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I 



THE 



ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



CLASSES OF GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GRADE 



TM^A 



WrMs^ASKERVILL 



PROFESSOR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN VANDERBILT 
UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



J. W. SEWELL 

OP THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



Brandon Printing Company 
nashville, tennessee 

1900 



54697 



|l_ibrMi y of Gon<^' 

' OCT 1 1900 

StCO^O COPY. 
1 OROEU OWIStON, 

UCT IS- ^ 



Copyright, 1900, 

BY 

Brandon Printing Company 






PREFACE. 



Any who attempt an elementary text-book on English grammar 
are confronted by the question, whether to include only the barest 
outlines of parts of speech and analysis or to furnish in greater detail 
the essentials of grammatical forms and structure, though avoiding 
discussions of the historical development of the language. By the 
former method, the pupil is left to gather most of his knowledge of 
grammatical laws by contact with other languages ; by the latter, his 
mind is early stored with the principles of English grammar, the 
effort not being divided with the labor of learning a foreign vocabu- 
lary and its attendant idioms. 

The authors have decided to follow the latter method. Hence, 
teachers who may expect a volume sufficiently easy and elementary 
for young pupils to master in one continuous, perhaps rapid, course 
will be disappointed. If successful, this book will be taken up after 
a preparation in simple language lessons ; then two courses through 
this book will be taken. One will include the main facts about the 
parts of speech, inflections, and analysis (Parts I and II). The 
second course will review this, and also take in such matters as re- 
marks on number forms of nouns, on the table of personal pronouns, 
direct and indirect questions, restrictive and unrestrictive clauses, 
adjective pronouns, subjunctive mood, words in -ing, shall and will, 
indirect ^scourse, parsing of verb phrases, and correction of false 
syntax. 

The exercises on false syntax have been made a separate division, 
Part III. This will accommodate those teachers who wish to use 
them, whereas other teachers who do not desire that examples of 
false syntax be placed before pupils, may use the discussions of 
syntax in Part I, and omit Part III. 

(3) 



PRKFACK. 



The general exercises in Part I may be used for parsing by those 
who prefer that means of drill, or for other purposes by those who 
do not consider parsing beneficial. 

The illustrative sentences are not so simple as "made-up" ones, 
but they perhaps have more life ; and if the pupil has to use with 
some attention exercises of good quality, his literary instincts and 
also his respect for the laws of grammar may be appreciably elevated. 



The manuscript of this book was completed and repeatedly revised 
before the death of my distinguished colleague. Dr. W. M. Baskervill. 
Greatly interested in its success, he had given it his keenest and 
most scholarly study. The undersigned will be grateful for any 
corrections or suggestions that will lead to the improvement of the 
volume. 

J. W. Sewell. 

Nashville^ August, 1900. 



i 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 9 

Part I. 

PARTS OF SPEECH, 

Nouns 23 

Pronouns 52 

Adjectives 97 

Articles .......... iii 

Verbs 113 

Verbals .......... 149 

t)irect and Indirect Discourse . . . . . .164 

Adverbs i67 

Conjunctions 175 

Prepositions 187 

Interjections. 194 

(5) 



CONTENTS. 



Part II. 

SUMMARY OF ANAL YSIS. 

PAGE 

Kinds of Sentences . 197 

Analysis of Simple Sentences . . . . . .197 

of Complex Sentences ....... 206 

of Compound Sentences ...... 212 

Part HI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

Nouns . • . . . • • . . . .219 

Pronouns 220 

Adjectives . . 226 

Articles .......... 227 

Verbs 228 

Verbals .......... 232 

Adverbs 233 

Conjunctions .......... 234 

Prepositions 236 

Index 239 



INTRODUCTION, 



INTRODUCTION. 



Sentences. 



What gram- 
mar deals 
with. 



A sentence is a group of words so put together 
as to express a thought. 

Language is made up of sentences, and in form- 
ing sentences a writer or a speaker must choose 
words according to their use and their meaning. 

In the study of grammar we are to separate sen- 
tences into their parts, so as to study the nature of 
the words, their forms, and their uses. For ex- 
ample, in the sentence, ''Children learn," one may 
see that the two words are not of the same nature, 
for children is the name of persons, and learn tells 
what they do; again, grammar will ask why the 
form children is used instead of child or child's or 
children's, and why learn is used instead of learns 
or learned; and so on. 

English grammar is the science which treats of 
forms of English words, their uses, and their rela- 
tions to each other in the sentence. 

One way of studying the nature of the thousands 
of English words is to divide them into parts of 
speech. 

The parts of speech are the different classes of Definition. 
words used in the expression of thought. 

In the sentence, ''Children learn," it is plain that 
the two words belong to different classes ; that is, 
they are different parts of speech. 

In studying the parts of speech the purposes 
will be to find out: first, how^ to classify words 

(9) 



Definition. 



Why study 
these. 



lO 



INTRODUCTION. 



A nalysis. 



according to their use and meaning ; second, what 
forms words may take to express relations to 
other parts of the sentence; third, when it is 
proper to use one form and when another. 

Another way of studying sentences is by 
analysis, which means separating a sentence into 
its elements so as to show their relations to each 
other. 

These two methods of studying the sentence 
can not be kept strictly separate, for some knowl- 
edge of each is needed in order to understand fully 
the other; hence a short study of both may be 
taken before entering fully into the treatment of 
either one separately. 



I. Parts of 
Speech- 
outline. 



In order to understand the parts of speech it 
will be necessary to study the uses of words in 
sentences : thus — 



Nouns. 



(a) "He was tumbled headlong into the dust; and 
Gunpowder, the black steed, and the goblin passed by 
like a whirlwind." 

The words dust, Gunpozvder, steed, goblin and 
whirlwind are names of things. In order to know 
again anything we have once known, we usually 
give it a name; and the name word is called a 
noun. 

Exercise. — Mention the nouns in these sentences: 
"The coach was crowded, both inside and out, with 
passengers, who, by their talk, seemed principally bound 
to the mansions of relations or friends, to eat the Christ- 



INTRODUCTION. II 



mas dinner. It was loaded also with hampers of game, 
and baskets and boxes of delicacies ; and hares hung 
dangling their long ears about the coachman's box, 
presents from distant friends for the impending feast." 

(b) "So intent were the servants upon their sports 
that we had to ring repeatedly before we could make 
ourselves heard." 

Instead of saying, '"So intent were the servants 
upon the servants' sports," the writer here makes 
the sentence shorter and smoother by putting the 
word their for the servants'. Their is called a 
pronoun, meaning for or instead of a name. 
Again, instead of the name of the writer and his 
friend, the words we and ourselves are used, and 
are also pronouns. 



Pronouns. 



Exercise. — Each pronoun is in italics in the following 
sentences ; tell what each one stands for : 

"I was informed by Frank Bracebridge that the parson 
had been a chum of his father's at Oxford, and had 
received this living soon after the latter had come to his 

estate The parson had pored over some old 

volumes so intently that they seemed to have been re- 
flected into his countenance, which might be compared to 
a title page of black letter." 

(c) "A fine day, however, with a tranquil sea and 
favoring breeze, soon put these dismal reflections to 
flight." 

It will be noticed that the words fine, tranquil, 
favoring and dismal describe, or tell what kind of ^^j^'^ti'^es. 
object or thing is spoken of; Une tells what kind 
of day, tranquil what kind of sea, etc. Such 
words are called adjectives, and each one is joined 
to a noun to describe the thing named. 



12 



INTRODUCTION. 



Verbs. 



Exercise. — Mention the adjectives in the following 
sentences, and tell what noun each limits : 

"Of all the old festivals, that of Christmas awakens 
the strongest and most heartfelt associations. There is 
a tone of solemn and sacred feeling that blends with our 
conviviality, and lifts the spirit into a state of hallowed 
and elevated enjoyment." 

{d) "As we passed over a rising ground which com- 
manded something of a prospect, the sounds of rustic 
merriment now and then reached our ears." 

This sentence makes some statements, but if the 
words passed, commanded and reached were left 
out no statement would be made. These words 
are called verbs, since they are used for making 
statements about persons or things : passed tells 
what we did; reached tells what the sounds did, 
etc. 



A dverbs. 



Exercise. — Mention the verbs in the following sen- 
tence, and tell what each makes a statement about : 

"As Ichabod approached the stream his heart began 
to thump. He summoned up all his resolution, gave his 
horse half a score of kicks in the ribs, and attempted to 
dash briskly across the bridge; but, instead of starting 
forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral move- 
ment and ran against the fence." 

(^) "The English have always been fond of those 
.festivals and holidays which agreeably interrupt the 
stillness of country life." 

The statement, "The English have been fond of 
those festivals," is modified, or changed in mean- 
ing, by the word always, which expresses time, or 
tells how long; it is called an adverb, that is, a 
word joined to a verb^ to rnodify the meaniu2r» 



INTRODUCTION. 13 



Likewise the word agreeably modifies interrupt 
and tells the way, or manner, of the action. 

Exercise. — Mention the adverbs in the exercises under 
(a), {b), (d), and (g), and tell what verb each modifies. 

(f) "He passed the tree in safety, but new perils lay 
before him." 

Here two statements are made, and they are co7vunc- 
united into one sentence by the word but. A ^^^'"* 
word that connects words or groups of words is 
called a conjunction. It merely links, or joins, 
does nothing- more. 

Exercise. — The conjunctions are in italics below; tell 
what words or word groups each connects : 

"As we approached the house, we heard the sound of 
music, and now and then a burst of laughter." 

"His only resource on such occasions, either to drown 
'thoughts or drive away evil spirits, was to sing psalm 
tunes." 

"To have taken the field openly against his rival would 
have been madness ; for he was not a man to be 
thwarted." 

"He now suspected that the grave roysters of the 
mountain had put a trick upon him." 

(g) "The rays of a bright morning sun had a dazzling 
effect among the glittering leaves." 

In this sentence it is necessary to express some 
connection and relation between rays and sun, 
also between had a dazzling effect and foliage. 
The expression of a bright morning sun clearly 
shows possession or source ; the word of connects 
rays and sun and shows the relation of possession 



Prepositions. 



or source. Among connects the verb had with 



14 INTRODUCTION. 



the noun foliage and expresses the relation of 
place. A word that connects words and shows 
the relation between them is called a preposition. 
It does more than a conjunction. 

Exercise. — Point out the prepositions in this sentence 
and tell what words they show relation between : 

"A sloop was loitering in the distance, dropping slowly 
down with the tide, her sail hanging uselessly against the 
mast ; and, as the reflection of the sky gleamed along the 
still water, it seemed as if the vessel was suspended in 
the air." 



Interjections. 



Note this. 



There is one other class of words to be noted, 
those that merely express feeling; as, Alas! 
What! Psha! Ho! They are called interjections, 
which means thrown into the midst. They are 
merely dropped into the sentence to attract atten- 
tion, but have no part in building up the sentence. 
They are not properly parts of speech. 

Some words may be several parts of speech, 
according to the use they have in different places ; 
and the most important thing to remember is that 
the use, not the fonii, of English words must be 
regarded. For example: "An excited crowd 
swept by" (adverb) ; ''Crowds were running by 
the jail" (preposition) ; 'They heard that he still 
lived" (adverb); "The waves are stiir (ad- 
jective). 

Exercise. — Write sentences using words as directed 
below : 

(i) Handle as a noun and a verb. (2) Light as 
noun, adjective, verb. (3) Brown as noun, adjective, 
verb. (4) Before as adverb, preposition, conjunction. 



INTRODUCTION. 15 



(5) Water as noun, adjective, verb. (6) Iron as noun, 
adjective, verb. (7) In as adverb and preposition. (8) 
Past as noun, adjective, adverb, preposition. (9) While 
as noun, verb, and conjunction. 



-outline. 



Jntporlance 



Analysis is a very important subject in gram- n. Analysis 
mar, lying at the basis of most of the work in mas- 
tering good English. 

A person can understand much better what he 
reads if he is able to tell at a glance the relations of analysis. 
of all the parts of a sentence. While studying the 
parts of speech it is necessary to describe the use 
of words by their relations to each other in the 
sentence. This depends on analysis, and is to be 
learned only by careful thinking. Then, too, in 
writing sentences, no one can tell where to use the 
marks of punctuation without knowing when the 
sentence is complete, and what parts of it are re- 
lated, and how. 

For analysis, take the following sentence : 

• "The golden sun poured a dusty beam through the 
closed blinds." 

Every sentence must have at least two parts: 
that of which something is said, and that which 
is said of it. The golden sun is called the subject, 
because it is the part brought especially to our subject and 
notice, — that of which something is said; the 
rest of the sentence is called the predicate, because 
it declares or says something about the subject. 
As no sentence can be made without these two 



INTRODUCTION. 



Complete sub- 
ject — simple 
subject — 
modifiers. 



Complete 
predicate — 
simple predi- 
cate — 
modifiers. 



Verb with a 
direct object. 



The parts of 
a sentence. 



members, they are often called the main or prin- 
cipal elements of the sentence. 

Now, noticing more closely, we find that the 
one word sun names that of which the statement 
is made, and sun is modified by the and golden. 
The golden sun is called the complete subject; 
sun is the simple subject, and the and golden are 
modifiers of the simple subject. 

We also find that poured a dusty beam through 
the closed blinds is the complete predicate; poured 
alone is the simple predicate. The expression 
through the closed blinds tells where, and is a 
modifier of the simple predicate. 

Further, the meaning of the verb is not com- 
plete without the words a dusty beam. The sun 
poured — what, through the closed blinds ? An- 
swer, a dusty beam. Poured expresses action, 
and beam names that which receives the action of 
the verb ; such a word is called the direct object 
of the verb. Beam is modified by a and dusty. 
The subject or object may be modified by a group 
of words, introduced by a preposition. 

To sum up, the main elements are — 

1. The complete subject. 

2. The complete predicate. 

After full analysis, we find in this sentence — 



The simple subject. 

The modifiers of the subject. 

The simple predicate. 

A modifier of the predicate. 

The simple direct object. 



I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 

5- 

6. The modifiers of the direct object. 



INTRODUCTION. 



17 



In order to complete the list, however, some 
more sentences must be examined : these may be 
taken — 

(a) Her eyes became red from weeping. 

(b) One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

(c) This fell sergeant, Death, is strict in his arrest. 

In sentence (a) became is the simple predicate, 
but does not express action ; hence it can not have Complements-. 
an object. The adjective red completes the 
meaning of the predicate and expresses quality of Ofan iutran- 
the subject. Such a verb is called intransitive, 
^nd such completing words are called comple- 
ments. 

In sentence (b) the simple predicate makes is a 
transitive verb, but it is not complete even with ojatransi- 
the object zvorld. The expression, "One touch ^^^^^^^*- 
of nature makes the whole world" is not clear; if 
we say "makes the whole world kin" or "makes 
kin the whole world," it is plain at once how nec- 
essary is the word kin. World is really the object, 
not of makes, but of makes kin. The word kin 
is also a complement, completing the verb and 
being also an adjunct of the direct object. 

In sentence (c), the subject sergeant needs the 
word Death to explain it; the latter, indeed, is ^^^^^.^ 
equivalent to the added statement, "And his name apposition. 
is Death." A word thus added to another to 
modify and explain it is called an appositive word, 
or a term in apposition with another. 

Add now these three to the list of elements — 

7. The complement of an intransitive verb. 

8. The complement of a transitive verb. 

9. An appositional modifier. 



1 8 INTRODUCTION. 



Exercises. 

1. Give definition of: complete subject, complete 
predicate; simple subject, simple predicate; direct 
object; transitive verb, intransitive verb; complement; 
appositional term. 

2. Write sentences using the following words as 
subjects: hook, pencil, slate, door, window, playground, 
apple, button, dollar, stove. 

3. Write sentences using the above words as objects 
of transitive verbs. 

4. Write sentences in which the above words are 
modified by adjectives. 

5. Change the sentences of exercise 3 so the verbs 
shall be modified by adverbs. 

6. (a) Write 5 sentences having nouns in apposition 
with other nouns. {h) Write 5 sentences having nouns 
as complements of intransitive verbs. {c) Write 5 sen- 
itences having adjectives as complements of intransitive 
verbs. 

7. Show by analysis the difference between — 
(i) All good souls praise the Lord. 

(2) All good souls, praise the Lord. 

8. Analyze in full these sentences: 

(i) I particularly noticed one young woman of 
humble dress but interesting demeanor. 

(2) My holiday afternoons were spent in rambles 
about the surrounding country. 

(3) Manners make beauty superfluous and ugly. 

(4) Never did Christmas board display a more goodly 
and gracious assemblage of countenances. 

(5) The interior of the church was venerable but 
simple. 

(6) A river formed the boundary — the river Meuse. 

(7) I made myself familiar with all its places famous 
in history or fable. 



INTRODUCTION. 19 



(8) I admired for the hundredth time that picture of 
convenience, neatness and broad, honest enjoyment, the 
kitchen of an English inn. 

(9) The temperate are the most truly luxurious. 

(10) The joyous disposition of the worthy Squire was 
perfectly contagious. 



i 



PART I. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 



NOUNS. 

1. Let us examine this sentence : 

"In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre 
Lay in the fruitful valley." 

We find that two words are names of particular classes: 
places: Basin of Minas and Grand-Pre. The 
names are used only when the purpose is to speak 
of these places and no others. They are called 
proper nouns, from a Latin word meaning* one's /. propcr. 
own, belonging to one person or thing. 

Yet there are other names in the sentence; 
namely, land, shores, village, valley. These are 
general names: we may speak of the land of 
America, or the land of any state, county or other ^^- ^^o'""^""- 
division ; we may refer to the shores of the Gulf 
of Mexico, or the Atlantic Ocean, or of any lake, 
sea, etc. ; so with village, valley and similar words. 
They are called common nouns, because common <^^«5^ nawes. 
means belonging to any of a class. 

2. Study now these additional sentences : 

(a) "The savage army was in war-paint, plumed for 
battle." 

(b) "No man is so sunk in vice and ignorance but 
there are still some hidden seeds of goodness and knowl- 
edge in him." 

In (a), the word army is a general name, a ^^^^^^ 
common noun ; but it differs from the class nouns nouns include 
of Section i in being the name of a number of 

(23) 



24 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Collective 



and 



material. 



Ill, 
A b struct . 



persons taken together. Hence it is called a col- 
lective noun. Nouns of this kind are in very fre- 
quent use; as, iieet, herd, Hock, crowd, party. 
The word war-paint is a common noun, being a 
name of general application; but instead of being 
the name of a separate object it is the name of a 
substance, of the material of which something is 
composed. Such are called nouns of material; 
other examples are glass, iron, clay, silk, etc. 

3. In sentence {h), the words vice, ignorance, 
goodness, and knozvledge are not names of ob- 
jects, but of qualities. All are derived from other 
parts of speech. To explain : a person leads a 
vicious life (adjective) or a life of vice (noun) ; 
he knows (verb) or has knozvledge (noun), etc. 
In each case where the noun is used, action or 
quality or condition is not asserted of the person, 
but is only named, or spoken of in the abstract; 
that is, apart from the object to which it belongs. 
All names of quality, condition or action are ab- 
stract nouns. 

4. To sum up the classes of nouns, we have : 

Proper nouns. 

(a) Class names. 

(b) Collective. 

(c) Material. 



Common nouns, divided into 



Abstract nouns. 

Exercises. 

1. Of which class is each of the following italicized 
nouns ? — 

He was a kind and thankful' creature, whose heart 
dilated in proportion as his skin was filled with good 



NOUNS. 25 



cheer, and whose spirits rose with eating as some men's 
do with drink. He could not help, too, rolling his large 
eyes round him as he ate, and chuckling with the possi- 
bility that he might one day be lord of all this scene o£ 
almost unimaginable splendor. Then, he thought, how 
soon he'd turn his hack upon the old schoolhouse ; snap 
his -fingers in the face of Hans Van Ripper, and every 
other niggardly /^a^row; and kick any itinerant pedagogue 
out of doors that should dare to call him comrade! 

2. Mention the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell which class each belongs to : 

As Rip and his companion approached them, they sud- 
denly desisted from their play, and stared at him with 
such fixed, statue-like gaze, and such strange, uncouth, 
lack-luster countenances, that his heart turned within 
him, and his knees smote together. His companion now 
emptied the contents of the keg into large flagons, and, 
made signs to him to wait upon the company. He, 
obeyed with fear and trembling. They quaffed the 
liquor in profound silence, and then returned to their 
game. 

3. Write one or more class names corresponding to 
each collective noun in the following list : 

Swarm, drove, school, flock, regiment, crew, committee. 
Example: A swarm of bees or gnats or Hies, etc. 

4. Write one or more collective nouns corresponding 
to each class noun in the following list : 

Ruffian, room, horse, Hstener, girl, neighbor, camel, 
citizen. 

Example: A horde or band or mob of ruffians. 

5. Bring up sentences to illustrate these classes and 
sub-classes of nouns, at least two of each division. 

[Note to Teacher.— Pupils may be instructed to 
make up sentences of their own, or they may select them 
from books. The latter plan is far better, as it keeps 
the pupil's attention upon good literature, quickens ob- 
servation, and improves the taste.] 



26 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Substantive 
use of 



OTHER WORDS USED AS NOUNS. 

5. Many kinds of expressions may become 
nouns by being placed as the subject, object, etc., 
or in some instances by being- used merely as 
words. 

{a) Examples of other parts of speech used as 
nouns : 

"Evil, according to philosophers, is good in the 

making." 

"None but the brave deserves the fair." 

"The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold." 

"Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, 

and the wherefore?" 
Conjutictions. "Youf if is the only peacemaker." 

{h) Groups of words used as nouns, especially 
the titles of books, papers, essays, etc. : 

" 'Sesame and Lilies' is Ruskin's creed for girls." 
" 'The Fair Penitent' was to be acted that evening." 
Exercise. — In the first two sentences under (a) above, 
tell which kind of noun each adjective becomes. 



A djectives. 



A dverbs. 



Word 
groups. 



Meaning. 



Three of 
nouns. 



INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS. 

6. Inflection means a change of form that a 
word undergoes to express a change in its use or 
meaning. 

Five parts of speech are inflected : nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 

Nouns have three kinds of inflection: gender, 
mimber, and case. 

GENDER. 

7. One way to classify individual persons and 
to distinguish them from inanimate things is to 



NOUNS. 27 



Speak of their sex; hence, all are divided into se:t:and 
male and female. 

In English grammar the words used as names 
of persons or animals are classified in a way to 
correspond to the sex of the living beings them- 
selves : thus, the name of a male being is said to 
be of the masculine gender; the name of a female, Gender. 
of the feminine gender. The term sex belongs 
to the object; the term gender belongs to the 
word naming the object. 

8. Names of inanimate objects are called The neuter. 
neuter, the word meaning neither masculine nor 
feminine. 

Latin and some other inflected languages place 
many names of things under the head of mascu- 
line or feminine : for example, in Latin, manus 
(hand) is feminine; pes (foot) is masculine; in 
German, die Wand (wall) is feminine; der Stuhl 
(chair) is masculine. 

9. Gender is the form or use of a word to des- ^<^«''^^'^ 

ignate an object as male, female, or without sex. 

Examples: Man, horse, ox, masculine; woman, 
mare, cow, feminine ; hook, stove, chalk, neuter. 

There is one class of words to which some at- Nou»sof 
tention should be given : persons may be referred gender. 
to by nouns that do not determine the sex; as, 
cousin, teacher, acquaintance, friend, parent. If 
these are used in the sentence in such a way that 
the sex is made clear, they are at once classified as 
masculine or feminine. If the sentence does not 
show the sex of the person in question, the pupil 



28 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Exceptions. 



Pefsonijica- 
iton. 



Sex of 
animals 
disf egarded. 



Infants, 
neuter. 



will merely say the nouns name living beings that 
may be of either sex. 

10. There are some exceptions to these rules of 
gender : 

( 1 ) By personification, names of inanimate ob- 
jects are changed to gender nouns. When this 
is done, either the thought of the sentence shows 
which gender is meant, or a pronoun marks the 
noun as masculine or feminine ; as — 

"There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray." 
*'The ship was still as she could be." 
"Stern Winter loves a dirge-like sound." 

(2) Instead of dividing the names of animals 
into masculine or feminine according to sex, two 
other methods are used : 

(a) The sex is not regarded as important, so 
the object is referred to as neuter ; for example : 

"The little gorilla .... flung its arms around my 
neck." 

"He next stooped down to feel the pig, if there were 
any signs of life in it.'' 

(b) The names of certain species may be re- 
garded as masculine or feminine, according to 
certain traits for which they are noted ; as, lion is 
masculine, cat feminine, etc. 

"The panther shall yield his spotted hide." 
"The cat shook herself as if disgusted that she had 
wet her foot in such a cause." 

"The tunneling fox looked out of his den." 

(3) Words referring to young children are 
often neuter, the sex not being considered ; as in 
the sentence — 

"The child opened wide its clear blue eyes." 



NOUNS. 29 



genders. 



11. Gender forms belong only to masculine and 
feminine nouns. We have three ways by which 
the feminine noun is distinguished from the mas- 
culine — 

( 1 ) By placing a gender word before one with- "^^J^^^^^^ 
out gender. 

(2) By adding a suffix to a masculine word. 

(3) By using a different word for each gender. 

12. A prefix is a syllable added at the begin- 
ning of a word: as un-imih., 7/2i.y-spell. A suffix 
is a syllable added at the end of a word ; as, truth- 
fnl, kind-;2^^^. An affix is either a prefix or a 
suffix. 



Definitions. 



With 



I. Gender Shown by Compounds. 

13. The pronouns he and she are often affixed 
to a noun that docs not indicate sex: as, he-goat, pronouns, 
she-goat; he-zvolf, she-zvolf. 

Nouns indicating gender are often employed in ivnh nouns. 
the same way: as, manservant, maidservant; 
salesman, saleswoman. 

The word woman belongs to this list. The old 
word wlf meant woman, but was joined with the 
word mann to form wif-mann, this gradually 
changing to the form woman. 

Frequently, instead of adding the suffix spoken 
of in Section 14, a feminine word is used before 
a noun that is clearly masculine in form. Exam- 
ples are : doctor, lazvyer; woman doctor, woman 
lawyer. 



30 



PARTS OI^ SPEECH. 



Matters of 
spelling. 



II. Gender Shown by Suffixes. 

14. The suffix most used now to form a femi- 
nine from a masculine noun is -ess; as, giant^ 
giantess. 

Some points in spelling should be noticed here : 

( 1 ) The word may not change its form before 
adding the suffix : host, hostess; baron, baroness. 

(2) Words of one syllable ending in a single 
consonant preceded by a single vowel double the 
final consonant before adding the suffix ; as, god, 
goddess. 

(3) A letter or syllable may be dropped and 
-ess added to the root of the word : abbot, abbess; 
sorcerer, sorceress. 

(4) A vowel preceding the final consonant 
may be dropped before adding -ess: actor, actress; 
enchanter, enchantress. 

15. As stated in Section 13, it is customary 
Gender word now to usc a gcudcr word before the mxasculine 

used or . , ^ . . , 

mstead of writing poetess, doctress, waitress, etc. ; 
that is, if we wish to make an emphatic contrast 
to the masculine form. Ordinarily, however, the 
masculine form is used to represent the feminine, 
the context showing the sex of the person. 

Not only the words author, poet, nnrse, teacher, 
etc. ; but also lawyer, preacher, librarian, doctor, 
dentist, artist, sculptor, architect, editor, book- 
keeper, cashier, superintendent, and others fre- 
quently refer to females, who have adopted these 
professions ; while in using such words as dress- 
maker, housekeeper, typewriter, we hardly think 
of a male person. 



omitted. 



This list 
increasing. 



NOUNS. 



31 



Exercise. — Tell the gender of each noun in the sen- 
tences on pages 48 and 50. 

16. A few words from foreign languages, with 
their original suffixes, are in good use as English 
words. Those most often met with are the fol- 
lowing pairs : 



administrator, administratrix 
beau, belle 
czar, czarina 
don, donna 
executor, executrix 



hero, heroine 
sehor, sefiora 
signor, signora 
sultan, sultana 
testator, testatrix 



Exercise. — Write sentences using all the foreign words 
given in this list. 



ir. 



III. Gender Shown by Different "Words. 

This distinction between masculine and 



Not an in- 

feminine is not made by inflection, but by the use JiectedUst. 
of pairs of words entirely unHke in form. The 
most important are : 



bachelor, maid 

or spinster 
boy, girl 
brother, sister 
earl, countess 
father, mother 
husband, wife 
king, queen 
lord, lady 
monk, nun 
nephew, niece 
son, daughter 
tutor, governess 



uncle, aunt 
wizard, witch 
boar, sow 
buck, doe 
bull, cow 
bullock, heifer 

or steer 
drake, duck 
gander, goose 
hart, roe 
horse, mare 
ram, ewe 
sire, dam 



32 



PARTS OF SPKEiCH. 



What it IS. 



Two nuvi- 
bers. 



The ustial 
way. 



Two old 
ways. 



As to spell- 
ing: 



Ending -es. 



Exercises. 

1. The teacher will give out a list of words, some 
masculine and some feminine, selected at random, and 
have the pupils write the corresponding word for each 
of these. 

2. Write five sentences containing masculine nouns, 
and five using the same nouns as feminine. (See Sec- 
tion 15.) 

NUMBER. 

18. Number is the form or use of a word to 
show whether one person or thing is meant, or 
more than one. 

Words meaning one thing, as table, porch, lily, 
are said to be of the sing^ular number; those 
meaning more than one, as tables, porches, lilies, 
are of the plural number. 

19. The present way of forming the plural of 
nouns Is by adding -s or -es. Any new words 
adopted Into the language take this inflection. 

Of other ways formerly used in making words 
plural, two yet remain : by adding -en, and by a 
change in the vowel of the word itself. Three 
words still have the ending -en: oxen, children, 
brethren. Only a few with vowel change survive : 
foot, feet; man, men; goose, geese; louse, lice; 
mouse, mice; tooth, teeth. 

20. It will be helpful to give now some sugges- 
tions as to when one should add -s and when -es — 

( I ) Words ending in s, x, z, ch, and sh (letters 
that will not unite with the sound oi s) add -es; 
for example, glasses, boxes, topazes, churches, 
■fishes. 



NOUNS. 33 



Ending -ves. 



(2) A few words ending in / change this to v 
and add -es to form the plural ; some of them are 
heef, calf, leaf, loaf, self, wife, wolf. Notice, 
however, that brief, chief, dwarf, Hfe, hoof, proof, 
reef, roof, strife, and turf add -s. Wharf usually 
has -ves in the plural ; scarf usually adds -s; stait 
has the plural staves unless a military suite is 
meant, when the form staffs is used. 

(3) Words ending in -y preceded by a conso- 
nant change the y to / and add -es; as, ladies, so- LV.^''^^ 
liloquies. In such words as soliloquy and collo- 
quy the u is not a vowel, but a consonant, having 

a w sound with q. 

Note. — If the final 3; is preceded by a vowel, the reg- 
ular ending .y is used ; as turkeys, boys, Fridays. 



Endiyig in s. 



(4) Words of foreign derivation ending in -0 
may add -s or -es. The words alto, cameo, canto, 
folio, oratorio, piano, solo, and zero add -s; but 
cargo, echo, embargo, hero, motto, negro, potato, 
and volcano add -es. 

The endings must be learned by close observa- 
tion. 

Special Remarks on Number Forms. 

21. Material and abstract nouns have no plural ; 
for when such nouns take the plural inflection they 
assume a different meaning and become common 
class nouns; as, glass, glasses; iron, irons; sor- 
rozv, sorrow's. 

22. Certain nouns have only a plural form, jvo singular. 
Of the following list very few ever have a singular 

form: 



No plural. 



34 



PARTS OF spke:ch. 



aborigines 


bellows 


matins 


scissors 


amends 


billiards 


nuptials 


thanks 


annals 


dregs 


oats 


spectacles 


antipodes 


gallows 


obsequies 


vespers 


assets 


tongs 


premises 


victuals 



special 
words. 



Same form 
for both 
numbers. 



Form plural 
— meaning 
singular. 



The singular form asset is sometimes seen; as, 
"He used every available asset." The singular 
form premise is a term used in logic; the word 
premises above means the surroundings or 
grounds about a building. The word spectacle, 
meaning scene, is not the singular of the above 
word spectacles, which means eye-glasses. 

Very rarely some of this list, while retaining 
the plural form, are thought of as singular ; thus, 
a forceps. 

Exercise. — Write sentences using each word in the 
above list as a subject. 

23. Some words have the same form for singu- 
lar and plural: as, deer, sheep, szvine; trout, 
salmon, shad; cannon, heathen, yoke (of oxen), 
head (of cattle), sail (a vessel), Chinese. 

Such nouns as pair, score, dozen, hundred, have 
usually the same form for the plural if they follow 
numerals; but if not limited by numerals or if 
after certain prepositions, they take -s for the' 
plural; as, ''five thousand of the citizens" or 
"people by the thousands." 

24. Many words having a plural form are used 
as singular; such as optics, physics, mathematics, 
and names of other sciences; pains (care), news, 
molasses, summons. The words means and poli- 



NOUNS. 35 



tics may be treated as singular or plural in mean- 
ing: we may say, "a means of success," or "sue- Twosinguiar 
cess by these means" ; ^'politics is his favorite 
study," or "politics are very annoying to him." 



or plural. 



25. A few singular words have two plurals Twopiurais, 

* L-t -i-iv A. ' r 1 two niean- 

witn different meanings; for example — ings. 

brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society or church) 

cloths (kinds or pieces), clothes (garments) 

dies (stamps for coins, etc.), dice (for gaming) 

fishes (individuals or kinds), fish (collectively) 

geniuses (persons of genius), genii (fabled spirits) 

indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra) 

peas (separately), pease (collectively) 

pennies (separate coins), pence (collective value) 

shots (times fired), shot (collective balls) 

The word pence may add -^ in speaking of 
coins, thus making a double plural; as, "a few^ 
sixpences." 

Exercise. — Make sentences using all these words. 



iwu mean- 



26. Some singulars have one plural form with piuvais wuk 
two or more meanings. The following are exam- ^g" 
pies : 

customs: i. habits, manners ; 2. revenue taxes, 
duties : i. obligations ; 2. revenue taxes, 
letters : i. the alphabet, or epistles ; 2. literature, 
numbers: i. figures; 2. poetry; 3. issues of a pe- 
riodical, 
pains: i, suffering; 2. care, trouble, 

27. The pluralizing of compound words depends 
upon the relation of their parts. 



36 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Close com- 


Some are closely united, so that 


we think of the 


pounds. 


parts as forming 


one unit: the 


last part adds 




-s; as — 








attorney-general 


steamboat 


handful 




housewife 


forget-me-not 


maidservant 




typewriter 


kingfisher 


spoonful 




fellow-servant 


goosequill 


stepson 



Loose com- 
pounds. 



In most compound words which have the parts 
loosely joined by hyphens or even standing apart, 
and in which one member is described by another 
word or phrase, the chief member adds -s; as in 
the words — 

aid-de-camp commander-in-chief knight-errant 

billet-doux court-martial father-in-law 

attorney at law cousin-german hanger-on 



Exceptions. 



Caution, 



We may also write attorneys- general and 
hnight-errants. 

A few compound words make both parts plural ; 
as, menservants, zvoinen lazvyers, knights tem- 
plars. 

Not all words ending in -man are compounds of 
the English word man ; consequently some do not 
change the ending to men, but add -s. Exam- 
ples are : Brahman, firman, German, Mussulman, 
Norman, Ottoman, etc. 

Exercise. — Write sentences using the singular and 
plural of each noun in this Section. 

28. In forming the plural of proper names with 
titles, as Mr. Brozvn, Miss Hill, Mrs. Adams, Dr. 
Williamson, there are two methods authorized by 



NOUNS. 37 



good usage. We may pluralize the name, and 
say, "the two Mr. Browns, or Miss Hills, or Mrs. Two ways. 
Adamses, or Dr. Williamsons;" or we may plural- 
ize the title, and say, "the two Messrs. Brown, or 
Misses Hill, or Mesdames Adams, or Drs. WilU 
iamson." 

29. In making the plural of letters, figures, 
signs, and words used merely as words, there is 
likewise a choice of two methods. Some writers Two ways. 
add the apostrophe and s ('s), some add only s; 

for example, "tall h's," "crooked fs," "W-'s like 
X'^,'' "too many and's;" or, "tall hs,'' "crooked 
fs," "+^ like y.s," "too many ands." 

In either case, always have regard for clearness ; 
in the sentence, "He does not write as clearly," as 
may mean the letter a or the word as. 

30. Foreign words are of two classes, and the 
pluralizing depends upon the nature of each word : 

( 1 ) Those retaining a foreign plural only j ^^^^^. ^ 
such as axis, criterion, erratum, analysis, anti- P^^''^^^- 
thesis, genus; plurals axes, criteria, errata, analy- 
ses, antitheses, genera. 

(2) Those having an English form of plural as 
well as their original form; examples (in the 
plural) : 

bandits or banditti formulas or formulae 

beaus or beaux memorandums or memoranda 

cherubs or cherubim seraphs or seraphim 

dogmas or dogmata stratums or strata 

focuses or foci vertexes or vertices 



38 



PARTS oi^ spe;e)ch. 



Exercises. 

1. Write sentences containing the plural of these 
words : life, reef, valley, sheaf, half, ally, strife, roof, 
soliloquy, wharf, monkey, story, dwarf, attorney. 

2. Write sentences containing the plural of these 
words : brother, cameo, goosequill, volcano, father-in- 
law, Mrs. Young, knight-templar, domino, oratorio, 
talisman, piano, attorney at law, Brahman, genius, cloth, 
formula, bandit, Mr. Allen, antithesis, negro, spoonful, 
Mussulman. 

N. B. — Make good use of the dictionary here. 



Relations of 

words. 



Definition. 



The cases. 



CASE. 

31. Examine the following sentences : 

(1) "My father was amongst the mighty crowd." 

(2) "He drew his cloak around him." 

(3) "Night's silvery veil hung low." 

In (i), the word father is the subject of the 
verb ; in (2) , the word cloak is the object of drew; 
in (3), the word Night's expresses ownership or 
possession; in (i), again, crowd is the object of 
the preposition amongst. 

All these four nouns have certain relations to 
other words in the sentence, and the manner of 
showing this relation is called case. Thus, father 
is in the case of subject, cloak in the case of object, 
etc. 

32. Case Is the form or use of a noun or pro- 
noun to express its relation to other words in the 
sentence. 

Nominative case is the term used to denote the 
relation of subject; the objective case expresses 



NOUNS. 



39 



Case forms 
ave few. 



the relation of the object; and the possessive case 
expresses the relation of possession, source^ own- 
ership, etc. 

33. English is not rich in case forms, like Latin 
and some other languages. In some of the Latin 
declensions, almost every case in the singular and 
plural has a separate form. But in English so 
many inflected forms have been lost, and so many 
of the relations are now expressed by the help of 
prepositions, that we have remaining only two 
case forms for three cases ; one form for the nom- 
inative and objective, and one form for the pos- 
sessive. 

34. Yet in studying pronouns we find that some 

r f 1 1 • IVhv study 

of them have a separate form for each case; this thv'ee cases? 
IS one reason why three cases of nouns are given. 
Another reason is, that in learning English the 
important thing for pupils is to know the relations 
of words, not merely the forms. 



I. Uses of the Nominative Case. 

35. The most common use that the nominative 
case has is that as subject. Other uses, however, 
are shown below : 

( 1 ) Subject; as " Tly pride,' says the pea- 
cock." 

(2) Predicate nominative, or complement of an 
intransitive verb ; for example, 'This is my own, 
my native land." 

(3) In apposition with another nominative 
word ; thus, "Rich gift of God ! A year of time !" 



Three coyn- 
moti uses. 



40 PARIES OF SPKKCH. 



(4) Independent or absolute uses, in which the 
noun is considered to be in the nominative case, 
but has no real office in the sentence. There are 
three of these uses : 

{a) Direct address; as, ''O death, where is thy 
sting?" 
Three abso- (b) Exclamation ; as, "The Old Manse! — we 

tute uses. ^ t ^ r • » » -r^ • • r 

had almost forgotten it. Direct address is often 
put in the form of an exclamation ; but direct ad- 
dress concerns a person or thing spoken to, while 
the exclamation here mentioned and illustrated 
concerns a person or thing spoken of. 

(c) With a participle (a verbal form in -ing or 
-cd that does not assert), in a phrase independent 
of the rest of the sentence; as, "But the rain 
coming on, or the east wind blowing, or some 
other reason arising, his honor turns his horses* 
heads down St. James's Street." 

Exercise. — Mention the nouns in the nominative case 
in these sentences, and tell which use each has : 

(i) Sitting in front of the fire was a tallish gentleman 
in a great coat, the only other occupant of the room. 

(2) It was a rather cool evening for the season of the 
year, and the gentleman drew his chair aside, 

(3) "My good fellow," said Mr. Winkle, his teeth 
chattering all the time he spoke, "I respect your attach- 
ment to my excellent friend." 

Exercise. — Illustrate nominative uses i, 2, 3, and 4 (a) 
by five sentences for each use. 



NOUNS. 41 



II. Uses of the Objective Case. 

36. The objective case has the following uses : 
(i) Direct object of a verb; as, ''Behold the odjech, 
man.'' 

(2) Object of a preposition; as, ''I stood on 
the bridge." 

(3) Indirect object, naming the person or 
thing to or for whom something is done : it al- 
ways precedes a direct object; as, "Hast thou 
given the horse strength ?" 

(4) Predicate objective, or complement of a see p. 17, 
transitive verb; as, "The Spaniards made them- 
selves masters of the Empire." 

(5) Adverbial objective, a noun used without 
a preposition to express time, distance, measure, 
value, etc. For example: "The next night it 
came again;" "But a few steps farther on;" "a 
mile wide ;" "worth a dollar ;' ''years after," etc. 

(6) In apposition with another objective word ; 
as, "Hardly a moment between the two lights, the 
day and the lamplight.'' 

Exercises. 

1. In the following sentences, mention the nouns in 
the objective case, and tell which use each has : 

(i) They made themselves servants of the king of 
Spain. 

(2) But the next day, when the priest returned with 
fresh offerings to the tomb, he found that to the relics 
of heathen superstition some unknown hands had added 
a palm-branch. 

(3) But the law gives a man no power over the life of 
a slave. 



Adverbial 
use. 



42 PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



(4) Yet this was the last night for the gay Pompeii! 
the fabled city of Hercules ! the delight of the voluptu- 
ous Roman ! 

2. Write 20 sentences illustrating all of the uses of 
the objective case. 

III. Use of the Possessive Case. 

37. The term possessive is given because own- 
ership or some other close relation is usually im- 
plied : ^'The gentleman s mode of speaking" means 
the mode characteristic of the gentleman; "Our 
fathers' God" means the God whom our fathers 
worshiped ; "A sale of ladies' shoes" means a sale 
of shoes suitable for ladies to wear. 



772^ }iame 
possessive. 



Equivalent to 



38. A possessive noun is generally equivalent 
to the preposition of and its object; for example, 
in Section 37, "the gentleman's" is equivalent to 

a ^phrase. qj ffig gentleman; "our fathers'," to of our 
fathers; but "ladies' shoes," as shown above, has 
a slightly different equivalent phrase. 

On this account the prepositional phrase is often 
used instead of the possessive case, and especially 
if the possessive form is less smooth in sound. 

39. Often we meet with a peculiar form called 
a double possessive, in which the preposition of is 

Phrase and followcd by the posscssivc case ; for example, 
"He was brought to my house as a countryman of 
my father's." 

This is called an idiom; that is, an expression 
not falling under the usual rules of grammar. 

Sometimes the ordinary possessive or phrase 
does not give as clear meaning as the double pos- 



possessive. 



Advantage of 
this idiom. 



NOUNS. 43 



Omission of 

noun 

modified. 



sessive. For instance, ''The newspaper speaks of 
my sister's portrait'' may mean a likeness of my 
sister executed by some one else, or a portrait 
painted by my sister to represent some other per- 
son. But *'this portrait of my sister's' clearly 
means the portrait that my sister possesses. The 
double possessive is often used for convenience 
even when it is not necessary for clearness. 

40. The noun modified by the possessive is 
sometimes omitted, such a word as ho use ^ store, 
etc., being understood; as, ''A visit to my uncle's;" 
''the silks at Macy's." 

The omission is noticed especially in case of 
well-known public places; as, ''A dinner at Del- 
monico's" (restaurant) ; ''the greatness of St. 
Paul's or St. Peter's" (church) ; "the season at 
McVicker's" (theater) ; "his career at St. 
James's" (court). 

41. The apostrophe (') is called the possessive 
sign, and the pupil will need to exercise care in the possessive 
use of it. The following directions will be found 
helpful : 

Singular nouns add -s to form the possessive 
case; as, hoy's, neighbor's, committee's, America's. 

Plural nouns not ending in -s also add -s to 
form the possessive ; thus, children's, deer's, men 
of war's. 

Plural nouns ending in .y add the apostrophe 
only; attorneys', friends', committees' , neighbors'. 

42. Some few expressions have only the apos- 
trophe in the singular ; especially the phrases, "for 



Writing the 



General 
rules. 



Exceptions 



44 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Caution. 



Compound 
words. 



Appositional 
words. 



Another way. 



Common 
possession. 



appearance' sake/' ''for convenience' sake," for 
conscience' sake," "for Jesus' sake." But the 
usual custom is to add 's even if the singular noun 
ends in an ^ sound; for example, *'St. James's 
Square;" ''the princess s bicycle;" "for her mis- 
tress's comfort ;" " Erasmus' s dialogue ;" "Pytha- 
goras's first rule." 

43. Compound words form the possessive case 
singular and plural by the same rules as simple 
words; thus, "the aid-de-camp's orders;" "my 
fellow-pupH's troubles;" "the zvomen-servants' 
wages;" "the men-of-zvar's gallant crews." 

44. Two words in apposition are usually treat- 
ed as one compound noun, the possessive sign 
being added to the last one only ; as, "The recital 
of Hodge the farmers woes ;" '"the length of Vic- 
toria queen of England's reign." 

Often, however, it is found to be clearer as well 
as smoother in sound to use the prepositional 
phrase instead of a compound noun or a pair of 
appositional words; as, "The woes of Hodge the 
farmer/' "thQ reign of Victoria queen of England," 
"the gallant crews of the men-of-war,'^ 

45. If two nouns modify the same word and 
denote joint ownership, origin, etc., the apostro- 
phe is added to the second modifier only; as, 
''Mason and Dixon's line;" " 'Wheeler and Wil- 
son's machines." Examples are to be seen every 
day in newspaper advertisements and business an- 
nouncements. 



NOUNS. 45 



possessio7i. 



If one of two possessive nouns has its modified 
word omitted and the other has its modified word separate 
expressed, separate ownership, etc., being impHed, 
the apostrophe is used with both modifiers; as, 
"Huyler's and Giinther's candies ;" ''Byron's and 
Shelley's poetry." 

46. The declension of a noun is the orderly 
arrangement of the forms for number and case. 
The following nouns are declined in full : 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. and Obj. fairy fairies 

Possessive fairy's fairies' 

Nom. and Obj. wife wives 

Possessive wife's wives' 

Nom. and Obj. negro negroes 

Possessive negro's negroes' 

Nom. and Obj. father-in-law fathers-in-law 

Possessive father-in-law's fathers-in-law's 

Exercises. 

1. Write sentences using the possessive singular and 
plural of the following words : 

Ox, Mussulman, postmaster-general, virtuoso, thief, 
enemy, attorney, sheep, Mrs. Jackson, brother-in-law, 
dwarf, Miss Hall, hero, bandit. Englishman, fellow-pupil, 
gentleman. 

2. Use the possessive equivalent of each of the fol- 
lowing phrases : 

(i) Shoes for men and boys. 

(2) Hats for ladies and misses. 

(3) The pianos of Knabe and Steinway. 

(4) The machines of Wilcox and Gibbs. 



46 



PARTS OT^ vSPEECH, 



(5) The marbles of Albert and Henry (together). 

(6) The marbles of Albert and Henry (separately). 

(7) Dresses for girls and women. 

(8) The boat belonging to Wilson and Baker. 

(9) The tennis court of the Reds and the Blues. 
(10) Books of the Putnams and the Scribners. 



Definition 



Three 
persons . 



PERSON. 

47. Person is the form or use of a noun or pro- 
noun to indicate the person speaking, the person 
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The word representing the speaker is said to be 
of the first person ; one representing the person or 
thing spoken to is of the second person; and one 
representing the person or thing spoken of is of 
the third person. 

In the study of pronouns person is more impor- 
tant, because the personal pronouns have separate 
forms for the three persons ; In nouns person de- 
pends upon the use of the words. 

48. Nouns are most often of the third person, 
since they name the person or thing spoken of. 

A noun is said to be of the first person when it 
stands in apposition with a pronoun which repre- 
sents the speaker; as, "I, a household pet, nat- 
urally fell into her hands;" ''We, the children, 
were all touched with pensiveness." A common 
use is in proclamations ; as, "I, Thomas Jefferson,^ 
President of the United States of America, do 
hereby," etc. 



NOUNS. 



47 



Nouns denoting the person or thing addressed 
are of the second person; as, "Ye crags and 
peaks/' 



THE PARSING OF NOUNS. 

49. Parsing is the statement of ah the facts 
about the form of a word and its relation to other 
words in the sentence. 

We have studied the classes of nouns, and 
learned to recognize the gender, number, person, 
and case ; now in parsing we shall take each word 
presented and give the facts about it separately. 

In the work of parsing, the natural, sensible 
order is to tell what a word denotes or what it 
does, and then to tell what it is. 

Parsing deals with the regular facts and laws of 
the language ; and the pupil should take notice at 
the start that in parsing we must make allowance 
for idioms, which may defy all rules and make 
thei-r own laws. 

50. To parse a noun, one should state — 

(i) Its class (and sub-class, if a common 
noun). 

(2) Its gender. 

(3) Its number. 

(4) Its person. 

(5) Its case. 

51. The parsing of one noun will suggest the 
method to be followed : 

'Is yon mute thing carved by man's art a goddess?" 



fV/iai it is. 



The best ivay. 



As (o idioms. 



48 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Thing is a name, therefore a noun ; the name of 
any object of its class, therefore a common class 
nomi; it names an object without life, hence is 
neuter gender; names one object, therefore singu- 
lar number; names an object spoken of, and is 
third person ; subject of is, hence nominative case. 

Follow this order with mans, art, and goddess. 

Sentences for General Exercise. 

(1) Death, self-interest, and fortune's changes are 
every day breaking up many a happy group, and scatter- 
ing them far and wide. 

(2) We write these words now, many miles distant 
from the spot at which, year after year, we met on that 
day, a merry and joyous circle. 

(3) Happy, happy Christmas, that can win us back to 
the delusions of youth ! 

(4) This last observation of Mr. Weller's bore refer- 
ence to a demonstration that Mr. Winkle made at the 
instant. 

(5) And now show the man of misery and gloom a 
few of the pictures from our great store-house ! 

(6) The bride's father, our good friend here, is a 
noble person, and I am proud to know him. 

(7) "I have called from Dodson and Fogg's," said 
Mr. Jackson. 

(8) The ward meetings on election days are not soft- 
ened by any misgiving of the value of these ballotings. 

(9) He was a complete family chronicle, which made 
him a great favorite with the old folks. 

(10) That keeps the good from our homes and hearts. 

And lets the evil in. 

(11) Ere long he reached the magnificent glacier of 
,the Rhone ; a frozen cataract more than two thousand 
feet in height, and many miles broad. 

(12) Maiden, that read'st this simple rhyme. 
Enjoy thy youth, it will not stay. 



NOUNS. 49 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 

52. All words and expressions used as proper Ge?ierai 

rule. 

names begin with a capital letter. 

They include such words as the following : 

(i) Names of persons, places, etc.; as, Gari- Propev 

. natnes. 

haldi, New Yoi'k, the City of Rocks, Buckeye 
State, Orphans Home. 

(2) Words, either nouns or adjectives, derived 
from proper nouns; as, American, Parisian, 
Shakespearean. 

(3) Names of months, days of the week, special 

days appointed as holidays or for religious observ- special days, 
ance, etc.; but ^zo^ the names of the seasons. Ex- 
amples are: September, Sunday, Thanksgiving 
Day, Easter, Fourth of July. 

(4) Names of religious bodies and political 
parties; as, Mohammedan, Presbyterian, Tory, 
Democrat. 

(5) Names for the Deity; as, Jehovah, the In- 
finite. 

(6) Names of things personified; as, ''When 
Music, heavenly maid, was young;" "Now came 
still Evening on;" "But Error, wounded, writhes 
with pain." 

(7) In names of books, newspapers, essays, 
etc., not only the nouns have capitals, but all the 
principal words : as, "An Introduction to Chem- 
ical Science;" "The Scientiiic American/' "The 
Nineteenth Century/' "A Treatise on the Free- 
dom of the Press." 



50 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(8) Such words as street, river, mountain, etc., 
if they are used in connection with proper names ; 
the words of direction. North, East, etc., if they 
are used as nouns to name sections of country; 
and all titles used as part of proper names. Ex- 
amples are : "This is Fleet Street, or Euclid Ave- 
nue;" "Roane Mountain;" ''the prairies of the 
West;" "the Duke of Wellington;" "Colonel 
Bonaparte" 

Exercise. — Copy these sentences and use capitals 
wherever they are needed, giving reasons : 

(i) Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober hvery all things clad. 

(2) One of dickens's stories was published in the 
paper called "all the year round." 

(3) Honor the light brigade, 
Noble six hundred ! 

(4) He was a believer in the church of Rome. 

(5) Master simon gave them a Christmas song. 

(6) These wise men came from the east. 

(7) But, Mr. speaker, the gentleman says we have a 
right to tax america ! 

(8) Ben Jonson lived in queen Elizabeth's reign. 

(9) I think uncle Henry lives on Broad street. 

(10) This essay, called "the rights of man," caused 
discussion throughout the united states of america. 



Three uses 
of the 



53. The apostrophe has the following uses : 
(i) To mark the possessive case; as, "The 

(2) To mark the plural of letters, figures, etc. ; 
as, x's, 8's, oh's. 

(3) To show that letters are omitted from 
words; as, "'Tis (it is) distance lends enchant- 



NOUNS. 51 



ment;" "They'll (they will) bare their snowy 
scalps;" 'We've (we have) been long together." 

54. Some uses of the comma should be noticed a /ew uses of 

1 . . • - , 1 r ^^^^ comma. 

here m connection witn the study of nouns : 

(i) Nouns independent by direct address, un- 
less exclamatory, are set off from the rest of the 
sentence by the comma; as, ^'King Agrippa, be- 
lievest thou the prophets?" 

(2) Nouns in apposition are separated by the 
comma, unless they are used as parts of one name ; 
for example, "O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse" 

(3) Nouns used as nominative absolute with 
a participle are set off by the comma; as, ''His 
father yielding to old age, the prince ascended the 
throne." 

Exercise. — Copy these sentences, insert apostrophes 
and commas where needed, and give reasons : 
(i) O sir Im sorry to give you a pain! 

(2) Twas the fishers wife at her neighbors door. 

(3) The moon a phantom vessel sails 
Past reefs of cloud in rugged lines. 

(4) The road passing straight through a waste moor 
the towers of a distant city appear. 

(5) I wouldnt hurt you for a farm 

My pretty little neighbor ! 

(6) He had under him In one of his dominions a 
briber a gift-taker a gratifier of rich men. 

(7) The end being given the means could not well be 
mistaken. 

(8) Anne the mother of Francis Bacon was distin- 
guished both as a linguist and as a theologian. 

(9) He came clattering up to the school door with an 
invitation to Ichabod to attend a merry-making or "quilt- 



52 



PARTS OK SPEECH. 



ing-frolic" to be held that evening at Mynheer Van 
Tassels. 

(lo) "Well my dear" said her father with a quiet 
laugh, "I didnt say you dont manage for everybodys 
good." 



What a pro- 
noun does. 



What ''per- 
son " is. 



Definition of 

personal 

pronoun. 



PRONOUNS. 

55. We have learned that the office of the pro- 
noun is to stand for a name, or for a noun. It 
may have other uses in the sentence, but must 
have this quality of standing for a noun or its 
equivalent. 

The various classes of pronouns may be found 
by a study of the following sentences : 

I. "The person who effected so much by his eloquence 
was called Peter the Hermit." 

In this sentence, two statements are put to- 
gether. The main statement is, "The person was 
called Peter the Hermit;" and in this the word 
person is modified by the expression, ''who effect- 
ed so much by his eloquence." The word his 
evidently stands for person, and denotes a person 
spoken of. It is called a personal pronoun. 
Other personal pronouns, as /, we, me, etc., denote 
the person speaking; and yet others, as, >you, 
thou, thee, etc., denote the person or thing 
spoken to. 

A personal pronoun is one that shows by its 
form whether it represents the person speaking, 
the person or thing spoken to, or the person or 
thing spoken of. 



PRONOUNS. 53 



56. In the sentence quoted above, the expres- 
sion, "who effected so much by his eloquence," is a double 
equivalent to "and he effected, etc. ; and being a ■^""^''''"' 
conjunction connecting the two members of the 
sentence, and he referring to person in the main 
division. 

A division of a sentence containing a subject clauses, 
and its predicate is called a clause. 

Two clauses have now been shown in this sen- 
tence. The word who, being equivalent to if he, 
connects clatises and also refers to a noun in the 
sentence. 

A word which refers to some noun or equiva- 
lent of a noun in the sentence and also connects Definition. 
clauses is called a relative pronoun. 

57.— 

II. "What was the Priory like?" 

Here the word zvhat does not stand for any jnterrogative 
word in the sentence, but is used to ask a question. ^''''"^""• 
The answer might be, "It is like a church," or "It 
is like an inn"; and the word church or the word 
inn would take the place of what in the sentence. 
Hence, zvhat stands for a word or group of words, 
and is a pronoun. 

A pronoun that is used to ask a question is 
called an interrogative pronoun. 



Definition. 



58.— 

III. (a) "These too belonged to the past." (6) "I 
had no advantage over others of my age." (c) "All v^^as 
now placed beyond a doubt." 



54 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



A djectives en' 
prOtiouns, ac- 
cording to 
use. 



Definition. 



The words these in (a), others in (Z?), and all 
in (c), are terms that might modify nouns; as in 
the sentences, ''These customs are strange;" "I 
saw other persons;" ''All doubt disappeared." 
But in sentences (a), (Z?), and (c), the words do 
not modify, but stand for nouns; in (a), these 
means the things previously mentioned; in (b), 
others contains the idea of persons; and so on. 

A word primarily an adjective, but used to 
stand for a noun, is called an adjective pronoun. 

To sum up, the four classes of pronouns are 
Personal, Interrogative, Relative, and Adjective. 



Sentences of 
one state- 
ment, etc. 



Se7itefices 
with two 
clauses. 



Kinds of Sentences. 

59. In studying analysis in the Introduction we 
took up only those sentences which have one sub- 
ject and predicate, and found out what elements 
these sentences contained. 

A sentence having only one statement, question, 
or command is a simple sentence. 

60. In Section 55, however, we studied a 
group of words having two clauses so knit to- 
gether as to form one sentence. 

The main division, "The person was called 
Peter the Hermit," is one that makes a complete 
meaning when standing alone, that does not need 
the aid of any other clause; the other division, 
"who effected so much by his eloquence," does not 
make sense when standing alone, but, like an ad- 
jective, modifies the word person in the preceding 
clause. 



PRONOUNS. 



55 



A main, principal, or indejiendent clause is one 

that makes a statement, question or command 
without the aid of another clause. 

A subordinate or dependent clause is one that 
does not make complete sense when alone, but is a 
subordinate element in a sentence. 

A complex sentence is one that consists of one 
main clause, and one or more subordinate clauses. 

In the study of relative pronouns especially, a 
knowledge of complex sentences is very necessary. 



Definition, 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

61. The declension of personal pronouns is as 
follows : 



FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. 
Nom. I 


SECOND PERSON. 

Old Common 
Form. Form. 
thou you 


THIRD PERSON. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. 
he she it 


Table of 
for?ns. 


Poss. 


mine, 
my 


thine, 
thy 


your, 
yours 


his 


her, its 
hers 




Obj. 


me 


thee 


you 


him 


her it 




Nom. 


Plural 
we 


Plural. 
ye you 


Plural 


of all three. 
they 




Poss. 


our, 
ours 


your, 
yours 


your, 
yours 




their, 
theirs 





Obj. 



us 



you 



you 



them 



62. The pronouns of the first and the second mtesonthe 
person do not, by their form, indicate gender. pJJn^JJfns. 



56 



PARTS OF SPKECH. 



Gender. They do iiot always refer to words in the sentence, 

but may stand for the names of persons speaking, 

First and sec- qv persons or thing-s spoken to : and since they are 

ond persons. ^ 0x7 j 

used in direct speech, the gender need not be ex- 
pressed by the form of the pronoun. 

If, however, the context has a word to accom- 
pany the pronoun, the gender of the latter is clear; 
for example — 

" 7 like the old custom,' said the Squire." 
"Niece, I hope I see you well in health." 
"Thou hast done well, good fellozv." 



Third person^ 
irregular. 



To show the 
gender of 
nouns. 



63. The singular pronouns of the third person, 
on the other hand, show by the form whether the 
object spoken of is a male or a female being, an 
inanimate object, or a living being whose sex is 
not important (Section lo). 

So exact are these forms in indicating gender 
that they are used to show whether certain nouns 
are regarded as masculine or feminine — for ex- 
ample, friend, acquaintance , cousin, etc. ; as in the 
sentences — 

"My companion looked around him with transport." 
"The invalid retired with her maid to her bedroom." 



To mark i>er They also accompauy names of things personi- 
sonification. £g(j^ j^g ghowu in the following expressions : 

"Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne." 

"As if Death were raging, .... seeking for his prey.' 



Exercise. — Write sentences using 5 nouns from Section 
15 with masculine pronouns, then with feminine, as illus- 
trated above. 



PRONOUNS. 57 



64. There is no pronoun, however, of the third a word 
person singular to stand for terms that inchide ^^ """^ 
both mascuHne and feminine. The first examples 

in Section 63 are used expressly to show that a 
male or a female person is spoken of; but when 
certain nouns or other words imply that both male 
and female persons are meant, the pronouns are 
defective. For instance, what shall we use to fill 

this blank : "Every friend of mine has 

own plans" ? 

The preferred way is to let the masculine pro- 
noun stand for both masculine and feminine utedfiT^ 
names; as, ^^his own plans," in the sentence just ^°^'^' 
quoted. Other examples are : 

"Who can tell, when he sets forth to wander, whither 

he may be driven?" 

"Every one had his tale of shipwreck and disaster." 
"Any man or zvoman with a pennyworth of brains, 

.... must have gone off into a digression of his own." 

Sometimes writers use both a masculine and a Both mascu- 

... . , line and 

lemmme pronoun m such a case ; as — feminine. 

"No male or female remembers his or her first inclina- 
tion any more than his or her own christening." 

65. But there is no such difficulty when several 
objects or persons are represented by a plural pro- 
noun. The forms they, their, them, are the only 
plurals for all genders — 

(Persons) "The villagers doffed their hats to the 
Squire." 

(Things) "The sounds, as they receded, became more 
soft." 



58 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(Persons and things) "What has become of the 
charms of music, by which men and beasts, fishes, fowls, 
and serpents were so frequently enchanted, and their very 
natures changed?" 



Number. 66. Occasionally the plural forms we, our, etc., 

are used to represent only one person, especially a 



ruler; thus: 

"We have summoned 
maiden." 



to our presence a Jewish 



Use q/wc, 
etc. 



They are also often used by authors and editors, 
who are speaking with the purpose of making 
their words prominent but themselves less prom- 
inent ; for example : 

''We shall be pardoned, we hope, if we call the atten- 
tion of our readers to the causes and to the consequences 
of that great event." 



A plural as 
singular. 



Old forms in 
the Bible, etc,. 



in poetry. 



67. A form originally plural is used as a singu- 
lar pronoun of the second person. We no longer 
say thou, thee, etc., in ordinary speech, but you, 
your. These latter are used in speaking to one 
person or more than one, always taking a plural 
verb, however, whether one or more be addressed. 
It is not correct to say, ''You zvas a good friend," 
or the like. 

The forms thou, thine or thy, thee, and ye, are 
often called the solemn forms, since they are used 
in the Bible, also in prayers and other kinds of 
worship; no quotations are needed to illustrate 
this familiar usage. 

They may be called the poetic forms also, since 



PRONOUNS. 59 



they occur frequently in poetry and elevated prose 
style; as — 

"There was a boy, ye know him well, ye cliffs." 
"I fear thee and thy glittering eye." 
''Bishop of Beauvais ! thy victim died upon a scaffold 
— thou upon a down bed." 



Case, 



Many case 
forms. 



A caution. 



68. As has been stated, the personal pronouns 
are rich in case forms; of the first person, there 
are three in the singular and three in the plural ; 
of the old form of the second person, the same 
number; of the third person, the masculine sin- 
gular has three, and the plural three forms. This 
is an advantage, in that the case of these may be 
recognized by their form as well as by their use; 
but, on account of the number of forms, the stu- 
dent needs great care in using the nominative and 
objective forms, — a caution not needed in speak- 
ing of the use of nouns. 

69. The word it has several distinct uses — uses of it. 
I. The regular use as a pronoun, to refer to 

some word or expression in the same sentence or 

a sentence close by. This reference may be back- to refer 

backward. 

ward to a preceding word ; as — 

"The cheerful fire glanced its rays through the lattice." 
"Indeed, he was the idol of the younger part of the 
company I could not wonder at it." 

In the first sentence, it stands for the noun Hre; 
in the second, it stands for the whole statement 
preceding. 

The reference may be forzvard to some noun or jorZiVd. 



Regular use: 



6o 



PARTS OF SPKECH. 



its equivalent in the sentence or a sentence close 
by; as — 

"None but those who have experienced it can form an 
idea of the delicious throng of sensations." 

"Shorn as if is of its ancient and festive honors, 
Christmas is still a period of delightful excitement." 



Introductory 
use- 



To transpose 



a word. 



a phrase. 



a clause. 



70. Beside the regular use just given, there are 
some that are strikingly idiomatic, quite unlike the 
reference to particular expressions. These uses 
are — 

II. It introductory: here it does not really stand 
for a noun and take the exact place of it in the sen- 
tence, but occupies a place as subject, while the 
real or logical subject is a word, phrase, or clause 
following the predicate. Though it is singular, 
the real subject may be a plural word — 

(a) It was a fine, sunny morning." 

" 'It was the English' Kaspar cried, 
'Who put the French to rout.' " 

(h) "It is impossible to resist the gladdening intluence 
of tine zveather and fair wind." 

(c) It is a beautiful arrangement that this festival has 
been made the season for gathering together of family 
connections." 



Meaningless 
subject. 



■ III. Impersonal subject; as in the common ex- 
pressions, ''It is raining," ''It turned cold,'' "It 
thundered and lightened," "It was very late," etc. 
Here the verb has no other subject than it, 
which is a meaningless word in this use, the real 
idea being in the verb which follows, or in such a 



PRONOUNS. 6l 



Meaningless 
object. 



word as rain, weather, air, time, etc., in the mind 
of the speaker. 

IV. Impersonal object; merely completing the 
assertion of the verb, but having no meaning of 
its own ; for example — 

"How she (the ship) seems to lord it over the deep !" 
"She sweeps it through the court with troops of 
ladies." 

71, The name for which the pronoun stands is 
called its antecedent, from a Latin word that Antecedent. 
means going before. The antecedent, as the term 
implies, usually comes before the pronoun, as 
shown in the sentences under Sections 63, 64, etc. 

Exercises. 

1. Tell what is the antecedent of each personal pro- 
noun of the third person in these sentences : 

(i) My own demurs to these harsh judgments were 
not so many as they might have been. 

(2) My brother did not share my inexpressible de- 
light ; his taste ran in a different channel. 

(3) No motive existed any longer for living near to a 
great trading town, so long after the commercial connec- 
tion with it had ceased. 

(4) Cicero tells us that he never liked an orator who 
did not appear in some little confusion at the beginning 
of his speech. 

(5) To teach is to learn ; according to an old expe- 
rience, it is the very best mode of learning. 

(6) Every one ought to reflect how much more un- 
happy he might be than he really is. 

2. In the following sentences, tell which use the 
pronoun it has in each instance ; 



62 PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



(i) It was a very good time for talking. 

(2) It has been either my good or evil lot to have ray 
roving passion gratified. 

(3) I might fill a volume with the reveries of a sea 
voyage — for with me it is almost a continual reverie — 
but it is time to get to shore. 

(4) Certain it is, the place still continues under the 
sway of some witching power. 

(5) Ah! thus it is with youth. 

(6) He lorded it over his little empire, the school. 

(7) And when I awoke, it rained. 

Nominative Case of Personal Pronouns. 

72. The nominative forms of these pronouns 
have, like nouns, the following uses : 

(i) Subject of a verb; as, "Thither we went." 

(2) Predicate nominative, or complement of an 
intransitive verb; as, "You are he who decided 
the victory." 

(3) /n a/j/JO^i^Jon with a nominative word ; as, 

"Sabbathless Satan ! he who his unglad 
Task ever plies 'mid rotary burnings." 



Uses like 
those of 
nouns. 



(4) Direct address (thou, ye, and you), either 
alone, as in this expression, "O ye, whom wrath 
consumes !" or, much oftener, an a;djunct of a 
noun addressed; for example, "Thou Wind, that 
ravest without." 

(5) In an absolute phrase, usually with a parti- 
ciple ; as, "I was obliged to part from my friends, 
they having been called away by a message." 

Exercise. — Write 10 sentences illustrating all the above 
uses. 



PRONOUNS. 63 



Objective Case of Personal Pronouns. 

73. The objective forms of the personal pro- 
nouns have mainly the same uses as objective 
nouns : 

(i) Direct object of a verb : ''Touch us gently, monuser' 
Time!" 

(2) Object of a preposition: "For I will fly to 
thee/' 

(3) Indirect object of a verb: "Sing ine the 
song." 

(4) In exclamations the objective form me is One less 
often used; as, ''Ah me! what rumor do I hear?" ^^'^^'"^ • 

Exercise. — Write 15 sentences illustrating uses (i), 
(2), and (3), above, 5 for each use. 

74. A pronoun is used reflexively when it is Meaning of 

11. • 1 • 1 • r reflexive. 

the direct or mdirect object of a verb and also re- 
fers to the same person or thing as the subject of 
that verb. 

Personal pronouns are not often reflexive unless 
they are the indirect object of the verb; for ex- 
ample — 

"Such pearl from Life's fresh crown 
Fain would I shake me down." 

Also in the every-day expressions, "He bought 
him a new horse," "You may get you some flow- 
ers," "They have won them honor by this action," 
and such like. 

Possessive Case of Personal Pronouns. 

75. The possessive forms my, our, thy, your, 

her, its, and their always stand before nouns and Two sets oj 
modify like adjectives. '^^^^' 



Examples. 



64 



PARTS OF SPHKCH. 



Double 
possessive. 



Besides these there are the possessive forms 
mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, and theirs, which 
imply possession but are seldom used to stand be- 
fore a noun. The word his may stand before a 
noun or be used without a noun following. 

This use of possessive forms, modifying but not 
standing before the modified noun, is called abso- 
LUTE_, which means cut loose from the modified 
word; and the pronouns so used are called abso- 
lute personal pronouns. 

They are not a separate class, but a special use 
of the personal pronouns ; examples of their use : 

'"Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands." 
"Some provinces have tried the experiment, as we have 
tried ours; and theirs has succeeded." 

76. Personal pronouns also have the idiomatic 
double possessive. It answers the same purpose 
of clearness, and also adds some variety, as the 
writer may use sometimes the regular possessive, 
sometimes the double possessive phrase. Exam- 
ples of the construction are — 

"That big muscular frame of his held plenty of animal 



"In this land of ours, which million of Englishmen 
would we not rather give up than the Stratford Peasant?" 

Note. — Strictly speaking, these forms are more than 
double possessives, since the absolute pronouns are really 
double possessive. But for the sake of comparison with 
nouns we speak of them above as double possessive 
phrases. 



The regular 
reflexives. 



Compound Personal (or Reflexive) Pronouns. 

77. Though the simple personal pronouns are 
sometimes reflexive, there are some words usually 



PRONOUNS. 65 



classed separately as reflexive pronouns. They 
are more properly called compound personal pro- 
nouns, as they are not always reflexive. 

They consist usually of the possessive form of 
the personal pronoun united with the word self, 
plural selves; as, myself, yourselves. 

The following is a list of these compounds : 

FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. THIRD PERSON. 

Old Common 

Form. Form. Masc. Fern. Neuf. 

Sing, myself thyself yourself himself herself itself 

Plur. ourselves yourselves themselves 

And ourself, a peculiar form not often used (Seccion 79). 

All these are in the nominative or the objective 
case. 

78. The principal uses of the compoimd per- Their u 
sonal pronouns are as follows : 

(i) Af positional, to emphasize some noun or 
pronoun in the sentence ; as In the expressions — • 

"The Squire himself mingled among the rustics." 
"A delay with which / had nothing to do myself." 



as JHodiJier; 



(2) Without accoinpanyiuo- a noun, a use in as subsniute 

\ \ . . ormodijier; 

which it may be regarded as modifying a personal 
pronoun omitted, or as merely taking the place of 
a simple personal pronoun ; as — 

"Especially if each passenger were encumbered with 
as heavy luggage as that gentleman and myself." 

"While I gazed and was dreaming only of herself I 
found him also in a dream." 



66 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



As reflexive. (3) Reftexlve, wliich use may be direct or indi- 
rect object of a verb or object of a preposition; 
for example : 

. (a) "Silas's hand satisfied itself with throwing the 
shuttle." 

{h) "What is it, if we dare tell ourselves the truth?" 
(c) "They broiled a quarter of mutton for themselves, 
and gave another to the king and his attendant." 

Exercise. — Select 4 pronouns from Section yy, and use 
them as in Section 78 (i), then as in 78 (2), then as in 
78 (3). 



Yourself, 
Yourselves. 



Ourself. 



Two uses. 



79. The words yourself and yourselves are both 
formed from the possessive your; but yourself is 
used as singular and yourselves as plural. 

The word ourself has the same uses as those 
noted under the form zve (Section 66) ; to illus- 
trate — 

(a) By rulers : "The mark of your sovereignty, to 
which none vows homage more sincerely than ourself." 

(b) By writers: "We cannot commit ourself to such 
a policy as that proposed." 



SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Introductory. 80. Most of the pcrsoual pronouns have distinct 
forms for all the cases as well as for the three per- 
sons, and it is necessary to stop and consider care- 
fully some of the relations requiring the different 
forms. Young students often make errors in the 
use of these words, and need frequent cautions 
and explanations, unless they keep close to the 
sources of pure English — good literature and 
cultivated speech. 



PRONOUNS. 67 



Syntax is that department of English grammar Definition. 
which deals with the relations of words, and with 
their right use in sentences. 

81. When personal pronouns refer to two or 
more antecedents in the same sentence, clearness becuar. 
requires that the pronouns should be used in such 
a way that the meaning can be clearly seen. Ob- 
serve this sentence : 



Reference to 



"A hale, ruddy-faced, white-headed farmer appeared 
to be the wit of the village, for I observed all his com- 
panions to wait with open mouths for his retorts, and 
burst into a gratuitous laugh before they could well 
understand them." 

In this we can hardly fail to see that they refers 
to companions and them refers to retorts; but 
now and then sentences are so carelessly put to- 
gether that the reader can get the meaning only 
after a good deal of trouble ; and sometimes the 
apparent meaning is ludicrously different from 
that intended. 

(a) "When Pittacus, after the death of his brother, 
who had left him a good estate, was offered a great sum 
of money by the king of Lydia, he thanked him for his 
kindness, but told him that he had already more by half 
than he knew what to do with." 

In this case some labor might be avoided by the 
use of a direct quotation, thus : "When .... 
he said, 'I thank you for your kindness, but I have 
already more by half than I,' " etc. 

(b) "His father died soon after his birth, and his 
early life was spent in poverty." 



Correction /, 



PARTS OP SPKKCH. 



Correction 2. Tliis wonclcrf ul Statement would be avoided by 
the repetition of the antecedents, or by the use of 
some distinguishing word, as , ''His father died 
soon after the hoy's birth, and the early life of the 
latter was spent in poverty." 

agleemetiL ^^' Pcrsoual pronouus should agree zvith their 

antecedents in gender, person, and number; for 
instance, if the antecedent is singular, masculine, 
third person, the pronoun will be he, his, or himj 
if the antecedent is feminine, so will the pronoun 
be; etc. Remember that if the antecedent is a 
word that does not make clear the sex of the per- 
son named, the pronoun is to be of the third 
person ; and singular, if the antecedent is singular. 
Examples of the agreement of personal pro- 
nouns : 

''Every student, before he is matriculated, must sub- 
scribe his assent to the thirty-nine articles." 

"As soon as I was able to converse with the natives, 
I began to feel some satisfaction in their company." 

"Every one looked on himself as in the utmost 
danger." 

"Every man who rises above the common level has 
received two educations : the first from his teachers ; the 
second, more personal and important, from himself." 

Exercise. — Mention the antecedent of each pronoun In 
'these four sentences, and show in what respects they 
agree. 

Caution 1. 83. An error frequently made is caused by one's 

forgetting that the antecedent may be singular in 
form while referring to many persons or things 



Reference to 
persons 



singly. separately; and that consequently the pronoun 



PRONOUNS. 69 



should take the singular form. As an example 
of this error, "Any one who has a question they 
wish answered can drop it in the box." 

Note. — A collective noun referring to persons or things 
as a unit will take a singular pronoun; as, "The Ways 
and Means Committee had just completed its labors." 
But if the collective noun refers to the individuals of the 
collection, a plural pronoun is used; as ''The quiet eon- 
gregation of trees set their feet in the flood." 

84. Another error is caused by making the pro- caution 2. 
noun agree in person and number with some word 

near the antecedent and not with the antecedent 

itself. Example of the correct construction. Reference to 

the wrong 

'Each of us [two] shall count his own wrinkles -^ord. 
on the other's brow and his white hairs upon the 
other's head." 

Instead of this, a careless writer would have 
said, ''Each of us shall count our wrinkles," etc., 
which is not only bad syntax but really absurd in 
meaning. 

85. Sometimes, on account of haste in writing, Q^^^io^ 3 
an introductory pronoun of one person and num- 
ber is followed in the same sentence by pronouns 

of other persons and numbers referring to the Mixing 

. r- 1 1 11 11 pronouns, 

same person as the hrst; also the old and the 
common form of the second person may be 
thoughtlessly confused in the same sentence. 

86. In using the personal pronouns, care must 
be taken to mark the nominative uses by the nomi- 
native forms, and the objective uses by the ob- 
jective forms. 



70 PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



Objective for Objective forms may be improperly used for the 

nominative. . , . . . 

nommative forms m the followmg ways : 

(i) In the language of the ignorant or heed- 
less, who employ the objective forms as subjects 
of verbs expressed ; as — 

"There now, father, you won't work in the garden till 
it's all easy, and you and me can mark out the beds." 

(2) In such a sentence as this, "If such as thee 
are noble, then are we vile sinners indeed," the 
writer forgets that the verb is understood after 
thee, and that as is not a preposition. The nomi- 
native form should be used to mark the use of 
the word as subject — "such as thou [art], are 
noble, then are," etc. The same error often oc- 
curs after the conjunction than. Example of the 
correct use — 

"I think nobody could be happier than we [are]." 

Nominative 87. A commou misusc of the nominative forms 

for objective. 

for the objective is the placing of nominative pro- 
nouns as objects of verbs and prepositions: espe- 
cially when two pronouns of different persons, or 
farl/uuy. .^ noun and a pronoun, are used together. The 
proper way to determine which form of the pro- 
noun is correct is to take each of the words sepa- 
rately, and see if it can stand in the position and 
express correctly the relation. 

In the sentence, "The policeman directed her 
and / to the wrong place," it is right to say, "The 
policeman directed her/' but may we say "direct- 
ed /"f 



PRONOUNS. 



71 



88. In order that a subject may be made more 
striking and emphatic, it is sometimes mentioned 
and then repeated in the form of a pronoun in- 
stead of having its verb just after it in the usual 
way: as, *Thy rod and thy staif, they comfort 
me/' 

Such repetition of words is cahed pleonasm. 

Notice that the purpose is emphasis, and the ar- 
rangement of words is intentionally made ; but 
when, in speaking, people carelessly repeat a sub- 
ject, the only effect is that the sentence is slovenly : 
as, "Napoleon fought well, but Bliicher he was 
late." 



General 
Eemarks. 



Pleonasm. 



'''•Business 
English.'''' 



89. An error of another kind is the omission of omitting the 

, , . - , pronoun. 

pronouns that are necessary to the meanmg 01 the 
sentence. This occurs often in business letters ; 
in the language of those who imitate this manner 
of expression in their writing; and sometimes in 
sentences where the omission causes a different 
meanmg from that intended. 

Exercise. — Explain the use of italicized words in these 
sentences : 

(i) The committee differed in their opinions to-day. 

(2) The sheriff, not his deputy, was wounded in hh 
effort to arrest the murderer. 

(3) The tired child came to its mother's arms. 

(4) The speaker thought that every mechanic, every 
farmer, every tradesman should give his hearty support. 

(5) The aged philosopher and statesman is gradually- 
passing to his home in another world. 

(6) Either the judge or the lawyer must acknowledge 
his error in this unfortunate affair. 



72 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Order of 
statements. 



Order of 
questions. 



(7) I dislike mathematics because it is difficult. 

(8) The jury gave its verdict within an hour. 

(9) He and I were talking over our plans. 

(10) Neither you nor anyone else gained his point. 

Analysis of Interrogative Sentences. 

90. Sentences are most often ptit into the form 
of a statement; as, ''A burnt child fears the fire." 

Notice that the words of this sentence are 
placed in the following order: (i) Subject (a 
burnt child) ; (2) Predicate (fears) ; (3) Object 
{the fire). This is known as the regular or nor- 
mal order of words in a sentence. 

91. Sentences may also be put into the form of 
a question; as, ''Who calls me at the dead of 
night ?" 

This sentence has the regular or normal order, 
just like that of the statement quoted above; but 
in many questions the subject does not come first; 
for example : 

A (i) What sort of a house is Woodstock? 

(2) Who and what could it be? 

(3) What was the Cyclops doing here? 

(4) Which do you think Fate will give us? 

The real relations of the words may best be seen 
if they be arranged in the regular order — 

B (i) Woodstock is what sort of a house? 

(2) It could be who and what? 

(3) The Cyclops was doing what here? 

(4) You (do) think Fate will give us which? 

In group A, the first word in each sentence asks 
the question; but we see from group B that the 
subjects are Woodstock, it, the Cyclops, and you. 



PRONOUNS. 73 



Sentences which ask direct questions are called Definition. 
interrogative sentences. 

Exercise. — Rearrange the words of these sentences if 
necessary, then tell the office of each italicized word : 

(i) And by what appeal hereafter shall we attempt to 
rouse up native valor? 

(2) Who can estimate the power of gentle influences? 

(3) What could the little bird mean by pouring forth 
such a song at midnight? 

(4) Which way should the unhappy victim turn ? 

(5) Whom had he gained by this contempt? 

(6) For z'chat had we come up to London? 

(7) Which would my uncle the captain prefer? 

(8) Who is she in bloody coronation robes? 

(9) What was the reason that the Greeks and the 
Romans had not the advantage of printed books? 

(10) This soldier, this officer — who are they? 

[Note. — The pupil will be careful to use an interroga- 
tion point after each interrogative sentence.] 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

92. The office of an interrogative pronoun is to Thdr office. 
ask a question and stand for the noun or equiva- 
lent of a noun that would answer the question. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, 
and what. 

93. The followinq- sentences illustrate the uses _,,. 

^ who — uses 

and also the forms of the interrogative pronoun and/orms. 
who: 



"Who can say how extensive the effect of this single 
break may be?" 

"Who were the persons that lodged in this house 
when it was first built?" 



74 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Facts about 
who. 



Use of 
which. 



Facts about 
which. 



"Whose monument is this? A neglected poet's who 
died not long ago." 

"I turned to share the transport — Oh ! with whom 
But Thee, deep buried in the silent tomb?" 

Exercise. — State in which case each interrogative pro- 
noun is in the above sentences, and why. 

94. From these sentences it may be seen that 
zvho as an interrogative pronoun refers to persons 
only; that it is inflected for case, but not for num- 
ber, as the first two sentences above show; and 
that, since it asks about a person, it is always of 
the third person. 

95. The following sentences show the uses of 
the interrogative pronoun which: 

"A rich young English peer in the reign of George the 
Second ; a wealthy patrician in the reign of Augustus ; 
which would you rather have been?" 

"Which of us was so witty? Was it I or you?" 
"Which of the children can the fond mother punish?" 
"There was war with its horrors, and peace at a sac- 
rifice — zuhich would he prefer ?" 

Exercise. — Tell the use of each interrogative pronoun 
in these sentences, and tell in which case each is. 

96. These show that the interrogative pronoun 
zvhich asks about either persons or things; that 
it is not inflected for case, the form for the nom- 

' inative and objective being the only one ; nor is it 
inflected for number, as the simple form refers to 
one person or thing or more than one ; that it is 
always of the third person ; and that it is selective 
in its use, that is, it picks out one or more from 
a number of known objects. 



PRONOUNS. 75 



97i The uses of the interrogative pronoun 
what are shown in the following sentences : 

"What have I but my word, and my honor?" 6'i<? <?/ what. 

"And what had been his conduct in that country?" 

"When we sum up all the useful truths which we owe 
to that philosophy, to what do they amount?" 

"After all, what were the charms that had laid the 
lorn 3'outh a slave at her feet?" 

Exercise. — Tell the use of the italicized word in these 
sentences, then tell in which case it is. 

98. It will be observed that the interrogative 
pronoun what stands for things; that it is not in- what.'' ^" 
fleeted for case, or for number; that it is of the 

third person always; that it is usually singular, 
but may be the complement after a plural subject. 

99. The forms of the interrogative pronouns, 
then, are — 



SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. 

Nom. who? which? what? 
Poss. whose? 



Declension. 



Other uses. 



Ohj. whom? which? what? 

Whose, being a possessive form, is always a 
modifier; who (with whose and zvhom), zvhich 
and zvhat are also relative pronouns; which and 
w'haf are also interrogative or relative adjectives; 
and what has still other uses, to be mentioned 
later. 

100. Since the interrogative who Is the form 
for nominative use and whom is the form for ob- Errors in 
jective use, errors are likely to arise in the hand- 
ling of these. Especially is this true when the 



case forms. 



76 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

one is not in close connection with a verb of which 
it is the subject, or when the other is distant from 
a verb or a preposition of which it is the object. 
Rearrangement and analysis will bring out the 
true relations of the words. 

Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

101. In the two sentences following may be 
seen two knids of dependent, or subordinate 
clauses — 

(a) "The great stream which fertiHzes the soil is the 
chief highway of Eastern commerce." 

(b) "How dost thou know what he containeth?" 

To find the We may, in analyzing these, first treat each as 

kind of . . '' - . .,.,,. 

clause. a Simple sentence, takmg as its subject the subject 

of the main clause. This is the analysis : 

In (a). The great stream which fertilizes the 
soil, is the subject; is the chief highway of East- 
ern commerce is the predicate. To be more 
minute, the bare or simple subject is stream, mod- 
ified by a clause which fertilizes the soil; which 
clause, modifying a noun, must be an adjective 
clause. This clause may then be analyzed : sub- 
ject zvhich, predicate, fertilizes, etc. 

In (&), thott is the subject, dost knozv what he 
containeth is the predicate ; of the predicate, dost 
know is the verb, zvhai he containeth is the object, 
,' and, having this use, must be a noun clause. 

This clause will now be analyzed like a simple 
sentence. 



PRONOUNS, 77 



An adjective clause is one having the use of an DefiniUons. 
adjective. A noun clause is one used as subject, 
complement, object, etc., like a single noun. 

Exercises. 

1. Point out the dependent clauses in the following 
sentences; tell how each clause is used, then analyze it 
like a simple sentence : 

(i) Amidst all the evils that threaten me, I will look 
up to Him for help. 

(2) Hov/ many men are country curates that might 
have made themselves aldermen in London ! 

(3) Till about twelve o'clock in the morning, these 
needy persons know not what they shall say. 

(4) My landlord, who was a jolly good-natured man, 
took it into his head that I wanted company. 

(5) I love to read books which he delighted in. 

(6) What I have to say regards only the vain part of 
the sex, whom for certain reasons, which the reader will 
hereafter see, I shall distinguish by the name of idols. 

(7) That form of government seems to me the most 
reasonable which is most conformable to the equaHty that 
we find in human nature. 

(8) What is most pleasant to observe In them is, that 
they assume to themselves the merit of the persons whom 
they have in their custody. 

2. Write five sentences In which relative pronouns 
introduce adjective clauses, and five in which they intro- 
duce noun clauses. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

102. The relative pronoun does the double 
work of joining two clauses and of standing for a ^^^^ ^^ 
noim. Its name is given because words of this '^"'^^''* 
class usually relaie to an antecedent in another 
clause. Sometimes the name conjunctive pro- 



78 



PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



To find the 
antecedent. 



As to case. 



The list. 



noun is given them because of their connecting 
clauses, as conjunctions do. 

103. In order to find out the antecedent of a 
relative pronoun, the best way at first is to divide 
the sentence into its clauses and find out what 
word the pronoun takes the place of. For exam- 
ple, the sentence, "He maintained the same cheer- 
fulness of heart upon the scaffold which he used 
to show at his table," is made up of two state- 
ments : "He maintained .... scaffold," and 
"he used to show this cheerfulness at his table." 
It is clear that zvhich takes the place of cheerful- 
ness. 

Further, the word cheerfulness is of the third 
person, neuter gender, singular number; and 
since which takes its place, zvhich has the same 
person, gender, and number. 

104. As to the case of these words, that de- 
pends upon the use of each relative pronoun in its 
own clause. The same rules about case hold 
good here as with nouns, personal and interrog- 
ative pronouns, etc. 

105. The simple relative pronouns are who, 
which, that; the word what is sometimes called 
a double relative pronoun; and whoever, which- 
ever, whatsoever, etc., are called indefinite or 
compound relative pronouns. 



Exercises. 

1- Unite the following sets of statements, using rela- 
tive pronouns to join them: 



PRONOUNS. 



79 



(i) All the men were lost. 

(2) My hair was tied down 

(3) One made me a speech. 
(4) 
(6) 
(5) 
(7) 



They were m the ship. 
It was very long. 
He was a nobleman. 
One soldier was killed. His sword was broken. 
Their horses are useful. They are very small. 
The men have come. You sent for them. 
The watch is lost. The boy had bought it. 



(8) Those are the men. Their sons are in the army. 

2. In the sentences you have made, tell whether each 
relative pronoun is the subject of its clause, the object, 
or a possessive modifier. 

106. The following- sentences illustrate the 
forms and the rises of the relative pronoun who: 

(i) 'T, who had been placed under the tuition of one who. 
of my guardians, remained some time longer under his 
care." 

(2) "To us who have seen the solution, the question 
presents few ditticulties." 

(3) "O Time ! who know'st a lenient hand to lay 

Softest on sorrow's wound." 

(4) "O ye who teach the ingenuous youth of nations, 

I pray ye flog them upon all occasions." 

(5) "The clergyman zvho then dwelt in the manse 
stood watching the outbreak of a long and deadly strug- 
gle." 

(6) "The hermit had called the dogs zvho made this 
clamor to aid him in his defense." 

(7) "We whose names are hereunto subscribed do Whose, 
solemnly declare, that we do believe that two and two 

make four." 

(8) "A few barons, ivhose names ought to be dear to 
their country, joined Bruce in his attempt." 

(9) "O thou ! with whom my heart was wont to share whom. 

From Reason's dawn each pleasure and each 
care." 
(10) "It is not merely, sir, those whom I, John Lam- 
bert, priest, have joined, let no man put asunder." 



8o 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Forms and 
uies. 



Which. 



Whose. 



Exercise. — Point out the antecedent of each relative 
pronoun, and give its gender, person, and number. 

107. The above sentences show that the rela- 
tive pronoun who relates usually to peisons, 
though sometimes to animals; that it is inflected 
for case, but not for gender, number, and person. 
The agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent 
is, however, often shown by the form of the verb 
of which the pronoun is the subject. 

108, The quotations below will illustrate the 
forms and uses of the relative pronoun which : 

(i) "We heard a distant thwacking sound, which he 
informed me v^as a signal for the serving-up of dinner." 

(2) "The poor lady was herself agitated by the flutter 
and agitation which she saw in her young companion." 

(3) "We were escorted by a number of gentlemanlike 
dogs, the last of which was of a race that had been in 
the family time out of mind." 

(4) 'The gallant Frith the eye might note, 

Whose islands on its bosom float, 
Like emeralds chased in gold." 

(5) "The high-roads were choked with loaded wains, 
whose axle-trees crackled under the burdens of wine- 
casks and hogsheads of ale." 

(6) "At the sarne time he delivered a letter, which my 
friend read to me as soon as the messenger had left him." 



Exercise. — In the above sentences, point out the ante- 
cedent of each relative pronoun, and give the person, 
number, and case of the latter. 



Forms and 
uses. 



109. A study of the first four sentences in Sec- 
tion 108 shows that zvhich relates to animals and 
things; that it has one case form for the possess- 



PRONOUNS. 8 1 



ive, and one for the nominative and objective: 
that it does not change its form to indicate the 
gender, person, and number of its antecedent. 



110. Formerly, zvhich related to persons as Forms and 
well as to animals and things ; for example, from ^^^^' 

the Bible, "We have four men which have a vow 
upon them." 

Instead of the form zvhose as possessive of 
zvhich, many writers prefer the phrase of zvhich, 
reserving zvhose as the possessive case of zvho 
only; as, "Nor was anything abstracted except 
those papers of zvhich he so deeply deplored the 
absence." 

However, many of the best writers use zvhose 
instead of the phrase ; for examples, see sentences 
(4) and (5) of Section 108. 

111. The follov/ing quotations illustrate the 
uses of the relative pronoun that : 

(i) "Dear Babe, that sleepest cradled by my side." That. 

(2) "My garden, that skirted the avenue of the manse 
was of precisely the right extent." 

(3) "Who that has seen the world, has not admired 
that astonishing ease with which fine ladies drop you and 
pick you up again?" 

(4) "You friends, that have stood by me all these 
years, help me now !" 

(5) "I was making some remarks upon a flock of pea- 
cocks, that were basking upon a sunny wall." 

(6) "Such a solitude as the Old Manse, where he 
plucks the fruit of trees that he did not plant." 

Exercise. — Give the gender, person, number, and case 
of each relative pronoun in the above quotations. 



82 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



f/i^o/that. 112. As shown in Section iii, that relates to 

persons, animals, and things; it has only one form 
for singular and plural number, and for all gen- 
ders, numbers, and cases. 

113. To sum up all the facts about the simple 
relative pronouns, we find that — 

Who and its forms refer to persons usually, 
but not seldom to the higher animals also. 
A sumtnary. Which and its forms refer to animals and 
things. 

That relates to persons, animals, and things. 

Who has three case forms, zvhich has two, 
while that has only one form. 

The declension of who and zvhich is just like 
that of the interrogatives, except that the relative 
which has a possessive form, ivhose. 

Exercise. — Write sentences using the relatives who, 
which, and that, as follows: 

(i) Who as subject, third person singular; (2) who 
as subject, second person plural; (3) who as object of 
a verb, third person plural ; (4) form of who as possess- 
ive, first person singular; (5, 6, 7) which and its forms 
as nominative, possessive, and objective, third person 
plural; (8, 9, 10) that nominative plural, objective 
plural, objective singular, second person. 



What. 114. What is often called a double relative 

pronoun, because it is considered equivalent to 
that zvhich or those which. By some writers it 
is called an indefinite relative, because usually 
no definite antecedent is expressed. 



PRONOUNS. 83 



To explain more fully, we will take a sentence : 

'The window looked out upon what in summer would 
have been a beautiful landscape." 

(i) It means "upon that which would have 
been," etc.; in which expression that is the object 
of upon and which is the subject of zvould have 
been. Or, another way — 

(2) As it stands, the object of n/'cn is the noun ^Zlt.^"^^ ^'^ 
clause what in summer . ... landscape; in 
this clause what is the subject, zvould have been 
is the predicate, etc. 

115. The following sentences serve to illus- 
trate the uses of the relative pronoun what : 

(i) "In the world some persons assimilate only zvhat 
is ugly and evil." 

(2) "What was good and nourishing food for the 
spirits of one generation will not do for the next." 

(3) "It is my belief that social intercourse can not 
long continue zvhat it has been." 

(4) "I wandered among what once were chapels." 

(5) "The trial of skill was made with what were 
called the arms of courtesy." 

(6) "Nothing retained any sap except what was writ- 
ten for the passing day and year." 

Exercise. — Give the number and case of wliat in each 
of the sentences just quoted. 

116. The relative pronoun zvhat is always uses 0/ vfha.i, 
neuter and of the third person ; it is usually sin- 
gular, but may be plural; it has only one form 

for number and case. 



84 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Indefinite 
relatives. 



117. When who, which, and what are joined 
with the suffix -eijcr or -soever, the indefinite 
or COMPOUND relative pronouns are formed. In 
general they have the same uses as the relative 
pronoun what; thus : 

"Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must 
remember the Catskill Mountains." 

" 'Pass on, whosoever thou art/ was the answer given 
by a deep, hoarse voice from within the hut." 

"For unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall 
be much required." 

''Whatever had looked ugly was now beautiful." 

"He would hit me with his stable broom or the fork, 
whichever he might have in his hand." 

Exercise. — In the above sentences, tell the case of each 
indefinite relative pronoun, and see whether each refers 
to a person or a thing. 



Direct and 

indirect 

questions. 



118. All the sentences that were studied under 
interrogative pronouns were direct questions, that 
is, quoted directly, in the language of the ques- 
tioner himself. 

Instead of quoting a question exactly as a per- 
son asks it, we may put it into our own words so 
as to make it part of another sentence; thus: 
*'His curiosity began to awake, and he demanded 
of the guide who and zvhat he was" This latter 
part is called an indirect question. The original 
words were, "Who and what are you ?'* 

It is to be noticed that usually only a direct 
question is followed by an interrogation point. 

119. Hitherto all interrogative pronouns have 
been studied in direct questions and all relative 



PRONOUNS. 85 



pronouns in direct statements; but in fact (as in 
Exercise i) interrogative pronouns are often 
found in an indirect question contained in a state- 
ment, and relative pronouns may form part of a 
sentence making a direct question. watch the 

In deciding which kind of pronoun any word is, 
determine (i) whether it has an antecedent; (2) 
whether it introduces an indirect question. 

Exercises. 

1. Tell which kind of pronoun each italicized word 
is in the following sentences : 

(i) It need not be inquired where or from whom he 
learned the lesson of filial disobedience. 

(2) Who were the persons in whom he placed the 
greatest confidence, and ivho took the warmest interest 
in his schemes? 

(3) It moaned as near as near can be, 
But what it is she cannot tell. 

(4) I pray your Lordship to let me know whom you 
will favor. 

(5) How can I talk to gentlemen when I do not know 
which of them have received gratification? 

(6) What is so pleasant as these jets of affection 
which make a young world for me again? 

(7) He had twenty friends who would release him 
from his confinement ; to which of them should he apply, 
was the question. 

(8) He demanded again of the unknown culprit what 
he came there for, and zvhom he was seeking. 

2. Rewrite Nos. 4 and 8 so as to form direct ques- 
tions. 

120. An important distinction between clauses ?ndunreJ-''® 
introduced by relative pronouns is yet to be made ; oiauses. 



86 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



and it will best be brought out by studying two 
sentences — 

(i) Like all men who know but a few books, he looked 
up to them with a kind of idolatry. 

(2) They all liked the lad, whose frank cordial ways 
and honest face got him a welcome in most places. 

In sentence (i), the statement, "Like all men, 
he looked up to them," etc., would not be a truth- 
ful one; the action is not stated of ''all men," but 
of "all men who know but a few books. The 
clause zvho knozv but a few books, is called a 
restrictive clause, because it restricts or limits 
the meaning of the word it modifies. 

As to sentence (2), the reader is supposed to 
know who the lad is ; the clause zvhose frank cor- 
dial zvays, etc., is not needed to describe the lad, 
but adds another fact to what is already known. 
It is really equivalent to ''and his frank cordial 
ways," etc. — a conjunction and a personal pro- 
noun, and is called a coordinate, or unrestrictive 
clause. 

A relative clause which is necessary to the 
meaning of the word it modifies, is a restrictive 
clause. 

A relative clause which adds a fact to one al- 
ready clear and complete, is an unrestrictive 
clause. 

The pronouns zvho and zvhich introduce both 
kinds of clauses ; that, usually a restrictive clause 
only. 



Definitions. 



PRONOUNS. 87 



121. In many cases nothing but the punctua- Punctuation 

. . important. 

tion shows whether the clause is restrictive or not. 
If a comma were placed after men in sentence (i) 
above, or if the comma were omitted from sen- 
tence (2), the meaning of each sentence would be 
changed. 

A comma is always used to separate an unre- 
strictive relative clause from the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

Exercises. 

1. Tell which of the relative clauses in the following 
sentences are restrictive, and which unrestrictive : 

(i) Mr. Harry, who ought to have known better, was 
lying on his face quite motionless. 

(2) You who are ill and sore from the buffets of Fate, 
have you one or two of these sweet physicians? 

(3) Doubtless there were thousands of men employed 
who were as good as they. 

(4) He was engaged in capturing those guns at 
Louisbourg, of which the arrival caused such joy. 

(5) His nose curved boldly forth, flushed with a frost- 
bitten bloom that seemed the trophy of December. 

2. Distinguish in meaning these sentences as they 
stand, from the same with commas inserted : 

(i) A traveler falls in with a berry [,] which he has 
never seen before. 

(2) When we sum up all the useful truths [,] which 
we owe to that philosophy, to what do they amount ? 

(3) His object was to free millions of his subjects 
from penal laws and disabilities [,] which hardly any 
person now considers as just. 

(4) He could turn his eyes nowhere without meeting 
some object [,] which reminded him that he was a 
stranger. 



PARTS OF SPKECH. 



(5) He had to deal with a people [,] whose noble 
weakness it is not to press too hard on the vanquished. 

3. Punctuate such of the following sentences as need 
it, and give the reason in each case : 

(i) He was soon at ease with his honest host whose 
manners were quite simple and cordial. 

(2) What honest man that can choose his lot would 
be a prince, let us say ? 

(3) A gravel walk ran around this green beyond 
which was a wall and gate-sign. 

(4) Her complexion which was exceedingly fair was 
farther ornamented with a pair of red cheeks which he 
took to be natural roses. 

(5) Almost all who beheld him, nay, even those who 
cheated him, trusted him. 

(6) This was no other than Mr. Wolfe who was 
soberly eating a chicken and salad. 

(7) "I must make them a present," said he, clapping 
his hand into his pocket which was filled with the crisp 
notes. 

(8) He was Jiving with a man and woman who had 
seen the world, though they lived retired from it. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

122. In studying words of this kind, some care 

will be needed In deciding" whether or not the 

0/ihese pflven word modifies a noun. If it does not mod- 

words, o 

ify any noun, either expressed or understood, it 
Is a pronoun; If It does modify some noun, ex- 
pressed or understood, it is an adjective (unless 
It happen to be the possessive case of a pronoun). 
For example : 

(i) "He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast 
xp ana ton. ^^ ^^.^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ nothing. This, however, always 

provoked a fresh volley from his wife." 



Watch the use 



PRONOUNS, 



(2) ''One taste provoked another; and he reiterated 
his visits so often to the flagon," etc. 

In (i), the word this stands for the sentence 
before it, but does not modify; it is a pronoun. 
In (2), another modifies taste understood, just aa 
one modifies taste expressed, and both are ad- 
jectives. 

Exercise. — In the following paragraphs, tell which of 
the italicized words are pronouns, and which adjectives: 

(1) "They were dressed in a quaint, outlandish fash- 
ion. Some wore short doublets; others, jerkins, with 
long knives in their belts ; and most of them had enor- 
mous breeches, of similar style with that of the guide's. 
One had a large head, broad face, and small piggish eyes. 
The face of another seemed to consist entirely of nose. 
They all had beards." 

(2) "The blast that bore it to our ears swept us out 
of all further hearing. I shall never forget that cry. It 
was some time before we could put the ship about, she 
was under such headway. We cruised about for several 
hours in the dense fog. We fired signal guns, and lis- 
tened if we might hear the halloo of any survivors ; but 
all was silent." 

123. Adjective pronouns are of three classes — aasses and 

definitions. 

Demonstrative, those used to point out some 
special object, person, or expression. 

Distributive, which are used in speaking of 
persons or things separately. 

Indefinite, which stand for an uncertain num- 
ber of persons or things. They may be Simple 
or Compound. 



90 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



Demonstra- 
tive pro- 
nouns. 



Tkei- use. 



124. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that 
(plurals these, those), such, the same, the former 
.... the latter, the one .... the other. 

Their use is shown in the following: sentences : 

(i) (a) "When any one exposed himself, this was 
made evident by the bullet which was sent in search of 
him." 

{b) "The head, the diadem, the arm, — these all had 
sunk." 

(2) (a) "Have you forgotten me ? T/m^ might well 
be the case if I were as much altered as yourself." 

{h) "The behavior of the present family was con- 
itrasted with that of the old lord and lady; who were 
better folks than those now in possession." 

(3) "He hurled the mace against the head of the 
Emir, for such his enemy appeared." 

(4) "Ichabod pulled up, and fell into a walk, thinking 
to lag behind ; the other did the same." 

(5) "His Eastern attendants wore silver collars round 
their throats, and bracelets of the same metal upon their 
swarthy arms and legs, of which the former were naked 
from the elbow, and the latter from mid-leg to ankle." 

(6) "In this city Alcander and Septimius were fellow 
students together. The one the most subtile reasoner 
of all the Lyceum ; the other the most eloquent speaker." 

Exercise. — Mention the word or expression for which 
each demonstrative pronoun stands in these sentences. 



That, those. 



125. That and those have several uses: (i) 
that may refer to a group of words, as in (2) (a), 
Section 124; (2) that and those may stand for 
some single word being used to prevent the repeti- 
tion of that word, as In (2) {h), Section 124; 
(3) those is often used as the antecedent of a 
relative pronoun, to refer to a number of persons ; 



PRONOUNS. 91 



thus, ''As to those who have bad constitutions, he 
said, let them die." 

The former .... the latter and the one .... 
the other are useful words in pointing out two 
persons or objects named in a sentence, the former 
or tlie one referring tO' the first mentioned, the 
latter or the other referring to the last. 

126. The distributive pronouns are each, either, 

77 1 7 Distnbu- 

neither, each other, and one another. tive pro- 



Examples, showing the use of the first three : 

"I could almost doubt which of us is the visionary 
form, or whether each be not the other's mystery." 

"Pleasure and study are not to be thus mixed to- 
gether; the Romans lose both, and prove they have no 
souls for either." 

"Their eyes met, and neither, for some moments, had 
power to withdraw his gaze." 

Either and neither refer regularly to two 
things, but each to any number, though singling 
out one by one. All three words are frequently 
used as adjectives. 

127. Each other and one another are some- 
times called reciprocals. No distinction between 
them is made by writers generally, both referring 
to two persons or things or more than two, as 
shown in the sentences : 

"The vaulted passages rung with the furious blows 
which these two champions dealt each other." 

"We churchmen do not exhaust each other's hospital- 
ity." 

"But almost the whole zeal of the Protestants was 
directed against each other." 



nouns. 



Each other. 



92 



PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



One another. "The clergyman and his father looked at one another/* 
"The fine ladies buzzed into one another's ears over 
their pews, and uttered their praises and comments." 

"All the passengers were rubbing their eyes, com- 
paring watches, and congratulating one another/' 



Indefinite 
pronouns. 



128. Some of the simple indefinite pronouns 
are shown in the following- quotations : 

''Some purchased the paltry wreaths with their lives, 
others by a toilsome servitude of years, and many sacri- 
ficed whatever was most valuable." 

"To all who love human faces best for what they tell 
of human experience, Nancy's beauty has a heightened 
interest." 

"The livid and motley hues completed a countenance 
which none could behold without repugnance, and few 
without terror and distrust." 

"And there several were taking the slight morning 
repast that made an Italian breakfast." 

"The witch did not reply — she seemed like one who 
has awakened for a moment from the dead." 



Exercise. — Write sentences using 5 of the above adjec- 
tive pronouns in the nominative cas€, then in the ob- 
jective. 



Remarks on 
these words. 



Others- 
others'. 



129. The pronoun others may be used in the 
nominative or the objective case; it also has a 
possessive form : 

"Some purchased these paltry wreaths with their lives, 
others by a toilsome servitude of years." 

"It is natural that his friendship should be purer than 
Aat of others/' 

"The good old sire the first prepared to go 
To new-found worlds, and wept for others' woe." 



PRONOUNS. 93 



The pronouns any and none, though they were Any, none, 
originally singular, usually take a plural verb; 
thus: 

"Punish every rogue, if any are found." 
"The houses in the city were opened, but none were 
yet astir in the streets." 

The pronoun one has several uses, the chief of one, one's, 
which are : ( i ) to stand for a certain person or 
thing mentioned in the sentence, — "If the legend 
were not one which I heard on my grandmother's 
knee," etc.; (2) without an antecedent, in the 
sense of any one or some one, — "I am as one who 
is left alone at a banq^uet, the lights dead, and the 
flowers faded." 

It has a possessive form, a plural form, and a 
reflexive form, shown in the following quotations : 

"A purpose as little to my taste as might be that of 
rouging the venerable cheeks of one's grandmother." 

"He was even the companion of the larger boys, and 
.... would convoy some of the smaller ones home." 

"There is an exquisite delight in picking up for one's 
self an arrow-head that was dropped centuries ago." 

When it is desired to refer more than once in a a point of 
sentence to persons in general, the pronoun one ^^^^^' 
is repeated ; as : 

"I have always imagined you under different forms, 
and one likes to know when one is right." 

"If one wrote an epitaph for his eminence, one might 
be tempted into saying," etc. 

It is not the best usage to repeat by means of a 
personal pronoun in such a case ; as, "It was^ well 



94 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



Compound — 
first list. 



Second list. 



worth oyies while, even if he had no idea of buy- 
ing, etc. 

130. The COMPOUND indefinite pronouns are 
made up of the adjectives some, any, every, and 
no, w4th the words hody, thing, one: somebody, 
any one, everything, nobody, etc. They are all 
singular, though referring to any of an indefinite 
number; when antecedents, they are followed by 
a singular pronoun, for which see Section 82. 

These compounds join with the word else to 
form other compounds; as some one else, every- 
body else, anything else, etc. 

That these groups are used as single pronouns 
is shown by the way in which they form the pos- 
sessive case ; thus : 

"If Mr. Pickwick had declined to keep himself tip for 
anybody else's sake, it would have occurred to him that 
he might as well for his own." 



Hints on 
parsing. 



Exercise. — Write sentences using 3 of the above words 
as subject, 4 as object, 3 as possessives. 

131. The parsing of adjective pronouns differs 
little from that of nouns. For example, in the 
sentence, ''One might have mistaken him for the 
genius of famine," one is an adjective pronoun, 
simple indefinite; singular, masculine, or fem- 
inine; third person; nominative case, subject of 
the verb. 

In parsing pronouns in general, follow the 
order for parsing nouns; also, if the pronoun is 
a simple relative, tell what its antecedent is. 



PRONOUNS. 95 



Sentences for General Exercise. 

(i) They squeezed the heads of some with knotted 
cords till they pierced their brains, while they threw 
others into dungeons swarming with serpents and toads. 

(2) What has the law of Moses done for thee that 
thou shouldest die for it ? 

(3) This having the rainy months of March and April 
to water it, sprung up very pleasantly, and yielded a very 
good crop. 

(4) Being anxious to discover who and what he really 
is, and how connected with me, and what are to be the 
results to him and to myself of the joint interest which 
seems to be permanently established between us, I have 
determined to notice a few of his remarkable points. 

(5) When we feel that another is to share the self- 
same fortune with ourselves, we judge more severely of 
our prospects and withhold our confidence, 

(6) The more we kept in each other's company, the 
greater coxcombs we mutually grew. But neither of us 
need apprehend any such misfortune now. 

(7) In its upper stories are apartments where the in- 
habitants of earth may converse with those of the moon. 

(8) We will rank together all who have the symptom 
of dizziness in the brain, and as fast as any drop by the 
way supply their places with new members. 

(9) With their sad sisterhood are mingled many 
youthful maidens who have sickened in aristocratic man- 
sions, and for whose aid science has unavailingly searched 
its volumes and whom breathless love has watched. 

(10) We will assign them as partners those lonely 
laborers and handicraftsme-n who have pined as with a 
dying thirst after the unattainable fountains of knowl- 
edge. 

(11) The remainder, if any, may connect themselves 
with whatever rank of the procession they shall find best 
adapted to their tastes and consciences. 



96 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(12) Thus threatened, the unhappy scarecrow had 
nothing for it but to puff away for dear life. 

(13) Let even an affectionate GoHath get himself tied 
to a small tender thing, dreading to hurt it by pulling, 
and which of the two, pray, will be master ? 

(14) Can thy gods, whosoever they be, look with 
wrath on a conflict with such as these? 

(15) Now, old boy, pray the gods that that victor be 
neither of the Romans ! 

(16) The fox, who had attended the steps of his fell 
mistress, uttered a dismal howl. 

(17) The challengers, rallying each from his pavilion, 
mounted their horses and descended to the platform. 

(18) Not for the world would I have sought sympathy 
from her or from anybody else. 

(19) The surgeon who attended me at one time talked 
of trepanning. This was an awful word; but I now 
doubt whether anything serious had followed. 

(20) For what had we come? To see London. And 
what were the limits within which we proposed to crowd 
that little feat? 

(21) Whatever may be the number of those in whom 
this faculty of dreaming splendidly can be supposed to 
lurk, there are perhaps not many in whom it is developed. 

(22) She could turn her hand to anything; of which 
I will give you two memorable instances. 

(23) The man certainly did utter the jest; but who 
it was that he stole it from is another question. 

(24) What could be done — who was it that could do 
it — to check the storm-flight of these maniacal horses ? 

(25) Like the fabled opossum we have read of, who, 
when he spied the unerring gunner from his gum-tree, 
said: "It's no use. Major, I will come down," so S. gave 
himself up to his pursuers. 

(26) He confided the command of his various cities 
to such as had distinguished themselves by valor. 



ADJECTIVES. 97 



Descriptive; 



ADJECTIVES. 

132. To discover the different classes of ad- 
jectives, let us examine the following sentences : Classes: 

I. (a) "Telemachus was for jumping overboard : but 
the tough old crew held the silly, bawling lad." (b) "A 
red-headed calf was observing her with alarmed doubt." 

The words in italics all modify the nouns that 
follow them, and all describe, or tell what kind 
of crew, lad, calf, etc. They are called descriptive 
adjectives. 

II. (a) "It was a bright autumn Sunday, sixteen 
years after." (b) "Throwing on some dried leaves, he 
raised a flame." (c) "There were not many days that 
he was not seen riding." 

The word sixteen mentions an exact, definite 
number; some and many express an indefinite 
amount or number; hence such are called ad- 
jectives of quantity. QuanHtaUve; 

III. (a) "Mother Rigby took the pipe from her own 
mouth, and thrust it into the crevice which represented 
the same feature in the pumpkin-visage of the scare- 
crow." (b) "She was not famihar enough with those 
monotonous lanes." 

In these two sentences are found the same 
words that were studied as demonstrative pro- 
nouns. Since they now modify, they are called 



demonstrative adjectives. Devionstra- 

" tive; 

IV. (a) "He would play with them for what stakes 
they chose to name." (Z?) "What objects are the fount- 
ains of thy happy strain?" 

Some words that were treated of under pro- 
nouns may modify nouns. Since such words 



98 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Pronominal. 



Summary. 



Descriptive 
adjectives. 



are usually pronouns, they are called pronominal 
adjectives when they modify. 

133. The classes of adjectives then are as fol- 
lows : 

Descriptive, which tell of what kind an object 
is, or describe it by telling some of its qualities. 

Quantitative, which tell either exactly or in a 
general way how much of a thing is spoken of, or 
how many persons or things are meant. 

Demonstrative, which stand before a noun and 
point out which person or thing is referred to. 

Pronominal, words that, though generally pro- 
nouns, stand before nouns and modify ihem. 

134. Descriptive adjectives may be either sim- 
ple words or compounds of several words, or ad- 
jectives derived from proper nouns; examples of 
these are : 

"There cannot be a stronger proof of the degree in 
which the human mind had been misdirected than the 
history of the two greatest events of the middle ages." 

"The mere substitution of the Academic for the Peri- 
patetic philosophy would have done little good." 

"On the greatest and most useful of all human inven- 
tions, the invention of alphabetical writing, Plato did not 
look with much complacency." 

"The one was a slouch-hatted, long-cloaked, sour- 
faced fanatic like the rest of you ; the other was a short, 
sturdy fellow, — a black-haired knave." 

Exercises. 

1. Tell what noun each descriptive adjective modifies 
in these sentences. 



adje:ctivks. 99 



2. Write 20 sentences with descriptive adjectives 
modifying the subject, predicate nominative, direct or 
indirect object. 

135. There are several divisions of these : — Adjectives 
(i) Definite numerals, or numeral ad- 
jectives; as — 

"Not one Londoner in ten thousand can lay down the 
rules for the proper use of 'shall' and 'will' Yet not 
one Londoner in a million ever misplaces his 'shall' or 
will.' " 

(2) Indefinite numerals, or indefinite ad- 
jectives; thus — 

(a) "It has been observed by many writers that Soc- 
rates was several times at its being acted." 

"There were none left but a fezv servants and strag- 
glers of the army." 

{h) "One consideration I hope will have some weight." 

"They may do so without any hindrance to business." 

Exercise. — Find two examples of these last under 
Section 134. 

(3) Distributive adjectives, which single 
out persons or things from any number. There 
are four of these in common use: each, every, 
either, neither. To illustrate, — 

"The exercise consists in brandishing two short sticks 
grasped in each hand and loaded with lead at either end." 

"He entertains his mother every night with observa- 
tions that he makes both in town and in court." 

"When the arguments press equally on both sides in 
matters that are indifferent to us, the safest method is to 
give up ourselves to neither [side]." 



urf*. 



lOO 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Ordinals. 



Fractionals. 



Demonstra- 
tive ad- 
jectives. 



Pronominal, 
adjectives. 



Interroga- 
tive. 



Exercise. — Select lo adjectives of quantity from this 
Section and use them in sentences of your own. 

136. Another class of numeral words, the 
ordinals, may be mentioned here. They tell what 
place a thing has in a series; as, iirst, fiftieth. 
All of them but first and second are derived from 
the definite numerals. 

The fractionals are formed by uniting the nu- 
merals to the ordinals ; as, tivo-sevenths, five-six- 
teenths, etc. 

137. The demonstrative adjectives are the 
same words that were studied as demonstrative 
pronouns ; thus : 

"In my last paper I mentioned some of these false wits 
among the ancients : and in this I shall give the reader 
two or three that flourished in the same early ages." 

"Some persons, he said, might accuse him. He de- 
sired such persons to remember," etc. 

"Now here are two objects: one is the protection of 
the persons and estates of citizens from injury; the 
other is the propagation of religious truth. The former 
belongs to this life ; the latter to that which is to come." 

Exercise. — Tell what noun each demonstrative ad- 
jective modifies in these three sentences. 

138. These may be interrogative, relative, or 
exclamatory : — 

(i) The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are which 
and what. Examples of their use in direct ques- 
tions are — 

"Now which way could they wend? All was rayless." 
"In the whirl of London life, what man sees his neigh- 
bor, what brother his sister?" 



ADJECTIVKS. lOI 



Examples of their use in indirect questions 
are — 

"It is a solitary huntsman, who asks you if you can 
tell him which way the stag has gone." 

"A friend prevailed on one of the interpreters to in- 
quire what tradition they have of this matter." 

(2) As RELxVTiVE ADJECTIVES are used the 
words which and zvhat, and the compounds 
zvhichever, whatever, etc. ; thus : 

"It was midnight, up to which time she still had a j^^j^^-^^ 
lingering hope of some welcome shout." 

"She hastened to give Ivanhoe what information she 
could." 

"We swore that zvhichever side was victorious, he of 
us who adhered to it should protect," etc. 

(3) The EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE is zvhat , or 
what a; as, — 

"Ah ! what a heap of wreck lies beneath some of those 
quiet surfaces! What treasures we have dropped into Exdama- 
them! What chased golden dishes, what precious ^'"'-''• 

jewels !" 

Exercises. 

1. In this Section [138 (i)] change the indirect ques- 
tions to direct. 

2. Write sentences using that as a relative pronoun, 
as a demonstrative pronoun, as an adjective. 

3. Write sentences using which and what as relative 
pronouns ; as interrogative pronouns in direct and indi- 
rect questions; as adjectives in direct and indirect ques- 
tions. 

4. Write sentences using whichever and whatever as 
pronouns and then as adjectives. 



I02 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Compari- 
son. 



INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

139. There are two ways in which adjectives 
change their form to express different meanings ; 
these inflections are for number and comparison. 

140. The words this and that (pkirals these 
and those) are the only adjectives that are inflect- 

Number. ^^ ^^^ number; most adjectives modify both 
singular and plural nouns, but do not change their 
form to correspond to that of the noun modified. 

141. A great many adjectives express quality; 
as, "He was happy himself, and disposed to make 
all the world happy/' In the word happy, noth- 
ing is implied as to the amount of the quality of 
joyfulness or happiness. 

If it be desired to indicate more of the quality, 
one may say, *'He became happier in his old age." 

The form happiest expresses as high a degree 
of the quality as can be shown by the form of the 
adjective; as, "His happiest moments were the 
busiest." 

Comparison is that inflection of an adjective 
which expresses different degrees of a quality. 

142. There are three degrees of comparison, 
as illustrated above. Degree means step, and the 
degrees express the amount of. quality step by 
step. They are : 

Definitions. The positive degree, indicating the simple qual- 
ity; the comparative degree, indicating a greater 
degree of the quality; the superlative degree, 
showing the greatest degree of the quality. 



ADJKCTIVKS. 103 



143. There are only two inflections for com- 
parison ; -er to form the comparative degree, and -er, -est. 
-est to form the superlative. But there are so 
many words in English which would become 
harsh and awkward if another syllable were 
added, that the adverbs more and most are widely 

used to denote the two degrees of comparison. 

As a general rule, words of one syllable take the 
endings -er and -est, as also do words of two syl- 
lables that may be smoothly pronounced with 
these endings; and all others express the degrees 
by means of more and most. Yet this must not ^ flexible 

•' rule. 

be regarded as a fixed rule : for more and most 
may be used before any words, no matter what 
the number of syllables — in Section 141 it would 
be just as correct to say more happy, most happy; 
it is largely a matter of taste, after all. 

144. Notice the spelling of the following jvoies on 

spelling. 

groups : 

(a) Sad, sadder, saddest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 

(b) Early, earlier, earliest; merry, merrier, merriest. 

(c) Simple, simpler, simplest; wise, wiser, wisest. 

The following facts are noticed in such words : 

(a) When adjectives of one syllable end in a 
single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the 
last letter is doubled before adding -er and -est. 

(b) When adjectives end in y preceded by a 
consonant, the 3; is changed to i before adding -er 
and -est. 

(c) When adjectives end in e, the e is dropped 
when -er and -est are added. 



I04 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



A djeciives 
not compared. 



145. Many descriptive adjectives have mean- 
ings that do not admit of degrees in comparison; 
for example : 

Present, past, future; preferable, superior, in- 
ferior; main, chief, principal; immutable, divine, 
everlasting; supreme, almighty; universal, com- 
plete, round, level, etc. 

Exercise. — Tell which of the following words are 
capable of comparison, and use the comparative and su- 
perlative forms of the same in sentences : 

Bodily, loud, wonderful, fierce, modern, unceasing, 
daily, predominant, healthy, red, new, unconscious, 
sharp-tongued, gentle, miniature, handsome, familiar, 
superficial, moral, shallow, large, perpetual, beautiful, 
intelligible, stately, splendid. 



Irregular 
comparison. 



146. The following adjectives are compared 



irregularly : 








Good or well 


Better 




Best 


Bad, evil, ill 


Worse 




Worst 


Little 


Less 




Least 


Many, much 


More 




Most 


Old 


Elder, older 


Eldest, oldest 


Near 


Nearer 




Nearest, next 


Far 


Farther, 


further 


Farthest, furthest 


Late 


Later 




Latest, last 



Note. — This table does not give the forms strictly ac- 
cording to their history, but according to their use and 
meaning in the English of the present day. 



Exercise. — Write sentences using each of the compara- 
tive and superlative forms given in the above table. 



ADJECTIVES. 105 

147. Though all these are in some way irreg- Remarks on 
ular, nearly ever}^ one has the characteristic end- 
ings, er in the comparative degree, and -st or -est 
in the superlative. 

Of the v^ord little, less is the form commonly 
used for the comparative ; lesser, really a double 
comparative, is sometimes used; as, 'Tt is in the 
lesser intrigues of life that we find ourselves at 
home with the past." 

As may be seen by the meanings of the two 
words, many is compared by more and most to 
express number, and much by these also to ex- 
press measure. 

In comparing the word old, the forms elder and 
eldest are regularly used in speaking of persons, 
while older and oldest apply to both objects and 
persons. 

Of the superlatives of near, the form nearest is 
used with a strictly superlative meaning, — closest 
in time or place ; next does not call up the idea of 
comparison, but merely position, whether of time 
or place. 

The two superlatives of far are used exactly 
alike, to indicate distance. Farther and further 
are both used to indicate distance, but when the 
sense of additional is to be expressed, further is 
preferred ; as, "He gave the further advice," etc. 

From late are really derived all the forms later, 
latest, latter, last; but the pairs are differently 
used. Later, latest, are used in matters of time 
only; as, "the latest news"; latter and last are 
commonly used to denote a place in a series. 



io6 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Defective 
adjectives. 



148. Many adjectives ending in -most are su- 
perlative in meaning as well as in form, but they 
have no corresponding positive adjectives; such 
are inmost {innermost)^ outmost {outermost) y 
utmost (uttermost) , hindmost, etc. — 

"Jem Rodney was the outermost man, and sat near." 
"And I, as chanced, the foremost of the band." 
"Perhaps the former arch expression was uppermost." 

Note. — The word tirst is superlative in form, but it 
has now no corresponding positive or comparative. 



Position of 
modifiers. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

149. Care should be used in the placing of all 
adjective modifiers, especially phrases and clauses. 

Sometimes when a writer has in his mind a 
certain idea which seems clear to him, he puts it 
into such words as to make an obscure or even a 
ridiculous statement ; thus : 

"He dropped his knife in his retreat against the wall, 
which his rapid antagonist kicked under the table." 

"We have received a basket of oranges from our 
friend G. B., for which he will please accept our compli- 
ments, some of which are nearly six inches in diameter." 



In the first sentence, the clause ''which .... 
table," really modifies knife, but is placed so as to 
modify wall. The pupil may handle the second 
sentence for himself. 



150. Few remarks need be made about the 
Agyeemeniiv. agreement of an adjective and its noun in num- 



number. 



ber, since only two adjectives are inflected for 
number. But an error is often made in the use 



ADJECTIVES. 



107 



Other 1777^;' a 
comparative. 



of a plural adjective with the words sort and 
kind; as, "These kind of books," "Those sort of 
trees." 

The user of such expressions thinks of the noun 
in the phrase following, and not of the one modi- 
fied by the adjective; one should say, "this kind," 
"these kinds," "that sort," etc. 

161. When, by the use of the comparative de- 
gree, an object is compared with different objects 
of the same class, this fact should be indicated by 
the word other before the second term. If this 
sentence, ''Under the administration of Cromwell, 
England was more dreaded than any power in 
Christendom," be taken as it stands, England was 
not in Christendom or was more dreaded than it- 
self, which is absurd ; write rather ''than any 
other power," etc. 

The word other should not be used when an 
object is compared with a different class of ob- 
jects; as, "The old knight thought that London 
bridge was a greater piece of work than any of 
the seven wonders of the world." 

152. In using: the superlative degree, other 

r ,1 1 11- 1 • other and the 

should not follow, because the thmg compared is superlative. 
always included in the class of objects with which 
it is compared. The sentence, "England was the 
most dreaded of all the other powers in Christen- 
dom," would be as faulty as the first one in Sec- 
tion 151, fram which other was omitted. 

153. As the comparative and superlative de- 
grees are expressed by the use of -er, -est, or 



Caution. 



io8 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



Double 
comparison. 



more, most, it is never correct to use both to- 
gether, as, "more bolder." 

Such errors are not Hkely to occur often, but 
one scarcely better is sometimes made by pupils 
and is found now and then in print, — that of 
using more and most with words naturally of 
comparative or superlative meaning; as in the 
sentences : 

"He is now the manager of one of the most leading 
printing companies in New York." 

"While my successor may be more preferable to the 
politicians, I am reasonably sure that," etc. 



PosiUons: 



Attributive ; 



Parsing of Adjectives. 

154. In parsing adjectives, the pupil should 
understand that the adjective does not always 
come just before its noun. "When so placed it is 
called attributive ; as, — 

"He passed through the streets with a hasty step, but 
a quick and observant eye." 



The adjective has two uses besides the above: 
Appositive; The apposltivc position, in which the adjective 
is more loosely connected with the noun, and may 
be taken as completing a verb understood; ex- 
amples of this are : 

''Quick and watchful, the agile Greek leaped lightlyf 
aside" [meaning, "The agile Greek, who was quick and 
watchful"]. 

"The poor old slave knew not with what arguments 
to enlighten an ignorance so dark and yet so beautiful" 
[that was so dark and yet so beautiful]. 



ADJECTIVES. 109 



The predicate position, in which the adjective Predicate. 
helps the verb to assert some quahty of the subject 
or the object — 

"The words grow chilled and trite if I banish from 
them allusions to the gods." 

"Who art thou, that callest thyself greater in art?" 

In parsing an adjective, tell — Order 0/ 

parsing. 

(i) The class and sub-class to which it be- 
longs. 

(2) The degree of comparison, if compared. 

(3) What word or expression it modifies. 
Also give the number, if the word has number. 

Sentences for General Exercise. 

(i) But the question with respect to them is not 
where they were, but which way they were going. 

(2) Listen to me; I have not myself dabbled in these 
lesser mysteries, but I know one who hath. 

(3) Cabinets of gems, each cabinet a gem, filled up 
the interstices of the columns ; the most precious woods 
lined the thresholds and composed the doors. 

(4) I am not that being — cold, insensate, and morose 
— which I have seemed to be. 

(5) Thou art full of the romance of thy native 
Thessaly, and a strange mixture of sense and all con- 
flicting superstitions. 

(6) In a deep recess, at a little distance, was a covered 
seat, in which two or three poorer travelers were resting. 

(7) The first door leads to the staircase; the second 
is but a false recess, in which stood a statue of bronze. 

(8) "Oh! years ago," said she in a voice unlike her 
usual tones, so plaintive was it, and so soft, "I was not 
the thing that I am now." 



no PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(9) This was the first time when the risk that he 
himself ran by this method of vengeance occurred to a 
mind ordinarily wary and circumspect. 

(10) It was only at the outer side of these tables that 
the guests reclined ; the inner space was left untenanted, 
for the greater convenience of the waiters. 

(11) In the far Judea, and in the city of Nain, there 
dwelt a widow, humble of spirit and sad of heart ; for of 
all the ties of life one son alone was spared to her, 

(12) The passion of love in its nature has been 
thought to resemble fire ; for which reason the words 
fire and Haine are made use of to signify love. 

(13) Every reader's memory may supply him with in- 
numerable instances of the same nature. 

(14) For, high-souled Maid, what sorrow would it be 
That Mountain floods should thunder as before, 
And Ocean bellow from his rocky shore. 

And neither awful Voice be heard by thee ! 

(15) This, he thought, could only be accomplished 
by means of Cromwell, and the greater part of England 
was of the same opinion. 

(16) He is griping and gold-thirsty to a proverb ; the 
witness of such men is to be bought. 

(17) My dream was past ; it had no further change. 
It was of a strange order, that the doom 

Of these two creatures should be thus traced out. 

(18) That day and the next were spent in tranquillity, 
(ig) Is it for a brave soldier to inquire from what 

quarter his enemies are to come? 

(20) Restless and anxious, the priest consumed the 
day in wandering through the most sequestered walks. 

(21) Wherever he goes he pays a visit to whatever 
prince or gentleman of note resides upon his road. 

(22) A low murmuring sound, as of stifled voices and 
clanking chains, now reached me. 



ADJECTIVES. 



Ill 



Their nature. 



ARTICLES. 

155. In the Introduction it was explained that 
the word the is an adjective since it always limits 
the meaning of a noun. This word and an (or a) 
are called articles. They always modify, and the 
noun modified is never omitted unless some other 
adjective follows the article; as, "The old way 
and the new!' In more advanced grammars, 
articles are classed as a separate part of speech, 
and not as adjectives. 



156. An or a is more like a numeral adjective Relationship 

■' to adjectives. 

in its meaning, being a worn down form of one; 
the is nearest to a demonstrative adjective in 
meaning, being a worn down form of the demon- 
strative that. 

An or a is used in speaking of any object of a 
class, as, an apple, a man, a flower; the is used in 
speaking of some particular object that has been 
mentioned, or one that the reader or listener is Their use. 
familiar with ; as, the apple, the man, the flower, 
— some special one. 

A good example of their use is the following : 

"He saw Silas Marner leaning against a stile with a 
heavy bag on his back, instead of resting tJie bag on the 
stile." 



As soon as stile and hag are introduced by 
means of a, they are spoken of as familiar terms 
by means of the. 

The is called the definite article; an or a, the 
indefinite. 



112 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



When to use 
an and Si. 



157. The form an is used before vowel sounds ; 
the form a before consonant sounds. 

The sound of the first letter of a word must be 
noticed, for often a consonant is silent and the 
word begins with a vowel sound; on the other 
hand, some letters may be vowels or consonants 
according to their position; and hence the word 
may begin seemingly with a vowel, but really v/ith 
a consonant. Examples : a youth, a luxury,, an 
eager welcome, a humble soul, an honor, such a 
one, a union. 



Syntax of 
articles. 



Repeated 
before i7vo 
adjectives. 



158. When two or more adjectives, joined by 
conjunctions, modify the same noun, the article 
is used before each adjective, provided the noun 
expressed and that understood refer to different 
persons or things. For example — 

"Temple took part in the famous controversy about 
the ancient and the modern learning." 

"After hesitating for some time between a military 
and a commercial life, he had at length been placed," etc. 



Instead of repeating the article before each of 
Another zvay. two singulav uouus iu such casc, ouc article may 
be used before the first adjective, followed by the 
noun in the plural ; thus : 

"They watched his lips in the hope that he would, at 
least, let fall some unguarded word, indicating the hopes 
or fears entertained by the English and Dutch Govern- 
ments." 



159. When two or more nouns, names of dif- 
ferent persons or things, are joined by conjunc- 



VERBS. 



113 



tions, the article is used before each noun, for 
confusion might arise from the omission of the 
articles ; to illustrate, "This hall is a lasting mon- 
ument to the painter and the sculptor" [two per- 
sons]. 

Exercise. — Tell the difference between these sentences 
as they stand and the same with the articles omitted : 
(i) God is just in all his dealings with [a] people. 

(2) I have lost a German and [an] English dictionary. 

(3) The nation began to find out to what [a] man it 
had intrusted, without conditions, all its dearest interests, 
on what [a] man it had lavished its fondest affection. 

(4) Though a prelate might hold that Paul directed 
men to obey [a] Nero, it might not be perfectly safe. 

(5) In every part of the country, the name of [a] 
courtier had become a by-word of reproach. 

(6) While Joseph was in jail he interpreted the dream 
of the butler and [the] baker. 



Repeated 
before two 
nouns. 



VERBS. 



160. Verbs have already been spoken of as 
asserting- words; they tell or declare something 
of a person or thing the name of which is called va^i's^.^ 
the subject: as, {a) "Four times his horse had 
been shot under him." {b) "We feel that we are 
surrounded by great men." (c) "She smiled 
inwardly, whilst following the lad's narrative, to 
recognize in his simple tales about his rnother 
traits of family resemblance." 



114 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



Verbals; 



Pariic-'ples, 



Infinitives. 



We find here assertions of action or being made 
by means of verbs, some simple, some phrases of 
two or three words. 

A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say 
something about a person or thing. 

161. Besides the word having a subject, in sen- 
tence {c), Section i6o, there are two others hav- 
ing something of the nature of verbs, — following 
and to recognize. Both of these express action, 
but neither of them has a subject; both merely 
have the verbal idea without the power of assert- 
ing, and to them is given the name verbals. 

For the present no full discussion of these 
words will be given, but this at least may be said : 
a word ending in -ing, -ed, -d, -t, or -n and be- 
longing to some noun or pronoun without describ- 
ing it, is called a participle ; a verbal word having 
the simple form of a verb and used as a noun or a 
modifier is called an infinitive. 

Following is a participle, since it ends in -ing 
and belongs to the subject she; (to) recognize 
is an infinitive, because it has the simple form of 
a verb and modifies smiled. 



Exercise. — Tell whether each of the italicized words 
below is a verb, participle, or infinitive, and your reason : 

(i) He reached his destination at length, and found 
no small company assembled. 

(2) Mr. W. paid his money and was accommodated 
with a seat in the gallery commanding a perfect view. 

(3) Lord March, who was by no means prodigal of 
politeness, seemed to show singular deference to him. 



VKRBS. 115 

(4) Whilst thus engaged. Lord M. spied the Vir- 
ginian. 

(5) We had promised to have our sport together. 

(6) It was beautiful to see our ladies forgiving one 
another, smiling, joking, after the hard words of yes- 
terday. 

(7) He wept genuine tears, finding he could produce 
them. 

(8) The warriors, when the bugle sang truce, frater- 
nized and exchanged tobacco-pouches and wine, ready to 
seize their firelocks and knock each other's heads off 
when the truce was over. 

162. As to their use, verbs are divided into 
fewer classes than most of the other parts of 
speech. For one division, examine the verbs in 
the following" sentences : 



A s to use . 



(a) "He has rescued two unfortunate people." (b) 
"He sazv the beef-bone reflected." (c) "With each 
bumper his admiration grezv stronger." (d) "What a 
shock that seizure had been!" 

In (a) has rescued has the object people; in 
(b), sazv with its complement reflected has the 
object beef -bone. These are called transitive Transitive. 
verbs, from a Latin word meaning to go over, 
since the action is represented as passing over 
from the subject to some object. 

In (c), grezv expresses action, but is completed 
by the adjective stronger without needing an ob- 
ject; in (d), had been is completed by the noun 
shock, yet does not express action, but being, or 
existence. Verbs of this class are called intran- 
sitive, since no action passes over. 



hitransitive. 



Il6 PARTS OP SPEECH, 



Exercises. 

1. Tell which of the verbs in the preceding exercise 
are transitive and which are intransitive. 

2. Write 3 sentences having intransitive verbs fol- 
lowed by predicate nouns, 3 followed by predicate ad- 
jectives, 3 with transitive verbs followed by direct and 
indirect objects, 3 by direct object and predicate ob- 
jective. 

163. Often the same verb may be transitive or 
intransitive, according to its use in the sentence; 
for example, ''The man sleeps." 'The man is 
sleeping his last sleep." "The sailor drowns in 
the roaring sea." "The roaring sea drowns him." 
"Plants grow here." "This soil grows fine 
plants." 

164. Again, verbs may be divided into auxiliary 
and principal verbs. Our language has not many 
separate forms to express the various circum- 
stances of action or being, as Latin and Greek 

verbf^^^^ have, hence we must use compound forms. 
These are made up of an asserting word, or auxil- 
iary verb, and a participle or an infinitive of the 
verb which is to express the kind of action or 
state. 

To illustrate: in the expressions, "Society has 
lost many of its local peculiarities," "Rude as may 
he their minstrelsy," "I have been awakened by 
them," "Music mitst be in time," "Its gilded 
vaults shall lie in rubbish," the auxiliaries are has, 
may, have been, must, and shall. 

The term auxiliary means helping; the forms 
of the verbs be, have, shall, will, may, can, and 



VKRBS. 



must are frequently used in helping to make verb 
phrases. 



165. Principal verbs, or notional verbs, as they 
are also called, are those that have a meaning and 
force of their own; they contain the real verb 
idea, instead of merely helping to give meaning to 
some other verb. 

Of the above list of auxiliary verbs, he and have 
may also be principal verbs; as in the sentences, 
*'He zvas, in truth, an odd mixture;" "He has 
a broad, full face." 

Exercise. — In this paragraph, distinguish transitive 
verbs from intransitive, and auxiliary from principal 
verbs : 

"The animal he bestrode was a broken-down plow- 
horse, that had outlived almost everything but his 
viciousness. He was gaunt and shaggy, with a ewe 
neck, and a head like a hammer. His rusty mane and 
tail were tangled and knotted with burrs. One eye had 
lost its pupil, and was glaring and spectral, but the other 
had the gleam of a genuine devil in it. Still he must 
have had fire and mettle in his day, if we may judge from 
his name, which was Gunpowder. He had, in fact, been 
a favorite steed of his master's, the choleric Van 
Ripper." 

INFLECTIONS OF VERBS. 

166. Either by inflection or by combination 
with the auxiliaries, verbs may express the rela- 
tions of tense, voice, person and number, and 
mood. 



Principal 
verbs. 



How many^ 



ii8 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Definition. 



Indefinite 
tenses. 



I. Tense. 

167. As there are three divisions of time, the 
three chief tenses are the present, the past, and 
the future; for example, "The boy stands/' ''the 
boy stood/' "the boy will stand/' 

Tense is that form of the verb which indicates 
the time of the action or being-. 

The verbs stand and stood show by their form 
that the action is thought of as being somewhere 
in present or past time; will stand is a phrase 
made up of an auxihary and an infinitive, to ex- 
press action somewhere in future time. In each 
of the three the action is entirely indefinite as to 
beginning, continuance, or completion in its par- 
ticular period. 

168. If the purpose is to speak of an action as 
finished, the perfect tenses are used; as, ''The boy 
has stood there ten minutes ;" "The boy had stood 
there ten minutes when he sat down ;" "The boy 
zuill have stood there much longer before he may 
sit down." 

The first sentence means that the action began 
Explanation, in thc past aud has continued till this time; the 
second, that the action was completed before some 
other action taking place in past time ; the third, 
that the action is to be completed before another 
action in future time. 

Has stood is in the present perfect tense; had 
stood, in the past perfect; will have stood, in the 
future perfect. 

169. Not only this idea of completed action 
may be expressed, but a still more exact impres- 



Perfect 
lenses. 



VERBS. 



119 



Thus, instead J^e definite 
lorms. 



sion is made by the definite forms 
of the simple, indefinite forms in Section 167 and 
the perfect forms in Section 168, one may say, 
"The boy is standing, zvas standing, zvill he stand- 
ing, has been standing, had been standing, zvill 
have been standing." 

These express clearly the continuance of the 
action. It is true, a verb like stand has in itself 
an idea of continuance, yet the forms just given 
are more vivid and definite than those preceding. 
If such verbs as shoot, call, throzv, spring, choose, 
etc., are used in the definite forms, the effect is 
still more noticeable. 

The definite forms are composed of the verbs is, 
zvas, zvill he, have been, etc., and an imperfect 
participle. 

170. To sum up, the forms and phrases of a 
verb for expressing action in present, past, and 
future time may be exhibited in the following 
table : 

PRESENT TIME. 

Indefinite, . He calls. 

Definite, He is calling. 

Perfect, He has called. 

Perfect Definite, He has been calling. 



Their 
usefulness. 



PAST TIME. 


Table of the 
tenses. 


Indefinite^ He called. 
Definite, He was calling. 
Perfect, He had called. 
Perfect Definite, He had been calling. 





I20 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



FUTURE TIME. 

Indefinite^ ' He will call. 

DeHnite^ He will be calling. 

Perfect^ He will have called. 

Perfect Definite, He will have been calling. 

Exercise. — As in the above table, write the tense forms 
of the verbs begin, blow, come, grow, take (see Section 
192). 



special uses 
ot tense 
forms : 



Present for 
past. 



Present for 
future. 



Present per- 
fect for 
future. 



Past for 
present. 



171. Usually each tense form represents the 
time for which it is named, but to the general rule 
there are some noteworthy exceptions. By spe- 
cial meaning or by connection with other words in 
the sentence, some tense forms may express 
action or being in the following ways : 

( 1 ) The present tense may represent past time 
in vivid narration, the event being pictured as 
actually going on before the speaker ; as, "A soft 
hand is held out after this pretty speech, a pair of 
very well-preserved blue eyes look exceedingly 
friendly. Harry grasps his cousin's hand," etc. 

(2) The present often represents future time, 
in both independent and dependent clauses; as, 
"He takes a trip to New York next month;" 
*'When he comes home, please tell him I have 
called." This latter use is very common. 

(3) The present perfect also may represent 
future time in a dependent clause; thus, "I will 
not return till he has come with some message for 
me." 

(4) The past tense may represent present time 
in such sentences as, 'Tf he asked me [now], I 



VERBS. 121 



should tell him;" *'If my mother were here, I 
should endure the pain better." 

Exercises. 

1. Tell in what tense each verb is in the following 
sentences, and what time each expresses : 

(i) I spoke rudely to my friend, and would ask 
pardon. 

(2) How far had it gone, was now the question. 

(3) We feel that we are surrounded by the congre- 
gated bones of the great men of past times, who have 
filled history with their deeds, and earth with their re- 
nown. 

(4) And now they pause, and the soft voices of the 
choir break out into sweet gushes of melody : they soar 
aloft and warble along the roof, and seem to play about 
these lofty vaults like the pure airs of heaven. 

(5) The stillness, the desertion and obscurity, that 
were gradually prevailing around, gave a deeper and 
more solemn interest to the place. 

(6) When this book is concluded, I shall change the 
livery which my books have worn. 

(7) He always asked everybody to sit and drink, and 
partake of his best. Had he a crust, he would divide 
it; had he a haunch, he would share it. 

(8) Her servant arrived with her tea. If I told you 
she took a dram with it, you would be shocked. 

(9) Everyone around the table will have heard of it. 
(10) "Well, if your honor does stay, there is good beef 

and carrot at two o'clock," says the sceptic, and closes 
the door on the solitary prisoner. 

2. Mention the transitive and the intransitive verbs 
in the above sentences. 

Voice. 

172. In these two sentences — (a) ''The Nor- 
mans built great castles," (6) "Great castles zvere 



122 



PARTS OI^ SPEECH . 



What 
voice is. 



Definitions 



built by the Normans" — exactly the same idea is 
expressed. 

Sentence (a) has as subject the word Normans, 
naming the persons performing an action, and as 
object the word castles, naming that upon which 
the action was directed. In sentence (6), on the 
other hand, the word castles, which was the ob- 
ject in (a), becomes the subject; and the name of 
the persons acting is placed as the object of the 
preposition hy in a phrase. These sentences 
serve to show the difference between the active 
and the passive voice. 

The active voice is that form of the verb by 
which the subject represents the agent or doer of 
an action. The passive voice is that form of a 
transitive verb by which the subject names the 
person or thing that receives an action. 

The agent may not be expressed with the 
passive voice ; as — 

"The grate had been removed from the wide fireplace." 



Definite 
forms. 



173. The passive voice is made up entirely of 
verb phrases, some form of the verb he (Section 
179) and a perfect participle; as zvere built. Sec- 
tion 172 (b), also the last sentence above. 

The ' present and past tenses have definite 
forms; for example, "Castles are being built, or 
were being built.'' These are specially useful, 
since the present and past (indefinite) tense 
forms often do not express action, but state or 
condition. The sentences, "The house is built,'' 
"The house was crowded," speak of the condition 



VERBS. 123 



of the house, and really have a predicate verb with 
participle complement; but such sentences as, 
"The house is being painted/' ^The house zvas 
being raised/' express action clearly and defi- 
nitely. 

Exercises. 

1. Point out the active and the passive forms, and 
tell whether each expresses action or condition : 

(i) The dinner w^as served up in the great hall, where 
the Squire always held his Christmas banquet. 

(2) As the evening was far advanced, the Squire 
would not permit us to change our traveling dress. 

(3) Many of their faces had evidently originated in a 
Gothic age, and had been merely copied by later genera- 
tions. 

(4) I am half inclined to think that the old gentleman 
was himself somewhat tinctured with superstition. 

(5) It was the belief that some wrong had been left 
unredressed by the deceased, or some treasure hidden. 

(6) The door suddenly flew open, and a train came 
trooping into the room, that might almost have been 
mistaken for a breaking-up of the court of Fairy. 

(7) I also felt an interest in the scene, from the con- 
sideration that these fleeting customs were posting fast 
into oblivion, and that this was perhaps the only family 
in England in which they were still observed. 

(8) The gray walls are discolored by damps ; the 
sharp touches of the chisel are gone from the rich 
tracery. 

(9) Even this reminder of the olden customs is being 
swept away by the onward march of trade. 

2. Write 10 sentences having active verbs, then 
change them to passive verbs. 



124 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Agreonenl. 



Not ahvays 
inform. 



Person and Number. 

174. Again, the verb is inflected for person 
and number; tliat is, the verb has certain forms 
to correspond with the person and number of its 
subject; for example, ''I speak," "The man 
speaks,'' ''We speak," ''You speak." 

If the old form of the personal pronoun of the 
second person singular is used, the verb has forms 
answering to this — "thou speakest" An old 
form of the third person singular, as, "He speak- 
eth," is also sometimes used. But usually the 
only forms of the verb indicating person and num- 
ber are in the present tense; the first person 
singular, "I speak'' may be distinguished from 
the third person singular, "He speaks" ; and this 
last is different from the third person plural ; as, 
"They speak," "Men so speak" 

These few forms are, however, very important 
in questions of correct usage; hence, the rule is 
given as a general one that verbs agree with their 
subjects in person and number. 

When the subject is a relative pronoun, the 
antecedent must determine the person and num- 
ber. 



Exercises. 

1. Give the person and number of each verb : 
(i) He counted the moments as they passed, and be- 
held that his last sands were falling. 

(2) Their acquirements, doubtless, were different, 
and so were the objects of their literary pursuits. 

(3) We see before us a probable train of great events. 



VERBS. 125 

(4) It is for the future historian, when what now re- 
mains of prejudice and misconception shall have passed 
away, to state these opinions and pronounce impartial 
judgment. 

(5) How little they knew of the depth, and the 
strength, and the intenseness of that feeling of resistance 
to illegal acts of power, which possessed the whole 
American people ! 

(6) It is not my voice, it is this cessation of ordinary 
pursuits, this arresting of all attention, these solemn 
ceremonies, and this crowded house, which speak their 
eulogy. 

(7) If you would repose without disturbance, I would 
advise that you commend yourselves, during the watches 
of the night, to Him unto whom night is even as midday. 

2. Write sentences having: (i) the verb call in the 
second person singular, present tense, definite, passive; 
(2) the verb break in the third person singular, present 
perfect tense active, with subject relative pronoun; (3) 
the verb spend, third person plural, past perfect tense 
passive; (4) the verb Und, first person plural, past tense 
active; (s) the verb write, third person singular, future 
tense passive. 

Mood. 

175. One other inflection remains to be spoken 
of, that of mood. The term is from a Latin word ^^^"/"^ ''^ 
meaning manner, or way. As here used, mood 
indicates the way in which action or being is 
thought of — whether as an actual fact, or some- 
thing commanded, or something merely supposed 
to happen under doubtful or impossible circum- 
stances. 

There are three moods : the indicative, the im- 
perative, and the subjunctive, 



126 



PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



Uses of the 
indicative. 



176. The commonest of the moods is the in- 
dicative, which expresses action or being as an 
actual fact. The expression of the fact may be 
in several ways — 

(i) A simple assertion; thus, "As I passed to 
my room, I heard the sound of music in a small 
court." 

(2) A question; as, "To what purpose is all 
this?" 

Further treatment of the indicative mood will 
be added under Conditional Sentences, Section 
183, (I) and (2). 

The indicative mood uses all the tense forms 
given in Section 170, and all the persons and num- 
bers. 



Uses of the 
imperative. 



Negative 
command. 



177. The imperative mood expresses a com- 
mand, an entreaty, or a request; as, "Send it to 
the public halls; proclaim it there; let them see 
it." "Give me thy hand, let me wipe the dev" 
from thy brow." 

As a command, request or entreaty is addressed 
to a person, the subject of an imperative verb is 
regularly of the second person, and so is the verb. 
In ordinary speech, the subject is not expressed; 
see examples above. 

If a negative command is to be expressed, a 
verb phrase made up of the verb do and an infini- 
tive is used with not; as "Do not go.'\ In poetic 
or solemn style, however, do is not used ; as, "Tell 
me not In mournful numbers." "Lead us not into 
temptation." 



VERBS. 127 

To take the place of an imperative verb of the 
first person plural or the third person, a verb 
phrase consisting of let and an infinitive is used : 
"Let us hear with delight." "They have Moses For first and 

11 1 T 1 1 1 j> third person. 

and the prophets : let them hear them. 

These last must not be regarded as true impera- 
tives of the first or the third person; grammat- 
ically, the verb let is an imperative verb of the 
second person in each instance, with the subject 
you or thou understood. 

Imperative verbs are used only in the present 
tense and the second person, singular and plural. 

178. The subjunctive mood does not state a ^^atureo/tht 
fact; it regards the action or being as something •^"^i""'^^'^^- 
merely conceived or imagined ; thus : ( i ) "I al- 
most desired that the whole of life might he spent 
in that visionary scene." (2) ''Had the engine 
run off the track, the bottomless pit, if there he 
such a place, would undoubtedly have received 
us." 

In the first sentence, the verb might he spent is 
used to express a wish — a thing merely thought jnawish. 
of, and not a fact, else no one would wish for it. 
( The verb desired is in the indicative mood, mere- 
ly stating a fact.) 

In the second sentence, the expression, ''had the 
engine run off the track" — that is, if the engine 
had run off the track — clearly implies that the 
engine did not run off the track, hence the action 
is merely imagined to happen. And since this is ^^l^p^^^J/^^ 
true, the conclusion, ''the bottomless pit woidd 



128 PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



undoubtedly have received us/' can not express a 
fact, but what is merely conceived to follow an 
action that we have seen is itself not a fact. 

Further, the clause, "if there be such a place," 
does not declare a fact, but doubt as to the exist- 
douM.^'*^^ ence of a certain place; here again the idea of 
action or being is only conceived in the mind. 

The subjunctive mood includes the present, 
present perfect, past and past perfect tenses, with 
all persons and both numbers. 

Exercise. — On page i6o, find the sentences containing 
examples of the wish or mere supposition, and point out 
all the verbs that are in the subjunctive mood. 

179. In some cases the verbs of the subjunctive 
mood have the same form as those of the indica- 
tive, and the mood must be determined by the 
nature of the sentence. But some of the forms 
are unlike those of the indicative mood, as may 
be seen by a comparison in the following tables : 

I. Verb Be, Indicative and Subjunctive. 







Present Tense. 




INDICATIVE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Forms of the 
verb be. 


Singular. 

1. I am 

2. You are 
(Thou art) 

3. He is 


Singular. 

1. [If] I be 

2. You be 
(Thou be) 

3. He be 




Plural. 


Plural. 




1. We are 

2. You, ye are 

3. They are 


1. We be 

2. You, ye be 

3. They be 







VERBS 


• 


129 




Past 


Tense 








Singular. 

1. I was 

2. You were 
(Thou wast) 

3. He was 






I. 
2. 

3. 


Singular. 
[If] I were 
You were 
(Thou were) 
[wert] 
He were 




Plural. 
I. We were, etc. 






I. 


Plural. 
We were, etc. 





Present Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Singular. 

1. 1 have been i. [If] I have been 

2. You have been 2. You have been 
(Thou hast been) (Thou have been) 

3. He has been 3. He have been 

Plural. Plural. 

I. We have been, etc. i. We have been, etc. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Singular. 

I. I had been, etc. i. [If] I had been, etc. 

Note. — If is used for convenience as a word intro- 
ducing the subjunctive in a dependent clause; but this 
is not to imply that if is the only word so used, or that if 
is always accompanied by the subjunctive mood. 

As an exercise, the student will mention the points of 
difference between the indicative and subjunctive forms 
above. 

180. II. Verb Choose, Indicative and Sub- 
junctive. 



I30 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



Forms of the 
verb choose. 



Present Tense. 
Singular. Singular. 

1. I choose I. [If] I choose 

2. You choose 2. You choose 
(Thou choosest) (Thou choose) 

3. He chooses 3. He choose 



Plural. 
I. We choose, etc. 



Plural. 
I. We choose, etc. 



Past Tense. 



Singular. 

I chose 
You chose 
(Thou chosest) 
He chose 



Singular. 

1. [If] I chose 

2. You chose 
(Thou chose) 

3. He chose 



Plural. 
"i. We chose, etc. 



Plural. 
I. We chose, etc. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I have chosen 

2. You have chosen 
(Thou hast chosen) 

3. He has chosen, etc. 



Singular. 

1. [If] I have chosen 

2. You have chosen 
(Thou have chosen) 

3. He have chosen, 

etc. 
Past Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Singular. 

I. I had chosen, etc. i. [If] I had chosen, etc. 



Definite 
form.'^ 



181. The differences between the definite 
forms of the indicative and subjunctive may read- 
ily be seen by placing the imperfect participle of 
any verb after the forms of he in Section 179; for 



VERBS. 131 

example: "he is choosing, [if] he be choosing; 
he was choosing, [if] he were choosing/' etc. 

182. Before stating- all the uses of the sub- 
junctive mood, it will be best to study conditional 
sentences. 

A conditional clause is usually introduced hy if „ ,. . 

■^ -^ I Conditional 

or unless, meaning on condition that, supposing sentences, 
that, a certain thing does or does not happen ; ex- 
amples : *''If they should be cruel to one another, 
who is there to be kind to them?" ''Women are 
not angels ; if they zvere, they would have to go 
to heaven for husbands." 

183. Conditional sentences are of three kinds — Three kinds: 
(i) Assuming or admitting a fact; as, "If he 

saw me, I did not know it." This may mean: 
(i) In case he saw me [assuming as a fact what 
I am not sure of], I did not know it; or (2) He 
saw me [I admit as a fact] , but I did not know it. 
In either case facts are dealt with. 

Conditions of this kind are expressed by the 
indicative mood, followed by the indicative in the 
main clause. 

(2) Expressing a doubtfid or future action; p^^ture or 
as, 'Tf he comes soon, tell him to call me." doubt/ui. 

This kind of condition may be expressed by 
either the indicative or the subjunctive mood, 

of tener the indicative ; as, ( Present == future ) "If 
he comes [or come} soon, he will call me"; (Past 
subjunctive) "If he should come [or came], he 
would call me"; (Present perfect = future per- 



Regarding 

facts. 



132 



PARTS OI^ SPEECH. 



feet) "If he has conic [or have come] by noon, he 
will call me." 
i/nreai. (3) Exprcssiug thc coutravy of the real fact; 

as, *'If he were here, I should speak to him"; 
"Unless he had been here, I should have sent for 
him." 

The first sentence shows clearly that he is not 
here; the second implies that he was here. The 
condition only supposes the contrary of what is or 
was true. 

Conditions of this class are always expressed by 
the subjunctive mood, in two tenses, the past and 
the past perfect, as shown in the two sentences 
above. 

The past subjunctive in such conditions repre- 
sents present time, implying what is now true; 
the past perfect subjunctive represents past time, 
implying what was not true. 

Exercise. — Write 12 sentences using the three kinds of 
conditional clauses — 4 of each. 



Uses of the 
subjunctive. pj-g 



184. The uses of the subjunctive mood, then, 



A wish. 



I. To express a wish, the subjunctive verb 
being in the principal clause ; thus : "Peace he. 
with the heroes." "The foul fiend take the 
curfew bell !" 

This is often expressed by a verb phrase with 
may; as — 

''May all the stars hang bright above thy dwelling!" 

II. To express a wish, the subjunctive verb 
being in the dependent clause, which is the object 



VERBS. 



133 



of the verb zvish, or one of similar meaning; for 
example — 

"O mother dear, that thou wert here !" 
"I would," said Geraldine, "she were!" 

III. To express a doubtful or future condition conditions— 
(Section 183 [2]); thus — 

"As to seeing the world, we apprehend this will cause 
little difficulty, if he have but an eye to see it with." 

IV. To express a condition contrary to fact 
(Section 183 [3]); as — 

"If these wretches were princes, there would be ''Unreal.'' 
thousands ready to offer their ministry." 

V. To express a contingent assertion; that is, 
the subjunctive in the main clause denotes an 
action merely thought of in connection with an 
unreal or a doubtful condition; as, in the last 
sentence quoted, ''there zvould be thousands," etc. 
Another example, '"'If he went on in that way, he 
would lose Miss Nancy Lammeter." 

The subjunctive of contingency is usually made 
up of a verb phrase having the words should, 
zvould, could, might, and an infinitive. Other 
examples of it are : 

"I should have taken the poet for a very sagacious 
farmer of the old Scotch school [if I had not known 
him]." 

"He wotdd have thanked any one who had befriended 
him [=:if he had befriended him]." 



Contingent 
assertion — a 
phrase. 



185. Since the subjunctive forms are often the 
same as the indicative, the student will take special 



study use. 



of if. 



134 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

care to notice the use of the verb always, as well 
as the form. In many languages the subjunctive 
mood has many distinct forms, and to understand 
its uses now will be valuable. 
Omission - lu the couditiou contrary to fact, the introduc- 
tory if is often omitted, but the subjunctive use of 
the verb is readily seen; as, "Were I to breathe 
it long, methinks it would make me ill." ''Had 
he been a little richer, almost ever so little, the 
whole might have been otherwise." 

Exercises on Mood. 

I. Give first the use, then the mood of each verb in 
the following sentences : 

(i) The Indian immediately started back, whilst the 
lion rose with a spring and leaped towards him. 

(2) The vicious man and the atheist have therefore 
no pretence, and would act unreasonably should they 
endeavor after it. 

(3) Think not man was made in vain, who has such 
an eternity reserved for him. 

(4) If the work performed was small, we must re- 
member that he had his very materials to discover. 

(5) We had already stated our doubts whether direct 
pecuniary help, had it been offered, would have been ac- 
cepted, or could have proved very effectual. 

(6) "Then God bless you," said Faith with the pink 
ribbons, "and may you find all well when you come V' 

(7) If he drudges, it is with his brothers, and for his 
father and mother, whom he loves. 

(8) Thme was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, 
The gift of Beauty. Would thou hadst it not; 
Or wert as once, awing the caitiffs vile 
That now beset thee ! 



VKRBS. 135 

(9) If he entered an inn at midnight, after all the 
inmates were in bed, the news of his arrival circulated 
from the cellar to the garret. 

(10) Oh ! raise us up, return to us again ; 

And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power. 

(11) It seems almost as if we were treading a man- 
sion of that fabled city, where every being had been 
suddenly transmuted into stone. 

(12) The wedge will rend rocks; but its edge must 
be sharp and single ; if it be double, the wedge is bruised 
in pieces and will rend nothing. 

(13) In the silent afternoons, if I listened, the thump 
of a great apple was audible. 

(14) If the mighty merchant whose benefactions are 
reckoned by thousands of dollars deem himself worthy, 
let him join the procession. 

(15) It would fill a volume in an age of pamphlets 
were I to record all my observations. 

. (16) Many a time shall I disturb them there, and feel 
as if I had intruded among a company of silent worship- 
ers as they sit in Sabbath stillness among the tree-tops. 

II. Write 6 sentences using the indicative mood, 6 
using the subjunctive, 4 using the imperative. 

CONJUGATION. 

186. Conjugation is from a Latin word mean- 
ing joining together, and in Latin grammar refers 
to the adding of various endings to a verb-root, or 
stem. 

In English, conjugation is the orderly arrange- Meaning of 
ment of all the forms and auxiliaries that combine 
to express the various circumstances of action or 
being. 

The verb be has a larger number of distinct 



the term. 



136 PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



forms than any other verb, since its forms include 
several different root words — as, been, are, were. 
Most of the other verbs have only four or five 
Few forms. distiuct forms in common use : for example, of 
the verb talk, are talk, talks, talking, talked; of 
the verb speak, are speak, speaks, spoke, speaking, 
spoken. Besides these are sometimes used the 
old forms, as, talkest, talketh, talkedst. 

See Sec. 179. ^^T. I. Conjugation of the vcrb Bc. 

Four tenses of the indicative mood and all the 
subjunctive have been given ; the other forms and 
phrases are: 





Indicative 


Mood. 




FUTURE TENSE. 


I. 

2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I shall be 
You will be 
(Thou wilt be) 
He will be 


Plural. 

1. We shall be 

2. You, ye will be 

3. They will be 




FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 


I. 
2. 

3- 


Singular. 
I shall have been 
You will have been 
(Thou wilt have been) 
He will have been 


Plural. 

1. We shall have been 

2. You, ye will have been 

3. They will have been 




Imperative 


; Mood. 




PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 
Be [you or thou] Be [you or ye] 



VE^RBS. 



137 



188. II. Synopsis of the verb Speak. Definition. 

A synopsis of a verb is the orderly arrangement 
of the different moods and tenses in only one per- 
son and number. 

The third person singular will be vised here, and 
the imperative mood will be added. 



Active Voice. 



INDICATIVE 



Present^ 

Present definite, 

Pasf^ 

Past definite^ 

Future^ 

Future definite^ 

Present perfect, 

Present perfect definite, 

Past perfect. 

Past perfect definite, 

Future perfect. 

Future perfect definite. 



MOOD. 

He speaks. 
He is speaking. 
He spoke. 
He w^as speaking. 
He will speak. 
He will be speaking. 
He has spoken. 
He has been speaking. 
He had spoken. 
He had been speaking. 
He will have spoken. 
He will have been speak- 
ing. 



Present, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

[If, though, etc.] He speak. 



Present definite, 

Pasf^ 

Past definite. 

Present perfect, 

Present perfect definite. 

Past perfect. 

Past perfect definite. 



He be speaking. 

He spoke. 

He were speaking. 

He have spoken. 

He have been speaking. 

He had spoken. 

He had been speaking. 



Present, 
Present definite. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

speak. (2d person.) 
Be speaking. 



138 



PARTS OP SPKKCH. 



Definite 
forms few. 



Present:, 

Present deiinite, 
Past^ 

Past definite^ 
Future^ 

Present perfect. 
Past perfect, 
Future perfect. 



Passive Voice. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



It is spoken. 

It is being spoken. 

It was spoken. 

It was being spoken. 

It will be spoken. 

It has been spoken. 

It had been spoken. 

It will have been spoken. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present, 

Past^ 

Past definite. 

Present perfect_ 

Past perfect. 



[If, though, etc. 



It be spoken. 

It were spoken. 

It were being spoken. 

It have been spoken. 

It had been spoken. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

On account of its meaning, speak has no passive 
imperative. Of other transitive verbs, the forms 
are-7- 

Present (2d per.) Be seen, be smitten, etc. 



Remarks 
on conjuga- 
tion. 



Uses <7/"do. 



189. The subject he or it is merely representa- 
tive; any singular subject of the verb may be 
used instead. 

In the present and past tenses active, a verb 
phrase consisting- of do and the infinitive oi any 
verb is used for emphasis, and these are called 
emphatic forms; to illustrate, ''I do speak clearly," 
"T did speak harshly." 

In poetry, do and did are often merely substi- 
tutes for the simple forms, and are not emphatic ; 



VERBS. 139 

as, "In our life alone does nature live/' "The 
ice did split with a thunder-fit." 

The use of do in the imperative has been men- 
tioned. 

The negative forms of the present and past 
tenses active, indicative, are made up of do and 
did vv^ith not; thus, "He does not speak well.'* 
"They did not speak cordially." 

To ask questions, do and did are used in the 
same tenses, inverting the order, and are often 
called intsrrogative forms; as, "Do you knozv 
him?" ''Did ^'Q intrude?" In other tenses the 
forms remain the same, and only the order is 
changed; as, "And zvill your mother pity me?" 

By combining the emphatic and interrogative 
forms with the negatives, we may form other 
phrases, such as, "I did not walk," "Did they not 
walk with you ?" 

These remarks serve to show how numerous 
and how useful verb phrases are in English, for 
indicating the different shades of meaning and 
circumstances of action. 

STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 

190. As to the forms of the words, verbs are 
divided into strong and weak (or old and new 
conjugation). 

Strong verbs are those that change the vowel, a^^"'^'"''*'' 
but do not add an ending, in forming the past 
tense; thus, choose, chose; blozv, blezu; fling, 



140 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Weak verbs are those that add an ending -d, 
-ed, or -t to the simple or root form of the verb 
in forming the past tense; as, flee, Hed; tan, 
tanned; buy, bought. 

Weak verbs may change the root vowel to form 
the past tense; but they add an endingf to the 
root-form, which strong verbs never do. 

Note. — Weak verbs also include some words that 
neither change the vowel nor add an ending : as, set, set; 
cast, cast. Also some that drop -d for -t: as, send, 
sent ; build, built. 

191. A general description o^ any verb is 
usually given by means of the principal parts; 

Mris. that is, the forms used as a basis in making up the 

conjugation of the verb. They are the simple 
infinitive, the past tense and the perfect participle ; 
for example : 

Blow, blezv, blozvn; come, came, come; buy, 
bought, bought; zuatch, watched, watched. 

List of Strong Verbs. 

192. The following table includes most of the 
strong verbs of our language : 

[Note. — Weak forms of these are placed in parentheses.] 



Pert. 




Pert. 


Present. Past. Part. 


Present. Past. 


Part. 


abide abode abode 


begin began 


begun 


arise arose arisen 


behold beheld 


beheld 


awake awoke awoke 


bid bade 


bidden 


(awaked) (awaked) 


(command) 




bear bore borne. 


bind bound 


bound 


born 


bite bit 


bitten, 
bit 



VERBS. 



141 







Pert. 






Pert. 


Present. Past. 


Part. 


Present. Past. 


Part. 


blow 


blew 


blown 


lie 


lay 


lain 


break 


broke 


broken 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


chide 


chid 


chidden, 


ring 


rang 


rung 






chid 


run 


ran 


run 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


see 


saw 


seen 


cleave 


clove 


cloven 


shake 


shook 


shaken 




(cleft) 


(cleft) 


shear 


(sheared) shorn 


cling 


clung 


clung 






(sheared) 


come 


came 


come 


shine 


shone 


shone 


crow 


crew 


crowed 


shrink 


shrank, 


shrunk 




(crowed) 




shrunk 




dig 


dug 


dug 


sing 


sang 


sung 


do 


did 


done 


sink 


sank, 


sunk 


draw 


drew 


drawn 




sunk 




drink 


drank 


drunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


drive 


drove 


driven 


slay 


slew 


slain 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


slide 


slid 


slidden 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


sling 


slung 


slung 


fight 


fought 


fought 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


find 


found 


found 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


fling 


flung 


flung 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


fly 


flew 


flown 


spin 


spun 


spun 


forbear forbore 


forborne 


spit 


spat, 


spat 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 




spit 




forsake forsook forsaken 


spring 


sprang, 


sprung 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 




sprung 




get 


got 


got 


stand 


stood 


stood 






[gotten] 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


give 


gave 


given 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


go 


went 


gone 


sting 


stung 


stung 


grind 


ground 


ground 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


grow 


grew 


grown 


strike 


struck 


struck, 


hang 


hung 


hung 






stricken 


(hanged) (hanged) 


string 


strung 


strung 


hold 


held 


held 


strive 


strove 


striven 


know 


knew 


known 


swear 


swore 


sworn 



142 



PARTS OF SPEECH, 



Present. Past. 
swim swam 
swum 
swing swung 
take took 
tear tore 
thrive throve 
(thrived) 
throw threw 



Perf. 
Part. 
swum 

swung 
taken 
torn 
thriven 
(thrived) 
thrown 



Present. Past. 
tread trod 



wear 

weave 

win 

wind 

wring 

write 



wore 
wove 
won 



Perf. 

Part. 
trodden, 
trod 
worn 
woven 
won 



wound wound 
wrung wrung 
wrote written 



Remarks on 
some Jornis. 



The perfect participle got is preferable to the 
form gotten, which is not now used in the best 
English writing; but forgotten is the correct par- 
ticiple of the verb forget. 

The verb hang has two forms with different 
meanings in the past tense and past participle; 
hanged regularly refers to execution of persons 
by hanging, while hung means suspended in 
speaking of other matters. 



Irregular Weak Verbs. 



Irregular 
weak verbs. 



change. 



193. There are many weak verbs which do not 
add -ed to the root form, and these are called ir- 
regular w^eak verbs. 

A few of the various kinds are given below : 



Add A or \. bring 

with vowel \i^x\I 

sell 



brought brought 
bought bought 
sold sold 



catch 

seek 

tell 



caught caught 
sought sought 
told told 



Shorten 
vowel and 
add d or t. 



feel 
keep 



felt 
kept 



felt 
kept 



lose 
shoe 



lost 
shod 



lost 
shod 



VERBS 143 



bend 


bended; 


, bended, 


lean 


leaned, 


leaned. 


Add-ed ort. 




bent 


bent 




leant 


leant 




build 


builded 


, builded, 


work 


worked; 


, worked, 






built 


built 




wrought wrought 




have 
lay 


had 
laid 


had 
laid 


make 
say 


made 
said 


made 
said 


Add-d, but 
contracted. 


cast 


cast 


cast 


put 


put 


put 


Unchanged. 


cost 


cost 


cost 


set 


set 


set 




194. 


, The perfect pai 

i-„i „„ i„:.- 


rticiple may be used alone 

_,i r..iu. :„ c„_^: 


Perfect parti- 
ciple in verbs. 



Common 

errors. 



as a verbal, as explained more fully in Sections 
203 and 204; but It is put down in the above lists 
because it is used in so many verb phrases. The 
principal uses are as follows : 

(i) After the auxiliaries have, had, and shall 
have to form the perfect tenses active. 

(2) After the forms of the verb he to form the 
various passive phrases. 

Errors are often caused by careless or ignorant 
confusion of past tense and perfect participle 
forms; thus, He done, for he did; we seen, for 
we sazv; you had took, for you had taken; they 
come, for they came. 

195. Two sets of verbs need special attention 
because they are so often misused : lie and lay, 
sit and set. 

They are sharply different in meaning, but the 

... - . Four trouble- 

slight Similarity m form causes much contusion some verbs. 
in the use of the words. The principal parts are 



144 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

here repeated, the imperfect participle being added 
for further distinction : 

lying lain 

laying laid 

sitting sat 

setting set 



lyie, lay. 



lie 


lay 


lay 


laid 


sit 


sat 


set 


set 



Lie is an intransitive verb, and means to rest 
one's self, to recline ; lay is transitive, and means 
to place or put in some position; for example, 
''The dog lies at the door." "The box was laid 
on the deck." (This verb lie is not to be confused 
with He, to falsify.) 

Sit is an intransitive verb, and means to rest on 
a seat of any kind ; set is transitive when it means 
to place down an object. Set also has two mean- 
ings as an intransitive verb : to sink down or be- 
come fixed, as, "The sun sets/' "His eyes set in 
his head" ; and to express various motions, as, to 
set out, to set up in business, etc. 

Exercises on Verb Forms. 

A. Conjugate the following tenses as directed: 

1. Present perfect indicative active of begin. 

2. Past tense indicative active of come. 

3. Past tense indicative active of do. 

4. Past perfect indicative active of Hy. 

5. Present tense subjunctive passive of forget. 

6. Present perfect indicative passive of get. 

7. Past tense Indicative active of lie. 

8. Future tense indicative passive of ring. 

9. Past perfect Indicative active of sing. 
10. Present perfect indicative passive of slay. 



ve;rbs. 145 



B. Form sentences using the following tenses of 
verbs in the third person, singular number : 

1. Past tense indicative active of lie. 

2. Past tense indicative active of lay. 

3. Future tense indicative active of lie. 

4. Present perfect indicative active of lie. 

5. Past perfect indicative active of sit. 

6. Future perfect indicative active of set. 

7. Past tense subjunctive passive of set. 

8. Present perfect indicative active of sit. 

9. Past tense indicative passive of swim. 

10. Past perfect subjunctive passive of write. 

C. Where possible, change the forms in B to inter- 
rogative - negative - definite ; as, "Was not the cat lying 
on our new velvet rug?" 

D. Where possible, change the active forms in A and 
B to passive, and the passive forms to active. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

196. Defective verbs are those which are lack- 
ing in one or more of the principal parts. 

The following list includes the important ones : 

may might will would 

can could must ■ 

shall should ought 



Meaning. 



197. All these are used with infinitives to form 
verb phrases. Some examples of such phrases 
are — 

Simple Infinitive. Perfect Infinitive. 

May write, be writing, have written, have been writing. 
Can write, be writing, have written, have been writing. 
Might write, be writing, have written, have been writing. 
Should write, be writing, have written, have been writing. 
Would be written, have been written. 

Ought to be written, to have been written. 



Some of the 
verb phrases. 



146 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



Notes on 
these. 



And SO on with the other words in Section 196. 

Note. — As in the case of other verb phrases, the tense 
of a defective-verb phrase is determined by both of its 
parts; for example, might he writing consists of the 
past tense verb might and a simple infinitive, hence the 
phrase is in the past tense ; might have written consists 
of a past tense verb and the perfect infinitive have 
written, hence the phrase is in the past perfect tense. 

All except ought take the infinitive without to, 
or what is usually called the pure infinitive. 

Since they are devoid of person and number 
forms, the mood of defective verbs must be deter- 
mined from the manner of their use in the sen- 
tence. 

Exercise. — Write sentences using 6 such phrases as 
the above in the indicative mood, and 4 in the sub- 
junctive. 



Shall and 
will. 



Future tense. 



198. The regular auxiliaries to indicate future 
time are : shall with the first person, and will with 
the second and third persons, singular and plural. 



I shall write 
You will w^rite 
He will write 



We shall write 
You will write 
They will write. 



Such a phrase as you will write is sometimes 
used as a mild form of command, under the guise 
of mere predicated action; as, "You will study 
this closely." 

199. But if, in addition to the idea of future 
action, it is desired to express determination, 
promise, or obligation, will is used with the first 



VERBS. 147 



person, and shall with the second and third per- 
sons: 

I will write We will write Determina- 

tr ,,, .1 -tr •.,, -1 lion, etc., in 

You shall write You shall write future time. 

He shall write'' They shall write"" 

Exceptions. 

1. If this phrase be placed in the form of a question — 

"Shall you write?" then future action only is expressed, i^Q^^^i^ons. 
since the answer, "I shall write," indicates simply future 
action. Hence, in framing a question with the second 
person, use the same auxiliary that is to be expressed in 
the answer. 

2. If, instead of using our own words about a per- 
son's future action, we use his words, we must keep the in quotations. 
same auxiliary that he himself used. For example: a 

person says to me, "I shall go with you" : if I myself 
predict his action, I say, "My friend will go with me" ; 
if I prefer to use his own words, I say, "My friend says 
he shall go." 

200. Should and would follow the same rules 

as shall and will, respectively, except — 

( 1 ) When would refers to past habit or custom special uses 

, . . . . 1.-1^ '^ would and 

or past determniation, it is used with the first, sec- should, 
ond and third persons ; as, ''The tears would run 
plentifully down my face when I made these re- 
flections;" "I set my dog upon the goats, but he 
would not come near them." 

(2) When should means ought, it takes the 
first, the second, and the third persons ; as, "I had 
paved with some square tiles; but I should not 
call them square." 



148 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Exercises on Shall, Will, Etc. 

1. Tell what use shall, will, should, and would have 
in the following sentences : 

(i) Shouldn't you like to be present at a scalping- 
match, and see a fellow skinned alive? 

(2) He would carry a fowling piece on his shoulder 
for hours together, trudging through woods and swamps. 

(3) She says that the death of every bird which is 
killed in her ground will spoil a concert, and that she 
shall certainly miss him the next year. 

(4) Tell him that we yield to his rapacity as in simi- 
lar circumstances we should to that of a robber. 

(5) Everything about the place went wrong, and 
would go wrong, in spite of him. 

(6) Why, you wouldn't like to keep the child, should 
you — an old bachelor like you? 

(7) The royal blood of our Saxon kings shall not be 
spilt while mine beats in my veins ; nor shall one hair 
fall from the head of the kind knave who risked himself 
for his master. 

(8) I trust I shall remember the password. 

(9) Say what we did was impudent. Would we not 
do it over again? 

(10) On the last day of his life he said he would 
rather have written Gray's Elegy than have won a battle^ 

(11) He set off with the thought that he should be 
able to dress up and magnify to the admiration of a select 
circle. 

(12) There was something in front of the fire that 
would have been tempting to a hungry man. 

2. Explain the difference between the following sen- 
tences as they stand and the same with the other auxil- 
iary substituted. 

(i) Will [shall] he be allowed to join the club? 

(2) You shall [will] not enter the house again. 

(3) We should [would] not meet this man again if 
we remained here all day long. 



VERBS. 149 

(4) My opponent declared that he should [would] 
know the name of the man who hissed him. 

(5) I shall [will] go; nobody will [shall] hinder me. 

(6) Such a letter will [shall] never be written. 



VERBALS. 

201. A verbal is a word that in a general way, 
expresses action or being, but does not assert, and 
can not be used as a predicate. 

In the following pages the purpose Is mainly to 
study such words separately, as verbals, and not 
In composition, as parts of asserting phrases. 

There are three kinds of verbals : participles, 
infinitives, and gerunds. 



Definition. 



202. A participle is an adjective verbal, which 
regularly belongs to a noun or equivalent of a 
noun without describing It. 

The forms are familiar to the pupil, since so 
many of the simple participles were seen In verb 
phrases; such as, zvalking, walked, bought, 
driven, held, seen. 

203. The simple participles and phrases are — 

Active Voice. 

Imperfect, Writing Perfect, Having written 

Perfect definite, Having been writing 

Passive Voice. 
Imperf., Being written Perf., Written, having been written 



Participles. 



Lisi of forms. 



I50 PARTS OF SPKEJCH. 

The form zvritten, when used alone as a verbal, 
is always perfect and passive ; when used in verb 
phrases, it may be active or passive (Section 194) . 

The tense. 204. Participlcs have n© exact tense. The time 

expressed by the imperfect participle depends on 
the tense of the accompanying verb: thus, "He 
comes, bringing good news" (present). "He 
came, bringing good news" (past). "He may 
yet come, bringing good news" (future). 

The perfect participle has in it a vague idea of 
past time and of completed action; as, "Having 
obeyed the order, the officer came [comes, or had 
come] back to report." 

Exercises on Participles. 

1. Write the participles of the verbs bring, begin, set, 
sit, lie, lay, fall, see, build. 

2. Tell which of the italicized words below are par- 
ticiples and which are adjectives, also whether each is in 
the attributive, appositive or predicate position (Section 
154- 

(i) A little gurgling sound ascended to the window. 

(2) The man's demeanor was that of one walking 
under some malignant influence. 

(3) Soon there emerged from urjder a sculptured 
portal the figure of a young girl arrayed with much taste. 

(4) His patients are interesting to him only as sub- 
jects for some new experiment. 

(5) By the shattered fountain grew the magnificent 
shrub, with purple gems clustering all over it. 

(6) Having satisfied his curiosity by this investiga- 
tion, he looked for the object of his resentment, whom 
he observed standing on the same spot, with the same 



VERBS. 



151 



composed countenance which he had exhibited upon the 
preceding day. 

(7) The general came in out of breath, having been 
riding hard in pursuit of some deer. 

(8) The gage having been delivered to the noble 
knight, he was appointed to do this battle. 

3. Write sentences having the participles interesting, 
entertaining, terrifying, and forsaken in the attributive, 
the appositive, and the predicate use. 



205. An infinitive is a verbal having the simple 
or root form of a verb, and is used as a noun or as 
a modifier of some word in the sentence. 

Besides the simple infinitive, there are phrases 
used as single verbals, just as it was found in the 
case of participles ; but these infinitive phrases are 
always introduced by the root form of the verb. 
For example, in the sentence, "Stone seems to 
have been robbed of its weight and density," have 
is the simple form of the verb, though it is com- 
pleted by the participles been and robbed in form- 
ing the compound infinitive. 



Infinitives. 



How recog- 
tiized. 



206. The remarks as to the tense of participles 
apply to all the verbals; all derive their tense 
from that expressed by the verb used in connec- 
tion with them. 

The infinitive forms and phrases are — 



Active Voice. 

Simple, [To] write 

Imperfect, [To] be writing 

Perfect, [To] have written 

Perfect definite, [To] have been writing 



List 0/ forms. 



152 



PARTS OF SPKECH. 



Omission 
of to. 



Uses of the 
infinitive : 



noun. 



Passive Voice. 
Simple, [To] be written 
Perfect, [To] have been written 

207. The word to is not a necessary part of 
the infinitive, though it is called the infinitive sign 
from its often introducing the verbal ; hence it is 
printed in brackets in Section 206. 

The to is omitted : ( i ) in verb phrases with all 
the defective verbs except ought; (2) after the 
object of such verbs as let, feel, hear, see, and 
usually make and hid (order) ; (3) often after 
please, need, and dare. 

Examples. 

(i) "The twilight would of itself have rendered a 
disgui?e unnecessary," 'These peasants should be 
restrained." 

(2) "Let it not he objected that he did little." "He 
had seen George go to the front." 

(3) "You need not be surprised." "The villain dare 
not attack me." 

208. The main uses of infinitives are as fol- 
lows : 

I. The NOUN USES, which are: (i) as subject, 
object, etc.; as, (subject) ''To try by the strict 
rules of art would be unfair"; (object) 'The 
chaplain had been hoping to remain there." 

(2) As complement of an intransitive or a 
transitive verb ; as — 

"His mission was to enlighten the whole people;" 
"The young gentleman had been allowed to have his own 
way." 



VERBvS. 



153 



II. The ADJECTIVE USE^ in modifying' some adjectiz 
noun ; thus : 

"I found no ravenous beasts to threaten my life." 

III. The ADVERB USE : ( I ) to modify some ad- 
jective or adverb: 

"I was afraid to lie down on the ground, not knowing adT^erb. 
but some wild beast might devour me;" "I killed a large 
bird that was good to eat." 

(2) To modify a verb, and express the purpose 
or the result of an action : for example, (purpose) 
'T punish you now to guard you from greater 
punishment hereafter"; (result) 'T also wheeled 
around, but only to see the treacherous sands 
gathering above her head." 



Exercises on Infinitives. 

1. Write the infinitives of the verbs draw, see, learn, 
he, think, prove, lose, give. 

2. Classify the infinitives in the following sentences, 
and tell which use each has : 

(i) To be a tutor to such a pupil is absurd. 

(2) The boys' friend warned the lad to be prudent. 

(3) Other servants darkened the porch windows with 
their crisp heads to hear him discourse. 

(4) She knew not from which she would like to part. 

(5) I am not a man to be moved by a woman's tears. 

(6) Let me endure the extremity of your anger. 

(7) He is likely to raise a clamor loud enough to be 
heard over twenty horns and trumpets. 

(8) I will keep my word to share weal or woe with 
thee. 

(9) To have saved you is a sufficient reward. 



154 PARTS OF SPKKCH. 

(lo) If you were to bid me jump out of yonder 
window, I should do it. 

(ii) She happened to be going to see an old pauper. 

(12) His lordship appeared to have been waiting for 
some one to bring just such news. 

3. Write 9 sentences illustrating the uses of the infin- 
itive as shown in Section 208. 

Gerunds. ^09. The gerund is a verbal which has the form 

of a participle, but the use of a noun. 

It is to be distinguished, however, from the 
participle and the noun; the participle never has 
the use of a noun, and a noun is never a verbal, 
since a mere naming word can not have the power 
of governing. 

The noun has only the -ing form, while the 
gerund has five forms like the participle, which 
are: 

Active Voice. 



Their nature. 



Their forms. 



Imperfect, Writing Perfect, Having written 

Perfect definite. Having been writing 

Passive Voice. 
Imperfect, Being written Perfect, Having been written 

Uses of 210. The uses of the gerund are here illus- 

^""'"'"- trated: 

( 1 ) As subject — 

"Madame B. asked her if sitting backwards in thq 
carriage made her ill." 

(2) As object of a verb or a preposition; as — 

"The Squire preferred talking loudly, scattering snuff, 
and patting his visitors' backs." 



VERBS. 



155 



''The Earl had a way of understanding things without 
speaking." 

(3) As an object while governing an object — 

"It is seldom that the miserable can help regarding 
their misery as a wrong inflicted by those who are less 
miserable." 

211. There are numbers of words ending- in 

, . , , , , . , Nouns in 

-tug which not only can not govern, but which are -ing. 
not even the names of actions ; they are only com- 
mon or abstract nouns, as in these sentences : 

"He turned and looked around his dwelling;" "She 
had high veracity, delicate honor in her dealings;" "I 
think those have the least feeling who act wrong;" "This 
time of the year is considered most suitable for a wed- 
ding;" "A blessing is flung abroad." 

Exercises on Gerunds. 

1. Mention the gerunds in the following sentences, 
and tell which use each one has : 

(i) Perhaps it would be just as happy in life without 
being owned by its father. 

(2) He was noted for preferring vicious animals. 

(3) The legs were crossed, in token of the warrior's 
having been engaged in the holy war. 

(4) Drinking toasts seems a point of honor with them. 

(5) He was the singing-master, and picked up many 
bright shillings by instructing the young folks. 

(6) I want to make up with you for having been ex- 
ceedingly rude to everybody this morning. 

(7) I remember in this very room, so coaxing my 
father, and mother, and your grandfather. 

(8) The mere starting of a nail, the yawning of a 
seam, might give him entrance. 



156 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



review. 



2. Write sentences using gerunds as follows: (a) 
3 with gerunds used as subjects and followed by objects; 
(&) the same modified by adverbs; (c) 3 with gerunds 
as objects of prepositions and completed by objects ; ((/) 
3 with gerunds as objects of verbs and modified by ad- 
verbs. 

Summary in 212. There have now been distinguished four 
kinds of words ending in -ing, namely : 

(i) Nouns, merely naming an object or a 
quality. 

(2) Adjectives, describing something named 
by a noun. 

(3) Participles, referring to nouns or pro- 
nouns, but not directly modifying the meaning, or 
describing. 

(4) Gerunds, expressing action, having the 
power of governing, but used like nouns in the 
sentence. 

Exercises. 



1. Tell what ofiice each -ing word has in these sen- 
tences, and what part of speech it is : 

(i) She was in the habit of speaking of and to him 
with a protecting air, which was infinitively diverting. 

(2) Here was a type of the beginning and the end of 
human pomp and power. 

(3) He was knowing enough with all his blushing 
cheeks, 

(4) The food would have been inviting to a hungry 
man if it had been in a different stage of cooking. 

(5) The pork had been hung so as to prevent the 
roasting from proceeding too rapidly. 

(6) He opened the door wide to admit Dolly, but 
without otherwise returning her greeting than by moving 
the armchair a few inches. 



VKRBS. 



157 



(7) How easy it is for one benevolent being to dif- 
fuse pleasure all around him ! 

(8) All bears marks of the gradual dilapidations of 
lime, which has something pleasing in its very decay. 

(9) A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the 
tomb, round which is an iron railing. 

(10) Certain of the most authentic historians of these 
parts, who have been careful in collecting and collating 
the floating facts concerning the specter, allege that, the 
body of the trooper having been buried in the church- 
yard, the ghost rides forth to the scene of battle in 
nightly quest of his head; and that the rushing speed 
with which he sometimes passes along the hollow, is 
owing to his being belated. 

(11) Entering the Court of the Lions, I was almost 
startled "at beholding a turbaned Moor seated near the 
fountain. 

2. Write sentences using each of the following words 
in as many of the four ways as you can : packing, under- 
standing, painting, entertaining, being considered, having 
lost. 



Verbs 



PARSING VERBS AND VERBALS. 

213. All the simple and compound forms given 
in Sections 187 and 188 will be parsed as regular 
tenses of the verb, and none will be analyzed into 
asserting words and infinitives or participles. 
The defective-verb phrases, as in Section 197, will verb phrases. 
be separated into their elements, then the whole 
phrase parsed like any simple verb. Verbals will 
be parsed by giving the class, the form and the use 
in each instance. 

The order for parsing verbs is as follows : 
( I ) The class as to form, strong or weak, and 
principal parts. 



Verbals. 



Order for 
parsirg 

verbs. 



T58 PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



(2) The class as to use, transitive or intransi- 
tive. 

(3) The voice, active or passive. 

(4) The mood, indicative, subjunctive, or im- 
perative. 

(5) The tense, and whether definite or not. 

(6) The subject, person, and number. 

Model for 214. For further guidance, a model for parsing 

each of the above is now given. 

"Now that she found herself belated, even the ani- 
mation of a vindictive purpose could not keep her from 
falling." 

Found: principal parts are find, found, found, 
hence it is a strong verb; has an object, herself, 
hence it is transitive; represents the subject as 
acting, and is active voice ; states a fact, therefore 
indicative mood; expresses past time, and is in 
the past tense; third person, singular number, 
because its subject is the pronoun she. 

Could not keep is a negative verb phrase, con- 
sisting of the verb could, the adverb not, and the 
simple infinitive keep. As a unit, the phrase is 
transitive, active voice, indicative mood, third per- 
son, singular; its subject is animation. 

Belated belongs to the word herself, and is a 
perfect participle active; has the double use of 
modifying the object herself and of being the 
complement of the verb found. 

Falling is active, imperfect in form, and is a 
gerund, since it is the object of the preposition 
from. 



VERBS. 159 



Sentences for General Exercise. 

(i) There is an exquisite delight in picking up an 
arrow-head that was dropped centuries ago and has never 
been handled since. 

(2) I could wish that the grave might be opened, for 
I would fain know whether either of the skeleton sol- 
diers has the mark of an ax in his skull. 

(3) Many strangers come to view the battle ground. 

(4) Do not believe these stories ; believe nothing of 
me save what you have seen with your own eyes. 

(5) We have been standing on the greensward. 

(6) The brown spaniel, who had placed herself in 
front of him, and had been watching him for some time, 
now jumped up in impatience. 

(7) God of Zion protect us! What a dreadful sight! 

(8) Spare thy strength, good traveler, and I will undo 
the door, though it may be my doing so will be little to 
thy pleasure. 

(9) If thou losest the prize, thou shalt be stripped of 
thy Lincoln green, and scourged out of the lists. 

(10) His first intention was to hire a horse and ride 
home forthwith, for to walk so many miles without a 
gun in his hand was out of the question. 

(11) He had something else to curse — his own folly. 

(12) Towards this happiness he was impelled fitfully, 
after having passed weeks in which he had avoided her 
as the far-off, bright-winged prize, that only made him 
spring forward, and find his chain all the more galling. 

(13) A thrill of indefinable horror shot through his 
frame on perceiving that those dewy flowers were already 
beginning to droop ; they wore the aspect of things that 
had been lovely yesterday. 

(14) He must soon, he thought, be getting near the 
opening at the Stone Pits ; he should find it out by the 
break in the hedgerow. 

(15) About twilight on the second day she found her- 



l6o PARTS OF SPEECH. 



self entering Paita, without having had to swim any 
river in her walk. 

(i6) If thou accomplish thy purpose, I will pay thee 
with my casque full of crowns. 

(17) If the long letters were bows, and the short 
letters broad arrows, I might know something of the 
matter. 

(18) His gold, as he hung over it, and saw it grow, 
gathered his power of loving together. 

(19) A dissertation on the book of Job — which only 
Job himself could have had the patience to read — filled 
at least a score of small thickset quartos. 

(20) Give me a stoup of wine, as jolly Prince John 
said, that I may wash away the relish. 

(21) Had I not been armed in proof, the villain had 
marked me down seven times with as little compunction 
as if I had been a buck in season. 

(22) May each stone in this vaulted roof find a tongue 
to echo that title into thine ear ! 

(23) Could I but grapple with these horrors that 
hover round, as I have done with mortal dangers, 
Heaven should never say that I shrunk from the conflict ! 

(24) The elder books seemed to have been earnestly 
written, and might be conceived to have possessed 
warmth at some former period. 

(25) He lifted his hands to his head, trying to steady 
himself, that he might think. 

(26) One morning he was disagreeably surprised by 
a visit from the professor, whom he had scarcely thought 
of for whole weeks, and would willingly have forgotten 
still longer. 

SYNTAX OF VERBS AND VERBALS. 
I. Verbs. 
215. In expressing a wish or a condition con- 
trary to fact, the subjunctive form is to be regu- 



Mood. 



VERBb. l6l 



Tense. 



larly used, and the indicative is to be avoided. 
Examples have been given. 

216. In a narration of past events the past tense 
may be used, or the present vividly representing 
past time ; but the two should not be confused in 
the same sentence. (Correct use) '*'A scuffle en- 
sues; a clatter is Jieard among the knives and 
forks of the dessert; a glass tumbles over and 
breaks." (Incorrect) "When he is in the boat, 
he cries to the hermit, 'Shrieve me, holy man,' and 
then he told his story.'' 

217." The general rule is, that subjects of sin- Number. 
gular meaning have the singular form of the verb, 
and subjects of plural meaning take the plural 
form of the verb. 

This applies also to the predicate noun, since it 
is in most cases awkward or incorrect for a sin- 
gular verb to be followed by a plural complement, 
or lice versa; as, ''Neither of the two great gen- 
erals was wise and prudent statesmen," for ''a 
wise and prudent statesman/' 

218. Singular subject axd singular verb : 

(i) Words of singular form and singular Subjects sin- 

. , ,. . gular in 

meanmg, the commonest form ot agreement; as. idea. 



"The day z^'as clear." 

(2) Collective nouns naming the collection as 
a unit: as, "The world has likewise heard those 
names.'' 

(3) ^^'ords of plural form but singular mean- 
ing; as, ''Physics is an important branch of edu- 



1 62 PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



cation." ''The writer tells us that 'The Visions 
of Mirzah' zvas found at Grand Cairo." "There 
is two hundred zecchins in that pouch." 

(4) Two or more singular words connected by 
or or nor; as, "The heart or the judgment or the 
moral sense or the taste is dissatisfied with this." 
"Not a hoof nor a wheel ivas to be heard." 

(5) Two or more singular words preceded by 
the adjectives each, every, no, emphasizing each 
subject separately; thus, "Each pendent twig and 
leafy festoon zvas in a blaze." ' "Every change of 
season, every change of weather, indeed every 
hour of the day produces some change in the 
magical hues." "No sophistry, no vain logic 
detains him." 

219. Plural subject and plural verb : 
plural in ( I ) Words of plural form and plural meaning ; 

as, "These things folloiv each other by a general 
law.^' 

(2) Collective nouns thought of as naming the 
individuals of the group separately; as, "The 
quiet congregation of trees are fringed with fo- 
liage." "The audience zvere soon in excitement." 

(3) Two or more singular subjects connected 
by and, a separate idea being presented by each ; 
as, "His step and mien were particularly sedate 
and lofty." 

Caution. But several singular subjects may take a singu- 

lar verb if they are regarded as making up one 
idea; as — 



VERBS. 163 



"For the best of the cheer, and the seat by the fire 
Is the undenied right of the Barefooted Friar." 

Exercise. — Write sentences to illustrate all the above 
points on the syntax of verbs. 

II. Verbals. 

220. A common error in the use of the parti- Participles, 
ciple is the lack of proper connection between the 
participial phrase and the leading subject of the 
sentence ; thus, ''Despairing of any hope of return, 

there came a large bird, an albatross, lighting 

upon the ship." fonJectzon. 

The meaning seems to be that the large bird 
despaired of any hope of return, and the parti- 
cipial phrase should be so re-written as to make 
the proper sense and connection with the word 
modified, thus : ( i ) "The sailors despairing, .... 
there came," etc.; (2) "Despairing of any hope 
of return, the sailors were surprised to see a large 
bird," etc. 

221. Generally, the simple infinitive should be 
used to express the same time as an accompanying- 
verb, and the perfect infinitive to express time 
before the action of the main verb ; as — 

"It is gratifying to sec that feeling completely 
aroused." "He would have liked to spring on Dunstan." 

"This extraordinary man is said sometimes to have 
given w^ay to spiritual delusions." "The priest seemed 
to have exhausted more of life than the Egyptian." 



Infinitives. 



Relation to 
main. I'erb. 



This rule applies to verb phrases having simple 
or perfect infinitives; as, "He felt that he could 



164 



PARTS OF SPKKCH. 



An exception. 



Gerunds. 



With pos- 
sessive. 



draw a magic circle around her." ''It could not 
he seen that they intercepted for a moment the 
faint gleam athwart which they must have 
passed.'' 

222. But whenever the main verb is expect, 
wish, hope, intend, fear, etc., the simple infinitive 
is to be used with any tense of the verb to express 
future ti'me ; as ■ — 

"My father expects [expected, etc.] to sail for Paris 
to-day." 

"They had hoped to reach the green banks of the 
Tagus before the noonday." 

According to the usage of present-day English, 
the proper relations of words are violated in such 
a sentence as this : 

"Then went the Captain with the officers, and brought 
them without violence ; for they feared the people, lest 
they should have been stoned." 

The proper form now is "should he stoned." 

223. In such a sentence as, "I was astonished 
to hear of him stealing the money," the object of 
the preposition of is not the pronoun him, but the 
gerund stealing; the pronoun is intended to mod- 
ify the gerund, and is usually found in the pos- 
sessive form his. The objective form also is used 
by writers, but many condemn this as wholly in- 
correct. 



Direct and Indirect Discourse. 

Definitions. 224. A dlicct quotation is a copy of the exact 
words used by a writer or speaker; an indirect 



VERBS. 165 



quotation is a report in our own words of what a 
writer or speaker said ; thus — 

(Direct) — Exavipus. 

"What have I done, child?" said Priscilla, in some 
alarm. "Why, you asked them if they minded about 
being ugly !" said her sister Nancy. 

(Indirect) — 

Priscilla, in some alarm, asked what she had done, 
Nancy replied that she had asked them if they minded 
about being ugly ! 

225. Several points of difference between di- 
rect and indirect discourse are to be noticed — 

(i) Direct quotations are always indicated by 2^.^^,%^' 
quotation marks; direct questions have also an 
interrogation point. The quotation, if a sentence, 
begins with a capital letter, and is separated from 
the main clause by a comma, sometimes by a 
colon ( : ) . 

(2) Indirect quotations are united with the 

clause introducing them ; they have no quotation puitctuatio 

marks or interrogation points, do not begin with 

a capital letter, and are not separated by commas 

or colons ; as a rule, the statements begin with the 

word that, and the questions with zvhether or if 

or some interrogative word used in the direct 

question. 

(3) The verb governing the direct quotation 

has no effect on the verbs in the quotation, each I'erbs. 
having the tense required by the meaning ; but in 
the indirect quotation the verbs have such tenses 
as suit the governing verb. 



1 66 PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



Pronouns. (4) Thc dircct quotation has the same freedom 

with pronouns as with verbs ; the indirect quota- 
tion uses only such pronouns as agree with the 
persons in the main clause; as — 
(Direct) — 

"Nay," said I to her with a gush of tenderness, "T 
rejoice at the wrongs which drove thee to this blessed 
lawsuit !" 

(Indirect) — 

I exclaimed to her with a gush of tenderness that / 
rejoiced at the wrongs which drove her to this blessed 
lawsuit ! 

Notes. — i. If a direct quotation is included within a 
direct quotation, that included has single marks ; "Why, 
you asked them, 'Do you mind about being ugly?' " said 
her sister Nancy, 

2. An imperative verb is usually changed to an indica- 
tive followed by an infinitive; (direct) "Bring forth the 
converts!" cried a voice. (Indirect) "A voice ordered 
them to bring forth the converts." 

3. A past tense in the main clause may be followed by 
a present tense in the clause of indirect quotation, if the 
latter verb is intended to express a statement true at all 
times. 

Exercises. 

1. Copy the following from dictation ; change the 
direct quotations to indirect, and the indirect to direct : 

(i) "Come," said I to my friend, "or I shall be 
tempted to make a theory — after which there is little 
hope of any man." 

(2) Having been on speaking terms with one of those 
persons, I called him and inquired what was his busi- 
ness there. 



ADVKRBS. 167 



(3) "Sir," he said to me with a sad yet mild and 
kindly voice, "do you call yourself a pilgrim?" 

(4) "I observe a few crumbling relics," said I. "But 
ever and anon, I suppose, Oblivion comes with her hage 
broom and sweeps them all from the marble floor." 

(5) Jem Rodney averred that, on coming up to him, 
he saw that Marner's eyes were set like a dead man's, 
and he spoke to him, and shook him, and his limbs were 
stiff. 

(6) Silas confessed that he could never arrive at any- 
thing higher than hope mingled with fear, and listened 
with wonder when William declared that he possessed 
unshaken assurance. 

2. What of the two sentences below ? — 

(i) A policeman awoke him and asked him what was 

he doing there at that time of night ? 

(2) Professor A. asked N. would he not go with him, 

for he needed some one to mount specimens for him. 



ADVERBS. 

226. Some examples of adverbs are here given : 

(a) "He observes how heavily the branches are 
weighed down." 

(b) "We have sought a somewhat devious track in 
our walk." 

(c) "He had resided almost entirely with the Squire." 



The words heavily, dozvn, and entirely are used 
to modify the verbs are weighed and had resided, 
and to tell how, or in what way, the action is per- 
formed; the word somezvhat modifies the adjec- 
tive devious and tells how much, or in what de- 



Use of 
adverbs. 



i68 



PARTS oi^ spe:kch. 



gree; the words how and almost modify adverbs 
already mentioned, and tell in what degree. 
Definition. Advcibs are words used to modify verbs, adjec- 

tives, and other adverbs. 

227. Adverbs modify also phrases and clauses 
used as adverbs ; for example — 

"Across the rafters were placed two boards exactly of 
the same size" (phrase). 

''Just as he had got halfway through the hollow, the 
girths of the saddle gave way" (clause). 



Further 
explanation. 



Any verbal word may be modified by adverbs; 
as — 

"The very soul seems almost rapt away" (participle). 

"He attempted to dash briskly across the bridge" 
(infinitive). 

"He had left the neighborhood partly in mortification 
at having been suddenly dismissed by the heiress" 
(gerund). 

Exercise. — Write sentences with adverbs modifying 
the verb, predicate adjective, participle, infinitive, and 
gerund. 



Classes, as to 
use. 



228. As to their ofiice in the sentence, adverbs 
may be simple, interrogative, or conjunctive. 

The adverbs in Section 226 are simple ; that is, 
they only modify and have no further office in the 
sentence. 

Interrogative adverbs are those that modify and 
also are used to ask a question ; as, ''Where is the 
master who could have taught Shakespeare ?" 

Conjunctive adverbs are those that modify and 
also help to connect clauses ; thus, "As much wis- 



ADVERBS. 169 



dom may be expended on a private economy as on 
an empire." 

I. Simple Adverbs. 

229. Simple adverbs are divided into five 
classes — 

(i) Time: nozv, then, yesterday, to-morrow, classes o/ 

^ ■' -> -> J J'^ -' simple ad- 



to-day, soon, late, ever, never, lately, hereafter, 
thereupon, etc. 

(2) Place: here, there, hither, thither, hence, 
thence, and the compounds herein, therein, else- 
where, nowhere, anywhere else, etc. 

(3) Manner, telling how : easily, thoroughly, 
otherzvise, solemnly, deeply, etc. — most adverbs 
ending in -ly. 

These three classes modify verbs exclusively. 

(4) Degree, telling how much and modifying 
adjectives and adverbs : so, too, as, very, almost, 
enough, etc. 

(5) Assertion, modifying not some single 
word, but a whole statement, and changing its 
meaning: probably, surely, perhaps, doubtless, 
certainly, hardly, not, etc. 

Exercise. — Write sentences having 5 adverbs of each 
of the above 5 classes. 

230. Many of the above words change from 
one class to another, according to the meaning 
they express ; thus — 

"So died the hero" (manner). 

"So far we cannot go" (degree). 

"The plague spreads gradually but surely" (manner). 

"Surely he cannot have betrayed us" (assertion). 



verbs. 



Shifting of 
adverbs. 



lyo 



PARTS OF SPEECH, 



Exercise. — Write sentences using the word then as 
an adverb of time and assertion; so as an adverb of 
manner, degree and assertion ; certainly as an adverb of 
manner and assertion; far as an adverb of place and 
degree. 

II. Interrogative Adverbs. 

231. Interrogative adverbs introduce questions 
and express time, place, manner, reason, and 
degree. The chief ones are when, zvhere, why, 
and how; for example, "Hozv and when had the 
child come into the hut ?" 



Two classes: 



Interroga- 
tive., 



III. Conjunctive Adverbs. 

232. Conjunctive adverbs include two sub- 
classes — 

( I ) Interrogative adverbs in indirect questions 
are conjunctive, since they both modify and con- 
nect ; as — 

"He did not learn how this failed." "Still no one 
asks why such measures are not taken." 



(2) Of certain pairs of connecting words, the 
Correlative, first, or modifying word, is usually an adverb, the 
second a conjunction; such are, as .... so, 
the .... the, as .... as, so ... . that, 
so .... as. All the words of the first two sets 
are adverbs, but they help to connect. Examples : 

"Yet the more the alchemist labored, the less hope had 
he of such an achievement." 

"So brilliantly were they polished as to resemble the 
finest specimens of emerald." 



ADVERBS. 171 

"Some say we have already as good poets as any in 
the world." 

Note. — The is not to be called an article in the above 
use. 

Exercise. — Write 10 sentences illustrating the use of 
different words as conjunctive adverbs, some modifying 
adjectives and some adverbs. 

233. Comparison is the only inflection of ad- comparison 
verbs. Many words are used as adjectives and of adverbs, 
adverbs without change of form, and are inflected 

by the endings -er and -est; such are high, deep, 
loud, ividc, hard, long, etc. 

Most of the words compared irregularly as ad- 
jectives are used as adverbs (Section 146) ; but 
better, best, have the positive adverb well; and 
zvorse, zvorst, the positive ill or badly. 

Adverbs ending in -ly take the adverbs more 
and most to express the degrees of comparison; 
as, more carefidly, most carefidly. 

234. In watching the use rather than the form 
of ^adverbs, the student will need to keep in mind 
two things ; that adverbs often do not end in -ly, 
and that very many words ending in -ly are ad- 
jectives. ' 

Exercise. — Point out the adverbs in the following sen- 
tences, and tell which kind each is : 

(i) It is certainly the most unexcitable and sluggish 
stream that ever loitered imperceptibly towards its eter- 
nity, the sea. 

(2) The other Briton raised himself painfully upon 
his hands and knees and gave a ghastly stare. 



172 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(3) Our garret was an arched hall, dimly illuminated 
through small and dusty windows. 

(4) There yet lingers with me a superstitious rever- 
ence for literature of all kinds. 

(5) How gently did its gray, homely aspect rebuke 
the speculative extravagances of the day ! 

(6) Then Nature will love him better than at any 
other season, and will take him to her bosom with a 
more motherly tenderness. 

(7) The breeze would linger fondly around us, but 
since it must be gone it embraces us with its whole kindly 
heart and passes onward. 

(8) Such delusions always hover nigh whenever a 
beacon-fire of truth is kindled. 

Parsing 235. Ill parsing an adverb, the pupil will tell — 

( 1 ) The class and sub-class to which it belongs. 

(2) The degree of comparison, if it is com- 
pared. 

(3) What word or expression it modifies. 



Sentences for General Exercise. 

(i) Who can tell, when he sets forth to wander, 
whither he may be driven by the uncertain currents of 
existence, or when he may return? 

(2) But where, thought I, is the crew? 

(3) Their struggle has long been over;' they have 
gone down amidst the roar of the tempest. 

(4) I regret to say that these customs are daily grow- 
ing more and more faint, being gradually worn away by 
time, but still more obliterated by modern fashion. 

(5) His waistcoat is commonly of some bright color, 
striped, and his small-clothes extend far belov/ the knees, 
to meet a pair of jockey-boots which reach about halfway 
up his legs. 



ADVERBS. 173 



(6) The kitchen was hung round with copper and tin 
vessels highly polished, and decorated here and there 
with a Christmas green. 

(7) He regrets sometimes that he had not been born 
a few centuries earlier. 

(8) So intent were the servants upon their sports that 
we had to ring repeatedly. 

(9) Supper was announced shortly after our arrival. 

(10) Though he was ostensibly a resident of the vil- 
lage, he was oftener to be found in the Squire's kitchen. 

(11) The more carefully his works are examined, the 
more clearly it will appear that this is the real clue to the 
system. 

(12) Could not Noll have given his poor relatives and 
brother-in-law a sop somewhere else? 

(13) As the Sandwich Islander believes that the 
strength of the enemy he kills passes into himself, so we 
gain strength of the temptation we resist. 

(14) Why should he assume these faults? 

(15) His sixty cords of wood had probably dwindled 
to a far less ample supply. 

(16) He is driven to entertain himself alone and ac- 
quire habits of self-help ; and thus, like the wounded 
oyster, he mends his shell with pearl. 

(17) It was because he dug deep that he was able to 
pile high. 

(18) In his manners he was perfectly friendly, but so 
silent that he would often sit at the head of his table, and 
leave it without uttering a word. 

(19) The London people often wondered why he 
traveled with only one servant. 

(20) This clever woman tired of most things and 
people sooner or later. 

(21) How far had this pretty intrigue gone, was now 
the question. 

(22) It is remarkable that the longer Bacon lived the 
stronger this feeling became^ 



174 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Importance 
oj position. 



Double 
negative. 



Confusion of 
adverbs and 
adjectives. 



Syntax of Adverbs. 

236. Adverbs and adverbial expressions should 
be so placed that no one can doubt which words 
they modify. In the sentence, "Her injuries were 
so serious that she was expected to die for a long 
time," the phrase for a long time is at the first 
glance taken to be a modifier of to die. To save 
trouble and error, the writer should have placed 
the phrase after that' — "that for a long time she 
was," etc. 

In the sentence, "I scarcely ever expect to have 
such a pleasure," the ever belongs to the infinitive, 
and should be placed after it — "I scarcely expect 
ever to have," etc. The words even, merely, only, 
almost, nearly, etc., are often misplaced. 

237. In English of the present day, two nega- 
tive words are equivalent to an affirmative: "I 
never have no luck" means "I have luck always." 
If the purpose is to make an affirmative statement, 
two negatives or none may be used ; if a negative 
is intended, only one negative should be used. 

Not, never, no, none, nor, neither, nowhere, no- 
body, etc., are the commonest negatives ; but such 
words as hardly, scarcely, and hut have a negative 
meaning. 

238. Errors are frequently made, especially in 
the predicate, by the improper use of adjectives for 
adverbs, or of adverbs for adjectives. 

In the sentence, "The child had never looked so 
szveetly,'' the meaning intended is, The child never 



CONJUNCTIONS. 175 



had been so sweet in its appearance ; a quality of 

the subject is to be expressed, and the adjective illustrations. 

szveet is the word needed. 

In the sentence, ''The silk was sent direct to 
me/' the purpose is to describe the manner of 
sending, and the adverb directly is the word to 
use. 

In general, if the purpose is to limit in some 
way the action of the verb, an adverb should be 
used; if the purpose is to express some quality or 
condition of the subject, an adjective is to be used. 

The words most frequently misused are real, 
most, near, good, previous^ for really (or very), 
almost, nearly, well, and previously. 



General rule. 



Exercise. — Write 5 sentences in which the words feel, 
appear, smell, cook, grozv, shall have adjective comple- 
ments, and 5 in which they sliall be modified by adverbs. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

239. Conjunctions may join together — 
(i) Words; as, 'T seek the Vatican and the 
palace." 

(2) Phrases ; as, ''With his will or against his 
will, he draws his portrait." 

(3) Clauses: (a) mdependent, "Always pay; office of 
for first or last you must pay your entire debt" ; ^««>«^^^"««^- 
(b) independent and dependent, "We meet as 

water meets water.' 



176 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



,(4) Sentences; as, "It has overflowed stone 
fences and even rendered a portion of the highway 
navigable for boats. The waters, however, are 
gradually subsiding." 

Conjunctions are words used for joining words, 
phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

240. Conjunctions are divided into two general 
classes : coordinate and subordinate. 

Coordinate conjunctions join words, phrases, 
Two main aiid clauscs of cqual rank; that is, in the same 
construction, as (i), (2), (3) (a), above. Sub- 
ordinate conjunctions introduce clauses which are 
subordinate to those with which they are joined, 
^s (3) (^), Section 239. 

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

241. Coordinate conjunctions are of four 
kinds — 

Sub-classes, (i) CopuLATiVE, joining . exorcssions in the 

co-ordinate. ^ ^ ' J o xr 

same line of thought; that is, expressions which 
merely add to each other; as, and, also, likewise, 
as zvell as, moreover. 

(2) Adversative, joining expressions which 
are adverse or opposed to each other: but, yet, 
stilly however, nevertheless. 

(3) Alternative, joining words or word 
groups and indicating a choice, usually between 
two things ; for example, or, nor, either, neither, 
else, otherwise. 

(4) Causal, joining clauses one of which ex- 
presses the cause or consequence of the other; 



CONJUNCTIONS. 177 



of their use. 



some of these are for, so, therefore, hence, then, 
accordingly. 

The following sentences show the use of some illustrations 
of the coordinate conjunctions of each class : 

(i) Hospitality must be for service and not for show, 
or it pulls down the host. 

(2) The portrait responded not ; so I sought an an- 
swer for myself. 

(3) Strangers may present themselves at any hour 
and in whatever number. 

(4) It is a noble, generous liquor, and we should be 
thankful for it ; but water was made before it. 

(5) We have seen or heard of many extraordinary 
young men who never ripened, or whose performance in 
actual life was not extraordinary. 

(6) It might indeed sharpen and invigorate the minds 
of those who devoted themselves to it ; and so might the 
disputes of the orthodox Lilliputians and the heretical 
Blefuscudians about the big ends and the little ends of 
eggs. But such disputes could add nothing to the stock 
of knowledge. The human mind, accordingly, instead 
of marching, merely marked time. 

(7) The sweet of nature is love ; yet if I have a friend 
I am tormented by my imperfections. 

(8) Neither the travelers nor their steeds were visible. 

(9) He had never felt so lonely and dismal. He was, 
moreover, approaching the very spot. 

(10) Their business is not to check, but to act. The 
very same things, therefore, which are the virtues of Par- 
liaments may be vices in Cabinets. 

Exercises. 



1. Classify the coordinate conjunctions in the above 
sentences, and tell what each one connects. 

2. Write sentences containing coordinate conjunc- 
tions connecting (i) two noun clauses, (2) two adjec- 
tive clauses, (3) two subjects, (4) two objects, (5) two 



178 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Nature of 
compound 
sentences. 



The adverb 
clause. 



predicate adjectives, (6) two adjective phrases, (7) two 
adverb phrases, (8) two adverbs modifying the same 
verb, (9) two verbs having the same subject and object. 

242. Sentences which contain two independent 
clauses are known as compound sentences. Many 
examples have been given in the sentences above. 
The compound sentence may have more than two 
independent clauses, and also dependent clauses; 
the main point to notice is, that at least it has two 
independent clauses. 

243. Observe the following sentences : 
(i) "I do not know when the boat will arrive." 

(2) "The hour when the boat arrives has passed." 

(3) "I will meet you when the boat arrives." 

In Section loi the pupil learned to distinguish 
the noun clause from the adjective clause; in sen- 
tences (i) and (2) above, the conjunction zvhen 
introduces a noun clause and an adjective clause. 

In sentence (3), the conjunction when intro- 
duces a clause used to modify the verb will meet 
and to answer the question. At what time? 
Hence, the clause introduced by when is called an 
adverb clause. 

From this we see that some words may intro- 
duce several kinds of clauses; and that the kind 
of clause must be determined by its use in the sen- 
tence. 

Exercises. 

1- Write three sentences using zvhere to introduce a 
noun clause, an adjective clause, and an adverb clause. 

2. Write a complex sentence having two dependent 
clauses introduced by how. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 179 



SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 
244. Subordinate conjunctions may be — Sub-ciasses, 

subordinate, 

(i) Of time: when, before, after, since, as, 
ere, till, while, until; example : 
"We know truth ivlien we see it." 

(2) Of place: where, zvherever, whither, 
whence, etc. : for example : 

"They passed on through the forest, where no church 
had ever been gathered." 

(3) Of manner: as, how, as if, as though — 

"His spirits rose with eating as some men's do with 
drink." 

(4) Of CAUSE or reason: zvhy, as, because, 
since, inasmuch as — 

"This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear of 
ghosts." "As he was a bachelor, and in nobody's debt, 
nobody troubled about him." 

(5) Of comparison: than and as; for ex- 
ample : 

"He knew more about the matter than he chose to 
tell." "His instrument was as old and battered as him- 
self." 

(6) Of purpose: that, so that, in order that, 
lest; for example : 

"He distributed beef and ale and bread among the 
poor, that they might make merry." 

(7) Of result: so that, so as, also that and as 
in a dependent clause following so in an independ- 
ent clause ; as — 



l8o PARTS OF SPEKCH. 



"There was another, stooping and laboring at a bass 
viol so as to show nothing but the top of a round, bald 
head." "He had pored over these volumes so intensely 
that they seemed to have been reflected into his face." 

(8) Of CONDITION and concession : if, unless, 
provided, though, although; examples: 

"// left to himself, he would have whistled away life 
in perfect contentment." "The Squire, though not su- 
perstitious himself, was fond of seeing others so." 

(9) Substantive: that introducing a noun 
clause used as subject, object, appositional term, 
etc.; as — 

"She felt that it was a very hard trial for the poor 
weaver." 

Exercises. 

1. Write sentences using all the different kinds of 
subordinate conjunctions. 

2. Write sentences with the conjunction why intro- 
ducing an adjective and an adverb clause; that and if 
introducing noun and adverb clauses. 

245. The above list shows that some v^ords are 

Some vart' 

ousiyused. uscd as scveral kinds of conjunctions. As some 
of them get their meaning from that of the accom- 
panying clause, one must examine the meaning of 
the whole dependent clause in order to classify a 
given conjunction. That may indicate purpose, 
result, and introduce a noun clause; since may 
express time and reason; as may express time, 
manner, reason, comparison, and result. Some 
in the list may be used as prepositions and simple 
adverbs also. 



CONJUNCTIONS. l8l 



Exercise. — Tell what kinds of conjunctions that, as, 
and since are in the following sentences : 

(i) That all this might not be too onerous on the 
purses of his rustic patrons, he had various ways of 
rendering himself useful and agreeable. 

(2) But neither the government of France nor that 
"of England is so disorganized as to be fit for the propa- 
gation of theological doctrines. 

(3) We are apt to murmur against the whole system 
of the universe, since it involves the extinction of so 
many summer days. 

(4) So tenacious was he on this point, that the poor 
sexton was obliged to strip down most of the trophies of 
his taste. 

(5) He has also sorted a choir as he sorted my 
father's pack of hounds. 

(6) It was but the rubbing of one huge bough upon 
another, as they were swayed by the breeze. 

(7) I observed that he exercised rather a mischievous 
sway with his v/and. 

(8) It was now a twelvemonth since the funeral pro- 
cession had turned from that gateway. 

(9) Rip's sole domestic adherent was his dog Wolf, 
who was as much hen-pecked as his master. 

(10) They could not do without him, as he was the 
best hand at a song and story in the household. 

246. Correlative connectives are those that go 
in pairs, each being needed to complete the other. cortdaUves. 
Some few correlatives go in sets of three or more. 

They may be divided into four classes — 

( I ) Two OR MORE COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS : 

both .... and, not only (not merely) .... 
hut (but also, but even), either . ... or, neither 
. . . . nor, whether .... or (or zvhether), etc.; 
for example : 



1 82 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



"But neither climate nor poverty, neither study nor 
'the sorrows of a homesick exile, could tame the des- 
perate audacity of his spirit." 

(2) A SUBORDINATE WITH A COORDINATE CON- 
JUNCTION : if . . . , then, though (although) 
.... yet; for example : 

"If the poet write a true drama, then he is Caesar, not 
the player of Caesar." "Although they had various suc- 
cess, yet on the whole the advantage remained with the 
challengers." 

(3) A SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION WITH AN 

ADVERB : SO .... as { followed by an infinitive 
phr3.se), or not so (nowhere so, etc.) . ... as 
(followed by a clause), as . . . . as, so . , , , 
that. To illustrate : 

"Nowhere does the grass spring up so industriously as 
in this homely yard." 

(See also Section 244 [5] and [7].) 

(4) Two ADVERBS OF MANNER OR DEGREE: aS 

. ... SO, the .... the; thus : 

"As in dreams, so in the scarcely less fluid events of 
the world, every man sees himself in colossal." "The 
longer I reflect, the less am I satisfied with the idea." 

Exercise. — Write 8 sentences illustrating the use ol 
the different kinds of correlatives shown above. 



Contracted 
clauses. 



247. In learning to parse conjunctions, it is 
well to note the fact that frequently a conjunction 
introduces a clause which is contracted; that is, 
its subject and part or all of its predicate are 
omitted. In that case the missing part should 



CONJUNCTIONS. 1 83 



be supplied in order that the meaning and connec- 
tion may be made clear. For example, in sen- 
tences already quoted: ''His instrument was as 
old and battered as [he] himself [was]." "If 
[he had been] left to himself, he would have 
whistled away life." 

In parsing a conjunction, the pupil will state — 

( 1 ) The class and sub-class to which it belongs. Parsing. 

(2) What words, phrases, etc., it connects. 

Sentences for General Exercise. 

(i) We are desirous, before we enter on the discus- 
sion of this important question, to point out a distinction. 

(2) Once while Hillard and other friends sat talking 
with us, there came a rustling noise, sweeping through 
the very midst of the company, so closely as almost to 
brush against the chairs. 

(3) It is of very much more importance that men 
should have food than that they should have pianofortes. 
Yet it by no means follows that every pianoforte maker 
ought to add the business of baker to his own ; for, if 
he did so, we should have worse music and worse bread. 

(4) They could not have paid a more acceptable com- 
pliment to my abode, nor to my own qualities. 

(5) I never like to notice M. du Miroir, nor to ac- 
knowledge the slightest connection with him. He, 
however, has no scruple about claiming my acquaintance, 
even when his common sense might teach him that I 
would as willingly exchange a nod with Old Nick as with 
him. 

(6) Somewhere, not only an orator but every man 
should let out all the length of the reins. 

(7) Unless he be another Lado whose garments the 
depths oi the ocean could not moisten, it is difficult to 
conceive how he keeps himself in any decent pickle, 



184 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

though I am bound to confess that his clothes seem al- 
ways as dry and comfortable as my own. 

(8) He who has more obedience than I masters me, 
though he should not raise his finger. 

(9) He must find in that an outlet for his character, 
so that he may justify his work. 

(10) If you would serve your brother because it is 
fit for you to serve him, do not take back your word's 
when you find that prudent people do not commend you. 

(11) It was not long ere we found him. 

(12) As I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping 
back into the regions of antiquity. 

(13) We step curiously and softly about, as if fearful 
of disturbing the hallowed silence of the tom.b. 

(14) The monuments are generally simple, for the 
lives of literary men afford no striking themes for the 
sculptor. 

(15) This helped to account not only for there being 
more profusion in the holiday provisions, but also for the 
frequency with which the Squire condescended to preside 
in the parlor of the Rainbow Inn. 

(16) Supper was his favorite meal, because it came at 
his time of revelry, when his heart warmed over his gold. 

(17) He turned, and tottered towards his loom, and 
got into the seat where he worked. 

(18) Mr. Macey thought this was nonsenes, since the 
law was not likely to be fonder of lawyers. 

(19) As he had never been guilty of such an offense 
before, the affair would blow over after a little storming. 

(20) The rain and darkness had got thicker, and he 
was glad of it ; though it was awkward walking with 
both hands filled, so that it was as much as he could do 
to grasp his whip along with one of the bags. But when 
he had gone a yard, he might take his time. So he 
stepped forward into the darkness. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



Placing of 
correlatives. 



Syntax of Conjunctions. 

248. In the use of coordinate correlatives, care 
should be taken to use the proper words in sets 
and to place them in corresponding positions ; for 
example : 

"The assailants might introduce into the underwood 
whatever force they thought proper, not only under 
cover, but even without the knowledge of the defenders." 

"Thou shalt have neither answer, nor aid, nor obe- 
dience at their hands." 



Usually it is best to notice what kind of expres- 
sion the second correlative precedes, and then to 
make the position of the first correspond to that 
of the second. In the above sentences, not only 
and but even are followed by phrases; neither, 
nor, nor are followed by nouns. 

The following sentence is faulty : 

"He neither exhausts himself or his hearers at each 
service." 

The correct writing would be : 

"He exhausts neither himself nor his hearers," etc. 

249. The word what is sometimes incorrectly 
used as a conjunction, as in the sentence — 

"I do not know hnt what his explanation is the best." 

What is never a subordinate conjunction; hut, 
but that, or that . . . . not should be used. 

It is well, however, for the student to note two 
types of correct sentences which are not to be 
confotmded with that just given: 



l86 PARTS OP SPEECH, 



Correct use. (i) "In this he can be said to assume nothing hut 

what he can readily prove." 

(2) "O Lady ! we receive but what we give." 

In ( I ) , but is a preposition and zvhat a relative 
pronoun; in (2), but is an adverb and what a 
relative pronoun ; both sentences are clear, correct 
English. 

250. Notice carefully this sentence : 

"We can learn as much, if not more, out of school 
than in school." 

Use 0/ as and lu making a comparison of equality, as is the 
conjunction to use; but in making a comparison 
of inequality, than should follow the comparative 
word. 

Hence, if a sentence has a comparison of equal- 
ity and also one of inequality, both clauses should 
be so arranged that each conjunction may have the 
proper connection : 

"We can learn as much out of school as in school, if 
not more [than we can learn in school]." 

other errors 251. Bcsidcs thcsc inaccuracics, several other 
to notice. errors may be spoken of in this connection : 

In the sense of attempt to, the proper expression 
is try to instead of try and. 

The word without is never a conjunction, but is 
now and then wrongly used instead of unless. 

The word like is not to be used as a conjunction 
instead of as, as if, or as though when a verb fol- 
lows in the clause. 

The conjunction as should not be used instead 



PREPOSITIONS. 187 



of that to introduce a noun clause ; as, ''I do not 
know as he shall have such a privilege." 

The conjunctions how and where are sometimes 
improperly used for thatj and when is used in- 
stead of a substantive word in the predicate; as, 
''Abdication is zvhen a ruler gives up his throne." 
A correct expression would be, "Abdication is the 
giving up of a throne by a ruler." 



PREPOSITIONS. 

252. Prepositions connect parts of sentences, office of 
but have in addition the quality of expressing the P'^'P^''^'"'"'' 
relation of one word or expression to another: 

thus, "His first movement after the shock was to 
work in his loom." "A weaver who came from 
nobody knows where, worked wonders imth a 
bottle of brown waters." 

The word after introduces the phrase after the 
shock, and shows the relation of time between 
movement and shock; in shows the relation of 
place and connects to work and loom; from ex- 
presses separation, zvith, means or instrument. 

A preposition is a word used to introduce an 
adjective phrase or an adverb phrase, and to ex- 
press relation between an object and the word 
modified. 

253. The object of a preposition may be — 
(i) A WORD, noun, pronoun, adverb, gerund, 

etc.; as — 



Dejiniiion. 



Objects of 
prepositions 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



"In coming from there, he had to pass through the 
village." 

(2) A phrase; as — 

"Aaron had made an outwork of his mother's chair, 
and was peeping round from behind itf 

(3) A clause; as — 

"There was no word in it that could rouse a memory 
of what lie had known as religion." 

254. Some idiomatic constructions with prep- 
ositions may be mentioned and illustrated here : 
The preposition sometimes follows its object 



Preposition 

^/b-ect^^ when this is an interrogative or a relative word; 

as — 

"Godfrey had better reason than any one else to know 
what his brother was capable of." "The head was held 
up to see where the cunning gleam came from." 

Object The object of a preposition may not be ex- 

'"' ■ pressed, especially if a relative pronoun ; as — 

"There was nothing that called out his love for the 
strangers [whom] he had come amongst." "The Squire 
was in higher spirits than [those which] we have seen 
him in at breakfast." 

After an infinitive the preposition may be used 
without an object, the same being merely implied; 
thus : 

"This authority carried with it the right to sell you the 
ground to be buried in [in which to be buried]." "When 
you can see j^our face in a table, there's nothing else to 
look for [for which to look]." 



PREPOSITIONS. 



189 



After the words like and near, which are ad- 

' IViih near 

jectives or adverbs, according to their use in the andixk^. 
sentence, the preposition to is usually omitted; 
for example : 

"He must soon be getting near the Stone Pits." "The 
feast was not to end with a single evening, like a paltry 
town entertainment," 



Some prepositions are used to complete the 
meaning of verbs and verbals, and may be con- 
sidered a part of them; thus: 

"Mr. M. did not doubt that he had been listened to." 
"There may still remain some creditors unpaid, even 
after all that I have shall have been disposed of." "This 
paused him to be looked upon as a prodigy." "Mrs. 
Siddons was prevailed on to read passages from both 
Shakespeare and Milton." 



Part 0/ verbs. 



255. Prepositions may be single words or com- 
binations of two or three words used as one; as, 
through, by, zvith, out of, because of, by way of, 
in place of, etc. 

They can not all be classified, on account of the 
great variety of relations expressed by them. 
The largest classes are those of time and place. 

The chief ones expressing time are after, dur- 
ing, pending, ere, since, till, until. Some prep- 
ositions expressing other relations may be ap- 
plied to time; such are, about, before, above, at, 
betzveen, by, near, on, etc. 

The prepositions of place may be divided into : 
( I ) those of PLACE WHERE — abaft, about, above, 
across, amid (amidst), among (amongst), around 



Classifica- 
tion. 



Time. 



Place. 



IQO PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(round), at, below, beneath, beside, between (be- 
tzvixt), beyond, in, on, over, under (underneath), 
upon, zvithin, without; (2) place whither — 
into, through, throughout, to, tozvards, unto^ up; 
PLACE WHENCE — dozvu, froui, away from, dozvn 
from, off, out of. 

Exercise. — Write sentences having s prepositional 
phrases modifying nouns, and 5 modifying verbs. 

ivords ^^^' ^^^^ words may be prepositions or con- 

Tsed'*^^''' junctions according to use, and a few may be 

prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs. The use 

must be closely watched. 

Exercises. 

1. Tell the use of the italicized words below, and 
point out what part of speech each is : 

(i) Now he leads the same life as before. 

(2) It was the very spot for a clergyman's residence. 

(3) The wind, after blustering all day, hushes itself 
to rest. 

(4) The timbers are green with half a century's 
growth of watermoss; for during that length of time 
the tramp of horses and human footsteps have ceased. 

(5) The two soldiers have eversince slept peacefully." 

(6) His soul was tortured by the blood-stain before 
war had robbed human life of its sanctity. 

(7) The old minister, before reaching his patriarchal 
age of ninety, ate the apples from this orchard. 

(8) The cabbage swells to a monstrous circumference, 
until its ambitious heart often bursts asunder. 

(9) Nothing but a becoming blush betrayed the mov- 
ing thoughts that urged themselves upon her. 

(10) There were two doors to the parlor, but the 
lower one was crowded by the servants. 



PREPOSITIONS. 191 



(11) In such spells of weather Eve's bower in Para- 
dise was but a cheerless kind of shelter. 

(12) Ducks that had been floating there since the 
preceding eve were startled at our approach. 

(13) Until now he had not been aware of the tyranniz- 
ing influence acquired by one idea. 

(14) An old farmer, who had been down to New 
York several years after, brought the news. 

(15) Since his brother was supposed to be lost, Harry 
was regarded as heir to the Virginia estate. 

2. Write sentences of your own using the above ital- 
icized words in as many ways as they are there used. 



257. In parsing" a preposition, it is necessary 
only to tell what kind of phrase it introduces, and 
between what words it shows relation; for ex- 
ample : 

''At every pause in the general conversation he re- 
newed his bantering." 

Since at every pause modifies renewed, it is 
an adverbial phrase, and at shows the relation be- 
tween renewed and pause; the phrase in .... 
conversation, modifying pause, is an adjective 
phrase, and in shows the relation between pause 
and conversation. 

Sentences for General Exercise. 

(i) This attack was commenced by the ladies, but it 
was continued throughout the dinner by the fat-headed 
gentleman. 

(2) When I returned to the drawing-room, I found 
the company seated round the fire. 

(3) It was said to get up from the tomb and walk the 
rounds of the churchyard in stormy nights. 



Parsing, 



192 PARTS OF SPEECH. 



(4) These tales were often laughed at by some of the 
sturdier among the rustics. 

(5) Methinks I hear the question asked by my graver 
readers, "To what purpose is all this?" 

(6) The approach to the Abbey through these gloomy 
monastic remains prepares the mind for its solemn con- 
templation. 

(7) The monuments are generally simple, for the lives 
of literary men afford no striking themes for the sculptor. 

(8) He has lived for them more than for himself. 

(9) A flight of steps leads up to it, through a deep and 
gloomy but magnificent arch. 

(10) How often did he shrink with curdling awe at 
(the sound of his own steps on the frosty crust beneath 
his feet! 

(11) The place still continues under the sway of 
some witching power, that holds a spell over the minds 
of the good people, causing them to walk in a continual 
reverie. 

(12) He seldom sent either his eyes or his thoughts 
beyond the boundaries of his own farm. 

Syntax of Prepositions. 

258. Certain words must be followed by spe- 
Words with cial prepositions, sometimes because of the orig- 
prepositions. inal meaning, sometimes only because of custom- 
ary usage. These must be learned gradually by 
observation and practice, but some of the impor- 
tant sets may be mentioned here: absolve from, 
acquit of, bestow upon, comply with, conform to, 
conversant with, dependent on (upon), deprive 
of, different from, dissent from, independent of, 
profit hy. 



PREPOSITIONS. 193 



259. Certain words may be followed by two or 

more prepositions, with a difference in meaning; ivords 7vith 

two or more 
as prepositions. 

Agree to {2, proposal) ; agree zvith (a person). 

Confer on or upon (give to) ; confer zvith 
(talk with). 

Differ from (to be unlike in appearance or 
qualities) ; differ from or with (disagree with 
persons in opinions). 

Disappointed in (a thing obtained) ; disap- 
pointed of (a thing wished for, but not obtained). 

Taste of (food) ; taste for (art, reading, etc). 

260. Some sets of prepositions need to be some pairs 
noticed, so that the words of each set may not be g^ished 
confused with each other; in and into, hetzveen 

and among, beside and besides. 

In indicates position, rest in a place; into in- 
dicates motion to a place within. 

Between refers generally to two things or 
groups; among, to more than two. 

Beside usually means near, by the side of; be- 
sides means m addition to. 

261. Prepositions are often useful in helping 
to define action ; as, to hear, to hear of ; to laugh, 
to laugh at. Many words lose their function as 
prepositions and become adverbs, defining the urords used 
action of the verb to which they are attached ; as, "^^'"^^^'^^y- 
to call aivay, to call out (some one), to call in, to 

call off, etc. 

Words of either group are not to be used unless 
they really add to the meaning of the accompany- 



194 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



ing verb; in the sentences, "I do not recollect of 
having seen him before," "The boy raised up the 
window," the words of and up are quite unnec- 
essary. 



JVoi Paris of 
speech. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

262. Interjections are words used to indicate 
emotion of some kind, and frequently are not 
words with a meaning; so that we can not in 
some cases discover, without studying the whole 
sentence, what emotion is to be expressed; and 
some are merely imitative words : 

''Alas I that can not be." " 'Hal ha!'" quoth he!" 
*'Bah! don't madam me!" ''H'm! you know what 
has happened." "Hallo! How do you know, Mr. 
Chaplain?" "Pooh! pooh! stupid old man !" "The 
owls have awakened the crowing cock. Tn — whit! 
Tu — whoa!" 



Other 

exclamatory 
words. 



Many of the parts of speech, however, may be 
used as exclamations, and are not to be called m- 
terjections. They may be nouns used independ- 
ently, or imperative verbs, or adverbs, etc.; for 
example : 

"Up! up! my friend." "Milton! thou shouldst be 
living at this hour." "Help! help! sir, your honor!" 
"Hush! for heaven's sake." "Indeed! I scarcely saw 
them." 



PART II. 

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

263. Analysis is the process of separating a Definition. 
sentence into its elements. 

The main matters connected with analysis have 
been presented in the discussion of parts of 
speech, and it remains now to arrange these facts 
in a convenient form and to add a few explana- 
tions. 

Sentences may be simple, complex, or com- 
pound. 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

264. A simple sentence is one that contains 
only one statement, command, or question. 

The simple sentence is made up of principal Elements of 

, , , . rr^. . . . \ the sente7t.ce. 

and subordinate elements. The prmcipal ele- 
ments are the subject and predicate; the subor- 
dinate elements are the objects, complements, 
modifiers, and independent words. 

265. The subject of a sentence names that of 

which something is said, and which answers the preiTcaiT 
question who? or what? placed before the pred- 
icate; as — 

''The lives of our rural forefathers had a certain 
pathos in them." 

The expression in italics answers the question, 
"What had a pathos in them?" and is the subject. 



198 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



Simple 
subject and 
predicate. 



The predicate is that word or expression which 
says something of the thing named by the subject. 

In the sentence just quoted, the expression had 
a certain pathos in them, being introduced by the 
verb had, declares something of the thing named 
by the subject, and hence is the predicate. 

266. Generally when the term subject is used, 
the simple subject is meant — the substantive 
word without any modifiers, as lives in the sen- 
tence quoted above. 

The term predicate usually implies the simple 
predicate — the verb or verb phrase which does 
the asserting, as had in the sentence quoted. 

It is better, however, for the student always to 
give the complete subject and predicate before 
giving the simple subject and predicate; then the 
single words may readily be found. 



Direct and 

indirect 

object. 



267. There are two kinds of objects: direct 
and indirect. The direct object names the per- 
son or thing that directly receives the action of 
the verb or verbal ; as — 

"A small minority shook their heads." "Nancy was 
capable of keeping her word to herself." 

The indirect object names the person to or for 
whom something is done. It is equivalent to a 
phrase introduced by to or for, and usually pre- 
cedes a direct object; for example: 

"I may as well tell the Squire everything." "You 
chose to be so obliging as to give me the money." 



SIMPI.K SKNTKNCES. 199 

268. The complements may belong to an in- 
transitive or a transitive verb ; for example : 

"The transaction became more complicated." "He 
was very proud of his lithe son whom he declared to be. 
just like himself." 



Complements 



A complement may also follow a verbal ; as 

(Participle) "She was a good-looking woman, having '^^^^f^^"'^ 
her lips always tightly screwed/' 

(Infinitive) "He tried to make the scene easier to 
himself by rehearsal." 

(Gerund) "He clutched strongly at the idea of the 
peddler's being the culprit/' 

269. The complement is retained when a trans- 
itive verb is changed from active to passive ; as — Retained 

complements^ 

"When anyone exposed himself, this was made evident etc 
by the bullet which was sent in search of him." 

When the active sentence with direct and in- 
direct object is changed to passive, the indirect 
may become the subject by an idiomatic con- 
struction, the direct being retained with the 
passive verb; as — 

"H"^ was offered the situation of brakeman." 

270. The subject or the direct object may be — 

( 1 ) A noun; as — 

"But beauty is never a delusion." 

(2) An adjective or participle used as a noun; 
as — 

"Is not the past all shadow?" "The grave should 
be surrounded by everything that might win the living eUmeVts!^^ 
to virtue." 



200 ANAI^YSIS OI^ SENTENCES. 

(3) A pronoun; as — 

"I saw, and marked him well." 

(4) An infinitive; as — 

"To turn and fly was now too late." 

(5) ^ gerund; as — 

"Further reading and thinking only served to make 
this inclination more decided." 

The complement may be the same kinds of 
words, and also adjectives or participles regularly 
used. 

271. Since the subject and the object are al- 
ways substantive words, the modifiers of these 
are adjectives or expressions used as such: 

(i) An adjective; as — 

"It was a vast and noble room." "Soon, however, 
he forgot these mortifying failures." 



(2) A possessive noun or pronoun; as — 

"She could hear his voice 
sent man's physical nature." 



Modifiers of 

substantives "She could hear his voice. He seemed to repre- 



(3) A noun in apposition; as — 
"Stimulants — the only mode of treatment attempted 

— can not quell disease." 

(4) A prepositional phrase; as — 

"The greater part of the place is in shadow." "We 
have strange power of speech." 

(5) An infinitive phrase ; as — 

"I want breath and time to discuss the banquet." 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 20I 

(6) A participial phrase restrictive or appos- 
itive; as — 

"Overhead is a lofty dome supported by long rows of 
pillars/' "Brom Bones, sorely smitten with love and 
jealousy, sat brooding by himself in a corner." 

272. Since the simple predicate is a verb, any 
modifier of it must be an adverb or an expression 

iicpH hc curb- Modifiers of 

USea as SUCn . ^^^g predicate 

(i) An adverb; as — 

"Their struggle has long been over." 

(2) An adverbial objective, — a noun express- 
ing time, value, distance, measure, etc. ; as — 

"We one day descried some shapeless object floating 
at a distance." 

(3) An indirect object ; as — 

"I promise myself great pleasure in informing him of 
the fact." 

(4) A prepositional phrase; for example: 
"They have gone down amidst the roar of the tem- 
pest." 

(5) An infinitive phrase, usually of purpose 
or result — 

"Her eye hurried over the ship to catch some wished- 
for countenance." "They started from their beds, to he 
swallowed by the waves." 

(6) A participial phrase; as — 

"She came courtesying forth, with many expressions 
of simple joy." 

273. Tht independent elements are not a part 
of the sentence structure, though they add some 
meaning to it. Some of them are — 



202 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



Independent 
elements. 



( 1 ) A noun or pronoun of direct address ; as — 

"Why, my dear fellow, they are old maids, every soul 
of them." "O ye, whom wrath consumes ! Shut up 
your senses." 

(2) Exclamatory zvords; as — 

" 'Horror! horror!' exclaimed I." ''Ah! and is thit 
the rub?" "It was not I ! never! never!" 

(3) An infinitive phrase used loosely; as — 

"To take familiar instances^ here were the untold 
tales of Chaucer," etc. 

(4) A participial phrase used absolutely; as — 

"His head being turned hack, he passed a crook of the 
road." (See Section 35, 4 (c), and compare with Sec- 
tions 271 (6) and 272 (6). 

(5) Single words merely introductory; as — 

"Why, here we are, all right again!" "Well, what a 
strange man you are !" "Now, are you not a little un- 
reasonable?" 

(6) The words yes, yea, no, nay, used in an- 
swering questions. They really stand for whole 
sentences, but are not a part of the sentence 
structure. 



Other notes. 



There awrf it. 



Phrases. 



274. The words there and it are often used as 
introductory words, to throw the subject after the 
verb ; as — 

"There is an emanation from the heart in genuine 
hospitality." "It is gratifying to see that home feeling 
completely aroused." 

There are three kinds of phrases : prepositional, 
infinitive, and participial, frequently used as mod- 
ifiers. 



order. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. -203 

The natural order of words is often departed 
from in the interrogative sentence, and should be Transposed 
restored before the sentence is analyzed ; as — 

"What right had I to exult in his misfortune?" ["I 
had what right to exult," etc.] 

Sometimes in prose, often in poetry, the trans- 
posed order is preferred in an assertive sentence; 
as — 

"Sudden had been the call upon us." "Out spoke he 
then." 

275. To analyze a simple sentence, give — 
(i) The complete subject and complete pred- 
icate. 

(2) The simple subject, then its modifiers. 

(3) The simple predicate, then its objects, 
complements, and modifiers. 

(4) Independent elements, and connectives, if 
any. 

For example, take this sentence for analysis : 

"That night, and the following morning, came a 
further and a heavier fall of snow." 

(i) Complete subject, a further and a heavier 
fall of snozv; complete predicate, came that night, 
and the follozving morning. 

(2) Simple subject, fall; modified by the ad- 
jectives a further and a heavier, and the preposi- 
tional phrase of snozv. 

(3) Simple predicate, came; modified by the 
adverbial objectives that night and the follozving 
morning; the simple modifiers are night, modi- 



204 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

fied by the adjective that, and morning, modified 
by the adjectives the and the following. 

(4) The conjunction and connects the adjec- 
tives a further and a heavier, also the nouns night 
and inorning. 

Simple Sentences for Analysis. 

(i) The moonbeams fell through the upper part of the 
casement, partially lighting up the antiquated apart- 
ment. 

(2) There was a sloping lawn, a fine stream winding at 
"the foot of it, and a tract of park beyond, with noble 
clumps of trees, and herds of deer. 

(3) He was evidently most solicitous about the music- 
al part of the service, keeping his eyes fixed intently on 
the choir, and beating time with much emphasis. 

(4) Through me did he become idolatrous. 

(5) Therefore, on every morrow, are we wreathing 
A flowery band to bind us to the earth. 

(6) He pointed with pleasure to the indications of 
good cheer reeking from the chimneys of the comfortable 
farm-houses and low thatched cottages. 

(7) They made the times merrier and kinder and 
better. 

(8) The great picture of the crusader and his white 
horse had been profusely decorated with greens for the 
occasion. 

(9) Why should all virtue work in one and the same 
way? 

(10) How truly is a kind heart a fountain of gladness, 
making everything in its vicinity to freshen into smiles ! 

(11) The effigy was said to get up from the tomb and 
walk the rounds of the churchyard in stormy nights. 

(12) One fine blue-eyed girl of about thirteen, with 
her flaxen hair all in beautiful confusion, her frock half 



SIMPI^K SKNTENCES. 205 

torn off her shoulders, a complete picture of a romp, was 
the chief tormenter. 

(13) The worthy Squire contemplated these fantastic 
sports, and this resurrection of his old wardrobe, with 
the simple relish of childish delight. 

(14) My friend and I having stayed nearly four 
hours, a time quite sufficient to express a proper sense of 
the honor, we departed. 

(15) There was a noble way, in former times, of say- 
ing things simply, and yet saying them proudly. 

(16) Hail, Memory, hail ! in thy exhaustless mine 
From age to age unnumbered treasures shine ! 

(17) His varied occupations and amusements had 
made him well known throughout the neighborhood. 

(18) I could only hear now and then the distant voice 
of the priest repeating the morning service. 

(19) Time is ever silently turning over his pages. 

(20) Never within my memory has it been my good 
fortune to spend a pleasanter evening. 

(21) The ancients called beauty the flowering of 
virtue. 

(22) She made a desperate and unhappy attempt to 
maintain her power over her two sons. 

(23) God is able out of thy own evil asking to weave 
snares for thy footing. 

(24) This caused me to be placed under Mr. Wilkes, 
the second master out of four. 

(25) His mission was to enlighten the whole benight- 
ed people of the Church. 

(26) And on that morning, through the grass, 

And by the steaming rills, 
We traveled merrily, to pass 
A day among the hills. 

(27) His only resource on such occasions, either to 
drown thought or drive away evil spirits, was to sing. 

(28) Our last midday's repast was taken under a 
grove of olive-trees on the border of a rivulet. 



view. 



206 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



II. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

276. A complex sentence is one that has one 
principal clause and one or more dependent 
clauses. 

A general lu beginning the analysis, it is best to regard 

the principal clause as a simple sentence, having 
the dependent clauses as objects, complements, 
modifiers, etc. For example, in the sentence, 
"Whether Faith obeyed he knew not," he is the 
subject, knczv not is the predicate, and the clause 
• zvhether Faith obeyed is the object; in this clause, 
Faith is the subject, obeyed is the predicate, and 
whether is a conjunction connecting the clauses. 

277. Dependent clauses are of three kinds: 
noun, adjective, and adverb clauses. 

The noun clause is one having the uses of a 
noun; that is, it may be the subject, object, etc. 
(i) Subject — 

"Whatever outrages have Jiappeiied to a man may 
befall a man again." 



Uses of the 
noun clause. 



(2) Object — 

"I will receive from them not what they have, but 
what they are." 

( 3 ) Complement — 

"The lesson which these observations convey is, 'Be, 
and not seem.' " 

(4) Appositional term — 

"The alarm rose that the English host were coming 
upon them" 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



207 



(5) Object of a preposition — 

"Let them discriminate between zvhat they remember 
and what they dreamed." 

But attention is called to clauses in which only ^ caution 
the connecting word is the object of a preposition. 
Such are adjective clauses; as — 

"The upper end of the table was overshadowed by a 
canopy beneath which was a chair." 

278. A clause after introductory it and a verb 
may be taken as the logical subject, or it may be 
called the subject and the clause an appositional 
term; as — 

"It seems to me that you put yourself into tJie power 
of the evil." 

A clause used as direct object may follow a ^ .,. 

•' •' Tzvo idioms. 

passive verb when the indirect object is made the 
subject; as — 

"I was informed by Frank Bracebridge that the parson 
had been a chum of his father's at Oxford." 



279. The word most used to introduce the 
noun clause is the conjunction that. Besides this 
are used the conjunctive adverbs, //, zvhether, 
ivhen, zvhcre, zdiy, how, and the pronouns zvho, 
which, and zdiat. In most cases the last three are 
used to introduce indirect questions. 

Often the clause has no introductory word; 
as — 

"It is said all martyrdoms looked mean when they 
were suffered." 



Connectives 
used 



Connectives 
omitted. 



208 ANALYSIS OF SKNTKNCES. 

Especially common is the omission when a di- 
rect quotation is used as a noun clause — 
" 'Then it is a very foolish question,' said he" ; 

also when the main clause is inserted between 
two parts of the dependent clause — 

"Such trifles, I truly feel, afford no solid basis for a 
literary reputation." 

280. Adjective clauses always modify a sub- 
stantive word, hence they are not divided into 
classes. 

The connectives introducing them are — 

(i) Relative pronouns — who, which, that; 
for example — 
Connectives. "He tumed his eyes upon the withered face that was 

puckering itself into a smile." 

(2) Subordinate conjunctions — zvhen, where, 
why, hozv, whether, if, that, etc. ; as — 

"At the hour zvhen I first drew breath this plant 
sprang from the soil." 

The relative pronoun is often omitted ; as — 
"Every line [that or which] we can draw in the sand 
has expression." 

281. Adverb clauses are usually introduced by 
subordinate conjunctions, and a review of these 
may be helpful — 

(i) Time — 

"We had riot been long home when the sound of music 
was heard from a distance/' 



complex skntencks. 209 

(2) Place — 

"Wherever the English stagecoach-man may he seen, 
he can not be mistaken for one of any other craft." 

(3) Manner- ZTrf/u^l 
"We were put into our bodies as a iire is put into a 

pan to be carried about." 

(4) Cause or reason — 

"As it was the only monument of the kind in that part 
of the country, it had always been regarded with feelings 
of superstition." 

(5) Degree OR COMPARISON — 

"Nature is as truly beautiful as it is good." "The 
more we told of our troubles, the more they clung to the 
shelter of their houses." 

Of two clauses introduced hy the ... . the, 
the first is usually the subordinate, the words 
meaning "by how much .... by so much." 

(6) Purpose — 

"That he might make his appearance in the true style 
of a cavalier, he borrowed a horse." 

(7) Result — 

"Every man should be so much an artist that he could 
report what had befallen him." 

(8) Condition — 

"// / should ever wish for a retreat, I know of none 
more promising than this little valley." "Were I to 
adopt a pet idea, it would be that the great need which 
mankind labors under at this present period is — sleep !" 

(9) Concession — 

"Though he had seen many specters in his time, yet 
daylight put an end to all these evils." 



2IO ANAI^YSIS OF SKNTKNCES. 

282. A contracted clause should be completed 
before the analysis is begun ; for example : 

"Often while [I have been] picking my way along the 
street after a heavy shower, 1 have been scandalized," etc. 
**The Hall of Fantasj' is likely to endure longer than the 
most substantial edifice [will endure]," 

283. In analyzing a complex sentence, tell — 
(i) Which words form the principal clause. 

(2) Analyze this clause, treating dependent 
clauses as simple modifiers, objects, complements, 
etc. 

(3) Classify the dependent clauses — as, ad- 
jective clause, noun clause used as a subject., etc., 
adverb clause of time, etc. 

(4) Analyze each dependent clause as a simple 
sentence. 

Complex Sentences for Analysis. 

(i) People should think of these matters before they 
trust themselves on a pleasure party. 

(2) There were circumstances around me which made 
it difficult to view the world precisely as it exists. 

(3) "You will think better of this by and by," said his 
acquaintance composedly. 

(4) Now come hints, growing more and more dis- 
tinct, that the owner of the old house was pining for his 
native air. 

(5) All that I had to show were these few tales and 
essays which had blossomed out like flowers in the calm 
summer of my heart and mind. 

(6) When the festivity of the banquet was at its most 
ethereal point, the Clerk of the Weather was observed 
to steal from the table and thrust his head between the 
purple and golden curtains of one of the windows. 



COMPI^KX SKNTKNCKS. 211 

(7) There is this pecuHarity in such a solitude — that 
the traveler knows not who may be concealed by the in- 
numerable trunks and the thick boughs overhead. 

(8) The more we kept each other's company, the 
greater coxcombs we mutually grew. 

(9) One plant had wreathed itself round a statue, 
which was thus veiled and shrouded in a drapery of 
hanging foliage so happily that it might have served a 
sculptor for a study. 

(10) He was trying to discover why one leaf grew 
in this shape and another in that, and wherefore such and 
such flowers differed in hue and perfume. 

(11) There was one shrub, set in a marble vase in the 
midst of the pool, that bore a multitude of purple blos- 
soms, each of which had the luster and richness of a 
gem. 

(12) With all the tenderness in her manner that was 
so strikingly expressed in her words, she busied herself 
with such attentions as the plant seemed to require. 

(13) It vexed him all the more because he could have 
sworn, were such a thing possible, that he recognized the 
voices. 

(14) He could not listen because an anthem of sin 
rushed loudly upon his ear. 

(15) Soon emerged from under a sculptured portal 
the figure of a young girl arrayed with as much richness 
of taste as the most splendid of the flowers, beautiful as 
the day, and with a bloom so deep and vivid that one 
shade more would have been too much. 

(16) As she came down the garden-piith it was ob- 
servable that she handled and inhaled the odor of plants 
which her father had most sedulously avoided. 

(17) The elder traveler discoursed so aptly that his 
arguments seemed rather to spring up in the bosom of 
his auditor than to be suggested by himself. 

(18) You have heard of this daughter, whom all the 
young men in Padua are wild about. 



212 ANAI^YSIS 0I^ SENTENCES. 

(19) There is no other feeHng like what is caused by 
the faint doubtful yet real perception. 

(20) They think that to be great is to possess one side 
of nature, — the sweet, without the other side, the bitter. 

(21) The fiend in his own shape is less hideous than 
when he rages in the breast of man. 

(22) Thou shalt be paid exactly for what thou hast 
done. 

(23) I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, 
for example, to find a pot of buried gold. 

(24) What we buy in a broom, a mat, a wagon, is 
some application of good sense to a common want. 

(25) We do not see that angels only go out that arch- 
angels may come in. 

(26) Punishment is a fruit that unsuspected ripens 
within the flower of the pleasure which concealed it. 



III. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

284. A compound sentence is one that has two 
or more independent, or principal clauses. 

It may include several independent clauses and 
any number of dependent clauses. It is made up 
of several sentences combined, as shown by the 
following examples : 

Nature of 

ZZtTrl^ (i) "He had not left his resting-place ; their steps on 

the soundless snow he could not hear" [two simple]. 

(2) "She paused; she saw the dreadful wildernesses 
of snow which already she had traversed" [simple and 
complex]. 

(3) "Sleep is sometimes the secret chamber in which 
Death arranges his machinery: sleep is sometimes that 
deep, mysterious atmosphere in which the human spirit 
is slowly unsetding its wings for flight" [two complex]. 



sentences. 



Notice for 
omissions. 



Members 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 213 

A review of Sections 241 and 242 will help the 
student in the study of compound sentences. 

285. Care must be taken lest a complex sen- 
tence be mistaken for a compound; the conjunc- 
tion may seem to introduce an independent clause 
when in reality a subordinate conjunction is 
omitted, the coordinate conjunction then connect- 
ing two dependent clauses ; as — 

"These little old volumes impressed me as if they had 
been intended for very large ones, but [as if they] had 
been blighted at an early stage of their growth." 

286. The main divisions of the compound sen- 
tence are called members. The placing of the 
coordinate conjunctions or the division of the separate'd. 
sentence by punctuation v\all usually guide one in 
separating the sentence into its main members; 
for example : 

"A third day came; | and whether it was on that or 
on the fourth I do not recollect ; | but on one or the 
other there came a welcome gleam of hope" [three mem- 
bers : I. simple; 2. complex; 3. simple]. 

287. Compound sentences may be contracted 
by the omission of subject or predicate, or both; 

as — 

"Yet not that storm was final, nor [was] that eclipse 
total." "According to the popular notion, he had no 
crown for himself; ccisequently [he had] none to lend." 

288. Analyze a c')mpovmd sentence thus — 
(i) Separate it mto divisions, or members. 
(2) Analyze thf simple members, as in Section 

275. 



214 ANAI^YSIS OK SKNTKNCES. 

(3) Analyze the complex members, as in Sec- 
tion 283. 

Compound Sentences for Analysis. 

(i) Wait a little, my reader; give me time and I 
will tell you all. 

(2) Upon that opening he spoke to my mother; and 
ithe result was that, within seven days from the above 
conversation, I found myself entering the university. 

(3) It must have been nearly midnight ; but so slowly 
did I creep along that I heard a clock in a cottage strike 
four before I turned down the lane to Eaton. 

(4) On the day when I first received my ten-pound 
bank-note, I had gone to a baker's and bought a couple 
of rolls; this very shop I had surveyed two months or 
six weeks before with an eagerness of desire which it 
was almost humiliating to remember. 

(5) He did not wish, it seemed, to mortify me by an 
absolute refusal ; for, after a little consideration, he 
promised, under certain circumstances, which he pointed 
out, to give his security. 

(6) He had been furnished with letters of recom- 
mendation to a gentleman who might have assisted him ; 
but when he landed at Fort St. George he found that this 
gentleman had sailed for England. 

(7) At length all is over; the redoubt has been re- 
covered ; that which was lost is found again. 

(8) Come thou hither, my little foot-page. 

Come hither to my knee ; 
Though thou art young, and tender of age, 
I think thou art true to me. 

(9) Painters do not like white cottages, unless a good 
deal weather-'stained ; but, as the reader now under- 
stands that it is a winter night, his services will not be 
required except for the inside of the house. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 215 

(10) By this route they went; and notwithstanding 
the snow lay on the ground, they reached their destina- 
tion in safety. 

(11) No shout, it may be supposed, was ever heard; 
nor could a shout, in any case, have been heard, for the 
night was one of tempestuous wind. 

(12) Few enough, and scattered enough, were these 
abbeys, so as in no degree to disturb the deep solitude 
of the region ; yet many enough to spread a network or 
awning of Christian sanctity over what else might have 
seemed a heathen wilderness. 

(13) The man certainly did utter the jest, seventeen 
hundred and fifty years ago; but who it was that hQ 
stole it from is another question. 

(14) The Saxon is the aboriginal element; the basis, 
and not the superstructure ; consequently it comprehends 
all the ideas which are natural to the heart of man. 

(15) You, if you are brilliant like themselves, they 
will hate; you, if you are dull, they will despise. 

(16) We will not at present go into the general ques- 
tion of education ; but will confine our remarks to the 
subject which is immediately before us. 

(17) But we are pressed by heavy laws; 

And often, glad no more. 
We wear a face of joy, because 
We have been glad of yore. 

(18) Other men say wise things as well as he; only 
ithey say a good many foolish things, and do not know 
when they have spoken wisely. 

(19) It had early been his amusement to torture 
beasts and birds; and when he grew up, he enjoyed with 
still keener relish the misery of his fellow-creatures. 

(20) The only end of teaching is, that men may 
learn ; and it is idle to talk of the duty of teaching truth 
in ways which only cause men to cling more firmly to 
falsehood. 



PART III. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



NOUNS. 



Correct any nouns that have the wrong form 
or are wrongly used in these sentences : 

(1) Mathematics were his favorite study at school. 

(2) Every drop of water swarms with animalculae. 

(3) Those molasses are fresh from the South, 

(4) Such genuses of plants are very common here. 

(5) He read stories old of the knight-errants bold. 

(6) Two cupsful of flour were generally used. 

(7) Cross the ts carefully and dot all the is. 

(8) We had to put up with many inconveniencies. 

(9) The book has too many long appendixes. 

(10) Court-martials were trying the two traitors. 

(11) The court marshals were dressed in full regalia. 

(12) Such phenomenons cause widespread anxiety. 



See Sections 
22-30. 



Rewrite correctly the following sentences, and 
give reason for each correction: 

(1) We have a full line of mens' and boys' hats. 

(2) Ladle's gloves are cheap on these two counters'. 

(3) Call at Adams' shop for all farmer's supplies. 

(4) You have no better friends than the Smith's. 

(5) I stayed at my friends all the afternoon. 

(6) She is fond of Colgan andBeeman's chewing-gum. 

(7) We owe sixteen months interest on the note. 

(8) We offer a fine stock of women and childrens' 
shoes. 

(9) I have visited the Soldiers and Sailor's Home. 
(10) The Williams' have come for a few days visit. 



Sections 38-4^. 



220 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



PRONOUNS. 

Examine the following sentences, and rewrite 
those in which the pronouns are not correctly 
used : 

Personal. 

(i) Miss H. F., in a humorous recitation, told us 
Sec.S/. "Mr. Brown Had His Hair Cut," and we were delighted 

to hear it, 

(2) His father died the year in which he was born, 
and this left him to make his way in the world. 

(3) Mr. N. told Mr. H. that his cattle were in his 
one in Jour Cornfield, and that he had to lose by somebody's care- 
"^«>'- lessness. 

(4) One grisly old wolf-dog alone had planted himself 
close by the chair of state and occasionally ventured to 
solicit notice by putting his large, hairy head upon his 
knee, or pushing his nose into his hand. 

(5) The dog bit the man's foot because he stepped 
upon him, and it pained him severely afterwards. 

(6) At the lower end of the hall is a large otter's 
skin stuffed with hay, which the knight looks upon with 
great satisfaction, because it seems he was but nine years 
old when his dog killed him. 

(7) The angel of the Lord went out, and smote in 
the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five 
thousand ; and when they arose early in the morning, 
they were all dead corpses. 

Point out the antecedent of each pronoun in 
the following sentences, rewriting any faulty sen- 
tences : 
Sees. 82-3. ^^^ Everybody went to see her when their children 

had fits. 

(2) Every one I speak to vanishes as soon as they 
hear my voice. 



PRONOUNS. 221 



(3) He is a representative of a class who have a dress, 
a manner, a language, an air, peculiar to themselves. 

(4) Nor did either Bois-Guilbert or the Disinherited 
Knight find in the ranks opposed to them a champion 
v/ho could be termed their unquestioned match. 

(5) Each shifted for himself, and got to the end as 
well, or rather as soon, as he could. 

(6) Every one was so positive of their having seen 
what they pretended to see that there was no contradict- 
ing them. 

(7) If a person would stop and think before they use 
a bad expression, or if they should hear some low person 
using it, so many errors would not be made. 

Explain whether the construction is correct in 
the following sentences; if not, write them cor- 
rectly : 

(i) Which of you, during my absence in the city, has ^^^ g 
let your horse come into my yard? 

(2) One or the other of us, after making good prom- 
ises to reform, has failed wofully to do our duty. 

(3) Every one of us, in this dream, has a bait offered 
to the infirm places of his own individual will. 

(4) On account of the large stock of goods now on 
hand, I would advise each one of you in the store to use 
your best efforts to have good sales. 

(5) Both of my elder brothers weie good managers, 
and gave me their help in increasing our property. 

(6) This rural politeness is very troublesome to a 
man of my temper, who generally take the chair that is 
next me. 

Determine whether the following sentences are 
correct; and if not, write them correctly: 

(i) Every pupil ought to have self-control if he 
wishes to accomplish anything at studying — that is, we 
should know when and where to hold our tongue. 



222 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

(2) Take thou this frock and cord and march quietly 
out of the castle, leaving me your cloak and girdle to take 
the long leap in thy stead. 

(3) To the battlements, ye loitering villains-! to the 
battlements, or I will splinter your bones with this 
truncheon. 

(4) If one begins to use slang, it is very hard to 
break yourself from it, for you can't express yourself 
without it. 

(5) Cover thyself with yonder ancient buckler, and 
show as little of your person at the lattice as may be. 

(6) If one wrote an epitaph for his eminence [the 
Observe these Cardinal], One might be tempted into saying, etc. 

(7) It is well worth one's while, even if he had no 
idea of buying or selling, to loiter through the bazaars. 



two carefully. 



Tell the office of each pronoun in the following 
sentences, and write correctly the faulty sentences : 

Sec. 86. (i) Aaron was so much wiser than she was about 

most things. 

(2) Us old fellows may wish ourselves young to- 
night. 

(3) It is not for such as we to sit with the rulers of 
the land. 

(4) A less truthful man than him might have been 
tempted. 

(5) You and me could carry the smallest ; and Aaron 
'ud carry the rest, I know he would. 

(6) Perhaps the pretty woman, not much younger 
than he, who is leaning on his arm, is more changed. 

(7) We shall do very well — Eppie and me 'ull do well 
enough. 



Sec. 87. 



Study the following sentences, and rewrite such 
of them as contain errors of syntax : 

(i) I remember seeing him with her and Marner 
going away from church. 



^ 



PRONOUNS. 223 



Sec. 88, 



(2) Let her, as well as I, taste of the tortures of the 
hereafter ! 

(3) The rapidity with which he insisted on traveling 
bred several disputes between him and the party whom 
he had hired to attend him as a guard. 

(4) God be judge between him and me ! 

(5) The orders were for he and I to report at once at 
headquarters to answer for the disturbance. 

(6) The deadly air of that region caused my uncle 
and she to remove immediately to this State. 

(7) I regretted this unfortunate disagreement with 
my friends, and I tried hard to avoid ill humor. 

In the following sentences, mention which 
words illustrate pleonasm, and rewrite the sen- 
tences in which the pronouns are carelessly used : 

(i) He that hits that rod at fivescore yards, I call 
him an archer fit to bear bow and quiver before a king. 

(2) That land, too, now vanishing from my view, — 
what vicissitudes might occur in it before I should visit 
it again ! 

(3) Ferdinand, who was then king and a most excel- 
lent ruler, he would not help Columbus. 

(4) What man is there of you, whom if his son ask 
bread, will he give him a stone? Or if he ask a fish, 
will he give him a serpent? 

(5) Godfrey, the older son, and Dunstan, the young- 
er, a wild fellow, they had trouble often. 

(6) One of those sensational reports that nobody 
knows how it was started or where it came from, was 
going the rounds last night. 

(7) Ah, the good horse that was brought all the long 
way from Barbary, he takes no more care of him than 
if he were a wild ass's colt; and the noble armor, he 
cares for it as little as if he had found it in the highway I 



224 KXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

Rewrite the following sentences, after explain- 
ing the nature of any errors : 

Sec. 89. (i) Letter received by lis and contents noted. In 

reply would say that books and supplies will be shipped 
at the earliest possible moment. 

(2) Dear Cousin: Happy to say that can come to 
visit you next week. Will bring skates and sled, and 
hope you and friends will have a long holiday. 

(3) He started for a town which he knew the circus 
would go to next but did not get more than five miles 
before night. 

(4) Mr. H. F. and wife, who have been in Florida for 
the winter, returned this morning. 

(5) He went to clerk for his brother, who kept a dry 
goods store and was soon the center of attention among 
the merchants. 

Interrogative. 

Determine the case of each interrogative pro- 
noun in the following sentences, then see whether 
the right form is used : 

( 1 ) Whom do men say that I am ? 

(2) As the lady was discoursing, and held her snuff- 
box in her hand, who should I see in the lid of it but the 
doctor? 

(3) Ah, but who's to watch you, Dowlas? 

(4) Who does Time gallop with? With a thief to 
Ithe gallows. 

(5) Who have we here, with the two negro boys? 

(6) Who could the poor lonely fellow write to? 

General Exercise. 

General Tcst the foUowing scntcnces ; if any are wrong, 

exercise. corrcct them and give reasons clearly : 



Sec. 100. 



PRONOUNS. 225 



(1) You should try to do as nearly what the teacher Sees. 81-89. 
wishes as you can, and thus show your respect for them. 

(2) One should show their good breeding and cour- 
tesy at school as well as elsewhere. 

(3) The ball grazed the left side of his cheek, which, 
though painful, is not dangerous. 

(4) A writer says he does not think either of the three 
countries are entitled to the credit given them. 

(5) Frank S. R. brother of Dr. R., who was buried 
here last Thursday, and who came here to attend his 
brother's funeral, was reported dying at the Cincinnati 
hospital this morning from a knife wound. 

(6) The people who you come in contact with would 
not consider you a lady or gentleman. 

(7) It often leads to the ruin of one's character, and 
keeps him from having such company as he could keep 
if he did not use such language. 

(8) Were I as thou, I should find myself disport and 
plenty out of the king's deer. 

(9) A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a 
fool's wrath is heavier than them both. 

(10) Shakespeare and Corneille was each the leading 
spirit of his age. 

(11) The very act of separating themselves from the 
rest of the world, to have the fuller enjoyment of each 
other's society, implies that they prefer one another to 
all the rest of the world. 

(12) One should always be kind and obliging to his 
fellow pupils, and be ever ready to assist your teacher 
in any way you can. 

(13) Even in glorious England there are some that 
carry their heads as proudly as the reindeer, who yet 
secretly have received a mark upon their foreheads. 

(14) Already all is waiting: the mighty audience is 
gathered, and the Court is hurrying to their seats. 



226 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



ADJECTIVES. 

Point out any errors in the following sentences, 
and write correctly the faulty sentences : 

Sees. 149-153. ( I ) This cow was recently gored under the right 

foreleg, and the wound was smeared with tar down to 
her right knee, which is still on her. 

(2) We have used every exertion to make our stock 
even more complete than it was before. 

(3) Air. W. played and swore, it is true, but he was 
no worse than an}^ young man of his time. 

(4) These kind of complaints are not often drawn 
from me. 

(5) It was not very long before he became mayor of 
Greenville, which he held for three years, 

(6) The fond girl thought that her father was the 
soberest and best of all the other men there. 

(7) These sort of books were exceedingly popular in 
Dr. Johnson's time, but are scarcely read now. 

(8) Here was clearly a case of aberration in a chris- 
tened child, which demanded severe treatment. 

(9) Put stress on all the most principal points. 

(10) Lost. — A collie dog by a man on Saturday an- 
swering to Jim, with a brass collar round his neck and 
a muzzle. 

(11) But them things are dying out, as I tell Solomon 
every time he comes around. 

(12) As for the women, they were the kindest, mer- 
riest, most agreeable of all the ladies that he met in 
England. 

(13) Mrs. A. L. suddenly fell dead in this county yes- 
terday, while conversing with friends, aged 65 years. 

(14) This dull color rendered him more invisible. 

(15) Wanted. — A room by two gentlemen about 
thirty feet long by twenty feet broad. 



X \ 



ARTICLES. 227 



(16) But as to popularity, Mr. M. is doubtless the 
most universal favorite among all the applicants. 

(17) Lost. — Near Highgate archway, an umbrella be- 
longing to a gentleman with a bent rib and a bone 
handle. 

(18) To be disposed of, a mail phaeton, the property 
of a gentleman with a movable headpiece as good as new. 



ARTICLES. 

Correct any of the following sentences that are 
wrong, and give reasons for each change : 

(i) The neighborhood was one of those highly hon- 
ored places which abound with chronicle and great men. * ^^ ' ^^^' 
The British and American line had run near it during 
the war. 

(2) It appears to us, then, the difference between a 
sound and unsound induction does not lie in this. 

(3) During that happy period, there was peace over 
nearly all the Eastern and the Western Continents. 

(4) I no longer presume to connect the Greek, the 
Jewish, and the Egyptian antiquities, which are lost in a 
distant cloud. 

(5) And here making a hasty salutation, he ran across 
the parade ground toward a young and elderly lady and 
a gentleman, who were now advancing. 

(6) The knight and baron quitted the table, and felt 
in his embroidered pockets, as if for money. 



Sees. ig2, 1^4, 
195- 



228 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



VERBS. 

Examine the following verbs, and correct any 
that are not suitable in form or in meaning : 

(i) Many have mistook the reason for his action. 

(2) He was not here when his brother come. 

(3) Her face has always wore a sad expression. 

(4) He was not discovered until this morning, after 
he had laid in the wet grass for six hours. 

(5) The wind had scattered the apples around and 
broke some branches of the trees. 

(6) The car had already ran off the track. 

(7) I am afraid you will loose your new ball. 

(8) He has set there an hour, all alone. 

(9) If the hunter had clomb the tree, he could easily 
have gotten the squirrel. 

(10) We ought not to have sit in the cold so long. 

(11) My exercise must have been wrote badly. 

(12) Can't I ever learn you to think before speaking? 

(13) I seen him after he had swam the river. 

(14) When they come in they were almost froze. 

(15) I done better while he had me by the hand. 

(16) He has not, and never will, reveal the secret. 

(17) The guilt of the accused was easily proven. 

(18) Hasn't the assembly bell rung for us yet? 

(19) The iron was drawed out into fine wire. 

(20) My cousin has just set out for his journey. 

(21) He give me the money he win on the last race. 

(22) He thro wed the ball and run hard for the base. 

(23) He might once, but he can not now, deceive us. 

(24) The blacksmith shoed the horse in ten minutes. 

(25) The horse thief was hung by the regulators. 

(26) When I am forsook by all, Thou wilt be nigh. 

(27) I might have gone sometimes the whole length, 
of the street, and see nobody to direct me. 



VERBS. 229 



(28) The visitor has not sat here half an hour. 

(29) As soon as I seen it, I knowed the coat was stole. 

(30) My neighbor's wife taken pneumonia last winter. 

(31) The sheet was not tore when I wrote the lesson. 

(32) The Indian has slew many a white man. 
(23) The dog is laying on my brother's new cap. 

(34) The birds have flew away for the winter. 

(35) Ten dollars had been bidden for this picture. 



Sees, ic 



See if shall, should, etc., are rightly used in the 
following sentences, and correct any errors : 

(i) The driver said he would like to go farther, but 
that he should hurry back. 

(2) I will be sixteen years old next month. 

(3) Shall you come to our next entertainment? 

(4) I will if my mother will permit me. 

(5) They shall be sick if they play too long out in 
this rain. 

(6) The teacher says that he will expect us to remem- 
ber all the dates in that lesson. 

(7) We will not grow as strong if we sit and read 
when we are in need of exercise. 

(8) Wouldn't you prefer to sit with me? 

(9) You should not act so rudely with the child, for 
such treatment shall injure it. 

(10) I shall lend you the marbles, but not one of them 
will you keep with my consent. 

Decide which of the following sentences are 
correct, and rewrite any incorrect ones, giving 
reasons : 

(i) Neither Russia nor Austria are ready for war, 
and Germany has nothing to gain thereby. •^''"' ^'5-2^9- 

(2) Every one of the players in our club are bent on 
winning the game this afternoon. 



230 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

(3) The immortality of the soul, the resurrection, the 
reunion of the dead, is the great principle of our creed. 

(4) If I was a lord or a bishop, I would not put a 
fellow in my livery that had not a wooden leg. 

(5) One of these persons was in a somewhat tar- 
nished coat, with a large queue and bag. 

(6) I confess that neither his hand nor mine were 
particularly steady. 

(7) Each tree and rock and every blade of grass are 
distinctly imaged in the stream. 

(8) It is melancholy to think how little that portion 
of the community which is quite at ease in their circum- 
stances, have to do, in a social way, with the humbler 
classes. 

(9) A popular novel, a theater, a ball-room, makes us 
feel that we are all paupers. 

(10) I am considering how each of these professions 
are crowded with multitudes seeking their livelihood. 

(11) A handful of daring adventurers from a civilized 
nation wander to some savage country, and reduce the 
aboriginal inhabitants to bondage. 

(12) Either of these, or of a myriad more, are equally 
good to the person to whom they are significant. 

(13) When the boat comes near to his, he hears a 
great noise and the boat sinks; but he and his compan- 
ions were saved by the hermit. 

(14) The boxing match came off, but neither of the 
men were very game or severely punished. 

(15) The Red House was without that presence of 
the wife and mother which is the fountain of wholesale 
love and fear in parlor and kitchen. 

(16) Her simple view of life and its comforts were 
only like a report of unknown objects. 

(17) The painter, the sculptor, the composer, the epic 
rhapsodist, the orator, all partake one desire, namely to 
express symmetrically and abundantly. 



VERBS. 2^1 



(i8) A number of persons was clustered together in 
the Hght of one of the great stained windows. 

(19) Then kneeling down, to Heaven's Eternal King, 
The saint, the father, and the husband prays. 

(20) The uniform habit of the academics, the square 
cap and the black gown, is adapted to the civil and even 
the clerical profession. 

(21) But whether either of these be modern discov- 
eries, or derived from old foundations, is disputed. 

(22) It must be confessed that a lampoon or a satire 
do not carry in them robbery and murder. 

{2s) Every street, every turning in the more fre- 
quented parts of the city, were familiar to her. 

(24) Wayland's "Elements of Political Economy" 
was published in the year 1837, 

(25) Fifty head of cattle were bought to-day and will 
be sent abroad next week. 

(26) The fleet were seen sailing up the channel, where 
it was anchored in safety. 

(27) The increase in the number of pupils render the 
purchase of new seats necessary. 

(28) Forest after forest fall under the axe. 

(29) Not a feature, not a muscle, were seen to move. 

(30) The mob, which rapidly advanced on the jail, 
were composed of the roughs of the city. 

(31) A number of our best friends were told never to 
attend the meeting again. 

(32) The number of men on the committee has been 
increased from three to five. 

(33) The peasantry often goes barefooted in winter. 

(34) Two thousand years of slavery to the Turk has 
made a coward of the Armenian. 

(35) Either of these developments are quite possible, 
as the allied army have been pressing against every ob- 
stacle to reach the city of Pekin. 



232 KXKRCISKS IN SYNTAX. 

VERBALS. 

Correct errors in these sentences, and give rea- 
sons : 

(i) On entering, the eye is astonished by the pomp of 
architecture and the elaborate beauty of sculpture. 
Sece. 220-223. (^2) She gave him a copper farthing of Birmingham 

manufacture, being all the coin she had about her. 

(3) Such things had been known as a man doing him- 
self a mischief, and then setting the justice to look for 
(the doer. 

(4) 1 knew their cargoes were heavy, and expected 
every moment they would have gone to the bottom. 

(5) The sequestered situation of the church seems 
always to have made it a favorite haunt of spirits. 

(6) Being young, wealthy, good looking, and fortu- 
nate, the fashionable world took him by the hand. 

(7) This had been Silas's testimony, though he 
•clutched strongly at the idea of the peddler being the 
culprit. 

(8) He has beheld beds of them unfolding in due 
succession as the sunrise stole from flower to flower. 

(9) Being naturally of a serious turn, my attention 
was directed to the solid advantages of a residence there. 

(10) Prince John, who had expected that his own 
name would have closed the Saxon's speech, started 
when his brother's name was mentioned. 

(11) The fact of her having found relief from drink- 
ing Marner's medicine became a matter of common talk. 

(12) There is no hope of him passing the examina- 
tion. 

(13) It would have been worth any statesman's 
money to have heard the profound discussions. 

(14) Alarmed by these reports, it was decided to 
evacuate the fort that night. 

(15) Egypt would scarcely have been able to have 
secured her independence unaided. 



ADVERBS. 233 



ADVERBS. 

Correct any errors in the following sentences, 
and state reasons for changes made : 

(i) The books haven't come yet, I don't suppose. 

(2) Such phrases have been carried to an extreme, as Sees. 236-2^8. 
have most all things. 

(3) The effect is that it generally degrades any one 
that uses it in people's minds. 

(4) We haven't near finished our exercise yet. 

(5) A very rough looking man put his head out and 
asked what I wanted very impatiently. 

(6) He is only fitted to govern others who is capable 
of governing himself at all times. 

(7) How well this man writes when he does not take 
any pains scarcely ! 

(8) Rosenthal was then at Abazzio, near Trieste, 
where he was making his final preparations for his com- 
ing American tour in a delightful cottage that faces the 
Adriatic. 

(9) One of the sailors, a thoughtless man, treated the 
albatross cruel, and killed it. 

(10) This monument was erected to the memory of 
John Jinkins, accidentally shot, as a mark of affection by 
his brother. 

(11) It is not improbable that the deceased came to 
his death by swallowing some drug. 

(12) Such correction of a child sounds harshly. 

(13) Loud talking makes the voice sound harsh. 

(14) Mr. C. had always been successful in business 
previous to his coming to our city. 

(15) Always speak friendly to those you meet. 

(16) In times of temptation, let a man stand firm. 

(17) For a real good pair of shoes, or anything in 
that line, call on Allen & Brown. 

(18) The exhibition will likely close next week. 



234 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

(19) Immediately after the burial of his wife the 
other day, Mr. M. B, was married by the preacher who 
had performed the funeral service to a cousin of his 
former wife. 

(20) The servant did not sweep the room good. 

(21) The poor fellow can't walk hardly. 

(22) The butter tastes very well, after all. 
(2s) Talk plainer, so we can understand you. 

(24) Some people only make these errors in conversa- 
tion, but most every one can correct them. 

(25) The people heard that the king had abdicated 
with great astonishment. 

(26) I merely mention a few of these letters. 

(27) You this night mentioned a name in the halls 
where by nature and kindred it should have sounded 
most acceptably. 

(28) Uncle has never been to Europe but once. 

(29) Be careful to open the door wide. 

(30) She looked around and saw with alarm that she 
had never been where she was before. 






CONJUNCTIONS. 

Correct any errors in the following sentences, 
and give your reasons for each correction : 

(i) Mr. H. will hear a different story than that told 
him on his last visit to the East. 

(2) It's a pity but what Solomon lived in our village. 

(3) What it seemed really wisest for him to do was 
to try and soften his father's anger. 

(4) Scarcely had we composed ourselves again than 
a loud scream aroused us. 

(5) One of two things appears to us to be certain: 



Sees. 248-251. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 235 



that his project has either been misunderstood, or that 
his talents have been overrated, 

(6) We were reading in the papers where the floods 
were disastrous in the Mississippi Valley. 

(7) The prisoner declared he would not proceed with- 
out they promised him better treatment. 

(8) He treated the Court like the king was already 
a prisoner in his hands. 

(9) Turning neither to the right nor to the left, he 
strode on with desperate hardihood. 

(10) Though less studiously bedecked with orna- 
ment, his dress was as rich and his appearance far more 
striking than that of his companion. 

(11) But neither as a writer nor statesman can we 
allot him a very high place. 

(12) Apposition is when one word not in the predi- 
cate explains the meaning of another. 

(13) We worship not St. Nicholas so devoutly but 
what thy thirty zecchins may yet escape. 

(14) Five men can transact business as satisfactorily, 
and more rapidly, than forty or fifty. 

(15) They put her in a small room that looked like it 
had been used for a coal house. 

(16) I do not know as I can tell you the story. 

(17) The circumstance induced Gurth to believe both 
that the gang was strong in numbers, and that they kept 
regular guards about them. 

(18) Athelstane had not only determined to deprive 
the Disinherited Knight of his powerful succor, but to 
make him feel the weight of his battle-ax. 

(19) Lady Rowena could not have escaped without 
Cedric had come when he did. 

(20) The liberated man now told us how he had been 
kept in prison a long time with little food and with damp 
and insufficient clothing. 



236 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

(21) There's never a garden in all the parish but what 
there's endless waste in it. 

(22) No sooner had he left the room when the flames 
burst forth furiously again. 

(23) My prices will be found as low, if not lower, 
than can be found elsewhere in the city. 

(24) He would roam around the country day after 
day to try and find any honest work. 

(25) The costly charm of the old literature is that the 
persons speak simply, — speak like persons who have 
great good sense without knowing it. 

(26) The natives told us that after traveling all day 
that we should come to a large lake. 

(27) Neighbors not only showed a disposition to greet 
Silas, but to take the trouble of visiting him. 






PREPOSITIONS. 

Tell which prepositions are misused in the fol- 
lowing sentences, and make needed corrections : 

Sees. 258-261. (i) Between every pause was heard the voice of the 

heralds exclaiming, "Fight on, brave knights !" 

(2) If she goes there, it will be a different sort of life 
to what she's been used to. 

(3) The painter fell off of a high building. 

(4) I can not agree with such an offer. 

(5) Do not drop your hat onto the floor. 

(6) The villagers were astonished when the weaver 
came running in the room so suddenly. 

(7) After I have examined into the matter, I will tell 
you whether the money is safe. 

(8) My cousin and I hope that the reward will soon 
be divided among us. 



PREPOSITIONS. 237 

(9) Can you tell me where the City Hall is at? 

(10) Gurth did not meet up with anybody until he 
reached the end of a long, dark lane, 

(11) He was into all this trouble to-day. 

(12) When he reformed, he emptied out all the whis- 
ky barrels into the street. 

(13) The soldiers crowded to the wall, from whence 
they sent down a cloud of arrows. 

(14) Though differing in politics, there was a resem- 
blance between the temper of the uncle and nephew. 

(15) I thought of every possible event but could not 
remember of what had occurred. 

(16) The mill stands near by the little creek. 

(17) The friar led Isaac in the presence of the out- 
laws, and related his adventures. 

(18) More troubles came upon the exile than he 
thought for, and he could not help from thinking that 
yet others would follow after these. 

(19) No one can be allowed to enter beside you and 
a few of your friends. 

(20) Although the hermit's liking for rich food was 
strong, he pretended to eat nothing only dried pease. 

(21) Being acquitted from this charge, the forger left 
town as soon as possible. 



INDEX. 



(The Numbers refer to Pages.) 



A, origin of, iii. 
syntax of, 112. 

exercises on, 227. 
use of, 112. 
Absolute, nominative, 40, 62. 
punctuation of, 51. 
personal pronouns, 64. 
phrase, 40, 62. 
Abstract nouns ; see Nouns. 
Adjective clauses, y6, 208. 
restrictive and unrestrictive, 
86. 
punctuation of, 87. 
phrases, 200, 

syntax of, 106, 226. 
Adjective pronouns, classes of, 

89. 

definition of, 54. 

demonstrative, 90. 

distinguished from adjec- 
tives, 88, 89. 

distributive, 91. 

indefinite, 92-94. 
Adjectives, as complements, 17. 

appositive, attributive, 108. 

comparison of, 102-106. 

definition of, 11. 

demonstrative, 97. 

descriptive, 97, 98. 



Adjectives — Continued. 

how to parse, 108. 

not compared, 104. 

of quantity, 97, 99-100. 

ordinal, 100. 

plural of, 102. 

predicate, 109. 

pronominal, 97-98, loo-ioi. 

syntax of, 106-108. 
exercises on, 226. 

used as nouns, 26. 
Adverbial clauses, 178, 208. 

phrases, 201. 

objective, 41, 201. 
Adverbs, classes of, 168, 169. 

comparison of, 171. 

definition of, 168. 

distinguished from adjec- 
tives, 171. 

how to parse, 172. 

syntax of, 174, 233. 

used as nouns, 26. 

variously used, 169. 

what they modify, 168. 
Adversative conjunctions, 176. 
Affix, definition of, 29. 
Agreement, of adjective with 
noun, 106, 226. 

of personal pronoun with an- 
tecedent, 67-69, 220-224. 



(239) 



240 



INDEX. 



Agreement — Continued. 

of verb with subject, 124, 
161, 229. 
Alternative conjunctions, 176. 
Among, between, 193. 
An; see A. 
Analysis, definition of, 10, I97- 

of complex sentences, 76,210. 

of compound sentences, 213. 

importance of, 15. 

of interrogative sentences, 
72, 203. 

of simple sentences, 203. 
Antecedent, definition of, 61. 

of it, 60, 61. 

of personal pronouns, 61. 

of relative pronouns, 78. 
Any as pronoun, number of, 93. 
Apostrophe, three uses of, 50. 

to form possessive, 43. 
Apposition, words in, 17, 39, 
41, 62. 
punctuation of, 51. 
Appositive adjectives; see Ad- 
jectives. 
Articles, definite, iii. 

indefinite, iii. 

syntax of, 112, 227. 
As, uses of, 179, 180, 182. 
Attributive position of ad- 
jectives, 108. 
Auxiliary verbs, 116. 

Be, conjugation of, 128, 136. 

uses of, 117, 122, 143. 
Beside and besides, 193. 



Between; see among, 193. 
"Business" English, 71, 224. 
But, uses of, 174, 176, 185, 190. 
But what, wrongly used, 185. 

Can, could, 145. 
Capital letters, use of, 49. 
Case, definition of, 38. 
double possessive, of nouns, 
42. 
of pronouns, 64. 
forms, number of, of nouns, 

39- 
of pronouns, 59. 
nominative, of nouns, 39-40. 

of pronouns, 62, 222. 
of relative pronouns, how 

found, 78. 
objective, of nouns, 41. 
of pronouns, 63, 222. 
possessive, of nouns, 42. 

of pronouns, 63-64. 
syntax of, of pronouns, 69, 70. 
Cause, clauses of, 209. 
conjunctions of, 179. 
Clauses, adjective, 76. 
adverb, 178, 208. 
definition of, 53. 
kinds of, 55, 76, 178, 206. 
noun, 76, 206. 
Collective nouns, 23, 24. 

syntax of, and verb, 161, 162, 
229. 
Common nouns, 23. 
Comparative degree, syntax of, 
107. 
double, 107-108. 



INDKX. 



241 



Comparison, conjunctions of, 

179- 

defective, 106. 

definition of, 102. 

degrees of, 102. 

irregular, 104. 

of adjectives, 102. 

of adverbs, 171. 

syntax of, 107. 
Complement of intransitive 
verb, 17, 39, 199. 

of transitive verb, 17, 41, 199. 
Complex sentence, analysis of, 
76, 210. 

definition of, 55, 206. 
Compound indefin'te pronouns, 

94. 
possessive form of, 94. 
nouns, plural of, 35-36. 

possessive of, 44. 
personal pronouns, 64-66. 
relative pronouns, 84. 
Compounds, gender shown by, 

29. 
Compound sentence, 178, 212. 
analysis of, 213. 
definition of, 212. 
Concession, clause of, 209. 

conjunctions of, 180. 
Condition, clause of, 209. 

conjunctions of, 180. 
Conditional sentences, 131. 

with subjunctive, 132, 
Conjugation, definition of, 135. 
of be, 128. 
of choose, 129. 
of speak, 137. 



Conjunctions, classes of, 176. 

coordinate, 176. 

correlative, 181. 

how to parse, 182. 

subordinate, 179. 

syntax of, 185, 234. 

variously used, 180. 
Conjunctive adverbs, 168. 
Contingent assertion, subjunct- 
ive, 133. 
Contracted sentences, analysis 

of, 210, 213. 
Coordinate, or unrestrictive, 

clauses, 86. 
Copulative conjunctions, 176. 

Declension of interrogative 

pronouns, 75. 

of nouns, 45. 

of personal pronouns, 55. 

of relative pronouns, 82. 
Defective verbs, 145, 
Definite articles; see Articles. 
Definite tenses, 119. 
of passive, 122. 
Degree, adverbs of, 166. 

clause of, 209. 
Degrees of comparison ; see 

Comparison. 
Demonstrative adjectives, 100. 

syntax of, 106, 107. 
Demonstrative pronouns, 90. 
Dependent clause, definition of, 

55. 
kinds of, 76, 178. 
Descriptive adjectives, 98. 



242 



INDKX. 



Direct and indirect questions, 
84. 
quotations, 164. 
Direct object, noun, 41. 
pronoun, 63. 

retained with passive verb, 
199- 
Distributive adjectives, 99. 

pronouns, 91. 
Do, uses of, 126, 138, 139. 
Double comparative ; see Com- 
parative. 
Double possessive ; see Case. 
Double relative ; see Indefinite 
Relative. 

Each, as adjective, 99. 

as pronoun, 91. 

syntax of, 162, 
Each other, one another, 91. 
Either, as adjective, 99. 

as pronoun, 91. 

as correlative, 181. 

syntax of, 185. 
Elder, older, 105. 
Elements of the sentence, 197. 
Ellipsis in complex sentences, 

210. 
-Eji, plural suffix, 32. 
-Ess, feminine suffix, 30. 
Every, adjective, 99. 

syntax of, 162. 

Farther, further, 105. 
Feminine gender, 27. 
First, superlative form, 106. 



Foreign plurals, 37. 
Former, the, adjective, 100. 

pronoun, 90. 
Fractional, 100. 
Further; see farther. 
Future tense, 118. 

present used for, 120. 
Future perfect tense, 118. 

Gender, definition of, 27. 
distinguished from sex, 27. 
in English, not like that in 

other languages, 27. 
modes of indicating, of 

nouns, 29, 30, 31, 
of epicene nouns, 30, 56. 
of personal pronouns, 55. 
of relative pronouns, 80, 81, 
82, 83. 
Gerund, definition of, 154. 
forms of, 154. 

how distinguished from par- 
ticiple and noun, 154. 
possessive case with, 164, 232. 
uses of, 154. 
Go^and gotten, 142. 
Grammar, definition of, 9. 
what it deals with, 9. 

H, an before, 112. 
Hanged, hung, 142. 
He, she, it, declension of, 55. 
How, misused, 187. 

/, personal pronoun, 55. 
Idiom, meaning of, 42. 
not parsed, 47. 



INDKX. 



243 



Imperative mood, use of, 126. 

of first person and third 
person, 127. 
Imperfect participle, tense of, 
150. 

used in verb phrases, 119, 122. 
Impersonal subject, 60. 

object, 61. 
Indefinite adjectives, 99. 

articles ; see Articles. 

pronouns, 92. 

relative pronouns, 82. 
Independent clause, 55. 
Independent elements, 201. 
Indicative mood, uses of, 126, 

131. 
Indirect discourse, 164. 
Indirect object, 41, 63, 198. 
Indirect questions, 84, loi, 165, 
170. 
quotations ; see Indirect Dis- 
course. 
Infinitive, definition of, 151. 
forms of, 151. 
syntax of, 163, 232. 
tense of, 151. 
to, omitted from, 152. 
uses of, 152, 200, 201, 202. 
-Ing, words in, 156. 
Interjections, 14, 194. 
Interrogatire adjectives, 100. 
in indirect questions, loi. 
adverbs, 170. 

in indirect questions, 170. 
Interrogative pronouns, 73. 
declension of, 75. 
in indirect questions, 84. 
syntax of, 75, 224. 



Interrogative sentences, analy- 
sis of, 72. 
Into and in, 193. 
Intransitive verbs, 17, 115. 

used as transitive, 116. 
Irregular comparison, adject- 
ives, 104. 
adverbs, 171. 
//, uses of, 59. 

Joint ownership, possessive of, 
44. 

Kind, these kind, 106. 

Last, latest, 105. 

Latter, the, adjective, 100. 

pronoun, 90. 
Lay, lie, 144. 

Let, in imperative phrase, 127. 
Lesser, lOS. 
Like, how to parse, 189. 

syntax of, 186. 
Logical subject, with it, 60, 207. 
-Ly, words in, 171. 

Manner, adverbs of, 166, 182. 

clauses of, 209. 

conjunctions of, 179. 
Many, comparison of, 105. 
May, might, 145. 
Means, singular and plural, 34. 
Mine, of mine, etc., 64. 
Modifier, adjective, position of, 
106. 

adverb, position of, 174. 



244 



INDEX. 



Modifiers of complement, ob- 
ject and subject, 200. 

of predicate, 201. 
Mood, definition of, 125. 

imperative, 126. 

indicative, 126. 

subjunctive, 127. 
More, most in comparison, 103. 
-Most, superlative ending. 106. 
Much, comparison of, 105. 
Must, 145. 

Names of animals, gender of, 

28. 
Nearest, next, 105. 
Negatives, two, 174, 233. 
Neither, adjective, 99. 

conjunction, 176, 181. 

pronoun, 91. 
Neuter noun; see Nouns. 
No, subjects modified by, 162. 
Nominative ; see Case. 
None, singular or plural, 93. 
Nor, coordinate conjunction, 
176, 181. 

subjects connected by, 162. 
Noun clause, 76, 206. 
Nouns, abstract, 24. 
plural of, 32. 

case of, 38. 

collective, 23. 

common, 23, 

gender of, 26. 

how to parse, 47. 

kinds of, 24. 

material, 24. 

common in plural, 23. 

number of, 32. 



Nouns — Continued. 
other words used as, 26. 
plural, how formed, 32. 
of compound, 35. 
of foreign, 37. 
of letters and figures, 37. 
of material, 33. 
old ways of forming, 32. 
with titles, 36. 
possessive, with gerund, 164. 
syntax of, 219, 
with various meanings in 

plural, 35. 
with no singular, 34. 
with one plural, two mean- 
ings, 35. 
with plural form, singular 

meaning, 34. 
with singular or plural verb, 
34. 
Number, of nouns ; see Nouns. 
of adjectives, 102. 
of pronouns, interrogative, 
75. 
personal, 55. 
relative, 80, 81, 82, 83. 
of verbs, 124. 
Numeral adjectives, 99. 

Object, definition of direct, 16, 
198. 
indirect, 41, 198. 
in analysis, 16, 198. 
of preposition, 187, 
modifiers of, 200. 
retained with passive verb, 
199. 



INDEX. 



245 



Objective case, adverbial, 41. 
instead of nominative, 70. 
nominative instead of, 70. 
of nouns, 41. 
of pronouns; see Case. 
predicate, 41. 
Older; see Elder. 
Omission of if, 134. 

of relative pronoun, 208. 
One, indefinite pronoun, plural 
of, possessive of, syntax 
of, 93. 
One anotJier; see Each other. 
One (the), the other, adjective, 
100. 
pronoun, 90. 
syntax of, 93, 
Only, position of, as adverb, 

174. 
Order, inverted order, 203. 
in questions, 72, 203. 

normal or regular, 72. 

words in improper, 106, 174. 
Ordinal adjectives, 100. 
Other v^ith comparatives, 107. 
Others, possessive of, 93. 
Ought, 145. 
Our, ours, 64. 
Oursclf, 66. 
Parsing, directions for — 

of adjectives, 108. 

of adverbs, 172. 

of conjunctions, 183. 

of nouns, 47. 

of prepositions, 191. 

of pronouns, 94. 

of relative pronouns, 78. 

of verbals, 157. 



Parsing — Continued. 

of verb phrases, 157. 

of verbs, 157. 

some idioms not parsed, 47. 

what it is, 47. 
Participial phrase ; see Parti- 
ciple. 
Participle, definition of, 149. 

distinguised from other 
words in -ing, 154. 

forms of, 149. 

syntax of, 163, 232. 

tense of, 150. 

uses of, 199, 201, 202. . 
Parts of speech, meaning of, 9. 

words used as various, 14. 
Passive voice, 122. 
Past tense used as present, 120. 
Person, agreement of verb and 
subject in, 124. 

explanation of, 46. 

of nouns, 46. 

of pronouns, 52. 

of verbs, 124. 
Personal pronoun, absolute, 64. 

agreement of, with antece- 
dent, 67. 

as predicate nominative, 62. 

case of, 62, 6z. 

compound, or reflexive, 64. 
uses of, 65. 

definition of, 52. 

double possessive of, 64. 

syntax of, 66, 220-224. 

table of, 55. 

uses of it, 59. 
Personification, 28, 56. 



246 



INDEX. 



Phrase, kinds of, 202. 

infinitive; scq Infinitive. 

participial ; see Participle. 

prepositional, 187, 200, 201. 
Place, adverbs of, 166. 

clause of, 209. 

conjunctions of, 179. 

prepositions of, 189. 
Pleonasm, of pronouns, 71, 
Plural, of adjectives, 102, 
syntax of, 106. 

of nouns, 33. 

of pronouns, 58, 75, 92. 
Position of adjectives, 106, 226. 

of adverbs, 174, 233. 

of correlatives, 185, 234. 
Positive degree; see Compari- 
son. 
Possessive, double, of nouns, 
42. 
of pronouns, 64. 

of compound nouns, 44. 

of indefinite pronouns, 92, 93. 

of relative which, 81. 

omission of -s in singular, 43. 

with gerund, 164. 

with modified noun omitted, 

43. 
with two objects, 44. 

Predicate, complements of, 17. 

complete, 16. 

definition of, 198. 

modifiers of, 201. 

position of adjectives, 109. 
Prefix, definition of, 29. 

gender shown by, 29. 



Prepositions, definition of, 187. 
how to pa!rse, 191. 
kinds of, 187. 
objects of, 187. 
with pronouns, position of, 

188. 
syntax of, 192. 
used as other parts of speech, 
190. 
Present tense, expressing gen- 
eral truth, 166. 
used for future, 120. 
for past, 120. 
Principal, or notional verbs, 1 17. 
Principal parts of a verb, 140. 
Pronominal adjectives, ex- 
clamatory, lOI. 
interrogative, 100. 
relative, loi. 
Pronouns, adjective, 88. 
any, none, number of, 93. 
each other, one another, 91. 
either, neither, 91. 
Pronouns, definition of, 52. 
how to parse, 94. 
indefinite, 92. 

syntax of, 93. 
interrogative, 73. 

syntax of, 75, 224. 
personal, 53. 

antecedent of, 61. 
nominative and objective 

of, 70. 
objective of, in exclama- 
tions, 63. 
possessive of, with gerund, 

164. 
syntax of, 66, 220-224. 



INDEX. 



247 



Pronouns — Continued. 
relative, 77. 

agreement with antecedent, 

78. 
how to parse, 78. 
omission of, 208. 
restrictive and unrestrict- 
ive, 85. 
Proper nouns ; see Nouns. 
Punctuation, rules for, 50, 51, 

73, 87, 165, 166. 
Purpose, clauses of, 209. 
conjunctions of, 179. 

Quality, adjective of; see 

Descriptive Adjective. 
Quantity, adjectives of, 99. 
Questions, direct and indirect, 
84. 
adverbs in, 170. 
pronominal adjectives in, 100. 
pronouns in, 84. 
Quotations, direct and indirect ; 
see Indirect Discourse. 

Reflexive pronouns; see Com- 
pound Personal Pro- 
nouns. 

Reflexive use of pronouns, 63, 
66. 

Relative pronouns, 77. 

distinguished from interrog- 
ative, in indirect ques- 
tions, 84. 
function of, 77. 



Relative pronouns, indefinite or 
compound, 84. 
omission of, 208. 
restrictive and unrestrictive, 
85. 
Restrictive clause ; see Relative 

Pronouns. 
Result, clauses of, 209. 
conjunctions of, 179. 
Retained object, 199. 

S, plural sufiix, 32. 

'S, forming possessive case, 43. 

with letters and figures, 37. 
Sentences, analysis of complex, 
76, 210. 
of compound, 213. 
of elliptical, 210, 213, 
of simple, 203. 
definition of, 9. 
kinds of, 197. 
Separate ownership, possessive 

of, 45. 
Sequence of tenses, 165. 
Set, sit, 144. 
Sex and gender, 27. 
Shall and zvill, 146, 229. 
Singular number, nouns, 32. 
Sort, these sort, 106. 
Spelling, rules for, 32, 33. 103. 
Subject, complete, 16, 198. 
definition of, 197. 
logical, after it, 60. 
modifiers of, 200. 
things used as, 199. 
Subjunctive mood, definition 
of, 127. 
uses of, 132, 



248 



INDEX. 



Subordinate clause, 55. 
adjective, '^d, 208. 
adverb, 178, 208. 
Subordinate clause, definition 
of, 55. 
how to distinguish, 178. 
kinds of, ^6, 178. 
noun, 'jd, 206. 
other names for, 55. 
Substantive conjunction, 180. 
Suffix, definition of, 29. 
-en, plural, Z'^- 
-ess, feminine, 30. 
foreign, 31. 
-s or -cs, plural, 32. 
Superlative degree, 102, 
of adjectives, 102. 
of adverbs, 171. 
syntax of, 107, 
Synopsis of verb, 137. 
Syntax, definition of, 6y. 
of adjectives, 106. 

exercises on, 226. 
of adverbs, 174. 

exercises on, 233. 
of conjunctions, 185. 

exercises on, 234. 
of nouns, 219. 
of prepositions, 192. 
exercises on, 236. 
of pronouns, 66, 75, 93. 

exercises on, 220. 
of verbals, 163. 

exercises on, 232. 
of verb phrases, 163. 

exercises on, 232. 
of verbs, 160. 

exercises on, 228. 



Tense, of verbals, 151. 
Tenses, definite, 119. 

sequence of, 165, 

table of, 119. 

use of auxiliaries in, 118, 119. 
That, uses of, 81, 90, 100, 179, 

180. 
TJiat, this, as adjectives, 100. 
syntax of, 106. 

as pronouns, 90. 
The, as article, iii. 

as adverb, correlative, 170, 
182. 

history of. III. 

syntax of, article, 112. 
These kind; see Sort. 
There, introductory, 202. 
Thou, thy, thee, uses of, 58. 
Time, adverbs of, 169, 170. 

clauses of, 208. 

conjunctions of, 179. 

prepositions of, 189, 
To omitted from infinitive, 152. 
Try and, try to, 186. 

Unless and without, 186. 
Unrestrictive clause, 86. 
punctuation of, 87. 

Verb phrases, how formed, 116. 

parsing of, 157. 
Verbal noun, distinguished 
from other words in 
-ing, 154- 
Verbals, gerund, 154. 
how to parse, 157. 
infinitive, 151. 
kinds of, 149. 



INDEX. 



249 



Verbals — Continued. 
participle, 149. 
syntax of, 160, 232. 
Verbs, agreement with subject, 
161, 229. 
auxiliary, 116. 
conjugation of, 135. 
defective, 145. 
definition of, 114. 
distinguished from verbals, 

114. 
emphatic forms, negative 

forms, etc., 138. 
how to parse, 157. 
in indirect discourse, 165. 

exceptional use, 166. 
mood of, 125. 
passive voice, 122. 
person and number of, 124 
principal, or notional, 117. 
retained object with passive, 

199. 
strong, definition of, 139. 

table of, 140. 
syntax of, 160, 229-231. 
tenses of, 118. 
sequence of, 165. 
special uses of, 120. 
transitive and intransitive, 

115- 
voice, 121. 

weak, definition of, 140. 
irregular, table of, 142. 
Voice, active, 122. 
passive, 122. 
definite forms of, 122. 



Vowel change, in plural of 
nouns, 32. 
in verbs, 139, 140. 

We, for singular, 58. 
Weak verbs, regular and irreg- 
ular, 140. 
What, uses of, 73, 82, 100, loi. 

but wliat, 185. 

relative, parsing of, 83. 

ivliat a, loi. 
IVlien, luliere, misused, 187. 
Whether, conjunction, 181, 207. 

in indirect questions, 165. 
Which, uses of, 73, 80, 100, 10 1. 

whose, possessive of, 81. 
Who, as relative, 79. 

in direct and indirect ques- 
tions, 73, 84, 

referring to animals, 79. 
Wife, woman, 29. 
Will, would; see Shall. 
Wish, subjunctive of, 132. 
Without; see Unless. 
Woman; see Wife. 
Words in -iug, 156. 

in -ly, 171. 

Y, plural of nouns ending in, 

33- 
Yes, in analysis, 202. 
You, singular and plural, 58. 
Yours, of yours, 64. 
Yourself, yourselves, 66. 



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