{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3562", "width": "2400", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\n.^V*^-\\n-Sj-\\nChap.._lO.__ Copyright M,..\\nShelf .oS\\n.r\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.\\nmm\\nm\\nm^^^^m^k^fmi^m^i^m^M^^^^.\\n:t^^^-", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "^MT Vi\\n^mm^^mfmmmmmmmf", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "i\\ny", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "SOILING\\nCROPS\\nAND\\nTHE SILO\\nHow to Cultivate and Harvest the\\nCrops; How to Build and Fill the\\nSilo and How to Use Silage\\nBy.... A^\\nTHOMAS SHAW\\nProfessor of Animal Husbandry at the University of Minnesota\\nAuthor of\\nPublic School Agriculture Weeds and How to Eradicate Them\\nThe Study of Breeds Forage Crops Other Than Grasses\\nILLUSTRATED\\nNew York\\nORANGE JUDD COMPANY\\n1900", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "62242\\nOCT 17 1900\\nSECCM COPY.\\nOnOtaO^VlSlOH,\\nHe\\nCopyright 1900\\nby\\nOrange Judd Company", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "TO\\nTHE DAIRYMEN AND FARMERS\\nOF\\nTHE UNITED STATES\\nTHIS WORK IS\\nMOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED\\nBY\\nTHE AUTHOR", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\\nThe author desires thankfully to acknowledge\\nthe outside sources from which aid was obtained m\\nthe preparation of the book. These include sundry\\nbulletins issued by certain of the agricultural experi-\\nment stations in the United States, also the helpful\\nwork, A Book on Silage, written by Prof. F. W.\\nWoU of the University of Wisconsin. The sketches\\nwere nearly all prepared by Mr. Charles P. Taylor of\\nthe University of Minnesota.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS\\nPART ONE\\nChapter I. page.\\nSoiling Crops 3\\nChapter II.\\nIndian Corn or Maize 19\\nChapter III.\\nSorghum ------------34\\nChapter IV.\\nThe Non-Saccharine Sorghums 51\\nChapter V.\\nPlants of the Clover Family --------68\\nChapter VI.\\nLeguminous Plants Other Than Clover 102\\nChapter VII.\\nPlants of the Brassica Genus I39\\nChapter vm.\\nThe Common Cereals 168\\nChapter IX.\\nMillets 183\\nChapter X.\\nField Roots ^95\\nvii", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Vllf TABLE OF CONTENTS.\\nChapter XI.\\nMiscellaneous Plants 205\\nChapter XII.\\nSuccession in Soiling Crops 332\\nPART TWO\\nChapter I. page.\\nThe History of Siloing 245\\nChapter IL i\\nThe Benefits from Siloing Crops 258\\nChapter III.\\nFacts Relating to Silo Construction 269\\nChapter IV.\\nBuilding the Silo 292\\nChapter V.\\nCrops Suitable for the Silo 322\\nChapter VI.\\nFilling the Silo --------.._- 336\\nChapter VII.\\nFeeding Silage 350", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS\\nFIG, PAGE.\\n1 The Model Shepherd Frontispiece.\\n2 Squaw Corn for Fodder 20\\n3 Giant Fodder Corn for Soiling 27\\n4 Early Amber Sorghum --------35\\n5 Sorghum Grown for Soiling, First Cutting 43\\n6 Red Kafir Corn 53\\n7 Yellow Milo Maize 55\\n8 Brown Dhoura ---------57\\n9 Jerusalem Corn 59\\n10 Alfalfa, Single Plant 87\\n11 Alfalfa, Grown for Soiling 99\\n12 The Mummy Field Pea 103\\n13 Vetches and Oats for Soiling Second Cutting 115\\n14 Sheep Pasturing on Soy Beans 120\\n15 Soy Beans for Soiling 127\\n16 Sheep Pasturing on Cowpeas 130\\n17 Cowpeas Grown for Soiling 137\\n18 A Dwarf Essex Rape Plant 141\\n19 Dwarf Essex Rape for Soiling 151\\n20 Cabbage for Soiling -156\\n21 Oats and Wheat for Soiling or Fodder 169\\n22 Oats and Peas for Soiling 178\\n23 Oats First Pastured, Then Grown for Soiling 180\\n24 German Millet for Soiling 184\\n25 Hungarian Millet for Soiling 186\\n26 Sand Vetch 219\\n27 Jerusalem Artichokes 227\\n28 Sunflowers 229\\n29 Sheep Barn with Round Silo 294\\n30 Section of Stave Silo 296\\n31 Splice of Stave with Iron Tongue 303\\n32 Lugs for Hoops 304\\n33 Door of Stave Silo ---------306\\n34 Sketch Showing Stave Silo with Shute, Ladder and\\nHand Cart 307\\n35 Sketch Showing Stave Silo with Roof and Lugs Prop-\\nerly Distributed 309\\n36 Section of Wall of Rectangular Silo 310\\n37 Elephant Fodder Corn 324\\n38 Sorghum for Silage 326\\nix", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\nThis book is one of a series on agriculture\\nwhich the author hopes to be spared to complete. It\\nis designed more especially to meet the needs of\\ndairymen when providing green food for their stock,\\nsummer and winter, but it is also intended to be\\nsimilarly helpful to all farmers who keep domestic\\nanimals on the arable farm, and it is hoped that the\\nstudent also at the agricultural college may be able to\\nglean from its pages what will be helpful to him\\nwhen prosecuting his investigations. Excellent\\ninformation on the subject of soiling and also on that\\nof the silo has been furnished by various authors,\\nbut in a form more or less fragmentary, irregular\\nand incomplete. It has been the aim of the author\\nin the present work to cover these subjects with at\\nleast a measurable degree of completeness and\\nsystem.\\nIn writing a series of books on agriculture, it is\\nnot easy to avoid some repetition. In fact, it is\\npractically impossible to do so. For example, when\\none book treats of forage crops other than grasses\\nand is followed by a second on soiling crops and the\\nsilo, as in the present instance, it will be found that\\nmany of the crops grown for these respective uses\\nare the same. They are grown on the same kinds of\\nsoils, and the methods of growing them are similar.\\nxi", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "Xll AUTHOR S PREFACE.\\nIf each treatise is to be complete in itself, the\\nmethods of growing these respective crops must be\\ngiven in both, and this necessitates some repetition.\\nIt has been, and will be, the constant aim of the\\nauthor, however, to avoid such repetition to the\\ngreatest possible extent. By combining two or more\\nseparate treatises in one, repetition could be almost\\nentirely avoided, but the purchaser would then have\\nto pay for matter in which he might not be interested\\nin order to obtain that which was of special interest\\nto him. Of the two plans, the author believes that\\nhe has chosen that which will be more advantageous\\nto the general public.\\nUniversity Experiment Farm,\\nSt. Anthony Park, Minn., igoo.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "PART ONE\\nSOILING CROPS", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER I.\\nSOILING CROPS.\\nSoiling crops are those which are sown from\\ntime to time to furnish food for domestic animals,\\nand which are to be harvested while yet immature\\nand fed to them in the pasture, the paddock, the feed\\nlot or the stall. Corn cut and thus fed to animals at\\nany stage prior to maturity furnishes an illustration\\nof a soiling food. A soiling food is, therefore,\\nanother name for a green food. It is not necessary\\nthat it shall be fed as soon as harvested, but it is\\nnecessary that it shall be fed in the green form. Corn\\npreserved in the silo is essentially a soiling food,\\ninasmuch as it is cut when immature and in that con-\\ndition is fed to live stock, though it may not be fed\\nfor months after it has been cut, as for instance,\\nwhen it has been preserved in the silo, hence the\\npropriety of combining the subject of soiling crops\\nand the silo in this treatise.\\nSoiling crops differ from forage crops in that\\nthe former are harvested and then carried to the\\nanimals which consume them, whereas live stock\\ngather the latter for themselves; and soiling differ\\nfrom fodder crops in their being cut and fed green,\\nwhereas fodder crops are frequently harvested when\\nmature or approaching maturity and are always\\nfed to animals in the cured form. People\\nwho are disposed to follow rigidly the teachings\\n3", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "4 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nof the dictionaries will probably take some\\nexception to these definitions, but the time has\\ncertainly come when more precision must be given\\nto at least some of the definitions in agriculture, to\\nprevent confusion of ideas. For instance, the defini-\\ntion of forage crops given in our best authorities\\nwould make these include soiling crops also. Such\\na definition is at variance with common usage, and\\nsurely the popular idea when consistent and legiti-\\nmate is of higher authority even than that of the\\nrecognized standards.\\nAdaptation in Soiling Crops. The growing of\\nsoiling crops is chiefly adapted to an mtensive\\ncultivation. It may be better associated with the\\ntillage of small rather than of large farms and is\\nbetter adapted to localities where the population is\\ncrowded and markets are near, as, for instance, in\\nthe neighborhood of large cities. It was to be\\nexpected therefore that the growing of soiling foods\\nwould first receive attention in the east, and so it did.\\nBut the day is coming, and is near, when in one or the\\nother of its forms it will be most extensively carried\\non also in the west, and more especially in those\\nsections in which dairying prevails.\\nSoiling is, of course, only necessary on farms\\non which live stock are kept more or less numerously.\\nAnd even on these it may not be much needed when\\npastures are plentiful and succulent during the\\ngreater part of the grazing season. It is more needed\\nin dry than in moist climates, on poor than on rich\\nlands, and where milk is sought rather than beef.\\nPartial and Complete Soiling. Partial soiling\\nmeans supplementing the pastures with green food", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS. 5\\nfor a part of the season, as occasion may require.\\nSuch food may be given once a day or oftener,\\naccording to the needs of the animals. The chief\\nobject sought in partial soiling is to keep domestic\\nanimals abundantly supplied with palatable and\\nnutritious food, when the food from the pastures is\\ninadequate. And where milk production is involved\\nit aims to furnish succulent food after the grass pas-\\ntures have lost much of their succulence, even though\\nthey should still be abundant. Partial soiling is best\\nadapted to a system of cultivation that is intermediate\\nbetween the extensive and intensive systems that is\\nto say, to a system that meets the needs of the average\\narable farm. In all countries with summer climates\\ndeficient in moisture it is an essential appendage and\\nmaterial help to dairying. In no other way can the\\ndairyman keep up a maximum milk flow at so small\\nan outlay.\\nComplete soiling has reference to that system\\nby which domestic animals are sustained on food fed\\nto them in the stall, the feed lot, or the paddock dur-\\ning all the year. It does not imply that all the food\\nso fed shall be given to the animals in the green form,\\nbut that green food will usually form a considerable\\nportion, if not, indeed, the greater part, of the ration.\\nComplete soiling is adapted to an intensive system\\nof cultivation that is to say, where cultivable lands\\nare scarce and dear, and from which it is necessary\\nto obtain a maximum yield while they are being\\ntilled. Its general adoption in this country where\\nland is so plentiful, and in which it is relatively so\\ncheap, is probably remote rather than near, notwith-\\nstanding that it has been practiced in some sections", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "6 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nof the thickly populated countries of western Europe\\nfor many years.\\nBenefits from Grozmng Soiling Crops. The\\nfollowing are the more important benefits from\\ngrowing soiling crops i, Food supplies are increased\\nin a marked degree 2, in various ways the waste\\nin feeding is lessened; 3, animals are sustained in\\nbetter form than where soiling is not practiced; 4,\\ninjury to the land through poaching is prevented 5,\\na salutary influence is exercised on weed eradication\\n6, a saving in land is effected 7, a saving in fertility\\nis effected 8, a saving is also effected in the item of\\nfencing; 9, animal production is greatly increased;\\nand, 10, the cost of keeping the family cow is\\nlessened.\\nIncrease in Food Supplies. Soiling enables the\\nfarmer to grow more food than he could by any\\nother system. Usually the growth of plants is hin-\\ndered in proportion to the extent to which the plants\\nare pastured down while yet immature. And crops\\nthat are pastured are further injured by the tramping\\nof the animals that feed upon them. They are injured\\ndirectly by the bruising which they receive from the\\nhoofs of the animals which feed upon them, and\\nindirectly by the impaction of the land from pastur-\\ning it when not dry enough. These facts are simply\\nmentioned without taking space to give the reasons.\\nAnd since soiling crops are usually cut a little short\\nof miaturity it is more practicable to grow two crops\\nfrom the same land, where soiling is practiced, than\\nwhere it is not.\\nThe relative increase in food production where\\nsoiling is practiced as compared with pasturage can", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS. 7\\nnot of course be stated otherwise than in the most\\napproximate manner. It will vary greatly with such\\nconditions as soil and season. But it will not be\\nextravagant to say that when animals are soiled all\\nthe year in the one instance, and when they are pas-\\ntured during the seasan of pasturage, and are then\\nwintered on food grown on other land in the other\\ninstance, a given area will sustain at least twice the\\nnumber of animals through the year by the former\\nsystem than it will by the latter.\\nLess Waste in Feeding. When crops are fed\\nunder the soiling system there is less waste than when\\npastured or fed in the matured form. This saving\\nis effected, first, in the absence of injury through\\ntreading as compared with pasture crops second, in\\nthe absence of loss in harvesting as compared with\\nmatured crops and, third, in the more complete con-\\nsumption of the food. The injury to pasture crops\\nthrough treading has already been referred to.\\nSoiling crops when judiciously managed are\\nseldom so injured by the weather as to be rendered\\nunfit for food. Fodder crops when matured are fre-\\nquently damaged by rain when being cured. When\\nthus damaged they lose in palatability, in nutrition,\\nand also through mold induced by storing when not\\nyet fully cured.\\nThe more complete consumption of food fed in\\nthe green form as compared with food fed when ripe,\\narises chiefly from the greater palatability of the\\nformer. The fodder portion of plants, that is to\\nsay, the stems and leaves, is always better relished by\\nanimals when fed before they are fully matured. For\\ninstance, feed rye to cattle when it has not yet reached", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "8 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe earing stage, and it will be eaten with avidity.\\nFeed it when fully out in head and it will be eaten\\nindifferently. Feed it when ripe and little else than\\nthe heads will be eaten. Feed the straw after the grain\\nhas been threshed, and it will be consumed by the\\nanimals only when impelled by hunger. Chemists\\ntell us that fodder plants contain all the food ele-\\nments that they will possess at the time the ripening\\nprocess begins, that is to say, by the time they have\\nreached that stage when the stalk begins to assume\\na yellow tinge at the ground. They should be fed,\\ntherefore, as soiling food before they pass this stage,\\nfor as soon as they get beyond it there is loss in\\npalatability. And there is loss in digestibility as the\\nripening stage is neared, that is to say, the propor-\\ntion of the indigestible woody fiber is increased.\\nOn the other hand, when plants are cut when\\nconsiderably short of maturity, there is loss from\\nwant of sufficient development. Theoretically, the\\nmost food will be got from plants when they are cut\\nas soiling food a little short of maturity. In prac-\\ntice, however, this is impossible, as it would too much\\ncurtail the length of the period for feeding each crop.\\nBut with crops that grow again and again, as with\\nalfalfa, for instance, there is no loss probably in cut-\\nting them as soon as they have made sufficient\\ngrowth to justify the expenditure of the labor\\ninvolved.\\nSustains Animals in Better Form. By the aid\\nof soiling food domestic animals can be maintained\\nva better form than without it. With such aid they\\ncan be maintained in a more even condition, the ani-\\nmal energy can be more perfectly conserved, and the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS, 9\\nsucculence of the foods usually exercises a whole-\\nsome influence on the health of the stock.\\nIn the absence of soiling foods it is hardly pos-\\nsible for the farmer to keep his animals through all\\nthe year in what may be termed a well balanced con-\\ndition. When he depefids wholly on pastures during\\nthe summer season these may fail. When they do\\nhis animals suffer proportionately. On the other\\nhand, if the pastures are superabundant there is\\nwaste. When pastures lose their succulence, the\\nmilk flow from milk-giving animals is proportion-\\nately reduced, and no after feeding will wholly\\nrestore it, howsoever suitable it may be. As the\\ncharacter of the season cannot be foreseen, farmers\\nare wise who make provision for a possible shortage\\nin pasture by sowing more or less of one or more\\ncrops to provide soiling food. If the best possible\\nreturns are to be obtained from animals, they\\nmust be well supplied with food every day in the\\nyear. When animals are fed in whole or in part\\non soiling foods, they may frequently be kept\\nnearer at hand than when not so fed, hence\\ntheir needs can be more easily met. When\\nthe days are hot they may be more easily\\nhoused. In the time of flies they may be more easily\\nprotected from the same by keeping them in cool,\\ndarkened sheds or stables during the heat of the day.\\nIn hot weather they can be left out in paddocks over\\nnight, and in cold weather they can be housed. Such\\nattentions have a marked influence in maintaining\\nan equilibrium of condition.\\nThe use of soiling foods conserves animal energy\\nby lessening that waste which arises from undue", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "lO SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nexertion on the part of animals when gathering their\\nfood. When the dairy cow has to travel far when\\nseeking food in the pastures, she does so at the\\nexpense of food required to sustain the prolonged\\nexertion. And when food is thus used to sustain\\nenergy it is very evident that it cannot be used to\\nmake milk. Likewise, wdien growing cattle have to\\ntravel beyond a certain limit in order to get supplies\\nfor the day, they do so at the expense of flesh. And\\nthe same is true of the horse, the sheep and the pig.\\nLive stock should, of course, be given sufficient exer-\\ncise to keep them healthy and to give them proper\\nstamina. Beyond this, exercise means waste of food,\\nand this waste can be prevented by growing a suffi-\\nciency of soiling foods.\\nSoiling foods, judiciously fed, tend to keep the\\nanimal system in proper tone, hence thus far they\\nexert a favorable influence on the health of live stock\\nto which they are fed. In the absence of those foods\\nit is difficult, if not impossible, to keep the system in\\nthe best of tone during certain periods of the year.\\nWhere soiling foods are not grown there can be no\\nassurance of succulence in the pastures beyond the\\nearly summer months. Pastures will not sustain an\\nundiminished milk flow in cows, even when consid-\\nerably short of the yellow leaf stage. When dry\\nand crisp they are a less valuable food than well cured\\nhay, notwithstanding that the food may be abundant.\\nOn such pastures swine will soon lose flesh unless\\nthe pastures are supplemented with other food. By\\ngrowing succulent foods in due succession and in\\nadequate sufficiency they may be made available for\\nlive stock in one form or the other during a large", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS, 1 1\\npart of the year, if not, indeed, through the whole\\nyear hence the beneficial influence which they exert\\non the health of the animals may be made continually\\noperative. But there are other senses in which the\\nsoiling system may become prejudicial to the health\\nof the animals. These are discussed on Page i8.\\nInjury Through Poaching. When the soiling\\nsystem is practiced, lands are not injured by poach-\\ning, that is, by the treading of the animals when the\\nhoofs sink below the surface of the land. On all\\nsoils poaching is to some extent harmful, and on clays\\nit is quite harjnful, since impaction follows on the\\nreturn of dry weather to the very great injury to the\\ngrowth of the grasses. As no person can control\\nthe weather, the farmer who is dependent on pastures\\nonly to provide food for his live stock in the season\\nof growth must needs allow them to feed upon the\\npastures betimes when they will injure them by\\ntreading; and it may be added that close grazing in\\nvery dry weather may seriously injure pastures.\\nParticularly is this true of pastures in some parts of\\nthe dry west. The farmer without soiling food may\\nbe powerless to prevent such a result.\\nInfluence on Weed Eradication. The soiling\\nsystem may be made to render material aid in eradi-\\ncating Aveeds. This arises, first, from the thickness\\nwith which the food may be grown; second, from\\nthe season at which much of it may be sown and,\\nthird, from the immature period at which it is reaped.\\nSoiling food ma}^ be sown more thickly rela-\\ntively than if the same plant or plants were sown to\\nproduce a matured crop of seeds. Such sowing\\nsecures more of fineness in the food, and in", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "12 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nconsequence more of palatability. The food thus\\ngrown crowds weeds because of its thickness, and\\nalso hinders their development because of the density\\nof the shade.\\nSoiling food may be sown at different seasons\\nbecause of the difference in the habits of the plants\\nthus grown. Several varieties may be sown late.\\nWhen these varieties are thus sown, ample time is\\ngiven to sprout and in turn to destroy myriads of\\nweed seeds that may be in the upper section of the\\ntillable soil. In fact, where such cultivation is what\\nit ought to be, the ground will be comparatively clean\\nbefore the crop is grown or planted.\\nAs soiling foods are cut while yet immature, the\\nweeds wdiich grow in them have not the same chance\\nto mature as though the crop had been allowed to\\nstand until fully ripe. Notably is this true of soil-\\ning crops that are sown reasonably early. And when\\nthese are removed early in the season, another soil-\\ning crop, or a catch crop of some kind may be made\\nto follow the first one. This second crop will also\\nbe helpful to the cleaning of the land.\\nSaving in Land. Growing soiling foods effects\\na great saving in land, as it enables the grower to\\nraise much more food from a given area. The sav-\\ning thus effected is greater relatively in the west and\\nsouth than in the east and north. This arises from\\nthe greater relative adaptability of the east and north\\nto the growing of grass pastures, and from the\\ngreater relative adaptability of the west and south\\nto the growing of soiling foods. The extent of the\\nsaving will vary with the conditions. But it would\\nnot be extravagant to say that ordinarily where", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS. 13\\nthree acres of grass are required to keep a milch cow\\nin good form for six months, it would be possible\\nto grow enough soiling food to keep the same cow\\nall the year. In some sections of the prairie in the\\nfar west, where cultivated grasses have not been\\ngrown with marked success, the difference would be\\neven greater. In instances, not a few, it has been\\nfound possible to grow ample supplies of food on one\\nacre by the soiling system to feed a cow all year.\\nAs the population becomes more dense, and as popu-\\nlous cities multiply, the saving in land effected by\\nsoiling in either of its forms will increase in impor-\\ntance, and more in the neighborhood of large cities\\nthan elsewhere.\\nSaving in Fences. Growing soiling foods les-\\nsens the necessity for building fences on farms on\\nwhich live stock are kept. A marked saving is thus\\neffected in labor and money, the extent of the saving\\nbeing proportional to the number of animals kept,\\nto the cost of labor and materials for fencing. Unless\\nwhere the materials for fencing are very cheap, it is\\na costly affair, both to build and to maintain fences.\\nIt is seldom that any kind of fence, strong enough\\nto secure cattle, can be built for less than twenty-five\\nto fifty cents per rod, when labor and material are\\nincluded, and in some instances the outlay would be\\nmuch greater. This outlay, or much of it, must\\nneeds be repeated at least every other decade, to say\\nnothing of the sums paid out from time to time in\\nrepairs. There is also the further objection that on\\nthe strip of land on which the fence stands, weeds\\nare much prone to grow, unless considerable hand\\nlabor is expended in keeping them down.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "14 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nOn the other hand, we must not assume that the\\nsoiHng system will entirely obviate the necessity for\\nfences. Theoretically, where complete soiling is\\ncarried on no fencing would be required other than\\nthat used in enclosing the yards and paddocks in\\nwhich the animals are to be exercised, or in\\nwhich they are to be kept over night in w^arm\\nweather. But this idea must not be pressed too far,\\nfor where sufficient stamina in live stock are to be\\nmaintained, animals must have exercise beyond what\\nthey will voluntarily take in small paddocks.\\nSaz ing in Fertility. The soiling system effects\\na great saving in fertility, since it enables the farmer\\nto make more and better manure than can be obtained\\nfrom live stock kept on the pasturing system, and\\nless of Avhat is thus made is w^asted. More manure\\nis made, first, because the animals are at all times on\\nfull feed, whereas on pasture they are frequently on\\nshort supplies, and, second, because by the soiling\\nsystem a greater number of animals can be sustained\\non a given area. The manure made is likely to be\\nmore valuable, since along with soiling food greater\\nquantities of meal, rich in the elements of plant\\ngrowth, are usually fed. And there is less waste in\\nthe manure made if properly saved, since its value is\\nnot then impaired by insects and other adverse influ-\\nences, as it is when dropped in the field. In many\\ninstances the soiling system will enable the farmer\\nto more than double the value of the manurial prod-\\nuct made, as it enables him to more than double the\\nsupplies of food grown.\\nIncrease in Animal Production. Such a system\\ncannot fail to increase animal production. The", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS. 15\\nextent of this increase Avill be in proportion to its\\ncompleteness. If it increases the food products 100\\nper cent, it will also increase the milk or meat pro-\\nduction more than 100 per cent, since the animals\\nmaintained will be increased proportionately. They\\nwill also be maintained on foods at all times ample\\nin quantity and of correct adaptation. These influ-\\nences will tend to a further increase of production.\\nThe greater outlay involved, however, in securing\\nthis added increase should never be lost sight of.\\nSustaining the Family Cow. In villages, in\\nsuburbs of towns and cities, quite a number of the\\ninhabitants keep cows. To such people the cow is\\na source of untold blessing, because of the utility of\\nthe product which she gives. Oftentimes those peo-\\nple are unable to secure adequate pastures. This\\ndifficulty may easily be overcome when the owner of\\na cow possesses a small piece of land. He can then\\nsupplement the pastures by growing soiling foods,\\nand with great advantage to both cow and land.\\nWhere but one cow is kept, a small area will suffice\\nto supply her needs.\\nSome Objections to the Soiling System. To\\nthe soiling system there are some objections. Chief\\namong these are the following: i, It involves\\nincreased outlay for labor; 2, it requires more con-\\nstant attention on the part of the attendants 3, it is\\nnot always easy to adjust the food supplies to the\\nneeds of the animals, and, 4, it may, in some instances,\\ntend to impair the stamina of live stock.\\nIncreased Outlay for Labor. The soiling sys-\\ntem cannot be adopted in either of its forms without\\na considerable increase in the labor of those who care", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "l6 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfor the live stock so fed. Even in the partial form,\\nincrease in labor is considerable. In the complete\\nform, it is much greater; and of course increase in\\nlabor involves a corresponding increase in outlay.\\nThe increase in labor arises, first, from the necessity\\nfor cutting the food daily, or at intervals of not more\\nthan two or three da3^s second, from the necessity\\nfor handling and conveying it to the animals in the\\ngreen form; third, from the necessity for feeding\\nand otherwise caring for the animals from day to\\nday in the pasture, paddock, shed or stall fourth, in\\ncaring for the yards or paddocks and in handling\\nthe manure. From the sum of this labor, however,\\nin making the comparison, there should be deducted\\nthe less amount of the labor necessary in providing\\nfencing. Notwithstanding, the extra labor involved,\\nand the increased expenditure resulting therefrom,\\nis the one great standing hindrance in the way of the\\nmore general adoption of the system of complete\\nsoiling by the farmers of this country. Nor is the\\nadoption of complete soiling likely to become general\\nuntil farm labor becomes cheaper and until land\\nbecomes scarcer and dearer. But beyond all ques-\\ntion, in the opinion of the writer, the day is not very\\nfar distant when complete soiling will be practiced\\nby a considerable number of the farmers in every\\nstate of the Union.\\nPartial soiling does not involve nearly so much\\nlabor as complete soiling, hence it is practiced by a\\ngreater number of farmers. Dairymen, especially,\\ncannot well get along without it. The necessity for\\nthus growing and feeding food to supplement the\\npastures increases with the dryness of the climate. So", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "SOILING CROPS. ,17\\nessential is it to the highest success in raising and\\nproperly maintaining farm stock that it must even-\\ntually be practiced by all or nearly all farmers who\\ndo not follow the system of complete soiling.\\nTax on Attendants. Where complete soiling\\nis carried on, th-e care of the animals must be con-\\ntinuous throughout the season. Every day thereof\\nbrings its round of duties, and they cannot be neg-\\nlected except at the expense of the live stock. Food\\nmust be secured for the animals with unfailing regu-\\nlarity, it must be fed to them every day, and usually\\ntwo or three times a day. To the average farm\\nlaborer this work savors so much of the treadmill\\norder that it is distasteful. He looks upon it in the\\nlight of a yoke which he does not care to take upon\\nhimself. Hence, until those better days come when\\nsuch labor will be looked upon through a proper lens,\\nfor it has its compensations, the adoption of the\\nsoiling system in either form will be relatively slow.\\nAdjusting Food Supplies. Complete soiling\\ncalls for the exercise of much thought in securing\\nfood supplies and in adjusting them to the needs of\\nthe animals. There must needs be succession in\\nfoods to keep up a constant supply. No one food is\\nat its best for soiling uses for many weeks in succes-\\nsion. There must also be variety in the foods thus\\ngrown in succession. This is essential to the well-\\nbeing of the animals to w^hich the foods are fed. It is\\nfurther rendered imperative by the different periods\\nof the year when various plants grow and mature\\nsufficiently for being fed at their best. A supply\\nof these foods must always be on hand through\\nsunshine and storm. In some instances, however,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "l8 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nshowers fall frequently and for days in succession,\\nso that it may not be easy to secure food supplies\\nunless when soaked with rain; and it may be also\\nmore or less soiled with earth. To properly adjust\\nthese matters in the face of varying seasons is no\\neasy task. It cannot be done without the exercise\\nof much forethought.\\nImpaired Stamina in the Stock. While, as has\\nbeen shown, the soiling system tends to promote\\ngood health in live stock, it may easily be so con-\\nducted as to ultimately injure stamina in the animals\\nsubjected to its conditions. Up to a certain limit,\\nutility in live stock is improved through artificial\\nconditions. Beyond this limit, stamina are weak-\\nened. AVhere the border line runs between the most\\napproved conditions of environment and conditions\\nthat lead to deterioration, is not always easily deter-\\nmined. Unnecessary exertion on the part of animals\\nwhen getting this food lessens production. Insuffi-\\ncient exertion lessens stamina. Under the complete\\nsoiling system the individual must guard against\\nundue confinement of the animals, or their natural\\nvigor will wane. All history and experience pomt\\nto increased mortality among animals and also\\namong men in proportion as they are aggregated\\nunder conditions of much restraint. The dangers\\nof undue restraint, however, do not apply to animals\\nsubjected only to the conditions which partial soiling\\nimposes. And with complete soiling, it is probable\\nthat they may, in a great measure, be avoided by\\ngiving due attention to the conditions which are\\nnecessary to the maintenance of improved vigor in\\ndomestic animals.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER 11.\\nINDIAN CORN OR MAIZE.\\nIt would probably be correct to say that Indian\\ncorn (Zea Mays) furnishes more food for live stock\\nthan any other plant now grown in the United\\nStates, and that it will continue to do so through all\\nthe years that are yet to come. Taking everything\\ninto consideration it will probably produce more food\\nper acre for domestic animals than any other plant,\\nand there are but few foods which can be fed in a\\ngreater variety of ways. In furnishing soiling food\\non unirrigated land, it is in some respects without a\\nrival on the American continent. So great is its\\nvalue for this use that in the near future very few\\nsections will be found in all the United States in\\nwhich it will not be grown on a large majority of the\\nfarms by those who keep live stock.\\nGreen corn is pre-eminently a food for dairy\\ncows when in milk, owing in part to the close relation\\nbetween succulence in food and free milk production.\\nBut it may also be fed with much advantage to other\\nclasses of cattle when pastures are scant, and also to\\nhorses of all ages, although to horses at work it\\nshould not be given in large quantities, lest a too lax\\ncondition of the bowels be induced. It furnishes\\nexcellent green food for sheep, when of fine growth.\\nIt also furnishes food for swine that is much relished\\nby them, especially when the corn is of the sweet\\n19", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "1\\nS\\n^m\\nM-m\\nS^^\\n^p^A l^^\\n^^m\\n-jiMmBSKi\\nsc- v^^~i*Q;^\\na.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 21\\nvarieties. They will virtually consume the entire\\nproduct when it is fed to them prior to the maturing\\nof the crop.\\nCorn grown as soiling food will yield from\\nten to thirty tons per acre, according as the land is\\npoor or rich and the season is dry or moist. A good\\naverage crop may be placed at fifteen to twenty tons\\nper acre.\\nDistribution. Corn can be grown as soiling\\nfood in nearly all the tillable portions of the United\\nStates, since, with a mean temperature of about 60\\ndegrees, it will become sufficiently advanced for being\\ncut as soiling food in from fifty to seventy days from\\nthe time of planting. But where it can be allowed\\nto grow for a longer period, the crop is relatively\\nmore valuable. Nearly all the tillable portions of\\nthe United States have marked adaptation for grow-\\ning corn to be fed in the green form. The sections\\nleast well adapted to its growth are those probably\\nwhich border on the Pacific ocean, between Alaska\\nand California, because of the low mean tempera-\\ntures that prevail there. In nearly all the tillable\\nareas of Canada, also, corn can be grown in the\\nfinest form for summer feeding and in sections too\\nfar north to mature the grain.\\nSoil. Corn is specially adapted to warm, deep\\nloam soils rich in humus, and that lie upon subsoils\\nof what may be termed porous clay. It is a most\\nvoracious feeder on decaying organic matter, hence\\nwhen it is to be grown, care should be taken to keep\\nthe soil well supplied wnth such food. But it may be\\ngrown with more or less success on almost any kind\\nof land not too low in available plant food, not too", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "22 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nstrongly impregnated with alkali, and not overmoist\\nor over dry. It may be made to flourish on the stiff est\\nclays when they are sufficiently pulverized, and on\\nthe poorest sands when they have been sufficiently\\nenriched.\\nPlace in the Rotation. As a fodder or grain\\ncrop, that is, as a crop for being fed in the cured\\nform, corn should be grown whenever practica1:)le\\nas a cleaning crop. More commonly it should be\\nplanted after one or more grain crops have been\\ntaken from the land, and it should be followed by a\\ngrain crop in which grass seeds have been sown.\\nFrequently it should be sown on an overturned grass\\nor clover sod. But when sown to provide soiling\\nfood it can with much advantage be grown as a\\ncatch crop, that is to say, as a crop preceded or\\nfollowed by another crop grown on the land the same\\nseason, and in some instances both preceded and\\nfollowed by another crop. Where the seasons are\\nsufficiently long it may thus be grown w4th peculiar\\nfitness after a crop of winter rye is pastured, plowed\\nunder green, or reaped when mature after clover is\\npastured, buried or reaped after grain crops are pas-\\ntured off and in some instances after grain crops\\nare harvested; after a crop of early sown rape is\\ngrazed down, and after certain other soiling crops\\nhave been removed from the land, as, for instance,\\npeas and oats.\\nIt may also be grown after any kind of a fall\\nor spring sown crop that has failed from any cause.\\nBut in areas in which the seasons are quite short, it\\nmay not be possible to grow another crop on the land\\nthe same season. The crops that may with much", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 2^\\npropriety be sown after soiling corn include winter\\nwheat, winter rye, winter oats, the winter vetch, the\\nsand vetch, rape and crimson clover. Corn may\\nthus frequently be sown as soiling food without\\ninterfering with the growth of the crop that would\\nordinarily be taken from the land.\\nPreparing the Soil. When preparing the soil,\\nthe aim should be to secure a seed bed moist, clean\\nand fine. When winter rye is plowed under, it\\nshould not be later than the earing stage, and in\\nregions deficient in moisture earlier than that, lest\\nthrough its bulkiness it should cause the land to lie\\ntoo loosely upon itself and so lose too much of its\\nmoisture, or through its woodiness it should fail to\\ndecay soon enough to feed the corn crop. If the\\nburied rye is rolled and harrowed soon after it has\\nbeen buried, the moisture in the soil will be better\\nconserved and the more quickly will the rye decay.\\nThese remarks will apply equally to the burial of\\nfresh farmyard manure with much litter in it. But\\nin time of wet weather, it would not be necessary\\nthus to roll and harrow the land so soon after it\\nhad been plowed. As the preparation of the soil for\\nthis crop cannot usually begin long before the plant-\\ning of the crop, special pains should be taken to\\npulverize the soil and to make it firm, that the germi-\\nnation of the young plants may begin at once after\\nplanting, and that the subsequent growth may be\\nrapid.\\nIt should always be the aim in growing a soiling\\ncrop of corn to produce a large quantity. It is usu-\\nally fed in the immature form, hence quality in the\\nfood cannot be so much influenced by close or wide", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "24 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nplanting as it is when the corn crop is allowed to\\nmature. Land, therefore, not sufficiently fertile to\\nproduce a maximum crop should be fertilized accord-\\ning to its needs. Where it can be obtained, farm-\\nyard manure is one of the cheapest and most effective\\nof fertilizers. It may be applied most freely in\\nclimates not deficient, or not much deficient, in mois-\\nture. It feeds the corn crop better when it has been\\nreduced, or fermented, more or less, before it is\\napplied. On lands lacking in moisture the applica-\\ntion of large quantities of farmyard manure in the\\nunreduced form should be avoided, unless it can be\\napplied some considerable time before the planting\\nof the corn, otherwise its bulkiness and slowness of\\ndecay may harm the crop more than it will help it.\\nCommercial fertilizers may also be applied in\\naddition to farmyard manure where the supply of\\nthe latter is limited, or alone in its absence. The\\ncomposition of these fertilizers and the quantity to\\napply will depend upon the needs of the land. But\\nmore commonly complete fertilizers will be prefer-\\nable, that is to say, fertilizers which contain a certain\\nper cent, of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash.\\nSowing. Corn for soiling uses may be sown\\nbroadcast by hand and covered with the harrow;\\nwith the grain drill, all the tubes or with only part\\nof them in use or it may be strewn by hand in shal-\\nlow furrows made by the plow. Which of these\\nmethods ought to be adopted will depend chiefly\\nupon such conditions as the conveniences at hand\\nfor planting the crop and upon the area to be grown.\\nMuch has been written against the plan of sow-\\ning the corn broadcast by hand, also against the plan", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 2$\\nof sowing it with the grain drill when all the tubes\\nare in use. Yet it may be true that a large majority\\nof the farmers who grow corn for soiling persist in\\ngrowing it thus. And there is probably some reason\\nfor such persistence. It is very convenient to sow\\ncorn in this way. The stalks, because of their fineness,\\nare more palatable than when of stronger growth,\\nand on good soil much bulk of food is obtained. The\\nobjections to this method of planting the crop are\\nThe lack of growth in the corn in severely dry\\nweather, the encouragement given to the growth of\\nweeds, the larger amount of seed required for plant-\\ning, and the less nutritious character of the food.\\nThere is some force in all these objections. Notwith-\\nstanding, in the judgment of the author they do not\\nprove conclusively that on well prepared soils corn\\nfor soiling should not sometimes be grown thus.\\nBut it should not be so grown on land that is\\nfrequently lacking in moisture, on land that is low in\\nfertility or on land on which weed seeds lying on or\\nnear the surface have not been well sprouted and\\ndestroyed before the planting of the corn.\\nWhen corn for soiling is planted with the grain\\ndrill, some of the tubes only being in use, there is\\nmuch latitude in the precise methods practiced\\nSometimes every second tube is used. When planted\\nthus, the crop will make more growth on soils only\\nmoderately supplied with plant food, and it will also\\nmake a better growth in dry weather. When thus\\nplanted, of course, the rows are too near to admit of\\nhorse cultivation. Such cultivation may be given\\nwith the rows even nearer to each other than thirty\\ninches, but when less distant than thirty inches it", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "26 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ncannot be done with so much freedom or ease. The\\nlarger the variety of the corn, the more distant\\nshould be the rows, to avoid too much shading from\\nthe sunlight hence there may be instances when corn\\ngrown for soiling should be planted more than thirty\\ninches distant.\\nSometimes such corn is planted with the drill\\nin what may be termed double rows, that is to say,\\nin rows not more than from six to nine inches apart.\\nBut the distance between the pairs of double rows\\nshould be at least thirty inches. In planting corn\\nthus, with some grain drills at least, it may be neces-\\nsary to duplicate the amount of driving that would\\nbe sufficient to plant the corn in single rows. Other\\ndrills, however, may be made to plant at least two\\ndouble rows at one and the same time. This is done\\nby leaving open the avenues that lead to the tubei\\nwhich do the planting and closmg all the others.\\nCorn planted thus will produce a greater bulk than\\nif planted in single row^s, yet this method of planting\\nadmits practicall}^ the same kind of cultivation that\\nwould be suitable for corn grown in single rows.\\nWhen the corn is sown by hand, shallow fur-\\nrows are made with the plow, the seed is strewn\\nthickly in these, according to the desires of the\\ngrower, and it may be covered by hand or by draw-\\ning a heavy harrow crosswise over the ground. The\\nobject sought in planting the corn thus is to secure a\\nthick stand of plants that may, also, be cultivated,\\nwhen a drill with which to sow the plants is not\\nobtainable. But this method of planting corn for\\nsoiling should not be attempted when a large area\\nis to be planted.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "(27)\\nFig. 3. Giant Fodder Corn for Soiling\\nMinnesota University Experiment Farm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "28 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe variety, or varieties, of corn to sow or plant\\nwill depend on conditions such as relate to climate\\nand soil. In northerly latitudes it may be wise to\\nplant only the quick growing flint varieties. In\\nmore southerly latitudes, it may be necessary to grow\\nonly the slow growing dent varieties. When the\\ncorn is to be allowed to pass the earing stage, before\\nbeing fed, it may be proper to choose some of the\\nvarieties of sweet corn for planting. But since soil-\\ning corn is usually fed before the corn on the ear is\\nof any considerable food value, it is well to select\\nvarieties with a leafy tendency of grow^th, since these\\nvarieties will be more relished by the animals to\\nw^hich the crop is fed.\\nThe quantity of seed required will vary with\\nthe size of the seed kernels, or, in other words, with\\nthe variety of the corn, and with the method adopted\\nin sowing the seed. Probably no method of sowing\\ncalls for the use of more than three bushels of seed\\nper acre, or less than one bushel per acre. There\\nwould seem to be no advantage derived from grow-\\ning corn for soiling purposes w^itli the plants less dis-\\ntant than from three to four inches in the line of the\\nrow, whatsoever the kind of cultivation adopted, and\\nthere may often be good reasons for growing the\\nplants much further apart.\\nThe time for planting corn for soiling will\\nlargely depend upon such conditions as climate, soil,\\nand the prospective needs of the animals to which\\nthe crop is to be fed. Although in southern lati-\\ntudes, this crop may be sown for soiling uses far on\\ninto midsummer, it should never be planted in the\\nspring before the soil has become sufficiently warmed", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 29\\nto germinate the seed quickly. Slowness of germi-\\nnation is more or less injurious to the crop, and\\nprolonged slowness of germination may be even\\nfatal to it. It is probably safe to conclude that the\\nseason is sufficiently advanced for corn planting\\nto begin when apple blossoms are unfolding\\ntheir beautiful tints. It may be desirable to\\nhave the season for feeding green corn as long as\\npossible. This may be brought about in one of two\\nways First, several varieties, which call for varying\\nperiods in which to grow, may be planted at the same\\ntime second, but one variety may be sown at inter-\\nvals not closer to each other than two or three weeks.\\nThe second of these methods is preferable, since the\\none variety selected may be the most suitable to grow\\nin that particular locality. When corn is grown as\\nsoiling food for pigs, the aim should be to secure\\nm_uch grain rather than abundant growth of stem\\nand leaves. It should therefore be planted in hills\\nor rows, as corn is usually grown, to provide ears.\\nFrom eight to twelve quarts of seed will suffice to\\nplant an acre, and, as previously intimated, the sweet\\nvarieties are to be given the preference.\\nCultivation. The harrow and the cultivator\\nare the instruments chiefly used in cultivating corn\\nfor soiling. Owing to the short period required by\\ncorn to grow, it is seldom necessary to use the hand\\nhoe, when a sufficient use has been made of the har-\\nrow. The corn ground should be harrowed a few\\ndays subsequently to the planting of the seed. It may\\nbe necessary to harrow twice before the plants appear\\nwhen the germination is tardy, but once is usually\\nsufficient. The crop should be harrowed at intervals", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "30 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nof only a few days, especiall}^ when the weather\\nis dry, even though the land is not foul with weed?\\nthat it may the more perfectly retain its moisture.\\nThe harrowing should cease when the plants are sev-\\neral inches high. For reasons that will be manifest,\\nthe harrow should be light, should have a broad\\nsweep, and when in use the teeth should usually be\\nset to slant backward. It should also be driven\\nacross rather than along the drills, that fewer plants\\nmay be covered by the harrow. When the crop must\\nbe planted on foul land, more seed should be used\\nthan w\\\\^uld otherwise be necessary, to allow for the\\nfreer use of the harrow, and consequently for the\\nloss of a larger percentage of the plants.\\nWhen the cultivator can be used, its use ought\\nto begin soon after the harrowing has ceased, and it\\nshould continue at intervals until the feeding of the\\ncrop has virtually begun. These intervals should\\nusually be not more distant than, say, seven to ten\\ndays. The cultivation should be shallow, that the\\ncorn roots may not be broken, and that the moisture\\nmay be better conserved than it would be by deep\\ncultivation. It should come close up to the line of\\nthe rows, that weed growth may be checked to the\\ngreatest possible extent.\\nFeeding. The feeding of the corn may begin\\nas soon as it is fully in tassel, or even sooner but for\\nthe loss in maximum development that would ensue,\\nand this feeding may be continued until the crop is\\nmatured. But when fed to swine it may be well to\\ndefer the feeding until the corn in the ear is nearly\\nready for table use. The residue of the green\\ncorn, if the crop is not all consumed, may be cut at", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 3I\\nthe stage of early maturity, cured in the shock and\\nfed with much advantage to hve stock subsequently\\nthrough the entire fall and winter. The farmer who\\nhas a sufficient area of corn grown and properly har-\\nvested on the plan above outlined may sustain his\\nhorses, cattle and sheep in excellent form, howsoever\\ndry the autumn may be, or howsoever scarce the\\npasture. But it is very important that the crop shall\\nbe harvested at the stage of early maturity, that is\\nto say, when a little under-ripe, and that it be nicely\\ncured. Vastly increased attention is likely to be\\ngiven to this feature of corn production in the near\\nfuture, more particularly in the northwestern states,\\nso much characterized by bright autumn sunshine.\\nWhen only a small quantity of soiling food is\\nto be fed daily, it may be cut with a scythe and carted\\nto the animals, or thrown to them over the fence\\nAvhich may separate the corn crop from an adjoining\\npasture. It may be well in some instances to so plan\\nfor feeding the corn when choosing the land on\\nwhich it is to be grown, that is to say, it may be well\\nto sow a strip of corn not too wide beside the pasture\\nand along its entire length. The saving in horse\\nlabor that would thus be effected when feeding the\\ncrop would be material, but to the plan there is the\\nobjection that corn or other green crop fed thus\\nleads to the dropping of an undue proportion of the\\nmanure in that part of the pasture on which the\\ngreen food has been fed. When green corn is cut\\nfor pigs, the corn hook will probably be the best\\nimplement to use.\\nWhen fed on a large scale, the crop must needs\\nbe cut with the mower, according to the needs of the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "32 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nlive stock. Or, as much may be cut at one time as\\nwill suffice for two or three days feeding, especially\\nwhen the crop is well advanced in growth, as then it\\ndoes not quickly wait overmuch, as it would at an\\nearlier period. A moderate amount of wilting\\nrather adds to the relish of the food, and it also les-\\nsens the danger from abundant feeding when the\\ngreen corn is first given to the animals.\\nThe portion fed once or twice a day, as the case\\nmay be, will have to be drawn as frequently by horse\\nlabor, except when it is fed in racks in a yard, or in\\nthe stable mangers. In such instances enough may\\nbe drawn at one time to suffice for two or even for\\nthree days. But too much wilting must be guarded\\nagainst, else it will lessen the palatability of the corn.\\nSome form of truck with a platform not far from\\nthe ground should be used in carting all kinds of\\ngreen food, in order to lessen muscular expenditure\\nin handling food with so much water in it.\\nWhere the facilities are suitable, there is no way\\nby which corn thus carted can be fed to live stock\\nwith a less expenditure of labor than by feeding it\\nin a pasture. It is then thrown from the dray or\\nwagon and is consumed without any further labor\\nin handling the residue, or in carting the drop-\\npings. But of course there is oftentimes con-\\nsiderable loss in the manure. When corn or other\\ngreen food is thus fed, it should be dumped off in\\nsmall bunches not too near one another, so the\\nanimals may consume it without being molested by\\none another and it should be strewn on a different\\nportion of the pasture every time it is fed, to insure\\ngreater cleanliness in the feeding, also to secure a", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE. 33\\nmore even distribution of the droppings. The whole\\npasture may be gone over in this way. The plan\\nof manuring a field thus is certainly very cheap and\\nefficacious. The loss in fertility is not great if the\\npasture is to be plowed the same autumn. If it can\\nbe arranged to have the food thus spread on the\\nground in the absence of the live stock, they will not\\ntread on it so much when turned in to feed upon it.\\nThe ideal plan, when it can be carried out, is to have\\ntwo pastures and to spread the food in each alter-\\nnately when the live stock are in the other pasture.\\nWhen the green corn is fed to horses or cattle\\nin manger or racks, for manifest reasons, it is well\\nto have it placed in these when the animals are\\nabsent, unless when they are tied in stalls. It may\\nbe most conveniently fed to sheep or swine in the\\npastures, but there may be occasions when it will be\\nfound advantageous to feed it in paddocks, feed lots\\nor sheds. The feeding of sweet corn to swine may\\nbe continued after the crop has matured, but there\\nAvill be loss in feeding the stalks unless the ears only\\nare fed to the swine. The stalks may of course De\\ncured and fed to horses or cattle.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nSORGHUM.\\nSorghum (Sorghum vulgare var. saccharatum)\\nhas not been very extensively grown as a food for\\nlive stock on any part of the continent, but for sev-\\neral years past its great value for such a use has been\\nknown to a limited number of farmers in various\\ncenters, and in many instances it has been fed by\\nthose farmers with very satisfactory results. It is\\nprobably true that in Kansas more sorghum has been\\ngrow^n to provide food for live stock than in any\\nother state in the Union, but in some of the states\\nwhich border upon Kansas, and in others farther\\nsouth, more or less sorghum has been grown for\\nstock within the past few years. The idea has gone\\nabroad, and rightly, too, that sorghum is more deli-\\ncate and slower in growth than corn. But the gen-\\nerally accepted view based on this idea, viz., that to\\ngrow sorghum and to keep it clean involves great\\nlabor is only partially correct. When sown on\\nground well prepared and clean on and near the\\nsurface, it requires no more labor subsequent to the\\nsowing of the seed to grow sorghum than to grow\\ncorn. But it is frequently necessary to expend more\\nlabor in cleaning and mellowing the seed bed for this\\ncrop than in preparing the same for corn. If sown\\non land foul with weed seeds within the surface\\nstrata of the soil, the weeds will start in advance\\n34", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "(35)\\nFig. 4. Early Amber 5orghum\\nMinnesota University Experiment Farm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "36 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nof the sorghum and will greatly hinder its growth\\nunless much labor is expended in fighting them.\\nSorghum stools much when it is growing,\\nhence the growth is finer in character than the\\ngrowth of corn. This of course adds to its palata-\\nbility as a food for stock. But its greatest value\\nas a soiling food lies, first, in its power to pro-\\nduce more than one cutting per year when\\ngrown under favorable conditions of soil and\\nclimate; second, in its ability to grow in climates\\nwith a limited rainfall. The plants grow slowly\\nfor a time, and the development of root growth is\\nlimited later they take a firm, hold upon the soil, and\\nif the weather is warm they rush forward with much\\nquickness and vigor.\\nSorghum furnishes excellent soiling food for\\nhorses, cattle, sheep and swine. Like nearly all\\ngreen foods it must be fed with some caution to\\nhorses when working. It is becoming more com-\\nmon to pasture sheep and swine upon sorghum than\\nto feed it to them as a soiling food, owing to the\\nmarked adaptability of this plant in providing pas-\\nture for these animals. But when fed as soiling\\nfood to sheep and swine it is much relished, more\\nespecially when of tender and succulent growth.\\nIts highest use as a soiling food, however, is in pro-\\nviding supplies for milch cows. They are fond of\\nsorghum and it is good for milk production, and a\\ngiven area furnishes relatively a large quantity of\\nfood.\\nThis plant has been known to produce thirty\\ntons of green food per acre, but the average is under\\nrather than over fifteen tons. In many instances the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "SORGHUM. 37\\nyield v/oiild be even under ten tons per acre. Whether\\nthe largest yield will be obtained from one or two\\ncuttings per acre will be largely dependent on the\\ncharacter of the season, but with sufficient rainfall\\nlarger yields will be obtained from two cuttings, and\\nthe sorghum from the second cutting is of increased\\nfineness because of the more abundant stooling of\\nthe plants caused by the first cutting.\\nDistribution. Sorghum can be grown for soil-\\ning food in all the tillable portions of the United\\nStates that will produce Indian corn. This means\\nthat it can be grown successfully in every state in the\\nUnion. It can also be grown in Canada over simi-\\nlar areas, but in those sections of Canada that mark\\nthe northerly limit of corn production, it cannot be\\ngrown as successfully as corn, because of insuffi-\\nciently high temperatures in the growing season.\\nAs this plant is possessed of greater power to\\nwithstand drouth than corn, it has a higher adapta-\\ntion for much of the area lying west of the tier of\\nstates which border on the Mississippi river and east\\nof the Rocky Mountains. The extent to which sor-\\nghum will yet be grown for pasture, soiling food\\nand fodder within the area named, can only be sur-\\nmised. The conditions for its abundant growth in\\nmuch of the said area are not at all unfavorable.\\nThe tillable areas on the continent which are least\\nadapted to the growth of sorghum are those which\\nborder on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and north\\nfrom Portland in Maine on the one hand and from\\nSan Francisco on the other.\\nSoil. The soils that possess highest adaptation\\nfor com also possess highest adaptation for sorghum.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "38 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe latter will grow best, therefore, on loam\\nsoils which are well supplied with humus, and which\\nrest on a subsoil of readily permeable clay. All, or\\nnearly all, prairie soils are well suited to the growth\\nof sorghum. But the most suitable soils for this\\nplant have more of the sand element in them than\\nthose which possess highest adaptation for growing\\ncorn. Sorghum may also be grown with success in\\nsandy soils underlaid with sand or gravel and so\\nlacking in moisture that corn could not be success-\\nfully grown upon them. On the other hand, in the\\ndry belt there are vast stretches of just such land\\nwhich are so lacking in moisture that sorghum even\\ncannot be grown on them in the absence of irrigation.\\nOn certain other soils, as, for instance, clays of more\\nor less fineness of texture, corn may be grown to bet-\\nter advantage than sorghum. The former will suc-\\nceed measurably well on clays so stiff as to be quite\\nunsuited to the growth of sorghum.\\nPlace in the Rotation. When sorghum for\\nsoiling is the only crop grown on the land during\\nthe season of growth, it may be placed anywhere in\\nthe rotation, but preferably between two grain crops,\\nas then it can be grown as a cleaning crop. Its effi-\\ncacy for such a use will depend much upon whether\\nit is or is not cultivated while growing. In either\\ncase, when the land is properly handled weed growth\\nwill be diminished. Sorghum may also be grown\\nas a catch crop, but not to the same extent as corn,\\nsince some varieties of corn may be grown in a\\nshorter period than any of the varieties of sorghum.\\nWhen thus grown, however, it may frequently be\\nmade to follow such crops as winter rye, whether", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "SORGHUM. 39\\npastured, used for green food, plowed under, or har-\\nvested. Sometimes it comes after clover is plowed\\nunder or made into hay or early sown rape that has\\nbeen eaten down. It may also be made to follow\\ncertain early garden crops, and crops intended for\\nproducing hay or grain, but which, through lack of\\npromise, have been pastured off. The chief objec-\\ntion to growing sorghum as a catch crop arises from\\nthe want of sufficient time, between the plowing of\\nthe land and the sowing of the seed, to give ample\\nopportunity for sprouting the weed seeds that lie on\\nor near the surface of the soil. Since corn may be\\nharrowed to a much greater extent than sorghum\\nwithout injury to the plants, it has higher adaptation\\nthan sorghum for being grown as a catch crop; on\\nthe other hand, sorghum will grow under conditions\\nso dry as to bring distress upon the corn crop.\\nPreparing the Soil. Land in the best condition\\nfor being planted with sorghum is clean on and near\\nthe surface, is possessed of a fine tilth and is firm and\\nmoist. When sorghum is the only crop that is to\\nbe grown on the land for the season, it is usually\\nnot difficult to so cultivate the soil that it will be in\\nthe condition above described when the crop is to be\\nsown. Usually it is preferable to plow the land in\\nthe autumn. There will then be time to sprout the\\nweed seeds on and near the surface, and in turn to\\ndestroy them before the seed is planted. This can\\nbe accomplished by the occasional use of the harrow,\\nand in some instances it may be necessary also to\\nuse some form of cultivation. The precise nature\\nof the implement to be used will be measurably\\ndependent upon the character of the soil. While the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "40 SOILING CROPS AND TPIE SILO.\\nsurface soil is thus being stirred, its power to hold\\nmoisture is also being increased. And even though\\nit be necessary to defer sowing the seed for a time,\\nin order to secure the requisites necessary to insure\\na good seed bed, it is better to adopt such a course\\nthan to sow the seed on ill-prepared land.\\nAs previously intimated, there is usually not\\ntime to prepare the land thus, when sorghum is\\ngrown as a catch crop, but some things can be done\\nthat will tend to enhance the growth of the crop\\nwhen it is planted. As soon as the land is plowed\\nit should be rolled and harrowed to prevent the\\nescape of moisture. But if there is already sufficient\\nmoisture in the land, it is not necessary to use the\\nroller; and if the sowing of the seed can be deferred\\nfor a time, without too much hazard, something can\\nbe accomplished by way of cleaning the land on or\\nnear the surface. But more commonly it is necessary\\nto sow the seed as soon as the ground can be made\\nready for it.\\nWhile sorghum grows fairly well on land of\\nbut medium fertility, since the roots gather much\\nfood in the subsoil, the yields are usually propor-\\ntionate to the fertility in the land. Farmyard\\nmanure, when it can be obtained, is one of the best\\nand cheapest fertilizers for sorghum. Commonly it\\nwould be applied before the land is plowed, whether\\nused in the fresh or in the reduced form. In the\\nfresh form it may, with much propriety, be buried in\\nthe autumn, thus giving it ample time to measurably\\ndecay before the crop begins to feed upon it. But\\non leachy soils and in climates with much rainfall,\\nthe aim should be to apply the manure only a short", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "SORGHUM. 41\\ntime before the crop is to be planted, lest its more\\nvaluable ingredients should filter into the drainage\\nwater and pass away before they can be appropriated\\nby the plants of the crop which is to follow. It is\\nnot a good plan to top-dress the seed bed which is\\nto receive sorghum seed with any kind of farmyard\\nmanure, because of the prevalence of weed seeds in\\nthe same. But it may in some instances serve an\\nexcellent purpose, to top-dress sandy soils with\\nfarmyard manure in the autumn, and then to bury\\nthe manure that has been so applied in the early\\nspring. The surface soil will thus be so far enriched\\nas to promote a rapid growth.\\nCommercial fertilizers may be applied alone, or\\nin conjunction with farmyard manure. Complete\\nfertilizers are more commonly used, but the exact\\nnature of the product to be applied will depend upon\\nthe extent to which the soil is wanting in the various\\nleading elements of fertility. The aim should be to\\napply these fertilizers so that they will stimulate vig-\\norous growth in the plants when they are young.\\nsince, if they have thus been made strong while yet\\nyoung, their power to extract plant food from the\\nsoil at a later period of development will be greatly\\nenhanced. The fertilizer should therefore be sowri\\nwhen practicable at the same time the seed is sown,\\nand in near proximity to the same, but not too close\\nto it when the fertilizer is possessed of any ingre-\\ndients of a caustic nature.\\nFor several years the question of fertilizers for\\nsorghum is not likely to give much concern to the\\ngrowers of the same in the upper basin of the Mis-\\nsissippi river. It is very different, however, with the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "42 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfarmers living on the more hungry soils of the lower\\nAtlantic and Gulf states.\\nSozving. One of the following methods of\\nsowing sorghum is usually adopted First, it is sown\\nbroadcast by hand and covered with the harrow;\\nsecond, by the grain drill, all the tubes or only every\\nalternate tube being used third, by hand in shallow\\nfurrows marked out by the plow or, fourth, by the\\ngrain drill in single or double rows with a space oi\\nthirty to forty-two inches between them. The first\\nm.ethod is usually practiced by those who have no\\ngrain drill, since it is convenient to sow the seed thus.\\nThe chief objections to sowing sorghum by this plan\\nare, first, the seed is imperfectly covered and at vary-\\ning depths, hence it grows up more or less unevenly\\nsecond, some of the seed in dry weather fails to\\ngerminate third, when sown thus it cannot be culti-\\nvated, which, under very dry conditions, may lead\\nto failure in the crop. The second method buries\\nthe seed at a uniform depth, hence the germination\\nof the seed may be expected to be more uniform, but\\nthe objections from smothering through the presence\\nof weeds and through injury from dry weather are\\nmuch the same as when the seed is sown by hand,\\nthough less in degree.\\nThe use of only every other drill tube when sow-\\ning the seed insures a more bulky growth of the crop,\\nbut at the expense of the fine character of the growth.\\nThe third method is only resorted to when a small\\nquantity is to be sown in the absence of a grain drill,\\nand when at the same time it is desirable to cultivate\\nthe young crop. The fourth method is followed\\nwhen a large area is to be grown, and when it is", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "bo\\no\\nbe", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "44 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ndesirable to cultivate the crop. In sowing the seed\\nalmost any make of drill may be used. In sowing\\ndouble ro^\\\\s two adjoining tubes are active, while\\nthe tubes that occupy the space between the double\\nrows are inactive, that is to say, not in use. The\\nspace between the rows that form the double row is\\nthus from six to eight or nine inches wide, according\\nto the make or pattern of the drill, and the distance\\nbetween the double row^s wall be determined by the\\nnature of the soil, the variety of the sorghum to be\\ngrown and the character of growth expected from\\nit. The richer the soil, the more distant the rows\\nfrom one another the larger the variety of the sor-\\nghum the coarser will be the character of the growth\\nproduced. The chief objects sought in planting the\\ndouble in preference to the single row are To secure\\nan increased yield in weight of fodder, and to secure\\na crop fine in character. One objection to the sys-\\ntem is found in the shelter that is thus provided for\\nweeds between the tw^o lines of the double row.\\nProminent among the varieties of sorghum that\\nare more commonly grown are the Early Amber,\\nsometimes called the Minnesota Amber, the Early\\nOrange, Folger s Early and Link s Hybrid. The\\nfirst nam.ed has marked adaptation for northern lati-\\ntudes. The second and third are much grown in\\nthe states of the middle west, and the fourth is one\\namong several varieties grown in the south.\\nThe quantity of seed to be sown will depend\\nupon climatic conditions and upon the mode of plant-\\ning. It is manifest the system of sowing broadcast\\nwill call for much more seed than the system of\\nplanting sorghum in single or double rows. When", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "SORGHUM. 45\\nthe seed is broadcasted by hand or when it is sown\\nwith the grain drill, all the tubes in use, one\\nbushel of seed per acre will usually be sufficient,\\nalthough some growers advocate sowing as much as\\ntwo bushels per acre. Where the moisture is likely\\nto prove inadequate to the needs of the growing\\ncrop, results more satisfactory will be obtained by\\nreducing the quantity of the seed to be sown. When\\ngrown in single rows with a wide space between\\nthem, a few quarts of seed will suffice per acre, but\\nin growing this crop for soiling uses it will, usually,\\nbe found advantageous to sow not less than a peck\\nof seed per acre, whatsoever the method of growing\\nthe crop that may be adopted.\\nThe time for sowing the seed will, of course,\\nvary with such conditions as relate to climate and\\nrotation. It is a mistake to plant before warm and\\nsettled weather has set in. When sown too early\\nthe germination of the seed will be imperfect, the\\nearly growth will be sickly in character, and the\\nweeds will push on ahead of the sorghum, so when\\nthe crop starts to grow no conditions, howsoever\\nfavorable, can make it a success. A crop grown\\nunder similar conditions, except that it is not sown\\nuntil the weather is sufficiently warm, will prove\\nmuch more satisfactory than the former. The best\\nrule to follow, perhaps, is that which defers sowing\\nthe sorghum seed until the corn crop has been\\nplanted.\\nOf course sorghum may be sown for soiling at\\nany subsequent time, so long as there is time enough\\nto secure sufficient growth to pay for the young crop.\\nIt must, of course, be harvested before the autumn", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "46 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfrosts arrive. While green and succulent it is easily\\ninjured by frost.\\nCultivation. Harrowing sorghum is the only\\nmode of cultivation that may be resorted to when\\nit is sown on the broadcast plan, either by hand or\\nwith the grain drill. It cannot be harrowed nearly\\nso much as corn, owing to the much greater delicacy\\nof the young plants, and when planted with the\\ngrain drill the harrow ma}^ be more effectively used\\nthan when the seed has been broadcasted, for then\\nthe plants do not uproot so easily. Sorghum sown\\nwith the grain drill may, usually, be harrowed with\\nbenefit to the crop just when the first blades are\\npushing through the soil. The harrow used should\\nbe light, of a broad sweep and the teeth of the same\\nshould be slanted backward to the greatest possible\\nextent when the work is being done. No little dif-\\nference of opinion prevails as to the degree of the\\nbenefit arising from harrowing the crop after it has\\ngot well through the soil. It is at least question-\\nable if sorghum should be harrowed after the plants\\nappear until they get up several inches above the\\nsurface. Before that period of advancement they\\nare easily uprooted and also easily buried in the\\nprocess of harrowing. The quick growth of sor-\\nghum will certainly be promoted by harrowing, but\\nthe crop should not be harrowed to the extent of\\nmaking the plants too few to produce a maximum\\nof forage. Where it is intended to use the harrow\\nfreely on the young plants, enough additional seed\\nshould be sown to allow for the expected loss.\\nIn sections deficient in moisture, it is more nec-\\nessary to use the harrow freely than in those opposite", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "SORGHUM. 47\\nin character. When the crop is threatened with\\nserious injury from the presence of young weeds, it\\nought to be harrowed. More sorghum will be\\nsecured, and that of a superior quality, from a piece\\nof land in which the plants have been thinned over-\\nmuch by harrowing than from a similar piece of\\nequal area in which the weeds have obtained the\\nascendency over the sorghum.\\nWhen practicable, the cultivation of sorghum\\nsown in rows sufficiently distant should be early\\nl)egun, it should be frequent, and may be continued\\nalmost up to the time of the last cutting of the crop\\nfor the season, and it ought to be shallow rather than\\ndeep. After the first cutting of the crop, tlie benefit\\nfrom prompt subsequent cultivation will be\\nabundantly apparant. Some hand hoeing may be\\ngiven betimes with profit in the line of the row, but\\nwhen the land has been well prepared such work is\\nseldom necessary.\\nFeeding. There is no cast-iron rule as to when\\nthe cutting of the crop should begin. It should not\\nbe delayed, however, until the seed heads are formed\\nwhen a second cutting is intended. If the sorghum\\nis cut after that period the yield from the second\\ngrowth will be much reduced. When cut too early\\nthe yield from the first cutting is unduly small.\\nUsually the cutting of the first growth does\\nnot begin until the crop is from two to three\\nfeet high, but it may begin earlier if necessary, and\\nthe cutting of the second growth may begin as soon\\nas the seed heads appear, or even earlier. Since,\\nunder normal conditions, the crop is cut and fed\\nfrom day to day according to the needs of the live", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "48 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nstock, the second growth will frequently be ready to\\ncut by the time the first growth is all consumed,\\nproviding the consumption of the first growth has\\ncovered a period sufficiently long. This period w ill\\nvary, but it should not be less than three to four\\nweeks. Sorghum, therefore, from a single sowing,\\nmay be made to provide soiling food in the green\\nform for live stock from six to eight weeks. But\\nduring periods of severe drouth, the second cutting-\\nmay not materialize, or it may, at least, be disap-\\npointing in its growth. When but one cutting is\\nmade the harvesting may begin as soon as the seed\\nheads are fully formed, and may be continued until\\nthe crop is fully matured. But when the sorghum\\nis to be fed to sheep or swine in the green form, they\\nwill consume it with greater relish when cut at an\\nearly stage of growth. The food is then fine in\\ncharacter, juicy, tender and contains but little fiber.\\nWhen thus fed one or two more cuttings can be\\nobtained in one season because of the earlier stage\\nof development at which the sorghum is cut. But it\\nis more common to pasture sheep and swine on\\nyoung sorghum than to feed it to them as soil-\\ning food.\\nWhen but a small quantity is wanted per day,\\nthe scythe is commonly used in cutting the sorghum.\\nWhen grown along and beside a pasture fence,\\nof necessity the scythe must be used in cutting\\nthe food for convenience in feeding the same.\\nWhen a large amount is required the mower must\\nbe used. As the plants do not shrivel readily,\\nenough may be mown at one time to last for two or\\nthree days, more especially when the green food is", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "SORGHUM. 49\\nto be fed to the cattle and horses. As in feeding\\ncorn, it may be fed within a pasture, in racks, feed\\nlots, or mangers in the stables.\\nSome care is necessary, especially when the\\nfeeding begins to limit the amount fed, or to feed it\\nin a somewhat wilted condition, lest it should cause\\nhoven or bloat. Inattention at this point may lead\\nto serious loss, but green sorghum is less liable to\\nproduce hoven than clover or alfalfa. The amount\\nthat may be given daily need not be limited except\\nby the needs of the live stock, unless for a few days\\nat the first. However, more satisfactory results will\\nfollow when some other food less succulent is given.\\nSorghum may also be fed to live stock with great\\nadvantage in the matured form, on what may be\\ntermed the soiling plan of feeding. When thus fed\\nit is common to cut the crop with the binder or\\nmower, but more commonly with the latter. The\\nsorghum is then allowed to lie on the ground for sev-\\neral days before being gathered together, especially\\nwhen it is not well matured, or when the weather is\\ndamp. It does not take injury from rain as corn\\nwould when thus exposed. The outside of the stem\\nis hard, hence the rain does not penetrate it. But\\nsome injury is done through the soil that adheres to\\nit. It is true, nevertheless, that sorghum exposed\\nthus and lying on the ground for a period of two or\\nthree weeks in rainy weather has been eaten subse-\\nquently and with a relish by live stock. It is drawn\\ninto windrows, by using a strong rake, and is then\\nput into large cocks or heaps by hand.\\nWhen the c rop is very heavy, it may be bunched\\nv/ithout first having been raked. In such cocks\\n4", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "50 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsorghum will not ferment or mold as corn does,\\nhence as much as 500 pounds, or more than that,\\nmay be put in one heap without any danger of loss\\nfrom heating. From these the sorghum may be\\ndrawn and fed to live stock in the pastures, in the\\nsheds or stables, as desired. This food is greatly\\nrelished by the animals at that season of the year,\\nand since it is fed with but little handling it is con-\\nsidered an economical food. Feeding from such a\\nsource may be continued until the closing in of the\\nwinter. When sorghum is to be fed thus, it is com-\\nmonly grown like grain, that it may be fine enough\\nto be handled with the fork without difficulty. No\\nother kind of food that can be grown comes in more\\nopportunely for feeding at that season than sorghum.\\nIn the states of the middle west and in those of the\\nsouth, where winter delays its coming, this method\\nof feeding sorghum is peculiarly advantageous.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nTHE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS.\\nThe chief of the non-saccharine sorghums are\\nKaffir corn, Milo maize, dhourra and Jerusalem\\ncorn. Teosinte, properly speaking, is not a sorghum,\\nbut it will be included in the discussion of the non-\\nsaccharine sorghums because of the similarity in the\\nmethods of cultivation and in the uses for which it\\nis grown. Of these plants, Kaffir corn is the best\\nknown and the most extensively cultivated, but it\\nwould be premature to reach the conclusion that\\nbecause of this it is the most valuable. It has been\\ncultivated apparently in the United States for a\\nlonger period than the other non-saccharine sor-\\nghums. Milo maize in some of its varieties is likely\\nto make a strong competitor to Kaffir corn.\\nThese plants are all of comparatively recent\\nintroduction into the United States. At least no\\none of them has been extensively grown in the same\\nuntil within a comparatively recent period. They\\nare but little known, therefore, to any considerable\\nnumber of the agriculturists of the country. It will\\nbe in order, therefore, to give a short description of\\neach and also to make some reference to the distinc-\\ntive peculiarities of growth.\\nKaffir corn (Sorghum vulgare) is a sturdy\\ngrowing plant. The stem is thick at the base, taper-\\ning toward the top and usually grows to the hight of\\n51", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "52 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nabout five to six feet. Since it does not grow so\\ntall as many of the varieties of corn, nor so tall as\\nsorghum, or Milo maize, it is more easily handled\\nthan these in the sheaf when fully grown. The\\nleaves are long and large and fairly numerous, but\\nnot markedly abundant. It throws up a single spike\\nwhich bears a head in which the seeds are closely\\npacked. The head is fully six inches long and three\\ninches broad and stands erect, or nearly so. Large\\nyields of seed are obtained, and when ground its\\nfeeding value for the various classes of farm stock\\nis nearly equal to that of corn. The plants are but\\nlittle liable to break down with the wind. They\\nhave extraordinary power to grow under dry condi-\\ntions and to retain succulence in the leaves and stems\\neven after the seed has matured. The leading\\nvarieties of Kaffir corn are the red and the white.\\nThe red matures earlier than the white, but the latter\\nwould seem to produce more seed. The red variety\\nis better adapted than the white to states north from\\nw^here the mast suitable conditions exist for growing\\nKaffir corn.\\nMilo maize (Sorghum viilgare or Andropogon\\nsorghum, var. is a vigorous growing plant. In the\\ntests made at the Minnesota university experiment\\nstation in 1897-98, the plants attained an average\\nhight of about eight feet. The leaves are large, and\\nfrom the center of the stalk upward they are quite\\nnumerous. Each stalk when matured is surmounted\\nby a large head which bears seed profusely. This\\nhead has an average length of about six inches and\\nan average diameter of about four inches. When\\nthe head first appears it is erect, but when matured", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "54 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nit hangs downward. It is somewhat more open\\nthan the seed head which is produced in Kaffir corn.\\nThere are two leading varieties of Milo maize,\\nnamed respectively the yellow and the white. The\\nformer is the earlier of the two. In 1897 some of\\nthe seed of the yellow variety matured at the Minne-\\nsota university experiment station, but not all of it.\\nIn 1898, one plat of the same variety was pastured\\nwith sheep. About the same results were obtained\\nas from pasturing early amber sorghum. Another\\nplat was grown in rows three feet distant from one\\nanother and harvested like corn. It was found that\\nthe numerous leaves around the top of the plants\\nadded to the difficulty in shocking and in preserving\\nthe fodder from injury by rain. When fed to cattle\\nand sheep they ate it with more relish than they mani-\\nfested for an}^ of the other non-saccharine sorghums.\\nDhourra (Andropogon sorghum^ Brot. is of at\\nleast four varieties, the brown, the black, the red and\\nthe white. Of these, the brown is more commonly\\ngrown. It is so named, doubtless, from the color\\nof the seeds when ripe. It grows less rapidly than\\nMilo maize. At the Minnesota university experi-\\nment station in 1897, the plants grew from six to\\neight feet in hight. The large and long leaves are\\nnot numerous. The seed heads are thick and heavy\\nand oval shaped. They hang on a stem, which,\\nthough erect at first, assumes a shape resembling the\\nneck of a goose as the maturing process goes on. It\\nis a rather slow grower and matures seed about the\\nsame time as Kaffir corn.\\nJerusalem corn (Andropogon sorghum, Brot.)\\nbears some resemblance to dhourra in appearance", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "(SS)\\nPig. 7. Yellow Jlilo Haize\\nMinnesota University Experiment Farm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "56 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nand also in its habits of growth. It is even\\nStronger in the stem than dhourra and has still less\\nof forage. The seed heads are large, and like those\\nof dhourra, hang on hook-shaped stems. At the\\nMinnesota university experiment station in 1897\\nthe plants grev/ to the hight of about five feet. Like\\nthose of dhourra they grew more slowly than Milo\\nmaize or Early Amber sorghum. Jerusalem corn\\nshould be grown rather for the seed than for the\\nfodder. It is not probable that either dhourra or\\nJerusalem corn will be extensively grown for soiling\\nfood where Milo maize and sorghum can be grown.\\nTeosinte (Reana hixurians) is distinguished\\nfrom the non-saccharine sorghums in the less erect\\ncharacter of the growth, in the extent to which the\\nplants sucker, in the greater fineness and abundance\\nof the long and slender leaves, and in the manner\\nin which the seed is produced. The seed grows on\\nsmall ears and the ears grow numerously around\\nevery top joint of the seed stem. They are enclosed\\nin a husk. There is probably no fodder plant that\\ntillers so much as teosinte. As many as sixty\\nsuckers have been produced by a single plant. In\\nthe experiments conducted at the Minnesota univer-\\nsity experiment station in 1898, it was found that\\nwhen planted in rows three feet apart and thinned\\nto fifteen inches in the row, each plant produced from\\nfive to twenty-five stalks. Those thinned to from\\ntwo to three inches in the row produced from two to\\ntwelve stalks. The latter were also much more\\nupright in their ^sffowth. Seed heads were not even\\nformed on any of the plants. Teosinte would make\\nan excellent pasture and soiling plant for the south", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "M\\n1\\nJ\\n^1\\nfi\\n1\\n^i\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0J\\n(57)\\nFig. 8. Brown Dhourra\\nMinnesota University Experiment Farm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "58 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbut for the low palatability which it possesses. It\\nis thought a greater weight of food can be obtained\\nfrom this plant than from any of the sorghums or\\nmillets that have been tried in the United States.\\nThese plants can all be made to furnish pasture,\\nsoiling food, hay and fodder for winter feeding, and\\nwhen the season is long enough to mature seed, they\\ncan all be made to furnish large yields of grain. It\\nis yet premature to say much about the precise rela-\\ntive adaptation of these plants for feeding uses. It\\nwould probably be correct, however, to state that\\nMilo maize and teosinte are the most promising\\npasture and soiling plants, that Kaffir corn is the\\nmost promising fodder plant, especially for dry\\nareas, and that dhourra and Jerusalem corn are the\\nlargest producers of seed. The seeds of all the non-\\nsaccharine sorghums are excellent for all kinds of\\nfarm animals, but imless when given to fowls they\\nought to be ground before being fed.\\nThe yields of fodder will of course vary greatly\\nwith the variations in soils and in the length of the\\nseasons. The}^ will run from a few to many tons.\\nThe largest yields of soiling food are obtained from\\nteosinte and Milo maize.\\nDistribution. The non-saccharine sorghums\\nare without exception less hardy than the common\\nvarieties of corn. Nor are they so hardy as sor-\\nghum is, at least in some of its varieties. It follows\\ntherefore, that these plants are not likely to succeed\\nfar northward. Only in the Mississippi basin and\\nin the Rocky mountain valleys, with their hot mid-\\nsummer temperatures, are they likel}^ to succeed in\\nthe near future north of the fortieth parallel of north", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "i^\\no", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "6o SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nlatitude, that is to say, north of the parallel which\\nruns through Springfield, 111. and even in the Mis-\\nsissippi basin they can be grown with greater\\nsuccess south of that line rather than north of\\nthe same. In the trials made with the non-\\nsaccharine sorghums at the Minnesota university\\nexperiment farm, all the varieties tested pro-\\nduced an abundant growth of green food, as will\\nbe evident from what has previously been said in\\nregard to them, but only in a few instances did any\\nof the varieties mature seed. These plants are also\\nmore tender than corn and sorghum in the early\\nstages of their growth, and with the exception of\\nMilo maize they would seem to be less palatable than\\ncorn and sorghum. In view of these facts, it is only\\nin localities not well adapted to the growth of corn\\nand sorghum that the non-saccharine sorghums are\\nlikely to supersede them. It is not probable, there-\\nfore, that they will supersede corn and sorghum\\nnorth from the fortieth parallel of latitude, at least\\nnot in the near future. Of course it is impossible\\nto say how much further to the north the line of suc-\\ncessful growth may be pushed when these plants\\nbecome better acclimatized.\\nThe greater power which the non-saccharine\\nsorghums have to grow under conditions too dry for\\nthe successful growth of corn, furnishes a sufficient\\nreason for growing them under such conditions. A\\nsecond reason is found in the greater yields of grain\\nwhich they furnish in many localities in the south.\\nA third reason arises from the power which they\\nhave to grow again when cut. This property, in\\nconjunction with the abundance of the food which", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS. 6l\\nthey produce, gives them a high place as soiUng\\nfoods or even as pasture plants where they can be\\nsuccessfully grown.\\nThe highest adaptation for the non-saccharine\\nsorghums is found at present west from the Missis-\\nsippi river and south from Nebraska, with Kansas,\\nArkansas and Oklahoma as its center. But both\\neast and west from these states they can be grown\\nprofitably over considerable areas. Teosinte has\\nhigher adaptation to the states which mark the south-\\nern boundary of the Republic, but it may be grown\\nsuccessfully as soiling food in the states immediately\\nnorth of these.\\nSoil. All the non-saccharine sorghums would\\nseem to have greater power than corn to gather plant\\nfood in a dry soil. They are therefore relatively\\nbetter adapted than corn to a sandy soil. But it\\nwould not be correct to say that they have greater\\npower to grow in a sandy soil than in a sandy loam,\\nnor in a dry climate than in one possessed of con-\\nsiderable moisture. They would seem also to have\\ngreater power than corn to gather food in soils low\\nin humus, and yet where humus is present in consid-\\nerable quantities they grow more vigorously than\\nwhere it is present only in meager supply. All these\\nplants gather much of their food in the subsoil,\\nhence the nature of the subsoil has an influence on\\ntheir growth not very much less than the surface\\nsoil. Subsoils, therefore, that contain a layer of\\nhardpan which is near the surface are quite unsuited\\nto the growth of these plants.\\nThe most suitable soils are those sandy in tex-\\nture, possessed of a considerable supply of humus", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "62 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nand underlaid with clay that is open in character\\nrather than retentive. But some of the non-saccha-\\nrine sorghums will produce fairly good crops when\\nboth the soil and subsoil are sandy. Notably is this\\ntrue of Kaffir corn. The sandy soils of the Rocky\\nmountain valleys have high adaptation for the non-\\nsaccharine sorghums, and the same is true of\\nmuch of the land in the southern and south-\\nwestern states.\\nPlace in the Rotation. The non-saccharine\\nsorghums consume considerable quantities of nitro-\\ngen while making their growth, hence the aim should\\nbe to grow them after nitrogen-gathering crops.\\nSince they will grow better on soils possessed of a\\nfair quantity of humus, the effort should be made to\\ngrow them as far as can be done where green\\nmanures have been buried, and within a reasonably\\nrecent period. They can therefore with much pro-\\npriety be made to come after crimson clover, the\\ncowpea, the soy bean, the common vetch, the sand\\nvetch and the velvet bean, even though these crops\\nshould be harvested. They should also be grown\\nafter such crops as winter rye or rape plowed under,\\nand on overturned sod when the conditions may\\nadmit of so doing. But they may of course be given\\nalmost any place in the rotation when a due regard\\nis had to the fertility of the soil.\\nCultivation is also iisually given to these crops\\nduring the growing period, hence they may be\\nclassed as cleaning crops. This means that they\\nought to be followed by grain crops where these can\\nbe successfully grown, and grass seeds should be\\nsown on the grain crops. But in some sections", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS. 03\\nwhere these crops can be successfully grown, the\\nconditions are too dry to admit of the successful\\ngrowth of the grasses that are ordinarily cultivated.\\nIn such locations some winter crop could be made\\nto follow these crops, since the ground is in excellent\\ncondition to receive it, and this could be done\\nwith but little additional preparation of the land by\\nway of tillage. These crops include winter rye, the\\nvrinter vetch, the sand vetch, crimson clover, and in\\nsome localities, alfalfa.\\nPreparing the Soil. The preparation of the\\nland for these crops is much the same as for corn.\\nThe aim should be to secure a free, firm and moist\\nseed bed in sections low in the amount of the rainfall.\\nI his can best be secured by plowing the land as long\\nas possible previous to the planting of the seed, and\\nby harrowing the surface of the land thus plowed at\\nintervals of more or less duration. This method of\\nmanaging land will also be very helpful in removing\\nweeds from the uppermost section of the soil. These\\ncrops are planted later than corn and even later than\\nsorghum, hence the season is more prolonged during\\nwhich such treatment can be given to the land.\\nSometimes in areas much deficient in moisture the\\nplan termed listing is adopted in growing some\\nof these crops, as in growing corn. When this\\nmethod of planting is followed, the soil is not first\\nplowed. Furrows are turned both ways from the\\nline where the seed is to be planted. The work is\\ndone by using a double-mold-board plow, which\\nalso loosens the soil for some distance below the line\\nof the furrow. In the soil thus loosened the\\nseed is planted. The object sought is to enable", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "64 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe plants to gather moisture under circumstances\\nmore favorable than would result from ordinary\\ncultivation.\\nWhen rainfall is usually abundant, the aim\\nshould be to secure friability rather than impac-\\ntion in the surface soil, hence it would have to\\nbe more deeply stirred during the preparatory\\ncleaning process. But when these crops come\\nafter a winter crop pastured off or plowed under,\\nthere is not much time for thus attempting to\\nclean the land.\\nThe fertilizers suitable for non-saccharine sor-\\nghums are practically the same as those suitable for\\nsorghum. When, however, farmyard manure is\\napplied under very dry climatic conditions, it must\\nnot be applied in large quantities lest the too rapid\\nescape of moisture near the surface of the soil should\\nbe promoted.\\nSolving the Seed. The method adopted in\\nsowing the seed of these crops w^ll vary somewhat\\nwith the kind of crop, with the percentage of mois-\\nture present in the soil, Avith the percentage in the\\nsame that may be expected in the growing season,\\nand with the precise object sought in growing the\\ndifferent varieties. The more branching, for\\ninstance, the habit of growth in the plants, the more\\ndistant from one another do they require to be\\ngrown. The less the degree of moisture the more\\ndistant also should they be from one another. If\\nfineness of leaf and stem are sought, the plants may.\\nunder some conditions be sown broadcast or\\nwith the grain drill on w^hat may be termed the\\nbroadcast plan. But when a more vigorous and", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS. 65\\nluxurious growth is sought, then the seed should be\\nplanted in rows and cultivated. The latter sys-\\ntem will be more commonly adopted where moisture\\nis deficient.\\nWhen sown on the broadcast plan, the aim\\nshould be to plant with the ordinary grain drill all\\nthe tubes being in use, or only every alternate tube.\\nas may be desired. When sow^n in rows far enough\\napart to admit of cultivation being given, the same\\nimplement may be used, but of course various other\\nseed planters may also be used. The rows should be\\nfrom thirty to, say, forty-two inches distant, accord-\\ning to circumstances, except in the case of teosinte,\\nv/hich should, at least when grown for certain uses,\\nhave a greater distance between the rows. But the\\nmost suitable distance for placing the rows when\\ngrowing these crops can only be determined with\\nprecision in each locality by actual experience in\\ngrowing them.\\nThe time for planting will depend on the\\nlocation and the character of the weather. It would\\nbe a mistake, however, to plant the seeds before the\\nweather had become steadily warm. The plants are\\nless able when young to endure cold than corn in\\nnearly all its varieties, and than sorghum in its\\nleading varieties. At the Minnesota university\\nexperiment station low temperatures prevailed dur-\\ning two or three weeks subsequent to the planting of\\nthese crops in 1897. Corn in some of its varieties\\nmade a fairly good start notwithstanding, and the\\nEarly Amber variety of sorghum maintained its hold\\nupon the soil. The non-saccharine sorghums with-\\nout exception only partially germinated, although\\n5", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "66 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe conditions were precisely the same. It was\\nnecessary to plant the non-saccharine sorghums a\\nsecond time.\\nThe amount of seed required will vary with the\\nclimatic and soil conditions and with the character\\nof the produce sought. The more favorable the\\nattendant conditions, the greater should be the\\namount of seed sown when growth fine in character\\nis sought, and since the plants of some of these sor-\\nghums produce more stalks and foliage than others,\\nit is not necessary with the former to plant so much\\nseed. Notably is this true of teosinte, and in a less\\ndegree of Milo maize. When planted in rows where\\ncultivation is to be given other than harrowing, a\\nfew pounds of seed will suffice for an acre. But\\nwhen these crops are sown broadcast, from about\\none-half bushel to one and one-half bushels of seed\\nper acre are used.\\nCultivation. When the non-saccharine sor-\\nghums are planted with any kind of drill or planter,\\nthey may be harrowed without hazard to the plants\\njust as they begin to push up through the ground,\\nproviding the harrow is light, and that when in use\\na backward slant is given to the teeth. Later, on\\ncertain soils, as those quite loose in character, such\\nas the humus soils of the prairie, seme form of\\nweeder may be used in many instances, more espe-\\ncially when the plants are in rows distant from one\\nanother. When thus planted, further cultivation\\nshould be given with more or less frequency. It\\nshould be sufficient to destro}^ weeds and to retain\\nmoisture in the soil to the greatest extent practicable.\\nWhere moisture is usually more or less wanting, the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS. 6/\\ncrops should in all instances be so planted that they\\nmay be cultivated.\\nFeeding. The non-saccharine sorghums and\\nalso teosinte can be cut for soiling food from one to\\nseveral times in one season. More particularly is\\nthis true of Milo maize and teosinte. The same\\nmode of ciitting, carting and feeding may be adopted\\nas in handling sorghum (see Page 47). The cut-\\nting may begin at any time after sufficient growth\\nhas been made to justify the same, and the residue\\nof the crop not wanted for green food may be allowed\\nto mature. When sufficiently matured, it can be\\nharvested and fed in winter. The ration is improved\\nby feeding these crops in conjunction with one of\\nthe legumes, as, for instance, alfalfa, vetches, cow-\\npeas or soy beans. In many instances it would be\\npossible to feed them thus, since one or more of the\\nlegumes named can be successfully grown under\\nconditions suitable for the successful growth of the\\nnon-saccharine sorghums.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nPLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY.\\nMany kinds of clover are now being grown in\\nthis country. Some of tliese are indigenous, but\\nthose possessed of highest economic value have been\\nintroduced from Europe. While each kind has\\na mission of usefulness in some section or sections\\nof the continent, only a few are suitable in\\nany marked degree for being grown as soiling food.\\nThe chief of these are the common or medium red,\\nthe mammoth, alsike, crimson and alfalfa. As the\\nniethods of growing the first four varieties are in\\nmany respects very similar, they will be considered\\ntogether. Alfalfa will be discussed by itself, since\\nit differs considerably from the other clovers men-\\ntioned in habits of growth, and for this reason\\nrequires different management.\\nMEDIUM, MAMMOTH, ALSIKE AND CRIMSON CLOVER.\\nMedium red clover (TrifoUum pratense) is\\nbiennial and perennial in its habit of growth, accord-\\ning to the climatic and other conditions under which\\nit is grown. It differs from the other three kinds\\nin the continuity of its grow^th throughout all or\\nnearly all of the growing season. Because of this\\npeculiarity it usuallv produces two cuttings of soiling\\n68", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 69\\nfood or hay in one season, whereas, the others only\\nproduce one.\\nMammoth clover (Trifolium medium) is also\\nbiennial and perennial in its habit of growth. It\\ndiffers from the other clovers in the stronger char-\\nacter of the top and root growth which characterizes\\nit. The- food which it produces is in consequence\\ncoarser in character, unless when the plants are\\ngrown very thickly. It is better adapted than the\\nmedium variety to soils that are medium or less than\\ntljat in fertility. The bloom on both the medium\\nand mammoth varieties is a beautiful red. To the\\ncasual observer the only differences apparent in the\\nvarieties while they are growing are the larger leaf,\\nstem and head of the mammoth variety.\\nAlsike clover (Trifolium hyhridum) is a peren-\\nnial plant. The period of its duration is dependent\\non such conditions as pertain to climate, soil and\\ntreatment. All of the clovers under discussion will\\nlive longer than they otherwise would if prevented\\nfrom producing seed. This kind differs from all\\nthe others in the greater fineness of the growth and\\nin the beautiful blending of white and red tints in\\nthe bloom.\\nCrimson or Scarlet clover (Trifolium incarna-\\ntum) is an annual plant, that is to say, it completes\\nthe cycle of its existence within twelve months from\\nthe date of sowing the seed, although more com-\\nmonly it is sown one year and reaped the next. It\\ndiffers from the other clovers in the shape of the\\nheads, which are oblong and cone-shaped, in the\\nrich scarlet color of the bloom, and in the more\\nhairy character of the stems, a property which", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "70 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ndetracts from its feeding value when grown for\\nhay..\\nWhile clover of all the species named furnishes\\nan excellent soiling food, it is not so commonly\\ngrown for such a use, for the reason, first, that the\\nyield per acre is much less than that of many other\\nfoods grown for soiling; second, that ordinarily it\\nis so easily cured for hay, and, third, that it is so\\neasily handled when cured. The crimson clover is\\nready to be cut for soiling food before the spring\\nmonths have gone, or some weeks before the medium,\\nwhich in turn is ready in from two to three week?\\nin advance of the mammoth and alsike. The value\\nof the crimson clover as a soiling food is thus some-\\nwhat lessened by the necessity for thus cutting and\\nfeeding it when pasture is plentiful and succulent.\\nClover furnishes excellent soiling food for\\nhorses, cattle, sheep and swine, but when fed to sheep\\nand swine it should be cut at a stage somewhat earlier\\nthan when fed to horses and cows, to secure more\\nfineness in the growth. When fed to cattle and\\nsheep it should be somewhat restricted in quantity\\nat first, or else wilted before it is fed, as the unre-\\nstrained feeding of fresh cut clover will sometimes\\ncause bloating, which if not speedily relieved may\\nresult fatally.\\nThe yield of soiling food from all these kinds\\nof clover varies, of course, with the conditions under\\nwhich they are grown. It will be approximately\\ncorrect to place the average yield of the first cutting\\nof medium clover for soiling uses at six tons per\\nacre, and of the second cutting the same season at\\nfour tons. But these yields can be increased at", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 7I\\nleast 50 per cent by judicious cultivation. The\\nyield from each of the other varieties is somewhat\\ngreater than that obtained from the first cutting\\nof the medium clover, but it is likewise some-\\nwhat less than that obtained from the two cut-\\ntings of the latter.\\nDistribution. The clover zone in the United\\nStates and Canada covers the entire portion of the\\narable land. But there are stretches of country,\\nnevertheless, in which clover of any of the species\\nheretofore introduced has not been grown with any\\nmarked success. One of these stretches lies east of\\nthe Rocky mountains in what is usually spoken of\\nas the semi-arid belt. In this area it perishes from\\nwant of moisture. Another stretch lies to the north\\nof Minnesota and North Dakota, where the low\\nwinter temperatures forbid the successful growth of\\nclover. In some limited areas of these stretches,\\nsome kinds of clover can be grown, but it cannot be\\nsaid of the same that they have high adaptation for\\ngrowing clover, nor can any of the clovers now\\nunder discussion be grown with marked success in\\nthe southern states, unless it be the crimson. The\\nsummer heat is not favorable to its development.\\nThe distribution of the medium, mammoth and\\nalsike species of clover is about the same, but the\\nalsike can be grown somewhat farther north than the\\nmedium or the mammoth. Above the 50th parallel\\nthese clovers are not a success, nor are they a marked\\nsuccess below the 38th parallel, unless in very limited\\nareas. In much of the country between these\\nparallels they can be grown with more or less suc-\\ncess, save in the semi-arid country beside the Rocky", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "y2 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmountains and east of them, and in the cold country\\nlying north and south from the eastern half of the\\nSt. Lawrence river. The highest adaptation for\\nthese clovers is found south of the 50th parallel and\\nbeside the Pacific, including also the Rocky mountain\\nvalleys when supplied with moisture. Next in\\nadaptation comes what was originally the forest\\ncountry, including certain prairie lands, which,\\nalthough not originally covered with timber, will\\nproduce it readily. This belt lies between the upper\\nMississippi and the New England states. The New\\nEngland states and the Maritime provinces of\\nCanada will grow clover, but not with that\\nluxuriance which characterizes its growth in the\\nother areas named. The greatest clover-growing\\nstates on the continent include Michigan, Wisconsin,\\neastern Minnesota, Iowa, northern Missouri,\\nIllinois, Indiana, Ohio, and parts of Montana and\\nWashington. It also grows with superlative\\nluxuriance in southern Ontario.\\nCrimson clover thrives best in a climate some-\\nwhat warmer than is suitable for the other kinds.\\nThe highest adaptation for this plant is probably\\nfoimd in the Atlantic and Gulf states, southward\\nfrom New York city. It is not usually grown with\\nmuch success north of the latitude of Columbus, O.,\\nthat is to say, north of the 40th parallel. But for a\\nshort distance north of that line it may be grown in\\ngood form along the Atlantic coast and for a much\\ngreater distance north of the same latitude along the\\nPacific coast. Unless well protected, crimson clover\\ncannot withstand low temperatures. When the\\nmedium, mammoth and alsike clover grow at their", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 73\\nbest, crimson clover can seldom, or never, be grown\\nwith equal success.\\nSoils. All the species of clover under discus-\\nsion will grow better in soils having in them a very\\ndecided clay element. When sufficiently supplied\\nwith moisture, these clovers will even grow\\nvigorously in clays of the stiffest texture. They\\ngrow better in clay loams than in sandy loams, but in\\nfertile sands, such as abound in many of the Rocky\\nmountain valleys, they will make a wonderful\\ngrowth when plentifully supplied with water. The\\nvolcanic origin of many of these soils, however, may\\naccount for their wonderful adaptation to the\\nproduction of clover. The humus soils of the prairie\\nwill produce clover abundantly when there is in them\\nenough clay to make them measurably dense, but\\nwhen this element is so far lacking as to allow them\\nto lift with the winds, they do not possess highest,\\nadaptation for clover. In fact, it cannot be success-\\nfully grown upon these, unless in exceptional\\ninstances, until the land becomes impacted by\\ncultivation more or less prolonged. Soil adaptation\\nin the medium red and mammoth red clovers is about\\nthe same. Ordinarily they grow in what may be\\ntermed deep, moist, friable clays, underlaid with a\\nsubsoil of clay of medium density. They grow least\\nwell on soils impregnated with alkali and on infertile\\nsands, more especially w^hen these are ill supplied\\nwith moisture.\\nThose soils usually spoken of as swamp lands\\nhave special adaptation for the growth of alsike\\nclover when they rest on a clay subsoil, and when\\nthe water table has been sufficiently lowered in them", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "74 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nby some form of drainage. But alsike clover will also\\ngrow well in some of those lands which have highest\\nadaptation for the medium, red and mammoth sorts,\\nmore especially those of them that are strongly\\nspiced with clay. The ordinary upland prairie does\\nnot seem well suited to the production of alsike\\nclover, more especially when this soil is lacking in\\nmoisture. While crimson clover will flourish on\\nsoils well adapted to the growth of the other red\\nclovers, it would seem to have more adaptation for\\nsandy soils than these. Much of the soil in the chief\\ncenters for growing crimson clover is sandy in tex-\\nture. This greater adaptation arises probably in\\npart from the great power the plants have to gather\\nfood, and in part from the moist character of the\\nclimate in crimson clover centers during those por-\\ntions of the year in which the crop is produced.\\nPlace in the Rotation. As clover is a soil reno-\\nvator, the aim should be, flrst, to grow it on land in\\nwhich it is specially desirable to increase the supply\\nof nitrogen; second, on land where it is to be fol-\\nlowed by a crop that requires an abundant supply\\nof nitrogen in the soil to enable it to produce abun-\\ndantly. It should also be sown on land that is at\\nleast measurably clean, as an abundant growth of\\nweeds in the crop will not only lessen the yield, but\\nwill impair its feeding value in proportion as they\\nare present. There is special fitness, therefore, in\\nlaying down to clover, land that has produced a crop\\nto which clean cultivation was given, as, for instance,\\na crop of corn, potatoes or field roots. And the\\nreasons are equally good for following the clover\\ncrop with wheat, oats or barley, corn or potatoes.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 75\\nIn some sections it is common to grow medium\\nred clover, corn or potatoes and small grain in a three\\nyears rotation. When the conditions are suitable\\nthe plan is an admirable one. But few methods of\\ncrop production will compare with it in the easy\\nmaintenance of soil fertility and in the profits that\\ngrow out of the system. The other leading kinds\\nof clover, however, are not so well adapted as the\\nmedium for such a rotation. The mammoth does\\nnot produce a second growth, for being plowed under,\\nas does the common red. The alsike is perennial in\\nits habit of growth, and the crimson is better adapted\\nto another form of rotation, as will be shown below.\\nThe medium and mammoth clovers may, never-\\ntheless, be made to fit into any kind of a rotation.\\nThe aim should be to grow them at short rather than\\nat long intervals in the rotation, and for several\\nreasons. First, as previously intimated, they have\\ngreat power to enrich the land by depositing in it\\nnitrogen drawn from the air; second, they have\\nmuch power to gather supplies of phosphoric acid\\nand potash in the subsoil, much of which is deposited\\nagain in the cultivable strata; third, they improve\\nthe mechanical condition of the land by the abun-\\ndance of the vegetable deposit contained in the roots,\\nand, fourth, the humus thus supplied greatly\\nincreases the power of the land to hold moisture,\\nwhether it comes from above or below. There is\\nprobably no other plant grown that is capable of\\nexercising so beneficent an influence on farming.\\nThe place for crimson clover is, properly speak-\\ning, that of a catch crop. It is usually grown as the\\nantecedent of or the consequent to some other crop", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "76 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ngrown the same season. And this is true of it\\nwhether it is grown for pasture, for soiHng food, for\\nhay or for green manure. It may with much pro-\\npriety be preceded by such quick-growing early sum-\\nmer crops as vegetables and certain of the early\\nmaturing cereals, and followed by such crops as pota-\\ntoes, corn or any of the sorghums, and on soils low\\nin fertility by cowpeas or soy beans.\\nPreparing the Soil. In preparing the soil for\\nclover seed in any of its varieties, the aim should be\\nto secure a seed bed fine, firm, deep, moist and clean.\\nIt should be fine that the clover seeds may be more\\nperfectly hidden from the light, and that the tender,\\ntiny rootlets may easily ramify the soil in search of\\nfood. It should be firm to prevent evaporation, too\\nrapid from the surface. It should be deep to allow^\\nthe tap roots to go down readily. But in light sands,\\nor spongy loam soils of the prairie, shallow^ cultiva-\\ntion would be preferable unless done a good while\\npreviously to the sowing of the seed because of the\\ndifficulty of sufficiently firming such soils. It should\\nbe moist to promote quick germination and rapid\\ngrow^th. It should be clean to secure an abundant\\ngrowth in the clover and to produce a good quality\\nof food.\\nThe first of these conditions may be more\\nreadily secured when the soil is plowed in the\\nautumn, and such plowing is also favorable to secur-\\ning all the conditions named. Deep plowing can be\\ndone much more advantageously in the fall than in\\nthe spring, where fall plowing is in order. But in\\nclimates with much rainfall in winter, autumn plow-\\ning may be less judicious than spring plowing.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. ^J\\nespecially where the soil contains much clay. The\\nwinter rains cause it to run together in a way that\\nincreases the labor of subsequent cultivation, and\\nthat further imperils the abundant and vigorous\\ngrowth of the plants. Some soils are so friable that\\nthey call for but little pulverization; other soils, as\\nclays, are oftentimes cloddy on the surface. It is\\nespecially important that these shall be made fine by\\nthe repeated use of the roller and harrow. Firmness\\nin the seed bed may be secured by plowing the land a\\nconsiderable time previous to the sowing of the seed,\\nor by using the roller freely on it. Autumn plowed\\nlands always furnish a seed bed more firm than those\\nthat are spring plowed, a fact of much significance\\nin cultivating the soils of the northwestern prairies.\\nWhen firming some classes of these soils, by running\\na heavy roller over them, it may be necessary to\\nfollow the roller with a light harrow to prevent them\\nbeing more or less carried away by the wind. Deep\\ncultivation is secured, of course, by simply plowing\\nmore deeply, and in some instances by subsoiling.\\nIn some sections of the prairie the growth of\\nclover is greatly promoted by plowing so deeply that\\nsome of the firmer subsoil shall be brought to the\\nsurface. But with nearly all classes of soils, if much\\nof the subsoil were brought to the surface at one\\ntime the influence on plant growth at the first would\\nbe harmful, because of the unameliorated condition\\nof such subsoils. The management that secures a\\nfine tilth and a firm seed bed will also tend to increase\\nthe moisture in the land. When the clover seed is\\nsown early in the spring, a clean seed bed can only\\nbe secured by cultivation given the previous season.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "y^ SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbut when sowing the seed is deferred until late in\\nthe spring or until summer, the seed bed may be\\nmade clean near the surface by the frequent use of\\nthe harrow^ between the opening of spring and the\\nsowing of the seed.\\nWhen growing clover for soiling, it is very\\nimportant that heavy yields shall be obtained, since\\na heavy crop is so much easier to gather than a light\\none. The former ma}^ easily be lifted, and with\\nsufficient cleanness, without using a rake; whereas,\\nthe latter would require to be raked, thus adding very\\nmuch to the labor of gathering the crop, and to the\\narea of land required to grow it. One great advan-\\ntage from growing soiling crops, viz., that of\\nintensive production, would thus be defeated. It\\nis always expedient, therefore, to make land quite\\nrich that is to grow clover for soiling, when it is not\\nso already, by the addition of fertilizers. Of these,\\nfarmyard manure is certainly one of the best; and\\nwhen applied it will of course feed the nurse crop as\\nwell as the clover. The kind or kinds of commercial\\nfertilizer or fertilizers that may be employed with\\nmost advantage wdll depend upon the needs of the\\nland. Nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash are\\nmost frequently needed, but in quantities that vary\\naccording to conditions, and in many instances\\nlime acts very beneficially. On some soils the\\ngrowing of the clover is greatly stimulated by sow-\\ning on the young plants when the period of growth\\nis beginning or has already begun, an application of\\ngypsum, usually not less than too pounds per acre\\nand not more than 300 pounds. In other instances,\\nmarked benefit results from sowing wood ashes.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 79\\nleached or unleached, on the crop previous to the\\nseason of active growth. The appHcation of leached\\nashes should be about four times as heavy as that of\\nunleached ashes, that is to say, it may run from about\\n200 bushels per acre upward.\\nSozving the Seed. Clover seed may be sown by\\nhandj by using- a hand seed sower, or by the grain\\ndrill with, and, in some instances, without an attach-\\nment for sowing grass seeds. Which of these\\nmethods should be adopted will depend on various\\nconditions, such as relate to soils and soil properties\\nand to the machinery that is available. When the\\nseed is sown by hand, the aim should be to sow with\\ntwo hands rather than with one, and to distribute the\\nseeds quite evenly. The seed can be carried in a\\nseed box or sack suspended at a suitable hight against\\nthe breast of the sow^er and kept in place by the use\\nof shoulder straps. Much care should be taken to\\nchoose a still time for hand sowing the seed, as, for\\ninstance, the early morning, and also a condition of\\nsoil that hinders its undue adherence to the feet\\nof the sower.\\nThat form of hand seeder which is wheeled on\\nthe land on a hand barrow frame distributes the seed\\nmore evenly than would be possible in sowing by the\\nmethod just described, and it can be sown when the\\nwinds are blowing at a rate that would forbid scat-\\ntering the seed by hand at such a time. When the\\nseed can be sown with the grain drill, the saving in\\nlabor is very considerable and the work is also done\\nin excellent form. When it is desired to bury the\\nseed deeply, as on spongy prairie soils, it may be\\nthus planted by mixing the clover seed along with", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "8o SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe grain. When a less covering- is sought, as in\\nsowing under average conditions, the seed is allowed\\nto fall in front of the drill tubes, and when a still\\nlighter covering is desired, as when the seed falls\\non heavy soils, it is covered by using a roller on the\\nland after the seed has thus been dropped upon its\\nsurface. And in yet other instances, as when the\\nsoil is quite heavy and ample moisture is assured,\\nthe seed thus deposited is frequently allowed to lie\\nunburied. But when a light covering can be secured\\nfor clover seed, the germination of the seed is more\\ncertain and the ability of the young plants to with-\\nstand dry weather is increased.\\nThe quantity of seed required will vary with\\nthe variety sown, with the richness of the soil, and\\nwith the proportion of seed of other grass plants that\\nmay be sown along with the clover. When clover\\nis sown alone, from ten to fifteen pounds per acre\\nof the crimson clover are usually sown, but some-\\ntimes a less quantity, from ten to twelve pounds\\nof the medium red and mammoth species and from\\nfour to six pounds of the alsike. The difference in\\nrelative quantities sown arises chiefly from the dif-\\nference in the relative size of the seeds and the\\ndifference in the capacity of the plants for stooling.\\nThe richer the soil also the less the quantity of the\\nseed required, and the amount of clover that ought\\nto be sown will of course be reduced as grass seeds\\nare added to the seed sown.\\nSince clover, when it grows vigorously, is liable\\nto lie down when sown alone, it is considered advan-\\ntageous to sow along with it the seed of some grass,\\nthat the grass plants thus produced may sustain the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 8 1\\nclover. Timothy is more commonly grown thus\\nthan any other grass, because of its very general\\nadaptation, but in some localities tall oat grass may\\nbetter serve the end sought, since it is about as early\\nas clover in its habit of growth. As timothy matures\\nabout the same time as the alsike and mammoth\\nclovers, it is more suitable for being sown along\\nwith these than with the medium sort. But it\\nshould not be sown with the expectation that it will\\nfurnish a support to crimson clover, because of the\\nmuch more rapid grow^th of the clover. For every\\npound of the seed that is added to the mixture sown,\\nthe clover seed should be reduced in the same propor-\\ntion, and sometimes the reduction in the clover\\nshould be greater relatively. But it is seldom neces-\\nsary to have the timothy seed form more than one-\\nthird of the quantity of seed sown.\\nThe period for sowing clover may be made to\\ncover all the spring months, and in some instances\\nthe early summer months, but the medium, mammoth\\nand alsike clovers are more commonly sown in early\\nspring. They should seldom be sown in autumn,\\nas the young plants cannot endure the cold of the\\nwinter following. But to this there may be some\\nexceptions. In some instances the seed is sown\\nwhile the old snow yet lingers, but when thus sown\\nsome of the seed is liable to be carried away with\\nthe vanishing snows, when the melting of the latter\\nis hastened by warm rains. At other times it is\\nsown when the ground is honeycombed by spring\\nfrosts. The seed is thus covered by the action of\\nfrost and sun. In other instances it is sown on a\\nlight fall of snow, usually spoken of as sugar\\n6", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "82 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsnow. When the latter melts it frequently carries\\nmuch of the seed down into the soil. Clover seed\\nis seldom if ever sown thus early, except with a nurse\\ncrop of winter wheat or rye. Usually it would be a\\nsafer way to defer sowing the seed until the surface\\nof the soil has so dried that when the seed is sown\\nit may be covered with the harrow. The harrow-\\ning if properly done is beneficial to the nurse crop as\\nwell as the clover seed. But in some instances the\\nharrow cannot be used, as in clay soils, which remain\\nunduly moist in the spring.\\nWhen clover seed is sown with a nurse crop of\\nspring grain, as, for instance, barley, wheat or oats,\\nit should be covered more or less deeply; the later\\nthe period of sowing the more imperative is it that\\nthe seed should be so covered. Where moisture is\\nusually sufficiently plentiful, the plan of sowing\\nclover seed with a nurse crop is commendable. But\\nall nurse crops are not equally favorable to the\\ngrowth of the clover. Those which are most favor-\\nable include barley and winter rye those which are\\nleast favorable include such crops as oats and millet.\\nBut when clover is sown with a nurse crop and the\\nweather turns dry, if the nurse crop can be pastured\\noff, or cut at some stage previous to that of maturity,\\nthe hazard to the young clover plants will be so far\\nlessened, as they are then deprived to a smaller\\nextent of the strengthening influences of sunlight\\nand moisture. On the soils of the prairie, so light\\nthat they are springy to the tread, a good stand of\\nclover may frequently be obtained by sowing it with\\na crop that is to be pastured, as, for instance, a crop\\nof mixed cereals or rape. The treading of the live", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 83\\nstock Avould seem to react beneficially to the young\\nclover plants by impacting the soil near the surface\\nand thus lessening the loss of moisture through sur-\\nface evaporation. Sheep are considered more suit-\\nable for such pasturing than cattle or swine.\\nBut there may be instances when a stand of\\nclover can best be secured by sowing it alone, as when\\nthe normal supply of moisture is low. When thus\\nsown, the soil should be made as clean as possible\\nbefore sowing the seed. It may not be possible thus\\nto clean the land when the seed is sown early, but\\nit may be cleaned, at least measurably well, by sur-\\nface cultivation, when the seed is deposited late in\\nthe season. When sown on weed infested land, the\\nweeds should be kept down with the mowing\\nmachine.\\nCrimson clover is not usually sown earlier than\\nJuly, and it is not considered wise to sow it later\\nthan September, unless in the mildest portions of the\\nsouth. Near the northern limit of production it is\\nthought more or less hazardous to sow later than\\nAugust. If the plants enter the winter in a weak\\ncondition, the danger is imminent that they will\\nperish before spring. When preparing the land, it\\nis sometimes thought preferable to seek fine surface\\ncultivation without plowing the land, rather than the\\ndeep cultivation which plowing secures. In some\\ninstances, as on clean land, from which early vege-\\ntables have been harvested, the seed may be at once\\nsown and covered with the harrow. In other\\ninstances it is sown in the standing corn and cov-\\nered lightly with the last cultivation given to the\\ncorn crop. There may be instances when it would", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "84 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbe proper to sow it amid grain stubbles and to cover\\nit with the harrow. It is manifest that the methods\\nof sowing this crop are various. To so great an\\nextent is this true that it would not be prudent to try-\\nto give directions that would precisely meet the needs\\nof each locality.\\nCultivation. Clover does not require any culti-\\nvation in the sense in which drilled corn and sorghum\\ncall for the same. But it is important that it shall\\nnot be grazed too closely the first season, lest its\\npower to withstand winter weather shall be unduly\\nweakened. In a large majority of instances it\\nshould not be pastured or mowed the first year w^hen\\nit has been sown with a nurse crop. But in some\\nseasons it may grow so rank that by its own weight\\nit would smother underneath the snow, unless pas-\\ntured more or less. In some localities quite favor-\\nable to the growth of clover, it will produce seed the\\nfirst year unless means are taken to prevent it from\\ndoing so. To allow the plants to produce seed the\\nfirst year will materially tend to weaken their growth\\nthe second year. To prevent such a result, such\\nclover should be cut by the mow^er set high and when\\nit is coming into bloom. The plants cut off should\\nbe allowed to lie where they fell. They will act as\\na mulch to protect the crop. But when clover is\\nsown early and not along with a nurse crop, there\\nmay be instances, not a few, when it would be advis-\\nable to cut it for hay or green food.\\nFeeding. The harvesting of green clover for\\nsoiling in all its varieties may begin as soon as the\\nfirst heads appear, but more food will be secured if\\nthe cutting: is deferred until the crimson tint on the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 85\\nheads is pronounced. The cutting and feeding of\\nthe crop as green food may be continued as long as\\nthe plants are eaten with a relish by live stock. When\\nready for being made into hay, it is common not to\\nfeed it longer as green food. This stage will be\\nreached by the time that the crop is in complete\\nbloom.- It is manifest, therefore, that the period for\\nusing clover as soiling food is a short one, not longer\\nusually than from two to three weeks, and if a plat\\nor field of alsike, or mammoth clover has also been\\nsown in addition to the medium red clover, it will\\nprolong the feeding for about an equal period. The\\ntw^o crops, therefore, will provide green food for five\\nor six weeks in succession. The medium red clover\\nwill also furnish a secortd cutting of soiling food\\nwhich will be available in about six or seven weeks\\nsubsequent to the first cutting, when grown under\\nnormal conditions. The period of cutting will vary\\nfrom about June ist to July ist north of the\\n40th parallel.\\nThe green food is cut daily or every other day,\\nas may be desired, by using the scythe or field mower,\\nand is fed in pastures, paddocks or from feed racks\\nin the yards, as may be thought most advisable. In\\nlarge quantities it is of course drawn on a truck or\\nwagon. When cut with the mower it should not lie\\nmany hours in very bright weather without being\\nbunched, as it will soon lose so much moisture that\\nits succulence will be too much lessened. A little\\nwilting tends to obviate the danger from bloating in\\nthe animals to which it is fed. This danger with\\ncattle and sheep is always imminent in some degree\\nwhen green clover is fed in a very succulent condi-", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "50 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ntion and unstinted in quality, when the animals are\\nhungry. And the danger is further increased by\\ndampness caused by rain or dew.\\nALFALFA.\\nAlfalfa (Medicago satwa), sometimes called\\nlucern, has a higher adaptation for soiling than any\\nother plant of the clover family. This arises, first,\\nfrom the rapid and prolonged character of its\\ngrowth second, from its long-lived character; and,\\nthird, from the excellent quality of the food which\\nit produces. Alfalfa is ready for being cut as green\\nfood at least two weeks earlier than medium red\\nclover, and in some insljances it will yield a cutting\\nevery month thereafter during the season. There\\nare some favored sections in the United States in\\nwhich, by judicious managment, alfalfa may be cut\\nand fed as green food every month in the year. The\\nduration of alfalfa meadows will depend in a great\\nmeasure on the conditions of soil and subsoil, more\\nespecially the latter, while it will sometimes fail\\nwithin a few years from the date of sowing; in other\\ninstances, it will continue to grow and thrive indefi-\\nnitely. Alfalfa meadows are now in existence which\\nhave been mowed every year for more than forty\\nyears. But of course the average duration does not\\ncover nearly so long a period. The excellent quality\\nof the food arises in part from its nitrogenous char-\\nacter and in part from its palatability.\\nIn view of the pre-eminent suitability of this\\nplant for soiling purposes, it seems strange that this\\nfact has not been more generally recognized by", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "(87)\\nFig. 10. Alfalfa, Single Plant\\nMinnesota University Experiment Farm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "88 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfarmers. Under favorable conditions it would be\\neasy to obtain abundant supplies of green food from\\nalfalfa from spring until fall at a less cost than it can\\nbe obtained from any other source.\\nGreen alfalfa is not only relished by horses,\\ncattle, sheep and swine of all ages, but it is specially\\nadapted to their needs. When fed freely to young\\nanimals it promotes a large and vigorous growth.\\nAlong with suitable grain adjuncts, it will fatten\\nanimals quickly and will give them a fine finish.\\nLambs can be raised upon this food alone, in addi-\\ntion to the milk furnished by their dams. And with\\nbut a limited addition of more carbonaceous food,\\nswine may be raised upon it until ready for the block.\\nOf course during the fattening period, grain must\\nbe the chief reliance. But to no class of stockmen\\nis green alfalfa of more benefit than to dairymen. It\\nis excellent for milk production, and the long season\\nduring which it is accessible further accentuates its\\nvalue. Of course, in the green form, it should be\\nfed with some restriction to horses at work, but for\\nall other classes of horses it makes excellent food.\\nIt is also helpful when fed to fowls. Other things\\nbeing equal, meat and milk cannot be produced any-\\nwhere more cheaply than in areas possessed of high\\nadaptation for growing alfalfa.\\nThe yields of green food furnished per acre for\\nthe season vary with the number and strength of the\\ncuttings to be obtained. There are localities in\\nwhich alfalfa will grow, and yet the yields obtained\\nare not equal to those which would be obtained from\\nan equal area of red clover. In these it should not\\nbe grown. The number of cuttings obtained per", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 89\\nseason in the green form varies from one to seven or\\neight, but the average may be stated as four, and\\nthe yield per cutting may be put at four to six tons\\nper acre. In areas not a few, therefore, from sixteen\\nto twenty-four tons of green alfalfa may be obtained\\nper acre from season to season, and with no other\\nlabor after the crop has been established than that\\nof opening the sluices which let in the irrigating\\nwaters. Nor are those alfalfa lands likely to become\\nexhausted soon, because of the extent of the subsoil\\nfrom which they draw food supplies.\\nDistribution. But few plants are of wider dis-\\ntribution than alfalfa. While it is not able to endure\\ntemperatures so low as some of the real clovers, it\\nwill thrive in latitudes too warm and dry to produce\\nthese kinds in good form. The growth of alfalfa\\nwould seem to be more hedged in by conditions that\\nrelate to soil and subsoil than by those which relate\\nto climate. Because of these limitations, alfalfa will\\nyield abundantly in certain areas within a state, and\\nin other areas in close proximity to them it cannot\\nbe grown at all. It can probably be successfully\\ngrown in portions of each state in the Union. So\\nwide is its distribution that it is successfully grown\\nin some portions of Quebec, Ontario and British\\nColumbia in Canada.\\nBut the distinctive alfalfa belt of the United\\nStates lies west of the Mississippi and south of the\\n^lissouri. It embraces nearly every Rocky moun-\\ntain valley from Canada to Mexico. It includes\\nareas possessed of subterranean waters, not too dis-\\ntant from the surface, as well as those which it may\\nbe necessary to irrigate at certain seasons; also", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "90 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ncertain tillable upland, soils in several states which\\ncannot be subjected to irrigation. The variety known\\nas the Turkestan, recently introduced by the Depart-\\nment of Agriculture at Washington, is proving so\\nhardy, that it is now thought it can be successfully\\ngrown in areas that are too dry and too cold for the\\nsuccessful growth of the kinds heretofore grown.\\nWhile alfalfa will produce well in some rainy\\nclimates, it has higher adaptation for those that are\\ndry, up to a certain limit. Drenching rains which\\nliterally saturate the ground with water are harmful\\nto it rather than helpful. And in climates where\\nthe period of growth is long, this crop is propor-\\ntionately more helpful than in those where it is short.\\nIt is not a little surprising that a soiling crop so\\nuseful should not have been grown to a greater\\nextent in the past in the lower Atlantic and Gulf\\nstates, since the conditions in certain areas of these\\nare quite favorable. With the greater need that is\\nnow being felt for a supply of such foods, the produc-\\ntion of alfalfa will doubtless greatly increase in the\\nnear future.\\nSoil. The soil and subsoil more than anything\\nelse are potent factors in determining where alfalfa\\nmay and may not be grown. And of these the sub-\\nsoil is the more important. The reasons will be at\\nonce apparent when it is remembered that alfalfa\\nroots grow deeply and that the major portion of the\\nfood obtained from the earth by the plants comes\\nfrom the subsoil rather than from the soil. The soil\\nconditions most favorable to the growth of alfalfa are\\nfound in loam soils, inclining to sand or gravel, and\\nspiced with a goodh^ increment of clay. But alfalfa", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OB THE CLOVER FAMILY. 9 1\\nwill frequently flourish in clay soils with no slight\\ndegree of adhesion in them, providing the subsoil\\ncondition s are suitable. The vegetable soils of the\\nwestern prairies are not usually well adapted to the\\ngrowth of alfalfa. The volcanic soils of the Rocky\\nmountain region furnish ideal conditions when suffi-\\nciently supplied with moisture.\\nIn a subsoil in which alfalfa roots are to grow\\nvigorously, the most important requisite is that it\\nshould be easily penetrable. Ideal conditions are\\nsometimes found for starting an alfalfa crop success-\\nfully, and yet the plants soon fail because of the\\nimpenetrable character of the subsoil. The second\\ngreat requisite in the subsoil is, it should be deep.\\nThe necessary depth w^ill vary, but it should not be\\nless than several feet to provide ample feeding\\nground for the roots; and a third requisite is that\\nthe subsoil should be moist. But at all seasons of\\nthe year it should be free from stagnant water to the\\ndepth of several feet from the surface. These con-\\nditions are best obtained in certain of the almost\\nrainless river valleys of the west. If the soils and\\nsubsoils are sandy or gravelly, and underneath them\\nare sheets of water at varying depths, the plants are\\nsupplied with moisture from this water through the\\nprocess of capillary attraction. With similar con-\\nditions of soil and subsoil, except that the ground\\nwater is absent, the alfalfa plants would perish unless\\nirrigated. This explains why alfalfa cannot be\\ngrown in wide areas of the semi-arid country west\\nof the Mississippi, where the soil and subsoil requi-\\nsites are all that could be desired, but for the absence\\nof the ground waters.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "92 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nIn the absence of irrigation and also of marked\\nhumidity in the chmate, what may be termed mild\\nclay subsoils furnish the best subsoil conditions for\\ngrowing alfalfa. In these it gathers suitable food.\\nThese subsoils, oftentimes, possess a sufficiency of\\nmoisture through all the season to sustain good crops.\\nOf course, in dry seasons the subsoil moisture riiay\\nbecome so reduced as to materially interfere with\\nabundant production. But in climates of average\\nhumidity, they are satisfactory for growing this crop.\\nPlace in the Rotation. Properly speaking,\\nalfalfa can scarcely be said to be a rotation plant,\\nowing to the long period through which it continues\\nto grow. That is one of the objections urged against\\ngrowing it. But in certain areas favorable to its\\ndevelopment, it may be grown for a term of years\\nmore or less limited, and then followed by certain\\nother crops for an intervening term of years. As it\\nis one of those plants which gather nitrogen from\\nthe air, it is so far a soil renovator. Alfalfa should,\\ntherefore, precede some crop which requires m.uch\\nnitrogen to perfect its growth, as, for instance, corn\\nor wheat. Deep-rooted plants may follow alfalfa\\nwith much propriety, since they can find ample food\\nin the subsoils even, in which alfalfa roots are mold-\\nering, as, for instance, field roots, or rape. And the\\ncrop that precedes alfalfa should, if possible, be a\\ncleaning one.\\nThe task of plowing a soil filled brimful of\\nalfalfa roots of strong growth is by no means an\\neasy one. But it ma}^ be facilitated by using a plow\\nwith a share somewhat serrated in its cutting edge.\\nWhen the plow is drawn, these serrations will cut", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 93\\nthe roots and so make it possible to turn a straight\\nfurrow.\\nEreparing the Land. The preparation of the\\nsoil that will be the most suitable for alfalfa will\\ndepend upon conditions such as relate to variations\\nin soil and to the season for sowing the seed. Speak-\\ning in a general way, the seed bed should be deep,\\nmoist, clean and of fine tilth. But with upland soils\\nsubjected to very dry conditions, stirring the soil to\\nbut a little depth, when preparing a seed bed, would\\nbe preferable. The firming of the seed bed is pecu-\\nliarly applicable to the upland soils of the south-\\nwestern states, but it will oftentimes be necessary to\\nrun a light harrow over the ground, after it has been\\nfirmed with a heavy roller, to prevent the wind from\\nlifting the soil and in some instances to prevent the\\ntoo rapid evaporation of soil moisture. When the\\nseed is sown in the early spring, it is not possible at\\nall times to secure a clean seed bed for the alfalfa,\\nunless it is made to follow a well cultivated crop of\\nthe previous season. There may also be instances\\nin which the labor would be wisely expended in sum-\\nmer fallowing the land the previous year. When it\\nis thus fallowed it is important that green crops be\\nsown upon it at the same time and plowed under,\\nthat the soil may thus become abundantly supplied\\nwith vegetable matter. Such crops as autumn sown\\nrye followed by a quick growing legume are well\\nadapted to such an end.\\nWhen the seed is sown late, there is then time\\nto clean the surface soil through the successive\\nharrowings that may be given. Because of the\\nprobable duration of the crop when established, and", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "94 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbecause of the recognized tendency in weeds and in\\nsome other grasses to increase and thus crowd out\\nthe alfalfa, it is very important that the crop be\\nsown upon a clean seed bed.\\nWhen alfalfa is sown with a nurse crop, the\\n])reparation of the soil that is best suited to the nurse\\ncrop is likely also to prove suitable to the alfalfa.\\nBut in soils with much adhesion, it may be necessary\\nto further pulverize them before they are in the best\\ncondition to receive the seed.\\nIn some instances, it will be better to plow the\\nland in the autumn; in other instances, as where\\nrainy winter climates prevail, plowing ought to be\\ndeferred until spring. Sometimes, as in soils that\\nadhere overmuch, deep plowing is preferable and\\nsubsoiling may even be very advantageous at other\\ntimes, as in tilling soils of the opposite extreme,\\nshallow plowing would be preferable. Usually after\\ncrops that have been cultivated, it is only necessary\\nto. finely pulverize the surface soil when preparing\\nit for a seed bed.\\nIn laying down a piece of land to alfalfa, it is\\nvery important that at least the surface soil should\\nhave in it much available fertility as w^ell as that it\\nshould be in fine condition as to tilth, while it is\\nprobably true that no plant grown as food for live\\nstock has greater power to gather the elements of\\nsupport from the soil, the subsoil and the air than\\nalfalfa, it is also true that in the early stages of\\ngrowth alfalfa readily succumbs to vicissitudes from\\nvarious sources, as excessive wet or drouth, heat or\\ncold, overshading, or even undershading. The\\nbehavior of the plant in after years depends in no", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 95\\nlittle degree upon the nature of the start of the first\\nseason. If the plants are weak when they enter the\\nwinter, they are likely to perish before spring, and\\nif the stand is thin at the first, it is likely to become\\nmore so, though in some rich soils it may be\\nimproved by adding more seed.\\nExperience has taught that with this crop also\\nfarmyard manure is an excellent stimulant to growth.\\nGn the whole, when this fertilizer is used in the fresh\\nform, it should be applied with the previous crop\\nthat it may readily give up to the young plants the\\nunused content of fertility, and that many of the\\nweed seeds in it may be given time to sprout before\\nsowing the seed. When preparing the land for\\nalfalfa it would be a mistake to top-dress the land\\nwith farmyard manure, even though much reduced\\nby fermentation, as it will still contain weed seeds\\nthat will prove troublesome.\\nThe artificial fertilizers that ought to be applied\\nmust be determined by the needs of the land. They\\ninclude nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime.\\nThe need for applying these is not so great west of\\nthe eastern Mississippi watershed as east from that\\nline. The gray ash soils of the farther west are\\nusually abundantly supplied with the requisite food\\nelements. These fertilizers may better be applied\\nbefore the seed is sown, except the nitrogen, which,\\nin some forms at least, is more helpful when sown on\\nthe young plants. Gypsum will benefit young alfalfa\\nplants quite as much as it benefits young red clover.\\nAnd it may be stated here, that unreduced farmyard\\nmanure applied to alkali lands is so far an excellent\\ncorrective of their alkalinity.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "96 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nSozving the Seed. The seed may be sown by\\nhand, with the hand sower, or with the grain drill.\\nSince alfalfa is a somewhat larger seed than red\\nclover it may be covered rather more deeply,\\nparticularly on western soils. On some of these it\\nmay be sown as wheat, that is to say, by using the\\nordinary drill tubes used in sowing grain.\\nOn true alfalfa soils, the seed is seldom sown\\nwith a nurse crop, but in moist climates this method\\nof obtaining a stand is quite feasible, and in some\\ninstances commendable. It is generally deemed\\npreferable to sow the seed without a nurse crop, that\\nthe plants may have the full benefit of all the season\\nto enable them to take possession of the soil to the\\nfullest extent possible. Any of the small grains\\nusually sown in the spring will answer for the nurse\\ncrop, but of these barley is the best. And there are\\ninstances in which winter wheat and winter rye may\\nform the nurse crop. It may frequently be unwise\\nto allow the nurse crop to mature, but the degree\\nof the advancement which it should be allowed to\\nmake will depend upon conditions. If a nurse crop\\nis grown it should never be at the expense of the\\nalfalfa crop. And in a large majority of instances\\nit will be wiser to dispense with the nurse crop\\naltogether.\\nOpinions differ much as to the quantity of seed\\nthat should be sown. Amounts named as suitable\\nvary from twelve to thirty pounds per acre. Usually\\nfrom fifteen to twenty pounds will be found suffi-\\ncient, the last named quantity being rather more in\\nfavor on true alfalfa soils. Twelve pounds per acre\\nmay suffice in climates possessed of moist seasons.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. 9/\\nIf the plants are sown too thinly they make coarse\\nhay. Of the two extremes, excessive seed sowing\\nis the least harmful since the tendency is constant for\\nthe plants to become thinner.\\nThe seed is usually sown about as early in the\\nspring as the ground is ready to till. But it may be\\npossible to sow the plants so early in the season in\\ncertain climates that the newly sprouted plants will\\nsuccumb to a severe spring frost. But when they\\ndo, of course, the seed can again be sown. With\\nalfalfa as with many other plants, better results will\\nprobably be obtained by sowing late enough to\\ninsure continuous growth. In mild latitudes it may\\nbe possible to sow when the late fall rains come, but\\nthe hazard to the young plants in the winter follow-\\ning is to be reckoned with.\\nCultivation. Ordinarily no cultivation is given\\nto alfalfa. But in some parts of the continent of\\nEurope where labor is cheap, it is planted in rows,\\nand hand hoed, to give the plants opportunity to\\ndevelop favorably, but in this country such hand\\nlabor would be too costly. It is important that the\\nroots be strong and vigorous when they enter the\\nfirst winter, as that is usually the greatest period of\\nhazard to the young plants. When grown on upland\\nit is not common to use the crop for food the first\\nseason. But it may be necessary and highly advan-\\ntageous to run the field mower over it once or oftener\\nto prevent the ripening of the weeds that are pretty\\ncertain to grow in it. Close cutting would seem to\\nbe more beneficial to the young plants than cutting\\nless closely, owing probably to the better adjustment\\nof the relations as to moisture present in the soil and\\n7", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "98 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe needs of the young plants. All the plants that\\nfall before the mower are allowed to remain where\\nthey fall. When the crop is grov/n under irrigation,\\nit is common to utilize one cutting the first year and\\nsometimes two. But the young crops should not be\\npastured the first year, and on the upland it should\\nnot be pastured at all unless at certain seasons of the\\nyear. Pasturing in the winter in cold climates is\\nparticularly injurious, but in sections where the crop\\ngrows at its best, it may be pastured even in the\\nwinter, though as previously intimated, frequent and\\nprolonged pasturing is thought to ultimately injure\\nthe stand of the plants, even under the most favor-\\nable conditions.\\nFeeding. Alfalfa is ready for being harvested\\nas soiling food as soon as the blossom buds are\\nformed. It may be cut even earlier than that, more\\nespecially when fed to sheep and swine. The feed-\\ning should begin as soon as the food is ready, as in\\nsuitable weather it rushes very quickly to maturity.\\nBut the residue not needed as soiling food may with\\nmuch propriety be made into hay. With sufficient\\nmoisture present, the crop at once begins to grow\\nagain, and in from four to six weeks after the cutting\\nof the preceding growth the next crop is ready.\\nWhere irrigation is practiced, it is customary to flood\\nthe land as soon as the crop has been removed.\\nAs the alfalfa soon gets woody after it has\\nreached the stage of full bloom, the residue not\\nwanted for soiling food ought to be cut for hay even\\nbefore it is in full bloom, else the quality of the hay\\nwill be reduced. It is apparent, therefore, that the\\nfeeding period from each crop or cutting is not a", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00c2\u00bbl\u00c2\u00bb i", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "lOO SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nlong one, not longer usually than three weeks. If,\\nhowever, two plats or fields have been grown by\\ncutting one at an early stage of growth, and then\\ncutting the other, and again the first and likewise the\\nsecond in continuity of alternation to the end of the\\nseason, the supply of alfalfa for soiling may under\\nfavorable conditions be made to cover the entire sea-\\nson after the first growth is ready for being cut,\\nwhich is usually in May or June, according to the\\nlocality. The same result can be accomplished with\\nbut one field by taking care to cut first one portion\\nand then another, that the part .first cut may grow\\nup again while the other part is furnishing soiling\\nfood. But in the absence of irrigation, it may not\\nbe possible to feed this food without interruption.\\nThe scythe, or the mowing machine is used in\\ncutting the crop, but usually the latter. When cut\\nit m.ay be drawn and fed the same as clover, that is\\nto say, by strewing it on the pasture, by putting it\\ninto feed racks in a yard or paddock, or by feeding\\nit in mangers. It should be wilted more or less\\nw^hen fed to cattle and sheep, as it is sometimes liable\\nto produce bloating when fed without stint in the\\ngreen form. Enough may be cut at one time to last\\nfor a limited number of days, providing it is not\\nallowed to lie broadcast in the swath where it fell\\nbeneath the mower.\\nAlthough horses and swine are oftentimes pas-\\ntured on alfalfa, some growers favor feeding it to\\nthem as soiling food unless where the conditions for\\ngrowth are exceedingly favorable. The treading\\nand close eating of horses are pretty certain to mate-\\nrially shorten the duration of a stand of alfalfa", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE CLOVER FAMILY. IQI\\nWhen pigs are pastured on alfalfa without intermis-\\nsion, it is not easy to regulate the pasturing so that\\nthe food will be kept tender and appetizing. But\\nhorses and pigs are pastured to a very considerable\\nextent on alfalfa. Sheep are not very much pastured\\non alfalfa because of the danger from bloating.\\nWhen fed as soiling food to sheep and swine, it\\nought to be cut while younger and more tender than\\nwould be necessary when it is fed to horses and\\ncattle.\\nThe long period during which alfalfa may be\\nfed makes it easily possible to feed it in conjunction\\nwith other soiling foods less nitrogenous in char-\\nacter, as, for instance, corn and sorghum. The\\nalfalfa may be fed one end of the day and\\ngreen food at the opposite end of the same. The\\nvariety thus secured is advantageous. Alfalfa, even\\nin the green form, may be advantageously used in\\nfattening animals along with some carbonaceous\\nfood, as corn, barley or rye, but its highest use is\\nfound in growing animals and in producing milk.\\nThe owners of extensive alfalfa meadows would\\nseem to be in a position to raise horses, cattle, sheep,\\nswine and to produce dairy products more cheaply\\nthan these can be produced by any other system of\\narable farming.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VL\\nLEGUMINOUS PLANTS OTHER THAN CLOVER.\\nThe legumes are a numerous family, and yet\\nthe species that have special adaptation to soiling\\nuses are not many. In addition to plants of the\\nclover group, the chief of these are the field pea, the\\ncommon vetch, the cowpea and the soy bean. The\\ncowpea and the soy bean are in a sense the comple-\\nments of the field pea and the common vetch, when\\nconsidered from the standpoint of distribution.\\nThese will be considered separately.\\nTHE FIELD PEA.\\nOutside the clover family, the field pea (Pisiim\\nsativum) is probably the most valuable legume\\nthat is now grown on this continent. The esti-\\nmate thus put upon it is based on the high\\nnitrogen content which it contains, upon the\\nhigh relative palatability which it possesses and\\nupon the various combinations in which it may\\nbe grown. Peas in combination with oats is\\na favorite soiling food with dairymen, wherever\\nthese can be successfully grown together. As a food\\nplant its value is probably greater when grown alone,\\nbut owing to the taailing habit of growth which\\ncharacterizes the pea, it has been found necessary to\\nsow it along with some other plant when used in\\n1 02", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "es\\no\\nE\\n3", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "I04 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsoiling, that the crop may be harvested with greater\\nease, and that the vahie of the pea vines as stock food\\nmay not be impaired by their lying on the ground.\\nWhether fed as a soiling food or in the cured\\nform, peas are much relished by all kinds of domestic\\nanimals. In the green form, peas are specially suited\\nto the needs of animals giving milk. In the cured\\nform they are specifically a food for sheep, and the\\nripened grain is unsurpassed as a food for swine.\\nThe yield of the mixed crop in the green form Is\\nseldom less than ten tons per acre, and probably\\nseldom more than twenty tons.\\nDistribution. The common field pea may be\\ngrown in excellent form above the forty-fifth parallel\\nof north latitude and from the Atlantic to the Pacific,\\nexcept in some limited areas in the dry belt east of\\nthe Rocky mountains. As a mixed crop for soiling,\\nand even in the unmixed form, it may also be grown\\nmany miles south of the line named, at least in certain\\nareas. But below the forty-second parallel, the\\nfruitage of the plants becomes more or less uncertain\\nbecause of the high temperatures that prevail when\\nthe pea is in bloom. On high elevations the crop\\nis not thus affected, hence in such situations peas\\nwill produce abundantly far southward. It is found\\nat its best in temperatures that are equable, and in\\nclimates moist in character.\\nSoil. Loam soils strongly impregnated with\\nclay are eminently adapted to growing peas. They\\nmay also be grown with much success on stiff clays.\\nThe returns from sandy loams will be favorably\\ninfluenced or otherwise, according as these soils con-\\ntain much or little clay. And the same is true of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. IO5\\nthe humus soils of the prairie. The volcanic soils of\\nthe Rocky mountain valleys and the alluvial soils in\\nmany of the river bottoms in Montana, Washington\\nand Oregon have special adaptation for the produc-\\ntion of peas. Light, hungry sands are ill adapted to\\npea culture. While the vines will grow immensely\\nin slough and marsh lands which rest on clay not\\nfar distant from the surface, they do not fruit well\\nin these places, since the energies of the plant are so\\nmuch directed to the growth of vines. W^hile it is\\nnot necessary that soils should be very rich in order\\nto grow peas, they must be supplied with a fair\\namount of potash and phosphoric acid and enough\\nnitrogen to give the crop a good start. The rest\\nthey will gather from the air.\\nPlace in the Rotation. When peas are grown\\nalone, the aim should be to have them precede a crop\\nthat requires much nitrogen to perfect its growth;\\nfor instance, a crop of wheat, since, as already inti-\\nmated, peas are nitrogen gatherers. When grown\\nin combination, almost any place in the rotation may\\nbe assigned to this crop. As it is commonly sown\\nearly in the season to provide green food, and is also\\nharvested at a correspondingly early period, it may\\nfrequently be followed by a crop of rape or fall tur-\\nnips, and it may with much propriety be followed\\nby a crop of winter rye.\\nPreparing the Soil. This crop is more com-\\nmonly grown as soiling food along with oats,\\nalthough it may also be grown in conjunction with\\nother kinds of grain. Wheat is not considered as\\ngood as oats for being grown in combination with\\npeas, for the reason, first, that it matures less slowly", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "I06 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthan peas, and, second, that when fed-as soihng food,\\nwheat is not rehshed by the stock quite so highly as\\noats. Nor is barley, since it ripens ahead of peas,\\nand the beards are objectionable after they have\\nreached a certain stage of ripening. Peas and oats\\nmature more nearly at the same period, and as oats\\nstool more than peas and wheat, or peas and barley,\\nthey produce a food less coarse in character.\\nBut whatsoever the combination fixed upon, the\\npreparation of the land is virtually the same, nor\\ndoes it usually differ from the preparation that has\\nbeen found best suited to the growing of small\\ngrains. Usually the ground on wdiich the crop is to\\nbe sown early should be plowed in the fall. A deep\\nseed bed is preferable, since peas require a deep\\ncovering.\\nAs previously intimated, the fertilizers most\\nneeded for this crop are potash and phosphoric acid.\\nBut in some instances, nitrogen has to be applied to\\nstart the crop vigorously. Farmyard manure is very\\nsuitable Avhen it can be obtained and on many soils\\nland plaster will very much stimulate the growth of\\nthe peas when applied to the crop after the plants\\nhave grown some distance above the surface of the\\nground. It would be possible to enrich the ground\\ntoo much to obtain the best results from this crop.\\nWhen rankness in the growth is excessive, the green\\nmass often falls down before the bloom or head\\nappears, and when it does, its palatability is mate-\\nrially lessened and the difficulty in harvesting is\\nincreased.\\nSozving. Various methods of sowing the seed\\nhave been adopted, and of necessity to meet the needs", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. IO7\\nof conditions not the same. Where the rainfall is\\nnormal and the soil is strongly impregnated with\\nclay, the seed of the peas and oat may be mixed and\\ndeposited together by the grain drill. In such soils\\nthree inches would seem to be a sufficient covering.\\nBut in the black loams of the prairie, and especially\\nin the absence of a plentiful supply of moisture, it\\nwould seem to be necessary to plant the peas more\\ndeeply. This necessity probably has given rise to the\\npractice somewhat common in prairie areas of first\\nsowing the peas on unplowed land and then burying\\nthem four inches, and even more than that, in the\\nprocess of plowing the ground. The oats are then\\nsown in some instances as soon as practicable, and\\nin other instances several days later than the first\\nsowing, and they are buried less deeply. The second\\nmethod is usually preferable. When sod lands\\nhave been plowed in the autumn, or in the early\\nspring, and when the furrow slices have been made\\nnarrow rather than wide, and laid at an angle of\\nabout forty-five degrees, the seed may be broadcasted\\nby hand and simply harrowed in. It will fall\\nbetween the crests of the furrow slices, and the har-\\nrow, when used properly, levels these and conse-\\nquently buries the seed sufficiently. But peas should\\nnever be sown thus on level surfaces, as the shallow\\ncovering given to them by the harrow will be washed\\noff in a considerable degree by the first shower\\nthat falls.\\nThe varieties of peas best adapted to soiling\\nuses cannot be named, since different conditions call\\nfor different varieties. Usually those kinds that are\\nfine rather than coarse in stem are to be preferred.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "I08 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nOn soils with high adaptation for peas, the medium\\nvarieties are to be preferred and on soils opposite in\\ncharacter the larger varieties.\\nNor can the proportion of seed to be sown in\\nthe mixture be definitely stated. On clay loams,\\npeas and oats are frecjuently sown in ec[ual quantities\\nby measure, and with satisfactory results. On other\\nsoils peas should greatly preponderate in the mix-\\nture, and yet again the same is true of oats. From\\ntwo to three bushels of the mixture are sown per\\nacre, and in some instances even a larger quantity.\\nThe best method of sowing this crop and the propor-\\ntions of seed that ought to be sown can only be deter-\\nmined for each locality by actual test.\\nIt will usually be found that the best yields will\\nbe obtained by sowing peas and oats early rather\\nthan late, but to prolong the feeding period it is\\nnecessary sometimes to sow at successive intervals.\\nThe results will of course be influenced by the char-\\nacter of the season.\\nSome few varieties of peas would probably\\nprove very suitable in providing soiling food, at\\nleast under certain conditions when sown alone.\\nThe crown pea and the grass pea are of this class.\\nTheir straw is more upright and branching than\\nother varieties, and in consequence is less liable to\\nlodge. These two varieties are at least worthy of\\nbeing given a trial.\\nCnlfk afiou. When peas have been grown alone\\nor in conjunction with some other kind of grain,\\nand for the purpose of providing soiling food, har-\\nrowing the crop once or twice is the only form of\\ncultivation that can be given to it. A light harrow", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. IO9\\nshould be used. The more weedy the soil and the\\nmore rapidly the moisture escapes from it by surface\\nevaporation, the greater will be the benefit from\\nusing the harrow. Harrowing has been found\\nparticularly helpful to this crop hen grown on\\ncertain of the soils of the prairie. If the harrow is\\nused but once, it should be so used before the peas\\nhave reached the surface. When the peas have been\\nsown and then covered with the plow, and the oats or\\nother factor of the mixed crop is sown later, the grain\\nthus sown may be very conveniently covered with\\nthe harrow while the first harrowing is being given\\nto the pea crop. A second harrowing is seldom given,\\nbut when it is it should be deferred until the plants\\nhave become well rooted, and much care must be\\nexercised in doing the work, or the harrow will bury\\ntoo much of the grain.\\nFeeding. Peas grown alone may be fed as\\nsoiling food to swine from the appearance of the first\\nbloom, but the highest feeding value is not obtained\\nfrom the crop until a considerably later period.\\nWhen fed in combination with oats or other grain\\nto cows in milk, the feeding may begin when the peas\\nare in full bloom or when the oats or other grain\\ncomes into head. The season of feeding may be\\ncontinued until the crop is nearly ripe.\\nThe scythe or the mower should be used in cut-\\nting the crop, according as the quantity to be fed is\\nlittle or much. And the method of feeding to be\\nadopted is practically the same as in medium red\\nclover.\\nThe crop is easily handled, more so than such\\nsoiling crops as corn or cowpeas, since it can be so", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "no SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nconvenient y lifted with a fork of suitable construc-\\ntion. Also it is one of the safest soiling- foods to\\nfeed, since it never produces bloating when judi-\\nciously fed. When the crop cannot be all used in\\nthe g-reen form, the portion that remains should be\\ncut and cured for winter feeding before the grain in\\nthe pod or the ear has passed the dough stage. The\\ncrop may be mowed and cared for after the manner\\nof hay, or when it stands up sufficiently well it may\\nbe cut with the binder. When harvested with the\\nbinder, the sheaves should be made small and should\\nnot be very tightly bound. When the crop is very\\nbadly lodged, the pea harvester may be used to better\\nadvantage than any other implement in cutting them.\\nThe crop may be fed in a pasture, in a paddock, in\\nracks in the shed or in mangers in the stable.\\nTHE COMMON VETCH.\\nSeveral species of vetches have been grown in\\nthis country, but only one of these, viz., the common\\nvetch (Vicia sativa) would seem to have special\\nadaptation for being grown as soiling food. The\\nsand vetch {Vicia viUosa) has been given a consider-\\nable measure of praise during recent years for its\\nability to furnish green food for stock, but in the\\njudgment of the author its highest use will be found\\nwhen it is grown as a pasture plant rather than as a\\nsoiling food. The common vetch is frequently\\nalluded to as though it embraced two varieties, viz.,\\nthe w^inter and spring sorts, but these were originally\\nprobably one and the same kind grown at different\\nseasons of the year.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. Ill\\nThis plant has not yet been given the high place\\nin our agriculture which it deserves. As a food\\nplant it possesses excellent qualities, is less susceptible\\nto injury from frost than the pea and is even more\\npalatable and nutritious. It can be grown in various\\ncombinations, and is capable of making a second\\ngrowth in some localities, though not in all, if cut\\nwhile immature. And wdien the conditions are\\nfavorable it can be grown with much success as a\\npasture plant, as a soiling food, or as hay for winter\\nfeeding. The relatively high price of the seed has,\\nprobably more than anything else, hindered the\\ngrowing of this crop for soiling food. This should\\nnot be so, as in states favorable to the growth of the\\nvetch, abundant yields of seed may be obtained.\\nThe common vetch furnishes excellent food for\\nall kinds of live stock kept upon the farm. When\\nfed freely to cows in milk, the yield is increased. It\\nhas a peculiar adaptation for stimulating growth in\\nlambs that are being given a forcing diet, and\\nno kind of soiling food is more highly relished by\\nswine.\\nThe product will of course vary m.uch, but\\nw^hen grown alone the common vetch will run from\\nabout ten to fifteen tons per acre. When grown in\\ncombination with other plants, the return will be\\ninfluenced by the nature of the combination.\\nDistribution. The common vetch can be grown\\nwith greater or less success in every state in the\\nUnion and in every province of Canada. It makes\\nthe most complete growth, however, in cool and\\nhumid climates. The provinces of Canada from\\nLake Huron eastward, and the north Atlantic states", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "112 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nare well adapted to the growth of this plant. But\\nthe highest adaptation, viewed from the standpoint\\nof climate, is found in western Washington and in\\nOregon. The growth that is produced in some sec-\\ntions of the states is simply extraordinary. The\\nsummer climate of the central and southern states is\\ntoo hot for the successful growth of vetches at that\\nseason of the year. But in several of these states, if\\nnot indeed all of them, the vetch may be grown with\\ngreater or less success when sown in the fall and fed\\nin the spring. The dry climate of the semi-arid belt\\nwest of the Mississippi river is not well adapted to\\nthe growth of vetches.\\nSoil. The soil conditions favorable to the\\ngrowth of the common vetch are much the same as\\nthose favorable to the growth of the common pea.\\nVetches luxuriate in clay loams and can be grown\\nwith a fair measure of success even on stiff clays.\\nInfertile sandy lands are not favorable to the growth\\nof the common vetch, but the sand vetch has much\\npower to grow on these lands. The black humus soils\\nof the prairie, where the clay content is low or\\nentirely wanting, will not produce the best crops of\\nthis plant. The gray soils of the Rocky mountain\\nvalleys which produce rank peas will also produce\\nrank vetches, and with or without irrigation\\naccording to conditions.\\nPlace in the Rotation. Since vetches are soil\\nrenovators, they may be grown w4th advantage\\nbefore a crop that requires much nitrogen to perfect\\nits growth, as, for instance, wheat; and because of\\ntheir ability to grow even on soils not very abun-\\ndantly supplied with plant food. Vetches may be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. II3\\ngrown almost anywhere in the rotation. They will\\nmake a good growth on overturned sod, but such\\nland is usually wanted for the production of crops\\nless able to appropriate plant food under adverse con-\\nditions. When sown in the autumn the winter vetch\\ncan with much propriety be sown after a grain crop,\\nand there is ample time between the harvesting of the\\ngrain crop and the sowing of the vetches to prepare\\nthe seed bed in fine form. The vetches thus sown\\nwill be reaped early enough to admit of growing-\\nsome other crop that same season on the land that\\nproduced the vetches. Such a system of rotation is\\nmost helpful in cleaning land. When sown early in\\nthe spring the crop is also consumed early enough to\\nadmit of following it with some kind of catch crop\\nthat same season. Winter wheat and winter rye fit\\nnicely into the rotation after spring sown vetches.\\nPreparing the Soil. Since vetches are sown\\nsometimes in the spring and sometimes in the\\nautumn, the precise methods of preparing the soil\\nwill vary considerably. On fall plowed land the\\nonly further preparation necessary is to stir the sur-\\nface soil deeply enough to furnish a good seed bed.\\nOn spring plowed land the aim should be to secure a\\nfirm seed bed on the spongy humus soils of the\\nprairie, and to secure a fine pulverization on clay\\nsoil that is cloddy. On land plowed in the summer\\nin order to receive seed in the autumn, the aim should\\nbe to retain moisture in the land to the greatest ex-\\ntent possible, by the use of the roller and harrow on\\nit after it has been plowed.\\nFertilizers, especially those rich in nitrogen, are\\nless needed by the vetch plant than by plants unabl(.^.\\n8", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "114 SOILING CROPS AXD THE SILO.\\nto gather the same from the air. But lands fre-\\nquently exist in which the supply of this element in\\nthe soil is so low that the vetch plants sown on them\\nare unable to make a vigorous start unless some\\nfertilizer is applied previous to the sowing of the\\nvetches. If commercial fertilizers are added, pot-\\nash and phosphoric acid are especially fitted to meet\\nthe needs of the plants.\\nSozciiig. The method of sowing depends to\\nsome extent on the nature of the combinations of\\nseeds sewn. But the aim should be to sow the seed\\nwith the grain drill, since, owing to the globular\\nform of the seed. like I cas it is easily uncovered\\nby rain when it lies near the surface of the soil. But\\nit is not necessary to bury the seed so deeply as the\\npea is usually buried. From two to three inches\\nwould seem to be deep enough in any soil.\\nVetches may be sown in various combinations\\nto produce soiling food. The following include\\nsome of the more important combinations when\\nsown in the spring: i, vetches and wheat, oats or\\nbarley: 2, vetches, wheat and peas: 3, vetches, oats\\nand peas. In figure 13 the vetches do not show\\nthough present in quantities equal to the oats. And\\nthe following are some of the more important com-\\nbinations when the crop is sown in the autumn\\nI. vetches and winter rye or winter wheat 2, vetche-\\nand winter oats or winter barley: 3, vetches and\\ncrimson clover. But there may also be some in-\\nstances where it is preferable to sow the crop without\\nadmixture, as when two cuttings are sought from\\none sowing to provide very tender food for lambs\\nor swine.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "Il6 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe proportions of seed in the combination that\\nwill prove most satisfactory can only be ascertained\\nby actual test in each locality. But the aim should\\nbe to make the vetches, to the greatest extent pos-\\nsible, the dominant factor in the mixture, consistent,\\nhowever, with the retention of upright growth\\nin the crop. The other factor or factors of\\nthe combination are intended rather to support the\\nvetches than to furnish food. When vetches are\\nsown with crimson clover, the seed of the latter\\nshould be used sparingly lest it crowd the vetches.\\nThe quantity of seed that ought to be sown will\\nvary with conditions such as relate to fertility,\\nmoisture and the varieties of plants used in the\\ncombination. But it will seldom, if ever, be advan-\\ntageous to sow less than one bushel of vetch seed per\\nacre, except when peas are used in the combination,\\nand sometim.es even more than the amount of the\\nvetch seed named should be sown. When the\\nvetches are sown alone, from one to one and one-half\\nbushels of seed are used.\\nThe best time for sowing the seed is largely\\ndependent on the use that is to be made of the crop,\\nand on the character of the climate. Vetches sow^n\\nin the spring should as a rule be put into the ground\\nquite early, but in moist climates it is admissible to\\nsow them later and at intervals if necessary. When\\nsown in the autumn the}^ should be given time to\\nget well rooted before the more trying weather of\\nwinter arrives.\\nCiilfk ation. Harrowing is the only form of\\ncultivation that ran be given to this crop, and when\\nall the conditions are favorable to growth, it is not", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. II7\\nnecessary even to use the harrow. But there may be\\ninstances in which decided benefit will result from\\nrunning the harrow over the crop when it is ready to\\npush through the surface soil, and possibly also at a\\nlater period. But since the vetch is a somewhat\\ntiny plant when it first begins to grow, much care\\nmust be taken in harrowing the crop, or the plants\\nwill be buried.\\nFeeding. In climates that are moist, the feed-\\ning of the vetch crop may begin at a comparatively\\nearly period, since it will make a good second growth,\\nbut in those opposite in character the wisdom of\\nsuch a course would be more than questionable.\\nVetches cut before they come into bloom are highly\\nrelished by swine. More commonly, however, the\\ncutting should not begin until the blossoms have ap-\\npeared, and it may be continued until the crop has\\nreached an early stage of maturity. In the later\\nstages of its growth, it furnishes very rich food, and\\neven in earlier stages it furnishes valuable food.\\nThe crop may be cut with the scythe or mower, and\\nmay be fed in the same manner as peas. It is\\nmore easily handled than various other grain crops\\nsince it is sufficiently adhesive to admit of being\\nlifted easily, ancj yet it is not so adhesive as to make\\nit difficult to lift a separate forkful. When fed only\\nto swine where a limited number is kept, or to sheep\\nthat are being fitted for the show, it is customary,\\nand the practice is a good one, to sow the vetches\\nsomewhere contiguous to the farm buildings for\\nconvenience in feeding.\\nWhen it so happens that more of the crop is on\\nhand than can be used in the green form, the surplus", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "Il8 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nshould be cut at an early stage of maturity and cured\\nfor winter feeding. When thus fed it makes in\\nitself almost a perfectly balanced ration for some\\nkinds of feeding. It is particularly excellent for\\ncows in milk and for sheep. When thus fed, the\\ncrop may be conveniently harvested with the\\npea harvester which Avill do the work of cutting\\nalmost as quickly as though it were a hay crop.\\nBut when the crop is well supported by some\\nother grain growing along with it, the binder\\nmay be made to harvest the same with manifest\\nadvantage.\\nTHE SOY BEAN.\\nThe soy bean (Glycine hispida) has only been\\ntested in this country during recent years. Its\\ngrowth has been confined to comparatively limited\\nareas, hence but a relatively small number of the\\nagriculturists of the country have any knowledge of\\nthe plant, based upon practical experience. The fol-\\nlowing facts, however, have been fairly w^ell estab-\\nlished in regard to the soy bean\\nI. It is not adapted to a climate in which the\\ntemperature is low in summer, or in which the season\\nof growth is short. 2. It is able to gather the food\\nof sustenance in relatively poor land, although it will\\nof course give better returns from rich land. 3. It\\ncan withstand drouth and excessive wetness in the\\nsoil better than many other plants grown as food for\\nlive stock. 4. The flowers are not much liable to\\ninjury at the critical period, owing to peculiarities\\nof structural development, hence they are more\\nsure of fruiting than those of many other food plants", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. I I9\\nand they also possess the power of self-pollina-\\ntion. 5. It has much power to draw nitrogen\\nfrom the air and to deposit the same in the soil for\\nthe benefit of succeeding crops. 6. It is one of the\\nrichest of foods grown for live stock. 7. It may be\\ngrown as pasture, as soiling food, as hay or as green\\nmanure; it may also be grown for the grain which\\nit produces.\\nThe soy bean, very often designated the soja\\nbean, is an annual plant. When all the conditions\\nare favorable it will grow to the hight of four feet\\nor more, but the average hight of the plants is from\\ntwo to three feet. It is branching in its habit of\\ngrowth, the stems are somewhat coarse and the\\nleaves are large and fairly numerous. The pods are\\nshort and broad, and each pod contains from two to\\nfive seeds which vary much in color according to the\\nvariety. The yield of the beans varies of course\\nwith the natifre of the soil, the season and the method\\nof cultivation adopted. Crops have been grown\\nwhich produced as high as forty bushels per\\nacre, but the average crop is probably less than half\\nthat amount.\\nThe soy bean makes an excellent food for cattle\\nand swine, probably also for horses and sheep,\\nalthough experience in feeding it to horses and sheep\\nis as yet somewhat limited. The green food and the\\nhay are excellent for cowi in milk the same is true\\nof the seeds when ground and fed with some less\\nconcentrated food. Soy bean meal should probably\\nbe always thus fed. Except the peanut, there is\\nperhaps no other vegetable product grown in this\\ncountry which contains such high percentages of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 121\\nprotein and fat in a form so highly digestible. It\\nis considered superior in nutritive qualities to oil\\nmeal, and in some tests that have been made\\nit has compared well with cottonseed meal. But\\nthe fact must not be overlooked that the hand-\\nling of the crop, when grown, is more exacting\\nand laborious than the handling of some other\\nsoiling crops.\\nThe yield of the green crop per acre varies much\\nwith the conditions, but usually there is no difficulty\\nin growing ten to twelve tons per acre on average\\nland. But the value of this plant in producing food\\nfor live stock is measured less by the yield than by\\nthe richness of the food.\\nDistribution. Since the soy bean is a child of\\nthe sun, it cannot be grown successfully in far north-\\nern latitudes. The highest adaptation for this plant\\nwill, in nearly all instances, be found south of the\\nfortieth parallel of north latitude, that is to say,\\nsouth of the latitude of Columbus, O., and Spring-\\nfield, 111. The varieties heretofore introduced have\\nnot been grown with any marked success north of\\nthe line which marks the southern boundary of Min-\\nnesota, or, in other words, north of the forty-third\\nparallel. This means that in the meantime it has no\\nimportant mission as a food crop for any of the\\nprovinces of Canada or for any of the states that\\nborder on Canada. But some of the varieties at\\npresent grown may become so acclimatized that the\\nlimit of successful growth may be pushed consider-\\nably further northward. The necessity for this,\\nhowever, would not seem to be so vital as further\\nsouth, because of the ease with which other green", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "122 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfoods may be grown in the northern states that are\\nmore easily managed than the soy bean.\\nIn the intervening area between the parallels\\nnamed the early maturing varieties only can be suc-\\ncessfully grown, and of course with highest success\\ntoward its southerly limit; and in that part of the\\nprescribed area which lies in the Mississippi basin\\nthe crops will be superior to those grown in other\\nportions of the same, and chiefly for the reason that\\nthe summer temperatures in the said basin are rela-\\ntively high. While the soy bean will grow well in\\nthe hot summer temperatures of the Rocky moun-\\ntain valleys under irrigation it is not so much needed\\nin them because of the luxuriance with which other\\nlegumes may be grown that are more easily handled.\\nThe climate of the Pacific slope west of the\\nCascade mountains is ill adapted to the growth of\\nthe scy bean.\\nSoil. The soy bean will thrive at least meas-\\nurably well on almost any kind of soil, providing this\\nsoil has in it a liberal supply of potash, phos-\\nphoric acid and lime. It will, however, thrive\\nbest on soils which may be termed medium in\\ntexture. Nearly all classes of soils found on the\\nopen prairie have high adaptation for the growth\\nof this plant, and the same is true of all soils\\nthat will produce good crops of Indian corn. It may\\nbe successfully grown on land too low in fertility to\\nproduce clover or cowpeas. Instances are recorded\\nin which plants have been grown in disintegrated\\ntrap rock and in coal ashes, and yet some of the light\\nsoils of the southern states may be so deficient in\\nphosphoric acid and potash, and even nitrogen, as to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1 23\\nmake it worth while to apply those ingredients before\\nplanting the crop. Nor should it be planted on soils\\nin which hardpan comes near the surface, since in\\nsuch instances the roots which naturally feed deeply\\ncould not easily penetrate the soil. Swamp lands\\nwell drained, produce an abundant growth, especially\\nof stems and leaves, hence these are specially adapted\\nto growing soy beans for soiling food.\\nEven peat soils, under certain conditions, may\\nbe made to produce paying crops, and owing to the\\nexcellent drouth-resisting properties of the plant, it\\nmay be grown on soils too deficient in moisture for\\nthe successful growth of the towpea. But it is not\\nwise to grow it on soils already rich in nitrogen. To\\ndo so would be a waste of that very important ele-\\nment of fertility.\\nPlace in the Rotation. Since the soy bean must\\nbe grown m warm weather, where it is to be grown\\nat all, its place in the rotation is all the more easily\\ndefined. Since the soy bean may be grown with\\nhighest success when given cultivation, it should gen-\\nerally be .grown as a cleaning crop; since it is a\\nlegume and has much power to increase the nitrogen\\ncontent in the soil, it should precede gram crops;\\nand since it can make progress amid heat and during\\ndry weather it may frequently be grown as a catch\\ncrop. It will, therefore, naturally follow such crops\\nas have been grown in southern latitudes to provide\\nautumn, winter and early spring pasture, as winter\\nrye, winter oats and winter barley; and this plant\\nmay be made to follow grain crops that have been\\nharvested at maturity, as, for instance, rye, winter\\nwheat or winter oats and it may even, be made to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "124 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfollow Spring grain that has been matured, providing\\nthere is yet moisture enough in the soil to bring about\\nsuccessful germination in the seed. The ground\\ndoes not as a rule of necessity require to be plowed\\nwhen preparing it for the grain crop that is next to\\nbe sown, since the bean crop generally leaves it in\\na loose condition.\\nPreparing the Soil. Since the soy bean is fre-\\nquently grown as a catch crop, the seed bed for it\\nmust in such instances be prepared with dispatch.\\nThis calls for a free use of the harrow and roller\\nafter the land has been plowed. But it may not be\\nnecessary in all instances to plow the land when pre-\\nparing it for soy beans. The surface should be made\\nsmooth and fine for the reception of the seed. When\\nthe soy bean crop is the only plant to be sown on the\\nground for the season, a fine opportunity is furnished\\nfor freeing the land in a single season from the pres-\\nence of many kinds of noxious weeds. This may\\nbe done in part by plowing the land for the soy bean\\ncrop in the autumn or in the early spring and then\\nrunning the harrow over the same as often as the\\nweeds begin to grow until the beans are planted.\\nThe subsequent cultivation given to the crop will tend\\nto complete the cleaning process so well begun\\nbefore the planting of the same. It is not usual to\\napply any fertilizer when growing this crop, but as\\npreviously intimated, it may be necessary in some\\ninstances to apply potash, phosphoric acid, or lime, if\\nnot indeed all three of these ingredients.\\nSowing. When designed for soiling uses, the\\nsoy bean should be planted in rows and usually with\\nthe corn planter, the bean planter or the grain drill.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. I25\\nThe distance between the rows will vary according\\nto the strength of the soil, the variety of the bean\\nand the date of planting. The extremes of distance\\nmay be placed at about twenty- four and forty inches\\nand the mean distance at thirty inches. When\\ngrown for seed, the distance should be more than\\nwhen the crop is grown to provide green food or hay.\\nThe variety planted will depend on such conditions\\nas soil, climate and the uses for which the crop is\\ngrown. As a rule, what are known as the dwarf\\nvarieties are preferred for grain production in the\\nnorth and the medium varieties are preferred in the\\nsouth. Of the former the Early Dwarf is a favorite\\nand of the latter the Medium Early Green. The last\\nnamed variety has proved satisfactory when grown\\nas soiling food as far north as Amherst, Mass. The\\nMedium Early Black is also in favor in many locali-\\nties. It is almost impossible, however, to give the\\nnames of varieties with precision at the present time,\\nas the same variety is frequently spoken of under\\ndifferent names. The large varieties are adapted\\nonly to situations in which a long period of growth\\ncan be given to them. The medium varieties will\\nfrequently mature under normal conditions in from\\nninety to one hundred days, but oftentimes they\\nrequire a longer season in which to complete their\\ngrowth. When growing this crop, much attention\\nshould be given to the variety chosen. Many of the\\nfailures in attempting to introduce the crop have\\nresulted from the planting of varieties not suited to\\nthe conditions of the locality.\\nConsiderably more seed is used in growing the\\n:rop when it is to be fed in the green form than in", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "126 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ngrowing- it for the grain. From a1)out sixteen to\\ntwenty-four quarts will suffice for the latter purpose,\\nwhile not less than thirty-two quarts are usually\\nsown to provide green food. Some growlers favor\\nthick planting to encourage an upright and tall rather\\nthan a branching growth, because of the greater\\nease with w4iich plants of the former type can be\\nharvested.\\nThe soy bean should never be planted until the\\narrival of warm settled weather, and the planting\\nmay proceed as long as there is a reasonable hope\\nof sufficiently maturing the crop before the autumn\\nfrosts arrive. In Kansas, for instance, crops planted\\non wheat stubble in July have been matured.\\nCultivation. Wherever the soil does not lift\\nwith the wind, the roller should both precede and\\nfollow the planting of so}^ beans, unless where mois-\\nture is abundantly present. The cultivation given\\nshould of course be generous and prompt, since the\\nbeans grow so quickly that this work cannot be very\\nlong continued. In some instances it is possible to\\nuse a harrow on the land between the time of plant-\\ning the seed and the appearing of the young plants\\nabove the surface. The instances are also frequent\\nin which the harrow may be driven over the ground\\nwith much advantage to the plants after they have\\ngot four or five inches above the surface of the\\nground, but it should be driven along rather than\\nacross the rows to prevent the horses from treading\\ndown the plants. But when the harrow is so used,\\nthe teeth should be set wdth a backward slant.\\nFeeding. When the crop is grown for the seed\\nit may be cut to much advantage with a self rake", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "I a", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "128 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nreaper. But when grown for soiling or for hay it\\nis more commonly cut with the mower. When fed\\ngreen, the cutting may begin as soon as the period\\nof early bloom, and it may continue until the crop\\nis sufficiently matured for making hay. When cut\\nfor hay, the seeds should be about half grown in the\\npods. If the cutting be deferred to a later period,\\nmany of the leaves will drop off and the stems will\\nbecome woody. Any excess in the crop of green\\nfood should be cut for hay rather than allowed\\nto ripen.\\nSince the yield of seed from crops thus grown\\nwill not be abundant, the crop should not be allowed\\nto wilt overmuch when it is fed green, lest there\\nshould be some loss from the leaves dropping off.\\nThe method of feeding is much the same as that\\nfollowed in feeding peas. When soy beans are fed\\nto swine, the season of feeding may be continued\\nuntil the crop is matured. But it is more common\\nto allow the swine to gather the seeds for themselves\\nwhen the crop has reached an advanced stage of\\nmaturity.\\nTHE COWPEA.\\nThe cowpea (Dolichos Chinensis) has been\\ngrown for many years in the south, hence it has long\\nsince been carried past what may be termed the\\nexperimental stage of growth. It is fast coming to\\nbe regarded as an indispensable factor in any system\\nof cultivation that can be adopted in the southern\\nstates and which is likely to prove eminently suc-\\ncessful. Its great value to the farmers of the south\\narises from, i, its ability to grow on poor soils; 2,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1 29\\nits power to grow under adverse conditions; 3, its\\ngreat value as a pasture and a fodder plant for live\\nstock 4, the magnificent service which it renders to\\nthe soil when plowed under as a green manure.\\nThere are but few places in the entire south where\\nthe land is tillable in which this plant may not be\\ngrown with more or less success. The proper use\\nof the cowpea and of its complement, the soy bean,\\nto the greatest extent possible, would revolutionize\\nthe agriculture of large areas in the south, where the\\nsoil is sandy and lacking in fertility.\\nThe cowpea furnishes excellent pasture for cat-\\ntle, sheep and swine, but when pastured by cattle\\nthe waste of vines is greater than when fed as soiling\\nfood. It also furnishes good hay, when properly\\ncured for horses, cattle and sheep. But it is not as\\neasily handled as the common field pea in the north,\\nnor is it so easily cured. The grain is also excellent\\nfor milk production and for growing swine. Its\\nuse for these purposes in the form of meal has not\\nbecome general, owing first, to the considerable\\nlabor involved in handling the crop, because of the\\nlong and intertwining nature of the growth in many\\nof the varieties grown, and, second, because of\\nthe incomplete machinery for harvesting the crop\\nin the best manner possible. There would seem\\nto be no valid reason why the pea harvester\\nshould not be generally used in harvesting the\\ncowpea.\\nIt is scarcely possible to give figures that would\\nrepresent the average yields of the crop per acre in\\nthe green form, owing to the many varieties that are\\ngrown and to the great difference in the habits of\\n9", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. I3I\\ngrowth in these. With the large varieties it is some-\\ntimes possible to grow twenty tons per acre, but the\\naverage will be much less than that amount.\\nDistribution. The northerly limit of successful\\ngrowth in the cowpea would seem to be the southerly\\nlimit of successful growth in the comxmon field pea.\\nThe line which forms this border-land of high devel-\\nopment will run irregularly across the continent, but\\nit is not far distant from the fortieth parallel. The\\ncowpea has been grown in the northern areas of\\nNebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio and even\\nin Connecticut, but in these localities the aim is rather\\nto grow it as a soil renovator and to a less extent as\\na soiling food than as a grain crop. In the southern\\nhalf of the states namedj Connecticut excepted, it is\\ngrown by many farmers, but the most favorable\\nconditions for completest development in the large\\nvarieties is found further to the southward, as far\\nsouth probably as the latitude of St. Louis in Mis-\\nsouri, that is to say, south of the thirty-eighth parallel\\nIn the warm valleys of the Rocky mountains\\nthe cowpea will doubtless grow vigorously under\\nirrigation, but it is not likely to come into general\\nfavor in these areas, because of the presence of alfalfa\\nin so great abundance, and yet in the more southerly\\nof these valleys, it may come to be grown extensively\\nto provide a grain eminently suited to the finishing\\nof pork reared upon alfalfa. When thus grown,\\ns^vine could be made to harvest the crop where it\\ngrew. But in these valleys it is not at all probable\\nthat the cowpea will soon be produced as a soiling\\nfood. In Canada and m the states bordering on\\nthat country, any variety of the cowpea that has been", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "132 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nintroduced has not been ^rown with highest success,\\nand the same is true of the western slope of Oregon.\\nBut recent experiments conducted by the author at\\nthe Minnesota experiment station have been decid-\\nedly encouraging. They were made with such\\nvarieties as the Early Black and the Red Ripper.\\nSoils. Soils that are suitable for growing soy\\nbeans are also suitable in nearly all instances for\\ngrowing cowpeas. (see Page 122). Loam soils\\nand more especially clay loams, will produce the\\nlargest crops. Fairly good crops may be grown\\non soils too low in fertility to produce good crops\\nof grain.\\nFlace in the Rotation. As with other legumes,\\nthe aim should be to grow the cowpea so that it will\\nprove a renovating crop to the soil. It should,\\ntherefore, come as a rule between two grain crops.\\nBut it may also be grown as a catch crop, where\\na crop previously grow^n has failed; or it may be\\ngrown as an intermediate crop after a crop has been\\nharvested and before another autumn or winter crop\\nhas been sown. The cowpea can be grown with\\nmuch satisfaction on land from which early vege-\\ntables have been removed and also after a crop of\\nsuch fruits as strawberries. It is also grown on\\nsoils that have become too unproductive for success-\\nful cropping with grain. When thus grown it is\\nusually plowed under to renovate the soil, but even\\nthough the crop be used for soiling purposes or for\\nhay, or even though it be matured for its grain\\nproduct it will still leave the land in a much better\\ncondition as to fertility than before the crop was\\ngrown on it.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1 33\\nAlthough cowpeas will grow luxuriantly on\\noverturned sod lands, it will usually be a mistake to\\ngrow them on these, as the vegetable matter which\\nthey contain may be turned to excellent account in\\ngrowing grain crops. But it may be wise in some\\ninstances to grow cowpeas after crimson clover, in\\nthe hope of further enriching the land for the next\\ncrop. The cowpea is also frequently sown among\\nthe cotton and corn plants while they are yet imma-\\nture. In latitudes far south, one crop of cowpeas\\nmay be grown for soiling uses if cut early and\\na second crop from the same plants for being\\nplowed under.\\nPreparing the Soil. In preparing the soil for\\nthe cowpea the aim should be to secure a fine and a\\nmoist seed bed. The roller and harrow, if judiciously\\nused, may be made greatly helpful in securing both,\\nand more especially after the arrival of the dry sea-\\nson. When sown after garden crops, it may not be\\nnecessary to plow the land, but simply to disk and\\nharrow^ it.\\nIt is seldom necessary to apply nitrogen to the\\nsoil in which this crop is grown, but in some instances\\nit is necessary. Since the cowpea takes considerable\\nquantities of potash and phosphoric acid out of the\\nsoil and since it does not restore these when the\\ncrop is removed from the soil on which it grew,\\nexcept in so far as it brings them up from the sub-\\nsoil, the fertilizers applied should contain these ele-\\nments in liberal degree. It will be in order, there-\\nfore, to apply such fertilizers as ground bone, bone\\nash, fish guano and superphosphate when fertilizers\\nare needed. Farmyard manure will usually give", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "134 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nexcellent results, but it can seldom be spared for the\\ncrop of cowpeas.\\nSolving. Cowpeas are commonly sown with\\nthe grain drill. If sown broadcast and covered with\\nthe harrow, and rain should fall soon after the crop\\nhas been sown, many of the peas will lie upon the\\nsurface and will fail to sprout. When sown for\\npasture, all the drill tubes are used in sowing the\\nseed, but when the land is measurably clean and the\\nother conditions are favorable, it may be advanta-\\ngeous to sow only with alternate tubes. The same\\nmode of sowing is sometimes adopted when the crop\\nis sown for soiling uses or for the production of hay\\nor grain. But when ground is to be cleaned, or when\\nmoisture is not abundant, the crop ought to be drilled\\nin rows far enough apart to admit of cultivation.\\nWith the large varieties these rows may in some\\ninstances be made as distant from one another as\\nthirty inches, and even thus far distant, the vines\\nwill in time completely cover the ground. But the\\ndistance between the rows must be measurably deter-\\nmined by the variety of the peas and convenience in\\ncultivating them.\\nIn growing this crop for soiling food, it will\\noftentimes prove advantageous to sow the seed of\\nsome other forage plant along with them, as, for\\ninstance, millet, sorghum, or Kaffir corn. These\\nplants help to sustain the peas and consequently to\\nimprove the quality of the vines and to increase the\\nquantity of the grain. Kaffir corn is very suitable\\nfor being grown thus, owing to the stiff growth of\\nstem which it sends upward and to its power to\\ngrow in dry weather. About ten pounds of seed", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "OTHER LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1 35\\nwill usually be sufficient to mix with one bushel\\nof the peas.\\nThe quantity of peas that should be sown will\\ndepend chiefly on the objects sought in sowing. But\\nmore seed will be required of the large varieties and\\nby soils low in fertility. From one to one and one-\\nhalf bushels are usually sown when the crop is to be\\npastured or plowed under. In a majority of\\ninstances, one bushel of seed per acre will suffice to\\ngrow soiling food or hay. When cultivation is to\\nbe given between the rows, the quantity of seed\\nrequired will be proportionately reduced.\\nWhen the crop is to be plowed under, the large\\nand late maturing varieties ought usually to be sown\\nin the southern but not in the northern states. The\\nWonderful, sometimes called Unknown, is one of\\nthe best of these. But when soiling food, hay or\\ngrain is sought, the kinds known as bunch varie-\\nties that is to say, branched and bush-like rather\\nthan vine-like should usually be sown. They are\\nmore productive of grain than the former and are\\nmore easily harvested. The best of these, especially\\nfor northerly latitudes, are the Whippoorwill, the\\nEarly Black, the Red Ripper and the Black Eye.\\nThe Clay variety is in favor farther south. But\\nthere is yet some confusion in the various names\\napplied to the cowpea.\\nIf cowpeas are sown before the weather and\\nsoil are warm, the seed will rot in the ground, or\\nthe plants will start so feebly that they will not grow\\nsubsequently into a vigorous crop. After the corn\\nhas been planted it will be sufficiently early to plant\\ncowpeas. In latitudes far south they can be sown", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "136 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\neven months later, but not in the north. The bunch\\nvarieties will often mature in ninety to one hundred\\nand twenty days from the time of planting.\\nCultivation. W^hether cowpeas are sown broad-\\ncast by hand, by the grain drill with all the tubes in\\nuse or in rows far enough apart to admit of subse-\\nquent cultivation, the harrow may in many instances\\nbe used with advantage before the plants push up\\nthrough the surface of the soil. A light harrow may\\nalso be used when the plants are four or five inches\\nabove the surface, and more especially wdien the\\npeas are planted in rows so that subsequent cultiva-\\ntion can be given to them, as then the horses may\\nbe driven along the rows when drawing the harrow\\nso as not to tread down the peas.\\nWhen subsequent cultivation is given between\\nthe rows, it must be done with promptness, as the\\npeas, owing to the vine-like character of their growth\\nwill soon lie along upon the land and so preclude\\nfurther culti^-ation. When strong weeds of a nox-\\nious character infest the line of the rows they ought\\nto be removed if they are likely to mature their seeds\\nbefore the peas are harvested. Due attention should\\nbe given to this particular, whatsover the kind of\\ncrop that is being grown.\\nFeeding. The feeding of cowpeas may begin\\nas soon as the first bloom appears. When cut thus\\nearly the crop will grow up again, though not under\\nall conditions, and may be cut a second time if the\\ngrowth will justify using it thus. A second advan-\\ntage from early cutting is found in the greater ease\\nwith which the green food mav be handled when it\\nis being fed, since the intertwining of the vines is", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a22\\no c", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "138 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nnot SO pronounced as at a later period. It should be\\nremembered that at the period of early bloom the\\nplants have not nearly reached that stage when they\\npossess a maximum of nutrition. The feeding may\\nbe continued until the crop is nearly mature. Any\\nresidue not wanted for green food may be cut and\\ncured for hay. When the major portion of the pods\\ncontain peas more than half grown, the crop is ready\\nfor being cut for hay. It may also be harvested for\\nthe grain as soon as one-half, or more than that, of\\nthe pods are fully ripe. The ripening of the pods,\\nas with the common field pea, is more or less uneven.\\nThe cutting on a large scale is commonly done\\nwith a field mower. But when the crop is not in\\nany way supported by another crop sown along with\\nit, the mower very frequently leaves more or less\\nof the peas uncut. The pea harvester will do the\\nAvork of cutting much more cleanly and economically.\\nBecause of the difficulty of handling the crop when\\nfeeding it green, there is a disposition on the part of\\nmany to allow the stock to do the harvesting. The\\nwaste resulting is not all loss, since the soil is\\nenriched more or less when the waste is buried\\nwith the plow.\\nAs in feeding other green foods, this crop may\\nbe fed on a pasture, in a paddock, in sheds or stables,\\nin fact, wherever it is most convenient.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nPLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS.\\nBut two plants of this genus have heretofore\\nbeen grown to any very considerable extent on this\\ncontinent to provide soiling food or pasture for live\\nstock. These are rape and cabbage. It is possible,\\nnevertheless, that other plants of the same genus may\\nyet be introduced that will prove quite helpful in pro-\\nviding green food for the same. Some of these, as\\nkale for instance, have been thus utilized in Europe,\\nand there would seem to be no good reasons why\\nthey should not be so used in some areas of this coun-\\ntry, but until more is known as to their behavior\\nunder American conditions, they could only be dis-\\ncussed in a speculative way. Rape and cabbage,\\ntherefore, will only be considered in this chapter.\\nRAPE.\\nThere are several varieties of rape {Br as sic a\\nnapus,) but only one of these, viz., the Dwarf Essex,\\nhas been found possessed of sufficient value to give it\\nthe place of distinct precedence among all the varie-\\nties tried under American conditions. All varieties\\nof rape are annual, that is to say, they complete the\\nmission of life within twelve months from the date\\nof sowing. But there may be instances, as when\\ncertain varieties are sown earb^ one season, where\\n139", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "I40 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthey will not mature their seeds until a later period\\nthe following season. The varieties which are\\nchiefly grown for seed only, and which are used\\nprincipally in making oil, usually mature the seed\\nwithin sixty to one hundred and twenty days\\nfrom the date of sowing, but those which\\nare grown rather for pasture or for soil-\\ning uses, will not mature seed the same season\\nthey are sown. The former are possessed of but\\nlittle value as food plants.\\nThe Dwarf Essex rape bears a close resemblance\\nto the rutal^aga in the first weeks of its growth. So\\nclose is the resemblance at this time that it probably\\nwould puzzle an expert to tell the two plants apart.\\nAs time goes on, however, the growth of the rape\\nis more upright, and it becomes more stalky and tall.\\nOrdinarily it grows to the hight of eighteen to\\ntwenty- four inches, but it may be so stimulated by\\nfertilizers as to make it reach nearly twice that\\nhight. The root is strong, the branches of the same\\nbeing numerous and some of them go a considerable\\ndistance downward as well as laterally in search of\\nfood.\\nDwarf Essex rape furnishes most excellent\\nsoiling food for horses, cattle, sheep and swine. Its\\nfeeding ^^alue has been stated by high authority to be\\nfully twice that of clover, although chemical analysis\\ndoes not give to it so high a value. As soon as ani-\\nmals become accustomed to it, they grow^ exceedingly\\nfond of it. Its power to produce milk when fed to\\nmilk-giving animals is very high, and its power to\\nproduce fat is, in a sense, remarkable. When it is fed\\nto cows in milk, some caution must be exercised as to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "ChO\\nFi2 18. Dwarf Essex Rape Plant\\nMinnesota University Expenment .arm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "142 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe manner in which it is fed, or the milk will be\\ntainted more or less. Many dairymen, who send their\\nmilk regularly to a cheese factory, feed it to their\\ncows once or twice a day after the cows have been\\nmilked. These dairymen state that no complaint has\\nbeen made as to the quality of the milk. But some\\ndairy authorities claim it should not be fed to cows\\ngiving milk at all, as the danger of taint is imminent.\\nThe truth will probably be found, in this as in so\\nmany other instances, to occupy middle ground. If\\nthe rape is fed just after the cows have been milked\\nand in moderation, while the milk flow will be well\\nsustained, there will probably be no perceptible taint\\nin the milk. But if fed in excess, while the milk\\nflow will be further increased, the milk will carry in\\nit more or less of the odor of the green rape.\\nThe yield of the mature crop is proportionate\\nto the favorable nature of the climatic conditions,\\nthe richness of the land, and the nature and extent of\\nthe cultivation given to the plants. Ten tons an acre\\nis a very moderate yield. Twenty tons an acre are\\nfrequently obtained, and there are instances in whicli\\nthe yield has been increased to thirty tons per acre.\\nWhen the exceedingly rich character of the food is\\nkept in mind and when this fact is coupled with the\\nlarge yields that can be obtained, the conclusion is\\nlegitimate, viz., that but few crops can be grown that\\nwill yield a greater food value per acre.\\nDistribution. It is questionable if there is any\\nstate in the Union or any province in Canada in\\nsome part of which this food cannot be successfully\\ngrown at some season of the year. It may Vv^itli no\\nlittle propriety be termed a cool weather plant, hence", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 43\\nthe best yields are obtained north of the fortieth\\nparallel of north latitude. All the states of the Union\\nbordering on Canada, and likewise all the provinces\\nof Canada bordering on the United States, have high\\nadaptation, though not equally high, for the growth\\nof rape. In the states further south it ought to\\nbe grown in the early part of the season, before the\\nweather becomes dry and hot, or in the autumn after\\nrain has begun to fall. In mild winter latitudes\\nthis plant should be made to provide soiling food\\nthrough all or nearly all the winter.\\nRape also grows in fine form in the higher Rocky\\nmountain valleys when it is irrigated, and sometimes\\nin the absence of irrigaton, but the great abundance\\nof the alfalfa crops in these makes the growth of\\nrape less essential than it would otherwise be. The\\nhighest adaptation for this plant will probably be\\nfound on the Pacific coast from southern Oregon to\\nAlaska. The humidity of the climate there and the\\nmild character of the season makes it possible to\\ngrow enormous crops of rape.\\nSoil. Rape will grow freely in any soil that\\nwill produce a good crop of turnips, that is to say,\\nit will make a vigorous growth in deep, moist loam\\nsoils, with a considerable mixture of sand in them.\\nIt will also grow with even greater vigor in some\\nclasses of soils not well adapted to rutabagas, as for\\ninstance, the black humus soils found in sloughs,\\nand the muck soils of marshes, that have been\\ndrained. It would probably be correct to say that in\\nthese, rape finds its highest adaptation. It grows\\nluxuriantly in nearly all the varieties of soil found in\\nthe prairies of the west, also in the sandy soils of the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "144 SOILING CROPS AND T]IE SILO.\\nRocky mountain valleys when supplied with mois-\\nture. It does not usually make a good growth in\\nunyielding clays, and light infertile sands have still\\nless adaptation to the growth of rape than stiff clays.\\nIt is almost useless to sow rape on a poor soil. On\\nthe other hand, the yield of the crop is likely to be\\nproportionate to the richness of the land when the\\nother conditions that relate to growth are favorable.\\nPlace in the Rotation. The place given to rape\\nin the rotation will in no small degree be dependent\\non the object for which it is grown. When grown\\nto provide pasture one can scarcely imagine a rota-\\ntion in which it may not with propriety be given a\\nplace. It is probably without a rival in its adapta-\\ntion for being sown as a catch crop. But it is rather\\nas a soiling crop than as a pasture crop that its place,\\nin the rotation, is now to be considered. Whenever\\nthe crop is cultivated it ought to be made a cleaning\\ncrop, and, therefore, may be sown with no little\\npropriety on land that is foul. In all, or nearly all,\\nsuch instances it ought to be followed by a grain\\ncrop on which grass seeds also are sown. But when\\nsown broadcast, and on many of the rich soils of the\\nwest, it may be thus grown with perfect propriety.\\nIt should only be sown on land that is measurably\\nclean. This crop will grow nicely on overturned\\nsod, old or new, timothy, clover, blue grass, or indeed\\nany other kind of grass, since it is a ravenous feeder\\non decaying vegetable matter in the soil.\\nRape may be made the sole crop grown on the\\nland for the season, or even for soiling purposes it\\nmay be made to follow some other crop, as rye\\npastured or barley harvested, or clover from which", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. I45\\none cutting has been removed. When sown thus\\nlate, in very many instances cultivation should be\\ngiven to the plants to stimulate growth. When\\nsown after any of these crops, the results will largely\\ndepend on the character of the weather that follows.\\nThere may be seasons when the attempt to grow rape\\nin this way will not be successful.\\nPreparing the Soil. In preparing the land for\\nrape the aim should be to secure a fine, firm and\\nmoist seed bed, with as much cleanness as can be\\nattained under the circumstances. When rape is the\\nsole crop grown on the land for the season, usually\\nthe above conditions can be attained, unless the crop\\nis sown very early in the season. More commonly\\nthey can best be attained by plowing the land in the\\nautumn.\\nThe exceptions are climates with rainy winters.\\nIt being more common to sow rape to provide soiling\\nfood for late summer and autumn rather than for\\nearly summer feeding, a sufficient interval tran-\\nspires between the opening of spring and the sowing\\nof the crop to sprout many of the weed seeds lying\\nnear the. surf ace of the soil, and in time to destroy\\nthem by the occasional use of the harrow. But when\\nthe crop is broadcasted early in the season, as ig\\noften done, the aim should be to sow it on clean\\nland. When rape follows another crop harvested\\nthe same season, the interval for preparing the land\\nis too short to give opportunity to clean the same.\\nWithin a few hours of the plowing of the land it\\nshould be impacted with the roller, or with the roller\\nand harrow, to keep in the moisture. This should\\nnever be omitted, unless when the soil is abundantly\\n10", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "146 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmoist. And when the rape crop is planted in drills\\non such land with enough distance between them to\\nadmit cultivation, the said cultivation, when given, is\\nfurther very helpful to the retention of moisture, as\\nwell as to the more vigorous growth of the plants.\\nIt is, also, peculiarly helpful in such a season in\\ncleaning the land. Rape should not be sown in sum-\\nmer weather on cloddy land as the seed will not\\ngerminate under such conditions.\\nWhen rape is grown for soiling food, the aim\\nshould be to secure all the growth possible. Hence\\nit should be sown on land naturally rich, or made so\\nby applying fertilizers. Rape has special adaptation\\nfor being grown on lands enriched with heavy appli-\\ncations of farmyard manure. In fact, the luxuriance\\nin the growth of the plants is usually proportional to\\nthe degree, to w^hich the soil has been enriched. This\\nplant would almost seem capable of growing in a\\nmanure heap. And because of its great power to\\nappropriate food, manure applied in the fresh form\\nwould seem to answer the end sought about as well\\nas when it is applied in the reduced form. But to this\\nthere are some exceptions. Manure, fresh and con-\\ntaining much litter, should not be applied in great\\nbulk, except in rainy climates, lest it hinder to so\\ngreat an extent the impaction of the soil as to allow\\nthe too rapid escape of moisture. Slough and\\nswamp soils are oftentimes so rich that an application\\nof a fertilizer on these would be thrown aAvay.\\nCommercial fertilizers are of course helpful to\\nthis plant when farmyard manure cannot be obtained,\\nand also when it can be obtained, but not in\\nsufficient quantities. A light application of farmyard", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. I47\\nmanure in conjunction with a light apphcation\\nof artificial fertilizers is probably superior to a heavy\\napplication of either alone. On lands which require\\nsuch treatment superphosphate is oftentimes drilled\\nin with the seed, but not in too close proximity to it.\\nNitrogenous fertilizers, on which rape feeds rav-\\nenously, are usually applied on or near the surface,\\nand just at the time of sowing the seed or later.\\nBut in moist weather only should nitrogenous ferti-\\nlizers be applied on the surface.\\nSolving. Rape seed is sown by one of two\\nmethods, that is to say, it is broadcasted, or sown in\\nrows far enough apart to admit cultivation between\\nthem. The second method is preferable when land\\nis possessed of only moderate fertility, when it is\\nfoul with weeds, and when the period of growth is\\nshort. The cultivation stimulates growth some-\\ntimes in a remarkable degree, and cleans the land.\\nThe first m.ethod will answer very well, however,\\nwhen the land is reasonably clean and rich, and more\\nespecially in moist climates. Where the seed is\\nsown in rows, these are placed variously from\\ntwenty to thirty-six inches apart, according as there\\nis present a prospect of an average or more than an\\naverage crop. The stronger the growth the wider\\napart do the plants require to be.\\nIn some instances the drills are raised. In\\nother instances they are made on the level.\\nWhen raised they are commonly made witli\\na double mold board plow with a marker on it,\\nto mark the line of the next plow furrow. The\\nraised drills render cultivation somewhat easier,\\nmore especially when the plants are young. But", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "148 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nwhere moisture is less than normal, the\\ngermination of the seed will be much more certain if\\nsown on the level. The seed is usually sown in\\nraised drills by the ordinary turnip drill, drawn by\\none horse. Two rows are thus sown at once. But\\nthe hand drill can be used in the absence of a horse\\ndrill. When sown on the level the land may be\\nmarked out and the seed sown with the hand drill, or\\nit may be deposited with certain of the grain drills,\\nwhen driven by a driver sufficiently skilled to make\\nrows straight and evenly distant; varying widths\\nbetween the rows and crooked rows greatly lessen\\nthe effectiveness of the subsequent cultivation. The\\nmost perfect machine for doing this work has prob-\\nably not yet been invented. The seed should be\\nburied from less than one inch to two or even more\\nin depth, according to the character of the soil and\\nclimate. When sow^n broadcast the seed may be\\nscattered by hand, or sown with a hand grass seed\\nsower. In either instance it is covered with the\\nharrow, whether the seed is sown in drills or by\\nhand, unless when the ground is quite moist, it\\nshould be rolled before and also immediately after\\nsowing the seed, to hinder evaporation near the\\nsurface. Rolling the land thus in dry weather is\\ngreatly important, but there may be instances when\\na light harrow should follow the last rolling given\\nthe land.\\nThe quantity of seed to be sown will depend\\nupon varying conditions, usually from one to two\\npounds per acre will suffice when the crop is grown\\nin drills. When broadcasted the quantity will vary\\nfrom three to five pounds per acre. The first men-", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. I49\\ntioned quantity will suffice when the soil is rich and\\nclean, but when these conditions are not present the\\nlast named quantity may be preferable, to admit of\\nharrowing the crop to some extent after the plants\\nhave made a good start.\\nThe time at which this crop may be sown varies\\nexceedingly. In all climates it may be sown as early\\nin the spring as grain crops, and in moist climates\\nit may be sown as late as the end of summer. The\\ncrop usually requires from eight to ten weeks to\\ncomplete its growth, sometimes however, a shorter\\nperiod will suffice and again a longer period is\\nnecessary. Keeping in mind this thought one can\\ndecide when the crop should be sown. The early\\nsown crops may be turned to excellent account in\\nproviding pasture or soiling food for swine, when\\nclover does not grow readily. In mild climates it\\nmay be sown in the autumn. To provide soiling\\nfood when most needed, the seed is usually sown in\\nMay or June. But by varying the dates of sowing,\\nthis one plant may be made to furnish soiling food\\nalmost without interruption from the close of spring\\nto the end of autumn. In the dry, hot summer\\nmonths it is sometimes impossible to get a stand of\\nplants. But even though the seed should lie in the\\nground without germinating for weeks, it will start\\ntip vigorously as soon as moisture reaches it.\\nCultivation. When the crop is broadcasted the\\nonly cultivation possible is to harrow it after the\\nplants have obtained a fine hold on the soil. The\\nharrowing should be done with much care. It will\\ndestroy some of the plants, but when the seed has\\nbeen sown thickly enough, this will be no real", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "150 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ndetriment to the crop. A light harrow should be\\nused, and the harrowing must not be deferred until\\nthe young weeds get a firm hold upon the soil.\\nWhen the crop is sown in rows, the cultivation\\nshould begin as soon as the young plants can be dis-\\ntinctly traced along the line of the row. It should\\nbe shallow and as frequent as once a w^eek or once\\nin two weeks, until the tops of the plants have so\\nreached out as to preclude further cultivation. The\\nharrow may also be used with advantage in some\\ninstances on a rape crop sown in drills and on the\\nlevel. When so used it should be drawn across the\\nrows and prior to the cultivation ordinarily given.\\nThe effect will be to take out myriads of weeds along\\nthe line of the row that would otherwise be undis-\\nturbed. The plants will be somewhat thinned, but\\nthis should not result in the injury of the crop. It\\nis not usual to hand hoe rape, not even along the line\\nof the row or to thin it, but if so treated the plants\\nwill grow all the stronger. Whether the labor\\nwould give an adequate return will depend upon\\nconditions. When the cleaning of the land is one of\\nthe chief objects sought in growing rape some hand\\nhoeing should be found profitable.\\nFeeding. The cutting and feeding of rape\\nplants may be commenced as soon as they have made\\nsufficient growth to justify such a course. More\\nespecially is this true of rape that is to be fed to\\nswine in the absence of other green food. It may\\nbe cut and fed thus when not more than one foot\\nhigh. If not cut too near the ground, it will grow\\nup a second and even a third time. If mowed\\nclosely, however, the growth will be much weakened.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "^^^fcj^ f^^ f^Ms^,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "152 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nMore commonly, however, rape is virtually allowed\\nto reach its growth before the feeding is begun, and\\nit is questionable if more or even as much food can\\nbe obtained by cutting this crop once or twice when\\nimmature, as when it is allowed to practically mature\\nbefore the feeding begins. By maturity is meant,\\nin the present instance, a stage when further growtli\\nceases. This point once reached, there will likely\\nbe greater or less loss in hot weather before the crop\\ncan be fed, as the lower leaves, especially, will be-\\ncome yellow and crisp, and in some instances, the\\nplants w^ill be attacked by the white aphis. When\\nindications of such attack are present, the crop should\\nbe fed with all haste, otherwise it may soon become\\nvalueless.\\nTo avoid such risk, in hot weather it may be\\nwell to commence feeding the plants before they\\nhave completed their maturity. But in cool moist\\nweather a large majority of the plants will so retain\\ntheir greenness, that the feeding of the crop may be\\nmade to cover two months, at least without much loss\\nin food value. It may be well to mention here, that\\nany unused residue of the crop in the late autumn\\nmay be cut before severe frosts arrive, thrown into\\nheaps and fed from these, even after the snow has\\nfallen to a considerable depth. But where the cold\\nof winter is usually intense, this could not be done\\nwith profit. The plants like those of sorghum are\\nslow indeed to spoil when thus handled.\\nThe crop may be cut with scythe or mower\\naccording to the amount wanted, and if put into\\nheaps soon after it is cut, m the field, the feed yard or\\nthe sheds, it will retain its palatability for several", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. I53\\ndays. If the crop is cut with the mower, better work\\ncan usually be done when it has been sown broadcast,\\nas then none of the stems lie so near the ground\\nas to escape being cut. When the drills have been\\nraised it is not easy to cut the crop with the mower.\\nRape may be fed as other green food, that is\\nto say, on a pasture, or in a paddock, feed yard, shed\\nor sty. But care should be taken not to feed too\\nlarge a quantity at first; not to feed when wet,\\nand not to feed to hungry animals all they will take,\\nlest bloating should be produced, which, if not\\nspeedily relieved, will almost certainly lead to the\\ndeath of the animal. There is some danger also\\nthat scouring will be produced when green rape is\\nfed in large quantities. The scouring is not nearly\\nso likely to manifest itself when the stock is also\\nbeing pastured on grass more or less dry, or where\\nthere is being fed at the same time a considerable\\nquantity of hay. And it is not a little surprising\\nhow much dry food, stock will consume when being\\nfreely fed on green rape. Nature seems to furnish\\na craving for food that aids in correcting the ten-\\ndency to an unduly lax condition of the bowels which\\nmay have been induced by feeding rape. And this\\nwill be found true also when other kinds of green\\nfood are being fed. So certainly does this craving\\nmanifest itself that it is questionable if it would not\\npay at all times to feed some dry food when animals\\nare being fed an abundance of juicy green food.\\nIt may not be generally known that this plant\\ncan be fed green with much profit to young colts\\nmore especially after they have been weaned. It is\\nequally good for calves under like conditions. If", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "154 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ngiven an abundance of green rape calves or colts will\\ngrow very quickly and will also improve in flesh. It\\nmakes a grand food for sheep being fitted for\\nthe fairs, for weaned lambs that are wanted in good\\nform for early selling, and for lambs that must needs\\nbe confined to avoid infection from parasites on cer-\\ntain pastures. When fed as soiling food, the feeding\\ncan be so regulated that the element from bloating\\nwill be completely eliminated. Rape is also possessed\\nof peculiar value when fed as soiling food to swine.\\nWhen so fed a large saving is effected in grain food,\\ndevelopment is more continuous, and the vigor of the\\nanimals is better sustained.\\nThe rape plant is oftener pastured than cut and\\nfed as soiling food, frequently it will be more advan-\\ntageous to use it in the latter form. There is really\\nno limit to the extent to which this plant may be\\nused other than that which is fixed by the desires of\\nthe owner.\\nCABBAGE.\\nCabbage (Brassica olcracea) is probably seldom\\ngrown for the express purpose of providing suste-\\nnance for live stock. In nearly all instances crops of\\nthis plant are grown to provide food for the human\\nfamily. Yet in certain areas it may be grown with\\nmuch advantage to furnish soiling food for various\\nclasses of live stock. Because of the great power\\nwhich the mature plants have to withstand frost,\\nthe}^ will furnish green food at a season of the year\\nwhen it can seldom be obtained from any other\\nsource outside of the silo. By exercising some care\\nand forethought in storing cabbage, as described", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 55\\nunder the head of feeding, it may be used as green\\nfood for several weeks after the ground has frozen.\\nBut even though the crop has been grown chiefly\\nas human food, w^hen the areas thus planted are\\nlarge, the residue of the crop after the heads have\\nbeen taken, is possessed of a value for feeding uses\\nthat will far more than repay the labor of feeding\\nit to live stock. This residue, though it varies\\ngreatly in relative value, is frequently worth fully\\nfifty per cent of the whole value of the crop, when\\nused as food for live stock. In growing cabbage,\\ntherefore, the recommendation to gather up the\\nfragments that nothing be lost is peculiarly fitting.\\nBecause of the considerable labor involved in\\ngrowing cabbage the crop is adapted to intensive\\nrather than to extensive conditions. The farmer\\nhaving a small farm located near a town or city, and\\nhaving on that farm few animals, can usually grow\\nthis crop to better advantage than the man whose\\nconditions are the opposite.\\nCabbage furnish excellent food for horses,\\ncattle, sheep and swine. It has a nutritive ratio of\\nI 15.2 and, therefore, is in itself almost a perfectly\\nbalanced food for milch cows. It is not only relished\\nhighly by the various classes of animals mentioned,\\nbut when fed to those giving milk, as to cows, ewes\\nand brood sows, it has much power to produce an\\nabundant flow of milk. The heads when chopped\\nfine furnish a peculiarly grateful and appetizing food\\nfor young lambs. The yields obtained per acre are\\nin some instances simply enormous. Crops of forty\\nto fifty tons have been grown, but these figures are\\nmuch above the average.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": ".5 o", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 57\\nDistribution. This crop is wide in its distri-\\nbution. There is probably no state in our repubhc\\nand no province in Canada in which it may not be\\ngrown, and with considerable success. While it has\\nhighest adaptation for cool and moist climates, it\\nwill, nevertheless, grow better relatively in warm\\nclimates than rape. But in these the enemies of the\\nplant, such as the aphis and the cabbage worm, are\\nmuch more troublesome than in northern latitudes\\nwhere the mean summer temperature is lower. This\\ncrop may be grown in best form in the states of the\\nUnion which border upon Canada and in the\\nprovinces of Canada which border upon the\\nUnited States. But excellent crops can be grown\\nunder certain conditions in states much further\\nsouth. In fact, there are but few states in the\\nUnion which, in some of their more elevated valleys,\\ndo not furnish just the right conditions for grow-\\ning cabbage.\\nWhere the crop can be successfully grown as\\nhuman food, it may also be successfully grown as\\nfood for live stock, for the requisite conditions to\\nproduce either crop are essentially the same. But it\\nshould be carefully observed, that because a cabbage\\ncrop has given a financial profit when grown for the\\nhuman family, it does not follow it will also give a\\nfinancial profit when grown as food for live stock.\\nSuch an assumption would not, of necessity, be cor-\\nrect, since it involves the consideration of relative\\nvalues of cabbage in the market and of meat and\\nmilk produced by the cabbage when fed.\\nSoil. Cabbage like all plants of the Brassica\\ngenus luxuriate in a fertile soil, and more especially", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "158 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nin one abundantly supplied with humus. The\\nalluvial soils of narrow valleys and river bottoms\\nfurnish for them a most congenial home. The same\\nis true of the deep rich black loams of the virgin\\nprairie and of slough lands. They also revel in the\\nmuck soils of swamps that have been drained. They\\ncan be grown on rich loams in fine form, and good\\ncrops can even be obtained from clays of no little\\ndensity, but not without much labor. Fair crops\\ncan also be grown on all lands well adapted to the\\nproduction of Indian corn, but more fertility,\\nrelatively, is required to grow a good crop of\\ncabbage than will suffice to grow a good crop\\nof corn. The lands with least adaptation for\\ncabbage are those which are light, leachy and\\nlow in fertility. Good cabbage soils are usually\\nif not always underlaid with clay, not too near\\nand yet not too distant from the surface. Good\\ncrops may be grown on upland soils naturally\\ndry in character, but only by the aid of abun-\\ndant fertilizing.\\nPlace in the Rotation. The cabbage crop like\\nall other crops that are given much cultivation should\\nbe made a cleaning crop. It should invariably be\\nfollowed by a crop of grain of the non-leguminous\\norder, unless there are good reasons for doing other-\\nwise. The grain crop should have grass seeds sown\\nalong with it to produce hay or pasture. But owing\\nto the peculiar power which cabbage, in common\\nwith all plants of this family, have to feed upon\\ndecaying vegetable matter, there is a peculiar fitness\\nin growing a crop of cabbage on overturned sod.\\nAny kind of sod will suffice, but of course, the more", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 59\\ndense the better adapted it is for the purpose. Goo J\\nclover sod has much adaptation for the production\\nof good crops of cabbage.\\nPreparing the Soil. When cabbage is grown\\nspecially for soiling food, late crops are much pre-\\nferred to those that mature early. What will now\\nbe said on the preparation of the soil will have more\\nespecial reference to the growing of late crops. In\\npreparing the land for this crop the soil should as a\\nrule be deeply broken. To this there may be some\\nexceptions, as for instance, when sod land is over-\\nturned but a short time before the crop is planted on\\nit, and more especially, when the soil has in it a\\nstrong admixture of clay. The ideal treatment\\nunder such conditions is to plow the sod only\\nmoderately deep and to follow the ordinary plow\\nwith a subsoil plow. The crop of clover or grass\\nshould be allowed to make as much growth as\\npossible before it is turned under. As soon as the\\nland is plowed, the roler should follow the plow as\\nclosely as possible. The green mass thus turned\\nunder will begin to decay quickly and the young\\ncabbage plants will find in it most congenial food and\\ndrink. Good crops of cabbage may be grown after\\ncrimson clover has been cut, or even after the\\nmedium red has been harvested. The chief difficulty\\nto be met in sowing crops this late is that of sprout-\\ning the seed, since the weather at that season is\\nusually dry. In other instances cabbage may be\\ngrown with profit when green rye has been buried\\nthat had been sown the previous autumn. But the\\nrye should be buried while yet quite succulent, or it\\nwill not decay with sufficient quickness. There may", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "l6o SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nalso be occasions when the ground should be plowed\\nin the fall, as for instance, when the land is very foul.\\nIt may then be at least partially cleaned in the spring\\nbefore the seed is sown. And when old sod lands are\\ncovered with a dense turf, it may be a good practice\\nto plow them in the fall, to give the roots more time\\nto decay before the planting of the crop. When\\nsuch lands have been plowed, the surface soil should\\nbe cut up deeply and finely by some implement\\nadapted to such work. The roots of the young\\nplants can then push their way through the soil much\\nmore readily and the decay of the sod will be\\nmuch hastened.\\nIt is not easy to make the land too rich for cab-\\nbage by the application of fertilizers, but it would be\\neasy to so apply fertilizers that there would be waste\\nof the same. For instance, if farmyard manure,\\ncommercial fertilizers, or both were applied in excess\\nof the needs of the crop on a leachy soil and in an\\narea possessed of a rainy climate, much of the excess\\nof fertility unused by the crop would be washed out\\nof the soil before the planting of the next crop. That\\nthe plants may be abundantly supplied with food,\\nand that such waste may be avoided, the practice has\\nbecome common w^hen growing cabbage to apply\\nmuch of the fertilizer along and near the line of the\\nrow where the plants are to be grown. But where\\nfertility has thus to be distributed with so much care,\\nit is at least questionable if cabbage can be profitably\\ngrown as a food for live stock. On many of the\\nprairies of the west, especially in the slough lands of\\nthe same, enormous crops can be grown without the\\napplication of any kind of fertilizer.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. l6l\\nFarmyard manure is an excellent fertilizer for\\ncabbage, but unless applied some time before the\\nplanting of the crop it should be somewhat reduced\\nbefore being used. Many eastern growers compost\\nfarmyard manure with night soil and muck, or cer-\\ntain forms of fish waste, and when sufficiently near\\nthe sea they add kelp. Purely commercial fertilizers\\nwill not give returns so satisfactory, in the entire\\nabsence of farmyard manures, as when the latter is\\npresent. When both are applied the manure is com-\\nmonly plowed in and the commercial fertilizer placed\\nin and near the line of the row which is to receive the\\nseed. These fertilisers are thus made specially help-\\nful to the plants while they are young and the barn-\\nyard manure is more helpful at a later period. Such\\nfertilizers as guano, superphosphate with much\\nnitrogen in it and hen manure are excellent for such\\na use, and so are wood ashes. Cabbage feeds freely\\nupon the three essential elements in complete fer-\\ntilizers, but most freely on potash.\\nIn any case, if the soil is not rich where a crop\\nof cabbage is to be grown, it should be made so, since\\nan ample supply of fertility not only fortifies the\\ncrop against such vicissitudes as unduly dry weather,\\nfor instance, but it is also necessary in order to pro-\\nduce a profitable crop.\\nSozvmg. It is, at least, questionable if it will\\npay to grow cabbage for green food only, in locali-\\nties where they cannot be easily and surely grown\\nby the method of sowing the seed in rows rather\\nthan by that of transplanting. Of course it is dif-\\nferent when the crop is grown mainly for the mar-\\nket, the residue only being fed to live stock.\\nII", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "l62 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nIn some localities plants grow so readily and so\\nsurely, that the crop may be grown by sowing the\\nseed where the plants are To remain. It may be thus\\ngrown in many instances as surely and easily as a\\ncrop of turnips or rutabagas. The western and\\nnorthwestern states have special adaptation for the\\ngrowing of cabbage crops by this method. In other\\nlocalities their insect enemies are so numerous that\\nit is almost necessary to start the plants where they\\ncan be given protection, and then after they have\\nmade a good start to transplant them into the field.\\nThe seed may be sown by first marking off the\\nground, then using a hand drill which deposits the\\nseed in the line of the marks that have been made;\\nsom.e grain drills may be used to sow the seed with-\\nout the seed beng mixed with anything. With\\nother patterns of drills it is necessary to mix the seed\\nwith some such bulky substance as salt. The rows\\nshould not be closer to one another than thirty inches,\\nnor more distant than thirty-six inches. The seed\\nshould be buried to a depth varying from less than\\none inch to more than two inches, according to the\\nnature of the soil. A roller should also in nearly all\\ninstances be run over the soil before and after sow-\\ning the seed.\\nThe late varieties are to be preferred, and among\\nthese the larger sorts as for instance, the Drumhead\\nand Savoy. The early varieties do not grow suffi-\\nciently large. They are also lacking in an\\nabundance of leaf growth, nor do they keep so well\\nas the large and late varieties do. The best variety\\nfor each particular location, however, can only be\\nascertained by actual test.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 63\\nFrom one to two pounds of seed per acre will\\nbe sufficient. The first mentioned quantity should\\nbe ample under average conditions, but it may be\\nnecessary sometimes to sow fully twice that amount.\\nThe time for sowing the seed will depend con-\\nsiderably upon the place which is given the crop in\\nthe rotation. The young plants are somewhat\\ntender for a time, hence hard frosts in the spring-\\nwill destroy them. But they will withstand slight\\nfrosts without harm. Tlie seed should not be sown,\\ntherefore, much sooner than the regular season of\\ncorn planting. There m.ay be instances Avhere the\\ncrop sown thus early will mature too soon to best\\nserve the end for which it was grown. When plants\\nreach a maximum growth in hot weather, many of\\nthe outer leaves wither and are lost as food. Sow-\\ning should not be done at a period so late as to\\nhinder the crops from making good heads, since the\\nfood value lies more in the head than in any other\\npart of the plant. But this crop may, with more\\npropriety than some others, be sown somewhat late,\\nowing to the great power which it has to continue to\\ngrow in the late autumn\\nShould the small black beetle (Epifrix spec.)\\nattack the plants when young, they ought to be\\ndusted promptly, and while the dew is yet on, with\\nair-slaked lime and wood ashes. And should the\\nplants suffer later from the attacks of the cabbage\\nworm (Pieris rapae, Linn. they ought to be sprayed\\nonce or twice with kerosene emulsion or paris green.\\nParis green would be the more effective application\\nof the two and there will not be any real danger in\\nusing it thus when the cabbage are not to be fed for", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "l54 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsome weeks subsequently. These remedies will prove\\neffective unless under extremely adverse conditions.\\nCultivation. The relation, between abundant\\n3aelds, and the nature and extent of the cultivation\\nthat is given to the cabbage crop, is both close anJ.\\nintimate. As soon as the young plants distinctly\\nmark the line of the row the cultivation should begin.\\nAnd when weeds are superabundant, if the land is\\nstirred by the hand hoe close up to the plants and\\nfor a short distance on both sides of them, the labor\\nthus expended will be amply rewarded in the more\\nvigorous growth of the plants, and in the greater\\nease with which they can be thinned. The culti-\\nvation should be frequent and should be continued\\nas long as it can be done without breaking off any\\nconsiderable number of the lateral leaves of the\\nplants.\\nThe thinning of the plants should ordinarily\\nbegin while they are not yet more than three or four\\ninches high. If left unthinned for a much longer\\nperiod they become more or less spindling and do not\\nproduce so large a head. But when the cutworms\\nare numerous it may be well to defer thinning to a\\nlater period than would be advisable in the absence\\nof such an enemy. The thinning is almost entirely\\ndone by the use of the hoe. The individual using\\nit strikes forward and pushes backward as in thin-\\nning turnips; the plants not wanted fall before the\\nhoe. The distance to which they should be thinned\\nwill depend upon the variety, upon the time during\\nwhich the crop may continue to grow, and upon the\\nnature of the soil and season. The distance will\\nvary, say, from eighteen inches to thirty inches.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 65\\nThe average may be stated as twenty-four inches.\\nWhen thinning the plants, the skilled workman will\\ndetect at a glance a single plant growing about the\\nright distance from the one last left to grow. He\\ncan then without hesitation cut out all the interven-\\ning plants. Though this single plant should vary\\none, two, or even three inches from the exact distance\\nfixed upon, it would be better to leave this plane\\nthan to leave one of a cluster in the exact spot, but\\nfrom which the plants around it must needs be pulled\\nout by hand. And if a blank should occur it can\\neasily be filled during the thinning process.\\nThe workman strikes his hoe downward into\\nthe soil and lifts out the earth above it. He then\\nstrikes it down beneath a single plant which other-\\nwise would be cut out and lifting it up on his hoe\\nwith the adherent earth sets it down into the hole\\npreviously made. Young plants may thus be re-\\nmoved at almost any hour of the day, and without\\nmuch wanting of the leaves.\\nFeeding. When the crop is sold in the market,\\nthe feeding of the unused portion should begin at\\nonce, the leaves being gathered with a fork and\\nconveyed directly to the stock, or stored in a flat pile\\nfor subsequent feeding, not more than a foot in\\ndepth. If allowed to lie on the ground underneath\\na hot sun, they would soon wither and entirely lose\\ntheir feeding value.\\nBut when the crop is to be fed in its entirety,\\nthe plants may first be cut off at the surface of the\\nground or underneath it by the use of a sharp hoe\\nor spade. A strong spud would probably do the\\nwork more effectively than either the hoe or the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "l66 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nSpade, and with more ease to the operator. The\\nplants are then carted to the feeding place, whether\\nit be in a pasture, paddock, yard, shed or stable.\\nAll classes of live stock will devour the plants,\\nleaving only the woody stalks, unless in the case of\\nyoung lambs. For these they should be minced.\\nWhen fed to cow^s giving milk, care should be taken\\nlest too many be fed, and the cabbage should be\\ngiven just after each milking. When thus fed to\\nmilch cows a considerable proportion of the whole\\nration may consist of cabbage without imparting\\nto the milk any disagreeable taint. Every care\\nshould be taken to avoid feeding cabbage leaves\\nwdiich are partly decayed to cows giving milk, or\\nmost unpleasant odors will arise in the milk.\\nThe feeding of the crop may begin as soon as\\nit is mature or a little previous to maturity. The\\nfeeding may continue without interruption until the\\ncrop is entirely consumed. If winter threatens to\\nclose in before the crop has been all fed, it should at\\nonce be carted to some place convenient for feeding,\\nand also sheltered from the cold wands, as by the\\nside of a straw stack, and there piled up if need be\\nseveral feet deep and then covered with straw. The\\n1 ceding from this pile may go on without interrup-\\ntion until the crop is consumed. The duration of\\nsuch feeding, however, is largely affected by climate.\\nIn latitudes w^here the wnnters are mild, cabbage may\\nbe stored for future feeding by stacking them in the\\nform of a ridge roof on the surface of the ground,\\nor from some distance below^ it, and may be covered\\nwith one or two feet of straw, rough litter, or marsh\\nhay, according as one or the other of these may be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "PLANTS OF THE BRASSICA GENUS. 1 67\\nconvenient. To economize space it will be well to\\nbreak off the outer leaves before the plants are thus\\nstacked with the heads downward. If cabbage freeze\\nwhen thus stored, no serious harm will follow. While\\nthus frozen, cabbage should never be fed to any kind\\nof live stock, not even swine. And it should be\\nremembered that alternate freezing and thawing are\\ngreatly injurious to this plant.\\nCabbage may be kept even more surely and\\nprobably more simply in some climates, by lifting\\nthem with the potato fork and standing them in a\\ndouble or treble line, with the root upward and with\\nall or nearly all the leaves retained. The cabbages\\nare brought to a ridge by adding a third row when\\nthere are but two rows on the ground, or by adding\\ntwo rows and then another when there are three\\nrows on the foundation. They are then covered as\\ndescribed above. And sometimes a plow furrow\\nmay be turned toward tlie cabbage on either side\\nwith manifest advantage.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIIL\\nTHE COMMON CEREALS.\\nThe chief of the common cereals grown in this\\ncountry, are wheat, oats, barley and rye. They are\\nproduced as winter, or spring varieties according to\\nthe circumstances under which they are grown.\\nAll of these may be grown singly for soiling food,\\nor they may be grown in various combinations.\\nPeas and vetches may also be included in some of\\nthese combinations, and when they can be so in-\\ncluded, much is added to the value of the food; as\\nshown in Chapter VI. The least valuable of these\\ncrops for soiling uses are rye and barley. Rye\\nturns woody so soon after the ear has formed, that\\nit becomes unpalatable; and the feeding value of\\nbarley is lessened soon after it somes out in head,\\nbecause of the presence of the beards found in\\nnearly all varieties of this cereal. For feeding pur-\\nposes these mixtures are usually valuable in propor--\\ntion to the peas or vetches Avhich they contain. This\\narises from the more nitrogenous character of the\\nlatter, their greater palatability, and the large yields\\nof the fodder which they produce in pea and vetch\\nsoils.\\nThe combinations in which these crops may be\\ngrown are various. There may be instances in\\nwhich several of them may be grown together, but\\nusually only two or three varieties are thus grown.\\n1 68", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "I\\nbe 2\\nc o\\nJ\u00e2\u0080\u0094 02\\no c\\n(ft c", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "I/O SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThree of these combinations stand higher in favor\\nthan the others. I, A combination of peas and oats\\n2, a combination of vetches and oats and 3, a com-\\nbination of wheat and oats. The last named\\ncombination is frequently grown where peas or\\nvetches cannot be reUed upon to furnish soiHng\\nfood.\\nSeveral advantages arise from growing these\\nplants in combination, i. Usually there is a greater\\nproduction of food from, a given area. 2, They\\ncan be grown more thickly, hence the straw is finer\\nand is better relished by stock. 3, They furnish\\na better balanced food than when grown alone.\\nThe green food produced by these mixed crops\\ncan be fed to all classes of live stock, but it has\\nrelatively higher adaptation for dairy cattle, be-\\ncause of the free milk giving that results from feed-\\ning it. i\\\\Iixed crops may be fed to sheep and swine,\\nbut only when in a quite succulent stage of growth,\\nor when it is almost entirely composed of peas or\\nvetches. AMieat, oats, barley and rye become so\\nwoody when well advanced in growth, that sheep and\\nSAvine do not relish them. It is more common to\\npasture both on these mixtures than to feed them\\nin the form of soiling food.\\nThe yields will of course vary with the con-\\nditions. The miinimum crop that it would be profit-\\nable to grow may be fixed at, say, six tons per acre.\\nA good crop should run from ten to twelve tons per\\nacre. But it is sometimes possible to double these\\namounts.\\nDistrihufion. Wheat, oats, barley and rye\\npossess a wide distribution. The distribution of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE COMMON CEREALS. I7I\\npeas and vetches has already been considered in\\nChapter VI. All these grains unless it be peas, can\\nbe grown in both the winter and spring varieties.\\nThe four first named can be grown in some portion,\\nor portions of every state in the Union and of every\\nprovince of Canada. South of the fortieth parallel\\nthey do not generally grow so freely as north of that\\nline, hence they are not so valuable for producing\\ngreen food as some other crop or crops better adapted\\nto soils that are frequently low in plant food, or\\nlacking in moisture.\\nWheat is usually considered too valuable to be\\nused as soiling food, -and yet there are some localities,\\nwhere it can be more cheaply grown for such a use\\nthan almost any other kind of food. These localities\\ninclude much of the land in the northerly portions of\\nthe semi-arid belt east of the Rocky mountains, the\\nPalouse and Walla W^alla areas of Washington, and\\nlimited areas in northwestern Oregon. In all these\\nareas wheat is grown as hay, and where it furnishes\\na highly prized food for hay it will also furnish a\\nvery suitable soiling food. There are Other areas\\nso perfectly adapted to the growth of immense crops\\nof oats that this plant can be made to furnish green\\nfood more cheaply than any other. Such are certain\\nriver valleys west of the Cascade mountains. Barley,\\nalthough it grows very rapidly, is commonly too\\nlow in production to make it a profitable soiling\\ncrop, but it will produce green food under a greater\\nvariety of conditions than any of the other cereals\\ntinder consideration. In addition to its being low\\nin palatability there is the objection that it is com-\\nmonly in season for feeding when grass is plentiful.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "172 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nSoil. Wheat, oats, barley and rye may be\\nsuccessfully g-rown on a wide range of soils. Each\\nkind, nevertheless, has its favorite soil. Wheat\\nluxuriates in deep, moist, pliable loam soils, well\\nspiced with clay and well stored with vegetable\\nmatter. The loose lying soils of nearly all the west-\\nern prairies have high adaptation for wheat pro-\\nduction. Soils ill adapted to the growing of wheat\\ninclude those that are sandy and poorly supplied\\nwith nitrogen, those that are shallow, with hardpan\\ncoming near the surface, and those that contain an\\nexcess of water at any time during the growth of\\nthe plants. Oats also grow most luxuriantly on\\nsoils that are best suited to the growth of wheat.\\nBut since the oat plant is a more gross feeder than\\nthe wheat plant, it will produce a better growth\\nrelativel}^ than wheat on soil ill conditioned, me-\\nchanically and imperfectly supplied with plant food.\\nBarley will grow better relatively on soils rich in\\nhumus and in readily available fertility. Black\\nloam soils, with enough sand to keep them in a good\\nmechanical condition, have high adaptation for\\nbarley, and since this grain feeds near the surface\\nrather than far down, much depth of subsoil is less\\nessential to the growth of barley than to the growth\\nof wheat and oats. The soils with least adaptation\\nfor barley include those deficient in humus and which\\ncontain an excess of clay. Since the crop grows\\nrapidty, if it is to be a success, the young plants\\nmust be able to send their rootlets quickly and in all\\ndirections between the soil particles.\\nRye is beyond all comparison the most vigor-\\nous feeder of the four cereals under discussion. It", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE COMMON CE^REALS. 1 73\\nwill Stand more abuse than wheat, oats or barley;\\nthat is to say, it will grow better than any of these\\nwhen sown on soil not well prepared, poorly sup-\\nplied with plant food, and under adverse climatic\\nconditions. Rye will grow well on all soils pos-\\nsessed of high adaptation for wheat, oats or\\nbarley. It will also give a fairly good return on\\nsoils too light and poor to produce good crops\\nof those cereals.\\nWhen these plants are grown in combination\\nthe aim should be to grow them on soils generously\\nsupplied with plant food. The value of a soiling\\nfood is usually largely proportionate to the abun-\\ndance of the yield, hence the mistake of sowing imder\\nconditions that do not give promise of an abundant\\nyield. One variety will find its favorite food in\\nsuch a soil and will appropriate the same. A second\\nvariety will do likewise, and so with a third and\\nfourth. Since these appropriations draw in differ-\\nent degrees on the same food elements, each is\\nenabled to get its share and thus to contribute to a\\nlarge aggregate yield. In growing these crops as\\ngreen food, it should be remembered that since the\\nobject is to get a large amotmt of green food with-\\nout regard to grain production, the best soiling\\ncrops will be obtained on lands too rich for the high-\\nest grain production.\\nPlace in the Rotation. These crops may be\\ngiven almost any place in the rotation, since they are\\ncut before weeds can ripen in their midst. A foul\\ncondition of the land at the time of sowing, though\\nobjectionable, is not so seriously objectionable as in\\ngrowing sorrte other crops. These crops may be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "174 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ngrown in a sense as catch crops that is to say, after\\nearly pasture crops, as winter rye. Or they may be\\nsown early and be followed by some other crops as\\nfor instance, rape, winter wheat or winter rye, and\\nin certain areas by winter vetches or crimson clover.\\nWhen these crops precede a winter crop, there is\\nusually ample time to prepare the land well before\\nthe winter crop is sown. They may also be followed\\nby the bare fallow. And in some instances they\\nmay be sown late in the season to provide green food\\nlate in the fall. These crops are essentially clean-\\ning crops, and they thus help to clean the land with-\\nout special effort on the part of the grower to reach\\nsuch a result.\\nPreparing the Soil. The preparation of the\\nland for these- crops is simple, as it is for all crops\\nthat fit in almost anywhere in the rotation. Usually\\nthe deeper, the finer, the more moist, the richer and\\ncleaner the seed bed, the more satisfactory will be\\nthe results when the crop has been sown. And as\\na rule these conditions can be more perfectly secured\\nwhen considerable time elapses between the plowing\\nof the land and the sowing of the seed. But there\\nare soils in which deep plowing but a short time\\nbefore sowing the seed would be harmful rather than\\nhelpful to the crop. Such are light sands and\\nheavy clays. When these crops are to be sown after\\nanother crop previously harvested the same season,\\nmoisture in the soil will be conserved to a much\\ngreater extent by using the roller and harrow freely\\nas soon as possible after the land has been plowed.\\nOn lands of average fertility these grain crops\\nmay of course be grown quite sucessfully without", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE COMMON CEREALS. 1/5\\nfurther enriching the land. But it may be profitable\\nto add fertilizers when the facilities are at hand, to\\nstimulate abundant production. Farmyard manures\\nare excellent when applied in a form suitable to the\\nneeds of the land. Where much rainfall is expected\\nthe manure may be applied in the fresh form, but\\nwhen moisture will probably be deficient, it should\\nbe applied in the reduced form.\\nThe commercial fertilizers most commonly used\\nare those which are designated complete fertilizers,\\nbut the nitrogen content m them should usually be\\nhigh to meet the need of these crops. And when\\nmoisture is present in a sufficient degree, these crops\\nmay be further stimulated by sowing on them nitro-\\ngen in some form, after the plants have made a good\\nstart. It is not usual, however, to go to much ex-\\npense in specially enriching the land for this class of\\ngreen crops, because of the short duration of the\\nperiod of growth.\\nSolving. The seed may be broadcasted when\\nthe facilities for drilling it are not at hand, but in\\nnearly all instances it will be found preferable to\\nsow the seed with the drill. The drill buries\\nit more uniformly as to depth and covers it more\\nperfectly. Ordinarily when these grains are sown\\nas mixtures, it is labor saving and more satis-\\nfactory in various ways to mix them before they\\nare sown.\\nThe most suitable kinds to sow will be those\\nwhich past experience has shown to be the most\\nvigorous growers. These will vary with variations\\nin climate and soil. No one variety of any kind of\\ngrain can be found that will grow equally well in all", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "lyO SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nparts even of a single state. In choosing varieties\\npreference should be given to those which stool\\nmuch, and produce growth of a fine character, pro-\\nviding they are not too weak in the straw to prove\\nsatisfactory.\\nWhen these grains are sown singly, the quantity\\nof seed that may best be used can be given only\\napproximately. The same is true of them when sown\\nin combination. In some soils the plants stool much\\nmore than in others and grow with much more vigor.\\nThe quantity of seed therefore, that will best serve\\nthe end sought will have to be ascertained by actual\\ntest. It will seldom be found profitable to sow less\\nthan two or more than three bushels per acre. The\\nlatter quantity or a close approximate to it will\\nusually prove more satisfactory than a less quantity\\nof seed. But when vetches form a chief factor in\\nthe crop, a less quantity of seed may suffice, because\\nof the small relative size of the vetch seed.\\nWhen wheat and oats are sown together, it is\\ncustomary to sow^ about equal quantities of each.\\nThis will give a preponderance of the oat element\\nin the crop, because of the greater stooling power of\\nthe latter, and this is so far satisfactory since green\\noats are considered more palatable than green wheat.\\nWhen peas and oats are sown together, the most\\nsuitable quantity of the seed of each will be de-\\ntermined chiefly by conditions which relate to the\\nsoil adaptation, as previously intimated. Because\\nof the nitrogenous character of the peas and because\\nof their high palatability, the aim should be to have\\nthe peas form the preponderating element in the\\nfood. The same is also true of vetches. It may be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE COMMON CEREALS. 1/7\\nnecessary, therefore, to sow the peas or vetches as\\nthree to one or two to one by measure, as compared\\nwith the oats in the mixture. On the other hand\\ncertain soils may be so much better adapted to grow-\\ning peas or vetches than oats, that in order to secure\\nthe necessary support for the former, more than half\\nof the seed by measure must needs consist of oats.\\nWhen peas and vetches are both sow^n along with\\noats, the proportions that ought to be sown of each\\nin the mixture should be determined by conditions\\nthat relate to soil and climate, and to the character\\nof the food sought.\\nUsually the common cereals are sown to pro-\\nvide soiling food as early as possible in the season,\\nthough of course they are frequently sown later in\\ncertain instances as late as midsummer. To prolong\\nthe season of feeding, it is common to sow a portion\\nonly of the seed at iirst, and the remainder two or\\nthree weeks later, or it is sown at two intervening\\nintervals rather than one. The chief objection to\\nthe plan is found in the decreased production of\\nthe later sowings, but to this there are some ex-\\nceptions.\\nAnother plan sows a quick maturing variety as\\nbarley, and at the same time a mixture that grows\\nmore slowly, as peas and oats. The period of feed-\\ning may thus be made to cover from, say five to\\neight weeks, and if the quantity sown should be in\\nexcess of the needs of the stock, it can be turned to\\nexcellent account by harvesting it for winter fodder\\nwhen the grain, or much of it, is in the milk stage.\\nBarley is probably the most suitable of all the com-\\nmon cereals to provide green food in the autumn;\\n12", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE C0MMON CEREALS. 1/9\\nand in moist climates only, can it be sown for such\\na purpose, as for instance, in New England.\\nCultivation. Ordinarily no cultivation is given\\nto these crops after they liave been sown. But there\\nmay be instances when the harrow can be used on\\nthem to advantage, more especially when peas and\\noats have been sown together and buried with the\\ngrain drill at an even depth. If harrowed with\\nmore or less thoroughness just as the first young\\nplants begin to appear, the growth of weeds will be\\nchecked and the moisture in the ground will be better\\nconserved. Before the weeds can make a good start\\nagain the plants get so far ahead of them as to\\nmaterially hinder their growth. But if the ground\\nis unduly moist, the harrow cannot of course be used\\nthus. A light harrow should be used, generally,\\nhaving teeth slanted backward.\\nThere may also be instances when it would be\\nmore profitable to plant the crop in rows sufficiently\\ndistant to give them more or less horse cultivation.\\nSuch a method of growing these plants would be\\nespecially helpful where moisture is not present in\\nsufficient quantities to produce a maximum growth.\\nCrops thus cultivated would no doubt produce much\\nmore abundantly* in a dry region, but the system\\nbelongs rather to the future than to the present.\\nThe machinery for bestowing such cultivation has\\nnot yet been perfected.\\nFeeding. With regard to the best method of\\nfeeding these crops, much that has been said under\\nthe head of feeding in the chapter on corn will be\\nequally applicable to them. The cutting of rye as a\\nsoiling food should begin as soon as the first growth", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE COMMON CEREALS. l8l\\nwill justify such a course, and it should not be fed for\\nany considerable time after it has reached the earing\\nstage, unless it is to be run through a cutting box and\\nfed with other food, as chaffed hay. When thus\\nprepared, and meal is added to the mixture, it would\\nthen be possible to feed green rye until the grain\\nbegan to form in the ear, and possibly for a longer\\nperiod. If fed alone after it has fully come out in\\nhead, animals do not relish it sufficiently to make it a\\ndesirable soiling food. Barley also should be fed at\\na stage before the beards begin to stiffen.\\nWhen food is grown in mixtures the grains\\ncomposing these will not always be possessed of\\nequal advancement, careful discrimination is neces-\\nsary on the part of the grower as to when the cutting\\nshould begin. Usually when peas, or vetches in the\\nmixture have produced some blossoms and when\\nthe heads of other kinds of grain are ready to leave\\nthe leafy envelope which surrounds them, the cutting\\nof the crop may begin. At the stage indicated as\\nsuitable to begin cutting these crops, they have not\\nreached that stage when they contain the highest\\nfood value, but to leave them longer before begin-\\nning to harvest them would, too much, curtail the\\nduration of the period in which they could be fed\\nwith profit in the green form.\\nLike other green crops they are cut with the\\nscythe or mower, and drawn in the usual way.\\nWhen these crops grow A^ery rankly they are\\noccasionally thrown down with storms which in-\\ncreases the labor of cutting them. In some instances\\nthe mower can only be driven on two sides of the\\nplot or field, if the crop is to be cleanly gathered.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "l82 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe food when cut may be hfted with sufficient\\ncleanness when a fork is used, with several tines in it,\\nthat is to say, a fork made somewhat after the plan\\nof a barley fork. The green food may be fed\\nwithout any wilting, but a moderate amount of wilt-\\ning is in no way injurious to it.\\nWhen there is a surplus of green food it may of\\ncourse be allowed to reach a stage of early ripening,\\nand may then be harvested for winter use. In\\nharvesting the same the mower or the binder may be\\nused according to the attendant circumstances, but\\nif the binder is used the sheaves should be made\\nsmall rather than large, tied loosely rather than\\ntightly, and cured in oblong rather than in round\\nshocks. \\\\Mieat and oats grown together ought to\\nbe cut for winter food at a stage somewhat earlier\\nthan peas and oats to insure enough palatability in\\nthe straw\\\\ When the stems of the plants turn\\nyellow for a short distance above the ground, the\\ncrop is ready for harvesting. Peas and oats thus\\nharvested make a splendid fodder for winter feed-\\ning. It is easily cured and handled, and is at once\\nhighly palatable and nutritious.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX.\\nMILLETS.\\nMillet is one of the most important and valuable\\nsoiling crops grown in this country. Its great\\nvalue as soiling food arises, ist, from the palatable\\nand nutritious character of the food which it pro-\\nduces; 2nd, from the shortness of the period re-\\nquired to grow it; 3rd, from the large amount\\nof food that can be grown upon rich land 4th, from\\nthe wide distribution of the crop; and 5th, from\\nthe many and various places which may be assigned\\nto it in the rotation, consequently when it becomes\\nbetter know^n, it w^ill be used as soiling food to a\\nmuch greater extent than it is at the present time.\\nMillet is of many species and varieties, not a\\nfew of w^hich have been but little tested in this\\ncountry, and consequently they are not as yet well\\nunderstood. The classification of the millets is still\\nregarded as incomplete by the Department of\\nAgrostology at Washington, but for the present\\nthe said Department has grouped them as the fox-\\ntail, the barnyard, the broom corn and the pearl\\ngroups. To the foxtail millets belong such sorts as\\nthe Common, the German, the Hungarian and the\\nGolden wonder varieties. These are relatively small\\nand fine in their habit of growth. German millet\\nis characterized by an abundant leaf growth. Hun-\\ngarian millet produces heads of a dark shade, hence\\n183", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "^^^^fes^\\n^^^^:^^:Km\\nr^^^BalB^BB^^iS^^MBHBl^B^^^^^^^^^^^B\\n1^\\ni^v .-:i\u00c2\u00bbj;\u00c2\u00bb,; ^..^S^H^^^HHM^H\\n^M\\nl^^-.;:\\nte^^\\n1\\n^S^^^H", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "MILLETS. 185\\nit may easily be distinguished from other foxtail\\nmillets after the earing stage. Golden wonder\\nmillet is a great seed producer but it is probably\\nless valuable as a soiling food than the other varieties\\nof the foxtail class.\\nThe barn yard millets include the varieties de-\\nrived from the common barn yard grass (Panicum\\ncrus-galli) The African millets are also included\\nin this class. They are characterized by an abundant\\ngrowth, but are somewhat coarse in character\\nThe broom corn millets are rather grown for the\\ngrain they praduce than to provide soiling food, but\\nthey also may be m^ade to furnish soiling food.\\nThe pearl millets are but little grown as yet in this\\ncountry. Some of the varieties produce an abun-\\ndant growth, but they are not considered so palatable\\nas cultivated millets of the foxtail class. They have\\nnot been much introduced as yet into American\\nagriculture, hence little can be said as to their adapta-\\ntion and value. But one variety of this group will\\nbe considered in Chapter XIII, when discussing\\nplants whose value in providing soiling food has not\\nbeen fully demonstrated.\\nDistribution. Few plants grown* as food for\\nlive stock on this continent are of wider distribu-\\ntion than millet. Since it can be sufficiently ad-\\nvanced in growth for being cut as soiling food in\\nfrom fifty to ninety days from the date of sowing,\\nthere are but few localities in the United States in\\nwhich it may not be grown with entire success.\\nAnd since it is in a pre-eminent degree a plant of\\nthe sun, the climatic conditions least favorable to its\\ngrowth in our country will probably be found in", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "MILLETS. 187\\nOregon and Washington, between the mountains\\nand the sea. In all the other portions of the United\\nStates the season of high summer temperatures is\\nsufficiently prolonged to force millet crops quickly\\ninto maturity, unless it be upon the mountain up-\\nlands. The climate of all the central and southern\\nstates is markedly favorable to the growth of millet.\\nThe highest adaptation of soil and climate\\ntogether are probably found in the Mississippi basin,\\nfrom Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico. Millet\\nis an indispensable adjunct to the hay crops grown\\nwithin this basin, and it is an indispensable factor in\\ngrowing soiling foods for stock. The less favorable\\nthe conditions for the successful growth of hay\\ncrops the more indispensable does the millet crop\\nseem to be. The climatic conditions in what are\\nusually spoken of as the southern states are equalh^\\nfavorable, but not so of the soil conditions, hence\\nthe growth of millet is not so common in these as it\\nwould otherwise be. The crop has not been grown\\nto nearly the same extent in New England and the\\nadjacent states as in the Mississippi valley, because\\nof the stiffer soils, and in many instances because\\nof the more hungry soils of the former. The millet\\ncrop can also be grown with a fair measure of suc-\\ncess in nearly all of the cultivated parts of Canada.\\nThe lowest adaptation is found in British Columbia\\nand in the Maritime Provinces beside the Atlantic,\\nand the highest adaptation in the prairie provinces\\neastward from the Rocky mountains to Lake\\nSuperior.\\nSoil. Millet in all its forms requires a rich\\nsoil and a soil easily penetrated by the roots of the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "1 88 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nplant in order to grow it in the best form. Soils\\nabounding in vegetable matter and naturally warmi\\nand friable, and which furnish plant food abundantly\\nin a readily available form, are best adapted to the\\ngrowth of millet. Such soils abound in much of\\nthe prairie region which extends from the Gulf of\\nMexico far northward, although in seasons that are\\nmoist, good crops of millet may be grown even on\\nstiff clays. But these soils are not well suited, as a\\nrule, to the growth of millet. In nearly all instances\\ntoo much labor has to be bestowed upon such soils\\nto prepare a seed bed sufficiently fine and moist.\\nThey are not sufficiently penetrable to the roots of\\nthe millet, and the plant food in them is not suffi-\\nciently available. Light zmd hungry sandy soils are\\nill adapted to the growth of this crop, and the same\\nis true of soils unduly moist and cold. But immense\\ncrops can be grown on the muck soils of drained\\nsloughs and marshes. Millet can be grown nicely\\nunder irrigation in the warm mountain valleys of the\\nwest. But in these it is not specially needed because of\\nthe abundant product of alfalfa obtained from them.\\nPlace in the Rotation. Millet in nearly all its\\nvarieties may be given almost any place in the rota-\\ntion. It may be the sole crop for the season, or it\\nmay be grown as a catch crop. It is more com-\\nmonly grown as a catch crop, since in many sections\\nthe season is amply long to grow a crop of millet\\nafter another crop has been removed and before an\\nautumn crop has been planted on the same land.\\nMillet is seldom made the sole crop grown upon\\nthe land, except in instances where the husbandman\\nhas been unable to sow other crops in season, because", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "MILLETS. 189\\nof excessive wetness in the soil, or because of some\\nother reason. But when it is thus grown it may in a\\nsense be made a cleaning crop, even though sown\\nbroadcast, since there is more or less time for sprout-\\ning the weed seeds near the surface of the ground\\nbefore the millet is sown, and when the seed is\\nsown in rows and cultivated it may always be made\\na cleaning crop.\\nMillet may be sown with much propriety after\\nsuch winter crops as rye, the winter vetch, the winter\\noat, or crimson clover when these have been pastured\\nor cut for green food. Under favorable conditions\\nit may be sown after the first cutting of medium\\nred clover or even after grain crops that have\\nmatured early, and it fits in nicely after newly sown\\nmeadow crops in which the stand of grass has\\nbeen a partial failure, and which in consequence has\\nbeen grazed down. With equal fitness it may come\\nafter spring sown grain which from any cause may\\nhave failed. Fall wheat is sometimes sown after\\nmillet, but the plan of sowing it thus is not a good\\none, since millet, like flax, preys heavily upon the\\nfertility of the soil. It has also been noticed that it\\nleaves the soil much depleted of its moisture. It\\nmay with much greater propriety be followed by\\nwinter rye, which has greater power than winter\\nwheat to gather food in the soil, and with equal pro-\\npriety it may be followed by a leguminous crop, as\\nthe common winter vetch or the sand vetch.\\nPreparing the Soil. Since millet is grown so\\nvariously in the rotation, only directions that are\\ngeneral rather than specific can be given relating to\\nthe preparation of the land for the seed. It should", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "igO SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\n])e the aim of the grower to prepare a seed bed clean,\\nmoist, fine and smooth. The clean seed bed can only\\nbe reached by the frequent use of the harrow for some\\ntime previous to the sowing of the seed. But when\\nmillet is grown as a catch crop the season for prepar-\\ning the seed bed is usually too short to admit of thus\\ncleaning the land. The means used to secure a clean\\nseed bed will also tend to conserve moisture in ths\\nsame, and the judicious use of the roller will also\\ntend to secure the same end.\\nIn cloddy soils, a fine seed bed can only be\\nsecured by the judicious use of some form of clod\\ncrusher or harrow and roller. In a dry time it would\\nbe labor lost to sow millet in cloddy soil. A level\\nseed bed is secured by careful plowing and by supple-\\nmenting such plowing with drawing some form of\\nleveler over the soil. When any considerable period\\nelapses between the plowing of the land and the sow-\\ning of the seed, the land may be fitted as desired, but\\nit more often happens that the seed must be sown so\\nsoon after the plowing of the land that it hinders the\\nfitting of the same in the very best form.\\nIt is not usual to apply fertilizers directly in\\nsow^ing a millet crop, more especially in the north\\nand west. In the north, fertilizers are applied to\\ncrops that are considered more important. In the\\nwest they are not much needed. But on ordinary\\nsoils the yield from this crop will be greatly increased\\nby the judicious use of fertilizers. When they are\\nused it should be in the readily available form, owing\\nto the shortness of the season in which millet makes\\nits growth. If farmyard manure is applied it ought\\nto be in the reduced form and incorporated as much", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "MILLETS. 191\\nas possible witn e surface soil, since millet gathers\\nits food near the surface rather than far down in\\nthe soil. When commercial fertilizers are used, they\\nshould usually contain a relatively high content of\\nnitrogen, and there are instances in which what are\\ntermed nitrogenous fertilizers are needed.\\nSozving. Millet is more commonly sown broad-\\ncast and by hand. But it may be sown by certain\\nkinds of grain drills in common use. The following\\nobjections apply to hand sowing i. The seed is not\\nburied so evenly, hence the germination is less per-\\nfect than when the seed is sown with the drill 2, a\\nconsiderable proportion of the plants start so near\\nthe surface that the loss of plants is greater if the\\nharrow is used subsequently 3, the plants have also\\nless power to w^ithstand drouth.\\nWhether all the drill tubes should be used in\\nsowing millet or only a part of them depends to a\\nconsiderable extent on the kind of the millet. The\\nsmall sorts are usually sovs-n with all the tubes in use,\\nbut the larger ones are frequently sown in rows far\\nenough apart to admit of easy cultivation. These\\nrows are in some instances made thirty-six inches\\napart, but more frequently the distance is not more\\nthan thirty inches. The small millets, as the Com-\\nmon, the German, the Hungarian, the Golden Won-\\nder and the Broom Corn, are more commonly sown\\nwhen the crop is not to be cultivated. But the larger\\nkinds, as the Japanese, should be preferred when\\nsubsequent cultivation is to be given. The smaller\\nsorts furnish the more palatable food, but the larger\\nones produce the better yields, and the crops that are\\ncultivated cau withstand dry conditions much better", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "192 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthan those that are not so cultivated. The kinds\\nbest suited to the needs of any locahty can only be\\ndetermined by positive test.\\nWhen millet seed is sown broadcast by hand,\\nnot fewer than sixteen quarts of seed are sown per\\nacre, nor more than thirty-two quarts. From twenty\\nto twent3^-four quarts may be called average quan-\\ntities. Thick sowing results in a finer growth\\nin the plants, but it is only to be practiced when\\nenough moisture may be looked for to supply the\\nneeds of the crop. When the seed is sown in rows\\nfar enough apart to admit of cultivating the crop, a\\nfew pounds of seed will suffice per acre.\\nIt is useless to sow millet before the ground and\\nweather are both warm. When the weather is raw\\nand cold for some time after sowing the millet, the\\ngermination is pretty certain to be imperfect, and the\\nsubsequent growth unsatisfactory. It is usually\\nbetter not to begin to sow millet until the corn plant-\\ning has been finished.\\nCultivation. Millet that is sown broadcast can-\\nnot even be harrowed with a light harrow after the\\nseeds have sprouted, without destroying a consider-\\nable proportion of the plants. But when sown with\\nthe drill, the plants will not be thus disturbed if the\\nharrow is drawn over the ground with the teeth at a\\nconsiderable angle, before the plants have reached the\\nsurface of the same. And the crop may even be\\nharrowed at a later period if the work is done with\\nsufficient care. But on many soils some form of\\nweeder will do the work more satisfactorily when\\nthe seed has been broadcasted. When millet seed\\nis not dear, if more seed were sown than would be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "MILLETS. 193\\ndeemed sufficient, then the crop can be harrowed\\nwith benefit to the same after the plants have become\\nwell rooted. Notwithstanding the destruction of\\nplants, there will still be enough left, and they will\\ngrow much more vigorously than if the crop were\\nnot harrowed.\\nCultivation should begin on the crops sown with\\nthat object in view soon after the harrowing has been\\ncompleted. It ought to be frequent and thorough,\\nand shallow rather than deep. It will not be neces-\\nsary to give the crop any hand hoeing unless it is\\ninfested with some form of perennial weed which\\nit is desirable to exterminate, as usually it will be\\nready for being cut before annuals growing in it will\\nhave matured their seed.\\nFeeding. The cutting of millet as a green food\\nmay begin as soon as any considerable number of\\nthe heads have appeared and it may be continued\\nuntil the crop is ready for being made into hay. Any\\nportion of the same not wanted as green food should\\nbe thus disposed of unless it is wanted to produce\\nseed. Millet is sufficiently advanced for being made\\ninto hay when all the heads are fully out. As it\\nusually heads out unevenly, the tiny heads appear\\nconsiderably later than the large ones. Or it may be\\ncut when the heads present a slightly golden tint on\\nlooking over the field. If the crop is cut earlier\\nthan the stage mentioned, it is lacking in body,\\nthat is to say, weight and full nutrition. If cut at\\n1 later period the stems become woody and the seeds\\nshatter more or less while the crop is being cured\\nand stored. The scythe or the mower are to be used\\nin cutting millet as green food. It is drawn and fed\\n13", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "194 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nas Other green food, in the pasture, paddock, yard,\\nfeed rack or stable mangers. It is better not to\\nahow the crop to wilt overmuch before being fed.\\nBut wilting millet of a growth rank and coarse in\\ncharacter will add to its palatability. There is vir-\\ntually no danger from feeding it green.\\nIf two kinds of millet which mature at different\\nperiods are sown separately and at the same time, the\\nperiod of feeding will be prolonged. The same end\\nmay be attained by sowing the same sort with an\\ninterval of three to four weeks between the periods\\nof sowing the seed. The period for feeding green\\nmillet may thus without difficulty be made to em-\\nbrace from six to eight weeks except where the sea-\\nson of growth is very short. When the season of\\ngrowth is long, the period of feeding may be pro-\\nlonged accordingly. But care should be taken to\\nharvest millet before the autumn frosts arrive, as it\\nis easily injured by frost.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nFIELD ROOTS.\\nMore commonly field roots are grown to pro-\\nvide winter food for live stock, but in some instances\\nthey are also grown to provide soiling food. The\\nchief of these are rutabagas, turnips, mangels, sugar\\nbeets and carrots. Parsnips are too deeply rooted\\nto admit of their being profitably grown as soiling\\nfood, and the same is somewhat true of sugar beets\\nand carrots. The growing of these crops involves\\nmuch more labor than the growing of a crop of\\nrutabagas, turnips or mangels. And since rutabagas\\nrequire a period considerably longer to mature than\\nturnips, the latter are preferred for summer feeding.\\nTurnips and mangels are therefore more highly\\nadapted to providing green food than any of the other\\nfield roots that have been named. No one of these\\ncrops has been grown to any considerable extent in\\nthe United States for green food, nor has any one\\nof them been grown for any purpose to anything like\\nthe extent to which its feeding value would justify.\\nOntario, Can., is beyond all comparison the greatest\\nroot-producing district in North America.\\nThe labor involved in growing and feeding\\nthese crops will probably form an effective barrier\\nagainst their general introduction as soiling food,\\nand yet there may be instances when it would be the\\npart of wisdom to grow them. While for all kinds\\n195", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "196 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nof live stock kept upon the farm, roots furnish excel-\\nlent food, they are more commonly fed in the green\\nform to swine, though sometimes also to cows and\\ncalves, also to sheep that are fitted for being shorn.\\nThey are eminently suited to the needs of young\\nanimals, such as calves and lambs, whether fed in\\nwinter or summer. Since these crops can oftentimes\\nbe grown as a catch crop, and since they furnish a\\nlarge amount of food per acre, an adequate return\\nmay frequently be obtained for the considerable\\namount of labor involved in growing them, espe-\\ncially when the holdings are small and when green\\nfood is to be provided for a limited number\\nof animals.\\nAs the tops and roots are both fed as green food,\\nlarge yields are often obtained per acre, in some\\ninstances as much as tw^enty-five tons, but the aver-\\nage crop is considerably less than that amount, the\\nyield depending largely on the variety grown.\\nDistribution. The rutabaga, sometimes called\\nthe Swedish turnip, is best adapted to cool and moist\\nclimates. On this continent, the best crops can be\\ngrown north rather than south of the forty-third\\nparallel of latitude, that is to say, north of the south-\\nern boundary of Minnesota.\\nThe turnip (Brassica rapa), sometimes called\\nthe fall turnip, since it is fed in the fall rather than\\nin the winter and spring, can be grown in nearly all\\nthe states of the Union, in several of its varieties, but\\nit, too, is best adapted to moist and not exces-\\nsively hot climates. In the southern part of the\\nUnited Stales, turnips can be grown in best form\\non the uplands, unless when grown chiefly in", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "FIELD ROOTS. 197\\nthe autumn after the hottest weather for the\\nseason has gone.\\nThe mangel (Beta vulgaris) will endure more\\nheat than the rutabaga, or turnip, hence it has a wider\\ndistribution than those crops, but the mangel also\\nmay be grown more satisfactorily where the summer\\ntemperatures are not excessive, hence the best mangel\\ncrops may be looked for north of the fortieth parallel.\\nThe sugar beet may be grown in good form in\\nwhat may be termed wine climates, that is to say,\\nin climates well adapted to the production of the\\ngrape. But, like mangels, sugar beets may be grown\\nmuch further north than grapes, except when vines\\nof the latter are specially protected in winter.\\nThe carrot (Daucus car of a) also grows best\\nwhere the summer weather is moist and temperate,\\nbut, like mangels, carrots can be grown in season in\\nsome part or parts of every state in the Union. The\\nhighest adaptation for field roots in North America\\nis found in Oregon, Washington, the New England\\nstates, British Columbia, Ontario and the Maritime\\nProvinces of Canada.\\nSoil. All kinds of field roots can be grown in\\ngood form on deep, moist, loam soils, and possessed\\nof that degree of admixture of clay and sand which\\nkeeps them in a friable condition. But the exact soil\\nconditions best adapted to the growth of each are\\nnot exactly the same. Clay soils, for instance, may\\nbe made to produce good crops of mangels, but not\\nof turnips, and the proportion of sand in the soil\\nthat would aid in furnishing high adaptation to the\\ngrowth of carrots would be excessive for the best\\nresults in growing mangels. Heavy clays are not", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "198 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nwell adapted to the growth of any kind of field roots\\nfor soiling uses, since the labor in preparing them for\\nthe seed is usually over-much, and the plants grow\\nslowly in them. On the other hand, infertile sands\\ndo not produce enough growth. Black loam soils,\\nsuch as abound on the prairie, have high adaptation,\\nbut they are apt to be much infested with weeds.\\nSlough and swamp soils will produce large quanti-\\nties of such food after they have been drained, but\\nin them the growth of top is relatively greater than\\nin other soils. Peat soils, until reduced, are usually\\nnot good root-producing soils. But the gray sands\\nof the Rocky mountain valleys will produce field\\nroots abundantly when supplied with water.\\nPlace in the Rotation. Field roots should\\nalways be grown as a cleaning crop, whether grown\\nfor the roots only or for the roots and tops in other\\nwords, whether they are grown for winter feeding\\nor for summer and autumn feeding. But when\\ngrown for the last named use, they cannot, for vari-\\nous reasons, be made so complete a cleaning crop for\\nthe land, unless they are the only crop grown on\\nthe same during that season. The natural place for\\nfield roots, therefore, is after grain crops and on\\nsoils that need renovation, not only in the sense of\\nbeing cleaned, but also in that of being fertilized.\\nThese crops take much fertility out of the land\\nand therefore cannot be successfully grown on\\ndepleted soils, unless these soils have first been\\nenriched. But it is a very propitious time to enrich\\nlands when root crops are to be grown upon them,\\nsince, owing to the cleaning given to the soil, the\\ncrops which follow are enabled to feed upon the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "FIELD ROOTS. 1 99\\nunused increment in the manure rather than weeds.\\nGrain crops naturally follow root crops, and where\\nclovers and grasses grow well, these are usually-\\nsown at the same time as the grain, singly or in\\nvarious combinations. But field roots, more espe-\\ncially turnips, may frequently be grown as a catch\\ncrop. For instance, a good crop of turnips may\\nfrequently be produced after the removal of the first\\ncutting of the clover. The clover roots furnish very\\nsuitable food for the turnips.\\nPreparing the Soil. If the roots are to be\\ngrown for winter feeding, the soil may be plowed in\\nthe fall or spring, according to the climatic condi-\\ntions and the kind of the crop. When the winters\\nare open and accompanied by considerable rainfall,\\nspring plowing will be the best. But where the\\nground remains frozen from autumn until spring,\\nautumn plowing will be the best. The condition of\\nheavy soils may in some instances be improved by\\nplowing both in the autumn and in the spring.\\nThe aim should be to secure a clean, fine and\\nmoist condition of the land, as the seeds will not\\ngerminate in cloddy surfaces with but scant mois-\\nture. The more free from weed seeds the soil can\\nbe made before sowing the seed, the less will be the\\nlabor of tending the crop while it is growing. There\\nis no time for sprouting weed seeds after spring\\nopens in growing a crop of carrots, since they must\\nbe planted early. Nor is there time for the same\\nwhen any of these plants are grown as a catch crop.\\nBut in growing mangels and sugar beets as the sole\\ncrop for the season, there is time for at least a partial\\nsprouting of the weeds. There is more time for", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "200 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthis in growing rutabagas because of the late plant-\\ning season, and still more time in growing turnips,\\nsince the turnips are planted later than the rutabagas.\\nFarmyard manure is excellent for such crops.\\nWhere the land is plowed in the fall, the manure\\nshould be applied before the plowing is done, except\\nwhen the soils are leachy. The manure should then\\nbe spread on the surface after the land is plowed.\\nIt may also be spread on the land in autumn or win-\\nter when it is to be plowed in the spring. When\\nthus applied in the fresh form in the autumn it\\nbecomes incorporated in the soil by the cultivation\\ngiven to the land before sowing the seed. But unre-\\nduced manure should not be thus applied in climates\\nover-dry. Complete commercial fertilizers are the\\nbest for the production of field roots. They require\\na liberal feeding of phosphates, hence finely ground\\nbones have been found specially helpful in the pro-\\nduction of field roots.\\nSowing. In localities with ample moisture it is\\nconsidered preferable to sow the seed of all kinds\\nof field roots in raised drills when grow^n as food for\\nlive stock. But where m.oisture is not abundant in\\nthe growing season, it is deemed preferable to sow\\nthe seed in unraised rows, as the needed moisture\\nescapes more readily from the former. But when\\nsown in raised drills the cultivation given may begin\\nsomewhat earlier and the hand hoeing is more easily\\ndone. The raised drills can be more quickly made\\nby using a double mold-board plow and a marker.\\nThe distance between them will vary with the kind of\\nroots grown and with other conditions, but usually\\nit is not less than twenty, or more than thirty inches.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "FIELD ROOTS. 20I\\nThe seed is commonly sown in the raised drills\\nwith a machine which deposits the seed in two rows\\nat a time. This machine is drawn by one horse and\\nis furnished with two rollers, each of which fits\\ndown over one raised drill and impacts it in advance\\nof the drill spouts, and also with a light roller which\\nruns behind. In some instances it will prove advan-\\ntageous to run a heavy land roller over the drills\\nbefore and after sowing the seed. When the weather is\\ndry, the more closely the seed drill is made to follow\\nthe drill plow the surer will the germination be.\\nWhen sown in rows on the level, the ground may\\nfirst be marked out by some kind of marker and\\nsown with a hand drill when the area is not large.\\nBut when the area is extensive, the seed should be\\nsown by seed drills adapted to such work. Some\\nkinds of grain drills will sow seeds thus small. With\\nother drills it is necessar}^ to mix the seed with some\\nmore bulky substance, as salt or road dust, before\\nusing it. But whatever the mode of sowing adopted,\\nthe straighter and more uniform the rows the more\\neasily and perfectly can the cultivation be done.\\nThe variety that should be sown will vary with\\nlocalities and can only be determined by actual test.\\nThe most popular variety of turnips at the present\\ntime, especially in the northern and northwestern\\nstates, is the Purple Top Strap Leaf. The favorite\\nvariety of mangels in the same is the Mammoth\\nLong Red. As rutabagas, sugar beets and carrots\\nare seldom grown as soiling food, it is scarcely neces-\\nsary to add more on the subject of varieties. But\\nin passing, it may be mentioned that much soiling\\nfood per acre may be obtained from some of the half", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "202 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nlong varieties of carrots and without great labor\\nwhen they can be sown on clean land. Such carrots\\nare easily lifted.\\nThe same amounts of seed may be sown\\nwhether the roots are used for soiling food or for\\nwinter feeding. These amounts will vary with the\\nvariety, the soil, the condition of the same and with\\nthe climate and weather at the time of sowing. But\\nthe following may be named as approximately rep-\\nresenting the maximum and minimum quantities of\\nseed to be grown per acre of the different species of\\nfield roots that are being considered when grown as\\nfood for domestic animals Rutabagas and turnips,\\ntwo to four pounds; mangels and sugar beets, four\\nto six pounds carrots, two to four pounds.\\nThe time for sowing the seed will vary accord-\\ning to the varieties and other conditions. Carrots\\nshould be sown as a rule early in the season, mangels\\nand sugar beets a little later. Rutabagas are usually\\nsown two or three weeks later than the normal\\nseason of corn planting, and turnips still later than\\nrutabagas. The last named crop will frequently\\nattain a maximum of growth in ninety days. Car-\\nrots, on the other hand, require much of the growing\\nseason to complete their growth, and in many cli-\\nmates all of it.\\nCultivation. As soon as the plants have\\nbecome far enough advanced to distinctly mark the\\nline of the row, the cultivation should begin. Horse\\ncultivation is usually given first. It should, of\\ncourse, be shallow and should come as close to the\\nline of the row as possible without giving disturb-\\nance to the plants. The remaining weeds should", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "FIELD ROOTS. 2O3\\nthen be cut out on both sides of the row with tHe\\nhand hoe and without waiting to thin the plants.\\nIf the hand hoeing thus given is carefully done, it\\nmay not be necessary to bestow upon the crop any\\nmore hand labor until it is ready for being fed. If\\nthe plants are thinned as when they are grown for\\nwinter feeding, the proper distance at which to thin\\nthem will vary with circumstances. The following\\nmay be given as the maximum distance at which\\nthe plants of the various species may be thinned:\\nrutabagas and turnips, twelve inches; mangels,\\ntwelve inches sugar beets, nine inches and carrots,\\neight inches. The average distance to leave between\\nthe plants is about two-thirds of the distance named\\nas the maximum. It is seldom necessary, how-\\never, to thin the plants when they are grown\\nas soiling food.\\nThe horse cultivation given should be frequent\\nand should continue until the leaves of the plants\\ncome together or nearly together between the rows.\\nFeeding. The feeding of field roots is a very\\nsimple but somewhat tedious process. They are\\npulled up by hand and laid in piles, or thrown directly\\ninto a hand barrow, or some form of wagon or truck\\ndrawn by horses. Field roots should only be thrown\\nin piles for future drawing when it is not convenient\\nat the time to have the means of conveyance at hand,\\nor when there may be opportunity to lift the plants\\na few days in advance of the feeding. This may be\\ndone in late autumn without serious injury to the\\nplants, but not when the weather is warm. The\\nroots are of course handled with forks after they\\nhave been lifted.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "204 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThey may be fed in a pasture or paddock with\\nmuch advantage when the surface is well sodded and\\nthe ground is in consequence clean. They may also\\nbe fed in the cattle manger or pig trough, but when\\nso fed some watchfulness is necessary in cleaning out\\nthe loose earth from both manger and trough, that\\ndrops off the plants.\\nThe feeding of the crop may begin at any time\\nafter the roots have made a growth somewhat ad-\\nvanced. If the feeding begins too early, there will\\nbe a loss of nutriment from want of advancement in\\nthe growth of the crop. If such food is fed in excess\\nand more especially at the first, it will induce scouring\\nin the animals so fed. It should only be given to\\ncows in milk after the milk has been withdrawn to\\navoid taint in the milk.\\nThese crops can probably be fed with more\\nrelative advantage to such animals as calves, sheep\\nand lambs and swine, than to matured cattle. The\\nformer consume so much less per animal than the\\nlatter that it is more practicable to feed roots to them.\\nAs a food factor in feeding growing swine and brood\\nsows, they are peculiarly helpful, more especially\\nwhen the root portion, that is to say, the edible part of\\nthe root, has made large development. But in no\\ncase should such food be made the sole factor in\\nfeeding any kind of live stock.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL\\nMISCELLANEOUS PLANTS.\\nThe plants discussed in the previous chapters\\ncan all be made to furnish soiling- food in some sec-\\ntions of the United States with more or less profit.\\nIn addition to these are other plants, possessed of\\nmore or less adaptability in providing such food, but\\ntheir exact value for this use has not been determined.\\nThe number of these is not very large at the present\\ntime, but it will doubtless be increased as the years\\nmove on. These plants will now be briefly discussed.\\nThe following includes those which have been con-\\nsidered as possessed of sufficient promise to merit a\\nplace in the discussion viz. White or Dutch clover,\\nsweet clover, Japan clover, sainfoin, trefoil, the horse\\nbean, the velvet bean, kale, the sand vetch, the flat\\npea, white mustard, the lupine, spurry, the artichoke,\\nprickly comfrey and sunflower. Some of these\\nplants will doubtless be found possessed of no little\\nvalue in providing soiling food when they come\\nto be better understood. Something will also be\\nsaid of sacaline, the plant whose merits have been so\\noverdrawn by some seedsmen and others interested\\nin selling it.\\nWhite Clover. White clover (Trifolium\\nrepens), sometimes called Dutch clover is so well\\nknown that it is not necessary to give any detailed\\ndescription of it. It is native to both Europe and\\n205", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "206 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nAmerica. It is already distributed more or less\\nOA er nearly all the cultivated portions of the northern\\nand central states, and in many sections of the south-\\nern states it has also been successfully introduced.\\nIt would seem to have the highest adaptation for clay\\nloam soils which were formerly covered with forests\\nof hard w^ood trees, or of hard and soft woods grow-\\ning together. When these were cleared away it\\nseemed to come in, as it were, spontaneously, but\\nnever to the extent of becoming a hindrance to culti-^\\nvation. The ordinar}^ black loam soils of the prairie\\nare not so well adapted to its growth, although it\\nmay be grown on these with more or less of success.\\nThe soils of the Rocky mountain valleys would seem\\nto have supreme adaptation for growing this plant\\nwhen supplied with sufficient moisture, and the same\\nis true of the arable lands west of the Cascade moun-\\ntains.\\nWhite clover is probably the hardiest of all the\\nspecies of clover, hence it can be grown far to the\\nnorth. As is generally known white clover is com-\\nmonly grown for pasture and usually in conjunction\\nwith blue grass. Where it has been grown in rota-\\ntions that do not cover many seasons, it does not\\nordinarily require to be sown again when laying\\ndow^n pastures, as in these the plants will soon appear\\nand sometimes to the extent of forming one of the\\nchief food elements. The plants not only produce\\nothers from seed, but also by means of runners which\\nat intervals send down roots into the soil and form\\nfresh plants. But when it is to be grown as a factor\\nof a hay crop it ought to be sown along with the\\nother seeds that are designed to furnish the hay,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 207\\notherwise it is not likely to furnish any considerable\\nproportion of the same the first season.\\nBecause of the relative lack of bulk in the crop,\\nit is seldom sown by itself for the express purpose of\\nproviding soiling food, nor is it often sown in con-\\njunction with other *clovers or grasses for such a\\npurpose. Nevertheless there may be instances when\\nit would be eminently wise to sow it in conjunction\\nwith common red, or alsike clover, when it is to be\\ncut for soiling food. It adds to the fineness of the\\nfood and also to its bulk. It matures a little later\\nthan medium red clover, hence there is probably some\\nadvantage from sowing it with the alsike. But it\\nshould never be sown to provide soiling food, except\\nunder conditions of marked adaptation for growing\\nit successfully. When thus sown not more than one\\nor two pounds of seed are required per acre, as the\\nseeds are quite small relatively. The quantity of the\\nseed of the other kind soAvn should also be reduced\\nby about twice the quantity of the white clover added\\nto the other seed sown.\\nSweet Clover. Sweet clover (Melilotus alba)\\nsometimes called Bokhara clover, is branching in its\\nhabit of growth, and it is of wide distribution. No\\nplant of the clover family will grow over so wide an\\narea and under conditions so unpromising. The\\nheat of summer and the cold of winter would seem\\nto be alike unable to kill it. While it can be grown\\non the stiffest clays, it will also grow and thrive on\\nsandy soils so light that the winds will carry them,\\nand so lacking in plant food as to be quite bare of\\ngrass during all the year. It will also flourish in\\nregions so dry as to forbid the successful growth of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "208 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nother clovers in the absence of irrigation. And more-\\nover, it is a plant that not only fills the soil w^ith a\\nmass of strong roots v^hich penetrate the same in\\nvarious directions and v^hich go down deeply into the\\nsubsoil to gather food, but it has also much power\\nto gather nitrogen from the air and to deposit the\\nsame in the subsoil.\\nNotwithstanding the great powders of growth\\nwith wdiich sweet clover is endowed, it has been but\\nlittle cultivated as yet to provide food for domestic\\nanimals. The odor of this plant is highly fragrant,\\nbut the stalks and buds possess a bitterness of taste\\nwhich seems, to a considerable extent at least, to\\ndetract from its palatability. The stems also become\\nwood} at a comparatively early stage of development.\\nHeretofore sweet clover has been chiefly grown\\nin America to provide food for bees, but in some\\ninstances it has been sown to hinder the washing\\ndown of the earth from embankments, which wall in\\nthe cuttings made in buildmg railroads. More com-\\nmonly it is found growing in vagrant fashion along\\nthe roadsides and in waste places, where it is main-\\ntained through self seeding. Because of this vagrant\\nhabit of growth, sweet clover has been proscribed as\\na weed pest by the laws of several states.\\nIt would seem too bad to allow a plant possessed\\nof so many redeeming qualities to be forever treated\\nas a fugitive. The author cannot but feel hopeful\\nthat some time in the future when the seed becomes\\nmore plentiful and consequently cheaper, sweet clover\\nwill be sown on wide areas in the semi-arid belt\\nalong with small grain such as wheat, oats and\\nbarley, to help to sustain fertility and to increase the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 2O9\\ncontent of moisture in the soil by means\\nof the increase in humus which it brings\\nto the soil. This can be done by sow-\\ning the sweet clover at the same time that the\\ngrain is sown in the spring and by plowing the crop\\nunder the following spring after it has made a vigor-\\nous growth and in time to plant corn or sorghum.\\nWhether sweet clover can be made to furnish\\ngreen food for live stock in the summer season is\\nproblematical. No class of domestic animals is fond\\nof it, but taste in animals, as in individuals, is largely\\nthe outcome of habit. May it not be possible, there-\\nfore, so to develop in these a relish for this plant\\nwhich would justify growing it to feed to them as\\nsoiling, food In sections where the other clovers\\nwill grow, it would probably be a waste of time to\\ntry experiments of such a character, but in other\\nlocalities it may be eminently proper to conduct them.\\nThis plant is sometimes made into hay which is con-\\nsumed on the farm. Why then should it be looked\\nupon as a waste of time under all conditions to\\nexperiment in feeding sweet clover as a soiling food\\nJapan Clover. Japan clover {Lespedeza\\nstriata) has been grown in some of the southern\\nstates for several years. Little or nothing has been\\npublished regarding its behavior in the northern\\nstates. But in such of the latter as produce the\\nleading sorts of clover in good form, it is pretty\\ncertain that it would not be profitable to grow so\\ndiminutive a plant as Japan clover, even though it\\nshould be able to withstand the rigors of the winter\\nclimate. That it can withstand those rigors is not\\nprobable, since notwithstanding the number of years\\n14.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "2IO SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nduring which it has been grown in the southern states\\nno one apparently is growing it in the northern\\nstates.\\nJapan clover is a low growing plant which\\nseldom exceeds the hight of sixteen inches. It is an\\nannual, but when not grazed down too closely or cut\\ntoo early it has much power to reseed itself. Since\\nit grows readily on hard surfaces, this property may\\nbe turned to good account. It is considerably\\nbranched and has a blue flower. It may be grown\\non dry soils, but will of course make a more vigorous\\ngrowth on good loam soils. On the former it only\\nattains the hight of a few inches, and is used as pas-\\nture. On the more productive soils it is grown for\\nhay. From twelve to fifteen pounds of seed are sown\\nper acre.\\nWhere Japan clover furnishes sufficient bulk to\\njustify growing it for hay, it may also be grown as\\nsoiling food. It will not of course produce nearly so\\nmuch food per acre as the sorghums, either saccharine\\nor non-saccharine, but it may be grown on soils\\nwhere these would not produce abundantly without\\nbeing fertilized. And it may also be grown with\\nmuch less outlay for labor.\\nSainfoin. Sainfoin (Onohrychis sativa) is a\\nplant that grows rapidly and vigorously under suit-\\nable conditions. It is sometimes called Aspersette or\\nEsparsette. It is a legume of the clover family,\\nand is much branched and spreading in its habit\\nof growth. The flowers are of a beautiful crimson\\ntint and it seeds profusely under favorable con-\\nditions. In some parts of Europe, notably in the\\nsouth of England and in France, it has long been", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 211\\ngrown to provide pasture for sheep and green food\\nfor horses and cattle. It has special adaptation for\\ndry calcareous soils.\\nSainfoin bears no little resemblance to alfalfa\\nin its habit of growth. Like alfalfa it will pro-\\nvide two or more cuttings of soiling food or\\nof hay in a single season, and when established\\nwill retain its hold upon the soil for a number of\\nyears, though not for so long a period as alfalfa.\\nThe same care is also required in making it into\\nhay, or many of the leaves will be lost while it is\\nthus being cured. Because of its early and quick\\ngrowth it is ready for being cut earlier than red\\nclover. It is thought to be adapted to conditions\\nmore dry than would be suited to growing alfalfa\\nin the absence of irrigation. It is rather adapted to\\nmild than to cold climates.\\nBut little can be gleaned from the reports of the\\nagricultural experiment stations with reference to\\nthe growth of sainfoin. It would almost seem as\\nthough it had entirely escaped the attention of experi-\\nmenters in this country, and yet there is likely to be\\na place for it in our agriculture as a pasture and also\\nas a soiling crop. It is claimed that when pasturing\\nit there is no danger from hoven or bloat as when\\npasturing alfalfa, or red clover.\\nSainfoin has been grown with much success in\\nthe neighborhood of Deer Lodge, Mont., and it is\\nnot improbable that it can be grown with equal\\nsuccess in nearly all the Rocky mountain valleys\\nnorthward from Montana and also between the\\ncoast range and the Pacific. The seed is frequently\\nsown while yet in the sac, and when thus sown from", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "212 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfour to five bushels of seed are used per acre. Much\\ncare is necessary in saving the seed, as it shatters\\nout easily and it also heats readily when stored.\\nThe loss in germinating power in the seed when\\nit is thus managed is responsible for many failures\\nin growing this crop.\\nTrefoil. Trefoil (Medicago htpulina) some-\\ntimes called yellow clover is of several varieties.\\nThere are but few places in America in which it\\nhas come markedly into favor. Like white clover\\n{Trifoliuin rcpens)it is of wide distribution, but\\nthe localities are still very numerous in this country\\nin which trefoil has not been tried. It has much\\naffinity for limestone soils when once introduced\\ninto these. So persistent is it oftentim.es in its\\nhabit of growth that it is in a sense troublesome\\nwhere growing crops are to be cultivated.\\nTrefoil is recumbent in its habit of growth, and\\nin many localities it is a diminutive plant, but in\\ncongenial soils it attains a considerable size. It is\\nmore commonly grown along with various other\\nplants in pastures that are intended to be permanent\\nin character. Its ability to maintain itself in these\\nhelps to increase its value as a pasture plant. Be-\\ncause of want of bulk in the growth produced, tre-\\nfoil is not likely to become popular as a hay plant or\\nas a soiling food. But doubtless there are areas\\nin the United States and in Canada where it would\\npay to sow more or less of the seed of trefoil along\\nwith other clover seed that is sown to furnish soil-\\ning food. When thus grown it would add to the\\nbulk and to the fineness of the growth in the crop.\\nIt may yet be sown on the western slopes of Oregon", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 21,3\\nand Washington between the mountains and the\\nsea.\\nThe Horse Bean.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Th^ horse bean (Vicia faba)\\nis doubtless so named from the extent to which it can\\nbe used in feeding horses in countries where its\\ngrowth has been found profitable. It is sometimes\\ncalled the Scotch bean, from the extent to which it\\nis grown in that country even almost to the ex-\\nclusion of all other sorts of the bean family. The\\ndamp and temperate clim.ate of Great Britain and\\nespecially of Scotland has peculiar adaptation for\\nthe growth of the horse bean. It is a hardy and\\nvigorous grower. The plants sometimes attain a\\nhigfht of four feet and CAxn a greater hight. The\\npods are numerous and contain from three to five\\nbeans of a large size. The average yield per acre\\nin Scotland is not far from thirty bushels.\\nThe Scotch bean has been found to furnish an\\nexcellent food for horses and other domestic animals.\\nIt is best adapted to strong loam soils of good drain-\\nage. It is usual to grow the beans in rows twenty-\\nfour to thirty-six inches distant from one another,\\nand to cultivate the crop as other beans are culti-\\nvated. The aim is to have the beans about two inches\\napart in the row. To grow them thus would require\\nfrom two to three bushels of seed to the acre.\\nThe horse bean has not been much tried under\\nAmerican conditions. It has been grown to a con-\\nsiderable extent however by dairymen in the vicinity\\nof Montreal, Can. In the more dry climate of\\nwestern Ontario, however, the crop has not proved\\na success. The author has not been able to secure\\na good growth of straw^ or of leaves in western", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "214 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nOntario or in Minnesota, but has seen plants growing\\nvigorously in the Puget Sound country in Washing-\\nton. Wherever the summer temperatures run high,\\nthe horse bean will not succeed. In this fact we\\nhave the explanation of the greater success which\\nattends its growth in Scotland than in the south of\\nEngland or in Ireland.\\nIn North America the climatic conditions best\\nadapted to the growth of this plant will probably\\nbe found in the New England states, in the Mari-\\ntime provinces of Canada, and in the country bor-\\ndering on the Pacific north from Portland, Ore.,\\nand west of the most northerly range of the Rocky\\nmountains. In those areas this plant should cer-\\ntainly be tried as a soiling crop. In growing it\\nsome large variety of peas sown along with the\\nbeans would probably add to the bulk of the fodder\\nwithout lessening the quality of the same.\\nThe Velvet Bean. The velvet bean (Mucuna\\nutilis) is a vine-like plant which has been grown for\\nseveral years past in some sections of the Gulf\\nstates as a trellis shade. During recent years it has\\ncome to be regarded with more or less favor as a\\nfood for live stock, as a mulch for orchards, and\\nas a means of fertilizing and otherwise improving\\nthem where the land can be tilled. While it is not\\nconsidered suitable for providing pasture, it is\\nfavorably spoken of as a soiling food, and the hay is\\nsaid to be superior to that made from cowpeas, since\\nit is less coarse in character. The seeds are very\\nrich in protein, and both vines and grain are said\\nto be much relished by live stock. It has been given\\nvery high praise as a source of fertility, owing to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 215\\nthe great power which it is said to possess of draw-\\ning nitrogen from the air.\\nWhen grown as a food crop the velvet bean\\nsends out runners in every direction as watermelons\\ndo, and the vines thus thrown out are frequently\\nten to twenty feet long. They eventually cover the\\nground with a rank mass of vegetation fifteen to\\ntwenty inches deep. The seeds should not be planted\\nnearer to fruit trees of a dwarfish habit of growth\\nthan five or six feet, lest trouble should arise from\\nthe vines climbing up into the trees and extending\\naround the branches. It begins to fruit not far from\\nthe root of the plant, and pods appear in clusters at\\nintervals all along the length of the vine. These\\npods are brown and velvety in character, hence\\nprobably the name, velvet bean. It has been affirmed\\nthat the yield of seed on average soils is from twenty\\nto thirty bushels per acre.\\nBecause of the dense shade which the velvet\\nbean produces, it has been found valuable in smoth-\\nering various kinds of noxious weeds and grasses,\\nparticularly Bermuda grass (Cynodon Dactyl on)\\nand nut grass (Cy penis rotundus). The dense cov-\\nering which it furnishes to the ground retards in a\\nmarked degree the escape of moisture. In dry\\nweather therefore the service thus rendered is in-\\nvaluable to orchards.\\nThe velvet bean is commonly planted in rows.\\nFive feet has been named as a suitable distance\\nbetween them. From three to five beans are planted\\nin hills at short intervals along the line of the row.\\nThe seed should be planted early in the season but\\nnot until the weather has become warm. The", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "2l6 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ncultivation given is the same as for other beans until\\nthe runners extend so far that it cannot be longer\\ncontinued.\\nIt has been claimed that the velvet bean can\\nbe successfully grown when all the conditions are\\nquite favorable to the growth of Indian corn, but\\nthis claim is probably extravagant since even in\\nLouisiana the plants do not always mature all the\\nseed produced. It is questionable if the velvet bean\\nin its present form can be made to render substantial\\nbenefits to agriculture as far north as the fortieth\\nparallel of latitude. That it will be greatly helpful\\nto the farmers of the Gult states is more tlian prob-\\nable, but rather as a soil cleaner and a soil renovator\\nthan in producing soiling food. Owing to the\\nvine-like habit of growth which it possesses it\\nis likely to prove somewhat difficult to harvest.\\nIt will not be easy to cut the vines cleanly,\\nand it will be more difficult still to handle them\\nwhen cut.\\nKale. Kale (Brassica oleracea) is of the same\\nspecies of plants as cabbage. In fact, kale may be\\nsaid to mean any variety of headless cabbage with\\ncurled or crinkled leaves. And yet, paradoxical as\\nit may seem, there is a variety of kale grown in Great\\nBritain popularly spoken of as the thousand-headed\\nkale. It is so called from the many miniature heads\\nwhich it produces on its numerous branches. It is\\nmuch prized by flockmasters as a food for lambs.\\nSome varieties of kale are very attractive in color\\nand also in the crinkled character of the leaves. In\\nthe United States kale has been chiefly grown here-\\ntofore in gardens for its leaves which are boiled as", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 217\\npotherbs. Thousands of acres are grown annually\\nbut chiefly for culinary uses.\\nThe author has not been able to obtain any in-\\nformation with reference to growing it for pasture\\nfrom an American source other than what has been\\nfurnished by the Minnesota University Experiment\\nstation. The experiments there conducted have\\nsustained the view that kale has much of adaptation\\nfor our conditions, but not more probably than\\nDwarf Essex rape. When sown early in the season\\nat the aforementioned station, the plants reached a\\nmaximum of growth by early midsummer, and when\\nnot fed soon after reaching that stage of develop-\\nment, not a few of the leaves shrank and withered,\\nbut not to the same extent as dwarf essex rape leaves\\ngrown under similar conditions. When sown later,\\nthe plants retained their greenness and freshness imtil\\nthe closing in of winter. The growth was on the\\nw^hole not quite so rapid as the growth of rape, but\\nthe pasture furnished was equally relished with rape\\npastvire.\\nThere is but little doubt that kale can be grown\\nwith more or less success in the climate of the\\nUnited States wherever rape can be grown in good\\nform. It would also seem to be equally probable\\nthat it will furnish soiling food that may be fed in\\nthe same way as rape. So far as tried in this country,\\nkale does not seem to have any advantage over rape\\nas a food plant, that would justify discarding the\\nlatter and growing the former in its stead.\\nThe Sand Vetch. The sand vetch {Vicia vil-\\nlosa) is being tested by several of the experiment sta-\\ntions, more especially by those in the southern states.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "2l8 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nIt has also been tested in a limited way by individual\\nfarmers. Some who have tested this plant speak en-\\ncouragingly of its value as a hay crop. In the judg-\\nment of the Author its highest use as a food plant\\nfor stock will be found in the pasture which it\\nfurnishes, and this opinion is based on the results ob-\\ntained from growing it in various w^ays at the\\nMinnesota University Experiment station.\\nIt is an annual but should be sown in the autumn\\nrather than the spring in climates where it will sur-\\nvive the winter, but when sown in the spring a good\\ngrowth is frequently made. The plants grow but\\nslowly for a time, but when once firmly rooted run-\\nners are thrown out in ail directions and the ground\\nis covered with a dense mass of vegetation. But\\nthe runners become so intertwined that it is almost\\nimpossible to cut them or to pull them apart when\\ncut. Because of this the sand vetch is not likely to\\nbecome popular as soiling food when sown alone.\\nBut if sown as a mixed crop, as with oats or some\\nother kind of grain, the grain acts in a considerable\\ndegree as a support to the tendrils of vetch. When\\nthus grown, the mixed crop may be cut without much\\ndifficulty and used as soiling food or as hay.\\nWhen sown in the spring and thus used the\\nplants make much aftergrowth which may be pas-\\ntured until the advent of winter by sheep or cattle.\\nWhen sown alone not less than four pecks of seed\\nshould be used, but when sown with another crop the\\namount of the vetch seed to use should be decreased\\nproportionately as the seed of the other crop is used.\\nThe relatively dear price of the seed in the past has\\nhindered the extensive growth of this plant.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "220 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe sand vetch will probably survive the winter\\nexcept in situations much exposed north of the forty-\\nthird parallel, and in certain areas it will probably\\nlive one or two degrees further to the north. It has\\nalways perished in the winter in th^ trials made at\\nthe Minnesota University Experiment farm, but on\\nthe Pacific coast it ought to succeed as far north as\\nAlaska. East of the Rocky mountains it is not likely\\nto prove of much value to the agriculture of Canada.\\nAs the name implies, the sand vetch has much\\npower to grow on sandy soils, and soils low in fer-\\ntility. Its highest use will probably be found in\\nenriching such lands since it is a legume. Its next\\nhighest value will probably be found in the pasture\\nwhich it furnishes, more especially in southern lati-\\ntudes. But it will also be grown more or less for\\nsoiling food and for hay and more especially in con-\\njunction with some other crop.\\nThe Flat Pea. The flat pea (Lathyrus sylves-\\ntris), although tried more or less fully by not a few\\nof the agricultural experiment stations in the United\\nStates, has not come into much favor. Some of the\\nexperimenters pronounce against it and others\\nspeak discouragingly with reference to it. No one\\nwho has tried this plant in America is enthusiastic\\nover it. In no instances have more than two good\\ncuttings been reported per year.\\nThe flat pea is a perennial. It is partly upright\\nand partly vine-like in its habit of growth. The\\nstems intertwine considerably but not so much as\\ndo those of the sand vetch (Vicia villosa). The\\nplants bear no little resemblance to those of the grass\\npea, but are considerablv larger and coarser. Thev", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 221\\nare slow in becoming established, but in soils adapted\\nto their growth they will live for many years,\\nalthough American experience has not yet determined\\nhow many, unless in states where the winters are too\\ncold for growing it successfully. Though it stands\\nthe winters of southern Ontario it cannot be de-\\npended upon to endure those of northern Minnesota.\\nThe seed is more commonly sown in rows from\\nthirty to thirt3^-six inches apart, and in sowing the\\nsame the aim is to have the plants only a few inches\\napart in the row. The seed germinates slowly.\\nWhen this fact is linked with the slow growth the\\nplants make the first season, the necessity for clean\\ncultivation during that period of the development\\nwill be apparent. The plants gradually extend so\\nas to occupy all the ground. In some areas they\\nproduce seed but shyly, more especially where the\\nrainfall is abundant and the growth of the crop is\\nvigorous.\\nThat the flat pea will ever be extensively grown\\nas a producer of soiling food in the northern states\\nand in the middle states east of the Mississippi river\\nis at least problematical, and for the following\\nreasons: i. The plants do not usually produce\\na full crop until the third year from the time of\\nplanting, and the seed is likely to be dear for several\\nyears to come; 2, other crops can be grown\\nmore easily, that are quite as productive of forage,\\nthat are more easily handled and that are more\\nhighly relished by live stock; 3, the lack of\\npalatability which experimenters complain of will\\ntell against the introduction of the plant, but this\\nmay be overcome in part at least by persistent", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "222 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfeeding for a period more or less prolonged; 4,\\nthe plants are not easily harvested owing to the in-\\ntertwining habit of growth in the tendrils. Never-\\ntheless it would not be prudent to claim that there\\nis no place for the flat pea in our agriculture. It\\nmay yet be grown to provide soiling food or pasture\\nin the south and also in the far west. The sands of\\nthe semi-arid country may yet be made to produce\\nthis crop where, in the absence of irrigation, they\\nwill not produce much else. It is at least worthy of\\nfurther trial in the volcanic soils of the western\\nmountain plateaus.\\nWhite Mustard. White mustard (Sinapis\\nalba) is grown more or less as a food for live stock\\nin many of the countries of Europe. Heretofore\\nit has been grown chiefly in gardens, only, in\\nAmerica. But in this country, as in Europe, it may\\ndoubtless be turned to good account in furnishing\\nfood for live stock. But when so fed it should be\\nas a part of a ration rather than as the whole. When\\nthus fed in proper combinations, it acts as a corrector\\nof digestion. When fed with rape, for instance, it\\nlessens the danger from bloating. When grown\\nas a green food therefore it should be along with\\nsome such crop as rape, and the two plants can be\\ncut and fed together. But there is a higher value\\nfrom growing white mustard along with rape which\\nis to be pastured off. When thus grown the tops of\\nthe mustard plants being taller than those of the\\nrape are likely to be eaten first, so that the danger of\\nbloating is thereby lessened. Mustard is not suffi-\\nciently nutritious to rely upon it as the sole food\\nfed for any prolonged period. Since it is a quick", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 223\\ngrowing plant, it will in time come more or less into\\nfavor as a crop to grow for plowing under, but not\\nuntil the price of seed falls lower than it has been in\\nthe past.\\nWhite mustard may be sown any time after\\nthe danger of spring frost is past. And the crop\\nshould be fed or plowed under before the frosts of\\nautumn blight it. Since it grows rapidly it may be\\ngrown as a catch crop and in various ways. A few\\npounds of seed will suffice to sow an acre when the\\nmustard is the sole occupant of the land, and when\\nsown along with another crop as rape, or kale, the\\nproportion of the mustard seed should not be more\\nthan one- fourth or one-fifth of the whole. Although\\nmustard will grow vigorously on almost any kind of\\nsoil possessed of a fair amount of plant food, and\\nalthough it will make considerable growth, even on\\nsoils low in fertility, it has a peculiar affinity for\\nloam soils abounding in lime. It grows so rapidly\\nthat under some conditions it will be in full bloom\\nin six weeks from the date of sowing. It should\\nbe fed rather before than at the blossoming stage,\\nsince the stalks quickly become woody. It is prob-\\nable that mustard fed in large quantities to cows in\\nmilk would impart something of a pungent taste to\\nthe milk. When plowed under the plants should\\nnot be allowed to get beyond the blooming stage.\\nThere is no danger as with black or brown\\nmustard that the seeds will remain in the soil and\\nthus make trouble. White mustard may be dis-\\ntinguished from the black or brown by the rough\\nhairs which cover the stems of the white kind, and\\nby the -peculiar shape of the pods which terminate", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "224 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nin a broad two edged shaped beak. The seeds are\\nlarger than those of black mustard and are white\\nexternally.\\nThe Lupine. The lupine is of many species\\nand is native to both the old and new worlds. Some\\nof the sorts are domesticated, others of them still\\ngrow wild. The white lupine (Lupimis alhus) is\\nprobably the most valuable among the cultivated\\nspecies. It is an annual. The lupine derives its\\nname from lupus, a wolf, and because of its vora-\\ncious qualities. The long tap roots of the white\\nlupine go down deeply into the soil and there they\\ngather plant food, much of which is deposited in\\nthe surface soil. It also produces a very consider-\\nable quantity of vegetable matter the decay of which\\nadds fertility to the soil.\\nThe cultivation of the white lupine in Portu-\\ngal has been the means of restoring vast tracts of\\nworn out soils. It has also been much grown in\\nGermany to increase the producing power of\\nsandy tracts low in fertility. In Italy, Sicily and\\nother Mediterranean countries it is extensively cul-\\ntivated for forage, as green manure and also for\\nthe seeds.\\nThe attempts made by the author to grow the\\nlupine at the Minnesota University Experiment\\nstation have, not been successful. The plants\\nmade but little growth, and yet it is almost certain\\nthat there are extensive areas in the United\\nStates in which the growth of the lupine would\\nbe eminently successful and helpful to the cause\\nof agriculture. These can only be determined by\\nexperiment.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 225\\nSpurry. Spurry (Spergula arvensis) is a\\nquick growing plant which may be raised success-\\nfully on lands too light and hungry to produce good\\ncrops of clover even where the climatic conditions\\nare suitable. It has special adaptation for the light\\nsoils of Great Britain and in Denmark, Holland,\\nBelgium and some parts of Germany and Russia it\\nis extensively grown as pasture for cattle and sheep.\\nIt is also grown as soiling food, as fodder and as\\ngreen manure.\\nSpurry is a little plant with innumerable\\nbranches and foliage very fine in character. It\\nseldom growls to a greater hight than twenty inches,\\nand the average hight is considerably less. The\\nplants have some resemblance to those of flax and\\nthe same is true of the seeds. The blossoms are\\nwhite and are very tiny. The stems interlace some-\\nwhat so that one is apt to trip in walking through\\na field of spurry in an advanced stage of growth. It\\nis frequently ready for being pastured or cut as soil-\\ning food in from six to eight weeks from the date of\\nsowing the seed.\\nThe attempts made at the Minnesota Uni-\\nversity experiment farm to grow spurry have not\\nmet with much success. Those made on the light\\nsandy soils at Grayling, Mich., have been more\\nsuccessful. The highest success in growing the\\nplant in the United States will probably be attained\\non light sandy soils and under climatic conditions\\nwhich furnish ample moisture. Whether it will\\never be grown at all extensively in this country, in\\nproviding soiling food, cannot now be predicted with\\ncertaint}^ But it is highly probable that it will be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "226 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmade to render more effective service by growing\\nit as a pasture or as a green manure.\\nThe Artichoke. The Jerusalem artichoke\\n(Helianthus tuberosus) has been mentioned as pos-\\nsessed of some value in providing soiling food and\\nforage, but the stalks are too large and woody to\\nmeet the requirements of a good soiling or forage\\ncrop. Cattle will doubtless consume the outer por-\\ntions of the stems and branches and may in time\\nbecome fond of them, but they are unable to con-\\nsume the coarse woody stems. And there is the fur-\\nther objection that the stalks are difficult to handle.\\nThis plant however may be turned to excellent\\naccount in providing forage for swine or winter\\nfood for other classes of live stock. When con-\\nsumed by swine they feed upon the tubers where\\nthey grew. The artichokes are thus eaten in the\\nautumn and winter and even in the spring where\\nthe climate does not forbid the same. The plants\\nwill render higher service in- thus providing food in\\nareas favored with mild climates, but they may be\\nsuccessfully grown in some part or parts of every\\nstate in the Union and of every province in Canada.\\nThere are several varieties. The Brazilian is the\\nmost commonly grown but the French Improved\\nwill give larger yields when grown on congenial\\nsoil.\\nPrickly Comfrey. Prickly comfrey (Symp-\\nhytum officinale) has been grown successfully as a\\nsoiling food in Great Britain and other countries of\\nEurope for many 3^ears. Some experiments have\\nbeen made in growing it in the United States, but\\nthe reports from these are conflicting. These", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "1", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "228 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nreports agree first in regard to the productiveness of\\nthe plants, and second in regard to the abihty of the\\nsame to grow on hght lands not possessed of high\\nfertility. They also agree in speaking of the little\\nrelish which live stock manifest for prickly comfrey\\nwhen it is first fed to them. But they do not agree\\nas to its value for soiling uses. When fed to live\\nstock at the Ontario agricultural college farm, the\\nlive stock did not manifest any fondness for it.\\nSome other experiment stations have reported simi-\\nlarly. It may be that domestic animals may be edu-\\ncated to eat it, so that ultimately they will manifest\\na fondness for it. Were it otherwise there would\\nseem to b^ no good reasons for growing it to the\\nconsiderable extent to which it is grown in several\\nof the countries of Europe.\\nPrickly comfrey is a large leaved plant which\\ngrows to the hight of three or four feet. The\\nleaves are long and narrow, and mucilaginous in\\ncharacter. The leaves only are eaten. Enormous\\ncrops can be grown. This plant is propagated by\\nmeans of the roots and in about the same manner as\\nrhubarb, that is to say, pie plant. The roots are\\nfleshy, something like dock roots, and they go down\\nto a considerable distance into the soil.\\nThis plant is not likely to be grown as a soiling\\nfood, at least to any great extent, on the arable soils\\nof the northern and central states, where other and\\nbetter soiling plants are or may be grown so numer-\\nously. It may be different however in the southern\\nstates where cultivated grasses of the better yielding\\nvarieties grow but shyly. A plant that has rendered\\nservice in providing soiling food even in England", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "230 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nwhere soiling foods grow in such variety, is at least\\nwell worthy of a fair trial in all those sections of\\nthe United States which are possessed of fair adapta-\\ntion for producing it.\\nThe Sunflower. The sunflower (Helianthus\\nannuus) though not suitable for soiling food be-\\ncause of the woody character of the stems is some-\\ntimes grown to be made into silage. Like the\\nartichoke it is so well known that it will not be neces-\\nsary to describe it. The stems are so woody that\\nthey are even considered unsuitable for being made\\ninto silage, hence the heads only are used for that\\npurpose. Because of this and for the further reason\\nthat the work of harvesting is tedious, as now prac-\\ntised, it is questionable if sunflowers will ever be\\ngenerally grown as a soiling crop. The difficulties\\nin the way of gathering the seed expeditiously will\\ndeter many from even attempting to grow this plant\\nfor any purpose notwithstanding the relatively large\\nyield of valuable food that a good crop produces.\\nThe Russian is the favorite variety grown at present\\nin the United States.\\nThe sunflower is of wide distribution and may\\nbe grown in a great variety of soils. The humus\\nsoils of the prairie are well suited to its needs. It\\nhas much power to grow under dry conditions.\\nSacaline. Sacaline {Polygonum Sachalinense)\\nis a plant that is said to have originated in the island\\nof Saghalin in the Pacific and not far from the\\ncoast of Asia. It resembles a shrub rather than\\na forage plant m the form of its growth. By. the\\ntime the autumn arrives the stems that have not\\nbeen cut during the season are but little less woody.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 23 I\\nFresh shoots are sent up every year however, to take\\nthe place of the old ones. The most extravagant\\nstatements have been made by certain American\\nseedsmen regarding the great value of this plant for\\nforage. They represented it as possessed of special\\nadaptation for semi-arid climates, as being capable\\nof producing several cuttings of foliage every year,\\naggregating enormous yields, and as being able thus\\nto produce for an indefinite period.\\nSacaline has been tested hov^ever by nearly all\\nthe experiment stations in this country and they are\\nalmost a unit in the verdict that it has no important\\nmission to fill on this continent. It does not grow\\nnearly so rapidly as was represented, and the stems\\nbecome so woody at an early period of their growth\\nthat they cannot be eaten by live stock. In no trial\\nmade by the Author at the Minnesota Experiment\\nstation did the animals show an}^ fondness for even\\nthe leaves of this plant. It is propagated chiefly by\\nroot cuttings. It is recommended to plant these\\nin rows far enough apart to admit of cultivating the\\nplants. But the agricultural value of sacaline would\\nseem to be so low that to describe further the\\nmethods of growing it would be only a waste of\\nspace.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nSUCCESSION IN SOILING CROPS.\\nIt will be the aim in this chapter to designate\\nthe various crops that may be grown as soiling food\\nin one season and also the succession in which thej\\nmay be grown. The task is not easy because of the\\ngreat difference in the climatic and soil conditions in\\nthe various states of the Union and in the provinces\\nof Canada. The only way in which such a designa-\\ntion of soiling crops can be made that will be even\\napproximately correct, is to divide these states and\\nprovinces into groups, and then to name the suc-\\ncession in the soiling crops that can be most profit-\\nably grown in each. This division or grouping of\\nstates and provinces, will of necessity have to be\\nbased upon similarity in the soil and climatic con-\\nditions peculiar to each. When those states and\\nprovinces have been thus grouped, the succession\\nfixed upon can only serve as a general guide, be-\\ncause of the frequency of variations in soils in\\nstates that lie contiguous and also in different parts\\nof the same state.\\nIn nearly all parts of the United States and\\nCanada, a succession of soiling crops can be grown\\nwhich will furnish green food from spring until the\\nclosing in of winter. The season for growing\\nthese crops will of course vary with the differences\\nin latitude and also in altitude. Along the northerly\\n232", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "SUCCESSION IN SOILING CROPS. 233\\nlimit of the cultivated area in Canada it will be very\\nshort, and as the southern boundary of the United\\nStates is approached, it may be made to cover nearly\\nall the year. It will be the aim in this chapter not\\nonly to point out the succession in which soiling\\ncrops may be grown, but to so designate the order\\nto be followed in the same, so as to enable the grower\\nto feed each plant in its proper season, and conse-\\nquently when the greatest benefit will be obtained\\nfrom feeding it.\\nIt should be understood however that the suc-\\ncession of soiling crops given below in each of the\\ndivisions named is intended to furnish a general\\nrather than a specific guide as to the order in which\\nthey should be grown. It would be impossible to\\nlay down hard and fast rules that would in all in-\\nstances furnish an absolutely sure guide to the\\ngrower, and for the following reasons\\nI, There are individual plants which in\\nfavorable locations may be made to furnish\\ngreen food during all the season of growtli.\\nSuch are alfalfa and rape. In these areas\\nother plants may also be grown at the\\nsame time. In such instances therefore, the ques-\\ntion with the feeder is rather a choice of plants than\\na succession of the same. 2, Other plants, as vetches,\\ngrow vigorously under some conditions, spring and\\nautumn, but not in the summer, hence they are in\\nseason for being fed twice a year. 3, When soiling\\nfoods are grown as catch crops, the variations in\\nthe season of sowing them will prove a disturbing\\nfactor to any order of succession that may be fixed\\nupon.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "234 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nGrouping States and Provinces. The order\\nfollowed in grouping the various states of the Union\\nand the provinces of Canada, will be substantially\\nthe same as that given in the book on Forage\\nCrops, previously published by the Author. It is\\nas follows\\nSection No. i includes all the arable country\\nnorth of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, and east of\\nIndiana and Wisconsin. In other words it includes\\nthe New England states, the states of New York,\\nNew Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,\\nOhio, Michigan and Ontario, Quebec and the\\nMaritime or Atlantic provinces of Canada. Sec-\\ntion No. 2 covers the country west of the states of\\nMichigan and Ohio, north of the Ohio and Missouri\\nrivers and east of the Dakotas and the province of\\nAssinaboia in Canada, that is to say, it covers the\\nstates of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota,\\nIowa, part of Missouri, and the province of Mani-\\ntoba in Canada. Section No. 3 includes the states\\nsouth of the Potomac, Ohio and Missouri rivers, and\\neast of the ninety-fifth meridian of west longitude.\\nIt therefore includes the states of Virginia, Ken-\\ntucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina,\\nGeorgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,\\nArkansas and part of Missouri. Section No. 4\\nembraces the states west of the ninety-fifth\\nmeridian of West Longitude, east of the Rocky\\nmountains and south of the Dakotas. In other\\nwords it embraces Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and\\nTexas. Section No. 5 covers the country north\\nfrom Nebraska, west of Minnesota and Manitoba\\nand east of the Rocky mountains, that is to say, it", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "SUCCESSION IN SOILING CROPS. 235\\ncovers the states of North and South Dakota and\\npart of Montana and Wyoming, also the Canadian\\nprovinces of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and Alberta.\\nSection No 6 includes the Rocky mountain valleys\\nnorth from Salt Lake. It therefore includes these\\nvalleys in Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Oregon,\\nWashington and British Columbia. Section No. 7.\\nembraces the Rocky mountain valleys south from\\nthe latitude of the Great Salt Lake. In other words,\\nit embraces these valleys in the states of Colorado,\\nNew Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada and California.\\nSection No. 8 covers the narrow strip of land west\\nof the Cascade mountains and north from Cali-\\nfornia, that is to say, it covers the western parts of\\nOregon, Washington and British Columbia.\\nSuccession in Section N o. i. In Section No. i\\nthe climate is more humid than in areas farther\\nwest, and the soil has more of the clay content in it\\nthan is usually found in prairie soils. This section\\ntherefore has high adaptation for plants of the\\nclover family and for other legumes, as peas and\\nvetches. It has high adaptation also for cereals grown\\nalone or in the mixed form^ These crops there-\\nfore should be used to the greatest extent possible\\nin producing soiling food. Corn may be grown\\nfor soiling uses in nearly all the tillable portions of\\nthis area, and the same is true of rape, millet, field\\nroots and cabbage, and in a less degree of sorghum.\\nThe entire section therefore has much adaptation\\nfor the growth of soiling foods.\\nThe succession in which soiling crops may be\\ngrown in this section is as follows Winter rye,\\nalfalfa, medium red clover, mammoth, and alsike", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "236 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nclover, peas and oats or peas and vetches, corn, sor-\\nghum, millet, rape, field roots and cabbage. Som.e\\nof these crops could be grown so as to be in season\\nat successive intervals Alfalfa and rape are of this\\nclass, others are in season simultaneously, as for\\ninstance peas and oats, mammoth and alsike clover.\\nThe principal soiling crops in a more restricted\\nsuccession would contain, peas and oats, or vetches\\nand oats, corn or sorghum, and rape or field roots.\\nWhere crimson clover can be grown it will be ready\\nfor feeding next after wmter rye.\\nSuccession in Section No. 2. The medium\\nred, mammoth and alsike varieties of clover grow\\nwell in nearly all parts of states included in Section\\nNo. 2, but not in the province of Manitoba. Crim-\\nson clover only succeeds in the more southerly areas\\nof the same, and even in these it is not absolutely\\nreliable. Winter rye, m^ixed grains, millet, rape,\\ncabbage and field roots groAv vigorously, but not\\nwith an equal vigor in all the area included. The\\nsame is true of corn and sorghum, although these\\ngrow much better southward than northward.\\nPeas and vetches grow fairly well but better north-\\nward than southward. The cowpea and the soy\\nbean in some of their varieties grow nicely in the\\nsouthern part of Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, but\\nnot so well farther north. Alfalfa grows only in\\nsectional areas. It is evident, therefore, that the suc-\\ncession in the northern third of this section would not\\nbe the same as in the southern third. In the former\\nthe order in which the leading soiling crops would be\\nready would be as follows\\nWinter rye, peas and oats or peas and vetches.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "SUCCESSION IN SOILING CROPS. 237\\ncorn or sorghum, millet, rape, field roots and cab-\\nbage. And the more important of these would in-\\nclude peas and oats or peas and vetches, millet and\\nrape. In the latter the order would be: Winter\\nrye, medium red clover, mammoth, or alsike clover,\\npeas and oats, or peas and vetches, corn, sorghum,\\nmillet, rape, field roots and cabbage. In the central\\nthird of the section the most favored varieties would\\ninclude, peas and oats, corn or sorghum, millet and\\nrape. In the southern third of the same these\\nwould include medium red clover, the soy bean, or\\ncowpea and corn, or sorghum. Where crimson\\nclover and alfalfa could be grown, these would be\\nready for being fed immediately after winter rye.\\nSuccession in Section No. 3.^^Winter rye, win-\\nter oats, crimson clover, the common winter vetch,\\nthe sand vetch, corn, sorghum, the cowpea, the soy\\nbean, rape and cabbage can be grown with more, or\\nless success in nearly all sections of the several states\\ncomprised in this section. The non-saccharine sor-\\nghums and millet in some of its forms can also be\\ngrown at their best in certain sections, but not so\\ngenerally as nearly all of the various plants previ-\\nously named. Alfalfa grows admirably in many\\nlocalities, but does not succeed in others, and the\\nsame is true of field roots, and in many sections\\nJapan clover, the velvet bean and teosinte grow with\\nmuch vigor. More especially is this true of areas\\nthat lie within the Gulf states.\\nFor the northern half of Section No. 3 the\\nsuccession would be: Winter rye, winter oats,\\ncrimson clover, the common winter vetch, the sand\\nvetch, corn, sorghum, one or more of the non-", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "238 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsaccharine sorghums, the cowpea, the soy bean,\\nmillet, rape, field roots and cabbage. A limited\\nsuccession would include crimson clover, the soy\\nbean or the cowpea and corn or sorghum in one\\nor more of its varieties. The succession for the\\nsouthern half of the section would be to a certain\\nextent the same as for the northern half, but in\\nthe former more prominence relatively should be\\ngiven to the sorghums than to corn, and in some\\nsections the velvet bean and possibly teosinte and\\nJapan clover should be given a place in the succes-\\nsion. Where alfalfa can be grown with entire\\nsuccess, as for instance on the bottom lands of\\nLouisiana, this plant alone could be made to provide\\nsoiling food for live stock during much of the year.\\nSuccession in Section No. 4. In Section No. 4\\nthe variety of plants that can be grown as soiling\\nfood is not quite so large. In much of this area the\\nclovers, except alfalfa, could scarcely be taken into\\naccount. The millets, at least in the common\\nvarieties, would not prove a marked success, because\\nof the dry conditions. The common winter vetch\\nand the sand vetch would not render much ser-\\nvice, chiefly because of the want of moisture. Much\\nprominence ought to be given to alfalfa, especially\\nin Nebraska and Kansas, and to certain of the non-\\nsaccharine sorghums as kaffir corn and milo maize,\\nin all the area, because of the marked adaptation for\\nthese plants. The soy bean has on the whole higher\\nadaptation to these states than the cowpea. The\\nmoisture is also too little to admit of growing\\nrape at its best and the summer temperatures are\\nalso too high.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "SUCCESSION IN SOILING CROPS 239\\nThe succession of soiling foods would be some-\\nwhat as follows: Winter rye, alfalfa, the sand\\nvetch, the cowpea, corn or sorghum, one or more\\nof the non-saccharine sorghums, pearl millet and\\nteosinte. A more limited succession would include,\\nalfalfa, corn or sorghum, the soy bean and one or\\nmore of the non-saccharine sorghums. These crops,\\nexcept corn and the soy bean, may be made to\\nfurnish more than one cutting a year.\\nSuccession in Section No. 5. The succession\\nof soiling plants in Section No. 5 is still more\\nrestricted than in Section No. 4. The several\\nspecies of clover are virtually excluded except in\\nsome of the river bottoms toward the mountains.\\nIn these alfalfa may be grown. The non-saccharine\\nsorghums, the soy bean and the winter vetch must\\nalso be excluded. The cereal grains of the small\\nvarieties, corn, millet, rape, field roots and cab-\\nbage are the only soiling foods which can be\\ngrown in nearly all the area covered by this\\nsection.\\nThe succession in the eastern half of the section\\nwould be Winter rye, mixed grains as peas and\\noats, millet, corn, rape, field roots and cabbage. The\\nmore restricted succession would include: Mixed\\ngrains, corn, millet and rape. In the western half\\nof the area, the principal crops would be mixed\\ngrains and corn, and in the river bottoms alfalfa\\ncould be added. Quick maturing varieties of corn\\nwould have to be grown in nearly all parts of this\\nsection. Sorghum could also be grown in the south-\\nern portions. Millet grows admirably along the\\neastern border. But winter rye could not always", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "240 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbe depended on westward in the section, because of\\nthe want of moisture in the autumn.\\nSuccession in Section hfo. 6. In the mountain\\nvalleys in this section, alfalfa, medium red clover,\\npeas and vetches will probably furnish the chief\\nsoiling foods through all time. In the valleys\\nlying southward these crops will be grown under\\nirrigation. On the bench lands adjacent to the\\nmountains, they Avill be supplied with moisture\\nfrom seepage w^aters percolating downward be-\\ncause of the metting of the snows upon the\\nmountains. In the valleys lying northward these\\ncrops will in many instances be grown without\\nirrigation.\\nThe possible succession of soiling crops would\\ninclude winter rye, the winter vetch, alfalfa, medium\\nred clover, alsike clover, mixed grains as peas and\\neats, the sand vetch, rape, field roots and cabbage.\\nThe more restricted succession would include alfalfa,\\nmedium red clover and peas and oats, or peas\\nand vetches. In the valleys lying southward, much\\nprominence should be given to the winter vetch, and\\nsome use could also be made of corn. Alfalfa alone\\ncould be made to supply soiling food during nearly\\nall the growing season. Especially is this true of the\\nvalleys north of the Canadian boundary. In the\\nsemi-range lands of Washington and Oregon where\\nthe conditions are dry, and where irrigating waters\\ncannot be supplied, and where also the nights are\\ncool, the succession would have to be restricted to\\nsuch crops as mixed grains of which wheat would be\\none of the chief, Austrian brome grass, {Bromus\\ninermis) and rape.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 24!\\nSuccession in Section No. 7. Much of the\\nsoiling food grown in this section would have to\\nbe produced through irrigation. Alfalfa alone could\\nbe made to meet the requirements, so marked is its\\nadaptation to the conditions of soil and climate.\\nBut to create variety such foods as the soy bean and\\ncertain of the non-saccharine sorghums could be\\nintroduced.\\nThe possible succession in soiling crops would\\ninclude, winter rye, alfalfa, mixed grains, as for\\ninstance oats and the sand vetch, corn, sorghum, the\\nnon-saccharine sorghums, the soy bean, pearl millet,\\nteosinte, rape, field roots and cabbage. The more\\nvaluable of these crops would be alfalfa and the\\nsorghums. These could be grown side by side and\\ncould at certain times be fed simultaneously.\\nSuccession in Section No. 8. In no part of\\nthe continent can soiling foods, leguminous in\\ncharacter, be produced in so great variety as in this\\nsection. All the leading varieties of clover grow\\nadmirably, and the same is true of the leading varie-\\nties of the vetch and pea. The sand vetch will doubt-\\nless grow well, but because of the ease with which\\nthe common vetch can be produced it is not necessary\\nto grow it unless in areas sandy in character. Rape,\\nfield roots and cabbage grow in great perfection.\\nBut the summer temperatures are low for corn,\\nsorghum, the non-saccharine sorghums and millet.\\nAlfalfa and crimson clover have not been much tried\\nas yet, but will doubtless succeed.\\nThe possible succession of these crops therefore\\nwill include winter rye, crimson clover, alfalfa,\\nmedium red, alsike, mammoth and white clover,\\n16", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "242 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nperennial rye grass, peas and oats, peas and vetches,\\nrape, field roots and cabbage. Medium red clover\\nalone could be made to furnish soiling food during\\nmuch of the season, and the same is true of the\\nvetch if both the wjnter and the sprii^g varieties are\\nsown, and it is also true of rape. The restricted\\nsuccession would include medium red clover, vetches\\nand oats, peas and oats, and rape.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "PART TWO\\nSILOS AND SILAGE", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER I.\\nTHE HISTORY OF SILOING.\\nAny discussion of soiling crops that did not also\\ncoiisider silos and silage would be incomplete,\\nsince it is probably true that more green food is\\nfed in the United States in the form of silage than\\nin any other form. It would not be possible with\\naccuracy to state the number of silos in the United\\nStates at the present time but it is probably not less\\nthan one hundred thousand, and it is rapidly in-\\ncreasing. There is probably no state in the Union\\nwithout its quota of silos. This fact is very signifi-\\ncant when it is called to mind that over ground silos\\nhad not been built in this country prior to 1876.\\nPlan of the Discussion. It will be the aim of\\nthe Author to discuss this question from an un-\\nbiased standpoint. In reading the various excellent\\npublications that have appeared on the subject in the\\nUnited States the thought is forced on the mind by\\nall or nearly all of them that they are in a sense pleas\\nfor the silo. The men who have written them have\\nbeen enthusiastic advocates of the silo, and in their\\nenthusiasm they would seem to have overlooked or\\nkept in abeyance the fact, that silos are not equally\\nneeded, or equally helpful in the various states of the\\nUnion or even in all sections of each state. This\\nenthusiasm is not only pardonable but it has unques-\\ntionabl}^ been positively helpful in hastening the\\n245", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "246 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nintroduction and distribution of silos. And these in\\nturn have proved greatly helpful to farmers and\\nmore especially to dairymen.\\nThe present discussion however will not be\\na plea for the silo. It will look into both sides of\\nthe question for it is true that silos are not equally\\nnecessary, that they are not equally helpful, that\\nsome conditions of farming do not call for their\\nconstruction and that only certain kinds of\\ncrops can be preserved in them with uniform\\nsuccess. The aim will be therefore to discuss the\\nquestion as it is, and not as the Author might de-\\nsire it to be.\\nDefinition of Terms. A silo is a structure\\ndesigned for the preservation of food in the green\\nand succulent form. The term is derived from the\\nGreek word siros a. pit for holding grain. In some\\ninstances it is simply a pit or hole dug in the ground\\nwhere the drainage, natural or artificial, is sufficient\\nto prevent an undue accumulation of moisture.\\nIn others it is a structure of wood, stone or some\\nother building material or a combination of these\\nstanding out by itself or within a barn or stable of\\nwhich it may be said to form a part. More com-\\nmonly it is now built entirely above ground although\\nsometimes it goes down for some distance into the\\nearth. The modern silo is usually a structure rather\\nthan a pit, as the original idea of preserving food\\nin pits in the ground is but little practiced now, at\\nleast in this country.\\nEnsilage or Silage, as it is now more commonly\\ncalled, is green and succulent food preserved in a\\nsilo in a green and succulent condition. It is", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 247\\npreserved in the uncut form or after it has been run\\nthrough a cutting box and is packed more or less\\ntightly according to conditions such as those that\\nrelate to the variety of the food, its succulence, and\\nthe depth of the silo. Soon after the green food has\\nbeen placed in the silo fermentation begins and the\\ntemperature rises. The air w^ithin the mass is thus\\nexpelled and when it is, chemical change virtually\\nceases. The product thus preserved may be kept in-\\ndefinitely, providing air is not allowed to penetrate\\nit. Because of this it is important that the sides and\\nfloor of the structure shall be practically air-tight.\\nThe air is usually prevented from entering from\\nabove to any considerable depth by covering the\\nsilage v^ith some less valuable vegetable substance as\\nmore fully described in Chapter V.\\nThe principle in making silage is the same\\nvirtually as in canning fruits or in making sauer-\\nkraut. When the temperature in the mass rises un-\\ntil it attains 122 degrees Fahrenheit the action of the\\nferments is arrested. As soon as the available\\noxygen is exhausted chemical change ceases and\\nsweet silage is the result. If however from any\\ncause, as for instance an excess of moisture in the\\nplants, the temperature does not reach 122 degrees\\nFahrenheit, the acid ferments will not be killed and\\nthe result will be sour silage. Sour silage is not only\\nless valuable than sweet silage, but there is usually\\ngreater w^aste in making it.\\nThe terms sweet and sour as applied to silage\\nare only relative terms. There is no line of dis-\\ntinction between them so sharply drawm that it may\\nbe said where the one begins and the other ends.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "248 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThere is no silage of which it may be said that it is\\nentirely free from acidity.\\nForrnerly the term ensilage was frequently used\\nto indicate the process of storing food green and\\nsucculent in the silo. As distinguished from silage\\nthe latter was the food and the former the process\\nof making it, but the use of the term ensilage is\\nbecoming obsolete. Ensilage and silage are now\\nregarded as synonymous.\\nSiloing or Ensiling food is the process of mak-\\ning it into silage, that is to say, it is the process of\\nputting it into the silo and of curing it in the same.\\nWhile it cannot be said that these terms have been\\nextensively used by speakers and writers they would\\nseem to express very concisely the idea involved.\\nWhy then should any objection be made to using\\nthem\\nA Siloist is a person who makes and feeds sil-\\nage. The term has not been used heretofore to any\\nconsiderable extent. Possibly it may never become\\npopular since the making and feeding of silage is\\nmore commonly an adjunct of farming, rather than\\nthe principal work of the farmer, and those who\\nmake silage are also usually farmers. The term\\nis certainly wanted however or some equivalent to it\\nfor conciseness of statement when designating the\\nrelation of those engaged in making silage to the\\nwork in hand, why then should it not be adopted?\\nAnfiqnity of Siloing. It is not known when\\nthe method of preserving green food by putting it in\\nthe silo originated. It cannot therefore be known\\nwho was its originator. History is likely to be for-\\never silent on this point. Ancient writers speak of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 249\\nthe practice of burying grain in underground pits\\nto save it for future use, or from enemies. It is\\npossible therefore that the idea of the possibihty of\\ncuring food on the principle now practiced in making-\\nsilage was the outcome of the accident of hiding it\\nfrom enemies and then finding it in good condition\\nfor use after it had been buried for a period more\\nor less prolonged.\\nThere is ample evidence to show that semi-\\nbarbaric races in various countries have not only\\nknown of this method of preserving food but to some\\nextent they have practiced it. Notably is this true\\nof certain of the peoples of northern Europe, as for\\ninstance, those located in the regions around the\\nBaltic sea, where rainy harvests render it difficult to\\npreserve fodder for animals in the dried form.\\nTheir necessities therefore caused them to give some\\nattention to a question that under other conditions\\nwould have attracted no attention whatever.\\nUtilization of the Idea. For about a century\\nthe preservation of green food by the same method\\nsubstantially as that followed in making sauerkraut\\nhas prevailed to some extent in various parts of\\nGermany. But it was not until the approach of the\\nmiddle of the present century that attempts were\\nmade to preserve food thus on a large scale. The\\nintroduction of the manufacture of sugar beets into\\ncentral Europe is doubtless responsible, in part at\\nleast, for the greatly increased attention that then\\nbegan to be given to preserving food by burying it in\\npits. It was found a necessity in utilizing sugar\\nbeet tops and sugar beet pulp to the best advantage.\\nBut even then the process spread slowly owing", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "250 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ndoubtless to the great labor involved in curing green\\nfood by the method then practiced..\\nThe Earlier Silos. The earlier silos used by\\nthe people of France, Germany and some other\\ncountries in Europe were simply pits or trenches\\ndug in the ground. The material vv^as spread in\\nthese in uniform layers and was trodden or other-\\nwise compressed so as to lie compactly. The green\\nfood was put into those pits by successive stages as\\nfor instance day by day or at intervals more pro-\\nlonged. The amount put in at one time was limited\\nto not much more probably than one foot in depth.\\nThe object sought by filling thus gradually was to\\nsecure a more perfect settling of the mass through\\nthe fermentation engendered.\\nWhen the pit was full it was common to cover\\nthe green food with a layer of straw or some other\\ndry porous substance. Boards were then laid over\\nthe straw and a pressure applied which was not less\\nthan one hundred pounds to the square foot. The\\npressure was commonly secured through weighting\\nwith some heavy substance, as by placing stones on\\nthe boards or by covering them with earth. The\\nearth thus used was distributed over the pit to the\\ndepth of one to two feet.\\nIn some instances the sides and floor of the\\npits were puddled with clay, and sometimes the sides\\nwere lined with boards. During the later years of\\nsiloing on this plan the trenches were occasionally\\ncemented but this was not until a considerable period\\nhad elapsed subsequently to the more general intro-\\nduction of this method of siloing. Such were the\\nfirst silos made in the United States. They were", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 25 1\\npatterned more particularly after the silos built by\\nGoffart the great French siloist whose work is again\\nreferred to. His silos were 39.4 ft long, 16.4 ft\\nbroad and 16.4 ft deep and they were much circled at\\nthe ends. But the laboriousness of the process made\\nit irksome to those who adopted it, and, because of\\nthis, American ingenuity set to work to emancipate\\nthe siloist from the bondage of so much hard labor\\nwhen curing green food. The result has been that\\nthe adaptation of the silo to the needs of the general\\nfarmer has been almost entirely the outcome of\\nAmerican skill.\\nThe Modern Silo. When silos first began to\\nbe built on the modern plan, that is to say on the\\nplan of a structure rather than on that of an under-\\nground pit it was deemed necessary to make the walls\\nof stone and to excavate so that the silo would be,\\nin part at least, below the level of the ground. And\\neven as late as 1885, the practice of covering with\\nboards and then weighting with earth or stones was\\nuniversal. The idea of making these structures\\nnarrow and deep so that pressure would be secured\\nfrom the silage itself had not yet dawned on the\\nminds of experimenters. The cost of the structures\\nthen used was so great and the mode of filling the\\nsilo and feeding the silage so cumbrous that it was\\nfeared by many that the silo would be helpful only\\nto those possessed of considerable means, rather than\\nto the great mass of farmers.\\nIt would be interesting to know more of the\\nsuccesses and failures in building silos and making\\nsilage during that peculiarly tentative period in\\nAmerican siloing between 1880 and 1890. To get", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "252 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthis information would mean a search through the\\nfile copies of the entire American agricultural press.\\nMuch of it has douhtless never been published, since\\nmen are prone to cover up the story of failure rather\\nthan to hang it up as a beacon for the guidance\\nof others. No question however was more discussed\\nby contributors to the agricultural press during that\\nrevolution period in American siloing, and no ques-\\ntion was more controverted. Even the most san-\\nguine advocates of the silo during the decade re-\\nferred to could scarcely have hoped so soon to witness\\nthe completeness of the triumphs won by the modern\\nsilo. None would then have dared to predict that\\nthe last days of the century would look out over not\\nfewer than one hundred thousand successful silos in\\nthe United States.\\nIt is claimed that the first silo built in America\\non the modern plan was made in 1876 and that it was\\nerected by F. Morris of Maryland. The first wooden\\nsilo built west of the Alleghany mountains was that\\nerected by John Gould of Aurora Station, O., in\\n1884. The province of Ontario took its full share\\nin helping forward the evolution of the American\\nsilo. V. E. Fuller, then of Hamilton, erected the\\nfirst silo built in that provmce on his Oaklands Jersey\\nfarm in 188 1. It was located in the bay of the barn\\nand in making it the ground was excavated far down\\nthrough gravel hardpan. The walls and floor were\\nlined with bricks and the bricks were overlaid witli\\nconcrete. Though Canada is not essentially a corn\\nproducing country like unto the states in the corn\\nbelt, many silos have been successfully built and op-\\nerated in Ontario. The marked attention given to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 253\\nthe dairy industry in that province is largely re-\\nsponsible for such a result.\\nThe chief centers for silos in the United States\\nare, of course, the dairy centers, as for instance, New\\nYork, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and Illinois. But\\nmany silos are now being built in states further west,\\nas for instance, Minnesota and Iowa. In the New\\nEngland states the number of silos is also relatively\\nlarge.\\nAmerican Progress in Siloing. The marvel-\\nous progress in siloing in the United States during\\nrecent years is not accidental. The time was ripe\\nfor the introduction of the silo. A wave of dairy\\nadvance was beginning to sweep over the continent\\nwhen discussion began as to the merits of the silo,\\nand dairymen must through all time be deeply inter-\\nested in securing succulent food for their cattle.\\nThe attention of a large and intelligent section of\\nthe community was therefore at once secured as\\nsoon as the discussion began on the practicability of\\nproviding green food summer and winter for dairy\\nstock.\\nThe great extent to which Indian corn is grown\\nin this country proved favorable to success in the\\nearlier experiments in making silage. It is now\\ngenerally conceded that Indian corn is par excellence\\nthe silo plant. The great succ^^ss achieved bv\\nAmerican siloists is in a measure due to this fact, but\\nof course it does not account for the great progress\\nmade in improving the silo or in preserving silage.\\nMistakes Made by Early Siloists.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 As was to be\\nexpected many mistakes were made by the earlier\\nsiloists. The silos were unnecessarily costly as", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "254 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nalready intimated. They were sunk too low in the\\nground. So little attention was given to the preser-\\nvation of the foundation of wood silos when they\\nwere first introduced and to providing ventilation\\nfor the walls that decay was unduly rapid. The silos\\nwere too shallow, hence the pressure of the silage\\nwas not enough to secure the best results. The sur-\\nface dimensions were often so large as to make\\nit difficult to properly preserve the exposed portion\\nof the silage while it was being fed. Corn and other\\ngreen food was oftentimes put into the silo in a form\\ntoo green, hence it became unduly sour. And in\\nother instances the food was put in too dry which\\ninduced mold. These mistakes may now be gen-\\nerally avoided by the siloist who intelligently makes\\nuse of the information now available. But it must\\nbe acknowledged that many things are yet to be\\nlearned about siloing by the average siloist before\\nhe will be able to make first-class silage with uniform\\nand unvarying success.\\nLiterature on the Silo. Since the introduction\\nof the silo into the United States no question per-\\ntaining to agriculture has been more generally dis-\\ncussed. At the outset these discussions emanated\\nchiefly from the men who had experimented with\\nsilos and they appeared in pamphlet or book form\\nand also in the agricultural press according to cir-\\ncumstances. Later, experiments were conducted\\nand somewhat numerously at a considerable number\\nof the agricultural experiment stations. The results\\nfrom these experiments were given to the public in\\nbulletin form. It is evident therefore that much of\\nthe literature produced on the subject is fragmentary", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 255\\nand of necessity somewhat crude in its character.\\nMore recently however a few individuals have pub-\\nlished books on the subject which cover the same\\nwith more or less completeness. But almost without\\nexception it would be correct to say these are pleas\\nfor the silo rather than unbiased discussions of the\\nbroad question of silage and the silo.\\nIn the judgment of the Author nearly all of\\nthose who have written thus upon the subject in the\\nUnited States have overestimated the feeding value\\nof corn and its power to maintain animals in good\\nhealth when fed confinuously as the principal food\\nration. They have also apparently placed too little\\nvalue on soiling crops, more especially the legumes.\\nThey have underestimated the worth of pastures\\nby viewing them simply as producers of so much\\nfood without having sufficiently considered the\\nbeneficent influence which they exert mechanically\\nand otherwise upon soils. And they have not\\nsufficiently emphasized the losses from making poor\\nand spoiled silage. However, it is but fitting to say\\nthat the enthusiasm which has shut its eyes to these\\nand kindred truths relating to the siloing of crops\\nhas been most helpful in fastening public attention\\non a method of preserving fodder which is certainly\\ncapable of bringing great benefit to our agriculture.\\nIt is now generally conceded that the first book\\never written on the silo is from the pen of M. Auguste\\nGoffart, an agriculturist of Sologne, near Orleans, in\\nFrance. The manual of the Culture and Siloing of\\nMaize is the title of the book in English. It ap-\\npeared in 1877 a^d it contains the results of\\nmany years of careful experiment in growing and", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "256 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\npreserving green crops. The appearance of this work\\ndid much to arrest the attention of agriculturists not\\nonly in France but also in other countries. Although\\nsundry experiments in preserving green crops in\\nGermany and also in some other countries had been\\nconducted previously to the publication of Goffart s\\nbook, there can be no doubt that its appearance\\nserved in no slight degree to draw public attention\\nto the advantages resulting to the agriculturist from\\npreserving crops thus in the green form. Because\\nof M. Auguste Goffart s early, persistent and abun-\\ndant labors in this work he has been frequently\\ndesignated The father of modern silage. His\\nbook was translated into English in 1879, by J. W.\\nBrown of New York City.\\nIn 1875 The French Mode of Curing Forage\\nwas published in the annual report of the United\\nStates department of agriculture. This it is thought\\nwas the first discussion of the subject in the United\\nStates which treated it in a comprehensive and sys-\\ntematic manner, although previously various articles\\nhad appeared in the agricultural press. These re-\\nlated chiefly to European experience. Dr. J. M.\\nBailey published a work on the subject in 1880. Dr.\\nManly Miles of the Michigan Agricultural college\\nwrote a work en silos, silage and ensilage which\\nappeared in 1889. Prof. A. J. Cook then of the\\nMichigan Agricultural college published in 1889\\nThe Silo and Silage and in 1890 a revised edition\\nof the same. This book treats of silos as then con-\\nstructed and of silage, as then made, in a very practi-\\ncal way. The Book on Silage by Prof. F. W.\\nWoll, of the Michigan Agricultural college, was", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF SILOING. 257\\npublished in 1899. It is by far the most compre-\\nhensive discussion of the question that has yet\\nappeared from the pen of any American author.\\nOther pubhcations have also appeared in Europe on\\nthe question, but they are not noticed here since the\\nmethods which they recommend are on the whole\\nnot nearly so well adapted to American conditions as\\nthose submitted by American authors.\\n17", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER 11.\\nTHE BENEFITS FROM SILOING CROPS.\\nThe benefits from siloing crops are many.\\nProminent among them are the following: i, The\\ncrops that are thus stored may be harvested in what\\nmay be termed a wholesale way. 2, They may be\\ncured, without loss, in showery weather. 3, Green\\nfood may thus be furnished all the year from this\\none source. 4, The food is rendered more palatable\\nand in a sense more healthful when fed as a part of\\na ration. 5, The silo is economical of space. 6, It\\nis also economical of labor when the food is being\\nfed to the stock. These benefits are however to\\nsome extent offset by certain disadvantages. These\\nwill be noticed as well as the benefits, and some prac-\\ntical deductions drawn from the discussion.\\nWholesale Harvesting of Crops. When crops\\nare cured in the silo the labor of harvesting is of\\nnecessity done in a w^holesale way, that is to say, it is\\nusually done within a short period, wnth but little\\ninterruption in the work, and with a minimum of\\nwaste of time on the part of men and teams. The\\nnecessity for first curing the food and then handling\\nit again in storing is thus obviated. But these bene-\\nfits are in a measure offset by the difficulty in se-\\ncuring the necessary machinery and men to do the\\nwork in season. Especially is this true with the\\n258", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "THE BENEFITS FROM SILOING CROPS. 259\\noccupants of small farms, and the difficulty increases\\nwith the multiplication of silos in any community.\\nIt can be obviated in part, but not wholly, by doing\\nthe work on some system of co-operation between\\nfarmers who are near neighbors.\\nCured in Showery Weather. Such crops as are\\nsuitable for being made into silage may be stored\\nin the silo under conditions of weather quite adverse\\nto the dry curing of the same in the ordinary way.\\nParticularly is this true of such crops as are easily\\ninjured by rain, as clover for instance, and the cow-\\npea. The work of storing may go on in some in-\\nstances without any interruption other than what is\\ncaused by the Avork hands seeking shelter from the\\nfalling rain. But in other instances more or less of\\ndelay would be necessary, as it is possible to store\\nsome crops in the silo with too much of moisture in\\nthem. Some kinds of crops can thus be saved with\\nbut little harm that would otherwise be ruined by\\nexcessive wet, and they may also be handled at such\\ntimes with but little increase in the labor involved\\nin handling them.\\nGreen Food All the Year. The silo may be\\nmade to furnish green food all the year, and under\\nsome conditions more easily than it can be furnished\\nfrom any other source. There ar^ localities in which\\nsoiling crops other than corn or sorghum cannot be\\nreadily grown with marked success, and there may\\nbe instances in which it would not be convenient to\\ngrow them or to command the time required to cut\\nand feed them when grown. Under such conditions\\na supply of silage in excess of the needs of the\\nstock during winter is helpful, more especially to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "26o SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmen, whose cows would otherwise be wholly de-\\npendent on pastures which may fail with the advent\\nof dry weather.\\nThere is no method of ijroviding green food\\neven for summer feeding that is so economical of\\nlabor. Silage can be taken from the silo and fed to\\ncows in much less time than soiling food could be\\nprovided from any other source. And when meal\\nis given at the same time, it may be fed more profit-\\nably when mixed with the silage than when fed\\nalong with other soiling food, without first running\\nthe same through a fodder cutter. To prepare green\\nfood thus by cutting it up would be impracticable\\nwhen harvested day by day, unless when a very\\nlarge quantity was used daily, and where there is an\\nample supply of help.\\nLive stock will also eat such food with avidity.\\nInstances are on record where cows have shown a\\npreference for corn silage over grass, and there is no\\nperiod of the year, not even when grass is at its\\nbest, that they will not eat with evident relish more\\nor less of corn silage when well preserved. The\\nsilo therefore may be made to furnish soiling food\\nevery day in the year, since it will answer quite well\\nto begin feeding from a silo the day after the filling\\nof the same has been completed, and even while the\\nfilling process is under way.\\nBut it does not follow^ that because live stock\\nmay thus be provided with green food that it will\\nnot be eminently proper to provide and feed other\\ngreen food. Corn is not in itself a balanced ration,\\nnor is corn silage and grass, and even though these\\ndid furnish a balanced food, a variety is usually", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "THE BENEFITS FROM SILOING CROPS. 26 1\\npreferable to one or two kinds, and a change of food\\nto sameness in the diet.\\nIf air is excluded from silage it will probably\\nkeep for an indefinite period. Nevertheless there\\nwould seem to be no good reasons for trying to pre-\\nserve silage for more than one year under ordinary\\nconditions. The additional space required for stor-\\ning silage intended for feeding more than one year\\nwould be unnecessarily costly, nor would any com-\\nmensurate benefits accrue from so doing. There\\nwould seem to be no more necessity for providing\\nstorage for silage to last more than a year than for\\nproviding the same for crops that are cured in the\\ndry form.\\nFood More Palatable. When food is properly\\npreserved in the silo it is certainly more palatable\\nthan when fed in the dry form. This means that\\na less proportion of the food will be wasted in feed-\\ning. In fact, there should be but little waste in feed-\\ning silage in any instance and in many instances\\nnone at all. However the liability of improper\\ncuring must not be lost sight of. It is easily possible\\nto make silage that will not be palatable, as for in-\\nstance, when it is excessively acid, or when it con-\\ntains more or less of dry mold.\\nWhen food is thus fed in a succulent condition,\\nup to a certain limit at least, it acts beneficially on\\nthe digestive organs. It tends to relieve consti-\\npation induced by feeding dry food when made a\\npart of the ration, and consequently it acts bene-\\nficially on the health of the animals. But when fed\\nin excess, as when it is made the sole ration for any\\nlengthened period, or when it is inferior in quality,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "2^2 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsuch feeding may injure the animals and even\\nseriously. The difference in the effects produced on\\ndigestion by feeding the same kind of food in the\\ngreen and dried forms respectively, is well brought\\nout in the feeding of grass when in the most com-\\nplete state of succulence and in feeding the same\\nas hay.\\nEconomy in Storage Space. The silo is eco-\\nnomical of space in storing food. In other words\\nit requires a much less area to store food in\\nthe green form than to store it when dried. This\\nmeans therefore that a given amount of green food\\ncan usually be stored in a silo at a less cost for the\\nstorage accommodation than would be entailed in\\nproviding storage room for the sarne in the dried\\nform.\\nThis advantage is however to some extent offset\\nby other considerations. First, it is necessary to\\nmake some provision by way of storage for other\\nfood. When the expense of providing storage for\\nboth green and dry food cannot be borne by the\\nfarmer, he can better do without the storage for the\\ngreen food. Second, the silo in some of its forms\\nwears out more quickly than structures made to\\nreceive dry food. The saving in storage space\\neffected by the silo is most apparent when large\\nquantities of food are to be handled.\\nEconomy in Labor When Feeding. The silo is\\neconomical in labor when feeding the food. It can\\nusually be located so that the food is nearer to the\\nplace of feeding than it would be possible to store\\nequal quantities of dr}^ food in the cured form. It\\nis easily handled because of its lack of bulkiness and", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "THE BENEFITS FROM SILOING CROPS. 263\\nbecause it is more commonly fed in the cut form.\\nMore especially is this true of silage fed from a\\ntruck in properly constructed stables. It also ob-\\nviates the necessity of cutting or chaffing, as it is\\nsometimes called, other fodder to provide a bulk\\nfactor with which to mix the meal fed, since the meal\\nso fed can be mixed with the silage. But these\\nbenefits do not apply equally when the silage is made\\nin the uncut form, that is, when it is put into the silo\\nwithout running it through a cutting box.\\nPRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.\\nThe following considerations based, in part at\\nleast, on what has already been said on the benefits\\nfrom soiling crops will now be discussed, viz.\\nI, The benefits from the silo do not apply equally\\nin all parts of the country. 2, Because of this, while\\nin some sections silos are, in a sense, indispensable,\\nin others the wisdom of building them may well be\\ncalled in question. 3, In the present state of our\\nknowledge, therefore, the relative distribution of\\nsilos (if the term may be thus used) in the United\\nStates and Canada can only be given with approxi-\\nmate correctness.\\nBenefits Do Not Apply Equally. That the\\nbenefits from the silo do not apply equally is easy of\\ndemonstration. These will be relatively greater:\\nI, When more or less difficulty is usually experienced\\nin curing crops in the dried form. 2, In localities\\nwhere building materials are relatively dear. 3,\\nWhere the winters are relatively long. 4, Where\\nthe staple crops grown are not easily preserved", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "264 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nwithout loss in the dried form. And 5, Where a\\nlarge number of the farmers relatively are engaged\\nin dairying.\\nIn the region of the Great Lakes the precipita-\\ntion is frequently so great as to imperil crops while\\nthey are being cured. In nearly all of the Rocky\\nmountain valleys rain is practically unknown in\\nharvest time. The necessity for siloing crops in the\\nformer therefore will always be greater than in the\\nlatter. In the New England states snow falls\\nabundantly and sometimes in the form of sleet.\\nBecause of this corn in the shock is oftentimes ren-\\nderd inaccessible during certain portions of the\\nwinter. In the semi-arid belt the snow fall is usually\\nlight. In the latter therefore the silo is much less of\\na necessity than in the former.\\nIn timber areas lumber and other building\\nmaterials are relatively cheap. Far out on the tree-\\nless prairies they are relatively dear, other things\\nbeing equal therefore, the benefits from the silo\\nshould be greater on the prairie than in the timber\\ncountry, since about three times as much food can\\nbe stored in the silo as in an equal space in ordinary\\nfarm buildings.\\nNorth of the fortieth parallel of latitude soiling\\nfood cannot usually be provided from the fields\\nearlier than May nor later than November. The\\nfurther northward from the said parallel that any\\nplace is located the shorter does the season become\\nfor providing such food.\\nOn the other hand the further south from the\\nsame parallel that any place is situated, the longer is\\nthe season during which green food may be provided", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "THE BENEFITS FROM SILOING CROPS. 26\\ndirectly from the fields. The season, therefore,\\nfor providing- soiling food directly in areas as far\\nnorthward as in Canada, does not cover a larger\\nperiod than three to four months, other things being\\nequal, therefore, the further northward the location\\nthe greater will be the necessity for siloing the food.\\nSome crops are much more difficult than others\\nto cure in the dry form. Such are corn, sorghum,\\nthe non-saccharine sorghums, the cow pea and the\\nsoy bean. The necessity for silos therefore is\\nusually greater when these are staple crops than\\nwhen they are not. The non-saccharine sorghums\\nhowever have greater adaptation for dry conditions,\\nas shown in Chapter IV, Part i., hence it is not so\\nnecessary to make these into silage, since the weather\\nis favorable to curing them in the dried form.\\nSome sections of the country are almost exclu-\\nsively devoted to the production of dairy products.\\nOther sections produce virtually none of these. The\\nclose relation between succulent foods and successful\\ndairying is generally recognized. It follows there-\\nfore, other things being equal, that the necessity for\\nthe silo will grow with the growth of dairying.\\nSilos Not Ahvays a Necessity. From what has\\nbeen said in the preceding paragraphs it will be\\nevident that silos are not nearly so much of a neces-\\nsity in some places as in others, and it would not be\\ngoing too far perhaps to say that in certain areas\\nthey are not a necessity to any extent. It is evident\\nthat in the moist New England states which produce\\ncorn in good form for the silo, the necessity for silos\\nwill be greater than in the moist climate on the Pacific\\ncoast in areas too cool for the successful growth of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "266 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ncorn. It is equally apparent that in the states which\\nborder upon the Great Lakes, the necessity for the\\nsilo is much greater than in the semi-arid belt east\\nof the Rocky mountains, or in the Rocky mountain\\nvalleys where irrigation is practiced. In the former\\ncorn grows abundantly. In summer there is usually\\nsufficient moisture and in winter the snow frequently\\nfalls deep and piles up around the corn shocks. In\\nthe latter the precipitation almost ceases in summer,\\nand the snow fall is usually light. Dairying is not\\nmuch practiced in the semi-arid region, nor is it ever\\nlikely to be the dominant agricultural industry in the\\nsame. It would not be incorrect therefore to affirm\\nthat there is no great necessity for silos in the dry\\nareas west of the Rocky mountains, nor would the\\nnecessity for them seem to be very great in those\\nsections of the western and southwestern states\\nwhich produce alfalfa abundantly. The latter can\\nbe cured almost without hazard in those rainless\\nsummer areas, on the other hand there may be in-\\nstances even in the semi-arid region and in the dry\\nsouthwestern states where silos may be made to\\nrender good service.\\nIn some of the corn growing prairie states, it\\nhas been argued that silos are a necessity because\\nof the amount of soil that is frequently deposited on\\nthe corn or sorghum shocks by the prairie w^nds, and\\nthe argument has some force. But the difficulty\\nmay be met by stacking the corn or sorghum as soon\\nas cured.\\nDistribution of Silos. By the term distribution\\nof silos is meant their relative adaptation to the\\nneeds of various sections of the country. The", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "THE BENEFITS FROM SILOING CROPS. 267\\ndiscussion of this question will be simplified by\\ndividing the country into sections where the con-\\nditions favorable or otherwise to the growing of\\nsilo crops and to the curing of the same are not\\ngreatly dissimilar. The division submitted below\\nmay seem somewhat arbitrary, but it will probably\\nbe found at least approximately correct.\\nDivision No. i will cover those portions of the\\nUnited States and Canada east of the Mississippi\\nriver and Lake Superior, and north of the Ohio and\\nPotomac rivers. Division No. 2 will embrace those\\nstates east of the Mississippi river and south of the\\nOhio and Potomac rivers. Division No. 3 will cover\\nthe states of the Union and the provinces of Canada\\nwest of the Mississippi river and Lake Superior.\\nIn Division No. i, the silo will always render\\ngreater service than in Divisions Nos. 2 and 3. The\\nmoist climate that covers much of the area, the rela-\\ntively long winters with the rain, sleet and snow that\\ncharacterize them, and the general diffusion of\\ndairying throughout the division, emphasize the\\nvalue of the silo. There is no state of the Union, or\\nprovince of Canada included in this division in which\\nthe silo may not be made to render excellent service,\\nespecially to those who keep live stock in any consid-\\nerable numbers.\\nIn Division No. 2 the silo will be less helpful\\nrelatively than in Division No. i, because of the\\nshorter winters and the less attention given to dairy-\\ning, and they will be more helpful than in Section 3,\\nbecause of the more rainy character of the climate.\\nIn Section No. 3, which covers all the best\\nalfalfa producing areas in the United States, silos", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "268 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nare needed the least, for reasons already given. In\\na portion of the states which border upon the Mis-\\nsissippi river the harvests are practically rainless.\\nThis is true even of the strip of country west of the\\nCascades in which the precipitation is frequent and\\nalmost excessive during the season of growth. In\\nthe same area lumber is also very cheap, hence the\\nprovision for the storage of crops in the cured form,\\nneed not be costly.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nFACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION.\\nBefore building a silo the most careful con-\\nsideration should be given to the location, and form\\nof the same, and to many things that have an\\nimportant bearing on the work. These are such as\\nrelate to the size of the silo the materials to be used\\nin building it the nature of the foundation and of\\nthe floor required; the character of the lining; the\\nnecessity for partitions and the method of con-\\nstructing them; the placing of the doors and also\\ntheir form; and the character of the roof, when a\\nroof is necessary. A brief discussion of these\\nquestions, therefore, will precede what will be given\\nin detail in Chapter IV, and, in regular sequence,\\nregarding the construction of those forms of the\\nsilo which experience has shown to be best suited to\\nthe needs of the farmer.\\nLocating the Silo. The locating of the silo will\\ndepend on conditions such as relate to the amount\\nof barn or stable room available, the relation of the\\nstables to the mows, and to other places where food\\nis stored, the presence or absence of a basement in a\\nbarn, and the nature of the climate.\\nOther things being equal, the silo should be\\nplaced as near as possible to the center of feeding,\\nwhen it can be located in close proximity to the\\n269", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "270 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmangers in which the food is consumed, the saving\\nin the labor of feeding is very great, as compared\\nwith the same when the silo is more distant. The\\nlocation of the silo, therefore, should be given the\\nmost careful thought.\\nIn cold latitudes the necessity for good barns\\nand warm stables is much greater than in those that\\nare mild. In the former, therefore, it will be much\\neasier to find room for the silo inside than under\\nconditions the opposite. When the silo can con-\\nveniently be built under cover, that is to say, when it\\ncan be made a part of the barn, it ought to be so\\nbuilt. Locating it thus should prove economical,\\nas it will not require to be roofed, unless the top of\\nthe silo should project up above the roof of the build-\\ning of which it forms a part. The wall of the build-\\ning may usually be made to form one wall of the silo,\\nwhen the latter is square or rectangular in shape.\\nThe exposed surface of the silage, when it is being\\nfed, will usually be sufficiently protected from frost,\\nand the work of feeding may be done without\\ndiscomfort in the coldest weather.\\nA basement barn furnishes ideal conditions for\\nbuilding a silo when the stables for the stock are in\\nthe basement, and, in passing, it may be mentioned\\nthat when basement barns are properly planned, they\\nare economical of space, in cost of roofing material,\\nand also in construction, at least when their greater\\nduration is taken into account. They are also labor\\nsaving while the food is being fed, and they are a\\nsource of much comfort to the animals kept in them\\nin summer, as well as in winter, when the manage-\\nment is as it ought to be. These opinions may not", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 27 1\\nbe generally accepted, but it is more than doubtful if\\nany one of them can be gainsaid.\\nThe silo may be made to occupy a section of\\nthe basement, and it may be located in the center of\\none side of the same, or in the center of that\\npart occupied by live stock. In round, or octagonal\\nbarns, the silo is usually placed in the center. In all\\ninstances in which the silo is built in the basement\\nit is made to extend upward also into the barn over\\nthe basement, and in any event, the doors should\\nopen into a feed room or passageway. It is usually\\nmore convenient to handle the food when the silo\\ncan be located so that it will be adjacent to the room\\nin which meal and other food is mixed for the stock.\\nIn outbuildings without a basement, the silo may be\\nmade to occupy a part of the bay or mow, but under\\nthese conditions it can seldom be located so con-\\nveniently for feeding as in a basement, for reasons\\nthat will be manifest. And usually the roof of the\\nsilo will of necessity be above the roof of the out-\\nbuilding, in order to secure sufficient hight in the\\nsilo.\\nWhen the silo must needs be located outside\\nthe barn or stable, it should be placed as near to it\\nas possible. If square or rectangular it may be\\nbuilt against the outbuilding. The wall of the\\nlatter duly lined will then form one wall of the\\nsilo. The doors will then open into the outbuild-\\ning. If the silo is round, it should, if possible, be\\nplaced near to the outbuilding. The distance\\ntherefrom should at most be not more than a few\\nfeet. A roofed passageway may then be con-\\nstructed from the silo to the outbuilding, and into", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "2^2 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthis passageway the doors of the silo should open.\\nThe passageway should he amply provided with\\nlight. When silos are located outside the barn,\\nstable or shed m which live stock are fed it is simply\\nimpossible to locate them so conveniently to the\\ncenter of feeding as when they form a part of one\\nor the other of those buildings.\\nDiifcrcnt Forms of Construction. In form,\\nsilos have been built square, rectangular, octagonal,\\nand round or circular. Until within a comparatively\\nrecent period the rectangular form was usualh\\nadopted by those who built silos, but, since about\\n1890 the round silo has come so generally into favor\\nthat in a very considerable degree it is superseding\\nthe rectangular mode of construction.\\nThe square silo may be somewhat more cheaply\\nconstructed than the rectangular silo of equal ca-\\npacity, since tlie wall space is not so much. When\\nthe conditions are suitable for placing it, and where\\nthe size is nicely adjusted to the amount of silage\\nrequired, the square silo would seem preferable to\\nthe rectangular form. But if a division is to be\\nmade in the silo, it will prove more costly to make\\nit than in a rectangular silo, since the space across\\nit is relatively greater. Both square and rectan-\\ngular silos are more commonly placed inside of a\\nbarn or stable, and within these it is not generally\\nso easy to secure space of the proper dimensions for\\na square as for a rectangular silo.\\nThe rectangular silo has been found specially\\nadapted for being placed within a building that is in\\nprocess of erection or that is already built. When\\nwanted, partitions can be put into it at a minimum of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 273\\ncost, because of its shape. The objections to the\\nrectangular as well as to the square silo are, first,\\nthat difficulty has oftentimes been found in keeping\\nthe walls from spreading, and so letting air into the\\nsilage, and second, that the silage does not settle so\\nreadily in either of these forms of silo as in a round\\nsilo, hence there is more waste in the silage. Par-\\nticularly is this true of the corners. Notwithstand-\\ning these objections, rectangular silos will probably\\nbe built for many years to come, hence the method\\nof building them will in due time be given with\\nsome minuteness in details. x\\\\nd what will be said\\nof the construction of rectangular silos will also\\napply to the construction of square silos.\\nThe octagonal silo as the name implies is a silo\\nwith eight sides. The chief advantage gained in\\nthis form of construction, as compared with the\\nsquare or rectangular silo is found in the less acute\\ncharacter of the angles within the same. Also from\\nthe nature of their construction, the walls are so\\nstrong that they are not liable to spread, at least,\\nnot in a silo of ordinary dimensions. Moreover,\\nsome saving in lumber is effected by increasing the\\nspace between the girts from the bottom upwards.\\nBut there are two strong objections to this form of\\nsilo. First, it is ill adapted to being placed within a\\nbuilding because of its shape, and second, the ven-\\ntilation of the spaces within the walls is difficult,\\nbecause of the peculiar construction of the frame.\\nThe lining is nailed onto girts rather than onto up-\\nright studs, and these girts being horizontal when\\nin position in the wall, give rise to the difficulty\\nmentioned. Because of these objections, it is not\\n18", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "2/4 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nprobable that octagonal silos will be numerously\\nbuilt.\\nRound silos can usually be built more cheaply\\nthan those that are rectangular. They have greater\\nrelative capacity, and no form of silo can be built that\\nto so great an extent facilitates the even settling of\\nthe silage. The chief objections to round silos are,\\nfirst, that they cannot in many instances be placed\\nwithin a building without loss of space, and second,\\nthat it is scarcely practical to use partitions in them.\\nIf the round silo is placed in the center of a circular\\nbuilding, its position there will result in no waste\\nof space, and but little space will be lost if the silo\\nis partly within the building and partly without.\\nBut when placed in a mow, or bay, or cellar, it may\\nnot be easy to use to the best advantage the space\\nin that part of the square in which the round silo is,\\nand which is not covered by the same. In stave\\nsilos partitions cannot be used, as their presence\\nwould interfere with the occasional tightening of\\nthe hoops which is frequently necessary when using\\nthem. In round silos of frame construction a par-\\ntition could be used. But such a partition would\\nmaterially hinder the even settling of the silage.\\nNotwithstanding the objections stated, the round\\nsilo is likely to be the most in favor in the future.\\nIt will therefore be carefully considered in the proper\\nplace.\\nThe Size of Silos. In determining the size of a\\nsilo not yet built, several considerations present\\nthemselves. These include the size of the herd or\\nflock which at present and also prospectively is to\\nbe fed from it, the probable duration of the period", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 2/5\\neach year during which silage is to be fed, and\\nalso the settling of the silage after it has been put\\ninto the silo.\\nIt should be remembered that if a silo is to be\\nfilled quickly, the silage will settle to about one-\\nthird of its entire depth. If material is added for\\nsilage a second time and perhaps a third time, it mav\\nbe possible to have the settled silage fill the silo to at\\nleast three-fourths of the entire hight of the same.\\nThis, however, will vary with the hight of the silo.\\nThe deeper the silo the less will be the unoccupied\\nspace at the top when the silage has settled. The\\ncapacity of the empty silo, therefore, will be about\\ntwenty-five per cent, more than that of the filled silo,\\nand this fact should not be overlooked in determining\\nthe size of the silo about to be built. Twenty-five\\nper cent, may be considered too large an allowance\\nfor loss of space in the settling of the silage, but\\nsomething will have to be added for waste from\\nspoiled silage while curing, and from exposure in\\nfeeding, hence, a silo should usually be built with at\\nleast one-fourth greater capacity than would suffice\\nto supply the needs of the stock, could it be filled to\\nthe top with good silage.\\nThe amount of silage that may be fed daily to\\na dairy cow varies from, say thirty to fifty pounds\\nper day. Forty pounds per day may be set down as\\naverage. The weight of a cubic foot of settled\\nsilage varies with the depth of the silo and the part\\nfrom which it is taken and also with the amount of\\nmoisture in the silage. The variation runs from\\nsay thirty to fifty pounds. It would therefore be\\nat least approximately correct to say that a cubic", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "2y6 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfoot of settled silage will weigh about forty pounds,\\nor, in other words, that a cubic foot of such silage\\nwill supply a head of cattle with all that it ought to\\nhave of that kind of food for one day. On such a\\nbasis the proper size for a silo not yet built can easily\\nbe computed.\\nIf the silo is square or oblong, the length in feet\\ninside multiplied by the width and again by the\\nhight, will give the entire number of cubic feet in\\nthe silo. The number of days during which an\\nanimal is to be fed on the basis stated above multi-\\nplied by one will give the number of cubic feet of\\nsilage required to feed one animal for the requisite\\ntime. This divided into the cubic feet in the silo\\nafter one- fourth has been deducted from the same,\\nwill give the whole number of cows to be f^d thus\\nfor the time fixed upon.\\nFor example Suppose a silo is to be built to\\nmeet the needs of twenty cows for six months in the\\nyear. One cow will consume the silage in i8o\\ncubic feet in that time if fed forty pounds of silage\\ndaily, and twenty cows will consume the silage in\\n3,600 cubic feet. But since one- fourth of the space\\nis waste one-third of 3,600 cubic feet or 1,200 cubic\\nfeet must be added to give the capacity of the silo\\nrequired which would make 4,800 cubic feet. Now\\nsuppose twenty-five feet is fixed upon as the hight\\nfor the silo and twelve feet as the width inside, one\\nfoot in length of such a silo will hold 300 cubic\\nfeet of silage. To hold 4,800 cubic feet therefore\\nwould require s silo sixteen feet long inside.\\nTo find the contents of a round silo in cubic\\nfeet, multiply the square of the diameter, in feet,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 277\\nby the hight in feet, then multiply the product by\\n.7854 which gives the cubic contents. For example,\\nsuppose it is required to find the contents in cubic\\nfeet of a round silo fifteen feet in diameter and\\ntwenty feet high, the square of fifteen, the diameter,\\nequals 225, which multiplied by the hight, twenty\\nfeet, gives 4,500. This multiplied by .7854 gives\\n3534.3 cubic feet. But one- fourth must be allowed\\nfor waste space and vs^aste silage, which leaves\\n2650.725 cubic feet as the capacity of the silo for\\ngood silage. This silage will average about forty\\npounds to the cubic foot which will give 106,029\\npounds or 53 tons.\\nWhile it may be easily possible to adjust the\\nsize of the silo to the present or prospective needs\\nof the stock, it is sometimes wiser to build two or\\nmore silos rather than to try to put all the silage\\ninto one. In feeding silage, alDOUt two inches irKiepth\\nof the exposed surface should be removed daily to\\nprevent waste from unduly prolonged exposure, and\\nwhen feeding silage in warm weather, about three\\ninches of the same should be removed daily. In a\\nlarge silo such a depth of surface would probably be\\nin excess of the needs of the stock. In such an\\ninstance, therefore, it would be better to erect two\\nsmall silos, if built on the plan of the round structure,\\nthan to build one large silo of equal capacity. But\\nin rectangular silos the difficulty mentioned may be\\nobviated by putting in one or more partitions.\\nMaterials Used in Silos.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -Silos differ first,\\nin the materials used in their construction, and\\nsecond in the form given to them. The materials\\nthat have been used in building silos include wood.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "278 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nstone, concrete or grout, bricks and metal. More\\nthan one class of the materials named is sometimes\\nused in building the same silo. They are desig-\\nnated chiefly by the material used in their construc-\\ntion. For instance a stone silo though lined with\\nbricks is usually spoken of as a stone silo.\\nMetal silos, according to Prof. Woll, are built of\\nhomogenous steel plate, lapped and double riveted\\nso as to make them tight. They are objectionable,\\nat present, because of their cost because of the ease\\nwith which frost penetrates them and because of\\nthe quickness with which they corrode. It has been\\ncomputed that they cost about twice as much as\\nstone silos of similar capacity, while the latter are\\nmuch more enduring. Being easily penetrated by\\nfrost, this one objection would render them unsuit-\\nable for use in a northern climate. Nor has any\\npreservative been found up to the present time that\\ncan be applied to them inside which will effectively\\nresist for any lengthened period the corroding in-\\nfluences of the silage juices. Because of these\\nobjections, metal silos will not be further considered.\\nConcrete or grout silos have the walls made of\\nsmall stones held together by well tempered mortar.\\nIn localities where the materials of construction\\nabound, it may be proper to use them, but since in\\ncold climates the walls must be protected by an outer\\nlining of wood with an air space between, their\\nconstruction, at the best, is costly. When used they\\nshould be built circular in form, if practicable in the\\nlocation chosen, to facilitate the even settling of the\\nsilage, and they should also be lined inside with\\ncement, or, if unprotected outside, with bricks and", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 279\\nthen cement. Since the materials for concrete silos\\nare only found in certain localities, and since the\\nessential features of construction are the same as in\\nstone silos described later, the building of concrete\\nsilos will not be further discussed.\\nBrick silos, as the name would indicate, are made\\nof bricks. They have not been extensively tried,\\nit may be, because of the costliness of the material.\\nIn northerly latitudes they too would also probably\\nrequire a lining of boards on the outside to keep out\\nthe frost, as is sometimes the case with concrete and\\nstone silos, but the walls could, of course, be made\\nthick enough to protect the silage unless such a\\nmethod should prove too costly. In some instances\\nstone silos have been lined with bricks and with\\nmanifest advantage. This feature of the use of\\nbricks in silo construction will be referred to again.\\nStone silos are, of course, built of stone and mor-\\ntar. Almost any kind of stone of suitable dimen-\\nsions may be used in their construction. The\\nchief objection to stone silos is their costliness.\\nNotwithstanding, when the wide distribution of\\nstone is considered and when its durability is also\\ntaken into account, it would seem to be eminently\\nadapted to the building of silos. In the southern\\nhalf of the United States the outside lining of wood,\\nwhich some authorities claim is necessary in the\\nnorthern states, could certainly be dispensed with.\\nExperience is further demonstrating the fact that\\nstone silos may also be erected in the northern states\\nwithout the necessity of protecting them with an\\nouter lining of wood. See Page 320. Stone silos\\nare therefore likely to grow in favor. The mode of", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "28o SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbuilding them therefore will be discussed at some\\nlength. (See Page 317.)\\nWood silos are such as are constructed wholly\\nof wood, but usually resting on a foundation of\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0stone or concrete. Because of the relative cheap-\\nness of construction in the past, there is an over-\\nwhelming preponderance in the number of the silos\\nthat have been built of wood. The kinds of wood\\nchiefly used in their construction have been pine in-\\ncertain of its species, as the white and yellow, the\\nsouthern cypress and the Douglas fir. But any kind\\nof wood will answer that is durable, cheap and that\\ndoes not warp. The spruce of the Puget Sound\\ncountry would probably prove very suitable and\\npossibly the hemlock also. The chief objection to\\nwood silos is their want of durability. In the not\\ndistant future they must also become more costly\\nwith the increasing dearness of lumber, and as they\\ndo stone silos will grow m favor. The construction\\nof certain forms of the wood silo will be discussed\\nat some length.\\nFoundation for Silos. Whatever the form of\\nsilo built, it ought to rest on a foundation that is not\\nsubject to decay. The foundation therefore should\\nnot be of wood. Stone will be the material most\\ncommonly used, though there may be some instances\\nin which bricks would be even less costly. Usually\\nthe foundation is sunk beneath the line of frost, but\\nthis is not always necessary. In soils which hold\\nmuch water, every care should be taken to carry it\\naway, as fast as it accumulates, by tiles laid for the\\npurpose. When silos are sunk into the ground, it\\nis not necessary to have the foundation go down", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 251\\nmore deeply than the floor of the silo. And the\\nwall up to the surface should be of stone whatever\\nmay be the materials used in the structure above\\nthe ground. If the wall is carried up for a short\\ndistance above the surface of the ground, and is then\\nbanked with earth it will be better protected from\\nsurface water. The aim should be to keep the wood\\nportion of silos away entirely from contact with the\\nearth lest decay should be induced. The founda-\\ntion is usually made wider than the structure which\\nit sustains, but not in all instances. The precise\\ncharacter of the foundation for the different forms\\nof silos discussed will be explained when treating of\\nthese. (See Pages 297, 310 and 318.)\\nFloors in Silos. If the earth that forms the\\nfloor of a silo is dry all the year, no other floor is\\nneeded unless rats should begin to make trouble. It\\nthere is a liability to the presence of an undue\\namount of moisture, measures must be taken to\\ncarry it away, or much damage will result to the\\nsilage. Tiles may be laid around inside the silo and\\nat some distance from the wall. Provision must\\nthen be mad^ for carrying away the water that col-\\nlects in these through some outlet which leads to\\nlower ground. And where grout and cement floors\\nare made in silos, the necessity for drainage is all\\nthe greater in order to protect the floors as well as\\nthe silage. In silos built on the level, drainage is\\nnot usually necessary. And in many instances it\\nwill be found that the drainage made to protect the\\nwall will also furnish sufficient drainage for the\\nfloor of the silo.\\nWhen it is thought best to put in a floor, the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "202 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmaterials may consist of what is termed grout or\\nconcrete. The cement floor may be made by cov-\\nering the ground to the depth of several inches with\\ncoarse gravel or small stones. These are covered\\nwith a good coating of water lime, not less than two\\nor three inches, and over all is put a layer of good\\ncement of say half an inch or more in thickness.\\nWhere bricks are used they should be laid in cement,\\nand two layers would probably prove more satis-\\nfactory than one. Floors so expensive however\\nare seldom necessary.\\nIt has been claimed that the floor of the silo\\nshould slope downward toward the center to facili-\\ntate the even settling of the silage, but whether the\\nend thus sought is certainly attained can scarcely be\\nsaid to have been proved. When silo floors are\\nthus shaped, drainage where it is necessary, should\\nlead from the center. If the floor is rather higher\\nat the center than the sides, then drainage into tiles\\nlaid around inside the walls would be facilitated.\\nLinings for Silos. The various materials that\\nhave been used for lining silos include boards, ce-\\nment, water lime, shingles, brick, metal and tarred\\npaper.\\nBoard linings are by far the most frequently\\nused in silos, and except in the case of cement they\\nhave been found the best. Various forms of board\\nlinings have been used. The best results have been\\nobtained from using one thickness of matched lum-\\nber with tarred paper under it, or two thicknesses of\\nmatched boards with tarred paper between. The first\\nis of course the cheaper method and should there-\\nfore be given the preference wherever it will suflice", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 283\\nto exclude frost. The surface of the boards should\\nbe smooth to facilitate the settling of the silage.\\nCement lirxing has on the whole proved satis-\\nfactory, more especially on silos built of stone and\\nlined, or not lined with bricks. More commonly it is\\nused to line stone, brick or grout silos. The acids\\nin the silage have in many instances softened the\\ncement on the surface next to the silage, so thai\\nto a greater or a less extent, the cement particles\\nhave crumbled. Because, of this it has been recom-\\nmended to apply cement every alternate year, or as\\noften as necessary, as whitewash is applied. One\\ninstance however is reported in which the cement\\nhas not crumbled thus. W. C. Edwards, M. P., of\\nRockland, Ont., built a stone silo in 1890. Inside\\nit was lined with bricks and the bricks were in turn\\nlined with Portland cement of a good quality. In\\na recent letter to the Author, Mr. Edwards says:\\nWe have not applied whitewash or cement at any\\ntime to our silo walls since the silo was first built.\\nThere has been no cracking whatever or falling off\\nof the cement. This one fact coming as it does,\\nfrom a reliable source, would raise a doubt as to\\nwhether the scaling off reported in the experience\\nof many, has not been caused by using an inferior\\nquality of cement, or by not properly preparing it\\nfor use. The question will stand further investiga-\\ntion.\\nWater lime has not proved serviceable as a lin-\\ning for silos. It has been found that the acetic\\nand lactic acids in the silage dissolve out the lime\\nparticles, thus leaving the lining a layer of crumbling\\nsand. In this condition it very readily absorbs silage", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "284 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\njuices, and is so easily penetrated by the tines of\\nthe fork used in handHng the silage, that much of it\\nscales off.\\nPlaster is even more objectionable than water\\nlime, more especially when applied to wooden walls.\\nIt disintegrates even more readily and therefore peels\\noff more easily. The springing of the wooden walls\\ncracks the plaster when it occurs. The acids wet\\nthe lining and render it more liable to injury from\\nfrost, and when they penetrate to the underlying\\nlath they hasten its decay.\\nShingles answer fairly well for lining, but they\\nadd to the expense of the same. Where shingles are\\nused, matched lumber and tarred paper must also be\\nused, hence lining with shingles would seem to be\\nsuperfluous, and there is more or less danger that\\nthey will be loosened or torn off by the fork in remov-\\ning the silage.\\nBricks not coated with cement do not make a\\ngood lining for the silo. They become damp and\\ndo not sufficiently exclude the air, but they would\\nseem to be much less objectionable than unplastered\\nstone, even though the stones were smooth. Bricks\\ndraw dampness too easily and do not readily exclude\\nfrost. Much of the silage adjacent to such walls\\nwould spoil and in time the acids from the silage\\njuices would cause the mortar between the stones\\nto crumble and would thus make the walls rough.\\nBrick or stone walls should be kept lined with a high\\nquality of cement.\\nMetal lining for silos has not thus far proved\\na success. Sheet iron and tin have been tried. Pro-\\nfessor F. H. King, of the Wisconsin Experiment", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 285\\nStation, who is high authority on such questions, has\\nsaid that none of the available metals are in them-\\nselves proof against the acids of the silo and that it\\nis scarcely possible to make paint adhere to them.\\nIn the meantime therefore expenditure on such lin-\\nings would be unwise.\\nLining with tarred paper has also proved unsatis-\\nfactory. It cannot be kept in place without more\\nor less of furring, and this interferes with the settling\\nof the silage. The paper is also adversely affected\\nwith the silage juices, and this in turn injuriously\\naffects the wood under it.\\nThe stave silo from the very nature of its con-\\nstruction does not call for any kind of lining, and\\nthis is in itself a strong argument in its favor.\\nPerservatives for Linings. It was popular at\\none time to apply some preservative to the inner\\nlining of silos in the hope of better preserving the\\nwood in the same. The more common of these\\ninclude coal tar applied alone while hot, or with\\nresin added, or dissolved in gasoline and boiled\\nlinseed oil. It is also applied with black oil added\\nequal in quantity to the coal tar. It has not yet\\nbeen demonstrated that any of these applications\\nhave materially aided in promoting the end sought.\\nIt has even been thought that in some instances their\\napplication hastened decay. The fact is simply\\nstated without waiting to give the reasons. When\\nthese so-called preservatives are used they may be\\napplied with a suitable form of mop or whisk broom.\\nIn stone silos the cement lining may, when\\nnecessary, be made to last longer by applying a white-\\nwash of cement as often as the lining shows any", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "286 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nindications of crumbling, 1)ut the fact would now\\nseem to be assured that where a heavy coat of cement\\nof good quality is applied to the inner wall of a stone\\nsilo, it will last many years without any renewal.\\nPartitions in Silos. It may be regarded as an\\nopen question whether partitions should be used at\\nall in silos. The more these are increased the more\\n-will corners be multiplied, the greater will be the\\nresistance offered to the even settling of the silage.\\nThey also add to the cost of the silo and unless\\nstrongly built they must needs be braced on one side\\nwhile the silo is being filled, or filling must take\\nplace in a sense simultaneously on both sides of the\\npartition. In round silos whatever may be the mode\\nof construction, partitions are objectionable since\\nthey make corners where otherwise there would be\\nnone, and in the stave silo they cannot be used. It\\nis further claimed that they are not necessary, since\\nafter the silage has settled one section of it may ])e\\nfed at a time without great los^s providing it is cut\\ndown perpendicularly with a sharp hay knife, on the\\nother hand partitions may be so built as to become\\nan important source of strength to rectangular silos\\nas is shown in Chapter IV. It has been argued that\\nit would be better to build a second silo than to put\\na partition in one, but this view is certainly not\\ncorrect except in the case of round silos, since one\\nlarge silo can be built with a partition more cheaply\\nthan two small ones without one.\\nWHien partitions are used they may be con-\\nstructed variously, i, They may be built the same\\nas the walls of the silo, that is to say, with studding\\nlined with matched boards having tarred paper", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 287\\nunderneath. The studs may be less in size than the\\nwall studs, and the dead air space should be left open\\nabove except when the silo is being filled to lesson\\nthe liability to decay. Iron rods may be made to\\nrun through the studs in the partition with some\\nform of washer running up and down the wall for\\nsome distance on either side of the silo. These walls\\nwould very effectively keep the walls of the silo\\nfrom spreading. 2, Partitions may be made by\\nspiking 2x4 scantlings on top of one another from\\nthe bottom of the silo upwards. Iron rods may also\\nbe used in this form of partition. They may run\\nalong in grooves, made for them in the scantlings.\\n3, Partitions may be made in narrow silos by\\nusing planks two inches thick. These are held in\\nplace by grooves made in upright timbers which are\\nduly fastened to the wall at either end. If these\\ntimbers are beveled away from the grooves the\\nsettling of the silage in the corners will be facilitated.\\nThe grooves may also be made by spiking two scant-\\nlings three cornered in shape to the wall at a suit-\\nable distance from one another. They can be ob-\\ntained by sawing a scantling diagonally from end\\nto end. When partitions are made, the boards,\\nscantlings or f)lanks used in making them should\\nbe planed on the side which comes in contact with\\nthe silage, to facilitate the settling of the same. When\\nthe silage has settled and is then fed out from one\\nside of the partition, the pressure against the latter\\nfrom the silage on the other side is not likely to\\ndisturb it seriously. It is only when the silo is being\\nfilled that this danger must be carefully guarded\\nagainst.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "288 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nDoors in Silos. Whatever the nature of the\\nsilo the doors have some features in common. These\\ninckule the following: i, They should usually\\nhe placed one ahove the other and on that side of\\nthe silo contiguous to the passageway. There\\nma}^ be instances in which it may be necessary to\\nhave doors on the opposite side of a large silo, but\\ntl-fcs.e will be infrequent. 2, The aim should be\\nto confine the number of the doors within the limits\\nof strict necessity because of the difficulty of exclud-\\ning air at the openings thus made. 3, When it\\ncan be m.ade so, the door inside should have a beveled\\nrim fitting into a corresponding bevel on the door\\nwhen the door is in place. The bevel on the door\\nshould be from the inner rim outward. When a\\ndoor is thus beveled the greater the pressure of the\\nsilage against it the more perfectly will the air be\\nexcluded. Other peculiarities of construction will\\nbe referred to when discussing the various forms of\\nsilos described in Chapter IV.\\nRoofing Silos. When built inside of a barn or\\nstable it is not necessary to provide a roof for silos.\\nWhen built without, and more especially in climates\\nsubject to frequent and also to prolonged storms, it\\nwill probably prove more satisfactory in the end to\\nprovide some form of the same, and the materials\\nto be used will be dependent to a considerable degree\\non the form of the silo. These will be enlarged\\nupon when the details of construction in the various\\nforms of silos are discussed.\\nBut it does not seem to be necessary under all\\nconditions to provide even outdoor silos with a roof.\\nThe opinion prevails that not to do so would result", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 269\\nin much inconvenience and loss from storms, and\\nthat in cold climates much loss would result from the\\nfreezing of the silage. Nevertheless, in western\\nOntario and probably elsewhere, many stave silos\\nhave been erected which have not been provided\\nwith a roof. These are between the forty-third\\nand forty-fifth parallels of north latitude, and some\\nof them have been in use for several years. The\\nowners claim that no serious inconvenience or loss\\nhas occurred from the causes named. The heat\\ngenerated in the silage seems to be sufficient, except\\nin very extreme weather, to protect the same from\\ninjury by frost. When the winter climate is colder\\nthan that of southern Ontario, there would probably\\nbe inconvenience and loss from frost in roofless\\nsilos. On the other hand, if, in the wide areas\\nfurther to the south, it should be found that such\\nsilos meet the ends sought, it may not be necessary\\nunder certain conditions to go to the expense of\\nbuilding a roof.\\nDecay in Silos. Many of the earlier silos were\\nbuilt of wood and lined with boards. Those built\\nof stone were also in some instances lined with wood.\\nThe lining in many of them, as shown by Prof. F.\\nH. King in Bulletin No. lo of the Wisconsin Ex-\\nperiment station, showed some decay at the end of\\nthe second filling. It would probably be correct to\\nsay that the lining in silos will decay in proportion.\\nI, As sealed dead air spaces are enclosed between\\nthe linings of the walls; 2, as stone walls are faced\\ninside with wood; 3, as inner lining boards come\\nagainst sills, beams or girts; 4, as spoiled silage is\\nleft piled against the lining within the silo; and 5,\\n19", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "290 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nas earth is banked against the outer Hning. Sealed\\ndead air spaces have been made by putting strips\\nof furring laid on tarred paper between the two\\nthicknesses of boards which form the inner lining of\\nthe silo, and by lining stone silos wath wood inside so\\nas to have a space between the boards and the\\nwood. These can be avoided, as experience has\\nshown that a single lining of wood with tarred paper\\nunder is usually a sufficient protection to the silage\\nw^hen the Avooden silo has also an outer lining of\\nboards, and that in stone silos frost can usually be\\nwarded off by lining with bricks inside coated with\\ncement. But dead air spaces must needs be made\\nin the walls of wooden silos wdth studding lined\\nwithin and without, and also when stone silos are\\nlined w^ithout. These can however be easily pre-\\nvented by providing ventilation.\\nSuch ventilation may be furnished by making\\nthe sills and plates a little narrower than the studs.\\nOpenings thus made for the escape of the air below\\nand above should of course be next to the outside\\nsheeting. Where provision is not thus made for\\nventilation, it may 1:\u00c2\u00bbe made by boring a small hole\\nthrough the outer lining below and above and into\\nthe space between each pair of studs. Openings\\nthus made should be protected by some kind of wire\\nnetting to prevent depredation from rats and mice.\\nMoreover, if no ventilation is provided in a silo\\nunderneath the roof or in the roof, decay will be\\nrapid from the abundance of the gases which rise\\nup out of the fermenting silage.\\nNotw^ithstanding tl^- rapid decay in many of\\nthe earlier silos, it is easily possible to build wooden", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "FACTS RELATING TO SILO CONSTRUCTION. 29 1\\nsilos SO as to resist decay for many years. The\\nfirst silo built by Mr. John Gould, Aurora Station,\\nO., has not been repaired since it was constructed\\nin 1884, and it is still in a good state of preservation.\\nSince the stave silo has no dead air spaces, it is ex-\\npected that it will better resist decay than silos that\\nare lined, but some time must elapse before this\\nwill be certainly known. Nor is it ordinarily\\nnecessary to create dead air spaces in stone silos.\\nWhen properly built, therefore, they should last for\\ngenerations.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nBUILDING THE SILO.\\nBut three kinds of silos will be considered in\\nthis chapter, viz., the round wooden silo, the square\\nor rectangular wooden silo, and the round stone silo,\\nand, for the reason that nearly all, if not indeed\\nall, the silos erected in the future will pretty\\ncertainly be built on one or the other of these\\nplans. The Author inclines to the belief that nearly\\nall the silos built in the immediate future will be\\nmade of staves held in place by hoops, hence it will\\nbe the aim to give the necessary information\\nrelating to the building of these with some degree\\nof minuteness.\\nTHE ROUND WOODEN SILO.\\nWhen all the conditions are favorable for locat-\\ning the round silo, that form of silo should be chosen.\\nIt has the following advantages: i. It is more\\ncheaply bu ilt than the square or rectangular silo\\nsince it requires less material whether built of staves\\nor otherwise. Even when built with a frame there\\nis much saving in studding material, because of the\\nless size of the studs used. 2, The circular form\\nis much more favorable to the even settling of the\\nsilage, and therefore more favorable to its perfect\\npreservation. This arises, in part at least, from the\\n292", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 293\\nentire absence of corners in the silo. 3, The tend-\\nency in the walls to spread is entirely taken away.\\nIn the stave silo the hoops when kept properly in\\nplace prevent such a result, and in round silos built\\nwith a frame the lining w^ithin and without has a\\nsimilar effect.\\nOf the two kinds of round silos, viz., that kept\\nin place by hoops, or the silo built with a frame, the\\nAuthor most unhesitatingly prefers the former and\\nfor the following reasons: i. It is more simple in\\nits construction and can be built more economically\\nthan the other form of round silo. 2, It is easier to\\nexclude the air, because of the opportunity that is\\nalways present to tighten the hoops when necessary.\\n3, It is believed that decay will be less rapid in the\\nstave silo. And 4, Experience has already demon-\\nstrated that the frost will penetrate some forms of\\nthe round frame silo more easily than a silo made of\\nstaves. The advantages of the stave silo therefore\\nover the round silo are so clearly drawn that it would\\nprobably be safe to predict that the former though of\\nmore recent introduction is likely to almost entirely\\nsupersede the latter. Since, however, the round\\nframe silo still has some advocates, it may be well\\nto give in brief outline the essential features of con-\\nstruction in building the same.\\nBUILDING THE ROUND FRAME SILO.\\nThe round frame silo consists of a framework\\nof studding resting on a stone foundation and linerl\\nwithin and without with boards laid over tarred or\\nbuilding paper. The frame rests on wooden sills", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 295\\nwhich of course must be circular in form. It is not\\nnecessary to have studs of greater size than 2x4\\ninches, nor is it necessary to have them so close as\\nin the rectangular silo. The inside should be lined\\nwith two thicknesses of boards put on horizontally\\nand with joints broken in the same. The boards\\nsjiould be about six inches wide and half an inch\\nthick, and should have tarred or building paper\\nbetween the two layers, or underneath the\\nlayer adjacent to the studs. In cold climates it\\nwould probably be necessary to have paper on the\\ninside of the studs and also between the board lin-\\nings. In mild climates one thickness of boards laid\\non tarred paper would probably suffice for the inner\\nlining. The outer lining may consist of the same\\nmaterial put on as drop siding and with tarred paper\\nunderneath or otherwise, according to the nature of\\nthe climate. Ventilation must be provided. (See\\nPage 290. When the silo is built inside there may\\nbe some conditions in which it will not be necessary\\nto put on any outer lining. The roof, like the silo,\\nwill be circular, and it will usually be necessary to\\nhave a roof w^hen the silo is built outside.\\nBUILDING THE STAVE SILO.\\nThe stave silo may be located within or with-\\nout although more commonly it is placed outside\\nof the stable or barn. Sometimes it is located in\\none corner of the outbuilding partly within and\\npartly without the same. It may of course be made\\nlarge or small and may go down into the ground or\\nbe placed on the surface. In building it there is", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "296 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nFig. 30. Section of Stave Silo, showing Foundation Floor and Splicing\\nof Staves", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 297\\nmuch latitude in choice of material for staves, in\\ncharacter of hoops and in furnishing- of the roof.\\nThe Foundation. The character of the founda-\\ntion for the stave silo should be determined largely\\nby the character of the soil, and the size of the silo.\\nStave silos have been placed on the surface of the\\nground without any excavations whatever other than\\nthat made by removing a few inches of the soft\\nsurface soil. But in such instances they have stood\\non a double thickness of bricks laid first in mortar\\nand then in cement. The mortar below should rest\\non broken stones or gravel. This plan would seem\\nto answer where the soil is perfectly dry and the\\nsilo is of moderate dimensions. In other instances\\nthe wall is sunk several inches, that is to say, far\\nenough to go down to a firm subsoil. This plan\\nwill probably suffice where the subsoil is dry and\\nwinter frosts are not severe. In yet other instances\\nthe wall goes down a little lower than the frost is\\nexpected to penetrate. The wall should be sunk\\nthus far in all soils that are liable to be much dis-\\nturbed by the action of the frost. When it is neces-\\nsary to sink the wall several feet below the surface\\nof the ground, it will usually prove economical in\\nthe end to excavate inside the wall to the same depth\\nto which the wall has been sunk. But when thus\\nexcavated care must be taken to have the inner sur-\\nface of the wall made smooth with a lining of cement,\\nand to have the circle made by the inside of the\\nstaves correspond exactly with the circle of the\\nstonework when lined as indicated.\\nThe stone foundation should not be less than\\ntwo feet broad and should come up several inches", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "298 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nabove the surface of the ground. Flat stones are\\npreferable to round ones, but round stones will\\nanswer. The wall may be flat on top, but many\\nfavor making a shoulder on the outside as shown in\\nfigure 30. The staves of the silo should stand inside\\nthe shoulder and close against it. If, when the\\nhoops are drawn tightly, the staves should be drawn\\naway from the shoulder, the space should be filled\\nby pouring thin cement into it.\\nWhen building the foundation wall, some\\nauthorities recommend digging a trench of the de-\\nsired depth and filling it with stones, putting the\\nlargest stones in the bottom. Smaller stones are\\nworked into the intervening spaces, or they are filled\\nwith gravel. In either case they are pounded down\\nuntil quite firm. When the wall is finished, a thin\\ncement is made and poured over the wall so\\nas to go down in the interstices. When it has\\nset, stronger cement is spread over the surface\\nwith a trowel. It is questionable, however, if\\ncement thus applied has any advantage in cheap-\\nness or otherwise over the good old-fashioned\\nmortar for holding in place the stones of a foun-\\ndation wall.\\nWhen a shoulder is not used on the wall the\\ntime for striking a circle to serve as a guide in set-\\nting up the staves is opportune, while the cement or\\nmortar on top of the foundation wall is still soft.\\nIn making it a stake may be driven into the center\\nof the floor of the silo. The circle on the wall is\\nthen marked by some suitable implement attached\\nto a cord which moves around on the central pivot\\nwhile the circle is being marked.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 299\\nThe Floor. The floor may be of earth where\\nthe soil is dry, of concrete covered with cement or\\neven without such a covering, or of bricks laid in\\ncement. (See Page 282.) Where the soil is dry\\nearth would answer well enough for a floor were it\\nnot for the danger arising from depredations of rats\\nand mice especially the former. Because of this\\ndanger, the propriety of making a floor secure\\nagainst such depredations should be carefully con-\\nsidered.\\nThe Staves. The staves should be of some\\nmaterial that is relatively cheap and that is not too\\ndifficult to obtain. At the present time, white pine\\nis probably the favorite wood in the northern states,\\ncypress in the southern states and the Douglas fir in\\nthose of the far west. But other kinds of pine may\\nbe used, as the red, the yellow, the Norway and the\\nsouthern, and also other soft woods, as spruce and\\nhemlock. It is important that the material shall\\nbe sound and free from knots that are liable to drop\\nout, and seasoned himber is preferable to that not\\nseasoned.\\nThe most suitable size for the staves will be at\\nleast measurably dependent on the size of the silo\\nand the character of the climate. The larger the\\nsilo the broader may the staves be, and the warmer\\nthe climate the less is the thickness required. Six\\ninches may be named as the maximum limit for the\\nw4dth of the staves and four inches as the minimum.\\nThe usual thickness is two inches, but in mild cli-\\nmates one and one-half inches will suffice. Where\\nthe material can be obtained at reasonable prices, the\\nstaves should be as long as the silo is high, but since", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "300 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsuch lumber is frequently relatively costly and diffi-\\ncult to get, it may frequently be necessary to pur-\\nchase staves of two different lengths and to splice\\nthem. Where practicable, the staves should be\\nsized, and when they are to be spliced the necessity\\nfor thus sizing them is increased. Where this can-\\nnot be done, care must be taken to keep them even\\ninside when putting them in place. It is absolutely\\nnecessary that they shall be planed on the inside and\\nalso at the sides, but it will be advantageous also\\nto have them planed on the outside if they are to be\\npainted. It is not necessary to bevel them on the\\nsides unless the diameter of the silo should be quite\\nsmall. It is thought that even tighter joints are\\nsecured in the absence of beveling, nor is it necessary\\nto tongue and groove the staves.\\nSetting Up the Staves. In setting up the\\nstaves, various methods have been adopted. That\\nnow described is one of the simplest Erect a scaf-\\nfold by setting up scantlings at the corners of a square\\nthat will exactly enclose the silo. Then just outside\\nthe outer circle of the silo and at the points where\\nit touches each side of the square, set up smaller\\nscantlings. Those at the corners may be 4x4 inches\\nand those intermediate 2x4 inches, but scantlings of\\nother dimensions may be used so long as they are\\nstrong enough to answer the end sought. Whether\\nor not these scantlings splice by o^^erlapping they\\nshould go ivi abcnit as far as the silo is to be high,\\nand they should be set exactly plumb. They are\\nheld in position by boards nailed on the outside.\\nBoards one-half inch tliick are then nailed on the\\ninside of the four intermediate uprights. AMien in", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO, 30I\\nposition they form a crude circle. One of these\\ncircles should be toward the bottom of the silo, and\\none toward the top, and in silos that are high there\\nshould be a third circle similarly formed midway\\nbetween these. A stave is then set up erect and\\nplumb. It is held in position by driving a short nail\\nthrough the hoop into the stave, but the nail\\nmust not go through the stave. Another stave\\nis similarly put up and fastened, and in the same way\\nall the staves are set up. As soon as the hoops are\\nput on they draw the nails in the temporary hoops\\naway from the staves, so that the former are easily\\nremoved. When in position the staves may be flush\\nwith the inside of the foundation, may stand in the\\ncenter of the same, or may rest against a shoulder\\nof the foundation as may be desired. In Bulletin\\nNo. 167 of the Cornell university experiment station\\nit is recommended that in setting up the staves of a\\nsilo, four staves shall be used on opposite sides of\\nthe same which shall be several inches thicker than\\nthe other staves of the silo. The hoops of the silo\\nare carried through these uprights, which makes it\\neasily possible to tighten the hoops without the aid\\nof keys, but they add materially to the labor of con-\\nstruction. It would seem to be at least questionable\\nif such uprights will come into common use.\\nSplicing the Staves. When it is necessary to\\nsplice the staves in a silo, one of at least two methods\\nmay be adopted. First, the ends may be cut squarely\\nand with precision in a miter box. In this way a\\nreasonably smooth joint is made. The joints where\\nthe staves thus meet are broken, that is to say, in\\none instance the short stave is put at the top of the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "302 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsilo and in the next at the bottom of the same. The\\nshort staves should be about one-half the length of\\nthe lono-er ones. The staves thus alternate all the\\nway around the circle. The alternate joints thus\\ndescribe two circles around the silo as shown in Fig.\\n30. This form of joint should be covered with flat\\nhoops of band iron to aid in excluding the air.\\nWhen the staves have been carefully sized, this form\\nof splice may possibly be found to answer, but this\\ndoes not yet appear to have been conclusively proved\\nby experience. Whatever may be the form of the splice\\nadopted, provision must be made for having it come\\nwhere it will not interfere with doors and where\\nthe joints may be thus covered with hoops of band\\niron.\\nA second form of splice is made similarly, but\\nwith the following addition: Saw about three-\\nfourths of an inch into the end of each stave the\\nwide way. A piece of sheet iron of the same width\\nas the stave is placed into the incision thus made as\\nthe ends of the two staves are being brought together\\n(see Fig. 31). It may yet be found that sheet iron\\nthus used may corrode too quickly.\\nHoops. At least three kinds of hoops have\\nbeen used in stave silos. These are the round, the\\nflat and the woven wire. All three of course are\\niron. Round hoops are usually from five-eighths\\nto three-fourths inches in diameter, and are held in\\nplace by lugs or castings, as shown in Fig 32.\\nThese have eyes through which the ends of the rods\\ncome. When it is desired to tighten the hoops, the\\nburrs are tightened with a wrench. It is claimed that\\nround hoops are more easily tightened than flat ones,", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 303\\nFig. 3l. Splice of Stave with Iron Tongue", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "304\\nSOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nbut they also cut into the staves, which is somewhat\\nobjectionable.\\nFlat hoops are usually made of band iron one-\\neighth of an inch thick and varying in width from,\\nsay, two and one-half to three and one-half inches\\nwith the size of the silo. These two are held in place\\nby lugs which differ in some respects from those used\\nto hold the round hoops in place, but the principle\\ninvolved is the same. For a silo sixteen feet in\\ndiameter, each complete hoop wdiich encircles the\\nFig. 32. Lugs for Hoops\\na, Cast-iron lugs for round hoops.\\nb. Wedge lug for flat hoops.\\nsame should consist of two separate pieces, and for\\none with a much greater diameter, of three such\\npieces. There is then less of a strain on the thrends\\nwhile the burrs are being tightened. The lugs of\\nthe various hoops should also be distributed rather\\nthan rise one above another in a straight line.\\nWoven wire hoops are sometimes used when\\nthe silos are small. These vary in width with the\\nrequirements of the silcx The power which some\\nkinds of woven wire have to contract and expand", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 305\\nwith the needs of the silo has led to their being used\\nby some silo builders.\\nThe distance of the hoops from one another\\nshould be regulated almost entirely by the size of\\nthe silo. The greater the diameter of the silo and\\nthe higher it is the closer should the hoops be placed,\\nespecially toward its base. For a silo sixteen feet\\nin diameter the lower edge of the first hoop should\\nbe within about six inches of the base of the staves.\\nThe space between the lowest hoop and the one next\\nabove it should be two feet. The space between\\neach additional hoop added, and the one next below\\nit should increase six inches. But four feet should\\nbe the limit in distance between any two adjacent\\nhoops in such a silo. On the approach of the season\\nof filling the silo, it should be examined and the\\nhoops tightened when this may be necessary, but it\\nshould be borne in mind that it is possible to draw\\nthe hoops too tight, since the staves will swell some-\\nwhat after the silo has been filled.\\nThe Doors. The doors should be in line, one\\nabove another. They should be no larger than will\\nsuffice to admit of the easy ingress and egress of the\\nperson who removes the silage. Doors eighteen\\nby twenty-four inches on the outside will usually be\\namply large. The bottom of the first or lowest door\\nshould be not less than three feet from the bottom\\nof the silo, and in some instances, as when a horse\\ncart is used for drawing the silage, it ought to be\\nhigher than three feet. But when the pit of the silo\\nis sunk down some distance below the surface of the\\nground the bottom door should be placed as low as\\npossible. The distance between the doors should\\n20", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "3o6\\nSOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nnot be less than five feet, and the space for these\\nought to be so calculated as not to interfere with the\\nplacing of the hoops, and vice versa.\\nThe doors should be cut out after the staves\\nhave been put in place and drawn tightly together.\\nThey should be cut with a bevel on each of the four\\nsides and the beveled sides of the door should be\\noutward when it is in place. The pressure of the\\na b\\nFig 33. Door of Stave Silo\\na, View of outside of door h, side view of door.\\nsilage when settling will then assist in the exclusion\\nof the air at the doors just in proportion to the extent\\nto which the said pressure exists. To aid further\\nin such exclusion of air, a strip of tarred paper\\nshould be tacked on each of the beveled edges of\\nthe door. Before sawing out the door, two cleats\\nshould be bolted across the staves on the outside.\\nThese are shown in the door as represented in Fig.\\n33. The end of the bolt which receives the burr", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO.\\n307\\nshould be outward, and the heads of the same coun-\\ntersunk on the inside. The doors should be carefully\\nnumbered on the outside so that each will be used\\nFig 34. View of Stave Silo\\nWith shute, ladder and hand-cart\\nonly in its proper place, or they may be so fastened\\nwith chains to the outer wall as to hang suspended\\nwhen for the time being they are not in use.\\nThe Shute, In a large majority of instances", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "308 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nit will be advantageous to make a shute down which\\nthe silage falls when it is thrown out at any of the\\ndoors. The shute is simply a box with three sides,\\nextending upward from below, the lower door of\\nthe silo and covering the doors. The proper size\\nwill be about two feet square. A ladder should\\nextend upward on one side of the shute and inside\\nof it on which the person climbs when going into or\\ncoming out of the silo. Usually a floor is put into\\nthe shute and from this the silage slides outward\\ninto a cart placed under the same to receive it.\\nWhen the silo stands outside the stable and near to\\nthe same, the shute should come down into the\\npassagev.^ay, as shown in Fig. 34. This passage-\\nway between the silo and the building need not be\\nmore than seven feet high inside. It should have\\nwindows in it to admit ample light.\\nThe Roof. In climates not too cold nor too\\nrainy, stave silos may be left without a roof. (See\\nPage 288.) For silos that are located quite near\\nto the stable, a roof may be made as shown in Bulle-\\ntin No. 167 of the Cornell university experiment\\nstation, that is to say, it may be made as follows\\nFour scantlings suitably placed on the outside of the\\nsilo may be bolted to the staves of the same. They\\nshould extend downward some distance from the\\ntop of the silo and upward some distance above it.\\nThe pair nearest to the stable should be higher than\\nthe outer pair. Other scantlings to serve as plates\\nor supports to the roof are then spiked across the\\ntop of each pair of uprights. A third support in\\nthe same line of ascent is then fastened to the side\\nof the stable. Over these supports a roof of boards", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "Fig 35. Exterior View of Stave Silo\\nWith roof and lugs properly distributed.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "3IO\\nSOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nis constructed, the cracks of which are battened.\\nThis roof is intended simply to ward off storms and\\nwould seem to be too costly for the benefits accruing.\\nWhen a roof is wanted, it would seem wiser to\\nbuild a better one, as for instance, on the plan shown\\nin Fig 35 or a conical roof\\nmay be constructed as shown\\nin Fig 29. The style of roof\\nlast mentioned, however, re-\\nquires some considerable de-\\ngree of skill to construct it\\nproperly.\\no\\nu\\no\\nTHE RECTANGULAR SILO.\\nThe rectaneular and the\\nmto\\nsquare silo fits better\\nthe space obtainable in an\\noblong building than any\\nother form of silo that can be\\nbuilt. This fact will be at\\nonce evident if it is remem-\\nbered that when thus located\\nthere is absolutely no other\\nAvaste of space than that oc-\\ncupied by the walls of the silo. And since one and\\nsometimes two walls of the building may be utilized\\nwhen constructing such silos, they will continue to be\\nerected, notwithstanding the objections arising from\\nthe presence of corners and from the liability to\\nspread because of the pressure of the silage.\\nThe Foundation. Much of what has been said\\nwith reference to the foundation of the stave silo", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 3II\\nwill apply equally to the foundation of the rectan-\\ngular or the square silo. Usually the walls should\\nnot be less than two feet thick, and as with the stave\\nsilo they may be sunk into the ground to the depth\\nof three to four feet and the space inside excavated\\nas a receptacle for silage. (See Page 297.) The\\nwall should extend far enough upward to prevent\\nthe sills from coming anywhere in contact with\\nthe earth.\\nThe Sills. Commonly the sills consist of planks\\nof the same material and of the same size as the studs,\\nthat is to say, of planks 2x10 inches. They are laid\\non the foundation walls and framed so as to overlap\\none another at the corners, and are bolted down to\\nthe wall by means of upright iron rods or bolts laid\\nin the wall while the foundation was being built, as\\nshown in Fig. 36. These rods are of iron and they\\nshould rise up at the corners and at intervals between\\nthe corners which vary with the size of the silo.\\nThe favorite distance varies from, say, three to five\\nor six feet. If the space inside the foundation walls\\nis to be used as a receptacle for silage, the in-\\nside of the sills should be so nearly flush with\\nthe inside of the wall that when both are lined\\nthe inner wall will be quite plumb where the\\ncement lining of the foundation and the wood\\nlining of the walls meet. But when the floor\\nof the silo is about level with the top of the wall, the\\nsills may occupy the central part of the top of the\\nwall rather than the space only toward the inner side\\nof the same.\\nThe Floor. The same general principles are\\nto be followed in making the floor of the rectangular", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "312 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsilo as in making the floor of the stave silo. (See\\nPages 282 and 299.)\\nThe Studs. The size of the studding used in\\nthe framework of the walls varies with the dimen-\\nsions of the silo. The same is true of the spacing\\nand bridging of the studs. The larger the silo, and\\nmore especially the greater its hight, the larger\\nshould be the studs where no girts are used and the\\nmore closely should they be spaced and bridged. In\\nsilos twenty-four to twenty-eight feet high it has\\nbeen found necessary to use studs 2x10 inches or\\n3x8 inches, to place them not more than twelve to\\ntwenty-four inches apart and to bridge between each\\npair of studs in not less than three places.\\nBy bridging is meant the nailing of short pieces\\nof narrow boards or miniature scantlings between\\nthe studs. They are cut at both ends with a proper\\nbevel so that they may be easily nailed to the studs.\\nEven when thus constructed, walls have been known\\nto spread somewhat. But where partitions are used,\\nit is not necessary to use studs so heavy, nor to place\\nthem so close, since the iron rods which run through\\nthe partitions effectually aid in preventing spreading.\\nThe studs are usually toe-nailed to the sills below,\\nbut in some instances they are mortised into the\\nsame. When toe-nailed, several large spikes are\\ndriven into each. Plates of the same material should\\nbe laid on top of the studs and spiked to them when\\nthe size of the material will admit of this, but when\\nit is of thicker size than the studs, the latter should\\nbe mortised into the plates. The method more com-\\nmonly adopted is to simply fasten the studs by\\nspiking them both above and below. The plates", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 3T3\\nshould be a little narrower than the studs when an\\nouter lining is used to furnish ventilation to the air\\nspace between the inner and outer linings. The\\nplates, like the sills, are put on the four sides of the\\nsilo and they are also spliced at the corners.\\nIn building silos in the past, the aim has been\\nto get studs as long as the intended hight of the silo,\\nbut since lumber of such great lengths must con-\\ntinually become scarcer and higher in price, of\\nnecessit}^ more attention will have to be given to the\\nuse of girts in the future. If girts were made to\\nextend around the middle of the silo, the studs would\\nonly require to be one-half the usual length. If\\nmortised into the girts, and moreover, if one or more\\npartitions w^ere used, and if one rod in each partition\\nwere also run through the girts on the sides of the\\nsilo, spreading would be most effectively prevented.\\nThe girts, like the plates, should be a little narrow^er\\nthan the studs in silos with an outer lining, and for\\na similar reason.\\nThe Inner Lining. The amount of lining\\nrequired will depend almost entirely on the character\\nof the climate. Ordinarily, when rectangular silos\\nare built inside, one thickness of boards laid over\\ntarred paper will suffice. When but one layer of\\nboards is used, the lumber should be jointed and not\\nmore than one inch thick. Boards not more than\\nsix to eight inches wide will probably be better than\\nthose wnder, on the principle that narrow boards for\\nflooring are preferable to those wider. The tarred\\npaper is tacked onto the studs. The strips of the\\nsame are put on perpendicularly and are made to\\noverlap where they meet on the studs, so that both", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "314 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nmay be tacked to the stud nearest to the place of\\nthe overlapping.\\nWhen putting on the lining it is important that\\nthe boards shall be so put on as to aid in binding the\\ncorners of the silo. This may be done by having\\neach alternate board extend to the outside of the\\nstudding of the walls which stand at right angles\\nw^ith the board. Both ends of each board thus\\nextended can then 1)e nailed to a stud properly\\nadjusted in each of the two walls just referred to.\\nThis can only be done, however, when the boards\\nused in lining are of an equal width.\\nWhen it is deemed necessary to put on two\\nthicknesses of boards, that first put on should be\\nnailed directly to the studs and in a horizontal posi-\\ntion. These boards need not be planed, but the end\\nsought will be better secured if they are jointed. A\\nlining of tarred paper is then put on over the boards.\\nOver the tarred paper a second lining of jointed\\nboards is nailed. Inch boards are commonly used,\\nbut those somewhat less in thickness will suffice.\\nThe boards of the second lining should break joints\\nwith those of the first, as shown in Fig. 36.\\nThe Outer Lining. AVhen the silo Is built\\nwithin another building, no outer lining is usually\\nnecessary. When one or two sides of the building\\nalso form the outer walls of the silo, the siding that\\nhas been used upon either will usually answer also\\nfor the outer lining of the silo, and without any\\nchange. When the silo extends upward through\\nthe roof of a building, the outer lining of the part\\nwhich thus projects may be similar to the siding of\\nthe building. When the silo Is built without, it may", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 315\\nbe necessary in very cold climates to have two thick-\\nnesses of boards for the outer lining, with tarred\\npaper between, as show^n in Fig. 36. But usually a\\ncovering of drop siding, such as is ordinarily used,\\nwill suffice. In mild climates an outer covering may\\nnot be necessary, except for the purpose of hiding\\nthe uncouth appearance of an uncovered frame.\\nPartitions. When partitions are used in a silo\\nwith a width of not more than sixteen feet, they may\\nordinarily consist of planks two inches thick and\\nheld in place at either end by a groove formed along\\nthe wall to receive them. (See Page 286.) When\\nfilling a silo with a partition of such material, it will\\nbe necessary to fill on both sides of the partition or\\nto brace one side while the other is being filled. In\\na silo twenty-four feet in hight, three iron rods of\\nabout three-fourths inch iron should run through\\nthe partition at suitable distances from one another\\nand in grooves made for them between the planks.\\nSee Page 287. The rods should be threaded at the\\nends and should have under the burrs washers of\\nmetal of sufficient size to prevent the burrs from\\ndrawing into the wood. When thus protected, the\\nwalls of the rectangular silo cannot spread.\\nThe Corners. In each inside corner a scantling\\nshould be placed on end and spiked to the walls so\\nas to present a beveled edge on the mside. A scant-\\nling 2x4 inches or 4x6 inches ripped diagonally\\nthrough the center, that is to say, from two opposite\\ncorners, will furnish the requisite material for cor-\\nners. The beveled edge should of course be planed.\\nThe Doors. The doors, as in the stave silo,\\nshould be placed one above another. (See Page 305.)", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "3l6 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThey may also be of the same size as those described\\nin the stave silo, .where the distance between the studs\\nwill admit of making them thus, and they may be\\nsimilarly distanced. They may likewise be beveled\\non the edges and held together by bars bolted to the\\nouter edge of the wall before the dcors are cut out.\\nA simpler form of door has been made by cutting\\nout an opening of sufficient size between two studs\\nand holding together the part of the lining thus cut\\nout by bars nailed or bolted to them on the outside.\\nWhen in place they rest against strips nailed to the\\ntwo sides of the two studs adjacent to the opening\\nfor the door. When the doors are in place they are\\ncovered with tarred paper to aid in excluding the\\nair. Where an outer lining has been put on, open-\\nings to correspond with those of the inner lining may\\nbe made on the same general plan.\\nThe Roof. It is only when the rectangular silo\\nextends up through the roof of the outbuilding, or\\nwhen the silo is built outside that it requires to be\\nroofed. The plates which are spiked onto the top\\nof the studs, or which have the latter mortised into\\nthem, should be less wide than the studs that venti-\\nlation may be provided for the air space between the\\ninner and outer linings of the wall. Plates are fre-\\nquently used no thicker than the studs, but in silos\\npossessed of much width it would be no more than\\nprudent to use plates somewhat thicker. The size\\nof the rafters used should be regulated by the size\\nof the silo. When in position they are notched\\nwhere they rest on the plates and are spiked and toe-\\nnailed to the same. If narrow boards or 2x4 scant-\\nlings are nailed or spiked to opposite rafters and not", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 317\\nfar up from the plates, they assist materially in pre-\\nventing the silo from spreading. But there is no\\nnecessity for nailing them thus to each pair of rafters.\\nThe covering of the roof may consist of boards and\\nshingles, or indeed, of any of the materials used in\\ncovering roofs that may be desired. In the gable\\nshould be a hinged door to admit green food when\\nthe silo is being filled. It should be not less than\\ntwo and one-half feet wide to admit carriers such\\nas are commonly used when silos are being filled;\\nbut sometimes the gable end is left open. There\\nshould also be at least one cupola or ventilator on the\\nridge of the roof to furnish egress to the gases which\\nare generated by the fermentation of the silage. If\\nthe roof of a silo is closed tightly, premature decay\\nin the roof would result.\\nBUILDING STONE SILOS.\\nIt is almost certain that the stone silo will grow-\\nin favor with the passing of the years because of its\\ngreater relative duration. This will at least prove\\ntrue in localities abundantly supplied with stone.\\nThe greater relative first cost of constructing stone\\nsilos is probably more than anything else responsible\\nfor the infrequency with which such silos are found.\\nFuture experience, however, is likely to show that\\nwhen the greater duration of stone silos is taken into\\naccount, they will prove the cheapest by far in the\\nend. The objections have been brought against\\nthem that they are damp, and that frost easily pene-\\ntrates them, and both objections are true in the\\nabsence of certain precautions when building them.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "3l8 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nExcessive dampness may be prevented by making\\nan air space in the wall while it is being built, or by\\nlining the wall on the inside with one thickness of\\nbrick and by giving due attention to ventilation.\\nThe danger from frost will not be present\\nexcept in cold climates. The air space in the wall,\\nor the inner brick lining above referred to will also\\nhelp materially to ward off frost. When neither is\\npresent, protection may be afforded by covering the\\nouter wall with a lining of boards nailed to studding\\nso as to form an air space between the lining and\\nthe wall. The aim should be, however, to construct\\nthe wall so that such lining on the outside would not\\nbe necessary. A stone silo properly built should last\\nindefinitely without any form of renewal except in\\nthe inner lining and in the covering over the frame-\\nwork of the roof.\\nForms of Construction. Stone silos may be\\nbuilt square, rectangular or round and they will\\nusually be located outside, but may also be placed\\ninside the barn or stable. The aim should be wher-\\never practicable to build them round. When this\\ncannot be done, the corners inside should be rounded\\nmore or less to facilitate the settling of the silage.\\nThe Foundation. The foundation of the stone\\nsilo may be made in the same way as the foundation\\nfor any structure in which permanency is desired.\\nEvery care should be taken to preserve it from the\\naction of frost when built in a cold climate, lest crack-\\ning of the walls should follow. As the structure is\\nheavy, the foundation should go down to solid earth.\\nIf the drainage below is not complete it should be\\nmade so by laying tiles under the wall or adjacent", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 319\\nto and a little lower than the bottom of the same.\\nThe ground should also slope away somewhat from\\nthe outside of the wall.\\nThe Floor. The floor in the stone silo may be\\nsimilar in, construction to that in the stave silo. See\\nPage 282 and also Page 299.\\nThe Walls. The thickness of the walls should\\nbe determined by the size of the silo. The larger\\nthe silo the greater the pressure, and the greater the\\npressure the thicker should be the wall. It is at least\\nquestionable if the wall of any stone silo should be\\nless than fifteen to eighteen inches in thickness, and\\nthe necessity will probably seldom arise for making\\nthe wall more than twenty-four inches thick.\\nWhether the wall with an air space or the solid wall\\nwith a brick lining inside will be the more efficacious\\ndoes not appear to have been determined as yet. In\\nsouthern climates where the danger from frost does\\nnot exist, the solid wall without an air space or brick\\nlining should answer every purpose.\\nThe Inner Lining. The walls inside should be\\ncoated with cement of an excellent quality. If laid\\non a brick lining it will last for many years where\\nfrost does not penetrate the wall. In a stone silo built\\nby W. C. Edwards, M. P., of Rockland, Ont., the\\ncement lining has been in place for ten years and\\nis still in faultless condition. The stone wall is two\\nfeet thick. It is faced inside with one tier of bricks\\nlaid with the side to the wall, and the cement lining\\nis plastered on the bricks. This fact is in conflict\\nwith statements made, which claim that it is neces-\\nsary to apply cement of the consistency of whitewash\\nevery two or three years to the inner lining of stone", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "320 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsilos. Whether the cement would last as well on\\nproperly built stone silos without the brick facing\\ninsides does not appear to have been determined, but\\nthere would seem to be no good reasons why it\\nshould not.\\nThe Outer Lining. Where stone silos are prop-\\nerly constructed, there should be no necessity for\\nan outer lining of wood in any climate where corn\\ncan be successfully grown for the silo. The stone\\nsilo referred to in the preceding paragraph is located\\nbetween the forty-fifth and forty-sixth parallels of\\nnorth latitude, and in a climate that is stern and rig-\\norous. The larger portion of the wall, which is\\ntwenty-six feet high, is unprotected, and yet Mr.\\nEdwards testifies that no trouble whatever has arisen\\nfrom the action of frost.\\nWhere it is deemed necessary, however, to pro-\\ntect a stone silo by lining it outside, the lining can\\nbest be nailed to upright studs laid into the outer\\nwall while it is being built, but of course studding\\nmay be used that is not thus laid into the wall. The\\nstuds or strips thus placed do not require to be any\\nnearer than will suf^ce to properly sustain the siding.\\nDrop siding will be suitable.\\nThe Roof. The roof of the stone silo when\\nbuilt outside may be constructed on the same plan\\nas that of any other silo. But because of the greater\\nduration of stone silos, it will probably pay to take\\nspecial pains in the selection and use of material last-\\ning in character, as, for instance, metal roofing.\\nAnd since the stave silo is frequently built and used\\nfrom year to year without any form of roof there\\nwould seem to be no good reason for not similarly", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "BUILDING THE SILO. 32 I\\nusing the stone silo where the cHmatic conditions\\nare suitable.\\nThe Doors. Provision ought to be made for\\nthe door spaces when the wall is being built. These\\nshould be on one side of the silo and above one\\nanother, as in the stave silo. The size of the door\\nspaces should be about the same, that is to say, about\\n18x24 inches, or perhaps a little larger than that,\\nbecause of the greater thickness of the stone wall.\\nThe material for the doors within and without will\\nof course be wood, with tarred paper on the surface\\nnext the air space and also on the beveled edges.\\nThese beveled edges will fit into a corresponding\\nbevel on the four edges of the inner and also on the\\nouter surface of the wall, which border on the open\\nspace left for the doors. But the bevel on the outer\\nside is much less important than that on the inner\\nside, and may be dispensed with altogether. The\\ndoors on both sides may swing on hinges of suitable\\nconstruction, or they may be simply put in place\\nwhile the silo is being filled.\\nIn deep and wide stone silos it may be necessary\\nto strengthen the walls, to some extent, with iron\\nbands encircling them, or with iron rods running up\\nand down, as, for instance, near the doors.\\n21", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nCROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO.\\nIt would seem to be possible to preserve in the\\nsilo with more or less of success any of the crops\\nthat are ordinarily grown in this country as food for\\nlive stock. Nevertheless, the exact methods to be\\nfollowed in storing many of these crops so as to\\nproperly preserve them have not yet been fully deter-\\nmined. The relative suitability of crops for being\\nmade into silage is determined by various considera-\\ntions. Chief among these is the ease with which\\nthey may be preserved m the silo. But prominent\\namong the same are the following: i, The readi-\\nness with which they may be grown in ample supply.\\n2, The ease with which they may be put into the silo\\nand taken out of the same. 3, The facility with\\nwhich they may be preserved by other methods.\\nCorn for instance is more easily preserved in the silo\\nthan winter rye and it also produces more food per\\nacre. On these grounds therefore it is so far the\\nmore suitable food of the two for being made into\\nsilage. Clover is more easily handled than rape,\\nhence it is so far a more suitable silo crop. Sorghum\\nis more difficult to cure in the dry form than peas\\nand oats, hence it is more suitable than the latter for\\nsiloing.\\nThe relative suitability of the following plants\\nfor being made into silage will now be considered,\\n322", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 323\\nviz. Corn, sorghum, non-saccharine sorghum, legu-\\nminous plants other than clover, plants of the clover\\nfamily, millets, the common cereals, field roots, rape\\nand sunflowers. With the exception of sunflowers,\\nthe Author believes the above have been named in\\nabout the order of relative suitability, giving corn\\nthe first place.\\nCorn. Corn is pre-eminently the soiling plant\\nof the United States and Canada. It would prob-\\nably be correct to say that more corn is made into\\nsilage in these respective countries than all other\\ncrops combined. The high adaptation of this plant\\nfor the silo is based on such considerations as its wide\\ndistribution, the certainty with which it may be\\ngrown, the ease with which it is handled and cured,\\nthe large amount of food which it produces and the\\nhigh character of the same, the aid which it renders\\nin preserving other crops put into the silo along with\\nit, and the difficulty frequently experienced in curing\\ncorn out of the silo. It is distributed so widely that\\nit may be grown for silage in nearly every state in\\nthe Union and in nearly every province of Canada.\\nEven where it does not become sufficiently advanced\\nto produce soft grain it may be cured in the silo. It\\nis one of the most certain crops of the farm, and\\nwhen grown for silage, it is even more certain than\\nwhen grown mainly for the grain product, since it\\nmay be cured in the silo before it is fully matured.\\nAll things considered, no other crop is more\\neasily handled in the green form, and none have been\\ncured in the silo with so much certamty, so small a\\nnumber of failures and so little loss. Likewise con-\\nsidered, no other crop produces so large an amount", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "(324)\\nFig. 37. Elephant Fodder Corn\\nMinnesota University Experiment Farm.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 325\\nof food per acre that is so highly palatable and\\nnutritious and over so wide an area. Various other\\ncrops, as clover, soy beans and cowpeas may be bet-\\nter preserved along with corn, as for instance, in\\nalternate layers, than when put into the silo alone.\\nSince in some sections corn is not easily preserved\\nin the shock, the stack or the barn, the percentage of\\nloss in those areas is reduced when corn is cured in\\nthe silo.\\nSo completely adapted is corn to the require-\\nments of silage making that where it can be grown\\nsuccessfully from year to year it is questionable as\\nto whether very much attention should be given to\\nthe siloing of other crops. Were it not that it is\\nrather low in protein, the propriety of growing other\\ncrops to blend with it or to feed along with the\\nsilage made from it might well be questioned. Since\\nthe protein required to balance the ration can usually\\nbe procured more easily in the cured form, it is com-\\nmonly more advantageous thus to procure it.\\nProbably the soy bean, the cowpea and the sunflower,\\nplants that are rich in protein, furnish exceptions.\\nSorghum. The suitability of sorghum for the\\nsilo is, in some respects at least, not very far different\\nfrom that of corn, but since sorghum has not hereto-\\nfore been grown to anything like the same extent as\\ncorn in those areas where the silo is most needed, its\\nmerits as silage food are but little known, and since\\nits keeping qualities outside of the silo are in several\\nrespects superior to those of corn, the same necessity\\nhas not been felt for curing it in the form of silage.\\nAnd when thus cured, sorghum silage has usually\\nbeen found more acid than silage made from corn.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "5 s", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 327\\nFor autumn feeding it would seldom probably be\\nadvantageous to make sorghum into silage since it\\nmay be fed so conveniently at that season from the\\nshock or heap, as the case may be. But for late\\nwinter and spring feeding, in climates subject to al-\\nternations of high and low temperatures in winter,\\nit is perhaps better preserved in the silo. Alternate\\nfreezing and thawing tend to affect adversely the\\nvalue of its saccharine content.\\nThe Non-Saccharine Sorghfnns. The value of\\nthe non-saccharine sorghums as silage is probably\\nnot far different from that of sorghum, although ex-\\nperience in storing these crops in the silo is so limited\\nthat their relative value for making silage should be\\nspoken of with a prudent reserve. Since they are\\ngrown in areas where the need of silos is not so im-\\nperative as where corn grows at its best, there is not\\nthe same necessity for making them into silage.\\nThey are grown to the greatest extent in dry areas\\nwhere the fodder is not much liable to injury from\\nrain when exposed in stacks, either in the autumn or\\nwinter. There should be no difficulty in preserving\\nany of the non-saccharine sorghums in the silo, but,\\nsince they are usually less succulent than corn, they\\nshould be put into the silo at a somewhat less ad-\\nvanced stage of development.\\nLeguminous Plants Other Than Clover. The\\nchief of these, under conditions that now prevail in\\nthe United States, are the ordinary field pea, the\\ncommon vetch, the soy bean and the cowpea. These\\ncan all be preserved with more or less of success in\\nthe silo, but when preserved thus without admixture\\nor alternation with other crops, as corn, in instances", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "328 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ntoo numerous, the success attained has been only\\npartial. This would seem to be true even of soy\\nbean and cowpea silage. Silage made from these\\ncrops is too frequently acid in character, and in too\\nmany instances it has become more or less decom-\\nposed and off in color and smell. And these facts\\nare probably true in a greater degree of the common\\npea and the common vetch than of the soy bean and\\nthe cowpea. This would seem to indicate that the\\ntwo plants first named are usually put into the silo in\\na form too succulent. Whether the numerous fail-\\nures in the attempt to preserve these crops in the\\nsilo arises from want of knowledge of the proper\\nmethods of doing the work, cannot as yet be stated\\nwith certainty, but there would seem to be no good\\nreason why it should not 1)e possible to preserve\\nthem w^ith more uniform success than has heretofore\\nbeen attained.\\nThe same necessity does not exist for preserv-\\ning the common pea and the common vetch in the\\nsilo as for preserving the soy bean and the cowpea.\\nSince the two former may under average conditions\\nbe easily cured in the dry form. They are so fine in\\nfoliage that they readily give up their moisture when\\nbeing cured. Not so however the soy bean and the\\ncowpea. They are so coarse of straw that so much\\ntime is necessary to cure them properly and also so\\nmuch handling, that unless great care is exercised in\\ndoing the work, the value of the hay thus made will\\nbe greatly impaired through the loss of the leaves.\\nWhen the soy bean and the cowpea are stored\\nin the silo it should, when practicable, be along with\\ncorn or sorghum in some of its varieties. Some", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 329\\npersons recommend storing these foods in alternate\\nlayers, since they consider it more practicable to store\\nin layers than to mix the food, as it is easier to handle\\nfirst one food and then the other when storing, than\\nto handle the two simultaneously. The mixing of\\nthe food may be done when feeding it. But, if it is\\nthought better to mix them at the time of storing, no\\nserious obstacle stands in the way. This method of\\nstoring tends to make a more perfectly balanced\\nration. The proportions of each product required to\\nmake a balanced ration will vary with variations in\\nthe analyses of the crops. But even when these\\ncrops are stored thus, it may not always be wise to\\nstore them in those proportions that will exactly\\nadapt the food to the needs of the animals to which\\nit is to be fed. It may be impossible to do so because\\nof a preponderance in the supply of one or the other\\nof the crops grown. If it is true that corn, or sor-\\nghum exercises a preservative influence on the other\\nfoods, it would seem to be necessary to have a con-\\nsiderable preponderance of them in the silo.\\nIt is easily possible to grow^ the soy bean and the\\ncowpea so that they will be in season for being put\\ninto the silo when corn or sorghum are also in season.\\nBut the same cannot be said of the common pea or\\nthe common vetch.\\nThe horse bean has been grown to determine its\\nvalue for silage at least in an experimental way in\\nthe vicinity of Ottawa, Ont. The object sought\\nwas to increase the protein content in the silage.\\nWhere the beans can be profitably grown and mixed\\nwith corn in the silo, the plan of using them thus\\nwould seem to be commendable, but the areas in", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "330 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nwhich horse beans and corn can both be grown suc-\\ncessfully on this continent are not extensive.\\nPlants of the Clover Family. Clover in all its\\nforms may be made into silage both in the natural\\ncondition and after it has been run through a cutting\\nbox. It is more common however to preserve thus,\\nonly the medium red and the mammoth sorts. Al-\\nsike clover is more easily cured in the dry form than\\neither of these, because of its fine growth and the\\nfrequency with which it is grown along with tim-\\nothy. It is much easier to grow an equal or nearly\\nequal mixture of alsike and timothy, than of the red\\nclovers and timothy, and the timothy thus admixed\\nwith the alsike is favorable to quick curing in the\\nlatter. Alfalfa is more commonly grown in dry\\nclimates, hence the necessity for preserving it in the\\nsilo is not very great.\\nWhile fairly good silage may sometimes be\\nmade of clover when put into the silo without ad-\\nmixture, it does not seem an easy task to preserve it\\nthus in a manner that will give entire satisfaction.\\nIn too many instances, when taken out of the silo, it\\nis too dark in color and rank in odor to meet the re-\\nquirements of those w^ho are seeking the very best\\nquality of milk. But the fact that it is sometimes\\npreserved with a fair measure of sweetness would\\nseem to indicate that it may always be so preserved\\nif the conditions that govern the making of good\\nclover silage were fully understood.\\nClover is more easily preserved in the silo when\\nadmixed with corn, and when thus preserved the\\nration provided is in better balance than if it con-\\nsisted only of corn, since the clover adds to the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 33 1\\nprotein content which is too much wanting in the\\ncorn. But the first cutting of medium red clover can-\\nnot be thus mixed with corn, since the corn is not far\\nenough advanced for being put into the silo when the\\nclover is ready for being thus stored. Nor is corn\\nsufficiently advanced for being preserved thus along\\nwith mammoth clover. But the second cutting of\\nmedium red clover is ready for being siloed at the\\nsame time as corn. Because of the greater difficulty\\nexperienced in many localities in curing the second\\ngrowth of medium clover, on account of the in-\\ncreased dampness of the weather at that season there\\nis sometimes much propriety in curing it in the silo.\\nBut under average conditions in the United States\\nand Canada, the curing of clover in the old-fashioned\\nway, with the exception stated, would seem to be\\npreferable to curing it in the silo. In climates with\\nmuch rainfall in harvest as that of Great Britain, it is\\ndifferent. In that country it may be the better plan\\nto preserve clover in the silo.\\nMillets. The different kinds of millet may also\\nbe preserved in the silo, although they are seldom\\nthus handled and for the following reasons:;\\nI, They mature at a season of the year favorable to\\ncuring in the dry form, that is to say, they mature\\nin the latter part of the summer. 2, Like ordinary\\nhay they are easily handled in the field cured form.\\n3, The method of preserving them alone or unmixed\\nin the silo cannot be said as yet to have proved a\\ndecided success. Millet silage would seem to be\\nmore liable to mold than corn. This may not be\\ntrue of pearl millet, but experience in siloing that\\nproduct would seem to be entirely wanting.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "332 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe plan of preserving millet, in some of its\\nforms at least, along with corn may have some com-\\nmendable features, since it is usually ready for being\\nharvested about the same time as corn. There is the\\nobjection to it however, that it does not improve the\\nfeeding value of the mixture so much as a legumi-\\nnous plant would, since the latter would be richer in\\nprotein. The more bulky kinds of millet and the\\nsoy bean may be successfully preserved together in\\nthe silo. They make a good food, as each plant\\nwould in a sense be the complement of the other. It\\nhas been recommended to put one load of each alter-\\nnately into the silo when filling it, and to sprinkle\\nseveral buckets of water over each load of millet\\nwhen in the silo.\\nThe Common Cereals. Under this head only\\nwheat, oats, rye and barley will be considered.\\nThere w^ould seem to be but little reason for preserv-\\ning these crops in the silo, even though they made\\ngood silage. The grain alone which they produce\\nis usually more valuable than the silage made from\\nthem, since they must be made into silage while yet\\nsomewhat lacking in completest possible nutrition.\\nNor can they be readily preserved in the silo owing\\nto the hollow and dry character of the stem. Silage\\nas ordinarily made from these crops is much liable\\nto injury from dry mold. This liability can of course\\nbe lessened by much tramping while the silo is being\\nfilled, and by sprinkling the mass freely with water\\noccasionally, also by cutting the food a little earlier\\nthan it is usually cut. The Author made good\\nsilage from winter r}^ at the Ontario experiment\\nstation at Guelph in 1891. The rye was cut when", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 333\\nfully out in head and was then run through a cutting\\nbox. The cattle to which it was fed ate it with\\nevident relish. But while the rye silage was thus\\nbeing fed, the exposed surface in the silo dried out\\nso quickly between the feeding periods that the pala-\\ntability of the silage was materially lessened, not-\\nwithstanding that it was being fed to a considerable\\nnumber of animals.\\nAll things considered, there would not seem to\\nbe any great necessity for making these crops into\\nsilage. The grain is usually more needed than the\\nsilage. They can usually be readily cured as hay\\nwhen wanted in that form, and there is also less\\nhazard on the whole in curing them as hay.\\nField Roots. There would seem to be no good\\nreason why the attempt should be made to keep field\\nroots in the silo under existing conditions, since they\\ncan be so easily preserved in cellars and pits. The\\nonly exception is the pulp made from sugar beets\\nafter the sugar has been extracted from them.. And\\nyet it is possible that the day will come when field\\nroots will be run through a pulper and made into\\nsilage to secure greater convenience in storing and\\nfeeding. They could thus be stored in less space\\nand they would be in condition that would fit them\\nfor being fed to any kind of live stock without fur-\\nther preparation.\\nIt will perhaps, in all cases, be found more\\nprofitable to feed the tops of field roots directly to\\nlive stock than to try to preserve them in the silo.\\nThe labor of handling them thus is very much less\\nthan the labor of first putting them into the silo and\\nfeeding them out again, even though they could be", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "334 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\ncured with but little hazard. But it is pretty certain\\nthat they cannot be cured thus, because of the excess\\nof moisture which they contain. This at least has\\nbeen the outcome of experiments made heretofore to\\npreserve the tops of field roots in the silo.\\nBut it is different with beet pulp. The feeding\\nvalue is not greatly reduced by taking so much of\\nthe sugar content from it. It is ordinarily not prac-\\nticable for farmers contiguous to the beet factory to\\ncart the entire product of the pulp from the same and\\nto feed it on their farms. They cannot do so in cold\\nweather and the time required would be too valuable\\nunless when they lived near the factory. It would\\nseem to be in a sense necessary therefore to store it\\nin a silo of some kind near the factory and to\\nfeed it from the same. The product thus pre-\\nserved has been made to furnish an excellent adjunct\\nin feeding dairy stock and cattle and sheep that\\nare being kept for breeding uses or that are being\\nfattened.\\nRape. Experiments have been made to pre-\\nserve rape in the silo, but so far as the Author has\\nbeen able to ascertain, they have not been successful.\\nLike the tops of field roots, rape is too watery to\\nmake good silage. It deca3^s in the silo, turns black\\nin color and becomes tainted with an offensive odor.\\nNor is there any real necessity for curing it thus.\\nThe labor of handling would be increased as com-\\npared with that entailed in feeding it directly as\\nsoiling food. Though preserved ever so well, it\\nwould have to be fed with much caution to milch\\ncows lest taint might be produced in the milk. It\\nwould seem therefore to be a waste of time for any", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "CROPS SUITABLE FOR THE SILO. 335\\nbut experimenters to ever try to preserve rape\\nin the silo.\\nThe Sunflower. The growing of sunflowers lo\\nbe made into silage along with corn has been advo-\\ncated by some high authorities and has been practiced\\nto a very limited extent by farmers in some sections\\nof Ontario. The object sought is to so increase the\\nfeeding value of the silage that the complement of\\ngrain to be added to the same when it is fed can be\\nmaterially lessened. The sunflowers are grown in\\nrows and cultivated much after the fashion of corn.\\nThe heads only are used. They are gathered, run\\nthrough a cutting box and mixed with corn while\\nthe silo is being filled.\\nLarge yields of heads have thus been obtained,\\nas high in some instances as eight tons per acre. But\\nit would seem questionable if this plant will ever be\\nextensively grown for such a use and for the follow-\\ning reasons: i. The labor of gathering the heads\\nis considerable. It must be done by hand. 2, The\\nstalks which require much plant food to grow them\\nhave no feeding value. 3, They also cumber the\\nland and involve extra labor in removing them, for\\nwhich there would seem to be no adequate compensa-\\ntion unless when they can be used as fuel.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VL\\nFILLING THE SILO.\\nWhen crops are preserved in the silo, much of\\nthe success in thus storing them depends upon such\\nconsiderations as the stage at which they are har-\\nvested and the precise methods followed in storing.\\nThe expense incurred will also be materially affected\\nby the way in which the work is done. The various\\nquestions which bear upon these points will now be\\nconsidered.\\nStage of Harvesting. The stage of develop-\\nment at which crops should be harvested when put\\ninto the silo will vary with the kind of crop to be\\npreserved. Corn is in the best condition for being\\nharvested when the grain in the ear has reached the\\nglazed stage or what is sometimes termed the\\nroasting stage. If put into the silo at an earlier\\nperiod the corn is less nutritious than it would other-\\nwise be, and it is also more likely to make silage\\nunduly acid. If allowed to pass the stage indicated,\\nthe corn is somewhat liable to become more or less\\nmoldy. The mold thus formed is found in spots\\nor masses interspersed through the silage. The\\nover-acid condition is induced b}^ over succulence in\\nthe corn, and the moldy condition by want of succu-\\nlence. The remedy for the first consists in wilting\\nthe corn more or less before siloing it, and for the\\nsecond, in cutting the corn at an earlier period. It\\n336", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 337\\nshould be possible in all instances to apply the last\\nmentioned remed}^ but not the first mentioned, since\\nthere are localities in which the season is too short to\\nadmit of corn reaching the roasting stage before the\\narrival of frost, and yet in these localities it may be\\ndesirable to make silage from corn.\\nThe degree of the wilting will be dependent on\\nthe succulence of the corn. The less advanced the\\nstage of the growth, the more should the corn be\\nwilted. Good silage has been made at Indian Head,\\nCan., from corn cut before grain had been formed\\nin the ear. If corn should pass the proper stage of\\nmaturity before it is put into the silo, it will keep\\nbetter if water is poured over the m?ss occasionally\\nwhile the silo is being filled. The same result will\\nmeasurably follow if some more succulent food, as\\nclover or oats and peas are mixed with the corn.\\nWhen corn is struck with frost and is then al-\\nlowed to stand uncut for some time subsequently, it\\nwill be greatly injured for feeding. But if, when\\nthus stricken, the crop is at once cut and put into the\\nsilo, the value of the silage made from it, though\\nreduced is not seriously impaired.\\nThe exact stage of development at which\\nsorghum and the non-saccharine sorghums ought\\nto be cut have not yet been fully determined,\\nbut it will probably be found that the best stage\\nfor harvesting these crops will be when they\\nare just a little short of maturity. But crops even of\\nthe same species are by no means equally succulent\\nat the same stage of advancement. Much depends\\nupon the climate, and season, and this fact must not\\nbe lost sight of when they are being*made into silage.\\n22", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "338 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nThe soy bean should be harvested when the\\nbeans are more or less grown in the pods, and the\\nsame is true of the cowpea and the horse bean. It\\nis usually considered preferable to allow the pods to\\nbecome well advanced, so as to increase the feeding\\nvalue of the silage, but more experience is wanted\\nin siloing these crops before the exact stage of\\ngrowth can be certainly known at which they ought\\nto be harvested.\\nClover should be cut for the silo when coming\\ninto full bloom. If cut earlier it is too immature\\nand is over succulent. If cut later it is lacking in\\nsucculence. Rye and wheat should be cut as soon\\nas out in head, and the same is true of millets. Oats\\nand peas grown together are ready when the pods in\\nthe peas are in process of filling. The seed of sun-\\nflowers should be allowed to becomie nearly matured\\nbefore putting them into the silo. But from what\\nhas already been said, it will be evident that the\\nperiod of harvesting may be varied somewhat by the\\ntreatment given to the crops while storing them.\\nCut ting Crops for the Silo. The implement to\\nbe used in cutting crops for the silo will depend on\\nthe nature of the crop. Very frequently the field\\nmower is used. The exceptions are, corn, sorghum\\nthe non-saccharine sorghums, sunflower heads, and\\nin some instances such crops as rye and millet. Rye\\nand millet are sometimes harvested with the ordinary\\nbinder. When thus harvested they are handled with\\nbut little labor. Some form of knife must be used in\\ncutting off the heads of sunflowers. The best mode\\nof cutting corn and sorghum for the silo will vary\\nwith conditions. When small quantities only are to", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 339\\nbe put into the silo, it is questionable if any imple-\\nment used by hand is superior to the corn knife.\\nBut when large areas are to be cut, the corn binder\\nshould do the work satisfactorily and with despatch\\nwhen the corn or sorghum stands fairly erect.\\nConveying the Crop to the Silo. Since crops\\nfor the silo must be harvested in the green form,\\nthey handle very heavily. The aim should be to\\nconvey them to the silo by that method that will\\ninvolve the least expenditure in labor. Ordinarily\\ntherefore they should be loaded on conveyances\\nwhich do not rise far from the ground. Careful\\nattention to this matter will prevent the expenditure\\nof muscle in a marked degree. Trucks with low\\nwheels and covered with a broad platform are suit-\\nable for such work. The only objection to them\\nprobably is the heavy draught. A platform is some-\\ntimes made on which to load these crops, and when\\nin use it is suspended underneath the front and hind\\nbolsters of an ordinary wagon. It consists of two\\nstrong scantlings of hardwood of any length within\\nthe limits of practicability, and held together by cross-\\npieces at both ends. Inch boards of some hard wood\\nare nailed across these scantlings. If pine is the\\nmaterial used, the boards or planks should be thicker.\\nThe platform is suspended so as to come within\\nabout a foot of the ground. The green food is\\nplaced on the same for conveyance to the silo.\\nIn gathering some kinds of crops for convey-\\nance to the silo, as clover for instance, a hay loader\\nmay sometimes be used with advantage. But when\\nso used the green food must be lifted from the swath\\nwhere the mower left it. Sunflower heads are", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "340 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nusually cut with a strong knife and thrown directly\\ninto a wagon box. In this they are driven to where\\nthe cutting box is placed.\\nWhether crops should be wilted or not before\\nbeing put into the silo, and also the degree to which\\nthey should be wilted, will depend largely on the\\nnatural succulence in the crop, and the stage at which\\nit is cut. Crops that are quite succulent, as green\\nclover, are more easily preserved when wilted more\\nor less. On the other hand crops lacking in succu-\\nlence, as winter rye, cannot be placed in the silo too\\nsoon after they have been cut. Corn cut at the\\nproper stage may be put directly into the silo, but\\ncorn less mature should be wilted more or less ac-\\ncording as it is lacking in maturity.\\nPutting Crops into the Silo. Whether crops\\nshould be run through a cutting box or not before\\nputting them into the silo will depend upon con-\\nditions. When but a limited quantity of silage is\\nwanted, and where labor is not easily obtained, it\\nmay sometimes be wise to store crops in the silo in\\nthe uncut form. But this method of storing them\\nis not always practicable. In a silo entirely above\\nthe ground, it would be almost impossible to get\\ncorn, for instance, into the same without excessive\\nlabor, and if put into a silo that goes far down below\\nthe surface of the ground it would be even more diffi-\\ncult to get the corn out again. The only crops that\\ncould be stored in the o^^er-ground silo without\\nexcessive labor, are those which may be deposited in\\nthe same with the aid of the horse forks.\\nIn a large majority of instances it will prove\\nmore satisfactory in many ways to store food in the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 341\\nsilo after it has first been run through a cutting box,\\nand for reasons as follows: i, Much less labor is\\nrequired to put it into the silo and to pack it so as\\nto exclude the air. 2, It usually keeps better\\nin the cut form. 3, Much less labor is involved\\nin feeding the silage. 4, A smaller proportion\\nwill be rejected by the animals. 5, Meal may\\nbe mixed with the cut silage as may be desired.\\nWhenever silage is fed in a large way, it will\\ncertainly pay well to run the food through a\\ncutting: box before it is stored rather than to\\nstore it in the uncut form.\\nWhere corn, sorghum or the non-saccharine\\nsorghums are to be run through a cutting box when\\nput into the silo, the cutting box chosen should be\\nstrong, and when much work is to be done, it should\\nbe capacious, that the work may be done rapidly. It\\nmay of course be driven by any kind of power not\\nunduly expensive. The tendency now is to prefer\\nengine power to horse power.\\nThe lengths to which the food should be cut\\nis yet an unsettled point. In fact it will vary to\\nsome extent with the crops stored. All things con-\\nsidered, however, short lengths in the food cut are\\npreferable to those longer. They may be packed\\nmore tightly and handled more readily when feeding\\nthan silage of longer lengths. Those from one-half\\nto three-fourths of an inch, of such hard substances\\nas corn or sorghum stalks, are in favor with many.\\nIntermediate lengths, that is, lengths a little longer\\nthan the above, have been objected to because\\nof the soreness of mouth sometimes induced in cattle,\\nfrom biting on the ends of the cuts rather than on the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "342 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nsides of the same which they must needs do if the\\npieces are long. The only objection probably to\\nthe short lengths in the silage arise from the in-\\ncreased labor of cutting the food thus short. It\\nwould not seem to be necessary to cut soft-stemmed\\ncrops in lengths so short as those that are hard.\\nThe expense of making silage is lessened by\\ndoing the work in such a way that all the workmen\\nengaged shall be kept employed, that is to say, when\\nthe men in the silo do not have to wait for cut food,\\nwhen the engine does not have to wait idly for the\\narrival of uncut food from the fields, and when the\\nworkmen in the fields do not have to wait for the\\nreturn of the teams which draw the food. To ar-\\nrange the work thus requires some executive tact,\\nand where silos are numerous in any locality, it can\\nbe most cheaply done when done in a co-operative\\nway.\\nPutting the Food Into the Silo. The silo may\\nbe filled quickly and without any interruption save\\nthat which is made by taking the usual rest required\\nby the workhands. Or, it may be filled slowly and\\nat intervals as may be convenient. The intervals of\\ncessation in filling should not at any time cover many\\ndays lest the exposed silage should begin to decay,\\nunless it is absolutely necessary to wait after the silo\\nhas been partially cured for some other crop to\\nmature. In such an event more or less of the food\\nthat was last put into the silo will be spoiled. This\\nought to be removed before the filling of the silo is\\nresumed. When but a short period is covered in\\nfilling the silo, although it should be filled to the brim,\\nit will not remain full.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 343\\nThe silage will continue to settle for several\\ndays, so that a large space will be left vacant above\\nthe silage. Where two silos are to be filled that are\\nnear at hand, the difficulty will be partially met by\\nfilling both at the same time, that is to say, by filling\\none in part and then the other in successive alterna-\\ntions until both are full. More time is thus given\\nfor the silage to settle. For the same reason, when\\na silo is being filled with a division in it, the two\\ndivisions should be likewise filled simultaneously.\\nAnd when thus filled the danger from pressing the\\ndivision away from the perpendicular is also ob-\\nviated. But it has not yet been demonstrated that\\nquick or reasonably slow filling materially affects the\\ncharacter of the silage.\\nThe proper distribution of the food in the silo\\nis a matter of no slight importance. When it is al-\\nlowed to fall from the carriers which convey it to the\\nsilo, the mass rises up in the center in the shape of a\\ncone. From this cone the food rolls down toward\\nthe sides of the silo. But in doing so, the lighter\\nportions, as for instance the leaves of corn, are\\nforced outward by the heavier portions, as the grain\\nand stem. The quality of the silage, therefore, on\\nthe outer edges is frequently inferior to that in and\\nnear the center of the same, especially when it con-\\ntains less grain. If, therefore, the quality of the\\nsilage is to be uniform in the silo, it must be carefully\\ndistributed from the first.\\nBut still greater harm will follow from allowing\\nthe silage thus to pile up in the center. It will not\\nsettle evenly. The pressure is greatest in the center,\\nand the tendency in settling will be to draw away the", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "344 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfood from the walls of the silo, and air will thus be\\nadmitted with the result that much of the mass on\\nthe outer edges will be spoiled. This condition is\\neven more aggravated when such food as clover, for\\ninstance, is thus put into the silo with the horse- fork.\\nLoss from this source may be prevented by first dis-\\ntributing the food evenly during the filling of the\\nsilo, and then tramping it so that the impaction of the\\nmass will be about equal in all parts of the silo. The\\namount of tramping required will be least in the\\ncenter of the silo and greatest on the outer edges.,\\nIn the square or rectangular silo, particular pains\\nshould be taken to tramp down the mass firmly in the\\ncorners, or harm will follow^ from the admission of\\nair. The amount of tramping required will vary\\nwith the nature of the food, the shape of the silo and\\nthe depth of the same. The less succulent the food\\nand the more woody it is in character, the more\\nshould it be tramped. More tramping on the whole\\nis necessary in a square or rectangular silo than in a\\nround one, since the food settles more readily in the\\nlatter. Less tramping is needed in a deep silo than\\nin a shallow one, since when the silo is deep, the\\nsilage sinks more under the pressure, as it were, of\\nits own weight. It is evident therefore that much\\ncare should be taken to tramp down firmly the food\\nin the upper portion of a silo whatever its shape may\\nbe or the extent of its depth.\\nIn a large silo the distribution of the food may\\nbe facilitated by the introduction of a simple device.\\nIt consists of a platform or table made of boards and\\nsuspended far upward in the silo and equally distant\\nfrom its walls. The food falls from the carriers", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 345\\nonto the center of this table. As soon as it accumu-\\nlates sufficiently on the same it rolls down over the\\nouter edges, and is in consequence distributed over a\\nconsiderable proportion of the surface of the silo.\\nCovering the Silage. ^-Vmons methods have\\nbeen adopted of covering- the silo to preserve the\\nsilage on and near the surface. They include the fol-\\nlowing: I, Covering with old hay or straw in the\\ncut or uncut form to the depth of from one to several\\nfeet. 2, Covering with some kind of cloth through\\nwhich the air does not easily penetrate, and then\\nplacing over this a layer of hay or straw as men-\\ntioned above. 3, Covering with boards generally\\nlaid over a covering of straw and then weighting the\\nboards with some heavy substance as stone or barrels\\nfilled with earth. 4, Sowing some kind of grain\\nover the surface of the silage and then pouring or\\nsprinkling water over it copiously so as to cover the\\nmass with a dense growth of grain and grain roots.\\nThe first method furnishes a cheap covering so\\nfar as material is concerned. Old hay fine in\\ncharacter such as is found in fence corners where\\nblue grass has possession, makes a better covering\\nthan hay coarse in character, or than straw, since it\\nlies more densely upon the silage. When either of\\nthe two last named substances is used it ought to\\nbe run through a cutting box. The tramping of the\\ncovering should also be given careful attention. And\\nif a few buckets of water are at the same time thrown\\nover the mass, it will help to exclude the air more\\nperfectly.\\nThe second method will probably preserve more\\nsilage than the first, but the covering thus provided", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "346 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nis more costly. Whether the advantage will repay\\nthe additional outlay has not yet been proved.\\nThe third method, thought at one time to be\\nabsolutely essential, has been almost entirely dis-\\ncarded, not because of its want of efficacy so much as\\nbecause of the labor involved. The benefits derived\\nfrom it are greater when some covering is put on as\\ndescribed above, before the planks are laid over the\\nfood and w^eighted with stone or indeed any other\\nheavy substance. The advantage from thus weight-\\ning the silage will be lessened by giving much tramp-\\ning to the food as the filling of the silo nears\\ncompletion. No doubt there will be less waste of\\nsilage when food in the silo is thus covered and\\nweighted. The saving thus effected in the silage will\\nbe more than is generally supposed, because of the\\nsalutary influence which the weighting exerts on the\\nsilage for some distance from the surface, even\\nthough it may not have lost its color. But as stated\\nabove, the practice is not in favor because of the cost\\ninvolved.\\nThe plan of covering silage by strewing grain,\\nas oats for instance, over the top of the same, and\\nthen pouring water more or less copiously over the\\nmass, is a good one. The heat engendered in the\\nsilo starts at once a rank growth in the grain. The\\ngrowth of top and root become so dense as to go far\\ntoward excluding the air. And when the living\\nmass falls down and decays, the influence exerted,\\nfor some time at least, is practically the same, hence\\nthere is usually but little loss in the silage. This\\nplan has the merit of cheapness, of economy in labor\\nrequired and of efiicacy in a marked degree.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 347\\nBut it should not be forgotten that by whatso-\\never method the silage is covered, there will be more\\nor less of loss. Because of this, some silo owners\\nhave adopted the practice of not covering the silage\\nat all. They argue that the greater waste of silage\\nthat follows is at least offset by the labor involved in\\ncovering the silage. This may be true of the\\nmore laborious methods adopted, as by weighting,\\nbut it is scarcely true when the comparison is made\\nbetween no covering and covering with a growth of\\ngrain. To leave silage thus uncovered would only\\nbe commendable when the feeding of the silage is to\\nbegin at once.\\nPreserving Green Crops Without the Silo.\\nCrops are sometimes preserved in the green form\\nwithout a silo. They are thus preserved in the stack\\nand also under cover in the mow. The principle of\\npreservation however is the same. Through the\\npartial fermentation which the food undergoes, the\\nair in the mass is expelled and through pressure\\ninduced by the green condition of the food, the air\\nis kept excluded. This pressure is sometimes fur-\\nther increased by artificial means in some instances\\nwhile the food is being deposited and in other in-\\nstances subsequentl}^ When food is thus stored the\\nstack and also the mow becomes in a sense a silo.\\nCuring green food in the stack is somewhat\\ncommon in Great Britain, while the green food is\\nbeing stacked heavy rollers are made to run over the\\ngreen mass from time to time, or pressure is other-\\nwise applied, and the food is thus preserved. While\\nthe practice may be a good one for farmers to adopt\\nin countries with much rain in harvest, and where", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "348 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe winter climate is mild, it is at least questionable\\nas to whether it ought to be introduced into locali-\\nties where green crops can be cured in the dry form,\\nwithout much hazard. When the cold in winter is\\nsevere, the frost would penetrate more or less into\\nthe exposed surfaces and bind them together so as to\\ninterfere ith handling the food at such times. The\\nVv^ork of stacking the food in the green condition is\\nalso more or less laborious nor is the green food\\nwhen thus cured as easily handled as dry food. The\\npossibility however of curing food thus is not to be\\ncalled in question. Thus far, therefore, the way is\\nprepared for those who care to do so, to follow such\\na system.\\nThe method of preserving food under cover in\\nthe green form and yet not in a silo, has met with\\nsome favor in the United States, but only in limited\\nareas. When thus preserved, it has been in mows\\nor sheds, and tramped down during the filling pro-\\ncess. Green clover has thus been preserved in some\\nof the northern states. In the central and southern\\nstates cowpeas and soy beans have also been stored\\nthus with success. And more recently reports have\\nappeared in which it is claimed that sorghum may\\nsimilarly be preserved.\\nThat such crops as clover, cowpeas and soy\\nbeans may thus be preserved cannot be called in ques-\\ntion and yet there is an element of hazard about their\\npreservation by this method that should lead the\\nunskilled in such work to refrain from undertaking\\nit, until they have first made themselves familiar\\nwith the conditions that govern the successful curing\\nof those crops in the green form in the mow. The", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "FILLING THE SILO. 349\\ndegree of moisture in the crops, the amount of the\\ntramping that should be given, and the size of the\\nmow are all important considerations. Clover is\\ncommonly allowed to wilt a little before being thus\\nstored and the same is true of cowpeas and soy\\nbeans. Some authorities claim that the wilting\\nshould be continued until it is no longer possible to\\nwring much water out of the green mass. Much\\ntram.ping is also considered advantageous, and a deep\\nmow is preferable to a shallow one. Likewise outer\\nwalls smooth on the inside are more favorable to the\\nsettling- of the food than those with horizontal tim-\\nbers, as girts, to hinder the proper settling down of\\nthe same. Not a few who have tried to preserve\\nfood thus have signally failed. Closely connected\\nwith such instances of failure is the hazard of loss\\nto the building as well, through fire produced by\\nwhat is termed spontaneous combustion. But since\\ncowpeas and soy beans are difficult to cure in the\\ndry form without much loss of leaves, it may be wise\\nto try and cure them thus, more especially when\\nthere is much hazard from rain.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII.\\nFEEDING SILAGE.\\nWhen silage has been properly covered in the\\nsilo, the waste from decay on the surface of the same\\nshould not extend downward more than a few\\ninches. \\\\A^hen not covered at all, the spoiled silage\\nwill extend downward at least a foot and in some in-\\nstances to a distance considerably greater. After\\na time, decay below the surface practically ceases,\\nhence subsequently there is but little further loss\\nfrom this source, though the opening of the silo\\nshould be delayed for months after it has been filled.\\nThe silage also retains more or less heat for many\\nmonths and this is favorable to feeding the same in\\ncold weather.\\nWhen the Feeding May Begin. The feeding\\nof silage may be commenced the same day that the\\nfilling of the silo has been completed. When feeding\\nbegins thus early, there is naturally no loss of silage\\nfrom decay, providing a considerable quantity of the\\nsilage thus removed from day to day. The Author\\nhas fed silage from the silo in this way and with\\nresults completely satisfactory. But it is not usual\\nto begin feeding silage so soon after the silo has\\nbeen filled, for the reason that other green food can\\nbe had that is more perishable in character.\\nFeed from the Top Dozvird ard. In feeding\\nsilage it is indispensable that the silo shall be opened\\n350", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "FEEDING SILAGE. 35 1\\nat the top, and that in all instances the silage shall\\nbe fed from the top downwards. When silos were\\nfirst introduced into America, the egregious mistake\\nwas made of opening them at or near the bottom.\\nWhen thus opened the air is admitted so as to\\npenetrate upwards more or less into the mass,\\nand thus hasten its decay. Much of the silage\\nabove falls down from time to time and in such\\na loose condition it at once begins to spoil. It\\nis necessary therefore, under all circumstances, to\\nfeed from the top downwards, but it is not abso-\\nlutely necessary to feed from the whole surface\\nof the silo at once. A section only of the\\nmass of silage may be fed from until it is all\\ngone, but when silage is thus fed in sections from\\nthe top to the bottom, there is more loss in silage than\\nwhen it is fed from the entire surface, except\\nwhen the size of the silo is too great for the number\\nof animals that are being fed from it. This method\\nof feeding silage therefore is only justifiable,\\nwhen the quantity to be fed at one time is too\\nsmall to admit of feeding from the whole sur-\\nface without harm to the exposed portion of the\\nsilage.\\nNo more of the product on the surface should be\\nloosened up at one time than is wanted for immediate\\nfeeding, as when thus loosened and not soon fed, the\\nquality of the food deteriorates. But when feeding\\nfrom the whole surface of the silo it may be necessary\\nto remove the silage from only a portion of the sur-\\nface when providing food to give the stock but one\\nmeal. Another part may be removed to furnish the\\nnext meal.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "352 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nUnder such conditions it will be decidedly ad-\\nvantageous to have a covering, as of oiled cotton\\ncloth, lying over the entire surface of the silo. Such\\na covering is not expensive, and it will tend to keep\\nthe silage on the surface in better condition for feed-\\ning. When such a covering is used it can be laid\\nbackward only far enough to make bare a sufficient\\nspace to furnish food for feeding at one time. The\\ncover should be at once put back, and in this way the\\nfeeding progresses. But even when thus managed,\\nit should be the aim to feed from every part of the\\nsurface, at least as frequently as once in two or\\nthree days. Such a covering will also prove help-\\nful in protecting the surface silage from frost in\\ncold areas, where there may be danger from\\nsuch a source.\\nFeeding from a Part of the Surface. When\\nthe silage is fed from only a part of the surface of\\nthe silo, that is to say, when a section of the mass\\nonly is being fed from, the side of the mass adjacent\\nto that from which the silage is being fed is thus\\ngradually exposed to the air. Because of such expo-\\nsure the silage spoils for some distance in from the\\nexposed side. The extent of the decay will depend\\nin some measure on the length of the exposure and\\non the compactness of the mass. It will vary from\\na few to several inches. Because of this loss, the\\nplan of feeding silage by this method should be\\navoided as far as may be possible. When silage is\\nthus removed, some sort of hay knife should be used\\nin cutting down the side of the mass. The surface\\nexposed will then be smooth and the waste of silage\\nwill be much less in consequence.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "FEEDING SILAGE. 353\\nBecause of this waste from feeding silage thus\\nin sections, it may be better to have one or more par-\\ntitions in the silo. Tliis can be managed easily\\nenough in a square or oblong silo, but it is practi-\\ncally impossible in a stave silo, because of the resist-\\nance which a partition w ould offer to the tightening\\nof the staves sometimes required with a stave silo.\\nWhen partitions are used, one section of the silage\\ncan be all fed out before another section is disturbed.\\nBut it should be remembered, as already intimated,\\nthat the greater the number of partitions in a silo\\nthe greater relatively is the loss of spoiled silage\\nlikely to be.\\nConveying Silage to the Animals. When the\\nsilo is not close to the place of feeding and when\\nlarge quantities of silage are to be fed, it may be nec-\\nessary to draw the silage in a cart or dray, from\\nwhich it can be shoveled into the feed mangers. But\\nwhen the silo is near to the place of feeding, the food\\ncan best be conveyed in a box truck or car, a hand\\ncart or a basket. If conveyed in a truck or car, the\\ntrack on which it runs should of course be laid in\\nthe feeding alley in front of the mangers, so that\\nthe silage may be shoveled from the car or truck\\ninto the mangers. When conveyed in a hand cart,\\none with three wheels and drawn or pushed by\\nmeans of a short tongue is very convenient, since it\\nmay be easily moved from place to place and easily\\nturned within a limited area. When fed in limited\\nquantities the silage may be carried in a basket.\\nWhen conveyed in a box car, truck or hand cart, the\\nsilage can be thrown directly into one or the other\\nof these from the silo. A fork with several tines in\\n23", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "354 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nit may be used with much effectiveness in hfting\\nthe silage in the silo, and the shorter the lengths to\\nwhich the food has been cut, the more readily may\\nit be removed. None of the silage thrown out of\\nthe silo should be allowed to remain unfed, or it will\\nat once begin to deteriorate.\\nCarrying Silage Over to Another Season. As\\npreviously intimated, it is possible to carry silage\\nover from one season to another. But it cannot be\\nthus carried over without some loss. As soon as the\\nfeeding of the silage ceases for the season, decay\\nbegins on the exposed surface and it penetrates the\\nsame to a certain depth, more or less according to\\nthe degree of compactness in the silage. In any\\nevent it will be spoiled to the depth of several inches,\\nand up to the present time no effective method of\\npreventing such decay has been discovered, which\\nis not too costly to justify applying it. But before\\nthe refilling of the silo begins, the spoiled silage\\nshould first be carefully removed.\\nAdaptation to Diiferent Classes of Animals.\\nAlthough silage may be fed to horses, cattle, sheep\\nand swine, it is not equally adapted to these various\\nclasses of animals, nor is it equally adapted to the\\nneeds of all animals of the same class. Much\\ndepends upon the age of the animals, the other food\\nadjuncts that are commonly fed to them and the\\nprecise object or objects for which they are kept. It\\nfurnishes excellent food for colts, brood mares and\\nhorses that are not being worked. Only small quan-\\ntities should be fed to horses that are being worked\\nmoderately and still less to horses that are being\\nseverely worked. Like all other green foods it", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "FEEDING SILAGE. 355\\ninduces too lax a condition of the bowels when fed in\\nany considerable quantities to horses that labor\\nhard.\\nThe best results probably are obtained from\\nfeeding silage to milch cows. Because of its succu-\\nlence it is favorable to milk production, and when\\nproperly preserved it does not in any way injuriously\\naffect the quality of the milk. It also furnishes\\nexcellent food for young cattle, store cattle and cattle\\nthat are being finished for beef. But to obtain the\\nvery best results, the silage must be fed with judg-\\nment and discretion.\\nSilage furnishes good food for sheep of all\\nages, but in very cold weather caution should be used\\nas to the extent to which it is fed. When fed freely\\nat such a time, much of the silage will become cold\\nbefore it is consumed, since sheep are usually fed in\\nsheds in which the temperature within is not far\\ndifferent from the temperature without. It is not\\nwise to feed green food in a cold condition at such\\na time when such feeding can be avoided. Since\\ncattle sheds are usually warmer than sheep sheds,\\nthere is not the same objection to feeding silage to\\ncattle thus protected in severely cold weather.\\nSilage has not proved a really good food for\\nswine. It is usually too bulky and is in consequence\\nnot well adapted to the digestive system of swine.\\nNevertheless, a little of it may be fed to them with\\nsome advantage. Brood sows and store pigs will\\nchew over the parts rejected by other stock and will\\ndoubtless get some benefit therefrom. But it is at\\nleast questionable as to whether silage should be fed\\nin any considerable quantity to hogs that are being", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "356 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfattened. Something, however, depends upon the\\nmaterials included in the silage.\\nQuantities of Silage to Feed. Much difference\\nof opinion exists as to the quantities of silage that\\nmay be fed with advantage. Some authorities claim\\nthat it may be made the sole food of animals for\\nweeks and months in succession. That is not the\\nview of the Author. Much of course will depend\\nupon the character of the silage. When it has been\\nw^ell preserved, the silage is not markedly acid, but\\nit is acid in some degree. Now that is not the con-\\ndition in which nature provides green food for live\\nstock, hence it does not seem wise to confine animals\\nto a diet so acid. To test this question, the Authon\\nfed steers that were being fattened on silage and\\nmeal for a period averaging about 140 days and\\nduring three successive experiments.\\nThese experiments were conducted at the gov-\\nernment experiment station at Guelph, Ontario,\\nCan. The first experiment began in the autumn\\nof 1889. Two steers were thus fed each winter.\\nThey were pitted against an equal number of steers\\nthat were fed meal, an average of thirt3^-three pounds\\nof corn silage per day and all the cut hay they would\\neat in addition. A third lot of two steers were fed\\nmeal, cut hay and field roots. The amount of meal\\nfed was practically the same in each instance. Of\\nthe six steers that were fed all the silage they would\\nconsume in addition to the meal, two died before the\\nexperiments were completed. The veterinarian of\\nthe station reported that death resulted from serious\\nderangement in the digestive organs caused by the\\nacid in the silage. More or less trouble was also", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "FEEDING SILAGE. 357\\nexperienced with all the steers confined to the ration\\nof meal and silage. They occasionally got off their\\nfeed. The steers fed on the ration of meal, hay\\nand roots were uniformly healthy and hearty\\nthroughout the experiment. With silage less acid,\\nthe fatal results chronicled might not have occurred.\\nBut since the silage fed was quite as well preserved\\nas corn silage usually is, the inference would seem\\nfair that there is an element of danger in feeding\\nsilage in unlimited quantities to farm animals for\\nmonths in succession. The full details of these\\nexperiments are given in Bulletins XLIX, LXI and\\nLXXXII, issued by the aforementioned station.\\nWhile it is impossible to state definitely how\\nmuch silage may be fed for a prolonged period to\\ncattle without crossing the danger line, in the judg-\\nment of the Author it is questionable if the amount\\nfed daily to a mature breeding animal of the bovine\\nspecies should exceed thirty to forty pounds per day.\\nOf course for a limited period it may be safe to feed\\nlarger quantities, and it is possible that larger quan-\\ntities than those named have been fed to breeding\\nanimals for a period somewhat prolonged without\\nany apparent harm. Nevertheless, the conclusion\\nwould seem fair that there is an element of danger\\nin feeding silage in unlimited quantities to animals\\nfor months in succession. The most intelligent\\nfeeders concur in this view, and it finds farther\\ncountenance in the craving which domestic animals\\nmanifest for a certain proportion of dry fodder while\\nsilage is being fed to them in large quantities.\\nFour to five pounds per day may be named as\\nthe maximum amounts to be fed to breeding ewes", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "358 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfor months in succession, but it is possible, and\\nindeed, it may be commendable to feed larger quan-\\ntities for a limited period.\\nAny kind of fodder that is palatable and well\\npreserved may be fed along with the silage. But\\nwhen practicable the fodder thus given should be\\nmade as far as possible to give the entire ration the\\ndesired balance or equilibrium as to food nutrients.\\nFor instance, when corn silage is being fed, clover\\nin any of its forms will make a ration more nearly\\nbalanced than would be obtained from feeding dry\\nfodder, the product of corn, sorghum or any of the\\nnon-saccharine sorghums.\\nFeeding Grain or Meal zvith Silage. Addi-\\ntional meal is frequently given to animals that are\\nreceiving silage. In all such instances the silage\\nfurnishes an excellent medium with which to feed\\nthe meal. It is the practice with some to mix the\\nmeal with the silage in a feed room before feeding\\nthe mixture. But the extra labor thus involved does\\nnot seem to be necessary, unless when other cut\\nfodder is also to be mixed with the silage. The\\nmethod of placing the silage in the feed manger and\\nthen scattering the meal over it is simpler, and it is\\nprobably quite as efficacious. The animals mix the\\nfood measurably well while in the act of eating it.\\nWhen the meal is fed thus, different quantities of the\\nsame or different kinds of meal may be fed as may\\nbe desired to the individual animals. Such varia-\\ntions in feeding the meal cannot be so well made,\\nif indeed made at all, when the meal and silage are\\nmixed in the feed room. When other cut fod-\\nder is fed it would probably involve less labor", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "FEEDING SILAGE. 359\\nto feed the silage and other fodder separately.\\nThis at least would sometimes be true. In such\\ninstances, the meal should be fed with the other\\nfodder to induce a greater consumption of the\\nsame. Silage is more appetizing as a rule than\\nother cut food, especially when the latter is fed m\\nthe dry form, hence it will usually be eaten with\\navidity without being admixed with meal. This is\\nnot true of some kinds of dry fodder, nor is it true\\nprobably to the same extent of any kind of fodder.\\nWhen feeding meal along with silage, the\\namount of grain that the silage may contain should\\nbe considered, and the amount of the meal fed regu-\\nlated accordingly. For instance, while it may be\\nnecessary to feed ten pounds of silage daily to dairy\\ncows receiving a large proportion of corn silage\\nwhich has little or no grain in it, that amount might\\nprove excessive when the corn silage contains rela-\\ntively a large proportion of grain. It is practically\\nimpossible to know exactly the proportion of the\\ngrain which the silage contains, but a sufficiently\\napproximate estimate may be made by the prac-\\nticed feeder.\\nAttention should also be given to the constitu-\\nents of the meal fed so as to balance the ration.\\nFor instance, should the silage contain much of the\\nseed of the soy bean, it would be proper to add corn,\\nor some other carbonaceous meal, with much free-\\ndom. But if, on the other hand, it should contain\\nmuch corn and no other grain, it would be in order\\nto add much bran or other nitrogenous meal.\\nFeeding Silage with Field Roots.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 It is not\\ncommon to feed silage and field roots together, for", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "360 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nthe reason chiefly that farmers do not commonly\\ngrow both crops to any considerable extent the same\\nseason. In some degree at least these foods serve\\nthe same end, that is to say, they furnish succulent\\nfood for animals at a season of the year when it\\ncannot usually be obtained from other sources. Both\\nare favorable to milk production, and when fed in\\nmoderation both serve as regulators of digestion.\\nField roots contain less dry matter, but they are\\nconsidered, all in all, a more healthful food than\\nsilage. The}^ are also looked upon as being more\\nfavorable to the robust development of young stock.\\nBut it is commonly believed that the cost of growing\\nheld roots is relatively greater. There does not\\nseem to be much reason, therefore, for growing both\\nfoods in large quantities. Which of the two should\\nbe given the preference ought to be determined\\nlargely by the more favorable character of the con-\\nditions for growing one or the other. When both\\nare grown, there is no reason why they should not\\nbe fed to the same animals, regulating the quantity\\nof each accordingly. W^hen both are fed, the plan\\nof feeding silage in the morning and roots in the\\nevening, or vice versa, will be found labor-saving as\\ncompared with feeding both twice a day, and the end\\nsought should be realized as effectively.\\nWhen to Feed Silage. When a large quantity\\nof silage is being fed it should be given in two feeds\\ndaily, that is to say, morning and evening. When\\nmeal is to be fed twice a day, it may be well also to\\nfeed the silage twice a day, that the silage may be\\nfed along with the meal as previously intimated.\\nBut when only a small quantity of silage is to be fed", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "FEEDING SILAGE. 36 1\\nand no meal, the result from feeding only once a day\\nwill probably be quite as satisfactory as from feeding\\ntwice. The silage is usually fed before the bulky\\nfood, since the latter is the unlimited factor in\\nthe ration.\\nSome forethought should be exercised in adjust-\\ning the quantities of silage fed to the prospective\\nneeds of the animals. For instance, if the feeder\\nhas been feeding a certain amount of food daily, and\\nif he has reason to fear that by continuing to feed\\nthus the supply of silage will fail before the new\\ngrass is plentiful, it would be better to reduce the\\nquantity of silage fed daily than to have the silage\\nfall short before the period indicated. While green\\nfood is always more or less helpful in regulating\\ndigestion when dry food is being fed, it is never\\nmore helpful than toward the approach of spring.\\nThe system of the animals is much prone to become\\nweakened at such a time, more especially in cold\\nlatitudes, hence the greater need for the adjustment\\nof the food to the requirements of these under the\\nconditions just named.\\nFrom what has been said it will be evident first,\\nthat much has been learned during recent years with\\nreference to silos and the making of silage second,\\nthat when silage is properly cured and fed it is an\\neconomical and health-producing food; and third,\\nthat because of its economy and healthfulness this\\nmode of preserving food is likely to grow in favor.\\nNevertheless, it ought to be borne in mind that many\\nthings are yet to be learned about silos and ensiling\\nfood in the same. The system is yet in the infantile\\nstage. Many features of the work have not yet been", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "362 SOILING CROPS AND THE SILO.\\nfully wrought out, and prominent among these are\\nthe construction of silos that will be sufficiently\\ndurable, and the making of good silage with reason-\\nable certainty from other products than corn.", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAlfalfa\\ndiscussion of\\ndistribution of\\nsoils for\\nplace in the rotation for\\npreparing the soil for\\nfertilizers for\\nsowing\\ncultivation\\nfeeding as soiling food\\nfor silage\\nAlsike clover\\nfor soiling\\nfor silage\\nAntiquity of siloing\\nArtichokes\\nBenefits from growing soiling\\ncrops\\nfrom siloing crops\\nBrassica genus, plants of the 139\\nintroductory remarks\\nrape\\nCabbage\\ndiscussion of 154\\ndistribution of\\nsoils for\\nplace in the rotation of\\npreparing the soil for\\nfertilizers for\\nsowing\\ncultivation\\nfeeding\\nCereals (wheat, oats, barley,\\nand rye)\\ndiscussion of 168\\ndistribution of\\nsoils for\\nplace in the rotation for\\npreparing the soil for\\nfertilizers for\\nsowing\\ncultivation\\nfeeding as soiling food\\nfor silage\\nClover\\ndiscussion of 68\\nmedium red\\nmammoth\\nalsike\\ncrimson or scarlet\\n86\\n86\\n89\\n90\\n92\\n93\\n95\\n96\\n97\\n98\\n330\\n69\\n84\\n330\\n248\\n226\\n6\\n258\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0167\\n139\\n139\\n154\\n167\\n157\\n157\\n158\\n159\\n160\\n161\\n164\\n165\\nPAGE.\\nClover Continued.\\nalfalfa 86\\ndistribution of 71\\nsoils for 73\\nplace in the rotation for 74\\npreparing the soil for 76\\nfertilizers for 78\\nsowing 79\\ncultivation 84\\nfeeding, as soiling food 84\\nfor silage 330\\nCommon cereals 168-182\\nCommon vetch 110-118\\nCorn, Indian or maize\\ndiscussion of 19-33\\ndistribution of 21\\nsoils for 21\\nplace in the rotation for 22\\npreparing the soil for 2;^\\nfertilizers for 24\\nsowing 24\\ncultivation 29\\nfeeding, as soiling food 30\\nfor silage 323\\nCowpea\\ndiscussion of 128-138\\ndistribution of 131\\nsoils for i 132\\nplace in the rotation for 132\\npreparing the soil for 133\\nfertilizers for 133\\nsowing 134\\ncultivation 136\\nfeeding, as soiling food 136\\nfor silage 327\\nCrimson or scarlet clover 69\\nCrops for soiling 3\\nCrops suitable for the silo\\ndiscussion of 322\\ncorn 323\\nsorghum 325\\nnon-saccharine sorghums 327\\nleguminous plants other than\\nclover 327\\nfield peas 327\\ncommon vetch 327\\nsoy bean 327\\ncowpea _. 327\\nplants of the clover family.. 330\\nmedium red 330\\n363", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "3^4\\nINDEX.\\nPAGE.\\nPlants of the clover family\\nContinued.\\nmammoth 330\\nalsike 330\\nalfalfa 330\\nmillets 331\\nthe common cereals 332\\nfield roots 333\\nrape 334\\nsunflowers 335\\nDhourra 54\\nDistribution of silos 266\\nEnsilage or silage (definition) 246\\nEnsiling or siloing (definition) .248\\nFacts relating to silo construc-\\ntion 269\\nFeeding silage 350\\nwhen it may begin 350\\nfeed from top downward 350\\nfeeding from a part of the\\nsurface 352\\nconveying silage to the animals 353\\ncarrying silage over to an-\\nother season 354\\nadaptation to different classes\\nof animals 354\\nquantities of silage to feed .356\\nfeeding grain or meal with\\nsilage 358\\nfeeding silage v/ith field\\nroots 359\\nwhen to feed silage 360\\nField Peas\\ndiscussion of 102-110\\ndistribution of 104\\nsoils for 104\\nplace in the rotation for 105\\npreparing the soil for 105\\nfertilizers for 106\\nsowing 106\\ncitltivation 108\\nfeeding, as soiling food 109\\nfor silage 327\\nField Roots\\ndiscussion of 195-204\\nrutabagas 196\\nturnips 196\\nmangels 197\\nsugar beets 197\\ncarrots 197\\ndistribution of 196\\nsoils for 197\\nplace in the rotation for 198\\npreparing the soil for 199\\nfertilizers for 200\\nsowing 200\\ncultivation 202\\nfeeding, as soiling food 203\\nfor silage 333\\nFilling the silo 336\\nstage of harvesting crops for\\nthe silo 336\\ncutting crops for the silo 338\\nconveying crops to the silo 339\\nPAGE.\\nFilling the silo\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Continued\\nputting crops into the silo 340\\nputting the food into the silo 342\\ncovering the silage 345\\nFlat pea 220\\nGrouping states and provinces. 234\\nKistory of siloing 245\\nHorse Bean\\nfor soiling 213\\nfor silage 329\\nJapan clover 209\\nJerusalem corn 54\\nKafiir corn 51\\nKale 216\\nLeguminous plants other than\\nclover 102\\nfor soiling 102\\nfor silage 327\\nThe common vetch\\nfor soiling no\\nfor silage 327\\nThe soy bean\\nfor soiling 126\\nfor silage 327\\nThe cowpea\\nfor soiling 136\\nfor silage 327\\nLupines 224\\nA[ammoth clover\\nfor soiling 84\\nfor silage 330\\nMangels 197\\nMedium red clover\\nfor soiling 84\\nfor silage 330\\nMillets\\ndiscussion and classification\\n^.of 183-194\\ndistribution of 185\\nsoils for 187\\nplace in the rotation for 188\\npreparing the soil for 189\\nfertilizers for 190\\nsowing 191\\ncultivation 192\\nfeeding as soiling food 193\\nfor silage 331\\nMilo maize 52\\nMiscellaneous plants 205-231\\nwhite clover 205\\nsweet clover 207\\nJapan clover 209\\nsainfoin 21D\\ntrefoil or yellow clover 212\\nhorse bean 213\\nvelvet bean 214\\nkale 216\\nsand vetch 217\\nflat pea 220\\nwhite mustard 222\\nlupine 224\\nspurry 225\\nartichokes 226\\nprickly comf rey 226", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n365\\nPAGE.\\nMiscellaneous plants Continued.\\nsunflower 230\\nsacaline 230\\nMustard, white 222\\nNon-saccharine sorghums\\ndiscussion of S\\nkafiir corn 51\\nmilo maize 52\\ndhourra 54\\nJerusalem corn 54\\nteosinte 56\\ndistribution of 58\\nsoils for 61\\nplace in the rotation for 62\\npreparing the soil for 63\\nfertilizers for 64\\nsowing 64\\ncultivation \u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u00a2_\u00e2\u0080\u00a2_ 66\\nfeeding, as soiling food 67\\nfor silage 327\\nObjections to soiling 15\\nPeas, field 102-110\\nPreserving green crops without\\nthe silo 347\\nprickly comfrey 226\\nRape\\ndiscussion of 139-154\\ndistribution of 142\\nsoils for 143\\nplace in the rotation for 144\\npreparing the soil for 145\\nfertilizers for 146\\nsowing _ 147\\ncultivation 149\\nfeeding, as soiling food 150\\nfor silage 334\\nRectangular silo 310\\nintroductory remarks 310\\nfoundation 310\\nsills 311\\nfloor 3\\nstuds 312\\ninner lining 3^3\\nouter lining 314\\npartitions 3^5\\ncorners 315\\ndoors 315\\nroof 316\\nRed clover, medium 68\\nRoots, field 195-204\\nRound wooden silo 292\\nRutabagas 196\\nSacaline 230\\nSainfoin 210\\nSand vetch 217\\nScarlet or crimson clover 69\\nSilage or ensilage (definition) 246\\nSilo\\nearly 250\\nmodern _. 251\\nnot always a necessity 265\\ndistribution of 266\\ndivision No. i distribution in 267\\nSilo Continued.\\ndivision No. 2 distribution in 267\\ndivision No. 3 distribution in 267\\nconstruction, facts relating to.. 269\\nlocating the silo 269\\nforms of construction 272\\nsize 274\\nmaterials used in 277\\nmetals 278\\nconcrete or grout 278\\nbrick 279\\nstone 279\\nv;ood 280\\nfoundations 280\\nfloors 281\\nlinings 282\\nboards 282\\ncement 283\\nwater lime 283\\nplaster 284\\nshingles 284\\nbricks 284\\nmetals 284\\ntarred paper 285\\npreservatives for lining 285\\npartitions in silos 286\\ndoors in silos 288\\nroofing silos 288\\ndecay in silos 289\\nbuilding the silo 292\\nround wooden silo 292\\nround frame 293\\nstave silo 295\\nrectangular silo 310\\nstone silo 3t^7\\ncrops suitable for the silo. 322\\nfilling the silo 336\\nfeeding silage 350\\nSiloing or ensiling (definition) .248\\nSiloing crops, benefits from 258\\nwholesale harvesting of crops 258\\ncured in showery weather.... 259\\ngreen food all the year 259\\nfood m.ore palatable 261\\neconomy in storage place 262\\neconomy in labor when feed-\\ning\\npractical considerations 263\\nbenefits do not apply equally.. 263\\nsilos not always a necessity 265\\nSiloing, history of 245\\nplan of the discussion 245\\ndefinition of terms 246\\nensilage or silage 246\\nsiloing or ensiling 248\\nsiloist 248\\nantiquity of siloing 248\\nutilization of the idea 249\\nthe earlier silos 250\\nthe modern silo 251\\nAmerican progress in siloing.. 253\\nmistakes made by early siloists 253\\nliterature on the silo 254\\nSiloist (definition) 248", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "3b6\\nINDEX.\\nPAGE.\\nSoiling crops, benefits from\\ngrowing 6\\nSoiling crops 3\\nadaptation in soiling crops 4\\npartial and complete soiling 4\\nbenefits from growing soiling\\ncrops 6\\nincrease in food supplies 6\\nless waste in feeding 7\\nsustains animals in better form. 8\\ninquiry through poaching 11\\ninfluence on weed eradication. 11\\nsaving in land 12\\nsaving in fences 13\\nsaving in fertility 14\\nincrease in animal production. 14\\nsustaining the family cow 15\\nsome objections to the soiling\\nsystem 15\\nincreased outlay for labor 15\\ntax on attendants 17\\nadjusting food supplies 17\\nimpaired stamina in the stock. 18\\nSorghum\\ndiscussion of 34-50\\ndistribution of 37\\nsoils for 35\\nplace in the rotation for 38\\npreparing the soil for 39\\nfertilizers for 41\\nsowing- 42\\ncultivation 46\\nfeeding, as soiling food 47\\nfor silage 325\\nSoy bean\\ndiscussion of 1 18-128\\ndistribution of 121\\nsoils for 122\\nplace in the rotation for 123\\npreparing the soil for 124\\nfertilizers for 124\\nsowing 1 24\\ncultivation 126\\nfeeding as soiling food 126\\nfor silage 327\\npurry 225\\nStave silo 295\\nfoundation 297\\nfloor 299\\nstaves 299\\nsetting up staves 300\\nPAGE.\\nStave silo Continued.\\nsplicing staves 301\\nhoops, round 302\\nflat 304\\nwoven wire 304\\ndoors 305\\nshute 307\\nroof 30\\nStone silos 317\\nform of construction 318\\nfoundation 318\\nfloor 319\\nwalls 319\\ninner lining 319\\nouter lining 320\\nroof 320\\ndoors 32:\\nSuccession in soiling crops. .232-242\\nintroductory remarks 232\\ngrouping states and provinces. 234\\nsection No. i succession in. 235\\nsection No. 2 succession in.. 236\\nsection No. 3 succession in.. 237\\nsection No. 4 succession in.. 238\\nsection No. 5 succession in.. 239\\nsection No. 6 succession in.. 240\\nsection No. 7 succession in.. 240\\nsection No. 8 succession in.. 241\\nSugar beets 197\\nvSunflowers 230\\nSweet clover 207\\nTeosinte 56\\nTrefoil or yellow clover 212\\nTurnips 196\\nVelvet bean 214\\nVetch, the common\\ndiscussion of 110-118\\ndistribution of 1 1 1\\nsoils for 112\\nplace in the rotation for 112\\npreparing the soil for 113\\nfertilizers for 113\\nsowing 114\\ncultivation 116\\nfeeding, as soiling food 117\\nfor silage 327\\nVetch, sand 217\\nWeeds eradication of, by soiling. 11\\nWhite clover 205\\nWhite mustard 222\\nYellow clover or trefoil 21;:", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": ".^\u00e2\u0082\u00aci \u00c2\u00abCi S S: e;^: S-:^^\\njj SENT FREE ON APPLICATION jj\\noi ims\\nI r^escriptive\\nI L Catalog Of... I\\nJjf Containing loo 8vo. pages, X 1^ 1) Jx L^ S\\n5 profusely illustrated, and _. .^^*V. Jg\\nyi^ giving full descriptions of J w\\nil^ the best works on the fol- V Ki.f If 1 MC ^i\\nili lowing subjects Ij V-T V-T l%k.^5\\niii (f^\\nOf m\\nIII i-^-. 9y\\nilii i| ?i Farm and Garden ifi\\njj l^j Fruits, Flowers, Etc.\\nj^i Cattle, Sheep and Swine j[j\\nOi jj^l I^ogs, Horses, Riding, Etc. ifk\\nJjj ^^0r M: Poultry, Pigeons and Bees\\njjj ^X^ k |\u00c2\u00a7j Angling and Fishing\\nSjii ^^P iSi Boating, Canoeing and Sailing ffji\\njj ^^^^iWJ Field Sports and Natural History J\\n^^iSi Hunting, Shooting, Etc. jj\\nil^ Architecture jind Building (fi\\n1^ i IJ: Landscape Gardening j^\\nili i^i Household and Miscellaneous 5J\\n/fi\\nUf fi\\nj|^ Publishers and Importers J!\\nI Orange Judd Company\\n1^ 52 and 54 Lafayette Place\\njg NEW YORK\\n2!\\n0/ (g\\nBOOKS WILL BE FORWARDED, POSTPAID, CN JJ\\ng RECEIPT OF PRICE S^", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "STANDARD BOOKS.\\nGreenhouse Construction.\\nBy Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on greenhouse\\nstructures and arrangements of the various forms and\\nstyles of plant houses for professional florists as well\\nas amateurs. All the best and most approved structures\\nare so fully and clearly described that anyone who desire,^\\nto build a greenhouse will have no difficulty in deter-\\nmining the kind best suited to his purpose. The modern\\nand most successful methods of heating and ventilating\\nare fully treated upon. Special chapters are devoted\\nto houses used for the growing of one kind of plants\\nexclusively. The construction of hotbeds and frames\\nreceives appropriate attention. Over one hundred excel-\\nlent illustrations, specially engraved for this work, make\\nevery point clear to the reader and add considerably to\\nthe artistic appea^rance of the book. Cloth, 12mo. $1.50\\nGreenhouse Management.\\nBy L. R. Taft. This book forms an almost indispensa-\\nble companion volum_e to Greenhouse Construction. In\\nit the author gives the results of his many years expe-\\nrience, together v/ith that of the most successful florists\\nand gardeners, in the management of growing plants\\nunder glass. So minute and practical are the various\\nsystems and methods of growing and forcing roses, vio-\\nlets, carnations, and all the most important florists\\nplants, as well as fruits and vegetables described, that\\nby a careful study of this work and the following of its\\nteachings, failure is almost impossible. Illustrated.\\nCloth, 12mo $1.50\\nBulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.\\nBy C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the history,\\ndescription, methods of propagation and full directions\\nfor the successful culture of bulbs in the garden, dwel-\\nling and greenhouse. As generally treated, bulbs are an\\nexpensive luxury, while when properly managed, they\\nafford the greatest .amount of pleasure at the least cost.\\nThe author of this book has for many years made bulb\\ngrowing a specialty, and is a recognized authority on\\ntheir cultivation and management. The illustrations\\nwhich embellish this work have been drawn from nature,\\nand have been engraved especially for this book. The\\ncultural directions are plainly stated, practical and to\\nthe point. Cloth, 12mo $1.50\\n[rri\u00c2\u00a7:ation Farming:.\\nBy Lute Wilcox. A handbook for the practical applica-\\ntion of water in the production of crops. A complete\\ntreatise on v/ater supply, canal construction, reservoirs\\nand ponds, pipes for irrigation purposes, flumes and\\ntheir structure, methods of applying water, irrigation of\\nfield crops, the garden, the orchard and vineyard; wind-\\nmills and pumps, appliances and contrivances. Profuse-\\nly, handsomely illustrated. Cloth, 12nto. $1.50", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "STANDARD BOOKS.\\nLandscape Gardening:.\\nBy F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture, University of\\nVermont. A trea.tise on the general principles governing\\noutdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application\\nin the commoner problems of gardening. Every para-\\ngraph is short, terse and to the point, giving perfect\\nclearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of\\nthe natural difficultj^ of presenting abstract principles\\nthe whole matter is made entirely plain even to the\\ninexperienced reader. Illustrated, 12mo. Cloth. .50\\nFun\u00c2\u00a7:i and Fungicides.\\nBy Prof. Clarence M. Weed. A practical manual con-\\ncerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and\\nthe means of preventing their ravages. The author has\\nendeavored to give such a concise account of the most\\nimportant facts relating to these as will enable the\\ncultivator to combat them intelligently. 222 pp., 90 ill.,\\n12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth $1.00\\nTalks on Manure.\\nBy Joseph Harris, M. S. A series of familiar and prac-\\ntical talks between the author and the deacon, the doctor,\\nand other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures\\nand fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for\\nit by Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England.\\nCloth, 12mo. $1.50\\nInsects and Insecticides.\\nBy Clarence M. Weed, D. Sc, Prof, of entomology and\\nzoology. New Hampshire college of agriculture. A prac-\\ntical manual concerning noxious insects, and methods of\\npreventing their injuries, 334 pages, with many illus-\\ntrations. Cloth, 12mo. $1.50\\nMushrooms. How to Grow Them.\\nBy Wm. Falconer. This is the most practical work on\\nthe subject ever written, and the only book on growing\\nmushrooms published in America. The author describes\\nhow he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for\\nprofit by the leading market gardeners, and for home\\nuse by the most successful private growers. Engravings\\ndrawn from nature expressly for this work. Cloth. $1.00\\nHandbook of Plants and General Horticulture.\\nBy Peter Henderson. This new edition comprises about\\n50 per cent, more genera than the former one, and em-\\nbraces the botanical name, derivation, natural order,\\netc., together with a short history of the different genera,\\nconcise instructions for their propagation and culture,\\nand all the leading local or common English names,\\ntogether with a comprehensive glossary of botanical and\\ntechnical terms. Plain instructions are also given for\\nthe cultivation of the principal vegetables, fruits and\\nflowers. Cloth, large 8vo $3.00", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "STANDARD BOOKS.\\nGinseng:, Its Cultivation, Harvesting:, Marketing: and\\nMarket Value.\\nBy Ma.urice G. Kains, with a short account of its history\\nand botan3^ It discusses in a practical way how to\\nbegin with either seed or roots, soil, climate and location,\\npreparation, planting and maintenance of the beds, arti-\\nficial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for mar-\\nket and for improvement, preparation for sale, and the\\nprofits that may be expected. This booklet is concisely\\nwritten, well and profusely illustrated, and should be\\nin the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to\\nsupply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable\\nIndustry to their farms and gardens, without interfering\\nwith the regular work. 12mo .35\\nLand Draining:.\\nA handbook for farmers on the principles and practice\\nof draining, by Manly Miles, giving the results of his\\nextended experience in laying tile drains. The directions\\nfor the laying out and the construction of tile drains\\nwill enable the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2construction, and the disappointment that must neces-\\nsarily follow. This manual for practical farmers will\\nalso be found convenient for references in regard to many\\nquestions that may arise in crop growing, aside from\\nthe special subjects of drainage of which it treats. Cloth,\\n12mo. $1.00\\nHenderson s Practical Floriculture.\\nBy Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propaga-\\ntion and cultivation of florists plants. The work is not\\none for florists and gardeners only, but the amateur s\\nwants are constantly kept in mind, and we have a very\\ncomplete treatise on the cultivation of flowers under\\nglass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow flowers\\nfor pleasure as well as those who make them a matter\\nof trade. Beautifully illustrated. New and enlarged\\nedition. Cloth, 12mo $1.50\\nTobacco Leaf.\\nBy J. B. Killebrew and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture\\nand Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. A practical\\nhandbook on the most approved methods in growing,\\nharvesting, curing, packing, and selling tobacco, with an\\naccount of the operations in every department of tobacco\\nmanufacture. The contents of this book are based on\\nactual experiments in field, curing barn, packing house,\\nfactory and laboratory. It is the only work of the kind\\nin existence, and is destined to be the standard practical\\nand scientific authority on the whole subject of tobacco\\nfor many years. Upwards of fiOO pages and 150 original\\neng:ravings. $2.00", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "STANDARD BOOKS.\\nPlay and Profit in My Garden.\\nBy E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on\\nthe rocky hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and\\nshows us how out of it, after four years experience, he\\nevoked a profit of $1,000, and this while carrying on pas-\\ntoral and literary labor. It is very rarely that so much\\nliterary taste and skill are mated to so much agricultural\\nexperience and good sense. Cloth, 12mo. $1.00\\nForest Planting:.\\nBy H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care\\nof woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timber-\\nlands on plains and mountains. The author has fully\\ndescribed those European methods which have proved\\nto be most useful in maintaining the superb forests of the\\nold world. This experience has been adapted to the dif-\\nferent climates and trees of America, full instructions\\nbeing given for forest planting of our various kinds of\\nsoil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley.\\nIllustrated, 12mo $1.50\\nSoils and Crops of the Farm.\\nBy George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas P. Hunt. The\\nmethods of making available the plant food in the soil\\nare described in popular language. A short history of\\neach of the farm crops is accompanied by a discussion\\nof its culture. The useful discoveries of science are\\nexplained as applied in the most approved methods of\\nculture. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo $1.00\\nAmerican Fruit Culturist.\\nBy John J. Thomas. Containing practical directions for\\nthe propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to\\nthe United States. Twentieth thoroughly revised and\\ngreatly enlarged edition by Wm. H. S. Wood. This new\\nedition makes the work practically almost a new book,\\ncontaining everything pertaining to large and small\\nfruits as well as sub-tropical and tropical fruits. Richly\\nIllustrated by nearly 800 engravings. 758 pp., 12mo. $2.50\\nFertilizers.\\nBy Edward B. Voorhees, director of the New Jersey Agri-\\ncultural ExDeriment Station. It has been the aim of\\nthe author to point out the underlying principles and to\\ndiscuss the important subjects connected with the use\\nof fertilizer materials. The natural fertility of the soil,\\nthe functions of manures and fertilizers, and the need\\nof artificial fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. Sepa-\\nrate chapters are devoted to the various fertilizing ele-\\nments, to the purchase chemical analyses, methods of\\nusing fertilizers, and the best fertilizers for each of the\\nmost important field, garden and orchard crops.\\n335 pp $1.00", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "STANDARD BOOKS.\\nGardening: for Profit.\\nBy Peter Henderson. The standard work on market and\\nfamily g-ardeiiing-. The successful experience of the author\\nfor more than thirty years, and his willingness to tell,\\nas he does m this work, the secret of his success for\\nthe benefit of others, enables him to give most valuable\\ninformation. The book is profusely illustrated. Cloth,\\n12mo. $1.50\\nHerbert s Hints to Horse Keepers.\\nBy the late Henry William Herbert (Frank Forester).\\nThis is one of the best and most popular works on the\\nhorse prepared in this country. A complete manual for\\nhorsemen, emibracing: How to breed a horse; how to buy\\na horse; hov/ to break a horse; how to use a horse; how\\nto feed a horse; how to physic a horse (allopathy or ho-\\nmoeopathy); how to groom a horse; how to drive a horse;\\nhow to ride a horse, etc. Beautifully illustrated. Cloth,\\n12mo. $1.50\\nBarn Plans and Outl5uildin\u00c2\u00a7:s.\\nTwo hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most val-\\nuable work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc.,\\nfor the construction of barns and outbuildings, by prac-\\ntical writers. ChaDters are devoted to the economic\\nerection and use of barns, grain barns, house barns,\\ncattle barns, sheep barns, corn houses, smoke houses,\\nice houses, pig pens, granaries, etc. There are likewise\\nchapters on bird houses, dog houses, tool sheds, ventila-\\ntors, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings, workshops,\\npoultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits, etc.\\nCloth, 12mo, $1.00\\nCranberry Culture.\\nBy Joseph J. White. Contents: Natural history, history\\nof cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground,\\nplanting the vines, management of meadows, fiooding,\\nenemies and diflSculties overcome, picking, keeping, pro-\\nfit and loss. Cloth, 12mo $1.00\\nOrnamental Gardening: for Americans.\\nBy Elias A. Long, landscape architect. A treatise on\\nbeautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A.\\nplain and practical work with numerous illustrations anu\\ninstructions so plain that they may be readily followed.\\nIllustrated. Cloth, 12mo $1.50\\nGrape Culturist.\\nBy A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works\\non the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions\\nfor all departments of propagation, culture, etc., with\\n150 excellent engravings, illustrating planting, training,\\ngrafting, etc. Cloth. 12mo. $1.50", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "^l!^w,-^A^\\nmMm", "height": "3432", "width": "2148", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3516", "width": "2241", "jp2-path": "soilingcropssilo01shaw_0390.jp2"}}