastising some rebels.\\nPraeneste surrendered soon afterwards. The Eomans in the\\ntown were pardoned but the Samnites and Praenestines were\\nSurrender of massacred without mercy. The younger Marius\\nPraeneste. put an end to his own life. The war in Italy was\\nSulla master now virtually at an end, for the few towns which\\nof Italy. g^iu |;^g^(j Q^^ l^ad no prospect of offering any\\neffectual opposition, and were reduced soon afterwards. In other\\nparts of the Roman world the war continued still longer, and\\nSulla did not live to see its completion. The armies of the\\nMarian party in Sicily and Africa were subdued by Pompey in\\nthe course of the same year; but Sertorius in Spain continued\\nto defy all the attempts of the senate till 72 B.C.\\nSulla was now master of Rome. He had not commenced the\\ncivil war, but had been driven to it by the mad ambition of\\nMarius. His enemies had attempted to deprive him of the\\ncommand in the Mithridatic War, which had been legally con-\\nferred upon him by the senate and, while he was fighting the\\nbattles of the Republic, they had declared him a public enemy,\\nconfiscated his property, and murdered the most distinguished\\nof his friends and adherents. For all these wrongs Sulla had\\nthreatened to take the most ample vengeance and he more\\nthan redeemed his word. He resolved to extirpate the popular\\nparty root and branch, and renew in a legalized form the indis-\\ncriminate massacres of his Marian rivals.\\nOne of his first acts was to draw up a list of his enemies who\\nwere to be put to death, which list was exhibited in the forum\\nto public inspection, and called a proscriptio*\\nscrii^ion instance of the kind in Roman\\nhistory. All persons in this list were outlaws,\\nwho might be killed by any one with impunity their property\\nwas confiscated to the state their children and grandchildren\\nwere for ever excluded from all public offices. Further, all who\\nProscriptio means literally the notice of sale of the goods of outlawed\\npersons. It was here exten 1ed to include the act of outlawry.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVIIl.] DICTATORSHIP OF SULLA. 231\\nkilled a proscribed person, or indicated the place of his conceal-\\nment, received two talents as a reward, and whoever sheltered\\nsuch a person was punished with death. Terror now reigned,\\nnot only at Rome, but throughout Italy. Fresh lists of the pro-\\nscribed constantly appeared. No one was safe for Sulla\\ngratified his friends by placing in the fatal lists their personal\\nenemies, or individuals whose property was coveted by his\\nadherents. An estate, a house, or even a piece of plate, was to\\nmany a man, who belonged to no political party, his death-\\nwarrant for, although the confiscated property belonged to the\\nstate, and had to be sold by public auction, the friends and\\ndependents of Sulla purchased it at a nominal price, as no one\\ndared to bid against them. Oftentimes Sulla did not require the\\npurchase-money to be paid at all, and in many cases he gave\\nsuch property to his favourites without even the formality of a\\nsale. Four thousand seveu hundred names are said to have\\nfound their way into the SuUan proscription lists.\\nAt the commencement of these horrors Sulla had been ap-\\npointed dictator. As there were no consuls, he caused the\\nsenate to elect Valerius Flaccus interrex, and the\\nlatter brought before the people a rogatio, con- Sulla\\nferring the dictatorship upon Sulla, for the purpose ^wotQ].\\nof restoring the Republic, and for as long a time\\nas he judged to be necessary, and giving a retrospective sanction\\nto his acts (81 B.C.). This dictatorship had little resemblance\\nto the occasional office of the early Republic. It was practically\\na restoration of the monarchy, and foreshadowed the autocratic\\npower of Caesar in later times. But the new ruler did not mean\\nto be king. His dictatorship was only a provisional government\\nby which he meant to place the government of the RepubHc on\\na firm and secure basis. Consuls were chosen for the following\\nyear (81 b.c), and Sulla was elected to the office himself in\\n80 B.C., while he continued to be dictator.\\nAt the beginning of 81 B.C. Sulla celebrated a splendid triumph\\non account of his victory over Mithridates. In a speech which\\nhe delivered to the people at the close of the gorgeous ceremony,\\nhe claimed for himself the surname of Felix, as he attributed his\\nsuccess in Hfe to the favour of the gods. All ranks in Rome\\nbowed in awe before their master and among other marks of\\ndistinction which were voted to him by the obsequious senate,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "232 HISTORY OF ROME, [Chap. XXVIII.\\na gilt equestrian statue was erected to his honour before the\\nRostra, bearing the inscription, Cornelio Sullae Imperatori\\nFelici.\\nDuring the years 80 and 79 B.C. Sulla completed his various\\nreforms in the constitution, of which an account is given at the\\nend of this chapter. Two questions which im-\\nf Tt 1 mediately engaged his attention were the punish-\\nment of the rebel communities in Italy, and the\\nrewards to his soldiers. Both were settled by the same means.\\nAlthough he wisely upheld the distribution of the new Italian\\ncitizens in the thirty-five tribes, the inhabitants of those Italian\\ntowns which had fought against him were deprived of the full\\nRoman franchise which had been lately conferred upon them,\\nwhile their lands were confiscated and given to the soldiers who\\nhad fought under him.\\nA great number of these colonists were settled in Etruria.\\nThey had the strongest interest in upholding the new institu-\\ntions, since any attempt to invalidate the latter\\nSettlement oi ^q^j^j j^ave endangered their newly acquired pos-\\nsessions. But, though they were a support to the\\npower of Sulla, they hastened the fall of the commonwealth\\nnothing could change the idle and licentious soldiery into agri-\\nculturists and Catiline found nowhere more adherents than\\namong the Sullan veterans. While Sulla thus established\\nthroughout Italy a population devoted to his interests, he created\\nat Rome a kind of body-guard for his protection by giving the\\ncitizenship to a great number of slaves belonging to the pro-\\nscribed. The slaves thus rewarded are said to have been as\\nmany as 10,000, and were called Cornelii after him as their\\npatron.\\nSulla had completed his reforms by the beginning of 79 B.C.\\nand as he longed for the undisturbed enjoyment of his pleasures,\\nhe resigned his dictatorship, and declared himself\\nSulla_ resigns ready to render an account of his conduct while\\nLis dictator- j^ rj.^.^ voluntary abdication by Sulla of\\nthe sovereignty of the Roman world has excited\\nthe astonishment and admiration of both ancient and modern\\nwriters. But it is evident that Sulla never contemplated, like\\nJuUus Caesar, the establishment of a monarchical form of govern-\\nment; and both his life and his institutions were strongly", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVIII.] DEATH OF SULLA. 233\\nguarded against attack. The 10,000 Cornelii at Eome, and his\\nveterans stationed throughout Italy, as well as the whole strength\\nof the aristocratical party, secured him against all danger. Even\\nin his retirement his will was law^ and shortly before his death\\nhe ordered his slaves to strangle a magistrate of one of the\\ntowns in Italy, because he was a public defaulter.\\nAfter resigning his dictatorship, Sulla retired to his estate at\\nPuteoli, and there, surrounded by the beauties of nature and\\nart, he passed the remainder of his life in those _.\\nliterary and sensual enjoyments in which he had\\nalways taken so much pleasure. He died in 78 B.C., in the\\nsixtieth year of his age, of apoplexy brought on by a fit of pas-\\nsion. The senate, faithful to the last, resolved to give him the\\nhonour of a public funeral. This was, however, opposed by the\\nConsul Lepidus, who had resolved to attempt the repeal of\\nSulla s laws but the dictator s power continued unshaken even\\nafter his death. The veterans were summoned from their\\ncolonies, and Q. Catulus, L. Lucullus, and Cn. Pompeius placed\\nthemselves at their head. Lepidus was obliged to give way,\\nand allowed the funeral to take place without interruption. It\\nwas a gorgeous pageant. The magistrates, the senate, the\\nequites, the priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as the\\nveterans, accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus\\nMartius, where the corpse was burnt according to the wish of\\nSulla himself, who feared that his enemies might insult his\\nremains, as he had done those of Marius, which had been taken\\nout of the grave and thrown into the Anio at his command. It\\nhad been previously the custom of the Cornelia gens to bury\\nand not burn their dead. A monument was erected to Sulla in\\nthe Campus Martius, the inscription on which he is said to have\\ncomposed himself. It stated that none of his friends ever did\\nhim a kindness, and none of his enemies a wrong, without being\\nfully repaid.\\nAll the reforms of Sulla were effected by means of leges,\\nwhich were proposed by him in the Comitia Centuriata, and\\nbore the general name of Leges Gorveliae. The\\nmain object of his reforms was to restore the \u00c2\u00b05-?\\nJ.1 j.Li-^ TIT.- J constitution.\\nsenate s power and to set it on a legal basis; and,\\nin order to secure its permanence, to weaken the authority both\\nof the magistrates and of the people.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "234 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXVIII.\\nHis efforts were primarily directed against the tribunate.\\nThis magistracy, which had first served the interests of the\\nplebs, and afterwards those of the senate, had now\\nChangesin degenerated into a weapon which was used by\\nstraw^^ powerful party-leaders for their own aggrandize-\\nment. Sulla took away from the tribunes their\\nright of initiative in legislation, by prohibiting them from pro-\\nposing measures except on the request of the senate. He also\\nsubordinated their power of veto to a similar control. To\\ndegrade the tribunate still further, he made the holding of this\\noffice a bar to all further advancement in the state it ceased to\\nbe a stepping-stone and became a stumbling-block in the path\\nto the higher magistracies.\\nThe danger of prolonged and unusual commands had recently\\nbeen exhibited; Sulla consequently re-enacted the Leijes Annnles,\\nmaking it necessary to hold the quaestorship before the praetor-\\nship, and the praetorship before the consulship and he also\\nforbade the same magistracy to be held a second time until\\nafter the expiration of ten years. But it was military com-\\nmand in the provinces, and its frequent combination with\\na home magistracy, that chiefly threatened danger to the\\nstate. Sulla secured a complete separation between home and\\nforeign command. After his time the consul or praetor no\\nlonger takes the field. He is confined to civil duties during\\nhis year of office, and only then goes out as proconsul or\\npropraetor.\\nThe priestly colleges (especially those of the pontiffs and\\naugurs) were of hardly less political importance than the magis-\\ntracies. By a Lex Domitia of 104 B.C. the right\\nlle^^s ^^S ^V tbese corporations had been given to\\nan assembly of seventeen out of the thirty-five\\ntribes. Sulla restored the old principle of co-optatin, by which\\nthe members of these bodies added to their own numbers, and\\nthus rendered these corporations more aristocratic.\\nThe popular voice was necessarily restricted by the limitations\\non the tribunate for the Assembly of the Plebs could now only\\nratify the decrees of the senate it still, however,\\n*^5 elected the plebeian magistrates. The power of\\nthe Assembly of the Centuries was left technically\\nunimpaired, but Sulla abolished the democratic system of tribe-", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXVIII.] REFORMS OF SULLA. 235\\nvoting,* and restored the old arrangement of the centuries on\\nthe Servian basis.\\nThe senate, reduced in numbers by the late proscription, was\\nrecruited by the addition of 300 members from the equestrian\\norder and a permanent change was made in its\\nin the senate,\\nconstitution, ihe principle was now nxed by\\nwhich the quaestorship was made the only stepping-stone to\\nsenatorial dignity henceforth the personal choice by the censor\\nceases, and the senate is recruited in a purely automatic manner.\\nThe increase of the quaestors to twenty permanently doubled\\nthe number of its members, which from this time was about 600.\\nA thorough reform was also undertaken in the administration\\nof justice. In place of the criminal jurisdiction of the comitia,\\nor of the occasional commissioners which it\\nappointed, Sulla established permanent courts\\n(quaestiones perpetuae), each of which was to\\ntry a definite crime. A precedent for this change had been\\ngiven by the Lex Calpurnia of 149 B.C., by which a standing\\ncommission was appointed for all trials repetundarum. Since\\nthat date the court for the trial of extortion had been frequently\\nreconstituted, and another for the trial of bribery (ambitus) had\\nbeen added. The number of quaestiones was greatly increased\\nby Sulla and treason, murder, breach of the peace, peculation,\\nand forgery were made the subjects of the new criminal com-\\nmissions.\\nThese new courts, consisting each of a definite number of\\njurors (Judices), were presided over by those praetors who were\\nnot engaged in civil jurisdiction as the praetors were now\\nraised to eight, six were available as criminal judges but the\\ncourts exceeded this number, and consequently they were some-\\ntimes presided over by a foreman chosen from the jury {judex\\nquaestionis). Their establishment by Sulla was made the occa-\\nsion of a Lex Judiciaria enacting that \\\\hQ judices should be taken\\nexclusively from the senators and not from the equites, the latter\\nof whom had possessed this privilege, with one brief interrup-\\ntion, from the time of C. Gracchus, The dependence of the\\nsenate on the equestrian order was thus removed, and the\\naristocracy was armed with a weapon by which it could defend\\nits privileges and abuses and hold its enemies in check.\\np. 146.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "236\\nHISTOKV OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XXVIII.\\nSuch are the outlines of one of the most extraordinarj attempts\\nat reactionary legislation that history records. The new consti-\\ntution contained within itself the germs of dissolu-\\nGeneral view ^j^jj f^^ j^ invited attack from every side. The\\noftheSuUan i i r i j n-\\nconstitution senate s power had tormerly rested on public\\nopinion, and for this coercive laws are a poor\\nsubstitute. The shackles imposed on the tribunate made the\\nrestoration of the powers of this magistracy a popular party cry.\\nThe knights, whose support might have bolstered up the consti-\\ntution, were hopelessly alienated by the loss of the judicia.\\nThe senate, still bent on plundering the provinces, showed no\\ntendency to reform and the censorship, which had kept the\\norder comparatively pure, was practically abolished. We are\\nnot surprised, therefore, to find that in a few years Sulla s\\nbulwarks were swept away. Those portions of his constitution\\nalone were permanent that were not marked by a partisan\\nspirit. His reconstruction of the senate, his regulation of pro-\\nvincial commands, and his criminal courts remained proofs of\\nhis genius for organization.\\nCoin of Sulla.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "Cn. Pompeius Magnus.\\nCHAPTER XXIX.\\nKKOM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE CONSULSHIP OF POMPBY\\nAND CRASSUS. 78-70 B.C.\\nSulla was scarcely dead before an attempt was made to over-\\nthrow the aristocratical constitution which he had established.\\nThe Consul M. Lepidus had already, as we have\\nseen, endeavoured to prevent the burial of Sulla i,g|,jjug\\nin the Campus Martins. He now proposed to\\nrepeal the dictator s laws but the other consul, Q. Catulus,\\nremained firm to the aristocracy, and offered the most strenuous\\nopposition to the measures of his colleague. Faesulae in Etruria\\nwas soon the scene of a revolt of the proletariate which had\\nbeen dispossessed by Sulla. When the consuls were ordered to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "238 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXIX.\\nsuppress it, Lepidus seized the opportunity of putting himself at\\nthe head of the insurgents in the revolted district and march-\\ning straight upon Rome. The senate assembled an army, which\\nthey placed under the command of Q. Catulus, with Pompey as\\nhis lieutenant. A battle was fought near the Mulvian bridge, in\\nwhich Lepidus was defeated, and, finding it impossible to main-\\ntain his footing in Italy, he sailed with the remainder of his\\nforces to Sardinia, where he died soon afterwards.\\nMeantime the remains of tlie Marian party had found refuge\\nin Spain. Q. Sertorius, one of the ablest of their generals, had\\nreceived the government of this country in the\\nSertorius in y^^^, g2 b.c. He soon acquired an extraordinary\\nascendency over the minds of the natives, and\\nflattered them with the hope of establishing an independent state\\nwhich might bid defiance to Rome. His influence was enhanced\\nby the superstition of the people. He was accompanied on all\\noccasions by a tame fawn, which they believed to be a familiar\\nspirit. So attached did they become to his person, that he\\nfound no difficulty in collecting a formidable army, which for\\nsome years successfully opposed all the power of Rome. Sulla s\\ngenerals had forced him for a time to quit Spain for Africa but\\nhe soon returned, consolidated his power afresh, and was rein-\\nforced in 78 B.C. by a considerable body of troops which Perperna\\ncarried with him into Spain after the defeat of Lepidus. In\\n79 B.C. Metellus, who had been consul the previous year with\\nSulla, was sent against him but, though an able general, he was\\nbaffled by the unexpected nature of a war, which was no longer\\na revolt, but a struggle for national independence and the senate\\nsent Pompey to aid in the reduction of the power, half Roman,\\nhalf Spanish, of which Sertorius was the head. Pompey, though\\nonly thirty years of age, was already regarded as the ablest\\ngeneral of the Republic; and as he played such a prominent\\npart in her later history, we may here pause to give a brief\\naccount of his early career.\\nPompey was born in 106 B.C., and was, as we have already seen,\\nthe son of Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who fought against the Italians\\nin his consulsliip, 89 B.C. The young Pompey\\nj?ompey. served under his father in this war, when he was\\nonly seventeen years of age, and continued with him till his\\ndeath two years afterwards. Subsequently he was obliged to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIX.] POMPEY, 239\\nfight in the ranks of the democrats, when Cinna forced his way\\ninto Rome (87 B.C.) but Pompey was no democrat at heart.\\nAs soon as Sulla had finished the Mithridatic War, and was on\\nhis way to Italy, instead of waiting, like the other leaders of the\\naristocracy, for the arrival of their chief, he resolved to share\\nwith him the glory of crushing the Marian party. Accordingly\\nhe proceeded to levy troops in Picenum without holding any\\npublic office and such was his personal influence that he was\\nable to raise an army of three legions. Before joining Sulla he\\ngained a brilliant victory over the Marian generals, and was\\nreceived by Sulla with the greatest distinction. Upon the con-\\nclusion of the war in Italy, Pompey was sent first into Sicily, and\\nafterwards into Africa, where the Marian party still held out.\\nHis success was rapid and decisive. In a few months he re-\\nduced the whole of Numidia, and, unhke other Roman governors,\\nabstained from plundering the province. His military achieve-\\nments and his incorruptibility procured him the greatest renown,\\nand he returned to Rome covered with glory (80 B.C.). Numbers\\nflocked out of the city to meet him and the dictator himself,\\nwho formed one of the crowd, greeted him with the surname of\\nMagnus or the Great, which he bore ever afterwards. Sulla\\nat first refused to let him triumph, for he had held no magistracy\\nbut as Pompey insisted upon the. honour, Sulla gave way, and\\nthe young general entered Rome in triumph as a simple eques,\\nand before he had completed his twenty-fifth year.\\nPompey again exhibited his power, in promoting, in 79 B.C.,\\nthe election of M. Aemilius Lepidus to the consulship, in opposi-\\ntion to the wishes of Sulla. The latter had now retired from\\npublic affairs, and contented himself with warning Pompey, as\\nhe met him returning from the comitia in triumph, Young man,\\nit is time for you not to slumber, for you have strengthened your\\nrival against yourself. Lepidus seems to have reckoned upon\\nthe support of Pompey but in this he was disappointed, for\\nPompey remained faithful to the aristocracy, and, after the\\nstruggle with Lepidus, crushed the remains of the revolutionary\\nparty in Cisalpine Gaul. The senate, who now began to dread\\nPompey, ordered him to disband his army but he found various\\nexcuses for evading this injunction, as he was anxious to obtain\\nthe command of the war against Sertorius in Spain, They\\nhesitated, however, to give him this opportunity for gaining fresh", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "240 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXIX\\ndistinction and additional power and it was only in consequence\\nof the continuous success of Sertorius tliat they at length un-\\nwillingly determined to send Pompey to Spain, with the title of\\nproconsul, and with powers equal to Metellus.\\nPompey arrived in Spain in 76 B.C. He soon found that he\\nhad a more formidable enemy to deal with than he had yet\\nencountered. He suffered several defeats, and.\\nPompey com- j-jiough he gained some advantages, yet sucli\\nSertorius were his losses that at the end of two years he\\nwas obliged to send to Rome for reinforcements.\\nThe war continued three years longer but Sertorius, who had\\nlost some of his influence over the Spanish tribes, and who had\\nbecome an object of jealousy to M. Perperna and his principal\\nRoman officers, was unable to carry on operations with the same\\nvigour as during the two preceding years. Pompey accordingly\\ngained some advantages over him, but the war was still far from\\na close and the genius of Sertorius would probably have soon\\ngiven a very different aspect to affairs, had he not been assassi-\\nnated by Perperna in 72 b.c.\\nPerperna had flattered himself that he should succeed to the\\npower of Sertorius but he soon found that he had murdered\\nMurder of ^^^y\\nSertorius. In his first battle with Pompey he was completely\\nConquest of defeated, his principal officers slain, and himself\\nSpain. taken prisoner. Anxious to save his life, he\\noffered to deliver up to Pompey the papers of Sertorius, con-\\ntaining letters from many of the leading men at Rome. But\\nPompey refused to see him, and commanded the letters to be\\nburnt. The war was now virtually at an end, and the remainder\\nof the year was employed in subduing the towns which still held\\nout. Metellus had taken no part in the final struggle with\\nPerperna and Pompey thus obtained the credit of bringing the\\nwar to a conclusion. The people longed for his return, that he\\nmight deliver Italy from Spartacus and his horde of gladiators,\\nwho had defeated the consuls, and were in possession of a great\\npart of the peninsula.\\nA righteous retribution had overtaken the Romans for their\\nlove of the cruel sports of the amphitheatre.\\nSpartacus. rJ^^^ gladiators were generally prisoners taken in\\nwar and sold to persons who trained them in schools for the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIX.] THE STRUGGLE WlTIt SPARTACUS. Ul\\nRoman games. There was such a school at Capua, and among\\nthe gladiators was a Thracian of the name of Spartacus, origin-\\nally a chief of banditti, who had been taken prisoner by the\\nRomans, and was now destined to be butchered for their amuse-\\nment. Having prevailed upon about seventy of his comrades,\\nhe burst out of the school with them, succeeded in obtaining\\narms, and took refuge on Vesuvius, at that time an extinct\\nvolcano (73 B.C.). Here he was soon joined by large numbers\\nof slaves, who flocked to him from all quarters. He was now\\nat the head of a formidable army. The desolation of the social\\nand civil wars had depopulated Italy, while the employment\\nof slave-labour furnished Spartacus with an endless supply of\\nsoldiers. In addition to this, the war with Sertorius was not\\nyet finished, and that with Mithridates, of which we shall speak\\npresently, had already commenced. For upwards of two years\\nSpartacus was master of Italy, which he laid waste from the\\nfoot of the Alps to the southernmost corner of the peninsula.\\nIn 72 B.C. he found himself at the head of 100,000 men, and\\ndefeated both consuls.\\nAs the consuls of the following year had no military reputa-\\ntion, the conduct of the war was entrusted to the praetor,\\nM. Licinius Crassus, who had greatly distinguished\\nhimself in the wars of Sulla. He had been re-\\nwarded by the dictator with donations of confiscated property,\\nand had accumulated an immense fortune. Six legions were\\nnow given him in addition to the remains of the consular armies\\nalready in the field. The Roman troops were disheartened\\nand disorganized by defeat, but Crassus restored discipline by\\ndecimating the soldiers. Spartacus was driven to the extreme\\npoint of Bruttium his design was to pass over to Sicily, where\\nhe would have been welcomed by thousands of followers. But he\\nfailed in his attempt to cross the straits, and Crassus drew strong\\nlines of circumvallation across Bruttium to cut off his retreat.\\nSpartacus broke through the lines and again entered Lucania.\\nThe Roman general hastened in pursuit, and fell in with the\\nmain body of the fugitives. A desperate battle ensued, in which\\nSpartacus perished, with the greater part of his\\nfollowers. About 6000 were taken prisoners, gnorfacas\\nwhom Crassus impaled on each side of the\\nAppian road between Rome and Capua. A body of 5000", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "242 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXIX.\\nmade their way northwards, whom Pompey met as he was\\nreturning from Spain, and cut to pieces, Crassus had in reality\\nbrought the war to an end; but Pompey took the credit to\\nhimself, and wrote to the senate, saying, Crassus, indeed, has\\ndefeated the enemy, but I have extirpated them by the roots.\\nPompey and Crassus now approached the city at the head of\\ntheir armies, and each laid claim to the consulship. Neither of\\nthem was qualified by the laws of Sulla. Pompej\\nCoalition CI ^^^g ^^j^, j^ j^jg thirty-fifth year, and had not even\\nCrassus. office of quaestor. Crassus was still\\npraetor, and two years ought to elapse before he\\ncould become consul. A compromise was come to between the\\ngenerals, and, in order to win support from the democratic party\\nwithin the city, Pompey declared himself the advocate of the\\npopular rights, and promised to restore the tribunician power.\\nThe senate dared not offer opposition, and accordingly they were\\nelected consuls for the following year. Pompey entered the\\ncity in triumph on the 31st of December, 71 B.C., and Crassus\\nenjoyed the honour of an ovation.\\nThe consulship of Pompey and Crassus (70 b.c.) was memor-\\nable for the downfall of the most important portions of Sulla s\\nconstitutional reforms. The law making the tribu-\\nDownfall of ^q higher offices had already been\\nconstitution. I ^pealed by a Lex Aurelia of 75 B.C. but\\nPompey now removed the disabilities on its\\nright of initiative and on the intercession. He also struck\\nanother blow at the aristocrac3^ By one of Sulla s laws the\\njudices during the last ten years had been chosen from the\\nsenate. The corruption and venality of the latter in the ad-\\nministration of justice had exciteii the general indignation which\\nfinds expression in Cicero s Verrines, and some change was\\nclamorously demanded by the people.\\nAccordingly, the Praetor L. Aurelius Cotta, with the approba-\\ntion of Pompey, proposed a law by which the judices were to\\nbe taken in future from the senate, equites, arid\\nTribuni Aerarii, the latter probably representing\\nthe order which came next to the equites in the census. This\\nlaw was likewise carried but, though it rendered the courts less\\nof a political weapon, it did not improve the purity of the adminis-\\ntratioa of justice, since corruption was not confined to the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXIX.] COALITION OF POMPEY AND CRASSUS. 243\\nsenators, but pervaded all classes of the community alike.\\nPompey had thus broken with the aristocracy, and had become\\nthe great popular hero. In carrying both these measures he\\nwas strongly supported by Caesar, who, though he was rapidly\\nrising in popular favour, could as yet only hope to weaken the\\npower of the aristocracy through Pompey s means. The demo-\\ncratic programme was again allied with the military power,\\nand both were paving the way for absolutism.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "Coin ot Mithridates.\\nCHAPTER XXX.\\nTHIRD OR GREAT MITHRIDATIC WAR. 74-61 B.C.\\nWhen Sulla returned to Italy after the first Mithridatic War,\\nhe left L. Murena, with two legions, to hold the command in\\nAsia. Murena, who was eager for some oppor-\\nSecondMithn- ^^j^^j^^ earning the honour of a triumph, pre-\\ntending that Mithridates had not yet evacuated\\nthe whole of Cappadocia, not only marched into that country,\\nbut even crossed the Halys, and laid waste the plains of Pontus\\nitself (83 B.C.). To this flagrant breach of the treaty so lately\\nconcluded the Roman general was in great measure instigated by\\nArchelaus, who, finding himself regarded with suspicion by Mithri-\\ndates, had consulted his safety by flight, and was received with\\nthe utmost honour by the Romans.\\nMithridates, who was wholly unprepared to renew the contest\\nwith Rome, offered no opposition to the progress of Murena\\nbut finding that general disregard his remon-\\nDefeat of strances, he sent to Rome to complain of his\\nIH nffi nfl.\\naggression. When, in the following spring\\n(82 B.C.), he saw Mtu ena preparing to renew his hostile in-\\ncursions, he at once determined to oppose him by force, and\\nassembled a large army, with which he met the Roman general\\non the banks of the Halys. The action that ensued terminated\\nin the complete victory of the king and Murena with difficulty\\neffected his retreat into Phrygia, leaving Cappadocia at the\\nmercy of Mithridates, who quickly overran the whole province.\\nShortly afterwards A. Gabmius arrived in Asia, bringing", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXX.] THIRD MITHRIDATIG WAR. 245\\nperemptorj orders from Sulla to Miirena to desist from hostili-\\nties whereupon Mithridates once more con-\\nsented to evacuate Cappadocia, and the peace Deace\\nwith Rome was renewed.\\nNotwithstanding the interposition of Sulla, Mithridates was\\nwell aware that the peace between him and Rome was in fact\\nonly a suspension of hostilities; and that the\\nhaiiehty Republic would neA^er suffer the massacre J^?5^\\nf 1 V i. A of Mithri-\\n01 her citizens in Asia to remam unpunished, ^^tes.\\nHence all his efforts were directed towards the\\nformation of an army capable of contending, not only in numbers\\nbut in discipline, with the legions of Rome. With this view he\\narmed his barbarian troops after the Roman fashion, and en-\\ndeavoured to train them in that discipline the effect of which\\nhe had so strongly felt in the preceding contest. In these\\nattempts he was, doubtless, assisted by the refugees of the Marian\\nparty, who had accompanied Fimbria into Asia, and, on the\\ndefeat of that general by Siilla, had taken refuge with the king\\nof Pontus. At their instigation also Mithridates sent an embassy\\nto Sertorius, who was still maintaining his gi-ound in Spain, and\\nconcluded an alliance with him against their common enemies.\\nBut it was the death of Nicomedes III., king of Bithynia, in\\n75 B.C., that brought matters to a crisis, and became the imme-\\ndiate occasion of the war which both parties had\\nlong felt to be inevitable. That monarch left his bithynia be-\\ndorainions by will to the Roman people and B,oiiie.\\nBithynia was accordingly declared a Roman pro-\\nvince. But Mithridates asserted that the late king had left a\\nlegitimate son by his wife Nysa, whose pretensions he imme-\\ndiately prepared to support by arms.\\nThe forces with which Mithridates was now prepared to take\\nthe field were such as might inspire him with no unreasonable\\nconfidence of victory. He had assembled an\\narmy of 120,000 foot-soldiers, armed and dis- ^Uhridafes\\nciplined in the Roman manner, and 16,000 horse,\\nbesides a hundred scythed chariots. His fleet also was so far\\nsuperior to any that the Romans could oppose to him, as to give\\nhim the almost undisputed command of the sea. These pre-\\nparations, however, appear to have delayed him so long that\\nbefore he was able to take the field the season was far advanced,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "246 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX.\\nand both the Koman consuls, L. Licinius Lucullus and M.\\nAurelius Cotta, had arrived in Asia. Neither of them, however,\\nwas able to oppose his first irruption he traversed almost the\\nwhole of Bithynia without encountering any resistance and\\nwhen at length Cotta ventured to give him battle under the\\nwalls of Calchedon, his army and fleet were totally defeated.\\nMithridates now proceeded to lay siege to Cyzicus both by sea\\nand land. But Lucullus, who had advanced from Phrygia to\\nthe relief of Cotta, and followed Mithridates to Cyzicus, took\\npossession of an advantageous position near the camp of the\\nking, where he almost entirely cut him off from receiving\\nsupplies by land, while the storms of the winter prevented him\\nfrom depending on those by sea. Hence it was not long before\\nfamine began to make itself felt in the camp of Mithridates and\\nall his assaults upon the city having been foiled by the courage\\nand resolution of the besieged, he was at length compelled (early\\nin the year 73 B.C.) to abandon the enterprise and raise the siege.\\nIn his retreat he was repeatedly attacked by the Roman general,\\nand suffered very heavy loss at the passage of the Aesepus and\\nGranicus. By the close of the year the great\\nLucullus army with which he had commenced the war had\\nbeen almost annihilated and he was not only\\ncompelled to retire into his own dominions, but was without the\\nmeans of opposing the advance of Lucullus into the heart of\\nPontus itself. But he now again set to work with indefatigable\\nactivity to raise a fresh army and while he left the whole of\\nthe sea-coast of Pontus open to the invaders, he established\\nhimself in the interior at Cabira. Here he was again defeated by\\nLucullus and despairing of opposing the further progress of the\\nRomans, he fled into Armenia to claim the protection and assist-\\nance of his son-in-law Tigranes.\\nTigranes was at this moment the most powerful monarch of\\nAsia, but he appears to have been unwilling to engage openly in\\nwar with Rome and on this account, while he re-\\nnes ceived the fugitive monarch in a friendly manner,\\nhe refused to admit him to his presence, and\\nshowed no disposition to attempt his restoration. But the arro-\\ngance of the Romans brought about a change in his policj and\\nTigranes, offended at the haughty conduct of Appius Claudius,\\nwhom Lucullus had sent to demand the surrender bf Mithridates,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXX.] THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 247\\nnot only refused this request, but determined at once to prepare\\nfor war.\\nWhile LucuUus was waiting for the return of Claudius, he\\ndevoted his attention to the settlement of the affairs of Asia,\\nwhich was suffering severely from the oppressions of the farmers\\nof the public taxes. By various judicious regulations he put a\\nstop to their exactions, and earned the gratitude of the Asiatic\\ncities but at the same time he brought upon himself the enmity\\nof the equites, who were the farmers of the revenue. They were\\nloud against him in their complaint s at Eome, and by their con-\\ntinued clamours undoubtedly prepared the way for his ultimate\\nrecall.\\nMeanwhile community of interests between Mithridates and\\nTigranes had led to a complete reconciliation between them and\\nthe Pontic king, who had spent a year and eight\\nmonths in the dominions of his son-in-law without\\nbeing admitted to a personal interview, was now\\nmade to participate in all the councils of Tigranes, and com-\\nmissioned to raise an army to unite in the war. But it was in\\nvain that in the ensuing campaign (69 B.C.) he urged upon his\\nson-in-law the lessons of his own experience, and advised him to\\nshun a regular action with Lucullus Tigranes, confident in the\\nmultitude of his forces, gave battle at Tigranocerta, and was\\ndefeated, before Mithridates had been able to join him. But\\nthis disaster, so precisely in accordance with the warnings of\\nMithridates, served to raise the latter so high in the estimation of\\nTigranes, that from this time forward the whole conduct of the\\nwar was entrusted to the direction of the king of Pontus.\\nIn the following summer (68 b c.) Lucullus crossed the Taurus,\\npenetrated into the heart of Armenia, and again defeated the\\nallied monarchs near the city of Artaxata. But\\nthe early severity of the season, and the discontent Defeat of\\nof his own troops, checked the further advance\\narmies,\\nof the Roman general, who turned aside into\\nMesopotamia. Here Mithridates allowed him to lay siege to the\\nfortress of Nisibis, which was supposed to be impregnable, while\\nhe himself took advantage of his absence to invade Pontus, at\\nthe head of a large army, and endeavour to regain possession of\\nhis former dominions. The defence of Pontus was confided to\\nFabius, one of the lieutenants of Lucullus, but the oppression of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "248 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX.\\nthe Eomans had excited a general spirit of disaffection, and the\\npeople crowded around the standard of Mithridates. Fabius\\nwas totally defeated, and compelled to shut himself up in the\\nfortress of Cabira. In the following spring (67 b.c.) Triarius,\\nother of the Eoman generals, was also defeated with immense\\nloss at Zela. The blow was one of the severest which the\\nRoman arms had sustained for a long period 7000 of their\\ntroops fell, among whom were an unprecedented number of\\nofficers, and their camp itself was taken.\\nThe advance of Lucullus himself from Mesopotamia prevented\\nMithridates from following up his advantage, and he withdrew\\ninto Lesser Armenia, where he took up a strong\\npisaifection position to await the approach of Tigranes. But\\nin Xiiicullus\\narmy. further proceedings of Lucullus were paralyzed\\nby the mutinous and disaffected spirit of his own\\nsoldiers. Their discontents were fostered by P. Clodiiis, whose\\nturbulent and restless spirit already showed itself in its full\\nforce, and were encouraged by reports from Rome, where the\\ndemagogues who were favoura:ile to Pompey, or had been\\ngained over by the equestrian party, were loud in their clamours\\nagainst Lucullus. They accused him of protracting the war for\\nhis own personal objects, either of ambition or avarice; and the\\nsoldiery, whose appetite for plunder he had often checked,\\nreadily joined in the outcry. Accordingly, on the arrival of\\nTigranes, the two monarchs found themselves able to overi un\\nalmost the whole of Pontus and Cappadocia without opposition.\\nSuch was the state of affairs when ten legates arrived in Asia\\nto reduce Pontus to the form of a Roman province; and they\\nhad in consequence to report to the senate that\\ninted country supposed to be conquered was again\\nin the hands of the enemy. The adversaries of\\nLucullus naturally availed themselves of so favourable an\\noccasion, and a decree was passed transferring to M Acilius\\nGlabrio, one of the consuls for the year (67 b.c), the province of\\nBithynia, and the command against Mithridates.\\nBut Glabrio was wholly incompetent for the task assigned to\\nhim. On arriving in Bithynia he made no attempt to assume the\\ncommand, but remained within the confines of his province,\\nwhile he still further embarrassed the position of Lucullus by\\nissuing proclamations to his soldiers, announcing to them that", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXX.] WAR WITH THE PIRATES. 249\\ntheir general was superseded, and releasing them from their\\nobedience. Before the close of the year (67 b.c.) Luculhis had\\nthe mortification of seeing Mithridates established\\nonce more in the possession of his hereditary do- fruitless\\nTi -i i.-ii 11- i 1- resBltoftne\\nmmions. But it was still more galhng to his\\nfeelings when, in the spring of the following year\\n(66 B.C.), he was called upon to resign the command to\\nPompey, who had just brought to a successful termination the\\nwar against the pirates.\\nThe MediteiTanean had long been swarming with robbers.\\nFrom the earliest times piracy has more or less prevailed in this\\nsea, which, lying between three continents, and\\nabounding in numerous creeks and isJands, pre-\\nsents the greatest temptations and the greatest facilities for\\npiratical pursuits. In consequence of the social and civil wars,\\nand the absence of any united fleet to preserve order upon the\\nsea, the evil had reached an alarming height, and the governors\\nof the separate provinces, with the few sliips at their command,\\nfound themselves quite unable to cope with this predatory\\norganization. The pirates possessed fleets in all parts of the\\nMediterranean, were in the habit of plundering the most wealthy\\ncities on the coasts, and had at length carried their audacity so\\nfar as to make descents upon the Appian road, and carry off\\nEoman magistrates, with their lictors. All communication\\nbetween Rome and the provinces was cut oft or rendered\\nextremely dangerous; the fleets of corn-vessels, upon which\\nEome to a great extent depended for its subsistence, could not\\nreach the city, and provisions rose to famine prices.\\nThe ruin of trade and the scarcity of food united the equites\\nand the masses against the government. At the beginning of\\n67 B.C. the tribune A. Gabinius, brought forward p\\na bill which was intended to give a delegate of\\nthe people almost absolute authority over the greater part of the\\nRoman world. It proposed that a man of consular rank should\\nbe chosen, who should possess command over the whole of the\\nMediterranean with an imperium equal to that of other pro-\\nvincial governors whose provinces he touched; he was to be\\ngiven a fleet of 200 ships, with 15 senatorial legates, as many\\nsoldiers and sailors as he thought necessary, and 6000 Attic\\ntalents. The bill did not name Pompey, but it was clear who", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "250 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX.\\nwas meant. The aristocracy were in the utmost alarm, and in\\nthe senate Caesar was almost the only person who came forward\\nin its support. Party spirit ran to such a height that the most\\nserious riots ensued. Even Pompey himself was threatened by\\none of the consuls, If you emulate Eomulus, you will not\\nescape the end of Romulus. Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius\\nspoke against the bill with great eloquence, but to no effect.\\nOn the day that it became law the price of provisions at Rome\\nimmediately fell a fact which showed the immense confidence\\nwhich all parties placed in Pompey s military capacity.\\nThe admiral s plans were formed with great skill, and were\\ncrowned with complete success. He stationed his lieutenants\\nwith different squadrons in various parts of the\\nPompey sub- Mediterranean to prevent the pirates from uniting,\\nDirates. them out of various bays and creeks\\nin which they concealed themselves while, at the\\nsame time, he swept the middle of the sea with the main body\\nof his fleet, and chased them eastwards. In forty days he drove\\nthe pirates out of the western seas, and restored communication\\nbetween Spain, Africa, and Italy. After then remaining a short\\ntime in Italy, he sailed from Brundusium cleared the seas as he\\nwent along; and forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here\\nthe decisive action was fought; the pirates were defeated; and\\nmore than 20,000 prisoners fell into his hands. Those on whom\\nmost reUance could be placed were distributed among the small\\nand depopulated cities of Cilicia, and a large number were settled\\nat Soli, which was henceforward called Pompeiopolis. The\\nsecond part of this campaign occupied only forty-nine days, and\\nthe whole war was brought to a conclusion in the course of three\\nmonths. Pompey remained in Cilicia during the remainder of\\nthis year and the beginning of the one following.\\nMeanwhile the tribune C. Manilius brought forward a bill\\n(66 B.C.) giving to Pompey the command of the war against\\nMithridates, with a command unlimited by time\\nLex am la. place over the army and the fleet in the East,\\nand with rights equal to those of the ordinary provincial gover-\\nnors (imperium infirdtum aequum). As his proconsular power\\nalready extended over all the coasts and islands of the Medi-\\nterranean in virtue of the Gabinian law, this new measure\\nvirtually placed almost the whole of the transmarine provinces", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXX.] THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 251\\nin his hands. But there was no power, however excessive,\\nwhich the enthusiasm of the people and the anger of the equites\\nwere not ready to entrust to the new hero; and the bill was\\naccordingl} passed, notwithstanding the opposition of Hortensius,\\nCatulus, and the aristocratical party. Cicero, the spokesman of\\nthe equestrian order, advocated the measure in an oration which\\nhas come down to us {Pro Lege Manilia), and Caesar likewise\\nsupported it with his growing popularity and influence.\\nOn receiving intelligence of this new appointment, Pompey\\nimmediately crossed the Taurus, and took the command of the\\narmy from Lucullus. The power of Mithri dates\\nhad been broken by the previous victories of Qfvt^nev^\\nLucullus, and the successes which the king had\\ngained lately were only occasional and were mainly due to the\\ndisorganization of the Roman army. In the plan of the campaign\\nPompey displayed great military skill. One of his first measures\\nwas to secure the alliance of the Parthian king, which not only\\ndeprived Mithridates of all hopes of succour from that quarter,\\nbut likewise cut him off from all assistance from the Armenian\\nking Tigranes, who was now obliged to look to the safety of his\\nown dominions. Pompey next stationed his fleet in different\\nsquadrons along the coasts of Asia Minor, in order to deprive\\nMithridates of all communication from the sea, and he then\\nproceeded in person at the head of his land forces against the\\nking. Thus thrown back upon his own resources, Mithridates\\nsued for peace, but, as Pompey would hear of nothing but\\nunqualified submission, the negotiation was broken off. The\\nking was still at the head of 30,000 foot and 3000 horse, but he\\nknew too well the strength of a Roman army to venture an\\nengagement with these forces, and accordingly withdrew gradu-\\nally to the frontiers of Armenia.\\nFor a long time he succeeded in avoiding a battle, but he was,\\nat length, surprised by Pompey in TiCsser Armenia as he was\\nmarching through a narrow pass. The battle was\\nsoon decided the king lost the greater number of Mithridates\\nhis troops, and escaped with only a few horsemen\\nto the fortress of Synorium, on the borders of the Greater\\nArmenia, Here he again collected a considerable force but as\\nTigranes refused to admit him into his dominions, because he\\nsuspected him of fomenting the intrigues of his son against him,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "252 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXX.\\nMithridates had no alternative but to take refuge in his own\\ndistant dominions in the Cimmerian Bosporus. To reach thera\\nhe had to march through Colchis, and to fight his way through\\nthe wild and barbarous tribes that occupied the country between\\nthe Caucasus and the Euxine. He succeeded, however, in this\\narduous enterprise, and reached the Bosporus in safety in the\\ncourse of the next year (65 B.C.). Pompey abandoned at\\npresent all thoughts of following the fugitive king, and resolved\\nat once to attack Tigranes, who was now the more formidable of\\nthe two monarchs.\\nOn entering Armenia Pompey met with no opposition. He\\nwas joined by the young Tigranes, who had revolted against his\\nfather, and all the cities submitted to them on\\nConquest of ^j^^jj. jjppj-oach. When the Romans drew near to\\nArtaxata, the king, deserted by his army and his\\ncourt, went out to meet Pompey, and threw himself before him\\nas a suppliant. Pompey received him with kindness, acknow-\\nledged him as king of Armenia, and demanded only the payment\\nof 6000 talents. His foreign possessions, however, in Syria,\\nPhoenicia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia, which had been conquered by\\nLucullus, were to belong to the Romans. To his son Tigranes,\\nS.iphene and Gordyene were given as an independent kingdom\\nbut as the young prince was discontented with this arrangement,\\nand even ventured to utter threats, Porapej had him arrested,\\nand kept him in chains to grace his triumph.\\nAfter thus settling the affairs of Armenia, Pompey proceeded\\nnorthwards in pursuit of Mithridates. Conflicts ensued with the\\nIberians and Albanians, and, after the defeat of the\\nAlh^^^^^ latter, all the tribes south of the Caucasus were\\nformally admitted into alliance with Rome(65 B.C.).\\nBut Pompey did not continue his projected march to the Crimea\\nfurther than the Phasis. Here he obtained more certain in-\\nformation of the movements of Mithridates, and learning the\\nwild and inaccessible nature of the country through which he\\nwould have to march in order to reach the king, he retiaced\\nhis steps, and led his troops into winter-quarters at Amisus, on\\nthe Euxine. He now reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman\\nprovince.\\nIn 64 B.C. Pompey marched into Syria, where he deposed\\nAntiochus Asiaticus, and made the country a Roman province.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXX.] CLOSE OF THE MITHRIDATIC WARS. 253\\nHe likewise compelled the neighbouring princes, who had es-\\ntablished independent kingdoms on the ruins of the Syrian\\nempire, to submit to the Roman dominion. The\\nwhole of this year was occupied with the settle-\\nment of Syria and the adjacent provinces.\\nNext year (63 B.C.), Pompey advanced further south, in order\\nto establish the Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and\\nPalestine. The latter country was at this time dis- _\\njfl.lftST.1nfi\\ntracted by a civil war between the priest-kings\\nHyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey espoused the side of\\nHyrcanus i and Aristobulus surrendered himself to Pompey,\\nwhen the latter had advanced near to Jerusalem. But the\\nJews refused to follow the example of their king and it was\\nnot till after a siege of three months that the city was taken.\\nPompey entered the holy of holies, the first time that any\\nhuman being, excei^t the high priest, had penetrated into this\\nsacred spot. He reinstated Hyrcanus in the high priesthood,\\nbut compelled him to pay a war indemnity to Rome Aristobulus\\naccompanied him as a prisoner. It was during this war in\\nPalestine that Pompey received intelligence of the death of\\nMithridates.\\nDuring the last two years Mithridates had been making the\\nmost extensive preparations for the renewal of the contest. He\\nhad conceived the daring project of marching\\nround the north and west coasts of the Euxine, j, thr d t\\nand emulating Hannibal by penetrating into Italy,\\nand was busily engaged in assembling an enormous fleet and\\narmy. But his proceedings were delayed by a long and painful\\nillness, which incapacitated him for any personal exertion. At\\nlength, however, his preparations were completed, and he found\\nhimself at the head of an army of 36,000 men and a considerable\\nfleet. But during his illness disaffection had made rapid progress\\namong his followers. The full extent of his schemes was pro-\\nbably communicated to few but enough had transpired to alarm\\nthe multitude and a formidable conspiracy was organized by\\nPharnaces, the monarch s favourite son.\\nHe was quickly joined both by the whole army and the\\ncitizens of Panticapaeum, who unanimously pro-\\nclaimed him king; and Mithridates saw that no\\nchoice remained to him but death or captivity. Hereupon he took", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "254\\nHISTORr OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XXX.\\npoison, which he constantly carried with him but his constitu-\\ntion had been so long inured to antidotes, that it did not pro-\\nduce the desired effect, and he was compelled to call in the\\nassistance of one of his Gallic mercenaries to despatch him\\nwith his sword.\\nPompey now devoted his attention to the settlement of affairs\\nin Asia. Ilis organization of the East marks the close of the\\nthird period of the extension of the Roman empire.\\nThe Protectorate system, so long clung to in the\\nEast, had now been given up, and the acquisition\\nof the provinces of Pontus, Bithynia, and Syria\\nmade direct imperial rule extend to the Black Sea and the\\nEuphrates. But a chain of client-states was still kept along\\nthe frontier. Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, was confirmed\\nin the possession of the kingdom of Bosporus Deiotarus,\\ntetrarch of Galatia, was rewarded with an extension of territory\\nand Ariobarzanes, king of Cappadocia, was restored to his king-\\ndom. Great efforts were made to cultivate in the new provinces\\nthe Greek civic organization and thirty-nine new towns are\\nsaid to have sprung into life at Pompey s bidding.\\nPompey s\\norganization\\nof the East.\\nCoin of Tigranes,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "CHAPTEE XXXT.\\nIKTERSTAL HISTORY, FROM THE COKSXJLSHIP OF POMPEY AND\\nCRASSUS TO THE RETURN OF POMPEY FROM THE EAST. THE\\nCOXSPIRACY OF CATILINE. 69-61 B.C.\\nDuring the five years of Pompey s absence in the East\\n(67-62 B.C.) he had been the uncertain element in the pohtics\\nof the Roman world and both parties watched\\nState of\\nparties.\\nanxiously to see to what purpose he would use his\\nvast military power. The senate had been beaten\\nby the Gabinian and Manilian laws, and felt their position in-\\nsecure. The popular party was still crushed and humiliated,\\nand for their recent success had been forced to lean on P.\\nCrassus and the equites. Meanwhile a new leader of the popular\\nparty had been rapidly rising into notice, who was destined not", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "256 HiSTORy OP ROME. [Cnx-p. XXXT.\\nonly to crush the aristocracy, but to overthrow the RepubHc and\\nbecome the undisputed master of the Roman world.\\nC. Julius Caesae, who was descended from an old patrician\\nfamily, was six years younger than Pompey, having been born\\nin 100 B.C. He was connected with the popular\\nparty by the marriage of his aunt Julia with the\\ngreat Marius, and he himself married, at an early age, Cornelia,\\nthe daughter of Cinna, the most distinguished of the Marian\\nleaders. Sulla commanded him to divorce his wife, and on his\\nrefusal his life was for a time in danger. The vestal virgins and\\nhis friends with difficulty obtained his pardon from the dictator,\\nwho observed, when they pleaded his youth and insignificance,\\nthat that boy would some day or another be the ruin of the\\naristocracy, for that there were many Mariuses in him.\\nThis was the first proof which Caesar gave of the resolution\\nand decision of character which distinguished him throughout\\nlife. His first campaign was fought under M. Minucius Thermus,\\nin Asia, where he was rewarded, at the siege of Mitylene, with\\na civic crown for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. His political\\ncareer commenced with the accusation of Cn. Dolabella for ex-\\ntortion in his province of Macedonia (77 B.C.)- Dolabella was\\nacquitted by the senatorial judges but Caesar gained great\\nreputation by this prosecution, and showed that he possessed\\npowers of oratory which bade fair to place him among the fore-\\nmost speakers at Rome. To render himself still more perfect, he\\nsought the school of rhetoric at Rhodes, then frequented by\\nRoman nobles but on his voyage thither he was captured by\\npirates, with whom the seas of the Mediterranean then swarmed.\\nThey detained him until he could obtain fifty talents from the\\nneighbouring cities for his ransom. Immediately on obtaining\\nhis liberty, he manned some Milesian vessels, overpowered the\\npirates, and conducted them as prisoners to Pergamus, where\\nhe shortly afterwards crucified them a punishment he had\\nfrequently threatened in sport when he was their prisoner. He\\nthen repaired to Rhodes, where he studied for a short time\\nunder ApoUonius, but soon afterwards crossed over into Asia, on\\nthe outbreak of the Mithridatic War in 74 B.C. Here, although\\nhe held no public office, he collected troops on his own authority,\\nand repulsed the commander of the king, and then returned to\\nRome to receive from the people his first public appointment as", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXI.] CAESAR AND CTCERO. 257\\na militj^vy tribune. His affable manners, and still more his\\nunbounded liberality, won the hearts of the people.\\nCaesar obtained the quaestorship in 68 e.g. In this year he\\nlost his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, and his own wife\\nCornelia. He pronounced orations over both of them in the\\nforum, in which he took the opportunity of passing a panegyric\\nupon the former leaders of the popular party. At the funeral of\\nhis aunt he caused the images of Marius to be borne in the pro-\\ncession they were welcomed with loud acclamations by the\\npeople, who were delighted to see their former favourite brought,\\nas it were, into public again.\\nCaesar warmly supported the Gabinian and Manilian laws,\\nwhich bestowed upon Pompey the command against the pirates\\nand Mithridates for to support these laws was to weaken the\\npower of the senate. In 65 e.g. he was curule aedile, and still\\nfurther increased his popularity by the splendid games which he\\nexhibited. He now took a step which openly proclaimed him\\nthe leader of the Marian party. He caused the statues of\\nMirius and the Cimbrian trophies, which had been all destroyed\\nby Sulla, to be privately restored and placed at night in the\\nCapitol. In the morning the city was in the highest state of\\nexcitement the veterans of Marius wept with joy at beholding\\nonce more the features of their leader and the trophies of their\\nvictories, and greeted Caesar with shouts of applause. Q.\\nCatulus brought the conduct of Caesar before the notice of the\\nsenate, but the popular excitement was so great that they\\nthought it better to let the matter drop. This year brought\\nCaesar into the full current of home politics, and into contact\\nwith a man of very different birth, temperament, and political\\nviews.\\nM. TuLLius Cicero was born at Arpinum in 106 e.g., and\\nconsequently in the same year as Pompey. His father was of\\nthe equestrian order, and hved upon his here-\\nditary estate near Arpinum, but none of his\\nancestors had ever held any of the offices of Eome. Cicero\\nwas, therefore, according to the Roman phraseology, a New\\nMan (see p. 155). He served his first and only campaign in the\\nsocial war (89 e.g.), and in the troubled times which followed\\nhe gave himself up with indefatigable perseverance to those\\nstudies which were essential to his success as a lawyer and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "258 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXI.\\norator. When tranquillity was restored by the final discomfiture\\nof the Marian party he came forward as a pleader at the age of\\ntwenty-five. The young orator was not lacking in courage the\\nfirst important speech which he delivered upon a criminal trial\\nwas that in defence of Sex. Roscius of Ameria, who was charged\\nwith parricide by Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla, supported,\\nas it was understood, by the influence of his patron. The speech\\ncontained a terrible invective against the creatures of the\\ndictator, and, though kindly exempting their master from any\\nactive participation in their frauds, was the first strong protest\\nraised against the iniqu tics of the Sullan regime. In con-\\nsequence of the failure of his health Cicero quitted Rome in\\n79 B.C., and spent two years in study in the philosophical and\\nrhetorical schools of Athens and Asia Minor. On his return to\\nthe city he took his station in the foremost rank of forensic\\norators, and ere long stood alone in acknowledged pre-eminence;\\nhis most formidable rivals Hortensius, eight years his senior,\\nand C. Aurelius Cotta, who had long been kings of the bar\\nhaving been forced, after a short but sharp contest for supremacy,\\nto yield.\\nCicero s reputation and popularity already stood so high that\\nhe was elected quaestor (76 B.C.), although, comparatively\\nspeaking, a stranger, and certainly unsupported by any powerful\\nfamily interest. He served in Sicily as quaestor of Lilybaeum\\nunder the propraetor Sex. Peducaeus. In 70 b c. he gained\\ngreat renown by his impeachment of Verres for his oppression\\nof the Sicilians, whom he had ruled as propraetor of Syracuse for\\nthe space of three years (73-71 B.C.). The most strenuous exer-\\ntions were made by Verres, backed by some of the most powerful\\nfamilies, to wrest the case out of the hands of Cicero, who, how-\\never, defeated the attempt; and having demanded and been\\nallowed 110 days for the purpose of collecting evidence, he\\ninstantly set out for Sicily, which he traversed in less than two\\nmonths, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses.\\nAnother desperate effort was made by Hortensius, now consul-\\nelect, who was counsel for the defendant, to raise up obstacles\\nwhich might have the effect of delajang the trial until the com-\\nmencement of the following year; but here again he was\\ndefeated by the promptitude and decision of his opponent,\\nwho opening the case very briefly, proceeded at once to the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXI.] FIRST CATILINARIAN CONSPIRACY. 259\\nexamination of the witnesses and the production of the deposi-\\ntions and other papers, which taken together constituted a mass of\\ntestimonjr so decisive that Verres gave up the contest as hopeless,\\nand retired at once into exile without attempting any defence.\\nIn the course of his accusation, Cicero pointed out that senatorial\\njuries themselves were on their trial a warning all the more\\nsigniiicant as the judiciary law of Aurelius had already been\\nproposed.\\nIn 69 B.C. Cicero was aedile and in 66 praetor. In the latter\\nyear he delivered his celebrated address to the people in favour\\nof the Manilian law. Having now the consulship in view, and\\nknowing that, as a new man, he must expect the most deter-\\nmined opposition from the nobles, he resolved to throw himself\\ninto the arms of the popular party, and to secure the friendship\\nof Pompey, now certainly the most important person in the\\nRepublic.\\nThe same year (66 b.c.) was marked by the first conspiracy of\\nCatiline: a plot of such obscurity that its very existence has\\nbeen doubted yet it seems certain that the move-\\nment which culminated two years later must have ^^^st Catili-\\nalready commenced. The circumstances of the gnij-acv\\ntimes were favourable to a bold and unprincipled\\nadventurer. A widespread feeling of disaffection extended over\\nthe whole of Italy. The veterans of Sulla had already squandered\\ntheir ill-gotten wealth, and longed for a renewal of those scenes\\nof blood which they had found so profitable. The multitudes\\nwhose estates he had confiscated and whose relations he had\\nproscribed were eagerly watching for any movement which\\nmight give them a chance of becoming robbers and murderers\\nin their turn. The evil of debt was at its height, and the lower\\nclasses in Rome and Italy had real grievances which called for\\nsettlement. Nor were leaders wanting; the younger nobility, as\\na class, were thoroughly demoralized, for the most part bank-\\nrupts in fortune as well as in fame, and eager for any change\\nwhich might relieve them from their embarrassments. The\\nrabble were restless and discontented, filled with envy and hatred\\nagainst the rich and powerful. The time seemed favourable for\\nrevolution; for never was the executive weaker. The senate\\nand magistrates were wasting their energies in petty disputes,\\nPage 242.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "260 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXI.\\nindifferent to the wider interests of the state. Pompey, at the\\nhead of all the best troops of the Republic, was prosecuting a\\nlong-protracted war in the East there was no army in Italy,\\nwhere all was hushed in a treacherous calm.\\nFew of the nobles at this time were the subjects of darker\\nrumours than L. Sergius Catilina. He was the descendant of\\nan ancient patrician family which had sunk into\\npoverty, and he first appears in history as a zealous\\npartisan of Sulla. During the horrors of the proscription he\\nkilled his brother-in-law, Q. Caecihus he was suspected of an\\nintrigue with a vestal virgin and it was rumoured that he had\\nmade away with his first wife and afterwards with his son in\\norder that he might marry the profligate Aurelia Orestilla, who\\nobjected to the presence of a grown-up step-child. Such is the\\nincredibly black picture which two contemporaries, Sallust and\\nCicero, have painted of a man who moved in the best society,\\nenjoyed great popularity among the younger nobles, and was a\\nsuccessful candidate in the race for honours. It is more certain\\nthat he possessed extraordinary powers of mind and body, and\\nthat all who came in contact with him submitted more or less to\\nthe charm of his manner and his many-sided genius. He was\\npraetor in 68 b.c. was governor of Africa during the following\\nyear and returned to Rome in 66 B.C. in order to press his suit\\nfor the consulship. The election for 65 b.c. was carried by P.\\nAutronius Paetus and P. Cornelius Sulla, both of whom were\\nsoon after convicted, of bribery, and their places supplied by\\ntheir competitors and accusers, L. AureUus Cotta and L. Manlius\\nTorquatus. Catiline, who was desirous of becoming a candi-\\ndate, had been disqualified in consequence of an impeachment\\nfor extortion in his province preferred by P. Clodius\\nPulcher. Exasperated by their disappointment, Autronius\\nand Catiline are said to have formed a project to murder\\nthe new consuls upon the first of January when offering up\\ntheir vows in the Capitol, after which the conspirators were\\nto seize the fasces. This extraordinary design is said to have\\nbeen frustrated solely by the impatience of Catiline, who gave\\nthe signal prematurely before the whole of the armed agents\\nhad assembled.\\nCatiline was soon afterwards left unfettered by his acquittal\\non the charge of extortion a result secured by collusion with", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXI.] CONSULSHIP OF CICERO. 261\\nhis prosecutor and his mind was again bent on securing the\\nhighest dignity of the state. Had he become consul for 63 B.C.,\\nthere would have been no Catilinarian con-\\nspiracy, but probably a very violent financial revo- kv\\nlution conducted on the lines of the constitution.\\nHe planned an abolition of all existing debts and wholesale\\nmeasures of confiscation; and his agents were already chosen.\\nThey were men of broken fortunes chief amongst them were\\nLentulus, an ex-consul who had been struck out of the list of\\nthe senate, and Cethegus, a violent and sanguinary revolu-\\ntionist.\\nCatiline s competitors at the consular elections in 64 b.c. were\\nCicero and C. Antonius. Antonius he had already secured as\\nan ally, and the struggle lay between himself and _.\\nn- m i. -u ^e j: u- Cicero consul.\\nCicero, ihe government, halt conscious of his\\nplans, was in the utmost alarm. There was no senatorial\\ncandidate who stood a chance of success, and, therefore, tin-ow-\\ning its prejudices against a new man to the winds, it\\nwarmly supported Cicero. The orator, who already had the\\nsupport of the equites and of a large section of the municipal\\nvoters of Italy, was returned at the head of the poll with\\nAntonius as his colleague.\\nWhen Cicero assumed the consulship in 63 B.C. the democratic\\nparty was in great straits. A fragment of it was struggling for\\nrevolution with Catiline. The larger and more\\nrespectable portion now strove to gain for its f^^^i^\\nleaders a position in the state which might\\nbalance that of Pompey in the East. An agrarian law was\\nintroduced by the tribune Rullus which, under tlie pretext of\\nproviding land by purchase for the poorer citizens, aimed at\\nestablishing a commission of ten men, with vast powers at home\\nand abroad. If the democrats relied on Cicero s support, they\\nwere mistaken. The orator paid his debt to the aristocracy and\\nto Pompey, whose position the law imperilled, by opposing and\\ndefeating Rullus bill.\\nThe democrats were outwitted bnt Cicero had now to meet\\nthe plots of the revolutionists. The safety of the _.\\nstate depended on his watchfulness, and he theconsraraov\\nshowed consummate skill in baffling what had\\naow become a formidable conspiracy.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "262 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXXI.\\nHe gained over his colleague Antonius by resigning to him\\nthe province of Macedonia. Meantime he be-\\nSecond Cati- came acquainted with every detail of the plot\\nSDiracv h Fulvia, the mistress of Q. Curius, one\\nof Catiline s intimate associates.\\nThus informed, Cicero called a meeting of the senate on the\\n21st of October, when he openly denounced Catiline, charged\\nhim broadly with treason, and asserted that the 28th was the\\nperiod fixed for the murder of the leading men in the Republic.\\nThe senate thereupon invested the consuls with dictatorial power.\\nThe comitia for the election of the consuls was now held.\\nCatiline, again a candidate, was again rejected. Driven to\\ndespair by this fresh disappointment, he resolved at once to\\nb.ing matters to a crisis. On the night of the 6th of November\\nhe summoned a meeting of the ringleaders at the house of M.\\nPorcius Laeca, and made arrangements for an immediate out-\\nbreak. Cicero, being immediately informed of what took place,\\nsummoned, on the 8th of November, a meeting of the senate in\\nthe temple of Jupiter Stator, and there delivered the first of\\nhis celebrated orations against Catiline. Catiline, who upon his\\nentrance had been avoided by all, and was sitting alone upon a\\nbench from which every one had shrunk, rose to reply, but had\\nscai cely commenced when his words were drowned by the\\nshouts of enemy and parricide which burst from the\\nwhole assembly, and he rushed forth with threats and curses on\\nhis lips. He now resolved to strike some decisive blow before\\ntroops could be levied to oppose him, and accordingly, leaving\\nthe chief control of affairs at Rome in the hands of Lentulus\\nand Cethegus, he set forth in the dead of night, and proceeded\\nto join Manlius, an old soldier who was mustering the troops of\\nthe revolutionists at Faesulae.\\nShortly afterwards fresh evidence came into Cicero s hands\\nwhich, he thought, justified prompter action. Ambassadors\\nfrom the Gallic tribe of the Allobroges, who were\\nEome Rome, had been tampered with by the\\nconspirators. They thought fit to reveal the\\ncommunication to Q. Fabius Sanga, the patron of their state,\\nwho in his turn acquainted Cicero. By the instructions of the\\nlatter the ambassadors affected great zeal in the undertaking,\\nand obtained a written agreement signed by Lentulus, Cethegus,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXI.] SECOND CATILINARIAN CONSPIRACY. 263\\nand others. They quitted Rome soon after midnight on the 3rd\\nof December, accompanied by one T. Volturcius, who was\\ncharged with despatches for Catiline. The ambassadors were\\nseized as they were crossing the Mulvian bridge by two of the\\npraetors who had been stationed in ambush to intercept them,\\nCicero instantly summoned Lentulus, Cethegus, and the other\\nconspirators to his presence. Lentulus being praetor, the\\nconsul led him by the hand to the Temple of\\nConcord, where the senate was already met the r^ arrested\\nrest of the accused followed closely guarded.\\nVolturcius, finding escape impossible, agreed, upon his own\\npersonal safety being insured, to make a full confession. His\\nstatements were confirmed by the Allobroges, and the testimony\\nwas rendered conclusive by the signatures of the ringleaders,\\nwhich they were unable to deny. The guilt of Lentulus,\\nCethegus, and seven others being thus established, Lentulus\\nwas forced to abdicate his office, and then with the rest was\\nconsigned to the charge of certain senators, who became respon-\\nsible for their appearance.\\nThese circumstances, as they had occurred, were then narrated\\nby Cicero in his third oration, delivered in the forum. On the\\nnones (5th) of December the senate was again\\nsummoned to determine upon the fate of the \u00e2\u0096\u00a0Execution of\\nconspirators. The feeling of the senate was in guij-Qtop-\\nfavour of their execution until the resolution of\\nmany was weakened by a vigorous speech from Caesar. While\\nexpressing horror of the conspiracy, he deprecated the death-\\npenalty as unconstitutional, and proposed, as an alternative,\\nthat the property of the prisoners should be confiscated, and that\\nthey should be kept in perpetual confinement in municipal towns\\nin Italy. But the scale was turned again by Cato s speech. He\\nstrongly advocated that the conspirators should be put to death,\\nand his view found favour with the consul, who put his opinion\\nto the vote. It was carried, and on the same night Lentulus\\nand his associates were strangled by the common executioner in\\nthe Tullianum, a loathsome dungeon on the slope of the Capitol.\\nWhile things went thus at Rome Catiline had collected a force\\namounting to two legions, although not above one-fourth part\\nwere fully equipped. When the news of the failure of the\\nplot at Rome reached his camp many deserted. He thereupon", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "264 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXI.\\nattempted to cross the Apennines and take refuge in Cisalpine\\nGaul, but the passes were strictly guarded by Metellus Celer\\nwith three legions. Finding, therefore, that es-\\ndefeated ^^P^ front while Antonius was\\npressing on his rear, Catiline determined as a last\\nresource to hazard an engagement. Antonius, in consequence of\\nreal or pretended illness, resigned the command to M. Petreius,\\na skilful soldier. The battle was obstinate and bloody. The\\nrebels fought with the fury of despair and when Catiline saw\\nftiat all was lost he charged headlong into the thickest of the\\nfight and fell sword in hand (62 B.C.).\\nAlthough it is impossible to say how dangerous the Catilinarian\\nmovement really was, Cicero seemed for the moment to have\\nrendered important services to the state. Catulus\\nUega y in the senate and Cato in the forum hailed him as\\nthe Father of his Country; thanksgivings in\\nhis name were voted to the gods; and all Italy joined in\\ntestifying enthusiastic admiration and gratitude. Cicero s elation\\nknew no bounds he fancied that his political influence was now\\nsupreme, and looked upon himself as a match even for Pompey.\\nBut his splendid achievement contained the germ of his humilia-\\ntion and downfall. There could be no doubt that the punishment\\ninHicted by the senate upon Lentulus and his associates was a\\nviolation of the fundamental principles of the Roman constitution,\\nwhich declared that no citizen could be put to death until\\nsentenced by the whole body of the people assembled in their\\ncon)itia, and for this act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was\\nheld responsible. It was in vain to urge that the consuls had\\nbeen armed with dictatorial power the senate, in the present\\ninstance, assuming to themselves judicial functions which they\\nhad no right to exercise, gave orders for the execution of a\\nsentence which they had no right to pronounce. Nor were\\nCicero s enemies long in discovering this vulnerable point. On the\\nlast day of the year, when, according to established custom, he\\nascended the Rostra to give an account to the people of the\\nevents of his consulship, Metellus Nepos, one of the new tribunes,\\nforbade him to speak, exclaiming that the man who had put\\nRoman citizens to death without granting them a hearing was\\nhimself unworthy of being heard. But this attack was premature.\\nThe audience had not yet forgotten their recent eacape; so that,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXI.] SECOND CATILINARIAN CONSPIRACY. 265\\nwhen Cicero swore with a loud voice that he had saved the\\nKepublic and the city from ruin, the crowd with one voice\\nresponded that he had sworn truly.\\nIt was rumoured that many other eminent men had been\\nprivy to Catiline s conspiracy. Among others the names of\\nCrassus and Caesar were mentioned in connection Kumoured\\nwith the first conspiracy of 66 B.C., but the par- complicity of\\nticipation of either of these men in such an enter- the democratic\\nprise seems most improbable. The interests of leaders.\\nCrassus were opposed to such an adventure his vast wealth\\nwas emp]o3 ed in a variety of speculations which would have\\nbeen ruined in a general overthrow while he had not the\\nenergy or ability to seize and retain the helm in the confusion\\nthat would have ensued. Of Caesar s guilt there is no satis-\\nfactory evidence, and it is improbable that so keen-sighted a\\nman would have leagued with such a desperate adventurer as\\nCatiline. It is true that Caesar was suspected by some of the\\nleading optimates but then to men of this stamp all radicals\\n(improbi), as Caesar and Catiline were indifferently called, are\\nalike. It is impossible to say how much complicity there must\\nbe between the two extremes of the same party but it is\\ncertain that in the next year (62 B.C.), when a suspicion of\\nCaesar s guilt was raised, he challenged with success Cicero s\\ntestimony that he had of his own accord given the consul\\nevidence concerning the conspiracy.\\nCoin of Pompey.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "C. Julius Caesar.\\nCHAPTER XXXII.\\nFROM POMPEY R RETURN FROM THE EAST TO CICERo s BANISH-\\nMENT AND RECALL. 62-57 B.C.\\nPoMPEY reached Italy in 62 p..c. To the astonishment and\\nrelief of all parties, he disbanded his army immediately after\\nlanding at Brundusium. He did not, however,\\nPompey s ^^^^j. j^Q^g j^ triumph till the 30th of September,\\ntrLiunnli triumph lasted two days, and sur-\\npassed in splendour every spectacle that Rome\\nhad yet seen. The tablets carried in the procession, on\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0which his victories were emblazoned, declared that he had\\nsubdued 14 nations, taken 1000 strong fortresses, 900 towns,\\nand 800 ships; that he had founded 39 cities; that he had\\nincreasdd the revenue of the Roman people by 85 million", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXII.] POM PEY S RETURN FROM THE EAST. 267\\nsesterces and that he had brought into the public treasury\\n20,000 talents. Before his triumphal car walked a crowd of\\npiratical chieftains, Eastern princes, and hostages from Albania\\nand Iberia.\\nWith this triumph the first and most glorious part of Fompey s\\nlife may be said to have ended. Hitherto he had been employed\\nalmost exclusively in war but now he was called upon to play\\na prominent part in the civil commotions of the Republic a\\npart for which neither his natural talents nor his previous habits\\nhad in the least fitted him.\\nFrom the death of Sulla to the present time, a period of\\nnearly twenty years, he had been unquestionably the first man\\nin the Roman world, and it is certain that, down to\\nthe outbreak of the civil war, he was still looked o/j ^m\\non as the leading man in the state, although he\\nmust himself have felt that the real power was centering in\\nCaesar s hands. Pompey, on his return to Rome, hardly knew\\nto which party he might have to attach himself. He had been\\nappointed to the command against the pirates and Mithridates\\nin opposition to the aristocracy, and they still regarded him with\\njealousy and distrust. At the same time he seems to have been\\nindisposed to unite himself to the popular party, now more than\\never discredited by the rash proceedings of Catiline. But the\\nobject which engaged the immediate attention of Pompey was\\nto obtain from the senate a ratification of his acts in Asia,\\nand an assignment of lands which he had promised to his\\nveterans. In order to secure this object, he had purchased the\\nconsulship for one of his officers, L. Afranius, who was elected\\nwith Q. Metellus for 60 B.C. But L. Afranius was a man of\\nslender ability and the senate, glad of an opportunity to put\\nan affront upon a person whom they both feared and hated,\\nresolutely refused to sanction Pompey s measures in Asia.\\nThis was the deciding point it is probable that, even before\\nhis return, overtures had been made to him by the democratic\\nparty. They were now accepted; the short-\\nsighted policy of the optimates threw Pompey Ji^nction with\\ninto Caesar s arms, and thus sealed the downfall craggag\\nof their party. Pompey was resolved to fulfil, at\\nall costs, the promises which he had made to his Asiatic clients\\nand bis veteran troops.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "268 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXII.\\nCaesar had returned from Spain in the middle of this year.\\nHe had been in that province for one year as propraetor,\\nduring which time he displayed some military ability and a\\ncapacity for eniiching himself at the expense of the provincials.\\nFor some successes gained in Lusitania his troops had saluted\\nhim as imperator, and the senate had honoured him by a public\\nthanksgiving. He now laid claim to a triumph, and at the same\\ntime wished to become a candidate for the consulship. For the\\nlatter purpose his presence in Rome was necessary but as he\\ncould not enter the city without relinquishing his triumph, he\\napplied to the senate to be exempted from the usual law, and to\\nbecome a candidate in his absence. As this was refused, he at\\nonce relinquished his triumph, entered the city, and stood for\\nthe consulship. He was elected without difficulty, but the\\naristocracy succeeded in associating with him in the consulship\\nM. Bibulus, who belonged to the opposite party, and who had\\nlikewise been his colleague in the aedileship and praetorship.\\nThe coalition still lacked the support of the capitalist class\\nbut this was soon supplied b}^ M. Crassus, who, by his con-\\nnexions and immense wealth, possessed great\\ntriumvirate political influence. Pompey and Crassus had for\\na long time past been deadly enemies, but Caesar\\neffected a reconciliation, and the three entered into an agree-\\nment to divide the power between themselves. This first\\ntriumvirate, as it is called, was therefore merely a private\\narrangement between the three most powerful men at Rome,\\nwhich remained a secret till the proceedings of Caesar in his\\nconsulship showed that he was supported by a power against\\nwhich it was in vain for his enemies to struggle.\\nAs soon as Caesar had entered upon his consulship he fulfilled\\npart of his compact with Pompey, and at the same time attracted\\nthe sympathy of the masses by proposing an\\nCaesar s con- ^2.^^^^.;^^^ ]a,^y for t^e division of the rich Cam-\\nsulsnip.\\npanian land a portion of the public domain\\nwhich had been exempted even from the legislation of the\\nGracchi. The opposition of the aristocratical party was in vain,\\nand Pompey and Crassus both spoke in favour of the law. On\\nthe day on which it was put to the vote Bibulus and the other\\nmembers of the aristocracy were driven out of the forum by\\nforce of arms the law was carried, the commissioners appointed,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXII.] CONSULSHIP OF CAESAR. 269\\nand about 20,000 citizens, comprising of course a great number\\nof Pompey s veterans, subsequently received allotments, Bibulus,\\ndespairing of being able to offer any further resistance to Caesar,\\nshut himself up in his own house, and attempted to interrupt\\npublic business by the announcement of omens, which were\\nconsistently disregarded by his colleague.\\nCaesar obtained from the people a ratification of all Pompey s\\nacts in Asia and, to cement their union more closely, gave\\nhim his only daughter Julia in marriage. His next step was\\nto gain over the equites, who had rendered efficient service to\\nCicero in his consulship, and had hitherto supported the aristo-\\ncratical party. An excellent opportunity now occurred for\\naccomplishing this object. In their eagerness to obtain the\\nfarming of the public taxes in Asia, the equites had agreed to\\npay too large a sum, and accordingly petitioned the senate for\\nmore favourable terms. This, however, had been opposed by\\nMetellus Celer, Cato, and others of the aristocracy and Caesar\\ntherefore now carried a law to relieve the equites from one-\\nthird of the sum which they had agreed to pay. Having thus\\ngratified the people, the equites, and Pompey, he was easily able\\nto obtain for himself the provinces which he wished.\\nIt is not attributing any extraordinary foresight to Caesar to\\nsuppose that he already saw that the struggle between the\\ndifferent parties at Rome must eventually be terminated by the\\nsword. The same causes were still in operation which had led\\nto the civil wars between Marius and Sulla and he was well\\naware that the aristocracy would not hesitate to call in the\\nassistance of force if they should ever succeed in detaching\\nPompey from his interests.\\nIt was therefore of the first importance for him to obtain an\\narmy which he might attach to himself by victories and rewards.\\nAccordingly he induced the tribune Vatinius to\\npropose a bill to the people granting him the ttfcaesar^^\\nprovinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for\\nfive years (58-54 b.c). Transalpine Gaul was shortly after-\\nwards added. Caesar chose the Gallic provinces, as he would\\nthus be able to pass the mnter in Italy, and keep up his com-\\nmunication with the city, while the disturbed state of Further\\nGaul promised him sufficient materials for engaging in a series of\\nwars in which he might employ an army that would afterwards", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "270 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXII.\\nbe devoted to his purposes. In addition to these considerations,\\nCaesar was also actuated by the ambition of subduing for ever\\nthat nation vsrhich had once sacl^ed Rome, and which had been,\\nfrom the earUest times, an object of dread to the Roman state.\\nCicero, in spite of earnest invitations, had held aloof from the\\ntriumvirate and Caesar felt that it would be unsafe to leave\\nRome unless a man with a large Italian following,\\nwcero s whose matchless oratory was now at the\\nposition. r ii 1\\nservice ot tne senatorial party, was in some way\\nsilenced. It was needless to devise means for Cicero s banish-\\nment; it was only necessary to refuse him protection against\\nthe attacks of Clodius.\\nP. Clodius Pulcher was the darling of the city mob, and repre-\\nsented their views as to the illegality of the execu-\\ntion of the Catilinarian conspirators. His hostility\\nto Cicero was increased by a private grudge. In 62 B.C.,\\nwhile the wife of Caesar was celebrating in the house of her\\nhusband, then praetor and Pontifex Maximus, the rites of the\\nBona Dea, from which all male creatures were excluded,\\nit was discovered that Clodius had found his way into\\nthe mansion disguised in women s apparel, and, having been\\ndetected, had made his escape by the help of a female slave.\\nThe matter was laid before the senate, and by them referred\\nto the members of the Pontifical College, who passed a reso-\\nlution that sacrilege had been committed. Caesar forthwith\\ndivorced his wife. Clodius was impeached and brought to\\ntrial. In defence he pleaded an alibi but Cicero came forward\\nas a witness, and swore that he had met and spoken to Clodius\\nin Rome on the day in question. In spite of this decisive testi-\\nmony, and the evident guilt of the accused, the judices pro-\\nnounced him innocent by a majority of voices (61 B.C.). Clodius\\nnow vowed deadly vengeance against Cicero. To accomplish\\nhis purpose more readily, he determined to become a candidate\\nfor the tribunate, but for this it was necessary that he should\\nbe adopted into a plebeian family. This, after protracted opposi-\\ntion, was at length accomplished through the interference of the\\ntriumvirs, and he was elected tribune for 58 B.C.\\nOne of the first acts of Clodius, after entering upon office, was\\nto propose a bill interdicting from fire and water any one who\\nshould be found to have put a Roman citizen to death untried.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXII.] BANISHMENT OF CICERO. 271\\nCicero changed his attire, and, assuming the garb of one accused,\\nwent round the forum soHciting the compassion of all whom\\nhe met. For a brief period public sympathy was\\nawakened. A large number of the senate and cicero\\nthe equites appeared also in mourning, and\\nthe better portion of the citizens seemed resolved to espouse\\nhis cause. Bui all demonstrations of such feelings were promptly\\nrepressed by Piso and Gabinius, the consuls for the year, who\\nwere both creatures of the triumvirs and Cicero was left to\\nhis fate. Giving way to despair, he quitted Rome at the\\nbeginning of April (58 B.C.), and reached Brundusium about the\\nmiddle of the month. From thence he crossed over to Greece.\\nThe instant that the departure of Cicero became known,\\nClodius passed a law pronouncing his banishment, forbidding\\nany one to entertain or harbour him, and denouncing as a\\npublic enemy whosoever should take any steps towards pro-\\ncuring his recall. His mansion on the Palatine, and his villas at\\nTusculum and Formiae, were at the san^e time given over to\\nplunder and destruction.\\nClodius, having thus gratified his hatred, did not care to\\nconsult any longer the views of the triumvirs. He restored\\nTigranes to liberty, whom Pompey had kept in\\nconfinement, ridiculed the great imperator before noses Pomtiev\\nthe people, and was accused of making an attempt\\nupon his life. Pompey in revenge resolved to procure the\\nrecall of Cicero from banishment, and probably Caesar, who\\nnever ceased to court the orator s support, thought that the\\nlesson had been sufficient. The new consuls (57 B.C.), too,\\nwere favourable to Cicero but though Clodius was no longer\\nin office, he had several partisans among the tribunes who\\noffered the most vehement opposition to the restoration of his\\ngreat enemy.\\nOne of the chief supporters of Cicero was the tribune T,\\nAnnius Milo, a man as unprincipled and violent as Clodius\\nhimself. He opposed force to force, and at the __.,\\nhead of a band of gladiators attacked the hired\\nruffians of Clodius. The streets of Rome were the scenes of\\nalmost daily conflicts between the leaders of these assassins.\\nAt length the senate, with the full approbation of Pompey,\\ndetermined to invite the voters from the different parts of Italy", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "272 HISTORY OP ROME. [Chap. XXXII.\\nto repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law for the recall of\\nCicero. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the bill was passed\\nby an overwhelming majority. On the same day\\nCicero quitted Dyrrachium, and crossed over to\\nBrundusium. He received deputations and congratulatory\\naddresses from all the towns on the line of the Appian Way\\nand having arrived at Rome on the 4th of September, a vast\\nmultitude poured forth to meet him, while the crowd rent the\\nair with acclamations as he passed through the forum and\\nascended the Capitol to render thanks to Jupiter (57 B.C.).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "Temple of Nemausus (iVimes), now called the Maison Carrie.\\nCHAPTEE XXXIII.\\nCaesar s campaigns in gaul. 58-50 b.c.\\nCaesar set out for liis province immediately after Cicero had\\ngone into exile (58 b.c). During the next nine years he was\\noccupied with the subjugation of Gaul, In this time he con-\\nquered the whole of Transalpine Gaul, which, with the exception\\nof the province of Narbonensis, had hitherto been independent\\nof Rome. Twice he crossed the Rhine, and carried the terror of\\nthe Roman arms beyond that river. Twice he landed in Britain,\\nwhich had been hitherto unknown to the Romans. We can\\nonly offer a very brief sketch of the principal events of each\\nyear.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "274 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIII.\\nFirst Campaign, 58 B.C. Caesar left Rome towards the latter\\nend of April, and arrived at Genava in eight days. His first\\ncampaign was against the Helvetii, a Gallic people\\nDefeat of the gj^^ated to the north of the Lake of Geneva, and\\nbetween the Rhine and Mount Jura. This people,\\nquitting their homes under pressure from the Germans, had\\npassed through the country of the Sequani, and were plundering\\nthe territories of the Aedui. Three out of their four clans had\\nalready crossed the Arar (Saone) but the fourth, which was still\\non the eastern side of the river, was surprised by Caesar and\\ncut to pieces. He then threw a bridge across the Arar, followed\\nthem cautiously for some days, and at length fought a pitched\\nbattle with them near the town of Bibracte {Auttm). The\\nHelvetii were defeated with great slaughter, and the remnant\\ncompelled to return to their former homes.\\nThis great victory roused the Gauls to ask Caesar s assistance\\nagainst the Germans and the Aedui, with the consent of the\\ncentral Gallic tribes, solicited his help against\\nfl^tvi^ Ariovistus, a German king who had invaded Gaul,\\nGermans. constantly bringing over the Rhine fresh\\nswarms of Germans. Caesar commanded Ario-\\nvistus to abstain from introducing any more of his countrymen\\ninto Gaul, to restore the hostages to the Aedui, who were clients\\nof Rome, and not to attack the latter or their allies. A haughty\\nanswer was returned to these commands, and both parties pre-\\npared for war. Caesar advanced northwards through the\\ncountry of the Sequani, took possession of Vesontio (Besangon),\\nan important town on the Dubis {Douhs), and some days after-\\nwards fought a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who suffered a\\ntotal defeat, and fled with the remains of his army to the Rhine,\\na distance of fifty miles. Only a very few, and amongst others\\nArioAnstus himself, crossed the river the rest were cut to pieces\\nby the Roman cavalry. The Rhine had now become, what it\\nafterwards remained, the boundary of the Roman empire against\\nthe Germans.\\nSecond Campaign, 57 B.C. Central Gaul was for the moment\\npacified but the northern tribes had not sought\\nf the Belffae Caesar s help, and now the cantons of the Belgae,\\nwho dwelt between the Sequana (Seine) and the\\nRhine, alarmed at his success, had entered into a confederacy", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIir.] CAESAR S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 275\\nto oppose him, and had raised an army of 300,000 men.\\nCaesar opened the campaign by marching into the country of\\nthe Remi, who submitted at his approach. He then crossed the\\nAxona (Aisne), and pitched his camp in a strong position on the\\nright bank. The enemy soon began to suffer from want of pro-\\nvisions, and they came to the resolution of breaking up their\\nvast army, and retiring to their own territories. Hitherto Caesar\\nhad remained in his entrenchments, but he now broke up from\\nhis quarters, and resumed the offensive. The Suessiones, the\\nBellovaci, and the Ambiani were subdued in succession, or sur-\\nrendered of their own accord but a more formidable task\\nawaited him when he came to the Nervii, the most warlike of\\nall the Belgic tribes. In their country, near the river Sabis\\n{Sambre), the Roman army was surprised by the enemy while\\nengaged in fortifying the camp. The attack of the Nervii was\\nso unexpected that before the Romans could form in rank the\\nenemy was in their midst the Roman soldiers began to give\\nway, and the battle seemed entirely lost. Caesar freely exposed\\nhis own person in the first line of the battle, and discharged ahke\\nthe duties of a brave soldier and an able general. His exertions\\nand the discipline of the Roman troops at length triumphed\\nand the Nervii were defeated with such immense slaughter, that\\nout of 60,000 fighting-men only 500 remained in the state.\\nThe Belgae were subdued, and the Reini, as the clients of Rome,\\nmade the leading canton in the district.\\nTJiird Campaign, 56 B.C.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 In the third campaign Caesar com-\\npleted the subjugation of Gaul. He conducted in person a naval\\nwar against the Veneti, the inhabitants of the\\nmodern Brittany, and by means of his lieutenants ygj,\u00e2\u0080\u009efj\\nconquered the remaining tribes who still held out.\\nIn the later part of the summer Caesar marched against the\\nMorini and Menapii (in the neighbourhood of Calais and\\nBoulogne), who retired into their forest fastnesses. Thus all\\nGaul had been reduced in three years to an outward show of\\nobedience, which ill expressed the yet unbroken spirit of the\\npeople.\\nFourth Campaign, 55 B.C. But Caesar felt that the conquest\\nof Gaul was useless unless measures were taken to check the\\ntide of German immigration from across the Rhine for it\\nwas this that caused the movement of the Celtic nations which", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "276 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIIL\\nhad so often threatened the safety of Italy, Two German tribes,\\nthe Usipetes and the Tencteri, had just been driven out of\\ntheir own country by the Suevi, and had crossed\\nRenewed con- jj^^jj^g ^j^i^ ^j^g intention of settling in Gaul,\\nflicts with the mi 1 n 1 J 4.\\nGermans Ihis, however, Caesar was resolved to prevent,\\nand accordingly prepared to attack them.\\nThe Germans opened negotiations with him, but while these\\nwei e going on, a body of their cavalry defeated Caesar s Gallic\\nhorse. On the next day all the German chiefs came into\\nCaesar s camp to apologise for what had been done but Caesar\\ndetained them, and straightway led his troops to attack the\\nenemy. Deprived of their leaders and taken by surprise, the\\nGermans, after a feeble resistance, took to flight, and were\\nalmost all destroyed by the Roman cavalry.\\nAfter this victory Caesar resolved to cross the Rhine in order\\nto strike terror into the Germans. In ten days he built a bridge\\nof boats across the river, probably in the neigh-\\nthe Bhine bourhood of Cologne; and after spending eighteen\\ndays on the eastern side of the Rhine, and\\nravaging the country of the Sugambri, he returned to Gaul and\\nbroke down the bridge.\\nAlthough the greater part of the summer was now gone,\\nCaesar resolved to invade Britain. His object in undertaking\\nthis expedition at such a late period of the year\\nof Britaiir^^* rather to inspire the natives with the fear of\\nattack, and to force them to desist from their com-\\nmunications with Gaul, than with any view to permanent con-\\nquest. He accordingly took with him only two legions, with\\nwhich he sailed from the port Itius (probably Wissant, between\\nCalais and Boulogne), and effected a landing somewhere near\\nthe South Foreland, after a severe struggle with the natives.\\nSeveral of the British tribes hereupon sent offers of submission\\nbut, in consequence of the loss of a great part of the Roman fleet\\na few days afterwards, they took up arms again. Defeated,\\nthey renewed their offers of submission to Caesar, who simply\\ndemanded double the number of hostages he had originally\\nrequired, as he was anxious to return to Gaul before the\\nautumnal equinox.\\nThe news of these victories over the Germans and far-distant\\nBritons was received at Rome with the greatest enthusiasm.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIII.] CAESAR S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 277\\nThe senate voted a public thanksgiving of twenty days, not-\\nwithstanding the opposition of Cato, who declared that Caesar\\nought to be delivered up to the Usipetes and Tencteri, to atone\\nfor his treachery in seizing the sacred persons of ambassadors.\\nFifth Cam paign., 54 B.C. The gi eater part of Caesar s fifth\\ncampaign was occupied with his second invasion of Britain. He\\nsailed from the port Itius with an army of five\\nlegions, and landed without opposition at the Second in-\\nsame place as in the former year. The British j^^*\\nstates had entrusted the supreme command to\\nCassivellaunus, a chief who ruled Middlesex and the surrounding\\ndistricts to the north of the Thames (Tamesis). The Britons\\nbravely opposed the progress of the invaders, but were defeated\\nin a series of engagements. Caesar crossed the Thames above\\nLondon, probably in the neighbourhood of Kingston, took the\\ntown of Cassivellaunus, and conquered great part of the counties\\nof Essex and Middlesex. In consequence of these disasters,\\nCassivellaunus sued for peace and after demanding hostages,\\nand settling the tribute which Britain should pay yearly to the\\nRoman people, Caesar returned to Gaul towards the end of the\\nsummer. Nothing was gained by this invasion in the way of a\\npermanent occupation of the island but this was, perhaps, not\\nintended. Caesar s immediate and professed object to prevent\\nthe Celts of Britain from furnishing assistance to disaffected\\nGallic chiefs across the Channel was possibly attained.\\nIn consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Gaul, Caesar\\nwas obliged to divide his forces, and station his legions for the\\nwinter in different parts. This seemed to the\\nGauls a favourable opportunity for recovering 5\\ntheir lost independence, and destroying their con- ugj-yji\\nquerors. The Eburones, a Gallic people between\\nthe Meuse and the Rhine, near the modern Tongres, destroyed\\nthe detachment under the command of T. Titurius Sabinus\\nand L. Aurunculeius Cotta. They next attacked the camp of\\nQ. Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was stationed among\\nthe Nervii. Cicero repulsed the enemy in all their attempts,\\ntill a mounted messenger was able to steal through their\\nlines and bring the news to Caesar. He rapidly approached\\nwith two legions to the aid of his beleaguered legate. The\\nsiege was raised Caesar defeated the forces of the enemy,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "278 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIII.\\nwhich amounted to 60,000 men, and the insurgents rapidly\\ndispersed.\\nSixth Campaign, 53 B.C. In the next year the Gauls again\\ntook up arms, and entered into a most formidable conspiracy to\\nrecover their independence. The destruction of\\nb a^^ Koman troops under Sabinus and Cotta, and\\nthe unsettled state of Gaul during the winter, had\\nled Caesar to apprehend a general rising of the natives and he\\nhad accordingly levied two new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and\\nobtained one from Pompey, who was remaining in the neigh-\\nbourhood of Rome as proconsul with the imperium. Being thus\\nat the head of a powerful armj-, he was able to subdue the tribes\\nthat revolted, and soon compelled the Nervii, Senones, Carnutes,\\nMenapii, and Treviri to return to obedience.\\nBut as the Treviri had been supported by the Germans, he\\ncrossed the Rhine again a little above the spot where he had\\npassed over two years before and after receiving\\nSecond pas- the submission of the Ubii, ravaged the country\\nRhiae**^^ of the Suevi. On his return to Gaul he laid\\nwaste the country of the Eburones with fire and\\nsword. At the conclusion of the campaign he prosecuted a\\nstrict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and Carnutes and\\ncaused Acco, who had been the chief ringleader in the con-\\nspiracy, to be put to death.\\nSeventh Campaign, 52 B.C. The unsuccessful issue of last\\nyear s revolt had not yet damped the spirits of the Gauls. The\\nexecution of Acco had alarmed all the chiefs, as\\nGeneral insur- every one feared that his turn might come next\\nGaul**^ hatred of the Roman yoke was intense and\\nthus all the materials were ready for a general\\nconflagration. It was first kindled by the Carnutes, and in a\\nshort time it spread from district to district till almost the whole\\nof Gaul was in flames. Even the Aedui, who had been hitherto\\nthe faithful allies of the Romans, and had assisted them in all\\ntheir wars, subsequently joined the general revolt.\\nAt the head of the insurrection was Vercingetorix, a young\\nman of noble family belonging to the Arverni, and by far the\\nablest general that Caesar had yet encountered.\\nVercmgetorix. united:\\nCaesar s conquests of the last six years seemed to be now", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIII.] CAESAR S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. 279\\nentirely lost. The campaign of tliis year, therefore, was by far\\nthe most arduous that he had yet conducted but his genius\\ntriumphed over every obstacle, and rendered it the most brilliant\\nof all. He concentrated his forces with incredible rapidity, and\\nlost no time in attacking the chief towns in the hands of the\\nenemy. Vellaunodunum (in the country of Chateau- Landon),\\nCenabum {Orleans), and Noviodunum {Nouan, between Orleans\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2and Bourges) fell into his hands without difficulty. Alarmed\\nat his rapid progress, Vercingetorix persuaded his countrymen\\nto lay waste their country and destroy their towns. This plan\\nwas accordingly carried into effect but, contrary to the wishes\\nof Vercingetorix, Avaricum (Bourges), the chief town of the\\nBituriges, and a strongly fortified place, was spared from the\\ngeneral destruction. This town Caesar accordingly besieged;\\nand, notwithstanding the heroic resistance of the Gauls, it was\\nat length taken, and all the inhabitants, men, women, and\\nchildren, were indiscriminately butchered.\\nCaesar now divided his army into two parts one division,\\nconsisting of four legions, he sent, under the command of T.\\nLabienus, against the Senones and Parisii the other, comprising\\nsix legions, he led in person into the country of the Arverni, and\\nwith them laid siege to Gergovia (near Clermont). The revolt\\nof the Aedui shortly afterwards compelled him to raise the siege,\\nand inspired the Gauls with fresh courage.\\nVercingetorix retired to Alesia [Alise in Burgundy), which\\nwas considered impregnable, and resolved to wait for succours\\nfrom his countrymen. Caesar immediately laid\\nsiege to the place, and drew lines of circumval-\\nlation around it. The Romans, however, were in\\ntheir turn soon surrounded by a vast Gallic army which had\\nassembled to raise the siege. Caesar s army was thus placed in\\nimminent peril, and on no occasion in his whole life was his\\nmilitary genius so conspicuous. He was between two great\\narmies. Vercingetorix had 80,000 infantry alone in Alesia, and\\nthe Galhc army without consisted of between 250,000 and\\n300,000 men. Still he would not raise the siege. He pre-\\nvented Vercingetorix from breaking through the lines, entirely\\nrouted the Gallic army without, and finally compelled Alesia to\\nsurrender. Vercingetorix himself fell into his hands. The fall\\nof Alesia was followed by the submission of the Aedui and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "280\\nHISTORY OF ROME,\\n[Chap. XXXIII,\\nArverni. Caesar then led his troops into winter quarters. After\\nreceiving his despatches, the senate voted him a pubUc thanks-\\ngiving of twenty days, as in the year 55 B.C.\\nEighth Campaign, 51 B.C. The victories of the preceding\\nyear had determined the fate of Gaul but many states still\\nremained in arms, and entered into fresh con-\\ntitm^of tt ul ^piracies during the winter. This year was oc-\\ncupied in the reduction of these states, into the\\nparticulars of which we need not enter. During the winter\\nCaesar employed himself in the pacification of Gaul; and, as he\\nalready saw that his presence would soon be necessary in Italy,\\nhe was anxious to remove all causes for future wars. While\\nfixing the tribute for each community, he treated the states\\nwith honour and respect, and even bestowed Roman citizenship\\nupon some of their chiefs. The experience of the last two\\nyears had taught the Gauls that they had no hope of contending\\nsuccessfully against Caesar, and even in the great turmoil of the\\nensuing civil wars their loyalty to Rome i-eraained unshaken.\\nSo ended the nine years war, which, though it appeiirs as a\\nlong series of aggressions on Caesar s part, was really waged\\nin a defensive spirit. It gave the Roman Empire a northern\\nfrontier, and saved the civilized world from barbarian invasions\\nfor more than four hundred years.\\nOutline view of the Maison Carree at Nimes.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "Coin of Cuesar.\\nCHAPTEE XXXIV.\\nINTERNAL HISTORY, FROM THE RETURN OF CICERO FROM BANISH-\\nMENT TO THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CIVIL WAR. EXPE-\\nDITION AND DEATH OF CEaSSUS. 57-50 B.C.\\nCicero returned from banishment an altered man. Though his\\nreturn had been glorious, he saw that his position was entirely\\nchanged, and he was forced to yield to a power\\nwhich he no longer dared to resist. He even tv^ tiirimvirs\\nlent his support to the triumvirs, and praised in\\npublic those proceedings which he had once openly and loudly\\ncondemned. Meantime the power of Pompey had been shaken\\nat Rome. A misunderstanding had sprung up between him\\nand Crassus and Cato and the other leaders of the aristocracy\\nattacked him with the utmost vehemence. The senate began\\nto entertain hopes of recovering their power. They determined\\nto support L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who, in 56 e.g., had\\nbecome a candidate for the consulship for the following year,\\nand who threatened to deprive Caesar of his provinces and\\narmies. Even Cicero was encouraged to join in the attack, and\\nto propose in the senate a reconsideration of Caesar s distribu-\\ntion of the Campanian land.\\nBut these attacks only served to draw the triumvirs together.\\nCaesar invited Pompey and Crassus to meet him at Luca {Lucca)\\nin the spring of 56 B.C. and the conference was\\nlargely attended by the partisans of the coalition. t vino\\nIt was arranged that Pompey and Crassus should\\nbe consuls for the next year, and obtain provinces and armies,\\nwhile Caesar was to have his government prolonged for another\\nfive years, and to receive pay for his troops. On their return", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "282 HISTORY OF EOME. [Chap. XXXIV.\\nto Kome Pompey and Crassus became candidates for the consul-\\nship but the aristocratic opposition was so strong that it was\\nfound impossible to carry their election that year. By the help\\nof the tribunician veto the consular comitia were prorogued, and\\nthe elections did not take place till the beginning of 55 B.C.,\\nunder the presidency of an interrex. Even then Ahenobarbus\\nand Cato did not rekx in their opposition and it was not till\\nthe armed bands of Pompey and Crassus had cleared the Campus\\nMartius of their adversaries that they were declared consuls for\\nthe second time (55 b.c).\\nThey forthwith proceeded to carry into effect the compact\\nthat had been made at Luca. They induced the Tribune C.\\nSecond con- Trebonius to bring forward a bill which gave the\\nsulship of province of the two Spains to Pompey, and that\\nPompey and of Syria to Crassus another law proposed by the\\nCrassus. consuls prolonged Caesar s government for five\\nyears more, namely, from the 1st of March, 54 B.C., to the 1st of\\nMarch, 49 B.C.* Pompey was again in command of the home\\ngovernment and at the expiration of his year of office would\\nno longer be a private man, but with the command of an army\\nand in possession of the imperium. He had, however, no\\nintention of quitting Rome and after his year of office, while\\nhe sent an army into Spain under the command of his lieutenants,\\nL. Afranius and M. Petreius, he himself remained in the neigh-\\nbourhood of Rome as proconsul. During his consulship he\\nopened the theatre he had just built with an exhibition of\\ngames of unparalleled splendour and magnificence. The build-\\ning itself was worthy of the conqueror of the East. It was\\nthe first stone theatre that had been erected at Rome, and was\\nsufficiently large to accommodate 40,000 spectators. The games\\nexhibited lasted many days. Five hundred African lions\\nand eighteen elephants were killed and even the hardened\\nRoman mob were satiated and disgusted with the wholesale\\nslaughter.\\nBefore the end of the year, 54 B.C., Crassus set out for Syria,\\nwith the intention of attacking the Parthians. He burnt to\\nshare in the military distinction of Pompey and Caesar; and,\\nthough upwards of sixty years of age, chose to enter upon an\\nMarch 1st was the beginniug of the official year in the provinces, as January\\nlet was at Rorae.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "Chap, XXXIV.] DEFEAT AND DEATH OF CRASSUS. 283\\nundertaking for which he had no genius rather than continue the\\npursuit of wealth and influence at home. He crossed the\\nEuphrates in 54 B.C., but, hesitating to proceed\\nat once against Parthia, he gave the enemy time to Defeat and\\nassemble his forces, and returned to Syria without QpaggT,g\\naccomplishing anything ot importance. He spent\\nthe winter in Syria, where, instead of exercising his troops and\\npreparing for the ensuing campaign, he plundered the temples,\\nand employed his time in collecting money from every quarter.\\nIn the following spring (53 B.C.) he again crossed the Euphrates,\\nand with seven legions plunged into the sandy deserts of Meso-\\npotamia. He trusted to the guidance of an Arabian chieftain,\\nwho promised to lead him by the shortest way to the enemy.\\nBut this man was in the pay of the Surenas, as the Parthian\\ngeneral was entitled; and when he had brought the Romans\\ninto the open plains of Mesopotamia, he seized a frivolous\\npretext, and rode oft to inform the Surenas that the Roman army\\nwas delivered into his hands. The Parthians soon appeared.\\nThey worried the densely marshalled Romans with showers of\\narrows and by feigned retreats, during which they continued\\ntheir desultory attack, they led the Romans into disadvantageous\\npositions. The son of Crassus, who had distinguished himself\\nas one of Caesar s lieutenants in Gaul, was slain and the\\nRomans, after suffering great loss, retreated to Carrhae, the\\nBiblical Haran. On the following day they continued their\\nretreat and the Parthian general, fearing that Crassus might\\nafter all make his escape, invited him to an interview. He was\\ntreacherously seized, and in the scuffle which ensued was slain\\nby some unknown hand. His head was carried to the Parthian\\nking Orodes, and exhibited to the court, while an actor chanted\\nthe words of Agave from the Bacchae of Euripides\\nWe bear a fresh-cut tendril from the mountains to the hall.\\nTwenty thousand Roman troops were slain, and ten thousand\\ntaken prisoners, in this expedition, one of the most disastrous in\\nwhich the Romans were ever engaged. Only a small portion of\\nthe Roman army escaped to Syria under the command of L.\\nCassius Longinus, afterwards one of Caesar s assassins, who had\\ndisplayed considerable ability during the war, but whose advice\\nCrassus had constantly refused to follow.\\nI. nil.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "284 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIV.\\nThe death of Crassus left Pompey and Caesar alone at the\\nhead of the state and it became evident that sooner or later a\\nstruggle would take place between them for the\\nEstrangement supremacy. The death of Julia, in 54 B.C., to\\ndc^^^^ whom both her father and husband were strongly\\nattached, broke a link which might have united\\nthem much longer. Pompey considered that he had been the\\nchief means of raising Caesar to power, and he appeared long\\nto have deemed it impossible that the conqueror of Mithridates\\ncould be thrown into the shade by any popular leader. Such a\\nresidt, however, was now imminent. Caesar s brilliant victories\\nin (laul were in everybody s mouth and Pompey saw with\\nill-disguised mortification that he was becoming the second\\nperson in the state. Though this did not lead him to break\\nwith Caesar at once, it made him anxious to increase his power\\nand influence, and he therefore now resolved, if possible, to\\nobtain the dictatorship.\\nHe accordingly used no effort to put an end to the disturbances\\nat Rome between Milo and Clodius in this year, in hopes that\\nall parties would be willing to accede to his wishes\\nMilo an -j^ order to restore peace to the city. Milo was a\\ncandidate for the consulship and Clodius for the\\npraetorship. Each was attended by a band of hired ruffians\\nbattles took place between them daily in the forum and the\\nstreets all order and government were at an end. In such a\\nstate of things no elections could be held and the confusion at\\nlength became downright anarchy, when Milo murdered Clodius\\non the 18th of January in the following year (b.c. 52). The\\ntwo rivals had met on the Appian way near Bovillae, accom-\\npanied, as usual, by their armed followers. A fray ensued.\\nThe party of Milo proved the stronger, and Clodius took refuge\\nin a house. But Milo attacked the house, dragged out Clodius,\\nand having despatched him, left him dead upon the road. His\\nbody was found by a senator, carried to Rome, and exposed to\\nthe eyes of the people. Their excitement at the death of their\\nfavourite was still further inflamed by the harangues of the\\ntribunes. The benches and tables of the senate-house were\\nseized to make a funeral pile and the senate-house with\\nseveral other public buildings were reduced to ashes. As the\\nriots still continued, the senate had no longer any choice but to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXiV.] SOLE CONSULSHIP OF POMPEY. 285\\ncall in the assistaflce of Pompey. They therefore commissioned\\nhim to collect troops and put an end to the disturbances.\\nPompey, who had obtained the great object of his desires,\\nobeyed with alacrity he was invested with the supreme power\\nin the state by being elected sole consul at the\\nclose of the winter and in order to deliver the \u00e2\u0080\u009eq\u00c2\u00b0 ^i^\\noity from Milo and his myrmidons, he brought\\nforward laws against violence and bribery at elections. Milo\\nwas put upon his trial the court was surrounded with soldiers\\nCicero, who defended him, was intimidated, and Milo was con-\\ndemned, and went into exile at Massilia.* Others shared the\\nsame fate, and peace was once more restored.\\nThe fear of Caesar s possible designs now weighed heavily\\non the aristocratic party, and the approaches which they\\nmade to Pompey were met halfway. After\\nJulia s death he had married Cornelia, the Measures _\\ndaughter of Metellus Scipio, whom he made his paesar\\ncolleague on the 1st of August. His next step\\nwas to strike a blow at Caesar. He brought forward an old\\nlaw that no one shoidd become a candidate for a public office\\nwhile absent, in order that Caesar might be obliged to resign his\\ncommand, and to place himself in the power of his enemies at\\nKome, if he wished to obtain the consulship a second time.\\nBut the renewal of this enactment was so manifestly aimed at\\nCaesar that his friends insisted he should be specially exempted\\nfrom it and, as Pompey was not yet prepared to break openly\\nwith him, he thought it more expedient to yield. At the same\\ntime, Pompey provided that he himself should remain in com-\\nmand of an array after his rival had ceased to have one, by\\nobtaining a senatus-consultum, by which his government of the\\nSpains was prolonged for another five years. And, in case\\nCaesar should obtain the consulship, he caused a law to be\\nenacted, in virtue of which no one could have a province till\\nfive years had elapsed from the time of his holding a public\\noffice. For the next five years the senate was to fill up com-\\nmands at the earliest date at which they were legally vacant.f\\nCicero sent to Milo at Massilia the oration which he meant to have delivered,\\nthe one which we still have. Milo, after reading it, remarked, I am glad it was\\nnot delivered, for I should then have been acquitted and never known the delicate\\nflavour of these Massilian mullets.\\nf Caesar s command technically e.xpired on March 1st. 49 hut, in accordance\\nWith the invariable custom, he claimed to continue it until January 1st, 48, when\\nhe would be succeeded by one of the consuls of 49.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "286 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIV\\nIn the following year (51 B.C.) Pompey declared himself still\\nmore openly on the side of the senate but still he shrank from\\nsupporting all the violent measures of the Consul M. Claudius\\nMarcellus, who proposed to send a successor to Caesar, on the\\nplea that the war in Gaul was finished, and to deprive him of\\nthe privilege of becoming a candidate for the consulship in his\\nabsence. The consuls for the next year (50 B.C.), L. Aemilius\\nPauUus and C. Claudius Marcellus, and the powerful tribune C.\\nCurio, were all reckoned devoted partisans of Pompey and the\\nsenate. Caesar, however, gained over Paullus and Curio by\\nlarge bribes, and with a lavish hand distributed immense sums\\nof money among the leading men of Rome. It was proposed\\nin the senate that Caesar should lay down his command on\\nMarch 1st, 49 B.C. The consular elections were in July; and\\nif Caesar came to Rome as a private man to sue for the consul-\\nship, there could be no doubt that his life or liberty would be\\nsacrificed. Cato had declared that he would bring Caesar to trial\\nfor the illegalities committed during his consulship but the trial\\nwould have been only a mockery, for Pompey was in the neigh-\\nbourhood of the city at the head of an army, and would have over-\\nawed the judges by his soldiery as at Milo s trial. The tribune\\nCurio consequently interposed his veto upon the proposal. The\\nsenate, anxious to diminish the number of his troops, had, under\\npretext of a war with the Parthians, ordered that Pompey and\\nCaesar should each furnish a legion to be sent into the East.\\nThe legion which Pompey intended to devote to this service\\nwas the one which he had lent to Caesar in 53 B.C., and which\\nhe now accordingly demanded back and, although Caesar saw\\nthat he should thus be deprived of two legions, which would\\nprobably be employed against himself, he complied with the\\nrequest. Upon their arrival in Italy, they were not sent to the\\nEast, but were ordered to pass the winter at Capua. Caesar\\ntook up his quarters at Ravenna, the town in his province which\\nbordered closest upon Italy.\\nThough war seemed inevitable, Caesar still showed himself\\nNeffotiations billing to enter into negotiations with the aris-\\nbetween tocracy, and accordingly sent Curio with a letter\\nCaesar and the addressed to the senate, in which he expressed his\\nsenate. readiness to resign his command if Pompey would\\ndo the same. Curio arrived at Rome on the 1st of January,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "CHAP. XXXIV.] CAESAR AND THE SENATE. 287\\n49 B.C., the day on which the new consuls, L. Cornelius Lentulus\\nand C. Claudius Marcellus, entered upon their office. It was\\nwith great difficulty that the tribunes, M. Antonius, afterwards\\nthe well-known triumvir, and Q. Cassius Longinus, forced the\\nsenate to allow the letter to be read. After a violent debate\\nthe motion of Scipio, Pompey s father-in-law, was carried,\\nthat Caesar should disband his army by a certain day, and\\nthat if he did not do so he should be regarded as an enemy\\nof the state. On the 6th of January the senate passed the\\ndecree investing the consuls with dictatorial power. Antonius\\nand Cassius, considering their lives no longer safe, fled from the\\ncity in disguise to Caesar s army, and called upon him to protect\\nthe inviolable persons of the tribunes.\\nThis was the crisis. The senate intrusted the management\\nof the war to Pompey, determined that fresh levies of troops\\nshould be held, and voted him a sum of money\\nfrom the public treasury. Both the senate and J^^P^^^ ^\u00c2\u00b0^8\\nPompey seem to have relied on an imagined dis-\\naffection amongst Caesar s troops, and grossly miscalculated\\ntheir own military resources. It is true that Pompey com-\\nmanded legions in Spain through his legates, and his personal\\ninfluence could secure him almost unbounded resources in the\\nEast but these would be of no avail against a direct attack\\nfrom Gaul. He had boasted that he had only to stamp his foot,\\nand armed men would spring from the soil of Italy but, when\\nthe critical moment came, almost his only serviceable troops\\nwere the two legions taken from Caesar, and therefore of\\ndoubtful fidelity, and Italy was left defenceless.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XXXV.\\nFROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR TO CAESAR s\\nDEATH, 49-44 B.C.\\nAs soon as Caesar learnt at Ravenna the last resolution of the\\nsenate, he assembled his soldiers, informed them of the wrongs\\nhe had sustained, and called upon them to support\\nCaesar |-,jf^-^^ Finding them quite willing to follow him,\\na vances crossed the Rubicon,* which separated his\\nthrough Italy. j a\\nprovmce irom Italy, and occupied Arimmum.\\nHe commenced his march with only one legion, consisting of\\nThe crossing of tliis Rtream was in reality a declaration of war against the\\nRepublic, :ind later writers relate that upon arriving at the Rubicon Caesar long\\nhesitated whether he should take this Irrevocable step, and that, after pondering\\nmany hours, he at length exclaimed, The die is cast, and plunged into the\\nriver. But there is not a word of this in Caesar s own narrative.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXV.] CAESAR S CONQUEST OP ITALY. 289\\n5000 foot-soldiers and 300 horse, but others had orders to\\nfollow him from Transalpine Gaul, and he knew the importance\\nof speed that might anticipate the enemy s plans, and of successes\\nat the outset that might turn the hearts of waverers. Though\\nit was the middle of winter, he pushed on with the utmost\\nrapidity, and such was the popularity of his cause, or the\\ndefencelessness of Italy, that city after city opened its gates to\\nhim, and his march was like a triumphal progress. Ancona,\\nArretium, Iguvium, and Auximum fell into his hands. These\\nsuccesses caused the utmost consternation at Eome it was\\ni-eported that Caesar s cavalry were already at the gates a\\ngeneral panic seized the senate, and they fled from the city\\nwithout even taking with them the money from the public\\ntreasury. Caesar continued his victorious march through\\nPicenura till he came to Corfinium, which L. Domitius Aheno-\\nharbus held with a strong force but, as Pompey did not march\\nto Ills assistance, Domitius was unable to maintain the place,\\nand fell himself into Caesar s hands, together with several other\\nsenators and distinguished men. Caesar, with the same\\nclemency which he displaj^ed throughout the whole of the Civil\\nWar, dismissed them all iminjured. He then hastened south-\\nward in pursuit of Pompey, who had now resolved to abandon\\nItaly. He reached Brundusium before Caesar, but had not\\nsailed when the latter arrived before the town.\\nCaesar straightway laid siege to the place, but Pompey skil-\\nfully evacuated it on the 17th of March, and embarked for\\nGreece. Caesar was unable to follow him for\\nwant of ships. He accordingly marched back Po^P^J\\nfrom Brundusium, and repaired to Rome, having /j-gg-g\\nthus in three months become the master of the\\nwhole of Italy.\\nCaesar was now in possession of the capital and of the\\nmachinery of government, and the onlv opposition which he met\\nwith in Rome was from L. Metellus the tribune,\\nwho attempted to prevent him from entering the -^^IJ^\\nmore sacred treasury, which contained the\\nreserve destined for defence against a Gallic invasion a resist-\\nance which drew from the professed champion of the tribunate\\nthe caustic remark War is no time for words when I have\\nlaid down my arms, I shall listen to your arguments. After\\nu", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "290 HlSTORr OP HOME. [Chap. XXXV.\\nremaining in the neighbonrhood of Rome for a short time, he set\\nout for Spain, leaving M. Lepidus in charge of the city and M.\\nAntonius in command of the troops in Italy. -Pompey had\\nthreatened to starve Italy into surrender; hence it was all-\\nimportant to get possession of the corn-supplying provinces.\\nCaesar, therefore, sent Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, and\\nQ. Valerius to take possession of Sardinia. Curio and Valerius\\nobtained possession of their respective islands without opposition.;\\nand the former then passed over into Africa, which was in\\npossession of the Porapeian party. Here, however, he encountered\\nstrong opposition, and at length was defeated, and lost his life, in\\na battle with Juba, king of Mauretania, who supported P. Atius\\nVarus, the Pompeian commander. But this disaster was more\\nthan counterbalanced by Caesar s victories in the mean time in\\nSpain.\\nLeaving Rome about the middle of April, he found, on his\\narrival in Gaul, that Massilia refused to submit to him. He\\nbesieged the place forthwith, but, unable to take\\nCaesar con- immediately, he left C. Trebonius and D.\\nQuers spam.\\nBrutus with part of his troops to prosecute the\\nsiege, and continued his march to Spain. On the approach of\\nCaesar, L. Afranius and M. Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey\\nin Spain, united their fo rces, and took up a strong position near\\nthe town of Ilerda {Lerkhx in Catalonia), on the right bank of\\nthe Sicoris {Segre). After experiencing great difficulty at first\\nand some reverses, Caesar at length reduced Afranius and\\nPetreius to such straits that they were obliged to surrender. Thfey\\nthemselves were dismissed uninjured, part of their troops dis-\\nbanded, and the remainder incorporated among Caesar s forces.\\nThe conqueror then proceeded to march against Varro, who\\ncommanded two legions in the Further Province but, after the\\nvictory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no army in Spain\\ncapable of offering resistance, and Varro accordingly surrendered\\nto Caesar on his arrival at Corduba {Cordova). Having thus\\nsubdued all Spain in forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia\\nhad not yet yielded but the siege had been prosecuted with so\\nmuch vigour, that the inhabitants were compelled to surrender\\nthe town soon after he appeared before the walls.\\nDuring his absence in Spain Caesar was appointed dictator\\nby the praetor M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXV.] CAESAR CROSSES TO EPIRUS. 291\\nby a law passed for the purpose. On his return to Eome,\\nCaesar assumed the new dignity, but laid it down again at the\\nend of eleven days, after holding the consular\\ncomitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia ^iifj-^or\\nwere elected consuls for the next year. But during\\nthese eleven days he caused some very important laws to be\\npassed. The first was intended to relieve debtors, but at the\\nsame time to protect to a great extent the rights of creditors.\\nHe next restored the exiles banished under the exceptional\\nlegislation of 52 B.C., and removed the disabilities imposed by\\nSulla on the children of the proscribed finally he conferred the\\nfull citizenship upon the Transpadani, who had hitherto held\\nonly the Latin franchise, and thus made Italy Eoman up to\\nthe Alps.\\nAfter laying down the dictatorship Caesar went in December\\nto Brundusium, where he had previously ordered his troops to\\nassemble. He had lost many men in the long\\nmarch from Spain, and also from sickness arising j-ni-^g\\nfrom their passing the autumn in the south of\\nItaly. Pompey during the summer had raised a large force in\\nGreece, Egypt, and the East, the scene of his former glory.\\nHe had collected an army consisting of nine legions of Roman\\ncitizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and infantry and his\\nforces far surpassed in number those which Caesar had assembled\\nat Brundusium. Moreover Pompey s fleet, under the command\\nof Bibulus, Caesar s colleague in his first consulship, completely\\ncommanded the sea. Still Caesar ventured to set sail from Brun-\\ndusium on the 4th of January, and he arrived the next day in\\nsafety on the coast of Epirus. In consequence, however, of the\\nsmall number of his ships, he was able to carry over only seven\\nlegions, which had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000\\nfoot and 500 horse. After landing this force he sent back his\\nships to bring over the remainder but part of the fleet was\\nintercepted in its return by M. Bibulus, who kept up such a\\nstrict watch along the coast that the rest of Caesar s army was\\nobliged for the present to remain at Brundusium. Caesar was\\nthus in a critical position, in the midst of the enemy s country,\\nand cut off from the rest of his army but he knew that he\\ncould thoroughly rely on his men, and therefore immediately\\ncommenced acting on the offensive. After gaining possession", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "292 HISTORy OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV.\\nof Oricum and Apollonia, he hastened northwards, in hopes of\\nsurprising Dyrrhachium, where all Pompey s stores were de-\\nposited but Pompey, by rapid marches, reached this town\\nbefore him, and both armies then encamped opposite to each\\nother, Pompey on the right, and Caesar on the left hank of the\\nriver Apsus. Caesar was now greatly in want of reinforcements,\\nand such was his impatience that he attempted to sail across the\\nAdriatic in a small boat. The waves ran so high that the\\nsailors wanted to turn back, till Caesar discovered himself, telhng\\nthem that they carried Caesar and his fortunes. They then\\ntoiled on, but the storm at length compelled them to return, and\\nwith difficulty they reached again the coast of Greece. Shortly\\nafterwards M. Antonius succeeded in bringing over the remainder\\nof the army.\\nPompey meantime had retired to some high ground near\\nDyrrhachium, and, as he would not venture a battle with\\nCaesar s veterans, Caesar, in spite of the inferiority\\nCampaign ^f j^jg ^^j^ forces, began to blockade him in his\\nDyrrhachium position, and to draw lines of circumvallation of\\nan extraordinarj extent. It was an error of\\njudgment Pompey forced a passage through Caesar s lines\\nbefore they were completed, and drove back his legions with\\nconsiderable loss. Caesar thus found himself compelled to\\nretreat from his present position, and commenced a march on\\nThessaly. Pompey s policy of avoiding a general engagement\\nwith Caesar s veterans till he could place more reliance upon his\\nown troops was undoubtedly a wise one, and had been hitherto\\ncrowned with success but his hand was forced by the ignorance\\nand impatience of his aristocratic supporters.\\nStung by the reproaches with which they assailed him, and\\nelated in some degree by his victory at Dyrrhachium, he re-\\nsolved to bring the contest to an issue. Accord-\\nPhawalus offered battle to Caesar in the plain of\\nPharsalus, or Pharsalia, in Thessaly. The num-\\nbers on either side were very unequal Pompey had 47,000 foot-\\nsoldiers and 7000 horse, Caesar 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000\\nhorse. The battle, which was fought on the 9th of August,\\n48 B.C., according to the old calendar,* ended in the total defeat\\nof Pompey s army.\\nIn reality, on the 6th of June.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXV.] FLIGHT AND DEATH OP POMPET. 293\\nThe Eepublic was not yet lost, but Pompey s hopes were at\\nan end. He made no attempt to rally his forces, though he\\nmight still have collected a considerable army;\\nbut, regarding everything as lost, he hurried to p\\nthe sea-coast with a few friends. He embarked\\non board a merchant-ship at the mouth of the river Peneus, and\\nfirst sailed to Lesbos, where he took on board his wife Cornelia,\\nand from thence made for Cyprus. He now determined to seek\\nrefuge in Egypt, as he had been the means of restoring to his\\nkingdom Ptolemy Auletes, the father of the young Egyptian\\nmonarch. On his death in 51 B.C. Ptolemy Auletes had left\\ndirections that his son should reign jointly with his elder sister\\nCleopatra. But their joint reign did not last long, for Ptolemy,\\nor rather Pothinus and Achillas, his chief advisers, expelled\\nhis sister from the throne. Cleopatra collected a force in Syria,\\nwith which she invaded Egypt. The generals of Ptolemy were\\nencamped opposite her, near Alexandria, when Pompey arrived\\noff the coast and craved the protection of the young king. This\\nrequest threw Pothinus and Achillas into great difficulty, for\\nthere were many of Pompey s old soldiers in the Egyptian army,\\nand they feared he would become master of Egypt. They\\ntherefore determined to put him to death. Accordingly they\\nsent out a small boat, took Pompey on board with three or\\nfour attendants, and rowed for the shore. His wife and friends\\nwatched him from the ship, anxious to see in what manner he\\nwould be received by the king, who was standing on the edge\\nof the sea with his troops. Just as the boat reached the shore,\\nand Pompey was in the act of rising from his seat, in order to\\nstep on land, he was stabbed in the back by Septimius, wh\u00c2\u00a9\\nhad formerlj^ been one of his centurions.\\nAchillas and the rest then drew their swords; whereupon\\nPompey, withont uttering a word, covered his face with his\\ntoga, and calmly submitted to his fate. He had\\njust completed his 58th year. His head was cut\\noff and his body. Avhich was cast upon the shore, was buried\\nby his freedman Philippus, who had accompanied him from the\\nship. The head was brought to Caesar when he arrived in\\nEgypt soon afterwards, but he turned away from the sight, shed\\ntears at the untimely end of his rival, and put his murderers to\\ndeath.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "294 HlSrORy OP ROME. [Chap. XXXV.\\nWhen news of the battle of Pharsalus reached Rome, various\\nlaws were passed which conferred supreme power upon Caesar.\\nThough absent, he was nominated dictator a second time, and\\nfor a whole year. He appointed M. Antonius his master of the\\nhorse, and entered upon the office in September of this year\\n(48 B.C.). He was also nominated to the consulship for the\\nnext five years, though he did not avail himself of this privilege\\nand he was invested with the tribunician power for life.\\nCaesar had followed closely in pursuit of Pompey, and upon\\nhis arrival in Egypt he became involved in a war, which\\ndetained him several months, and gave the re-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0m-oj. mains of the Pompeian party time to rally and\\nto make fresh preparations for continuing the\\nstruggle. The war in Egypt, usually called the Alexandrine\\nWar, arose from Caesar s resolving to settle the disputes re-\\nspecting the succession to the kingdom. He determined that\\nCleopatra, whose fascinations completely won his heart, and\\nher brother Piolemy should reign in common, according to the\\nprovisions of their father s will but as this decision was opposed\\nby the guardians of the young king, a war broke out between\\nthem and Caesar, in which he was for some time exposed to\\ngreat danger on account of the small number of his troops.\\nBut, having received reinforcements, he finally prevailed, and\\nplaced Cleopatra and her younger brother on the throne, the\\nelder having perished in the course of the contest.\\nAfter bringing the Alexandrine War to a close, towards the\\nend of March, 47 B.C., Caesar marched through Syria into\\n_ Pontus in order to attack Pharnaces, the son of\\nthe celebrated Mithridates, who had defeated Ca,\\nDomitius Calvinus, one of Caesar s lieutenants. This war,\\nhowever, did not detain him long for Pharnaces, venturing to\\ncome to an open battle with the dictator, was utterly defeated,\\non the 2nd of August, near Zela. It was in reference to this\\nvictory that Caesar sent the celebrated laconic despatch to the\\nsenate, Veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered. He\\nthen proceeded to Rome, caused himself to be appointed\\ndictator for the remainder of the year, and nominated M.\\nAemilius Lepidus his master of the horse. At the same time\\nhe quelled a formidable mutiny of his troops which had broken\\nout in Campania.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXV.] BATTLE OF THAPSUS. 295\\nCaesar did not remain in Rome more than two or three\\nmonths. With his usual activity and energy he set out for\\nAfrica before the end of the year (47 B.C.), in _,\\norder to carry on the war against Scipio and\\nCato, who had collected a large army in that country. Their\\nforces were far greater than those which Caesar could bring\\nagainst them but he had too much reliance on his own genius\\nto be alarmed by mere disparity of numbers.\\nAt first he was in considerable difficulties but, having been\\njoined by some of his other legions, he was able to prosecute\\nthe campaign with more vigour, and finally\\nbrought it to a close by the battle of Thapsus, frvoug^ g\\non the 6th of April, 46 B.C., in which the Pom-\\npeian army was completely defeated.\\nAll Africa now submitted to Caesar, with the exception of\\nUtica, which Cato commanded. The inhabitants saw that re-\\nsistance was hopeless and Cato, who was a sincere Republican,\\nresolved to die rather than submit to Caesar s despotism.\\nAfter spending the greater part of the night in perusing\\nPlato s Phaedo, a dialogue on the immortality of the soul, he\\nstabbed himself. His friends, hearing him fall, _ ^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2l j.\\nran up, found him bathed in blood, and, while\\nhe was fainting, dressed his wounds. When, however, he re-\\ncovered consciousness, he tore open the bandages, and so died.\\nCaesar returned to Rome by the end of July. Great appre-\\nhensions were entertained by his enemies, lest, notwithstanding\\nhis former clemency, he should imitate Marius and Sulla, and\\nproscribe all his opponents. But these fears were perfectly\\ngroundless. A love of cruelty was no part of Caesar s nature\\nand, with a magnanimity which victors rarely show, and least\\nof all those in civil wars, he freely forgave all who had borne\\narms against him, and declared that he should make no\\ndifference between Porapeians and Caesarians. His object\\nwas now to allay animosities, and to secure the lives and\\nproperty of all the citizens of his empire.\\nAs soon as the news of his African victory reached Rome, a\\npublic thanksgiving of forty days was decreed in his\\nhonour the dictatorship was bestowed upon him caesar\\nfor ten years and the censorship, under the new\\ntitle of Praefectus Morum, for three years. Caesar bad never", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "296 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV.\\nyet enjoyed a triumph and, as he had now no further enemies\\nto meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of celebrating\\nhis victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa, by four magni-\\nficent triumphs. None of these, however, were in honour of\\nhis successes in the civil war, although, in the African triumph\\nwhich celebrated his victory over Juba, the deaths of Scipio\\nand Cato were depicted. These triumphs were followed by\\nlargesses of corn and money to the people and the soldiers, by\\npublic banquets, and all sorts of entertainments.\\nCaesar now proceeded to correct the various evils which had\\ncrept into the state, and to obtain the enactment of several laws\\nsuitable to the altered condition of the common-\\nteiotm^ wealth. He attempted, by severe sumptuary\\nlaws, to restrain the extravagance which per-\\nvaded all classes of society. But the most important of his\\nchanges this year (46 B.C.) was the reformation of the calendar,\\nwhich was a real benefit to his country and the civilized world,\\nand which he accomplished in his character of Pontifex Maxi-\\nmus. The old Roman year had only 355 days, and the regula-\\ntion of the Roman calendar had always been entrusted to the\\ncollege of pontiffs they had been accustomed to insert inter-\\ncalary months at their pleasure for political purposes, and the\\nconfusion had at length become so great that the Roman year\\nwas three months behind the real time. To remedy this\\nserious evil, Caesar added 90 days to the current year, and thus\\nmade it consist of 445 days and he guarded against a repetition\\nof similar errors for the future by creating a year of 365 days\\n6 hours, and thus adapting the calendar to the sun s course.\\nThe Pompeians were now preparing to make their last stand\\nin Spain, where a formidable army had been collected under the\\ncommand of Pompey s sons, Cneius and Sextus.\\nCaesar left Rome at the end of 46 b c, and with\\nhis usual activity arrived at Obulco near Corduba in 27 days.\\nHe found the enemy able to offer stronger opposition than he\\nhad anticipated but he brought the war to a close by the battle\\nof Muiida, on the 17th of March, 45 B.C. It was\\nBattle of g^ hard-fought battle Caesar s troops were at\\nfirst driven back, and were only rallied by their\\ngeneral s exposing his own person, like a common soWier,\\nm the front line of the battle; but at last victory declared", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXV.] CAESAR S RULE. 297\\nfor the dictator. Cn. Pompeius was killed shortly afterwards,\\nbut Sextus made good his escape. The settlement of the affairs\\nin Spain detained Caesar in the province some months longer,\\nand he consequently did not reach Rome till September.\\nAt the beginning of October he entered the city in triumph\\non account of his victories in Spain, although the victory had\\nbeen gained over Roman citizens. The senate\\nreceived him with the most servile flattery. They New honours\\nhad in his absence voted a public thanksgiving of Caesar\\nfifty days, and they now vied with each other in\\npaying him every kind of adulation and homage. He was to\\nwear, on all public occasions, the triumphal robe he was to\\nreceive the title of Father of his Country his statue was to be\\nplaced amongst those of the seven kings in the Capitol his\\nportrait was to be struck on coins the month of Quintilis was\\nto receive the name of Julius in his honour, and he was to be\\nraised to a rank among the gods. But there were still more\\nimportant decrees than these, which were intended to legalize\\nhis power, and confer upon him the whole government of the\\nRoman world. He received the title of Imperator for life he\\nwas nominated consul for the next ten years, and dictator for\\nlife his person was declared sacred a guard of senators and\\nknights was offered for his protection; and the whole senate\\ntook an oath to watch over his safety.\\nIf we now look at the way in which Caesar exerted his\\nsovereign power, it cannot be denied that he used it in the main\\nfor the good of his country. He still pursued his _\\nformer merciful course no proscriptions or exe-\\ncutions took place and he took the first steps in a projected\\nreform of the constitution which he did not live to carry out.\\nHe raised the senate to 900 members by the introduction of\\nGauls and Spaniards, on whom he had conferred the franchise,\\nand Romans of the lowest class there was a corresponding\\nincrease in the magistrates, the quaestors being raised to 40 and\\nthe praetors to 16. By swamping the senate Caesar was break-\\ning the spirit of the republic and preparing the way for the\\nmonarchy, in which this body, now including representatives\\nfrom the provinces, was to be only a council of advisers. A\\nmore distinctly res:al act was his creation of new patrician\\nfamilies for the patriciate had never been increased since the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "298 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV.\\ndownfall of the monarchy at Rome. It was now whispered that\\nCaesar, a king in fact, meant also to be a king in name. The\\npopular sentiment was tested when in the next year (44 B.C.)\\nthe consul Antonius ofiiered him the diadem, the symbol of\\nOriental royalty, at the festival of the Lupercalia. It was\\ndeclined; and the shouts of the people showed that, though\\nthey could submit to the reality of monarchy, they could not\\nendure the name.\\nCaesar s mental activity at this time was prodigious. One of\\nits products was a comprehensive municipal law, by which\\nuniform regulations were made for the towns possessing Roman\\ncitizenship in Italy and in the provinces. He also planned a\\ncodification of the existing Roman law, and material improve-\\nments, such as the draining of the Pomptine marshes and the\\nenlargement of the harbour of Ostia. Amongst his immediate\\ncares was the protection of the frontiers of the empire he\\nplanned expeditions against the Parthians and the barbarous\\ntribes on the Danube, and had already begun to make prepara-\\ntions for his departure to the East. In the midst of these vast\\nprojects he entered upon the last year of his life (44 B.C.), and\\nhis fifth consulship and dictatorship, with M. Antonius as his\\ncolleague in the consulship and M. Lepidus as his master of the\\nhorse.\\nA conspiracy against Caesar s life had been formed as early\\nas the beginning of the year. It had been set on foot by a\\npersonal enemy, C. Cassius Longinus, and more\\nTne con- sixty persons were privy to it. Private\\nhatred alone seems to have been the motive of\\nCassius, and probably of several others. Many of them had\\ntaken an active part on the Pompeian side, and had not only\\nbeen forgiven by Caesar, but raised to offices of rank and\\nhonour. Among others was M. Junius Brutus, whom he had\\npardoned after the battle of Pharsalus, and had since treated\\nalmost as his son. In this very year Caesar had made him praetor,\\nand held out to him the prospect of the consulship. Brutus,\\nlike Cato, seems to have been a sincere Republican, and Cassius\\npersuaded him to join the conspiracy, and imitate his great\\nancestor who freed them from the Tarquins. It was now\\narranged to assassinate the dictator in the senate-house on the\\nIdes or 15th of March. Rumours of the plot got abroad, and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXV.] MURDER OF CAESAR. 299\\nCaesar was strongly urged not to attend the senate. But he\\ndisregarded the warnings which were given him.\\nAs he entered, the senate rose to do him honour and when\\nhe had taken his seat, the conspirators pressed around him as if\\nto support the prayer of one TilUus Cimber, who\\nentreated the dictator to recall his brother from /i\u00e2\u0080\u009eg.-_\\nbanishment. When Caesar began to show dis-\\npleasure at their importunity, Tillius seized him by his toga,\\nwhich was the signal for attack. Casca, one of the tribunes of\\nthe Plebs, struck the first blow, and the other conspirators bared\\ntheir weapons. Caesar defended himself till he saw Brutus had\\ndrawn his sword, and then, exclaiming, And thou, too,\\nBrutus he drew his toga over his head, and fell pierced with\\nthree and twenty wounds at the foot of Pompey s statue.\\nCaesar s death was undoubtedly a loss not only for the Roman\\npeople, but the whole civilized world. The Republic was utterly\\nlost. The Roman world was now fated to go through many\\nyears of disorder and bloodshed, till it rested again under the\\nsupremacy of Augustus. The last days of the Republic had\\ncome, and its only hope of peace and security was under the\\nstrong hand of military power.\\nCaesar was in his 56th year at the time of his death. Sculp-\\ntures and coins still preserve his noble and commanding\\npresence. They show a clear-cut face, worn with thought and\\ntoil, but serene and benign and we are told that he was tall in\\nstature, and that his dark eyes were full of expression. His\\nconstitution was originally delicate, and he was twice attacked\\nby epilepsy while transacting public business but, by constant\\nexercise and abstemious living, he had acquired strong and\\nvigorous health, and could endure almost any amount of\\nexertion. He took great pains with his person, was considered\\nto be effeminate in his dress, and in his later years strove to\\nconceal his increasing baldness with the golden laurel crown.\\nCaesar was probably the greatest man of antiquity. He was at\\none and the same time a general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist,\\nan orator, and an historian; his idler moments\\nwere devoted to philology and the general culture noesar\\nof the day, while, like most Roman nobles of the\\ntime, he dabbled in poetry. He was a perfect example of the\\nEomau genius for practical life, combining great conceptions", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "300\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XXXV.\\nwith an extraordinary command of detail. As a general he\\npossessed some of the rarest military gifts a mastery over men,\\na capacity for setting routine at defiance and adapting means to\\nends at the shortest notice, and an unequalled power of rapidity\\nof movement. To estimate his military genius, one has only to\\nremember that till his 40th year, when he went as propraetor\\ninto Spain, he had been almost entirely engaged in civil life, and\\nhis experience of war must have been of the most limited kind.\\nMost of the greatest generals in the history of the world have\\nbeen distinguished at an early age Alexander the Great,\\nHannibal, Frederick of Prussia, and Napoleon Bormparte, gained\\nsome of their most brilliant victories under the age of 30 but\\nCaesar from the age of 23 to 40 had seen nothing of war, which\\nhe took up as a subordinate instrument to be used in his task of\\nreforming the Roman world.\\nstatue of a Roman, representing the Toga (from the Louvre).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "AT THE DEATH OF OESAR\\nRoman Territory Provinces\\nr Protected States\\nSoman MiXe^\\nHarper Brol", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "ork London.\\nJolmB3itkolom.e^(r Co.Xaiu", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "M. Autonius.\\nCHAPTER XXXVl.\\nFKOM THE DEATH OF CAESAR TO THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI.\\n44-42 B.C.\\nWhen the bloody deed had been finished, Brutus and his fellow-\\nliberators rushed into the forum, proclaiming that they had\\nkilled the tyrant, and calling the people to join compromise\\nthem. But they met with no response, and, finding agreed on;\\nalone averted looks, they retired to the Capitol, amnesty to\\nHere they were joined by Cicero, who had not Caesar s\\nbeen privy to the conspiracy, but was now one of\\nthe first to justify the murder. Meantime the friends of Caesar\\nwere not idle. Lepidus, the master of the horse, who was in\\nthe neighbourhood of the city, marched into the forum in the\\nnight and Antony hastened to the house of the dictator, and", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "302 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVI.\\ntook possession of his papers and treasures. But both parties\\nfeared to come to blows. A compromise was agreed to and\\nat a meeting of the senate it was determined that Caesar s\\nmurderers should not be punished, but on the other hand that\\nall his regulations should remain in force, that the provisions of\\nhis will should be carried into effect, and that he should be\\nhonoured with a public funeral. The conspirators then descended\\nfrom the Capitol and, as a proof of reconciliation, Cassius supped\\nwith Antony and Brutus with Lepidus.\\nThis reconciliation was only a pretence. Antony aspired to\\nsucceed to the power of the dictator and to rouse the popular\\nfury against the conspirators Caesar s will was\\nAntony rouses immediately made public. He left as his heir his\\ngreat-nephew Octavins, a youth of eighteen, the\\nson of Atia, the daughter of his sister Julia. He bequeathed\\nconsiderable legacies to his murderers. He gave his magnificent\\ngardens beyond the Tiber to the public, and to every Roman\\ncitizen he bequeathed the sum of 300 sesterces (rather less than\\n\u00c2\u00a33 sterling). When this became known, a deep feeling of sorrow\\nfor the untimely fate of their benefactor seized the minds of the\\npeople. Their feelings were raised to the highest point two or\\nthree days afterwards, when the funeral took place. The body\\nwas to be burnt in the Campus Martins, but it was previously\\ncarried to the forum, where Antony, according to custom, pro-\\nnounced the funeral oration over it. After relating the exploits\\nof the great dictator, reciting his will, and describing his terrible\\ndeath, he lifted up the blood-stained robe which Caesar had worn\\nin the senate-house, and which had hitherto covered the corpse,\\nand pointed out the numerous wounds which disfigured the body.\\nAt this sight a yell of indignation was raised, and the mob rushed\\nin every direction to tear the murderers to pieces. The liberators\\nfled for their lives from the city, and the poet Helvius Cinna,\\nbeing mistaken for the praetor Cinna, one of the assassins, was\\ntorn in pieces before the mistake could be explained.\\nAntony was now master of Rome. Being in possession of\\nCaesar s papers, he was able to plead the au-\\nArrangement thority of the dictator for everything which he\\nvinces pleased. The conspirators hastened to take pos-\\nsession of the provinces which Caesar had as-\\nsigned to them. D. Brutus repaired to Cisalpine Gaul, M. Brutus", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "Chap XXXVt.] ARRIVAL OP OCTAVIAlJ. 30S\\nto Macedonia, and Cassius to Syria. Antony now procured a\\nnew disposition of the provinces, which gave Cisalpine Gaul to\\nhimself, Macedonia to his brother C. Antonius, and Syria to\\nDolabella.\\nMeantime a new actor appeared upon the stage. Octavius\\nwas at Apollonia, a town on the coast of Illyria, at the time of\\nhis uncle s death. Caesar had determined to take\\nbis nephew with him in his expedition against the\\nParthians, and had accordingly sent him to Apol- uome.\\nIonia, where a camp had been formed, that he\\nmight pursue his military studies. The soldiers now offered to\\nfollow him to Italy and avenge their leader s death, but he did\\nnot yet venture to take this decisive step. He determined,\\nhowever, to sail at once to Italy, accompanied by only a few\\nfriends. Upon arriving at Brimdusium he heard of the will of\\nthe dictator, and was saluted by the soldiers as Caesar. As the\\nadopted heir of his uncle, his proper name was now C. Julius\\nCaesar Octavianus, and by the last of these names we shall\\nhencefortli call him. He now made up his mind to proceed to\\nRome arid claim his uncle s inheritance, in opposition to the\\nadvice of his mother, who dreaded this dangerous honour for\\nher son. Upon arriving at Rome, he declared before the praetor\\nin the usual manner that he accepted the inheritance, and he\\nthen promised the people to pay the money bequeathed to them.\\nHe even ventured to claim of Antony the treasures of his uncle;\\nbut, as the latter refused to give them up, he sold the other\\nproperty, and even his own estates, to discharge all the legacies.\\nAntony threw every obstacle in his way but the very name of\\nCaesar worked wonders, and the liberality of the young man\\ngained the hearts of the people. He had indeed a difficult part\\nto play. He could not join the murderers of his uncle; and\\nyet Antony, their greatest enemy, was also his most dangerous\\nfoe. In these difficult circumstances the youth displayed a\\nprudence and a wisdom which baffled the most experienced\\npoliticians. Without committing himself to any party, he pro-\\nfessed a warm attachment to the senate. Cicero had once more\\ntaken an active part in public affairs and Octavian, with that\\ndissimulation which he practised throughout his life, completely\\ndeceived the veteran orator.\\nOn the 2nd of September Cicero delivered in the senate the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "S04 mSTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVI.\\nfirst of his orations against Antony, which, in imitation of those\\nof Demosthenes against PhiHp, are known by the name of the\\nPhilippics. Antony was absent at the time, but\\nCicero shortly afterwards attacked the orator in un-\\nAutonv. measured terms. Cicero rephed in the Second\\nPhiHppic, one of the most violent invectives ever\\nwritten. It was not spoken, but was published soon after\\nAntony had quitted Rome.\\nMeantime the emissaries of Octavian had been sounding the\\ndisposition of the soldiers, and had already enlisted for him a\\nconsiderable number of troops in various parts of\\nraSeVt^oops. toi^y the power was slipping\\nfrom imder his feet. Two of the legions which\\nhe had summoned from Epirus passed over to Octavian and, in\\norder to keep the remainder under his standard, and to secure the\\nnorth of Italy to his interests, Antony now proceeded to Cisalpine\\nGaul, which had been previously granted to him by the people.\\nUpon entering the province towards the end of December, D.\\nBrutus threw himself into Mutina {Modena), to which Antony\\nlaid siege.\\nSoon after Antony s departure Cicero prevailed upon the\\nsenate to declare him a public enemy, and to intrust to the\\nyoung Octavian the conduct of the war against\\nWar declared him. Cicero was now at the height of his glory.\\nagainst jjjg activity was unceasing, and in the twelve re-\\nmaining PhiHppics he encouraged the senate\\nand the people to prosecute the war with vigour. The two new\\nconsuls (43 b.c.) were A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa, both of\\nwhom had been designated by the late dictator. As soon as\\nthey had entered upon their office, Hirtius, accompanied by\\nOctavian, marched into Cisalpine Gaul, while Pansa remained\\nin the city to levy troops.\\nFor some weeks no movement of importance took place in\\neither army, but, when Pansa set out to join his colleague and\\nBattles of Octavian, Antony marched southward, and on the\\nForum Gal- 15th of April attacked him at Forum Gallorum\\nlorum and near Bononia (Bologna). A fierce battle ensued,\\nMutina. which Pansa was mortally wounded success\\nat first declared for Antony, but the timely arrival of the other\\nconsul, Hirtius, forced him to retire to his camp before Mutina,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVI.] THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 305\\nA few days afterwards a more decisive battle took place.\\nAntony was defeated with great loss, and forced to raise the\\nsiege of Mutina but Hirtius fell in leading an assault on the\\nbesieger s camp. The death of the two consuls left Octavian\\nthe sole command and so timely was their removal that he was\\naccused by many of causing their death.\\nAntony, although he had found it impossible to continue the\\nsisge of Mutina, retreated in good order northwards, crossed the\\nAlps, and was well received in Further Gaul by Lepidus, who\\nhad promised him support. Meantime the good understanding\\nbetween Octavian and the senate had come to an end. The\\nlatter, being resolved to prevent him from obtaining any further\\npower, gave the command of the consular armies to D. Brutus\\nand Cicero talked of removing the boy.\\nBut the boy soon showed the senate that he was their\\nmaster. He gained the confidence of the soldiers, who gladly\\nfollowed the heir of Caesar to Rome. Though\\nonly twenty years of age, he demanded of the \u00e2\u0080\u009e-!Ls^^^\\nsenate the consulship. At first they attempted to\\nevade his demand; but his soldiers were encamped in the\\nCampus Martins, and in the month of August he was elected\\nconsul with his cousin Q. Pedius. The first act of his consul-\\nship showed that he had completely broken with the senate.\\nHis colleague proposed a law declaring all the murderers of\\nCaesar to be outlaws.\\nOctavian then quitted Rome to march professedly against\\nAntony, leaving Pedius in charge of the city; but it soon\\nappeared that he had come to an understanding\\nwith Antony, for he had hardly entered Etruria Ji^ijction with\\nbefore the unwilling senate were compelled, upon iiepi^^fg,\\nthe proposal of Pedius, to repeal the sentence of\\noutlawry against Antony and Lepidus. These two were now\\ndescending the Alps at the head of seventeen legions. Octavian\\nwas advancing northwards with a formidable army. Between\\ntwo such forces the situation of D. Brutus was hopeless. He\\nwas deserted by his own troops, and fled to Aquileia, intending\\nto cross over to Macedonia, but was put to death in the former\\nplace by order of Antony.\\nLepidus, who acted as mediator between Antony and Octavian,\\nnow arranged a meeting between them on a small island near\\nX", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "306 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVI.\\nBononia, formed by the waters- of the river Ehenus, a tribu-\\ntary of the Po. The interview took place near the end of\\nNovember. It was arranged that the government\\ntriumvirate Roman world should be divided between\\nthe three for a period of five years, under the\\ntitle of Triumvirs for settling the affairs of the Republic.\\nOctavian received Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa Antony the two\\nGauls, with the exception of the Narbonese district, which, with\\nSpain, was assigned to Lepidus. Octavian and Antony were to\\nprosecute the war against M. Brutus and Cassius, who were in\\npossession of the eastern provinces. Lepidus was to receive\\nthe consulship for the following year, with the charge of Italy.\\nThe triumvirs next proceeded to imitate the example of Sulla\\nby drawing up a proscription a list of persons whose lives were\\n_ to be sacrificed and property confiscated. But\\nthey had not Sulla s excuse. He returned to\\nItal} exasperated to the highest degree by the murder of his\\nfriends and the personal insults he had received. The triumvirs,\\nout of a cold-blooded policj^, resolved to remove every one\\nwhose opposition they feared or whose property they coveted.\\nIn drawing up the fatal list they sacrificed, without scruple,\\ntheir nearest relatives and friends. To please Antony, Octavian\\ngave up Cicero Antony in return surrendered his own uncle,\\nL. Caesar; and Lepidus sacrificed his own brother Paullus.\\nAs many as 300 senators and 2000 equites were entered in the\\nlists.\\nAs soon as the triumvirs had made their secret arrangements\\nthey marched towards Rome. Hitherto they had published the\\nnames of only seventeen of the proscribed but the city was in\\na state of the utmost alarm, and it was with difficulty that Pedius\\ncould preserve the peace. So great was his anxiety and fatigue\\nthat he died the night before the entry of the triumvirs into the\\ncity. They marched into Rome at the head of their legions,\\nand filled all the public places with their soldiery. No attempt\\nat resistance was made. A law was proposed and carried con-\\nferring upon the triumvirs the title and powers they had assumed.\\nThe work of butchery then commenced. Lists after lists of\\nthe proscribed were published, each more numerous than the\\nformer. The soldiers hunted after the victims, cut off their\\nTriumviri Reipublicae constituendae.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVI.] DEATH OF CICERO. 307\\nheads, and brought them to the authorities to prove their claims\\nto the blood-money. Slaves were rewarded for betraying their\\nmasters, and whoever harboured any of the proscribed was\\npunished with death. Terror reigned throughout Italy. No\\none knew whose turn would come next.\\nCicero was included in the first seventeen victims of the pro-\\nscription. He was residing in his Tusculan villa with his\\nbrother Quintus, who urged him to escape to\\nBrutus in Macedonia, They reached Astura, a Q^^arn\\nsmall island off Antium, when Quintus ventured\\nto Eome to obtain a supply of money, of which they were in\\nneed. Here he was apprehended, together with his son, and\\nboth were put to death. The orator again embarked, and\\ncoasted along to Formiae, where he landed at his villa, resolving\\nno longer to fly from his fate. After he had spent a night in\\nhis own house, his attendants, hearing that the soldiers were\\nclose at hand, forced him to enter a litter, and hurried him\\nthrough the woods towards the shore, distant a mile from his\\nhouse. As they were passing onwards they were overtaken by\\ntheir pursuers, and were preparing to defend their master with\\ntheir lives, but Cicero commanded them to desist and, stretch-\\ning his head out of the litter, called upon his executioners to\\nstrike. They instantly cut off his head and hands, which were\\ncarried to Rome. Fulvia, the widow of Clodius and now the\\nwife of Antony, gloated her eyes with the sight, and even thrust\\na hair-pin through his tongue. Antony ordered the head to be\\nnailed to the Rostra, which had so often witnessed the triumphs\\nof the orator. Thus died Cicero, in the sixty-fourth year of his\\nage. He had not sufficient firmness of character to cope with\\nthe turbulent times in which his lot was cast but as a man he\\ndeserves our admiration and love. In the midst of almost\\nuniversal corruption he remained uncontaminated. He was an\\naffectionate father, a faithful friend, and a kind master.\\nMany of the proscribed escaped from Italy, and took refuge\\nwith Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, and with Brutus and Cassius in\\nthe East. After the death of Caesar the senate\\nhad appointed Sextus to the command of the po ^nf;\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\nRepublican fleet. He had become master of\\nSicily his fleet commanded the Mediterranean and Rome\\nbegan to suffer from want of its usual supplies of corn. It", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "308 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVL\\nwas arranged that Octavian should attempt the conquest of j\\nSicily, while Antony was preparing for the campaign in the i\\nEast. A fleet under Salvidienus Rufus was sent against\\nPompeius, but was worsted by the latter in the Straits of Sicily,\\nin sight of Octavian. The war against Brutus and Cassius was i\\nmore urgent; and accordingly Octavian and Antony sailed i\\nshortly afterwards to the East, leaving Pompeius undisputed\\nmaster of the sea. i\\nM. Brutus had gained secure possession of Macedonia. The i\\nremains of the Pompeian legions, which had continued in Greece\\nafter the battle of Pharsalus, gathered round him\\nBrutus and g^^^j q_ Antonius, whom his brother had sent over\\nEast^^^ command of the province, was obliged\\nto become his prisoner. His colleague had been l\\nEqually fortunate in Syria. Dolabella, to whom Antony had\\ngiven this province, was besieged in Laodicea by Cassius, and j\\nput an end to his own life (43 B.C.).\\nBrutus and Cassius were now masters of the Roman world j\\neast of the Adriatic. It was evident that their enemies before\\nlong would cross over into Greece but instead of concentrating j\\ntheir forces ia that country, they began to plunder the cities of\\nAsia Minor, in order to obtain money for their troops. Brutus\\npillaged Lycia, and Cassius Rhodes. The inhabitants of the I\\nLycian town of Xanthus refused to submit to the exactions of i\\nBrutus, made an heroic defence when they were attacked, and\\npreferred to perish in the flames of their city rather than to i\\nyield. Brutus and Cassius were thus engaged when the news of\\nthe triumvirate and the proscription reached them but they c\\ncontinued some time longer plundering in the East, and it was f\\nnot till the spring of 42 B.C. that the Republican chiefs at length I\\nassembled their forces at Sardis, and prepared to march into I\\nEurope.\\nSo much time, however, had now been lost, that Antony and\\nOctavian had landed without opposition upon the\\nArrival of ^^^^g^ ^f Greece, and had already commenced\\nOctavian, march towards Macedonia before Brutus\\nand Cassius had quitted Asia.\\nBrutus seems to have had dark forebodings of the approaching\\nstruggle. He continued his studious habits during the cam-\\npaign, and limited his hours of sleep. On the night before his", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVl.] BATTLES AT PHILIPPl. 309\\narmy crossed over into Europe he was sitting in his tent, the\\nlamp burning dim, and the whole camp in deep silence, when he\\nsaw a gigantic and terrible figure standing by him. He had the\\ncourage to ask, Who art thou, and for what purpose dost thou\\ncome? The phantom replied, I am thy evil genius, Brutus\\nwe shall meet again at Philippi and vanished.\\nBrutus and Cassius now marched through Thrace and Mace-\\ndonia to Philippi, where they met the army of the triumvirs.\\nThe Republican leaders took up their positions\\non two heights distant a mile from each other, \u00e2\u0096\u00a0Dt\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^^l^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^\\nBrutus pitchmg his camp on the northern, and\\nCassius on the southern near the sea. The camps, though\\nseparate, were enclosed within a common entrenchment, and\\nmidway between them was the pass which led like a gate from\\nEurope to Asia. The enemy was on the lower ground in a less\\nfavourable position Octavian opposed Brutus and Antony\\nCassius. The numbers that met in this last struggle for the\\nRepublic were enormous, and nineteen legions were counted\\non either side. The triumvirs, whose troops began to suffer\\nfrom want of provisions, now endeavoured to force the Republican\\nleaders to an engagement. Cassius was unwilling to quit his\\nstrong position, and recommended that they should wait for their\\nfleet but Brutus was anxious to put an end to this state of\\nsuspense, and persuaded the council to risk an immediate battle.\\nBrutus himself defeated the army opposite to him, and pene-\\ntrated into the camp of Octavian, who was lying ill and unable to\\ntake part in the battle. His litter was seized, and brought forth\\ncovered with blood, and a report spread that he had been\\nkilled.\\nMeantime, on the other side of the field, Cassius had been\\ndriven back by Antony. Retiring to a neighbouring hill with\\nsome of his men, he saw a large bodj of cavalry\\napproaching. Thinking that they belonged to the Death of\\nenemy and that everything was lost, he ordered Bj^t^g,\\none of his freedmen to put an end to his life. In\\nreality Brutus had sent the cavalry to obtain news of Cassius\\nand when he heard of the death of his colleague he wept over\\nhim as the last of the Romans, an eulogy which Cassius had\\ndone nothing to deserve.\\nTwenty days after the first battle Brutus again led out his", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "310\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XXX VI.\\nforces; but this time he was completely defeated, and with\\ndifficulty escaped from the field. He withdrew into a wood, and\\nin the night-time fell upon his sword, which Strato, who had\\nbeen his teacher in rhetoric, held for him. Philippi was the\\nlast perhaps the only contest in which the existence of the\\nRepublic was the stake with Brutus it perished, and indeed it\\nwould have been strange had its salvation been due to him.\\nHe was doubtless a sincei e believer, but he was a man of weak\\njudgment, deficient in knowledge of mankind, and more fitted\\nfor a life of study than the command of armies and the govern-\\nment of men.\\nCoin of Antony and Cleopatra.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "Coin of Augustus with head of M. Agrippa on the reverse.\\nCHAPTER XXXVII.\\nFROBI THE BATTLE OF PHILIPPI 10 THE BATTLE OF ACTITJM.\\n41-30 B.C.\\nAfter the battle the victors separated. Antonj remained in\\nthe East to collect money for the soldiers. Octavian, who was\\nin ill-health, returned to Italy to give the veterans\\nthe lands which had been promised them.\\nAnton}^ traversed Asia Minor, plundering the\\nunfortunate inhabitants, who had already suffered so severely\\nfrom the exactions of Brutus and Cassius. In the voluptuous\\ncities of Asia he surrendered himself to every kind of sensual\\nenjoyment. He entered Ephesus in the character of Bacchus,\\naccompanied by a wild procession of women dressed like\\nBacchantes, and men and youths disguised as Satyrs and Fauns.\\nAt Tarsus in Cilicia, whither he had gone to prepare for the\\nwar against the Parthians, he was visited by Cleopatra, whom\\nhe had summoned to his presence to answer for\\nher conduct in supplying Cassius with money and nJeoTjatra\\nprovisions. She was now in her twenty-eighth\\nyear, and in the full maturity of her charms. In her fifteenth\\nyear her beauty had made an impression on the heart of Antony,\\nwhen he was at Alexandria with Gabinius and she now trusted\\nto make him her willing slave. She sailed up the Cydnus to\\nTarsus in a magnificent vessel with purple sails propelled by\\nsilver oars to the sound of luxurious music. She herself reclined\\nunder an awning spangled with gold, attired as Venus and\\nfanned by Cupids. The most beautiful of her female slaves\\nheld the rudder and the ropes. The perfumes burnt upon the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "312 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVII.\\nvessel filled the banks of the river with their fragrance. The\\ninhabitants cried that Venus had come to revel with Bacchus.\\nAntony accepted her invitation to sup on board her galley, and\\nwas completely subjugated. Her wit and vivacity surpassed\\neven her beauty. He followed her to Alexandria, where he\\nforgot everything in luxurious dalliance, and the charms of her\\nsociety.\\nMeantime important events had been taking place in Italy.\\nOctavian found immense difficulties in satisfying the demands of\\nthe veterans. All Italy was thrown into con-\\nItaly.\\nc avian in fusion. Though he expelled thousands from their\\nhomes in Cisalpine Gaul, in order to give their\\nfarms to his soldiers, they still clamoured for more. Those who\\nhad obtained assignments of land seized upon the property of\\ntheir neighbours, and those who had not were ready to rise in\\nmutiny. The country people, who had been obliged to yield\\ntheir property to the rude soldiery, filled Italy with their com-\\nplaints, and flocked to Rome to implore in vain the protection of\\nOctavian. Even if he had the wish, he had not the power to\\ncontrol his soldiers.\\nFulvia, the wife of Antony, who had remained behind in Italy,\\nresolved to avail herself of these elements of confusion, and\\ncrush Octavian. She was a bold and ambitious\\nRevolt of L. woman she saw that sooner or later the struL gle\\nP^^^Jg^ must come between her husband and Octavian\\nand by precipitating the war she hoped to bring\\nher hu\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^band to Italy, and thus withdraw him from the influence\\nof Cleopatra. L. Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, who\\nwas consul this year (41 b.c), entered into her views. They\\nproclaimed themselves the patrons of the unfortunate Italians,\\nand also promised to the discontented soldiery that the triumvir\\nwould recompense them with the spoils of Asia. By these\\nmeans they soon saw themselves at the head of a considerable\\nforce, and even obtained possession of Rome.\\nBut Agrippa, the ablest general of Octavian, forced them to\\nquit the city, and pressed them so hard that they were obliged\\nto take refuge in Perusia {Perugia), one of the\\nSiege 01 j^Qg^ powerful cities of Etruria. Here they were\\nbesieged during the winter, and suffered so dread-\\nfully from famine that they found themselves compelled to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVII.] PEACE OF BEUNDUSIUM. 313\\ncapitulate in the following spring. The lives of L. Antonius\\nand Fulvia were spared, but the chief citizens of Perusia itself\\nwere put to death, and the town burnt to the ground.\\nWhile Antony s friends were thus unfortunate in Italy, his\\nown forces experienced a still greater disaster in the East. Q.\\nLabienus, the son of Caesar s old lieutenant in Gaul, had been\\nsent by Brutus and Cassius to seek aid from Orodes, the king of\\nParthia. He was in that country when the news arrived of the\\nbattle of Philippi, and had remained there up to the present\\ntime.\\nThe war in Italy, and Antony s indolence at Alexandria, held\\nout a favourable opportunity for the invasion of the Eoman\\nprovinces. Orodes placed a large army under the\\ncommand of Labienus and his own son Pacorus. f^^^\\nmi 1 ii T-i 1 i ^rv T invasion of\\nihey crossed the iLiuphrates in 40 B.C., and car- gypja,.\\nried everything before them. Antony s troops\\nwere defeated; the two powerful cities of Antioch and Apamea\\nwere taken and the whole of Syria overrun by the Parthians.\\nPacorus penetrated as far south as Palestine, and Labienus\\ninvaded Cilicia. Such alarming news, both from Italy and the\\nEast, at length aroused Antony from his voluptuous dreams.\\nLeaving his lieutenant Ventidius in Syria, to conduct the war\\nagainst the Parthians, Antony sailed to Athens, where he met\\nhis brother and wife. He now formed an alliance with Sextus\\nPompeius, sailed to Italy, and laid siege to Brundusium.\\nAnother civil war seemed inevitable but the soldiers on both\\nsides were eager for peace and mutual friends persuaded the\\nchiefs to be reconciled, which was the more easily\\neffected in consequence of the death of Fulvia at Brundusium\\nSicyon. A new division of the Eoman world was\\nnow made. Antony was to have all the eastern provinces, and\\nOctavian the western, the town of Scodra in Illyricum forming\\nthe boundary between them. Italy was to belong to them in\\ncommon. Lepidus was allowed to retain possession of Africa,\\nwhich he had received after the battle of Philippi, but he had\\nceased to be of any political importance. It was agreed that\\nAntony should carry on the war against the Parthians, and that\\nOctavian should subdue Pompeius, whom Antony readily sacri-\\nficed. The consuls were to be selected alternately from the\\nfriends of each. To cement the alliance, Antony was to marry", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "314 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXV^II.\\nOctavia, the siater of Octavian and widow of C. Marcellus, one\\nof the noblest women of her age. The two triumvirs then\\nrepaired to Kome to celebrate the marriage (close of 40 B.C.).\\nDiscontent, however, prevailed at Eo me. Sextus Pompeius, who\\nhad been excluded from the peace, still continued master of the\\nsea, and intercepted the ships which supplied the\\nMfs^Bum corn. The people were in want of\\nbread, and became so exasperated that Octavian\\nand Antony found it necessary to enter into negotiations with\\nthe enemy. An interview took place between the chiefs at Cape\\nMisenum. It was agreed that Pompeius should receive Sicily,\\nSardinia, Corsica, and Achaia, and that he should send to Kome\\nan immediate supply of corn. The chiefs then feasted one\\nanother, and Pompeius entertained Octavian and Antony on\\nboard his own galley. When the banquet was at its height, a\\nGreek named Menas or Menodorus, one of Pompeius captains,\\nwhispered to him, Shall I cut off the anchors of the ship, and\\nmake you lord of the Koman world To which his master\\nmade the well-known reply, You ought to have done it without\\nasking me. The two triumvirs, on their return to Rome, were\\nreceived with shouts of applause. The civil wars seemed to\\nhave come to an end (39 B.C.).\\nAntony, with Octavia, returned to the East, where he found\\nthat his legate Ventldius had gained the most brilliant success\\nViotories of Parthians. This man was a native of\\nVentidius Picenum, and originally a mule- driver. He was\\nover the taken prisoner in the Social War, and walked in\\nPartliiaiis. chains in the triumphal procession of Pompeius\\nStrabo. He was made tribune of the Plebs by Julius Caesar,\\nand was raised to the consulship in 43 B.C. In the Parthian\\nWar he displayed military abilities of no ordinary kind. He first\\ndefeated Labienus, took him prisoner in Cilicia, and put him to\\ndeath. He then entered Syria, and drove Pacorus beyond the\\nEuphrates. In the following year (38 B.C.) the Parthians again\\nentered Syria, but Ventidius gained a signal victory over them,\\nand Pacorus himself fell in the battle.\\nThe treaty between Sextus Pompeius and the triumvirs did\\nnot last long. Antony refused to give up Achaia, and Pompeius\\ntherefore recommenced his piratical excursions. The^price of\\nprovisions at Eome immediately rose, and Octavian found it", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVII.] WAR WITH SEXTUS POMPEIUS. 315\\nnecessary to commence war immediately but his fleet was twice\\ndefeated by Pompeius, and was at last completely destroyed by\\na storm (38 B.C.). This failm-e only proved the\\nnecessity of making still more extensive prepara- witn\\ntions to carry on the war with success. The power pomugiug\\nof Octavian was insecure as long as Pompeius was\\nmaster of the sea, and could deprive Eome of her supplies of\\ncorn. Nearly two years were spent in building a new fleet, and\\nexercising the newly raised crews and rowers. The command\\nof the fleet and the superintendence of all the necessary pre-\\nparations for the war were entrusted to Agrippa. In order\\nto obtain a perfectly secure and land-locked basin for his fleet,\\nand thus secure it against any sudden surprise, he constructed\\nthe celebrated Portus Julius on the coast of Campania near\\nBaiae, by connecting the inland Lake Avernus, by means of a\\ncanal, with the Lake Lucrinus, and by strengthening the latter\\nlake against the sea by an artificial dyke or dam. While he\\nwas engaged in these great works, Antony sailed to Tarentum,\\nin 37 B.C., with 300 ships. Maecenas hastened thither from\\nRome, and succeeded once more in concluding an amicable\\narrangement. He was accompanied on this occasion by Horace,\\nwho has immortalized, in a well-known satire, his journey from\\nRome to Brundusium.\\nOctavian and Antony met between Tarentum and Meta-\\npontum the triumvirate was renewed for another period of\\nfive years Antony agreed to leave 120 ships to\\nassist in the war against Pompeius and Octavian ^^^^^^1 oi\\npromised to send a land-force to the East for the y^j-ate\\ncampaign against the Parthians.\\nOctavian, now reheved of all anxiety on the part of Antony,\\nurged on his preparations with redoubled vigour. By the\\nsummer of 36 b.c. he was ready to commence operations. He\\nhad three large fleets at his disposal his own, stationed in the\\nJulian harbour that of Antony, under the command of Statilius\\nTaurus, in the harbour of Tarentum and that of Lepidus, off\\nthe coast of Africa. His plan was for all three fleets to set sail\\non the same day, and make a descent upon three different parts\\nof Sicily; but a fearful storm marred this project. Lepidus\\nalone reached the coast of Sicily, and landed at Lilybaeum\\nStatilius Taurus was able to put back to Tarentum; but", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "316 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVII.\\nOctavian, who was surprised by the storm off the Lucanian\\npromontory of Pahnurus, lost a great number of his ships, and\\nwas obhged to remain in Italy to repair his shattered fleet.\\nAs soon as the ships had been refitted, Octavian again set sail\\nfor Sicily. Agrippa defeated Pompeius fleet off Mylae, destroy-\\ning thirty of his ships but the decisive battle\\nNaubohus fought on the 3rd of September (36 B.C.),\\noff Naulochus, a seaport between Mylae and the\\npromontory of Pelorus. Agrippa gained a brilliant victory\\nmost of the Pompeian vessels were destroyed or taken. Pompeius\\nhimself fled to Lesbos with a squadron of seventeen ships.\\nOctavian did not pursue him, as Lepidus, who was at the head\\nof a considerable force, now claimed Sicily for himself, and an\\nequal share as triumvir in the government of\\ne iremen ^j^^ Roman world but Octavian found means to\\nseduce his soldiers from their allegiance and\\nLepidus was at last obliged to surrender to Octavian, and to\\nthrow himself upon his mercy. His life was granted, but he\\nwas deprived of his triumvirate, his army, and his provinces, and\\nvras compelled to retire to Italy as a private person. He was\\nallowed, however, to retain his property and the dignity oi\\nPontifex Maximus. He lived till 12 B.C.\\nIn 35 B.C. Pompeius crossed over from Lesbos to Asia, with the\\nview of seizing that province but he was easily crushed by the\\nlieutenants of Antony, was taken prisoner as he\\nDeath of attempted to escape to Armenia, and was put to\\nPompeius. death at Miletus. By the death of Pompeius and\\nthe deposition of Lepidus, Antony and Octavian\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2were now left without a rival and Antony s mad love for\\nCleopatra soon made Octavian the undisputed master of the\\nRoman world.\\nAfter Antony s marriage with Octavia, in 40 B.C., he seems\\nfor a time to have forgotten or at least conquered the fascinations\\nof the Egyptian queen. For the next three years he resided at\\nAthens with his w\\\\ie but after his visit to Italy, and the re-\\nnewal of the triumvirate in 37 B.C., he left, Octavia behind at\\nTarentum, and determined to carry out his long-pi ojected\\ncampaign against the Parthians.\\nAs he approached Syria, that great evil, as Plutai ch calls\\nit, his passion for Cleopatra, burst forth vpith more vehemence", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXX VII.] ANTONY IN EGYPT. 317\\nthan ever. From this time she appears as his evil genius. He\\nsummoned her to him, and loaded her with honours and\\nfavours. He added to her dominions Phoenicia,\\nCoele-Syria, Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Pales- J^^^^^J/^\\ntine, and Arabia, and publicly recognized the cieonatra\\nchildren she had borne him. Although he had\\ncollected a large army to invade the Parthian empire, he was\\nunable to tear himself away from the enchantress, and did not\\ncommence his march till late in the year. The expedition\\nproved most disastrous the army suffered from want of\\nprovisions and Antony found himself compelled to retreat.\\nHe narrowly escaped the fate of Crassus; and it was with the\\nutmost difficulty that he succeeded in reaching the Armenian\\nmountains after losing the best part of his troops.\\nAntony returned to Alexandria, and surrendered himself\\nentirely to Cleopatra. In 34 b c. he made a short campaign\\ninto Armenia, and succeeded in obtaining pos-\\nsession of Artavasdes, the Armenian king. He -J^ \u00c2\u00b0^J\\ncarried him to Alexandria, and, to the great\\nscandal of all the Romans, entered the city in triumph, with all\\nthe pomp and ceremonial of the Roman pageant. He now laid\\naside entirely the character of a Roman citizen, and assumed\\nthe state and dress of an Eastern monarch. Instead of the toga\\nhe wore a robe of purple, and his head was crowned with a\\ndiadem. Sometimes he assumed the character of Osiris, while\\nCleopatra appeared at his side as Isis. He gave the title of\\nkings to Alexander and Ptolemy, his sons by Cleopatra. The\\nEgyptian queen already dreamed of reigning over the Roman\\nworld.\\nWliile Antony was disgusting the Romans and alienating his\\nfriends and supporters by his senseless follies, Octavian had\\nbeen restoring order to Italy and, by his wise and energetic\\nadministration, was slowly repairing the evils of the civil wars.\\nIn order to give security to the frontiers and employment to the\\ntroops, he attacked the barbarians on the north of Italy and\\nGreece, and subdued the lapydes, Pannonians, and Dalmatians.\\nHe carried on these wars in person, and won the affection of\\nthe soldiers by sharing their dangers and hardships.\\nThe contrast between the two triumvirs was sufficiently\\nstriking, but Octavian called attention to the follies of Antony.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "318\\nHISTORY OF ROME.\\n[Chap. XXXVII.\\nLetters passed between them full of mutual recriminations, and\\nboth parties began to prepare for the inevitable struggle.\\nTowards the end of 32 B.C. the senate declared war against\\nCleopatra,* since there was no ground for treating Antony as a\\npublic enemy. The five years of the triumvirate\\nWar declared had expired on the last day of this year and on\\nagainst ^-^e 1st of January, 31 B.C., Octavian, as Consul of\\nthe Republic, proceeded to carry on the war\\nagainst the Egyptian queen. The hostile fleets and armies\\nassembled on the western coasts of Greece. Antony s fleet was\\nsuperior both in the number and size of the ships, but they were\\nclumsy and unmanageable. They were anchored in the\\nAmbraciot Gulf in the\\nmodern Bay of Pre-\\nvesa. (See Plan, P.)\\nThe army was en-\\ncamped on the pro-\\nmontory of Actium\\n(Plan, 3), which has\\ngiven its name to the\\nbattle. The fleet of\\nOctavian consisted of\\nlight Liburnian ves-\\nsels, manned by crews\\nwhich had gained ex-\\nperience in the wars\\nagainst Sextus Pompeius. It was under the command of the\\nable Agrippa, who took up his station at Corcyra, and swept the\\nAdriatic Sea.\\nOctavian in person took the command of the land-forces, which\\nwere encamped on the coast of Epirus opposite Actium, on the\\nspot where Nicopolis afterwards stood. (Plan, 1.)\\nThe generals of Antony strongly urged him to\\nfight on land but the desertions among his\\ntroops were numerous Cleopatra became alarmed for her\\nsafety and it was therefore resolved to sacrifice the army, and\\nretire with the fleet to Egypt. But Agrippa was on the watch,\\nand Antony had no sooner saUed outside the strait than he was\\ncompelled to fight. The battle was still undecided and equally\\nAntony retaliated by sending Octavia a bill of divorcs.\\nPlan of Actium.\\nNicopolis. I 3. Prom. Actium.\\nO. La Scara. 5. Temple of Apollo.\\nP. Bay of Prevesa.\\nBattle of\\nActium.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVII.] DEATH OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 319\\nfavourable to both parties, when Cleopatra, whose vessels were\\nat anchor in the rear, taking advantage of a favourable breeze\\nwhich sprung up, sailed through the midst of the combatants\\nwith her squadron of sixty ships, and made for the coast of\\nPeloponnesus. When Antony saw her flight, he hastily followed\\nher, forgetting everything else, and shamefully deserting those\\nwho were fighting and dying in his cause. The remainder of\\nthe fleet was destroyed before night-time, and the army, after a\\nfew days hesitation, surrendered. The battle of Actium was\\nfought on the 2nd of September, 31 B.C., from which day the sole\\nrule of Octavian may be dated, although his constitutional position\\nas Princeps was not secured until four years later (27 B.C.).\\nOctavian did not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly\\ntwelve months after the battle of Actium. He sent Agrippa to\\nItaly with his veteran troops, and himself passed the winter at\\nSamos but he could not satisfy the demands of the soldiers,\\nwho broke out into open mutiny. Octavian hastened to Brun-\\ndusium, and with difficulty raised a sufficient sum of money to\\ncalm their discontent.\\nThis respite was of no service to Antony and Cleopatra.\\nThey knew that resistance was hopeless, and therefore sent\\nambassadors to Octavian to solicit his favour.\\nTo Antony no answer was given, but to Cleopatra +o ^J^^^\\nhopes were held out if she would betray her lover.\\nShe began to flatter herself that her charms, which had fascinated\\nboth Caesar and Antony, might conquer Octavian, who was\\nyounger than either. Octavian at length appeared before Pelu-\\nsium, which surrendered to him without resistance. He then\\nmarched upon Alexandria. Antony, encouraged by some slight\\nsuccess in an action with the cavalry, prepared to resist Octavian\\nboth by sea and land but as soon as the Egyptian ships ap-\\nproached those of Octavian, the crews saluted them with their\\noars and passed over to their side. Antony s cavahy also\\ndeserted him his infantry was easily repulsed and he fled to\\nAlexandria, crying out that he was betrayed by Cleopatra.\\nThe queen had shut herself up in a mausoleum which she\\nhad built to receive her body after death, and where she had\\ncollected her most valuable treasures. Hearing of Antony s\\ndefeat, she sent persons to inform him that she was dead. He\\nfell into the snare they had promised not to survive one", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "320 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVII.\\nanother and Antony stabbed himself. He was drawn up into\\nthe mausoleum, and died in her arms. She was apprehended\\nby the officers of Octavian, and a few days after-\\nDeatn of wards had an interview with the conqueror. Her\\nCleopatra. charms, however, failed in softening the colder\\nheart of Octavian. He only bade her be of good\\ncheer and fear no violence. Soon afterwards she learnt that she\\nwas to be sent to Rome in three days time. This news decided\\nher. On the following day she was found lying dead on a golden\\ncouch in royal attire, with her two women lifeless at her feet.\\nThe manner of her death was unknown. It was generally believed\\nthat she had died by the bite of an asp, which a peasant had brought\\nto her in a basket full of figs. She was thirty-nine j^ears of age at\\nthe time of her death. Egypt became a Roman possession.\\nOctavian did not return to Rome till 29 B.C., when he celebrated\\na threefold triumph over the Pannonians, Dalmatians, and\\nEgypt. The temple of Janus was closed for the third time in\\nRoman history, and the exhausted Roman world, longing for\\nrepose, gladly acquiesced in the sole rule of Octavian.\\nThus ended the Roman Republic, an end to which it had been\\ntending for the last hundred years. The corruption and de-\\nmoralization of all classes had rendered a Republic\\nThe Prmci- almost an impossibility and the civil dissensions\\nof the state had again and again invested one or\\nmore persons with despotic authority. The means which Augustus\\nemployed to strengthen and maintain his power belong to a\\nhistory of the Empire. He proceeded with the caution which\\nwas his greatest characteristic. He refused the names of king\\nand dictator, and was contented with the simple appellation of\\nPrinceps, or chief citizen, which had long been used to\\ndesignate any one eminent in the service of the Republican\\ngovernment. He received, however, in 27 B.C., the novel title\\nof Augustus, that is, the sacred, or the venerable, which\\nwas afterwards assumed by all the Roman emperors as a sur-\\nname. His authority was secured by the assumption of two\\nextraordinary powers the Proconsulare imperium, which made\\nhim commander-in-chief of the Roman armies and the Tribanicia\\npotestas, which gave him pre-eminence over the civil magistrates\\nof the state. He made a new division of the provinces, allow-\\ning the senate to appoint the governors of those which were", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVII.]\\nTHE PRINCIPATE.\\n321\\nquiet and long-settled, like Sicily, Achaia, and Asia, but re-\\ntaining I or himself such as required the presence of an army,\\nwhich were governed by means of his Legati. On the death of\\nLepidus in 12 B.C., he succeeded him as Pontifex Maximus, and\\nthus became the head of the Roman religion. While he thus\\nunited in his own person all the great ofiSces of state, he still\\nallowed the consuls, praetors, and other magistrates of the\\nRepublic to be annually elected, and to perform their normal\\nfunctions, while he restored the senate to the numbers fixed by\\nSulla, and to its Republican character of a body of Italian nobles.\\nIn a few words, the system of Imperial government, as it was\\ninstituted by Octavian, and maintained by those princes who\\nunderstood their own interest and that of the people, may be\\ndefined as an absolute government disguised by the form of a\\ncommonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded\\ntheir throne with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength,\\nand humbly professed themselves the accountable ministers of\\nthe senate, whose supreme decrees they dictated and obeyed.\\nGibbon.\\nCoin of Augustus commemorating the conquest of Egypt.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "Medal of Horace.\\nCHAPTEE XXXVIII.\\nSKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE, FROM THE\\nEARLIEST TIMES TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.\\nFolk-songs.\\nFor many centuries after the foundation of the city the Eomans\\ncan hardly be said to have had any Hterature at all. There may\\nhave existed, at an early period, some songs or\\nballads, recounting, in rude strains,* the exploits of\\nthe heroes of Roman story, but all trace of these has disappeared.\\nIt was not till the conquest of the Greek cities in Southern Italy,\\nshortly before the First Punic War, that we can date the com-\\nmencement of a true literature.\\nIt began with the Drama. The earliest dramatic exhibitions at\\nRome had been introduced from Etruria in 364 B.C. they had\\na religious significance, and were intended to avert\\ndranmtic art anger of the gods on the occasion of a severe\\npestilence. But these exhibitions were only\\npantomimic scenes to the music of the flute, without any dialogue.\\nIt was not till 240 B.C. that a drama with a regular plot was\\nperformed at Rome.\\nThese were probably composed in the Saturnian metre, the oldest species of\\nversification among the Romans, the freedom of which, with regard to the laws of\\nquantity, gave greater play to the genius of the Latin language than the dactylic\\nhexameter borrowed from the Greeks.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. 323\\nIts author was M. Livius Andeonicus, a native of Magna\\nGraecia, who was taken prisoner at the capture of Tarentum,\\nand carried to Rome, where he became the slave\\nof M. Liviiis Salinator. He was afterwards set free, ^Tj^^\\nT Ti 11 Anoronicus.\\nand, accordmg to Koman practice, took the gentihc\\nname of his master. He acquired at Rome a perfect knowledge\\nof the Latin language and wrote both tragedies and comedies,\\nwhich were borrowed or rather translated from the Greek. He\\nalso wrote an Odyssey in the Saturnian metre, and some hymns.\\nHe may be regarded as the first Roman poet. His works were\\nread in schools in the time of Horace.\\nCn. Nakvius, the second Roman poet, was a Campanian by\\nbirth. He served in the First Punic War, and, like Livius,\\nwrote dramas borrowed from the Greek. His\\nfirst play was performed in 235 B.C. He was\\nattached to the plebeian party and, with the hcence of the old\\nAttic comedy, he made the stage a vehicle for assailing the\\naristocracy. In consequence of his attacks upon the Metelli\\nhe was thrown into prison. He obtained his release through the\\ntribunes, but was soon compelled to expiate a new offence by\\nexile. He retired to Utica, where he died about 204 B.C. In\\nhis exile he wrote, in the Saturnian metre, an epic poem on the\\nFirst Punic War, in which he introduced the celebrated legends\\nconnected with the foundation of Rome. This poem was ex-\\ntensively copied both by Ennius and Vergil.\\nQ. Ennius, however, may be regarded as the real founder of\\nRoman literature. Like Livius, he was a native of Magna\\nGraecia. He was born at Rudiae, in Calabria,\\n239 B.C. Cato found him in Sardinia in 204 S^.,?^*\\nB.C., and brought him in his train to Rome. He\\ndwelt in a humble house on the Aventine, and maintained him-\\nself by acting as preceptor to the youth of the Roman nobility.\\nHe lived on terms of the closest intimacy with the elder Scipio\\nAfricanus, and died in the year 169 B.C., at the age of seventy.\\nHe was buried in the sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust\\nwas allowed a place among the effigies of that noble house. His\\nmost important work was an epic poem, entitled the Annals of\\nRome, in eighteen books, written in dactylic hexameters, which,\\nthrough his example, supplanted the old Saturnian metre. This\\npoem commenced with the story of Aeneas, and contained a", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "324 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII.\\nchronological record of events down to the writer s own time.\\nVergil borrowed largely from it and, down to his time, it was\\nregarded as the great epic poem of the Latin language. He also\\nwrote numerous tragedies, a few comedies, and several other\\nworks, such as Saturae, miscellaneous poems composed in a\\ngreat variety of metres, from which circumstance they probably\\nreceived their name.\\nThe comic drama of Kome, though it continued to be more\\nor less a translation or an imitation of the\\nPlautus Greek, was cultivated with distinguished success\\nby two writers of genius, several of whose plays\\nare still extant.\\nT. Maocius Plautus was a native of Sarsina, a small village\\nin Umbria, and was born about 254 B.C. He probably came to\\nRome at an early age, and was first employed in the service of\\nthe actors. With the money he had saved in this inferior\\nstation he left Rome, and set up in business but his speculations\\nfailed he returned to the capital, and his necessities obliged him\\nto enter the service of a baker, who employed him in turning a\\nhand-mill. While in this degrading occupation he wrote three\\nplays, the sale of which to the managers of the public games\\nenabled him to quit his drudgery, and begin his literary career.\\nHe was then about thirty years of age (224 B.C.), and continued to\\nwrite for the stage for about forty years. He died in 184 B.C.,\\nwhen he was seventy years of age. The comedies of Plautus en-\\njoyed unrivalled popularity among the Romans, and continued to\\nbe represented down to the time of Diocletian. Though they were\\nfounded upon Greek models, the characters in them act, speak,\\nand joke like genuine Romans, and the poet thereby secured the\\nsympathy of his audience more completely than Terence. It\\nwas not only with the common people that Plautus was a\\nfavourite educated Romans read and admired his works down\\nto the latest times. Cicero places his wit on a level with that of\\nthe old Attic comedy and St. Jerome used to console himself\\nwith the perusal of the poet, after spending many nights in tears\\non account of his past sins. The favourable opinion which the\\nancients entertained of the merits of Plautus has been confirmed\\nby the judgment of modern critics, and by the fact that several\\nof his plays have been imitated by many of the best modern\\npoets. Twenty of his comedies are exiant.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 325\\nP. Tekentius Afek, usually called Teeence, was born at\\nCarthage, 195 B.C. By birth or purchase he became the slave\\nof P. Terentius, a Roman senator, who afforded\\nhim the best education of the age, and finally\\ngave him his freedom. The Andria, the first play of Terence\\nplaced on the stage (166 B.C.), was the means of introducing\\nhim to the most refined and intellectual circles of Rome. His\\nchief patrons were Laelius and the younger Scipio, both of whom\\ntreated him as an equal, and are paid even to have assisted him in\\nthe composition of his plays. He died in the thirty-sixth year\\nof his age, in 159 B.C. Six comedies are all that remain to us.\\nThe ancient critics are unanimous in ascribing to Terence im-\\nmaculate purity and elegance of language. Although a foreigner\\nand a freedman, he divides with Cicero and Caesar the palm\\nof pure Latinity.\\nThere were two other comic poets, whose works are lost, but\\nwho enjoyed a great reputation among the Romans. Statius\\nCaecilius was a native of Milan, and, like Terence, came to\\nRome as a slave. He was the immediate predecessor of Terence,\\nand died 168 B.C., two years before the representation of the\\nAndria. L. Afranius flourished 100 B.C., and wrote comedies\\ndescribing Roman scenes and manners, called Gomoediae Togatue,\\nto distinguish them from those depicting Grecian life, which were\\ntermed PaUiatae, from pallium, the national dress of the Greeks.\\nThere were two tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who\\nalso enjoyed great celebrity, though their works have likewise\\nperished. M. Pacuvius, son of the sister of\\nEnnius, was born about 220 B.C., and died in the pacuvius\\nninetieth year of his age. He is praised by the\\nLatin writers for the loftiness of his thoughts, the vigour of his\\nlanguage, and the extent of his knowledge. Hence we find the\\nepithet dodus frequently applied to him. Most of his tragedies\\nwere taken from the Greek writers but some belonged to the\\nclass called Praetextafae, in which the subjects were taken from\\nRoman story. One of these, entitled Paidlus, had as its hero L.\\nAemilius Paullus, the conqueror of Perseus, king of Macedonia.\\nL. Accius, a younger contemporary of Pacuvius, was born\\n140 B.C., and lived to a gi-eat age. Cicero, when\\na young man. frequently conversed with him.\\nHis tragedies, like those of Pacuvius, were chiefly imitations of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "326 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII.\\nthe Greek but he also wrote some on Roman subjects, one of\\nwhich was entitled Brutus.\\nThough the Roman drama, properly so called, was derived\\nfrom, the Greeks, there were some kinds of dramatic exhibitions\\nwhich were of Italian origin. The first of these\\nwere the Attllanae Fabulae, or Atellane Plays,\\nwhich took their name from Atella, a town in Campariia. They\\nwere at first rude extemporaneous farces, but were afterwards\\ndivided into acts like a regular drama. They were originally\\ncomposed in the Oscan dialect but, when cultivated by the\\nyouth of Rome, who readily assumed parts in these pieces,\\nthey must have been acted in Latin.\\nThe Mimes were another species of comedy, of which only\\nthe name seems to have been derived from the Greek. They\\nwere a species of low comedy, in which the\\ndialogue was subordinate to mimicry and gesture.\\nThe Dictator Sulla was very fond of these performances. The\\ntwo most distinguished writers of Mimes were D. Laberius,\\na knight, and P. Syrus, a freed man, and originally a Syrian\\nslave, both of whom were contemporaries of Julius Caesar. At\\nCaesar s triumphal games in October, 45 B.C., P. Syrus\\nchallenged all his craft to a trial of wit in extemporaneous farce,\\nand Caesar offered Laberius 500,000 sesterces to appear on the\\nstage. Laberius was sixty years old, and the profession of a\\nmimus was infamous, but the wish of the dictator was equiva-\\nlent to a command, and he reluctantly complied. He had,\\nhowever, revenge in his power, and took it. His prologue\\nawakened compassion, and perhaps indignation and during the\\nperformance he adroitly availed himself of his various characters\\nto point his wit at Caesar. In the person of a beaten Syrian\\nslave he cried out, Marry! Quirites, but we lose our free-\\ndom, and all eyes were turned upon the dictator and in\\nanother mime he uttered the pregnant maxim, Needs must\\nhe fear who makes all else adread. Caesar, impartially or\\nvindictively, awarded the prize to Syrus.\\nThe Fescennine Songs were probably the origin of the Satire,\\nthe only important species of literature not derived from the\\nGreeks, and altogether peculiar to Italy. These\\nFescennine Songs were rude dialogues, in which\\nthe coimtry people assailed and ridiculed one another in", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 327\\nextempore verses, and which were introduced as an amusement\\ninto various festivals.\\nBaturae* although the name was given to certain poems of\\nEnnius, first assumed definite Hterary shape from the hands of\\nC. LuciLius, who wrote in hexameter verse, and _\\nattacked the follies and vices both of dis-\\ntinguished persons and of mankind in general. He was born\\n180 B.C., at Suessa Aurunca, and died at Naples in 103 B.C.\\nHe lived upon terms of intimacy with the younger Scipio and\\nLaelius and was the great-uncle of Pompey on his mother s\\nside. Lucilius continued to be admired in the Augustan age\\nand Horace, while he censures the harsh versification and the\\nslovenly haste with which Lucilius threw off his compositions,\\nacknowledges with admiration the fierceness and boldness of his\\nattacks upon the vices and follies of his contemporaries.\\nBetween Lucilius and the poets of the Augustan age lived\\nLucretius and Catullus, two of the greatest perhaps the greatest\\nof all the Roman poets.\\nT. LucuETius Caeus was born 96 b.c, and died in 55 b.c.\\nHe is said to have been driven mad by a love-potion, and to\\nhave perished by his own hand. The work which Poets of the\\nhas immortalized his name is a philosophical later Re-\\ndidactic poem, in heroic hexameters, entitled De piil lic :_\\nRerum Natura, divided into six books, and ^^cretius,\\naddressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, who was praetor in 58 B.C.\\nIts object is to state clearly the leading principles of the\\nEpicurean philosophy in such a form as might render the study\\nattractive to his countrymen. He attempts to show that there\\nis nothing in the history or actual condition of the world which\\ndoes not admit of explanation without having recourse to the\\nactive interposition of divine beings. The work has been\\nadmitted by all modern critics to be the greatest of didactic\\npoems. The most abstruse speculations are clearly explained\\nin majestic verse while the subject, which in itself is dry and\\ndull, is enlivened by digressions of matchless power and beauty.\\nValerius Catullus was born at Verona or in its immediate\\nvicinity, in 87 B.C. He inherited considerable property from his\\nfather, who was the friend of Julius Caesar but he squandered\\nThe name signifies a mixture or medley. Hence a lex per saturam lata is\\na law which contained several distinct regulations at once.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "328 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII.\\na great part of it by indulging freely in the pleasures of the\\nmetropolis. In order to better his fortunes he went to Bithynia\\n_ in the train of the praetor Memmius, but it\\nappears that the speculation was attended with\\nlittle success. It was probably during this expedition that his\\nbrother died in the Troad, a loss which he deplores in the\\naffecting elegy to Hortalus. On his return he continued to reside\\nat Rome, or at his country-seats on the promontory of Sirmio\\nand at Tibur. He died about 54 B.C. His poems are on a\\nvariety of topics, and composed in different styles and metres.\\nSome are lyrical, others elegies, others epigrams while the\\nNuptials of Peleus and Thetis is an heroic poem. Catullus\\nadorned all he touched, and his shorter poems are characterized\\nby original invention and felicity of expression. His Atys is\\none of the most remarkable poems in the whole range of Latin\\nliterature, distinguished by wild passion and the noblest diction.\\nAmong the poets of the Augustan age Vergil and Horace\\nstand forth pi e-eminent.\\nP. Vekgilius Maro was born, 70 B.C., at Andes, a small\\nvillage near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. His father left him\\na small estate, which he cultivated. After the\\nThe Augustan battle of Phihppi (42 b.c.) his property was among\\nVereil. lands assigned by Oc: avian to the soldiers.\\nThrough the advice of Asinius Pollio, who was\\nthen governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and was himself a poet, Vergil\\napplied to Octavian at Rome for the restitution of his land, and\\nobtained his request. The first Eclogue commemorates his\\ngratitude. Vergil lived on intimate terms with Maecenas, whom\\nhe accompanied in the journey from Rome to Brundusium,\\nwhich forms the subject of one of the Satires of Horace. His\\nmost finished work, the Geon/ics, was undertaken at the\\nsuggestion of Maecenas.* The poem was completed after the\\nbattle of Actium, 31 B.C., while Octavian was in the East.f\\nThe Aeneid was the occupation of his latter years. His health\\nw^as always feeble, and he died at Brundusium in 19 B.C., in his\\nfifty-first year. His remains were transferred to Naples, which\\nhad been his favourite residence, and placed on the road from\\nNaples to Puteoli {PozzuoU), where a monument is still shown,\\nsupposed to be the tomb of the poet. It is said that in his last\\nGeorg. iii. 41. j Comp. Georg. iv. 560, and ii. 171.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 329\\nillness he wished to burn the Aeneid, to which he had not given\\nthe finishing touches, but his friends would not allow him. He\\nwas an amiable good-tempered man, free from the mean passions\\nof envy and jealousy. His fame, which was estabHshed in his\\nlifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in which\\nevery Roman had a share and his works became school-books\\neven before the death of Augustus, and continued such for\\ncenturies after. He was also the great poet of the Middle Ages.\\nTo him Dante paid the homage of his superior genius, and\\nowned him for his master and his model. The ten short poems\\ncalled Bucolics, or Eclogues, were the earliest works of Vergil,\\nand probably all written between 41 B.C. and 39 B.C. They\\nhave all a Bucolic form and colouring, but some of them have\\nnothing more. Their merit consists in their versification, and\\nin many natural and simple touches. The Oeorgics is an\\nAgricultural Poem in four books. Vergil treats of the culti-\\nvation of the soil in the first book, of fruit-trees in the second, of\\nhorses and other cattle in the third, and of bees in the fourth.\\nThis poem shows a great improvement both in his taste and in\\nhis versification. Neither in the Oeorgics nor elsewhere has he\\nthe merit of striking originality his chief excellence consists in\\nthe skilful handling of borrowed materials. The Aeneid, or\\nadventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy, is an epic formed on\\nthe model of the Homeric poems. It was founded upon an old\\nEoman tradition that Aeneas and his Trojans settled in Italy,\\nand were the founders of the Roman name. In the first six\\nbooks the adventures of Ulysses in the Odyssey are the model,\\nand these books contain more variety of incident and situation\\nthan those which follow. The last six books, the history of the\\nstruggles of Aeneas in Italv, are based on the plan of the battles\\nof the Iliad. Latinus, the king of the Latini, offers in marriage\\nto the Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who had been betrothed\\nto Turnus, the warlike king of the Rutuli. The contest is ended\\nby the death of Turnus, who falls by the hand of Aeneas. The\\nfortunes of Aeneas and his final settlement in Italy are the\\nsubjects of the Aeneid, but the glories of Rome and of the Julian\\nhouse, to which Augustus belonged, are indirectly the poet s\\ntheme. In the first book the foundation of Alba Longa is\\npromised by Jupiter to Venus, and the transfer of empire from\\nAlba to Rome from the line of Aeneas will descend the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "330 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap XXXVIII.\\nTrojan Caesar, whose empire will only be limited by the\\nocean, and his glory by the heavens. The ultimate triumphs of\\nRome are predicted.\\nQ. HoRATius Flaccus, usually called Horace, was born at\\nVenusia in Apulia, 65 B.C. His father was a freedman. He\\nhad received his manumission before the birth of\\nthe poet, who was, therefore, of ingenuous origin,\\nbut who did not altogether escape the taunt which adhered to\\npersons even of remote servile descent. His father s occupation\\nwas that of a collector {coador) of taxes. With the profits of\\nhis office he had purchased a small farm in the neighbourhood\\nof Venusia. Though by no means rich, he declined to send the\\nyoung Horace to the common school, kept in Venusia by one\\nFlavins, to which the children of the rural aristocracy resorted.\\nProbably about his twelfth year his father carried him to Rome\\nto receive the usual education of a knight s or senator s son.\\nHe frequented the best schools in the capital. One of these\\nwas kept by Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flogging pro-\\npensities have been immortalized by his pupil. The names of\\nhis other teachers he has not recorded. He was instructed in\\nthe Greek and Latin languages the poets were the usual school-\\nbooks Homer in the Greek, and the old tragic writer, Livius\\nAndronicus, in the Latin, In his eighteenth year Horace pro-\\nceeded to Athens, in order to continue his studies at that seat\\nof learning. When Brutus came to Athens after the death of\\nCaesar, Horace joined his army, and received at once the rank\\nof a military ti ibune. He was present at the battle of Philippi,\\nand shared in the flight of the republican army. In one of his\\npoems he playfully alludes to his flight and throwing away his\\nshield. He now resolved to devote himself to more peaceful\\npursuits and having obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to\\nreturn to Rome. He had lost all his hopes in life his paternal\\nestate had been swept awav in the general forfeiture but he\\nwas enabled to obtain sufficient money to purchase a clerkship\\nin the quaestor s office and on the profits of that place he\\nmanaged with the utmost frugality to live. Meantime some of\\nhis poems attracted the notice of Varius and A^ergil, who in-\\ntroduced him to Maecenas (38 B.C.) Horace soon became the\\nfriend of Maecenas, and this friendship quickly ripened into\\nintimacy. In the year following tlie commencement of their", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATURE. 331\\nfriendship (37 b.c.) Horace accompanied his patron on the\\njourney to Brundusium already alluded to. About the year\\n32 B.C. Maecenas bestowed upon the poet a Sabine farm,\\nsufficient to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in content,\\nduring the rest of his life. Besides this estate, his admiration of\\nthe beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood of Tibur inclined him\\neither to hire or to purchase a small cottage in that romantic\\ntown and all the later years of his life were passed between\\nthe metropolis and these two country residences. He died in\\n8 B.C., in his fifty-seventh year. He was buried on the slope of\\nthe Esquiline Hill, close to his friend and patron Maecenas, who\\nhad died before him in the same year. Horace has described his\\nown person. He was of short stature, with dark eyes and black\\nhair, early tinged with grey. In his youth he was tolerably\\nrobust, but suffered from a complaint in his eyes. In more\\nadvanced life he grew fat, and Augustus jested about his cor-\\npulence. His health was not always good, and he seems to have\\ninclined to be a valetudinarian. In dress he was rather careless.\\nHis habits, even after he became richer, were generally frugal\\nand abstemious though on occasions, both in youth and maturer\\nage, he seems to have indulged in conviviality. He liked choice\\nwine, and in the society of friends scrupled not to enjoy the\\nluxuries of his time. He was never married. The Odes of\\nHorace want the higher inspirations of lyric verse. His amatory\\nverses are exquisitely graceful, but they have no strong ardour,\\nno deep tenderness, nor even much of light and joyous gaiety;\\nbut as works of refined art, of the most skilful felicities of\\nlanguage and of measure, of translucent expression, and of\\nagreeable images embodied in words which imprint themselves\\nindelibly on the memory, they are unrivalled. In the Satires of\\nHorace there is none of the loftv moral indignation, the fierce\\nvehemence of invective, which characterized the later satii-ists.\\nIt is the folly rather than the wickedness of vice which he\\ntouches with such playful skill. In the Epodes there is bitter-\\nness provoked, it should seem, by some personal hatred or sense\\nof injury. But the Epistles are the most perfect of the Horatian\\npoetry, the poetry of manners and society, the beauty of which\\nconsists in its common sense and practical wisdom. The\\nEpistles of Horace are, with the Poem of Lucretius, the Georgics\\nof Vergil, and perhaps the Satires of Juvenal, the most perfect", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "332 HISTORV OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII.\\nand most original form of Roman verse. The Art of Poetry was\\nprobably intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos from\\ndevoting himself to poetry, for which he had little genius, or at\\nleast to suggest the difficulties of attaining to perfection.\\nThree celebrated Elegiac poets Tibullus, Propertius, and\\nOvid also belong to the Augustan age.\\nAlbius Tibullus was of equestrian family, and possessed an\\nhereditary estate between Tibur and Praeneste. His great\\npatron was Messala, whom he accompanied in\\n31 B.C. to Aquitania, whither Messala had been\\nsent by Augustus to suppress a formidable insurrection which\\nhad broken out in this province. In the following year (30 B.C.)\\nMessala, having pacified Gaul, was sent into the East. Tibullus\\nset out in his company, but was taken ill, and obliged to remain\\nin Corcyra, from whence he returned to Rome. So ceased the\\nactive life of Tibullus. He died at an early age soon after\\nVergil. The poetry of his contemporaries shows Tibullus as a\\ngentle and singularly amiable man. To Horace especially he\\nwas an object of warm attachment. His Elegies, which are\\nexquisite small poems, celebrate the beauty and cruelty of his\\nmistresses.\\nSextus Propertius was a native of Umbria, and was born\\nabout 51 B.C. He was deprived of his paternal estate by an\\np agrarian division, probably that in 36 B.C., after\\nthe Sicilian War. He began to write poetry at a\\nvery early age, and the merit of his productions soon attracted\\nthe attention and patronage of Maecenas. The year of his\\ndeath is altogether unknown. As an elegiac poet a high rank\\nmust be awarded to Propertius, and among the ancients it was\\na disputed point whether the preference should be given to him\\nor to Tibullus. To the modern reader, however, the elegies\\nof Propertius are not nearly so attractive as those of Tibullus.\\nThis arises partly from their obscurity, but in a great measure\\nalso from a certain lack of natural inspiration. The fault of\\nPropertius was too pedantic an imitation of the Greeks. His\\nwhole ambition was to become the Roman Callimachus, whom\\nhe made his model. He abounds with obscure Greek myths,\\nas well as Greek forms of expression, and the same pedantry\\ninfects even his versification.\\nP. OviDius Naso, usually called Ovid, was born at Sulmo, in", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIIL] ROMAN LITERATURE. 333\\nthe country of the Paeligni, on the 20th March, 43 b.c. He was\\ndescended from an ancient equestrian family, and was destined\\nto be a pleader. But the bent of his genius\\nshowed itself very early. The hours which should\\nhave been spent in the study of jurisprudence were employed\\nin cultivating his poetical talent. It is a disputed point whether\\nhe ever actually practised as an advocate after his return to Rome.\\nThe picture Ovid himself draws of his weak constitution and\\nindolent temper prevents us from thinking that he ever followed\\nhis profession with perseverance, if indeed at all. He became,how-\\never, one of the Triumviri Capitales and he was subsequently\\nmade one of the Oentumviri, or judges who tried testamentary\\ncauses. Till his fiftieth year he continued to reside at Rome,\\nwhere he had a house near the Capitol, occasionally taking a\\ntrip to his Paelignian farm. He not only enjoyed the friendship\\nof a large circle of distinguished men, but the regard and favour\\nof Augustus and the imperial family notwithstanding which, in\\n9 A.D. he was suddenly commanded by an imperial edict to\\ntransport himself to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, near the\\nmouths of the Danube, oti the very border of the empire. He\\nunderwent no trial, and the sole reason for his banishment stated\\nin the edict was his having published his poem on the Art of\\nLove {Ars Amatoria). The real cause of his exile is unknown,\\nfor the publication of the Art of Love, demoralizing as the poem\\nmight be held to be, was certainly a mere pretext. Ovid draws\\nan aflecting picture of the miseries to which he was exposed in\\nhis place of exile. He complains of the inhospitable soil, of the\\nseverity of the climate, and of the perils to which he was ex-\\nposed, when the barbarians plundered the surrounding country,\\nand insulted the very walls of Tomi. In the midst of all his\\nmisfortunes he sought some relief in the exercise of his poetical\\ntalents. He died in exile in the sixtieth year of his age, 18 a.d.\\nBesides his amatory poems, Ovid wrote the MetamorpJioses in\\nfifteen books, which consist of such legends or fables as involved\\na transformation, from the Creation to the time of Julius Caesar,\\nthe last being that emperor s change into a star the Fasti, in-\\ntended to extend to twelve books, of which only the first six are\\nextant, a sort of poetical Roman calendar, with its appropriate\\nfestivals and mythology and the Elegies, written during his\\nbanishment. Ovid undoubtedly possessed a great poetical", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "334 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII.\\ngenius, which makes it the more to be regretted that it was not\\nalways under the control of a sound judgment. He exhibits great\\nvigour of fancy and warmth of colouring, but he was the first\\nto depart from that pure and correct taste which characterizes\\nthe Greek poets and their earher Latin imitators.\\nWe now turn to the history of prose literature among the\\nKornans. The earhest prose works were Annals containing a\\nmeagre account of the principal events in Roman\\nAnnalists. i i ^i\\nhistory, arranged under their respective years.\\nThe earliest annalists who obtained reputation were Q. Fabius\\nPiCTOE and L. Cincius Alimentus, both of whom served in the\\nSecond Punic War, and drew up an account of tt, but they\\nwrote in the Greek language.\\nThe first prose writer in the Latin language, of whom any\\nconsiderable fragments have been preserved, is the celebrated\\ncensor, M. PoRCtus Cato, who died 149 b.c,\\nand of whose life an account has already been\\ngiven. He wrote an important historical work entitled Origines.\\nThe first book contained the history of the Roman kings the\\nsecond and third treated of the origin of the Italian towns,\\nand from these two books the whole work derived its title the\\nfourth book treated of the First Punic War, the fifth book of\\nthe Second Punic War, and the sixth and seventh continued the\\nnarrative to the year 149 B.C. There is still extant a work on\\nagriculture (De Re Rudlca) bearing the name of Cato, which is\\nprobably substantially his, though it is certainly not exactly in\\nthe form in which it proceeded from his pen. There were many\\nother annalists, of whom we know little more than the names,\\nand whose works were used by Livy in compiling his Roman\\nhistory.\\nOratory was always cultivated by the Romans as one of the\\nchief avenues to political distinction. Cicero, in his work en-\\ntitled Brutus, has given a long list of distinguished\\norators whose speeches he had read but he him-\\nself surpassed all his predecessors and contemporaries. In his\\nworks the Latin language appears in the highest perfection.\\nBesides his numerous orations he also wrote several treatises\\non Rhetoric, of which the most perfect is a systematic treatise\\non the art of oratory (Z e Oratore) in three books. His works on", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIII.] ROMAN LITERATCRE. 335\\nPhilosophy were almost the first specimens of this kind of\\nliterature ever presented to the Romans in their own language.\\nHe does not aim at any original investigation or research. His\\nobject was to present in a familiar and attractive form the\\nresults at which the Greek philosophers had arrived, not to\\nexpound any new theories. His Epistles, of which more than\\neight hundred have come down to us, are among the most\\nvaluable remains of antiquity. Cicero, during the most im-\\nportant period of his life, maintained a close correspondence\\nwith Atticus and with a wide circle of political friends and\\nconnections. These letters supply the most ample materials for\\na history of the Roman Republic during its last struggles, and\\nafford a clear insight into the personal dispositions and motives\\nof its chief leaders.\\nThe most learned Roman under the Republic was M. Teken-\\nTius Varro, a contemporary and friend of Cicero. He served\\nas Pompey s lieutenant in Spain in the civil wars,\\nbut was pardoned by Caesar after the battle of\\nPharsalus, and was employed by him in superintending the\\ncollection and arrangement of the great library designed for\\npublic use. Upon the formation of the second triumvirate,\\nVarro s name appeared upon the list of the proscribed but he\\nsucceeded in making his escape, and, after having remained for\\nsome time in concealment, he obtained the protection of Octa-\\nvian. His death took place 28 B.C., when he was in his 89th\\nyear. Not only was Varro the most learned of Roman scholars,\\nbut he was likewise the most voluminous of Roman authors. We\\nhave his own authority for the assertion that he had composed\\nno less than 490 books, but of these only two have come down\\nto us, and one of them in a mutilated form 1. De Re Rustica,\\na work on agriculture, in three books, written when the author\\nwas eighty years old 2. De Lingui Latina, a grammatical\\ntreatise which extended to twenty-five books, but six only have\\nbeen preserved, and these are in a mutilated condition. The\\nremains of this treatise are particularly valuable. They have\\npreserved many terms and forms which would otherwise have\\nbeen altogether lost, and much curious information connected\\nwith the ancient usages, both civil and rehgious, of the Romans.\\nC. Julius Caesar, the great dictator, was also distinguished\\nas an author, and wrote several works, of which his memoirs", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "336 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXVIII.\\n(Oommentarii) alone have come down to us. They relate the\\nhistory of the first seven years of the Gallic War in seven\\nbooks, and the history of the Civil War down to\\nthe commencement of the Alexandrine in three\\nbooks. Neither of these works completes the history of the\\nGalHc and Civil Wars. The history of the former was completed\\nin an eighth book, which is usually ascribed to Hirtius. The\\nhistory of the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars was\\nwritten in three separate books, which are also ascribed to\\nHirtius, but their authorship is uncertain. The purity of\\nCaesar s Latin and the clearness of his style have deservedly\\nobtained the highest praise.\\nC. Sallustius Ceispus, a contemporary of Caesar, and one of\\nhis supporters, was also distinguished as an historian. He was\\nborn 86 B.C. at Amiternum, in the country of the\\nSabines, and died in 34 B.C. After the African\\nWar (46 B.C.) he was left by Caesar as governor of Numidia,\\nwhere he acquired great riches by his oppression of the people.\\nTwo of his works have come down to us the Catilina, the\\nhistory of the suppression of Catiline s conspiracy; and the\\nJugurtha, the history of the war against Jugurtha. Sallust\\nimitated Thucydides, and attained the conciseness, without the\\nobscurity, of his great model.\\nCoKNELius Nepos, the contemporary and friend of Cicero\\nand Atticus, was the author of numerous works, all of which\\nare lost, with the exception of the Biographies\\nnTos Atticus, and the Lives of Dis-\\ntinguished Commanders Vitae Excellentium Im-\\nperatorum). But even these Lives are possibly an abridgment\\nof the original work of Nepos, made in the fourth century of the\\nChristian era.\\nOf the prose writers of the Augustan age the most distinguished\\nwas the historian Titus Livius, usually called Livy. He was\\n_. born at Patavium {Padua), 59 B.C. The greater\\npart of his life appears to have been spent in\\nRome, but he returned to his native town before his death,\\nwhich happened at the age of seventy-six, in the fourth year of\\nTiberius, a.d. 17. His literary talents secured the patronage\\nand friendship of Augustus; and his reputation became so\\nwidely diffused, that a Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to Rome", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXVIIL] ROMAN LITERATURE. 337\\nsolely for the purpose of beholding him. and, having gratified\\nhis curiosity in this one particular, immediately returned home.\\nLivy s History of Rome extended from the foundation of the\\ncity to the death of Drusus, 9 B.C., and was comprised in 142\\nbooks. Of these thirty-five have descended to us. The whole\\nwork has been divided into decades, containing ten books each.\\nThe First decade (bks. i.-x is entire. It embraces the period\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0from the foundation of the city to the year 294 B.C., when the\\nsubjugation of the Samnites may be said to have been completed.\\nThe Second decade (bks. xi.-xx.) is altogether lost. It included\\nthe period from 294 B.C. to 219 B.C., comprising an account,\\namong other matters, of the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the\\nFirst Punic War. The Third decade (bks. xxi.-xxx.) is entire.\\nIt embraces the period from 219 B.C. to 201 B.C., comprehend-\\ning the whole of the Second Punic War. The Fourth decade\\n(bks. xxxi.-xl.) is entire, and also one-half of the Fifth {bks.\\nxli.-xlv.) These fifteen books continue the history from 201\\nB.C. to 167 B.C., and develop the progress of the Roman arms\\nin Cisalpine Gaul, in Macedonia, Greece, and Asia, ending with\\nthe triumph of Aemilius Paullus. Of the remaining books\\nnothing is extant except inconsiderable fragments. The style\\nof Livy may be pronounced almost faultless. In judging of\\nhis merits as an historian, we are bound to ascertain, if possible,\\nthe end which he proposed to himself. No one who reads his\\nwork with attention can suppose that he ever conceived the\\nproject of drawing up a critical history of Rome. His aim was\\nto offer to his countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative, which,\\nwhile it gratified their vanity, should contain no startling\\nimprobabilities or gross amplifications. To effect this purpose\\nhe studied with care the writings of some of his more celebrated\\npredecessors in the same field. But in no case did he ever\\ndream of ascending to the fountain-head, and never attempted\\nto test the accuracy of his authorities by examining monuments\\nof remote antiquity.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "338 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX,\\nCHAPTER XXXIX.\\nTHE EMPIRE FROM AUGUSTUS TO TRAJAN.\\nThe victory at Actium on the 2nd of September, 31 B.C.,\\ngave Octavian free opportunity for the great task of con-\\nsolidating the administration of the provinces, and of effecting\\nthe transformation of the government into a skilfully disguised\\nmonarchical rule. In the war against Antony and Cleopatra,\\nhe had been presented as the champion of Rome against a\\nforeign foe (Horace, Od., i. 37) and under this form many old\\nopponents found a good excuse for acquiescing in his domination.*\\nAfter reorganizing the Eastern provinces, the conqueror returned\\nand entered Rome in a triple triumph which lasted from the\\n13th to the 15th of August, 29 (Hor., Od., i. 2. 49). The forms\\nunder which he had hitherto held power were obviously\\nunconstitutional. With masterly policy he now acknowledged\\nthat it was so. He justified his past action by the plea of\\nnecessity but he declared that the necessity was now no\\nlonger urgent. He closed the temple of Janus on the 11th of\\nJanuary, 29, in token of profound peace in the Roman world.\\nOn the 13th of January, 29, he formally resigned into the hands\\nof the senate the extraordinary and unconstitutional powers\\nwhich he had held, and retired into private life as an ordinary\\ncitizen of the free Roman republic.\\nIt had been carefully arranged beforehand, by those who\\npulled the strings of the puppet-show, that the senate should\\nrefuse to accept his resignation, pleading that Rome was still\\nsurrounded by dangers, and that only the master-hand, which\\nhad guided the ship of the state to port through the storms of\\nHence he dedicated the Palatine temple of ApolJia on the 24th of October, 28\\n(Hor., Od., i. 31), in honour of Actium but he did not inaugurate the Temple of\\nMars Ultor in commemoration of Philippi until the let pf August, 2 B.C.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] OCTAVIAN BECOMES AUGUSTUS. 339\\ncivil war, was fit to direct her course through the stormy seas\\nthat still lay before her (Hor., Od., i. 14) it was impossible to\\nrelease Octavian from the onerous task of government. A\\ncompromise, therefore, was made that he should conduct the\\ngovernment with proconsular power in the parts of the Empire\\nwhich were still exposed to danger, while the senate and the\\nordinary magistrates were to exercise their wonted authority\\nelsewhere. This was the beginning of the constitutional prin-\\ncipate, and on the 16th of January the new title Augtostus\\n(Hor., Od., iii. 3. 11) was conferred by the senate on the lead-\\ning citizen, ^rmce29s (i.e. c vium, Hor., Od., i. 2. 50).\\nThe compromise had been skilfully arranged so that all real\\npower, i.e. the command of the soldiers, should remain in the\\nhands of Augustus. All provinces in which war or rebellion\\nwas likely to occur, and where armies were needed, were to be\\ngoverned by Augustus himself (acting through his lieutenants),\\nand were called imperatorial provinces while only the peaceful\\nprovinces, which had been long under Roman power, and were\\nthoroughly pacified, and where no armies were needed, remained\\nunder the control of the senate. On the other hand, Augustus\\ngranted with a liberal hand the outward show and trappings of\\nauthority to the governors whom the senate appointed in its\\nprovinces they were all, whatever their previous rank in the\\nservice, adorned with the consular insignia and title {pro con-\\nside) whereas the governors sent to the provinces, which as\\ndangerous were put under his direct authority, were merely his\\nlieutenants {legati of Augustus) with the insignia of praetors {/iro\\npraetore). In the city Augustus was to hold authority as consul,\\nelected year by year, while in the specified imperatorial provinces\\nthe consular authority for a period of ten years was conferred\\non him. The pretence was obviously kept up that these also\\nwere gradually to pass into the category of peaceful provinces\\nunder senatorial control. With the command of all armies, the\\nright of declaring war and peace, of making treaties, and of\\nlevying soldiers, remained in the hands of Augustus. The only\\nexception was Africa, which, though senatorial, required a legion\\nto protect its southern frontier.\\nAsia and Africa were governed by consulares Sicily, Gallia Narbonensis,\\nHispania Baetica, feithynia, Crete and Cyrene, etc., by praetorii. Under later\\nemperors many changes in the classification of provinces were made.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "340 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX,\\nOf the imperatorial provinces the more important were\\ngoverned by Augustus s Heutenants of consular or of praetorian\\nrank,* the less important by equestrian procurators, while\\nEgypt, from which Rome drew her principal corn suppHes, stood\\nby itself under the Emperor s own hand. The administration\\nof the vast group of provinces was conducted from the central\\nbureau in Rome and a regular system of sound government\\nwas there developed, as a long series of reports from the governors\\nwas received, read, and preserved, and questions were continually\\nsent in and answered by the Emperor in rescript. Even the\\ngovernment of the senatorial provinces, though partaking more\\nof the old haphazard Republican fashion, was much improved\\nfor in most cases the senatorial governors, though designated by\\nlot, had been trained in the imperatorial provinces.\\nThe compromise was so skilfully adjusted that it was\\ndescribed by Augustus and his panegyrists, with some show of\\ntruth, as the restoration of constitutional government {res publica\\nrestituta), but by historians as the beginning of the Imperial or\\nmonarchical rule (Tac, Hut., i. 1). There was all the outward\\nappearance of a republic the usual ofScials were elected in the\\nusual way Augustus was, in Rome apparently, only one of the\\nconsuls, and in the provinces invested for a specific period with\\nspecial powers, as others had been in former times. But the\\nreality was utterly different, and practically every wish of\\nAugustus was law.\\nIn 26 Augustus set out for Spain to carry on a campaign\\nagainst the Cantabri and Astures. In the next year the war was\\nbrought to a close successfully (Hor Od., iii. 8. 21 iii, 14. 3),\\nand the temple of Janus was again closed. It was not till\\n20 B.C., however, that the Cantabri were finally crushed by\\nAgrippa (Hor., Od., iv. 14. 41 Up., i. 12. 26). Augustus\\nreturned to Rome in 24 B.C. An expedition to Arabia Felix\\n(Hor., Od., i. 29), undertaken in the previous year by Aelius\\nGallus, came to a disastrous termination.\\nIn 23 B.C. the principate was further developed into the form\\nwhich it henceforth retained. On the 26th of June, Augustus\\nresigned the consulship, retaining pro consule the special powers\\nSyria, the Gennanies, Pannonia (founded 10 a.d.), etc., by consulares; Gallia\\nLugudunensis, Lusitania, etc., by praetorii; but all had the same title, legatus\\nAugusti pro praetore.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] STEADY GROWTH OF IMPERIAL POWER. 341\\nin the provinces which had been conferred upon him in 27\\nfor ten years. But special acts of the senate restored to him in\\na new form all the power which the consulship hitherto con-\\nferred on him. By strict law his proconsular authority ceased\\nif he entered Rome, but he was exempted from this rule he\\nretained all the consular insignia, together with the power of\\nissuing edicts, and holding meetings of the senate,* and he\\nranked as equal in all respects with the actual consuls of the\\nyear. The appearance of republican equality was seriously\\nstrained by these powers; and it was, perhaps, to counteract\\nthis that Augustus now began to lay more stress on his position\\nas Champion of the Commons. He had held tribunicia potestas\\nsince 36 but from 23 he began to use it as an official title,\\nadding in succeeding years a number to indicate the annual\\nrepetitions of this power. From henceforth every Roman\\nemperor counted the years of his reign as the years during\\nwhich he had been Champion of the Commons and 23 B.C.,\\ntherefore, may most suitably be reckoned as the first year of\\nthe fully formed empire. The theory always continued that\\nthe Imperial power was granted by a special and voluntary act\\nof the Roman people (acting through the senate) to an individual,\\nand did not descend.\\nNaturally, the permanence of Augustus, beside the rapidly\\nchanging series of consuls, made the imperial power grow steadily\\nby insensible steps and often without any express enactment.\\nThe people became more accustomed to slavery (as those\\ncalled it who, like Tacitus,t pretended to sigh for a republic),\\nand the emperors to command. As a rule, the people pressed\\nupon Augustus far larger powers than he was willing to accept.\\nIn B.C. 22, during a famine, Augustus undertook the duty of\\nsuperintending the corn-supply of Rome (ctira annonae). and\\nthis duty always continued the most pressing necessity of the\\nempire. The vast populace of Rome must be fed, whatever\\nhappened, or its discontent was likely to overturn the emperor.\\nEgypt, the granary of Rome, was kept under the immediate\\npersonal ct)ntrol of the emperor ami his jf^amilia and after 6 a.d.\\na praefedus annonae was appointed to direct the importation.\\nThis last power he accepted in 22, when the people pressed on him a\\npermanent dictatorship and consulship.\\nt Cf. Bist., i. 1.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "842 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX.\\nSimilarly the water-supply, the prevention of fire, the order\\nof the city, and the management of the public roads, were\\ntrusted to the emperor, and committed by him to special\\nofficials.\\nIn 22 Fannius Caepio and Licinius Murena were condemned\\non a charge of conspiracy, but the facts are very obscure.\\nMaecenas, brother-in-law of Murena, and hitherto Augustus s\\nprincipal minister in Rome (Hor., Od., iii. 8. 17), lost much of\\nhis influence henceforth at court. Though he accepted no\\npublic office (honos), his diplomacy had aided Octavian as much\\nas the military genius of Agrippa he was mainly instrumental\\nin attaching the gi eat Roman writers to the party, and his\\nliberality has made his name that of the typical patron of\\nliterature in all subsequent time. He lived in half retirement\\ntill his death in 8 B.C. Late in 21 Augustus went to regulate\\nthe East anew (21-19). Tiberius, his stepson, followed him by\\nland with an army in 20 (Hor., Ep., i. 3). The mere show of\\npower induced Phraates, the Parthian king, to restore the\\nstandards captured at Carrhae in 53, an event celebrated by\\nthe poets (Hor., Ep., i. 12. 27).\\nIn 22 the last two censors of the old style had held office.\\nIn 13 Augustus declined a wide authority tendered to him as\\nregimen legum et morum but in practice he exercised it (Hor.,\\nOcl, iv. 5. 22 Ep., ii. 1. 1 Ovid, Met., xv. 832 TrisL, ii.\\n233 Suet., Aug., 27 Dion., liv. 10), passing in 18 and 17 the\\ngreat body of the Leges Juliae, and attempting to reform society\\nand religion. He restored many old Roman cults, which had\\nsunk into disuse, and rebuilt more than 80 temples. He passed\\nlaws intended to check extravagance and licentiousness, and to\\nencourage marriage and the old Roman family life. The celebra-\\ntion of the Ludi Saeculares in 17 was intended as the crowning\\nstep in this process, when literature and piety united to mark\\nthe inaugm-ation of a new age for the Roman state. Horace\\nwrote the official hymn for the occasion, the Carmen Saeculare.\\nIn 16-13 Augustus visited Gaul (Hor., Od., iv. 2. 33,; iv. 5)\\nand the regulation of the north-western frontier now engaged\\nhis attention. At first he aimed at fixing the limit at the line of\\nthe Elbe and Danube. His great general Agrippa (who had\\nThe latter is mentioned in Hor., Od., ii. 10, and iii. 19 (published in 23 before\\nthe conspiracy).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] SECURING THE SUCCESSION. 343\\nmarried his daughter Julia in 21) was in charge of the eastern\\nfrontier countries, 16-13 B.C.; and the northern wars were\\ntrusted to his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus. They conquered\\nthe tribes of TjtoI, Ehaeti, VindeUci and Norici in 15 and\\nin 14-13 the hitherto dreaded Alpine tribes were pacified, and\\nroads built. In 12-9 Tiberius reduced Pannonia, and Drusus\\nfought in Germany. The death of the latter brought Tiberius to\\nundertake the German war, 9-6 but his retirement interrupted\\nthe work. Agrippa had died in 12 and Augustus could not\\nallow any general outside the family to gain renown, and\\nendanger the dynastic succession. Tiberius returned to Germany\\n4 A.D., but the revolt of Pannonia called him there, 6-9. In\\nA.D. 9 Arminius, who had instigated a revolt in north-west\\nGermany, attacked P. Quintilius Varus, the governor of Germany,\\nwhile he was marching through a pass in the Saltus Teuto-\\nburgiensis, and annihilated his force, which consisted of three\\nlegions. This disaster caused the greatest consternation at\\nRome, and was a severe blow to the aged Emperor, who was\\noften heard to exclaim, Vare, Vare, redde legiones Tiberius\\nresumed the German command, 10-13. Germanicus, son of his\\ndead brother, succeeded him, 13-16 but the jealousy of Tiberius\\nrecalled him in 17 the dream of an Elbe frontier was abandoned,\\nand the much longer Rhine-Danube frontier was substituted.\\nThe later years of Augustus s life were uneventful. In 12 B.C.\\nhe succeeded Lepidus as Pontifex Maximus and this office\\nthenceforward was imperial, marking the emperors as heads\\nof the state-religion. In 9-8 B.C. the management of the city\\nwas reorganized it was divided into districts magistri-vicorum\\nwere instituted, and festivals called compitalia in honour of the\\nLares Publici and Augustus were held. This was the greatest\\nconcession which Augustus made in Italy to the popular desire\\nto worship him. In 2 B.C. the title paier patriae was conferred\\non him.\\nThe question of a successor had long troubled Augustus, and\\ndetermined much of his domestic policy. His only child was\\nJulia, born in 39, daughter of his second wife Scribonia. M.\\nMarcellus, the popular and promising son of his sister Octavia,\\nwas destined to succeed him, and had married Julia in 25 (Hor.,\\nOd., i. 12) but his death in 23 (Virg., Aen.^yl 867-886) ruined\\nthe plan, and Agrippa was then selected, and made to divorce", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "344 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX\\nhis wife Marcella and to marry Julia in 21. The elder sons of\\nthis marriage, Gains and Lucius, were early introduced to the\\npeople, and pushed forward in the career of office but Lucius\\ndied in 2 a.d., and Gaius in 4 a.d. Agrippa Postumus, born\\nafter Agrippa s death in 12, was adopted by Augustus in 4 a.d.,\\nbut banished for misconduct in 7.\\nIn 39 B.C. Augustus divorced Scribonia, and in 38 married\\nLivia Drusilla, taking her from her husband, Claudius Nero.\\nShe bore Augustus no children, and her aim was to secure the\\nsuccession for her two able sons by her previous marriage,\\nTiberius Claudius Nero and Nero Claudius Drusus. When\\nAgrippa died in 12, Tiberius succeeded to his place, divorced his\\nwife Vipsania, married Julia in 11, and received the tribunician\\nauthority in 6. But the death of Drusus in 9, and the retirement\\nof Tiberius to Rhodes 6 b.c. to 2 a.d., left the way open for the\\nyoung sons of Agrippa. Once more the disgraceful conduct of\\nJulia (exiled in 2 B.C. to Paiidataria) and the deaths of Gaius\\nand Lucius Caesar, restored Livia s influence. Tiberius was\\nadopted along with Agrippa Postumus (posthumous son of\\nAgrippa and Julia) in 4 a.d. the tribunician power was\\nrestored to him in 4 a.d. Agrippa was exiled to Planasia in 7.\\nIn 11 or 12 Tiberius was appointed colleague of Augustus in the\\nprovinces, but not in Italy.\\nAugustus died on the 19th of August, 14 a.d., having been\\nthirteen times consul, twenty-one times saluted imperator, in his\\n37th year of tribunician power.\\nTiberius. Tiberius Claudius Nero reigned under the name\\nTiberius Caesar, Divi Augusti Filius, Augustus. His noble\\ndescent and distinguished services justified the choice which\\nAugustus had made of his successor but the death of the first\\nemperor was a critical moment in the history of the empire. In\\ntheory the imperial power was merely a personal and temporary\\ngift made by the sovereign people to Augustus, who could not\\nbequeath it to any successor. No provision existed in the\\nimperial constitution for regulating the succession. Augustus\\nhad shrunk from making any provision which would savour of\\nmonarchical and dynastic rule and, while he informally made\\nsuch arrangements as might facilitate the path of his chosen\\nsuccessor, yet he fully recognized the danger that some other\\nprominent noble might attract the popular eye and grasp at the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "Map showing the extent of the\\nROMAN EMPIRE,\\nduring the latter years of Augustus.\\nSenatorial Provinces shaded.\\nREGNUM HERODIS as before 4 B.C: other hingdoms ana Imperatoriat\\nProvinces as at the death of Augustus Britannia added bij Claudius\\nsuccessors. Cappadocia by Tiberius. Mauretania Thracia by Clauaius.\\nRegnum Polemonis by Nero. Dacia Arabia by Trajan..\\nA LP ES:-(M=Maritime, C^Cottiae. G.P.= Graiae et Penninae)", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "NlsCoN^A\\np- iiif.i!\\nH- aiker BoiUall sc.\\nTo face p. 314.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] POLICY OF TIBERIUS. 345\\nreins of power. But the practised skill of Tiberius, long used\\nboth to administration and to palace intrigue, supported by the\\ndevotion of his mother, the Empress Livia, surmounted success-\\nfully the difficulties of the interval between the lapsing of the\\npowers entrusted to Augustus and the fresh delegation of similar\\npowers to the new emperor. The possible rivals against whom\\nAugustus had warned him made no attempt to compete with\\nhim. But the army, on whose support ultimately the govern-\\nment rested, was not so easily won over. The soldiers had\\nalready shown signs of discontent with the strict terms of\\nmilitary service and they were not disposed quietly to permit\\nthese terms to become permanent under a new monarch.\\nMutinies broke out in the two great frontier armies of Pannonia\\nand Germany. But the soldiers had no serious hostility to the\\nnew emperor and readily accepted vague promises of amending\\nthe terms of service, made by Drusus, son of Tiberius, in\\nPannonia, and by Germanicus his nephew, in Germany.\\nThe election of magistrates was entrusted by Tiberius to the\\nsenate, and the popular assemblies {comitia) were discontinued.\\nThe outward show of political life and freedom, left by Augustus,\\nwas thus discontinued, and political career was henceforth, in\\nform as well as in fact, dependent on imperial favour. Vague\\ndiscontent and hostility to the empire were always smouldering\\namong the old nobility and this came to a head in the con-\\nspiracy of Libo Drusus, 16 a.d., which ended in his suicide\\nbefore it was really organized, and was so futile as to be doubted\\nby manJ^\\nThe empty result of the German wars has been alluded to\\nabove. In 14 Germanicus led the repentant legions of the\\nGerman army against the Maisi, whom he defeated. He con-\\ntinued the war for the next two years, and vanquished Arminius,\\nbut was recalled in 17, and celebrated a triumph. In the same\\nyear Germanicus was sent to the East, to set in order the\\nprovinces beyond the Hellespont. He settled the affairs of\\nArmenia, and made terms with Parthia, but died suddenly at\\nAntioch in 19. It was suspected by all, and beheved by\\nGermanicus on his death-bed, that his death was due to poison\\nadministered at the instance of On. Calpurnius Piso, governor\\nof Syria, who, people said, had been sent out by the emperor to\\nbe a spy and a check on him, and who had been on notoriously", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "346 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX.\\nbad terms with him. Piso, on his return to Rome, was put on\\nhis trial, and condemned for disobedience to his superior officer.\\nGermanicus but the charge of poisoning broke down, and there\\nis no reason to beheve tliat it was true.\\nFrom 17 to 24 a.d. a war was carried on against the\\nNumidian Tacfarinas by Junius Blaesus,* and afterwards by\\nP. Dolabella. It ended with the defeat of Tacfarinas. An\\ninsurrection in Gaul under Julius Floras and Julius Sacrovir\\n(21 A.D.) was crushed by C. Silius, and risings in Thrace in 19\\nand 25 were put down, the latter by Poppaeus Sabinus. The\\nFrisii in North Germany revolted in 28, but the Komans were\\nnot successful in crushing them.\\nIt was in Tiberius s reign that the volunteer prosecutors\\n[delatores) f began to exercise unbounded influence. The\\ndefinition of treason (maiestas) had been so widened as to\\ninclude many ofiences not originally contemplated as coming\\nunder the law, and any insulting speech or writing against the\\nemperor was enough to secure the conviction of the author.\\nTiberius made some attempts to limit the application of the law,\\nbut finally countenanced the delatores, owing to the influence of\\nSejanus, his powerful favourite, and many noble famiHes were\\nthus brought to ruin.\\nAelius Sejanus,t an eques of Etruscan descent, and prefect of\\nthe praetorian guards, had steadily increased his influence with\\nTiberius, and had formed the ambitious design of becoming his\\nsuccessor. He first intrigued with Livilla, wife of Drusus, son\\nof Tiberius, and having with her connivance compassed Drusus s\\ndeath in 23 a.d., he vainly sought permission to marry her. In\\n26 the emperor left Eome for ever, and next year retired to\\nCapreae, a small island off Campania, and Sejanus was left more\\nfree to prosecute his designs. After the death of the emperor s\\nmother, Livia, in 29, Sejanus succeeded in getting Agrippina,\\nwidow of Germanicus, with her sons Nero and Drusus, banished.\\nTiberius, however, now began to suspect Sejanus s designs, and\\nresolved to bring about his downfall. To conceal his intentions\\nBlaesus was saluted imperator by the troops the last occa ion when this\\nwas permitted to any but the emperor.\\nt As no state prosecutor existed in Rome, it was left to private persons to take\\nthe initiative in prosecuting criminal charges but such persons, though never\\npopular(Hor., Sat., i. 4, 65-68), now began to he a terror and a danger to innocent\\nas well as guilty.\\nX His career is sketched by Juvenal, 10. 56-107.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX. J TIBERIUS S LATER YEARS. 347\\nhe loaded Sejanus with honours, made him joint consul with\\nhimself, and at the same time sent Macro to supersede him.\\nSejanus was condemned to death by the senate, and executed\\nin 31 amidst the execrations of the people. In 33 Agrippina\\ncommitted suicide after the murder of her son Drusus.\\nThe later years of Tiberius s life were spent in almost unbroken\\nretirement at Capreae. Little was known in Eome as to his\\nway of living on the island, and the licence and foulness of\\nRoman scandal vented its dislike for the morose and unapproach-\\nable emperor in inventing or reporting a scandalous chronicle\\nof Capreae, which has made this period a proverb for vice of\\nthe most hideous kind. What was truth and what mere malice\\nin these reports, we cannot tell and need not inquire but the\\ntales that cling round a historical figure are usually an index\\nof his character. It is remarkable that one whose early career\\nwas so brilliant, whose talents were so great, and whose conduct\\nat first so good, should sink at last into a proverb of infamy\\nand the improbability of such a metamorphosis has led some\\nmodern writers to air the theory that Tacitus and Suetonius\\nhave mistaken false and groundless scandal for real history. It\\nis indeed true that Tacitus was bitterly prejudiced against the\\nearly emperors, but his trustworthiness cannot be depreciated\\nso low as this theory would suppose. In happier circumstances,\\nTiberius might have been a great man but, when set free from\\nall restraining influences, the faults of his nature, pride, coldness,\\nand suspicion, corrupted all that was good in him.\\nTiberius died on the 16th of March, 37 a.d. He was suc-\\nceeded by his grandnephew, Gains Caesar, surnamed Caligula\\nLittle Boots by the soldiers from the soldier s boots (caligae)\\nwhich he used to wear as a boy.\\nCaligula. The reign of Grains began well, and an era of\\npeace was expected. He abolished the right of appeal from\\nmagistrates to himself, restored the comitia* promised the senate\\nto govern constitutionally, and discouraged the delatores. At\\nthe end of eight months, probably through the influence of\\nHerod Agrippa, he plunged into a wild career of revelry and\\ndebauchery, and attempted to play the Eastern potentate. He\\nput to death his cousin, Tiberius G-emellus, who, along with\\nhimself, was the heir of the late emperor. His claim to be\\nThe restoration was not permanent.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "348 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap, XXXIX.\\nworshipped as a god caused riots among the Jews, both in Judaea\\nand Alexandria. His mad career exhausted the coffers of the\\nstate, and led to exactions in Italy and in Gaul, where he went\\nin 40. His expedition there and to Germany has been travestied\\nby ancient writers. According to them, he went as far as\\nBoulogne, and, after making his army fill their helmets with\\nshells, returned to Rome. But there can be no doubt that the\\nexpedition was undertaken with a view to crush the conspiracy\\nin which it was believed that Cn. Lentulus, governor of Upper\\nGermany for ten years, had engaged against Caligula and the\\ncompleteness of its success exposed it to the charge of being\\nan empty parade. Lentulus, though a great favourite with the\\nsoldiers, was put to death, and great changes were made in the\\ndisposition of the disaffected troops.\\nThe sudden change of Gaius s life from the unceasing danger\\nand wearing anxiety of his position under Tiberius as probable\\nheir, liable at any moment from freak or suspicion to be slain by\\nthe jealous tyrant, to the unbridled freedom of an emperor, was\\nmore than his intellect could stand. The freaks and caprices\\nthat are recorded reveal a monomania, which revelled in un-\\nrestrained power. He delighted to be treated as a god, and to\\nheap insults on the nobles of Rome. He wished that all Rome\\nhad one neck, to be cut at a blow. On the 24th of January, 41,\\nhe perished by a conspiracy among a few of his personal\\nattendants, who were in constant terror that they might at any\\nmoment be ordered to death. Ranging the palace after his\\nassassination, the soldiers found his uncle, Tiberius Claudius\\nDrusus Germanicus, a man of fifty, conceahng himself in terror\\nfor his life. One of the soldiers, in jest, saluted the cowering\\nwretch as emperor, and the grim joke was carried into real\\nearnest by his comrades.\\nClaudius had been looked upon as unfit for statesmanship,\\nand had given his leisure hours to letters. He annulled the\\nacts of Gaius and modelled his statecraft on that of Augustus.\\nMany useful reforms were passed, albeit they often savoured of\\npedantry. He purified the senate, and attended personally to\\nthe administration of justice. He completed the Aqua Claudia,\\nan aqueduct which had been left unfinished by Gaius, built the^\\nport of Ostia, and drained Lake Fucinus.\\nWhereas Tiberius had made a principle of carrying out", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] NERO SUCCEEDS CLAUDIUS. 349\\nAugustus s provincial administration with the least possible\\nchange, and Gaius had treated it with indifference, Claudius paid\\ngreat attention to it, and made a number of changes, especially\\nin the East. Mauretania was annexed and divided into two\\nprovinces Thrace was made a province Mithridates, king of\\nArmenia, was brought a prisoner to Rome the kingdom of\\nHerod was restored in Judaea the kingdoms of Polemon in\\nPontus and of Antiochus in Cilicia, Lycaonia, and Commagene\\nwere consolidated the franchise was freely extended throughout\\nthe empire, and the political rights of the Gauls were increased.\\nThe most important foreign event of the reign was the\\nconquest of the south and south-west parts of Britain. In 43,\\npreceded by his general Aulus Plautius, Claudius invaded the\\ncountry in person, remaining only sixteen days, and leaving the\\nwork of consolidation and extension of the conquest to be carried\\non by Plautius from 43 to 47, and by P. Ostorius Scapula from 47\\nto 52. The last-named conquered the British prince Caractacus.\\nClaudius s first wife after his accession was Messalina, who,\\nabetted by his freedmen. Narcissus, Pallas, and others, caused\\ngreat oppression of the nobles. Messalina formed, in 48, the\\nscheme of contriving the accession of C. Silius, a noble with\\nwhom she actually went through the form (f marriage; but\\nhere the freedmen stepped in and secured the ruin of the guilty\\npair. Next year Claudius married his niece Agrippina the\\nyounger. She set herself to win power in every way, and\\ninduced Claudius to adopt her son L. Domitius Ahenobarbus\\n(called Nero after his adoption), to the detriment of his own son\\nBritannicus. Claudius might have revoked this step, but died\\non the 13th of October, 54 A.D., so conveniently for her schemes\\nthat he was universally believed to have been poisoned by her.\\nNero. The first years of Nero s reign were marked by a\\ncontest between Seneca his tutor and Burrus the prefect of the\\npraetorian guards on the one hand and his mother Agrippina on\\nthe other. Agrippina received a check in the dismission of the\\nfreedman Pallas, and in revenge she espoused the cause of\\nClaudius s son Britannicus, whereupon Nero caused Britannicus\\nto be poisoned (55). Seneca and Burrus managed the state\\nwell, but allowed Nero to pursue a course of dissipation. He\\nformed a liaison with Poppaea, wife of Otho, the future emperor,\\nand she induced him to put his mother to death (59). In 62", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "350 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX.\\nBurrus died, and Seneca retired from public affairs. Nero\\ndivorced Octavia, and married Poppaea, who, along with the\\npraetorian prefect Tigellinus, exerted great influence over the\\nemperor. In 64 occurred the great fire at Rome, and Nero was\\naccused by his contemporaries of having caused it, though there\\nis no sure evidence that he had anything to do with it.* To\\ndivert popular clamour, the Christians were charged with the\\ndeed, and many were put to death with cruel tortures. In 65\\na conspiracy to dethrone Nero was formed under the leadership\\nof C. Calpurnius Piso, and its discovery was followed by many\\nexecutions, including those of Seneca and the poet Lucan. In\\n66 Nero visited Greece, and restored its freedom to the country.\\nWhile there he continued the scenic exhibitions which had\\nalready done so much in Italy to bring him into contempt.\\nReports of disaffection in the West recalled him to Rome. On\\nhis return in March, 68, he heard that Gaul had revolted under\\nJulius Vindex, and that Servius Sulpicius Galba had taken arms\\nagainst him in Spain. Tlie first insurrection was crushed by\\nVerginius Rufus, who refused the empire offered him by his\\nvictorious troops, but the news of Galba s action threw Nero\\ninto a panic, and he committed suicide on the 9th of June, 68.\\nThe chief foreign events of the reign were the successes of\\nDomitius Corbulo in Armenia from 58 to Q6, and the insurrection\\nin Judaea, which began in 66. In 61 Suetonius Paulinus put\\ndown a revolt of the Iceni in Britain under their queen Boudicca\\nor Boadicea. The provincial administration, especially daring\\nthe first half of the reign, was vigorous and successful.\\nGalea, who had been saluted as imperator by the soldiers,\\nand had declared himself lieutenant of the senate arid people,\\nwas proclaimed emperor immediately on Nero s death, and\\nmarched for Rome. An attempt by Nymphidius Sabinus, the\\npraetorian prefect, to seize the throne, was put down. Galba\\nalienated his supporters by his policy in Gaul, by his meanness\\n(as they called his efforts to retrench, necessitated by Nero s\\nruinous extravagance), by his severity, and by the fact that he\\nspared Tigellinus, the hated favourite of Nero. In the beginning\\nof 69 he adopted Piso Licinianus as his associate in the\\nprincipate. M. Salvius Otho, who had expected this honour,\\nIt is a fancy of some modern authorities that Nero caused the fire in order to\\ndestroy the narrow ill-built streets of old Rome, and to rebuild them better, taking\\nall care to prevent loss of life from fire and from starvation.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] YITELLIUS AND VESPASIAN. 351\\nraised a mutiny among the praetorian guards, who saluted him\\nas imperator. Galba and Piso attempted to quell the riot that\\nensued, but were put to death in the Forum on the 15th of\\nJanuary, 69.\\nOtho and Vitellius. Meanwhile the legions of Lower\\nGermany had revolted against Galba, and hailed A. Vitellius as\\nimperator. Otho on his succession sent Vitellius overtures of\\npeace, promising him an honourable retreat if he would retire\\nfrom the contest, but these terms were rejected. Vitellius sent\\nA. Caecina and Fabius Valens on before him to Italy, and they,\\nafter some indecisive fighting, effected a junction, and finally\\ndefeated Otho s army near Betriacum, between Cremona and\\nMantua. On the 19th of April Otho in consequence committed\\nsuicide, and Vitellius came to the throne. Vitellius was met at\\nLugudunum by Valens and Caecina. On coming to Eome he\\nconducted the government with comparative mildness, but the\\nreal power lay with his two generals, vpho encouraged his\\nextravagance.\\nMeanwhile the armies in the East looked about for an emperor\\nof their own. C. Licinius Mucianus, legatus of Syria, refused\\nthe proffered honour, and the choice fell upon T. Flavius\\nVespasianus, legatus of Judaea, who was loyally supported by\\nMucianus. Vespasian, who had greatly distinguished himself\\nas the lieutenant of A. Plautius by the conquest of the Isle of\\nWight and the southern portion of Britain, was proclaimed\\nemperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, 69, and it was decided\\nthat he should hold Egypt, while Mucianus should march west.\\nBefore Mucianus could arrive, Antonius Primus, legatus com-\\nmanding the seventh legion, who had embraced the cause of\\nVespasian, hurried to Italy, met Caecina, and induced him to-\\ndesert Vitellius. Primus defeated the Vitellians at Betriacum,\\nmarched on Eome before Valens could come north to oppose\\nhim, and finally crushed Vitellius at Rome. This made the way\\nclear for Vespasian. In the troubles connected with the capture\\nof Rome, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was burned about\\nthe 20th of December, 69.\\nThere was also trouble in the North-west. In 69 Julius\\nCivilis induced his countrymen, the Batavi, to revolt fi om Vitellius\\nand take up arms for Vespasian. The revolt spread, and he\\nwas able to blockade the Roman army in Vetera (the modern", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "952 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX.\\nXanten). On the death of Vitellius, Civilis made no secret that\\nhe was fighting against Eorae and his coadjutors, Juhus Clas-\\nsicus and Juhus Tutor, proclaimed an Imperium GalHarum,\\nto which many of the Roman soldiers swore allegiance. In\\n70 Civilis, after some successes, was defeated by Petilius Cerealis,\\nand contrived to make terms for himself. His later history is\\nunknown.\\nVespasian, the first of the Flavian line, a man of very humble\\norigin, came to Rome in the summer of 70. He had in the\\nspring renewed the operations against the Jews, which had been\\ndropped during the difficulties of the preceding year. His son\\nTitus was sent against Jerusalem, which he took after an\\nobstinate resistance on the part of the inhabitants, and levelled\\nwith the ground. Judaea was made a Roman province and\\nin 71 the temple of Janus was closed. A new temple was\\nbuilt to Jupiter Capitolinus in 70, and in the next few years\\nmany new public buildings, including a temple to Peace (75),\\nwere created. The emperor set about retrenching expenditure,\\ncarrying out with better judgment the economical policy of\\nGalba, and adding to the taxes, so as to put the finances on a\\nsound basis. He treated the senate respectfully, but curtailed\\nits powers. He discouraged trials for maiestas, but did not allow\\nthe delatores to be prosecuted.\\nProvincial administration was vigorously managed by Vespa-\\nsian. He conferred Latin rights (an incomplete form of Roman\\ncitizenship) on all the municipia of Spain (74 a.d.), and on\\nthe Helvetii. He organized and enlarged the united province\\nLycia-Pamphylia and incorporated the kingdom of Antiochus in\\nthe empire, repelled a Parthian invasion in 77, strengthened\\nthe defences on the Danube, and continued the conquest of\\nBritain.\\nVespasian died on the 23rd of July, 79, and was succeeded by\\nhis son Titus, who had since the 1st of July, 71, been associated\\nwith him in managing the empire, and counted the years of his\\nreign from that date.\\nTitus reigned from 79 to 81. He courted popularity, freely\\nsquandered what his father had saved, and prosecuted the\\ndelatores. He ordered no senator to execution, and his death\\nwas universally regretted. In 79 occurred the great eruption\\nof Vesuvius which buried Pompeii and Herculaneum, and in", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] DOMITIAN, 353\\n80 the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and other public\\nbuildings were burned. In 80 the Flavian amphitheatre, which\\nin its half-ruinous condition is now called the Coliseum, was\\ndedicated with games of extraordinary magnificence. Titus\\ndied on the 13th of September, 81.\\nDoMiTiA2\u00c2\u00ab the younger son of Vespasia-n, succeeded his\\nbrother. In 83 he led a campaign against the Chatti, and\\nassumed the title of Germanicus. After this war Domitian set\\nhimself to break down the power of the senate, by assuming the\\ncensorship for life, by causing himself to be designated consul\\nfor ten years in 84, and by assuming the power of life and death\\nover the senate. Cn. Julius Agricola, who had taken the\\ncommand in Britain in 78, defeated the Caledonian chief\\nCalgacus in the battle of Mount Graupius in 84. He was\\nrecalled next year by Domitian. In 85 Decebalus, King of\\nDacia, who had formed the ambitious scheme of founding a\\ngreat military state, attacked Moesia successfully. In 86 this\\ndefeat was retrieved by Juhanus but the emperor thought it\\nbest to make terms with Decebalus, on account of trouble with\\nthe Suevic peoples, who would have been only too ready to join\\narms with the Dacians. Decebalus was accordingly recognized\\nas king under the lordship of Rome. Domitian celebrated a\\ntriumph in 89. In 92 he was for eight months in the field\\nagainst the Suevic nations and their Sarmatian allies, the\\nlazyges. Many reverses were sustained, and the war was con-\\ntinued into the next reign. In 88 the revolt of L. Antonius\\nSaturninus, governor of Upper Germany, which was suppressed\\nby Norbanus, turned Domitian into a cruel tyrant. The delatores\\nflourished again, and many prominent citizens were put to death.\\nThe emperor, however, managed public affairs well. He strove\\nto put down Eastern effeminacy, and to revive the morality and\\nreligion of the republic, and was careful in his choice of pro-\\nvincial governors. Domitian met his death, not from the senate\\nwhom he feared, but from his own household. The Empress\\nDomitia, whom he had divorced but recalled, formed a plot\\nagainst him, and on the 18th of September, 96, he ieli by the\\nhand of a freedman called Stephanus. Thus perished the last\\nof the Flavian dynasty.\\nUnder the Flavian dynasty the policy was begun of treating\\nChristians as outlaws, liable to death on confession of the name;\\n2 a", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "354 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XXXIX.\\nand the persecution by Domitian is printed deep on the memory\\nof history, though few facts ai e recorded. It would appear that\\nChristianity spread among the higher classes in Rome, and\\naffected even the Emperor s family. The Flavian policy towards\\nthe Christians was continued by later emperors in theory,\\nthough in practice it was carried out only occasionally in active\\npersecution.\\nNerva. M. Cocceius Nerva was elected emperor by the\\nsenate. He took an oath to put no senator to death, and con-\\nsulted the senate in everything. Great attention was paid to\\nItaly, and comparatively little to the provinces. The praetorians\\ndemanded the execution of Domitian s murderers, and Nerva\\nwas forced to comply. This decided him to adopt a consort,\\nand his choice fell on M. Ulpius Trajanus, legatus of Upper\\nGermany, and a native of Spain. The adoption took place\\non the 27th of October, 97, while Trajan was still in Germany.\\nNerva died on the 25th of January, 98.\\nTkajaut ranks among the most vigorous and the greatest of\\nthe emperors. He spent the summer of 98 in Germany, and the\\nnext winter on the Danube, making preparations for a Dacian\\nwar. In the beginning of 99 he came to Rome, where he re-\\nmained two years. Early in 101 he started for Dacia, and after\\ntwo campaigns, in the course of which he captured the king s\\ncapital, Sarmizegethusa, he compelled Decebalus to accept his\\nterms. Dacia, however, became a dependent state, having no\\npower of making peace or war without the consent of Rome.\\nThe senate decreed to Trajan the title of Dacicus. Decebalus,\\nhowever, again revolted, and in 104 Trajan again set out for\\nDacia. In 106 the war was brought to a close by the death of\\nDecebalus, and Dacia was made a province. Trajan returned\\nto Rome in 107, and celebrated a triumph. The native popula-\\ntion of Dacia was mostly driven out, and the country was re-\\npopulated by colonists from all parts, especially from Asia Minor.\\nIn 106 Arabia Petraea was formed into a province by the\\ngovernor of Syria, Cornelius Palraa.\\nDuring the next eight years Trajan was at Rome. He treated\\nthe senate with marked respect, but at the same time did not\\nenlarge its prerogatives. His own powers were increased by\\nhis creating new patricians, and by the appointment of a curator\\nrei ipuUicae to control the aflairs of the Italian towns and the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "Chap. XXXIX.] TRAJAN S SUCCESSES. 355\\nfree cities abroad. His success in finance was great, and was\\ndue partly to the economj of his court, and partly to the wealth\\naccruino; from the Dacian mines. The condition of slaves was\\nmade harder. Special attention was given to increasing the\\npopulation and improving: the agriculture of Italy. Many new\\nbuildings were erected in Italy and at Rome, notably the Forum\\nUl^^ianum. Trajan was very liberal in making new roads in\\nthe provinces, and sent special commissioners to several senatorial\\nprovinces. Thus Pliny was sent to Bithynia, and the corre-\\nspondence between him and Trajan, which is extant, shows how\\nclosely Trajan directed affairs in this province. In 112 Trajan\\nissued a famous rescript forbidding hetaerlae of Christians in\\nBithynia.\\nChosroes, King of Parthia, had interfered in the affairs of\\nArmenia by putting Parthoraasiris on the throne. Trajan re-\\nsolved to punish him for this illegal act, declared war on him,\\nand left for the East in the end of 113. Chosroes sent an\\nembassy to meet him at Athens, but the terms offered were not\\naccepted, and Trajan pressed on to Antioch where he required\\nParthomasiris to lay his crown before him in 115. The Armenian\\nking was then dismissed, but was shortl.y afterwards murdered,\\npossibly with Trajan s connivance. While in Antioch, Trajan\\nnarrowly escaped with his life in the great earthquake of 115.\\nIn the same year he founded the new provinces of Mesopotamia\\nand Adiabene, but these regions had soon to be reconquered.\\nIn 116 he sailed down the Euphrates, and took Ctesiphon, the\\nParthian capital. Chosroes fled, and the crown was given to\\nhis son Parthamaspates, as a client of Rome. Trajan had the\\ntitle of Parthicus conferred on him. Meanwhile the Jews had\\nrevolted in Mesopotamia, Palestine, and other countries where\\nthey formed a large part of the population, and had to be put\\ndown with great slaughter. Trajan s presence was urgently\\nrequired in the West, as difficulties had arisen with the Sarmatians,\\nthe Moors, and the Britons but he died on his homeward\\njourney at Selinus, in Cilicia, in August, 117 a.d.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "356 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XL.\\nCHAPTEE XL.\\nTHE EMPIRE FROM HADRIAN TO CONSTANTINE.\\nHadrian, the successor of Trajan, reigned from 117 to 138\\nA.D. At the time of his accession revolts had broken out in\\nvarious parts of the empire, and the Parthians were threatening\\nits eastern territories, having gained several successes over\\nthe Eoman troops. Hadrian had served with Trajan in war\\nand was the favourite of the army, but from the first he inclined\\nto a policy of peace. He decided to give up the plan of carry-\\ning the Roman authority further eastward, and he came to\\nterms with the Parthians, giving them the lands beyond the\\nEuphrates. He devoted his entire reign to the improvement\\nand adornment of the empire, and was most liberal in his\\npatronage of the fine arts. In 119 he began a series of journeys\\nthroughout his dominions, and a large part of his reign was\\nspent in this manner. He constructed many important public\\nworks in the course of his visits he beautified Rome by his\\nMausoleum and by his temple of Venus and Rome and he\\nhad a fine villa at Tibur. In Britain he began the great work\\nknown as Hadrian s Wall, reaching from the Solway to the\\nTyne. He restored discipline to the army, and did much to\\nstrengthen and consolidate the imperial power. Though occa-\\nsionally cruel, he governed on the whole mildly and with wis-\\ndom. Only one serious revolt occurred in his reign, that of\\nthe Jews in Palestine, who under the leadership of a fanatic\\nmade a fruitless attempt (131) to withstand the Roman power.\\nThe suppression of this revolt in 135 was followed by the\\ndeath or dispersion of a vast number of the people. On the\\nsite of Jerusalem was built the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina)\\nfrom which the Jews were excluded.\\nThe Two Antoninbs (138-180 a.d.). Hadrian was suc-\\nceeded by his adopted sou, Antoninus Pius, whose reign was", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "CHAP. XL.] THE ANTONINES. 357\\none of the most prosperous and peaceful in the history of the\\nempire. The record is wholly one of internal improvement,\\nsuch as the building of roads and bridges, the development of\\ncommerce, and the encouragement of literature and architec-\\nture. A kindly man and an able administrator, he is regarded\\nas the best type of Roman emperor.\\nMarcus Aurelius Antoninus was the adopted son of Anto-\\nninus Pius, and succeeded on the latter s death in 161. He was\\namong the best of Roman rulers, and the only one of whom it\\ncan be said that his fame woukl have been nearly as great as\\nit is if he had never sat on the imperial throne. For it is as a\\nphilosopher rather than as a Roman emperor that he is best\\nknown. Yet his reign was distinguished both for military\\nsuccess and for good government. His army was victorious\\nover the Parthians in the East and in the war against the\\nGerman tribes nearer home, Marcus Aurelius took the field\\nhimself, with the result that the Marcomanni were driven\\nacross the Danube and compelled to sue for peace and another\\nGerman tribe, the Quadi, were defeated in their own country.\\nThe effect of this and other successes was to bring the Germans\\nto terms, and, for the time at least, to secure the northern fron-\\ntier of the empire against their attacks. The Stoic philosophy\\nhad in him its finest example. He was brave, magnanimous,\\nand prudent. He was an unremitting student, and possessed\\na remarkable range of accomplishments and learning. He had\\nmany of those virtues which we identify with Christianity,\\nand yet he was one of the severest persecutors of the professors\\nof\u00c2\u00bbthe Christian faith. This was due to the very consistency\\nand earnestness of his character. He loved the heathen faith\\nand the heathen philosophy. Being heart and soul in favor\\nof the old system, he felt it his duty to check the encroach-\\nments of the new religion, which, it is said, was grossly mis-\\nrepresented to him by its enemies. Like several others of the\\nbest and most conscientious emperors who construed their\\nduties seriously, he regarded the Christians as a dangerous\\nelement in the state, and strove to extirpate them.\\nA Century of Misrule (180-284 a.d.). The century\\nthat followed the death of Marcus Aurelius was on the whole a\\nperiod of confusion and misrule, and the reigns of the emperors\\nwere, with few exceptions, brief. Commodus (180-193 a.d.)", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "358 HISTORY OF ROME. [chap. XL.\\nis noted only for his vices and for the monstrous tyranny that\\nhe exercised. He gratified a natural love of slaughter by kill-\\ning wild beasts in the anipliitlieatre. Knowing that his sub-\\njects hated him, he was in constant fear of conspiracy and\\ncaused many to be put to deatli on groundless suspicions. He\\nwas finally murdered in his bedroom, by members of his own\\nhousehold who feared that his savage hatred would soon turn\\nagainst themselves. So easy was it, says Gibbon, to destroy\\na hated tyrant who by the artificial powers of government had\\noppressed during thirteen years so many millions of subjects,\\neach of whom was equal to their master in personal strength\\nand personal abilities. His murderers now placed on the\\nthrone Pertinax, a man of unquestioned honesty of purpose,\\nand secured the consent of the army to his succession. But\\nPertinax soon gave offence to the Praetorians (the emperor s\\nbody-guard of soldiers at Rome) by the strictness of his rule, and\\nwithin less than three months from tlie death of his predecessor\\nhe was murdered by the soldiers. The throne was now virtually\\nset up at auction by the Praetorians, and a rich senator,\\nDidius Julianus, purchased the succession but the jsrovincial\\narmies declared against him, each setting up its candidate.\\nThe general in command of the Pannonian army, SejDtimius\\nSeverus, promptly appeared in Rome at the head of his legions\\nand compelled the Praetorians to accept him as emperor.\\nDidius Julianus was dethroned and put to death in a little\\nover two months from the date of his accession (193). Severus\\nshowed a high order of military skill in the civil wars that\\narose froni the claims of rival candidates for the throne, and\\nwithin four years from his accession he had routed two armies,\\none in Asia Minor and the other in Gaul. He governed by iin-\\nscrupulous methods, but with vigour and ability. He reorgan-\\nized the Praetorian guard, recruiting it from the legionaries on\\nthe frontier, by promoting from among them such as had dis-\\ntinguished themselves for valour and efficiency. He turned\\nthe government, in fact, into a military despotism.\\nFrom the death of Septimius Severus, in 211 a.d., to the\\naccession of Diocletian, in 284, there were twenty-five em-\\nperors, of whom all but three were murdered by the soldiers\\nor at the instigation of rivals for the throne. Space is lacking\\nfor the detailed treatment of each of these brief reigns, but the", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "Chap. XL.] A CENTURY OF MISEULE. 359\\nsubjoined table gives the important names and dates. Caracalla\\nCaracalla..., )211-217 Valerian 253-260\\nGeta...... 5211-212 Gallieiius 260-268\\nMacrinus 217-218 Claudius 268-270\\nHeliogabalus 218-222 Aurelian 270-275\\nAlexander Severus 222-235 Tacitus 275-276\\nMaximinus 235-238 Florianus 276\\nGordianusIII... 238-244 Probus 276-282\\nPhilippus 244-249 Carus 282-283\\nDecius 249-251 Carinus\\nGallus 251-253 Numerianus..\\nI 283-284\\nand Geta, the two sons of Septimius Severus, succeeded him on\\nthe throne but their jealousy culminated in Caracalla s\\ntreacherous murder of his brother in 212. Caracalla s despotism\\nwas not redeemed by a single quality that could win the respect\\nof his subjects, and he in turn was murdered as the result of a\\nsecret conspiracy which had been inspired by his own jealousy.\\nUnder Alexander Severus (222-235 a.d.) there was a return\\nto decent and orderly government. He was a man of many\\naccomplishments, but he showed an unwise lenity which\\ntended to relax military discipline. The brief and unfortunate\\nreign of Decius (249-251) is memorable for the successful\\ninvasion of the eastern provinces by the Goths. Encounter-\\ning but slight resistance from the Roman troops on the frontier,\\nthe Goths poured into Dacia and Moesia. Decius led an\\narmy against them, but was defeated and killed near a small\\ntown in Moesia. During the reigns of Valerian (253-260)\\nand Gallienus (260-268) there arose a crowd of pretenders,\\nsometimes termed the thirty tyrants. They seized the\\npower and held it for varying lengths of time and in different\\nparts of the empire. In the reign of Gallienus, especially,\\nthe confusion resulting from this state of affairs reached its\\nheight. The central authority was reduced to a nullity, and\\nthe defence of the frontier had to be left to the legions them-\\nselves, who naturally lost all sense of subordination to the\\nauthority at Eome.\\nAmong these provincial empires the most lasting were those\\nin Gaul and Asia. Minor. The former was at one time ac-\\nknowledged by the legions of Britain, Spain, and the Rhine.\\nIn Asia Minor the Prince of Palmyra made himself an inde-\\npendent sovereign, and his widow, the famous Zenobia, ruled\\nover most of Asia Minor and even extended her authority to", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "360 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XL.\\nEgypt. The emperors Claudius (268-270 a.d.) and Aurelian\\n(270-275) displayed more vigour in dealing with rebellion, and\\nthe latter succeeded in restoring unity to the empire.\\nDiocletian (284-305 a.d.) removed the last traces of repub-\\nlican limitations on the imperial power and turned the gov-\\nernment into an absolute monarchy. He abolished the old\\nnational distinctions and established a uniform system of ad-\\nministration, reducing Rome and Italy to the same level as\\nthe provinces. Rome was no longer the seat of government.\\nAll power was vested in the emperor alone, who now assumed\\nsomething of the style of an Oriental despot. To secure a\\nmore efficient administration he associated another emperor\\nwith himself in the government, and these two rulers, or\\nAugusti, had under them two Caesars. The empire was\\ndivided among the four rulers, but Diocletian claimed a higher\\nauthority than his three colleagues. During his reign this\\nadministrative machinery proved effective, owing chiefly to his\\nown statesmanship but the division of power led to prolonged\\nconflicts after his death. Diocletian s policy was to seek by\\nevery means to promote dissensions among the barbarians, and\\nat the same time to strengthen the frontiers by fortifications.\\nIn these ends he was generally successful, and when the bar-\\nbarians did invade the provinces they were repulsed by the\\nable commanders whom Diocletian selected for the different\\nfrontier posts. He carried on a successful war against the\\nPersians, and extended the limits of the empire in the East.\\nToward the close of his reign he began the severest persecu-\\ntion of the Christians that had yet been inflicted. He is said\\nto have been instigated to do this by his colleagues, and to\\nhave been, at heart, in favour of toleration. On the other hand,\\nsome writers say that it was his practice, when carrying out a\\npolicy for which he thought he might be blamed, to profess to\\nhave acted on the advice of others. In 303 a.d. he issued a\\ngeneral edict of persecution, ordering the churches to be de-\\nmolished. Christian property to be confiscated, and all persons\\nmeeting for Christian worship to be put to death. These\\nmeasures were carried out with the utmost rigour. In 305\\nDiocletian formally abdicated, inducing the other Augustus,\\nMaximian, to do so at the same time. The next eighteen years\\nwere for the most part taken up with conflicts between rival em-", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "Chap. XL.] CONSTANTINE. 361\\nperors. Coilstantine, after contending with his rivals for\\nmastery for many years, finally became sole emperor (323).\\nCoNSTANTiNE (306-337 A.D.) was the son of Constantius,\\nwho had become joint emperor with Galerius on the abdica-\\ntion of Diocletian, and who died in Britain in 306. Constan-\\ntine was chosen emperor by the Roman troops in Britain, but\\nGalerius refused to acknowledge his title. Soon other claim-\\nants arose, and at one time there were six imperial rivals\\ncontending for the throne. In the course of the civil war that\\nfollowed, Constantine made himself supreme in the West by\\nthe overthrow of one of his rivals (312), and soon afterwards\\nLicinius became sole ruler of the eastern portion of the empire\\nby the death of his competitors. War now broke out between\\nConstantine and Licinius, and the latter, being worsted, ceded\\na part of his territory to his colleague. After an interval of\\nseveral years, which Constantine employed in strengtheiiing\\nthe frontier and reforming abuses in the administration, war\\nwas renewed in 323, and Licinius was defeated and killed.\\nConstantine was now sole ruler. The two chief events of his\\nreign were the removal of the capital from Rome to Byzan-\\ntium, henceforth called in his honour Constantinople, and the\\ngranting of toleration to Christianity. The former act was the\\nnatural outcome of the Orientalizing policy above noted. It\\nleft the western portion of the empire at the mercy of the bar-\\nbarians, and it had the further result of enhancing the power of\\nthe Roman bishops by withdrawing to a safe distance the over-\\nshadowing authority of the imperial throne. The effect of\\nConstantine s friendliness toward the Christians was to trans-\\nform the empire into a Christian state. From being the\\nreligion of a persecuted sect, Christianity became the dominant\\nreligion of the civilized world. At the Council of Nice, in\\n325, Constantine sided with orthodoxy against Arianism,\\nthough influenced by political rather than theological consid-\\nerations. His whole attitude toward the church was, in fact,\\ndictated by politic and not religious motives. The strength\\nof the new faith rather than its righteousness appealed to him,\\nand he continued outwardly to observe the pagan forms till a\\nshort time before his death, when he consented to be baptized.\\nAs an administrator he ranks high, and he worked for the\\nwelfare of his people but he was unscrupulous and cruel.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "362 HISTOKY OF ROME. [Chap. XLI.\\nCHAPTER XLI.\\nTHE BARBARIAN INVASIONS THE DECLINE AND FALL\\nOF THE EMPIRE (337-476 A.D.).\\nThe Sons of Constantine (337-361). Before the death of\\nConstantine he had parcelled out the empire among his three\\nsons Constantine, Constans, and Constantius. This division\\nwas not a definite dismemberment of the empire, and so it soon\\nbrought discord among the young princes. Constantine, the\\neldest, who was only twenty-one, was dissatisfied with his\\nallotment, and sought to enlarge his dominion but he\\nperished in his efforts to wrest some territory from Con-\\nstans (340). Ten years later the latter met death at the hands\\nof a traitor in his own camp Magnentius, who received the\\nname of Augustus from his followers and ruled in the place of\\nConstans. IBut within three years Constantius had put down\\nMagnentius, together with another officer, Vetranio, general in\\nIllyricum, who had also been proclaimed Augustus. Thus the\\nempire was once more united under one emperor.\\nOf the relatives of Constantine, besides his sons, only two\\nnephews had survived the general slaughter of the family after\\nhis death. Gallus had been made Caesar by Constantius, and\\nplaced in command of the East, whence he was soon recalled\\non the pretext that he was about to revolt. One year after his\\ndeath (354), the surviving cousin, Julian, was assigned to the\\nprovince of Gaul, with the title of Caesar. The retired scholastic\\neducation of Julian had left him in ignorance of the arts of war\\nand government but the remarkable success of his arms and his\\nwise and popular administration in that province aroused the\\njealous fears of Constantius, who ordered that the flower of his\\narmy should forthwith be withdrawn and sent to Persia. That\\norder Julian s generals refused to carry out, for they recognized\\nthat it meant the undoing of their idolized leader. Instead of\\nthat they proclaimed him Augustus. Reluctantly accepting,\\nnevertheless Julian acknowledged the supremacy of his cousin.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "Chap. XLI.] DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. S63\\nand at first refused to wage war against him. But the advance\\nof Constantius soon left him no alternative, and he set out to\\nmeet this cousin. The death of the latter, however, and the\\nimmediate adherence of the empire, prevented civil war.\\nJulian (361-363) received his apj^ellation of Apostate from\\nthe fact that he was not even nominally a Christian, as his\\npredecessors since Constantine had been also from his attempt\\nto restore pagan worship. While he entered into this work\\nwith enthusiasm, yet he forbade persecutions and extended to\\nall the inhabitants of the Roman world free and equal tolera-\\ntion. This attempted restoration had no more permanent\\neffect than did his effort to correct the administrative abuses\\nthat had crept into the government under his weaker prede-\\ncessors. From the point of view of the continued life of the\\nempire, his vigourous defence of his province of Gaul against\\nthe inroads of the barbarians across the Rhine was of the ut-\\nmost importance. His expedition to Persia was at first suc-\\ncessful, but it ended with his defeat and death.\\nDivision op the Empire (364). The army at once pro-\\nclaimed Jovian, who soon made an ignominious peace with\\nthe Persians, by which five provinces of the empire lying be-\\nyond the Tigris were surrendered. Jovian ruled only nine\\nmonths, but he had sufficient time to reverse the religious\\npolicy of Julian and restore the Christian religion. On his\\ndeath the army again made the choice of an emperor, and\\nelected Valentinian. Within a month he bestowed the title\\nof Augustus on his brother Valens. This marks the first\\ndivision of the empire, Valentinian becoming emperor of the\\nWest, with his residence at Milan, while Valens ruled from\\nConstantinople over the empire of the East.\\nDuring his reign of eleven years (364-375) Valentinian\\nrepelled the attacks of invaders into his own dominion with a\\nstrong hand, and even helped the weaker Valens (364-378) to\\nkeep the Goths from crossing the Danube. But on the death\\nof the elder brother, the Goths, now pressed from behind by\\nthe Huns, appealed to Valens to save them from their foes.\\nPrudence gave way to flattered vanity, and he allowed about\\n200,000 fighting men that is, probably about 1,000,000 per-\\nsons in all to take up their abode in Moesia, inside the em-\\npire. But soon they became exasperated at the rapacity of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "364 HISTOEY OF ROME. [Chap. XLI. j\\ntheir military governors and rose in revolt, and in the battle\\nof Adrianople (378) they completely routed the Roman army, j\\ntwo-thirds of which was destroyed. Valens was killed in the\\nretreat, lUyricum was ravaged, and Constantinople itself was\\nbarely saved from capture.\\nTheodosius I (379-395). In the West, Valentinian was i\\nsucceeded by his son Gratian (375-383), a youth of seventeen,\\nwho immediately associated with him his brother Valentinian\\nII, a boy of five. But, more wisely, he soon recalled Theodo-\\nsius, a skilful general, from Spain, and raised him to be his\\ncolleague and emperor of the East. This strong man was soon j\\nable to secure, out of the lamentable condition to which affairs j\\nin the East had fallen, a strong defence for the imperial power,\\nHe admitted many Goths into the Roman army, and gave j\\nthem the duty of defending the passage of the Danube. He j\\nalso gave them lands, stipulating that they should become\\npermanent settlers. But most of his energies were required j\\nto support the impotent rule of the boyish Western emperors\\nand to defeat the successive pretenders. Gratian had been 1\\noverthrown by Maxiraus, but when the usurper left Gaul and\\ndrove Valentinian II from Italy, Theodosius restored that prince\\nto this throne, with Arbogast, the Frank, who had recently\\ndriven the Germans out of Gaul, as principal minister. After\\nthe departure of Theodosius, Arbogast made way with the\\nyouthful emperor, and had Eugenius, one of his creatures, pro-\\nclaimed emperor. In the battle of Aquileia (394) the tyrants j\\nwere overthrown. j\\nFinal Division of the Empire (395). This victory of\\nTheodosius over the usurper had made him master of the\\nWest, and reunited for the last time the whole of the Roman\\nworld under one emperor. But this was quickly followed by\\nhis death. As his end approached, he divided his empire be-\\ntween his two sons, placing Arcadius, eighteen years of age,\\nover the East, and Honorius, eleven years old, over the West.\\nThe final overthrow of the empire as a Roman power was\\nfrom this point only a question of time. Henceforth there was to\\nbe very little cooperation, but more often jealousies, between the\\ntwo divisions of the empire, the conflicting interests of which\\nfinally brought down upon them disastrous consequences. The\\nsupreme rule of the empire was still nominally in the hands of", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "Chap. XLL] BARBARIANS IN POWER. 365\\nthe successors of the Caesars but the real power had forever\\ndeparted from the degenerate sons of the Roman line, and\\nhereafter was wielded by their barbarian ministers. Eufinus,\\nthe minister of Arcadius at Constantinople, was by birth a\\nGoth, and Stilicho, the guardian of Honorius, was by descent\\na Vandal. That these oflBces were held by barbarians was not\\nexceptional. The public service was being filled by Franks,\\nthe army was constantly recruited from the Goths, and\\nthousands of barbarians had been welcomed as colonists within\\nthe confines of what was properly known as the empire.\\nHaving gained a foothold in court, in army, in vested terri-\\ntorial rights, and having seen that Roman administration was\\nonly a shell and no longer the mighty imperial power of the\\npast, the barbarians did not long remain a subject race, but\\ngrasped at the highest benefits that Rome could bestow. By\\nreason of the jealousies of the ministers of the two emperors,\\nEufinus lost his life through the cunning of Stilicho. De-\\nprived of his powerful minister, Arcadius was induced to adopt\\na short-sighted policy with respect to Alaric, the chieftain of the\\nVisigoths. Partly to save his own territory from immediate at-\\ntack and partly from jealousy of Honorius, Arcadius connived\\nat the invasion of Greece by Alaric, and then (396) made him\\nmaster-general of Illyricum. Armed with Roman authority,\\nhe was, from his vantage-ground in Illyricum, easily able to\\nswoop down on Italy. He had met defeat from the arms of\\nStilicho in Greece, but in 400 he crossed the Alps not\\nwith his army only, but with all his people, including wives\\nand families. This first invasion carried devastation into\\nnorthern Italy, but was effectually checked by Stilicho, who\\ndefeated Alaric in the battle of Pollentia (403), and forced him\\nto retire into Illyricum.\\nThe Sack of Rome (410). Stilicho, whose talents had\\nupheld the throne of Honorius for thirteen years, was ungrate-\\nfully and unjustly sacrificed by his master only two years\\nafter he had again saved the empire from Radagaisus and his\\nhorde of Vandals and Goths (406). The second invasion by\\nAlaric (408) was opposed by no such mighty hand. Having\\nrid himself of his minister, Honorius proceeded to purge his\\narmy and the state of barbarians and heretics, and ordered a\\nmassacre of German hostages. At once 30,000 imperial sol-", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "366 HISTOKY OF EOME. [Chap. XLI.\\ndiers joined Alaric these were soon recruited by 40,000 bar-\\nbarian slaves who had escaped from their masters. Almost\\nunopposed, Alaric pushed on to Rome, and spared the city from\\nsiege only on the payment of an enormous ransom (408). But\\nthe emperor had not purchased his withdrawal from Italy.\\nAlaric wanted lands for his people in Italy and a post for\\nhimself in the imperial army. When these were refused, he\\nagain marched on Eome but he still spared the city and\\nallowed the citizens to choose Attalus, a Greek, as Augustus,\\nwith himself as commander-in-chief. Tiring at last of such\\ntrifling, he deposed Attalus, and failing once more in his\\nefforts to negotiate with Honorius at Ravenna, he laid siege to\\nRome and carried away much plunder (410), but seems to\\nhave spared the lives of the citizens and not to have despoiled\\nthe churches. Alaric lived only two years after this, but\\nbefore his death he had made himself master of nearly the\\nwhole peninsula.\\nWith Rome, the imperial city and the heart of the empire,\\npillaged by the barbarians, it is not strange that the more remote\\nmembers of the empire should one by one be cut off by them.\\nAdolf, the brother-in-law of Alaric, remained in Italy two\\nyears after the death of his predecessor, and even made a\\nfamily alliance with Honorius, and fought against the Van-\\ndals and Suevi in Spain. To his successor, Wallia (419), as\\nking of the Visigoths, was granted a territory in southeastern\\nGaul, where the foundation of the Visigothic monarchy was\\nlaid. These Vandals against whom Adolf fought were a\\npart of the same stream of emigration which under Radagaisus\\nhad invaded Italy in 406 and had been defeated by Stilicho.\\nThey then overran Gaul and passed south into Spain, whence\\nthe Roman power could not dislodge them. These German\\ntribes nominally recognized the sovereignty of the Roman em-\\npire, but practically their settlement in Gaul and Spain meant\\nthe cutting off of those provinces from the empire. The Roman\\ntroops had been withdrawn from Britain in 409, and that\\nprovince had chosen so-called emperors of its own. Usurpers\\nhad risen in Africa, and one of these. Count Heraclian (413),\\neven invaded Italy, but was defeated.\\nHonorius died in 423. The vacant throne was seized by\\nJohn, the secretary of the late emperor. The latter main-", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "Chap. XLI.1 THE EMPIRE CRUMBLES AWAY. 36?\\ntainecl himself for two years but finally Theodosius II, em-\\nperor of the East, succeeded in placing the nephew of Honorius\\non the throne. The reign of Valentinian III, a boy of six,\\nlasted until 455, much of the time under the regency of his\\nmother Placidia. The jealousy between Aetius, the Count of\\nItaly, and Boniface, the Count of Africa, exposed the African\\nprovince to invasion. By the consent of Boniface, if not by\\nhis actual invitation, the Vandals under Gaiseric (Genseric),\\ntheir king, crossed over from Spain, eager for land and trea-\\nsure, and quickly spread themselves over that province (429).\\nWithin ten years their possession of the country was ratified\\nby a treaty with Rome, and one of the chief granaries of the\\nempire had become a Vandal kingdom.\\nThe Defeat of the Huns. One after another the Ger-\\nmanic peoples had been carving out from the Roman dominion\\nterritories in which they were erecting kingdoms. But with\\nthe onslaught of the nomadic, semi-barbarian, and altogether\\nheathen Huns, they felt that their own safety was at stake.\\nWhen Attila, the leader of the great horde, invaded Gaul, the\\nVisigoths joined the Roman general Aetius, whom they had\\njust been opposing, against the common foe. Other German\\ntroops joined the force of Aetius, who defeated Attila in the\\nbloody battle of Chalons (451). This is regarded as one of the\\ngreat decisive battles of the world s history, for it made the\\npredominant power of Europe Teutonic rather than Tartar.\\nThe next year Attila, who had come to be known as the\\nscourge of God, invaded northern Italy, spreading desolation\\nthrough the valley of the Po but he soon withdrew, at the\\nrequest, it is said, of Pope Leo the Great, and died in 453.\\nThe reign of Maximus, who murdered Valentinian III, and\\nruled as his successor for three months (455), is remembered\\nfor the sack of Rome by the Vandals. Gaiseric had come at\\nthe request of Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian and the un-\\nwilling wife of Maximus. In two weeks the Vandals carried\\naway everything valuable on which they could lay their hands,\\nbut they do not seem to have done much damage to the build-\\nings. They carried away many Roman citizens as slaves.\\nEnd op the Western Empire. The list of weakling em-\\nperors who occupied the throne of the Western Empire for its\\nlast twenty years is a dreary catalogue. What little real power", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "368 HISTORY OF ROME. [Chap. XLI.\\nstill remained was wielded by barbarian chiefs in the Roman\\nservice, who for the most part dared not themselves assume the\\nimperial title. Avitus, commander in (jraul, on the nomination\\nof Theodoric II, the king of the Ostrogoths, held the throne\\nfor a little over a year (455-456); but he was compelled to\\nabdicate by Count Ricimer, the Sueve. The latter decided\\nnot to claim the throne for himself, but instead nominated\\nMajorian (457-461). He was a man of force, and tried to pro-\\ntect the empire against the Vandals. He was probably too\\nable and too independent to suit Ricimer, for he was forced to\\nabdicate. He was succeeded by Libius Severus (461-465) and\\nthe Greek Anthemius (467-472), who wore the purple at the\\ncommand of Ricimer. Although the latter had consented to\\nthe naming of Anthemius, yet this emperor had really been put\\nforward by Emperor Leo of the East. When he asserted his\\nindependence, Ricimer retaliated by leading a barbarian army\\nagainst Rome, overthrowing Anthemius and replacing him by\\nOlybrius. During his reign of three months Count Ricimer\\ndied, and his nephew, Gundobald, gave the title to Glycerius\\n(473). Next year the latter exchanged the throne for a bishopric,\\nand Julius Nepos (474), the candidate of the Eastern emperor,\\nadded his name and one year to the list. By this time the\\nreal power had passed to another barbarian general, Orestes,\\nthe former secretary of Attila, who proclaimed his own son\\nemperor. Romulus Augustus, generally known by the con-\\ntemptuous diminutive Augustulus, the last of the Western\\nemperors, bore the title less than a year. Orestes had over-\\nestimated his power with the army, and fell before a younger\\nand more daring barbarian adventurer, Odoacer, who had won\\nthe army to his allegiance. Romulus was not put to death, as\\nhis father had been, but was forced to abdicate, after which\\nthe empty dignity of the emperor of the West was abolished.\\nWe have seen how, in the outlying provinces of the Roman\\nempire, there had, one by one, been set up new powers that had\\nnominal but no very real and vital connection with the em-\\npire. The same thing had now happened in Italy, the heart\\nof the empire. Odoacer was proclaimed king by his troops,\\nand the imperial authority was no longer claimed. But, as\\nthough in reverence for the old order, the new ruler recognized\\nthe sovereignty of the empire of the East.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "HOUSE OF AUGUSTUS.\\n369\\nto\\nH\\na\\nt)\\no\\nP\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2c\\nbe\\ng\\nbe OS\\nn\\n.5 o\\nII-\\nII \u00e2\u0080\u00942\\n3\\n;-i\\n03\\no 3\\n31\\n03\\n03 03\\n(S\\n0-S\\no\\nS O\\nOQ\\nsS\\n.g\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2-s^\\n5\\nd\\no\\n(SIM\\ns\\n.5 be\\no p\\na. 3\\n.2\u00c2\u00ab\\nO\\na\\nCJ", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "370 HISTORY OF ROME.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DESCENDANTS OF OCTAVIA, SISTER OF\\nAUGUSTUS.\\n(1) C. Marcellus Octavia (2) M. Antonius (triumvir).\\nM. Marcellus Antouia Antonia the\\n(d. B.C. 23). the elder L. Doiuitius. younger\\nN. Claudius\\nDrusus.\\n(See III.)\\nDomitia Lepida M. Valerius Cn. Domituis\\nI Barbatus Messalla). Agrippma\\nI the younger),\\nValeria Messalina\\n(wife of Imp. Claudius).\\nIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 AUGUSTUS S STEP-CHILDREN.\\n(1) Ti. Claudius Nero Li via Augusta (2) Imp. Augustus.\\nI I\\nImp. Tiberius Vipsauia N. Claudius Drusus Antonia\\n1 Agrippina. I the\\nI younger).\\nDjubus Germanicus Livia (Livilla) Imp. Claudius\\nLivia, Agrippina Drusus, son Messalina).\\nI sister the elder). of Tiberius).\\nI of Ger-\\nmanicus).\\nJulia(= Nero, eldest Claudius Ootavia\\nson of Germanicus). Britannicus. Imp. Nero).", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "II^^DEX.\\nAccius, L., 325.\\nAchaean League, 129 in\\nalliance with Philip V.,\\n130 control of, by\\nRome, 165.\\nAchaean war, 166.\\nAdrianople, battle of, 364.\\nAediles, 38, 142.\\nAelius Gallus defeated in\\nArabia Felix, 340.\\nAemilius Lepidns, M.,\\nmilitary road made by,\\n138.\\nAemilius Paullus,L.,slam\\nin the battle of Cannae,\\n107.\\nAemilius Paullus, L.\\n(son), defeats Perseus,\\n163.\\nAeneas, legend of, g.\\nAequians, 5, 41.\\nAetius, general, 367.\\nAetolian League, 129\\nforms alliance with\\nBome, 130; but is\\nobliged to make jieace\\nwith Philip v., 130;\\nchief town Ambracia\\ntaken by the Romans,\\n134; compelled to sue\\nfor peace, and the\\nLeague crushed, 134.\\nAfranius, L., Consul, 267.\\nAfranius, L. (poet), 325.\\nAfrica, invaded by the\\nRomans, 89, 169.\\nAgrarian Law of iSp. Cas-\\nsius, 38; law intro-\\nduced by Ti. Gracchus,\\n181, 182 extended by\\nC. Gracchus, 187; laws\\npassed after the death\\nof the Gracchi, 191; law\\nproposed by Rullus,\\n261 law introduced by\\nCaesar, 268.\\nAgrigentum besieged and\\ntaken, 87.\\nAgrippa, Herod, 347.\\nAgrippa, M., Octaviau s\\ngeneral, drives L. Anto-\\nnius and Fulvia out\\nof Rome, 312; defeats\\nthem at Perusia, 312;\\nconstructs the Julius\\nPortus, 315; defeats\\nfleet of Sextus Pom-\\npeius, 316; defeats the\\nCantabri, 340; death\\nof, 342.\\nAgrippina the younger,\\nwife of Claudius, 349;\\nbelieved to have poi-\\nsoned the emperor, 349;\\nher death by Nero, 349.\\nAgrippina, widow of Ger-\\nmanicus, banished, 346;\\ncommits suicide, 347.\\nAlaric, 365, 366.\\nAlba Longa, foundation\\nof, 9 destruction of, 15.\\nAlban Lake, legend of\\nthe, 53.\\nAlesia surrenders to Cae-\\nsar, 279.\\nAlexander Severus, 359.\\nAllobroges, ambassadors\\nof the, 262.\\nAlps, Hannibal s passage\\nof, 103 note on, 108.\\nAiiibitus, 155.\\nAncus Marcius, succeeds\\nTullus Hostilius, 15\\nconquers several Latin\\ncities, and removes in-\\nhabitants to Rome, 15\\ninstitutes the Fetiales,\\nIS founds a Colony at\\nOstia, 15; fortifies the\\n371\\nJaniculum, 16 con-\\nstructs the Pons Subli-\\ncius, 16 his reign and\\ndeath, 16.\\nAndriscvis, 166.\\nAntepildni, 149.\\nAntifichus, king of Syria,\\nproposes to Philip V. to\\npartition Egypt be-\\ntween them, 130; re-\\nceives Hannibal as a fu-\\ngitive, 133; is persuaded\\nto invade Greece, 133\\nis defeated at Ther-\\nmopylae, and returns\\nto Syria, 133; invades\\nthe kingdom of Per-\\ngamus, but is defeated\\nnear Magnesia, 134; is\\ncompelled to cede all\\nhis dominions in Asia\\nMinor, to pay fines, and\\nsurrender Hannibal,\\n134; peace concluded,\\nand affairs of Asia set-\\ntled, 135.\\nAntiochus Asiaticus de-\\nposed, 252.\\nAntoninus Pius, reign of,\\n356, 357-\\nAntonius,C., 261,262,264.\\nAntonius, L., revolt of,\\n312.\\nAntonius, M. (orator), as-\\nsassinated, 220.\\nAntony (Marcus Anto-\\nnius), Consul with\\nCaesar, 298 offers a\\ndiadem to Caesar, 298;\\ntakes possession of\\nCaesar s papers and\\ntreasures, 301 pro-\\nnounces the funeral ora-\\ntion over the body of\\nCaesar, 302 master of\\nRome, 302 attacked by", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "372\\nINDEX.\\nCicero in his Philippics,\\n304 retires to Cisal-\\npine Gaul, and besieges\\nMutina, 304 declared\\na public enemy, 304\\ndefeats Pansa, 304 is\\ndefeated by Hirtius,305\\nreceived in Further Gaul\\nby Lepidus, 305 forms\\nTriumvirate with Oc-\\ntavian and Lepidus,\\n305 defeats Cassius at\\nPhilippi, 309 licen-\\ntious conduct in Asia\\nMinor, and meeting\\nwith Cleopatra, 311, 312,\\nfollows her to Alex-\\nandria, 312 his troops\\ndefeat d in Syria, 313\\nmeets his wife and\\nbrother at Athens, 313\\nhis wife dies, 313 forms\\nan alliance with Sextus\\nPompeius, 313 marries\\nOctavia, sister of Octa-\\nvian, 314 returns to the\\nEast with Octavia, 314\\nhis success in Syria,\\n314 makes another\\ntreaty with Octavian.\\n315 renews his union\\nwith Cleopatra, 316 is\\ndefeated in Parthia, 317\\nreturns to Alexandria,\\n317 is defeated by Oc-\\ntavian in the battle of\\nActium, 318 is again\\ndefeated at Alexandria,\\n319 stabs himself, 319.\\nApollonia, besieged by\\nPhilip V. of Macedon,\\n130.\\nAppellatio, 147.\\nAppius Claudius, the de-\\ncemvir, 45, 48.\\nAppius Claudius Caecus,\\n82 his son, 86.\\nAquae Sextiae, battle at,\\n203.\\nAquillius, M Consul,\\nsuppresses the Second\\nServile War iu Sicily,\\n205 is defeated, and\\nmade prisoner by Mlth-\\nridates, 223.\\nArcadius, emperor, 364.\\nArchelaus defeated at\\nChaeronea, 224 and\\nat Orchomenus, 224.\\nAi chimedes, 113.\\nAriobarzanes expelled\\nfrom Cappadocia, 223\\nrestored, 223 again ex-\\npelled, 223 restored to\\nhis kingdom, 254.\\nAriovistus defeated by\\nCaesar, 274.\\nAristobiilus surrenders to\\nPompey, 253.\\nArmenia, Pompey in, 257.\\nArmy, Roman, organisa-\\ntion of, 148.\\nArtaxata, victory of Lu-\\ncuUus at, 247 sub-\\nmission of Tigranes at,\\n252.\\nAs (weight), 23.\\nAscanius, legend of, 9.\\nA^culum, levolt at, 211.\\nAtelldnae Fabulae, 326.\\nAthenio, leader of slaves\\nin Sicily, 205 defeated\\nand slain by Aquillius,\\n205.\\nAthens, 129, 224.\\nAttains Philometor, 177.\\nAttila, 367.\\nAugurs, 19, 62.\\nAugustus, title conferred\\non Octavian, 339 sets\\nout for Spain, 340 Can-\\ntabri finally crushed,\\n340 resigns the consul-\\nship, 340 superintends\\nthe corn -supply of Rome,\\n341 regulates the affairs\\nof the East, 342 passes\\nthe Leges JuUae, 342\\nvisits Gaul, 342 suc-\\nceeds Lepidus as Ponti-\\nfex Maximus, 343\\ndivorces Scribonia and\\nmarries Livia Drusilla,\\n344 Tiberius appointed\\nhis colleague, 344 his\\ndeath, 344.\\nAurunci, 6.\\nAutronlus Paetus, P., 260.\\nB.\\nBalearic sliagers, 151.\\nBatavi, revolt of, 351.\\nBelgic War, 274.\\nBIbiilus, M 268, 269, 291.\\nBlaesus, Junius, with P.\\nDolabella, defeats Tac-\\nfarinas, 346.\\nBoadicea, queen of the\\nIceni. defeated, 350.\\nBoii, 3, 97 finally con-\\nquered and slaughtered,\\n138.\\nBononia (Bologna), colony\\nat, 138.\\nBosporus, Cimmerian, 252.\\nBrennus, 55, 56, 58.\\nBritain, first invasion by\\nCaesar, 276 second in-\\nvasion, 277 invasion\\nof, by Claudius, 349\\nrevolt in, 350 Agrioola\\n353-\\nBruttii, 6.\\nBrutus, D., besieges Mas-\\nsilia, 290 governor of\\nCisalpine Gaul, 302\\ncommands agamst An-\\ntony, 305 put to death\\nat Aquileia, 305.\\nBrutus, L. Junius, 28, 29\\nhis death, 31.\\nBrutus, M. Junius,\\nPraetor, conspires with\\nCassius and others to\\nassassinate Caesar, 298\\nretires to Macedonia,\\n303; collects an army\\nin Macedonia, 308\\nplunders Lycia, 308\\ncrosses over into Thrace,\\n309 defeated by Oc-\\ntavian at Philippi, 310;\\nslays himself, 310.\\nc.\\nCaecilius, Q., 274.\\nCaesar, Caius Julius, early\\nlife, 256, 257 Quaestor,\\n257 Aedile, 257 re-\\nstores statues and tro-\\nphies of Marius, 257\\nPropraetor in Spain,\\n268 his conquests there,\\n268 Consul, 268 forms\\ncabal with Pompey and\\nCrassus (first Trium-\\nvirate), 268 carries\\nAgrarian Law, 268\\nsupports Pompey, and\\ngives him his only\\ndaughter Julia in mar-\\nriage, 269 divorces his\\nwife, 270 obtains com-\\nmand in Gaul, 269 ist\\ncampaign in Gaul, 274\\n2nd, 274 3rd, 275 4th,\\n275 5th, 277 6th, 278\\n7th, 278: 8th, 280;\\nrivalry of Pompey, 284-\\n287 quarters at Ra-\\nvenna, 286 ordered to\\ndisband his army, 287\\nrefuses and crosses the\\nRubicon, 288 enters\\nRome, 289 conquers", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n373\\nbis opponents in Spain,\\n290 short Dictatorship,\\n291 crosses to Greece\\nto encounter Pompey,\\nagi total defeat of\\nPompey in the battle of\\nPharsalue, 292; Dictator,\\n294; pursues Pompey\\ninto Egypt, 294 sup-\\nports Cleopatra, 294\\nconquers Pharnaces,\\n294 returns to Rome,\\n294 defeats Pompeian\\narmy in Africa, 295\\nmaster of the Roman\\nworld, and Dictator for\\nten years, 295 his\\nTriumph, 296 his\\nclemency and reforms,\\n291, 296, 297 Impera-\\ntor and Dictator for life,\\n297 conspiracy ag .inst\\nhim, 298 assassination,\\n299 cliaracter, 299 his\\ncharacter as a writer,\\n335-\\nCaesar, Gains (Caligula),\\nsucceeds Tiberius, 347\\nrestores the comitia\\nand discourages the\\ndelatiirts, 347 causes\\nthe death of his cousin,\\nTiberius Gemellus, 347\\nhis expeditions to Gaul\\nand Germany travestied,\\n348 his freaks and\\ncap ices, 348 assassin-\\nated, 348.\\nCaesar, L. Julius, Consul,\\n212 in Social War, 212\\nproposes Lex Julia,\\n213\\nCalabria, 7.\\nCaligula, 347,. 348.\\nCalpurnian Law, De Repe,-\\ntundis, 188.\\nCamillus, M. Furius, 53,\\n54. 57. 58, 61, 64.\\nCampagna, 6.\\nCampania, 6.\\nCannae, battle of, 107.\\nCantabriaiis, 139, 173, 340.\\nCanuleia, Lex, 50.\\nCapitolium, 28.\\nCapua opens its gates to\\nHannibal, 108 retalien\\nby the Romans, 117.\\nCaracalla, reign of, 359.\\nCaractacus, 349.\\nCarbo, Cn. Papirius, Con-\\nsul, joins Cinna, 227.\\nCarthage, 84; capture and\\ndestruction of, 171 re-\\nbuilt by the Pomans,\\n171.\\nCarthaginians, their navy,\\n87 defeated by the Ro-\\nman navy, 88, 89, 93.\\nCatilina, L. Sergius, early\\nlife, 260 conspiracy,\\n260, 262 accused by\\nCicero, 262 leaves\\nRome, 262 collects\\ntroops, 263 defeated\\nand slain, 264.\\nCassius Longlnus,C., fights\\nunder Crassus in Meso-\\npotamia. 283 conducts\\nthe retreat to Syria, 283\\noriginates the conspi-\\nracy against Caesar,\\n298 retires into SjTia,\\n303 defeats Dolabella\\nin Syria, 308 plunders\\nRhodes, 308 marches\\nwith Brutus into Thrace,\\n309 defeated by An-\\ntony at Philippi, 309\\nhis death, 309.\\nCato, M. Porcius, in Spain,\\n139; Quaestor, Pr*tor,\\nConsul, 156, 157 Cen-\\nsor, 160 his reforms,\\n160 his prejudices,\\n160, 161 his severity\\nand avarice, 161 his\\ncharacter as a writer,\\n334-\\nCato, M. Porcius. advo-\\ncates the death of the\\nCatilinarian conspira-\\ntors, 263 his death at\\nUtica, 295.\\nCatullus, Valerius, 327.\\nCatiilus, Q. Lntatius, com-\\nbines with Marius in\\nthe overthrow of the\\nCimbri, 204 his death\\nby order of Marius, 220.\\nCataius, Q. Lutatius (son),\\nhails Cicero as Father\\nof his Country, 264.\\nCaudine Forks, battle at,\\n70. _\\nCeltiberians, tribes of,\\n139; war with, 175.\\nCenomani, 3.\\nCensors, 51, 144.\\nf^ensus, 51, 114.\\nCenturiones, 149.\\ni^ethegus, C. Cornelius,\\n261, 263.\\nChalons, battle of, 367.\\nChosroes, king, 355.\\nCicero, M. Tullius, early\\nlife, studies, and success\\nas an orator, 257 Qu\u00c2\u00bbs\\ntor, 258 prosecutes\\nVerres, 258 his speech\\nfor Sex. Roscius of\\nAmeria, 258 studies\\nat At ens and in Asia\\nMinor, 258 Aedile,\\nPraetor, 259; Consul,\\n261 opposes agrarian\\nlaw of Rullus, 261\\ndenounces Catiline,\\n262 arrests conspira-\\ntors, 263 hostility of\\nlodius, 270 his banish-\\nment, 271 his return to\\nRome, 272 joius the\\nparty of Caesar s assas-\\nsins, 301 his Philippics\\nagainst Antony, 304\\nstimulates the Senate\\nagainst Antony and Oc\\ntavian, 305 is included\\nin the list of proscrip-\\ntions, 307 his death,\\n307 his character as a\\nwriter, 334.\\nCimbri, 201 they enter\\nand r .vage Spain, 202\\nenter Jtaly, destroyed\\nby Aiarius and Catulus,\\n204.\\nCincinnatus and the\\nAequians, 41.\\nCincius Alimentus, L.,\\n334-\\nCinna, L., Consul, 219;\\nconflict with Octavius,\\n219 associated with\\nMarius, 220 their mas-\\nsacres in Rome, 220;\\nmurdered by his army,\\n227.\\nCircus Maximus, 21.\\nCisalpine Gaul, a Roman\\nprovince, 138.\\nCives Romani, 81.\\nCivilis, Julius, 331.\\nCleopatra, Queen of Egypt,\\nmeets M. Antony at\\nTarsus, 311 attracts\\nhim to Alexandria, 312\\nis deserted for Octavia,\\n314 again attracts An-\\ntony, who returns with\\nher to Alexandr.a, 317\\nwar declared against her\\nby the Senate, 318\\ndefeated w th Antony\\nat Actium, 318 de-\\nceives Antony, but fails\\nto deceive Octavian,\\n319 kills herself, 320.\\nClients, 16.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "374\\nINDEX.\\nClodius Pulcher, P., pro-\\nfligate conduct of, 270\\ntribune, 270 procures\\nthe banishment of Ci-\\ncero, 271 killed by\\nMilo, 284.\\nClusium besieged, 55.\\nCohorts, 151.\\nCollatia, CoUatinus, 21.\\nColonies, Roman, 52.\\nComitia Centuriata, 25,\\n146.\\nComitia Curiata, 18, 25,\\n146.\\nComitia TribUia Plehis,\\n44, 48, 62, 147.\\nComitia TribUta Populi,\\n63, TJ7.\\nCommodus, 357, 358.\\nConstantin e, reign of, 361\\nConsuls, duties of, 143.\\nCorbulo, Domitius, 350.\\nCorfinium, 212.\\nCorinth burnt, 167.\\nCoriolanus, C. Marcius,\\n39; banished from Rome,\\n39 invades Rome at\\nthe head of a Volscian\\narmy, 39 spares the\\ncity, 39 his death, 40.\\nCornelia, n.ilher of the\\nGr.icchi, 8\\nCornelia, daughter of Cin-\\nna, married to Caesar,\\n256 her death, 257.\\nCorneliae Legfs, 233.\\nCornelii, slaves so called,\\n232.\\nCors ca and Sardinia,\\nform d into a Roman\\nprovince, 96 revolt in\\n140.\\nCotta, C. Aurellus, lawyer,\\n258.\\nCotta, L. Aurelius, 260.\\nCotta, M. Aurelius, de-\\nfeated by Mithridates,\\n246.\\nCrassus, P. Licinius, de-\\nfeated by Aristonicus,\\n177.\\nCrassus. M. Licinms,\\nPraetor, appointed to\\ncommand the army\\nagainst the Gladiators.\\n-41 defeats and slays\\nSpartacus, 241 Consul\\nwith Pompey, 242\\nforms first Triumvirate\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with Caesar and Pom-\\npey, 268 meets Caesar\\nand Pompey at Luca,\\n281; second Consulship\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with Pompey, 282 his\\ncommand in Syria, 282\\ncrosses the Euphrates,\\n283 defeated and killed,\\n283.\\nCremona besieged, 138.\\nCretan archers (l agit-\\ntarii), 151.\\nCuriae, 18.\\nCuriatii, 14.\\nCurius, M defeats Pyr-\\nrhus, 80.\\nCurtius, M., legend of, 64.\\nCurSles Magistratus, 142.\\nDecemvirate, 44 Decem-\\nviri appointed, 44 their\\ntyranny, 45 the Twelve\\nTables, 48 Decemviri\\ncontinue in office, 45\\nthey assassinate Sicini-\\nus Dentatus, 46 Ver-\\nginia slain by her father\\nto save her from the\\nDecemvir Appius Clau-\\ndius, 47 resignation of\\nthe Decemvirs, 47.\\nDeeius, emperor, 359.\\nDecius Mus, P., self-sac-\\nrifice, 68; his son, 72.\\nDecuriones, 150.\\nDeintarus, tetrarch of Ga-\\nlatia, 254.\\nDemetrius of Pharos, 96,\\n129.\\nDictatorship, 34, 144 re-\\nvived by Sulla, 231.\\nDiocletian, reign of, 360.\\nDolabella, Cn., accused of\\nextortion, 256.\\nDolabella, P., governor of\\nSyria, puts an end to his\\nown life, 308.\\nDomitian, succeeds Titus,\\n353 leads a campaign\\nagainst the Chatti, 353\\nryiuces the power of the\\nsenate, 353 celebrates\\na triumph, 353 recalls\\nAgricola from Britain,\\n353 meets reverses in\\nwar, 353 his manage-\\nment of public affairs,\\n353 persecution of\\nChristians, 353 assassi-\\nnated, 35\\nDrama, Koman, 322.\\nDrepanum, siege of, 93.\\nDrusus, Libo, his con-\\nspiracy, 345.\\nDrusus, M., Livius, 189,\\n190.\\nDrusus, M. Livius, son\\nof the opponent of C.\\nGracchus, elected a\\nTribune, endeavours to\\nobtain the Roman\\nfranchise for the Al-\\nlies, 209 assassinated,\\n210.\\nDrusus, Nero Claudius,\\n343. 344-\\nEburones, revolt of the,\\n277.\\nEgypt, 129 added to the\\nRoman Empire, 320\\nthe granary of Rome,\\n341-\\nElection of ten Tribunes,\\n47-\\nEnna (Servile War), 177.\\nEnnius, Q., 323.\\nEquestrian Order, 54, 188.\\nKtruria, 4.\\nlitruscans, their name\\nlanguage, origin, and\\nportions of Italy occu-\\npied by them, 3, 4 wars\\nwith the, 52 defeated,\\n71 in league with the\\nUmbrians, 72 defeated\\nat Lake Vadimo, 74.\\nEumenes, king of Perga-\\nmns. obtains the Cher-\\nsonnese, Mysia, Lydia,\\nand part of Caria, 135.\\nEunus (Servile AVar), 177.\\nr.\\nFabia Gens and the Veien-\\ntines, 40.\\nFabius, Lieutenant, de-\\nfeated by Mithridates,\\n247.\\nFabius Maximus, Q., ap-\\npointed Dictator, and to\\nthe command-in-chief\\nagainst Hannibal, 106\\nstyled the Gunctator, or\\nLingerer, 106 ob-\\ntains Tarentum, 117.\\nFabius Pictor, Q., 334.\\nFabius Sanga. Q., 262.\\nFalerii surrenders to the\\nRomans, 53.\\nFescennine songs, 326.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n371\\nFetidles, x$.\\nFidenae taken and de-\\nstroyed, 53.\\nFimbria defeated, slays\\nhimself, 225.\\nFlamens, 13.\\nFlamininus, T.,Quinctius,\\nappointed to the com\\nmand against Philip V.,\\nwhose army is defeated\\nin the battle of Cynos-\\ncephalae, 131 pro-\\nclaims the independence\\nof Greece, 132 with-\\ndraws the Roman garri-\\nsons from all the towns\\nof Greece, and returns\\nto Italy, 132.\\nFlaminius, C, defeats the\\nInsubres, gy is defeated\\n^y Hannibal, near Lake\\nI rasimenus, and slain,\\n105.\\nForum Ulpianum, 355.\\nFossa Mariana, 203.\\nFulvia (mistress of Q.\\nCurius), 262.\\nFulvia, wife of M. Antony,\\n312 is driven out of\\nRome, and defeated at\\nPerusla, 312 dies at\\nSicyon, 313.\\nFulvius Nobilior, M., be-\\nsieges and captures the\\ntown of Ambracia, 134.\\nGabii, 28.\\nGabinius, A., 249.\\nGaiseric, 367.\\nGalatia, 128.\\nGalatians attacked by Cn.\\nManlius Vulso, defeated\\nin two battles, and com-\\npelled to sue for peace,\\n135-\\nGalba, Ser. Sulpicins, his\\ntreachery, 173.\\nGalba, Servius S ilpicius,\\nproclaimed emperor,\\n350 marches for Rome,\\n350 puts down an\\nattempt to seize the\\nthrone, 350 adopts Piso\\nLicinianus as his asso-\\nciate, 350 killed, 35:.\\nGallia Cisalpina, 2.\\nGallaecians, 139, 175.\\nGaul, Caesar s wars in,\\n273-280.\\nGauls in Italy, 2 (Insu-\\nbres), 3 conquered, 97\\n(Senones) besiege Clu-\\nsium, 55 march against\\nRome, 56 battle of the\\nAllia, 56 Rome de-\\nstroyed. 57 the Capitol\\nbesieged, 57 Capitol\\nsaved, 57.\\nGentes, Roman, 16.\\nGermanicus, nephew of\\nAugustus, takes com-\\nmand in Germany, 343\\nrecalled, 343 defeats\\nthe Marsi, 345 cele-\\nbrates a triumph, 345\\nsent to the East, 345\\ndies at Antioch, 345.\\nGermanicus, Tiberius\\nClaudius Drusus, elected\\nemperor, 348 passes\\nmany useful reforms,\\n348 completes the Aqua\\nClaudia, builds the port\\nof Ostia, and drains\\nLake Fucinus, 348\\nmakes changes in the\\nEast, 349 grants ex-\\ntension of franchise,349\\nhis conquests of parts of\\nBritain, 349 his mar-\\nriages, 349 death, 349.\\nGermany, wars in, 343,\\n346-\\nGlabrio, M Acilius, 248.\\nGlaucia, 208.\\nGoths, first invasion of,\\n359 later invasions,\\n363, .365.\\nGracchi, 179-191.\\nGracchus, Caius Sempro-\\nnius (the Tribune), re-\\nturns from Sardinia,\\n187 elected Tribune,\\n187 his legal reforms,\\n187-189 opposed by\\nin. Livius Drusus. i8g;\\nmurdered, 190.\\nGracchus, Ti. Sempro-\\nnius (father of the Tri-\\nbunes), subdues Spain,\\n140.\\nGracchus, Ti. Sempro-\\nnius (the Tribune),\\nQuaestor in Spain, 181\\nat the siege of Carthage,\\n181 elected Tribune,\\n18 1; introduces Agra-\\nrian Law, 181, 182 his\\nmurder, 184.\\nGraecia, Magna, 7, 74.\\nGreek colonies in Italy, 7.\\nH.\\nHadrian, reign of, 356.\\nHamilcar excites Gauls\\nand Ligurians against\\nRomans, 137.\\nHamilcar Barca, 93 re-\\nlieves Lilybaeum and\\nDrepanum, 93 con-\\nquests in Spain, 98\\ndeath, 98.\\nHannibal elected to suc-\\nceed Hasdrubal, 99 first\\ncampaigns in Spain, 99\\nbesieges and takes Sa-\\nguntum, 99 crosses\\nthe Iberus and the Py-\\nrenees with a large\\narmy, 102 reaches the\\nRhone, 102 crosses the\\nAlps, 103 encamps in\\nthe plains of the Po,\\namong the Insubres,\\n103 reduces the Tau-\\nrini, 103 defeats the\\narmy of Scipio near the\\nTiclnus, 104 defeats\\ncombined army of Scipio\\nand Longus near the\\nTrebia, 104 marches\\nthrough Liguria to the\\nArno, 104 defeats C.\\nFlaminius at Lake Tra-\\nsimenus, 105 eludes Q.\\nFabius and defeats Mi-\\nnucius, 107 annihi-\\nlates an immense Ro-\\nman army at Cannae,\\n107 marches into Sam-\\nnium and Campania,\\nand obtains Capua, 108\\nhis rapid marches, in\\ncampaigns of b.c. 215-\\n213, III, 112; obtains\\nTarentum, 112 mar-\\nches up to the walls of\\nRome, but Is unable to\\ntake the city, 116 loses\\nCapua, 117 loses Sa-\\nlapia, 117; destroys the\\narmy of Cn. Fulvius at\\nHerdoniae, 117; loses\\nTarentum, 117; is re-\\ncalled from Italy, 125\\ndefeated by Scipio near\\nZama, 126 is protected\\nby Antiochus, after\\nwhose defeat at Mag-\\nnesia, he escapes, and\\nis received by Prusias,\\nking of Bithynia, 134,\\n159 is demanded by", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "376\\nINDEX.\\nRome, takes poison, and\\ndies, i6o.\\nHanno, in command of\\nCarthaginian fleet, de-\\nfeated by Lutatius Catu-\\nlUB, 93.\\nHasdriibal succeeds Ha-\\nmilcar, 98 founds New\\nCarthage, 98 assassi-\\nnated, 99.\\nHasdrubal, brother of\\nHannibal, marches from\\nSpain into Italy, 118;\\nis defeated on the Me-\\ntaurus, and sUin, 119.\\nHastati, 150.\\nHelvetii defeated by Cae-\\nsar, 274.\\nHernicans, 5, 71.\\nHIero, king of Syracuse,\\n86 besieges Messana,\\n86 is defeated by the\\nRomans, and makes\\npeace, 87 his death,\\n112.\\nHirtius, A., Consul, de-\\nfeats Antony at Mutina,\\nbut is slain, 305.\\nHispania Citerlor and Ul-\\nterior, 139.\\nHonorius, 364-366.\\nHoratii, 14.\\nHoratius Flaccus, Q.\\n(poet), 330.\\nHortensia, Lex, 63.\\nHortensius, Q. (orator),\\n216, 217, 250, 251, 258.\\nHostilius Mancinus, C,\\ndefeated by the Celtibe-\\nrians, 175.\\nHuns, 367.\\nlapygians, 7.\\nIceni, revolt of, under\\nQueen Boadicea, 350.\\nTgnobiles, 155.\\nIllyria and lUyrians, 96.\\nIllyrian wars, 96.\\nIstria subdued, 140.\\nItalia, 2.\\nItalians proper, 4.\\nItaly, geography of, i\\nearly inhabitants of, i\\nstruggles in Central\\nItaly, 72 improvement\\nof agriculture, 355.\\nlulus, or Ascanlus, 9.\\nJanlciilum fortified, 16.\\nJanus, temple of, 14\\nclosed for the second\\ntime, 96 for the third\\ntime, 320, 338 for the\\nfourth time, 340.\\nJerusalem taken by Pom-\\nP6y.253; (le.str()yed,352.\\nJugurtha, under Scipio in\\nSpain, 176 early life,\\n193 bribes the Sena-\\ntors, iq4 defeats Ad-\\nherbal, and puts him to\\ndeath, 194 war declared\\nagainst him, but comes\\nto Home under safe con-\\nduct, 195 murders Mas-\\nsiva, and is ordered to\\nquit Italy, 195 defeated\\nby Metellus, 196 and\\nby Marius, 199, who\\ntakes him prisoner, and\\nconveys him to Rome,\\nwhere he is starved in\\nprison, 199, 200.\\nJulia, aunt of Caesar, 193;\\nher death, 257.\\nJulia, daughter of Caesar,\\n269, 284.\\nJulia, Lex, 213.\\nJulian, reign of, 362, 363.\\nJovian, emperor, 363.\\nJupiter Capitolinus, tem-\\nple of,burned, 351 new\\ntemple of, burned, 353.\\nJus Imdginum, 155.\\nE.\\nKings of Rome, 10-30.\\nLaberius, D., 326.\\nLatin War for the restora-\\ntion of Tarquin, 33\\nbattle of the Lake Re-\\ngillus, 34; Great Latin\\nWar, 67 battle at the\\nfoot of Vesuvius, 68\\nself-sacrifice of P. De-\\ncius Mus, 68 defeat of\\nthe Latins, 68 battle at\\nTrifanum, 68.\\nLatins, 4, 6.\\nLatium, 6 part of, incor-\\nporated with the Re-\\npublic of Rome, 68.\\nLegends of early Roman\\nhistory, 9.\\nLeges and Plebiscita, 147.\\nLegiones, 148-151.\\nLentOlus, Cn., his con-\\nspiracy, 348 and death,\\n348.\\nLentiilus Sura, P. Corne-\\nlius, 261, 263.\\nLepidus, M., Consul op-\\nposes the public funeral\\nof Sulla, 233 proposes\\nthe repeal of Sulla s\\nlaws, 237 collects an\\narmy and marches upon\\nRome, 238 is defeated\\nnear the Mulviun\\nBridge, retires to Sar-\\ndinia, and dies, 238.\\nLepidus, JM., Master of\\nthe Horse, 298 forms\\nTriumvirate with Octa-\\nvian and Antony, 305\\nin Africa and Sicily,\\n313. 316.\\nLicmian Rogations and\\nLaws, 60, 180.\\nLudi Saeculares, ceh bra-\\ntion of the, 342.\\nLiguria, 2, 3 Ligurians,\\n3-\\nLilybaeum, sieges of, 79,\\n92, 93.\\nLmgones, 3.\\nLivia Drusilla, wife of\\nAugustus, 344 her\\naims, 344.\\nLivitis Andronlcus, M.,\\n323.\\nLivitis Titus, 336.\\nLucaniaand Lucanians, 6.\\nLucanians, 74, 214.\\nLScgres, 17.\\nLucilius, C., 327.\\nLucretius Carus, T. (poet).\\n327\\nLucullus, L. Tiicinius, op-\\nposes and defeats Mith-\\nridates in Bithynia\\nand Pontus, 246 sends\\nAppus Claudius to Ti-\\ngranes, 246 his reforms\\nin Asia, 247 defeats\\nTigranes at Tigrano-\\ncerta and at Artaxata,\\n247 recalled, and su-\\nperseded by Pompey,\\n251.\\nLudi Magni, 142.\\nLusitania, invaded by Ser.\\nSulplciuB Galba, 173", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n377\\nsuccesses of Caesar in,\\n268.\\nLusitanians, 139, 174-5.\\nM.\\nMacedonia, kingdom of,\\n129.\\nMacedonian Wars, 129,\\n162.\\nMaelius, Sp., slain, 51.\\nM igister Equitum, 34, 69.\\nMagna Graecia, 7, 74.\\nMamertini, 86.\\nMauilian Law, Cicero s ad-\\ndress in favour of, 250.\\nManilius, C, I ribune, 250.\\nManipuli, 149.\\nManlius, M., saves the\\nCapitol, 57 patron of\\nthe poor, 59 his fate,\\n60.\\nManlius Torquatus, L.,\\n260.\\nManlius Torquatus. T., le-\\ngend of, 59 and of his\\nson, 67.\\nManlius Vulso, Cn., defeats\\nthe Galatians and after-\\nwards, in conjunction\\nwith commissioners,\\nconcludes a peace with\\nAntiochus, and settles\\nthe affairs of Asia, 135.\\nMarcellus, M., Consul, ar-\\nrives in Sicily, 112;\\ntakes Leontini, 113 in-\\nvests Syracuse, where\\nhe is baffled by Archi-\\nmedes, 113 but finally\\ncaptures it, 114 takes\\nSalapia, 117 defeated\\nand slain in Lucania,\\n118.\\nMarous Aurelius, reign\\nof, 357-\\nMarius, C, early life, 193\\nin Spain with Scipio,\\n193 elected Tribune,\\n193 sends the Consul\\nMetellus to prison, 193\\nelected Praetor, 193\\nmarries Julia, sister of\\nJulius Caesar the elder,\\n193; accompanies Me-\\ntellus to Africa, 196\\nreturns to Rome, and\\nis elected Consul, with\\ncommand in Numidia,\\n198 repulses a com-\\nbined attack of Ju-\\ngurtha and Bocchus, 199;\\nattaches Bocchus to the\\nKomans, and takes Ju-\\ngurtha prisoner, both by\\nthe agency of his Quaes-\\ntor Sulla, 199; elected\\nConsul during his ab-\\nsence, and returns to\\nRome, leading Jugurtha\\nin triumph, 200 reor-\\norganises the army, 202\\nelected Consul a third\\nand fourth time, 203\\ndefeats and destroys the\\nCimbri, Teutones, and\\nAmbrones, 204 elected\\nConsul a fifth time, and\\nhas a Triumph, 204\\nenters into a compact\\nwith Saturninus and\\nGlaucia, 206 and is\\nelected Consul a sixth\\ntime, 206 loses reputa-\\ntion, and sets sail for\\nCappadocia and Galatia,\\n208 in the Social War,\\n213 is surpassed by\\nSulla, 213 intrigues to\\nobtain the command\\nagainst Mithridates, 215;\\nis opposed by Sulla, who\\nenters Home with his\\narmy, and Marius makes\\nhis escape, 217 his suf-\\nferings, risks, and return\\nto Rome with Cinna,\\n218, 220 his conquests\\nand the massacres in\\nRome, 220 in con-\\njunction with Cinna\\nelects himself Consul\\nfor the seventh time,\\n220 his death, 220.\\nMarius, the younger, de-\\nfeated by Sulla, 229\\norders his opponents to\\nbe put to death, 229\\nembarks for Africa, 229\\nputs an end to his own\\nlife, 230.\\nMarrucini, 5.\\nMarsi, 5.\\nMarsic or Social War, 178-\\n180\\nMasinissa, enters into\\ntreaty with Scipio, 122\\nassists Scipio, 12s aids\\nScipio to defeat Hasdru-\\nbal and Syphax, 125\\nmarries and loses\\nSophonisba, 125.\\nMediterranean Sea infest-\\ned with pirates, 249.\\nMemmius, C, compels\\nthe war with Jugurtha,\\n195 murdered, 207.\\nM6napli defeated by Cae-\\nsar, 275\\nMSnenlus Agrippa, fable\\ntold by, 37.\\nMercenary war at Car-\\nthage, 95.\\nMessana, 85.\\nMetellus Celer, 264, 267.\\nMetellus, L., defeats the\\nCarthaginians at Panor-\\nmus, 91.\\nMetellus (Macedonicus),\\nQ 166.\\nMetellus Nepos, 264.\\nMetellus (Nnmidicus), Q.\\nCaecilius, Consul, con-\\nducts the war in Africa\\nagainst Jugurtha, 196\\nsuperseded by Marius,\\n198.\\nMettius Fuffetius, 15.\\nMilitary Tribunes ap-\\npointed, 51.\\nMimes, 326\\nMithridates, king of Ar-\\nmenia, 349\\nMithridates V., king of\\nPontus, assassinated,\\n222,\\nMithridates VI., king of\\nPont i -s early life, 222\\nconquests and alliances,\\n222 orders a mas-\\nsacre of Romans and\\nItalians in the cities of\\nAsia, 223 defeated by\\nL. Valerius Flaccus and\\nby Fimbria, 224 ob-\\ntains peace on hard con-\\nditions, 225 defeats\\nMurena on the Halys,\\n244 makes peace with\\nRome, and evacuates\\nCappadocia, 245 re-\\nnews the war with\\nRome, 245 overruns\\nBithynia, and defeats\\nCotta, 246 retreats\\nbefore LucuUus into\\nPontus, 246 defeated\\nby LucuUus at Cabira,\\nand takes refuge in Ar\\nmenia, 246 defeats Fa\\nbins and Triarius, 248\\nunites with Tigranes,\\nwhen they overrun Pon\\ntus and Cappadocia, 248\\nis defeated by Pompey,\\n251 escapes into the\\nCimmerian Bosporus,\\n2j2 conspiracy of his", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "378\\nINDEX.\\nson Pharnaces, 253 his\\ndeath, 254.\\nMithridatic Wars first,\\n221-225; second, 244;\\nthird, 245-254.\\nAloorish dartmen, 151\\nMorini defeated by Csesar,\\n275-\\nMucins Scaevola, C, 33.\\nMulvian Bridge, battle of\\nthe, 238.\\nMurena, L., invades Cap-\\npadocia and Pontus,\\n244 is opposed by\\nMithridates, and de-\\nfeated, 244.\\nNaevius, Cn., 323.\\nNasica, Scipio, 184.\\nNavy, Carthaginian, 85, 87.\\nNavy, Roman, 87, 90.\\nNeapolis attacked, 69.\\nNepos, Cornelius, 336.\\nNero and Livius, Consuls,\\ndefeat Hasdrubal, 119.\\nNero, succeeds Claudius,\\n349 causes death of\\nBritanuicus, 34,) his\\nliaison with Poppaea,\\n349 divorces Octavia\\nand marries Poppaea,\\n350 accused of causing\\nthe great fire at Rome,\\n350 bis persecution of\\nChristians, 350 con-\\nspiracy to dethrone him,\\n350; his dissipations,\\n350 commits suicide,\\n35\u00c2\u00b0-\\nNerva, M.Cocceius, elected\\nemperor, 354 sanc-\\ntions execution of Domi-\\ntian s murderers, 354\\nchooses M. Ulpius Tra-\\njanus as consort, 354\\ndies, 354.\\nNervii defeated by Caesar,\\nof Bithynia, 223 re-\\nstored, 223 again ex-\\npelled, 223 dies, leav-\\ning his dominions to the\\nRoman people, 245.\\nNobiles, 155\\nNobility, 154-155.\\nNonius, A., murder of, 207.\\nNorbanus, C, Consul, de-\\nfeated by Sulla, 228.\\nNovus Homo, 155.\\nNuma Pomp lius elected\\nto succeed Romulus, 13\\nhis reign and institu-\\ntions, 13-14.\\nNumantine War, disas-\\ntrous till conducted by\\nScipio, 175, who cap-\\ntures and desti oys Nu-\\nmantia, 176.\\nNumidia, political condi-\\ntion of, and war in, 193-\\n200\\nNiimltor, 10.\\n0.\\nOctavian (C. Julius Caesar\\nOctavianus\\\\ appointed\\nheir to Caesar, 302\\ncomes to Rome, and\\nclaims the inheritance,\\n303 collects an army,\\n304 elected Consul,\\n305 forms Triumvirate\\nwith Antony and Lepi-\\ndus, 305 proscriptions,\\n306 defeats Brutus at\\nPhilippi, 309 returns\\nto Rome, 310 recon-\\nciliation with Antony,\\n313 his fleet destroyed\\nby Sextus Pompeius,3 1 5\\nrenews the Triumvirate,\\n315 subdues the Dal-\\nmatians, 317 rupture\\nwith Antony, 318; de-\\nfeats Antony and Cleo-\\npatra at Actium, 318\\nhis Triumph, 320, 338\\nPrinceps, Augustus,\\nPontifex Maximus, 320,\\n338 end of the Re-\\npublic, 320. See also\\nAugustus.\\nOctavius. See Octavian.\\nOetavius, Cn., against\\nCinna, 219 slain, 220.\\nOdoacer, 368.\\nOppian Law repealed, 157.\\nOscan language, 5.\\nOstia founded, 15.\\nOtho, M. Salvius, raises\\nmutiny among prae-\\ntorian guards, 351 suc-\\nceeds Galba, 351 makes\\novertures of peace to A.\\nVitellius, which are re-\\njected, 351 his army\\ndefeated, 351 commits\\nsuicide, 351.\\nOvldius Naso, P. (poet),\\n333- I\\nPacuvlus, M., 325.\\nPaeligni, 5.\\nPalaeopolis taken, 69.\\nPanormus, defeat there of\\nCarthaginians, 91.\\nPansa, C. Vibius, Consul,\\ndefeated by Antony, and\\nslain, =04.\\nPapius Matilus, C., 212\\ndefeated by Sulla, 213.\\nPatrts Majoi um and Mi-\\nnorum Gentium, 21,\\nPatricians, 16 strugglea\\nbetween them and the\\nPlebeians, 35 ascend-\\nancy of the Patricians,\\n35. _ See Plebeians.\\nPdtronus, 16.\\nPaulinas, Suetonius, 350.\\nPergamus, 128 made a\\nprovince, 177.\\nPerperna, M., reinforces\\nSertorius in Spain, 238\\nbecomes jealous of Ser-\\ntorius, and assassinat s\\nhim, 240 is defeated by\\nP5mpey, 240.\\nPerseus succeeds Philip as\\nking of Macedon, 162\\ndefeated by L. Aemilius\\nPaullus, 163 death,\\n164.\\nPertinax, reign of, 358.\\nPharnaces, conspiracy of,\\nagainst Mithridates,\\n253 confirmed in pos\\nsession of the king-\\ndom of the Bosporus,\\n254\\nPhilip v., king of Mace-\\ndon, enters into a treaty\\nwith Hannibal, m ap-\\npears in the Adriatic\\nwith a fleet, and lays\\nsiege to Oricum and\\nApoUonia, 130 takes\\nOricum, but is driven\\nfrom ApoUonia, and\\nburns his fleet, 130\\nin alliance with the\\nAchaeans and at peace\\nwith the Aetolians and\\nRomans, 130; assists\\nHannibal at Zama, 130\\nattacks the Rhodians\\nand Attalus, king of\\nPergamus, 130 treats\\nwith Antiochus for the\\npartition of Egypt, 130\\nbesieges Athens, which", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n379\\nis relieved by a Roman\\nfleet, 131 sues for peace\\nafter his defeat in ttie\\nbattle of Cynoscephalae,\\n131 refuses to take part\\nwith Antiochus against\\nthe Romans, 133 his\\ndeath, 162.\\nPhoenicians, 84.\\nPhalanx, 76, 131, 163.\\nPhraates, Parthian king,\\nrestores captured stan-\\ndards, 342.\\nPicentines, 5.\\nPiracy in the Mediterra-\\nnean suppressed by\\nPompey, 249, 250.\\nPiso, C. Calpnrnius, 350.\\nPlacentia, 138.\\nPlacidia, rule of, 367.\\nPlautia Papiria, Lex, 213.\\nPlautus, T. Maccius, 324.\\nPlebiscUa, 48, 62, 63 and\\nI.eges, 147.\\nPlebs, Plebeians, origin of\\nthe, 16 sufferings of\\nthe, 36 Ager Publicus,\\n36 secession of Ple-\\nbeians to the Sacred\\nMount, 37 institution\\nof Tribunes of the Plebs,\\n37 Agrarian Law in-\\ntroduced by Sp. Cassius,\\n38 retipwed struggles\\nof the Plebs, 43 the\\nTwelve Tables as ple-\\nbeian law, 48 distress\\nafter the Gallic invasion,\\n59 final struggle with\\nthe Patricians, 61 close\\nof the struggle and vic-\\ntory of the Plebeians, 63.\\nPneni, 84.\\nPomerium, n, 25.\\nPompaedius Silo, Q., 212.\\nPompeii and Herculane-\\num, destruction of, 352.\\nPompeiopolis, 250.\\nPompeius, Sextus, master\\nof the sea, 307 forms\\nalliance with Octavian\\nand Antony, 314 rup-\\nture of the alliance, 314\\ndefeats Octavian s fleet,\\n315 his own fleet de-\\nfeated by M. Agrippa,\\n316; is taken prisoner,\\nand put to death at Mi-\\nletus, 316.\\nPompeius Strabo, Cn., in\\nSocial War, 213.\\nPompey (Cn. Pompeius\\nMagnus), early life and\\ncareer, 238 -g receives\\nthe surname of Magnus,\\n239 sent to Spain as\\nProconsul against Ser-\\ntorius, 240 failures\\nand successes, 240 de-\\nfeats Perperna, 240\\nconcludes the war, 240\\nelected Consul with\\nCrassus, 242 restores\\nthe Tribunician power,\\n242 suppresses piracy\\nin the Mediterranean,\\n250 supersedes Lucul-\\nlusin the East, 251 de-\\nfeats Mithridates in\\nLesser Armenia, 251\\nreceives the submission\\nof Tigranes, 252 his\\nconquests in Syria and\\nPalestine, 253 returns\\nto Italy, 267 his Tri-\\numph, 267 Senate re-\\nfuses to sanction his\\nmeasures in Asia, 267\\nforms cabal with Caesar\\nand Crassus (first Tri-\\numvirate), 267 marries\\nCaesar s daughter Julia,\\n269 meets Caesar and\\nCrassus at I^uca, 281\\nConsul with Crassus,\\n282 obtains covern-\\nment of Spain, 28 his\\nnew theatre at Rome\\nopened 282 his w ife\\nJulia dies, 284 elected\\nsole Consul, 285 be-\\ncomes hostile to Caesar,\\n28 s measures in oppo-\\nsition to Caesar, 285,\\n286 invested by the\\nSenate with command\\nof the army, 287 re-\\ntreats before Cafsar,\\n289 embarks for Greece,\\n289 besieged by Caesar\\nat Dyrrachium, 292\\nforces Caesar to retreat,\\n292 defeated by Caesar\\nat Pharsalus, 2925 flies\\nto Egypt, 293 slain\\nthere, 2^3.\\nPontiffs, i8, 62.\\nPontine Marshes, 7, 298.\\nPontius, C, defeats the\\nRomans, 70; he or his\\nson is defeated and put\\nto death, 72.\\nPontius, the Samnite, 229.\\nPontus, 128 kingdom of,\\n221 made a Roman\\nprovince, 254.\\nR)roius Cato, M. .S ee Cato.\\nPorsgna, Lars, marches\\nagainst Rome in aid of\\nTarquin, 32 bridge de-\\nfended by Horalius Co-\\ndes, 32 C. Mucius\\nScaevola, 33 Cloelia\\nswims across the Tiber,\\n33 Porsena withdraws\\nhis army, 33.\\nPraeneste surrenders, 230.\\nPraetor Peregnnus, 143.\\nPraetorian Guard, power\\nof, 358.\\nPraetors and Praetorship,\\n62, 143.\\nPrincipate, 320.\\nPrinceps, 520.\\nPrinmpes, 150, 151.\\nPrivernum, conquests of,\\n69.\\nProconsuls, 6g, 143, 148.\\nPropertius, Sextus Aure-\\nlius (poet), 281.\\nPropraetors, 143, 148.\\nProscriptio, what it was,\\n193.\\nProscriptions, 230, 306.\\nProvinces, Roman, 148,\\n178, 254, 280.\\nProvocatio, 147.\\nPrusias, king of Bithynia,\\nshelters Hannibal, 134,\\n159 appears at Rome,\\n165.\\nPublilian Law (of Pub-\\nlilius Volero), 38. 44.\\nPublilian Laws (of Pub-\\nlilius Philol, 62.\\nPublicani. 145.\\nPunic War, First, 84-94\\nSecond, 101-127.\\nPyrrhus, king of Epirus,\\nassists the Tarentines,\\n76 defeats the Romans\\nnear Heraclea, 76 sends\\nCineas to negotiate a\\npeace, 77 terms re-\\njected, 77 marches on\\nRome, 77 winter\\nquarters at .Tarentum,\\n78 embassy of Fabri-\\ncius, 78 proposal to\\npoison Pyrrhus, 79 re-\\nleases Roman prisoners\\nwithout ransom, 79\\ncrosses over into Sicily,\\n79 is repulsed at Lily-\\nbaeum, 79 returns to\\nItaly, 79 seizes the\\ntreasures of the temple\\nof Persephone at Locri,\\n80 hia remorse, 80 is", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "380\\nINDEX.\\ndefeated at Beneventum,\\n80 returns to Greece\\nand is slain, So.\\nQuaestiones perpetuae,\\n235-\\nQuaestors and Quaestor-\\nship, 51, 142.\\nQulrites, 12.\\nR.\\nRamnes, 17.\\nKasena, 3.\\nRegillus, Lake, battle of,\\n34-\\nRSgulus, M. Atilius, de-\\nfeats the Carthaginians,\\n89 is defeated by Xaii-\\nthippus, 90; sent, as\\nprisoner, with an em-\\nbassy to Borne, 91\\nadvises the Senate to\\nreject the terms, 91\\nreturns, and is put to\\ndeath, 91.\\nRemus and Romiilus, 10.\\nRepetundae, 155, 188, 235.\\nRepublic established at\\nRome, 30; end of, 320.\\nRhea Silvia, legend of, 10.\\nRliodes, 129 school of\\nrhetoric at, 256.\\nRiclnier, Count, 368.\\nRngatio and Lex, 60.\\nRoma Quadrata, n.\\nRoman Literature, sketch\\nof 322-337 Poetry\\nSaturnian Metre and the\\nDrama, 322; M. Livius\\nAndronicus, 323 Cn.\\nNaevius, 323 Q. En-\\nnius, 323 T. Maccius\\nPlautus, 324 P. Teren-\\ntius Afer, 3-25 Statius\\nCaecilius, L. Afranius,\\n325 M. Pacuvius, 325\\nL. Accius, 325; Atel-\\nlanae Fabulae Mimes,\\n326 1). Laberius, P.\\nSyrus, 326 Fescennine\\nSongs. 326 Satires, 327\\nC. Lucilius, 327 T. Lu-\\ncretius Carus, 327 Va-\\nlerius Catullus, 328 P.\\nVirgilius Maro, 328 Q.\\nHoratius Flaccus, 330;\\nAlbius Tibullus, 332\\nSextus Aurelius Proper-\\ntius, 332 P. Ovidius\\nNaso, 333. Prose Wri-\\nters Q. Fabius Pictor,\\n334 L. Cincius Alimen-\\ntus, 334 M. Porcius\\nCato, 334 M. Tullius\\nCicero, 334; M. Teren-\\ntius Varro, 335 C. Ju-\\nlius Caesar, 336 C. Sal-\\nlustius Crispus, 336\\nCornelius Nepos, 336\\nTitus Livius, 336.\\nRome, situation and first\\ninhabitants, 8 legends\\nand early history, 9\\nfirst four kings, 11-16;\\nlast three kings, 16-28\\nfoundation of, 11; de-\\nstroyed by the Goths\\n(Senones) under Bren-\\nnus, 47 rebuilt, 48\\npestilence at, 52 nre\\nat, 350; sacked, 366, 367.\\nRomiilus, birth of, 10;\\nslays Remus, 11 rape\\nof Sabine virgins, 11\\nwar with Sabines, 12\\nreigns conjointly witii\\nTitus Tatius, 12; suc-\\nceeds T. Tatius as ruler\\nof the Sabines, and thus\\nbecomes sole ruler, 13;\\nhis disappearance, 13;\\ninstitutions, 18.\\nRomulus Augustulus, 368.\\nRupilius, P., captures\\nTauromenium and En-\\nna, and ends the First\\nServile War. 177.\\nRutilius Rufus, found\\nguilty, and banished,\\n20,^.\\nRutilTuj Lupus, P., Con-\\nsul, 212 defeated and\\nslain, 212.\\ns.\\nSabellians, 5.\\nSabine virgins, rape of, 11.\\nSabines, s, 11 (note).\\nSacred Mount, first seces-\\nsion to, 37 second se-\\ncession, 47\\nSaguntum captured, 99.\\nSalli, priests of Mars, 14.\\nSallustius Crispus, C, 336.\\nSalvius, leader of the\\nslavei in Sicily, 204\\nassumes the surname ol\\nTryphon, 205.\\nSamnites, 5, 65 conquer\\nCampania and Lucania,\\n65 attack the Sidicini\\nand Campanians, 65\\nenter into war with the\\nRomans, 66; are de-\\nfeated at Mount Gaurus,\\n66 peace, 66 second\\nor Great War with the\\nRomans, 6q quarrel be-\\ntween Q. Fabius Maxi-\\nmus and L. Papirius\\nCursor, 69 Samnite ge-\\nneral, C. Pontins, de-\\nfeats the Romans at\\nthe Caudine Forks, 70\\ntreaty rejected by the\\nRomans, 71 successes\\nof the Romans, and\\npeace, 71 th rd war, 72\\nbattle of Sentinum, 72\\ndefeat, and peace, 72.\\nSardinia obtained from\\nCarthage, and formed\\ninto a Roman province,\\n96 revolt in, 140 Prae-\\ntor for, 143.\\nSatires, Roman, 327.\\nSaturnian Metre, 322.\\nSaturninus, elected Tri-\\nbune, 207 brings in\\nan Agrarian Law, 207\\nmurders Memmius, 207\\nis declared a public\\nenemy, 208 pelted to\\ndeath with tiles by the\\nmob, 208.\\nScipio, Cneius, in Spain,\\n114; slain there, 116.\\nScipio, P. Cornelius,\\nmarches to oppose Han-\\nnibal, 103; killed in\\nSpain, 116.\\nScipio Africanus Major, P.\\nCornelius, his early lile,\\n120 elected Proconsul,\\nand goes to Spain, 121\\ncaptures New Carthage,\\n121 defeats Hasdrubal.\\n122 master of nearly\\nall Spain, by another\\nvictory, 122 crosses\\nover to Africa, 122\\nquells insurrection and\\nmutiny in Spain, 123\\ncaptures Gades, 123\\nreturns to Rome, and\\nis elected Consul, 123;\\npasses over to Sicily,\\nand thence to Africa,\\n124 besieges Utica,", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n381\\n124 is opposed by Has-\\ndrubal and Syphax,\\nwhom he defeats, 125\\ndefeats Hannibal near\\nZama, 126 prosecuted,\\n158 retires from Rome,\\n159 death, 159.\\nSciplo Africanus Minor,\\n169 captures and de-\\nstroys Carthage, 170,\\n171 sent to Spain, 175\\nopposes Ti. Gracchus,\\n185 found dead in his\\nroom, 185.\\nScipio, L. Cornelius (Asia-\\nticus), appointed to the\\ncommand against Anti-\\nochus, who had invaded\\nthe kingdom of Perga-\\n.mus, 134 defeats Anti-\\nochus near Magnesia,\\nand returns to Rome,\\n134 pi osecution of, 158.\\nScipio Nas ca, P. Corne-\\nlius, subdues the Boii,\\n138.\\nSejanus, Aelius, mtngues\\nof, 346 causes banish-\\nment of Agrppina, 346\\ncondemnation and exe-\\ncution, 347.\\nSempronian Laws, 187.\\nSenators bribed by Jugur-\\ntha found guilty by a\\ncommission, 196.\\nSenate, 18, 145.\\nStnatus Consaltum, 146.\\nSenones, 3, 55.\\nSeptimius Severus, 358.\\nSertorius, Q., in Spain,\\n238 is opposed to Pom-\\npey, 240 assassinated\\nby Perperna, 240.\\nServile War in Sicily,\\nfirst, 177 second, sup-\\npressed by M Aquil-\\nlius, 204.\\nServiltus, Q., murdered,\\n211.\\nServius Tullius, succeeds\\nTarquinius Prisons, 22\\nreforms the constitution,\\nand divides the terri-\\ntory, 23 increases the\\ncity, and surrounds it\\nwith a wall, 25 forms\\nan alliance with the\\nLatins, 26 his death,\\n26 his two daughters,\\n26.\\nSeven hills of Rome, 25.\\nSextlus, L., first Plebeian\\nConsul, 61.\\nSicily, invaded by the Ro-\\nmans, 86 made subject\\nto the Romans, except\\nSyracuse, 94 Praetor\\nfor, 143.\\nSicinius Dentatus slain, 46.\\nSidiclni, 65.\\nSlaves, under the Romans,\\n155, 161, 177, 179.\\nSocial War, or Marsic\\nWar, 211-214.\\nSScii, or Allies, 81 troops,\\nfurnished by, 150.\\nSociorum Praefecti, 150.\\nSoli, afterwards Pompeio-\\npolis, occupied by pi-\\nrates, 250.\\nSpain, in two provinces,\\n139 praetors for, 143.\\nSpanish wars, 139, 140,\\n173-176, 340-\\nSparta, 129.\\nSpartacus, a gladiator, ex-\\ncites an insurrection of\\nslaves, 241 devastates\\nItaly wit 1 a large army\\nof slaves, 241 defeated\\nby Crassus, 241 slain\\nin battle, 241.\\nSpolia oplvia, 12, 52, 98.\\nStilicho, 365.\\nSuffetes, 85.\\nSulla, C. Cornelius, early\\nlife and character, igg\\nQuaestor with Marius\\nin Africa, 200 gains\\nover Bocchus, and en-\\ntraps and makes a pri-\\nsoner of Fugurtha, 199\\nin Social War, 213\\nConsul, 215 rivalry\\nwith Marius, 216 enters\\nRome with his army,\\nand takes possession of\\nthe city, 217 leaves\\nRome for the East, 219\\nplunders Athens, 224;\\nvictory at Orchomenus,\\n224 makes peace with\\nMithridates, 225 over-\\ncomes Fimbria, 225 de-\\nfeats the younger Ma-\\nrius, and enters Rome,\\n229 battle with the\\nSamnites and Lucanians\\nfor the possession of\\nRome, 229 their defeat,\\n229 elected Dictator,\\n231 his massacres and\\nproscriptions, 230 elec-\\nted Consul, 231 his\\nTriumph, and assumed\\ntitle of Felix, 231 bis\\nmilitary colonies, 232\\nhis reforms, 233-236\\nresignation of Dictator-\\nship, retirement and\\ndeath, 232, 233.\\nSulpicius Rufus, P., sells\\nhimself to Marius, 216;\\nput to death, 217.\\nSupplicdtio, 152.\\nSynorium, fortress of,\\n251.\\nSyphax, at war with Car-\\nthage, 115; is visited by\\nScipio, but, falling in\\nlove with Sophonisba,\\ndaughter of Hasdrubal,\\nbecomes an ally of the\\nCarthaginians, 123 de-\\nfeated by Scipio and Ma-\\nsinissa, and flies into\\nNumidia, 125 is pur-\\nsued and taken prisoner\\nby Laeliiis and Masi-\\nnissa, 125.\\nSyracuse captured by Mar-\\ncellus, 114.\\nSyria, condition of, 128\\nmade a Roman province,\\n254-\\nSyrus, P., 326.\\nTacfarinas, war against,\\n346 defeat of, 346.\\nTarentum, 7, 74, 75 cap-\\ntured, 80 betrayed to\\nHannibal, 112; retaken\\nby Rome, 117.\\nTarpela, 12.\\nTarquinius Priscus, Lu-\\ncius, his birth and de-\\nscent, 20; elected fifth\\nking of Home, 21 de-\\nfeats the Sabines and\\ncaptures Collatia, 21\\ntakes also many Latin\\ntowns, and becomes\\nruler of all Latium, 21\\nconstructs the cloacae,\\n2T lays out the Circus\\nMaximus, and institutes\\nthe games of the Circus,\\n21 increases the Senate\\nand the Vestal Virgins,\\n21 appoints Servius\\nTullius his successor\\n21 his reign and death,\\n22.\\nTarquinius Superbus, Lu-\\ncius, succeeds Servius\\n2b", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "382\\nINDEX.\\nTullius, 27 his tyranny,\\n27 alliance with the\\nLatins, 27 war with the\\nVolscians, 27 founds\\nthe temple named the\\nCapitollum, 28 pur-\\nchases the threj Sybil-\\nline books, 28 attacks\\nand captures Gabii, 28\\nsends to consult the\\noracle at Delphi, 28\\nbesieges Ardea, 29; Lu-\\ncretia ravished by Sex-\\ntus Tarquinius. 30\\ndeath of Lucretia, 30\\nTarquin is expelled\\nfrom Rome with his\\nsons, 30 attempts to\\nregain the throne, 31\\nhis Etruscan allies de-\\nfeated, 31 assisted by\\nthe Latins, 33 their\\ndefeat, 34 Tarquin dies\\nat Cumae, 34.\\nTerentlus Afer, P.. 325\\nTeutones and Ambrones\\nenter France, in march\\nfor Italy, 203 defeated\\nby Marius, 203.\\nTheodosius I., 364.\\nThurii, 7, 74\\nTiberius Claudius Nero,\\nengaged with Drusus in\\nnorthern wars, 343 re-\\nduces Pannonia, 343\\nreturns to Germany,\\n343; adopted by Au-\\ngustus, 344 succeeds\\nAugustus, 344 rebel-\\nliotis armies in Pannonia\\nand Germany pacified,\\n345 countenances the\\ndelatores, 346 leaves\\nRome and retires to\\nCapreae, 346 his ex-\\ncesses and character,\\n347 his death, 347.\\nTibuUus, AlbTus (poet),\\n335-\\nTigranes, kingof Armenia,\\nreceives his father-in-\\nlaw Mithridates, 246\\ndefeated by Lucullus at\\nTigranocerta, 247 acts\\nin concert with Mithri-\\ndates, 247 submits to\\nPompey, 252.\\nTigranes the younger re-\\nvolts against his father,\\n252 brought to Rome\\nas a prisoner, 252.\\nTitles 17.\\nTitus, succeeds his father\\nVespasiim, 352 his\\nreckless expenditure,\\n352 dedicates the Coli-\\nseum, 353 his death,\\n353.\\nTrajanus, M. Ulpius, his\\ncampaigns in Germany,\\n354 comes to Rome,\\n354 his conquest of\\nDacia, 354 receives the\\ntitle of Dacicus, 354\\nagain sets out for Dacia,\\n354 returns to Rome,\\nand celebrates a triumph,\\n354 his financial suc-\\ncess, 355 builds the\\nForum Ulpianum, 355\\ndeclares war on Chosroes,\\nand leaves for the East,\\n355 deposes the Ar-\\nmenian kiug, 355 nar-\\nrowly escapes death in\\ngreat earthquake, 355\\nreceives title of Parthi-\\ncus, 355 dies on home-\\nward journey, 355.\\nTrasimenus, Lake, Roman\\narmy destroyed at, 105.\\nTriarii, 149.\\nTriarius, defeated by Mith-\\nridates, 248.\\nTribes, patrician, 17; of\\nServius Tullius, 23 the\\nthirty-five tribes, 96\\nassemblies of the, 147.\\nTribunate, degraded by\\nSulla s laws, 197.\\nTribunes, 37.\\nTributum, a property-tax,\\n147.\\nTriumph, the general s,\\n152.\\nTriumvirate, First, 268\\nSecond, 306.\\nTriumviri visit Greece to\\ninquire into the laws,\\n44.\\nTullianum (dungeon), 263.\\nTuUus Hostilius, elected\\nto succeed Numa, 14\\nbattle of the Horatii and\\nCuriatii, 14 conquers\\nthe Albans, 15 con-\\nquers the Etruscans, 15;\\npunishes Mettius Fuf-\\nfetius, 15 destroys Alba\\nLouga, and removes in-\\nhabitants to Rome, 15\\nhis reign and death, 15.\\nTwrmae, 150.\\nTwelve Tables, 48.\\nUmbria, 5.\\nUmbrians, in league with\\nthe Etruscans, 72.\\nUmbro-Sabellians, 4, 5.\\nVadinio, Lake, 74.\\nValens, Fabius, general of\\nVitellius army, 351.\\nValens, emperor, 363, 364.\\nValentinian, 363.\\nValerian and Horatian\\nLaws, 48.\\nValerius Corvus, M., 59.\\nValerius Publicola, 32.\\nj Vandals, 365-367.\\nVarro, M. Terentius, 290,\\n335-\\nVarus, P. Quintilius, de-\\nfeated by Arminius, 343.\\nVectigdlia, 148.\\nVeii besieged, 53 Alban\\nLake, 53 city captured,\\n_53-\\nI VelUes, 150.\\nVeneti of Italy, 3; of Gaul,\\ndefeated by Caesar, 275.\\nVentidius, Tribune and\\nConsul, 314; his success-\\nful wars against the Par-\\ntbians, 314.\\nVercingetorix defeated and\\ntaken prisoner, 279.\\nVergilius Maro, P., 328.\\nVespasianus, T. Flavins,\\nhis conquest of the Isle\\nof Wight and southern\\nBritain, 351 proclaimed\\nemperor at Alexandria,\\n351 comes to Rome,\\n352 renews operations\\nagainst the Jews, 352\\nmakes Judaea a Roman\\nprovince, 352; retrenches\\nexpenditure, 352 his\\nextension of ynpire, 352\\nrepels Parthian inva-\\nsion, 352 continues\\nconquest of Britain, 352\\nhis death, 352.\\nVestal Virgins, 14, 21.\\nVe.stini, 5.\\nVesuvius, great eruption\\nof. 352-\\nVeto of the Tribunes, 37,\\n147.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n383\\nVexilldrms, 149.\\nVia Aemilia, Appia, Fla-\\nminia, 82, 138, 145.\\nVindex, Julius, Gallic re-\\nvolt under, 350.\\nViriathus, 174; assassi-\\nnated, 175.\\nVisigoths, invasions of,\\n365, 366.\\nVitellius, A., hailed as\\nimperator in lower Ger-\\nmany, 351 his army\\nsuccessful, 351 comes\\nto Rome as emperor,\\n351 opposition to him\\nin the East, 351 his\\ndefeat by Primus, 351\\nand death, 351.\\nVolscians, 5.\\nVoltureius, T., 263.\\nXanthippus, 90.\\nZ.\\nZenobia, 359.\\nCoin of Augustus.", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "24 1900\\nDeacidified using the Bookkeeper process\\nNeutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide\\nTreatment Date-\\nNOV 2001\\nPreservationTechnoloqies\\nA WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION\\n111 Thomson Park Drive\\nCranberry Tovmship, PA 1 6066\\n(724)779-2111", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2669", "width": "1563", "jp2-path": "smallerhistoryof01smit_0448.jp2"}}