LIBRARY^ CONGRESS. Chap.- - Copyright So .©6:5 Shelf UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. THE NEW TESTAMENT FOR LEARNERS Uniform with this volume: THE OLD TESTAMENT FOR LEARNERS PALESTINE The New Testament FOR LEARNERS BY • DR. H. OORT DR. I. HOOYKAAS PROFESSOR OF HEBREW ANTIQUITIES PASTOR AT ROTTERDAM AT LEIDEN WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF DR. A. KUENEN PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AT LEIDEN SUNDAY SCHOOL EDITION Etotijortjeii ^Translation BOSTON LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 1900 PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF JtBUB. After Kiepert's Bible Atlas, Seoond Eoi 59721 pfcu lOPlt* KtCElVED ' OCT 11 1900 Copyright •otry '*.&**$.%**>. SECOND COPY. 0<-liv«rwl to OROM DIVISION, OCT 26 I90U ^>3 Copyright, 1878, By Eoberts Brothers. Copyright, 1900, By Little, Brown, and Company. 2&ntoersttg John Wilson and Son, Cambridge, U.S.A. CONTENTS. Ihtroduotion : Historical Sketch of Jesus and the Apostolic Age 1 OHAPTKB I. n. in. IV. v. VI. vn. VIII IX. x. XI. xn. xm. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. BOOK I. The Descent of Jesus (Matthew i. ; Luke iii. 23-38) . . 35 The Birth and Youth of John (Luke i. 6-25, 57-80) . . 42 The Birth of Jesus (Luke i. 26-56 ; ii. 1-20) 51 The Presentation in the Temple (Luke ii. 21-39) ... 69 The Wise Men from the East (Matthew ii.) 68 Jesus in the Temple at the age of Twelve (Luke ii. 40-52) 79 John the Baptist (Luke iii. 1-18) 96 The Baptism of Jesus (Mark L 9-1 i) 112 Jesus begins his Work (Matthew iv. 12-25 ; viii. 14-16) . 122 Jesus as the Teacher of his People (Matthew vii. 24-27, xiii. 1-23, 31-35, 44-48, 51, 52, xiv. 13-21 ; Mark iy. 26-29) 139 The Beatitudes (Matthew y. 3-12) 166 The Vocation of the Citizens of God's Kingdom (Matthew v. 13-16, xxv. 14-46, vi. 19-21, 24-34) 163 The Gospel of the Kingdom (Matthew xviii. 12-14) . . 172 The Friends of Jesus (Matthew x. 1-14 ; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke viii. 1-3, ix. 51-62, xiv. 25-35) 178 Jesus the Friend of Sinners ( Matthew viii. 1-4, ix. 1-13 ; Luke vii. 36-60, xv 8-10) 196 Jesus and the Religion of his People (Mark ii. 18— iii. 6) . 211 Jesus and the Religion of his People — Continued (Mat- thew vii. 12, vi. 1-6, 16-18, v. 20-22, 27, 28, 33-48, 17) 219 The Prophet in his Native Place (Luke iv. 16-30 ; Mat- thew xiii. *4-58 ; Mark iii. 20, 21 31 -35) 234 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. xxvm. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. PAGE The Reception of Jesus by the Pharisees (Luke xiv. 1, 7-15, xv. 1, 2, 11-32, xviii. 9-14, vii. 31-35) . . 241 How the Preaching of Jesus was received by the Masses (Matthew xi. 1-15, 20-24) 253 The Source of Jesus' Strength (Matthew viii. 23-27, xiv. 22-33; Luke xi. 1-13) 259 The Gathering Storm (Matthew xiv. l-13a, xv 1-20; Luke xiii. 31-33) 270 Jewish Thirst for the Marvellous (Luke xvii. 20, 21 ; Matthew xvi. 1-3 ; Mark viii. 11-13) 284 Jesus and the Samaritans and Heathen (Matthew xx. 1-16, xii. 38-42, xxii. 1-14; Luke x. 25-37, xiii. 28-30, vii. 1-10, xvii. 11-19) 292 Jesus the Messiah (Mark viii. 27-30 ; Matthew iv. 1-11) 311 Conflict and Triumph Foreseen (Matthew xvii. 10-13, xvi. 21-28) 325 On the Way to Jerusalem (Mark x. 1-31; Luke xiii. 22-25) 335 On the Way to Jerusalem — Continued (Luke xii. 49-53, 57-59, xiii. 1-9, xi. 24-26, xix. 1-10 ; Matthew xx. 17-34) 347 Jesus appears at Jerusalem (Matthew xxi. 1-16) . 357 Jesus on the Defensive (Matthew xxi. 17, 23-32, xxii. 15-40; John vii. 53-viii. 11) 370 Jesus takes the Aggressive (Matthew xxii. 41-46. xxiii. 1-7, 16-28 ; Luke xi. 52, 47, 48, xx. 47, xvi. 19-31 ; Mark xii. 1-12, xiv. 1, 2) 382 Jesus among Friends (Luke xxi. 1-4, xvi. 1-9, 11, 12, 14; Matthew x. 41, 42, 16-23, xxiii. 8-12, 34-39, xxi. 18-20, xxiv. 1-3, ff., 42-51, xxv. 1-13, xxvi. 1, 2, 6-13) 393 The Last Evening (Mark xiv. 10-26) 407 Gethsemane (Matthew xxvi. 30-56) 419 Before the Sanhedrim (Matthew xxvi. 67-76) ... 428 The Sentence of Death Confirmed (Mark xv. l-20u) . 437 The Crucifixion (Mark xv. 206-47) 447 CONTENTS. Vii BOOK II. CHAPTER PAGE L The Kesurrection of Jesus (Matthew xxvii. 62-xxviii. ; Luke xxiv. 13-53 ; Acts i. 3-14 ; 1 Corinthians xv. 3-8) 462 II. The Community at Jerusalem (Acts i. 15-v., xii. 1-23) . 481 III. Stephen and Philip (Matthew xvii. 1-9; Acts vi.-viii. 8, 26-40, xi. 19-21 ; Matthew xv. 21-28) 502 IV. The Apostle of the Gentiles (Galatians i. 13-20; Acts ix. 1-30) 619 V. The First Mission to the Heathen (Galatians 1, 21, 24 ; Acts xi. 22-30, xii. 24-xiv. ; Luke x. 1 ff., 17-20) 634 VI. The Collision of the two Parties (Galatians ii. ; Acts xv.) . 544 VII. The Gospel in Europe (Acts xvi.-xviii. 18 ; Mark v. 1-20) . 562 VIII. Paul at Ephesus (2 Corinthians xi. 23-29 ; Acts xviii. 18-23, xix. 1-20, 23-41 ; Galatians ; Mark ix. 38-40 ; Matthew xii. 22-37) 576 IX. The Community at Corinth and the Letter to Rome (Acts xix. 21, 22, xx. 1-6, xviii. 24-28 ; 1 Corinthians ; 2 Co- rinthians ; Romans) 595 X. Paul at Jerusalem (Acts xx. 7-xxiii., viii. 9-25) .... 611 XI. Paul's Imprisonment and Death (Acts xxiv -xxviii. ; Phi- lemon; Philippians) 624 XII. The Communities after the Death of Paul (Matthew xiii. 24-30, 36-43. Revelation ; James ; Jude. Hebrews ; Colossians. 2 Thessalonians ; Matthew xxiv. 4-41 , Luke xviii. 1-8 ; 2 Peter. 1 Peter ; Ephesians ; 2 Timothy ; Titus ; 1 Timothy ; 1 John ; 2 John ; 3 John) 643 XIII. The Disciple whom Jesus Loved (Gospel according to John) 666 Chronological Survey . P . 696 Index of Subjects 713 Table of Bible Passages . 749 BOOKS I. AND II. THE NARRATIVES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Prepared by Dr. I. Hooykaas INTRODUCTION. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. NINETEEN" hundred years ago the whole civilized world known to the ancients bowed beneath the sceptre of the Emperor of Rome. Everywhere from Britain to ^Ethio- pia the Roman eagles had marked the track of victory. The Atlantic Ocean and the African desert had interposed im- passable natural barriers to the West and South ; the Rhine and Danube formed a northern frontier against the Barbari- ans. In the East alone the invincible legions had been baffled, for the Parthian or new Persian monarchy contested with varying fortune of war the possession of the district of the Euphrates, and the wandering tribes of north-western Arabia were troublesome neighbors whom it was easy to defeat but impossible to subdue. For this reason Syria and Phoenicia were generally occupied by a very considerable mil- itaiy force. The whole of this enormous area was divided into provinces (conquered territories) of Rome, and was ruled by governors. The only exception was furnished b} T Middle and Southern Italy ; for about a century before the commencement of our era the inhabitants of these districts, sword in hand, had extorted from the citizens of Rome the concession of equal rights, and now stood under the immediate government of the Roman Senate. But even in the East there were some few people who were still dignified with the name of allies, and allowed to retain their own princes as vassals of Rome. These people, though bound to pa} T tribute and serve in the arm}', still preserved the shadow of independence. Origi- nally the title of Roman citizen was only allowed to a foreigner VOL. Ill- 1 2 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. as a reward for some signal service, but eventually it was granted to any one who paid a fixed sum of money. The title was greatly coveted, for it gave those who bore it the privilege of appeal from the jurisdiction of the local gover- nors to the imperial court at Rome. With regard to language the gigantic empire was split into two great sections. Latin prevailed in the West ; but in the East, ever since the times of Alexander the Great, Greek had been the universal language. Octavianus, better known under the name of Augustus, heir to the great Julius Caesar, was the first to ascend the imperial throne, which he did after a sanguinary civil war (reigned 29 b.c. to 14 a.d.). And now, for the first time for centuries, there was peace ; and the doors of the temple of Janus at Rome, which alwa} T s stood open in time of war, were closed. Under Augustus the provinces were divided into two classes. To those which had neither internal com- motions nor hostile invasions to fear governors were appointed yearly b}^ the Senate ; but those which were threatened by tumult or war were governed by nominees of the Emperor. These imperial provinces were for the most part situated on the frontier, and in them the five-and-twenty legions of the empire were quartered. In fact their governors were mihtary commanders, each of them supported by a general overseer of the taxation. Important sub-districts, such as Palestine, were sometimes placed under the immediate control of dep- uty-governors, who combined the administration of the mili- tary, the judicial, and the financial affairs of their respective districts. The Roman supremacy weighed like lead upon the subject peoples. So far from respecting their independence the gov- ernors aimed rather at extinguishing all national peculiarities. But the worst abuse was the S3 T stematic draining of the prov- inces by the contractors of taxes, who practised the most shameless extortion with impunity. On the other hand, the widest toleration of the various religions was practised by Rome. The governors were instructed to respect the religious convictions of the peoples. Thus, for example, the military standards to which the Caesar's image was affixed had never been carried into Jerusalem before the time of Pilate, out of regard to the Jewish horror of image- worship. The Roman magistrates in many of the conquered districts took part offi- cially in the public worship of their respective territories ; and Augustus even went so far as to assign a portion of the JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 3 imperial revenues drawn from Palestine to the maintenance of the daily sacrifice in the temple on Mount Zion. Generally speaking, then, the Romans were far from desiring to force the worship of their own gods upon all their allies or subjects. But there was one exception to this rule. It was required, throughout the whole empire, that divine honors should be paid to the Emperor ; and the demand involved the Jews, and the Christians after them, in grievous perplexities. The Romans themselves were forbidden by law to go over to a foreign religion ; but the regulation was seldom enforced. Indeed, the religious condition of the ancient world made it impossible to carry it out ; for faith in the national deities was tottering to its fall among Romans and Greeks alike. In fact, it had out-lived itself; and philosophy had powerfully contributed to its overthrow. A deep dissatisfaction made the want of something better keenly felt, and an ever stronger yearning after a purer conception of the nature and the will of the Deity threw many a one into the arms of Judaism, just as it afterwards prepared the way for Christianity. II. The civil war between the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristo- bulus, sons of the Maccabaean prince Alexander Jannseus, had brought the Romans under Pompey into Judaea (64 b.c.) ; and once established there as rulers, they obstinately main- tained their footing. It was through their favor and by the force of their arms that the Idumsean Herod, son of Antipater, the adviser of Hyrcanus, secured the Jewish throne (from 37 to 4 b.c). He threw down the temple of Zerubbabel, and raised a new and magnificent structure in its place. The building of this temple occupied eight j^ears, and the cost was enormous. Herod was an energetic and magnificent ruler, but a thorough despot. His suspicious character and un- natural cruelty merited the burning hatred with which he was regarded by his subjects. This aversion was so intense that on his death the Jews sent a special embassy to Rome, praj 7 - ing the Emperor not to impose upon them a prince of the house of Herod, but rather to allow them to follow their own laws and customs, under the supervision of the governor of Syria. But their petition was rejected, and Augustus, giving effect to the will of Herod, divided the country among that monarca's sons. Archelaus received Idumsea, Judaea, and Sa- 4 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. mana ; Herod Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee and Feraea ; and Philip obtained the northern regions east of the Jordan. After a reign of nine 3'ears Archelaus was accused at Rome, by his own subjects, of gross misdeeds, was deposed by the Emperor, and banished to Vienna (in Gaul), a.d. 6. His territory was added to the province of Syria, and came under the jurisdiction of the Roman governors who had their seat at Caesarea, on the sea coast. The fifth of these governors, Pontius Pilate (a.d. 26-37) is the one best known to us. On tite death of Philip, in a.d. 34, his district also was incorpo- rated with Syria, and some j^ears afterwards, in a.d. 39, Herod Antipas was deposed by the Romans and banished to Lyons. Meanwhile, however, a grandson of Herod the Great, by another line, had obtained the title of King, through the favor of the Emperor, and had had the former territory of Philip assigned to him (a.d. 37). Galilee and Persea were now (a.d. 39) added to his domain ; and finally Judaea, Idu- maea, and Samaria were placed under him, — so that the whole land of the Jews was once more united (a.d. 41-44) under a prince of its own, Herod Agrippa I. He succeeded in gain- ing the affection of his people by his strict regard to religious observances, but he died after a very short reign. His son, Agrippa II., did not succeed him, but was afterwards, in a.d. 53, appointed to the general supervision of the temple, with the right of nominating the high priest. Henceforth, all Palestine was a Roman Province, and as there had been seven governors before Agrippa I. so there were seven after him. The fourth and fifth of these, Claudius Felix (a.d. 52-61), and Porcius Festus (a.d. 61-63) are mentioned in the New Testament. Under the seventh, Gessius Floras, that revolt against Rome burst out which ended in the fall of the Jewish state and the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (a.d. 66-70). The cruelty and extortion, the caprice and incompetence of Florus had doubtless hastened this outburst ; but, inde- pendently of all this, it might have been long foreseen. For a century past an increasing fermentation had been obser- vable among the Jews. It had given rise as early as the times of Herod the Great to repeated tumults, and when, at the deposition of Archelaus, the Roman governor held a census in the new province, certain wild spirits had unfurled the banner of revolt against Rome. These "zealots" as they were called, for God and the fatherland, gradually formed a party in Israel, and grew more numerous and more JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. fanatical } T ear by year, till at last they utterly destroyed the influence of the party of order and submission, and carried away the whole people with them. Let us now glance at the. internal organization and con- dition of the people. The highest official position was that of the high priest ; but Herod the Great had set the example of deposing and appointing the high priest b}^ royal authority, and had conferred the dignit}^ upon a family of priests, who though Jews were not natives of Palestine : so the lustre of the office had greatly declined. The post was passed backwards and forwards between a few families, and not many of the high priests remained in office much above a year. Their ambition was then satisfied, and the}' willingly resigned the honor in favor of some successor, especially if he were a brother or other near relative. As a rule they secured but little personal respect from the people. The high priest was the president of the Sanhedrim at Jerusalem, a body which pronounced judgment without appeal, as the supreme Jewish authorit}' both in civil and ecclesiastical affairs. Its decisions were even held binding by the Jews residing in foreign countries. But it had no power to carry out the sen- tence of death without the consent of the Roman governor. There were also judges in every cit} T in Palestine, and each synagogue had its council of elders, who exercised certain judicial powers. Israel's great misfortune was want of unanimity. Up to the last moment of its existence the nation was torn asunder by bitter religious and political disputes. The Pharisees and Sadducees in particular were violently opposed to one another. The Sadducees were the aristocratical part}', composed of the families from which the high priests were drawn, together with their adherents and certain other distinguished families. They laid great stress upon the privileges of the priests and upon the dignity and the sanctit}' of the order ; they sedulously cultivated the friendship of their rulers, including the Romans, and insisted upon submission to authorny and the mainte- nance of order. The Pharisees, on the other hand, were the national party. Filled with a lofty sense of Israel's pre-emi- nence above other nations, and the privileges it might claim as the people of God, they scrupulously avoided all intercourse with the heathen, endeavored to develop the religion of the Law in accordance with the wants of the age, and maintained the sanctity of all Israelites as members of the priestly nation. Narrow-minded, scrupulous, and formal, they were neverthe- 6 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. less inspired with untiring zeal in t'he service of Yahweh. with unreserved devotion to his glory, and with inextinguishable hope in the future of his people. As a rule, the love and honor in which the people held them equalled the indif- ference or even dislike with which they regarded the Sad- ducees. But the Sadducees, on the other hand, held the reins of authority, though the Pharisees could make their influence felt in the Sanhedrim, to which a certain number of members were appointed from the order of the Scribes. These Scribes received their education at the University or Colleges of Jerusalem, made the study of the Law the task of their lives, and then interpreted and applied it in the s3*nagogues. For the most part they adopted the principles of the Pharisees with heart and soul. The Zealots, too, belonged originally to the Pharisaic school ; but while the majority of the party were opposed to violence, the Zealots were determined agitators, and were finally the cause of Israel's fall, after a hopeless struggle. Lastly, the Essenes must be added to the Pharisees and Sadducees. They were not simply a school or party, how- ever, but a special sect which had risen out of Pharisaism. They may be best described as an order of Jewish monks. Their numbers are estimated at four thousand. Still more strict and scrupulous than any of the other Jews, they were not content with the ordinary observance of the Law, and so withdrew themselves from all public life in nervous fear of contamination, and formed a little societ}' by themselves. The mass of the people remained as a rule unshaken in their fidelity to their religion, scrupulous in the observance of the Law, and zealous in attending the synagogue and, at the high feasts, the temple. They were impressed with a sense of their own dignity, which was only too apt to degenerate into narrow-minded national pride and hatred of the for- eigner or heathen. They bore the yoke of Rome uneasily, and entertained an unmeasured contempt and aversion for the Samaritans. They were in constant hope of being deliv- ered by their God from the miseries they now endured ; and this "Messianic expectation," which filled so many bosoms, sometimes rose to the glow of inspiration, or burst into a flame of consuming passion. Judaea, and especially Jerusalem, was the seat of Jewish orthodoxy ; that is to say, of the most fanatical enthusiasm for the strict observance of the Law and Levitical " cleanness." Galilee, the most beau- tiful portion of the country, was surrounded by heathens JESUS AND THE AP0S10LIC AGE. / and inhabited by a half-Jewish, half-heathen population. The Galiloeans were as full of religious zeal as the men of Judaea themselves, and indeed were still more easily roused to action b} T the cry ' ' for God and for Israel ! " But they were nevertheless considered more or less " unclean." There was, moreover, a tolerably large class of persons who either did not observe the Law with sufficient strictness, or were too free in their intercourse with the heathen. They were known as u the peoples of the land," and were looked down upon as unclean. So, too, we meet with a class described as " sinners," who were excluded from the civil and eccle- siastical communion of the Jews. The sentence of excom- munication had been pronounced upon them by the synagogue for some grave moral or religious offence. To the same class belonged the tax-collectors or " publicans," who were branded as hirelings of the Roman conquerors and traitors to their fatherland and their religion, and were hated and cursed by their countrymen. Ever since Shalmancser and Nebuchadrezzar had carried away the Israelites into captivity, and still more since the successors of Alexander the Great had founded their king- doms, a large proportion of the Jewish nation had been scat- tered all over the ancient world, and was called "Israel in the Dispersion." In Syria, Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy, but still more in Babylonia and Egypt, consider- able communities of Jews were established. The}^ retained their national and religious allegiance, formed little societies by themselves, studied the Law in their synagogues, kept up an intimate connection with their true fatherland, and at the Passover especially streamed by thousands to the temple. In Alexandria the Jews rose to a most distinguished position, and the more cultivated among them attempted to effect a union between the religion of Yahweh and the Greek phi- losoplry and culture. It was there that the Old Testament was translated into Greek, and so made accessible to stran- gers. There, too, a new Jewish literature sprang up, and a curious school of Jewish philosophy flourished. The Jews were favored by the authorities almost everywhere, and, though they were hated by the heathen populace, they made numerous converts to their religion. These converts were known as " Proselytes." Before long Israel was to yield to the heathen world the religious privilege of which it was so proud, — the possession of the purest knowledge of God's nature and his will. JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. in. Such was the soene upon which Jesus and his Apostles appeared. Jesus — whom three or four hundred millions of disciples so justly honor as the greatest of all who have ever lived on earth — was born and bred in Nazareth, a secluded mountain village in Galilee. His parents were called Joseph and Mary, and belonged to the humbler class of citizens. They had a large family ; but none of its members except James, and perhaps Judas, ever gained a place of distinction among the followers of Jesus. Bat little is known of the youth of Jesus, nor can we say with certaintj^ how old he was when he entered upon public life. But we do know the occasion of his leaving the narrow circle in which he lived. In the wilderness of Judah, not far from the Jordan, a prophet of the name of John had risen. The fact was remarkable enough in itself, for no prophet had appeared for four or five centuries past, and the gift of prophecy seemed to have vanished altogether. But the striking character of John himself, his severe mode of life, somewhat analogous to that of the Essenes, and still more the subject-matter of his preaching, all combined to make him the object, for a time at least, of universal attention. He preached that the deliverance was near at hand, that God was about to fulfil the hope of former generations, the promises of ancient oracles, and that the Messianic kingdom would be soon established. He called upon his countrymen to amend their lives, and so to hasten the dawn of this glori- ous day, and, above all, to escape the fearful judgment which God would bring upon all sinners. He collected a band of disciples round him, and, if any one listened to his preaching and gave evidence of true repentance, he baptized him in the Jordan. By means of this rite, the symbol of purity, he in- tended to proceed at once to the practical measure of inau- gurating the Messianic kingdom, by forming a community of its future subjects. The fame of John has found its way to Nazareth ; and Jesus, whose soul burns for the coming of the kingdom of God, lays down his work, bids farewell to his family, and sets out from Nazareth towards the spot where John is preaching. He listens to him, is baptized by him, and remains some time with him. JESUS ANE THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 9 But the career of John is brought to a sudden close. Herod Antipas has flung him into the dungeon whence he is never to come out alive. Is there no one to take up the task he has been compelled to leave unfinished, and prepare Israel for the approaching Messianic kingdom? Yes. The violent interruption of the work of John was the signal for Jesus to come forward. The subject-matter of his preach- ing was at first almost identical with that of his predecessor. But, as his character was widely different from John's, so he took up his task in quite another spirit, and cherished a far more exalted and spiritual conception of the Messianic king- dom. He did not withdraw into the desert, but returned to Galilee, mingled in the busy life of the people, preached when and where he could find the opportunity, and turned more especially to the outcasts of Jewish society. He looked upon it as his special task to teach the despised ' ' peoples of the land " something of God and the way to serve him, and to raise the publicans and sinners out of their moral wretched- ness. If he could succeed in this, the kingdom of God would no longer be delayed. He established himself at Capernaum, a busy place by the sea of Galilee, on the great commercial road to Syria ; for he knew that he would not find a ready hearing in his native place. When he did preach there, some time after- wards, his fellow- townsmen, who had never noticed an}^ thing that marked him off from others, could not bring them- selves to think of him as a prophet, and even his own family failed to understand him. Jesus let nothing discourage him, but went about through the different towns and villages of Galilee preaching of the kingdom of God, generally in figu- rative language, and in parables or stories ; bearing witness to God's infinite and eternal love, and the holiness that he requires from his children ; seeking out the lost with a pa- tience that was never weaiy. The impression he produced was deep, especially when he had cured a certain number of persons subject to nervous diseases, whose sickness was attributed to evil spirits supposed to dwell in them. A host of disciples, some of them women, gathered round him, and wherever he went the people thronged to hear him. He chose twelve of his followers as his constant companions, to re- ceive a more special training, and to be his trusted friends. He intended eventually to send them out to publish everywhere the approaching establishment of the kingdom of God. How long he worked in Galilee is uncertain. The term 1* 10 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. of his preaching is usually estimated at three years, but without sufficient reason. Others think that it only lasted a, little more than a year (a.d. 34-35), and there is much to be said in support of this opinion. But however long or short his ministry may have been, he was unwearied in his labors. He never allowed himself a moment's rest, and, since the hours of the day left him no time of leisure, it was no rare thing for him to sacrifice the hours of sleep in order to recover from the distractions of the daytime, to think over his work and his surroundings, and to strengthen himself by prayer. His attitude towards the religion of Israel requires special explanation. He did not reject it, but in the spirit of the great prophets of the eighth and seventh centuries he en- deavored to develop its higher aspects. Outward cere- monies, precepts about the Sabbath, Levitical " cleanness," prohibitions of certain kinds of food and all such things, though regarded by his contemporaries as the very essence of religion, had little value in his eye. The moral re- quirements of the Law, on the other hand, he placed in the foreground, at the same time extending their application. Irreproachable conduct was not enough for him ; he required purity in the very dispositions of the heart, boundless love, mercy, humility, gentleness. He spoke of God as the Father in heaven, whose love embraces all and who desires that all should be saved. He rose above narrow national prejudices ; felt the priceless worth of every human soul, and had such deep, firm faith in human nature that he threw open the gates of salvation to every one, even the most abandoned. Jesus could not preach and work in this way without coming into collision with those who were still guiding the religious life of his people along the line of development it had followed ever since the time of Ezra. Indeed, he must eventually come into collision with the Government itself. At first there was nothing to bring him into contact with the Sadducees, and they took no notice of him. The Essenes, too, had so completely shut themselves off from social life that he never met them after his appearance in public. On the other hand, he was thrown into the closest relations with the Pharisees from the beginning to the end of his public life. No doubt he had been taught, as part of his religious education, to esteem them highly ; it was from them, espe- cially from the Galilsean Scribes, that he had gained in the synagogue his earliest knowledge of the Holy Scriptures of JEoUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 11 his people ; and their zeal for the kingdom of God, their long- ing for its establishment, and their constant straining after " righteousness" had marked them out as his spiritual guides. And although he gradually became aware of much that offended him in their whole scheme of life, in their formality and worship of the letter, their self-righteousness and hardness towards the outcasts of church and society, yet at first he was willing to retain a favorable opinion of them. And they on their side regarded his appearance with in- terest, met him in no unfriendly spirit, and pointed out to him what the}' regarded as his mistakes. But gradually their relations became more strained. His intercourse with the unclean appeared to them a desecration of the service of Yahweh. Then they noticed again and again, and with ever-growing indignation, how careless he was in observing those precepts of the Law that referred to the outward life. At last, the}' saw clearly that he was attempting to establish the supremacy of a new principle of religious life, and that his preaching was coming into more and more direct conflict with the popular religion of his times. They now regarded him as a false prophet and a seducer of the people. And Jesus on his side came by this very opposition to under- stand the dark side of the Pharisaic teaching. He attacked it earnestly and emphatically, and strove to undermine its influence with the people. The conflict thus begun grew more and more violent as time went on, till at last the crash became inevitable. IV. Meanwhile a change had taken place in the mind of Jesus himself, as his experiences of life deepened. His views as to himself, as to the fate that awaited him, and as to the future of his people had been greatly modified. As for himself, he had never occupied a conspicuous place in his own thoughts. From first to last it was the work he had to do, and not his own person, that engaged his chief attention. At first he regarded himself simply as the herald of the kingdom of God, with the special mission of seeking out the "lost" of Israel. But he could not long remain unconscious that he had power to satisfy every religious want of the human heart. As he uttered the truths which his own soul hud revealed to him, in communion with God, he 12 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. learned, with absolute certainty, that these were the highest and purest truths which man could find ; that they made plain to all, whether to the repentant sinner or to the stead- fastly virtuous, the closeness of their relationship to God, the absolute reverence the} T owed to Him, and the natural union which should make them one with Him. Then he perceived that he must look for no other greater than himself, no Mes- siah whose forerunner he was, and who would take his stand above him ; and at last he made the heroic resolve that he would be the Messiah himself; that he himself, cost what it might, would found that kingdom of God, the near approach of which he had announced. But he never for a moment dreamed of ascending an earthly throne as the Messiah. Nothing could have been further from his thoughts. Long ago he had formed a far purer con- ception of the kingdom of God than that entertained by the ordinary Israelite, or even by John. He had seldom imitated John in hurling forth the threat of a fearful judgment to pre- cede the founding of the kingdom, nor had he ever shared his people's dreams of a fearful vengeance to be inflicted upon the heathen oppressors. His profound and glorious conception was that of a society permeated by the purest principles of piety and virtue, gradually extending itself by its own intrinsic power, until at last definitely established in all its glory by a special act of God. So when he determined to call this Mes- sianic kingdom into being himself, he had utterly renounced all those ideas of worldly splendor which his countiymen at- tached to the title of Messiah. He was more disposed to ex- pect that his life would close in darkness ; and, in connection with the unfavorable reception which he now expected for his sublimest conceptions, he began to dwell upon the thought of divine chastisement and the fearful judgment of God far more than he had done before. He saw that he could not rely on the support of the masses ; that the opposition to his person and his principles grew more violent from day to day ; that his struggle with the Pharisees, the most powerful relig- ious school of the times, was likely to prove fatal to himself. How little had he thought when first he began his work that it could ever come to this ! The heavens were then so clear above aim ; but now they were overcast with dark and ever darker clouds. John bad fallen a victim to his zeal for the kingdom of God, and in his fate Jesus now saw his own fore- shadowed. As time went on this presentiment grew stronger and stronger. It cost him an effort to reconcile himself with JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 13 the thought that if he must lay down his iife for the cause, then facing death was an essential part of the task that was laid upon him, — the inauguration of that kingdom of God of which he had been laying the foundations. The first period of his ministiy is pervaded by a bright and joyous spirit, but henceforth his maimer becomes more depressed, and a tone of sadness is cast over his preaching. But this changed feeling was not wholly due to his altered expectations with reference to his own lot. He had alto- gether changed his views and anticipations with regard to Israel too. He loved his fatherland with all his heart. He prized the religious privileges of his people to the utmost. He had hoped, with the ancient prophets, that Israel would fulfil its calling, and would take the first place in God's king- dom. Though the heathen were also to be admitted, yet Israel would still be the guide and the light of the nations. But the violent opposition he had encountered on the one side, and the indifference he had met with on the other, had gradually taught him to know his people better ; and now he saw that the close of Israel's glorious history would be far other than he once had thought. His people, as a people, would be shut out from the kingdom of God, and his country was rushing upon a miserable fate. Jesus perceived that the decisive moment for his work, for bis life, for his people, was at hand. He determined to pre- pare his disciples for the crisis. He had never } r et proclaimed himself the Messiah, or given utterance to his dark forebod- ings. Once, when he was journeying through the northern portion of the country, unaccompanied except by his twelve more intimate companions, he asked them whom men thought he was, and whom they held him to be themselves. They answered that the mass of his followers still looked on him as the forerunner of the kingdom of God, but that as for them- selves they reverenced him as the Messiah. Jesus accepted their testimony, but sternly forbade them to speak of it to any one. Soon afterwards he added that he was not destined to become a king, but rather to be put to death at Jerusalem. But his disciples simply could not understand or believe his words, though he afterwards repeated them several times still more distinctly. Wiry did he go to Jerusalem if so fully conscious of the danger it involved ? Because it was absolutely necessary for the cause he had at heart that he should do so, and, when duty called, anxiety for his personal safety must not hold 14 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. hini back , His conduct had already roused such opposition that he could hardly limit his activity to so remote a place as Galilee without appearing to hold back on purpose. And besides, even there the opposition had become so strong that he could not well continue his work on the same footing as before. But his chief reason for going up to Jerusalem was that it was the focus of Israel's religious life, in which all great religious questions must be fought out. There and there only could he give his people the choice between his principles, his thoughts about God's character and will, his spiritual conception of the kingdom of God on the one hand, and the prevailing formalism represented by the Scribes on ihe other. His countrymen must then make their choice He took advantage of the approaching Passover to execute his plan, for thousands of Jews, from every quarter of the world, would stream to the temple to celebrate that feast. He accomplished this memorable journey to the capital by easy stages. He took his way through the district east of Jordan, crossed the ford at Jericho, spent the night in that city with a public functionary of the name of Zacchaeus, passed on through Bethany, where he already had or now made faithful friends, and then crossed the Mount of Olives, and entered Jerusalem surrounded b} T a troop of Galilaeans, who raised shouts of jo}^ and triumph in his honor. He at once asserted his mission as a religious reformer, by driving out the dealers and the sacrificial beasts from the forecourt of the temple. He remained at Jerusalem for several days, preaching in one of the halls of the temple, and from time to time involved in controversial disputes. But at night he with- drew into a secret place of retreat, for he knew that his liberty and life were threatened. The authorities at Jerusalem, who regarded him as a false prophet, or dreaded the effect of his preaching upon public order, tried to get him into their power, but dared not lay hands on him by day for fear his followers should raise a tumult. But when he had eaten the Passover with his disciples on the evening of the fourteenth of Msan, one of them betrayed his place of refuge to the Sanhedrim. Under cover of the darkness he was seized, and was instantly tried and condemned as a blasphemer or her- etic. The law prescribed. stoning as the punishment of this offence, but the Roman governor, to whom application must be made for leave to carry out the sentence of death, took the affair into his own hands, and had Jesus crucified on the first day of the feast, upon a hill called Golgotha, outside the city walls. JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 15 By sin.li a murderous issue was the richest of human lives brought to a hasty close. But Jesus had foreseen it and had not shrunk from it. It was needful to his cause. The future of his work was secured ; the kingdom of God was founded. In this conviction Jesus breathed his last, un- dergoing a fearful martydom. The execution of the Master was a crushing blow to the disciples. The}' had flattered themselves to the last with the belief that he whom the}' had reverenced as the Messiah would ascend the royal throne. And now that he was put to death as a malefactor, their faith for a moment gave way and they knew not what to think of him . They hastened back to Galilee, and there they slowly recovered from the shock. The Master's words came back to their minds, his image rose again before them, and under the influence of varied reminis- cences and impressions the belief in his Messiahship revived, and the disciples were convinced that he could not have re- mained in the land of shadows, but must have risen from the dark realms of the dead and been received for a time into heaven. And now they thought that he would soon return from heaven to earth to assume the Messiah's crown, which had been refused to him before by the obstinate want of faith of the people, and especially of their leaders and governors. So they returned to Jerusalem, and there appeared as wit- nesses to Jesus and as heralds of the kingdom of God which was now so close at hand. Their preaching gained a hear- ing. The scattered followers of Jesus rallied round them, and their numbers were increased by the adhesion of new members, among whom a Levite of the island of Cyprus — Barnabas by name — is mentioned with special honor. A small communuVy, distinguished by the brotherly love and mutual beneficence of its members, was established in the capital, and slowly but steadily increased. The authorities left them for the most part unmolested. Neither ecclesiastical nor social institutions had any thing to fear from them. The3 T made no disturbance, and what was more they remained absolutely true to the Jewish ideas of religious life, not only strictly abiding by the precepts of the Law, but distinguishing themselves by especial care and fidelity in the observances of religion and zeal in frequenting 16 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. the temple. They were not alone in looking forward witli longing expectation to the speedy coming of the Messiah, and the only point in which they differed from their fellow- citizens was their conviction that that Messiah was Jesus of Nazareth. They had evidently grasped but little of the spirit of the Master who had risen so high above the popular religion and assumed an attitude of such perfect freedom with regard to the observances of the Law. But in the community of Jesus, mockingly called after him " the sect of the Nazarenes," there were some who had comprehended more of his true principles. The difference of opinion was developed by the accession of foreign Jews, who had settled at Jerusalem, and certain proselytes ; for these classes were, as a rule, less narrow and prejudiced than the Palestinian Jews. A dispute in the bosom of the com- munity which had hitherto been so harmonious brought seven of these more liberal Nazarenes into prominence. One of them, whose name was Stephen, proclaimed that when Jesus returned from heaven as the Messiah the external precepts of the Law would be rescinded, and the service of the temple superseded by a purer form of worship. No sooner had this heretical idea been broached, than the storm before which Jesus had fallen broke out with renewed fury. The Apostles and their adherents were spared, for their Ju- daism was irreproachable ; but Stephen was stoned to death as a blasphemer, and his associates were persecuted and threatened with imprisonment, and had to save themselves by flight. A young Pharisee, of the name of Paul, distinguished himself by his zeal in this persecution. But before long a mighty change was wrought in the soul of this man. He could not shake off the impression which these heretics had made on him. His doubts were confirmed by reflection and research ; and since it was against his nature to do an} 7- thing by halves, he became a passionate adherent instead of a per- secutor of the new faith. First of all he withdrew for a considerable time into Arabia, chiefly to clear his own mind. It was there that he formed his special conception of Jesus, the Messiah, and of his death on the cross as the inaugura- tion of a new covenant between God and man, superseding the old covenant established on Mount Sinai. In this new covenant the Law was annulled, faith was the only condition of salvation, and the distinction between Jew and heathen was removed. On returning from Arabia, Paul appeared as JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 17 a teacher at Damascus, was persecuted there, and narrowly escaped with his life. It was not till three years after his conversion that he went up to Jerusalem to spend some days with Peter. After this he preached in Syria and Cilicia, making Antioch his headquarters. Now at Antioch, the capital of Syria, a singular series of events had taken place. Certain members of the religious party represented by Stephen had taken refuge in this city, and had preached Jesus to the Greeks, that is, the heathens there. Such a thing had never been dreamed of hitherto by the followers of Jesus, for they believed that the Messiah and his kingdom belonged exclusively and entirely to the Jews. But the freer conceptions of these refugees enabled them to baptize, without scruple, any heathens who showed sufficient interest and faith in their preaching. Amid such surround- ings Paul began the labors and disciplined the powers that were to achieve such vast results. VI. So quickly and spontaneously had a division into two schools risen among the disciples of Jesus ! The points thej T had in common were the belief that Jesus was the Mes- siah, and the hope that he would soon return to establish his kingdom. In other respects they differed widely. The older section was distinguished by unshaken fidelity to the Mosaic law and the Jewish religion as a whole, and a firm conviction that the Messianic kingdom was for Israel alone, and that all heathens who had not in whole or in part passed over to the Jewish religion would be excluded from it as " unclean." The headquarters of this party were at Jerusalem, and all the communities which had risen from time to time in the land of the Jews belonged to it. The persecution in which Stephen lost his life had driven away all dissentients, and a considerable number of Pharisees having joined the com- munity, it was naturally confirmed in its strictly Jewish conceptions by the influence of its new adherents. The acknowledged leaders of this party were the Apostles, espe- cially Peter and John ; but even their influence was over- shadowed by that of James, the brother of Jesus, who was not one of the twelve. He regulated his life on the strictest Pharisaic, or almost Essenic, principles, and accordingly stood high in the estimation of the Jews of Jerusalem. 18 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. The other school, whose pioneer was Stephen, and which was first established at Antioch under Barnabas, Paul, and other preachers, held that the external rites of Judaism were no longer binding ; that heathens who turned from their nrythological fancies to faith in the one true God and in Jesus as the ruler of God's kingdom were as well entitled to share the salvation to come as though the} T had been Jews. Faith was the one thing needful. This school extended principally among the Greeks, but the community at Antioch included other Jewish members besides its founders and guides, all of whom had relinquished their religious and national preju- dices. These believers, who used the Greek word for Mes- siah, namely Christ, were called by their heathen fellow- citizens ^Christians;" and though the name was originally given bj r a misunderstanding and as a term of reproach, it was destined to survive as the name of the new religion. At first the mass of these Christians knew little or nothing of the difference of religious principle which separated them from the believers in Palestine, for they kept up no regular intercourse with Jerusalem. But as soon as the two schools, which we shall call the Jewish-Christian and the Heathen- Christian, came into contact with each other the}' must inevi- tably clash. The catastrophe was not long delayed, for certain rigid Jewish-Christians came from Judaea and greatly disturbed the congregation at Antioch by assuring them that when Christ returned from heaven he would not accept a heathen on the strength of his faith, unless he had been incorporated into Judaism by circumcision and conformity with the othei requirements of the Law. In support of this opinion they appealed to the Apostles as the only accredited witnesses ol what Jesus really intended ; and their teaching caused much uneasiness and dissension in the community at Antioch. Paul and Barnabas did their best to counteract the disturb- ing influences of this teaching, but found themselves unable to prevent or heal the dissensions it caused, and were finally compelled to go up to Jerusalem to consult the Apostles. They took Titus with them, a converted but uncircumcised heathen. At Jerusalem they specially sought out the heads of the community, — James, Peter, and John. These three, though they could not quite admit that faith was all-sufficient in itself, and that the heathen need not submit to the Law or even to its main injunctions, } T et recognized in the success of the Heathen-Christian mission a sign of God's approval, and JESUS ANT) THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 19 ^ave to Paul the right hand of fellowship. They determined not to oppose each other, but each to go his own way, — Paul and Barnabas to the Greeks, the Apostles of Jerusalem to the Jews. The only condition made was that a collection should be raised in the Heathen-Christian communities on behalf of the poor believers in Judaea. Soon after Paul and Barnabas had returned to Antioch they received a visit from Peter. At first he associated in a perfectly free and brotherly spirit with the Heathen-Chris- tians, but as soon as certain emissaries of James arrived at Antioch he suddenly reversed his line of conduct, separated himself from the believing heathens as though they were unclean, drew Barnabas and the other Jewish members of the congregation with him, and insisted on the Heathen-Chris- tians submitting to the requirements of the Law. Paul, who stood altogether alone, opposed Peter and the Jewish fanati- cism with all his might. He carried his point, but the gulf between the two parties was now wider than ever, — in fact impassable. t Not long afterwards Paul left Antioch, and, in company with Silas, Timotheus, and others, went on a missionary journe3 T through Asia Minor. He visited and confirmed the communities alread} r established, and founded many new ones, among which were some in the district of Galatia. After a time he passed over into Europe, and preached the Gospel at Philippi, Thessalonica, and elsewhere. He was almost every where persecuted and expelled, sometimes by heathens, but more frequently by Jews, till at last he settled for a time in Corinth, whence from time to time he visited various places in Achaia. After about a year and a half he was expelled from Corinth, and passed over to Ephesus, where he remained a considerable time, constantly making excursions through Asia Minor and to Macedonia and to Greece. He endured his manifold toils and difficulties, dangers and sufferings, with a zeal that nothing could daunt, and an unexampled energy. But his bitterest trial was the opposition he had to encounter from Jewish-Christians who came out from Judsea to stir up his heathen converts against him, and compel them to submit to the ordinances of the Law. The}' refused to recognize Paul as an Apostle, de- nounced his teachings as false doctrine, and even attacked his character. They succeeded but too well. In Galatia, at Corinth, and elsewhere the}' induced a great part of the Christians to fall away from him ; and he wrote letters from 20 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. Ephesus to Galatia and Corinth, intended chiefly to defend his personal character and his teaching, and to destroy the influence of his opponents, to whom he hardly yielded in bit- terness. In three years he had to leave Ephesus also. On this he passed through Macedonia, where he wrote his second letter to Corinth. Like its predecessor it was chiefly directed against the Jewish-Christian teachers, and soon afterwards he followed it to the capital of Achaia in person. Here he drew up his epistle to the Romans, in which he carefully expounded his doctrinal system. Meanwhile he had not forgotten his promise to make a collection for the believers at Jerusalem among the various communities he had estab- lished. Indeed, he had lately been making great efforts to collect a considerable sum of money, in the hope that this brotherly liberality on the part of the Heathen-Christians might close the breach between the two parties. Accord- ingly, he now set out from Corinth to the City of the Temple, taking the money he had collected with him. But when he reached Jerusalem his hopes were cruelly disappointed. In a tumult, stirred up against him by the Jews, he would have lost his life had not the commander of the Roman garrison interfered and snatched him out of the hands of the furious mob. To secure him from further danger he was sent under an armed escort to Csesarea, where he was kept in confine- ment by the governor for two years ; after which, fearing that he might be given up to the Jews, he availed himself of his privilege as a Roman citizen, and claimed to have his case investigated before the imperial court at Rome. On his jour- ney he suffered shipwreck, but eventually reached Rome in safety. In the course of the two years that he spent in cap- tivity at Rome he wrote a few more letters, among which are those to Philemon and to the Philippians, and was able in other wa} T s to cany on his work to some extent. Even here, however, he was constantly thwarted by the Jews and the Jewish-Christians, until at last he closed his career by a martyr's death. Paul was a great man, — perhaps the greatest of all men except Jesus. At any rate, Christianity has to thank him more than any other for its existence. lie was a restless worker, a dauntless champion of the principles he adopted, a bold and deep thinker. His lot was any thing but enviable. Bitterly hated, constantly and fiercely opposed b} T his antag- onists, he was but little comprehended by his followers. JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 21 Hence his own converts were frequently unfaithful to his ideas and principles. While he was still living, the congre- gations at Antioch, in Galatia, and at Corinth among others fell away from him in great part, and went over to the Jewish-Christian party, and not long after his death the congregations at Ephesus and elsewhere followed the exam- ple. There was no lack of kindred spirits to take up his work and preach his gospel zealously enough, but the oppo- sition to his school also continued after his death. Even his personal character was not spared when he was no more, but was pursued with obloqu} 7 and slander. Almost a century after his death a romance written against him was circulated in the community at Rome. Meanwhile the course of events had necessarily changed the attitude of the two parties. As the number of Heathen- Christians continually increased it became impossible any longer to question their right of citizenship in the Messianic kingdom, even without their passing over to Judaism. So the Jewish-Christians no longer required them to submit to circumcision and to all the regulations of the Mosaic Law. It had gradually become impossible to maintain such demands, and accordingly they were dropped, and the number of com- mandments which the Heathen-Christians were required to observe was reduced. And again, the devastation of the very centre of Jewish worship in a.d. 70 put an end to the sacrificial service and to many other sacred rites, and conse- quently man}- of the points of dispute between the two schools of Christians lost all practical interest. But the con- flict over the principle itself, — whether faith alone was the indispensable condition of salvation, or whether it must be accompanied by the observance of certain forms and obe- dience to an external law, — was still as hot as ever. The Heathen-Christians on their side, with the exception of some few extravagant Paulinists, could not deny the authority of the Apostles and the connection of their own religion with that of the Jews ; and, especially when Paul was no longei on the stage, they showed a readiness to yield in some points, and insisted less vehemently on their liberty. Moreover there soon sprang up a middle part}', which endeavored to bring about a reconciliation between the two sides b} r yielding womething on either hand. As is generally the case, the efforts of the middle party were to a certain extent successful. The struggle of the Apostolic age ended in union under the Universal (Catholic) 22 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. Church, in which all traces of the former divisions were, as far as possible, obliterated or disguised. This Catholic Church called itself after both Peter and Paul, though giv- ing the higher rank to the former. It excluded from its com- munion as heretics both the Jewish-Christians who persisted in reviling Paul and maintaining the Law in its integrity (Ebionites) and the Heathen-Christians who opposed the principle of the Law and rejected the authority of the Anos- tles of Jerusalem (Marcionites) . VII. The difference of principle among the earliest disciples of Jesus stamped itself more or less distinctly upon the old Christian literature, and was indeed one of the great motive powers in its production. We possess most of this literature in the New Testament, though some compositions, such as one or more letters of Paul to Corinth, a gospel of the Hebrews, and other's writings have been lost. We also possess a few more documents which may be regarded as belonging to the old Christian literature. They are gen- erally called the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, One of them is a letter from Clement to the Corinthians, and another is a letter written under the name of Barnabas. But these are more recent than almost any of the books of the New Testament. To the books of the New Testament, then, we must now turn our special attention. Some of them, especially the oldest, plunge us into the midst of the conflict between the two parties. Of Paul's letters to Galatia, to Corinth, and to Rome we have already spoken. One of the writings of the opposite party is the book of Revelation, which was written in a.d. 68, or January, 69, a few years after the death of Paul. It attacks his character, but still more his doctrine, and brands his followers as servants of Satan. We learn from it the exact position of the rigid Jewish-Christians at a time when the great majority of the faithful was composed of converted heathens. The Messiah and his kingdom belong to Israel, and Jerusalem will be the chief seat of the king- dom of God. The heathen, in order to participate in it, must first be incorporated into Israel, and even then they will occup3 7 a lower position than that of the true descend- ants of Abraham, — just as in former times the proselytes had JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 23 never been regarded as on the same footing with the Jews themselves. The epistle of James is of later date, and though it is also from the hand of a Jewish-Christian it breathes a far gentler and freer spirit than that of Revela- tion. It holds that the Jewish ceremonies are annulled, and admits the heathen without conditions ; but for all that it is directly and designedly aimed against the doctrine of Paul. On the other hand, certain writings intended to bring about a reconciliation were issued b} T the friends of Paul. Among these are the epistle to the Hebrews and the book of Act3. Others again involuntarily remind us of the divisions that had formerly prevailed or still existed, and so give us a glimpse into the state of feeling and belief in the circles from which the} T emanated ; while the latest books transplant us into a changed condition of the community and into later ecclesiastical disputes. In dealing with these questions we must never forget that the majority of the writings of the New Testament were not really written or published by those whose names they bear. For instance, fourteen epistles are said to be Paul's ; but we must at once strike off one, namely that to the Hebrews, which does not bear his name at all, and therefore does not even profess to have come from his hand. The other thir- teen are all of them intended to pass for his ; but in one of them we are distinctly informed (2 Thessaionians, ii. 2) that even during his lifetime letters of which he had not written a word were published under his name. In those days peo- ple saw no harm in such literary frauds, though they would now be considered highly culpable, and even criminal. The ancient historians were much in the habit of introducing celebrated personages as actually saying what they imagined would have been appropriate for them to say under the special circumstances ; and in the same way it was con- sidered quite permissible for a man to put out letters under the name of another, and thus to bring his own ideas before the world under the protection of an honored sponsor. Thus the two letters to Timothy, and the letter to Titus, were certainly composed long after the death of Paul, though perhaps the second to Timothy contains a few verses that are actually from the hand of the Apostle. It is more than probable that the letters to the Ephesians and Colossians are also unauthentic, and the same suspicion rests, perhaps on the first, but certainly on the second of the epistles to the Thessaionians 24 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. These remarks are equally applicable to the seven General or Catholic epistles, so called because the} 7 were accepted by the Catholic Church. The first and last, which are Jewish- Christian in character, are incorrectly ascribed to James and Judas, the brothers of Jesus. The first epistle of Peter was not written by the Apostle whose name it bears, but by a disciple of Paul ; and the second, which is perhaps the latest book in the Bible, was not written till about the middle of the second century after Christ. The writer attempts to rea- son with the grievous disappointment of the Christians at the continued delay of the return of Jesus from heaven ; an event which even the Apostles and their contemporaries had eagerly expected, and which the writer of the Revelation, two years before the destruction of Jerusalem, had painted in glowing colors and declared to be close at hand. Finally, of the three epistles of John the first is not an epistle at all, and does not bear any name, while the other two profess to be the work of an elder whose name is not given. All of them place us in a later age and amid other controversies than those of which we have spoken above. But our interest is more especially excited b} T the five his- torical books of the New Testament. If we might really suppose them to have been written by the men whose names they bear, we could never be thankful enough for such precious authorities at first and second hand, and should not hesitate to accept their narratives in the main as sub- stantially correct. For John and Matthew were Apostles of Jesus, and the former, together with his brother James and with Peter, was admitted into his Master's especial confi- dence. As to Mark, we are told that he lived at Jerusalem, that he was a cousin of Barnabas, a fellow-traveller and friend of Paul, and afterwards a companion and beloved disciple of Peter. Luke is supposed to have been a friend and disciple of Paul, to have accompanied him on most of his journeys, and to have been with him during his last stay at Jerusalem and his imprisonment. Who could be better informed as to the fates of Jesus and the Apostles than these eye-witnesses and their close and intimate friends? But, alas ! not one of these five books was really written by the person whose name it bears, — though for the sake of brevit} r we shall still call the writers Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, — and the} T are all of more recent date than their headings would lead us to suppose. The case is not quite the same, however, as with the epistles sent into the world JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 25 under the names of Paul, Peter, James, and Judas. We cannot say that the Gospels and the book of Acts are unau- thentic, for not one of them professes to give the name of its author. They appeared anonymously. The titles placed above them in our bibles owe their origin to a later ecclesias- tical tradition which deserves no confidence whatever. So in order to know how far we can safely rely upon their statements and what use we can make of them, we must look at the contents of the books themselves. Let us begin by examining the Acts of the Apostles. We notice at once that the name is very inappropriate, for the book does not speak of the actions of all the twelve or thirteen Apostles, or even of most of them, but is divided into two parts, the first and smaller of which is chiefly concerned with Peter and the other exclusively with Paul. But we need not insist on this. For the history of these two men, in whom we feel so deep an interest, it is almost our only authority ; and of the earli- est fortunes of the community of Jesus, the primitive history of the Christian Church and the whole of the apostolic age, we should know as good as nothing if we had not the book of Acts. If only we could trust the writer fully! But we soon see that the utmost caution is necessary. For we have another account of some of the things about which this writer tells us, — an account written by the veiy man to whom they refer, the best possible authority, therefore, as to what really took place. This man is Paul himself. In the first two chapters of the epistle to the Galatians lie gives us several details of his own past life ; and no sooner do we place his stor}' side by side with that of the Acts than we clearly per- ceive that this book contains an incorrect account, and that its inaccuracy is not the result of accident or ignorance but of a deliberate design, an attempt — conceived no doubt with the best intentions — to hide in some degree the actual course of events. In short, it attempts to conceal Paul's relations with the other Apostles and the differences of opinion that existed in the early Church. This real discover}' gives us the key to the character and purpose of the whole book of Acts. For now that we have in one instance detected its tendency to represent the relations between Paul and the Twelve as more favorable than they really were, and to hide the differ- ences of opinion among the early Christians as completely as possible, we soon perceive the same desire running through all the book. The real state of things in these early times is disguised almost past recognition. In order to reconcile VOL. III. 2 26 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. Paul's enemies to him, and to establish peace between the two parties, the sharp corners are considerably rounded off whenever the great and striking figure of the apost'e of the heathens is introduced. At the same time, Peter and James are made more liberal. Indeed, Peter is the first to preach the gospel to the heathen, and on several occasions Paul is represented in the character of a strict Jewish-Christian. In a word, all traces of the dispute are as far as possible obliterated. This puts us into a position to determine the origin and the historical value of the book of Acts. The writer was evidently a Heathen-Christian who revered the memory of Paul, though he never really understood his doctrine, and had surrendered most of his principles. At the same time he may be regarded as in a certain sense a forerunner (or an early representative) of the primitive Catholic Church. We know how to deal with him therefore. When, in spite of himself, he allows an involuntary betrayal of the existence of these dissensions to leak out, or when his subject is in no wa} r connected with these quarrels, and he had means of in- vestigating it fully, then we may not only hail him as a valu- able witness, in the absence of all other informants, but may even accept his statements as deserving of all credit ; not indeed as regards the speeches which he puts into the mouths of Paul and others, but as regards the events which he re- cords. This is especially applicable to the later fortunes of Paul, as to which the writer of Acts had access to some very good authorities, the best of all being the itinerary or journal of travels composed by one of the Apostle's companions. Portions of this work he took up almost unaltered into his own. In this itinerar}^ then, we possess the records of an e} T e- witness. This is of incalculable value. Paul himself and this unknown companion of his journej's are the only eye-witnesses from whom we have any records in the New Testament that have not been disturbed by later traditions. And, alas ! this later tradition is such a turbid fountain ! JESUS ANT> THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 27 VIII. The truth of this complaint becomes only too clear when we turn to our Gospels. Of course we should rejoice still more in an accurate knowledge of the life of Jesus than in a faithful history of the apostolic age. And for this knowledge we have hardly any sources but the four books with which the New Testa- ment begins. No other authorities deserve to be mentioned by their side. Paul gives us a few general characteristics, and makes a few allusions in his letters, but this is all. He had never known Jesus personalty. Flavius Josephus, the well-known historian of the Jewish people, was born in a.d. 37, only two 3'ears after the death of Jesus ; but though his work is of inestimable value as our chief authority for the circumstances of the times in which Jesus and his Apostles came forward, }~et he does not seem to have ever mentioned Jesus himself. At anj- rate, the passage in his " Jewish An- tiquities " * that refers to him is certainly spurious, and was inserted by a later and a Christian hand. The Talmud 2 compresses the history of Jesus into a single sentence, and later Jewish writers concoct mere slanderous anecdotes. The ecclesiastical Fathers mention a few sajings or events, the knowledge of which they drew from oral tradition or from writings that have since been lost. The Latin and Greek historians just mention his name. This meagre har- vest is all we reap from sources outside the Gospels. We must be content with the Gospels, then. To learn how far we may trust them we must in the first place compare them with each other. The moment we do so we notice that the fourth stands quite alone, while the first three form a single group, not only following the same general course, but some- times even showing a verbal agreement which cannot possibly be accidental. For this reason they are called the synoptical Gospels ; that is to say, the Gospels which contain accounts of the same events — kt parallel passages," as they are called — which can be written side by side so as to enable us to take a general view or synopsis of all the three, and at the same time compare them with each other. A more careful exami- nation shows us that the difference between Matthew, Mark, and Luke on the one hand and John on the other is so great that we must choose between them, since we cannot 1 B. xviii. chap. iii. sec. 3. 2 See vol. i. p. 31, 32. 28 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. possibly harmonize them. According to the first three Jesua utters his wisdom in the form of proverbs, or still more fre- quently of parables. In John the parables disappear entirely, and profound and elaborate disquisitions are put into the mouth of Jesus. In the first three Gospels his words usually refei to the kingdom of God, in the fourth he almost always speaks of himself. In the former he is said to have lived and preached in Galilee alone till within a few da}-s of his death ; in the latter we find him frequently, nay generally, working in Judaea, and especially at Jerusalem. In the former he speaks and acts as an Israelite ; in the latter he sometimes separates himself so sharply from the people of Israel that he seems to wish no longer to be consid- ered as belonging to the nation at all. In the former he is a man whose character gradually develops under the conflict in which he is engaged and the work he has taken up ; in the latter a more than earthly being, perfect from the very beginning. In a word, John gives us a totally different im- pression both of the whole and of the separate details from that conveyed by the Synoptics. Attempts to remove this contradiction have been vain. Every means adopted to this end has turned out a mere idle subtlety. There is no escaping the fact that we must make our choice. Nor can we hesitate as to what that choice shall be. The first three Gospels are far simpler and more natu- ral in tone than the fourth ; the}' bring the historical back- ground of the fife of Jesus far more clearly before us ; they are written with the object of making his person and his preach- ing, his deeds and his fortunes, known. In the fourth Gos- pel John the Baptist, Jesus, and the Evangelist himself always speak in the same spirit and adopt the same st}de ; so that any one can see that it is really the Evangelist who is speak- ing all the time, and that he simply puts his own ideas, clothed in his own style, into the mouths of Jesus and others. The view here taken of the world and man is utterly foreign to the mind of Jesus, and its point of departure Must be looked for in the Alexandrine philosoph}'. Lastly, the writer himself clearly indicates at the end of his book that his object was not so much to give an account of the life of Jesus as to rouse and strengthen faith in him. His work is an expression of faith rather than a historical narrative. In other words, he does not tell us what Jesus was, but what he, the Evange- list, had found in him, — what Jesus was to him, what influence he had exercised upon his spiritual life, and in what light he JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 29 therefore regarded him. If we also bear in mind that this author wrote at a comparatively late period, in the first half of the second century, we shall readily assent to the following conclusion : We may read the fourth Gospel for our edili- cation ; indeed, there is perhaps no other book of the Bible more eminently suited to this purpose. As we read it we feel compelled to ask ourselves whether we too have derived as much spiritual wealth from Jesus as this writer, with his deep piet}' and high culture, did. But for the history of Jesus we cannot use the work ; we need never consult it, and shall do best to put it entirely out of our minds. In treating of the life of Jesus, then, we shall set this work almost entirely aside, and shall afterwards take it up separately as the most beau- tiful expression of faith which has come down to us from the post-apostolic age ; but even then we shall not stop to inquire particularly whether any historical fact here and there lies at the basis of its representations. The fourth Gospel forms a beautiful and well-ordered whole, and bears a pre-eminently individual character, for the very remarkable and exalted personality' of the writer has stamped its spirit unmistakably upon ever)' portion of the work. But it is far otherwise with the Synoptic Gospels. They can hardly be said to have had authors at all. They had only editors or compilers. What I mean is, that those who enriched the old Christian literature with these Gospels did not go to work as independent writers and compose their own narra- tives out of the accounts they had collected, but simply took up the different stories or sets of stories which the}' found cur- rent in the oral tradition or already reduced to writing, add- ing here and expanding there, and so sent out into the world a very artless kind of composition. Their works were then, from time to time, somewhat enriched b} T introductory matter or interpolations from the hands of later Christians, and per- haps were modified a little here and there. Our first two Gospels appear to have passed through more than one such revision. The third, whose writer sa}'s in his preface that 1 ' many had undertaken to put together a narrative (Gospel) " before him, appears to proceed from a single collecting, ar- ranging, and modifying hand. I spoke just now of oral tradition as having preceded any written record. For a considerable period this tradition was the only source of information as to the fortunes and the teaching of Jesus. It was but natural that as long as Jesua 30 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. was living no one should think of writing an account of his words or deeds. And even during the first twenty or thirty years or so after his death, when his disciples were preaching him as the Christ to an ever wider circle, though the want of such Gospels must soon have made itself generally felt, no one undertook to write one. For the Christians expected Jesus himself to return ere long from heaven, and what would then be the use of a written record of his former life? It was not till the expectation of the return of Jesus had fallen somewhat into the background that such a task could be taken up with affectionate zeal. And meanwhile the oral tradition had already taken a tolerably settled form in the various circles of Christians. In an age when reading and writing were less common than they are at present, the memory was much more tenacious, and words were remem- bered with greater accuracy. Detached accounts as well as whole sets of narratives referring to the labors of Jesus in G-alilee, his journey to Jerusalem, his sta}' in the city, and his death, were current among the Christians. His para- bles, his aphorisms, and his more elaborate discourses were also passed from mouth to mouth, sometimes in connection with some event, and sometimes quite detached. One of the early Fathers tells us that the Apostle Matthew wrote a col- lection of "Sayings of the Lord," in Hebrew, by which he means the local dialect which Jesus and his Apostles spoke. This collection has probably been taken up into our first Gos- pel, which is specialty rich in sayings of Jesus ; and it may be from this fact that it derives its title ' ' according to Matthew." Of course, the preservation and promulgation of the sa}'- ings and doings of Jesus by oral tradition for so long a period was attended with certain disadvantages. No doubt the tra- dition was much firmer than would be the case in our da}', but still it was constantly subject to variation. The result is very clearly discernible in our Gospels. There are four prin- cipal causes of these transformations of the tradition, which were generally unintentional. In the first place, embellishment was a necessary result of oral promulgation. This will always follow when a story passes from mouth to mouth, especially when it refers to any one for whom a great enthusiasm is felt. One narrator adds a little to it, and the next heightens the coloring some- what JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 31 In the second place, misunderstandings may pla} r an impor- tant part in changing the form of a tradition. Examples of this process abound. The metaphorical language of the East, in which Jesus usually expressed himself, and which his first disciples sometimes used concerning him, was specialty liable to misconception. It was accepted literally, and thus a fig- ure of speech, or even a parable, was reported as if it were an actual event. Another souroe of misconception may be found in the pre- conceived ideas, especially of a religious character, which exer- cised so powerful an influence over the tradition from its very origin. The hearers of Jesus, even his Apostles, had very often failed to understand what their Master said, what he did, and what he was aiming at. In their own preaching they reproduced their Master and his teaching not as they really were, but as they had appeared in the light of their own preconceived ideas. And so in after times the original tradition, itself far from pure, was considerably, though un- intentionally, modified by such influences as love of the marvellous, the national pride of the Jews, current ideas as to the Messiah and the person of Jesus, and the expectation that he would return to earth. Closely connected with this last source of error, and most important of all, is the influence exercised upon the tradition by the conflict of parties in the apostolic communities. Each of the two schools of this period, so sharply opposed to each other (the Jewish-Christian and the Heathen-Christian) , was filled by a deep and sacred conviction that it and it only thought, spoke, and acted in the spirit of the Master whom both acknowledged. Hence it happened that the two parties might report one and the same saying of Jesus so differently that each of them regarded it as passing a sentence of con- demnation upon the other. As a rule, this came to pass involuntarily; but, in the very strength of their conviction, the advocates of either view might now and then expressly put such a sentence into the Master's mouth, or in case of need invent some incident in order to bring clearly into view what they were certain must have been his judgment. In the Synoptic Gospels, accordingly, we find certain narratives which refer to Jesus in appearance only, and really rose in the apostolic communities in consequence of the division in their midst, or with direct reference to it. A great deal then depends upon whether the tradition had been promulgated through a Jewish-Christian or a Heathen-Christian medium, 32 JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. and each Evangelist was guided in the choice of his materials by the school to which he himself belonged. The authorities of the first Evangelist were chiefly Jewish-Christian ; the third Evangelist derived his information more from Pauline circles. More than once we shall encounter narratives that cannot possibly be understood in connection with the life of Jesus, and shall transfer them to the period to which the}* realty belong ; that is to sa}*, to the history of the Apostles. But enough. We have seen distinctly that even when dealing with the first three Gospels we must go to work with the utmost caution, must closely examine, minutely compare, and carefully sift their statements, if we are really to gain an}- genuine knowledge of Jesus and learn his true histoiy. All this is very difficult, and there are many points about which we long to know the truth, but as to which our utmost efforts can secure no certain knowledge. When we place Matthew, Mark, and Luke side by side, we sometimes suc- ceed in recovering the most ancient form of a narrative or saying ; sometimes we are surprised to find that the Evange- lists themselves, from the very fact of their going to work so artlessly and simply, and introducing most of their altera- tions without exactly intending it, emend and refute them- selves, and so put us upon the right track ; sometimes our knowledge of the apostolic age throws a clear light upon the origin and significance of what we read in the Gospels. But in spite of all this, we have constantly to express our regret- ful ignorance of the true histoiy of the life of Jesus. All the stories of the New Testament, without exception, will be dealt with and explained as we go along, and we shall try to bring out both the beautiful and true and the one-sided or untrue ideas which they contain ; even legends * may furnish mate- rials for history, as contributions to our knowledge of the times and the surroundings out of which the} 7 rose. But, after all, our chief concern is with Jesus. In any case, we shall bear enough of him to be filled with the deepest admira- tion and reverence for his character, to love him in our inmost hearts, and to feel ourselves unspeakably indebted to him. And if we discover that his first disciples generally misunder- stood him, and could never fully appreciate a character to the true greatness of which they were so often blind, we shall lament the fact itself, but shall know how to make use of our knowledge of it. The truth revealed b} r Jesus can never be 1 See vol. i. pp. 6-8. JESUS AND THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 33 quite obscured. It has been, and still is, the very life of Christianity. If we listen faithfully to its commands, and open our hearts to its influence, it can and will so strengthen us in all that is good and noble that we shall bring no shame upon the name of Christian which we take from Jesus ; it will so build up our character and confirm our moral power that we shall learn, rejoicing in the love of God, to be a true blessing to society, and ever to grow more and more like Jesus. No richer blessing can I wish to } T ou, my readers ! Book I. JESUS. Chapter I. THE DESCENT OF JESUS. Matthew I. ; Luke III. 23-38. U TDEDIGREE of Jesus Christ, son of David, son of jL Abraham." Such are the words which stand at the head of the first page of the New Testament. There could not be a more natural commencement ; for however wearisome a dry list of names may seem, we can easily understand that the early Christians were anxious to trace the descent of Jesus, as fully as possible, up into a hoaiT antiquit} 7 . Some people still keep up their family registers, and attach great value to them ; and it is not unusual to set aside for the purpose the blank pages at the beginning of the great family Bible, which descends as an heirloom from father to son, and is alwa}*s so carefully preserved and honored. But never, perhaps, has the passion for preserving pedigrees been so great as among the Jews after the Capt^'vit}' ; for the} r jealously defended the purity of their Israelitish descent, and deemed it of the utmost consequence to be able to furnish proof that not a drop of blood polluted b} T heathen affinities flowed through their veins. But to return to the genealogy of Jesus. A careful exami- nation brings to light several objections to its authenticity. To begin with, as soon as we read through the first chapter of Matthew we come upon an extraordinary contradiction. First of all we have three series of ancestors, of fourteen gen- erations each — we may check the calculation for ourselves — the last of them ending Jacob, Joseph, Jesus. Well and 36 DESCENT OP JEStTS. good ! Bui in the following verses we are all at on v e in- formed that Joseph was not the father of Jesus after all, and that Jnsus had realty no connection with him. Then what is the meaning of this list of Joseph's ancestors with the heading, " Pedigree of Jesus" ? for all the while, according to this sec- ond account, it has nothing whatever to do with Jesus. You will see at once that there is a direct contradiction here. But again, in the Gospel of Luke there is another pedigree of Jesus, or rather of Joseph the father of Jesus, but it only agrees with that of Matthew in fifteen names, and departs from it in no less than forVy ! Continuing our examination, and inspecting the stories about the birth of Jesus which our first and third Evangelists have given us, we very soon per- ceive that the} T are in irreconcilable contradiction with each other, and that each of them taken b}^ itself contains much that is strange and improbable, not to say impossible. Now any one who has studied general histoiy, especially that of antiquity, will at once remember that the origin of great men is often veiled in obscurity. If a later tradition encircles their cradle with a crown of legendary glory, it does so simply by the exercise of its own imagination ; for trust- worthy sources of information for the heroes' lives do not begin to flow before their public appearance. All that pre- cedes is mere fiction. We need not wonder, then, that the case is similar with Jesus, who has been revered throughout the ages as the greatest of all men, as the chief benefactor of our race ; nay, as something more than man. And the perfect simplicity and absence of ostentation or display which always characterized Jesus makes it seem all the more natural that no record of his early life should have survived. The question is, then, are we to look upon these registers and stories as true history, or simply as at once the evidence and the result of the reverence, the faith, and the grateful love of the Christians ? The answer cannot be doubtful. We know hardly any thing of the origin, the childhood, and the youth of Jesus. Since he is the greatest hero not only of Biblical but of uni- versal histor} r , and occupies the place of honor in the story of the moral and religious development of each one of us, every thing that concerns him must arouse our keenest in- terest, and we cannot help searching for information even on these preliminary matters ; but if we expect any great result we shall be bitierly disappointed. Wherever we knock, the door is closed against us. Inasmuch as Jesus begins a new DESCENT OF JESUS. 37 period of human progress we have begun a new chronological era with him, and are in the habit of reckoning the years backward and forward from his birth ; but even the point from which this era should commence is any thing but certain. In the 3"ear 525 a.d. the Roman Abbot Dioirysius Exiguus fixed it as it is now used, but students of the subject have long been agreed that the data upon which he based his cal- culations were insufficient, and that he most likely made a mistake* of several years. Nor is our knowledge any more definite with regard to the descent of Jesus, and the circum- stances of his birth. Even as to the place where he was born, opinions differ. You may naturally ask the cause of all this uncertainty, and it is not difficult to explain. The fact is that the Apostles and other preachers, who brought the gospel to Jews and heathens, confined themselves entirely, in speaking about Jesus, to the time of his public activit} 7 in Israel, and laid special stress upon his death and resurrection. To this the}' could bear witness. Of what went before they had seen nothing, nor had they made any inquiries about it ; for at first it was only the most important facts that excited attention. In these early times no special interest was felt in the birth and youth of Jesus, for his disciples tacitly assumed that it was not as an infant, a boy, or a } T oung man, but as a pub- lic teacher, and above all in his death, that Jesus had shown himself to be the Christ and our redeemer. And when the later Christians wished to know more of these early days, there was no one left who could give them any information. Were they content to rest in their igno- rance then, inasmuch as it was impossible to learn airy more, and fate would have it so? Not at all. It was far more in the spirit of the age to try to determine what must have hap- pened. And indeed the Christians firmly believed that they could draw from a source of information which deserved such implicit confidence that even if there had been persons living who were personally acquainted with the facts, it would hardly have been necessary to consult them. This source of infor- mation was the Old Testament. Jesus was recognized as .he Messiah promised to the fathers ; and the prophets had written about the Messiah. It was firmly believed that they had fore- told a number of details of the life of the Christ, and that in doing so the} 7 could not possibly have made mistakes. Not content with finding in the prophecies and Psalms all sorts of allusions or definite predictions as to the life of Jesus, the 38 DESCENT OF JESUS. Christians saw in the fortunes of the people of Israel or of its greatest heroes, such as Moses, a foreshadowing of what was to happen to the Messiah. And so by putting together- a number of texts from the Old Testament, generally explained in a grossly arbitrary style, they made up a complete history of Jesus. We shall notice this again and again as we ad- vance. We can now understand the way in which they would attempt to fill the great gap in the history of the early } T ears of Jesus, aivl can make use of our knowledge at once in explaining the origin of these two pedigrees and other things connected with them. The narratives of the Old Testament have familiarized us with the Messianic expectation. Several of the prophets 1 distinctly say that in the golden age of the future, for which they hope, a descendant of David will hold sway over Israel as king. Now Jesus had not yet become a king ; but, thought the Christians, he would be one ere long when he re- turned from heaven. Was he really of the race of David then ? The simple fact is that we know nothing about it ; and perhaps you may think that it does not much matter. No more it does. To us, at least, he is neither greater nor less for being or not being a descendant of David. We honor him far too much to attach an} T value to such an accident. Jesus himself, too, considered it a matter of little or no consequence, and perhaps indirectly denied that his descent was royal. 2 But the early Christians thought other- wise. The} T argued : Jesus is the Christ, and therefore it is absolutely certain, on the testimon} T of all those prophetic utterances, that he must have been of the race and family of David. 3 This argument necessarily involved the belief that the great-nephews of Jesus, the grandsons of his brother Jude, were also descendants of David ; and an old church- Father tells us that the suspicious Emperor Domitian, hearing that in the country of the Jews there were men of roj'al extraction still alive, had these relatives of Jesus brought before him ; but the sight of their hands hardened by honest work allayed his fears. The general statement that Jesus must have been a son of 1 Isaiah xi. 1, 10 ; Jeremiah xxiii. 5, xxx. 9, xxxiii. 15, 17, 21, 22 ; Ezekiel xxxiv. 23 f., xxxvii. 24 f. ; Hosea iii. 5; Amos ix. 11 ; Michah v. 2; Zechariah iii. 8, vi. 12, xii. 8. 2 Matthew xxii. 41-46 (Mark xii. 35-37). 8 John vii. 42; Acts ii. 30, xiii. 23; Romans i. 2, 3; 2 Tim. ii. 8: Hebrew! vii. 14; Revelation v. 5. xxii. 16. DESCENT OF JESUS. 39 David did not long satisfy the Christians ; and by the aid of names and catalogues from the Old Testament they construct- ed pedigrees for Joseph , the father of Jesus . We have already alluded to the two which Matthew and Luke have preserved for us. The first begins with Abraham ; the other goes back to Adam. These pedigrees have not the smallest historical value. Only to mention a single point, their authors did not shrink from the most arbitral handling of their materials foi the sake of obtaining s}-mmetrical results with special refer- ence to the sacred number seven and its multiples. (3X14 in one case and 5 X 14 -)- 7 in the other.) Moreover, these two registers destro}' each other. Not only do the names differ in almost eveiy case, but in the one there are exactly fourteen generations more between Jesus and David than in the other. But it does not follow that the}^ have no interest for us. In the first place, the} T offer a striking illustration of the way in which histoiy was written in those days. Again, on comparing the two, we see the different spirit in which the two compilers worked. The first list, which only mounts up to Abraham the ancestor of Israel, intends to represent Jesus distinctly as Israels Messiah, and must therefore have ariser. in Jewish-Christian circles. The other, which goes up tc " Adam the son of God," the ancestor of all mankind, wishes to show that Jesus belongs to the whole human race, and is "the second Adam," 1 the true man, and the son of God. This list, therefore, must be of Heathen-Christian origin, or rather must have passed through a revision made in the Heathen-Christian spirit. Finally, it follows of necessity from both the genealogies that their compilers entertained no doubt that Joseph was the father of Jesus. Otherwise the descent of Joseph would not have been in the least to the point. Connected with this firm belief that the Messiah must be a descendant of David was the conviction that as David's son he must be born in David's city, that is Bethlehem. This was deduced from a passage in Michah, which was understood to mean "at Bethlehem, in Judsea, shall Christ be born," 2 though the prophet really meant nothing whatever of the kind. There was a great difficult}?- here. The primitive tra dition declared emphatically that Nazareth was the place from which Jesus came. We ma}^ still see this distinctly enough in our Gospels. Jesus is constantly called the Naza- 1 1 Corinthians xv. 45, 47. 2 Matthew ii. 4-6; compare John vii. 42. 40 DESCENT OF JEStJS. rene, or Jesus of Nazareth. This was certainly the name by which he was known in his own time ; and of course such local names were given to men from the place of their birth, and not from the place in which they lived, which might constantly be changing. Nazareth is called in so many words his own, that is, his native city, 1 and he himself describes it so. 2 But in spite of all this the Christians were convinced that he must have been born at Bethlehem, so the}' had to assume that Joseph and Mary were at Bethlehem at the time of his birth. Matthew simply says that it was so, 3 and adds that they settled at Nazareth some years afterwards for a special reason ; 4 and then running off upon the sound of the name he sees in this change of abode the fulfilment of another prophetic intimation indirectly convej'ed b}' the his- tory of Samson : " He shall be a Nazarite unto God," 5 sa}-s the angel to Manoah's wife ; and the words, thought the Evangelist, referred to Jesus as well as Samson, for there was not so much difference between NazanVe and Nazarerce / 6 Sometimes the Old Testament could not supply the missing particulars which seemed necessary to explain some admitted fact in the life or character of Jesus, and then there was nothing left but to fill in the gap b}- guess-work. In such cases it happened, not infrequently, that the literal interpre- tation of spiritual expressions, and the misunderstanding of the metaphorical st}'le of the East in which the Gospel was first preached, so totally distorted the ancient tradition as to draw conclusions from it which it was never for a moment intended to sanction. An example of this process, too, will help us to understand the origin of the accounts of the de- scent of Jesus. In the first and third Gospels we read that Jesus was born miraculously, and that Joseph was only his foster-father. How did this belief arise? In the first place, we must notice that it was a common idea in ancient times that great found- ers of religions such as Buddha and Zoroaster, philosophers such as Pythagoras and Plato, and kings such as Romulus and Alexander, had had no earthfy father. Perhaps the Christians were confirmed in this idea with regard to their own Master bj T applying a passage in Isaiah, 7 which they 1 Matthew xiii. 54 (Mark vi. 1). 2 Matthew xiii. 57 (Mark. vi. 4; Luke iv. 23, 24), compare John vii. 41, 42 and i. 45, 46. 8 Matthew ii. 1. 4 Matthew ii. 22, 23. 6 Judges xiii. 5. 6 Matthew ii. 23. "< Isaiah vii. 14. DESCENT OF JESUS. 41 completely misunderstood, to the mother of the Messiah, and therefore to the mother of Jesus. 1 Besides this, they very truty saw in Jesus an altogether unique personality. They felt how far above all other men he stood ; that his nobility of soul, his goodness, his purity, his exaltation of character, and his love raised him above all comparison with other men. They were not content to explain these facts from the beauty of his natural disposition, its happy development, and the holiness and strength of his will. They were determined to find a supernatural cause. Three separate representations found acceptance in succession. In the earliest times the Christians believed that when Jesus was baptized the Holy Spirit descended upon him. Somewhat later he was said to have been born into the world miraculously, and not as an ordinary human being. Finally, an existence in heaven pre- vious to his appearance on earth was ascribed to him in order to account to some extent for his being so far exalted above other meu. But it was that misunderstanding of figurative language, of which we spoke just now, that was the chief cause at work in this instance. "Jesus was born of the Holy Spirit," said the believers. To understand this declaration, we must bear in mind the peculiar usages of New Testament language. It needs but little knowledge of ourselves and others to teach us that to be and to do good is no easy task that we can ac- complish without effort. Our perverse and selfish nature has to be subdued, and our better moral nature raised to suprem- ac}\ But what we should express now-a-days by saying " we must change our lives and become new and better men," is expressed in New Testament language thus : We must be born again, born of the Holy Spirit, the principle of all good. 2 So when the disciples wished to sa}' of Jesus that he did not need to become good because he was good, that he did not need to become another and a new man because he was a new man already, they expressed it by saying, "He was not born again, because he was born of the Holy Spirit from the first." And when the original meaning of this expression was forgotten, it was easily misunderstood and taken literally instead of metaphorically. Be} r ond the particulars already mentioned and explained, the first Evangelist has nothing to tell us of the descent of Jesus. The story of his birth was afterwards embellished in various ways, but Matthew is still very short and simple. i Matthew i. 23. 2 j h n Hi. 3, 5, 6; Titus iii. 5. 4:2 BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. He only tells us that Joseph saw an angel in a dream, and was told that the child which Mary (to whom he was only betrothed as yet) hoped soon to bear was miraculously con- ceived, would be Israel's redeemer, and must be called Jesus, that is deliverer, bringer of salvation. The scruples which Joseph had previously felt were now remored, and in obe- dience to the divine command he took Mary as his wife, and soon afterwards called her first-born son by the name which the angel had given him. In taking our leave for the present of Matthew, we must not fail to notice that though these stories of the David ic origin of Jesus and his birth of the virgin Maiy at Bethlehem spring from the religious prejudices of the early Christians, yet they bear witness also to the deep impression which Jesus made upon them, and their intense and unreserved devotion to him personally. Regarded from this point of view, the stories still retain their value for us, though we cannot help feeling that after all their authors never really understood the Master. In this first sketch explanations, arguments, and refuta- tions have taken the place of regular narrative, but all that has now been said will be an immense help to us in future. We have been breaking a pathway, as it were, through brush- wood and jungle, and when we meet with such obstructions again they will hardly delay our progress at all. Once con- vinced that our knowledge of the apostolic age throws light upon the narratives of the Gospels, we rnay henceforth make free use of the key we have discovered. Chapter II. THE BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. Luke I. 5-25, 57-80. THE Gospel history does not begin, as we might have expected, with its great hero, Jesus. But to prepare us, as it were, for his appearance, it associates with him another prophet, who was to proclaim his coming, as a herald an- nounces the approach of his king. There is some reason in this, for the new day that breaks upon the religious life of the world when the sun of truth rises above the horizon, in BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. 43 Jesus, was indeed heralded by its morning star. On the threshold of this new course of spiritual development we see the might}* form of one who belonged to the old period him- self and stood upon the soil of Israel's religion, but who points with outstretched hand to the great salvation that is drawing near, though he himself has not as yet formed an}' true conception of its nature and extent. His name is John. The position in which he stands towards the Messianic king- dom reminds us of the fortunes of that other man of God, Moses, who led the children of Israel towards the promised land, brought them up to its very boundaries, but might not set his own foot upon its soil ; for he breathed his last on Mount Nebo, so near to the goal he had passionately longed to reach, and the purpose to which he had devoted his life. The preaching of the Apostles themselves 1 and the earliest G ospel tradition 2 appear to have opened with the work of John. We need not wonder, therefore, that when the Chris- tians of a later time endeavored to mount up to the origin of their religion, and prefaced their account of the public life of Jesus by stories about his birth and childhood, Luke should have tried to go to the very root of the whole matter by opening his work with a similar account of the birth of John. After what has been said already, we shall see that from the veiy nature of the case this story must be a legend of :ater origin, but it is none the less interesting on that account. Here it is : — Under the reign of King Herod there dwelt in the moun- tain districts of southern Palestine, in a city of Judah — Hebron it has been supposed — a devout and virtuous couple. Both man and wife were of noble and priestly blood, but that did not make them proud and worldly Saclclucees like the magnates of Jerusalem. On the contrary, Zachariah and Elizabeth, for so the}' were called, were simple people, who preferred to keep away from the court and from the turmoil of the capital. Not only were they strict in their observance of all the precepts of the Law and the tradition, and irre- proachable in their lives, but they looked forward with eager expectation to the founding of the Messianic kingdom. The rule of the Idumsean Herod, the minion of the Romans, grew still heavier and more hateful as his age advanced, and made them, together with so many pious Israelites besides, long all the more passionately that God would now be gracious to his 1 Acts i. 22, x. 37. 2 Mark i. 1-4. 44 BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. people, would fulfil the promises he had given lyy the proph- ets, restore the throne of David, and enrich Israel with all spiritual and temporal blessings. In their domestic life they felt a grievous want, for they were childless ; and since they had both reached a great age they could hardly hope that the wish of their hearts would yet be fulfilled, and their disgrace removed. For among the Jews it was reckoned a disgrace to be childless, and these people knew not how they had deserved it. And so, old as the}* were, they could not give up pra3 T ing that this curse might be removed ; and as Zachariah offered his con- stant prayers for the deliverance and glory of Israel, he could not help adding his supplication that, as in ancient days to Sarah and Manoah's wife and Hannah, so now to his Eliza- beth, God would give a son after long and almost hopeless waiting. Now the priests were divided into four-and-twenty classes or families, called after the two sons of Aaron, Eleazer and Ithamar, and each class in turn conducted the services of the temple for a week. About twice in the 3*ear, therefore, when the time came round for the eighth class, to which he belonged, Zachariah would journey to Jerusalem to acquit himself of his official duties. It was the custom to decide by lot which member of the class on duty should have the privilege of burning the incense on the golden altar in the Holy Place. It was a great privilege, for it brought the of- ferer as near to the face of the Lord as it was ever possible or allowable for even a priest to go, except, indeed, the high priest himself. Once on a time the lot fell to Zachariah. He laid the incense and the aromatic spices reverently in the scale, and entered the sanctuary. When he came to the altar of incense, he poured out the glowing coals which another priest had carried in after him, and then strewed the incense over them. The cloud of fragrance rose — a 53- mbol of the pikers of the saints 1 — and filled the chamber. But what is this ? Great terror has laid hold of Zachariah. At the right of the altar, the place of propitious omens, by the glimmer of the lamps upon the golden candlestick, he dis- cerns through the thick clouds of vapor a heavenly form. It was an angel of the Lord that stood before him ! But he must overcome the fear that possessed him ; for it was a messenger of goou, who came to promise him that God would grant his pra} T er. He should have a son, and was to call him 1 K chelation v. 8. BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. 45 John (Johanan), that is, God is propitious. His birth would give great joy to many, to his parents first of all; he would be a great religious hero, a Nazarite all his life long, and a prophet like Elijah of old. He would prepare for the Mes- sianic kingdom by restoring piety and virtue to honor in Israel. Zachariah could hardly believe the message. He and his wife were now so old ! Then the angel made him- self known as Gabriel, one of the seven spirits of the throne, or angel-princes, and punished Zachariah for his want of faith 03- making him dumb. He was not to recover speech until the promise was fulfilled. Meanwhile the people were standing in the fore-courts and muttering their prayers, as they waited for Zachariah to re- turn from the sanctuary and give them the priestly blessing. What could have happened to him that he stayed so long? At last he came out, but, though he stretched out his arms and motioned with his hand, he could not utter a sound. Then they understood that he had seen a vision. When his week of duty was over, he returned at once to his dwelling-place. What joy to Elizabeth that the shame of her childlessness would be removed ! But for a long time she kept the secret that she hoped to be a mother carefully to herself; and when in the course of time she actually give birth to a male infant, her fellow townspeople and rela- tives rejoiced with all their hearts in the blessing that God hud given her. Eight chays after the child's birth, the} T ah came up to the ceremony of circumcision and naming. The^y wanted the child to be called Zachariah, after his father, but Elizabeth herself said it must be John. As no one in the family had ever had this name, they referred to the father, who was still speechless, for his decision. He took the writing tool, and scratched on a wax tablet, u His name is John." As soon as he had thus fulfilled what Gabriel had enjoined, his powers of speech were given him again, and to the amazement of all present he poured out his heart in a loft}' song of praise to God. This wondrous child was a pledge to him that God's great promise, the coming of the Messiah, would soon be fulfilled ; and in his sacred joy the happy father felt as though the deliverance of Israel from the hated } T oke of the t}Tant and shameful dependence upon heathen Rome were alread} T accomplished, and the illustrious son of David were alread} T come. All that the prophets had predicted would now come to pass ; the covenant that the Lord had made with the generations of old, and his oath to 46 BIRTH AND TOUTH OF JOHN. Abraham, would be confirmed, and his people would worship him unmolested, in freedom and in might. Well might Zach- ariah utter the rapturous prophec}-, that his new-born son would prepare the great deliverance of God's merely, and be a prophet in Israel ! Of course these strange events produced a deep impres- sion. The tale was passed from mouth to mouth through the whole country round, and everyone questioned and wondered what the boy would turn out to be. Evidently he was no ordinary child. Nor did he grow up as ordinary children do. For while his bod}' and soul developed freely, he spent the years of childhood and } T outh far from the tumult and unclean ness of the world, in the wilderness hard by his native place, till the moment came for him to appear in Israel as a prophet. This stoiy bears every mark of being a pure invention. It carries us right to the centre of the religious ideas and conceptions of the Jews, and with them it stands or falls. If we cannot accept these beliefs, we cannot for a moment regard the narrative as trustworthy. Only consider ! An angel comes upon the scene ; but is it not remarkable that his name is as good Hebrew as though he were a Jew? Might we not just as well suppose the inhabitants of heaven to speak Greek or English as Hebrew? The angel makes himself known as Gabriel, "who stands before God;" but this idea that there were different ranks of angels, and that the seven highest chiefs, Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, Uriel, and the rest, surrounded God's throne as his first ministers of state, is of course a mere figment of the imagination. It is not even an originally Jewish belief, for though the Jews themselves had long thought of God as though he were an Eastern monarch, and had imagined heaven, his abode and that of the angels, to be arranged like a royal court, yet the details of their angelology were for the most part bor- rowed from the Persians. Then, again, nothing could be more pardonable than the doubts entertained by Zachariah, for he did not even know with what an exalted being he was conversing. Abraham and Sarah had laughed on hearing a similar announcement from the lips of God himself, and had escaped with a simple reprimand ; but later Jewish supersti- tion would not tolerate a moment's questioning of any thing that was held to be, or claimed to be, a supernatural revela- tion, and this is why the priest has such a heav} T punishment BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. 4 < to bear. And again, in Zachariah's song of praise we find the son of David, the mighty king, the deliverance from heathen oppression, in a word, the Jewish Messianic expec- tation which was never fulfilled ; but in the story the song represents the pure and perfect truth, for the happy father wi prophesies, being filled with the Holy Spirit." But enough. From what we have noticed already , especially from this last point, we ma)' reach a conclusion which the scenes that fol- low will confirm ; namely, that the first two chapters of Luke, which record the birth of John and Jesus and stand quite alone, are taken from Jewish-Christian sources, though per- haps partly recast by the Evangelist to suit his purpose. Such an origin is indicated b} r their very style and language, which show a far stronger Hebrew coloring than characterizes the rest of the Gospel. What is the origin of our story? It was natural enough that in the case of an only child, especially if its parents had long hoped and waited in vain for such a blessing, the Jews' should have thought " the child has surely some great destiny marked out for him by God." But then the process was re versed by the legends, and because a man turned out to be remarkable, it was said u he must have been the only child of a couple who had remained childless for years," — ■ a bitter trial to the Israelite, and one which he regarded as a sign of God's displeasure. In the same vein, the apociyphal " Gos- pel of James," towards the end of the second centuiy, tells us of the birth of Maiy, the mother of Jesus. Her parents, Joachim and Anna, deeply grieved and bitterly reviled because of the sterilhrv of their wedlock, each receives an angelic vision, with a promise that the curse shall be re- moved ; and, in course of time, Mary comes into the world. In the case of Zachariah and Elizabeth, the wonder is still further heightened by our being informed that they were aged people, quite stricken in 3*ears. But, if we can haidly believe that people of such an age could have the quiet of their home so happily disturbed by the birth of a child, we have no difficulty, on the other hand, in explaining why such a fiction should have been produced. Not only the fates of the Christ, but those of his predecessor — and such was John held to be — were supposed to be indicated in the Old Testament ; and this story is manifestly copied from the account of Abraham and Sarah, Manoah and his wife, and Elkanah and Hannah. From the first of these stories the legend borrowed the great age of the father and mother. 48 BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. and the father's slowness to believe the promise. 1 The life- long dedication as a Nazarite and the lofty destination of the promised son are taken from the story of the birth of Sam- son, 2 while Hannah's first-born son is also described as a Nazarite and a great prophet. 3 Finally, a precedent for the appearance of Gabriel and the dumbness of Zachariah might also be found in Scripture ; for in the Book of Daniel the same archangel appears and is mentioned b} T name, 4 and Daniel himself is on another occasion visited, at least for a time, with dumbness. 5 This is certainly the way in which the story rose. But if we reflect for a moment we shall readily admit that the feeling which lies at the bottom of it is not altogether false. Such a use as is here made of the Old Testament is doubtless unwarrantable and due to mistaken conceptions ; but the fundamental idea from which it starts is perfectly true, in spite of all the gross exaggerations which have deformed it. This fundamental idea is the belief that a single thread of development runs through the history of Israel's religion and the origin of Christianity, through the Old and the New Covenant ; that a close connection of origin and pur- pose must be recognized between the elect of former times and God's new messengers, John and Jesus, and that in the persons and the circumstances of these two the echo of a hoary antiquit} 7 may be often caught. There is a more or less marked coincidence between the ancient and the modern prophets in their sense of God's summons to them, in their work and their hope, in their struggles, their disappointments, and the opposition they had to encounter. As we go on, we shall often see how Jesus himself clung to this thought, and found in the history of the ancient heroes of faith a fore- shadowing of the reception he would meet and the fate in store for him. And even in this story of John's miraculous birth there is a certain fitness. The character, the actions, and the nature of commonplace men are easily enough ex- plained by ordinary causes, such as parentage, position, and ciicumstances, and it seems unnecessary to take any special or original factor into account ; but wherever there is true genius or true nobility and exaltation of character, — even without celebrity, for celebrated men are not always great, nor great men celebrated, — then it seems to us as if the spirit 1 Gen. xvii. 17, xviii. 13. 2 Judges xiii. 3 1 Samuel i. 11, ii. 26, iii. 19-21. 4 Daniel viii. 16, ix. 21, 6 Daniel x. 15. BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. 49 of power, of holiness, and of love that dwells in man, in a word, it seems as if God himself were working in some spe- cial wa}\ There is one more point in the story which calls for special notice, since it possesses a peculiar interest in connection with the rest of the Gospel history. When Gabriel promises Zachariah that his son will make ready for the fulfilment of the Messianic promise, he uses the words, " He shall go out before God, the Lord, in the spirit and power of Elijah." In itself, this expression would strike us simply as a com- parison between John and the most renowned of the prophets made as a testimony in John's honor. But even in the more ancient passages of the Gospels Elijah is constantly mentioned, and John identified with him. Na} T , Jesus himself expressly testifies of John, " He is the Elijah who was to come." * What is the meaning of this? Malachi had promised that, before the fearful judgment which would inaugurate the Mes- sianic age, Yah weh "would send his messenger to prepare the wa}* before him," that is, to remove every thing that of- fended him, — the want of reverence and mercy, and all the other sins of the Israelites. 2 This messenger was to be " the prophet Elijah, who would put an end to domestic feuds." 8 Now Gabriel directly quotes this prophecy as about to be fulfilled in the son of Elizabeth's old age. But the quotation seems inappropriate and arbitrary ; for John was not Elijah, and the archangel, perceiving this, gave a fresh turn to the words, and said " a prophet in the spirit and power of Elijah." But the passage in Malachi distinctly announced the coming of Elijah himself, and the Jews accordingly looked for the re- turn of the ancient prophet in person. It seems that they appealed in confirmation to the words put into the mouth of Moses : " Yahweh shall raise up a prophet in your midst, like unto me" 4 No one had come after Moses who stood so high in the people's estimation as Elijah. The deep impression he had left behind him and the colossal proportions assumed by his figure in tradition are attested by the legends that were circulated about him. 5 No other hero lived on in the thoughts and imagination of the people as he did ; 6 the Rabbis circu- lated a host of stories about him ; and to this ven day a chair is left empty for him when the Jews circumcise their chil- 1 Matthew xi. 14. 2 Malachi iii. 1. 8 Malachi iv. 5, 6. 4 Deuteronomy xviii. 15-18. 5 1 Kings xvii. ff., and vol. iii. ch. xii. 6 Luke iv. 25,26; James v. 17, 18; above all, Jesus Sirach xlviii. 1-12. VOL. III. 3 50 BIRTH AND YOUTH OF JOHN. clren ! But the Old Testament itself gave ground enough for regarding Elijah as " the prophet like unto Moses, whom Yahweh should raise up." He had every right to be regarded as the representative of the prophetic order. Nay, had he not, like the great law-giver, seen and spoken to Yahweh on Mount Horeb ? * And this is wiry the names of Moses and Elijah are constantly associated in the New Testament, and the two represented as on an equality with each other. 2 More- over, there was a special reason for regarding it as possible that Elijah might return to Israel, for according to the legend he had not died, but had been taken up alive to heaven. It was but natural to suppose that his abode in the dwelling- place of God and the angels was but for a time ; that he was taken there provisionally, to manifest himself again at the appointed time and to fulfil his mission. His task would then be to avert the divine wrath ere it was yet too late, by the power of his preaching to Israel ; to restore domestic peace to the bosom of his people ; to collect the oppressed and scattered tribes, and restore them >to their former pros- perity. Blessed was he who should live to see the day ! And even now the belief still lives among the Jews that Elijah will revisit Israel three days before the Messiah. The contemporaries of Jesus, then, were convinced that Elijah would come to restore all things in Israel to their proper state, 3 in order to prepare for the establishment of the Messianic kingdom. Such was the teaching of the Scribes, 4 and such the expectation of the people. 5 But John was not Elijah, and knowing, as he must have done, that he was not the ancient prc^het come to earth again, he never professed that he was. 6 What was it, then, that made the Jewish-Christian who sketched this scene call John an Elijah. and, by speaking of " a prophet in the spirit and power of Elijah," give such a dexterous turn to the prophec}' of Malachi and the expectations of the Israelites as to make them appli- cable to John ? How could the second Evangelist begin his work bj T quoting this prophetic passage as though it were fulfilled in John? 7 And what right had Jesus himself to say in the hearing of the people : kk If you will receive it, he i 1 Kings xix. 8-18. 2 Matthew xvii. 3 (Mark ix. 4; Luke ix. 30); Revelation xi. 3 ff. Compare Revelation xi. 6 with 1 Kings xvii. 1, and Exodus vii. 19. 3 Matthew xvii. 11 (Mark ix. 12). * Matthew xvii. 10; Mark ix. 11. 5 Matthew xvi 14 (Mark viii. 28; Luke ix. !!)). fi ConiDare John i. 21. 7 Mark i. 2. BIRTH OK JESUS. 51 is the Elijah that sho ild come," * and afterwards to repeat and elaborate 1 liis explanation to his disciples? 2 It was because John had been courageous enough not to wait an}' longer for a prophet who had been dead a thousand years to come to earth again, but had said, " /will do it!" and had seized the work from Elijah's hand. He could not sit still and wait. The Messianic kingdom must come now. It might seem a piece of presumptuous audacity, a desperate act of violence, but he was determined himself to hasten the founding of the kingdom of God ; and thus he tacitty stepped into Elijah's place. Well might Gabriel say to the priest, ' ' Your son shall be great in the sight of the Lord ; " well might the Evangelist describe his growth in the words, " The child grew, and waxed strong in spirit." We can understand the testimony of Jesus : " Verily I say unto you, among them that are born of women there hath not risen a greater than John the Baptist." 3 Chapter III. THE BIRTH OF JESU8 Luke I. 26-56; II. 1-20. NEARLY half a year had passed, says Luke, since Zacha- riah's vision in the temple, when God summoned his faithful Gabriel once more, and gave him a message of supreme and joyous import. Obedient to his command, Gabriel descended from heaven and alighted in the Gali- lean city of Nazareth. In this place dwelt a certain Joseph, who was on the point of being married to a maiden of the same place, whose name was Mary. The message of the angel was to her. He entered the chamber where she sat. "All hail, thou favored one of heaven! The Lord is with thee ! " he exclaimed. Mary was troubled and perplexed, not knowing what this solemn greeting meant. But Gabriel quieted her fears, and ^announced to her the birth of a son, whom she was to call Jesus. He would ascend the throne of 1 Matthew xi. 14; compare verse 10. 2 Matthew xvii. 11-13 (Mark ix 12, 13). a Matthew xi. 11 5tf BIRTH OF JESUS. Ihe Messiah, and hold sway over Israel for ever. Mary replied in amazement that she was not married yet, but the angel set the difficulty aside by an appeal to God's omnipo- tence. Her child would be, in the most literal sense of the word, a son of the Most High. To confirm her faith he announced to her that her cousin Elizabeth hoped to become a mother in her old age ; and when Mary in humility and gratitude had received the promise vouchsafed to her, the angel rose up again on high. Following out the suggestion sent to her from God, Mary lost no time in paying a visit to Elizabeth. It was a distant journey to the mountains of Judah in the south, but she longed to visit and speak to her aged relative, who was in so much the same position as herself. She had no cause to repent of her resolution ; for she had no sooner crossed the threshold of Zachariah's house and offered her greeting to Elizabeth, than the latter, enlightened at the very moment by God, welcomed her as blessed among women, as the mother of her Lord, and was so filled with sacred enthusiasm arid religious awe that the jo} T ous exaltation came on Mary too, and she gave vent to her ecstasy in a song of thanks- giving to God for the goodness he had shown to her, and above all for the deliverance of Israel from the heathen yoke and the fulfilment of His promises to the fathers. We can well understand that Mary prolonged her stay with her cousin to its utmost possible extent ; she remained in Elizabeth's house three months, but was then obliged to leave her and go back to Nazareth. It was not at Nazareth, however, in the house of her betrothed, that she gave birth to the child. God had or- dained it otherwise. About this time, when the pro-consul Fublius Sulpicius Quirinus was governor of Syria, a lxyyal decree was issued at Rome, to the effect that a census or rating should be made of all the world ; that is to say, of the whole Roman empire. It was called a registration in those clays, and consisted in drawing up lists for taxation, in which every one's name, means of subsistence, and propert}" were entered. In the kingdom of Herod, as elsewhere, this cen- sus must be made ; but in this district a very peculiar mode of carrying it out was adopted. Each citizen was to go and be entered at the place whence his family was originally derived, and where the family roll was kept. As a descend- ant of David, therefore, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem, David's native city. Mary might have stayed at Nazareth BIRTH OF JESUS. 0,1 had she chosen to do so, and Joseph might have had her registered as his betrothed ; but, in spite of the difficulties so long a journey must have offered her, she accompanied him to Bethlehem. This considerably lengthened the time they spent on the way, which under ordinary circumstances would have been three days. At last they reached the place of their destination, not without much care and anxiety. They were very unfortunate when they got there, however. If they had hoped to find a comfortable resting-place they were disappointed. The same cause that had brought them to Bethlehem had also brought a host of others, who had arrived before them, and had taken up all the available accommodation. In the caravansary, a great building open to travellers, in which they and their beasts of burden could generally spend the night for nothing, there was no more room. What was to be done? They were at their wits' end ; for they had no acquaintances upon whose hospitality they could reckon, and they were too poor to hire a lodging, even if every house had not been more than full already. !So at last they were compelled to go into the stable of the inn, and make the best of such accommodation as it offered. It was high time they did so, for that very night, when all around were sunk in sleep, and Joseph and Mary were quite alone, she brought a baby-bo3 r into the world. The young, mother herself did all that was needed for her first-born child, gently and carefully wrapped him in swaddling clothes, avid laid him down in the manger that was meant to hold the cat- tle's food ! There lay the helpless little thing ! The world gave no heed to his first cry, and no one knew that a man was born. But a heart that overflowed with a mother's pride offered up its homage to the God of mercy, and Joseph knelt by the manger and thanked the Lord from the depths of his soul that He had been with them in their need. That same night, perhaps an hour or two later, they re- ceived an unexpected visit ; but so far from disturbing them it was an unspeakably joyful surprise. Certain men, whom their humble attire seemed to mark as shepherds, respect- fully and cautiously asked to be admitted. Their faces glowed with sacred enthusiasm ; their eyes were lighted up with eager expectation. What could have happened to them? As soon as they entered they began to look about, and asked for the new-born babe. How did they know any thing of him? Let them tell their own story. 54 BIRTH OF JESUS. At the moment of the baby's birth, they were keeping watch over their flocks Ivy night in the open country round Bethlehem. As they were sitting and tying about, talking to one another, or occupied with their own thoughts, a wonder came to pass which at first filled them with deadly terror. The darkness was suddenly dispelled b}' an unearthly glor}', as the light that shines round the throne of God flooded all the scene. An angel stood before them, and quieted their fears. He brought good news for Israel. The Messiah was born that very night at Bethlehem. They would easily find him, — a new-born child laid in a manger. The shepherds had scarcely heard the news, and had not yet recovered from their amazement, when the heavenly music of angel choirs swept through the air in sweeter tones than earth had ever heard : — Glory to God in the highest, and peace on earth ! His will is good toward man. . . . The ineffably sweet and glorious vision was gone, and all was still again. The shepherds were left gazing at one an- other ; but in another moment they were hurrying to Bethle- hem to assure themselves of the truth of this great news. And there they found the humble scene, just as it had been .described to them ! They told their tale to all who would hear it, and made known everywhere what God had an- nounced to them about this bab}\ The wondrous story waked amazement far and near, and if many of those who heard it soon forgot it again, it was not so with Mary. Not a word was lost by her ; and not only as the shepherds, ren- dering high praise to God, were returning to their work, but often and often in after years, she pondered in quiet rapture over that vision and that song. Such is the well-known story of the birth of Jesus, one of the sweetest and most deeply significant of all the legends in the Bible. That it is a legend, without even the smallest historical foundation, we must, of course, admit; or if we have any doubt on the subject, a moment's consideration will remove it. All that was said of the appearance of Gabriel to Zachariah * is equally applicable to the present case. Indeed, the diffi- culties here are still greater. For not only in Mary's song, which is imitated from Hannah's, 2 does the Jewish Messianic 1 See pp. 46, 47. 2 1 Samuel iii. 1-10, and vol. i. p. 436. BIRTH O* JESUS. 55 expectation, reappear, but also in the words of the angel him- self, who foretells to MVy that her son shall sit upon the throne of David his ancestor, and rule over Israel. Now of course, if a messenger from heaven had really come to bring a divine revelation to Mary, the result must have confirmed his pre- dictions ; and since Jesus never fulfilled these expectations it is obvious that the revelation was never made. Both the promise and the song of praise owe their origin to the obsti- nate belief of the Jewish-Christians, retained even after the death of Jesus, that he would come again from heaven, would expel the Romans, establish an earthly kingdom, and, in short, realize their dreams of national triumph. 1 We must add that the representation given by Matthew is irreconcilable with that of Luke. The message of Gabriel to Mary, her visit to Elizabeth, and the joyous congratula- tions of the latter would have dispensed with the necessit}^ of an angel's appearing to Joseph in a dream to remove his scruples as to consummating his marriage. This journe}' to the mountains of Judah, then, can find no place in the Gos- pel of Matthew, nor indeed can it be fitted into the historical framework of the life of Jesus ; for when he and John after- wards met, as men, they were entire strangers to each other, and this could not have been the case if their mothers had been near relatives, and had been so well acquainted from the very first with the future of their sons and the position in which the}' would stand to each other. But above all we must note, that according to the first Gospel Joseph and Mary lived at Bethlehem, according to the third at Nazareth. From the belief which they both accepted as an article of faith that the Christ must be born at Bethlehem, Matthew simply concluded that Joseph and Mary lived there ; whereas Luke (or his authority) was too well aware of the uniformity of the tradition that they had always lived at Nazareth to ac- cept this explanation, and therefore hit upon another, after much reflection. He brings them up to the city of David on a very special occasion and for a veiy short period. Hardly have they got there when Jesus is born, 2 and within six weeks they are on their way home again. 3 This special occasion was the census. 4 But here again we are met by overwhelming difficulties. In itself, the Evange- list's account of the manner in which the census was carried out is entirely incredible. Only fancy the indescribable conui- 1 Acts i. 6, and elsewhere. 2 Luke ii. 6. 8 Luke ii. 39. 4 Luke ii. 1-5. 56 BIRTH OF JESUS. sion that would have arisen if every one, through the length and breadth of the land of the Jews, had left his abode to go and enrol himself in the city or village from which his family originally came, even supposing that he knew where it was. The census under David was conducted after a very different fashion. 1 But it is still more important to note that the Evan- gelist falls into the most extraordinar} T mistakes throughout. In the first place histoiy is silent as to a census of the whole (Roman) world ever having been made at all. In the next place, though Quirinus certainly did make such a register in Judsea and Samaria, it did not extend to Galilee ; so that Joseph's household was not affected by it. Besides it did not take place till ten years after the death of Herod, when his son Archelaus was deposed b} r the Emperor, and the dis tricts of Judsea and Samaria were thrown into a Roman prov- ince. Under the reign of Herod nothing of the kind took place, nor was there any occasion for it. Finally, at the time of the birth of Jesus the governor of Syria was not Qui- rinus, but Quintus Sentius Saturninus. You will easily see that, if the occasion of the journey of Joseph and Maiy to Bethlehem rests upon a tissue of confusions and mistakes, the whole story falls to the ground. One more remark, which would be enough in itself to justif} 7 us in absolutely rejecting the whole account of the birth of Jesus. Every other passage of the New Testament which bears upon the question, the sequel of the life of Jesus, the whole contents of the Gospels, in a word, all accessible sources of information without exception, are in direct con- tradiction with it. We have already seen that Nazareth is called the birthplace of Jesus, both by himself and every one else, and that two distinct pedigrees were drawn up on the supposition that Joseph was his father. 2 So, too, in the stories of the presentation in the temple 3 and of the child Jesus at Jerusalem, 4 Joseph is called his father. Jesus is repeatedly described as the son of the carpenter, 5 or the son of Joseph, without the least indication that the expression is not strictly in accordance with fact. 6 The Apostle Paul expresses him- self in the same sense. Neither the Gospel of Mark, which in this respect at least abides most faithfully by the old apos- tolic tradition, nor that of John, sa} T s a word about Bethlehem or the miraculous birth. The congregation of Jerusalem to i 2 Samuel xxiv. 1-9, and vol. ii. ch. iv. p. 26. 2 See pp. 36, 39. 8 Luke ii. 27. 4 Luke ii. 41-48. 6 Matthew xiii. 55. • Luke iv. 22; John i. 46, vi. 42; see, however, Luke iii. 23. BIRTH OF JESUS. 57 tvhich Mary and the brothers of Jesus belonged, 1 and over which the eldest of them, James, presided, 2 can have known nothing of it ; for the later Jewish-Christian communities, the so-called Ebionites, who were descended from the congrega- tion of Jerusalem, called Jesus the son of Joseph. Na} T , the story that the Holy Spirit was the father of Jesus must have risen among the Greeks, and not among the first believers, who were Jews, for the Hebrew word for spirit is of the feminine gender. The Ebionites, therefore, called the Holy Spirit the mother and not the father of Jesus. Only think ! If the birth of Jesus had realty taken place under such extraordinary circumstances, announced b} T a messenger from heaven, and hymned in mortal ears by a "great compairy of the heavenly host," how would it have been possible that every trace of such wonders should have disappeared, that the}' should all have passed away, and left no recollection after them? Yet this takes place according to the Gospel ; for not only is the general public entirely ignorant of these events (though the news must have spread like fire through the land, especially when the Messianic expectation was at such a height), but his own family show be3'ond a doubt that they had not the faintest conception of the lofty significance of the personalh:y of Jesus. This would be inconceivable were the story genuine history. If his parents fail to understand him when he says, at twelve years old, that he must be in his Father's house ; 3 if he himself afterwards declares that he finds no faith among his nearest relatives ; 4 if he exalts his faithful disciples above his unbe- lieving mother and brothers ; 5 above all, if Mary and her other sons put down his prophetic enthusiasm to insanuy, 6 — then the untrustwortlry nature of these stories of his birth is absolutely certain. If even a little of what they tell us had been true, then Mary at least would have believed in Jesus, and would not have failed so utterly to understand him. But when once we are convinced that the story is not gen- uine history, its emblematic meaning comes out - clearly. It embodies a poetical conception and description of the per- son and the lot of Jesus, and foreshadows his life and work in a few bold lines and significant contrasts. Let us glance 1 Acts i. 14. 2 Acts xxi. 18; Galatians ii. 9, 12. 8 Lukeii. 50. . * Matthew xiii. 57 (Mark vi. 4). a Matthew xii. 48-50 (Mark iii. 33-35). 6 Mark iii. 21, 3* 58 BIRTH OF JESUS. at the main figures. In the foreground stand Augustas and Jesus, — the proud Emperor of Rome, who holds sway over the world b} T force of arms, and the lowly son of man, the truth of whose preaching, the power of whose spirit, and whose self-sacrificing love exact submission from all men. But there is another special reason for the introduction of Augustus. The first disciples of Jesus, Jews by birth and attached to Judaism heart and soul, believed, in their narrow national pride, that the Christ was the special possession of Abraham's chosen seed. They were jealous of their supposed privileges, and barred the entrance to the kingdom of the Christ against all who were not Israelites, unless they would first go over to Judaism. Our story enters a protest against this idea, for the imperial decree to take a census of all the world is carried out at the very time of the birth of Jesus, who is thus represented as a citizen of the world, belonging to all mankind, and not to Israel alone ; the deliverer not only of his special people, but of all his brothers over the whole earth. Is not that a noble thought? And look again what deep and true feeling pervades the legend. For him, the great bearer of salvation, a brilliant career is surety held in store, and the world will give him a glorious welcome? Alas, no ! There is no room for his parents ; no room even for Mary, much as she needs it, in the inn. When Jesus comes into the world there is not a creature to give him a thought, or to help to supply his wants ; and he is cradled in a manger. It is the foreshadowing of a life of bereavement. He will never rest, never find a home, not so much as a place in which to lay his head, until, beset and persecuted on every side, the victim of the world's fierce hatred, laden with its scornful curses, he drops his wearied head upon the cross in eternal rest ! But though he comes without external display, though he bears no trace of earthly splendor, and though the superficial world sees nothing in the son of the carpenter of Nazareth to mark him off from others, yet this event that earth passes b} T unnoticed is celebrated with intensest joy and brightest radiance in heaven. Contrasting with the deep poverty within is the message and the song of angels with- out ; and this sharp contrast sums up, as it were, the whole life of Jesus, — humble in his earthly lot, majestic in his moral grandeur ; without material power, but mighty in the spirit ; despised by the world, but glorified by God. The blessed tidings are brought to humble shepherds, not to the great and wise, - - for Jesus himself bestowed small care upon the PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 59 great ones of the earth, and was almost always thinking of the poor and simple "peoples of the land." It was his ambition to befriend the people and console the poor. And what a wealth of noble thoughts is crowded into the angelic song itself! For the sake of this child of man God rejoices in mankind ; he who is to establish the kingdom of peace upon earth has come. Surely his birth, with all its results of unutterable glor}-, should wake songs of praise and thanks- giving to God in hearts overwhelmed with thankful joy ! In what a clear and beautiful light this picture places all that Jesus may be to us ! What artistic beauty, what deep symbolic truth pervades it ! In it the Christians of the olden time tried to reproduce their own thoughts and feelings about Jesus ; and the legend is the visible expression of their ven- eration and gratitude towards him. And though we should choose other forms in which to express our reverence for Jesus, we can fully share the affection and can rival the gratitude that inspired this old legend. It is a declaration of faith in Jesus made by the apostolic age ; it is a glowing testimony to the high honor which Jesus has a right to claim, to the fulfilment in him of the hope which the noblest of our race had cherished, to the restoration in his person of the honor of human nature, of faith in human worth, and in man's calling to spotless holiness. As such we can accept it and rejoice in it with all our hearts. Indeed, when we consider it rightly, this sweet old legend of the birth of Jesus, with all its wondrous beauty, gains a fresh charm fo? us when it ceases to rank as history. Chapter IV. THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. Luke II. 21-39. " "\XT-^-^^ * ne ^ me appointed by God had come, he sent » ▼ forth his son, made of a woman, made under the Law." In these words the Apostle Paul 1 describes the birth of Jesus as that of an ordinary man, 2 and, what is more, an ordinary Israelite. We too often forget that Jesus was an Israelite, not only by birth and education, but in his whole 1 Galatiaus iv. 4. 2 Compare Job xiv. 1 ; Matthew xi. 11. 60 PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. style of thought, speech, and life ; that his conception of the universe and his own individual character unmistakably bore the Israelitish stamp, and that he can on!}* be rightly under- stood and full}' appreciated when this fact is borne in mind. It is often difficult to remember this, for Jesus had risen, at the price of many an effort and many an internal conflict, far above the one-sidedness, the narrowness, the pride, all the faults in short that characterized his people. But we must try never to lose sight of the fact that he still remained a thorough Israelite. Luke calls attention to it at the outset, 03- telling us that the parents of Jesus scrupulously fulfilled their religious du- ties, and faithfully observed the injunctions of the Law with respect to their child. 1 On the eighth day after his birth the ceremony of circumcision was performed ; and at the same time he received his name. Both Matthew and Luke find something very remarkable in the name Jesus. They say that the new-born child re- ceived this name at the command of God as Israel's future deliverer. 2 But the fact is that this name, whicli is pro- nounced in Hebrew Yezua, and is sometimes Grecized into Jason, was very common. After the Captivity it occurs quite frequently, and is interchanged with the name Joshua. Indeed Joshua, the successor of Moses, is called Jesus in the New Testament more than once, 3 though the meaning of the two names is not really quite the same. We know of a Jesus, son of Sirach, a writer of proverbs, whose collection is preserved among the apocryphal books of the Old Testa- ment. The notorious Barabbas, or son of Abbas, was himself called Jesus. Among Paul's opponents w r e find a magician called Elymas, the son of Jesus. Among the early Christ- ians a certain Jesus, also called Justus, appears. Flavins Josephus mentions more than ten distinct persons — priests, robbers, peasants, and others — who bore the name of Jesus, all of w r hom lived during the last centuiy of the Jewish state. But we need not be surprised to find the Evangelists laying such stress upon the name, for the nar- ratives of the Old Testament have taught us that the Israel- ites thought much more of names than we do ; for we hardly ever think of their meaning, and in most cases do not so much as know what it is. The Israelites, on the other hand, saw in the meaning of every great man's name a prophecy of 1 Luke ii. 21, 22, 23, 24, 39, 41. 2 Matthew i. 21; Luke i. 3L. 8 Acts vii. 45; Hebrews iv. 8; compare Nehemiah viii. 17. PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 61 his character, his fortunes, or something that specially con- cerned him. Thus the} T inverted the real order of things, for in reality it was not the name which described the man by anticipation, but the man whose brilliant services con- ferred a special significance upon the name which he hap- pened to bear. If Joseph and Mary, instead of calling their child Jesus, had happened to give him the name of Solomon (= Frederick), David (= Gottlieb) or Isaiah (= Godhelp) what legends might not have been spun out of such sugges- tive names ! In fact Matthew, if he had had the choice, would evidently have preferred Immanuel (= God is with us) to Jesus. 1 Now the name Jesus means deliverance, safety, preserva- tion ; or, perhaps, deliverer, 'preserver, 2 and is identical in meaning with the Greek expressions which occur in the New Testament, and are translated salvation and saviour'. But unfortunately we have learned to associate these latter words with the life after death, and to think of the bliss of heaven when we use them ; whereas the Greek expressions a^waj-s refer to the Messianic kingdom, especially to preserva- tion from the terrible judgments of God which were to precede the founding of the kingdom. In using the words saviour aid salvation, therefore, we must remember that they simply mean one who saves or delivers, and safety or deliverance. The Law declared that a mother who had given birth to a boy was unclean for seven days, and must separate herself or remain at home for thirty-three days after the circum- cision. If the baby was a girl, both periods were doubled. All this time the mother must not touch any sacred thing or enter the temple. When these days were past she must make an offering of purification in the temple, consisting of a lamb of one year old for a burnt sacrifice, and a young pigeon or turtle-dove for a sin offering ; or, if she was too poor to buy a lamb, she might take another dove instead. Besides all this, first-born sons must be taken to the temple when a month old and presented to the Lord, as it was called. They were then bought off or redeemed from him for five shekels, a sum about equal to twelve shillings, but since money was worth so much more in those days it would be equivalent to about twenty da3 T s' wages of a workman. To save trouble, this presentation was made at the same time as the sacrifice of purification. i Matthew i. 23. 2 Siraeh xlvi. 3. 62 PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. II is not qaite certain that all these customs were observed after the birth of Jesus. Israelites who lived far from Jerusa lem generally waited to make their offerings until one of the great feasts furnished a suitable occasion for visiting the temple, or even got a friend to make the offerings on their behalf. In the same wa} T , the distance from Galilee to the capital often prevented the presentation of first-born sons in the temple ; and, what is more, we have no sufficient grounds for supposing that Jesus was the eldest son of Joseph and Mary. But even supposing that all these regulations were strictly observed, and that Luke had the means of knowing it, he certainly would not have told us all the details unless he had had a special reason for doing so. That reason may be found in the following story. On the fortieth da}', sa}'s Luke, the parents of Jesus went to Jerusalem to offer in the temple their two doves (the poor man's sacrifice) , to present their son before the Lord, and to paj r the price of redemption for him. Here a joj'ful surprise awaited them, similar to the one they had already experienced on the night of their baby's birth. In the Holy City dwelt a certain Simeon, a venerable old man (later traditions state that he was far more than a hundred years old) , of perfect piety. He fervently longed for the coming of the Messianic Kingdom, for the deliverance of Israel from sufferings and oppression ; and God had revealed to him that he should see the Anointed of the Lord before he died. And now the Holy Spirit led him to the temple at the very moment that Joseph and Maiy were entering the forecourt. In the lowly child of a few weeks old he at once discovered the future Messiah. His eyes gleamed with transport at the fulfilment of the fer- vent hope he had cherished so long, and, taking the little Jesus in his arms, he gave utterance to the thoughts that rushed upon him in the song of praise : — Lord ! now lettest thou thy servant depart, According to thy word, in peace. For mine eyes have seen thy saltation Which thou hast prepared before all peoples, — A light of revelation to the heathen, A glory for thy people Israel ! The father and mother listened in amazement to this in- spired song in praise of their child ; and the old man turned to them and blessed them. Then he spoke to Mary alone, and said, "Behold, this child is appointed in the counsel of God for the fall and the rise of many in Israel: to some he PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 63 shall be the cause of destruction, to others of salvation. Op- position and enmity will surround him, and, alas ! the sword will pierce through your heart too. . . . Why must all this be? That the hearts of men ma}' be laid bare as the}' are, and not as the}' seem." Hardly had fcimeon ended, when there came another to greet the child. It was the ancient prophetess Anna, a wo- man of wondrous piety, who had never consented to a second marriage though early left a widow, but was always in the temple, and was never weary of fasting and praying. She, too, praised God for this future deliverer of Israel, and spoke of him to all who hoped for the Messiah in Jerusalem. Joseph and Mary now fulfilled the religious duties they had come to perform for their infant, and then left the temple with their hearts full of the two glorious and unexpected testimo- nies they had received. They were naturally anxious to go home again ; so they did not return to Bethlehem, where there was nothing now to keep them, but started at once on their journey to Galilee, and arrived without further adventures at their home in Nazareth. It is a beautiful picture of the aged Simeon and Anna with the tender little baby and the astonished and delighted pa- rents all gathered in the house of God ! But it is out of the question to regard it as genuine history. We need not say much on this point. The supernatural revelation said to have been vouchsafed to Simeon, his miraculous guidance to the temple at the right moment, his recognition of the child, and foreknowledge of what was in store for him, are of course incredible. Many years afterwards, when contrary to all expectations, including those of Jesus himself, his lot had proved so bitter ; when opposition to him had caused the fail of Scribes and Pharisees ; when faith in him had been a resurrection to publicans and sinners ; when his fearful death had sent a two-edged sword through his mother's heart (have you ever studied the Mater Dolorosa, or " Mary at the Cross," the companion picture of the Ecce Homo, or " Behold the man" ?) ; when this catastrophe had sifted the Israelites, and shown that many who were outwardly pious were in- wardly proud and obstinate, while many seemingly abandoned outcasts were saved through penitence and faith, — then this prophecy was put into the mouth of Simeon. To invent a prophecy when the event it predicts has already taken place is a common practice in the Old and New Testaments, and 64 PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. is not even yet abandoned. Again, the Evangelist uncon- sciously contradicts himself. How can he say that the pa- rents of Jesus were surprised at what they heard about their child ? After the message of Gabriel, and the song of angels hard by Bethlehem, nothing ought to have astonished them. Indeed, Simeon and Anna might very well have learned about the birth of the Messiah from rumors of the vision to the shep- herds. It is evident, then, that this story is not drawn from the same source that supplied the legends of the birth, and this is made still clearer by the fact that Joseph is here called the father of Jesus. Lastly, the difficulty urged against the story of the birth holds good here also. It is impossible to reconcile this double salutation with what we know of the after life of Jesus. If he had been greeted as the Messiah when a baby he could not have remained in obscurity, and his family, especially his mother, would have been prepared for all that happened, and could not have refused to believe in him. How T did the legend rise, then? it ma}' naturally be asked. Well, it was a poetical creation of the faith of the primitive Christians. In the first place, we recognize in these lines the joyful cry of a heart overwhelmed with gratitude to God for the birth of Jesus. The kt comforter" — a name which the Rabbis, too, sometimes apply to the Messiah — had come at last, after all their misery ! Their eyes had seen him, their hands had touched him, their ears had heard his heavenly words. That for which the fervent longing of devout Israel- ites in every age had yearned, the hope which even as a dis- tant prospect had made the ancient seers burst into sacred joy, and had supported many a generation through the bitter- ness of disappointment and humiliation, — all this was now realized, imperfectly as yet, but no less certainly, in their very midst ! Blessed were the eyes that might see what they saw ! For, verily, man}' prophets and righteous men had longed for it in vain, with a life-long yearning. 1 For this blessing the Christians thanked God in transports of holy joy. Salvation had come, the light had risen, a guiding star to the heathen,* 2 and an immortal glory to Israel ! Now they could die in peace ! This triumphant gratitude is expressed under the characters of Simeon and Anna, the noblest representatives of Israel, a man and a woman led and inspired by the Holy Spirit ; and it is a finely conceived and profoundly significant trait in the 1 Luke x. 23, 24 (Matthew xiii. 16, 17). 2 Isaiah xlii. 6, xlix. 6. PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 65 legend, which makes these aged representatives of the depart- ing generation raise the song of praise over the infant. It was but a small beginning (hardly even a beginning yet) of the fulfilment of the promises and expectations. So, too, the Christians, in the midst of whom the legend rose, had not 3'et seen the kingdom of God. It would only come when Jesus returned from heaven. But what of that? Had they not already received a pledge of it that left no room for doubt ? Nay, he whose person was far more than a mere pledge had already come, and in him they had seen the great salvation, as it were, already with them. No wonder, then, that they sang songs of praise. But this joyous exultation did not prevent their bowing their heads in pensive thought. What had not Jesus experi- enced at the hands of his people ! How was it possible ? AVhy was it needful? We trace the hand of a master in the picture of the hoary Simeon bending over the child as he lay in the unconscious slumber of infancy, and uttering the prophec} T of the fierce opposition he was to encounter, and his mother's bitter grief at the cruel fate that would overtake him. Even in sin, the Israelite recognized the commandment or the work of God, the execution of his counsel, 1 — and even the rejection of Jesus must have been decreed by him. 2 It was a sad necessity, without which the varnish could not be wiped from hypocrisy, and without which sin that took the guise of piety could not be compelled to expose itself. By its hatred of the holy servant of God, it passed sentence on itself. 3 And here we ma,y remark that this judgment, this sifting of the good from the bad in accordance with the attitude they assume towards Jesus, is still going on, and Jesus is still the cause of this man's fall and that man's resurrection, although in our time, when his name has been universally adopted, we cannot trace the process so distinctly. For Jesus brought a new principle of moral and religious life into the world, and no one can remain indifferent to him, or to the new and holy spirit which went out from him. Consciously or unconsciously we must all take sides. If we love not God or our neighbor, if we choose to live for ourselves alone, — for our own enjo} T - ment, glory, and interest, — -then we fight against Jesus, and are so much the worse and more wretched because he came. If we have depth of soul enough to understand, to love, to follow him, then we are guided b}' his principles, are helped 1 E.g. Exodus ix. 12, x. 1, 20, 27 ; 2 Samuel xxiv. 7; Isaiah xlv. 7 2 Acts ii. 23, iv. 27, 28. s j onu ;j, 19_2J . 66 PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. and hallowed b}' bis spirit, and have him to thank for what we have become and what we are as moral beings. God grant that our hearts may all of them be touched by Jesus more and more ; that we, too, may be able to thank God for giving us some knowledge of him, that we may share those emotions of the early Christians which gave rise to this legend, and that the birth of Jesus may wake a song of joy in our hearts ! There is one more point to consider. Why do we cele- brate the birth of Jesus on the 25th of December ? What is the origin of our Christmas cla} T ? You must know, in the first place, that it was not intro- duced at all till a comparatively late period. Days for the commemoration of the martjTdom of Stephen (26th Decem- ber), and the Massacre of the Innocents (28th December) , were fixed before that for the birth of Jesus. It is about the middle of the fourth century when we first come upon the celebration of Christmas at Rome. It may seem strange that the feast of Christmas was introduced into the Church so late, while those of Easter and Whitsuntide were observed from the very first ; but, if we remember that Christianity sprang out of Judaism, we shall find the explanation we seek in the fact that there was no Jewish feast which could be Christian- ized into a celebration of the birth of Jesus. Moreover, the Church had a somewhat similar feast, that of Epiphany, of which we shall speak presently, at a much earlier period ; and it was, therefore, a long time before any one thought of insti- tuting a festival for the birth of Jesus. Ever since the end of the second centuiy, however, people had been trying to discover upon what particular da} T Jesus had possibly or probably come into the world ; and conjectures or traditions that rested upon absolutely no foundation led one to the 20th of Ma}', another to the 19th or 20th of April, and a third to the 5th of January. At last, the opinion of the community at Rome gained the upper hand, and the 25th of December was fixed upon. There was a double reason for selecting this day. In the first place, it had been observed from a hoary antiquity as a heathen festival, following the longest night of the winter solstice, and was called tu the Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun." It was a fine thought to celebrate on that clay the birth of him whom the Gospel : called ' ' the light of the world ; n 1 John viii. 12, ix. 5. PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. G? that is, the sun of humanity, whose rise had been preceded by the long and fearful night of sin and ignorance, and whose coming had shed light and warmth and life over the hearts of men ! A certain preacher even went so far as to say that " Christ himself chose the 25th of December for his birthday on this very ground ! " The second reason was, that at Roiih the days from the 17th to the 23d of December were devoted to unbridled merrymaking. These days were called the Sat- urnalia, after the god Saturn us, whose memory is still retained in the name of the seventh da}' of our week. These Saturna- lia were consecrated to the memory of the Golden Age, which the heathen placed in the far-off past. All business was suspended, the freest hospitality was exercised, and public and private rejoicings were universal. All distinctions of rank and position were forgotten, and masters and slaves sometimes even changed places ! In the Roman carnival and some of our Christmas customs the remains of the Satur- nalia ma}' still be traced. Now the Church was always anxious to meet the heathen, whom she had converted or was beginning to convert, half-way, by allowing them to re- tain the feasts they were accustomed to, only giving them a Christian dress, or attaching a new and Christian signification to them. 1 And in the Saturnalia, apart from the licentious- ness that disfigured them, the Church must have found much that was attractive. Had not Jesus abolished the slavery of sin, superseded the distinction between class and class by the spirit of brotherly love, and brought in the Golden Age of peace with God ? Such were the thoughts which the Christians expressed in their Christmas festivities ; and even now Christmas is the happiest festival of all the year. The very season helps to heighten the attractiveness of its warm and home-like customs. Our heathen forefathers, the Germans, had a somewhat simi- lar feast called Yule, after the shortest day of the year. At this feast agreements were renewed, the gods were consulted as to the future, sacrifices were made to them, and the time was spent in jovial hospitality. Msaiy features of this festi- val, such as burning the Yule-log on Christmas-eve, still sur- vive among us. In Germany, the birthday of the child Jesus is made a children's festival ; and it is to Germany that we owe the Christmas trees, now so common in England. In Holland, the children's festival is held on St. Nicholas's day, the 6th of December, corrupted into Sinterklaas, and by i See vol. i. pp. 103-107. 68 WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. us into Santa Claus ; so that in making Santa Claus bring the Christmas presents we have mixed np the two distinct festivals. In German, Christmas is called Weihnachten or Holy Night, because it was the practice of the early Church, and of the Middle Ages, as it still is of the Roman Catholics, to celebrate more especially the night before the 25th of December, since, according to Luke, Jesus was born in the night. In English, it is simply called Christmas ; that is, the mass or religious service held in honor of Christ. Chapter V. THE WISE MEN FKOM THE EAST. Matthew II. WE must now put entirely out of our minds all those wondrous events which Luke so elaborately describes as calling attention to Jesus at the time of his birth, or shortly afterwards ; for we are to return to the first Gospel, w^iich does not make the slightest allusion to them, and in- deed excludes every thing that could possibly have called attention to Mary's son, or spread a rumor that the Messiah was born. Joseph and his wife, then, were citizens of Beth- lehem. 1 Joseph had indeed been intrusted bj T an angel with the secret of the divine origin of Jesus ; but of course the public had nothing to do with the matter, as it was not a thing to publish abroad. Alas ! the people of Bethlehem would too soon be compelled to think of their little fellow- townsman, and to regard it as a fatal distinction that he had been born among them. Two years had not passed when an event occurred which threw the neighboring Jerusalem into a fever of excitement. Certain strangers from the East, belonging to the distin- guished order of the magi — that is to say the priests and astronomers — had come to the city, and had immediately asked where the} T could find the infant king of the Jews. They said that many months ago they had marked 'the ap- pearance of a new and marvellous star in the heave ns, and 1 See p. 40. WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. 69 by the rules of their art it showed infallibly that a great ruler had been born among the people of the Jews. Upon this the}' had set out to come and pa}' their homage to him, and had naturally expected to find him in the capital. But at Jerusalem no one knew any thing about it. It was evident that neither the reigning prince nor any of his sons was meant. So far was this from being the case that when the news reached Herod he was thrown into the utmost terror, for he and all the city understood that it must be the Messiah whose birth had been announced in the heavens. His own throne therefore, or at least his dynasty, was on the brink of ruin. What was he to do? Might not a bold stroke avert the danger yet? He called the Sanhedrim together, hoping that the learned men might tell from the study of the Scripture where the Messiah would be born. He was not disappointed, for, on the authority of the prophecies of Michah, they indicated Bethlehem as the appointed place. Herod, who believed as firmly as any one else in the truth of astrology, the authority of the prophets, and the interpreta- tion of the learned Scribes, had soon matured his treacher- ous and murderous plan. Secretly (for the affair had made only too much noise already) he summoned the magi into his presence and made the closest inquiries as to the time at which the}' had first seen the star, for fear that some acci- dent might prevent their return to Jerusalem with more defi- nite news. Then he urged them to go to Bethlehem, to search out the child without delay and without error, and bring back word to him. He would then go himself, he said, and bow down in homage before the child whom so great a future awaited. The magi, suspecting nothing, made the required promise, and went on their way. According to the usual custom of the East the}' travelled by night. What was their surprise and delight to see the star once more shin- ing in the sky ! They had not seen it since they had left their own country. And now, wonderful to say, it went be- fore them from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, the surest guide that they could have, and when they reached the little city it stood still over one of the houses there ! They did not aeed to ask for any further information now ! They had found what they were seeking. They knocked at the door, and when they entered Joseph's house, there was the baby lying on its mother's breast ! In a transport of joy and rev- erence they threw themselves upon the ground, and paid 70 WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. such homage as it was customary in those districts to render to a king ; and, since it was not usual to enter into the royal presence empty-handed, they produced the little caskets of treasure that the} T had brought with them, and made their offerings of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. The object of their journey was accomplished. But it was itself the cause of the utmost danger to the life of the child. Providence, however, did not sleep. In a dream the magi received the divine command not to return by Jerusalem or tell Herod the result of their search ; and in obedience to this injunction the} T returned b} T another wa} T to their father- land. In itself this could only delay for a time the danger which it could not avert ; but in the ver} T night of their de- parture, as Joseph slept, he once more saw a messenger from heaven, who warned him of the wicked purposes of the king, and summoned him to rise at once and flee with all haste to Egypt with the little Jesus and Mary. There he could remain for the present in safety from the tyrant. There was no time to lose. Joseph rose from his bed, and the " hoi}' family" set out at once upon their flight. Meanwhile Herod awaited the return of the magi in vain. Was it possible that they were mocking him ? Maddened by his disappointment, he despatched a band of soldiers to Bethlehem, with the ghastly order to butcher all the baby boys of two 3 T ears old and under in the town itself and the surrounding houses or huts. He congratulated himself on having already discovered, from the calculations of the as- trologers, that the child must have entered upon his second year, and he was determined to make sure of the death of so dangerous a rival. Not a single male child must be spared, and the murderers must close their ears against the cries of the mothers' anguish. . . . This was one of the last- deeds of Herod's reign. Not long afterwards he breathed his last, in frightful agonies, at the age of seventy. Once again an angel of God visited Joseph, now in Egypt, in a dream, and told him that thp wretch who had sought to kill his foster-child was dead, and that he might now return with his family to his native land. Obedient now as alwajs, he set out upon his journey at once, taking his wife and the boy with him. He intended, of course, to return to his own house in Bethlehem ; but on his way thither he heard that Archelaus had succeeded his father in the government of Judaea. As this prince was said to rival Herod himself in cruelty and superstition, Joseph per- WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. 71 ceived that he would not be safe in his old abode. He was at a loss how to act ; but now, as so often before, wisdom came to him b} T night, for he was directed in a vision from God to go to Lower Galilee, which lay in the district of Herod Antipas ; and there he settled down in the lovely little ctty of Nazareth. The brow of many a theologian has been bent over this narrative ! For as long as people believed in the miraculous inspiration of the Hory Scriptures, of course the} T accepted every page as literally true, and thought that there could not be any contradiction between the different accounts or repre- sentations of Scripture. The worst of all such pre-conceived ideas is that the}' compel those who hold them to do violence to their own sense of truth. For when these so-called reli- gious prejudices come into play, people are afraid to call things by their right names, and without knowing it them- selves become guitty of all kinds of evasive and arbitrary practices ; for what would be thought quite unjustifiable in any other cause is here considered a dut} T , inasmuch as it is supposed to tend toward the maintenance of faith and the glory of God ! Those who speak out simply and clearly what they feel and see to be the truth are set down as proud, impious, and unbelieving. Let us see to it that we are never shaken in the sacred conviction that God cannot possibly be served by any thing against wmich our conscience protests ' For it is not in the traditional articles of faith, but in the sense of truth and the sense of duty, which are both of them planted in our bosoms by nature, and can both be trained and strengthened, — it is there that God reveals himself to us. The divine revelations or angelic visions during sleep, of which such prodigal use is made in this narrative, are in themselves enough to prevent our believing it. But in former times they seemed to present no difficulty. No more was an} T one disturbed by the fact that Joseph, who is kept entirely in the background in the third Gospel, is quite a prominent figure in the first. I ma} T take this opportunity of remarking that Joseph, who is scarcely noticed again in any of the Gospels, came to be highly honored by the Chris- tians of later centuries, and was glorified with especial zeal and enthusiasm in the East. The da} r of his death, which was fixed on the 20th of July, was celebrated with great splendor. In the fifth century a "History of Joseph the Carpenter" 72 WISE MEF FROM THE EAST. was composed expressly for use on this occasion. It is still preserved among our Apocryphal Gospels, and repre- sents Jesus as describing to his disciples the life and still more the death of his foster-father. The Catholic Church has enrolled him among the saints, records a host of miracles performed on his behalf, and honors him with the title of " Confessor and Patriarch." Indeed, a few years ago Pope Pius IX. commended the Church, under its trying circum- stances, to St. Joseph's special protection. But to return to our stor} r and the difficulties that it pre- sents. The task which the commentators thought it their duty to undertake in the interests of faith was three-fold. In the first place they had to reconcile Matthew and Luke. To take a single instance : At what point in the third Gos- pel were the visit of the magi and the flight to Egypt to be inserted ? Not after the presentation in the temple ; for immediately after that event Joseph and Mary went back to their home in Nazareth, and were therefore no longer to be found in Bethlehem. And yet not before ; for the child was more than a } r ear old at the visit of the magi, and the mur- derous plans of Herod would have made a subsequent pre- sentation in the temple impossible. The fact is that there is no room at all for these events in the narrative of Luke, which represents the birth of the Messiah as having been alread} r proclaimed widely enough by the shepherds and by Simeon and Anna. The second difficulty refers to this won- derful star. In ancient times the Jews, like other peoples, might very well believe that there was some immediate con- nection between the stars and the life of man, — an idea which we still preserve in the forms of speech, that so and so was born under a lucky or under an evil star. They might therefore suppose that the birth of great men, such as Abra- ham for instance, was announced in the heavens. In our century however, if not before, all serious belief in astrology has ceased, and it would be regarded as an act of the gross- est superstition for any one to have his horoscope drawn ; for the course, the appearance, and the disappearance of the heavenly bodies have been long determined with mathemati- cal precision by science. But if this is the case, it is impos- sible that the magi could have been apprised of the birth of the great King of the Jews by the rise of a new star. And yet the commentators, in their efforts to rescue the credit of this story, have searched the heavens with the utmost dili- gence, have talked of the conjunction of two planets, and WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. 73 have even called to their aid a certain cornet that was observed in China ! But, unfortunately, the phenomenon that Matthew describes is very different from either a con- junction or a comet. And however much these harmonizers might congratulate themselves on their discovery, one does not quite see how a star in the heavens could point out the way from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, advance in front of the travellers, and stand still over one particular house ! This is so utterly absurd that it cannot even be accounted for as an optical delusion. The third point of difficulty is presented by the slaughter of the innocents. Not, indeed, that Herod was incapable of such a hideous crime, but the hopeless stu- pidhy with which he is represented as having gone to work is quite inconsistent with his well-known craftiness. He summons the magi secretly, as if on purpose to arouse their suspicions ; he is afraid that they will not return, and yet sends no one to observe them ; he gives orders, in his sense- less fury, for a wholesale massacre, when he could easily have discovered, in so small a place, the particular house and child that had been honored by so distinguished a visit ; he does not even so much as inquire whether the child he is looking for, and against whom his orders are directed, ma} T not have escaped already. Moreover, Josephus, who gives us a minute account of the atrocities perpetrated by Herod up to the veiy last moments of his life, does not say a single word about .this unheard of crime, which must have been so notorious. Surely he must have known of it, and must have mentioned it, had it ever been committed ! I will notdekry } t ou by enumerating the devices, sometimes very ingenious but always futile, by which ancient and mod- ern commentators have endeavored to escape these difficul- ties. You must have alread} T discovered the true character of this scene. The Christians drew it in accordance with the indications they believed to be contained in the Old Tes- tament, under the form of direct prophecies or foreshadowing t}'pes. The writer of the legend of Balaam x had sung of "a star that rises from Jacob," by which he meant a glo- rious monarch, and, specifically, Jeroboam II. But in later times his words were taken to mean that the coming of the Messiah would be heralded by a star. Thus in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, a hundred years after the death of Jesus, a certain Jew who gave himself out as the Messiah 1 Numbers xxiv. 17. See vol. ii. chap, xviii. p. 199. VOL. III. 4 74 WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. and headed the last great insurrection of his eountiyrnen, assumed the name of Bar-Coehbah, — " son of a star." As recently as in the fifteenth century of our era, a Jewish scholar named Abarbanel (a.d. 1463) concluded that the birth of the Messiah was close at hand, because there was a conjunction of two planets in the sign of the Zodiac called the Fishes (Pisces), which Abarbanel held to be closely connected with the fates of Israel ! At the birth of Moses, he says, the same phenomenon occurred. Again, the Chris- tians read in the Prophet and the Psalmist 1 that the princes of the heathen would come to the light of Israel with pres- ents of gold and frankincense, and bow down in reverence before the great King. If Jesus was the Christ, then all this must have been fulfilled in him. But there was more. Antiquity in general delighted in representing great men, such as Romulus, Cyrus, and many more, as having been threatened in their childhood b} T fearful dangers. This served to bring into clear relief both the lofty significance of their future lives and the special protection of the deity who watched over them. The Christians were fa- miliar with a striking example of this kind of legend in the stoiyof Moses. As Josephus tells the tale, 2 his life, together with that of all the male infants of about his age, was threat- ened b} T Pharaoh on account of the prediction of a priest that ; 'at that time a child should be born among the Israelites who should humble Egypt and exalt his own people." Later on, again, he had to fly from the court for his life. And in- asmuch as Moses, the mediator of the Old Covenant, is con- stantly brought into comparison with Jesus as the mediator of the New, 3 it followed that the experiences of the former were to be regarded as a foreshadowing type of the lot of the latter. Jesus, no less than Moses, must be "the child of Providence." Indeed, the writer of the narrative in the sec- ond chapter of Matthew had his attention so closely fixed upon Moses that he puts into the mouth of the angel who addresses Joseph the very words which Yahweh was said to have uttered to Moses. 1 Even in later times the Church had not forgotten the meaning of the slaughter of the innocents of Bethlehem. Thus Prudentius, a poet of the fourth century, sang in his " Hymn for Epiphany" : — i Isaiah xlix. 7, lx. 3-10; Psalm lxxii. 10, 11. 2 See vol. ii. p 2*0 8 E.g. Hebrews iii. 1-6, viii., ix.; 2 Corinthians iii. &c. * Compare Matthew ii. 20 with Exodus iv. 19. WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. 75 What profit on that fatal day ? What gain from Herod's deed of dread ? Alone among the crowd of dead In safety Christ is borne away! So from the Avicked Pharaoh's face Escaped, despite the fell decree, Type of the Christ that was to be, Moses, restorer of his race ! So, too, the Old Testament was supposed to indicate that the Christ must retire to Egypt in order to come back again. For Israel itself, often called God's sow, or God's first-born? was the type of the Messiah, the Son of God. So the Christ too, like Israel, must have been in Egypt, and what was written of Israel, " Out of Eg} r pt have I called my son," ' 2 must actually apply to Jesus also. Lastly, the wail of sorrow raised over the inhabitants of Judah carried away in captivit}^ to Babylon was actually forced into a prophec}' of the murder at Bethlehem. 8 But the whole scene, while t} T pifying the fulfilment in Jesus of the hope of the fathers, prefigured in the histeuy and ora- cles of Israel and the lives of its heroes, is also a prophetic forecast of the fate of Jesus himself, of the reception which his gospel would meet, and the significance of his person to the world. The sword hangs over him, even as a child, by a silken thread, and so will dangers ever surround him on ail sides ; so will the powers of the world ever conspire against his flock. But as God's eye keeps watch over the helpless babe, so shall no one lay a hand on him until his hour is come ; 4 so shall Providence watch over the Church of Christ. Op- posed to these distinguished heathen who come from distant lands to bow down before Jesus stands Herod, with Jerusa- lem's citizens, her priests and her Scribes, at his side, 5 shrink- ing from no enormity in his attempt to crush the Christ. Even so shall the heathen, with their longing for salvation, their eagerness for the gospel, their faith and their reverence, stand out in sharpest contrast against the blind and stubborn hos- tility of the Jewish nation. These sages from the East who fall prostrate before the child are the first-fruits of the count- less host who shall bend the knee in his name, 6 so that the 1 Exodus iv. 22; Jeremiah xxxi. 9. 2 Hosea xi. 1. * Matthew ii. 17, 18. Compare Jeremiah xxxi. 15. A Join vii. 30, viii. 20. & Matthew ii. 3, 4. 6 Philippians ii. 10. 76 WISE MEN FROM THE EAST, very cradle of Jesus prophesies of the subjection of all tne heathen world to him. It is upon this last point that the tradition of the Church has laid the greatest stress. As if instinctively feeling that the story was a legend, and might therefore be treated with perfect freedom, it has not exactly elaborated the narrative of Matthew, but has modified it and made it more definite. The magi were changed, in accordance with a passage in the Old Testament, 1 into kings, and their number fixed at three, to correspond with the three presents ; their names were said to be Melchior, Caspar, and Balthazar, and each was made the representative of one of the three quarters of the world known to the ancients. The youngest of them, as the representative of Africa, was always represented as a Moor. In their gifts, too, some of the church-Fathers, even as early as the third century, find a symbolical significance. Jesus received the gold as king, the frankincense as God, and the myrrh as man, in anticipation of his martyr's death. Thus the poet Juven- cus (about a.d. 300) says in a line of his Gospel Histoiy : — " Gold, frankincense, and myrrh, to the King, the God, the Man! " There is certainly something in the whole story that stim- ulates the curiosity and leaves the imagination free to work. The star is described to us by one of the Apostolic Fathers 2 as " excelling all the stars in brilliance, of indescribable glory, and astonishing every one by its novelty. All the other heavenly bodies, with the sun and moon, made a circle round it, but it poured its light over them all." In the course of time it was related that the magi came from Persia to Bethlehem in consequence of the predictions of Zoroaster, the founder of their religion, that they were led to the place by an angel in the form of a star, and received a gift from Mary, which they gratefully accepted in return for their presents. This gift was one of the cloths in which the child had been swaddled ; and when they came back to their own country they kindled a fire (the Persians reverence fire as divine) and threw the cloth into it. But it would not burn, so they preserved it with the utmost reverence among their treasures. Two Apociyphal Gospels, that of the " Infancy of the Re- deemer," in use among the Nestorians of Syria, in which the story just given occurs, and the Latin ' ' Histoiy of Mary's Birth and the Childhood of the Redeemer," are particularly full in i Psalm lxxii. 10; Isaiah xlix. 7. 2 See p. 22. WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. 77 their accounts of the journey to Egypt and the sojourn there. The " Infancy" makes it three years long, whereas the " His- tory of Joseph " only makes it one 3 T ear. All sorts of won- ders take place, such as the healing of a demoniac boy, of two women possessed by devils, of a deaf and cl/imb bride, of a leprous girl, a leprous prince, and a young man who had been turned into a mule. At the arrival of Jesus in Egypt the idols fall prostrate, 1 robbers fly from him, dragons, lions, and panthers do homage to him. Would you like to have a specimen of this literature? Here is one from the Gospel of "Mary's Birth and the Child- hood of the Redeemer : " — " On the third day of their journey from Bethlehem, Mary was exhausted by the heat of the sun in the wilderness. Seeing a tree she said to Joseph, ' Let us rest ourselves in its shadow.' Joseph led her to the spot at once, and helped her to get down from the ass. When she had seated herself she looked up into the foliage of the palm, which was laden with fruit, and said to Joseph, ' I should so like to taste the fruit, if only I could.' But Joseph answered, ' How can you think of such a thing? You see yourself how high up the branches are. No ! what I'm concerned about is the water. We have used up all our store, and we shall not have another chance of filling the skins and refreshing ourselves.' "Then the child Jesus, sitting on the lap of his mother the Virgin Mary, said with a joyous countenance, ' Bow down your branches, O tree, and refresh my mother with your fruit ! ' Immediately the tree bowed down its head to Mary's feet, and they all of them took of its fruit and ate their fill. Still the tree bowed down, waiting the command of Jesus to rise up again. And Jesus said, ' Palm-tree, rise up, be strong, and share the lot of the trees that are in the paradise of my Father ! But open out from your roots a spring that is hidden in the ground, that water may flow out of it to refresh us.' Immediately the tree rose up, and streams of pure, cold, beautiful water poured from its roots. Then the}' rejoiced and refreshed themselves completely both man and beast, and they thanked God. " The next day, when they set out on their journey again, Jesus turned to the tree and said, ' Palm-tree ! it is my will that one of your branches be transplanted into my Father's paradise by one of my angels. And this is the blessing I pronounce on you : To all who have conqueied in the good 1 Compare Isaiah xix. 1. 78 WISE MEN FROM THE EAST. fight it shall be said : You have reached the palm of victory.' " Hardly had he uttered the words, when behold ! an angel of the Lord appeared, standing above the tree, and took one of its branches and flew with it up into heaven. And Joseph and Mary were overcome with deadly fear ; but Jesus said, 1 Why do you fear ? Know 3-011 not that this palm-branch, which I have had taken to paradise, shall be a joy to all the saints, even as it has been a joy to you in this wilderness ? ' " But what shall we say to the Eg^yptian village of Matarea, in which they still show you a sycamore tree that is said to have opened when Mary and Jesus were pursued b}- robbers ! It took them in, and then closed up again. When the rob- bers were out of sight it split in two once more, and remained in that condition until the}-ear 1656 a.d., when a great piece of the trunk fell off. We ma} T mention here that the Talmud also makes Jesus go to Egypt, not it would seem in imitation of our narrative, but because it ascribes skill in sorceiy to him, and Egypt was regarded as the land of sorcerers. It is hardly necessaiy to contrast the simplicit}', the beaut}', and the deep significance which mark the legend of Matthew with these senseless stories from the Apociwphal books. The difference must strike ever}- one. A word in conclusion on the well-known feast of Epiph- any, or Twelfth Night, sometimes called on the continent " The feast of the Three Kings," which is held on January 6. Epiphany means the appearance or manifestation of a deity. The feast was instituted at an early period in the Eastern Church in commemoration of the baptism of Jesus, because he was supposed to have assumed his divine dignity on that occasion. 1 Towards the end of the third centur}- the feast began to be celebrated in other quarters in commemoration both of the baptism of Jesus, when he was made known to the world and appeared in public, 2 and of his birth. When, in the course of time, December 25 was set aside 3 to com- memorate this last event, Epiphany was still consecrated in the East to the baptism of Jesus, but in the West it was set apart to commemorate the visit of the Wise Men of the East, "the revelation of Christ as the redeemer to the heathen world." This is another proof that the Church had not for- gotten the meaning of the legend in Matthew. 1 See pp. 40, 41. 2 See pp. 36, 37, 43. 3 See p 66. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 7# Chapter VI. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE AT THE AGE OF TWELVE. Lcke II. 40-52. IT always wakes our keenest interest to know how a great man was brought up and educated, to see how from a helpless little creature, in no wa}' distinguished from the ordinary children of men, he raised himself step b} r step to the height from which he commands such universal admira- tion ; to notice the special circumstances that have contributed to develop his gifts and powers, and to bring out his noble character in all its strength. From this point of view even the most trilling details acquire a peculiar interest. But seldom indeed are we permitted to witness this fascinating spectacle. As a rule the materials are very insufficient, and imagination has to fill in man}' a gap that even the most careful research has left. Nothing could be more natural than the wish to learn something of the childhood and 3'outh of Jesus. For in his case more than in any other we long for accurate information as to the circle in which he grew up, the circumstances by which he was surrounded, and which helped to make him so great, so unique among men ; in short, to hear in what way and under what influences his character, hie intellect, and his affections were developed. Where his actual histoiy opens, and he emerges from obscurity and begins the work of his life, he stands before us fully equipped, his nianj'-sided nature already matured into that of a great, a noble, a mighty personality. Can we possibly succeed in penetrating here and there to the silent workings of his spirit, in gather- ing scattered traits to throw light on the circumstances of his bringing up, in tracing scattered indications of the course that w r as taken by his inner life, of the forces that were brought to bear upon him at a time when the mind is specially receptive, in discovering, at least to some extent, how and b}' what his glorious powers were so finely and so harmoni- ously developed? We know what he was, and we cannot help asking how he became what we know him to have been. With regard to this time of preparation, all our Gospels except that of Luke are profoundly silent. At the end of his 80 JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. account of the birth of Jesus, Luke gives us a general de- scription of his childhood in the words : " He grew up and waxed strong and was filled with wisdom ; and the grace of God was with him ; " and afterwards he thus describes his youth: "Jesus increased in wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and men." Between these notices he inserts an account of an event intended to bring out the great intel- lectual gifts and the earnest piet}' which distinguished Jesus even as a bo} T . The story runs as follows : — The parents of Jesus were accustomed to visit the City of the Temple every Passover. The Law commanded every male Israelite to appear before the face of Yahweh at each of the three great feasts ; 1 but since this injunction could hardly be carried out completely by those who lived at a dis- tance from Jerusalem, the most magnificent of Israel's festi- vals was generally selected as the occasion of the jourae} 7 to the temple. Women were not ordered by the Law to come up also, though some of the Rabbis thought their presence at the Passover desirable. But Mary's pious heart urged her to accompany her husband. On these journeys the pilgrims joined to make up caravans ; and on their way they raised their voices in sacred song, and their hearts were filled with the thoughts suggested by the festival. The stay at Jerusa- lem itself, which extended over eight days, was a time of deep and sacred joy. Of course, no little children would be taken on such a journey as that from Nazareth to the Holy City. But when Jesus was twelve years old he had sufficiently outgrown his childhood. The people of Eastern countries are grown up at a much earlier age than here ; and a boy of twelve was con- sidered b}< the Jews capable of taking part in all the practices of religion, and was, therefore, called "a son of the Law." Jesus, then, was to accompany his parents on their journey for the first time in his life. What an event it was for him ! His high-wrought expectations were not disappointed. The very journey was so glorious ; the magnificence of the temple so imposing ; Jerusalem at such a time so grand and so full of life ; the Passover so splendid ! Everywhere the religious wants of the youthful Israelite's heart found satisfaction, and the impressions he received could never be forgotten. The days flew past, and Joseph and Mary set out upon their homeward journey. But Jesus sta} 7 ed behind, unknown to them. When they missed him at the moment of their do- J Exodus xxiii. 17; and elsewhere. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 81 pru'ture, the}' thought he must have started already with some other company of pilgrims from Nazareth, that might have left Jerusalem a tew hours before. So they hastened on their journey that day, in hopes of overtaking the friends or rela- tives with whom the}' expected to find their son. But when they reached the first station at Shiloh, and came up with the caravan of the Nazarenes, they sought and inquired for the boy in vain. No one had seen him or knew where lie was. Who can describe the feelings of the anxious parents? What could have become of him ? How he would wander about in that huge city, in despair at not finding his parents ! He was still so young, and Jerusalem was so great ! They hurried back with the utmost speed. They made inquiries of the host, under whose roof they had spent the preceding week ; but he could tell them nothing of the boy. They applied to every one they knew, but all in vain ; for there was no one who could give them any news. They traversed the city in every direction, and hour by hour their distress increased. At their wits' end, after three days' search, they finally ascend the mount of the temple, pass through the outer buildings of the sanctuary, and to their inexpressible relief they see him in a lecture-room, or in the synagogue of the temple, sitting among the Rabbis ! Thank God that they have found him ! But how came he there ? And what a child he is ! He does not show the smallest sign of anxiety or fear. He seems com- pletely at home amid his surroundings. His glowing cheek and kindling eye speak to the intensity of his interest. He catches every word that falls from the teachers, and hangs upou their lips as they argue together and discuss the knotty questions of the Law. And he himself, too simple-minded to be over-diflident, sometimes puts questions to them, for the free intercourse then customary between the teachers and the taught made it easy for him to do so ; and when they asked him questions in their turn, his answers showed such grasp and penetration that all around were lost in amazement at his knowledge of religious things, and the early development of such wonderful powers. Joseph and Mary looked on in amazement, and then made their way through the crowd that yielded them a passage, wondering to see them press into the inner circle. Did the boy fly to them as soon as he perceived their presence ? Far from it ! Mary, as she threw her arms about him and pressed a mother's kiss upon his forehead, could not restrain the gen- tle reproof: "My child, why have you caused us all this 4* 82 JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. pain? Your father and I have been seeking you throughout the city, with almost broken hearts ! " But he answered quietly, as one who feels that his answer leaves no room for blame : " But, mother, why did you not come straight to the temple ? Did you not know that I must be in my heavenly Father's house ? " 1 They did not understand his words. The child had out- grown his parents. But, at any rate, they had found the dear one they had lost ; and, without thinking of opposing them, without so much as asking leave to stay a little longer in the plaoe he found so fascinating, Jesus followed them. Then they began their homeward journey in earnest ; and neither then nor in after years as long as he remained beneath his parents' roof, did he ever fail in respect or obe- dience, or give them the smallest cause to complain of him. This event made a deep impression, especially upon Mar}'. When she thought it all over afterwards, she felt that some great destiny must surely be in store for her son. No one can say that this story is impossible. The remark- able and early development of intellectual and religious power it is meant to illustrate is far from improbable. Similar traits have been observed in the childhood of far less might}' spirits than that of Jesus, and the Israelitish boys were well in- structed in the Law. To take a single instance : Josephus tells us that when he himself was about fourteen years old his diligence was universally commended, and that the high priests and chief men of Jerusalem constantly came to him for exact information and guidance in cases of difficulty ! This is doubtless an exaggeration, and a specimen of the historian's ridiculous vanity (excessive modesty was never one of his failings), but it shows at least that it was con- sidered nothing unnatural for a mere boy to be a kind of authority on points of learning. Similar stories are told by other contemporaneous authorities of boys ol ten, thirteen, and fourteen. But, on further reflection, all sorts of difficulties occur to us, and throw great doubt upon the story. We can hardly understand the parents of Jesus being so careless as to set off without exactly knowing where he was ; for the Evangelist evidently does not mean to imply an}' intentional disobedience on his part. And how unnatural is the conduct of the boy towards his parents ! for Mary says they have been looking for him for "three days," and if this does not include the 1 After an amended version. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 83 journej' to and from Shiloh, it must have been five da} r s since he had seen them, and .yet he evinces no delight when they meet again ! And where had he been all the time? Not at his parents' former lodgings, or with acquaintances, for in that case Joseph and Mary would have heard of him at once ; not with any true friends, or the}' would have taken care to send him after his parents in suitable company. There are other difficulties, too. We find him in the midst of the Scribes. There is some ambiguit}- in the expression. Did he come to them as a pupil, or as one of themselves ? And we are struck at once b} T the prominence assigned to Mary, in this as in the earlier stories of Luke, 1 whereas in realit}' the father's au- thorit3 T was every thing among the Jews. Nor should we expect Jesus, in his thirteenth } T ear, to speak of the temple as the house of his Father. The story is hardly to be reconciled with the history of the birth of Jesus, 2 but of course that is nothing against it. It is somewhat suspicious, however, that the childhood of Jesus should be described in the same words as that of John. 3 But our doubts rise higher when we begin to ask whence Luke, or his authority, derived the story. We cannot help sus- pecting that here, too, the desire to lift the veil that hung over the youth of Jesus made the later Christians fly to the traditions concerning the heroes of the Old Testament. Not to speak of the wonders reported of Moses, it is obvious that Samuel has served in some measure as the model for the story. In almost the words that Luke uses of Jesus it is said of Samuel : " He increased and grew, and was in favor with the Lord and with men." Samuel's mother, too, comes up to the sanctuary every year, and is a more prominent fig- ure than her husband, 4 just as Maiy is here. 5 And, lastly, we know from Josephus that Samuel was supposed iL to have completed his twelfth year " when he experienced his pro- phetic call. 6 We will not pronounce airy very decided opinion, however. The stoiy certainly rises in our estimation when we compare it with the later elaborations of the Apociyphal Gospels. In that of Thomas we are told that, after the party had started, Jesus secretly returned to Jerusalem ; that he silenced the elders and the teachers of the people by his questions ; that he himself expounded the most important parts of the Law and the similitudes of the Prophets ; and that the Scribes 1 See p. 72. 2 See pp. 56-58. 3 Compare Luke ii. 40 with i. 80. 4 1 Samuel ii. 26, i. 21 ft'., ii. 19. 5 g ee p . 55. 6 1 Samuel iii. 84 JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. and Pharisees congratulated Mary on being blessed with a child who had given such an unexampled proof of glorious virtue and wisdom. In the Gospel of the " Infancy of the Redeemer " we learn that Jesus disputed with the Rabbis as to the descent of the Messiah, 1 expounded the secrets of the Law and Prophets, explained to an astrologer and a student of physical science the secrets of their studies, — things which no created intellect had ever traced out, understood, or penetrated, — and thereby excited their wonder and even their adoration. Indeed these G-ospels, together with that of " Maiy's Birth and the Childhood of the Redeemer," are full of extraordinary stories about the first twelve years of the life of Jesus. Most of them are foolish and some of them offensive stories : but we must not pass them by wholly unnoticed. One of them is this : That Jesus was once plaj'ing with companions of his own age, and the} T were all making cla} T animals, such as donkeys, cattle, and birds. Each of them boasted of his own productions, and said the} T were better than those of his companions. Then Jesus said to them, " I shall command the animals that I have made to walk about." The others said, mockingly, "Then } r ou 're the Creator's own son, are you?" But Jesus told his clay animals to walk or fly, to eat or to drink, and whatever he told them they did. When the children told their parents what had happened, their fathers warned them never to play with Jesus again, and to avoid his company ; " for," said they, u he is a sorcerer." Another time his playfellows had hidden in an oven, and the women standing in front of the house, when questioned b} T Jesus, said that there were not smy children there : there were only some little three-} T ear old goats in the oven. Upon this Jesus really turned the bo} x s into goats, and they came jump- ing out ! But at the repeated prayers of the women he pres- ently restored the children to their proper shapes again. One day as he was playing about with some other boys he passed by the workshop of a certain dyer of the name of Salem. A great many pieces of cloth belonging to different inhabitants of the place were lying there ready to be dyed in various colors. But when there was no one in the shop, Jesus ran in and threw all the pieces of cloth into the same dyeing pot. Just at that moment Salem came back, and see- ing what had happened burst into cries of anger, and ex- claimed indignantly to Jesus : ' ' What have you been doing, 1 From Matthew xxii. 41-46. jesus in the temple. 85 you son of Mary ? See what mischief you. have done to me and my fellow-citizens ! for each of them wants the color that suits his taste, and here have you spoiled them all ! " But the boy answered ! "I will change the color of every piece of cloth that you want changed," and began to pull them one after another out of the pot ; and behold ! every one was just the color that the d}'er wanted. When the Jews saw this miracle they glorified God. Sometimes he had to help in the work of the house. For instance, once his mother sent him to draw water from the well. But when he had filled the pitcher and was drawing it up (or, according to another tradition, as he was carrying it through the crowd) it broke. Jesus instantly spread out his handkerchief (or his cloak), caught the water in it, and brought it to his mother. At this time he was six years old. In the month of October, when he was eight years old, his father went to sow his land with wheat, and Jesus went with him and sowed one single grain of wheat. Six months after- wards he reaped and threshed out the produce, and the grail? of wheat had yielded a hundred homers (five hundred or a thousand bushels) , which he distributed among the poor of the village. Sometimes he went with his father to work ; and when Joseph, " who was rather a poor carpenter," had made any thing too long or too short, or too broad or too narrow, Jesus had only to put out his hand, and every thing was as it should be. For instance, when Joseph had made one of the legs of a couch for a rich man too short, Jesus stretched it out ; and when the throne for the king at Jerusa- lem, at which Joseph had been working for two years, turned out to be short of the required dimensions by two spans each waj r , Jesus set it right. He went to school under several masters, and astounded or enraged them all by his wonderful abilit}\ Of course he would not condescend to be taught by any one. He cursed one master for striking him, and the teacher fell powerless upon the ground. Another, who had lifted his hand to strike him, was maimed and died. He performed all manner of healings of the sick and rais- ings of the dead, and was especially active in restoring those that had been bitten by poisonous snakes ; among others his father Joseph, and his brother James. The latter had met with the accident when sent to gather wood. Another time Jesus and his companions were playing at being kings. Jesus was the king, and the others had spread their clothes 86 JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. upon the ground foi him to sit upon, and had woven a crown of flowers to set upon his head. They themselves stood at his right and left, like the body-guard that surrounds a king. Whenever any one passed, the children dragged them to the throne, and said, " Come here and do. homage to our king, and then you shall have a prosperous journe}'." B} T and by some people passed who were carrying a sick child with them. He had been to a mountain to gather wood, and there he had found a partridge's nest ; but when he stretched out his hand to take the eggs he was bitten by a snake. He was now at the very point of death, and his friends were car- ding him home. But when they came to the place where Jesus was playing, the children compelled them, in spite of their sorrow and in spite of their resistance, to approach the little king. As soon as Jesus heard what had happened he said to his companions, "Let us go and kill the snake." The parents, sorely against their will, were compelled to go with them. When Jesus ordered the snake to come out of its hiding place it obeyed him, and sucked the poison out of the wound again. Then Jesus cursed it, and it burst asunder, but the child got well again. On his be- ginning to cry, Jesus said, " Stop crying, for }'ou will soon be my disciple." This bo} T was afterwards the Apostle, Simon the Canaanite. This story shows a desire to bring into contact with Jesus, while he was still a boy, the people who were afterwards to be connected with him ; and there are other tales of his childhood due to the same tendency. The son of Annas is cursed and dies, because when Jesus is making mud sparrows on the Sabbath he finds fault with him and spoils his play. Judas Iscariot is possessed by Satan when a child, and bites every one who comes near him, or even himself if he can get at no one else. His mother brings him to Mary to be cured, and when he is seated b}' the child Jesus, Satan falls upon him again and he bites Jesus in his right side ; but at that very moment Satan rushes out of him in the form of a mad dog. This Judas afterwards betrayed his master, and the side which he had bitten was pierced by a Jewish lance. Once when Jesus was coming home in the evening with Joseph a boy ran against him and knocked him down. Then the lord Jesus said to him, " As you have struck against me so shall you fall and never rise again." And that same hour the child fell down and died. On different occasions Jesus restored a dried fish to life, went into the den of a lioness, JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 87 passed dry-footed lb rough the Jordan, whose waters parted for him, and did many other wonders. Bat this is quite enough ! No one will deny that these stories are absurd and often repulsive. But we have thought it worth while to notice them for several reasons. In the first place there is a painful interest, from a historical point of view, in seeing how Christian faith degenerated in the ancient Church, and in what kind of literature thousands of Chris- tians, especially in the East, found delight and edification for centuries. Again, these stories show us the lengths to which invention could go, and the wild vagaries to which an un- bridled imagination might lead ; how little the true greatness of Jesus was kept in view, and how unnaturally the love of the marvellous distorted his image. And when once we have observed what such weaknesses ma}' lead to in their exagger- ated developments, we shall be very cautious and circumspect wherever the books of the New Testament itself betray the first beginnings of the same distortions and onesidedness ; such as love of the marvellous, superstitious misapprehension of Jesus disguised under the form of increased reverence for him, and the tendency to call in the help of the imagination to fill up the gaps of history. We shall, therefore, uncondi- tionally reject eveiy thing, even in our canonical Gospels, which contradicts Nature, or is inconsistent with the human ity of Jesus. There is yet another point of view from which these stories are not wholly without value. They give us a picture of Jesus playing with other children, going about with his brothers, helping in the house by fetching water, for instance, joining his father at his work, and so on. Thus they place him in real life and amid the surroundings of ordinary mortals. So. too, the healthy intellectual and emotional development of Jesus, his "increase in wisdom and in stature, and in favor with God and men," his obedience to his parents, and his early piety are the main points enforced by Luke in his two notices of the child Jesus and his story of the visit to the temple ; and these must lie at the foundation of every attempt to form a true idea of his early life. But what right have we to begin by laying down these two general facts, — that the earl}' life of Jesus was in every other respect of a very ordinary kind, but that he kept his soul wonderfully pure and his intellect wonderfully bright ? Our knowledge of his future life gives us a perfect right to make 8S JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. both these assertions ; for, in the first place, his own family and his fellow- townsmen were utterly amazed at his appear- ance in public, and showed clearly enough that thej 7 had never seen any thing ver3 T remarkable in him, and had never ex- pected any thing particular from him ; and, in the next place, Jesus afterwards displayed not only such judgment and knowl- edge as he could only have attained by profound reflection and strict self-discipline, but also an entire absence of that sense of guilt which, considering his keen moral perceptions, he could not have failed to experience had he ever soiled his character or his imagination b} T any serious trespasses. But we need not rest in such general assertions. The ac- counts we have of his public life, and both the form and matter of his teaching, warrant us in drawing further conclusions as to what took place before he began his ministry. For when we listen to Jesus, the illustrations and parables which he uses serve, as it were, to lead us round through the scenes of his former life. Nothing escaped his observant e} T e, not even the most commonplace occurrences and occupations. Again, we are not without knowledge of the condition of his people and his country and the history of his times, and possess de- tailed descriptions of the natural scenery by which his home was surrounded. From all these materials we may, without quitting the ground of histoiy, restore to some extent the surroundings among which he lived and the circumstances under which he grew up. Galilee, in the southern portion of which Nazareth was situated, was a densely populated district of extraordinary fertility. Not a particle of ground was left idle. Pasturage, corn-land, and fruit trees were all excellent, and the produce in wheat and olives was perfectly amazing. The population is described bj' Josephus as so dense that (to take an example from our own country) on an area about equal to that of Northumberland there were ten times as many inhabitants and more than two hundred cities and villages, the least of which had a population of more than fifteen thousand ! Of course these figures must be exaggerated ; but when we re- member that the Jewish historian was writing of his own times and of the district of which he had himself been governor, and that there must have been many persons living who could, at least to some extent, have checked his statements, we shall feel that, though he may have exaggerated, he can hardly have invented his facts, and that the population of Galilee must really have been very great. This fertile and populous JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 89 district, then, was marked b}' the constant stir of prosperous industry ; life and animation pervaded it from end to end, and the interchange and conflict of ideas formed a part of its gen- eral activity. The Galilaeans are described as industrious, animated, and open-hearted in character, faithful and stead- fast, warlike from their very infancy, easily excited, courage- ous and patriotic, and strict in their observance of the precepts of morality. Of course all these circumstances must have exercised a marked influence upon the development of the character of Jesus, but we shall not attempt to trace out and identif3 T the several features of this Galilsean type of character in him. We must not forget, however, that he was the wit- ness, in his youth, of events which must have contributed in no small degree on the one hand to quicken his enthusiasm for his people and his religion, and on the other to make him careful in his selection of means and averse to violence. While he was still a boy, when a census of Judaea and Sama- ria was taken b}* the governor of S}Tia, Judas the Galilsean * unfurled the banner of revolt, 2 with the cry : " No master for Israel but the Lord ! Tribute to Rome, or submission to the stranger, is treason to Him ! " 3 Would not the youthful Jesus burn with zeal for the sacred cause ? Would he not long that he were old enough to bear arms himself? Would he not pray that the Lord might send his blessing upon this hero of the faith as he had done on that other Judas called the Maccabee ? But in spite of his certain hope and his ardent prayers the legions of Rome annihilated the rebels after a hopeless strug- gle, and it may have been his bitter disappointment in the failure of Judas that first led Jesus, reading the will of God recorded in the event, to break with the material expectations of his people, and to look upon the kingdom of the Messiah chiefly as a spiritual deliverance which God would bring about in answer to the faith and prayers of his servants. The whole district of Galilee was a glorious region, in which the beauties of Nature displayed themselves in the richest alternations of hill, valle} T , and table-land ; and, since Nazareth enj'03-ed its full share of beauty, it would not be easy to over-estimate the effect of its magnificent natural scenery upon the heart of Jesus. The name of the city never once occurs in the Old Testament or the writings of Josephus, and it owes its fame entirely to Jesus. It still exists, with its three thousand inhabitants. It is built in terraces at the 1 Acts v. 37. 2 See pp. 4-7. 3 Compare Matthew xxii. 17 (Mark xii. 14; Luke xx. 22). DO JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. foot and on the slope of one of the hills, among which it nes- tles, and is shut in by limestone rocks. The climate is ven health} 7 ; the houses, hidden behind rows of vines, cypresses, and fig-trees, interspersed with gardens and richly-cultivated fields, or palm and olive gardens, present a most attractive appearance. The neighborhood is lovely, and a short ascent leads up to a table-land, from which the prospect on all sides is indescribably beautiful. How often must Jesus have sat there in early life thinking of his people, of the times in which he lived, and of the kingdom of God i Travellers of different countries, who have visited these delightful valleys and fertile slopes, unite in describing the region as a perfect paradise. The well is still shown, which eighteen centuries ago was the life and joy of the little city, where every evening the women came, — Mary, of course, being one of them, — with their pitchers on their heads, to draw water and talk together. A narrow valley a few miles in length leads down from the city to the plain of Jezreel. Amidst scenes so lovely and so sublime did Jesus spend his youth. His parents had to support themselves by the labor of their hands ; 1 but the wants were so few, and the mode of life so simple in those regions, that poverty was not a burden. The family was rather a large one. There were five sons and several daughters,* 2 though we do not know how many. So, of course, they had all to work for their bread ; and we find it mentioned that Jesus himself worked as a carpenter. 3 A tradition, preserved by an old ecclesiastical Father, says that he used to make plows and ox-yokes. We know from other sources 4 that it was not considered any dis- grace to be a workman. On the contrary, the most cele- brated of the Rabbis all learned some handicraft by which to support themselves, for even those who held the position of teachers were not accustomed to receive money for their lessons. Thus we find different Rabbis mentioned as shoe- makers, tailors, bakers, incense-makers, builders, grave-dig- gers, land-surveyors, joiners, tanners, smiths, and what-not. One of them said : " It is good to combine the stud} 7 of the Law with some handicraft ; for the exercise of both together preserves a man from sin. But any stud}' which is pursued without a handicraft ministers to vanity and draws sin behind it." But to return to Jesus. Since his early years were not spent in ease and luxury, his circumstances early developed 1 Matthew xiii. 55. 2 Matthew xiii. 55, 56 (Mark vi. 3). 8 Mark vi. 3. 4 Compare Acts xviii. 3. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 91 his character, strengthened his will, and increased his knowl- edge of life. And his childhood was certainly a bright one ; for when he was a man he looked back with pleasure upon his childhood, — spoke of the natural simplicity, the openness to good impressions, and the innocence of that time of life, 1 and recalled his childish games, 2 and all that he had seen within 3 and without 4 the house. Of Joseph we know nothing directly ; but since Jesus speaks of a father's love as a reflection of the love of God, 5 since he could find no higher or more glorious name for God himself than that of Father, 6 we may safely conclude that Joseph was a faithful, careful, affectionate parent ; in a word, all that a father ought to be. Of the brothers of Jesus, we afterwards meet with James as a man of extraordinary strictness of principle, immovable determination, and great influence. 7 Judas, too, seems to have distinguished himself, for it was certainly not from their relationship to Jesus only, but also from their personal qualities, that the " brothers of the Lord " were regarded among the earliest communities as equal to the Apostles. 8 We ma}*, therefore, safely assume that the family circle in which Jesus grew up was far from an ordinaiy one, and that no moral stain ever cleaved to it. It is impossible to believe that there was ever an} T lack of religion, any of that meanness which often springs from stress of material circumstances, or that cringing which a hard and embittering discipline may produce, in the home at Nazareth. It deserves notice, too, that when the members of the family had gone upon their several ways in the world, the old bond of union still remained, and, in spite of their differences of opinion, they retained the same warm interest and care for one another's welfare. 9 But Jesus differed greatly from the rest of the family in his disposition and his views of life, and he must often have sadly felt the want at home of that sympathetic and intelli- gent appreciation of his ideals for which his heart longed. And, in saying this, we refer more particularly to Mary. From the fact that most great men have owed a great deal to their mothers, it has been supposed that Jesus must have done so too ; and several hints contained in the legendary i Matthew xviii. 3, 10 xix. 14 (Mark ix. 36, x. 13-16 ; Luke xviii. 15-17). 2 Matthew xi. 16, 17 (Luke vii. 32). 3 Matthew xiii. 33 ; Luke xv. 8, 9, &c. 4 Matthew xiii. 3-8, xx. 1-15, &c. 5 Matthew vii. 9-11; Luke xi. 11-13. 6 Matthew vi. 9, &c. ' Galatians ii. 9-12; Acts xxi. 18, &o 8 1 Corinthians ix. 5; Acts i. 13, 14; Galatians i. 19. e Matthew xii. 46 f. (Mark hi. 21, 31, f. ; Luke viii. 19). 92 JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. portions of Gospels * have been adduced to prove that it was so. We certainty shall not be wrong in supposing that Mary was a devout, gentle, affectionate mother, and that in the disposition and the outward wa}s of Jesus some of his mother's characteristics reappeared. But, on the other hand, an impartial consideration of the facts compels us to admit that Maiy, on the onty occasion on which she appears in real history, shows herself an affectionately solicitous, but also a narrow-minded, woman ; 2 and that, on the tw T o occasions on which Jesus indirectly refers to her, 3 a kind of sadness, a tone of disappointment, is perceptible in his language, which may easily be explained b}~ her never having been able to under- stand or appreciate him, or to sympathize with his aims. It is possible, even, that the visit to the temple rests upon some faint reminiscence that Jesus was not understood by his mother ; that even in early times a strong desire had more than once come over him to escape from his ordinary eniphyy- ments and existence and enter the higher regions of the spirit- ual life, but that this disposition had given his mother so much pain and anxiety that in obedience to her he reconciled himself to the ordinary course of life again. 4 However this may be, Jesus was so far superior to those about him that we can hardly blame his mother and brothers for not honoring him as he deserved, and for not having faith in him during his life. 5 Jesus probably never went to school. At anj T rate, he cer- tainty did not attend an}' institution for teaching the theologi- cal lore of the Scribes ; 6 and, indeed, if we can trust the confused accounts of the Talmud, public teaching was not properly organized until a few years before the fall of Jeru- salem ; so that in all probabilit}* there was not a school at Nazareth when Jesus was a boy, and he must have learned reading from his father or mother. But in ancient times, especially in the East, such a circumstance did not necessarily imply a defective education or airy want of breeding and cul- ture. These things were far more common to the different classes of societ}' than the} 7 are with us, and were not in any case carried to a very high pitch of refinement. Indeed, it l Luke i. 28, 30, 38, 42, 45, 46-55, ii. 19, 51. 2 Mark iii. 21. 3 Luke xi. 27, 28; Matthew xii. 47-50 (Mark iii. 31-35; Luke viii. 19-2U. 4 Luke ii. 43, 48, 49, 50, 51. & Matthew xiii. 57 (Mark vi. 4; Luke iv. 24; John iv. 44). 6 Matthew xiii. 54 (Mark vi. 2). Compare John vii. 15. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 93 was rather an advantage to Jesus than otherwise that he had not been to the university at Jerusalem ; for the hair-splitting discussions which were all the rage there would only have burdened his memory and perverted his reasoning faculties, whereas, as it was, he retained the originality of his genius. We must never forget that among the Jews very special at- tention was paid to the education of children. The duty de- volved upon the parents, more especially upon the father, who was bound to take every possible opportunity afforded by daily life 1 of impressing upon his children's minds the contents of the Scriptures, especially of the Law, and thus instructing them at once in their religious duties and in the history of their country. This duty is pressed upon the parents with the greatest emphasis ; and the children in their turn are com- manded to honor their father and mother in the commandment which takes the highest place after those enjoining the duties towards God.' 2 Nowhere else in antiquity was the bond between parent and child so close, the relation in which the}' stood to each other so well regulated, or domestic life so full of affection and of the spirit of religion as in Israel. "Our glory and the purpose of our lives," sa}*s Josephus, "is the education of our children and the observance of the Law." The parents were assisted in their weighty task by the synagogue, — an institution which, since the daj's of Ezra, had contributed more than anything else to make the Jewish religion the inalienable possession of the people. The histo- rian quoted above declares that reverence for and obedience to the divine commandments were impressed upon the Jews from earliest childhood as the principal object of life ; so that all of them, so to speak, knew the laws earlier and better than their own names. " The}' are so imprinted on our souls that we are read}* to die for them." From the time when he was live years old, most likely, Jesus regularly went to the sjmagogue at Nazareth week by week, 3 and there he always heard a portion of the Law, followed by a portion of the prophets, 4 read and explained. Here, too, he came directly into contact with the religious ideas and expectations of his people, and the religious life of the time tilled his bosom. Here he met the Pharisees, the devout leaders of Israel, and under their influence he was penetrated by the thought that 1 Deuteronomy vi. 7, 20-25, xi. 19; Genesis xviii. 19; Exodus xii. 26 t\ siii. 8, 14 f. ; Joshua iv. 6 f. 2 Compare Exodus xxi. 15, 17. 3 Luke iv. 16. 4 Luke iv. 16, 17 ; Acts xiii 15, xv. 21. 94 JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. the Lord demanded righteousness as the condition of his favor, and b} T the passionate longing for Israel's redemption b} r the coming of the Messianic kingdom. Here, too, the most beautiful utterances of the great teachers at Jerusalem came to his knowledge. What good use the eager boy, with his powerful memory and clear judgment, must have made of this religious teach- ing appears not onry from his intimate acquaintance with the Pharisees., but from the profound and accurate knowl- edge of the Scriptures which he afterwards showed. For when we remember the great price of a copy of the Scrip- ture we can hardly suppose that the carpenter had one of his own. It is possible, however, that he may have possessed a single book ; and when we observe that Jesus borrows most of his quotations from the oracles of Isaiah, 1 the conjecture forces itself upon u£ that he had had the roll in his own hands more than once. Certainly the prophets had a far greater charm for him than the Law. In general, however, he must have gained his knowledge of the Scripture in the synagogue. It must have cost Jesus many an effort in after life to raise himself above all the religious prejudices which had been instilled into him from his ver} T infancy. But we must not for- get that in this respect again his education in Galilee brought great advantages with it. Galilee enjoyed greater religious freedom than Judaea, from which it was separated b} T the ter- ritory of the hostile and detested Samaritans. This separa- tion from the focus of Jewish orthodoxy, — from Jerusalem with its temple, its priesthood, and its rabbinical schools, — necessarily prevented the scholastic love of hair-splitting, with the extreme narrowness and foniialhVy which accom- panied it, from ever thoroughly taking root in Galilee among the people, or even among the Scribes, — who were tolerably numerous here also. Galilee was peculiar in several respects. It was so near Phoenicia, Syria, and Arabia that it was im- possible to avoid intercourse with the heathen ; and indeed some of the Galilaean towns themselves, — such as Tiberias, Kadesh, and Scythopolis, — had a heathen population. These things could not fail insensibly to widen the horizon of the inhabitants. For these and other reasons the Galilseans were held in small esteem at Jerusalem. They were said to be 1 E.g. Matthew xi. 5; from Isaiah xxix. 18, xxxv. 3, lxi. 1; Matthew xiii. 14 f. ; from Isaiah vi. 9, 10 ; Matthew xv. 8 f. ; from Isaiah xxix. 13; Matthew xxi. 13 ; from Isaiah lvi. 7 ; Matthew xxi. 33 ; from Isaiah v. 1, &c. JESUS IN THE TEMPLE. 95 deficient in knowledge of the Law. It was said contemp- tuously, "There are no priests among the Galiheans," and " The} r do not learn the Law from one teacher." Their pro- vincial pronunciation was ridiculed. From time to time, in- deed, Scribes from Jerusalem would visit Galilee ; r but their sta3 T was limited, and it is very doubtful whether at this period they ever went to Nazareth. This, is all we know of the early life of Jesus. In the fore- ground we must place his own singular exaltation of charac- ter, the great gifts of heart and head which God had entrusted to him. Then we must take into account the circumstances, in man}' respects decidedly favorable, which contributed to the development of his character. It appears from the tran- quil conscience and the exalted self-reliance of the man Jesus that this development took place without any great shocks to contaminate his moral life, without stagnation and without disturbance. Though he had never put himself forward, though his appearance as a prophet caused general amaze- ment among his townsmen, 2 yet he had quietly matured himself for the task which God would assign to him. Evei increasing in love of God and of his neighbor, fervently long- ing for the coming of God's kingdom, he steadily "grew in wisdom and in favor with God and man." Would that the same could be said of the early life and development of all of us ! Which of us, with the example of Jesus before him, must not reproach himself with time wasted or worse than wasted, with want of respect and obedience, with unclean imaginations or evil practices, with weakness of will, want of love, and a hundred things be- side ! John, so far as we know, was the only master, in the proper sense, that Jesus ever had. This man exercised a decisive influence upon the formation of his ideas and pro- jects, and upon his whole subsequent history ; but of him, and of the movement to hasten the coming of the Mes- sianic age associated with his name, we must speak in a separate chapter. 1 Matthew xv. 1 (Mark iii. 22, vii. 1). 2 Matthew xiii. 54-57 (Mark vi. 2, 3). 96 JOHN THE BAPTIST. Chapter VII. JOHN THE BAPTIST. Luke III. 1-18.1 THE stories we have been dealing with hitherto are but an introduction to the Gospel history. We are now ap- proaching the histoiy itself, and are therefore immediately transported to a considerably later period, and at the same time placed on somewhat firmer ground. The years over which the work of John and Jesus extended, and the precise period at which the former began his public life, cannot be fixed with certainty. Luke speaks of the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius, which would fall in the years twenty- eight and twent3'-nine of our era ; but this Evangelist is very inaccurate in his dates, and his knowledge of history in gen- eral leaves much to be desired. 2 In this very year, for instance, he mentions a certain Lj'sanias as governor of Abilene (a principality northeast of Palestine, not far from Damascus) , whereas this man had really been murdered more than half a century before. Again, he mentions both Annas and Caiaphas as high priests at the time. Caiaphas did really hold the office from a.d. 18 to a.d. 36, but Annas had been deposed in a.d. 14. We can therefore place but small reli- ance on the statement of Luke ; but other considerations prevent our departing from it very far. We may take it as certain that John did not come forward before a.d. 28, and a.d. 33 is the extreme limit on the other side. On the whole, this latter date may be taken as the most probable. These were sad times for Israel, — times of deep humilia- tion and ever-growing discontent. The Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, was wholly unfitted for his post. A Jewish writer of the period, the Alexandrian philosopher Philo, speaks of Pilate as obstinate and inexorable in character, mentions his reckless arrogance and his furious temper, and sums up the crimes of his government as follows : venality, violence, robbery, outrage, bullying, constant executions without legal trial, unbounded and unendurable cruelty. Now the Jews could bear much if their religious peculiarities were respected ; but Pilate, who did not in the least under- 1 Matthew iii. 1-12 ; Mark i. 1-8. 2 See pp. 55, 56. JOHN THE BAPTIST. Vi stand them, and had no desire to please them, exasperated them quite needlessly in this respect. He began his rule by a false step, which he could never recover ; for when the Roman troops were marching to Jerusalem, to go into winter quarters there, he ordered them to take their standards, with the silver busts of the emperor to which divine honors were paid, into the city with them. The order was carried out un- der cover of the night ; but in the morning, when the citizens perceived these images in the citadel right opposite the tem- ple, a great cry of horror rose. The abomination of idolatry in the holy city ! No previous governor had ever attempted such a thing. Whole troops of Jews set out for Csesarea to implore Pilate to remove the offence. He refused. Five whole days they persisted, night and day, and could not be removed from the spot. On the sixth day lie summoned them into the circus ; and when they raised their impetuous cry once more a band of soldiers suddenly rushed upon them with naked swords, but the Jews flung themselves upon the ground, laid bare their necks to the sword, and declared that the}' would die rather than violate the Law. Even Pilate shrank from such a massacre, and, in amazement at their obstinac}', ordered the images to be brought back to Cses- area. But afterwards he suspended on the walls of his pal- ace at Jerusalem, which had formerly belonged to Herod L, some thickly-gilt shields, with a short inscription to Tiberius. This he did, according to Philo, less for the sake of honoring the emperor than to anno}* the Jews. The result was re- newed resistance, — the sons of Herod placing themselves at the head of the people. The governor was obstinate ; but a petition to Tiberius secured the removal of the obnoxious shields. Even when Pilate benefited the Jews, he did it so clumsify as to raise bad blood. Thus, when he built a new aqueduct for Jerusalem, he laid hold of the treasures of the temple to defra}' the cost. A riot and consequent massacre were the results. On another occasion he ordered certain Galikean pilgrims to be slaughtered in the temple, so that their blood was mingled Avith that of their sacrifices. 1 Now it happened at this as at other periods of Jewish histoiy that the deep depression of the times, when "the Lord hid his countenance and gave over his people to the re- proaches of the heathen," 2 roused with new strength in the noblest sons of Israel their hope in God and his deliverance. While the high priest and the whole party of the Sadducees 1 Luke xiii. 1. 2 Psalms xliv. 12-14, 24. VOL. III. 5 98 JOHN THE BAPTIST. usually kept on a good understanding with the governor, while the Scribes and most of the adherents of the Pharisaic part}' consoled themselves with hair-splitting studies of the Law and the tradition, or with scrupulously observing and enforcing the countless precepts of a frivolous formality ; while the people murmured but never thought of seeking the guilt in their own hearts, and humbling themselves before the Lord ; while the pious sighed but saw no light, — a man stood up in the wilderness of Judah, and, in the strength of his trust in God, promised an end to all this misery. Nay, more, in obedience to the voice of God in his heart he sought to make Israel's deliverance possible ; for he knew that those only could be rescued and delivered who bowed beneath the chastening rod of the Lord, and did penance for their sins. In the sufferings of his people he saw an indication that the promises of God to the former generations were on the point of being fulfilled, for these things could noc last, and humilia- tion and misery could go no further ; but at the same time he recognized in them a righteous visitation on the people's sins, and the announcement of the great judgment of God, in which all the impious should be destroj-ecl. He felt that the Messianic age, and the fearful day of judgment that would inaugurate it, were now close at hand. Nothing was want- ing but one to prepare the way of the Lord and make Israel ready for his coming. This task he therefore took upon him- self, that he might hasten the dawn of the glorious future. "Repent, for the Messianic kingdom is at hand," 1 — such was the substance of his preaching. He was certainly not alone in his wishes and his expecta- tions, but gave utterance to what was in the heart of many more whose fervent pra} T ers rose to the God of Israel, and who longed for the Messianic kingdom more eagerly than ever. But, to say nothing of the stern enthusiasm with which he preached repentance, no one before him had had the courage to speak in so decisive a tone, and to put his own hand to the work ; though now that he had once made himself the mouth-piece of the high-wrought Messianic ex- pectations of his time, his words found an echo everywhere. The news of his appearance spread through the length and breadth of the land. It penetrated even to the distant Gali- lee, that had been spared the Roman supremac} T so far ; and from the secluded Nazareth there came to the preacher of re- jentance the man who was to be his successor and far more i Matthew iii. 2. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 99 besides. But it was chiefly in Judaea and Samaria, groaning under the tyranny of Pilate, that the fuel was collected into which the spark was thrown. From Jerusalem, from all Judaea, from the whole region round about the Jordan, 1 the people streamed to hear the new preacher. And though the Samaritans of course could not go to a Jewish man of God, yet we shall hardly be wrong in connecting a similar move- ment which rose in Samaria not long afterwards with the appearance of John in Israel. For in Samaria, too, a popu- lar leader appeared, and promised to show his fellow- country- men the spot on Mount Gerizim in which were buried the tables of the Law, the golden basin of manna, and other sacred objects which had long been lost, but which popular tradition and belief declared were to be discovered again in the Messianic age. 2 This man was followed by a large and constantly-increasing crowd of delighted enthusiasts ; but Pilate sent his cavalry and heavy infantry to the spot, and the attempt to found the Messianic kingdom was quenched in blood. In a word, the whole movement to which the New Testa- ment and other writings of the same period bear witness received its decisive impulse from the preacher in the wilder- ness of Judah. 8 Who was this man? Nothing but his bare name, John, is preserved. Neither Josephus nor the historical portions of the Gospels tell us so much as his father's name. His title, "the Baptist," superseded the usual style of "John, the son of so and so." It is not impossible, however, to ar- rive at certain more or less probable conclusions with regard to his origin and education. Probably he was a Judsean b} T birth. All our accounts of his preaching in the wilderness of Judah 4 authorize the sup position that he was not a stranger there, but felt completely at home on the scene of his activit} T . The figures of speech he uses, the mode of life he adopted, the extreme privations to which he subjected himself, all confirm us in our opinion. His fife was an unbroken fast ; 6 that is to say, he ate only what was absolutely necessary to sustain life, nothing but what the sterile country itself could furnish. He quenched his thirst at the spring, and stayed his hunger with locusts i Matthew iii. 5 (Mark i. 5). 2 2 Maccabees ii. 4-8 ; Revelation ii. 17, xi. 19. 8 Matthew xi. 12, * See vol. i. p. 518. 5 Matthew xi. 18. 100 JOHN THE- BAPTIST. dried in the sun, with wild honey, and other such food. He was a genuine son of the wilderness. It is interesting to note these particulars ; for the region between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea, however monotonous and inhospitable, was the scene of high- wrought spiritual life. John was not the only eremite who withdrew from all the pleasures of life into this wilderness, and collected a band of disciples about him 03- the fame of his sanctity. About twent}^ 3 r ears later w r e hear of a certain Banus who dwelt there, clothed in the bark of trees, eating nothing but the natural products of the soil, and constantly bathing day and night in cold water. We know of him through Flavius Josephus, who joined him in earl}' life and remained with him three years. He was certainly not his first or only disciple. Of far greater importance, however, are the colonies or hamlets of the Essenes, Avhich were situated, at the beginning of our era, just in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea. 1 Here lived the Essenes, secluded from the turmoil of society, a close order into which no one could be received except after a novitiate of three years, and after taking a solemn oath. All distinctions between rich and poor, slaves and freemen, were annulled ; but unconditional obedience to the laws and regulations of the order, and to the leaders and older mem- bers, was exacted, and an iron discipline reigned supreme. The Essenes were unmarried and observed the strictest absti- nence, refraining from the use of meat, of wine, and of spirits ; offering earl}- morning prayers, pursuing peaceful industries, observing the Sabbath with incredible minuteness, performing numerous ceremonial ablutions, partaking of a common meal, and devoting themselves to pious reflections and speculations as to the future, in which in all probability the Messianic ex- pectation occupied a prominent position. Of course John must have known of this sect, and must have felt its influence. Indeed, he has frequently been re- garded as himself a member of the order of Essenes. But this is a mistake. His style of life, it is true, reminds us of theirs ; but he stood alone, and belonged to no close society. He submitted his followers to baptism only once in their lives, and exacted no oath from them. Above all he had none of that dread of ceremonial uncleanness 2 which made the Es- senes shrink with the utmost horror from all contact with publicans or outcast women. But no one can say how far he - Compare p. 6. 2 Matthew xxi. 32. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 101 wa& carried awa} T b} T the intensity of the spiritual life that drew hermits and monks to these regions above all others ; how far the impressions he there received ma}^ have con- tributed to wake the sense of his vocation, the longing to do something for God and his people, the hope that the Messi- anic kingdom might be founded ! His person was impressive and commanding, his preaching bold and stern, even to the point of harshness ; both were threatening and sombre, in perfect harmonj- with the wilderness which was the scene of his activit} 7 . We can see him still in imagination, with the rough mantle of camel's hair thrown upon his naked body, bound round his waist with a leather girdle. Such a garment was worn in sign of penitence ; but it seems also to have been the usual costume in ancient times of all who would announce them- selves as prophets. 1 In the case of Elijah both the girdle and mantle are especially mentioned. 2 And John came in Elijah's place. No touching lamentation like Jeremiah's, no rapturous strain of consolation like the second Isaiah's, 3 need be looked for from his lips, — but preaching terrible as the thunder ! Elijah had been called " the prophet of fire, whose word burned like a torch ; " and must not John, in taking up the task that had been assigned to Elijah, regard himself as "ordained in the Scripture to preach repentance in those times, to turn away the wrath of God before it broke forth at the Messianic judgment, to turn the hearts of the. fathers to the children again, and restore the tribes of Jacob? " 4 Such was the spirit in which he undertook his task. " Re- pent," he cried, "for the kingdom of heaven is near!" Malachi had threatened, " Behold the daj^ of judgment comes, burning like a furnace, and all the proud and sinful shall be as stubble, and the day that is drawing near shall consume them wdth fire till neither root nor branch be left. Who shall abide when Yahweh appears ? " 5 And in the same spirit John rose up, lest the Lord when he came in glory should smite the land of Canaan with his curse as though it were a heathen conntry ; 6 and he cried, " The axe is laid already to the root of the trees ; and every tree that does not bear good fruit will be hewn down and cast into the fire. After me comes the Lord of Hosts, and whomsoever he finds ready he 1 Zechariah xiii. 4; Isaiah xx. 2. 2 2 Kings i. 8 ; compare ii. 13, 14. 8 S^e vol. ii. chap. x. p 417. 4 Jesus Sirach xlviii. 1, 10. 6 Malachi iv. 1, iii. 2 ; compare Zephaniah i. 14-18. • Malachi iv. fi. 102 JOHN THE BAPTIST. will baptize with the Holy Spirit i 1 but the unconverted will he plunge into the fiery furnace." Sometimes the preacher changed his image, and compared God to the husbandman who flings the corn that he has threshed into the air with his shovel, that the light and worthless chaff may be blown away and separated from the precious grain ; even so would the Lord sift the holy from the unholy. " Behold he comes with the fan in his hand, and he will thoroughly cleanse his threshing-floor ; he will gather the wheat into the barn, but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire." This was the usual tone and subject of his preaching. You will notice that he thought and spoke entirely in the spirit of the ancient prophets, or rather of the most threaten- ing discourses of the sternest of their number. His language was severe and harsh. In the description of his work we seek in vain for the traces of those softer emotions which often touch us so deeply in the oracles of the Old Testament. His announcement of the approaching Messianic age appears to have borne the character almost exclusively of an exhor- tation to repentance, and not to have had a touch of consola- tion or encouragement in it. We should never have learned from him that the founding of the Messianic kingdom was the object of Israel's wildest hopes and deepest longings, as the fulfilment of God's great promises to the fathers and the pledge of the infinite mercy and unshaken faithfulness of the Lord. Only compare the so-called song of praise of Zachariah " 2 with the preaching of John ! Could there be a greater contrast ? Nevertheless, we may take it for granted that he too looked upon the Messianic kingdom as the glorification and exaltation of Israel, as deliverance from foreign rule and vengeance upon the heathen oppressor, as the eternal glory and unbroken bliss of the saints. But since he confined him- self almost entirely to what must immediately precede this golden age, and considered it his exclusive mission to pre- pare the hearts of men for its coming, God became to him so entirely the God of judgment and the God of vengeance that his mercy falls into the background, eclipsed, as it were, b} T his anger. Though John's work is so closely con- nected with the gospel, yet there is not a trace of the gos- pel tone or spirit in his preaching, not even a presentiment in his soul of faith in the God of love. But this ought not to surprise us when we remember that the conception of 1 Isaiah xxxii. 15, xliv. 3 ; Ezekiel xxxvi. 26-29, xxxix. 29 ; Joel ii. 28, 29. * Luke i. 68-79, compared with Luke iii. 7-9, 17. See p. 45. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 103 God's nature cherished by the Israelites had by no means gained in gentleness or attractiveness since the Captivity. On the contrary, the} T thought of God as ever further and further removed from man, as the terrible and unapproach- able Judge of the world, inexorably stern and dreadful in his wrath. John was a true child of his age, however high his prophetic gifts exalted him above it. The expression "kingdom of heaven," for the Messianic age, was borrowed from the usage of the time. Neither the Scribes who introduced it, nor the people who adopted it, nor John himself, intended for a moment to speak of an abode in heaven, or even of the heavenly character of the coming age. The expression may have referred to the heavenly origin of the kingdom ; for the fearful revolution and all its conse- quences were to be brought to pass by the coming of the Lord from heaven. But most likely the name " kingdom of heaven" was used instead of "kingdom of God," simply because the Jews of the period had a superstitious dislike of using the word God when they could avoid it, — just as many people now prefer to speak of Providence or Heaven instead of God. " Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand ! " If we ascribe the later Jewish tinge in John's conception of God to the influence of his age, and set aside the purely menacing character of his language as due to his special conception of his mission, then the burden of his preaching perfectly agrees with that of all the other prophets. It is a new variation upon the old theme familiar to every one of them without exception. " Amend your ways, for Yahweh's justice sends all these disasters to chastise you, nor will it suffer him to do to 3'ou according to his covenant ; but if you repent he will comfort you with such bliss and glory as has never yet entered into the heart of man to conceive." Such was the substance of all the prophecies, the one only message which the ancient men of God had ever brought to Israel. So far, then, John stood exactly in the line of the prophets. And in that which constituted the very essence of the prophetic character, — the irresistible impulse to stand up before the peo- ple, the hallowed inspiration to speak to them in the name of God, and above all the unshaken hope that a glorious mor- row would with infallible certainty dissipate the gloom and darkness of to-day, — in all this John might bear comparison with Jeremiah and Michah themselves. But the appearance of a prophet was a far more significant 104 JOHN THE BAPTIST. fact, and demanded far more courage on the prophet's part in the year thirty- three of our era than in the eighth, the seventh, or the sixth centuiy b.c. ; and in other respects, too, John excelled his predecessors, and was "more than a prophet." 1 He dared to undertake the task of Elijah. In holy impatience he dared to promise the dawn of the Messi- anic age as close at hand, whereas his predecessors had gen- erally represented it as in the more or less distant future. He laid greater stress than any other man of God had done upon the share which Israel itself must take in hastening this future, and as it were forcing the kingdom of heaven from God ! Above all, he himself began to make ready and prepare the way by baptizing in the Jordan, so as to make any longer dela} T impossible. So John was more courageous and more practical than all the prophets. To perform the ceremony of baptism he had, of course, to leave the wilderness ; and indeed at the end of his ministry, which certainty was not of long duration, we find him in the Transjordanic district, still further removed from the scene of his first appearance. We may suppose that he did not begin to baptize until the attention of the public had already been fixed upon him, and he had begun to make some im- pression. Those who received his baptism declared their fixed resolve to amend their lives ; and for this reason the ceremony was called a " baptism of repentance," and was usually preceded by a confession of sins. John on his side promised the penitent, in the name of God, " forgiveness of sins," — that is, immunity from the terrors of the Messianic judgment. He would admit no one of whose genuine repent- ance and resolutions of amendment he was not convinced. This baptism, by which, as Josephus truly remarks, he es- tablished a society or community (of the future partakers of the Messianic blessings) , was at that time a novelty ; for the figurative mention of " washing" and " pure water," 2 which occurs here and there in the prophets, even if it suggested some such rite, furnished no precedent. The purification of the people by Moses before the proclamation of the Law is pei haps rather more to the point. 8 The repeated dairy ab- lutions of the Essenes hardly afford a parallel, for they were intended to secure external (Levitical) purity, 4 while the 1 Matthew xi. 9. 2 Isaiah i. 16, xliv. 3 ; Ezekiel xxxyi. 25 ; Zechariah xiii. 1. 8 Exodus xix. 10, 14. 4 Compare Mark vii. 4 and Genesis xxxv. 2 ; Exodus xix. 10; Numbers xix. 7. See vol. ii. chap, xviii. p. 508. JOHN THE BAPTIST. 105 oaptisni of John, which was performed once for all, was a symbol of moral purity. We must regard the baptism of John, therefore, as a very original institution, of great beauty and appropriateness ; or, in the language of the age, we must say that the rite was of heaven (of God) and not of men. 1 John's object was that the Lord, when he came, should find all things ready, — a band alread}' set apart of those who feared, him, "whom he might spare, his heritage; a band upon whom the sun of righteousness should ascend, and who should find healing under his wings." 2 As to the form under which John thought of the appearance of God, and of the Messianic bliss that was to succeed the day of judgment, our authorities leave us entirely in the dark. The impression produced by the preacher of the wilderness and his proclamation of the kingdom of God was overwhelm- ing ; and when he began to baptize it became deeper yet. From the nature of the case the number of his hearers was very limited at first, but it gradually rose until the people flowed to him in ever widening streams from every side. Among them there were many whose sense of guilt was roused by the passionate earnestness and the fearful denun- ciations of the prophet, till they felt and showed the peni- tence and promised the reformation he demanded, and were baptized by him in the Jordan. But perhaps the deep im pression he produced is still more clearly shown in the fact that some who realty had no sense of guilt at all, and had therefore formed no resolutions of amendment, were carried away by the stream, and came with the rest to hear the new prophet. They were men who expected and calculated upon the founding of the Messianic kingdom, and with a view to it desired to be baptized by John ; but did so only as a kind of extra precaution, so as to be safe in an}' case. If it did no good, the}' thought, at an} T rate it could not well do any harm. They had little doubt, however, that simply as Israel- ites, as members of the chosen people, they were already in- cluded in the covenant of the Lord, and could therefore claim a place in the Messianic kingdom, and had no cause to dread the judgment which would consume great sinners and heathen. At any rate, there were some in whom John perceived or suspected such ideas, and the burning stream of his indignation burst upon them. "Tribe of vipers!" he thuudered, refusing to baptize them, " what brought you 1 Matthew xxi. 25 (Mark xi. 30; Luke xx. 4). 2 Malachi iii. 17, iv. % 6* 106 JOHN THE BAPTIST. here ? Who told you to come to me for security against the wrath of God that will break upon you on that great day? First show me in } T our lives that when joyi talk about repent- ance 3 r ou mean something by it ! Soothe not yourselves with the idle thought, ' We are the seed of Abraham, and ours is the promise of the Messianic kingdom ; ' for I tell } T ou this will avail you nothing, and the Almighty could make children of Abraham out of these stones on Jordan's banks ! " The preacher of repentance feared nothing, and spared no one. Not even the royal purple overawed him ; and we shall see presently how this boldness cost him his life at last. He drove his demand for penitence so well home, and waked such an echo in the consciences of his hearers, that no escape was left. A few specimens of his preaching have been preserved. When the crowds exclaimed, "You tell us to repent, and so we do ; but say what you require or expect of us," — he answered, " Overcome jour greed, } T our selfish- ness, your hard-heartedness. Be generous and merciful. Whoever has two coats, let him give one of them to the need} 7 ; whoever has abundant food, let him satisfy the hungry." Even soldiers, who were little, better than ruffians for the most part in those da}*s, came and asked him, " What must we do if we repent?" "Be content with 3*0111* pay," he answered ; " treat the citizens decently, and lay hold of no man's goods." Simple as the exhortation was, it implied a complete change in the soldier's habits of life ; for discipline was very imperfect, and the soldiers supported or enriched themselves out of what they could exact from the citizens by violence or threats. Even the cursed and outcast hirelings of the heathen plunderers who sucked the marrow of Israel, even the publicans themselves, sometimes came to John and asked him reverently, ' ' Master, what must our repentance be?" Strange that he did not tell them, first of all, to give up their occupation ! But he contented himself with saying, "Never be guilty of injustice or extortion again; never exact a farthing more than what is fixed b} T 3*our em- ployers." But the practice of draining the resources of a province and gaining wealth from the extortion was so universal, and the scramble between the higher officers and their subordinates for the chief share of the booty so shameless, that John's exhortation involved nothing short of a revolution. It was remarkable that these and such as these came gradually in greater and yet greater numbers to the wilder- JOHN THE BAPTIST. 107 ness and the Jordan, — publicans, people of either sex who had been guilt}' of gross offences, notorious sinners smitten by the church's ban and the contempt of all right-minded citizens. It was doubtless because their sense of guilt was more easily roused and their consciences accused them more loudly than was the case with others ; and also because the prophet, instead of rejecting them with horror, saw no such great difference between them and the ordinary Israel- ites, but considered all Israel as in truth unclean. It was with these outcast classes that John had most success. With them the working of the new influence was obvious, their repentance was practical, the impression they received per- manent, their faith genuine. 1 In general, however, the result of the prophet's preaching and baptizing was certainly not equal to the expectations which might fairly have been formed by others, and with which he himself had begun his work. The leaders of the nation maintained an impartial or rather an indifferent atti- tude towards him to the last. 2 As long as he caused no disturbance they left him to pursue his way ; but as for going to him themselves, the high-born priests and magistrates never dreamed of such a thing ! They turned in contempt from a prophet to whose followers the very refuse of the peo- ple belonged. 8 The Pharisees might have shown more inter- est in his work if only he would have paid them the attention they conceived to be their due ; but such courteous advances were hardly to be expected from him, and the Pharisees on their side had not penetration enough to understand and appreciate him, and so take the initiative themselves. Inas- much as he announced the near approach of the kingdom of God, for which they too passionately longed, they did pay some attention to him ; but their superstitious reverence for antiquity and their slavish worship of the letter effectually prevented their recognizing in him a prophet of the true and ancient stamp. Their national pride might well be hurt by the small esteem in which he seemed to hold the privilege of descent from Abraham. Their narrowness and self-satisfac- tion may have caused man}' of them to regard as a fanatical extravagance the strictness and severity of a piety which, though somewhat similar 4 to their own, went so much further. And the result was that many of them, when they saw what a consuming fire burned in him, shrugged their shoulders and i Matthew xxi. 32. 2 Mark xi. 33 (Matthew xxi. 27; Luke xx. 7). * Matthew xxi. 32. 4 Matthew ix. 14 (Mark ii. 18 j Luke v. 33). 108 JOHN THE BAPTIST. cried, u The fellow must be mad." 1 But the great masses bowed before his mighty spirit, went to the wilderness in crowds, 2 desired to be admitted to his baptism, 3 believed for the most part that he was a true prophet, 4 and even accepted his announcement of the Messianic age in such complete good faith that, when he had changed the wilderness for the district beyond Jordan, the movement began to assume dangerous proportions in the eyes of Herod. Even after his imprison- ment they did not forget him ; and when he had been be- headed, and the royal murderer suffered a defeat in battle some time afterwards, the disaster was regarded by the peo- ple as the penalty exacted b} T a righteous God for the blood of John the Baptist. 5 But in spite of all this the multitude was too shallow to retain a lasting impression of his preach- ing, and soon fell into the old groove again. But among those he baptized there were some who would not leave him again ; and he gradually found himself sur- rounded by a band of faithful and zealous disciples, who regulated their lives in accordance with his precepts. He ordered them to fast often and strictly ; 6 to show their re- pentance, and to do penance not only for themselves but for all Israel, including the unconverted. He taught them long prayers to be repeated daily for the speedy coming of the Messianic kingdom. 7 There was nothing original in these com- mandments themselves ; and, indeed, bj^ laying such stress on outward forms of religion he showed how thoroughly he was still imbued with the Jewish spirit, 8 since the Phari- sees also enforced the same observances upon their followers. 9 But the meaning of it all was very different in the two cases. With the Pharisees such actions were considered so merito- rious as to afford a just ground of satisfaction to those who performed them ; with John the}" were simpfy acts of self- humiliation to propitiate the Lord before the day of judgment, attempts to appease Him that the dawn of the golden age might be hastened. In a word his whole system turned upon the approach of the kingdom of God. In dealing with the person of John we are on thoroughly historical ground. Not only does Josephus 10 mention his 1 Matthew xi. 18 (Luke vii. 33). 2 Matthew xi. 7 (Luke vii. 24). a Luke vii. 29. 4 Matthew xxi. 26 (Mark xi. 32; Luke xx. 6} 5 Flavius Josephus. 6 Matthew ix. 14 (Mark ii. 18 ; Luke v. 33). f Luke xi. 1. 8 Matthew xi. 11. 9 Matthew ix. 14 (Mark ii. 18; Luke v. 33), as above. Also Matthew vi. 5 16 ; Luke xviii. 11, 12. 10 Jewish Antiquities, book xviii. chap. v. sec. 2. \ JOHN THE BAPTIST. lOi) name, his work, the influence he exercised, and his death, but the incidental notices scattered up and down throughout the first three Gospels bear from their very nature the clear stamp of truth. These casual, and as it were unintentional, allusions fill in and correct the passages referred to at the head of this chapter, in which the Gospels expressly descrite the man and his preaching. There is, however, one point to which .we have not yet referred, and as to which we must ex- pressly caution our readers, as they will otherwise fall into a serious mistake concerning John the Baptist. The point in question is this : John is represented as having proclaimed himself the precursor of Jesus, or rather of the Messiah. Luke even adds that the people were in doubt whether he himself was not the Christ, and that he took occa- sion thereby to promise that the Christ should come, and to distinguish himself from him as his predecessor. 1 "After me comes one who is mightier than I, the thongs of whose sandals I am not worthy to unloose ; " 2 that is to say, for whom I am not worthy to perform the most menial office. The Gospels also apply to the Messiah John's prophecy of Him who would baptize with the Holy Spirit, and with the fire of judgment, and would purify his threshing-floor from chaff with his fan. But we have explained these words as referring not to the coming of the Christ, but to the appear- aace of God. This " Mightier One" is the Lord, is Yahweh himself. But inasmuch as the metaphor of the sandal- thong is. not strictly applicable to any but a man, these words have generally been understood to refer to the Messiah, and con- sequently all the other promises and threats embodied in John's preaching have been taken in the same sense. But this is certainty incorrect. In the preaching of John the Messiah completely disappears. This need not surprise us ; for we know from our accounts of the religious condition of the Jews in the Captivity, and after the return, that many of the prophets conceived of the Messianic age without a human king (or Messiah) . They expected that in this per- fect realm of God, this age of Israel's holiness and glory, Yahweh would reign over his people in his own person. We must also observe that John is obviously dependent upon Malachi for his conceptions of the future. Not only did he borrow from this last of the prophets his conception of the task of Elijah, but the whole spirit of his preaching was i Luke iii. 15, 16. 2 Matthew iii. 11, 12 (Mark i. 7, 8; Luke iii. 15-18; Acts xiii. 21, 25), 110 JOHN THE BAPTIST. strongly influenced by him. Now Malachi never speaks of the Messiah, but distinctly announces Yahweh's own appear- ance. We need not therefore be surprised if we find John anticipating, proclaiming, and preparing the kingdom of God itself, without ever speaking of its human ruler. But the strongest proof that we are not mistaken is found in the fact that eveiwwhere in the prophets of the Old Testament, in the Apocryphal books, and in the writings of John's contempo- raries, whenever the Messianic judgment is mentioned, the judge is no other than God himself; in no single case is the judgment deputed to the Messiah. The preaching of John can hardly have formed an exception. When he speaks of the Husbandman, of the coming Baptizer, of the Mighty One who handles the axe, he means no other than God. Moreover, we can readily understand how the Evangelists fell into their mistake. When John, without knowing it beforehand, and without himself intending it, had actually become the precursor of Jesus (the Christ) , the Christians could hardly help understanding of their Master and apply- ing to him the predictions which the preacher had uttered of God. " He who comes after me is mightier than I," he had said ; and were not his words fulfilled in Jesus ? Moreover, the confusion was favored by the great change which the Messianic expectation underwent in Christian circles. The Apostles and apostolic communities cherished the hope that when Jesus ere long returned from heaven he would himself hold the last judgment. 1 What could be more obvious, there- fore, than to explain the utterances of John concerning this judgment as having reference to (Jesus) the Christ? And of course this mistake must have had its influence upon the form in which the preaching of John was handed down and finally recorded. For when once the tradition had brought John into such close relations with Jesus, it was easy to cany the process a little further. It was first imagined and then asserted that John had stood upon the same hostile footing towards the heads and leaders of the people as that which Jesus occupied. Thus, though the Sadducees and Pharisees had really re- mained neutral on the whole, Matthew represents them as having come with simulated interest to the baptism, and having drawn from the lips of the prophet the indignant " brood of vipers ! " which we have already explained. ' l In the same spirit it is said elsewhere that they were only re- i Matthew xxv. 31 ; Romans xiv. 10; 2 Corinthians v. 10. 2 Matthew iii. 7. Compare xii. 'Si, xxiii. 3d. JOHN THE BAPTIST. Ill strained from openly expressing their condemnation of him by their fear of the populace. 1 In another respect, however, the tradition has remained remarkably faithful to history. It has not ascribed to John an}* of those miracles so profusely worked into the history of Jesus. 2 The reason is obvious. In the first place, the activity of John does not afford those natural opportunities for the. introduction of miraculous stories which occasioned their insertion into the sketch of the life of Jesus; and, be- sides, the Baptist so soon fell into the shadow of his great successor that the imagination of the Christians soon de- serted the forerunner, and busied itself exclusively with the central figure of the Gospel histoiy. In conclusion : With regard to John, we possess the witness of a contemporary who was better qualified than an}* other to judge him. Jesus repeatedly spoke of him expressly, and at length. 3 It is from these utterances of Jesus that we derive our accurate knowledge of the man ; and it is from them rhat we have borrowed most of the colors with which we have attempted to paint a true picture of him . Jesus regards him as a messenger of God, as greater than any of the prophets, as the man who roused the conscience of sinners, and inten- sified the Messianic hope of his contemporaries till it became an impetuous demand. But for all that, Jesus does not at- tempt to conceal the fact that John stood completely upon Jewish soil, and remained to the backbone a representative, of the Law, insisting on the outer duties of religion, and filled with dread of the stern Judge of men. Great as he was, the humblest mortal who had really entered the kingdom of God, who had risen through faith in the love of the Heavenly Father to perfect freedom from all legal compulsion, was greater than he. Thus Jesus could bring his own vocation and work into the very closest connection with those of John, and could see in the lot of his predecessor a foreshadowing of what awaited him ; and yet at the same time could place him- self in direct contrast with John as the preacher of other good tidings, of another God and another kingdom of heaven. The sequel of the history will show us the relations in which these two men came to stand towards each other, and the opportunities which Jesus had of observing the whole work and character of this last prophet of the ancient dis- pensation. i Matthew xxi. 26 (Mark xi. 32; Luke xx. 6). 2 Compare John x. 41. 8 Matthew xi. 2-19 (Luke vii. 18-35); Matthew xvii. 12, 13, xxi. 23-32 ;Mark xi. 27-33; Luke xx. 1-8). 112 THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. Chapter VIII. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. Majrk I. 9-11.1 AT Nazareth, in the house of Joseph the carpenter, words of farewell were being exchanged. The father of the family was perhaps alreacl}^ dead, — at least we do not meet with him again ; but the mother was still living, and on this occasion we picture all the married sons and daughters who had settled in the place 2 gathering once more under the old roof, — for one of their brothers, who had so far always stayed with his mother and worked at his trade to support her, was now leaving home, and they had all come to wish him a hearty farewell. Jesus was starting on a journej', and how long he would be away it was impossible to tell. Had he himself any presentiment that the turning point of his life was drawing near, and that he would never more come back to live under his mother's roof? He had determined to go to the Jordan to John. The im- pulse which this man had given to the spiritual life of his peo- ple had made itself felt at Nazareth. At the city gate, in the synagogue, and in the homes of his friends and acquaintances, Jesus had listened with eager ears to the reports of this strange preacher of the wilderness. Had the Lord really visited His people, then, and raised up a prophet as in days gone by? 3 Had John, indeed, received a commission from God to proclaim the approach of the Messianic age? At least his demand for repentance, and his immersion of the people in the purifying water, was something very different from the war-ciy raised some years ago by Judas. 4 If the kingdom of God was to be gained at all, it must be b} r righte- ousness and not by violence. If? — But might not Jesus find in the very eagerness with which he himself looked for- ward to the great day of the Lord a pledge that it was near at hand ? He could not quietly work on with plane and saw any longer. So he put his affairs in order, bade farewell to his family, and 1 Matthew iii. 13-17; Luke iii. 21, 21. 2 1 Corinthians ix. 5 ; Matthew xii. 46, xiii. 56. 8 Compare Psalm lxxiv. 9: 1 Maccabeos iv. 4fi, ix. 27, xiv. 41. * Seep. 89. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. 113 set out on his journey, perhaps by himself, perhaps in com- pany with other Nazarenes, but in an}' case alone ; for he could not communicate the thoughts and emotions that crowded into his breast to any one. When he reached the place of his des- tination he pressed with eager interest into the crowd of hear- ers, and marked well the man that he had so longed to see and hear. He was not disappointed. John's heroic and in- vincible courage, his unshaken confidence in God and in him- self, his unexampled rigor, scorning all luxury or delicacy in food and raiment, made an indelible impression on Jesus. The main purport, at least, of his preaching waked a full echo in Jesus' soul, and the firm conviction that the promises of God were soon to be fulfilled, and that a sense of guilt and a long- ing for righteousness were the indispensable conditions of par- taking of His salvation, struck deep root in his heart. Truly this man was a prophet ; ay, and more than a prophet ! For the prophets did but announce God's kingdom, while John prepared the way for it, and had risen up to do Elijah's work. All this Jesus felt. He penetrated to the inner meaning of John's efforts, and reverenced his bold resolve. He could not doubt that he was prompted by a divine impulse, was obeying the voice of God, when he baptized in the Jordan the host of penitents that confessed their sins and promised to strive after righteousness. And after listening to his preaching for a time Jesus wished to be baptized himself. It is obvious wiry he did so. As soon as he recognized this baptism as a divine institution, it was but natural that he should wish to submit to it. He, too, would express under this form his fervent hope in the coming of the Lord. He, too, would register his promise to live after the will of God, and to do what in him lay to hasten the coming of the great salvation. He, too, would confess how far he was from what he would have himself, and how deeply he felt his own imperfection. He, too, would be received hy the messenger of God into the company of those who should enter into the kingdom. It would seem that he still remained with John for a time after he had been baptized Iry him. There was much in the preacher's surroundings, besides his person, to excite Jesus' interest and arrest his attention. How different were these scenes from those in w T hich he had lived hitherto ! He was struck b}^ the fact that among John's most eager hearers, among the most deeply penitent of all whom he baptized, were many publicans or still more degraded creatures. Though 114 THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. almost every one supposed them to be hopelessly lost, they were still capable of being lifted up. He saw with indignation how the priests and upper classes stayed awa} r in indifference. Was not the eagerness of these sinners to be allowed an en- trance into the kingdom of God enough to shame them into better things? 1 While the religious and respectable classes, as a rule, showed so much less zeal than he would have ex- pected, he beheld the masses, humble and believing, stream- ing to the baptism. What a contrast between the different opinions entertained about the Baptist ! What a rich store of knowledge of human nature might here be gleaned ! This stay b}' the Jordan exercised a decisive influence on Jesus in his choice of a career and his conception of the task of his life. For here a resolution came to maturity which must long have been half formed within him, though hitherto his surroundings, and especially the influence of his relatives, had been unfavorable to its development. Henceforth he would devote his undivided powers to his people and to the kingdom of God. The impulse he received from the Bap- tist's preaching finally decided him. The influence which John exercised upon Jesus was indeed powerful. We may note in passing that the metaphor used by Jesus of the good and the bad tree, the latter of which is cut down and cast into the fire, and other such expressions, remind us of the language of John ; 2 and again, that Jesus, like John, gathered round him a circle of personal disciples, like him despised riches, and urged his followers to fling away whatever might be a hindrance to their entering into the kingdom of God, and in many other points reminds us of his predecessor. But it is a far more significant fact that at the beginning of his ministry he not only accepted as the voice of God the cry from the Baptist's mouth, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand ! " but felt it laid as a word of God upon his own lips too. 3 But, though now resolved, he waited till his time should come before he set his hand to the task. He could not work under John, and would not work in opposition to him. He could not even become his disciple, or long remain in his immediate neighborhood. For in course of time, though his admiration of him did not diminish, he felt ever more and more distinctly that a great chasm yawned between himself and 1 Matthew xxi. 32. 2 Matthew vii. 18-20 ; Luke xiii. 7-9. See, also, Luke xi. 1. * Matthew iv. 17, compare iii. 2. See also Matthew x. 7 ; Mark vi. 12. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. 115 the prophet of the wilderness. This God of judgment, whose name could only rouse a shuddering dread, was not the God of Jesus. He had received far other impressions of the Most High than those of burning wrath, and his heart bore other thoughts toward Him than that of awe-struck terror. He perceived in the set prayers and fasts which John prescribed a spirit of legalism and formality which could never enlist his sympathy ; and even as to the baptism itself, he began to think that too much stress was laid upon it. As time went on, Jesus found himself less and less at home in this circle of ideas. We picture him drawing more and more completely back during the last period of John's career in the Transjor- danic district, but still remaining near him, not far from the river. Perhaps, however, the whole period of his connec- tion with John was shorter than might be supposed, for he was certainly one of his later hearers. Meanwhile he was preparing himself b} T observing human nature and the signs of the times, by pondering in solitude over the impressions he received, b}~ contemplation and prayer, for the task of his life. Thus he completed his preparation for his work, and gained a clear conception of the way in which he must do it, and the class to whom he must appeal. And when his hour struck, he was ready. From very early times the baptism of Jesus has been a source of great perplexity to the Christian community, — a sufficient proof that it is no invention ; and even now it seems a strange contradiction to most Christians that the Christ himself should have begged his predecessor to admit him among the citizens of his own kingdom, and that the sin- less one should have received the baptism of repentance. For us, indeed, these difficulties do not exist, though we can quite understand and appreciate them. Jesus was not the Christ as }et ; and as to his repentance, the very purity and grandeur of his moral and spiritual nature must have made his conscience all the more tender, his self-accusation for even the slightest defect in zeal or in obedience all the louder, his sorrow for the least departure from his moral ideal, the smallest unfaithfulness to his calling to divine perfection, all the keener. And we must remember that the limitations of human nature necessarily imply some defect or imperfection, and that progress and development are impossible unless a lower grade of holiness and love, a certain defectiveness not perceived at the time perhaps but lamented afterwards, has 116 THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. preceded. Again, we must not suppose that the expression of penitence required b} r John resembled the auricular con- fession made to a Roman Catholic priest ; and without hav- ing any such gross trespasses to confess as we call sins, surely Jesus may have had an humble consciousness that he was not perfect in goodness, that he had faltered or stum- bled on the path of faith, had been tardy or impatient on his way through life. Thus in later da}^s he still emphatically de- clined the name of honor, c ' good Master ; " x and in the same spirit he is represented in the New Testament itself as ex- posed to every kind of temptation, as still requiring to learn obedience, and as being made perfect only by the sharpest test of suffering. 2 But however simple this may seem to us, in former times the baptism of Jesus was a great stumbling-block to the faithful. Legend, however, can account for any thing ! As- sumptions and conjectures entirely without foundation were soon consolidated into a narrative which explained how it was that Jesus took such an extraordinary step, and what it was that really happened at his baptism. Thus it was said, for instance, that Jesus did not go to Judaea of his own ac- cord at all. A curious narrative, written in this sense, is still preserved from the " Gospel according to the Hebrews." This Gospel was widely circulated in early times. In its original form it belonged to the first century, and bore a strong resemblance to Matthew ; but the fragments referring to the baptism of Jesus, which some of the ecclesiastical Fathers have preserved for us, are among the later additions. One of these fragments runs as follows : " The Lord's mother and brothers said to him, 'John is baptizing for the forgive- ness of sins ; let us go to be baptized b} T him.' But he said to them. ' What sin have I committed that I should go and be baptized by him? Unless, indeed, the words I have just uttered are themselves an error.'" The inventors of this story did not see that Ivy making Jesus go up to the Jordan at the instigation of others, without desiring it or feeling the necessit} T of it himself, they were far from mending matters. Such weak conduct is unworthy of a man with a character of his own, and is quite foreign to the nature of Jesus. Just as unsatisfaci ory is another explanation that has come down from antiquity, according to which Jesus came to the Jordan not for his own sake, because he desired to be baptized, but i Mark x. 17, 18 (Luke xviii. 18, 19). 2 E.g. Matthew iv. 1, xvi. 23 ; Hebrews ii. 10, 18, iv. 15, v. 7-9. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. 117 for the sake of others, that they might recognize him as the Christ. Matthew gives us yet another view of the case, and tells us that when Jesus came from Galilee to the Jordan, not to hear John but simply to be baptized by him, John recog- nized him as the Messiah at once, and distinctly refused to go with him into the river. " I have need," he said, " to be baptized b^y you with the baptism of the Holy Spirit. But why should you come to me to be bathed in these waters ? " Then Jesus answered, ""Suffer it to be so! Think not of me as the Messiah now, for I must submit to your baptism as a commandment of God." Upon this John yielded. We have no hesitation in absolutely rejecting this story. John did not know Jesus ; and even if he had known him, inas- much as he was not } T et the Christ, he could not possibly have recognized him as such ; and indeed, as a matter of fact, he did not do so afterwards. 1 Nor was Jesus at all a man after the heart of John. And again, the very next verses contradict the story; for in them we read that the Spirit came down upon Jesus after his baptism, thus making him the Messiah then ; and that John heard a divine voice :it the same time proclaiming Jesus as the Messiah, though, according to the preceding verses, he would not have re- quired any such testimony.' 2 We might further ask whether the prophet of the wilderness still needed the baptism of the Spirit, 3 and how he could go on with his work after this scene just as he had done before. Finally, the objection already urged holds good in this case also : the inventors of the story overlooked the fact that in making Jesus wish for baptism, not from an} T need that he himself experienced but from a sense of its fitness, as though it were a form which he must respect, a so-called religious duty, they were sacrificing his integrity and independence. For to take part in any religious ceremon}', simply because it is the proper thing to do, without having any feeling, or attaching airy significance to it ourselves, may be quite in the spirit of the Jewish Chris- tianity which invented the stoiy, but is certainly condemned by the spirit of pure Christianity. Jesus is the last man from whom we should expect such formality and legalism. In still earlier times the baptism of Jesus had been turned to account by tradition in another manner, and with a weightier 1 Matthew xi. 2. _ 2 Matthew iii. 16, 17. 8 Compare Luke i. 15. 118 THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. purpose. It was made into an event of supreme significance, the occasion upon which Jesus received the office of Messiah. Thus Mark informs us that Jesus, on coming up out of the river (Luke adds that he was praying), 1 saw the heavens open, and the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, come down upon him, while the voice of God cried through the open heavens, "Thou art my beloved Son! In thee I am well pleased ! " The meaning is obvious ; namely, that at this moment God anointed him with the Holy Spirit and with power, 2 bestowed on him the needful gifts, and exalted him to the rank of Messiah (Anointed) ; at this moment, there- fore, Jesus received his call, and first felt that he was the Messiah. The origin of the story is easy to explain. The Holy Spirit, as the life-giving power of God, was compared, in the metaphorical language of the Jews, to a clove, according to the expression in the first account of the creation, " The Spirit of God brooded over the waters." 3 Thus "the voice of the dove " in the Song of Solomon 4 was taken to mean the voice of the Holy Spirit. Hence the descent of a dove upon Jesus. But this merely explains the form of the vision. As to its substance, inasmuch as the Christians, who were anointed like the Christ with the Holy Spirit, 5 were supposed to receive this spirit at their baptism, it seemed natural to think that Jesus had also received it when he underwent this ceremoiry. And nothing seemed more probable than that he, like Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, 6 should have received his call in a vision. Perhaps we should add that apparently many of the Jews expected that the Christ, though already born and existing somewhere on earth, would remain un- known to every one, 7 — would not even know what he was himself, until Elijah came to anoint him and to make him known to all men. Then, again, to the early Christians the following reasoning would be conclusive : Before his baptism Jesus had never manifested, and cannot therefore have ever had, any superhuman gifts. After his baptism he began his public career, and soon appeared as the Christ. Something must have happened, then, at the moment of his baptism, to change him from an ordinary man into the Messiah. Or, looking at the thing from another point of view, John had consecrated him as a subject of the kingdom of God ; but he i Luke iii. 21. 2 Acts x. 38. 8 Genesis i. 2. 4 Song of Solomon ii. 12. 5 1 John ii. 20, 27. 6 Isaiah vi. ; Jeremiah i. ; Ezekiel i. 7 Compare John vii. 27. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. 119 came np out of the water as its king. How could this be, had not God chosen the very moment when John was baptiz- ing Jesus to fulfil that prophetic assurance that the Spirit of the Lord should rest upon the Messiah? 1 And this explana- tion also solved the problem presented by his entirely unique personality, his grandeur and exaltation above all men. 2 But if this is how the stoiy came into existence, it obviously rests on a system of interpretation and a set of ideas which we cannot accept. To estimate it fairly, we must remember that in those days no S3 T stematic study of the laws of the human mind had been made, and the quicks-responsive and swiftly-kindled enthusiasm of the Oriental character fostered the illusion that God usually imparted his highest gifts sud- denty. 3 To us, however, it seems necessarily to follow from the laws of human nature that man's spiritual development must be gradual in eveiy case, including that of Jesus, and cannot proceed by leaps or supernatural gusts of inspiration. Moreover, though the whole scene is in perfect harmon3 T with the Israelite's conception of the universe, neither our knowl- edge of Nature nor our knowledge of God suffers us to con- ceive of the heavens opening to let the Spirit of God, in the form of a dove, and the voice of God, pass through ! It is true that even Mark himself represents the whole thing as a vision ; but in the mouth of the Biblical writers a vision means something veiy different from what we should call an illusion. It means something which really occurred, though visible only to the enlightened eye of him to whom the vision was vouchsafed. 4 Nor can we believe that Jesus ever had visions. His mind was so clear and health}', his temperament so firm and uniform, his self-control so complete and invinci- ble, that we cannot conceive of his being subject to those ecstatic transports, that more or less morbid nervous exalta- tion, that passive submission to a vivid imagination, in which visions take their rise. 5 Then we must observe that the voice from heaven utters words taken from two passages from the Old Testament, both of which the Christians applied to the Messiah, but which had not really the slightest connection with each other. The first, " Thou art my Son ! " 6 — or, in full, as we shall presently see, ;t Thou art my Son, this day i Isaiah xi. 2. 2 g ee p. 41. 3 Numbers xi. 25; 1 Samuel x. 6, 10, xvi. 13, xix. 20, 23; 2 Kings ii. 9 ff.' Matthew iv. 1; Acts ii. 2-4, viii. 17, 39, et seg. 4 2 Kings vi. 17 ; 2 Corinthians xii. 2, 3. 5 Compare Numbers xii. 6-8; Deuteronomy xxxiv. 10. 6 Psalm ii. 7. 120 THE BAPTISM OF JESUS. have I begotten thee ! " — refers to the ideal of the Israelitish king ; the other, — ' ' My beloved in whom I am well pleased!" 1 — to the servant of God, or the consecrated Israel. 2 Finally, this story of the baptism is inconsistent with the sequel of the histoiy ; for even after the baptism Jesus did not appear as the Messiah for a considerable time, nor did he remind John of what is here said to have taken place on an occasion when it would have been entirely to the purpose for him to have done so. 3 In a word, it is perfectly easy to explain the origin of this stor} T from the faith of the early Christians, but quite impossible to attach any historical value to it. The first Gospel modifies the picture, and with no great dexterity. In Mark, as we have seen, the opening of the heavens, the descent of the Spirit as a dove, and the voice of God are represented as taking place in a vision. In Luke, who elsewhere converts a vision into a palpable fact, they become events perceptible to all present. In Matthew it is still a vision, but one vouchsafed to John, and not to Jesus ; for the voice does not say, " Thou art," as addressing Jesus, but " This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased," — as addressing John concerning Jesus. 4 We have already pointed out the inconsistency between this and the preceding verses, according to which John had already recognized Jesus as the Messiah as soon as he saw him. The whole repre- sentation is evidently confused and inverted. It might have been more reasonable to represent John as having bowed down before Jesus after the baptism and the miraculous sign that followed; and, accordingly, the "Gospel of the Hebrews" gives yet another version of the affair. ""When the people were baptized, Jesus also came, and was baptized by John. And as he came up out of the water the heavens were opened, and he saw the Spirit in the form of a clove come down and enter into him. And there came a voice from heaven saying, ' Thou art my beloved Son ; in thee am I well pleased ! ' And again, ' This day have I begotten thee ! ' And immediately the place about them was lightened by a great fire [a fire kindled in the Jordan, 5 as we are told elsewhere]. And when John (who had not seen the dove or heard the voice, which were for Jesus alone) perceived the fire, he said to Jesus, ' Who art 1 Isaiah xlii. 1. Compare Matthew xii. 18 ; Luke iv. 18, 19 ; Acts iv. 27. 2 Compare Matthew xvii. 5 (Mark ix. 7; Luke ix. 35); 2 Peter i. 17. 8 Matthew xi. 2-6. 4 Matthew iii. 17. 6 Compare Isaiah lxiv. 2. THE BAFTISM OF JESUS. 12l thou, Lord?' And again a voice from heaven said to him, 'This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased ! ' Then John fell down on his face before him and said, ' I praj T thee, Lord, do thou baptize me ! ' But Jesus restrained him, saying, ' Let it be, for thus must all that has been prophesied of me be fulfilled.' " We shall not dwell upon this matter further. History does not tell us that any thing special occurred at the baptism of Jesus. The fact that John went on, as before, preaching and baptizing, and never directed his hearers to Jesus ; and that his school continued its independent existence, expecting the dawn of the Messianic age, in fasting and prayer, after Jesus had begun his work, — this speaks clearly enough. We have seen the formative power of legend at work, and can well understand that when once engaged upon this sub- ject it would not soon relinquish it. This much is certain, that however strangely the early Christians were mistaken in supposing that Jesus first received the Spirit when he had come to man's estate, and received it mechanically and at one definite moment, they were not mistaken in the main point of their faith ; namely, that Jesus was a man entrusted by God with an overflowing w r ealth of the fairest spiritual gifts, and was tiuly inspired, led, and governed by God's holy spirit. What the prophets had only possessed in part was given in all its fulness to Jesus. This thought is beautifully expressed, though under a somewhat fantastic form, in another fragment of the " Gospel of the Hebrews," so often mentioned already. "And it came to pass, when the Lord had come up out of the water, that the whole fountain of the Holy Spirit came down upon him, and rested on him, saying, ' My Son, in all the prophets have I looked forth to thee, that thou shouldst come, and that I should find in thee my place of rest. For thou art my place of rest ; thou art my first- born Son, who rules to eternity ! ' " 122 JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. Chapter IX. JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK, Matthew IV 12-25; VIII. 14-16.1 JOHN had transferred the scene of his activitj* to Peraea, perhaps because he was impeded or threatened in Judaea, perhaps for some other reason. But if, when he left the Ro- man province and escaped from the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities, he imagined that he would be safe on the territoiy of Herod Antipas and would be able to work on undisturbed, then he was wofully mistaken. At the command of the prince he was suddenly thrown into chains, and, before his followers knew airv thing about it or had time to make any attempt to rescue him, he was carried off under an armed escort to the fortress of Machaerus, east of the Dead Sea, at a distance of about twenty miles from the Jordan. What was the reason for this deed of violence ? Probably Herod was afraid of John's influence on the masses. These gatherings of the people might easily lead to insurrections, and he thought it well to take precautionary measures. Such at least is the reason assigned by Josephus, and there is much to be said for his version of the affair. The Messi- anic movement, we must remember, bore a political charac- ter. Excited b}- the prospect of the kingdom of God being founded, the multitude might easily conceive the idea of has- tening the event by deposing Antipas or expelling the Ro- mans. For the same reason when, some time afterwards, the person and preaching of Jesus had powerfully excited the Messianic expectation in Galilee, Herod attempted to take his life also. 2 The Gospels give a different account. John, they sa} T , had rebuked Herod for an evil deed. 3 Herod had been on a visit to his half-brother, who was also called Herod, — not Philip, as Mark sa3 r s, — and had fallen in love with his wife Herodias. She was an ambitious woman, and was tortured by the thought that her husband wore no crown ; so she and Herod Antipas secretly agreed to release themselves from their present con- sorts and marry each other. When Antipas returned to hi» 1 Mark i. 14-39; Luke iv. 14, 15, 31-v. 11. 2 Luke xiii. 31. 8 Matthew xiv. 3, 4 (Mark vi. 17, 18; Luke iii. 19, 20). JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 123 residence at Tiberias, his wife, who had in some way discov- ered the plot, managed to find an excuse for escaping to her father, the Arabian king Aretas. Soon after this, to the in- dignation of all right-thinking Israelites, the proposed mar- riage was contracted. For this offence, according to the Evangelists, John rebuked the prince severely, and was thrown into prison in revenge. But this is very improbable, for as long as the Baptist was at large it is not likely that he ever came into personal con- tact with Herod. Perhaps the Gospels confound the cause of his death 1 with that of his imprisonment. Jesus was probably still in the neighborhood of the Jordan when he received the news that a t3Tant's hand had been laid on the herald of God's kingdom, and had interrupted that work which should have ended only with the establish- ment of the kingdom itself ! He could have no hesitation as to his own course now. He had long desired to work directly for the kingdom of God, and this news decided him. He could not have held back long under any circumstances, but now all hesitation was at an end. He returned at once to Galilee to take up the work of John. For in every respect that work was far from its completion. Israel was still unprepared for the coming of the Lord. The call to repent- ance had not 3'et found its way to all the sons of Abraham. Above all, the kingdom of God was not yet founded. Should the task remain unfinished for want of some one to take it up, the result of John's preaching would be swallowed up like a stream in the sand, and absolute failure would over- take his more than heroic efforts. In vain would he have resolved to be more than a prophet of better days, more than the messenger of a golden age to come ; in vain would he have striven by his own bold deed of faith to hasten the dawn of that better time ! Jesus could not endure the thought. The moment had now come for him to act. The path was plain. God sum moned him ! He could have no doubt except as to the method he should adopt ; and after what he had seen in the last few weeks or months he need not hesitate long oven as to this. He would not begin his work in the wilderness. He him- self had no need of rigorous abstinence and mortification, and attached small value to them for others. His heart drew him to his fellow-men. He would not wait for them 1 See chapter xxii. p. 270. 124 JESUS BEGTNS HIS WORK. to come to him, but would seek them out himself. Nor would he fix his abode in Judaea. He had perhaps seen a good deal of the dark side of life in Judaea recently. The whole district took its tone from Jerusalem, the headquarters of orthodox} 7 . There formalism, worship of the letter, nar- rowness, spiritual pride, — in a word, all the characteristic failings of Judaism, — reached their greatest height. Jesus haA evidently conceived a strong aversion to Judaea, and long afterwards the thought of going to Jerusalem filled him with such apprehension that he only resolved to take the journey after long hesitation and with the darkest forebodings. Then of course he was naturally attached to the land of his birth, and preferred the district in which he had lived so long to any other. In Galilee he was at home. It has often been suggested that Jesus returned to Galilee as a matter of prudence, to escape the plots of Herod. But at this time he was quite unknown, and had therefore noth- ing to fear. It is true that his taking up the work of John might ultimately expose him to the utmost danger, but Galilee was itself in the territory of Antipas, and, indeed, he settled near his capital. For reasons easily understood, he determined not to begin his work in so secluded a spot as Nazareth. Not that this place was so completely cut off from the world, or its inhabi- tants so narrow-minded and uncultivated, as is usually main- tained. The populousness of the district makes such a supposition unlikely, and the culture of the Nazarene carpen- ter's famil} 7 furnishes an instance to the contrary. 1 Still the situation of the place was not favorable to the purpose of Jesus. There was too little intercourse with strangers there, too little interchange of thought, for it to offer a suitable basis for his work. For this purpose he chose one of the centres of Galilaean life, — not the luxurious Tiberias, but the thrifty Capernaum. An additional reason for this choice was that he could hardly expect to find much faith in Nazareth, for the people there were too much accustomed to him. Capernaum was situated on the western coast of the Gali- laean Sea, called also the Sea of Gennesareth, or Tiberias. The exact site is uncertain. Nature was no less lovely and fertile here than in the district in which Jesus had spent his early life. The lake itself, through which the Jordan flows, is about fourteen miles long and six miles broad, and is almost completely shut in by mountains, which rise to a considerable i See pp. 88, 91, 92. JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 125 height, especially to the south and east. Its clear waters, transparent to the bottom, are generally calm and smooth, but are sometimes agitated by violent storms. Fish were exceedingly abundant in it, and it was therefore traversed day b}- day in every direction b} r a host of fishing- boats that covered its surface. The eastern shore is desolate, but the western shore — on which Tarichaea, with its forty thousand inhabitants, Hamath or Emmaus, Tiberias, the capital of Herod Antipas, Magdala, Bcthsaida, Chorazin, and Caper- naum were situated — is said by travellers to be a perfect paradise, and is declared by Josephus to be by far the most beautiful and fertile spot in Galilee. This is pre-eminently true of lt the land of Gennesareth," — a plain which stretches upwards from Magdala (about five miles north of Tiberias) , where the hills retreat from the lake in the form of a semi- circle. This plain, in which some geographers place Caper- naum, while others think it was further north, 1 was said to be so rich and varied in its products that it seemed as though Nature had challenged the cold, the hot, and the temperate climates to bring all their best products there and contend for the supremac3 T ! Throughout ten months of the year ripe grapes and figs were gathered, and though the fruit-trees were so luxuriant, varied, and abundant, the}' could not carry away the palm from the magnificent wheat crops. Capernaum itself was situated on the commercial highway that led from Syria to the Mediterranean Sea and Egypt. Moreover, it commanded the carrying trade to and from the opposite shore, which had belonged to Philip till his death, — an event which took place about this time, — and was then added to Syria. 2 For these reasons an excise office was es- tablished there, and a Roman garrison was stationed there, perhaps to protect or support the officers. What a contrast between the entrancing scenery and the busy surroundings amidst which Jesus established himself and the lonely wilderness which was the scene of John's first preaching ! The choice throws a strong light upon the diver- gent characters of the two men. Yet Jesus came before his hearers with the same message as that of his predecessor, though the promise of the near approach of God's kingdom, and the demand for repentance, came with a very different sound from his lips. And though the short epitome of his preaching given by the Evangelists is the same as that of John, — - " Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand ! " i See Map V. 2 See pp. 3, 4. 126 JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. — we are not- to suppose that Jesus used the same language or expressions as did his predecessor. However much he availed himself, when addressing the people, of what he had heard during his intercourse with John, he alwa} T s retained his original^. The meaning of the statement in the Gospels doubtless is that Jesus came forward with the same avowed and definite purpose as his predecessor had had, and openly represented his own work as the continuation of John's. Our knowledge of the course of events, as sketched above, is chiefly due to the first Gospel, which shows us far more distinctly than either Luke or Mark that the news of John's imprisonment was the immediate cause of Jesus taking up the work and beginning to preach at Capernaum. But though we have no hesitation in accepting this account, which is supported b} T various considerations, we cannot be so sure about some other matters. Only to mention a single point : the time at which Jesus began his public life cannot be fixed with accuracy, and we must be content with knowing that it was certainly not later than the early spring of a. d. 34. 1 We are absolutely without reliable evidence as to the age which he had reached. Luke sa} T s that he was about thirty } T ears old when he was bap- tized. 2 But, in the first place, that word "about" leaves a considerable margin undecided ; nor can we tell what time elapsed between the baptism and the public appearance of Jesus ; and, in the second place, the statement itself was as little based on real knowledge, and deserves as little confi- dence, as the supposition of John that Jesus was between forty and fifty. 3 Luke simply means to sa} r that Jesus had not long attained to manhood. As for ourselves we can hardly even make a guess. There was no fixed age at which public teachers assumed their office among the Jews ; and even had there been any rule on the subject, neither Jesus nor any other prophet would have suffered himself to be bound by it. All we can say is that Jesus was certainty not aged ; for his impetuous spirit, 4 the close connection he retained with his family, 5 and the manner in which the Naza- renes thought of and acted towards him, — speaking of him as one who had but recently left the paternal home, 6 — all argue against such a supposition. On the other hand, his 1 See pp. 10, 96. 2 Luke iii. 23. » John viii. 57. 4 Compare, for example, Matthew xi. 20 ff., xxi. 12, xxii. 13 ft. * Matthew xii. 46. 6 Matthew xiii. 54 ft. JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 127 matured experience and manifold knowledge of human na- ture, 1 together with the position he assumes towards his people and his disciples, 2 forbid us to think of him as youth- ful. There is no prospect of our ever gaining further knowl- edge on this point. It is equally vain to inquire exactly how Jesus began his work. Did he first address himself to a small circle of acquaintances, or did he teach in public from the first? The latter is more probable. It is not likely that Jesus began to work in secret among a few individuals ; for, though we shall presently see how gladly he would toil to restore a single wanderer to the path of virtue, and how to the very last he devoted his thoughts and powers to the good of single indi- viduals, yet, after all, his message was destined in the first instance for the whole people of Israel. We shall presently see that publicity was as much in keeping with the character of the age as with the purposes of Jesus ; and he could not have been without opportunities of speaking to the people. At present we need only observe that the account of the call- ing of the disciples, which Matthew and Mark both of them place at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus, confirms us in the opinion we have expressed. The account referred to is as follows : — Not long after Jesus had settled at Capernaum and begun to preach, he was walking, on a certain da}-, by the sea of Gennesareth, and saw Simon and Andrew, the sons of the fisherman Jona, bus}' at work. He stood still, and summoned them to join him, and leave their calling for a nobler task, — "Come with me, and I will make you fishers of men!" They obeyed him at once, and left their nets to follow him. A little further on he saw two other fishermen, James and John, the sons of Zebedee, busy mending the nets with their father in his boat. He called them also, and they obeyed. Rising from the boat, and leaA-ing their father with his hired assistants behind, they joined themselves to Jesus and the others. The impression made upon us by this narrative certainly is that the connection between Jesus and these four disciples was formed on the spot, and without any thing to lead up to it. A similar representation is found in the Old Testament, with regard to Elijah and Elisha. 3 But it stands to reason that they must really have had some mutual knowledge of i Matthew xiii. 12, 19 ff., ct seq. 2 Matthew x. 24, 25, 37, xi. 16, xxiii. 8, 10. 3 1 Kings xix. 19-21. 128 JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. each other, and that Jesus had alread}' excited some atten- tion. The words in which he summoned them are unmis- takably genuine, and imply that he was already known to some extent as a public teacher. It was in this capacity, and this alone, that they joined him. We must also suppose that Jesus, on his side, had already noted these four men as likely to make earnest and zealous preachers of the kingdom of God. Such mutual acquaintance is most easily explained on the supposition that Jesus had already been living some time in Capernaum, — as Matthew, but not Mark, informs us was the case. It is also very possible that the Gospels make the calling of the sons of Zebedee follow too quickly upon that of the suns of Jona ; but it is highly probable that these four were really the first disciples of Jesus. This simple figure of speech about " catching men" 1 was afterwards elaborated into an emblematic account of the call- ing of the first disciples, which ran as follows : — Jesus was preaching by the edge of the sea, and the num- ber of his hearers gradually increased until those behind pressed forward upon those in front, and compelled Jesus to look about for some more convenient place to sit in. Now it so happened that there were two boats lying empty on the strand, while the fishermen to whom they belonged were washing their nets. Jesus got into one of them, and calling its owner, Simon, begged him to push off a little. Then he sat down in the stern of the boat, and spoke to the people who stood upon the shore. When he had ended his address, he turned to Simon and told him to put out to sea and cast his net. "Master," he replied, " it will avail me nothing, for we have not caught anj' thing all the night ; but if }*ou wish it, we can try once more." But, behold ! when he had cast the net it was filled so full that it began to break. Then they beckoned to their companions, James and John, in the second boat, to come to help them. The} 7 drew the net up cautiously to empty it, and the two boats were laden till they were ready to sink. Filled with dread b} T this overwhelming proof that Jesus was a messenger of God, Simon Peter fell down upon his knees and cried, "Depart from me, Lord ! for I am a sinful man." He was afraid that the presence of Jesus would bring some fearful judgment upon him ; 2 for he was not one of the devout, but simply an ordinary man of the world. And both the other fishermen, and, indeed, all who were present, were filled with the same terror. But 1 Compare Proverbs xi. 30 b. 2 Compare 1 Kings xvii. 18. JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 129 Jesus quieted their fears. "Fear not," he said to Simon, "henceforth thou shalt catch men." Then they gave up their occupation and every thing they had to follow Jesus. We must certainly take this narrative as having a symboli- cal meaning. How far we can safely go in this direction is not so certain. This much is clear, however, that the unsuc- cessful fishing represents the natural incapacity of the disci- ples, and their marvellous subsequent success the fruits of their preaching as emissaries of Jesus. Wo are tempted to suppose that when the legend represents the disciples as casting their nets near the shore to no purpose, but finding abundant success in the open sea, it refers to the meagre results of the preaching to the Jews and the countless multitudes won among the heathen. Even if this is going too far, we may very well believe that the objection urged by Simon represents the Jewish narrowness which the Apostles had to overcome, and that the putting out into the deep waters, where the}' take such a marvellous draught of fish, typifies their mission to the whole world. 1 But whatever ma} T be thought of the details, it is quite certain that this story is an imitation or working up of the previous one. The calling of the four fishermen is the original, and the miraculous draught of fishes a copy. This belief is con firmed, if it needs confirmation, b} T the occurrence of a sini- lar emblematic or miraculous stoiy, of closely analogous meaning, in the fourth Gospel. Simon Peter and the sons of Zebedee are again the chief actors, but the time is changed. The event is placed after the resurrection of Jesus, when the Apostles had to be«;in their task as preachers of the kingdom of God. 2 And here we must say a few words about these emblematic stories in general. The} r were very common among the Christian communities of the first century, and have left abundant traces in the Gospels. The consequence is that we are always coming across representations or accounts of things which excite our attention by their very singular char- acter, and by invariably containing something marvellous, often something impossible. But when we examine them more closely, we discover that they are only intended to set forth some idea or some truth, and are in fact elaborated figures of speech or emblems. Such a mode of exposition, strikes us as very strange, but it was common enough in the East ; for these men could not deal with abstract ideas, bu'j i Acts x. 9 ff. 2 j hn xxi. 1-14. 6* IttO JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. always clothed their thoughts in some visible form, and drew pictures instead of arguing and proving. They endeavored to work upon the feelings through the imagination and not, as we generally do, through the intellect ; and it was from the resources of a luxuriant imagination that they borrowed the colors with which to paint their pictures. No one will deny that this style of address or narrative is better calcu- lated than any other to excite and fascinate the attention. The first preachers of Christianity, moreover, were specially led to adopt this mode of expression by the style of teaching usually selected b} T their Master. He generally taught in parables, and had, for instance, worked out this ver}^ image of the " fishers of men" in the story of the great net that gathered in every kind of fish. 1 The extreme love of emblems and parables, which the believers of the first centuries so constantly displayed, dates from the earliest period of Chris- tianity. 2 The last book of the New Testament consists of one unbroken series of these emblematic pictures. But we must be careful to distinguish, in this connection, between the original narrators and our Evangelists. The former were, of course, fully aware of the meaning of the figures they selected, but the latter had often lost their true significance and accepted them in the literal sense. Hence, in taking them up into their Gospels they often omitted some essential point, laid too great stress upon another, or even made incongruous additions. It may well be believed that it is no easy task to recover the true and ancient meaning of these stories. While Jesus was thus drawing a few personal disciples round him, he lost no opportunity of addressing more nu- merous hearers. We still have an account of a certain Sab- bath that he spent at Capernaum, and on which he went to the synagogue, accompanied by his four disciples, to address the people. The impression he made was overpowering. It was not the curiosity roused by an almost unknown preacher, or the simple eloquence with which he spoke, or the glorious future that formed his subject, so much as the glow of his intense conviction, the sacred passion of his inspiration, and his whole attitude towards the recognized authorities, that excited such amazement. Even the most eminent of the Scribes invariably appealed in confirmation of i Matthew xiii. 47, 48. 2 See, for example, 1 Corinthians v. 7; Revelation i. 13-16, &c. JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 131 their assertions to some passage of Scripture, to some tradi- tional saying, or to the authority of some great teacher. But this new preacher seemed to speak on his own authority, as though he had a higher right than learning or study could confer ; nay, as though he were the equal of those prophets of old who received their messages direct from the Most High. 1 An example of the deep impression made by the presence and the words of Jesus is furnished Iry what follows. In the synagogue there happened to be a man possessed by a demon. He had not escaped the general excitement ; and when Jesus had ended, and eveiy one began to talk over what he had said, the evil spirit fell upon its victim, and he leaped up and shrieked, " Ha ! what have we to do with you, Jesus of Naza- reth ? Are you come to cast me and my fellow-demons into the fire of Gehenna? I know who } t ou are! You are the Hoi}- One of God ! " All eyes were turned to the spot ^Y hence these words arose ; but Jesus, looking steadily at the man, and addressing the demon in a tone of stern rebuke, said to him, " Silence ! come out of him ! " The man fell, shrieking and convulsed, upon the ground, and the evil spirit had gone out of him. Then he stood up, delivered from his tormentor and unharmed. The amazement of all present knew no bounds. What could it mean? Were ever such words of might heard before ? Even the very devils obeyed when he commanded ! And the news of what had taken place spread like fire through the whole country round. It was but natural that Jesus should leave the synagogue as soon as possible after this event. Besides, the evening was already closing in. And so, accompanied by the four disciples, henceforth inseparably attached to him, he went to the house of Simon, who was a married man, and whose mother-in-law lived with him. It happened that this mother- in-law was ill in bed at the time with fever, and as soon as Jesus heard it he went up to her, took her hand (Luke adds that he rebuked the fever, which was very violent) and raised her up. The fever left her at once, and in grateful joy she began to prepare the evening meal. But these two cures were not all ; for as soon as the sun was set and the Sabbath over, a host of* sick and possessed were brought to him. The whole city came out to see him, and a great crowd collected round the door. He healed many sufferers from various ailments, and expelled a number of evil spirits. The 1 Compare Matthew vii. 28, 29. 132 JEStJS BEGINS HIS WORK. latter knew that he was the Messiah, and he had to forbid them to speak, for they sometimes cried out, "You are the Son of God ! " What are we to think of this story? It need hardly be said that Ave cannot accept it as it stands. We utterly disbelieve in actual devils living in men; it is absurd to suppose that these spirits recognized and proclaimed Jesus as the Messiah, when we know that he himself had no such idea as yet ; and we cannot believe that all the inhabitants of the city brought out their sick, and that Jesus played the part of a medicine-man ! But, on the other hand, it would be going too far utterly to reject the whole story. It is quite possible that Jesus preached in the synagogue at Capernaum, and indeed, even if it were not expressly stated, w T e should almost take for granted that he made himself heard in the house of prayer before he had been settled long in the city ; nor would there be airy more suitable or probable place in which he could utter his first exhortation. Again, the amazement he is said to have caused, and the deep impression he created, are only what we should expect. We may go still further. It would be a mistake to deny that Jesus ever healed those "possessed bj T devils." We must remember that in those days, and especially among the Jews, this " possession " was a kind of epidemic. Josephus makes repeated mention of it. The causes of its prevalence cannot be fixed with certainty ; but we ma}' well believe that the state of nervous tension caused by the depressing circum- stances of the times, together with the feverish expectation of deliverance, and the consequent religious revival, 1 was a pow- erful ally of the prevalent superstition, — and these morbid spiritual phenomena are very infectious. "Possession" was at bottom a nervous derangement, which showed itself some- times in temporary or permanent insanity, sometimes in fits of deep depression, sometimes in convulsive attacks at regu- larly recurring intervals, and sometimes even in loss of con- trol over the members, resulting in temporary deafness, blindness, or paralysis. Now it was customary in ancient times to ascribe both madness and epileps}' to the immediate influence or actual presence in the bod} r of the patient of some deity or spirit. It was for this" reason that epileps}' was called the morbus sacer, or " sacred disease." A similar belief prevailed among the Israelites ; for during the early centuries of their renewed national existence they had borrowed aD 1 See pp. 4, 6, 96-99, 105, 108. JESUS BEGINS HIS W0EK. 133 elaborate belief in angels and demons from the Persians, and had worked it out more or less independently themselves. The Jews, then, definitely believed that evil spirits, subject to Satan, dwelt in the bodies of the "possessed," and tortured them ; and to their influence they ascribed all the phenomena above referred to, and in general all diseases that seemed strange or mysterious, including perhaps the ague, which is still a riddle to the medical men of our own times. Thus Luke can saj T of Jesus, as he stood by the bed of Simon's mother-in-law, that he rebuked the ague as if it had had a personal existence, — as if it were a demon and had to be expelled. It is true that, above four centuries earlier than the time of which we are speaking, the great Hippocrates of Cos had laid the firm foundations of medical science among the Greeks, and had combated this very superstition in his work ' ' On the Sacred Disease." But the Jews were much behind their age in this matter. They fled to the general refuge of igno- rance, therefore, and ascribed a supernatural origin to most diseases. The necessaiy consequence was that they neglected natural remedies in favor of magical incantations or elixirs, and other such devices. And so there were a number of exorcists (or expellers of devils) in the country, and some of them, of course, were more successful than others. The Es- senes appear to have paid especial attention to the art of exorcism. Josephus tells us that Solomon had received power over the demons from God, so that he could heal the sick, and that he had collected and handed down the magic for- mulae of exorcism. "This art," continues he, "still flour- ishes among us greatly." The Talmud and later authorities also attribute to Solomon a book on this branch of the healing art, though really the idea of possession was not so much as dreamed of in his time. Josephus tells us that in the neigh- borhood of Machserus a root called baaras is to be found ; that it is like a flame of fire in color ; that it throws out shin- ing rays by night ; that an} T one who gathers it, without cer- tain fanciful and grotesque precautions which he rehearses, is sure to lose his life, but that it is an infallible means of ex- pelling the evil spirits which have taken possession of human beings. We must not be too hard on the superstitious contempora- ries of Jesus ; for we must remember that, however absurd we maj T think the belief in the immediate connection between unclean spirits and human beings, and the influence of evil 134 JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. powers upon human life, these beliefs maintained themselves for centuries in the Christian Church. In remote country dis- tricts, and the neglected quarters of our great cities, people still believe in witches and wizards, and attribute the diseases of children or animals to magic. But not so very long ago the belief was universal. Almost two centuries after the Reform- ation, Balthazar Bekker, a pastor of Amsterdam, published his celebrated work, "The Enchanted World" (1691-94), in Holland, — at that time the centre of enlightenment and science. The purpose of the book was to root out the super- stitious belief in witches, enchantment, and all such things, to which so many innocent lives were yearly sacrificed ; and the result was that Bekker was denounced as an infidel and a blasphemer by almost every one, including his fellow-pastors and even the professors of the day, while the ecclesiastical authorities dismissed him from his post. Now when we examine the stories of ' ' possession " contained in the Gospels, 1 we find that the symptoms they describe agree very well with what may still be observed in the case of persons suffering from similar nervous affections. So far, then, we need not scruple to accept them as historical. But we must be discriminating ; for in the most detailed accounts of exor- cisms certain features ma} r be traced which warn us clearly enough to adopt a figurative rather than a literal interpreta- tion, — features on which the histoiy of Jesus throws no light, and which unmistakably betray the age of the Apostles. The consideration of these stories we shall defer to Book II. It would, however, be quite equally rash and uncritical to apply the s} T mbolical interpretation indiscriminately to all the Gos- pel accounts of demoniacal possession and its cure. There is certainly some historical foundation for them. We have no sufficient reason and therefore no right entirely to reject them. If Jesus really did restore some of these sufferers to them- selves, to their friends, and to social life, we can readily un- derstand how misconceptions, exaggerations, and unconscious inventions would gather round the fact, and crowd our Gos- pels with accounts of miraculous healings. Again, such events would be quite enough to account for the general attention al- most immediately fixed on Jesus, and for the great excitement produced by his appearance. Though he never adopted any peculiarity in his outer mode of life, as John did, yet these cures, effected as they were without any of the superstitious posturing of the professional exorcists, would be euough to E.g. Mark ix. 17, 18 (Matthew xvii. 15; Luke ix. 39). JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 135 spread his fame far and wide. Finally, such healings are not inexplicable, still less impossible. Nervous affections are still amenable, in many cases, to control by moral power, by the as- cendancy of any one respected by the patient for instance, or any thing that rouses his own dormant energy of self-control. How much more must this have been the case when the dis- ease was regarded as the effect of " possession," and certain men were firmly believed to have secret means of cure, or to be specially favored by God with power of casting out the devil ! We must remember that these beliefs were shared by the suffer- ers themselves, and would act as a strong ally to that sense of moral power and " authority'' " which the commanding presence of Jesus inspired. We can well believe that though Jesus used no magic form of words, the fame that he had acquired, the glance of his e}'e, and his commanding "come forth," were often successful in producing the desired result. It is much more doubtful whether Jesus ever cured a fever, as he is said to have done in this story'. But even this we cannot pronounce impossible. There are many instances on record of fevers having been cured, even in modern times, by the bare word of one who had perfect reliance on himself, and in whose power the patient thoroughly believed. How much more likely 1 - would it be in ancient times for such a result to follow the word of a prophet, who was supposed to stand in some special relation to God ! But there is nothing to con- firm this special cure of Simon's mother-in-law. W r e cannot tell whether Jesus ever failed in his attempts, which were probably far from frequent, to cure demoniacs, 1 nor whether any of those whom he had restored afterwards relapsed. 2 There is nothing intrinsically improbable in either supposition. Again, it has often been asked what the opinion of Jesus himself concerning the sufferers really was. Was he so far a child of the times as to attribute their sufferings to evil spirits dwelling in them? Or did he address the sup- posed demons in accordance with the needs of the patients, since that was the only means by which he could help them? The former supposition is by far the more probable in itself. Indeed, in the other case, there would have been a want of reality in his position which would have gone far to rob him of the confidence so essential to success. It mus* not be forgotten that we have only defended the 1 Compare Matthew xvii. 16, 19 (Mark ix. 18, 28; Luke ix 40); Acts xix, 13-16 : and Mark vi ? 2 Compare Matthew xii. 43-45 (Luke xi. 24-26). 136 JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. healing of demoniacs in general as worthy of belief, and have by no means affirmed that the special cure said to have been effected on that particular Sabbath at Capernaum is certainty historical. We can only say that it is not incredible in itself; for, after all, it is quite possible that the story was originally attached to the account of this first preaching as a simple type of the moral power exercised by Jesus on the minds of men. When he spoke as one "having authority," the con- sciences of his hearers were aroused, and all impurity of heart and disposition — every evil spirit — must give way. There is all the more reason to question the historical accurac}' of the stoiy, because it contains, or is immediately followed b} T , certain unhistorical touches to which we have already called attention. In the first place, there is the monstrous exaggera- tion of the statement that the people brought all who were sick of an} T disease to Jesns, and that lie healed them. These short and comprehensive general assertions constantly recur, 1 and are never to be trusted. If all these statements were literally true, there would soon have been no sick people left in Galilee or in Jerusalem ; but the Gospels always bring them upon the scene again, and so contradict themselves. Then again, the recognition of Jesus as the Messiah b} T the demoniac in the temple is a fiction which sprang from the belief that Jesus had come forward as the Messiah from the first, and that the demons dwelling in the sufferers had more than human knowledge. On the same supposition the Jews ascribed to these spirits their own belief that, when the Mes- sianic kingdom was established, Satan and all his subordinates would be hurled into the fire of Gehenna, to be punished ever- lastingly. Thus when the demons see Jesus they cry out, u Are you going to torture us now, before the time, before the the last day?" 2 The account of the commencement of the ministry of Jesus at Capernaum ends with his sudden departure from the place. When the evening closed, the multitudes went home to rest ; and earty in the morning, when all around him slept, Jesus rose from his bed, left the house without rousing smy of its inmates, and went out of the city to a solitaiT spot — a desert place as the Evangelists express it — to pra} r . As soon as it i Matthew iv. 23, 24, viii, 16, ix. 35, xii. 15, xiv. 14, 36, xv. 30, xix. 2, xxi. 14; Mark i. 32-34, 39, iii. 10, 11, vi. 55, 56 ; Luke iv. 40, 11. v. 15, 17, vi. 17-19. vii. 21, ix. 11. 2 Matthew viii. 29. JESUS BEGINS HIS WORK. 137 was day, Simon and his other friends of course perceived that he was gone. They went in search of him, and when they found him urged him to return. " Every one is asking for you," they eagerly exclaimed. But Jesus refused to go back. He had left the city so early because he had determined to go and preach in other places in the neighborhood ; and he now began to carry out his resolution. Such is the account in Mark. Now, according to this Gospel, Jesus only came to Capernaum the day before, and had therefore only spent that single Sabbath day in the city. That would be the reason why he did not get a house of his own, but spent the night in Simon's. This brings us to observe the extraordinary rapidity of motion which character- izes the narrative of the second Evangelist. His representa- tions are generally hurried, and in the first chapter alone the word ' ' immediately " occurs eleven or twelve times. Luke also mentions the departure of Jesus in the early morning, and Matthew tells us that after healing Simon's mother-in-law and other people he left Capernaum. 1 But Matthew clearly and expressly states, and Luke certainly implies, that Jesus had already definitely settled at the place, so that he must have made a longer stay than Mark allows. Such a suppo- sition is certainly nearer the truth than the inexplicable haste which Mark implies. Since Luke has told us nothing of the calling of the four disciples, he makes the multitudes them- selves seek out Jesus and endeavor to bring him back. This is highly improbable. He also makes Jesus answer, kt I must bear the glad tidings of the approach of the Messianic age to other cities also. This is my mission." Jesus, accordingly, now began his journey through Galilee. He entered the synagogues of the various places, and took every opportunity of proclaiming the kingdom of God. Mag- dala, Chorazin, and Bethsaida are especially mentioned among the places he visited, but we never find any allusion to his having been at the capital, Tiberias. He did not confine his visits to the cities on the shore of the "lake, but travelled in- land, came to Nazareth, and raised the voice of his preaching everywhere. 2 His field of labor was wide, brought him into contact with all kinds of people, and was all the more ex- hausting because he could not as yet share it with airy fellow- workers. In this way we shall see him toiling on till he leaves Galilee on that journey to Jerusalem which was to cost his life. He always returned from these excursions to Caper- 1 Matthew viii. 18. 2 Matthew iv. 23 (Mark i. 39; Luke iv. 44). l.°>8 JESITS BEGINS HIS WORK. naum, perhaps in search of that rest which was not to be found, however, even here ; perhaps simply because he had chosen this place as his abode, as the headquarters of his work, and his point of departure on each fresh journe} T . 1 Accordingly we shall often find him here again. What gave him strength to bear the perpetual strain he found himself compelled to undergo? We shall deal ex- pressly with this question further on, but cannot refrain from observing here how beautifully and fittingly the second Gos- pel closes the account of his first public appearance, when it sa} T s that the next morning at the dawn of da} r Jesus went alone to pray. We cannot tell whence the writer derived this detail. He may have supplied it from his own imagination ; but, if so, we are willing to believe that his conjecture was a true one. We ma}- well suppose that Jesus could not sleep that night. The day that had just closed was of such deep import for the cause to which he had consecrated his life ! His first public utterances had been crowned with so rich a promise of good results, and his success, for the time at least, was now made sure ! The strain upon his powers had been so great that both head and heart were too full for rest, and thoughts innumerable rushed in upon him in the stillness of the night. He must rise and go out into the open scenes of Nature. Then he bowed down his head and raised his heart to God with the prayer that this first success might be crowned by His richest blessing ; that he himself might not be too much elated hy the enthusiasm he had inspired ; that the power to work unceasingly might never fail or leave him. Such prayers as his are never left unanswered. l Matthew ix. 1, xiii. 1, 36 ; Mark ii. 1, iii. 19, vii. 17. JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 139 Chapter X. JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. Matthew VII. 24-27, XIII. 1-23. 31-35, 44-48, 51, 52, XIV. 13-21 ; Mark IV. 26-29. 1 What is the sacred place where thou dost teach V The grassy slope, the cornland vale, or beach, The fisher's boat rocked on the heaving lake V The lowliest threshold and the busiest street Are holy ground when trodden by thy feet, For thou canst everywhere a temple make ! BY these words the poet means that Jesus neither required nor even asked for any specially holy place, an}' conse- crated pulpit, but accepted eveiy occasion offered him by daily life and eveiy place in any degree suited to his purpose, and made it a holy temple by his presence and his words. Cer tainly this new teacher, who had first appeared at Capernaum, and was now journeying through the cities of Galilee, had not a touch of that consequential and pompous solemnity of man- ner upon which some orators rely for half their power. He took the fullest advantage of the ease and freedom rendered possible by the climate and the social institutions of the East ; and we find him sometimes addressing a little knot of hearers, sometimes preaching to a more or less numerous assembly, — at one time speaking in his own house, 2 at another in a neigh- bor's, 3 perhaps at the friendly meal to which he has come as a guest ; 4 and yet again in the highways, 5 or in the ample mar- ket-place, at the gate of a city, or on a quiet walk through the open countiy, 7 on the picturesque shores of the lake, or in a boat that rides at anchor. 8 He even seems to prefer some place at a distance from the tumult of the cities, such as a grassy plain 9 or the slope of a mountain, 10 where he can address a tolerably numerous audience. 11 1 Matthew xv. 32-38 ; Mark iv. 1-20, 30-34, vi. 30-44, viii. 1-9 ; Luke vi. 47-49, viii. 4-15, ix. 10-17, xiii. 18-21. 2 Mark ii. 1, iii. 19, &c. 3 Matthew viii. 14; Luke x. 38, &c. 4 Luke vii. 36, xiv. 1, &c. 5 Luke xiii. 26; compare x. L0. 6 Mark vi. 56. ? Matthew xvi. 13; Luke xi. 1, &c. 8 Matthew xiii. 1.2; Mark ii. 13; Luke v. 1. See, also, p. 128. 9 Matthew xiv. 15, 1!) ; compare vi. 30; Mark vi. 39. 1° Matthew v. 1, xv. 29. u Matthew xiv. 21, xv. 38. 140 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. All this, however, does not alter the fact that the syna- gogues — those academies of Israel, those centres of the peo- ple's religions life — must have presented themselves to Jesus as the usual and the most appropriate places in which to speak of religious subjects, 1 especially as hardly a hamlet was with- out one, while each of the larger towns had several. It was in the synagogue that he uttered that discourse to which he owed his first success at Capernaum. The structure of these synagogues varied considerably, and some of them were splen- didly adorned. Those of the little cities of Galilee, to which the visits of Jesus were almost entirely confined, were proba- bly oblong buildings, varying in size, and generally provided with a colonnade. B} T far the greater part of the interior was occupied by the seats for the men and women, carefully sepa- rated from each other ; then, further on, came the pulpit, and probably seats for the ruler of the sjiiagogue and the elders ; lastly, sunk into the wall that looked towards Jerusalem, or fixed upon it, was the chest which contained the sacred rolls. To these synagogues an}' one might come at the appointed hours (nine, twelve, and three o'clock) to offer his daily prayers. 2 Here the Law was read aloud, not only on the Sabbath, but on Mondays and Thursdays, when the markets were held, the courts of justice sat, the country people came into the cities, and the Pharisees kept fast. 3 But the service of Saturday was, out of all comparison, the most important. First of all the pra} r ers were uttered, in a standing posture, and in the language of the people ; then a passage was read out of one of the five rolls of the Law, followed by a section from one of the eight prophetic rolls (Joshua, Judges, Sam- uel, Kings, 4 Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the minor proph- ets from Hosea to Malachi). These passages of Scripture were expounded and applied, as well as read, and it was usual for one to read and another to interpret. In the after- noon the worshippers assembled again to read a shorter pas- sage of Scripture, and often sta} T ed on into the evening with lighted lamps. The congregation said amen to the pra} T ers ; 5 and, though it was forbidden to interrupt the speaker, we may be sure that Oriental vivacity found some means of expressing occasional approval or dissent clearly enough. Of course the Scribes, who had studied at the University of Jerusalem, who had sat at the feet of celebrated teachers, and who still de- i See pp. 130, 131, 137. 2 Matthew vi. 5. 8 Luke xviii. 12. 4 See vol. i. p. 350. 6 Compare 1 Corinthians xiv. 16. JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 141 voted their time and strength to the constant study of the Scripture, or perhaps of the Law alone, were most frequently requested to address the people after the reading of Scripture ; but every Israelite who had reached manhood, and was in full enjoyment of his ecclesiastical and civil rights, was qualified to speak in the synagogue. In the time of Jesus there was no trace as yet of any academical title or diploma which the leader of public worship must hold. Airy one who frequently spoke in the synagogue, 1 especially if he gained some celebrity as a teacher, was saluted by the title of honor, — " Rabbi," or " Master," whether he had had a learned education or not. 2 Jesus, then, took every occasion that came in his way, and especially availed himself of the admirable opportunities af- forded b} T the synagogue, to preach what he had at heart to the people. With this general statement we must rest con- tent, for his discourses and detached sayings have been pre- served, collected, and handed down to us without any strict observance of time and place in their arrangement. This is only what we might fairly have expected. The oral tradition preceded the written ; and what could be more natural than to collect the similar discourses without reference to the inter- vals of time or space which separated them? Indeed, our Evangelists themselves make very free with the time and place of the discourses in fitting them into their own framework. We will take a remarkable example. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh chapters of Matthew we possess an inestimable col- lection of short sayings and more extended discourses which the first Evangelist, or perhaps to a great extent the Apostle from whom his Gospel takes its name, 3 had woven together ; but the}' were realty uttered at various times and under vari ous circumstances, and have no connection with each other. Matthew, however, represents Jesus as having delivered the whole collection at once on a mountain. Hence the name of " Sermon on the Mount " is given to this precious monument of the teaching of Jesus, and the legend has fixed upon "the horns of Chattin " 4 as the place from which the sermon was delivered. Now the Evangelist had a special motive for fix- ing upon a mountain for this purpose. He intended to repre- sent Jesus laying down the fundamental laws of the kingdom of heaven as the counterpart of Moses, who promulgated the constitution of the Old Covenant from Mount Sinai. 5 Luke, 1 Matthew xxiii. 7. 2 Matthew viii. 19, ix. 11, xvii. 24, xxii. 16. 8 See p. -30. 4 See the plan of Gennesareth in Map V. 6 See vol. i. pp. 296, 299. 142 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. on the other hand, not wishing Jesus to be regarded as a sec- ond Moses, or another lawgiver, just as deliberately makes the Master deliver this discourse on a plain. 1 In reproducing the teaching of Jesus, then, we must be on our guard. As a rule we need not pa} r much attention to the order of sequence observed in the Gospels. There are some few points as to which we ma} T feel reasonably certain ; for example, that many sayings which belong to the closing rather than the opening period of the ministiy of Jesus have been put too early by the Evangelists, and that his more gloomy utterances fit best into the later part of his career. 2 Such points as these we shall try to keep in view, but for the rest shall generally take up the sayings of Jesus as opportu- nity occurs, without la} T ing much stress on the order in which he uttered them. But first we must say a few words as to the general form and subject-matter, the spirit and contents of his teaching. We shall attempt to do so, adding illustrative examples, in this and the next three chapters. Most of the specimens of the teaching of Jesus that we still possess are in the form of parables ; that is to sa} T , fictitious but not impossible stories or images, generally suggested b} T the incidents and usages of daily life, and destined to illustrate some special truth. To understand them fully we must first of all get a clear conception of the image, or the supposed event itself: the study of antiquities is an invaluable aid to us here. Then we must lay all the stress on the points of comparison, in which the lesson is contained, without attend- ing too much to what is merely incidental to the form of the parable. The moral stories or sketches of character, as the} r ma}- be called, which are only found in Luke, form a separate class of themselves. Now the question is, how it comes to pass that we have so man} T more specimens of this kind of preaching than of any other ? Did Jesus usually teach in parables ; 3 or is it simply that they were easier to remember and repeat than other forms of discourse ? It may be urged that we have several speci- mens of the proverbial or epigrammatic style of teaching from his lips ; that he showed a great love of throwing his sayings into the form of paradoxes ; and that he must, from the nature of the case, have occasionally delivered long discourses or addresses, — but that all these forms of utterance were harder to remember than the parables, and have therefore oftener i Luke vi. 17 "- See p. 13. 3 Mark iv. 33, 34 (Matthew xiii. 34, 35). JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 143 been lost. All this maj' be perfectly true, but still Jesus does seem to have chosen the parable as his most frequent mode of teaching. The reason is simple and obvious. He had a special talent for making parables. Not that he took a pride in it. Such small-minded vanity was utterly foreign to him. But the images presented themselves so naturally that he was never at a loss for them. And, besides, this mode of teach- ing had several special advantages in itself. It excited and retained the attention of the hearers, and was always listened to with fresh delight. The images thus imprinted on the im- agination, together with the lessons they taught, fixed them- selves without effort on the memoiy, and were passed from mouth to mouth. Last, not least, the} r stimulated independent thought. A parable like a riddle excites curiosity and chal- lenges the exercise of ingenuity. The speaker's meaning might be sometimes more and sometimes less obvious, but it always had to be looked for, and so required some effort on the hear- er's part. The Gospels themselves give another reason. 1 The disci pies ask Jesus privately what was the meaning of one of his parables, and also why he adopts this indirect method of teach- ing. He answers, " It is granted to } T ou to understand these new truths of the kingdom of God ; but to the multitude I speak in parables that they may see and 3'et be blind, and ma}' hear yet not understand." Then he strongly emphasizes these last words by a quotation from Isaiah, in which the prophet represents the fruitlessness of his preaching as de- signed b} T Yak well himself.' 2 Now such a reason as this, taken literally, is essentially absurd. No man in his senses would undertake to teach the people with the express purpose of not being understood ; and to say that Jesus used figura- tive language for fear people might understand him and then repent and be forgiven 3 would be a senseless slander. Nor is this what the Evangelists meant ; but when the} T contem- plated Israel's obstinate want of faith, the}- supposed that God must have foreordained the sad result, or else the words of Jesus would have met with more acceptance. There is, how- ever a germ, of truth in this view of the purpose of Jesus. He cannot have intended to be fully understood at once by every one. He must have known that some of the thoughts he uttered were so new, and in such direct conflict with the 1 Matthew xiii. 10-17 (Mark iv. 10-12; Luke viii. 9, 10). 2 Matthew xiii. 14, 15; compare Isaiah vi. 9, 10. See vol. ii. chap, xxiii. p 248. « Mark iv. 12. 144 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. traditions and prejudices of his people, that they could not possibly accept them all at once. Had he spoken without metaphor he would have shocked his hearers too deeply to convince them. He was therefore obliged to be content for the present with shaking their fixed ideas and setting them to think. Na^y, the only possible way of removing their religious prejudices was to enable them gradually to reach the meaning of his words, and so to understand the secrets of the kingdom of God b}* the exercise of their own powers ; for when a par- able had thoroughly enlisted their sj'mpathies in some simple case in which their prejudices were not at work, they gradually perceived that the} T had been induced to accept some great principle which was at variance with many of the convictions the}' had hitherto cherished. And yet they always felt its truth as far as they understood it, and were too deeply committed in their sympathies to be able to draw back, as its full mean- ing slowly opened out before them ; and when once a man has discovered the truth himself, that truth which no one else can make him see, he will readily relinquish all his cherished pre- judices as misleading ; nay, he will do more ! But let Jesus himself tell us what : — Once on a time a laborer was digging up his master's land when he happened to drive his spade or mattock a little deeper than usual, and struck upon something hard, that glittered as he drew up the spade. Then he dug down with a will, and threw the earth aside till his eyes were riveted by a great treasure of gold and silver and precious things ! It must have been buried there years, perhaps centuries ago, in time of war, and its owner had sunk into the grave without impart- ing his secret to any one. The fortunate discoverer was be- side himself with delight. He covered up his treasure again so that no one would suspect that any thing was there, hast- ened to the owner of the field, and asked him what he would sell it for. As soon as he knew the sum required, he went and sold every thing he had ; sold the house and little plot of land on which perhaps his grandfather and great-grandfather had lived ; sold the furniture and the very tools he had learned to love as though they were living things ; had but one thought, one purpose, to scrape together the required sum ! At last he had it. He went to the farmer and bought the land. "What were the sacrifices he had made to the treasure he had se- cured? 1 "But the man was shamefully dishonest," you will say. Perhaps so. Indeed, there is no doubt about it. But 1 Matthew xiii. 4-i JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 145 that is not the point of comparison. The story is only meant to bring out the man's eagerness to sacrifice every thing, with- out reserve and without hesitation, for the treasure he had found. Here is another form of the same : — There was once a merchant who dealt in costly pearls (a travelling jeweller as we should express it) who longed to be- come, famous in his trade. So he visited the pearl fisheries of the Persian Gulf and the Indian coasts in spring. Once on a time he entered a certain hut, and the fisherman to whom it belonged showed him a pearl so large, so clear, so perfectly rounded, that he had never seen its fellow. His eyes gleamed at the sight. What must he give for it? The fisher named his price. It ma}* have been enormousl}* high, but it was not dear. " Good ! Keep it for me, and let no one else have it." The jeweller went out and hastened to dispose of all he had ; pearls, precious stones, every thing ! Did he not grieve over his loss? Nay, he never gave a thought to it. At last he had collected the required sum. He hastened to the fisher ; he paid the money with a beat- ing heart, and the splendid pearl was his own. 1 You see the meaning of these parables? One man, like the laborer, learns what the kingdom of heaven is without having ever thought of it or looked for it ; while another, like the merchant, has been searching for truth and goodness for whole }~ears, perhaps a lifetime, not knowing what a glo- rious discovery awaits him. But when once a man, by what- soever means, has seen the surpassing glory of that kingdom, he is read}* to sacrifice every thing without another thought, if he may but enter in. He will not only sacrifice his gold or his possessions, all earthly love or the esteem of men, if they draw his heart awa}' from that kingdom, but he will in every case sacrifice himself and his religious prejudices, every thing he has loved hitherto, but now finds to be neither good nor true. But, remember, he must find the treasure or the pearl himself. No one can find it for him. We have spoken of the stjde of teaching adopted by Jesus and the reasons which influenced him in choosing it, and we may naturally go on to ask whether he can fairly be called a popular teacher. If we mean by a popular teacher one who enables his hearers to follow him without effort, and to com- prehend him easily and perfectly at once, then we must 1 Matthew xiii. 45, 46. VOL. III. 7 146 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. answer that Jesus was very far indeed from being one. What he had to say was drawn from the sacred depths of his own spiritual life, and the general mass of his hearers were utterly incapable of sounding the profundity and fully comprehend- ing the scope of his words. Even his disciples and friends were generally unable to grasp his true meaning ; and there can have been but few whose 3-earning for salvation and longing for the truth enabled them to understand the Master. The superficiality that springs from prejudice and self-conceit was, and still is, an insuperable and, alas ! too common obstacle ; and it is not given to man}', even now, to see into the soul of Jesus. But the privilege of being understood by every one is confined by its very nature to those who stand upon something like the same level as their hearers. True popularity is something veiy different from superficiality, and in this other and higher sense it ma}' be said that few teach- ers have ever been so popular as Jesus. In the first place he was perfectly simple. His language is never florid. It bears no trace of the usual Oriental inflation, or the elaborate trivialities of the rabbis ; nor does he buiy his teaching under a heap of traditional authorities, cited with a great display of learning. His calmness, his natural simplicity, his straight- forward neglect of artificial adornments, and his transparent clearness command our admiration. Even when he threw his thoughts into the form of paradoxes, which he sometimes did involuntarily, but often on purpose, it was not because he wished to be enigmatical, but simply to assist the percep- tion of his hearers by bringing a powerful stimulus to bear upon their thoughts and feelings, and stamping his concep- tion upon their minds by the incisive form into which he threw it. We shall meet with many illustrations of this fact as we go on, and may now confine ourselves, b}' way of example, to the warning based upon experience against spiritual sloth aud degeneration : "To him that has shall be given, and he shall have abundance ; but from him that has not shall be taken away even that which he has." 1 But to understand the secret of his popular power we must notice, above all, that his language moved exclusively in a sphere with which both he and his hearers were thor- oughly familiar, or at least might and ought to have been so. This is true of the form of his teaching to begin with. It is considered one of the great merits of Homer, the prince of poets, that he never used an image or a comparison that was 1 Matthew xiii. 12 (Mark iv. 25; Luke viii. 18). JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF TITS PEOPLE. 147 not drawn from objects which both he and his hearers had seen. If English poets followed this rule they would have to banish lions, tigers, avalanches, crevasses, and a great deal beside from their compositions. Now Jesus always kept within the limits of his own experience. His inexhaustible wealth of illustration never leads him outside the circle of his own daily life. Hence the unequalled vividness of all his sayings. And in a certain sense the matter of his teaching is as familiar as its form. He never used an argument or a proof which any of his hearers could not follow. Fully to appreciate his discourses and his parables needed no learning or special knowledge that is not in the reach of every clear head and pure heart. It needed only that knowledge of the world and life, that knowledge of human nature, that self- knowledge for which every true man strives. Indeed, even this was hardly necessary. The one fatal obstacle to com- prehending Jesus was a belief on the part of those that heard him that the}' knew every thing, and were all that they should be alreacby. The one thing needful was a conscience laid open to his influence b} T dissatisfaction with itself, and a burning desire to become purer and better, — a conscience eager to learn the truth instead of being fenced against it by its own prejudices. Jesus never forced a truth upon airy one by autliorit} T . Though he spoke with all the power of intense conviction, 3 T et he constantly appealed to his hearers themselves, to their sense of truth, to their affections, to theii conscience, and loved to convince them by a question or an appeal : " What think you ? " " What man is there among you, who ..." " Judge for yourselves ! " "Hearken and understand ! " 1 For he alwa} T s went on the belief that he had not to implant any new principle or pour an} T new affec- tions into human nature, but had simply to call from its depths what was sleeping there already and bring it into conscious life. It was in his own heart and life that he had found the truths he preached ; and if he could but free the inner lives of others from all that oppressed and entangled them ; if he could but bring their spiritual powers to full and true development, — the}' too would come to experience, to know, to feel, what he had known and felt himself. It may well be said of Jesus that he did not preach a new doctrine, but a new life. What he preached he had first lived and felt, and the natural consequence was that he found an ally in the conscience of every true-hearted man. If we bear all 1 Matthew vii. 9, 1G, xv. 10, xxi. 28: Luke vii. 40, 42, x. 3G, et seq. 148 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. this in mind, and remember his love of parables and the richness of metaphor and illustration which characterized his teaching, we shall not be at a loss to answer the question whether Jesus was a popular teacher. For the rest we can ascribe no dazzling gifts to him. He appears to have been entirely without those qualities which catch the e} T e and take the imagination by storm. On the whole, his appearance and his address seem to have been exceedingly simple. Externally, one would have said, he had little or nothing to help him. We still possess a stor} r in our Gospels which may be regarded as an emblematic description of the wa} r in which Jesus, as a popular teacher, satisfied the spiritual wants of countless hearers with but the slenderest possible means at his disposal. 1 Once, when Jesus had gone in a boat to a solitary place, the multitude heard where he was and followed him by land. The physician of souls was too pitiful to withdraw from them, and he cured their sick. But when the evening fell, his disci- ples said to him : " There are no houses here, and it is late alread} r . Send them away to get food in the places round about!" But Jesus answered : "They need not go away. Give them something to eat." u But we have only five cakes of bread and two fishes to eat with them," they replied. " Bring them to me," said Jesus ; and commanding the peo- ple to sit down on the grass, he took the bread and fish and, after pronouncing the customary blessing over them, broke them up as usual and gave the pieces to his disciples. They gave them to the people, who ate or passed them on until they were all satisfied ; and when the}' collected the broken frag- ments still left by the outside rows they filled twelve baskets ! There were about five thousand present. Our Gospels still contain a few traces of the original mean- ing of the story, such as that " Jesus began to teach them man}' things," especially " concerning the kingdom of God ; " but the Evangelists evidently accepted it in its literal sense, and were perhaps influenced in their treatment of it by the stoiy of Elijah's miracle at Zarephath,' 2 and still more that of the manna sent to feed the Israelites in the wilderness under the great hero of the old dispensation. 3 In this literal sense, accordingly, they w T orked it out, by the addition of such details as that the people were told to sit down in groups or parties 1 Matthew adv. 13-21 (Mark vi. 30-44; Luke ix. 10-17; and John vi. 1-14) 2 1 Kings xvii. 8-16; compare 2 Kings iv. 42-44. 8 Exodus xvi. ; Psalm lxxviii. 24: compare vol. i. pp. 289, 290. JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 149 of a hundred and of fifty, and by the calculation that the bread required would have cost two hundred pence (about £6 or £7), and that there were five thousand men, " besides women and children," there. We need not stay to prove that this literal acceptation of the story lodges us in palpable absurdities, for every child knows that if we take away a part of any thing the remainder is less and not more than the whole was. Nor is it worth more than a passing mention that the first two Gos- pels repeat the story further on with slight modifications, 1 such as that the multitude numbered four thousand and remained three days with Jesus ; that the disciples had seven cakes, and that seven baskets of fragments were left. The essential features of the story remain the same. Some commentators have seen in these twelve baskets the spiritual sustenance of the twelve tribes, and have understood the story to mean that, when the whole heathen world had been fed by Jesus, there was still enough left for the Jews. Such a story lends itself, by its very nature, to all kinds of modifications and ingenious speculations that perhaps have nothing to do with its true meaning. The Evangelists give us the clew to the real signi- ficance of the stoiy when they bring the two "miracles of the loaves and fishes " (somewhat clumsily, it must be confessed) into connection with a warning uttered by Jesus against " the leaven " of the Pharisees ; 2 and again, when the}' report a sa} r ing in which Jesus promises that all " who hunger and thirst after righteousness shall be satisfied." 3 The mean- ing of the story seems to be that Jesus, with the slenderest means at his command, fed the souls of countless multitudes. Of this bread of the spirit it is literally true that it increases when it is consumed, and increases still more when imparted to others. Here, then, we have a strikingly true and accurate picture of Jesus as the feeder of the great multitude, as the teacher of the people. We see him journeying through Galilee, and ask what means he had at his disposal for the accomplishment of his great purposes. He had no honored name or sounding- title ; no great patron to support him ; no learning to com- mand the respect, or traditional authority to enforce the as- sent, of his hearers ; no brilliant powers or dazzling personal gifts, — and one would have said that he had nothing to recom- mend him above others, or to secure him any special influence. He was a man of the people, brought up as a workman, sim* i Matthew xv. 32-38 (Mark viii. 1-9). 2 Matthew xvi. 5-12 (Mark viii. 13-21). 8 Matthew v. 6. 150 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HTS PEOPLE. pie in his language, and of ordinary dress and appearance. But see how the people press round him to catch every word he utters ! See how his simple language fascinates them ; how his familiar illustrations hold them by hundreds in strained attention ! And, when he ceases, mark the impression he has made, — the universal wonder, the exalted joy, the intense earnestness, the silent consolation, which have flowed from his preaching ! Surely this man of Nazareth, undistinguished as he seemed, was in the highest and fullest sense a teacher of the people. Jesus attracted and fascinated his hearers not only by his style of teaching, but also by the subject of which he spoke. A few special remarks on this point ma} 7 here be made. Jesus once compared himself, as a religious teacher or " Scribe who had learned from the kingdom of heaven," to a householder who kept all kinds of valuable things for which he had no immediate use in a storeroom. When he enter- tained his family and guests, friends and strangers, he brought out all manner of beautiful and useful things for them, some new and some old. It is a true description of the teaching of Jesus. The treasure-house of his spirit was inexhaustible. He knew the necessity of interweaving old expressions with which his hearers were familiar and new ones which would stimulate reflection, and so retaining their attention without wearying them. He regarded richness and diversity of form as essential to popular teaching. But this intermingling of " new" and " old " extended to the substance of his teaching also, and is illustrated by the preceding words: "Every Scribe who has become a disciple of the kingdom of heaven." The " new" and the " old" alike referred to the kingdom of God ; and significantly enough the " new" is mentioned first, for not only did the Master's wonderful originality give fresh meaning to even the oldest form of words, but he himself was full}' aware that, though the religion he taught was almost as old as humanity itself, and the expectation of the kingdom of God as old as the spirit of prophecy, yet he was actually pro- claiming principles and truths that were altogether new to his age and his people. What these new truths and principles were we shall pres- ently inquire, but must content ourselves on this occasion by citing one characteristic instance. Jesus had taken up the task and the message of John, and had so far brought forth that which was old. But to him the JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 151 kingdom of God meant something very different from what John had understood b}~ it, and in a certain sense his preach- ing of the kingdom was very new indeed. Now, since the parables, discourses, and sajings of Jesus deal almost exclu- sively with this kingdom, it is absolutely necessary for us to know what he meant b}' it. To say that the waking and sleeping hours of Jesus were filled by the ideal of the future, which had been the hope of Israel's men of God and the life- power of the nation for centuries, — to say that that ideal was the source of his zeal and the inspiration of his life is, after all, so entirely vague as to come to little or nothing ; for we know that there had never been a fixed body of doctrines or ideas concerning the Messianic age, and that there was none in the time of Jesus. Moreover, Jesus showed great inde- pendence of conception in this matter. Though his mind had been fed by the writings of the prophets, yet he passed over the political aspects of the Messianic hope in absolute silence, and fixed attention exclusively upon its spiritual side. All the religious hopes which had thrilled the hearts of the noblest of his countiy's children, — the expectation of a more perfect and wide-spread knowledge of God, of a pure moral life, of untroubled love and harmony among men, of rest to the soul and peace between God and man, — all these he combined, in their ripest perfection and under their fairest forms, into one glorious conception, looking for its fulfilment in the immediate future at the founding of the kingdom of heaven. Under this expression, then, he understood a condition of the highest spiritual weal. But this was not all. He was too good an Israelite, too practical a man, and had too firm a grasp of the actual conditions of life, not to feel that all the institutions of social life, and the external lot of man, must be made to cor- respond to this spiritual condition. To him the Messianic kingdom meant society glorified by pure religion and perfect morality, enjoying as a consequence untroubled bliss, and blessed by God in ample measure with all material good. John had laid almost exclusive stress upon the last judg- ment and the destruction of the godless, which were to precede the founding of the kingdom. His preaching, therefore, was the sound of an alarm and a cry to penitence. Jesus, during far the greater part of his ministry, threw this terrible judg- ment entirely into the background ; and even during the last few weeks of his life, when it assumes a prominent place in his preaching, still the announcement of the golden age is always prevailingly joyous and consoling on his lips, — a true 152 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. gospel, or "glad tidings." In his teaching there is not a trace of any vengeful feeling towards the stranger, not a hint of the doom of destruction awaiting the heathen oppres- sors of his country ; and it is comparatively seldom that we meet with those anticipations of sudden and violent revolu- tions which John and his other contemporaries so constantly expressed. Jesus expected that the kingdom of God, in ac- cordance with its spiritual nature, would establish itself in secret, and would subdue and renovate all things before it dis- plaj^ed itself in its glory. He illustrated this secret influence and progress of the kingdom of God by an image taken from one of the occupations of daily life. When a woman is going to bake she takes three measures of flour and begins to knead ; but first she throws in a piece of leaven (equivalent to yeast) , and as she kneads the mass of dough the leaven is spread about and mixed up with it until every particle is leavened and ready to rise. Thus must the spiritual principle of the king- dom of God penetrate society. And however small and in- significant the beginnings of the great work of regeneration might appear, there was no need to despair ; for it would be with it as with a grain of mustard seed which a man takes and sows in the ground. It is the smallest of all garden seeds, but when it grows up it is the greatest of herbs ; nay, it becomes a tree under the branches of which the birds of heaven come for shelter. 1 In such images as these Jesus expressed his faith in the power of good, in the influence of truth ; in a word, his faith in God. But we must not forget that he had great faith in human nature too. He compared his own work to that of a husbandman who sows his field with seed, and then does nothing more to it, and never sees the grains as they silently burst and sprout below the ground. But as he is going on his wa} 7 the seed shoots up, and grows he knows not how ; for the earth brings forth fruit of itself, first the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear ; and then the reapers are sent in with their sickles, for the harvest time has come. 2 So Jesus could afford to wait. He did not expect to see the fruits of his labor immediately. He was content for them to ripen gradually and slowly, and he never for a moment doubted the fruitfulness of the soil, never doubted the natural, inborn goodness of the human heart. Not that he allowed himself to be deceived b} T mere appear* 1 Matthew xiii. 31-33 (Mark iv. 30-32; Luke xiii. 18-21). 2 Mark iv. 26-29. JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. 153 ances ! Not that he believed, when hundreds of hearers were pressing round him, that they were all inspired by a true, a deep, a holy interest in the message he delivered, or that all would receive a lasting impression from it. His own words will teach us how far he was from any such delusion. 1 A husbandman went out to sow his field, and, as he flung the seed before him in a semicircle, some fell upon the pathway that ran across the land, and lying exposed upon its beaten surface, unbroken by the plough, was snapped up by a swarm of birds that alighted behind him. Other seed fell upon a place where a rock lay hidden just below the surface of the soil. Here the corn shot up luxuriantly, for there was no room for it to strike deep root, and all its strength went into the blade, and the warm rock fostered its growth from below as the sun did from above. But when the heat of summer came, the feeble ears were soon parched up. The}' could draw no moisture from the earth, and so the hot sun killed them. Yet other seed fell on a spot where brambles had been growing, and though the plough had cut them down their roots were still in the ground ; and when the seed began to grow the brambles came up also, and were too strong for the corn, and at last choked it. But some of the seed fell upon good ground and full ears sprang from it, and each grain brought forth fruit a hundred or sixty or thirty fold. Jesus himself laid special stress upon this parable, for he closed it with the solemn words : "He who has ears to hear, let him hear ! " Indeed, he is said to have explained it imme- diately afterwards at the request of his disciples. 2 It gives us a vivid picture of the difficulties against which the husband- man had to contend in Palestine ; but it is far more note- wort!^ as a testimoiry to the deep and varied knowledge of human nature possessed by Jesus. He divides his hearers into four classes. Some are simply incapable of understand- ing him, for they are without any sense for the higher truths of the spirit ; for them his teaching can do nothing, — it goes in at the one ear and out at the other. Then there are super- ficial hearers, who understand something of his teaching and are highly delighted with what they hear, but have no depth of nature ; as soon as the} r meet with opposition or persecu- tion their enthusiasm dies and they fall away. There are others who understand and feel the truth, but are weak of will ; they lack decision and perseverance, and so the cares and i Matthew xiii. 3-9 (Mark iv. 3-9 ; Luke viii. 5-8). 2 Matthew xiii. 18-23 (Mark iv. 14-20; Luke viii. 11-15), 7* 154 JESUS AS THE TEACHER OF HIS PEOPLE. temptations of life prevent their putting what they have heard into practice and choke their good resolutions. Lastly, there are those who understand the word, in whose heart it finds an echo, who carry it out and put it into practice in a spirit of power, and bring forth fruits, — the one more and the other less, according to their moral and spiritual capacity, but all abundantly. So Jesus knew with whom he had to deal ; but he also knew that though the profound and the superficial nature, the earn- est and the careless, could not be separated now, they would not alwaj-s be left together. At present all must be received who came to listen to the preaching of the kingdom, but they would be sifted finally. " It is with the kingdom of God," he said, 1 " as with a net that is dragged through the water, and brings in all kinds of fish. When it is full, the fishermen draw it to shore, and sit down and pick out the good fish to collect in their baskets, but throw awa} T the worthless." With hallowed zeal he warned the multitudes not to be content with merely listening to what he said, but to do it. There were once two houses 2 built not far apart upon the bank of a stream that ran through a pleasant valley ; and one appeared to the eye to be just as firmly and strongly built as the other. But winter came, and the rain fell like a water- spout, and the swollen stream rose above its banks and rolled onwards, — a fierce mountain torrent breaking a way for its waters. The storm arose with terrific violence, and wind and wave clashed upon the two houses as though the ele- ments had joined their strength to hurl them to the ground. In the one house, when thus assailed b^y flood and storm, a single stone might be loosened here or there, but the whole stood firm, for its owner had built its foundations on a rock, and it could defy the fuiy of the storm. This builder is the type of the wise man who listens to the words of Jesus, and then does what he commands. But where is the other house? A might}' crash is heard for a moment above the howling of the wind and the rush of the maddened waters. This house could not defy their onslaught. Its walls tottered, its tim- bers cracked, it fell in with a crash, and the wild waters carried down the treasures of the house and rolled the very stones away ! For the owner had built upon the yellow sand of the desert, that in dry weather seems almost as hard and firm as the very rock itself ; but the waters of the stream had washed it loose, the foundations gave wa} T , and the house 1 Matthew xiii. 47, 48. 2 Matthew vii. 24-27 (Luke vi. 47-49). THE BEATITUDES. 155 fell in npoD the heads of those that dwelt in it. ."Such builders aie the foolish ones who listen to nry words, but do them not ! " Enough has now been said of the Master's mode of teach- ing. We shall not return expressly to the subject, but in the following chapters we shall meet with constant evidence of his keen observation that hardly any thing escaped, and his wonderfully happy power of producing the right illustration at the right moment. In a word, we shall see how Jesus makes the whole field of Nature and of man serve to bring the truth before the very e}~es of those whom he addresses. We ma} T conclude in the words of the same poet, whose lines we placed at the head of this chapter, and so pay our tribute of admiration and wonder to the teaching which Jesus gave his people : — To thee all Nature's oracles unfold The wondrous meaning deep concealed of old, Now by thy touch of sympathy laid bare ! To thee the richness "of their truth they yield, — Each sparrow and each lily of the held Preaching the gospel of a Father's care ! The shepherd seeking his lost lambs again, The housewife's bread, the gently-falling rain, The morning sun that climbs the heavenly height, The green grass, and the sports of careless youth, — All are but garments of the living truth That through them shines and tills our lives with light Chapter XI. THE BEATITUDES. Matthew V. 3-12.1 " T3LESSED are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the king- J3 dom of heaven ! " Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be com- forted ! " Blessed are the meek, for the} T shall inherit the earth. " Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after righteous- ness, for the} T shall be filled. " Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercv i Luke vi. 20-26. 156 THE BEATITUDES " Blessed are the pure in heart, for the}- shall see God. " Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God. " Blessed are the}- which are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. u Blessed are you when men shall revile you and perse- cute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely [for my sake] . Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for great is your reward in heaven ; for so persecuted the}- the prophets which were before you." Such are the well-known Beatitudes which stand at thfc nead of the so-called Sermon on the Mount. 1 They contain the great central thoughts of Jesus' preaching, — his gospel in fact. Should airy one ask who Jesus was, and what were his purposes, we could give him no more concise and no fuller answer than these eight or nine short sentences. This was what Jesus had to offer, what he brought into the world, — not a new code with its penal enactments, not a new sys- tem of doctrine with its curse upon all who should dare to depart from it ; but a sure promise of deliverance from misery, of consolation under all suffering, and perfect satisfaction of all the wants of the soul. In these beatitudes he gives us his best thoughts, shows us the purpose of his life, and, as it were, lays bare his soul before us. It is with true spiritual insight that Matthew places them at the head of all the dis- courses, though they cannot really have come first in point of time. The concluding passage shows that in their present form, at any rate, they cannot date from the earl}- days of the Master's ministry ; for the direct form of address, " Bles- sed are ye," and the words that immediately follow the beati- tudes,' 2 clearly show that they were addressed to the friends of Jesus ; and in the earl}- days of his mission the}- cannot have been subject to the reproach, the calumny, and the per- secution which are here implied as their lot. As for the expression "for my sake," it is probably added to the real words of Jesus, both here and elsewhere, by the tradition. And yet it was well to put the beatitudes first, for they are the greeting which Jesus offers to the world ; they are the scheme of his life-work, the pure reflection of what was in his heart, the express image of his life and character. As the gentle sound of that reiterated "blessed" falls upon our ear, we feel in the first place that he who utters it himself rejoices in the blessings, or has them within his grasp ; and then that i See p. 141. 2 Matthew v. 13-16. See, also, pp. 163, 164. THE BEATITUDES. 157 a conviction reigns in his heart, clear and strong, that he has power to pour them upon others too. Surely, if these few savings stood alone, they would be enough to assure to Jesus a place of honor among the benefactors of mankind. What a treasure of pure feeling, of hallowed sympathy, of true love for man, is contained in these few lines ! At the same time they breathe a kind of gentle humor that has gen- erally, escaped observation. "Blessed are they that have," say the proverbs of eveiy age ; "Better be envied than pit- ied ; " "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush." Such expressions reflect unmistakably the ignoble, commonplace, so-called practical wisdom of the superficial multitudes of every time and place. In startling contrast to all this, Jesus puts forth his new and purely moral estimate : " Blessed are — the poor, the meek, the mourners ! " Perhaps the keenness of the paradox would come out still more clearly if we might accept as original the form of the sayings which Luke has preserved. In his Gospel we have only the first four beatitudes, and even these are given in a still shorter form ; but he balances them by four " Woes ! " which do not appear in Matthew at all. The whole passage runs as follows : ' ' Blessed are you poor, for jours is the kingdom of God. Blessed are you that hunger now, for you shall be filled. Blessed are 3-011 that weep now, for you shall laugh. Blessed are 3*011 when men shall hate you and when the}' shall cut 3*011 off from them, and revile 3*011 and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of Man's sake. Rejoice in that da3* and leap for joy, for behold your reward is great in heaven ; for in like manner did their fathers unto the proph- ets. But woe unto 3*ou rich men, for 3 T our consolation is past and gone. Woe unto 3*011 that are satisfied, for you shall hunger. Woe unto 3*011 that laugh now, for 3*011 shall mourn and weep. Woe unto 3*011 when all men shall speak well of 3*ou, for so did their fathers to the false prophets." But this is evidently a later form, and, as we have it, far from origi- nal. This is clearly shown by the reference to the Jewish ban, or " cutting off; " the expression " for the Son of Man's sake;" and, above all, the use of such a phrase as "their fathers," as though Jesus stood outside his people and re- nounced all connection with them. He could never really have used such an expression. But how can we explain the alterations which the beati- tudes have undergone in the third Gospel? The answer to this question deserves especial attention, for it directs us to a 158 THE BEATITUDES. remarkable characteristic of the Gospel. One of the sources 1 from which Luke drew his materials was a so-called Ebionite document. 2 Ebionites ("poor") was the name given to a party of Jewish-Christians, remarkable for their hatred of the rich and their exaltation of poverty. We shall meet with several traces in the third Gospel of the use of this Ebionite authority. Now there can be no doubt that the words and deeds of Jesus were often such as might fairly be urged in support of these Ebionite views. He had more sympathy with tae lot of the poor, and paid them more attention than others ; 3 and he saw rich men from time to time encumbered by their wealth and position when they might otherwise have joined him. 4 But for all that Jesus was not an Ebionite. There is a wide difference between longing to befriend the poor and systematically exalting povert} T , between uttering a solemn warning to the rich and cursing wealth. But as the sa3 T ings of Jesus were handed down by oral tradition in the Jewish-Christian circles referred to, their form was now and then involuntarily modified, and in the course of time they were committed to writing in this modified form ; and Luke, as alread}^ said, drew his four blessings and his four woes from some such Ebionite source, perhaps the Gospel of the Hebrews. 5 All this may be quite true, however, and }-et the simpler forms of the first and fourth beatitudes, preserved by Luke, ma} T be the most authentic. In that case the additional words in Matthew — poor in spirit, hunger and thirst after righteousness — are put in b} T way of explanation. If this be so, the explana- tion they offer is certainly the true one ; for Jesus never meant to pronounce a blessing on the heads of all the poor in the ordinary sense, but onfy over those who felt their poverty, who were conscious of their deep need of help, and longed for spiritual wealth. Nor did he mean to say that literal hunger was a blessed state, but that all who were urged on by the unquenchable and irresistible longing for uncorrupted piety and goodness would be surely blessed. Let us look at the beatitudes once more. The first four are more or less distinguished from the rest b} T their reference to passive rather than active virtues, and the last two lines form the transition to what follows. Those who are marked by the graces and virtues spoken of are said to be blessed now in virtue of what will fall to their lot in the immediate i Luke i. 1-4. See p. 29. 2 See pp. 22, 57. 3 Compare Matthew xi. 5 4 Compare Matthew xix. 23, 24. 6 See pp. 22, 116. THE BEATITUDES. 159 future, — membership of the kingdom of God, divine conso- lation, boundless influence, and the satisfaction of the pas- sionate longing of their souls for moral perfection. But we are not to suppose that this future was to begin after their death, and these blessings of salvation to be bestowed on them in heaven. Heaven is not referred to here at all. The king- dom of God is upon earth and nowhere else ; and it is to the kingdom of God, to the perfect and blessed society of the future, that the promises refer. And so, in the last four beatitudes, the compassion which the merciful will in their turn receive refers to the grace of God, who will take pity on them when the Messianic kingdom is founded ; the privilege of seeing Him refers to the clear and personal knowledge of God which the pure in heart will have in that age. When those who imitate God, the great peacemaker, are called his sons or followers, 1 the title refers to their moral glory as members of the kingdom of heaven ; and membership of that kingdom will be the sure reward of those who are persecuted for the good cause. Meanwhile we must bear in mind that Jesus is not describing or referring to eight different types of character ; it is one t}^e worked out in eight different direc- tions ; it is the description of the followers of Jesus such as he would have them, such as he longed for them to be, though few of them actually united in themselves all these characteristics. Though the beatitudes make a single whole, the several virtues they enforce appear separately in the teaching of Jesus elsewhere. Thus he lays constant stress upon humil- ity, childlike simplicity and openness, and readiness to for- give ; and he is never weary of warning his hearers against pride, hard-heartedness, and avarice. He did not attach the smallest value to the piety that was made up of words : " Not everj x one who sa}~s [to me] Lord ! Lord ! shall enter into the kingdom of heaven, but they that do the will of m} T heavenly Father ; " 2 and he warned his hearers against the clanger of wilful moral blindness, darkening the soul's eye of reason and conscience. " The e}*e is the lamp of the bod}'. If your eye be healthy your whole body will be light ; but if your eye be diseased 3'our whole body will be darkened. Watch, then, lest the light that is in you be darkness." 3 Following out John's image, " Every tree that brings not forth good fruit is 1 Matthew v. 45 ; Ephesians v. 1. 2 Matthew vii. 21 ; compare Luke vi 46, 8 Matthew vi. 22, 23 (Luke xi. 34-36). 160 THE BEATITUDES. cut down and cast into the fire," 1 he said : " We know a tree by its fruits. A sound tree cannot bear rotten fruit, nor a rotten tree sound fruit. Nor do we gather figs from thorn- trees, or grapes from bramble bushes. So, too, the good man brings from the good treasure of his heart the things that are good, and the bad man brings from the bad treasure of his heart the things that are bad ; for out of the fulness of his heart his mouth speaks." 2 So far was he from intending the beatitudes to excuse his followers from moral effort, that he cried to them with solemn emphasis, "Go in b} T the narrow gate ; for wide is the gate and broad is the wa}- that leads to destruction, and many are they that go in bj T it. But small is the gate and narrow the way that leads to life, and few there are that find it." 3 He knew what constant effort it required, what watchfulness, what self-denial to enter the kingdom of God. Let us now take some of the warnings that correspond to these exhortations and blessings. In contrast with the poor who hunger for the highest good stands the picture of the rich fool: "Beware of greed, for abundant possessions can- not make you sure of life ! 4 There was once a rich man, upon whose goodly lands such a heav}~ harvest stood that he was at a loss what to do with all his corn. So he suddenly resolved, ' I will pull down nrv barns and build far greater ones instead. There I will lay up the produce and the goods of this and for- mer years, and then fling away all care and trouble and anx- iety and enj'03' my life at ease. I have abundant means for years to come, and I will make the most of them.' But God said unto him, v O fool ! this very night your life shall be re- quired of you, and where will all that you have gathered up be then ? ' So it is with those who heap up provisions for themselves, but are not rich in God." 5 Jesus not only says that the gentle and pitiful are blessed, but warns us earnestly against setting ourselves on a lofty pedestal and passing sentence on our neighbor : "■ Judge not others lest you yourselves be judged ! For the sentence you pass shall be passed on you, and with the measure you use for others you yourselves shall be measured." 6 He laid all the more stress on this because those who set themselves up 1 Matthew vii. 19; compare iii. 10 (Luke iii. 9). 2 Luke vi. 43-45 ; compare Matthew vii. 16-20, xii. 33-35. 3 Matthew vii. 13, 14; compare Luke xiii. 24. 4 After an amended version. 5 Luke xii. 15-21. 6 Matthew vii. 1, 2; compare Luke vi. 37, 38. THE BEATITUDES^ 161 as the censors of their neighbor's little faults are often blind to their own much greater sins : " Can }'ou see the splinter in your brother's eye, when }*ou see not the beam that is in your own eye ? How can you say to your brother, ' Let me get that splinter out of your eye,' when behold ! there is a beam in your own eye ? O blind one ! remove the beam from your own e} T e, and then you will see clearly enough to lay hold of the splinter in j T our brother's eye, and draw it out." ' He constantly warns us to forgive those that have injured us, and to reconcile ourselves with those we have injured, as a duty we owe in consideration of what we hope to receive or have already received from God. u If you forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you ; but if 3'ou forgive not others, neither will your Father forgive you your trespasses." 2 Once when Simon Peter asked him, " How many times must I forgive my brother when he wrongs me? Seven times?" (the rabbis thought three times enough) he answered, " I say not seven times, but seven and seventy." 3 Then he added this parable : — " There was once a king who determined, after long delay, to reckon with his ministers and ascertain how much was due from each of them to the royal coffers. So all the high officers of state, the governors of the several districts, the contractors for the tolls and other branches of the revenue were sum- moned to the court. Among those who were loath to obey the summons was one of the most distinguished, the governor of the richest province. He had long neglected the duties of his post, and had wasted the money he ought to have paid over to his monarch in unexampled dissipation. So the sum had risen at last to almost four million pounds. But now the day of reckoning had come, and, since he could not pay, the prince in Oriental fashion ordered him and his wife and children to be sold as slaves, and all that he possessed to be put to sale, that as much of the debt as possible might be wiped out. The governor fell upon his face at the feet of the king in despair, and cried in supplication, ' Lord ! have pa- tience with me and I will pay it all ! ' It was a foolish prom- ise that he never could fulfil ; but what will not a man say in such dire necessary? His master saw his misery and had 1 Matthew vii. 3-5 (Luke vi. 41, 42). 2 Matthew vi. 14, 15 ; compare Mark xi. 25, 26. See also Matthew v. 23-26. 3 Matthew xviii. 21, 22, after an amended version ; compare Luke xvii. 3, 4 See Genesis iv. 24, and vol. i. p. 54. 162 THE BEATITUDES. compassion on him. With princely generosity he not only let him go, but even forgave him all the debt. Beside himself with the unspeakable joy of relief, the governor left the palace which he had entered in despair and terror. But who is that coming to meet him, or rather endeavoring in evident confu- sion to avoid him? It is one of his inferiors, who owes him a trifle of three or four pounds, and is not prepared to pay him at the moment. What could have been more natural than for the great man, in his thankful joy, to make the same day glad for his own humble debtor ? But no ! He rushed up to him, seized him by the throat, and cried, ' Pay what } t ou owe me ! ' The other fell upon his knees and be- sought his mercy. ' Have patience with me, and I will pay it all ! ' But the tyrant was not melted b}~ the thought that he himself had uttered these same words but now ; and in the mouth of his inferior they did not conve}^ a promise it was impossible to fulfil, as they had done in his. Was it vexa- tion at the danger he had just escaped, or was this cruelty a first step towards putting his affairs upon a sounder footing ? However this may be, he threw his debtor into prison till those few shillings should be paid ! But his conduct soon began to be talked about. The other great officers of state heard of it, and could not help reporting it indignantly to the king. The heartless conduct of the man to whom he had ex- tended such princely favor raised the monarch's utmost indig- nation, and he summoned the delinquent into his presence once again. ' Wretch ! ' he cried, ' I forgave } r ou that enor- mous debt, because you entreated me to defer exacting it, not daring even to ask that it should be forgiven ! And should not you have had pity on your debtor as I had pit}' on you ? Throw him into prison until he has satisfied my uttermost claims ! ' It was a hopeless sentence, for the debt could never be paid. "And so," said Jesus, "shall my heavenly Father do to you unless each one from his heart forgives his brother." 1 Jesus took many opportunities of impressing upon his tear- ers that simplicity and humility were absolutely necessary for those who would enter the kingdom of God. When the dis- ciples were disputing which of them was to be the greatest, he rebuked them by saying, " Whosoever is least among you and humbles himself to be the servant of all, he is the great- est in the kingdom of heaven." 2 Another time he warned i Matthew xviii. 23-35. 2 Matthew xviii. 4, xx. 26, 27 (Matk ix. 35, x. 43, 44). VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. 163 them not to imitate the Scribes in their greediness for honor. " Never let 3'ourselves be called Rabbi or Master, for one is your leader and you are all brothers. He who is chief among you shall be your servant. He who exalts himself shall be humbled, and he who humbles himself shall be exalted." 1 Or he took a child and placed it in the midst of them, and said, "I tell 3 T ou truly, unless you turn and become as children, s mple, natural, and receptive of all good influences, you shall by no means enter into the kingdom of heaven." 2 Well might it be said of the contemporaries of Jesus, and of all for whom his Gospel has shone and shines, "Blessed are the e} r es which see the things you see ! For verily I say to 3'ou, that many prophets and righteous men have desired to see those things which } r ou see, and have not seen them ; and to hear those things which you hear, and have not heard them." 3 Chapter XII. THE VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. Matthew V. 13-16, XXV. 14-46, VI. 19-21, 24-34. TO learn something more of the teaching of Jesus, let us turn to the Sermon on the Mount again, and take it up where we broke off just now. In the last beatitude Jesus had turned directly to his friends and followers to cheer and encourage them under the bitter opposition to which they would be exposed. This leads, by the most natural transition, to the description of their work and their place in societ} T which follows. " You are the salt of the earth." As salt is needed to give food a relish and to preserve it from corruption, so they were needed to give social life a flavor, and preserve it from moral ruin. Without them it was in danger of becoming hopelessly frivolous and insipid. ''But if the salt loses its flavor," — as it might dc if long exposed to the sun or blasted by lightning, — ' ' nothing can restore its virtues to it. However precious it once was, it is now worthless, not fit even to be cast upon the dunghill ! It is thrown away and trodden under foot." And so if any one 1 Matthew xxiii. 8-12. 2 Matthew xviii 2, 3. 3 Matthew xiii. 16, 17 (Luke x, 23, 21). 164 VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. should fall away from the good cause to which he had dedi- cated his life, what good could come of him for any thing? 1 — " You are the light of the world." It is your task to teach the truth, to teach the way of life, to others, and it is a task you cannot lay down. " A city built upon a hill cannot be hidden. And no one who lights the lamp at eventime sets it on the ground and covers it with the corn measure ; but they put it on the lampstand, and it gives light to all who are in the house. So let } T our light shine before men that they may see 3 T our good works and glorify" — not you, but — " your Father who is in heaven." 2 To see the force of the last illus- tration, we must bear in mind that the arrangements of a Jew- ish house differed widely from those of our own. The measure was an indispensable article of daily use ; but moderately high tables such as ours were not used, and the lamp, which had no foot-piece and stood very low, had to be set on a tall can- dlestick or lampstand. It is curious to notice, in passing, that the first Gospel makes the lamp, which represents the friends of Jesus, shed its light over "those that are in the house ; " that is to say, the Jews ; whereas the Heathen- Christian Evangelist, 3 Luke, declares that "they who come in," that is, the Heathen, " shall see the light." These words are another and a very clear indication that the Sermon on the Mount transports us to a later period of the ministry of Jesus, — a period at which the profound sig- nificance that his character and person had acquired reflected high rank and conferred wide influence upon the simple fish- ermen and artisans who had attached themselves to him. But the higher they were placed, the heavier was their re- sponsibility ; and should they ever prove untrue to themselves and him, the deeper their fall ! Of course we must not limit this idea to the personal friends of Jesus, but must apply it to every Christian without excep- tion. All of us who take a serious view of life, whatever our position or our sphere of action may be, have some work for God to do in the world, and we must make it the object of our lives to do it. This thought was always present to the mind of Jesus, and experience taught him that "he who is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in that which is great ; and he who is unjust in that which is least is unjust also in that which is great." 4 He drew out this conception 1 Matthew v. 13 (Mark ix. 50; Luke xiv. 34, 35). 2 Matthew v. 14-16 ( Mark iy. 21). 3 Luke viii. 16, xi. 33. See p. 31. 4 Luke xvi. 10. VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. 165 of the task of life more especially in the parable of the tal- ents. 1 Before giving the stoiy we rna} r note that the word talent does not mean a special gift or capacity, but a certain sura of mone}' amounting to nearly four hundred pounds ; and also that in the East it was a much more difficult matter in olden times to invest a sum of money than it is now with us; "stocks," "exchanges," and so forth, were unknown. The parable runs as follows : — A rich man had to go abroad, and, since his absence would be a long one, he determined to arrange all his affairs, espe- cially the management of his mone}' matters, before he started. So he called his servants (we might sa^y his slaves, if the word were not closely associated in our minds with the un- happy condition of the negro slaves) , and, fully relying on their honest3 T , entrusted them with the care of his treasures. To one, for instance, he gave five talents to manage, to an- other two, to a third one, to each according to his ability ; and, having arranged all his affairs in like manner, set out at once on his journey. The servant in whose hands the largest sum of mone} T had been placed did all that in him hry to prove himself wortlry of his master's confidence. He bought and sold, invested in this and that, and was finally rewarded by seeing the five talents gradually increase to ten. The second servant also went to work with conscientious diligence, and had the same reward of doubling the sum entrusted to him while his master was awa}'. But the man who had received one talent did not care to exert himself. He only considered how he could keep the money safe ; and, since strong boxes were neither so common nor so secure in those da} T s as they are now, he dug a hole in the ground by night, in a place he could not fail to find again, and there he hid the bars of sil- ver. All he would have to do would be to come now and again and see whether the earth had been disturbed. At last, when years had come and gone, the master returned to his home. A great feast was prepared to welcome him, and meanwhile he called his servants together to hear what they had been doing with his money. The first came with his accounts and vouchers under his arm, and showed his master how he had doubled his five talents. The second brought a similar account, and each received the highest praise and ap- probation. "Well done! good and faithful servant. You have been faithful in a little, I will set you in command over much. And now come in and be my guest at the feast of my i Matthew xxv. 14-30. 160 VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GODS KINGDOM. rejoicing!" Then came the third, carrying the talent en- trusted to him in his hands. " Master," he said, covering his confusion by a show of assurance, and accusing his mas- ter byway of defending himself, "I know what an unjust and cruel man you are, making us toil and pant and then taking all the gain yourself ; so I dared not risk an} T thing, but kept the money safety. Here you have j^our own." "Wicked and slothful servant!" was the reply, ;t did you think I should be unreasonable in niy demands ? Then you might at least have lodged the mone} T with the changers that I might receive it back with interest. Take the talent from him," added he, turning to his attendants, "and give it to him that has the ten ; for whosoever has shall receive yet more, but from him who has not shall be taken awa} T even the little he has. And cast the worthless servant out into the darkness ; there let him wail and gnash his teeth, shut out from the joyous feast within." The meaning is not hard to see. The talents are the op- portunities that God gives us of working for his kingdom. One has more than another, for each one's sphere of work and influence differs in extent from that of others. But there is not one who can do no good, who can be of no use, who can make no one happ}- . Whoever loves God will make the most of his opportunities, will put them out to interest. Be his powers great or small he will do something with his life. It will not pass away without result, but will in some way glorify God and bless the world. But he who loves not God is slothful and unwilling, looks about for excuses and gets nothing done. The one is ever widening the scale of his usefulness ; the other gradually loses all his power of doing or of being any thing. This story is followed in the Gospel by a description that has no immediate connection with it of the last judgment, before the founding of the Messianic kingdom. In its pres- ent form it certainly is not due to Jesus, and cannot have arisen till the men of his generation had quite died out. We mention it here, however, partly because it very possibly sprang out of a figure of speech that Jesus actually used, but chiefly because its leading thought is certainty his, and places in the clearest light what he demands of all his followers and what he promises them. This leading thought is that the happiness of man hereafter depends solely and entirety upon whether he has given proof of love, — of simple, free, and generous love of man. Let us listen to it : — VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. 1G7 The List day lias come. The Judge, surrounded by his angels, appears in all his glory, and the martyrs who have suffered for the kingdom of God, who have endured hunger and cold, persecution and misery, in preaching the Gospel, surround the throne, for the} T are subject to no judgment. 1 All the nations are gathered there before the seat of judg- ment, and are waiting in awful suspense the sentence that will fix their weal or woe. The Judge parts them from one another as a shepherd parts the sheep from the goats, setting the one on his right and the other on his left hand. Then he turns to those on his right hand and says, " Come, ye blessed of God ! enter now upon the joy and glory prepared for 3*011 from eternity. For I was hungry, and you gave me to eat ; I was thirst} T , and you gave me to drink ; I was a stranger, and 3 T ou took me in ; I was naked, and you clothed me ; I was sick, and you visited me ; I was in prison, and you came unto me." The virtuous when thus addressed are filled with amazement, for they know not w r hen they have had the opportunity of giving such support or showing such friend- ship to the glorious King. ' w Lord," the^y reply, " when did we ever see thee in such plight that our lowly aid could serve thee ? When have we ever done to thee as thou hast said ? " The King points to the niai^rs and confessors round him, and replies, "Verily I say to you, that inasmuch as you have done it to one of the least of these, my brothers, you have done it to me." 2 Then he turns to those on his left hand: " Depart from me, ye cursed, into the fiery lake pre- pared for the devil and those that serve him ! For I was hungry, and } t ou gave me no meat ; thirsty, and you gave me no drink ; a stranger, and 3*011 took me not in ; naked, and you clothed me not ; sick and in prison, and you visited me not." In terror and amazement at his words they begin to excuse themselves : u Lord ! when saw we thee in such plight that we might lend thee aid ? and when did we refuse it ? " The stern answer of the Judge confirms the sentence : " Ver- ily I say to you, inasmuch as you withheld it from one of the least of these, you withheld it from me." This it is that decides our blessedness or misery on the great day ! 3 We shall have another opportunity of showing that this conception of a great judgment, held % the Christ in person, took a prominent place among the expectations of the apos- tolic age. Our immediate purpose was simply to show, in 1 Compare Matthew v. 10-12. 2 Compare Mark ix. 41. 8 Matthew xxv. 31-46. 1G8 VOCATION OP THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. connection with the lofty promises of the Sermon on the Mount, what was the task of life which Jesus set before his friends and all who should attach themselves to him. It was no confession of faith, but a life inspired by active love of God and man which he required from every one. In marking out the path his followers were to tread, Jesus could not be content with simply indicating their field of labor. He must, of course, speak of other things as well. For human life is many-sided. As corporeal beings we feel corporeal needs ; as members of society we have social cares, wants, and wishes. Jesus accordingly gave his disciples special exhortations on the attitude the} T were to take with respect to worldly goods. We still possess a short address from the earliest period of his ministiy on the question of what should be the greatest care of man. The near approach of the kingdom of God made it a matter of extreme impor- tance to throw light on the duty of its future citizens in this respect also. The words will be found in the Sermon on the Mount. Let us listen to them : — "Lay not up for } T ourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal." (We must bear in mind that the word treasures does not mean the same as wealth. Great possessions in cattle or land for instance, or in money put out to interest, would not be included in the word ; for it means only that which is stored away and not used for the present, whether gold and silver, or splendid robes and tapestries, or other such valua- bles, or corn. ) ' ' But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust corrupts, and where no thieves break through or steal." Ity these treasures Jesus means good deeds and all that merits an entrance into the kingdom of heaven. When the kingdom is founded, its citizens will receive here upon earth those treasures which God preserves for them meanwhile in heaven. And the words that follow show us why this choice is of such supreme importance: "For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also." 1 Luke, or rather his Ebionite authority, makes all this refer simply to the merits of voluntaiy povert\ T : "Sell all your goods, and give the produce in alms. Make yourselves purses that grow not old, and a treasure that never fails, in heaven." But what Jesus really meant was, that a man can- 1 Matthew vi. iy-21: Luke xii. 33, 34. VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. 109 not pursue divided aims. " No. one can serve two masters." The absolute allegiance due from the slave to his master can- not possibly be divided. "Either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will cleave to the one and despise the other ; you cannot serve both God and Mammon " (that is ivealth). To one of the two, and one only, can the heart cling and the life be dedicated. You can set before you as the object of your life either the support of all that is good and pure and noble, or the gaining of worldly goods ; but the attempt to combine the two is vain. 1 80 the follower of Jesus must wean his heart from all wprldly things. "Take no anxious thought for 3*0111' life, what you shall eat and what you shall drink ; nor for your body, what you shall put 011. Is not the life more than food, and the bocty than raiment?" Then will not God, who has given 3*011 the greater gift, provide the lesser also? " Con- sider the birds of heaven. They sow not, neither do they reap, nor gather into barns, 3*et your heavenly Father feeds them. Are not you worth much more than the}*? Which of you by anxious thought can add a span to his lifetime ? And why take thought for raiment? Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; the}' toil not, neither do the}' spin, and }'et I say unto you that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. But if God so clothe the grass which grows in the field to-da} T and is cast into the fire to-morrow, shall he not much more clothe 3*011, O 3*e of little faith ? Then take no anxious thought, saying : What shall we eat? or what shall we drink? or wherewith shall we be clothed? For after all these do the heathen seek. Your heavenh* Father knows that you have need of all these. But seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness ; and all these earthly things shall be given with it. Be not anxious for the morrow, then ; the morrow will bring its own cares with it. Sufficient to the da3* is the evil thereof." 2 In the same tone and with similar illustrations from Nature, he warned his disciples on another occasion not to shrink from mortal danger in preaching the kingdom of God. " Be not afraid of men who destroy the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear the might of Him who can destroy both soul and body in Gehenna. Are not two sparrows sold for a halfpenny ? and yet not one of them falls dead to earth without }*our Father's will. Na3 T ! the very hairs of youi 1 Matthew vi. 24 (Luke xvi. 13). 2 Matthew vi. 25-34 (Luke xii. 22-31). VOL. III. 8 170 VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. head are all numbered. Fear not, then ! you are worth more than many sparrows." * Let us pause a moment, and think over what we have heard. Will this kind of reasoning hold good ? Can we realty banish human cares by thinking of flowers and birds ? Do we think it a lofty virtue to be so careless of material wants, so in- different as to worldly goods? Far from it. Indeed, such confidence is often put to shame. Though Nature is so or- dained upon the whole that man and beast are saved from perishing of want, yet there are exceptions to the rule ; and instances, alas ! are not so rare, especially in our Northern climates, of human creatures dying of hunger or cold, or both. Besides, this view of life is altogether one-sided. It takes no account of the great and certain facts that work, at once a duty and a blessing, is holy in the highest sense ; that forethought, not to be confused with vain anxiet}', is not a sin, but the dictate of a healthy conscience ; that the faithful performance of the daily duties of our occupation is a great part of religion ; that we are not only permitted but positively bound to do our best to make our way in the world by honest work, and so contribute to the material well-being of societ}\ A piety that shrank from the world was far too common among the Chris- tians of the first century, and reached its culmination in the monastic life of later times ; and though it is not actually rec- ommended in these words of Jesus, there is a great deal in them that might nourish it. But in spite of all this there is a deep truth hidden in the words, a truth which we can feel even when we cannot define it. They fascinate us by their freshness, b} T the bright and jo3 T ous spirit they breathe, by the glow of conviction that surrounds them. It is true, in the first place, that God re- quires us to dedicate to him, not certain hours, certain forms, or certain specified actions, but our whole and undivided heart and life ; in other words, that all our affections and all our powers must be consecrated to the spread of what is good ; that God should be not only the last and highest, but the only goal of our thoughts and efforts, our work, our care, our wealth, — all that we have and are. In the next place, what gave Jesus such perfect trust in God was his absolute belief in His almighty providence, coupled with his deep and hoi}' confidence that eveiy thing material is subordinate to the moral life, and must be made subservient to its development. He never for a moment doubted theoretically in God's abso- i Matthew x. 28-31 (Luke xii. 4-7). VOCATION OF THE CITIZENS OF GOD'S KINGDOM. 171 lute supremacy over all Nature and all the events of life, but we may well believe that the special strength and intensity of his trust in God was the result of his own experience. He, more than any other, had experienced the fact that his heavenly Father never let him want the needful nourishment and strengthening of spirit ; never failed to protect his soul in time of need, nor to uphold him in the fiercest temptation, so that opposition and suffering could not prevail against him, but were turned at last to blessings. And had not the supply of his material wants been thrown, as it were, into the bar- gain ? He had set aside all thought of them for the kingdom of God's sake, yet never had he lacked his daily food, and man}' a danger had been warded from his head. His own experience, then, compelled him to speak as we have heard. Again, to do full justice to this lesson, w« must transport ourselves to the time, and place ourselves am.d the surround- ings, of Jesus. We will lay no special stress upon the fact that in the East Nature is far more bountiful, and human wants proportionately easier to satisfy, than with us. It is much more to the purpose that the cliury of increasing the ma- terial prosperity of the world could hardly be dreamed of at such a time as that of Jesus and the Apostles. Outside the circle of Jewish devotees, society was godless to the very core, and the world was licentious beyond all parallel. Moreover, Jesus and all the pious Jews believed most firmly that the founding of the kingdom of God w^ould soon put an end to the whole existing order of societ} 7 , the corruption of which did much to strengthen the belief. But the most important point of all that we must notice is, that a new religious movement, such as that which Jesus caused, must of necessity give rise to special efforts and special regulations ; must compel those who take part in it to break off connections, to relinquish en- joyments, and to defy difficulties which will assuredly reassert their claims in the ordinary course of life. When first the faith in man's higher destiny burst forth in all its clearness and power, was it not inevitable that men should neglect all lower, all material things in the joy of that discovery ? And finally, we must observe that these words are uttered not by way of consolation, but of rebuke. Jesus gives all doubting, hesitating souls the result of his experience and thought, and urges them to imitate his deed of faith, to set the visible be- low the invisible, as he had done. 1 Surely he, too, must have asked himself when on the point of laying down his occupa- 1 Compare 2 Corinthians iv. 18; Hebrews xi. 1 ff. 172 THE GOSPEL OF THE KINGDOM. tion, '■' TV iiit shall I eat? what shall I drink? wherewith shall I be clothed ? " But he had silenced all such doubts by listen- ing to the voice of God within, and going whither he was called, without reserve. All worldly obstacles and earthly cares must be set aside. " Seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness," he had said distinctly to himself, "and all these temporal things will be provided." And afterwards, ' ' Why should I be afraid of men ? an Almighty power watches over me." We have no right, then, to unravel these expres- sions of trust, and to ask whether Jesus expected God to work miracles on occasion to preserve his life. He neither asked nor expected miracles on his behalf. He had no rounded system to explain how it was all to happen ; but this one thing he knew, that it was the kingdom of God, and that alone, upon which he must bestow his every thought, to which he must direct his every effort, in which he must seek his only wealth. And the life-choice he himself had made, and which expe- rience had justified so fully, that choice he urged upon all others, and demanded from his followers. We shall find him constantly insisting upon this decisive choice. Surely he had a right to do so. In thus describing the vocation of the citizens of God's kingdom he unintentionally drew his own likeness, and this thought gives new value to his parables and exhortations ; for who can gaze upon that image and withhold the fulness of respect and admiration ? But he requires more than respect and admiration from us. He demands the homage of our imitation. \ Chapter XIII. THE GOSPEL OF THE KINGDOM. Matthew XVIII. 12-14. WE have now submitted a considerable part of the teach- ing of Jesus to a special examination. In the fol- lowing chapters we shall hear and see how the principles contained therein controlled his views of many subjects, and dictated his conduct towards mairy classes of mankind and under many varied circumstances. But let us first pause a moment to look back, and ask ourselves whether we have dis- THE GOSPEL OF THE KINGDOM. 173 covered what the grand central thought of Jesus really was. Our object in doing so is not only to form a clear conception of the connection and unity of his teaching and the point upon which it converges, but still more to put ourselves into a posi- tion from which wc can truly understand and justly estimate the line of conduct we shall see him pursue, and the judgments we shall hear him pronounce. If once we have grasped his leading thought, we shall be able to explain his life as the in- finitely varied practice which is but the many-sided expression of the simple and uniform theory. But is it possible to sum up in a few short words the spirit of his teaching, 1 the new element he brought into life, the special thought that made his preaching a true gospel? Undoubtedly it is. We have incidentally referred to this distinguishing conception more than once already. Jesus taught no new S3'stem of religious doctrine ; indeed, strictly speaking, he cannot be said to have laid down a single fresh article of doctrinal faith. Nor did he teach a new scheme of morals. He had, indeed, certain new moral conceptions, but he never worked them into a systematic whole. This total absence of an} T thing like a formal sj'stem has come spontane- ously to light in the preceding chapters. What Jesus really did was to give utterance to a new principle, to make a sub- lime discoveiy, which explains all his work and all his teach- ing, and furnishes the ke}' to the mystery of his own religious genius. This new discovery, this great principle, ma}^ be de- scribed, according to the side from which it is approached, as the worth of man or the love of God. The worth of man ! Man, as man, is called to and des- tined for the highest moral perfection, and, as a consequence, the purest blessedness. Such was the inextinguishable faith of Jesus, his steadfast rule of conduct, his life's unalterable motto. And it was altogether new. In the Roman empire the individual was of no importance except as a part of the great whole, as a citizen of Rome. In Israel man had no rights, no hope, except as a member of the chosen race, a son of Abraham. But for Jesus, man as man had sacred and inalienable rights and a worth that nothing could transcend. And in the mind of Jesus, who brought all things straight into connection with God, this truth assumed this form : Man is by nature God's own child, is capable of bearing God's image, and is the object of H;s infinite affection. The Supreme Power, before which man bows in adoration, which has traced i See p. 150. 174 THE GOSPEL OF THE KINGDOM. its inlelible law upon his heart, is a power of love , and man's inmost nature i? akin to it. Man is akin to God. God is our Father. This great, this glorious truth was discovered and proclaimed by Jesus ; and its meaning for each one of us is, that to do and to be good is his true nature and his highest blessedness. It is because man is so truly great, that, as a spiritual being, he must trample down all that is material or push it altogether into the background, since it is too poor and worthless to be the object of his care. It was because each human being has such infinite significance that Jesus felt himself most strongly drawn towards the poor, the op- pressed, the despised of the world ; for they had only their humanity to live by, only their humanity to live for. -That was their passport to his heart. The first beatitude that passed his lips refers to them. Pointing to them, the Judge declares to the righteous, " What ye have clone to one of the least of these, my brothers, you have done to me ; " and of them Jesus said, making it the crowning work of his ministry, "The poor have the gospel preached unto them." 1 It was because the worth of man lies in nothing external, but simply in his being man and therefore the child of God, that Jesus laid such stress on humility and childlike simplicity. Worldly rank is so absolutely insignificant that no man should be puffed up by it. Jesus quickened in his hearers the sense of their own dig- nity as moral beings, and at the same time taught them re- spect for the humblest and least of their fellow-men. As a specimen of the way in which he made these twin results flow from his common principle, we may give the following sa} T - ings. We do not vouch for their having been uttered in the order in which they have come down to us, hy Jesus himself; but in their present form the} r are certainly knit together into a single whole by that one central conception. Jesus is speak- ing of " offences," that is to say, of all that tempts us to sin or unbelief, to faithlessness to the higher life and things invisible. He sa} T s : — " He who receives a little child like this, in my name, re- ceives me ; 2 but for him who offends one of these little ones, it were better that a millstone were hung about his neck and he were cast into the sea ! Woe to the world because of offences ! for offences must needs come ; yet woe to him by whom they come ! If your hand or your foot offend you, cut it off and cast it from you ! It is better to go into life maimed i Matthew xi. 5 2 Matthew xviii. 5 (Mark ix. 37; Luke ix. 48V THE GOSPEL OF THE KINGDOM. 17? or crippled than to be cast into eternal fire with two hands or feet. And if your eye offend } t ou, pluck it out and cast it from 3'ou ! It is better to go into life with one eye than to have two eyes and be cast into Gehenna. Beware of despis- ing one of these little ones ! For I tell you that their guardian angels, as the first in rank, look upon the face of my Father in heaven at all times." l And then he speaks of the divine syrupatlry with these little ones under the sweet and touching imagery of that well-known parable : tc What think you? If a man have a hundred sheep and one of them goes astray, does he not leave the ninety-nine on the mountains and go and seek the one that has strayed ? And if he should chance to find it, does he not rejoice more over that one than over the ninety-nine that never strayed? Even so it is the steadfast will of your Father in heaven that not one of these little ones be lost." 2 Such was the fountain of his deep and inexhaustible love of man. We have spoken already of his compassionate S3 T m- pathy. We constantly read in the Gospels of his being stirred with intensest pit}' for the multitudes, because of their sad and weaiy plight, as of sheep without a shepherd ; 3 and we shall see that he turned with special zeal to ' ' the lost sheep of Israel's fold," to the notorious " sinners." Such was the im- pulse of his heart, which he could not disobey. So he called to him all who were " weaiy and heavy laden," and promised " I will give you rest." k ' Take my } T oke upon you," he said, " and learn of me, for I am gentle and lowly of heart, and you shall find rest for your souls. For my } T oke is easy, and my burden light." 4 But we must clearly understand what this compassion was. The feeling that inspired Jesus with tenderness towards all men however insignificant, however sinful, had not a touch of that lofty condescension which often passes for sympathy. It was a feeling of unbounded rever- ence for their humanity. It was on the foundation of this respect that the temple of his love was reared. Even the most degraded human being was still an artistic masterpiece fashioned by the Great Artist, God. As such he must be handled tenderly and reverentially, even while the stains that marred his beauty were being cleansed. Do you ask how Jesus discovered this new truth of the worth of man and the love of God? We must not suppose, 1 Luke xvii. 1, 2; Matthew xviii. 6-10 (Mark ix. 42-47). 2 Matthew xviii. 12-14 ; compare Luke xv. 3-7. * Matthew ix. 36; Mark vi. 34. * Matthew xi. 28-30. 176 THE GOSPEL OF THE KINGDOM. on the strength of a few passages in the Gospels, that he ascended from the known to the unknown, and arguing from certain phenomena in the world of Nature and the world of Man 1 reasoned out the lofty conclusion ! No syllogisms or inferences led him to his great result. No strained intellec- tual effort, no profound speculation or deep line of argument brought him to this discovery. One of the latest writers of the New Testament attributes a sa}ing to him which he never really uttered, but which, nevertheless, is an exact reflection of the truth: "My doctrine is not mine, but His that sent me. If any man will do His will, he shall know of this doc- trine, whether it be of God, or whether I speak of myself." 2 That is to sa} T , Jesus had not invented the truth he preached ; he had neither worked it out b} T his own penetration, nor woven it into a system by careful argument. The truth had revealed itself to his heart, and all that he did was to repro- duce as purely and faithfully as he could that which had forced itself upon him, so to speak ; that which he had learned by his own experience. He produced nothing, properlj' speak- ing. He simply translated, as best he could, the impressions and emotions he had received from the invisible world. Hence, too, the certainty and decision of his teaching. For he knew that he had something more and better to communicate than mere personal views or conclusions reached by argument, more and better than mere changing fallible opinions. What he strove to impart to others was that moral truth which he had learned by the surest method, — his own experience; those impressions he had received from God in his own innei life. For all the discoveries we make on intellectual or philo- sophic ground bear about them a more or less strongly marked character of uncertaint}' as the badge of their human origin. But we regard the questions of the moral life in a wholly dif- ferent light ; and rightly so. For here it is not we who find out the newly-discovered truth, but it that finds us out ; and it bears about it such a mark of its divine origin that we know it will never have to be surrendered, but is a conquest gained for ever. It was in himself, therefore, and by turn- ing to his own heart, that Jesus discovered who God is and what man is. By his own experience he had come to know that God is our Father, that He is love ; for he had experi- enced the indescribably sweet and irresistible attraction, the unutterably blessed influence, of that sacred Power above us, which unfolds its will in the human heart and conscience. 1 Matthew v. 45, vii. 11, et 2 Matthew iv. 23, ix. 35, 37, 38 (Luke x. 2). 8* 178 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. Chapter XIV. THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. M4tthew X. 1-14; Mark IX. 14-29; Luke VIII. 1-3, IX. 5162, XIV. 25-35.1 YOU will remember that very soon after beginning his pub- lic work Jesus had drawn certain associates round him. 3 During his stay at Capernaum and his journeys through Gal- ilee, others were from time to time moved by their own hearts or led b}^ his invitation to join him permanently. This was but natural. In Capernaum and the other cities of Galilee there could not fail to be those whose interest was thoroughly roused by what they heard, who longed to enjoy the new teacher's in- struction more continuously ; and who therefore determined to accompany him wherever he went, some for a longer, some for a shorter period, until domestic cares or the occupations the}^ had left recalled them, or until their zeal had cooled, or possibly the new master's free st3~le of thought and life had given them offence. And thus the number of his followers rose and fell. Indeed, tradition exaggerates the number of his hearers to thousands in some cases. 3 Those who con- stantly accompanied him, or at any rate proclaimed their intention of doing so, were called his disciples. There was nothing unusual in this. The ancient prophets were often supported by more or less numerous adherents, or at least associated one constant companion with their labors. 4 In the days of Jesus the most celebrated Scribes had their avowed adherents, and we have already spoken of the disci- ples of John. 5 We should therefore naturally expect to find a body of disciples gathering round Jesus. And from this general bod}' he selected twelve special friends to be his con- stant companions. Whether he called them all at the same time, as Mark and Luke declare, or some at one .time and some at another, as is far more likely, in any case they ac- companied him on all his expeditions, and when possible eat 1 Matthew viii. 19-22, x. 37-39, xvii. 14-21 ; Mark iii. 13-19, vi. 7-13; Luke vi. 12-16, ix. 1-6, 37-43 a. 2 See pp. 127-129. 3 gee pp. 148, 149, and Luke xii. 1. 4 Isaiah viii. 2, 16; Jeremiah xxxvi. 4; compare vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 138. * See pp. 108, 109. THE FRTENDS OF JESJS. 179 at the same table and slept under the same roof with him To them accordingly we must first devote our attention. What made Jesus enter into such special relations with these twelve ? The field of his labors was so extended. He was not content simply to preach the kingdom of God to the multitudes, but must often turn to this or that individual man and strive to quicken his feeling of human dignity, his sense of God's love. And because this work was so great and varied he felt the pressing want of fellow-laborers. But he could not have such helpers unless he trained them to the work himself ; and this he could only do b} r keeping them con- stantly near him and under his influence, and so gradually fitting them for their task by his teaching and example. We must be on our guard against misconceptions. The names of Master and Disciple naturally suggest regular in- struction or the communication of a more or less elaborate set of doctrines ; but this idea is wholly misleading, for the Apostles afterwards show most unmistakably that they had never received any systematic teaching from Jesus. Indeed, he does not ever seem expressly to have communicated his special views on any doctrinal subject to them ; he merely taught them incidentally, as appropriate occasions offered themselves, or when he was directly questioned or pressed for instructions. Of course these Apostles heard more of his say- ings and exhortations than anj T one else did, and it is proba- bly to their care that we owe most of what has been preserved in the Gospels. But the position they took up afterwards, especially their fidelity to Jewish forms of worship, proves conclusively that, strictly speaking, Jesus taught no doctrine at all. Doctrinal instruction was never a part of his preach- ing ; and he contented himself with proclaiming a few great principles, and leaving his hearers free in most respects to apply them to the outward forms of religion for themselves. What we have already 1 said about Jesus as a teacher of the people applies equally well to his intercourse with his friends. His object was not to instruct them in the ordinary sense, but to educate them ; not to give them intellectual or doctrinal, but moral and religious, guidance ; not to stamp certain arti- cles of belief upon their minds, but to exercise an influence upon their hearts and consciences ; not to implant an}' thing in them, but to develop what was in them alread} 7 . There is no trace in his teaching of such special rules of life as those given by John ; a fact which sometimes scandalized the pioua 1 See p. 147. 180 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. Israelites. To use Ms own expression, he associated with his disciples as a bridegroom does with his groomsmen. He never made them fast, or observed that the}* had neglected to wash their hands before taking food ; nor did he even teach them a prayer, so that when the}' felt the want of one they bad to ask him for it. 1 From this perfect ease and freedom we may gather that the Twelve themselves did not belong to the devout and cultivated circles of the day ; otherwise such conduct would have been little to their taste. They were simple men of the people, of healthy and vigorous spirit, full of their own narrow and even coarse prejudices, but recep- tive and tractable enough on the whole, xery susceptible to impressions, and full of zeal. If Jesus laid any special stress on the number twelve, it was probably with a reference to the number of the tribes of an- cient Israel, which typified or foreshadowed the kingdom of God and the chosen people of the future. 2 But the number is certainly so far accidental that if Jesus had not been able to find as many as twelve whom he thought suited for the task he would have been content with fewer ; and if, on the other hand, after choosing the Twelve, he had met with others who seemed particularly well qualified, he would not have scrupled to increase the number. Luke tells us 3 that he called them Apostles (or " those sent out") ; but even if we substitute the Hebrew word that Jesus would have used for the Greek Apos- tle, the statement will still be incorrect. Long after the death of Jesus, when Paul rivalled or opposed the Twelve, and laid claim to the title of Apostle, — or still later when the apostolic doctrine or tradition began to be regarded as the standard of truth by which the disputes of the communities must be de- cided, — then the title of Apostle was said to have originated with Jesus himself; but during his lifetime the Twelve were simply called his disciples. The character, the position, and the occupation of most of these men are unknown to us. Besides the brothers Simon and Andrew (sons of Jona) , and James and John (sons of Zebedee), all of whom were fishermen, we find Philip and Bartholomew, Thomas and Matthew, James (the son of Al- phseus) and Lebbseus, Simon the Canaanite (or Zelot) and Judas of Karioth, a place in Judsea. Of these, Simon is em- 1 Luke xi. 1. 2 Matthew xix. 28 (Luke xxii. 30); Revelation xxi. 12, 14, 21; compare James i. 1. 3 Luke vi. 13. THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 181 phatically described as the first in the Jewish-Christian Gospel, as though he were the head of the Apostolic company. This agrees with the opinion prevalent in the apostolic age, but is quite contrary to the intention of Jesus. 1 We know this Simon as a man of a very lovable character, fier}' in spirit, quick in feeling, hasty in word and deed, sometimes to the point of headlong rashness. He bore the surname Cephas, or " rock," which, was translated into its Greek equivalent Peter, when the gospel was preached to the heathen world. He probably ow r ed it to some accidental circumstance unknown to us. Our Gospels tell us that Jesus himself gave him this name ; " 2 but with all his admirable qualities it was just in rock-like stead- fastness of purpose that Simon was altogether wanting. He is sometimes more like a reed shaken Ivy the wind than a rock, and we can hardly believe that Jesus was so completely mis taken in his estimate as to call him a rock. There is far more probabilit} T in the tradition that Jesus gave the name of Boanerges, or "sons of thunder," to James and John, in virtue of their impetuous and stornry force of character. 3 Among the Twelve themselves, these three, to whom Andrew (Simon's brother, of whom we know nothing more) is some- times added, 4 were again selected to enjo} r the special confi- dence of their Master. They alwa} T s w r ent with him, even when from the nature of the case a greater company was impossible. As regards the others, we have only to observe that Mat- thew is called "the publican" in the first Gospel, through a confusion with Levi ; and that, instead of Lebbaeus, Thaddaeus appears in the second Gospel, and Judas, son of James, in the third Gospel and the Book of Acts. On this last point the tradition seems to have been uncertain, unless we are to account for the variation hj supposing that one of the original Twelve was removed b}' an early death, or fell away from Jesus. The second Simon appears to have formerly belonged to the party of the Zelots, 5 whence his surname. Finally, the last named of the Twelve, Judas Iscariot, is always spoken of as " the betra} T er." We shall meet w T ith him again in the history of the death of Jesus. Whether Jesus was fortunate in his choice is a question which we shall discuss presently. Here we need only observe that the remark already made with reference to the first four 1 Compare Matthew xxiii. 6-12. ' 2 Compare Matthew xvi. 18. * Mark iii. 17. 4 Mark i. 29, xiii. 3. * See pp. 3-6. 182 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. is equally applicable to the other eight, 1 — they must have known Jesus, and he must have singled them out and care- fully observed them before their calling. But on the side of Jesus the choice was still an act of faith in God ; an experi- ment or venture, the result of which he left in God's hands. This is the meaning of Luke's statement that Jesus went up a mountain one evening and spent the whole night in prayer to God, and when it was clay called his disciples to him and chose twelve of them. We must further note that none of these men had the faintest suspicion at first that the Master to whom they had attached themselves was to be the Messiah. The3 r followed him at first simply as a prophet or teacher of the people, and after a time more especially because he had given such a powerful stimulus to their expectation of the kingdom of God. Meanwhile the Gospels tell us not only that Jesus trained the Twelve to become his fellow- workers, but also that he actually began to set them to the work. On a certain day, we read, he called them to him and sent them out, two and two, to announce the approach of the kingdom of God, giving them power at the same time to cast out demons : — " Go to no heathen city, and enter no place in Samaria, but rather go to the lost sheep of the people of Israel. "Go forth and preach, saying, 'The kingdom of heaven is at hand ! ' Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lep- ers, cast out devils. You have received without paying a price, give to others without asking payment. "Provide no money in 3^our girdles, no wallet, no extra coat or sandals or stick ; for the laborer is worth his maintenance. " And when you come to any city or village, inquire who is worthy of your choice, and remain with him until you leave the place. And when you enter his house give it your blessing ; and if the house be wortlvy, may the greeting of peace be fulfilled for it, but if not, let it return again to } t ou. And wherever they will not receive you nor listen to your words, when you leave the house or city shake the unclean dust from off your feet as a witness against it ! " Did Jesus really send out the Apostles thus? On the whole, we are inclined to think he did ; though niairy difficul- ties are involved in the supposition, and it is very hard to come to any conclusion. Let us examine the question a little more closely. In the first place, Mark and Luke tell us that 1 See p. 127. THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 183 the Apostles actually did go about preaching repentance ; that they cast out many devils ; anointed many sick people with oil and restored them to health ; and finally returned to Jesus with an account of all that they had done. Upon this, we are told, he took them aside to give them a little rest, for the people pressed upon them so incessantly that they had not even time to take food. But we have every reason to suspect that this is pure invention. The first G-ospel has not a word of it, probably because it was not mentioned by the oldest authorities. This is far more likely than that it was acciden- tal^ omitted. Matthew simply mentions that the Apostles were sent out on this mission, but he has never told us of their being chosen ; nor does he ever say what the}' did on their journey, or when they returned to Jesus. It is possible that this is an instance of superior historical accuracy, and that the real course of things was this : that the Twelve were summoned one at one time, another at another ; that the}' were afterwards sent out by Jesus to preach, but accom- plished little or nothing, and soon returned to the Master. But it is also possible that Matthew mentions the sending out, but not the return, because the Apostles were really com missioned by Jesus to preach to Israel, but not during his own life, so that the}' could not return to him. Again, we should have said that the disciples were too worldly-minded and too little penetrated by their Master's spirit to be quali- fied for heralds of the kingdom of heaven. But, then, Jesus was always inclined to judge of others by himself, and so to think better of men than they really deserved as yet. Finally, Matthew puts a discourse into the mouth of Jesus on this oc- casion, the greater part of which can only have been delivered during the last days of his life, when he foresaw that he must soon permanently hand over his life-task to his disciples. 1 The case is somewhat different with the verses already quoted. The genuineness of a part of them is as well established as that of any saying of Jesus whatever, for Paul himself refers to them. 2 But are these elaborate regulations as to the equip- ment of the Apostles quite appropriate to a journey of a few days' duration only ? Does that precept to shake off the dust of the unfriendly city breathe the spirit of him who came not to destroy but to save? And, above all, the prohibition to preach to any one except the Jews certainly owes its origin to a later Jewish-Christian editor, who looked upon the Mes- sianic kingdom as the heritage of Israel alone. This prohi- 1 Matthew x. 5 b.— i2. 2 1 Corinthians ix. 6 ff., especially verses 14, 18* 184 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. bition is put first of all, as though it were the most important point ; as if the very nature of the case did not require the first words of the exhortation to be, " Go forth and preach ! " as if the great dispute of the apostolic times could have been present then to the mind of Jesus ; as if the disciples would have been likely to neglect their count^men on this little journey, and turn to heathens and Samaritans ; as if the "lost" Israelite was not almost on the same level as the " unclean " heathen and Samaritan ; and as if Jesus himself would have drawn back had he chanced to meet a heathen or Samaritan on his way ! But in spite of all this there is so much to be said in support of the Apostles realty having been sent out by Jesus that we cannot give up the fact itself. It might very natu- rally give rise to the name of Apostle. Jesus refers to it the evening before his death in a saying which has every appear- ance of being genuine. 1 In the exhortation itself there are one or two points that are hardly explicable as injunctions given to the disciples with a view to their labors after the death of Jesus. It may be noticed specialty that the sym- bolical description of their work, — healing the sick in soul, waking the indifferent from the sleep of death, cleansing those tainted with the leprosy of sin, together with their preaching of repentance and of the near approach of the kingdom of heaven, — all correspond very closely with the early work and teaching of Jesus himself. And finally the Master's need of fellow-workers was so great that we should almost have expected him to make some such experiment. But in any case it was no more than an experiment, and one which did not prove encouraging. If the disciples realty were sent out to preach by Jesus, their mission bore but little fruit and was not repeated. We have already said that the immediate followers of Jesus were not confined to the chosen Twelve. Even when we are told that he turned to his disciples we must generally under- stand the wider circle of followers, which rose and fell accord- ing to special circumstances. Of these disciples we know nothing ; but we cannot help thinking that some of them understood and applied, preserved and handed down their Master's principles better than the Apostles themselves. If so, we may trace to their influence the freer movement which made itself felt, soon after the death of Jesus, among the 1 Luke xxii. 35. THE FKIENDS OF JESUS. 185 communities that confessed his name. 1 All we know is that wherever Jesus went he found friends. During his stay in Jerusalem, at the end of his life, we shall find examples in Joseph of Arimathea, Simon of Bethany, the man who received him at Jerusalem, and the owner of the garden at Gethsemane. We have now to mention expressly and separately the women friends of Jesus. It seems that his preaching gained a ready hearing from the Jewish women, and made a deep impression on them. Women are generally more religious than men, and we are told by other authorities that the Jewish women specially favored the Pharisaic movement on account of its strictness. It is scarcely surprising, then, that Jesus should have excited their interest so thoroughly that not a few of them ranged themselves among his hearers, 2 and gave him frequent proofs of their reverential affection. 3 Accordingly, we find him ac- cused, on his trial, "of drawing women and children away from the true religion." It must have been exceedingly difficult, on ever} T ground, for women to attach themselves to a popular teacher who was constantly travelling from place to place. Indeed, domestic or other special duties would make it simply impossible in the majorhry of cases. But, in spite of all this, there were certain women who accompanied him on his last journey from Galilee to Jerusalem to the Passover ; 4 and not only so, but even while he was still travelling about in Galilee there were some who attached themselves as closely as pos- sible to the compan} T of his disciples, 5 going with him on his journeys, and enjoying his intercourse and his teaching. At the same time, they eagerly seized every occasion that pre- sented itself of being of service to him. For although the wants of Jesus and his twelve friends and other companions were to a large extent supplied by the liberal hospitality of the East, yet there must have been occasions upon which this hospitality left ample room for a woman's help to be of the greatest value. Even the bare sustenance of the travellers may sometimes have depended on the resources of these women, for the disciples had of course given up for the time the occupations by which they earned their bread, and few of them had airy fortune. This 1 See p. 146. 2 Matthew xiv. 21, xv. 38. 8 Matthew xix. 13, xxvi. 7; Luke xi. 27, xxiii. 27. 4 Matthew xxvii. 55 (Mark xv. 41; Luke xxiii. 49). 6 Lake viii. 1-3; compare Mark xv. 40, 41. 186 TKE FRIENDS OF JESUS. assistance seems all the more natural when we observe that one of the women was the wife of Zebedee, and the mother of James and John. Mark calls her Salome. Another was Mary, the mother of James the Less and Joses ; so that if this James is the son of Alphgeus, which is not certain how- ever, she too was the mother of an Apostle. The mention of these women furnishes a very valuable clew to the teacher's means of subsistence. Most of their names have of course been forgotten, but a few have been preserved in one way or another. The best Known of them all is Maiy, who is alwa} T s mentioned before the rest, and is called Magdalene, after the place of her birth, to distinguish her from others of the same name. Luke also mentions Joanna, the wife of Chusa, Herod's steward, and Susanna. He believes that all these women had been cured of possession, or some other disease, by Jesus, who had cast out seven devils from Mary Magdalene. Perhaps, in accord- ance with the idea that more than one evil spirit might fix upon the same victim, 1 this last trait signifies a high degree of nervous suffering. It is the same Evangelist who gives us the names of two other women who were among the friends of Jesus, and describes the following domestic scene : 2 — On one of his journeys Jesus came to a certain place in Galilee, where a woman called Martha received him. This woman had a sister, Mary, living with her, and both of them were proud to receive their guest, and busied themselves most zealously to make every thing go off well and entertain him pleasantly. But in the midst of their preparations Mary came into the room in which Jesus was speaking, — perhaps she came to fetch something, or to put things straight, — and there she stayed listening to what he said until she forgot the meal she was preparing, forgot her sister, forgot every thing, and sat down at his feet to listen. Of course it was not long before Martha missed her. At first she tried to manage without her, but she was so oppressed with all that there was to do, and so anxious about the meal she was get- ting ready, and wanted so much to consult her sister on this point and to get her to see after that, that at last she could bear it no longer ; and so she broke into the room, stood before Jesus, and, pointing to Ma^, cried with some excite- ment, "Rabbi! how can you let my sister desert me and leave me all the work ? Tell her to come and help me ! " But Jesus judged far otherwise of Mary's conduct. He felt the i Matthew xii. 45 ; Mark v. 9. 2 Luke x. 38-42 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 187 Kindness of the good woman of the house, but the involun- tary homage of Mary's undivided thoughts pleased him far more. Mary had sought the kingdom of heaven before all, and that was why she had forgotten earthly things. And this was far better than even the kindest thought for his mere personal needs. "0 Martha, Martha!" he cried, shaming her with the gentle tones of his quiet and loving rebuke, " how man}' things trouble and perplex your soul! One thing is needful, and Mary has made the good choice from which she must not, cannot, be held back." We still possess a remarkable series of narratives which illustrate the unshrinking firmness and directness with which Jesus pressed upon his immediate followers that definite reso- lution to postpone all things to the kingdom of God which he had made himself and had prescribed to others. He was far from wishing to turn back airy one who desired to join him, but yet he did not accept all offers of assistance uncondition- ally. On the contrary, he met such offers with a solemn warning, and set forth his demands in the hardest possible form, that none might join him thoughtlessly and then repent their haste. For instance, once when he was on the point of crossing the lake (most likely when the wonderful impression made by his first appearance was still fresh) , a Scribe came to him and declared, "Master! I will follow you wheresoever } t ou go." Jesus did not repel him, but solemnly reminded him of what his offer meant. It meant the renunciation of all rest and ease, of all thoughts of a quiet, happy home ; it meant a life of weary wandering like that of the Master he would join. "Foxes have holes and birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has not where to la} T his head." Another time one of his disciples came to him and said, " Master ! let me first go and bury my father." But Je- sus refused: "Follow me," he said, "and leave it to the (spiritualty) dead to bury their dead. As for you, you have weightier work to do, even to preach the king- dom of heaven." It was the need of " fellow-laborers for the harvest" that made Jesus utter such words. And so another time, when some one said to him, " I will follow you, Rabbi ! but let me first take leave of them at home," Jesus refused even this request. All former ties must be broken, or they would hin- der his followers in the task he laid upon them. "Whoso- 188 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. ever puts his hand to the plough, and then looks back, is not lit to work for the kingdom of heaven." When we come to the journey to Jerusalem we shall meet with another similar event, but for the present these will suffice. It cannot be denied that the last two demands make a painful impression of unnatural hardness upon us. We cannot tell whether any special circumstances made these two men particularly likely to prove faithless to their good resolve if the}' delayed its execution or returned to bid their relatives farewell ; but the events seem to place us at a period when the opposition to Jesus had already risen high, and decision was more neeessaiy than ever. It is very impor- tant to bear in mind that these sayings do not stand alone, but are simply special applications of a general rule laid down hj Jesus. Once, when the eagerness to join him was more than usually strong, he said : " If any one comes to me and does not hate father and mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters, and even his own life, he cannot be my disciple!" It need hardly be said that the word "hate" should not be taken literally. Matthew has " whosoeA'er loves them more than me," but " hate" is certainly the origi- nal word. The Hebrew idiom is characterized both by pov- erty in its vocabulary and by great poetic force, and Jesus intentionally chose the strongest possible word to express the definite choice and the definite victory in the contest between two irreconcilable dispositions. We must be ready, if need be, to shake ourselves entire fy free from our nearest and dearest relatives, to break every tie that binds us to them without hesitation or reserve, and even to sacrifice the love they bear us, for the great purpose of our lives. We shall see presently that Jesus himself had been com- pelled to satisfy this demand, had met and wrestled through this bitter necesshry, before he laid the claim upon others. He would have no half-hearted work. He demanded from others what he had given himself, — unconditional self-consecration to the task imposed by God, to the hastening of God's king- dom. No difficulties must be feared, ever} T hindrance must be swept away, extremest danger braved, and no sacrifice withheld ! And when the fidelit}' and steadfastness, the self- consecration and self-sacrifice, in a word the whole life of Jesus, had been crowned by his death on the cross, the demand he made from his disciples was thrown into a form which he cannot possibly have used himself, but which per- fectly embodies his spirit : ' ' No one can be my disciple who THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 189 loes not take up his cross and follow me." It is certain that Jesus never used the word " cross" in a sense which would have been wholly unintelligible during his life ; but it is quite natural that the manner of his death should have made the "cross" the consecrated symbol, not indeed of suffering in general, but of the suffering endured for the kingdom of God's sake, the painful aspects of the Christian's life-task, with all its toil and strife and sorrow. The form of the saj- ing, then, is of later date, but the thought itself is certainly the thought of Jesus. Had he any right or any power to demand less from others than he had exacted of himself? It would have been an in- sult to them and treachery to the cause ! "A disciple is not above his teacher, nor a servant above his master. It is enough for the disciple to equal his teacher, and for the serv- ant to equal his master." 1 But then it was far better never to begin at all, than once having joined the teacher to desert him. If the salt had lost its savor it was fit for nothing. 2 "Before you begin, reflect. Have 3011 the moral strength which such a work demands? Which one of } r ou, if he had resolved to build a tower, would not first sit down calmly and calculate how much it would cost, and whether he had the means of carrying out so great a work? Otherwise he might lay the foundation, and then discover, to his own confusion, that he could not finish the building itself; and all the passers-b}* who saw it would laugh him to scorn and say, ' This man began to build, but he soon had to stop ! ' Think, then, once more ! Are you able to resist and overcome the entreaties, the tears, the threats, the scorn, the opposition of the strong and influential, — every thing, in short, that would draw you aside from the kingdom of God? If not, never enter upon the contest at all ! Suppose a tributary prince revolts, and the king to whom he owes allegiance advances with a great army to reduce him to obedience, does he not calmly and fully deliberate with his advisers and generals to see whether, under all the circumstances, he with his ten thousand men has any chance of offering a successful resist- ance to an enemy twice as numerous ? And if he sees that his power is insufficient he sends ambassadors, while the other is still far off, humbly to beg for terms of peace. Even so not one of you is fit to be nry disciple unless he is ready to give up every thing he has. Test yourselves, therefore, for much is involved in your choice." 1 Matthew x. 24, 25 a. * See p. 163. 190 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. We shall understand these stringent demands much better when we remember the high significance which Jesus at- tached to the personal work and influence of his fellow- laborers. The}' were to be " the salt of the earth, the light of the world." He urged them to la} T aside all care for tem- poral things, and to trust in God ; and declared that their final bliss would correspond to their loft}' calling. All this explains his paradoxical saying: 1 "He who finds his (earthly) life shall lose his (true) life, but he who loses his life [for m} T sake, for the truth, for the kingdom of God] shall find it." Or, as it is elsewhere put, 2 " He who seeks to save his life shall lose it, but he who loses it shall save it." This was his own motto, the rule from which his own life never swerved ; and by making the same demands of his disciples he shows his respect for them and his constant effort to put them on the same footing as himself. He employed them, indeed, as messengers and interpreters to give his teaching the utmost possible publicity, and said, "There is nothing secret that shall not be revealed, and nothing hidden that shall not be disclosed. What I tell you in darkness declare in light ; what you hear in the ear proclaim on the house- tops ; " 8 he sought to rouse their courage by the anticipation of rewards in the kingdom of heaven, and declared, " Who- soever confesses me before men, him will I confess before my heavenly Father ; whosoever denies me before men, him will I deny before my Father ; " 4 but he never lost sight of the essential equality he desired to establish between himself and them, and expressly declared, "He who receives } T ou re- ceives me ; and he who receives me receives Him who sent me." 5 Many of these sayings were addressed in the first instance, if not exclusively, to the Twelve ; and to them, accordingly, our attention naturally returns. Did Jesus find his loft} T hopes in them fulfilled ? Had he cause to rejoice in the selection he had made, and in the labor he had bestowed in training his twelve companions? For the present we will leave the enigmatical character of Judas out of consideration ; but even then the question is hard to answer. The Twelve certainly remained true, even when hostility to their Master ran highest. It is 1 Matthew x. 39 (Luke ix. 24). 2 Mark viii. 35 (Matthew xvi. 25 ; Luke xvii. 33). 8 Matthew x. 20, 27 (Luke xii. 2, 3). ^ Matthew x. 32, 33 (Luke xii. 8, 9). 5 Matthew x, 40. THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 191 their glory to have been faithful when many who had hailed the appearance of Jesus with acclamation dropped away from him. 1 The} T sacrificed every thing — relatives, employment, closest ties, and clearest interests — to join themselves to him, and work with him for the kingdom of God. 2 This was much. But Jesus had built so many hopes upon them ! He had hoped that they would understand him and sympathize with him ; that the} 7 would share his love and his zeal ; in a word, that they would in the highest sense live with him, and so recom pense him for the loss of that love from his nearest relatives that he had been obliged to sacrifice. 3 But it was not alone or chiefly of himself that he had thought. It was far more of the cause for which he labored, — the establishment of the kingdom of God. And in his most exalted expectations he was constantly disappointed. 4 It is true that he had often cause to rejoice. His gospel of the kingdom, which Scribes and Pharisees could not receive, found its way to simple souls ; and once he poured out the joy of his heart in the cry of praise : "I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that thou hast revealed these things to little children, though they be hidden from the wise and prudent. Even so, Father, for so it seemed good in thy sight ! " 5 and though we must not confine the application of these words to the Twelve alone, far less must we exclude them from it. But, on the other hand, he was often grievously disappointed in them. It is true that we must be on our guard in this matter as we read some of the stories in the Gospels ; for the writers sometimes seem purposely to place the Twelve — the Apos- tles of the Jews — in an unfavorable light. But the narra- tives are too consistent and too numerous to leave room for any serious doubt. More than once the Twelve offended their Master by their petty ambition and self-assertion, as they quarrelled about which was the greatest. Again and again he had to rebuke their pride ; and his exhortations to humility and ministering love, the only true greatness, seemed to make but little impression on them. 6 The one sought to take rank before the other, 7 and selfish and interested motives were by no means strange to them. No wonder, then, that they often showed their inability to comprehend their Mas- 1 Luke xxii. 28. 2 Matthew xix. 27 (Mark x. 28 ; Luke xviii. 28). 3 Matthew xii. 48-50 (Mark iii. 33-35; Luke viii. 21); Matthew xix. 29 Mark x. 29, 30; Luke xviii. 29, 30). 4 Compare pp. 129, 146, 184. 5 Matthew xi. 25, 26 (Luke x. 21 V 6 Matthew xviii. 1; Mark ix. 34; Luke ix. 46, xxi. 24. 7 Matthew xx 20-28 (MsrV x. 35-45). 192 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. ter's teaching and principles. We are constantly told that they did not understand him, and he himself sometimes com- plains of their obtnseness. 1 The religions prejudices of their people were too deeply ingrained in them to be expelled by their Master's preaching of a spiritual kingdom ; and to the very last they dreamed of a king arra} T ed in outward splen- dor, and of posts of wealth and honor for themselves. Their ideas remained incurably material in spite of every warning. 2 On one occasion they displeased Jesus greatly by trying to send away some little children that had been brought to him. There could not have been a clearer proof of how little they understood his spirit. 3 Another striking instance of this want of sympathy is recorded in a stoiy which accuratel}" depicts the disposition of the disciples, though its historical truth is by no means above suspicion. It runs as follows : Jesus had set out on his journey to Jerusalem. He in- tended to take the shortest way, which led through Samaria, and had sent on some of his disciples to the first village over the border to secure hospitality for the band of thirteen men. But the Samaritans refused to receive him, because he was on a journey to a feast at the Cit}* of the Temple, while they believed that Gerizim was the only place at which lawful worship could be offered. At this insult the sons of Zebedee burst into indignant wrath. " Lord ! " said the}', " shall we not call down fire from heaven to consume these wretches ? " The example of Elijah 4 was evidently before their minds. But Jesus turned round and rebuked them. Did they not know that as his disciples they must breathe a very differ- ent spirit from that of the great prophet of the ancient cove- nant? — not the stern spirit of wrath and vengeance, but the gentle spirit of redeeming, reconciling love. So the travel- lers went, at the command of Jesus, to another village. From the last period of Jesus' life in Galilee we have another stoiy, which should be mentioned here, for both in its original and its present form it was intended to show the slender capacity of the disciples. Let us listen to it : — Once on a time Jesus left his disciples alone for a little while, and when he returned he found them surrounded by a crowd of people, and hard pressed by certain Scribes. When he asked what it meant, one of the crowd cried out, iS Master ! I brought my son here because he has a devil that 1 Mark iv. 13, vi. 52. vii. 17, 18, ix 6. 10. 32. x. 38. 2 Matthew xvi. 22, 23, xx. 20-23 (Mark viii. 32, 33, x. 35-40). 3 See p. 174. 4 2 Kings i. 10-12; compare vol. ii. chap. xi. p. 124. THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 193 makes him dumb ; and when it seizes him he has fearful con- vulsions, and foams at the mouth and gnashes his teeth, and then falls clown motionless. And I asked your disciples to east out the devil, but they could not." When Jesus heard of the feebleness of his fellow -workers his patience for a moment gave way, and he cried, "O faithless and perverse generation ! How long shall I be with you ? How long shall L bear you? Bring him here to me ! " But hardly had the boy been brought to Jesus when he had another fit, and fell in convulsions to the ground, writhing and foaming at the mouth. "How long has he suffered thus?" said Jesus to the father. " Since infancy," was the reply ; " and the won- der is that he is still alive, for the devil has man}- a time hurled him into fire or water to kill him. But for pit}-'s sake help us if you can ! " " If I can?" repeated Jesus. " Ev- ery thing is possible to him who has faith." Then the father cried from the bottom of his heart, "I believe it. But my faith is weak. Help me ! " And Jesus, seeing how the people kept running to the place, turned to the bo} T and said, "Deaf and dumb spirit! I command you to come out of him and return to him no more ! " A shriek and a con- vulsion followed the command ; and then the child lay so still that most of the bystanders thought him dead. But Jesus took him by the hand and raised him ; and he stood up restored. A few moments afterwards, when the Master had retired to the house, his disciples asked him privately, " Why could not we drive it out? " And he replied, " This kind of devil cannot be expelled except by prayer and fast- ing." Matthew says that the boy was moon-struck, that is to sa} T , that he had regular attacks when the moon was waxing. Luke makes him an only child. In other respects Mark is the fullest. Several objections might be urged against the story in its completest form, but they are less applicable to the shorter and simpler narratives of the first and third Gos- pels. To take the last words of the story, for instance, how could Jesus enjoin those fasts which he never observed him- self, and from which he publicly released his disciples ? 1 How could the boy hear what Jesus said, and shriek, if he was deaf and dumb ? But we hry no stress on these and other such points ; for the original and historical elements of the stoiy may probabbv still be detected. To say nothing of the great accuracy with which the symptoms are described, we 1 Matthew ix. 15 (Mark ii. 19; Luke v. 34). VOL. III. 9 194 THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. may note that it is very probable that when the disciples, perhaps at the command or suggestion of Jesus himself, attempted to imitate him in curing demoniacs they some- times succeeded, but were sometimes put to shame. Now the record of such a failure is the chief object of this stor}', and it shows us that this practice of casting out devils, though undertaken in all sympatlry and love for the sufferers, was always a very delicate affair. 1 A failure, such as might well occur, threw the exorcist into a very critical position. But it is especially noteworthy that the disciples of Jesus did not even approach their Master's power. They fell far short of him, because they lacked that true self-reliance which is needed for success in any tiring. 2 For though the}' may have had enough of the self-confidence which often passes for true self-reliance, they had far too little of the real trust in them- selves which would urge them to pray, and would be strength- ened in its turn by praj-er ; which is religious in its very nature, and coincides with trust in God. It was, therefore, with a correct instinct that an undoubtedly genuine sa} T ing of Jesus, "he who has faith can do all things," was taken up into the story ; and this sa}'ing, together with the reproach that escaped the Master in a moment of impatience, consti- tutes another thoroughly historical feature of the narrative. To the power of faith nothing is impossible ! Such was indeed the motto of Jesus ; and Matthew therefore very appropriately makes him explain the failure of his disciples by the words, " It comes of your want of faith. For I tell you, if you had faith like a grain of mustard seed [small as yet, but full of life and power even now], you might say to this mountain, ' Depart hence ! ' and it would go ; and nothing would be impossible to you." A faith that "can remove mountains" of difficult}-, that can accomplish not only what seems impossible, but what would really be utterly impossible without it, — such a faith is spoken of elsewhere as well as here. 3 On another occasion, when the Twelve asked him to " increase their faith," Jesus is said to have answered in almost the same words : "If you had faith like a grain of mustard seed, you might say to this mulberry tree, ' Be thou plucked up and planted in the sea ! ' and it would obey } T ou." It seems, then, that Jesus used this metaphor on more than one occasion. 4 i See pp. 135, 136. 2 See pp. 135, 136. 3 1 Corinthians xiii. 2; compare Psalm xlvi. 2. 4 Matthew xxi. 21. 22: Mark xi. 22-24; Luke xvii. 5, 6; compare Mark xvi. 17, 18; Matthew xiv. 31. THE FRIENDS OF JESUS. 195 In a word, the story gives us a faithful picture of the defi- ciencies of the disciples, or rather of their marked inferiority to their Master. And this leads us to a general remark. In- asmuch as the Twelve were always with Jesus, we involunta- rily make use of them to enable us to form a comparative estimate of the character of Jesus himself. And indeed they actually furnish the best basis for such an estimate we have. Regarded from this point of view, the disciples constantly displaj r so marked an inferiority, hardly admitting of any comparison at all, that we may safely say their lives and characters do more than an}' one or any thing else to bring the greatness of Jesus into the fall light. To excel among mean or commonplace companions is nothing ; but these disciples were men of any thing but ordinary virtue. They were the picked men of their time, and in man}^ respects were truly noble. What could exalt Jesus more than a com- parison which shows how far he stood above even such men as these ? If the Apostles make an unfavorable impression upon us, we must ascribe it to the fact that we always see them close b} T Jesus. Otherwise we should probably let many of their failings pass unnoticed ; but, as it is, they contrast too sharply with his exalted excellence. It is with no want of respect for them that we say, that their small-mindedness and his great nobility of soul ; their narrow prejudices and his strik- ing originality and unconditional fidelit}^ to truth ; their mate- rial expectations and his deep and spiritual conception of the kingdom of God ; their self-seeking impulses and his un- wearied steadfastness in self-denial and self-sacrifice ; their weakness and his moral strength ; their faithlessness and his mountain-moving faith, — all stand in such sharp contrast to each other that our wondering reverence for him rises each moment. From this account of the friends of Jesus it must be evi- dent that he, with all his longing to impart himself to others and find support in their sympatlry, must have felt a grievous want more than once in the course of his public ministry, — a feeling that he was not understood by any one, that he stood in a certain sense alone. This fate, indeed, he shared with other exceptionally great men who have been raised by their very loftiness of spirit far above those around them, and have longed in vain for attachments worthy of their great hearts and full communion with others in their highest life. It was only to God that Jesus could pour out all his soul without fear of being painfully checked. Once in the Gospel we catch the 196 JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. ect.o of a sad assertion that his heavenly Father alone under- stood hhn, that no one knew him except God ; but the doc- trinal speculations of later times have misunderstood the saving, disguised it almost past recognition, and turned it into a piece of self-exaltation of which Jesus could not possi- bly have been guilt}'. 1 In } T et another respect Jesus stood almost alone. He had not sought for personal friends so much as for fellow- workers ; for such he rightly judged were indispensable to the fulfil- ment of his giant task. And in this hope also he found himself, at least for the moment, disappointed. But still he judged of others by himself, and never doubted that the} T might become like him ; however far from him they stood as 3 T et, still he trusted that the}' would at last be strong enough 2 for tasks for which they were not fit as yet. He seems also to have foreseen the possibility that was afterwards realized, and for which he must have hoped, — the possibility that others might excel the Twelve in influence and zeal for the kingdom of God, and so take rank above them. 3 Meanwhile he sought and found in God strength to pursue his way. In Him Jesus was never disappointed. Whatever demands were made on him, communion with his Father, and His all-sufficient strength, enabled him to accomplish his task even though he stood alone. Was not this true greatness ? Chapter XV. JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. Matthew VIII. 1-4, IX. 1-13 ; Luke VII. 36-50, XV. 8-10.4 " T3EH0LD my servant whom I have chosen, my beloved JD in whom my soul has pleasure ! I will lay m} r spirit on him, and he shall proclaim righteousness to the heathen. He shall not contend nor cry out, and no one shall hear his voice in the street. A bruised reed shall he not break, a 1 Matthew xi. 27 (Luke x. 22). 2 Matthew xix. 28 (Luke xxii. 30). 3 Matthew xix. 30, xx. 23 (Mark x. 31. 40). 4 Mark i. 40-ii. 17 ; Luke v. 12-32. JESUS THE FRIEND OP SINNERS. 197 smoking flax- wick shall he not quench, . . . till he has made righteousness to triumph. And on his name shall the heathen hope." In some such words had the second Isaiah, five cen- turies before our era, described the servant of Yahweh, who should restore Israel and be the light of the nations ; x and Matthew cites the words as finding their fulfilment in Jesus, especially in his unassuming manner and his scrupulous avoid- ance of any kind of ostentation. 2 In this beautiful and faith- ful description there is one point which marks with wonderful delicacy the conduct of Jesus to the sinners among his people. The bruised reed he does not break : when he meets the wretched and downcast, overpowered by his sense of guilt and helplessness, he does not take away his last hope of de- liverance by stern rebukes and severe demands, but he devotes his whole powers to the task of raising him up again, sup- porting him with a gentle hand, and helping him to regain his moral strength. If the lamp-wick still smokes he quenches it not : when he meets those in whom a spark of life still glows, though the contempt of all the virtuous and pious threatens to extinguish it for ever, he does not give them over to despair and ruin b} T his haughty bearing, but draws them to him with a tenderness and gentle phry the like of which were never seen ; cherishes the living spark, and kindles it into a steady flame. A few of the narratives contained in our Gospels will suffice to show the simple truth of this account of Jesus ; and at the same time the} 7 will illustrate the manner in which he first took up his task as the herald of the kingdom of God. To avoid any misunderstanding, we must first explain ex- actly who are meant by "sinners." Nothing is more com- mon than to sa} r that all men are sinners ; but neither could an} T thing be more opposed to the language of the Gospels. In them the word must always be understood as having its full and original meaning, and applying only to a special set of men. Paul was the first to apply it to all mankind before the time of Christ, and to all who had not believed in him afterwards. 8 And hence arose the more general applica- tion of the term with which we are familiar. Here we may note in passing the very remarkable fact that Paul has exer- cised a far more powerful influence upon the doctrines and be- liefs of Christians than Jesus himself. Jesus never dreamed 1 Isaiah xlii. 1-4. See vol. ii. chap. x. p. 417. 2 Matthew xii 17-21. 3 Romans iii. 9 ff., v. 8, 12 ff 198 JESUS THE FRIEND OP SINNERS. of putting all mankind on the same level ; and he cer- tainly drew the distinction, sanctioned b} r daily experience, between the good and the bad, between righteous men and sinners. 1 The word " sinners," when used in the Gospels, refers in the first instance to a distinctly defined class of persons ; those, namely, who had been expelled from the synagogue. We know that every sjmagogue had its ruler and its elders. These officers, in their corporate capacity, had certain powers for maintaining church discipline and pronouncing legal judg- ments. They sometimes inflicted corporal punishments, 2 and sometimes excommunicated those who had been guilty of anj^ grievous trespass against patriotism, religion, or moral- ity. 3 Those against whom this sentence was passed were not allowed to enter the synagogue, and it is to them in the first instance that the word " sinner" is applied. " A woman w r ho was a sinner" generally means a prostitute. The most notorious members of the class were the "pub licans," or officials, of whatever rank, appointed by the Ro man knights who were responsible for the taxes. Companies of these knights held contracts with the Roman government, generally lasting over five years, by which they engaged to pay the state a fixed sum on account of the import and ex- port duties and other taxes of the provinces, which imposts they then levied on their own account, often stooping to the most shameful means of making their bargain profitable. Of course all their subordinates and accomplices in this system of knavery and extortion caught at a share in the proceeds. These officials, then, were regarded as thieves and robbers ; and not only so, but as traitors to their country, who took sides with the Roman oppressor for the vilest purposes of selfishness and avarice. And inasmuch as it appeared to many unlawful to pay tribute to an}' but Israel's true and only Lord, 4 the publicans who collected the Roman tribute were considered impious as well as traitorous. No wonder, then, that they were despised and hated, cast out of the synagogue and denounced as infamous. Their evidence against other Jews was not accepted b} r the judge, their last will and testa- ment was void, and their till was cursed so that no one might change money at it. 1 Matthew v. 45, ix. 13 ; Luke vi. 32-34, xv. 7. 2 Matthew x. 17, xxiii. 34 ; 2 Corinthians xi. 24. 3 John ix. 22, xii. 42, xvi. 2. 4 Matthew xxii. 15 ff. See p. 89. JESUS TKE FRIEND OF SINNERS. 199 Publicans and all other ' ' sinners " were ranked with the heathen, 1 were excluded from civil and ecclesiastical commu- nion with the Jews, and were cut off from the rights and pri- vileges of the chosen people of the Lord Even the richest of them were shut out from all religious and respectable cir- cles, and were shunned as " unclean," — a fearful word at the time of Jesus, for the idea of (Levitical) " cleanness" com- pletely dominated Jewish societ}\ The publicans, on their side, avenged themselves by ever increasing extortion, con- soled themselves with each other's society, and too often sought relief in lives of abandoned viciousness. 2 Many of them sank so low that at last they even despised themselves, and seemed in all eyes, even in their own, to be lost for ever. Now these men Jesus drew to him. Nay more, he regarded it as his special mission to restore his lost and sinful country- men. He declared expressly and repeatedly, "The Son of Man is come to seek and to save the lost ; " 3 his mission was in the first place directed to these ' ' lost sheep of the house of Israel." 4 But we must observe that this expression does not refer exclusively to the publicans and those who had been sentenced b} T the church. It includes all the outcasts from Jewish society, all those classes known in the Talmud as " the peoples of the land," wiio from ignorance or carelessness had transgressed the laws of ceremonial purity, whether b} r asso- ciating with heathens (w r ho were very numerous in Galilee) or in airy other way. These people had sunk below the aver- age cultivation and (legal) piet} T , had perhaps seldom or never seen the glories of the temple, and had certainly never been duly instructed in the Jewish doctrines, or, if they had, had never understood them. There were among them some who were capable of better things, and who eagerly longed for salvation ; but in the general opinion they were hardly, if at all, distinguished from the sinners. They were all alike unclean. The teachers of the Law never troubled themselves about them. They thought it beneath their dignit} T to descend to such a level, and did not even try to make them understand the Law and Prophets. Their condemnation was summed up in the words, "This people that knows not the Law is cursed ! " 5 1 Compare Matthew v. 46, 47, with Luke vi. 32-34. See also Matthew xviii. 17, xxvi. 45 ; Galatians ii. 15. 2 Matthew xxi. 31, 32 ; Luke vii. 34, xviii. 11, xix 8. See p. 106. s Matthew xviii. 11 ; Luke xix. 10. 4 Matthew x. 6, xv. 24. 5 John vii. 49. 200 JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. Such were the men to whom Jesus more especially turned. Possibly his thoughts had been directed to them even when he was still in his father's house ; for though he would not often come across them in Nazareth, since they were mostly to be found in the larger cities where the life and activity of Galilee was centred, jet his sympathy would be roused by the undisguised aversion with which he heard them mentioned, and his heart would tell him that this deep chasm, yawning between the unclean ones on the one hand and the chosen heritage of the Lord, the hallowed Israel, on the other hand must be filled up. While with John, he had been struck by the eagerness with which some of these outcasts received the preaching of the kingdom. 1 And when he himself began his work he felt impelled to rescue them, in the firm conviction that b} T so doing he would be removing one of the greatest obstacles to the coming of the kingdom of God. " I am come, not to call the righteous, but the sinners to enter into the kingdom of God." Though every one else gave them up, though the} r despaired even of themselves, yet he never des- paired of them. He would raise the bruised reed, and blow upon the smoking flax- wick ! When Jesus was at Capernaum his favorite walk was b} r the shore of the lake. As he went out of the town in this direc- tion he had to pass the customs-house. 2 And thus it happened that once, when he was returning home towards dinner-time, he saw one of the tax-gatherers sitting in front of the build- ing, and said to him, u Come home with me!" The man whom he addressed was called Levi, son of Alpkaeus, and he rose at once and followed him to his house. Jesus had prob- ably noticed before how eagerly this man had listened to his addresses and parables, though always staying at a respectful distance ; and with his fine knowledge of human nature he now read in the publican's eye the wish that he dared not utter, the wish that this invitation anticipated and satisfied. But now the ice was broken ; and when Levi lay at table with Jesus, some of his fellow tax-gatherers and other sinners came to seek the Master's society. Their courage and their trust were rewarded. Jesus applied the laws of Eastern hospitality to them too, and received them at his table. This was a de- cisive step that could not fail to excite both surprise and in- dignation. Some of the Pharisaic Scribes, too, had observed him; and, seeing what had happened, they expressed their i See pp. 107, 113, 114. 2 See p. 125. JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. 201 horror to uis disciples : ' ' Why, he is eating with sinners and publicans ! " But Jesus heard them and replied : " It is not the health}^ but the sick that need the plrysician. I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners." We may note in passing that the first Evangelist misun- derstands the words addressed b}' Jesus to the publican, and supposes them to be a call to the apostolic office. He there- fore substitutes the name of Matthew for that of Levi, and accordingly describes Matthew as " the publican" when enu- merating the Apostles. 1 It is in reality very unlikely that Levi and Matthew are the same man, or that one of the Twelve was a tax-gatherer. Luke makes another mistake, and represents the meal as taking place at the house of Levi instead of that of Jesus. It is of far more consequence, however, that we should note the style of intercourse with these people which Jesus cultivated. He invited them to come to him, for the} T were so much accustomed to be con- temptuously repelled b} T every one that they would never have dared of their own accord to approach one who pro- claimed himself a prophet. Unless he had been the first to stretch out his hand, no relations between himself and such people as these could ever have been established. Hardly had he made the first step, however, before numbers of them pressed to him. The most extraordinary thing of all was that he ate with them. This was trampling at once upon the customs of religion and the rules of decency ; for to join any one at table was a kind of formal avowal of friendship, and established a permanent connection between the parties. 2 Such an action, therefore, would by its very nature be re- peated, and the fair fame of Jesus himself soon began to suffer in some quarters from his constant intercourse with such a class of men. 3 And we must remember that, in thus associating with the unclean, he not only broke with all national, social, and religious prejudices, but must have en- countered much in the language, the manners, and the per- sons of these sinners that shocked his refined perceptions. It must have required a great effort from him, as from others, not to transfer to the trespasser the great loathing which he felt for the trespass, and never to lose sight even in the sin- ner of the brother man whom he could respect and love. Why did he make the effort, then ? Why did he seek the society of these men and treat them as his friends ? Simply 1 Matthew x. 3. 2 Compare 1 Coriuthians v. 11; Galatians ii. 12. 8 Luke vii. 34, xv. 1, 2. 9* 202 JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. because his heart impelled him to it. Pie felt that his first step must be to raise them up by quickening their sense of their own worth, and restoring them to self-respect. And he could only do this by showing them that he at least did n~>t think them too bad, too hopeless, to be associated with as friends. Not that he had deliberately argued out this line of conduct, but his fine perception led him to it instinctively. Indeed, to gain any influence over such outcasts he must treat them with still more frank and cordial friendship than he displayed to others. If he had only shown them a loft3 T condescension he could not possibly have healed them. And he had to heal them. He regarded and treated them as sick men. It was a characteristic saying of his, in which he defended his strange conduct, and openly declared that it was no accident that found him in such compairy ; that he did not intend to shun it in future, but that he bore a special commission to call the sinners into the kingdom of God, and had not come for the sake of the healthy or righteous. We must not press the saying too hard, and ask whether there is, or ever was, a man who could really be called altogether sound or righteous ; for in comparison with these sinners the portion of the people that was strictly faithful to the Lord and to his Law and temple might fairly be called devout and virtuous, and so not sick. 1 This metaphor of the physician and his patients, which Jesus applied to himself and the sinners, gave rise to many emblematic representations. Indeed, it readily lent itself to every kind of elaboration ; and we find a typical counterpart to the very stor} T in which it is imbedded just before it. Here "the rescue of the publican" is simply altered into " the healing of the leper." But it may be said once for all that these s3'mbolical sketches do not refer to special definite occurrences. From the nature of the case they are generally types or specimens. And, indeed, many of the ordinary narratives of the Gospels — that of the invitation to Levi among them — must themselves be taken as mere specimens of the line of conduct or the experiences of Jesus. But to return to the emblematic stoiy of the leper. Once, we are told, a leper came to Jesus, bowed clown in reverence to the earth, and cried, "Lord! if thou wilt, thou canst make me clean." Jesus was deeply moved, stretched out his hand and touched him, saying, ;t I will. Be clean!" And immediately the hideous disease left him, and he was 1 Compare, for example, Matthew xix. 17 b-20. JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. 2^3 clean. Upon this Jesus dismissed him, sa}'ing, "Tell it to no one, bu go to Jerusalem, show yourself to the officiating priest, and make the sacrifice ordained in the Law." * How are we to interpret these last words ? Do the} 7 mean that Jesus forbade the publican to parade the fact of his conversion, and told him if possible to restore, according to the Law, 2 an} r thing he had exacted by deceit or extortion? Or did the Evangelists add the words because the}' accepted the story literally? However this rnay be, the} T certainly did understand the story literally, and consequently fell into exaggerations such as that the man was "full of leprosy" (Luke); or contradictions such as that "great multitudes followed him, . . . and Jesus said, ' Tell it to no one ' ' (Matthew) ; or pointless glosses such as that " the man pro- claimed it everywhere, so that all men came to Jesus, and he was obliged to withdraw into a desert place " (Matthew and Luke). But the broad lines of the original s} T mbolic sketch may still be traced. In the first place, the special disease is carefully chosen. The sinners were as unclean, were as anxiously avoided, were considered as incurable as the lepers themselves. And again, the longing to be cleansed 3 and a reverential trust in Jesus were indispensable to the sal- vation of these outcasts. And yet again, — most striking and important of all, — Jesus touches the leper. Such an unheard of, almost incredible, act is a noble s3'inbol of the actual facts, a beautiful indication of that fine perception and delicate s} T mpathy which made Jesus the friend of sinners, which made him seek rather than shun the friendly relations of familiar intercourse with them. vSo onry can the lost be saved ! We will take another illustration of the friendship shown by Jesus to sinners. And here, again, we find two pictures, — one convej'ed in the ordinary, and the other in the emble- matic style of narrative. This time we shall let the copy precede the original. Jesus had just returned to Capernaum after a short absence ; and no sooner was it known that he was there than all the city went out to hear him, till the very door of his house was thronged all round. Then there came four men carrying a mattress, upon which lay a man struck with paralysis. He 1 Leviticus xiii., xiv. 2 Compare Luke xix. 8 with Exodus xxii. 1, 4; Numbers v 6, 7. 3 Compare John v. 6. 204 JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. wanted to come to Jesus and be healed, but it was impossible to get near him. What was to be done ? They were deter- mined not to go back disappointed ; so the}* hoisted the bed with the sick man in it to the roof, broke up the tiles, and carefully lowered the sufferer at the very feet of Jesus. The Master was struck by such an earnest desire for help and such great confidence in his power, in a word by such faith, and said to the man, ;t My son, be of good cheer ! Your sins are forgiven." Now there happened at the moment to be certain Scribes sitting by Jesus and conversing with him about the kingdom of God ; his words shocked them greatly, and they thought ' ' What blasphemy ! Who can forgive sins except God alone?" But Jesus saw what they felt, and said, " Why do you think evil in your hearts? Is it easier to say, -Your sins are forgiven,' or 'Stand up and walk' ? That you ma}* know then that the Son of Man has power upon earth to forgive sins " — here he turned suddenly to the sick man — "Stand up, take up your bed and return to your home!" And, behold ! the man stood up, and went home in the sight of them all ; and the}* were all amazed and praised God, saying, u We have never seen the like." We have given this story in its fullest form, as it appears in Mark and Luke. The symbolical interpretation is de- manded by the existence of a corresponding narrative in the fourth Gospel, 1 by details in the picture which do not admit of a literal interpretation, and, above all, by the fact that if interpreted literally it exhibits an inexplicable confusion of spiritual and material elements. What would be the sense of trying to cheer the sick man by promising that, on the strength of his great desire to be cured of paralysis, his sins should be forgiven? Again, the question addressed to the Scribes appears to compare two things together which are ab- solutely incapable of comparison, inasmuch as they have noth- ing whatever to do with each other ; namely, peace with God, and the use of one's limbs. Nor did it by any means follow that one who could restore a sick man to health had an unde- niable right to assure him that his sins were forgiven, for a miracle might be equally well ascribed to divine or diabolic agencies ; 2 and the question, " Is it easier to restore peace to a man's soul or health to his body ? " admits of a very differ- ent answer from that which the context indicates as the only possible one. On the other hand, every thing fits into ita 1 John v. 1-15. 2 Matthew xii. 24, xxiv. 24; Deuteronomy xiii. 1, 2. JESUS THE FRIEND UF SINNERS. 205 place, and the whole narrative flows smoothly, if we bear in mind that the disease really meant is moral paralysis, the in- capachVy for good which evil habits have produced. The per- ception of the sufferer's passionate longing to be restored enabled Jesus to assure him that the sinful past was washed awa}* ; the devout bystanders were indignant at the restora- tion to honor of such a notorious sinner, and the story teaches the great truths that moral renovation is impossible unless preceded by forgiveness, and that he who has the power to bring a sinner back and make him tread the path of God's commandments has, indeed, the right to tell him that his sins have been forgiven. If this is what the story represents, the bystanders had good cause indeed to " glorify God." The narrative, then, might have been headed, " Moral Paralysis Cured by Jesus ! " and the emphasis falls not only upon the connection between forgiveness and restoration, but still more upon the difficulties which the sinner braved to come to Jesus, upon the faith to which his conduct testified, upon the indignation raised in the minds of the religions teachers by what Jesus did, and upon his own defence of it. We will now give the original of which this is a copy, and it will hardly be necessary to point out the similarity of the two. It runs as follows : — A pious man of the school of the Pharisees, whose name was Simon, had asked Jesus to dine with him. When he came at the usual hour he was received without much distinc- tion, and took his place among the other guests, who were of the same school as the host himself. But the meal had hardly begun before it was interrupted. The door was left open in accordance with the usages of Eastern hospitality ; for some one might come in, as often happened, in the course of the meal, perhaps to listen to the conversation. Now, through this open door there came a woman, which was strange enough in itself, for none but men were present. Simon looked at her with amazement. What ! Could he believe his eyes ? Was it that miserable and abandoned creature ? Dare she pol- lute his threshold? Yes, it was she, — "a woman who was a sinner." How came she there? She had heard Jesus, and a change had taken place in her heart. His presence and his preaching had completely overpowered her. She had hap- pened to hear wiiere he was being entertained, and she must and would follow him and do him homage. She left her house with an alabaster flask of ointment in her hand, and at the risk of being driven from the door like a dog by the master 206 JESUS THE FRIEND OF 6INNERS. of the house, she went in quest of Jesus. She approached the place where he lay, leaning on his left arm, after the cus- tom of the t'me, with his face to the table, his body resting on a cushion, and his naked feet stretched backwards. There she bowed down her head and burst into tears as she kissed his feet in sign of deepest reverence, and bathed them in a flood of tears. Presently she recovered herself, and dried the feet, which she never ceased to kiss, with the luxuriant hair that hung loosely down her shoulders ; and, remembering the pur- pose for which she came, poured over them the precious contents of the flask she had brought with her. Meanwhile, the host could hardly contain his horror and contempt. Amazement and indignation had at first deprived him of utterance, and then he had kept quiet to see what would happen and what Jesus would do. He had seen enough now! "What!" thought lie, "will he let her kiss his feet, dry them, and anoint them? How loathsome is the thought ! Let who will hold him for prophet, I know he is none. Foi were he a prophet he would know who and what that creature is, and before he let her pollute him with her touch he would shake her off, and hurl the curse of the Lord upon her ! " Did JesMS see the contemptuous curl of Simon's lip? Did he read in his face the sense of loathing that filled him ? At any rate he broke the painful silence with the words : " Simon ! I should like to ask you something." " Speak on, Rabbi ! " answered Simon coldly. " A certain mone3'-lender," continued Jesus, "had two debtors, one of whom owed him five hundred denarii (sa} r £20) , and the other fifty (£2) . But when the debts fell due, and neither of the debtors could pa} T , he generously forgave them both. Which of the two do you suppose would love his benefactor most? " "A childish ques- tion," Simon may have thought ; but all he said was, " I sup- pose the man to whom he had remitted most." " Yes," said Jesus. Then he turned his head, and stretched out his hand towards the woman, whom he had left so far as though he had not noticed what she was doing, for he felt that this was the truest kindness to her. " Simon," he cried, " do you see this woman ? You think her still bowed down by the great guilt of many unpardonable sins. But consider. I came into your house. You did not so much as offer me water to wash my feet when I had put off my sandals, but this woman has wet my feet with her tears, and diied them with her hair. You gave me no kiss, but since she came in she has never ceased to kiss my feet. You did not anoint my head with oil, but she JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. 207 aas anointed my feet with ointment. Has she not shown the fervor of her love? I tell yon, then, her man}' sins are for- given her. Her own conduct proves it. But," he continued in a quiet tone, wishing to give his host to understand what heavy witness his haughty conduct bore against him, "he to whom little is forgiven shows but little love." Meanwhile, the woman knew not whether she was dreaming or waking, and could scarce believe that he was really speaking about her. But now he turned to her and said, "Your sins are for- given ! " A scarcely audible murmur ran through the place, for the guests had been deeply shocked already by the fact of Jesus allowing the woman to touch him, and still more by his daring to make a kind of comparison between such a crea- ture and a man of approved piety and virtue like their host ; but now they exchanged indignant glances, and their looks beti^ed the thought : ' ' What does he suppose he is ? What right has he to forgive her sins?" But Jesus, taking no notice of the protest they implied, said to the woman, kt Your faith has saved you ; go in peace ! " and so, with a look of encouragement and sympatlry, he sent her on her way. The tradition of the Church has, without any reason, iden- tified this woman, of whom we know nothing more, with Mary of Magdala, who has thus become the express image or type of penitence. It is a matter of more importance to decide how far we maj T rely upon the truth of this story, which is one of the most beautiful in all the Gospels. It bears upon its face unmistakable signs of truth, not only in its indica- tions of the characters and actions of all concerned, but still more in the depth and refinement of the spiritual truth con- tained in the words of Jesus on the connection between for- giveness and love. 1 Yet we cannot doubt that certain unes- sential details, such as the alabaster flask of ointment and the name of the host, have slipped in from some other source ; for we read elsewhere of a certain woman, otherwise unknown to us, anointing Jesus in the house of a man named Simon ; 2 and it is evident from the context that at that time no such mark of honor had ever been paid to him before. It is clear, therefore, that the account of the event just given was affected by this later incident, and that it is no longer possible to sa}~ exactly what took place in fact. It is inevitable that oral tradition should sometimes run stories into one another. But this does not at all affect the only point of real importance. I Luke vii. 41, 42. 47, 48. s Matthew xxvi. 6-13 (Mark xiv. 3-9); compare John xii 1-8. 208 JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. Whatever did or did not happen on this occasion the essen- tial truth of the picture cannot be doubted. It reproduces with striking fidelity the attitude which Jesus took towards sinners. As we go along we shall meet from time to time with fur- ther illustrations of this subject. Thus, in discussing the relations of Jesus to the Pharisees, we shall see that the lat ter accused him of too great freedom in his intercourse with sinners ; on his journey to Jerusalem we shall find him described both emblematically and literally as the friend of publicans ; and finally, during his stay in Jerusalem, the stor} r of an adulteress who was brought before him will claim our attention. At present we will only give a few more examples of the way in which tradition worked out the metaphor by which Jesus compared himself to a physician of the sick. The first of these examples is given in all three Gospels. We shall put the later additions between brackets, to mark them off from the older and simpler form of the story : — A certain woman who had suffered for twelve years from a disease that made her unclean according to the Law [and had never been able to obtain relief, though she had spent her substance in the attempt] , came behind Jesus in the mid- dle of a crowd, and seized hold of the fringe of his garment ; " for," said she to herself, " if only I can touch his garment, I shall be saved." [Now a healing power did indeed go out from Jesus to the woman, but not without his perceiving it.] Then Jesus turned round and [asked who had touched him. His disciples, who only noticed the multitude that pressed upon him, and not the poor woman who had come to him for help, attempted in vain to persuade him that it was an idle question. At last the woman herself came forward trembling, threw herself upon the ground before him, and in the presence of the people declared what she had done. Then Jesus] cheered her with the words, ''Daughter, your faith has saved you, go in peace ! " 1 The following stories are each of them found in one Gos- pel only : — Two blind men once followed Jesus in the street and cried, " Son of David, have pity on us ! " He went into his house, and they followed him. At last he turned round to them and said earnestly, ' ' Do you really believe that I can * Matthew ix. 20-22 (Mark v. 25-34; Luke viii. 43-48). JESUS THE FRIEND OF SINNERS. 209 help you?" "Yes, Lord!" the}- answered, unhesitatingly. Then he laid his hand upon their eyes, and said, " Let it be to you according to your faith ; " and immediately their sight was restored. He strictly forbade them to tell it to any one, but in vain. 1 Another time, when he was on a journey, they brought him a deaf man who had also a great impediment in his speech, and besought him to lay his hands on him and cure him. He took the unfortunate man aside, put a finger in each of his ears, made spittle, and moistened his tongue with it. Then he looked up, heaved a deep sigh, and said in a commanding voice, " Ephphatha ! " that is, tw Be opened ! " And thereupon his ears were opened, and the impediment in his speech was gone, so that he could hear and speak as well ] ii. chap. vii. p. 69, and vol. ii. chap. xix. pp. 525-527. JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. o03 of the prophets, and may well be called " the sign." In the same way this generation, alread}' condemned by these exam- ples from the olden time, must consent to see the gospel given to the heathen and received by them with regenerating faith. So should the preaching of Jona be a type or sign of the preaching of Jesus. Most certainly Jesus did not mean, as Matthew would have it, that he himself would spend three days in the world below between his death and his resurrec- tion, just as Jona had spent three days in the belly of the monster of the deep. Such an explanation is simply absurd in view of the words themselves, the context, the speaker, the hearers, and the narrative referred to. But neither is Luke correct in supposing the meaning to be that Jesus him- self was a sign to his people and his age, just as Jona was a sign to the JNinevites. This interpretation is not supported by the context, and is decidedly obscure ; for it would imply that Jona and Jesus were signs of the power of the word, or of the mercy of God, or something similar, all which would be quite inappropriate here. This reference to the Ninevites and the Queen of Sheba immediately calls to mind the simi- lar utterances which we have ahead}' heard from Jesus. For instance, he reminded his hearers, on some occasion which we can no longer identif}', how Elijah and Elisha, at the command of the Most High, had helped heathen rather than the people of their own country, — when the one went to a Phoenician widow and the other healed a SjTian captain. And again, he placed the luxurious and licentious Tyre and Sidon before Bethsaida and Chorazin, and Sodom, the very type of infamy, before Capernaum, in capacit}* for belief and penitence ; de- claring that it would be more tolerable for T} T re and Sidon, for Sodom and Gomorrah, in the day of judgment than for those places which had been the ordinary scene of his minis- try. 1 All these are modifications of that one thought : The Jews are sunk below the heathen by their utter incapacity to receive the gospel. When Jesus had once formed this idea, that the Jews would be excluded and the heathen would take their places, we might feel almost sure that he would give expression to it in an alle- gorical description of the prospects of the kingdom of God. In point of fact, we have two parables that answer to this description, one of which is given by both Matthew and Luke ; but the two versions differ so widely that we can i See pp. 235 and 259. 304 JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. hardly recognize the story as the same. In Matthew we read as follows : — There was once a king who was preparing a wedding feast for his son. When the first day of the festivities arrived, he sent his servants round early in the morning to tell the peo- ple he had invited that this was the day on which they were expected. But they all refused to come. Then he commis- sioned other officers of the court to go to the guests and say again : " See now, I have prepared the feast, I have slaugh- tered my oxen and sheep, and every thing is ready. Come, therefore, to the wedding feast ! " But they did not trouble themselves about the matter, and went on their way, — the one to his lands, and the other to his business. [And the rest seized the messengers, and ill-treated them and killed them. And when the king heard of it his anger was roused, and he sent his soldiers to destroy those murderers and to set their euy on fire.] Then he said to his servants : " The wedding feast is ready, but the guests were not worthy of it. I will tell you what to do ; go to the most frequented spots in the great highways and ask any one you chance to find to come to the feast." So the servants went out and brought back every one they met — travellers and tramps alike — until there was not a place empt} T at the wedding feast. If we strike out the interpolation about the ill-treatment of the messengers and the vengeance taken by the king the stoiy flows smoothly enough, and, though it sounds very odd to our ears, Oriental customs explain a great deal of it. It evidently means that the places in the Messianic kingdom which Jewish insolence had left vacant would be filled by the heathen. The interpolated passage, to which there is a par- allel in Luke in another connection, 1 is utterly out of place where it stands. It refers to the evil treatment which the messengers of Christ experienced from the Jews, and the punishment inflicted on the latter in the devastation of Jeru- salem. It is not a genuine utterance of Jesus, therefore, — nay, it is even post-apostolic ; and to represent the calling of the heathen as though it were not to take place till after the fall of Jerusalem, which was in the }'ear 70 a.d., spoils the whole parable. Matthew introduces the story at a peculiarly inappropriate point of the history, and concludes it with an appendix, to which we shall have to return presently. Luke, on the contrary, gives us a picture which calls for no special comment. We read that Jesus was dining with a i Luke xix 27, JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. 305 Pharisee on the Sabbath, and in answer to the exclamation of one of the guests, tk Blessed are they that shall be admit- ted to the Messianic feast ! " told the following story : — A rich man once prepared a splendid entertainment. He asked a great number of guests beforehand, and they accepted. When the feast was prepared, he sent round his servant, as an extra mark of attention, to say to the guests, "All is read}', and I am expecting you." But they all began to make excuses with one mouth. The first said : tk I have just bought a piece of land, and I really must go and look at it. You must not take it amiss, but I cannot come." Another said : u I have just bought five yoke of oxen, and I must go and try them. You must not be vexed if I do not come." Another: "I have married lately, and cannot leave home just now." And so with them all ; they all thought more of their own business than of their engagement. When the servant came back with these messages, his master was of course veiy angry, and said to him : "• Go out again, into the streets and lanes of the city, and bring hither the poor and needy, the blind and the lame." Presently the servant returned and said : ' ' Master ! I have done as you com- manded, and there is room still." "Then go out of the chVv, and whomever }*ou find on the roads or along the hedge- rows spare no trouble, but compel them to come with you that my house may be full. For I tell you not one of those who were invited shall taste nry feast ! " Here, as we see at once, every thing is as it should be. The story itself seems far from impossible when we consider the usage of Eastern countries. The separate images corre- spond closely to the true purpose of the parable, and the order of succession is carefully observed. The points in which Luke departs from Matthew strike us at once. Here there are three separate invitations, — first, to the pious and re- spectable Jews, who decline (observe the delicacy of the de- lineation) ; second, to the outcasts of Israel, who accept (the terms by which the sinners are described have some- thing of an Ebionite air about them) ; * and third, to the hea- then, in which every effort must be put forth to take no refusal. There is but one servant who invites the guests to the kingdom of God — namely, Jesus himself, — and an ordi- nary supper is substituted for the royal wedding feast. How far Luke has retained the original form of the story in these points, and how far he has modified, improved, and com- 1 Compare Luke xiv. 21 with 13. See also p. 245. 306 JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. pleted it, it is impossible to saj T with any confidence. All that we can be sure of is that the occasion of its delivery is his own invention. We have represented all these threats, though doubtless addressed more especially to the Pharisees and their adhe- rents, as extending to the whole of the Jewish people, the '• heirs of the kingdom." But of course there w^ere honorable exceptions. We have also supposed that the threats in- creased in number and severity as Jesus approached the close of his career. But however this may be, it is certain that in spite of his melancholy experience and dark forebod- ings as to the spiritual incapacity of the Jews he still labored to the very end, with unwearied zeal, to save them. In fact, these very threatenings were intended as one means of bring- ing them to repentance. We shall presently see him resolve to make a last and mighty effort in the City of the Temple itself, and thus appeal to his nation in general. When he fails in this we shall find him drawing one more sketch, in darker colors than ever, of the conduct and the destiny of the Jews. But he knew already that the result of his labors and the triumph of his cause did not depend upon his reception or rejection by Israel. Should his gospel be finally rejected by Israel, he still had hope. He had included the heathen world in the sweep of his forecasting thought, and there his gospel would find faith. This was his consolation even before the fatal conflict at Jerusalem was decided. Whenever Jesus speaks of the Messianic feast, we see that he regards the accession of the heathen to take the place of his own unbelieving countrymen as a kind of incorporation of these heathen into Israel, or at airy rate as the communi- cation to them of privileges which originally belonged to Israel. Indeed, this seemed so obvious that the Apostle of the heathen himself took the same view. 1 Israel was, after all, the people to whom the revelations and promises of God had been made. 2 Salvation was of the Jews. 3 How this incorporation or communication was to be effected, — whether it was enough for the heathen to have faith and to desire salvation, or whether they must also comply with certain external conditions, — this was a question, as we have said before, which did not rise until after the death of Jesus. Now i Romans xi. 15 ff. i. 16. 2 Romans iii. 1 ff. « John iv. 22. JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. 307 though we, who are free from the national and religious prej- udices of the Jews, cannot possibly imagine Jesus making the admission of the heathen dependent upon any outward form ; though we consequently regard the Heathen-Christian preachers as absolutely in the right on this point, — yet we can partly understand how the Twelve, and all the Jewish-Chris- tians with them, could appeal in complete good faith to the fact that Jesus had never expressly declared that heathen or any others were absolved from circumcision and obedience to the Law ; and, consequently, when a number of Jews were converted soon after the Master's death, it might be supposed that his threats against his people had been to a great extent averted ; 1 that Israel would still retain the place of honor in the kingdom of God, and that the believing hea- then would be allowed to take the lower place assigned to them only on condition of their submitting in whole or in part to the Law. 2 Now the Gospels are full of stories and expressions which refer to these very points ; but though they profess to be pas- sages in the life of Jesus, or sayings uttered b} r him, they realty sprang up in the midst of the subsequent conflict of parties, and indeed were produced by it. We called atten- tion at the beginning of this chapter to several of these say- ings, which will find their true place in the histor}- of the apostolic period; and here, by way of conclusion, we will give a single specimen of the work of each of the three schools, — the orthodox, the mediating, and the liberal. At the close of the parable of the ro} r al wedding feast Matthew sketches this additional scene : — When the feast was at its height the king himself came in, that the guests might have the honor and pleasure of his illustrious presence. As he passed along the colonnades and among the couches, surveying and accosting his guests, he perceived a man without a wedding garment ! In mingled anger and surprise he cried, "Friend! how did you gain admission here without a wedding garment?" The insolent intruder had not a word to say. t4 Bind him hand and foot," said the prince to the attendants, " and cast him into the darkness without. There shall be wailing and gnashing of teeth." For many are called but few chosen. This last aphorism was undoubtedly uttered by Jesus, though we cannot say on what occasion. It means : Those who are invited into the kingdom of God are many, but those 1 Compare Jeremiah xviii. 7, 8, et seq. 2 Compare p. 232. S08 JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. who show themselves fit and worthy to enter it are few. In this connection, however, it is entirely out of place, for here we read of only a single member of the whole company be- ing cast out ; or even if we include the discourteous guests or the murderers, at any rate the festive hall was full. Setting this aside, we turn to the guest without a wedding garment. That a man picked up hap-hazard on the highway should not be provided with such a robe is far from surprising ; and the appeal to an imaginary Oriental custom of the host furnishing his guests with suitable apparel quite breaks down. But it is needless to dwell upon this matter, or to ask how this intruder had forced his way into the hall without a proper robe, for it is perfectly obvious that the whole scene is entirely out of place in the parable of the wedding feast. Whatever its meaning ma} r be, it is quite foreign to the purpose of the story into which it is inserted. If it is authentic, it must be a frag- ment of some story the rest of which has been lost. It has been conjectured that it was a warning either to Judas, or more generally to all slovenly, ill-accoutred guests of the ap- proaching kingdom of heaven. But the probability is that it is not an authentic utterance of Jesus at all ; and, in its pres- ent connection at any rate, it is certainly intended to indicate that heathen who vainly imagined they could enter the Mes- sianic kingdom just as they were, without the necessary festal garment of righteousness according to the Law, would be miserably rejected at the great judgment. 1 We will now take another story, and this time it shall be the work of the conciliatory school : When Jesus had re- turned to Capernaum, after pronouncing the Sermon on the Mount, 2 an officer of the garrison came to him, and said : ''Lord! my servant is lying in bed at home, disabled, and in extremity of pain ! " u I will come and heal him then," said Jesus readily. " No, Lord ! " said the heathen, "lam not worthy to receive you under my roof. Only say the word of might, and my servant will be well. I understand these things ; for I myself have my superiors and my subordinates, and I say to one soldier, ' Go ! ' and he goes ; and to another, 1 Come ! ' and he comes ; and to this servant of mine, ' Do this ! ' and he does it. In the same wa} T you have the spirits of sickness under your authority." Jesus listened in surprise and delight, and then turning to his followers, he cried: " I tell you I have not met with such great faith even in Israel 1 Compare, for example, Acts xv. ] and Kevelation iii. 4, 5, 18, xix. 7-9. « See p. 141 . JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHEN. 309 itself! " Thereupon he dismissed the officer, with the assur- ance, "It shall be to you according to j T our faith!" And at that moment his servant recovered. So Matthew tells the stoiy ; but Luke heightens the color- ing by making the sick man lie " at the point of death," and still more by exaggerating the officer's humility. He think* himself unworthy of approaching Jesus in person, and makes use of the friendly offices of some Jewish elders, who earn- estly plead his cause with Jesus: l ' He deserves this boon, for he loves our nation, and it was he who built us a syna- gogue." It matters little that this trait introduces a further improbability and contradiction, 1 for in its literal acceptation the stoiy is hopeless at best. Would Jesus realty have been pleased with such gross superstition, were it conceivable? And is it not absolutely impossible that he could have healed the sick man from a distance? The only essential point, and the only one to which we need attend, is the indirect com- mendation of Israel, in which Jesus had found great faith, and the direct praise of the heathen, who had shown still greater faith. The conciliatory spirit of the story is obvious at once. The hint that the heathen when converted to Chris- tianity love Israel, and are ready in case of need to sup- port it with their gifts, is by no means without significance. It also deserves notice that the onty two narratives which the Gospels contain of miracles worked in favor of heathen, in consideration of their great faith, also furnish the solitary examples of miracles performed from a distance. This fea- ture is a striking indication at once of their originally sym- bolic character and of their remarkable ndelit} T to the truth they shadowed forth ; for personalty or hand to hand Jesus labored onty for the preservation of his own countrymen, but from a distance, — -that is to say, from heaven, and by means of his envoys, — he also toiled to deliver the heathen. Lastly, we will give an example of the work of the liberal school. The third Evangelist differs from the first and second in making Samaria the scene of a considerable part of the labors of Jesus. In describing the memorable journey to Jerusalem he begins by completely departing from Matthew and Mark, and making Jesus pass through Samaria and spend some time in it. 2 An elaborate narrative intervenes before Luke joins the other two Evangelists again, and it would seem that the scene is throughout laid either in whole or in 1 Luke vii. 6 ff. ; and compare verse 3 with verse 6. * Luke ix. 51, 52, 56, 57, x. 1, 38, xiii. 22, xiv. 25, xvii. 11. 310 JESUS AND THE SAMARITANS AND HEATHER part in Samaria. 1 But on this point the Evangelist's expres- sions are not free from ambiguit}'. Now this independent narrative is the longest section of Luke's whole work, and records a number of parables, sayings, and events which do not occur in the other Gospels. It begins with an nnhis toxi- cal account of a rebuke administered to the sons of Zebedee for reciprocating the sectarian hatred of the Samaritans, 2 and it goes on to describe how Jesus appointed seventy other dis- ciples and sent them out, two and two, to visit every town or village to which he himself was intending to come. But the whole of this journey through Samaria is incredible. The oldest accounts represent Jesus as going through Persea, and Luke himself involuntarily confirms them by making him pass through Jericho to the capital. Nor did the journey occupy so long a time as would appear from the account of it given b}^ Luke, who disguises it almost beyond recognition, and transforms it into a very extensive missionary undertaking, which was to include at least five-and- thirty separate places. Nor is the narrative consistent with itself, for the Evangelist constantly forgets that Jesus is not in Galilee, and most of the occurrences he describes could not possibly have taken place in Samaria. 3 But however incredible Luke's account may be, its purpose is obvious enough. In laying the scene of an important part of the Master's labors outside the land of the Jews, he intends to represent the problem of heathen conversions as already solved by the facts. The same purpose may be discerned in the following story. It is an unsuccessful imitation of the account we have al- ready examined of the healing of a leper. 4 It is absolutely unhistorical, and does not make the least addition to our knowledge of the life or character of Jesus. It is simply intended to show that, while those who are and those who are not Jews are alike leprous and unclean, labor is far more likely to be repaid among the latter than among the former : — On his journey to Jerusalem, through Samaria and Galilee, Jesus was just entering a certain village when ten lepers, standing at a distance as their unclean disease required, besought him aloud, "Jesus! Master! take pity on us!" Their appeal was not in vain. •' Go your ways," he replied, i Luke ix. 51-xviii. 14. 2 See p. 192. 3 For instance, Luke xiii. 10, 31, x. 25, xi. 37, 45, 53, xiv. 1, xv. 2, xvi. 14, jtvii. 20. 4 See pp. 202, 203 ; compare 2 Kings v. and vol. ii. chap. xiii. pp. 157-159. JESUS THE MESSIAH. 311 filling their hearts with joyful hope, " and show yourselves to the priests." And as they went their fearful malady forsook them. Now one of them, seeing that he was healed, went back to his benefactor glorifying God, and bowed down be- fore him with fervent gratitude. This man was a Samari- tan. Jesus not unnaturally said, " Were there not ten lepers healed? Then where are the other nine? Is this stranger the only one who returns to give thanks to God?" Then he looked approvingly upon the man, who was still kneeling at his feet, and said, "Rise up and go your way; } r our faith has saved }'ou." Strangers received the help of Israel's deliverer with grati- tude. His gospel purified the heathen world from its deep corruption, and was recognized by it as the source of light and strength, the fountain of new life. Jesus, to his eternal glory, retained his hope unshaken through all the sad experiences of his own people's w T ant of faith ; and that hope was nobly justified by the result. Chapter XXV. JESUS THE MESSIAH. Mark VIII. 27-30 ; Matthew IV. 1-11.1 JESUS had withdrawn from the scene of conflict. He had taken ship with the twelve at Dalmanutha, or in the neighborhood of Magdala, where his opponents were harass- ing him, and had crossed the lake. 2 He landed on the north- eastern shore, went on to Bethsaida, crossed the river a little above this cit} T , and, keeping it on his right hand, still jour- neyed northwards. Some ten miles further up, the way led over Jacob's Bridge (which is standing yet) , and along the left bank of the river Jordan and the waters of Merom . Then he skirted the fertile and well- watered plain above this little lake, and kept his course northward, till about twenty miles above Jacob's Bridge he came upon the hamlets that lie round Caesarea Philippi to the south. It was a region of entrancing beauty and of extreme fer- i Matthew xvi. 33-20; Luke ix. 18-21, iv. 1-13; Mark i. 12, 13. 2 See pp. 281 ff. 812 JESUS THE MESSIAH. tility ; the same that had excited the cupidity of the Damtes in the olden time. 1 Here the many fountains and branches of the Jordan foamed and rushed upon their way, to join at last in one broad stream ; and the eye wandered over the fairest pastures and the noblest forests till it rested on the stately Hermon. The city whose territory lay in this favored region was called after Augustus Caesar, like its namesake on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea ; and to distinguish it from the latter it bore an additional name taken from the tetrarch Philip, who founded or at least extended and beautified it very soon after his accession, with a view to making it the seat of his government. It was for the most part a heathen city, and could boast of more than one celebrated shrine in its im- mediate neighborhood. At the time of which we are speak- ing it was in Roman territory. What was it that took Jesus two short da}V journey to the extreme north of Palestine with no apparent object? It can- not have been to escape his enemies ; for he need have gone no further than Bethsaida to be safe from the plots of Herod and the pursuit of the champions of Jewish orthodox}^. Nor was his object simply to rest a time and enjo}^ the beauties of Nature ; for he was too deeply absorbed in many questions of extreme importance to have e}^es or attention for those beauties now. He felt that he must collect himself, examine his position and prospects from every side, come to some definite decision, and adopt the corresponding measures. Things could not go on as they were. He must choose some new line of action, and must hasten the decisive moment. The thoughts and projects which had long been rising and growing in his mind, especially since the death of John, now came to full maturity. And now, for the first time, he w r as in a position to communicate them to his friends. It was high time to do so. The third Evangelist indicates the im- portance of the crisis bj r saying that Jesus prayed. Doubt- less he did ask wisdom from on high and commit the issue to God. Somewhere in the neighborhood of Csesarea, then, as he was out of doors with the Twelve, he turned to them, and, with an expression both of face and voice which showed them it was no ordinary matter of which he spoke, asked, u Whom do people suppose me to be ? " The} T knew that he did not mean to ask them what his opponents said of him, but what the masses, who regarded him with more or less favor, thought i See vol. i. pp. 376, 377. JESUS THE MESSIAH. 313 and expected of him. Hitherto he had troubled himself but little with such matters, for he had always kept his own per- sonality as completely as possible in the background ; but at this crisis he must know the opinion of his followers, for much depended on it. The Twelve were naturally in a bet- ter position than Jesus himself for ascertaining the opinions generally held concerning him, and they had no difficulty in answering his question. It appeared that several opinions were current. Some believed that he was John the Baptist, who had not really been murdered, or had been called back by God from the land of shadows to take up his work again ; others thought he was Elijah, returned from heaven to per- form the task that had been assigned to him and prepare for the Messianic age ; others again took him for Jeremiah, risen from the dead to disclose the sacred objects that had been concealed ever since Jerusalem was sacked ; others regarded him more vaguely as one of the ancient prophets returned to life from the world below to do the work of preparation. 1 There is much appearance of diversity in these opinions, and at first sight their extravagance may seem astounding ; but a moment's reflection will put an end to our surprise, and will show us that in the only essential point there is remark- able unanimity among them ; for all the different opinions come to this, that Jesus was the precursor of the Messianic kingdom. The form which this fundamental belief adopted was dependent, in the case of each individual, upon whether he expected Elijah or Jeremiah, or, more vaguely, "one of the prophets," or John himself, to complete the work of preparation. The great mass of his disciples then regarded Jesus as the herald of the kingdom of God ; and, considering the character of all his preaching from his first appearance in public, no belief could possibly have been more natural. It was clear, however, that the disciples were simply giving their Master a faithful account of what " people " said of him, and were not stating their own belief; and Jesus, following up the first question with another, asked them eagerly, " But you yourselves ! whom do } T ou think I am ? " Constrained yet eager glances passed between the Twelve, and for a moment there was silence, — but for a moment only ! Then Simon (Peter), the foremost of them all upon this as upon other occasions, answered confidently, "You are the Messiah!" It was evidently in the name of all the rest, as well as his own, that he offered this title (the highest that could be conceived) i See pp. 49, 99, 104, 272. VOL. III. 14 314 JESUS THE MESSIAH. to his Master. Nor did Jesus reject it, though he strongly urged his disciples never to speak of it to any one, nor to let their conviction be known. But, for all that, henceforth Jesus was the Messiah ; not only in his own consciousness, but to the world. His resolve, which had been his own secret hitherto, still capable of alter- ation, was now irrevocable. His own personal fate and the future of his cause were now decided. Here we ma}^ pause to point out some of the inferences that may be drawn from this conversation between Jesus and his friends, and to offer gome necessary explanations. In the first place, the two questions and answers prove in- controvertibly that hitherto Jesus had never proclaimed him- self to be the Messiah, and had never been recognized as such by others. This consideration is absolutely fatal to the historical character of all those recognitions of his Messiah- ship which we have seen ascribed to demons, to sufferers who asked his aid, to his own disciples, and to the people at large. 1 But there is another point of more importance which must be considered in this, connection. According to the Gospels, Jesus very early adopted the practice of frequently speaking of himself in the third person under the designation of ' ' the Son of Man." We have treated this expression as simply equivalent to the first personal pronoun " I." * Indeed, it is impossible to la}- clown airy fixed rule as to when Jesus uses "I" and when " the Son of Man," and the condition in which our authorities have come clown to us is such that we cannot at all rely upon them on such a point as this. It often hap- pens that one Gospel has "I" and another " the Son of Man " in the very same passage. For instance, in the scene we have just described Matthew gives the first question thus : 1 * Whom do people take the Son of Man to be ? " For this and other reasons it is very doubtful what Jesus intended the name to mean. He certainly never used it as implying that he was himself the ideal man. To do so would have been utterly foreign to his nature. Now Ezekiel constantly calls himself in his own oracles " son of a man," 3 that is " weak mortal ! " and it has been conjectured that Jesus borrowed the term from him, and used it to indicate his prophetic mission and at the same time his human infirmity and dependence upon God, — or perhaps the latter only. Others suppose that i See pp. 135, 136, 208, 269, 287. 2 See pp. 187, 199, 204, 214, et seq 3 Compare vol. ii. chap. ix. p. 406. JESUS THE MESSIAH. 315 the expression was taken from the well-known vision of Daniel, where it is used for "the kingdom of the saints." 1 In this case Jesus may have applied it either to the subjects of the Messianic kingdom generally, and to himself as one of them, as their leader and exemplar, or in a more strictly per- sonal sense to himself as king. There is, indeed, no room to doubt that the vision in Daniel is the source from which the expression is taken in the numerous passages that speak of the " coming" of the Son of Man, and of his coming " with the clouds." Here and there this expression may be used as equivalent to the revelation of the kingdom of Messiah, 2 and indeed Matthew has " the Sou of Man" in a passage in which the other two read the " kingdom of God." 3 But when it is said of this Son of Man that he shall " sit at the right hand of God," which the ideal king is described as doing in the hundred and tenth Psalm, the reference is most certainty to the Messiah himself, and specifically to Jesus as the Messiah. 4 Here we are met b} 7 another difficulty ; for if Jesus realty did call himself the Son of Man before this occurrence at Csesarea Philippi, then the expression cannot originally have meant "the Messiah," either on his lips or in the opinion of his hearers. In short, we must be content to confess our igno- rance. We can be sure only of this : that Jesus never claimed the title as a personal right, but simply used it to indicate the nature of his work and his function in the world. Another point of still greater interest is the question, how long and in what sense Jesus had felt that he was called to be the Messiah ? We must bear in mind that if on this occasion he accepted a title that had never before been claimed by him, or offered to him, he did so simply because it realty corre- sponded better than an} r other title to his personal conscious- ness of the nature of his mission. His own inmost convictions emphatically forbade him to reject the title. Let no one think that he acquiesced out of complaisance to a Jewish error or a prejudice of the Apostles. Such weak compliance would have been impossible to him, and, moreover, in this case would have been the very height of folly. Then, how are we to reconcile the beginning with the end of his career ; the task of the king with that of the herald of the kingdom of God? 1 Daniel vii. 13, 14; compare verses 18, 22, 27 ; Psalm Ixxx. 17; and vol. ii. chap. xxii. p. 555. 2 Matthew x. 23, xxiv. 27 (Luke xvii. 24), 30 (Mark xiii. 26 ; Luke xxi. 27). 8 Matthew xvi. 28 ; compare Mark ix. 1 ; Luke ix. 27. 4 Matthew xxvi. 64 (Mark xiv. 62; Luke xxii. 69); compare xix. 28, xxv 31 ; and Acts vii. 56 ; Revelation i. 13, xiv. 14. 316 JESTJS THE MESSIA.H. Had lie known that he was the Messiah from the beginning of his public life, and had he hitherto concealed this knowl- edge? Or had bis own views changed in this respect, and bad he only latel} T assumed in his own mind the task and name of Messiah instead of those of precursor ? Most peo- ple adopt the former supposition, and believe that at his bap- tism, as the Gospels declare, or between that event and the imprisonment of John, he became conscious that he was the Messiah. But we have adopted the other alternative, and have assumed its truth in our treatment of the narratives alread}- dealt with. To us it appears in the highest degree unnatural that Jesus should have begun his ministry with a secret reservation, should have kept his true mission long concealed, and in a certain sense given himself out for some- thing other than what he really believed himself to be. The natural inference alwaj's is that an honest man thinks he is what he says he is. Moreover, the Messiahship was not a right or dignit3 T — like that of the pretender to a crown — which Jesus at a definite moment felt to be his due. It was a life- task, and to take it up required a stern resolve. When first the thought rose in his heart, and his sense of dut}' more and more clearly pointed him to the task, he must in the nature of things have paused for a time in uncertaimVy. A sublime act of faith was needed like that by whichT John stood up to do Eli- jah's work, but loftier and mightier. As John had determined to hasten the coming of God's kingdom, so Jesus resolved to do neither more nor less than bring it to earth himself! It is true that the period within which this important change in his conception of his task took place must have been very limited ; but intensity and concentration of life ma} T make one 3 T ear equivalent to man}\ We should hardly expect a man like Jesus to begin with the very highest and hardest task before he had even tried his strength. He too, like every one else, must first express himself in word and deed, and set himself with all his powers and all his gifts to work, before he could possibly come to the full consciousness of his own nature and his own powers. Again, when first he began to teach, he had promised himself and the world that the kingdom would be shortly founded by a glorious act of God, and it needed experience to teach him that, unless he girded himself to new and intenser effort, that kingdom would not come as yet. He was disappointed in his nation and its leaders. Like all great reformers, he had expected the speedy realization of his ideal without having formed any JESUS THE MESSIAH. 3.17 2 ON THE WAY TO JERUSALEM. sit on my right hand and on nry left is not mine to give. It is for them for whom God reserves it." Did Jesus himself believe that one would rank above another in the kingdom of God? Was he so inconsistent with himself? Certainly not. He would have no outward, extraneous, arbitrary elevation of individuals, no distinctions such as the world recognizes ; but he knew very well that God has divided the gifts of the spirit diversely, and that one has increased his talents more and another less. Not only did he say, " The more humble, the more exalted; the more self- denying, the more to be honored ! " but he also saw that the Father had given one clearer light and more savory salt of the spirit than another. Perhaps at this very time the possibil- ity rose before his mind, which was afterwards realized by Stephen and Paul, that he might yet find disciples less preju- diced and intractable than the Twelve, or even the chosen three, — disciples who would penetrate further into his mean- ing, would exert a more powerful influence than they, and would become the first after himself in the kingdom of God! However this may be, he was soon compelled to intercede among the disciples themselves ; for when the other ten heard how James and John had tried to steal a march upon them, they were exceedingly angiy, for they were all of them equally worldly and ambitious. But Jesus, in order to restore a good understanding, called them all to him, and without at all ex- cusing the conduct of the two brothers, gently reproved the rest : " You know how things go among the heathen, — how princes govern the peoples and great men control the masses ? But it must not be so with you ! If any one of you would be great, let him serve the rest ; and whichever of you would be first, let him be the servant of all. 1 Even so the Son of Man has come not to be served, but to serve all others [and to give his life as a ransom for many]." That was and is and will ever be the motto of the king- dom of God. How many of its professed servants under- stand and apply it as Jesus did himself, and required others to do? The caravan passed by the stately groves to which Jericho owes its name of the ' ' City of Palms ; " by the precious bal- sam-bushes that, according to the ancient authorities, grew nowhere else but here ; by the rose and flower-gardens, which 1 Compare Luke xxii. 25-27. ON THE WAY TO JERUSALEM. 353 filled the air with their perfume, and which strangers vied with the people of the place in praising. At last they came to the beautiful, flourishing, active city of Jericho itself, where they intended to stay and find quarters for the night, to re- cover from the fatigues of the journey and prepare themselves for the last and hardest part of their pilgrimage, — the barren reach from Jericho to Jerusalem. Their fame had preceded them- to Jericho, and a great crowd came out to meet the celebrated Rabbi or Prophet of Nazareth, who had succeeded John in preaching the approach of the kingdom of God. Cu- riosity and friendly interest on the one hand, and hatred of the seducer of the people on the other, as well as the deeper longing for the salvation of the Lord, brought out the citizens of Jericho in crowds ; and as the company entered the city and passed slowly through it, the varying sentiments of the bystanders were from time to time distinctly enough pro- claimed. Now among the crowd a man, whose wealth was shown by his rich apparel, might have been observed pressing forward to get a sight of Jesus as he drew near the far end of the town where this man lived. He was the chief of the great tax-office at Jericho, which was a very important one, and his name was Zacchreus. We can well believe, therefore, that not a creature stirred a step to make way for him ! This grieved him be}'ond measure, for he was a short man and could not see over the shoulders and heads of the crowd ; but he was determined not to be thwarted, so he extricated him- self from the crush and ran forward till he came to a place where a S3*camore-tree grew beside the way. The caravan would pass bj' it ; so, regardless of his own dignity and the jeering of the lookers-on, he clambered up among the spread- ing branches of this tree, whence he could narrowly watch the man of whom he had heard so much that was good, and could observe him at his ease. Little did he think what was in store for him ! The crowd soon reached the spot, and man} 7 eyes were invol- untarily raised to the sycamore-tree. Jesus himself looked up, stood still, and cried to the publican, " Zacchseus, come down quickly ! for I would gladly be your guest to-day." Zacchseus could hardl}^ believe his ears. In a moment he was on the ground again, and, after doing obeisance to his guest, he con- ducted him to his house, while his heart overflowed with joy. But we can easily see what a bad impression this would make on the public. "Just look! He actually prefers to be the 354 ON THE WAT TO JERUSALEM. guest of such a sinner rather than of any of the respectable and virtuous people who would have been glad to entertain him ! " Such comments were freely uttered ; so freely, indeed, that as Zacchseus and Jesus were about to enter the house they could not help hearing them. The former perhaps feared that the unexpected honor, the great privilege, of receiving the prophet might even } T et be snatched away from him, and that Jesus might choose another host ; but at any rate he felt that he ought to show not only his gratitude, but also his perfect readiness to make full amends for his past life ; so he took a brave resolve, and, standing before Jesus with a certain solemnity of manner, he uttered this spontaneous vow before the prophet crossed his threshold : " The half of my posses- sions, Lord, I herebj' give to the poor ; and if I have exacted any undue payments, I will restore them fourfold." x Jesus was pleased by the man's passionate longing for salvation, and at once to set him at peace, to restore him to honor be- fore the people, and to defend his own conduct, said : " To- day is salvation come into this house, since he too is a son of Abraham ; for the Son of Man is come to seek and to save that which was lost." Probably the stay at Jericho was not a long one, but neither was it without results. The Pharisees may have been prevented from visiting Jesus by his staying in a sin- ner's house ; but others would no doubt be only too glad of any opportunity of seeing and hearing him. And whoever came he doubtless taught them that the kingdom of God was at hand, and urged them with all his power to repent. Nor can we help imagining that his disciples scattered up and down among the people of Jericho must, in spite of them- selves, have given utterance to their great expectations and set many a heart a-glow. We must also remember that the scene of John's appearance and activity was not far from Jericho, so that the impression he had made would be more lasting here than elsewhere, and the sound of his voice must still have been echoing in many a bosom. We can therefore well believe the statement that when the caravan left Jericho a great number of the citizens went with it. Most of these would only escort Jesus a little way, but some would attach themselves to him more permanently. In connection with this circumstance the following story of a miraculous cure is given : — Just outside the city a certain blind man, Bartimseus, sat 1 Compare Exodus xxii. 1, 4, 7 ; Numbers v. 6, 7; and p. 135. ON THE WAY TO JERUSALEM. 355 by the road-side begging. Hearing the approach of a num- ber of people in no small commotion he asked what it was all about, and was told that Jesus of Nazareth was coming past. Then a ray of hope shot through his night of misery, and he cried at the top of his voice, "Jesus, son of David, take pity on me ! " In vain did the foremost of the crowd command him to be silent and rebuke him for disturbing the Master. He only cried all the more earnestly, " Son of David, have pity!" Jesus heard hisa, stood still, and said to the people round about him, " Let him come to me ! " Then they said to the blind man, "Be of good cheer ! he is calling 3 T ou." In a moment Bartimseus had thrown off his cloak and stood up to be led to Jesus. " What would you have from me?" said the Master kindly. " Rabboni ! [my Master] I would receive my sight again," answered the other in a suppliant voice. With deep compassion Jesus laid his hand upon his eyes and said, "Receive your sight! your faith has saved you." On the spot the blind man gained his sight again, and he followed his benefactor, rendering fervent thanks to God. Mark (and he alone) gives the blind man's name as Barti- mseus, having already said that he was " the son of Timseutf," which is the same thing ; but we must not be misled by the fact of the name being given (a circumstance to wilich there is no parallel in other stories of healing) into supposing that any actual individual was meant ; for in all probability this name is symbolical, and means "son of the blind." It is of small importance that Matthew speaks of two blind men on this as on a previous occasion, 1 or that Luke makes the event occur as Jesus enters Jericho instead of as he leaves it. He does so in order to provide a more suitable introduction to the meeting with Zacchseus which he alone relates. It is possible that this symbolic narrative designedly places us at the point when Jesus turns directly towards Jerusalem, as an indication that he was ready to open the eyes of his people, ■ — the blind sons of blind fathers. 2 But originally it was most likely a picture of Jesus as the sinners' friend. We need not stay to ask whether an} T special event which really took place at Jericho lies at the bottom of the story, nor whether the cure of the blind man (or men) in the first two Gospels corresponds properly to the rescue of Zacchseus in the third, while Luke has preserved both the historical and the symbolical form of the event side by side. 8 Again, cer- i See p. 208. 2 Compare Matthew xv. 14, xxiii. 16, 17, 19, 24, 26; John ix. 8 See p. 202. 356 ON THE WAY TO JERUSALEM. tain difficulties have been urged against the visit to the chief publican itself; for instance, that Luke alone records it, that Jesus could not have known the man's name, and that Zacchseus has the symbolical meaning of "clean." 1 But these objections do not appear to us conclusive ; and in any case we need not discuss them, for both the story of Zac- chseus and that of the blind man give a true picture, each in in its way, of the character of the work of Jesus. But the point that strikes us most, and upon which we would lay the fullest stress, is the position which these stories occup}\ Who does not feel the significance of the fact that here, in Judaea itself, at the very gates as it were of the City of the Temple, here as he enters upon the last stage of his career, — a stage in many respects so dark and gloomy, — Jesus meets us } T et again as the redeemer of the lost ones, loving and gentle, spontaneous and delicate in his advances, pitiful, self-deling, and lovable as ever ! Under every change that we have observed, even under this last great revolution in his prospects, his feelings, and the tone of his preaching, he remains the same in his divine pity for every one who has gone astray. His heart was as warm as ever ; his faith in human nature and his reverence for man were not shaken for a moment by his melancholy experience. The preacher of God's judgment drawing near to the capital of his country is still, even there, even to the end, the friend of sinners, the inspired advocate of the new and immortal principle of man's worth and God's love. It wais in this spirit of redeeming love, it was to seek and to save, that he plunged into the midst of 'dangers that none foresaw more clearly than himself. 1 Compare Luke xi. 41 with xix. 8. JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM 3fi7 Chapter XXIX. JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. Matthew XXI. 1-16. 1 HARDLY had the traveller to the City of the Temple left Jericho a league behind, when he found he had passed from one of the loveliest spots upon earth into an ill-favored and dismal waste. The whole distance was six leagues, and in spite of undulations the journey was on the whole an ascent, for Jerusalem was three thousand feet above the Jordan valley. It was these barren rocks, these narrow passes, these rock-bound defiles, thinly covered with brush- wood, that formed the background upon which the picture of the " Good Samaritan," already known to us, was painted. But as bands of pilgrims passed along the road, drawing nearer with every step to the goal of their journey, for which they had longed with such eager expectation, we may be sure that the}^ seldom or never allowed themselves to be appalled, or even depressed, by the sceneiy through which they passed ; and least of all would it disturb the high-wrought enthusiasm and joyous expectations of the caravan we are now accompa- nying in fancy. How many a heart leaped up in transport ; how many a bosom panted with impatience ; how many a straining e} T e saw nothing of precipitous cliffs or barren gorges, but was filled b} r the dazzling vision of a splendid coronation and the glorious dominion it would inaugurate ! Can we not picture the companions of Jesus on this last day of the journey ? — some of them quiet, as if plunged in tl ought ; some of them engaged in animated conversation ; yet others with joyous cries from sacred songs upon their lips ; but almost all in growing tension of excitement. And Jesus himself ? It is extremely difficult to pierce the veil of his thoughts. One thing, however, is certain : that Luke is mistaken in making him bewail the impenitence of the city, and foretell its future destruction by the Romans in minute delail 2 as soon as he approaches and beholds it ; for the city's impenitence had not as yet appeared, and Luke is i Mark xi. 1-11, 15-18 ; Luke xix. 28-40, 45-48. 2 Luke xix. 41-44. 3)8 JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. evidently confounding the feelings which inspired Jesus a week or two later, after the failure of his efforts, with those of his first approach to the city. We shall be nearer the truth in thinking of Jesus as suspended between hope and fear, alternately contemplating the possibilhy of success and failure during these last hours ; but the fact that he did nothing to check the enthusiasm of his followers, and pres- ently entered upon the contest in such a loft} T mood himself, appears to indicate that for the time hope, if not supreme, was at least predominant in his mind, — which is indeed no more than we should expect. Here again Luke has confounded the expectation with the result ; for he has put into the mouth of Jesus, a few hours before, a parable expressly designed to correct the impression that, since he had now almost reached Jerusalem, the kingdom of God would imme- diately come. 1 In spite of its inappositeness, however, we will give this parable here. It is that of the mime, or pounds. A mina represents about 3£ 6s. ; and to understand the story we must further note that in those times there was nothing strange in the idea of a man's going to Rome to receive at the Emperor's hands the appointment to the vacant throne of some tributary state. Thirty years before Archelaus had done this veiy thing, and had been appointed ruler of Judaea and the two neighboring districts in spite of the opposition of the Jews, who had sent ambassadors to implore Augustus to spare them the imposition of a Herod. There is an obvious reference to all this in the parable, which runs as follows : 2 A certain man of noble birth set out for a distant land, to be invested with the regal dignity and then return. But first he summoned ten of his slaves, and gave them each a mina to trade with during his absence. It was only a trifle ; but his object was simply to make a trial of their fidelity, zeal, and ability, since he would soon be wanting faithful servants as governors. Now, when he had set out, his fellow-citizens sent an embassy after him to inform his suzerain that they did not want him as their prince, for they hated him ; but their protest was in vain. So when the nobleman returned as king, he summoned the ten slaves to see what they had accomplished. The first had increased his stock by ten minae, the second by five, and so on ; for which the} T were all rewarded by the warm approval of their master, and by ap- pointments to governorships of ten, five, or such other num ber of cities as corresponded with their deserts. Then he i Luke xix. 11. 2 Luke xix. 12-37. JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. 359 ordered the enemies who had tried to prevent his becoming king to be brought into his presence and cut down before his e}'es. 1 The meaning evidently is that Jesus was not going to ascend the Messianic throne in Jerusalem at once, but must first go up to heaven, there to receive the kingship from God, — for such was the faith of the apostolic age,' 2 — and that on his return he would reward his faithful servants and inflict a fearful punishment upon the rebellious Jews. The story was certainly never told by Jesus. It is an imitation (and not a very successful one) of the parable of the talents ; 3 and this accounts for the introduction of an episode which so disturbs the progress of the narrative that we designedly omitted it. It is this : One of the slaves came with his mina and said that he had wrapped it in a cloth and hidden it, because he knew his master was a hard and unjust man. His master there- fore punished him, and rebuked him for not having put his mone} T in the bank ; after which he astonished all present by ordering the mina to be given to the most enterprising of the other servants, who had gained ten extra minse already. Now all this was well enough in the parable of the talents, for there the master gave his servants charge of all his posses- sions, and even the least favored of them had to manage a considerable sum ; but here the smallness of the amount in question makes the whole proceeding inappropriate, and it would simply be ridiculous to show additional respect for the governor of ten cities b} r a present of three guineas ! But let us return to Jesus and his fellow-travellers. We have alread}- said that the Master made no attempt to check the enthusiasm of his friends ; and when they had exchanged the wilderness of Jericho for a less-forbidding district ; when their eyes rested on the Mount of Olives, behind which they knew the Holy City lay ; when they had passed through Bethairy, on the eastern slope, half hidden among its noble trees and undulating verdure, — their excitement rose at last to its culminating point. Jesus had sent for an ass, on which to ride into the cit} T ; and, in lieu of a saddle, some of his disciples had folded their cloaks and laid them on the ass's back for him to sit on. Then they ascended the ridge between the Mount of Olives and the Mount of Offence ; and there the City of God, so loved, so praised in the songs of Israel, lay stretched before them in all its gloiy ! What colossal walls 1 See pp. 304. 305. 2 Compare Acts ii. 36, iii. 20, 21, et seq. * See pp. 165, 166. '60 JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. and mighty towers rising from the precipitous rock ! "What luxurious palaces and entrancing pleasure-grounds ! But above and before all else the eye was dazzled and the heart enthralled by the Temple of the Lord : an imposing and marvellous erection even to the heathen, but to the Israelite the very consummation of holiness and glory upon earth, — his greatest pride and his deepest J03 T . There was the temple area, with its noble colonnades ; and on the highest terrace there stood the sanctuary itself, with its glittering parapets of snow-white marble, tipped with the tapering golden spikes and plated on all sides with sheets of gold, shining beneath the sunbeams, now like a mountain of snow, now like a sea of fire. How could such a sight fail to call forth a general outburst of enthusiasm ? The sacred spot was reached where the kingdom of God would be established, and on the very instant honor and glory must be rendered to him who brought that kingdom ! Most of the company threw off their upper garments and laid them in the way for the ass to step upon, while others strewed the path with leaves and branches from the neighboring fields ; and, as they waved the palm-branches in their hands, those who went before and those who followed him sang in alternation the song of praise, — ■ Hosanna ! Bless him that comes in the name of the Lord! Bless the approaching kingdom of David our father! Hosanna in the highest! With such shouts of triumph they turned northwards along the slopes of the Mount of Olives, past Bethphage that was reckoned part of the sacred ground of the City of the Tem- ple, by the Garden of Gethsemane, then down across the bridge over the Kidron? and up the hill again, through the Sheep-gate into Jerusalem ! It was no new thing at Jerusa- lem to see caravans of pilgrims drawing near with exuberant signs of delight ; but such an entry as this must have caused no little commotion. " Who is it? " the people asked in cu- riosity and amazement as the procession, chiefly composed of G-alilseans, passed them b} T , and the central figure drew all e} T es upon him. And the crowd of triumphant Galilaeans answered, "It is the mighty prophet Jesus, from Nazareth in Galilee ! " Before accompanying Jesus and his disciples through the streets of the city to the temple, we must make a few remarks in justification of the account we have given of their entry ; JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. 361 for it departs in several particulars from the narratives of the Gospels, which do not always agree with each other. According to Luke the disciples of Jesus cry, " Blessed be the king who comes in the name of the Lord ! Peace be in heaven, and glory in the highest ! " 1 upon which certain Phar- isees who are present request the Master to forbid them ; but he replies, " I tell } t ou that if the} T held their peace the very stones would cry out ! " One does not quite see what had brought the Pharisees thus early into the presence of Jesus, and his short and stern reply strikes us as an implied rebuke, anvil a kind of echo of the wail over Jerusalem's impenitence already mentioned. At an} r rate, this question and answer can hardly have been uttered upon this occasion. A second point is of more importance. All the Gospels make Jesus, upon reaching the Mount of Olives, despatch two of his friends to the village that lies before them (pre- sumably Bethphage) to fetch him an ass's colt which, he says, they will find at the entrance of the village, tied up. If any one asks them what they are doing, they are to answer, l ' The lord requires it," and they will be no further molested. Now, this story implies either a previous arrangement with the owner of the colt, or divine foreknowledge on the part of Jesus ; and when we consider all the circumstances, and re- member that Jesus was a stranger in the village, the former supposition becomes almost as unsatisfactory as the latter. Moreover, Mark and Luke not only add that the D3 r standers or the owners of the colt did actually challenge the arbitrary proceedings of the disciples, but also say that, according to Jesus himself, no one had ever ridden on the beast before. The idea is, of course, that it would not otherwise have been holy enough for him ; 2 but any one can see how ill-suited an unbroken colt would be for carrying Jesus in the midst of so excited a procession. But Matthew's account is the most extraordinary of all ; for he makes Jesus send for two beasts, an ass and a colt, and ride upon them both ! This is because he sees in the event the literal fulfilment of a prophecy in Zechariah, 8 in which, by a curious blunder, he supposes that two animals are mentioned. He renders it: "Say to the daughter of Zion, ' Behold ! thy king is coming to thee, gentle, riding 1 Compare Luke ii. 14. 2 Compare Numbers xix. 2; Deuteronomy xxi. 3; 1 Samuel vi. 7; and Luke xxiii. 53 : John xix. 41. 3 Zechariah ix. 9. See vol. ii. p. 255; compare Isaiah lxii. 11. vol. ill. 1G 362 JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. upon an ass, and upon a colt, the foal of a beast of burden." We may note in passing that one of the earliest ecclesiastical Fathers, running off upon the sound, actually quotes a verse from Jacob's blessing to prove that the ass was bound to a vine-tree ; 1 and after all this is only canying out the practice, habitual to the Jewish-Christian Evangelist himself, of using the Scriptures of the Old Testament as materials for the life of Jesus. 2 We need therefore paj~ no further attention to the details given in Matthew ; but, on the other hand, the co- incidence between this prophecy of the Messiah as the Prince of Peace and the mode in which Jesus entered the city is sufficiently remarkable to suggest the question whether he himself had the words of Zechariah in his mind. Did he enter the city upon an ass expressly to show that, though he claimed to be the Messiah, it was not as an earthly potentate who would more fitly ride a war-horse, but rather as a peace- bearer? This is not impossible, but neither does it seem very probable ; for riding on an ass was so very common a mode of travelling that Jesus can hardly have calculated on those who saw him thinking of the prophecy in question and divining his meaning. Nor is it even certain that his disciples expressly greeted him as the Messiah in person upon this occasion ; for though Matthew makes them cry, ' ' Ho- sanna to the son of David ! " it is doubtful whether Jesus was ever realty addressed by this title during his lifetime ; 3 and the Evangelist himself appears to contradict his own account immediately afterwards, when be makes the exultant disciples answer the question of the people of Jerusalem b} T saying — ■ not "This is the Messiah ! " but — " This is the prophet from Nazareth ! " In a word, the whole thing seems to have happened quite simply. The ass — a much finer and more swift- footed ani- mal and far more highly esteemed in the East than with our- selves — was the animal ordinarily ridden in Palestine, as the horse is here ; and, though we cannot tell how Jesus came to have the opportunity or the wish to ride into Jerusalem, there is nothing in the least extraordinaiy in either the one or the other. Perhaps he thought this mode of entiy more suitable to the dignity of the occasion than walking. In the same spirit he refrained from checking his disciples' cries of tri- umph. Nothing could be more natural than for the latter to sing a few lines of the hundred and eighteenth psalm in his honor, for it was often sung at the Feast of Tabernacles and i Genesis xlix. 11. a See p. 37. 8 See p. 38. JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. 363 oilier festivals. " Hosanna," in verse 25 (property hoshianna, i.e. " Help, then ! " or " Save us ! "), was a form of invoking a blessing or expressing jo}', and the following verse was originally a greeting offered by the priests to the visitors of the temple. But, after all, even if Jesus was not expressly called the Messiah, it was nevertheless a Messianic entry into Jerusalem ; for at any rate he was conducted into the City of the Temple, amidst the acclamations of his followers, as the prophet who would bring the Messianic kingdom. The Tweh e, of course, would look upon him in that case as the Anointed of the Lord himself, whereas the rest may have formed the same conception in some cases and divergent ones in others. 1 It is not without reason, therefore, that the Christian Church attaches great importance to this event, and consecrates the Sunday before Easter to its memory. The day is fixed in accordance with the indications of the fourth Gospel, and is called Palm Sunday after the commemorative palm branches with which the churches are decorated. Finally, when Mat- thew says that ''the whole city was moved," we must look upon his words as a natural exaggeration, and need not be surprised to find that this triumphal entry does not seem to have been so much as mentioned at the trial of Jesus ; for, though it made a deep impression upon his followers at the time, the great majority of the people of Jerusalem would not pa}- the least attention to it. So Jesus, of Nazareth in Galilee, had entered Jerusalem at the head of his followers, and they had greeted him as the prophet who came to inaugurate the kingdom of God. They themselves, of course, made straight for the temple ; but the question was whether their enthusiasm would infect the peo- ple of God's city, and force them to join their procession and take up their cries of joy, while Jesus advanced towards Is- rael's sanctuary and finally entered its gates? It can hardly surprise us that nothing of the kind took place. The people of Jerusalem looked on in surprise, or ran together here and there, in half-contemptuous curiosity to witness these demon- strations of Galilsean excitement, but that was all. No doubt this was a great disappointment to the friends of Jesus, if not to himself ; but the future might make up for the present, they thought. To the temple, then ! The} 7 had only a few streets to pass through before reaching one of the gates that opened into tho 1 Compare pp. 312, 313, and Acts iii. 22 ff. 361: JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. consecrated area. Here Jesus dismounted. What were Jus thoughts as he stood there ? His foot was now to rest upon the spot which, as his contemporaries thought, had been for thousands of } 7 ears the sole earthly abode of the Eternal, the Lord of heaven ! It was not, indeed, for the first time. He had doubtless visited the temple more than once in early life. The impression he received on the first occasion must have been overwhelming. National reminiscences and the force of tradition added impressiveness to the grand proportions and the magnificent architecture and adornments of the tem- ple ; and when the devout young Galilsean entered the court of the heathen, and cast his e}'e over the extended area, sur- rounded b3 T double and triple rows of columns, each four-and- thirty feet in height, each hewed from a single block of the whitest marble, and wainscoted with cedar ; when he gazed on the tessellated pavement that covered the whole open space, and on the terrace in the centre, that none but the sons of the chosen people might ascend ; when he looked yet further and beheld the second terrace, upon which stood the court of the priests and the sanctuary itself; when he saw what inestimable treasures had been lavished upon every thing, how exquisitely each detail had been executed, and with what marvellous art the whole had been blended together, — must not his senses have almost reeled ? But his subsequent visits would produce an ever-growing sense of want and dissatisfaction, in propor- tion as his own religious life developed ; and his aversion to the formality which reigned uncontrolled in the temple must have constantly risen. It was perhaps a long time now since he had been there ; and, as he raised his foot once more over the consecrated threshold, he felt afresh that, in opening the treasure-house of his spirit to the people and bringing them true salvation, he must in appearance act the part of a de- sti*03 T er, and in the name of Moses and the prophets pronounce the sentence of condemnation upon this dead religion. He could not look upon the temple with the indifferent eye of a stranger. He, if any one, felt the inseparable tie of a com- mon faith with the pious generations who had worshipped there. His heart overflowed with mingled and conflicting emotions. In this primeval seat of Israel's worship he must appear as the messenger of the Lord, — must demand an ab- solute renovation ; must announce the approaching judgment ; must preach the gospel of the kingdom. In sacred transport he entered the temple, with gait erect and beaming eye, followed by his disciples ! JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. 365 What a scene it was that met him ! Not only the press of coming and going pilgrims, — here approaching with their beasts for sacrifice, here pushing their way one against an- other, and here raising their songs of praise, all which he could have borne, — but the clatter and chaffer of a fair! The jostling and shouting of the market-place had drowned the voice of devotion ! For here in the outer court stood the booths of the cattle-dealers, of the traders in wine, oil, corn, incense, salt, and other requisites for sacrifice, and of the monej'-brokers who changed the coins of the various districts from which the faithful had streamed to the temple, for the didrachma of the temple duty or for Greek and Roman coins. It was vain to expect any feeling for the sanctit}- of the place in these men. They simply came there to make what they could, and too often deliberately reckoned upon cheating the pilgrims by demanding extortionate prices for their wares, or taking advantage of their ignorance of the exchange value of the coinage. And, even when there was no cheating, the clat- ter of voices, clinking of mone} T , bleating and lowing of beasts filled the court ! Maybe the dealers and mone3~-changers looked for more business yet from the arrival of another caravan of pilgrims, with the sacred chant upon their lips. Now Jesus knew what always went on here. He had been distressed by this temple-market before. But when we re- member the mood in which he now entered the temple, we can well believe that the scene made him boil with indigna- tion as it had never done before. The impulse to put an end to it rose strong within him. Had not God set him his task that moment ? He did not check the impulse, but gave it rein. Irresistible in his sacred wrath, he drove the hucksters and dealers through the gate, overturned the tables of the mone3 T - changers, while their coins rolled along the ground, and threw down the seats of the dove-sellers. Never yet, we may be sure, had his followers seen him with that flashing eye, that arm extended in command, as one of the prophets of old ! And to make the resemblance more striking yet, to prove that he was consciously treading in the footsteps of the prophets and was urged by their spirit, he seconded his deeds b} T words taken from two well-known prophetic sayings of the ancient times : 1 " It is written, My house shall be called a house of prayer, but } T e have made it a den of thieves ! " This last expression obviously refers to the dishonest prac- 1 Isaiah lvi. 7 ; Jeremiah vii. 1] 366 JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. tices to which the love of gain gave rise. But it may well be asked how Jesus could possibly cieanse the temple in this way single-handed. Why did all these people tamely submit to being expelled? How came it that the temple-guard, who had to keep order within the sacred precincts, did not inter- vene, and put the disturber of the peace under restraint, or at least expel him? Now, it is perfectly true that a fortnight later, in the week before the Passover, such a proceeding would have been simply and utterly impossible ; for at that season there was an indescribable crush of visitors, and we may gain some idea of the amount of trade that was carried on from the fact that the lambs alone were counted by the thousand ; but when Jesus expelled the traders, they may not have been so numerous as one might at first suppose. Then we must remember that the hallowed zeal which carried him away so suddenly extorted such submission, at sluj rate for the moment, that resistance was impossible ; and besides, his commanding personality borrowed at least the appearance of material support from his numerous followers ; for, though they took no direct part in the work, their presence rendered any attempt at violent resistance inadvisable. As for the action itself, its purport was not confined to the removal of offensive and inharmonious surroundings from the temple, and the maintenance of its sanctity, — for it had a wider and symbolical significance, and in this respect again resembled the actions of the ancient prophets. It was, in the fullest sense, an open declaration of war upon the formal worship of the times. The priests, who had a very substan- tial interest in the temple-market, took an actual pride in the press of business in the court ; for the number of trades- men and the amount of their wares indicated the number of purchasers, and that, in its turn, was the gauge of Jewish piety, fidelity, and zeal. This last consideration influenced the Pharisees also to the same effect. This was but natural, for such abuses were the necessary result of looking for relig- ion in a host of ceremonies and externalities ; and in later ages the same addiction to formalities produced analogous ex- cesses in the Roman and Greek churches, without shocking the faithful in the least. This cleansing of the temple in- volved by necessary implication the condemnation of the whole system of sacrifice, which really required a market to support it ; nor was Jesus the first of the men of God to con- demn the sacrificial system. It was not against Moses and the prophets that Jesus now advanced as a religious reformer, JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. 367 for he felt that he was vindicating their work and spirit, but it was against the conceptions of piet}' current in his own age and among his own people. By this act he defined his posi- tion as clearly and sharply as possible, and his aggressive at- titude was a striking exposition of his views and intentions. His action was a visible presentation of the words which it appears from the evidence given at his trial he must have ut- tered in Jerusalem : " I will destro}' this temple, and in three days will raise it again." By "this temple" he meant the Jewish religion, which he came to destroy in order that he might raise it again renovated and purified. In future when he spoke of the kingdom of God every one knew what he meant. This one vigorous measure had put both the masses and their leaders in a position to choose decisively for or against him. As for the leaders, whether priests or Scribes, their choice never wavered for an instant. Jesus had summoned them to arms, and made them his avowed enemies both by his entry and bj* his cleansing of the temple. Mark and Luke, how- ever, are a little premature in making the Sanhedrim immedi- ately form the definite project of taking his life, and only dela}' its execution for fear of the masses. The first Gospel mentions on this occasion that Jesus healed some blind men and cripples who came to him in the temple, which is per- haps a reminiscence of an old saying that forbade the blind and crippled to enter the sacred place ; x and the same Gospel ssljs that the children in the court cried out, "Hosanna to the son of David ! " upon which the chief priests and Scribes angrily demanded of Jesus whether he heard what the}' said, and found little satisfaction in his brief reply: "I hear it ! But have you never read, ' From the mouth of babes and sucklings hast thou prepared thy praise ' ? " 2 These details do not commend themselves to our acceptance, and come in strangely after the violent scene that precedes them. Mark, in his turn, relates that Jesus would allow no one to carry household utensils or furniture, for instance, through the temple court, when that was the shortest way from one part of the city to another ; and also that he called the temple a house of pra}~er ' k for all nations," which is the expression really used in Isaiah ; but Jesus was not thinking of the heathen at that moment. It is of more importance to note that the same Evangelist represents the Master as simply vis- iting the temple and looking round on his first arrival and then retiring, since it wa.s rather late, but only to return the 1 Compare vol. ii. p. 4, and 2 Samuel v. 8. 2 Psalm viii. 2. ObO JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. next day and assert himself by the cleansing of the temple We see at once how improbable this is. The next morning he was without his numerous escort, and, what is more, he was in a less sensitive and excited mood. His burst of in- dignation at seeing once more what he had carefully inspected the evening before would be very artificial, and his whole line of conduct unnatural, not to say impossible. Let us now look back for a moment, and sum up in a single word our conception of the precise project with which Jesus had entered Jerusalem. Here again we are driven to conjectures, for the Gospels make it appear as if he had come with the simple object of being put to death. But even suppose he expected the issue to be fatal, he must surely have contemplated the possibility of success, and must at any rate have had some definite pro- ject, whether destined to succeed or fail. It is not until we clearly understand what this project actually was that we can see the full bearings of his entiy into the city, of his asser- tion of his power in the temple court, and, generally, of his appearance at Jerusalem. We know that he had come to offer his people the kingdom of heaven, the perfect blessedness of close communion with the heavenly Father. If Israel accepted it, then Jesus would alread}^ have removed from the shoulders of his countrymen the yoke which Pharisaic scripturalism had laid upon them ; they would have broken in principle with their national pride and hatred, their formality and self- righteousness, — and God would do the rest. In the present circumstances, therefore, there was but one thing that could make the efforts of Jesus successful, but one thing that could rescue him personally, and also do what was far more important in his eyes, — preserve the kingdom of God for Israel, and Israel for the kingdom of God. That one thing was a rapid and increasing accession of disciples. a series of decisive proofs of sympatlry and powerful expres- sions of faith on the part of the masses. This would en- tirely disarm the opposition of the Pharisaic and the priestly parties. The temple and the synagogues would then, so to speak, be gradually emptied ; the approaching Passover would become the feast of the great redemption ; Jerusalem would thenceforth be the central point of the work of Jesus, and the thousands and tens of thousands of foreign Jews the messen- gers of his kingdom, That would be his success ! JESUS APPEARS AT JERUSALEM. 369 He had therefore, properly speaking, no choice in the mat- ter. It was impossible for him to begin quietly and tenta- tively, as he had done in Galilee. He must at once and conspicuously challenge attention, and make it impossible to ignore his arrival and its significance. Averse as he was to airy sensational display, he could not now desire to enter the city and the temple in quiet simplicity ; and the Messianic demonstrations which accompanied his entry, though he had by no means provoked them, were not unacceptable to him. He knew well enough that a host of shallow misconceptions lurked beneath these exuberant cries and tokens of veneration, but yet he accepted them as well intentioned and as coming from the heart. They were the first public recognition of the significance of his person and his work ; and may not the hope have now revived in his heart that the}' might perchance be the first fruits of his harvest of souls, a prophecy^ that God would turn the people's hearts to him ? At the very worst, these loud expressions of devotion could not fail to further his purpose of announcing that he had come, and had come in the character of God's messenger, commissioned to establish the kingdom of heaven. It was but another step — and a step of which any accident might be the occasion — for him to proceed to some such striking and decisive action as that in the temple court. And this deed, occasioned by the re- pulsive scene that met him, and as little foreseen or premedi- tated on his part as the mode of his entry into the city, was an unmistakable indication to the public of the nature of the Messianic kingdom he came to found. But it need hardly be said that in spite of all this the work he contemplated at Jerusalem was of a purely religious and by no means of a political character, and that he had not the least intention of exciting a popular commotion. We must not dream of his departing by a hair's breadth from his prin- ciples, or becoming untrue to himself! It was, therefore, impossible for him to repeat or follow up this single deed. His only weapons were the power of the word, of the spirit, of the truth, — the appeal to the heart and conscience. Nor could he go a single step further in the employment of mate- rial means. But, since this was so, his impressive deed had not improved his chances of success ; for the masses could not fail to be disappointed when the sequel answered so it to the introduction, when the work was so unlike the mani- festo. And how could this disappointment have any but dis- astrous consequences? 16* 370 JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. Chapter XXX. JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. Matthew XXI. 17, 23-32, XXII. 15-40; John VII. 53- VIII 11.1 THROUGHOUT his stay in Jerusalem Jesus never spent the night in the city itself. Every evening he went with the Twelve to Bethany, returning early in the morning to teach in the temple-sj'nagogue, or one of the other halls in the colonnades of the Forecourt. We have already fol- lowed him along the road from Bethany through Bethphage. The distance was about three-quarters of a league ; but a footpath, which ran across the Mount of Olives, shortened it by a few minutes' walk. Whatever it may have been at first, it ultimately became a pressing measure of precaution to retire at night to some refuge unknown to the authorities ; for, though they were afraid of a disturbance if they attempted to seize him by da} r , they might safely have snatched him from his bed at night. But we cannot tell whether such precautions were necessary from the first, or whether Jesus spent his nights outside Je- rusalem, in order to secure the opportunity of recovering his own composure, and enjoying a time of quiet intercourse with his friends in the evening and morning. The hospitable customs of the East make it probable that he remained under one roof during his whole visit, and would only have quitted it in obedience to some special necessity. Accordingly, we ma}' think of a certain Simon, known as ''the leper," as his permanent host. The third Gospel is less accurate in representiug him as spending his nights on the Mount of Olives, and apparently in the open air in the garden of Gethsemane. 2 The very first evening Jesus went with the Twelve, after dismissing the multitude we may suppose, to enjoy the quiet of the village where the night's lodging was prepared. It is not improbable that he knew Simon alread}\ Perhaps he had met him as he passed through Bethany at noon, perhaps 1 Mark xi. 19, 27-33, xii. 13-34 a; Luke xix. 47, 48, xx. 1-8, 20-39, xxi 37, 38. 2 Luke xxi. 37, xxii. 39, 40. Compare John viii. 1. JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. 371 later on in the day, and no long acquaintance would be needed to justify the offer of hospitality. Jesus had most likely spoken little after purifying the temple, for the day 7 was far advanced when he entered Jerusalem, and the wea- rying journey, followed by such a tumult of emotions, must have so strained his powers as to make the opportunity of resting under a friendly roof extremely grateful. Here, then, he might gather strength for the struggle which he saw so clearly awaiting him. The following morning found him in the temple-court again at the spot whence he had dismissed his followers the night before, addressing both them and a number of others whom interest or curiosity had led to accompany them. Doubtless he assumed the author- ity of a prophet ; and his preaching, in accordance with the action of the previous day that introduced it, would be an emphatic exposition of the spiritual nature of the kingdom of God and of the moral demands it made upon its subjects. But see, he is interrupted ! A deputation of respected citi- zens approaches him with solemn dignity. Every one makes room for them, for they are members of the Sanhedrim. This Sanhedrim was composed x of " high priests " ("■ chief priests " in our Authorized Version) , elders, or heads of distinguished Jewish families and the most eminent Scribes. Under the name of "high priests" were included not only the priest who held the office in question at the moment, but all who had ever filled it in their lives, and even the most influential of the remaining members of the high priestly families. The members of this little deputation therefore, though it may not have had an official character, felt bound in their indi- vidual capacit} 7 to put some check upon the pretensions of the G-alilsean reformer. Nothing could be more appropriate, therefore, than their question, "By what authority are you doing all this, and who gave it to you?" Of course the} T referred especially to his vigorous proceed- ings when first he entered the temple-court, but not to them alone. When they observed the authoritative tone and atti- tude which he assumed in addressing the multitudes upon the subject of their dearest interests, they felt that unless he could offer some adequate defence of his use of such language they ought to crush him with the sentence of absolute con- demnation. So Jesus stood face to face with the honored representatives of ecclesiastical and civil authority among his people. How much must depend upon his answer ! He had i See pp. 5, 6. S72 JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. doubtless considered beforehand what position to take up. He was not at a loss for a moment, and answered with quiet dignity, " Let me also ask a question ; and if vou answer it then I will tell you on what authority I relv. Tell me, Whence was the baptism of John, from heaven or of men ? " Now this was far from a mere evasion. On the contrary, it was little short of a defiance. Jesus implied that, since He who had shortly before sent John to baptize the people had now commissioned him, Jesus, to found the kingdom of God, there was an immediate connection between his own work and that of the preacher of the wilderness. Those who had recognized John as a messenger of God must and would recognize him also ; whereas those who had utterly despised the Baptist had thereby given palpable proof of their tota" incapacitj' to appreciate a divine commission, and had there fore completely forfeited their right to demand his creden tials from him. Did they understand his meaning? Om of them, who served as the mouthpiece of the rest, answerec briefly and contemptuously, " We do not know;" as much as to sa} r " and we do not care." Our Gospels represent this answer as the result of the reflection: " If we sa}^, 1 From heaven,' he will answer, ' Then why did you not believe him?' and if we say, 'Of men,' then we shall have the people upon us, for they all hold John to have been a prophet." Luke even makes them fear that " the whole peo- ple will stone them " if they give the latter answer. But all this deliberation is out of place. The distinguished men of Jerusalem had simply paid no attention whatever to the Bap- tist ; and Jesus therefore utterly denied their right to ques- tion him. His answer was as brief and as haught}' as theirs : ' ' Neither shall I tell } T ou by what authority I have come for- ward here." His refusal to answer was a bold stroke ; but, as if to show that he knew exactly what he was doing, he continued after a moment's silence, M What think you? There was a man who had two sons, and one morning he went to the elder and said : l My son, }'ou must go and attend to the vine- yard to-day.' But he answered without even a show of respect, ' I shall not.' And yet, after a time, he was sorry, and went and set to work. Meanwhile the father had gone to the other and found him all obedience. ' I will go this very instant, father,' he replied, but did not. Which of these two obeyed his father?" We need not suppose, with the Evangelist, that the members of the deputation actually said .fESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. 373 "the first," for without waiting for an answer Jesus might well go on with his indignant application of the parable : "I tell 3 T ou, the publicans and harlots shall go into the kingdom of God before you ! For John came to lead you to the way of life ; and } t ou did not believe in him, though the very publicans and harlots listened to his preaching ; for not even such a sight as that could make } t ou repent and believe in him." This was an open declaration of war upon the priesthood, the nobility, and the Scribes. Compare this parable with that of the prodigal son, with which it has an unmistakable affin- ity. How changed is the conception of the second son, who is realty obedient in the one case, and is a mere hypocrite in the other I 1 It is true that in this parable Jesus had not the Pharisees exclusively in view, but this merety serves to make his judgment all the more emphatic. He embraces all the leaders of the people, the whole heterogeneous class of devout and high-born citizens who had thought it beneath their dig- nity to be moved b} T the preacher of tbc kingdom of God, — ■ he embraces them all under that sentence which put "the first" after "the last." When Jesus had once told them they came after the very offscourings of societ} T , it was im- possible that any friendly relations should subsist between him and them, unless they were to throw themselves in humble penitence at his feet, — and there was small chance of that ! And yet he had done well in taking up his true position at the very outset. He had not come to Jerusalem to win over the champions of Jewish orthodoxy or the guardians of the temple worship, but the people. He must let the nation know what it had to expect from him. This he had done by opening the battle at once without any preliminary skirmishing. It is deeply to be regretted that our authorities tell us little or nothing of the course of the struggle, and especially of the relations of Jesus and the people. Under the first head we only hear of a few argumentative encounters between Jesus and his opponents, preserved as specimens, and of certain violent denunciations uttered by Jesus in public. With these exceptions we have not a single address delivered by the Master in Jerusalem, or any thing beyond the repeated state- ment that he taught the people da}' by day. It is possible 1 Compare pp. 248, 251. 374 JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. enough that some of the specimens of his preaching we have already met with in considering his Galilsean ministry or his journey to the capital properly belong to this period ; 1 but it is probable that as a rule his preaching in Jerusalem was to some extent different in tone. The Gospels, however, leave us in uncertainty as to how he instructed the multitudes in the City of the Temple, what he taught them about the kingdom of God, its approach, the blessings it would bring, the qualifications for entering it, and the last judgment and repentance. But in that saying of his about breaking down and building up the temple, which we have mentioned already, and to which the Evangelists refer in their account of the trial of Jesus, we are justified in finding the substance of a whole discourse, or perhaps even of several discourses, delivered to the people. Again, we have only scattered hints as to the reception Jesus found at the people's hands. The statement that they took him for a prophet' 2 seems very probable intrinsically. At any rate the} 7 could not see or even suspect the Messiah in him ; while the high prophetic reputation he enjo3 r ed is evident from the fact that the Pharisees and Sadducees, who were usually very hostile to each other, combined against him. This indicates clearly enough that they were seriously alarmed by his popularity ; but the strongest proof of all is the dread with which they were inspired b} T his followers ; for at first they dared not touch him, and only ventured to seize him at last under cover of night, with the aid of treachery ; and even then they were in great trepidation, as we shall pres- ently see. But, on the other hand, the result showed that "ms party was far less numerous and zealous than had been supposed ; and the final issue proves that his efforts had failed. Indeed, we have already explained how the enthusiasm kindled by his first appearance must inevitably cool when he refused to fol- low up the stirring deed wuth which he had begun, and con- fined himself to simple preaching. Even zealous followers were bewildered when they saw that he did not take a single step towards founding or even preparing the kingdom of God, but, on the contrary, seemed to be retreating day by> day fur- ther from the goal they longed so impatiently to reach. The attitude assumed by the Scribes did Jesus incalculable harm ; for of course there would be vast numbers of the Jews, both 1 See, for instance, pp 21S, 165 ft , et seq. 2 Matthew xxi. 46. JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. 375 at Jerusalem and elsewhere, who looked for guidance to these venerated leaders, so specially qualified b} r their studies, they thought, to form a judgment in such matters. Now these were the very men who opposed Jesus with all their might, and their warnings held great numbers back. Perhaps he himself alludes to this in his bitter reproach : " Woe to you, Scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites that 3-011 are ! for you shut men .out of the kingdom of heaven. You will not enter yourselves, and prevent and forbid those that would ! " Let us now consider the records we still possess of the en- counters between Jesus and his various opponents. It was towards the beginning of his stay in Jerusalem that certain men came to him and, in a tone at once confidential and respectful, asked his opinion upon a very important point. Some of them were disciples of the Pharisaic school, and therefore bitterly opposed to the Roman supremacy over Judaea ; others were Herodians, that is to say enthusiasts for the Idumsean dynasty, who longed to restore the kingdom of Herod the Great : but all alike had been deputed to catch Jesus in his words. " Rabbi," they said, "we know that you alwaj-s say exactly what you think, without considering any one ; for } r ou care not how great or powerful any one ma}^ be, but simply preach the will of God in truth. Tell us, then, what vou think. May we pav tribute to the Emperor or not?" It was a cunning plot. The strain of flattery in which the} 7 began shows their drift. They hoped he would declare that any one who paid the poll-tax, and so recognized the Roman emperor as his monarch, was infringing on the rights of the Lord, the king of Israel, and that God was jealous of his honor and would hold the deed apostasy. The way in which Jesus had entered the city, together with his nationally and that of his followers, gave reason to hope that he shared the opinions of Judas, the Galilaean, on the point at issue. 1 Now a popular leader who taught such seditious doctrines as this would be sure to be seized by the governor and put to death without loss of time. If, on the other hand, he declared that the tribute must be paid, that would do nearly as well, for he would at once fall in the opinion of the people. He saw through their project. "O hypocrites ! " he answered, with undisguised aversion, "why do you try to catch me thus ? Let me see the tribute money ! " Now cer« 1 Compare pp. 89, 348. 376 JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. tain coins had been struck for use in Judaea, without the Emperor's head and with a simple inscription, on purpose to meet the Jewish objection to images ; but the coin his ques- tioners now showed to Jesus was not one of these. It was a genuine Roman denarius, representing the amount of the poll-tax. This was probably no accident. Jesus then pointed to the head and name of Tiberius on the coin, and said, "Whose image and superscription is this?" "The Emperor's," the} T answered. " Then give the Emperor what is the Emperor's, and God what is God's," said Jesus, as he returned the coin. He meant to snj : " Since this coin shows that 3 t ou are subject to the Emperor of Rome, accept the position and give him what is due ; and then take care that 3 T ou give to God what he has a right to expect and demand of you. It is because } t ou have failed in your dut} T as God's subjects that 3-011 are now Caesar's slaves ; and as long as you fall short of your duty to God you must be content to bear the burdens laid on you by Caesar. It is repentance, faithful self-consecration to God, and not disputes as to the permis- sibility of tribute, — still less resistance to a well-merited chastisement, — that must bring the great deliverance. It will not be } T our murmuring, but the coming of the king- dom of God, that will put an end to the supremacy of the heathen." The design was utterly wrecked, and the questioners retired in amazement at such presence of mind. Another day Jesus came early in the morning from the Mount of Olives 1 to the temple, where the people whom he had dismissed the evening before drew together again in great numbers; and he sat down as usual to teach them. Then there came a company of Scribes and others, well known for the strictness of their piety and their religious zeal. It was evidently an important matter that had brought them there, and their gestures and expressions indicated no small indigna- tion and aversion, the object of which was a certain woman whom they were dragging with them in mute despair to the temple-court. The multitude made way for them respect- fully. In gloomy silence they placed the unhappy woman right opposite Jesus and formed a semi-circle in front of him. Then one of them came forward and explained their object : " Rabbi, this woman is an adulteress, taken in the very act. Now Moses commands in the Law that such must be stoned ; and we wish to know from you what we ought to do." 1 See John viii. 1, and compare p. 370. JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. 377 There is a difficulty here. The Law does indeed attach the penalty of death to this offence, but not specifically stoning. Nor is it quite clear what these people were aiming at, though they evidently hoped to find something in the answer upon which they could base an accusation. Had the}' heard that Jesus was very far from orthodox on the subject of the marriage laws ? At any rate they knew that he had shown an offensive leniency towards people of bad character ; so perhaps they hoped that by condoning so shameful an offence lie would lower himself in the eyes of the people, and appear to sanction the grossest immorality, while at the same time giving them grounds for a legal accusation. However this ma}' be, Jesus made no reply, — did not even rebuke their malice, — but bending down and making lines on the ground with his finger, as though he were thinking of something else, left them to their own consciences. But they did not feel this tacit rebuke, and impatiently repeated their question. Then he looked up with a piercing glance and said, " If any one of you is without sin, let him cast the first stone at her ! " Then he bent down again and made lines on the ground as before. It was as much as to say, " Go on, and let the law take its course, if you can justify yourselves in doing so. If any of you can declare himself free from all impurity of thought, word, or deed, let him come forward as a witness at the trial and the execution." l This shaft had struck. The pious accusers looked down. Their consciences were roused, and one by one they slunk away, the most distinguished first, troubling themselves no further about the wretched woman, who still stood riveted to the spot, half stupefied with remorse and shame. In a few moments Jesus raised his head again, and seeing no one there but his own hearers and the woman, he said to the latter, " Where are your accusers ? Has not one of them condemned you?" "No, Lord !" she murmured. "Neither do I con- demn you. Go, and sin no more ! " said Jesus. Then would he have left every crime unpunished? That was not the question. In referring the matter to Jesus, these men had removed it from the court of civil law into the very different court of the private conscience. Jesus therefore simply declared that God was better served by forbearing pity for the sinful woman than by the strict enforcing of the law. Judged in the court of conscience, he denied that his contemporaries, who so shamelessly contracted and dissolved 1 Compare Deuteronomy xvii. 7. 378 JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. the marriage tie without violating the Law, had any right to utter sentence on the adulteress. It seems rather improbable, however, that Jesus should have found it so easy to arouse the conscience of these self-righteous devotees ; and the story, though very beautiful, is open to suspicion both on this ground and on those already hinted at. We ma}- also add that its origin is a matter of doubt. It stands at present in the eighth chapter of John r but is certainly out of place there. It evidently belongs to the same circle of stories as those in the Synoptics, and should be placed in the account of the last conflict of Jesus. It is no longer possible for us to tell why it is not there. For the various reasons indicated, it deserves less confidence than the other records of the encounters of Jesus with the differe: \t parties among his people during the closing weeks of his lfe. In the cases hitherto examined, the opponents of Jesus were intent upon drawing him into utterances in conflict with the Law, or dangerous to the public tranquillity, and so involving him with the ecclesiastical or civil authorities. But this was not always their object. Sometimes they simply tried to drive him into a corner and expose him before all the people by means of some insoluble question. A few examples of these questions also have been preserved. One clay, for instance, certain Sadducees began to argue with him about the resurrection. The}' probably took occa- sion to do so from an address to the people in which he had spoken of the coming of the kingdom of God, when the pious dead should return from the underworld and live again. 1 Now the worldly-minded and conservative Sadducees contemptu- ously rejected the doctrines which had risen since the forma- tion of their own party, — such as the belief in a resurrection and the elaborate doctrine of the angels,- — especially if they had sprung from the bosom of the national part}', and were fostered by the enthusiasm of the zealots, which was pre- eminently the case with the doctrine of the resurrection. Indeed, they looked with suspicion and dislike upon the preaching of the kingdom of God in general. It was but seldom that the Sadducees were among the hearers of Jesus ; and this is perhaps 3 the first time that we find him in contact with them, except on the single occasion of their demanding i Compare pp. 331, 332. 2 Acts xxiii. 8 ; compare p. 46, a See p. 242. JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. 379 his authority for what he did. It seems, however, that some of them happened to be present when he was speaking on this ver}^ question of the resurrection ; so they urged a diffi- cult}* which had doubtless more than once done good service against the Pharisees. "Rabbi!" the} T said, "3'ou were speaking just now of the resurrection; but how will it be? Take an instance. You know the Law of Moses says that when a man dies childless, his brother must many his widow, and the eldest son must bear the dead man's name. 1 Now there was once a family of seven brothers ; and the eldest of them married, but died childless, — so the next took his widow ; but he died without children too, and the widow was taken by the third. And so it went on till all the seven brothers had married her, — and all had died childless. Fi- nally the woman died herself. Now when the} T all rise again, whose wife will she be? — for all the seven were married to her ! " Whether this had really occurred or not was a matter of no consequence. It was possible ; and that was enough to give the Sadducees a right to treat it as actual. We must also concede that it raised an unanswerable objection to the doc trine of the resurrection as conceived by the Jews, — that is to say, as a renewal under more favorable circumstances of the former life. But for Jesus the difficulty did not exist ; for he had formed a far more spiritual conception of the new life in the kingdom of God. So he struck the broad principle at once and went to the very root of the matter in his answer, — which ma} r be paraphrased thus: "The denial of the resur- rection rests upon a two-fold misconception, — upon want of insight into the Holy Scriptures, and misapprehension of the power of God revealed in the saints. For they neither many nor are given in marriage when they have risen again, but live here on earth as the angels live in heaven : such is the power of God revealed in his children. And, as for the doc- trine of the Scriptures about a new life following after death, have you never read the chapter of the ' Thornbush,' in the books of Moses,' 2 where God says, ' I am the God of Abra- ham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob ' ? Now, surely, He is the God of the living and not of the dead ! " It must be admitted that Jesus put a far deeper and richer meaning into the text he quoted than it originally had, but this does not at all surprise us ; 3 and, judged by the rules of 1 See vol. i. pp. 425 ff. 2 See vol. 1. p. 255. 8 Compare pp. 224 ff. 380 JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. interpretation and style of argument current at the time, his proof of immortality was so complete that his questioners were absolutely silenced and his hearers were filled with amazement. He meant, " If God called himself the God of the patriarchs centuries after the}' were dead, we are forced to the conclusion that they are not dead for ever, but will rise again. He is too great to be a God of lifeless shades ; and man, whose God he deigns to call himself, is too great to re- main a shadow for eternity. And when the power of God reveals itself in all its glory at the resurrection, relations will spring up between man and man upon the renovated earth so completely unlike those known at present that they can only fitly be compared with the intercourse of angels." Luke, the latest of our three Evangelists, elaborates the words of Jesus thus : x " Those who dwell in the world as it now is marry and are given in marriage ; but those who are accounted worthy to rise from the dead and share the perfect life that shall be will no longer many or be given in marriage. Neither will the}' an}- longer be subject to death, for they will be like the angels ; and, inasmuch as the}' share the resurrection, the} 7 will have a portion in the life and glory of God himself. And as for the shades, read the chapter of the ' Thornbush,' where God says, ' I am the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob ! ' Now, surely, He is the God of the living and not of the dead ; for in His eye the shades have already risen." Such additions to the words of Jesus may well be justified on the principle that the exalted concep- tions seized and uttered by him necessarily imply still more than he himself could see, through the trammels laid upon him by the current notions of his age. If he expected the power of God to wake a new and glorious form of life in the faithful at the hour of the resurrection, after a more or less protracted sleep in death, we are justified in going a step fur- ther and rising to the hope that the spirit of man, educated and hallowed by God in this life, will rise at once to the higher life at the very moment of death. If he thought the bond between God and his dutiful children too close to be finally loosed by death, we accept the thought in all its ful- ness, and declare that not only is it impossible for this tie to be broken eternally, but it cannot be broken for a moment ! God's children cannot be lifeless shadows even for a time. In a word, Jesus was defending the belief that we shall return to life; but in doing so he laid the firm foundation for the hope that we shall never die. i Luke xx. 31-38. JESUS ON THE DEFENSIVE. 381 There were probably certain Pharisees present at this en- counter ; and in any case it soon came to their ears that Jesus had silenced their opponents on the very point upon which the}- had so often disputed with them. Under other circum- stances this would have given them great delight ; but, since they were just now combining with their natural enemies against this formidable rival, they found small satisfaction in their discomfiture. They laid their heads together, and one of them who was deeply read in the Law took occasion, probably by the Master's teaching on some other clay, to ask him a test question often discussed in the rabbinical schools : kk Rabbi, which is the first commandment in the Law?" Without reserve or ambiguit}* Jesus answered, "'Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and soul and sense.' 1 This is the first great commandment. And the second is like it, and is this : ' Thou shalt love thy neighbor as tlryself.' 2 On these two commandments all the Law and the Prophets are built." Luke does not mention this conversation here, 3 but makes the Scribes applaud Jesus for having refuted the Sadducees. In this he follows Mark, who represents the questioner as coming to Jesus without any sinister design whatever, and testifying to his complete agreement with him by enthusi- astically repeating his answer: "Yes, Rabbi! it is true. The Lord our God is the one Lord, 4 and there is no God but He ; and to love Him with all the heart and mind and strength, and to love one's neighbor as one's self, is more than any sacrifice or burnt offering." Then Jesus, on his side, testifies to the Scribe's true insight in the words, "You are not far from the kingdom of God." Whatever we may think of these divergences they do not touch the essence of the matter, which is the conjunction by Jesus of these two verses from the fifth and the third book of Moses. This is far more than a lucky hit. Jesus uttered his whole soul in it. With good cause has Christendom devoted its special attention to these words, and attached the utmost value to them. The}' tell us what Jesus held to be the essence of religion, for we must not suppose that he was summing up the Israelitish religion in distinction from his own. In the first place he never recognized any such dis- tinction ; for we know that, in his attack upon the conception of piety current in his own generation, he regarded himself 1 Deuteronomy vi. 5. 2 Leviticus xix. 18. 1 See pp. 298-30L 4 Deuteronomy vi. 4. 382 JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. as at one with Moses and the prophets. And, besides this, God, whom he would have man love with all his being, is no longer really Israel's Yahweh ; nor is a man's neighbor any longer his fellow-countryman and fellow-believer only : so that Jesus, in point of fact, is not summing up the old Israelite religion, but the new religion that had grown out of it under his own vivifying touch. 1 Finally, remember that " these two commandments" do not stand over against each other as essentially distinct. Jesus would have us love our neighbors and ourselves for God's sake, and as children of God ; or, in other words, he would have us love God in our neighbor and ourself. Without intending it, Jesus sketches in these two strokes his own individuality and his own life. We have now seen Jesus attacked and put to the test again and again, and have had ample occasion to admire the clear- ness of insight and presence of mind which invariably gave him a read} T answer and enabled him triumphantly to maintain the position he had taken. Na\ r , the attempts to injure him have but served to throw an ever stronger light upon his religious and moral greatness, and have therefore taught us to understand him better and to reverence him more. Chapter XXXI. JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. Mat mew XXII. 41-46, XXIII. 1-7, 16-28 ; Luke XL 52, 47, 48, XX. 47, XVI. 19-31 ; Mark XII. 1-12, XIV. 1, 2.2 HITHERTO we have only seen Jesus defending himself against the plots of his enemies. But gradually a change took place, and those who had at first thrown them- selves in his way with overweening confidence now drew back. They were no match for him. His controversial triumph was complete. No one, we are told, dared question him further, and we have no more records of his opponents intentionally drawing him into disputes. Upon this Jesus changed his i Compare pp. 22S ff., 220 ff. 2 Matthew xxiii. 13.29-32, xxi. 33-46, xxvi. 3 5; Mark xii. 34 b 40 ; Luke xx. 40-46, xi. 39-46, xx. 9-19, xxii. 1, 2. JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. 383 own attitude and took the offensive. A few specimens of his attacks are preserved. " How can the Scribes say that the Messiah is David's son?" he once exclaimed in the temple, before a crowd of hearers. " For David himself, speaking by the Holy Spirit, declares, ' The Lord said to my Lord, Sit thou at my right hand till I have cast thine enemies beneath thy feet ! ' Now if David himself calls him ' Lord,' how can he be his own son ? " It is true that Psalm ex., the opening lines of which are quoted by Jesus as sacred or inspired Scripture, was not composed hy David and does not contain any words addressed to the Messiah ; but this raises no real difficulty, for both Jesus and his contemporaries accepted the Davidic author- ship and Messianic significance of the psalm upon which the argument is built, without the least reserve. The bearing of the argument itself, however, is far from clear. Is it possible that the foes of Jesus had heard of his pretensions to being the Messiah ; that they had attempted to disarm them by reminding the people that he was not a descendant of David, and that Jesus therefore wished to show that the Messiah was not a son of David at all ? Or did he simply intend to point out that the Scriptures themselves represented the assumed Davidic origin of the Messiah as a matter of no mo- ment, since the founder of the kingdom of God had a higher title than that of Son of David ? This is the sense in which the first Evangelist appears to have understood him. He makes Jesus say to the assembled Pharisees, " What do } t ou think about the Messiah ? Whose son is he ? " The} r answer un- hesitatingly, " David's." And Jesus then refers them to the verses of the psalm already quoted, and concludes : "If David calls him ' Lord,' how can he be his son ? " In any case these words distinctly implied that Jesus did not conceive of the Messiah as a king after the model of David. Hostility ran ever higher. Jesus did not shrink from openly attacking his opponents and exposing them before the people. The Scribes, who gave the whole Pharisaic school its tone, incurred his special indignation. What must the people have thought of the sentence thej^ heard him utter upon their pious leaders at the very focus of Jewish ortho- doxy and headquarters of formalism ! We have already had special occasion 1 to give a few specimens of his preach- 1 See pp. 375 ff., and p. 292. 384 JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. ing against the Pharisees, but we will now repeat them in the characteristic though less original form in which they appear in Luke : — "Woe to you, learned ones in the Law! for you have taken awa} T the key of knowledge. You sta} T outside your- selves, and keep out those that try to enter. Woe to jou ! for 3-011 build the tombs of the prophets, and 3-our fathers murdered them. Thus do you testify your approval of your fathers' deeds ; for they committed the murder, and j on perpetuate its memoiy ! " Jesus also made a tierce onslaught upon the scholastic hair- splitting that trod true holiness in the dust and unmanned the conscience. A melancholy instance was furnished b} T the opinions of the Scribes on the subject of oaths. We know what Jesus himself thought about them, 1 and can therefore understand his indignation against all the subterfuges and qualifications of the schools. "Woe to you, blind guides! for you say, ' If a man swears by"the temple, it is nothing ; but if he swears by the gold of the temple, it is binding.' Fools and blind ! Is the gold more than the temple which makes it sacred ? Or again : - If a man swears b} T the altar, it is nothing ; but if he swears by the sacrifice upon the altar, he must keep his oath.' Blind that 3-011 are ! Is the sacrifice more than the altar that makes it sacred? I tell you, whoever swears by the altar swears by all that is on it too ; and whoever swears by the temple swears by Him who dwells in it ; and whoever swears by heaven swears by the throne of God and by Him who sits upon it." In the same way he mercilessly scourges the pitiful formal- ism so scrupulously anxious about trifles, and yet so wide of swallow with regard to veritable sins. " Woe to 3*011, Scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites that you are ! for 3-011 take care that the tithes of mint and anise and cummin are duty paid, but neglect the weightier matters of the Law, — justice, mercy, and integrhVy. In observing the one how dare 3-011 to neglect the other? Blind guides that 3-011 are! straining out gnats and swallowing camels ! Woe to you, Scribes and Phari- sees, hypocrites! for 3-011 cleanse the outside of cup and platter, but the inside is full of plunder and license. Blind Pharisee ! first clean the inside of the cup, and then the out- side will be clean also. Woe to you, Scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites that you are ! 3-ou are like so mairy whitewashed graves that seem all pure outside, but are full of dead men's 1 See pp. 226, 227. JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. 385 bones and all uncleanness within. So do you seem righteous externally, but within are full of hypocrisy and evasion of the Law." We ma}' note that this denunciation deals throughout with the question of cleanness. 1 It begins by referring to the scrupulous piety that would not for the world make use of the smallest garden herbs without first making sure that the tithes, though of hardly any value, had been duly paid ; for otherwise the}' would be unclean and would pollute all those that used them. The conclusion alludes to the custom of the people of Jerusalem of whitewashing the tombs every year a month before Passover. The object was to warn the trav- ellers not to come too near these unclean places ; and just so the ostentatious display of cleanness on the part of the Phar- isees seemed to Jesus like a warning that all manner of wick- edness lay concealed behind it. Luke did not understand the reference, and lost the point by turning the saying thus : " Woe to you ! for 3*011 are like hidden graves that men may walk upon unwittingly." But this does not affect the essential point. --What a sweeping condemnation ! " we are tempted to exclaim. But remember that these words were uttered at Jerusalem ; and, to understand the change that had come over the Master's feel- ings with regard to Pharisaism, we must bear in mind not only the growing hostility on either side, but the fact that here in the City of the Temple orthodoxy was driven to its extremest consequences and appeared in all its accursed moral sterility. Indeed, there was a Jewish proverb to the effect that nine out of every ten hypocrites in the world might be found at Jerusalem. Even in Galilee Jesus might have said, as he did now before all the people in Jerusalem, '-Beware of the Scribes, who take such delight in pacing along the streets in their long gowns, in receiving the respectful salutation of ' Rabbi ' in the market place, in taking the front seats in the synagogues, and reclining in the best places at suppers ! They do all their pious deeds in the hope of being seen. Look how broad the}* make the ribbons written over with texts that they bind round their brows and their left arms when they pray, and how deep the fringes of their mantles are ! " 2 But it was only here in Jerusalem, at the very centre of Judaism, where the fatal principles of formalism had so long spread unchecked in rank luxuriance, it was only here that he could fairly reproach the Pharisees in such words as 1 Compare pp. 276, 277. 2 See p. 250. VOL. III. 17 386 JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. these : ' ' The}' bind heavy burdens that none can bear, and lay them upon men's shoulders ; but they themselves will not touch them with their little fingers ! They devour widows' houses, and make long prayers to save appearances. All the heavier is the judgment they are bringing down upon their heads ! " It need not surprise us to hear all this. Out- ward piety too often leads to formalism, and formalism to hypocrisy. We must here observe that the several denunciations of the Pharisees, and more especially of the Scribes and lawyers, have not come down to us in their original form and connec- tion. Luke, for instance, represents the greater part of them as uttered on the journey, and moreover in the house of a Pharisee who was entertaining Jesus. 1 Nothing could be more inappropriate than this. Luke's Ebionite authority makes Jesus, after declaring that the contents of the cup and platter were acquired by injustice and avarice, add the words, "Ah, fools! Did not He who made the outside make the inside too? Then give away that which is inside in alms, and behold it will all be clean for you ! " The first Gospel, though it only gives a few specimens of the preaching of Jesus at Jerusalem against the popular leaders, is fuller than either of the others ; but to say noth- ing of its stringing together sayings which were uttered upon different days and upon different occasions, and taking up fragments that are quite out of place, it introduces the whole with the following words, which certainly rose in Jewish- Christian circles, and are absolutely opposed to what Jesus meant: "The Scribes and Pharisees have sat down upon the seat of Moses ; therefore, whatever they tell you, observe and do it ; but do not imitate their deeds, for their precepts are fair while their lives are foul." Observe and do what they command ! As if this were not in absolute contradiction with what follows ! As if Jesus had not come to Jerusalem for the very purpose of breaking their yoke ! And here we ma} 7 naturally ask whether there are no threats or denunciations launched by Jesus against the party of the Sadducees. The third Gospel does indeed contain a picture which strongly reminds us of the haughty and osten- tatious priestly nobility, with its selfish neglect and contempt of the lower classes. We will reproduce it here ; for if any of its lines were drawn by the hand of Jesus, it can only have 1 See p. 244. JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. 387 been at this period. We must premise, however, that the story in which it is embodied cannot possibly be genuine as a whole. It is known as " the rich man and Lazarus." Once there was a rich man who was clothed in the costliest robes, — a cloak of purple wool and an under garment of fine Egyptian linen, — and wiio fared sumptuously every day. At the portico of his noble mansion there lay a wretched beggar of the name of Lazarus, all covered with sores, glad if he might satisfj^ his hunger with the fragments that fell from the rich man's table ; and even these he must share with the dogs of the street that came running up when the broken meats were thrown out. Nay, — lowest depth of humiliation ! — these dogs would come and lick his wounds, so familiar had they grown with him. Thus for a while he lived the life of a dog, and then he died ; but, as he breathed his last, the angels came and bore him to the paradise in the underworld, to lay him in the bosom of Abraham, in a place of honor at the feast of the provisionally blessed. And into the sumptuous hall Death likewise came and snatched the owner of the palace from the midst of his abundance and enjoyment ; but he, while the last honors were being paid him upon earth with lavish care, while his corpse was being richly embalmed and laid in earth as befitted his high rank, went down into the regions of death, to the fire of Gehenna. Here as he lay, tortured with unutterable pain, he raised his ej T es and saw far off the feast of the Father of the Faithful, reclining on whose couch he discerned the man who had once been a beggar at his gate. Then he could not restrain the prayer for a moment's respite. "Father Abraham!" he cried, " have ptty on me, and let Lazarus come here to dip the tip of his finger in the water and cool my tongue, for I am tortured in these flames." But not even this could be granted him. "Child!" answered Abraham, "remember that you received your full share of blessings in your life, and Lazarus nothing but misery ; and, therefore, he is now received here- with a loving welcome, while you are in torture. And, besides all this, there is a deep chasm gaping wide between us which none could pass, how great soever his desire, either from us to you or from } T ou to us." The wretched man now saw that there was no more hope for him ; but he had still a petition left : " Then, father ! send him to my kindred, for I have still five brothers ; and let him urge them to beware lest they, too, come into this place of tor- ment." But even this request was refused, not as impossi- 388 JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. ble, but as useless. " They have Moses and the Prophets. Let them listen to them," said Abraham. But the other, remembering only too well how he had known the Scriptures himself, but had scattered their warnings to the winds, made one last appeal : " Na} T , but Father Abraham, if a man were to rise from the realms of the dead, then they would repent." The hope was vain, and the appeal was therefore bootless. " If they will not listen tc Moses and the Prophets," said the patriarch in conclusion, "they would not be convinced though one should rise from the dead." This is unquestionably a composite story. Luke appears to have had in view the heathen world shut out from every hope and blessing in contrast to the privileged but pitiless Jews ; but this cannot have been the original significance of Lazarus and the rich man. And even apart from the modifi- cations introduced bj T the Evangelist in accordance with his own conception, the stor}^ is evidently not a single whole. The latter part, perhaps from "and besides all this," is an addition ; and in any case the request that Lazarus may be sent to earth and all that follows it has no connection with what goes before. If we go on to ask the meaning of the whole and of the separate details, we have no difficult}', to be- gin with, in recognizing a veiy marked Ebionite spirit. The rich man is accused of nothing but spending his treasures foi Ms own enjo3 T ment. There is not so much as a hint that he was irreligious or unfeeling. And Lazarus tastes the joys of paradise not for his piety, but simply as a compensation for his miser}' upon earth. Nor does the repentance which the Law and Prophets should produce mean an} T thing else than the distribution of all one's wealth in alms. 1 Equally obvious is the concluding blow at the unbelief of the Jewish aristocrac} T which would not even yield to the preaching of the resurrec- tion of Jesus from the dead." 2 Yet another proof of the late origin of the parable is the representation of a state of pro- visional compensation in the shadow-land before the resur- rection. Such a conception was certainly foreign to Jesus himself. This is the only parable in which a proper name occurs ; and this point has naturally given rise to no little speculation. Perhaps the name Lazarus, which is the same as Eleazar, is merely symbolical, and should be taken in its original signifi- cation as "God-help." Perhaps, too, the beggar is called 1 Luke vi. 24, xvi. 9, 11, xi. 41. 2 Acts iv. 1 ff., 23, v. 17. JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. 389 after Abraham's servant, 1 who had become the t} T pe of the faithful slave, the virtuous member of the lower classes. If so, Lazarus perhaps represents the humbler classes in gen- eral, regarded of course in the most favorable possible light. In that case it is exceedingly possible that the rich man rep- resents the distinguished and luxurious priestly order. The Jewish tradition tells of the gold and silver dinner-services of the Sadducees ; and it is well known that they troubled them- selves very little about the common people, and placed them almost on a level with the heathen. The dogs, which were not domestic animals but were loathed as unclean beasts, certainly represent the heathen. Finally, one might be tempted to find in the five brothers of the rich man a refer- ence to the most distinguished of the high-priestly families, namely that of Annas ; for Josephus tells us that this man was pronounced the most enviable of mortals because, after filling the office of high priest for man} 7 years himself, he sub- sequently saw it held by each of his five sons. Meanwhile we must leave it uncertain how far this parable ma} T be founded upon some saying or description of Jesus, some reproach he hurled at the Sadducees, or some threat that the position of things should one day be reversed. The tension had gradually reached its height. We possess a clear indication of this in a parable, most likely due to Jesus himself, placed by all three Evangelists in this period, and characterizing the last hours of the conflict with the over- powering foe. We must picture Jesus in the temple, shortly before he left it for the last time, speaking in the hearing not only of the multitudes but of several of the high priests and Scribes, who had lately given up all attempts to conceal their anger and aversion. It was an imitation of a denunciation by the prophet Isaiah, 2 which he began in sombre tones as follows : — A certain man planted a vineyard, set a hedge round it, sunk a wine-press, and built a watch-tower ; and when every thing was complete let out the vinej'ard to a compan} 7 of hus- bandmen for a stated portion of the produce, and went him- self into a foreign land. So when the grape harvest had come, he sent one of his servants to his tenants to receive his share of the fruits. But the tenants seized the servant and beat him and sent him back empty-handed. Then the owner sent unother servant, but they wounded him in the head and mal< 1 See vol. i. pp. 155-161. 2 See vol. ii. p. 251. 390 JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. treated him shamefully. Still he sent another, but they killed him. Then he sent many more, but they maltreated some and killed others. His forbearance was not yet exhausted, and at last he sent his son ; for he thought " at least they will respect my son." But when the husbandmen saw him, they said to each other, ' ' There is the heir ! Let us kill him and keep his heritage ourselves." So they seized him, and dragged him outside the vineyard, and slew him. After a moment's pause, Jesus went on with an emphasis that could not be mistaken : " Now when the master of the vineyard returns, what will he do to the husbandmen? He will put those wretches to the death that they deserve, and give the vineyard to others who will bring him the fruits in due season." After another moment's pause he concluded : "Have you never read that passage of the scripture, 1 'The stone which the builders rejected is made the chief corner- stone ; it was the Lord that made it so, and it is wonderful in our eyes ' ? " So we read in all three Gospels, with only unimportant variations. But Matthew and Luke have each of them a few words more ; the latter, 2 following up the metaphor of the stone, sa} r s : "Whoever falls on this stone shall be broken, out on whomsoever it falls it shall dash him to pieces ; " the former, interpreting the story itself, adds : " Therefore I tell j^ou that the kingdom of God shall be taken away from jou. and given to a people that brings forth its fruits." Both of these sayings may very well be genuine, though the last of them is out of place. They both of them illustrate the thought of the discourse, if it needs any further illustration. 8 Jesus sketches with moving and startling distinctness God's rule over Israel, who has cast his warnings to the wind, who has maltreated and slain the prophets in times past, and is on the point of laying murderous hands upon the Messiah now ; together with the certainty of the approaching judgment now that the last effort has failed. In conclusion, he foreshadows in a single breath his own rejection and exaltation, with the assurance that the guilt of men cannot really thwart the pur- pose of God to raise the new Temple of which he, the Mes- siah, will be as it were the foundation. Meanwhile we have never heard such gloomy words from him before ; and this is not surprising, for now that the contest is as good as over, 1 Psalm cxviii. 22, 23. 2 Matthew xxi. 44 is not genuine. 8 Compare pp. 297, 298. JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. 391 the tone of deliberate announcement naturally takes the place of menacing appeal. There still remain two points for our consideration. The Evangelists place this parable immediately after the conversa- tion about the authority of Jesus and the baptism of John. 1 Now, the connection of thought, "You who have rejected John, the last of the prophets, will lay hands upon me also," is very marked, and in so far the arrangement is a good one. But, for all that, the parable is certainly out of place at the commencement of the work of Jesus in Jerusalem. How could the courteous forms of address and controversy we have witnessed be possible after the utterance of such a sentence? And at that early period it would have been a needlessly ex- asperating defiance, and would not even have been true, for no definite determination had as yet been reached to make awa} T with Jesus. And since this parable is clearly the last public utterance of the Master in the hearing of his enemies, it is exceedingly noteworthy that it contains the first distinct assertion he ever made before them of the significance of his person and his office. Here he ranks himself above the prophets, and speaks of himself as the corner-stone of the edifice of God. He exclaims to them, as it were, " However obstinately 3'ou refuse to recognize me, I am the man — I declare it plainly — who is to found the kingdom of God." And this brings us to our second observation. The Gos- pels are more or less uncertain as to whether the parable re- fers to the people of Israel or to their leaders, the Scribes and High Priests. The fact is that though there were many of the common people who took the side of Jesus, with or without hesitation, yet on the whole the leaders had Israel as a people with them. But for that ven T reason, although the historical interpretation and the comparison of other passages in which the metaphor of the vinejard appears compel us to think of Israel as a whole, yet the parable is aimed in the first instance and almost exclusive^ against the leaders. They are the builders who reject the stone ; it is they who are determined to keep the inheritance ; that is to say, to maintain their influence and supremacy, cost what it ma} T . When the kingdom of God is given to a new people of the Lord, recruited from the common herd of Israel, from sinners and from heathen, — then the leaders who have dashed themselves against this stone will pay a fearful penalty ! i See pp. 371, 372. 392 JESUS TAKES THE AGGRESSIVE. We may therefore well believe that after this parable had been uttered the authorities endeavored to lay hold of Jesus, and were only restrained from instantly taking active meas- ures because they feared a rising of the people w r ho held Jesus for a prophet, or at least apprehended a violent resist- ance on the part of his followers. The}- were only restrained for the moment ! Jesus had not spoken of the murderous thoughts of the husbandmen without good cause. His sen- tence was alread} T as good as passed. According to the first two Gospels it was on Thursday evening, the twelfth of Nisan, two nights and da}-s before the Passover began, that a meeting of members of the San- hedrim was held at the house of the High Priest Caiaphas, to consider how best to get hold of the Nazarene and make away with him. It was determined, in the first place, not to seize him publicly, but to snatch him away in secret ; and, in the second place, to wait till the festival w r as over, for if any thing were attempted during the excitement of the feast, it might give rise to disturbances of which it was impossible to foresee the issue. This would defer all active measures for a full week ; but Jesus would probably remain in Jerusalem as long as that, and if he did not he could be pursued: By that time the strangers, including the Galilseans, would be gone, and most of the followers of Jesus with them. Airy who might still remain would be too few in number to be formidable, especially when once the feast was well over ; and as to the people of Jerusalem, they had remained throughout either hostile or indifferent to the Galilsean leader, and caused his enemies no uneasiness whatever. To this it must inevitably come. The parable of the hus- bandmen was hard upon its fulfilment. The conflict was at an end, — and the end was what Jesus had expected. JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. 393 Chapter XXXII. JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. Luke XXI. 1-4, XVI. 1-9, 11, 12, 14; Matthew X. 41, 42, 16-23, XXIII. 8-12, 34-39, XXI. 18-20, XXIV. 1-3 ff., 42-51, XXV. 1-13, XXVI. 1, 2, 6-13.1 HITHERTO we have seen Jesus at Jerusalem almost exclusively confronted with his enemies. But now that we have traced the progress and the close of the deci- sive conflict which he had to wage, we must return upon our steps a little to prevent or rectify what would be the great mistake of supposing that during the closing weeks of his life he had had nothing but intense^ painful encounters, had been exclusively busied with controversies and denunciations. We must think of him really as spending a great portion of his time amid more congenial surroundings and in happier labors, under the hospitable roof at Bethany, with new-made friends in Jerusalem itself, 2 walking at morn or even with the Twelve (sometimes accompanied by other faithful followers), or mov- ing in the larger circle of his adherents. We know, on the best authority, 3 that very soon after the death of Jesus a band of no less than five hundred persons faithfully attached to him were found together, probably in Galilee ; and very nearly all of these would certainly be at Jerusalem just now. We may take for granted not only that Jesus was fre- quently alone with his friends, but that from time to time he addressed himself exclusively to them, even when strangers were present in greater or smaller numbers. An instance of what I mean is furnished by the following touching scene, which also serves to show how carefully Jesus continued the moral education of his disciples to the ver} 7 last. Once he had gone with his friends through the outer court, up the fourteen steps of the higher terrace, and through the magnificent gate of Nicanor, to seat himself beneath the col- onnade. The Jewish women were not allowed to penetrate further than this into the sacred enclosure ; and this part of the i Mark xii. 41-44, ix. 41, xiii. 9-13, xi. 12-14, 20, 21, xiii. 1-4 ff., 33-37, xiv. 3-9; Luke x. 3, xxi. 12-19, xi. 49-51, xiii. 34, 35, xxi. 5-7 ff., xvii. 22ff., xii. 35-48. 2 See p. 185. 3 1 Corinthians xv. 6. 17* 394 JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. Court of the People was therefore usually known as the Court of the Women, although it was frequented b} T Israelites of both sexes, and was sometimes even used for popular assem- blies. Here, too, was the treasure-house, with its thirteen brazen funnels shaped like trumpets, ready to receive the free- will or the stated offerings to God ; that is to say, the con- tributions in support of the various branches of the temple service. In this last century the temple treasure often rose to an enormous sum. Here Jesus, always the same keen ob- server, sat and watched the people dropping their contribu- tvons into the money-boxes. Most of the coins were copper ; but now and then a richer worshipper would throw in gold or silver, not without an air of pompons satisfaction with him- self. Then came a woman, thinly clad in widow's weeds, and timidlj^ stretched out her hand to drop two little coins into the box, that together made one farthing. Was she pushed aside to make room for others with richer offerings? Did Jesus trace a smile upon some face that seemed to sa} T , tu She need hardly have troubled herself to come here with a far- thing" ? At any rate, the disciples had observed her, and un- derstood their Master when he cried in deep emotion, " I tell t you, that poor widow has given more than all of them ; for the}- have given from their abundance, but she in her penury has thrown in, it may be, all that she had." Jesus did not simply mean that real goodness only exists where some self-sacrifice is involved, but above all he intended to enforce the pervading principle of his life and thought ; namely, the value of small things and of "the little ones." His disciples, like all of us, were led awa}- by outward ap- pearances and needed this lesson constantly, and now perhaps more than ever. 1 On another occasion he reminded them in the same spirit that every service done for God, though so small that no one notices it, is yet observed b} T Him, and will not want its recompense. " Whoever receives a prophet into his home because he is a prophet shall receive a proph- et's reward when the kingdom comes ; and whoever receives a virtuous man because he is a virtuous man shall receive a virtuous man's reward. And if any one gives so much as a cup of cold water to one of my humblest disciples because he is a disciple, not even he shall lose his reward." 2 Nor did he forget to repeat his exhortations to humility and simplicity, 3 if we maj T judge by the following words ad- i See p. 342. 2 See p. 167. 3 See p. 352. JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. 395 dressed to his disciples. They appear in connection with his exposure of the vauity and love of honor displa} ?,d by the Pharisaic Scribes. 1 "Never allow people to call 3'ou Rabbi, for }'Ou have one teacher and you are all brothers. And call no one on earth your father,- for you have one Father [who is in heaven]. And let no one call you leaders, for you have one leader [the Christ] . But the greatest among you shall be your servant. Whoever exalts himself shall be humbled, ar. 1 whoever humbles himself shall be exalted." And moreover, in contemplation of the probable issue of the struggle, Jesus availed himself of the interval that still remained to prepare his followers in general, but especially the Twelve, for the task that awaited them when he was gone. With this view he diligently instructed them, and exhorted them to labor zealously and faithfully for the kingdom of God. Here we should be inclined to place many a charge to spread the gospel of the kingdom without fear of men ; many an exhortation cheerfully to endure the fiercest violence of op- position, which we have already given. 3 Some of his sayings unmistakably proclaim themselves as having been uttered at Jerusalem. Among these is one of undoubted authenticity, preserved in an early Christian work and by the ecclesiastical Fathers, though not to be found in the New Testament : "Make yourselves tried money-changers!" In Jerusalem Jesus had watched the money-changers at their tables, and had observed their knowledge of different coinages, their quickness, their assiduity, and their great profits. In Galilee he had borrowed images from the work of fishermen and peasants, and now he made the trade of money-changing illustrate the work of the kingdom of God. " Make your eyes as quick as theirs," he would say, "to distinguish instantly between the false and true ; be as rapid and unwearied in adapting yourselves to each one's requirements, and make your profits as large, — but more honorable." It was a similar thought that he worked out in the parable of the talents which we have already examined, 4 though it properly belongs to the period we are now considering. The third Gospel further puts into the mouth of Jesus several sayings and one elaborate story borrowed from money transactions, but very different in scope and purpose from the others, as we shall see at once. The story runs as follows : — 1 See p. 385. " Compare vol. t. p. 455. » See pp. 190, 170 ff. 4 See pp. 165, 166. 396 JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. Once there was a rich man who had an agent or steward. In those da} r s such a post was one of greatest trust, and con- ferred the widest cliscretionaiy powers upon him who held it, for, indeed, he was almost irresponsible in the exercise of his office. Now this steward was accused to his patron of run- ning through the estate by his extravagance, upon which the latter summoned him and said : t; What is this that I hear of you? Make up } T our books, for } r ou must quit m} r service." The man was at his wits' end. In a few da} T s he would have given up his books, and would be turned penniless into the world. "What must I do," he thought to himself, "when dismissed from nry master's service? I car not work in the fields, and shame forbids me to beg by the road-side." A sudden thought occurred to him. "I know what to do! When I am dismissed there will be houses enough open to me ! " He summoned his master's debtors, one b} T one, with- out loss of time. The first who came rented an olive-yard for which he was in arrears. " How much do } T ou owe us? " asked the agent. "A hundred casks of oil," he answered timidly. " Fifty will do," replied the agent ; " here is your acknowledgment of the debt. Sit down and change the figure to fifty ; but make haste ! " Then came the second, a tenant farmer, who had not paid his rent for the current year. "Well, and what do you owe us?" he said, as he searched among his papers for the memorandum of the debt. "A hundred sacks of wheat," he answered gioomilj'. " I will let you off twenty. There, take the memorandum back and fill it in for eigMy." And so he went on. The debtors who had come with such heavy hearts had nearly equal sums remitted to them in eveiy case ; and the agent, without exceeding the limits of the powers he still possessed, and without rendering himself liable to an}^ legal proceedings, had earned the hearty gratitude of all the tenants. Even his patron, though his own interests had been sacrificed, could not help admiring the shrewdness with which his steward, at the last moment, had secured support and protection at the hands of those whom he had laid under such great obligations. "For the children of this world," continues the narrator, as he goes on to the application of the stoiy , ' ' are wiser and more sensible in their dealings with each other than the chil- dren of fight, and might well serve as models of foresight and prudence to them. You, too, should make friends by means of that evil Mammon, that lucre to which so much unright- eousness adheres, that when you have lost it the friends it JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. 397 has made } r ou may take you into the dwellings of the kingdom of God. If you have not dealt faithfully with such pitiful wealth as that, who would ever entrust 3^011 with the true wealth, the highest blessing? And if you have not dealt faithfully with that which can never really be } r ours, who would entrust you with 3-our own true inheritance?" We see at once that it is not Jesus who speaks, but the man whose hand we have so often recognized before in the third Gospel, — the man who considers poverty a glory and a merit, and declares that earthly wealth which is not ours, but belongs to Mammon, the god of wealth or the god of the present age. is good for nothing whatever but to be given away in alms. If so used it brings its owner, or rather its administrator, to the kingdom of Heaven ; otherwise to Gehenna. We ma} T further note that the writer, who puts this doctrine into the mouth of Jesus, takes the opportunity of sajing that the Pharisees were covetous, though this was far from being their specially besetting sin. We shall pres- ently meet with a very different picture of a steward in the Gospels, — in this case, perhaps, authentic. " Be faithful in your calling ! " Such was the exhortation which constantly recurred in the Master's conversations with his friends ; but he did not conceal the difficulties that awaited them, and, when speaking of the work henceforth committed to them, he represented the future as any thing but bright with promise. "I am sending 3 r ou out like sheep in the midst of wolves. Be as cautious as serpents and as harmless as doves ! Beware of men, for the3' will drag you before the judgment seats, and beat 3'ou with rods in their S3 T nagogues. 1 But when they give 3 T ou up to justice take no thought before- hand as to how or what to speak in your defence ; for what 3 r ou are to sa3 r will be given 3^011 at the time, for it is not you that speak, but the spirit of 3 T our Father that speaks in you. Brother shall give up brother to death, and father child ; and children shall rise up against their parents to compass their death. And you shall be hated 03- every one, because you are my disciples ; but those who endure to the end shall attain to the kingdom of God. So, when 3^ou are driven out of one city take refuge in another ; for verity 3'ou will not have gone through the cities of Israel before the Son of Man shall come." This final word of encouragement is open to the grav- est suspicion, at any rate in its present form ; nor can Jesus 1 See p. 198; and compare Matthew xxiv. 9, 13. 398 JESUS AMONG F&IENDS. have used the language attributed to him by Luke : "I my- self will give 3 t ou such courage and wisdom that none of your adversaries will have power to resist or contradict you." And finally, the addition made by all the Evangelists, " and } r ou shall also be brought before governors and kings for my sake, as a witness to them and to the heathen," is obviously bor- rowed from the actual event. 1 But enough ! After deducting all the later additions, we have still the means of forming some idea of the line adopted by Jesus during the closing weeks of his life in preparing his faithful disciples for their glorious but arduous task. It seems that Jesus gradually drew back more and more into the circle of his friends. At any rate it is open to doubt whether he continued his public teaching in Jerusalem to the ver} T last. Perhaps the authorities of the temple had taken steps to exclude him from the sacred precincts, and he kept out of their way to avoid tumultuous and violent collisions But all this is simpfy a conjecture, and only rests upon the fact that we find him. one or two days before the Passover apparently, at a meal in Bethany, and on the Thursday morn- ing, when the festival was to begin at even, he sent two of his disciples to the city in advance, and himself, perhaps, remained with his host till the afternoon. It has indeed been imagined that Jesus expressly bade farewell to Jerusalem in a saying still preserved. For at the close of the attack upon the Scribes and Pharisees occurs a passage which we shall presently give in full, concluding with the words addressed to the citizens of Jerusalem: "I tell you, you shall see me no more till the time when you shall sa}^, ' Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord ! ' " From this enigmatical saying it has even been inferred that Jesus thought of returning to Galilee. But the fact is that the whole passage which these words conclude seems to be a citation from some lost work of the Jewish-Christian school. There are other sayings attributed to Jesus in the Gospels which likewise point to the existence of such a work, com- posed a little before the fall of the Jewish state. Perhaps it resembled the contemporary book of Revelation, and at any rate took the form of an oracle containing a description of the approaching end of the world and establishment of the kingdom of God. 2 "We shall presently return 3 to the evi- 1 Compare Acts xxiii. 33, xxv. 6, 23. 55 See pp 22, 24. s See p. 402. JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. 399 denee that such a book existed and was used by the Evan gelists ; but meanwhile we will give the whole passage of t\ hicb. we are now speaking. Though the words are put into the mouth of Jesus in the Gospels, 3-et in the original work they must have been uttered by the ''Wisdom of God," 1 which is equivalent to his Spirit or Revelation. "Behold! I send prophets and sages and Scribes to } T ou ; and some of them you will sla} T and crucify, and others 3'ou will scourge in 3-our synagogues and pursue from city to cit}~ ; that upon you may come [that is, that 3-011 ma3 T be held responsible for] all the righteous blood that has been shed upon the earth from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah the son of Berechiah, whom you slew between the temple and the altar. Verily I sa3~ unto 3^011 it shall all come upon this generation ! 41 O Jerusalem, Jerusalem ! thou who slay est the prophets and stonest those that are sent unto thee ! how often would I have gathered th3 7 children together as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings, and ye would not ! But now I withdraw ury protecting hand from your house, and 3'ou shall no more see me till the time when 30U shall sa3', ' Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord ! ' " Here Wisdom, or more plainly God himself, complains of the chosen people. For a short time He will surrender Israel to punishment, till the kingdom of God shall come in its glory. Now the date of these verses ma3 T be gathered with great precision from the mention of Zechariah's murder as the latest deed of its kind. Of course this man is not the son of Jehoiada who was stoned more than eight and a half centuries before, 2 but a certain man whom Josephus speaks of as a rich and noble citizen, whose hatred of all evil and love of freedom exposed him to the enmit3 r of the zealots. The3 T endeavored to compass his death ; and when, in spite of their threats, the court which the3' had instituted to con- demn him pronounced him , innocent, the3' slew him in the temple and then hurled him down the precipice. It is a strange anachronism to make Jesus mention this murder ; but in other respects it was a fine conception to la3 r upon his lips this profoundly touching expression of disappointment at Israel's impenitence. The following picture was drawn with a similar intention : Early in the morning, as Jesus was going to the city from Bethan3 T with his friends, be felt hungry ; and seeing a fig-tree 1 See p. 252, and compare Luke xi. 49. 2 See vol. iL p. 175. 400 JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. at some little distance, in full leaf, he went up to it to pluck some fruit, but found that there were only leaves upon it. " May never man eat fruit of you again ! " he cried, and the tree immediately withered, upon which the disciples said in amazement: , u See how the fig-tree has shrivelled up in an instant ! " We can hardly read this little story as it stands without a shock ; not so much because of its gross impossibilhVy as be- cause this curse is so utterly unworthy of Jesus. The first two Gospels, taking the story literally, have doubtless failed to reproduce it faithfully. Mark, who spreads it over two days and makes the unfortunate remark that it was not time for figs yet, is especially far out. But it is easy to rediscover the true meaning. For in the third Gospel, which does not give this story, we have already heard Jesus speaking of Israel as the unfruitful fig-tree. 1 And here again the fig- tree is Israel, and the emphasis falls upon the disappointment of Jesus. It was not without reason that he had formed such lofty expectations, for the tree was covered with luxuriant foliage. Israel seemed so zealous for the service and the honor of its God, so fervid in its longing for the Messianic blessedness ! Alas ! it was but an empty show. The sub- stance, the fruit which it promised and which it ought to bear, was nowhere to be found. The consequences could not be averted. Israel had smitten itself for ever with absolute spiritual barrenness. This image, then, as a description of the final issue, is quite in its place at this period of the ministry of Jesus, and accu- rately represents the fact. The sublime attempt of Jesus had failed. The masses of the people lent him a ready ear ; 2 but their shallow attachment was worth nothing, for it did not win them to the kingdom. Meanwhile his position grew more critical from day to day, and the storm was rapidly approaching. Must not a deep melancholy have settled on him, even when among his friends, as he thought of the judg- ment his people was bringing down upon itself? Doubtless the sigh which Luke 3 would have us think escaped him at the very moment of his triumphal entiy did indeed rise more than once a week or two later, as he crossed the western slope of the Mount of Olives with the Twelve and saw the city stretched before him. Well might he weep for her and c^, "Oh if thou didst but know, now that the rescuing hand is 1 See p. 349. 3 Mark xii. 37. 8 Luke xix.. 41-44 ; see ilso p. 357. JESUS AMONG FRIENDS. 401 extended to thee ! if thou didst but know what truly makes for th} T salvation ! But alas ! thine eyes are blind ! " Well might he breathe his dark forebodings to his friends, though not precisel}' in the form which Luke has borrowed from the his- tory of the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70 a. d. " The daj^s shall surety come when thine enemies shall cast up a mound against thee, and surround thee and hem thee in upon every side, and destroy both thee and thy children within thee, and leave no stone standing upon another, because thou hast brought to nought God's last attempt to save thee ! " We also rind in all three Gospels an elaborate prediction which Jesus is represented as making to the Twelve or to four of them, and in which the heaviest sufferings are fore- told to Israel. Luke, who gives two of these discourses, goes so far in the second of them as expressly to describe the siege and capture of the City of the Temple, which is another in- stance of histoiy in the form of prophec\ r . But even in its earlier shape the discourse can hardly be from Jesus. It de- scribes the end of the present world with all the fearful events which will precede it, the return of Jesus from heaven with terrific signs in the sky, and the great Messianic judgment. Its different parts are not only disconnected, but contradic- torv. For instance, we are told on the one hand that the return of the Son of Man, and the establishment of the king- dom of God, will most assuredly take place before the gener- ation of the contemporaries of Jesus has passed awa} T ; and, on the other hand, that these events must not be looked for too soon ; that the gospel must first be preached to eveiy na- tion throughout the world, and that no one, not even the Son of Man, has any knowledge when the} 7 will come to pass. Moreover, the discourse displays an unmistakable resemblance to the various productions of that peculiar branch of Jewish literature represented in the Bible b} T Daniel and Revelation, and outside the canon by various other writings ; x and, finally, it appears on careful inspection that the original author, while acquainted with the events that immediately preceded the fall of the Jewish people, had no knowledge of the fall itself. Much the same may be said of the book of Revela- tion. All this makes it tolerably certain that the discourse we are dealing with consists of loose fragments of a more ex- tensive work written a j would abolish the purifications prescribed to us." "He an nuls the Law and the prophets." We can easily see to what extent the councillors were justi- fied, from their own point of view, in making these accusa- tions. 2 They certainty regarded Jesus as a destroyer of religion and a seducer of the people ; and that saying of his about the tribute, when brought into connection with his claims to the Messianic dignity, might well be turned against him, for in the kingdom of God there would of course be no trace of the Roman supremacy. On the other hand, it is unfair to draw inferences from a man's words which he him- self would emphatically reject ; and of course it was only the grossest party spirit that could dictate these malicious accu- sations. On this ground we can understand why Jesus still observed a lofty silence when the opportunity was given him of clearing himself. The misrepresentations of his conduct and his teaching were the result of obstinate blindness, and no attempt to remove them would avail. Silence was the ■ Matthew xxvii. 12, 14. 2 See pp. 375, 6, 89, 185, 280, 281, 309 f. SENTENCE 0E DEATH CONFIRMED. 441 only means of preserving his dignity. But the governor, in very natural surprise, exclaimed : u Have you no answer? You hear all their accusations?" In vain. Jesus would not reply ; and his silence, while increasing Pilate's surprise, deepened his conviction of the prisoner's innocence. It is difficult to say what course the trial might now have taken' had not a sudden turn been given to it at this moment. It is not quite clear how it was caused. The governor, we are told, was in the habit of gratifying the people at the Pass- over by releasing a prisoner whom they selected. This cus- tom is entirety unknown to us except from the Gospels, and was probably introduced by Pilate himself, or one of his pre- decessors, to conciliate or appease the Jews. In any case the object of the custom was obviously to prevent seditions at the great feast of the nation's freedom. Sometimes the execution of rebels was deferred to the Passover, in order to serve as a terrible example ; while the pardon of a popular favorite, on the other hand, might have the effect of propitiating the peo- ple. Thus two opposite ways were taken to reach the same goal. Now while Pilate was sitting in judgment and the coun- cillors were arguing their points against Jesus, the thin attendance of the public at this early hour was swelled b} T a considerable concourse of citizens, who came from various quarters up the hill and through the gates of the royal for- tress to ask the governor to grant the usual pardon to a prisoner. Was this the morning fixed b} T usage ; or were they drawn together by a chance report that the question of releasing the prisoner was now being dealt with, or was shortly coming on? At such a season it needed little to collect a growing crowd. No doubt the high priests began to be anxious and uneasy when the} T saw the people streaming together. Pilate, on the other hand, saw a sudden chance of putting an end to the trial, which he hardly knew how to deal with, and releasing this extraordinary prisoner. He would get the people to demand his liberation, and then all would be settled; for he had clearly perceived that the Jewish authorities cherished a rancorous hatred against the Nazarene, but he did not sup- pose the people would share it. Perhaps he knew, or had just learned from the accusers, that this man had a following among the people. So the Roman rose from his seat, de- manded silence with a gesture of command, and said: "I 442 SENTENCE OF DEATH CONFIRMED. will grant your request ! Shall I release Jesus, the King of the Jews ? " Then he resumed his seat to give them time to consider. Pilate had been as clums}^ as usual. His tone of contemp- tuous mockeiT was little calculated to win assent to his prop- osition. And yet he had nearly accomplished his end. But the councillors, maddened at the thought of losing their prey after all, bent all their energies to diverting the popular choice from Jesus, and had the presence of mind to suggest a genu- ine popular favorite. There happened to be a certain Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus son of Abbas, in prison at the time, His full name has only been preserved in certain manuscripts of the first Gospel. Elsewhere, out of a ver}- natural reverence for the name of Jesus, he is simply called Barabbas. Matthew tells us he was a celebrated prisoner ; Mark, that he had been concerned in a tumult that ended in bloodshed. He was probably a fanatical patriot, who had killed a Roman soldier in his zeal for the Lord. Perhaps he was to be executed that very day. This was the man whom the members of the San- hedrim suggested to the people, in order to cause a diversion and prevent their demanding the liberation of Jesus of Naza- reth. Matthew, indeed, makes the suggestion come from Pilate himself, who says: u Shall I release Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus called Christ? " But this is improbable, as it would only have allowed the people a choice between two men. But whoever first brought forward the name of Barabbas, and whether the people if left to themselves would have de- cided in favor of Jesus or not, it is certain that Pilate w T as quite thrown out of his calculations. Perhaps a few voices were raised for Jesus at first, and possibly the liberation of some third prisoner was demanded here and there ; but those who dissented from the majority were soon shouted down, and from every quarter of the ample court the cry resounded, " Barabbas ! Let us have Barabbas ! " The dependants of the councillors and the men of Jerusalem generally were doubtless loudest in the shout, for the priestly authorities had great influence over them. A desire to cross the wishes of Pilate, resentment at his haughty and contemptuous lan- guage, the sight of the unsuccessful prophet or Messiah, and partiality to the zealot, all contributed towards this wretched choice. Pilate saw that what he had regarded as a happy inspira- tion had turned out a blunder. But instead of at once recov- ering himself he persisted, with unpardonable weakness, in SENTENCE OF DEATH CONFIRMED. 443 making the people judge in his place. He concealed his vexation and disappointment, and asked, " Then what shall I do with this man that 3'ou call the King of the Jews ? " He gave them an opening to demand his liberation also. But in vain. "Crucify him!" shrieked the councillors and their dependants ; and the multitude, determined to thwart Pilate, smarting under his repeated scoff, and having definitely es- poused the cause of the Sanhedrim, took up the murderous cry of " Crucify him ! " The}* were eager to show the insult- ing Roman that his helpless prisoner was no king of their choosing, whatever he might be pleased to call him ! The governor's anger now began to rise ; but he only made matters worse, and exposed his own weakness and folly yet more by his expostulation, " Well, but what harm has he done? " The stormy cry rose wilder than ever from all sides of the court, "Crucify him! " Then Pilate gave it up. He had bound his own hands, and really did not care about the matter enough to make a vigorous stand against the popular demand and risk disturbances. He saw that he must let the excited people have their way, ordered the release of Barabbas, and turned to Jesus with the few but fearful words, '■' I sentence you to the cross ! " The supreme authority had ratified the sentence of the Sanhedrim. Here let us pause to review the later additions to this nar- rative, preserved in Matthew and Luke. The feelings of early Christendom were not satisfied bj T this tradition of the trial before the procurator. They demanded more emphatic witness to the innocence of Jesus, and warmer interest on the part of the Roman. As the heathen world had given Christianity a reception which, when compared with the stubbornness of the Jews, might be considered favorable, so they felt that Pilate himself, as representing the heathen, must have taken a very definite stand against the Sanhedrim and the people on behalf of Jesus ; must have made every effort to rescue him, instead of displaying the comparative indifference that we have witnessed. This idea was after- wards worked out into such fictions as we find in the apocry- phal " Gospel of Nicodemus," where the trial is expanded and embellished with every manner of supernatural adjunct past all recognition. But all this, as foreign to our present purpose, we may pass bj\ Matthew tells us that when Pilate had given the Jews their 444: SENTENCE OF DEATH CONFIRMED. choice between Jesus and Barabbas and resumed his seat, he received a message from his wife, whom later traditions call Claudia Procula, to this effect: "Take care what you do to that righteous man, for I have had dreadful dreams about him in the night ! " It was an omen, sent to warn her hus- band not to draw down the vengeance of the deit} T upon his head. We ma}' call to mind in this connection how large a part dreams play elsewhere in the latest additions to this Gospel. 1 Now when Pilate, we are told soon afterwards, saw that his attempt to rescue Jesus had failed, that his opposi- tion to the people's stormy demands was unavailing, and that there was imminent risk of a tumult, he attempted to bring the people to their senses by a visible presentment of his own feelings. He sent for a basin of water, and washed his hands before all the multitude, with the words : "I will have nothing to do with shedding this man's blood. I pub- licly renounce all share in his execution. The whole respon- sibility rests upon you ! " But the surging multitude, in its miserable blindness, did not hesitate for a moment to incur the appalling guilt which it failed to recognize, and shrieked, " His blood be upon us and our children ! " Then, at last, Pilate gave way. But this scrupulous anxiety to preserve a human life is still less in keeping with the Roman procura- tor's character than the adoption of the Jewish custom of washing the hands in token of innocence ; 2 and the impreca- tion that follows is evidently laid upon the lips of the people in view of the destruction of Jerusalem, which was regarded as a punishment for the murder of the Messiah. 3 Luke goes still further in describing the heathen governor's favorable disposition, and in giving testimonies to the inno- cence of Jesus. He makes Pilate, on hearing that Jesus is a Galilsean, and therefore under the jurisdiction of Herod Anti- pas, send him to the "Petrarch himself, who was in Jerusalem celebrating the Passover. Herod, says the Evangelist, was greatly delighted, for he had long wished to see Jesus, 4 in con- sequence of all he had heard of him ; and now he hoped he would work some wonder in his presence. But Jesus did not so much as deign to answer any of his questions, though the members of the Sanhedrim, who were also there, made violent accusations against him. Then the careless and irreverent prince compensated himself for his disappointment by joining 1 See pp. 41, 70, 71. 2 Deuteronomy xxi. 6 ff. ; compare 2 Samuel iii. 28. 8 Compare Matthew xxi. 41, xxii. 7. 4 See p. 372. SENTENCE OF DEATH CONFIRMED. 445 his troops in mocking Jesus as a harmless fanatic, and cloth- ing him in a royal robe of shining white. Then he sent him back: to Pilate, whom he thanked for his courtesy, explaining at the same time that there was no pretext for charging Jesus with political offences. After that the hostility between the Roman procurator and the only surviving son of Herod gave place to friendship. Pilate, says Luke, had from the first declared to the mem- bers of the Sanhedrim and the people that he could find no guilt in the man ; and now, according to the third Gospel, he- summoned them again and said : " You have brought this man before me as a seducer of the people, but I have examined him in your presence and have not found him guilty of any of the things with which you charge him. Nor has Herod found him guilty, for I referred you to him ; but nothing was brought to light to justify" the sentence of death. I will have him beaten, therefore, to satisfy you, and will then release him." Then came the cry for the release of Barabbas rather than Jesus, upon which Pilate spoke again, with the undisguised intention of securing the release of Jesus ; and when the peo- ple shouted "Crucify him!" Pilate declared for the third time that he could find nothing worthy of death in him, and repeated his proposal onh* to scourge him. All in vain ! The conduct here ascribed to Pilate is highly improbable ; and so is that of Herod, who had wished to get Jesus out of the way-, not long before, as a dangerous character. 1 The statement in the Acts 2 that Herod and Pilate had conspired with heathen and Israelites against Jesus the holy servant of God is far less unlikely ; but the co-operation and subsequent friendship of Pilate and Herod are in any case very improba- ble, for these two men must alway-s have been jealous and sus- picious of each other, since Herod was constantly aiming at reuniting all the portions of his father's kingdom under his own sceptre. 3 Finally, the scourging which Jesus was forced to undergo was not intended as an independent punishment. It generally preceded executions, especially upon the cross ; and it was inflicted upon Jesus, according to the most trust- worthy- accounts, as the beginning of the crucifixion. Like the mockery to which he was also subjected, it must have fol- lowed directly upon the delivery of the sentence, and in the palace of the procurator. The oldest Gospels give the following account of it : The 1 See pp. 274 f. 2 Acts iv. 27. 3 See pp. 375, 3, 4, 348. 446 SENTENCE OF DEATH CONFIRMED. executioners, in this case the soldiers, seized the prisoner and stripped him, fastened his hands behind his back, bound him to a post with his back bent forward, and scourged him with thongs or ropes, w^th some sharp, hard substance fixed to the ends. A hideous barbarity ! When this was over, it appears that some preparations were still needful before they could set out for the place of execution, and the Nazarene was, there- fore, kept in a guard-room or an inner court. But even here he had no respite. The brutalized soldiers found a pleasure in exposing the defenceless and tortured ' ' king " to the coarse license of their raillery. They called all the band together, and instead of giving Jesus his own clothes again, the}' threw a scarlet robe upon him, such as the Roman warriors and gen- erals wore, while from time to time it was conferred as an honor upon foreign princes. Then one of them brought a reed and thrust it into his right hand for a sceptre ; while an- other hastily cut some bits of bramble, twisted them loosely into a crown, and forced them upon his temples. Then they bowed in mock solemnhYy before him, and cried, "All hail, thou king of the Jews ! " After which they spit in his face, and snatched the reed from his hand to strike him with it on the head. Thus the}^ drove their cruel sport with him till every thing was ready for the execution. Then they hastily stripped him of the scarlet mantle, gave him his own clothes again, and led him out to the hill of Golgotha, outside the cit} T gate, where the crucifixion was to take place. The heart turns sick at such a scene ! What a depth of shame and suffering ! And Jesus knew that the worst was 3^et to come. What could have kept him from sinking into dull despair, what could have preserved him from loathing and detesting his fellow-men in the midst of all this cruelty and coarseness, except the strength of faith and love, and the constant recurrence to the thought that in spite of all, or rather b}~ means of all, that he must suffer, even to the crush- ing horrors of the end, the goal of his life would be reached, though only in his death ? * And so his deep humiliation does but make him greater and more glorious in our e} T es, does but deepen our reverence for him, and teach us to feel the holiness of suffering. God was with him of a truth in these hours. The Father had not left him alone. 2 1 See p. 416. 2 John viii. 29 xvi. 32. THE CRUCIFIXION. 447 Chapter XXXVII. THE CRUCIFIXION. Mark XV. 206-47.1 IN accordance with the general custom the sentence of death was carried out at once, under the orders of the judge ; and in this case therefore by the Roman soldiers, and not, as Luke implies, by the Jews. 2 The proceedings before Pilate may have occupied an hour, or at the outside two hours, and the further preparations cannot have caused any long delay. It is therefore very possible that the crucifixion took place at about nine o'clock in the morning, as is indicated in a note of later origin in the second Gospel. 3 The whole force which the procurator had brought from Caesarea to gar- rison the royal fortress, consisting of at least a cohort or battalion, was standing under arms in the court ; and a mani- ple, or company, was now ordered out to keep order during the execution, the whole conduct of which was entrusted to the officer in command. The procession set out through the gate of the palace and along the street. It was usual on such occasions to go through the most frequented quarters of the city, in order to give the terrible example its greatest possible effect. In front went a herald proclaiming the culprit's offence, which was further set out in painted letters on a white board to be nailed over the head of the cross ; and in this case the words were "The King of the Jews." Then came the condemned man himself, carrying, as a sign of disgrace, the instrument of torture upon which he was to end his life ; not the whole of it, however, but only the cross-beam to be fixed upon the up- right stake. Together with Jesus two robbers, whose exe- cution had been delayed till the feast time, were led out to death. Nothing is recorded of the progress to the place of execu- tion, except that when the city gate was reached the cross was taken away from Jesus. This was no mark of pity, but only a measure to prevent delay and trouble ; for in spite 1 Matthew xxvii. 31b-61 ; Luke xxiii. 26-56. 2 Luke xxiii. 25. 3 Mark xv. 25. 448 THE CRUCIFIXION. of the strokes and blows of the executioners Jesus could go no further : his strength failed, and he could bear the beam no longer. A certain Simon, a native of Cyrene in North Africa, who happened to be just entering the city, was com- pelled by the soldiers to take up the beam and carry it to the place of death. It was naturally against his will that he was pressed into the service ; and since the second Gospel calls him the father of Alexander and Rufus, 1 as if these names belonged to well-known Christians, it has been con jectured that Simon, being brought into such close contact with Jesus, afterwards joined the community of his disciples. All else that we are told under this head is very doubtful, if not distinctly legendary. Thus, Luke tells us that in the crowd which followed the procession there were many women who wept and lamented for Jesus, with cries and gestures of grief. But he turned to them and disclaimed their pity with the words : " Daughters of Jerusalem ! weep not for me, but weep for yourselves and }*our children. For days of such unutterable woe are coming that the blessing of motherhood shall be held a curse, and the childless woman shall be counted blessed in Israel. Then shall the fugitives, in their despair, cry to the mountains, ' Fall upon us ! ' and to the hills, ' Cover us ! ' For if all this comes upon the green tree [upon me], what will not be done to the diy [this aban- doned generation] ! " There is a tone of lofty earnestness and pity in these words ; but they are not given by either of the first two Evangelists ; we are quite unprepared to heai them from Jesus, who had hitherto been absolutely silent, and was now utterly exhausted ; the occasion hardly afforded an opportunity for their utterance, and they give us the impression of having been written after the destruction of Jerusalem. 2 The later traditions of the Church tell us of a certain woman (Veronica) who was deeply moved with pity, wiping the brow of Jesus with a napkin, and in reward for her com- passion finding the image of the sufferer stamped upon it ever afterwards ! On the other hand, we are told of a Jew (Ahasuerus) who heartlessly drove Jesus away when he would have rested for a moment on the bench before his house ; upon which Jesus condemned him to wander rest- lessly over the earth without being able to die, till he should return from heaven as the Christ. This was the Wandering Jew, — the Jewish people, condemned for its obduracy to 1 Compare Romans xvi. 13. 2 Compare p. 401. THE CRUCIFIXION. 449 survive when every other ancient people was no more, with- out a fatherland, — in exile everywhere, — till the kingdom of God be perfected. Finally, we may mention that from the fourteenth century down to the present day the streets have been pointed out in Jerusalem along which Jesus is said to have been taken. They are known as the Via Dolorosa, or Woeful Way, and lead through the Sheep Gate, between Moriah and Bezetha, past the palace of Pilate (the castle of Antonia) , through the Gate of Judgment, to Golgotha ; * and the visitor is still shown the very spots at which each detail is said to have occurred. Though the ancients had no regular places of execution, — like our k ' Traitor's Hill," for instance, — yet the}* always chose some place outside the envy gates, and b}* preference a spot exposed to view on every side, conspicuous from a distance, and hard by some frequented thoroughfare. Doubtless these conditions were fulfilled by the place selected on this occa- sion, which was Golgotha. Its name, which signifies •■ skull," suggests a bare, round hill, which we must suppose to have- been situated just outside the city, at some spot where there would be crowds of passers-by. Its site, however, can no longer be identified. 2 The tradition that points out the present Golgotha, where the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands, is groundless. The destination was soon reached, and the execution begun. We will not outrage the feelings of our readers by describing all the details of what followed, but we cannot pass it by completely. The savage inhumanity of this form of execu- tion, expressly designed to make the criminal die as slowly and painfully as possible, is be}'ond all description ; and it had further gathered round itself the maximum of disgrace and shame, — for it was reserved for slaves, robbers, deserters, and rioters. Entirely foreign to the Jewish penal code, it had been introduced and freely practised b}' the Romans in their provinces, as a palpable proof of their supremac}*, and an ex- ample well calculated to inspire terror. The punishment had now become so familiar to the Jews that the people themselves had instantly suggested it to Pilate in answer to his question, " AVhat shall I do with Jesus?" The cross had various forms. Sometimes the beams were crossed obliquely, like an X ; sometimes they were at right i See Map IV. 2 See vol. ii. pp 4, 5 ; compare Hebrews xiii. 12. 450 THE CRUCIFIXION. angles, with the upright stake projecting slightly above the cross-beam, thus -(" ; sometimes the cross had the shape of a T ; and the most ancient tradition says that this was the case with the cross of Jesus. At the place of execution, the longest and thickest beam, or stake, was fixed upright in the ground, either when the execution took place or before- hand, and was duly secured against swaying. Then the criminal was stripped, his extended arms were secured by strong cords to the other beam, and then long, sharp nails were driven through his open palms deep into the wood. Then the cross-beam was raised above the upright stake, or fixed near the top of it. The sufferer's body was so far sup- ported as to prevent its weight from wrenching his hands away from the nails, and his feet — which nearly touched the ground, since the cross was seldom high — were fixed to the upright beam by a sharp iron bolt. Then the executioner's task was over, and it only remained to keep guard. The scorching heat of the sun, the insupportable thirst, the in flamed and burning wounds, and the strained, unnatural at- titude, each of which grew more intolerable every moment while none could be alleviated, the rush of blood to the heart and brain, the unbearable pain and exhaustion, — all these must do the rest. None of the wounds were fatal in them- selves, and if no finishing- stroke were given to the victim, it was generally four-and-twenty hours, and sometimes, if his S3'stem were strong, two or three days, before his tortures had an end. And on this occasion, also, every thing was done as usual. The place of execution was lined by soldiers. The three stakes were alread} 7 there, or were now erected not far from one another. The middle one was for the Nazarene. And here one touch of humanity lightens the hideous spectacle. A Jewish usage 1 prescribed that a numbing potion should be given the victims before they suffered. Jewish tradition states that distinguished ladies of Jerusalem prepared it at their own expense, from strong wine and grains of frank- incense. The first Gospel speaks of wine mixed with worm- wood, 2 and Mark of wine and myrrh. In any case it was a fragrant drink of numbing and therefore pain-allaying proper- ties. But when the executioners offered the cup to Jesus he refused it, perhaps after tasting it half-mechanically and per- ceiving from its bitter though pleasant taste the purpose it 1 See Proverbs xxxi. 6, 7. 2 Matthew xxvii. 34, after an amended version. THE CRUCIFIXION. 451 was meant to serve. He wished to preserve his full con- sciousness to the veiy last, and he felt strong enough in God to bear the worst. They stripped him of his clothes, which fell to the execu- tioners ; he was bound, nailed, lifted up, nailed again. Above his head the board already mentioned was fixed, recording his offence in Latin, Greek, and (if Pilate's writers understood enough of the language) Hebrew. Then the two robbers right and left of him met the same fate. The soldiers had done their work. Four sentries were left to guard each cross, and were probably relieved at noon, the relays succeeding each other ever}^ three hours. The booty was divided by throwing lots from a helmet, to decide who should have the upper and who the under garment. The officer in charge meanwhile paced up and down, and remained upon the place of execution as the responsible agent of the procurator. There Jesus hung, a prey to unutterable tortures, like th<* refuse and the scum of society, laden with its curse ! Alas ! it seemed as though he were rejected and thrust out by every one ; for not a single friend had dared to show his face upon the hill. Ah, yes ! there, behind that group of spectators, is a little cluster of faithful Galilaean women, — Magdalene, Maiy, Salome, and others, — who had come with him to the feast, from the fatherland. 1 Although the glorious expecta- tions of their faith had been disappointed no less than those of the disciples, yet their love never flagged. And when the hearts of all the men had failed them, these faithful women dared to come to the hill of crucifixion, that, if by chance Jesus should turn his eyes around in hopes of meeting some responsive glance of love and pity, he might not look in vain. All honor to their steadfast love ! Alas ! his enemies were also there, and did not spare him even now. They felt no reverence for the greatness of his woe ; they had nothing but taunts for the utter wreck of his mighty schemes. While many of the spectators looked on in silence, there were some who could not leave him unmolested even now. Passers by railed at him, wagging their heads in sign of contempt and mockery. These were apparently mem- bers of the Council and their subordinates in the first instance, who were acquainted with the details of the trial, and turned their poisoned shafts against him as the unsuccessful reformer * see pp. 185, 186, 336, UZ-. 452 THE CRUCIFIXION. ami the false Messiah. " Ah ! you who can break down the temple and build it up again in three da} T s, can you save yourself from the cross ? " cried one, while the rest applauded his sally. " If 3-011 really are the Son of God, why don't you come down?" was caught up from mouth to mouth among another group. We are expressly told that the high priests and Scribes hurled at him the taunting challenge : " There hangs the Messiah, — Israel's mighty king ! If he will but come down from the cross, we will all believe in him." Nay, so infectious is the spirit of reviling mockery that the very robbers who were crucified with him caught up the cry, — as if the}^ found some alleviation in their pain by venting their rage and spleen on Jesus. According to the Gospels, even his own deeds of merc} r were now thrown in his teeth: "He saved others, but he cannot save himself ! " And since the primitive Christians regarded the twent} T -second Psalm as the programme of the sufferings of the Messiah, Matthew goes the length, in the face of all likelihood, of making the councillors cry: "He trusted in God ! Then let Him deliver him, if He takes pleasure in him ; for he said, ' I am the Son of God ! ' " x We need not stay to consider this any further ; but we would fain know, were it possible, whether the words of scorn went home, and what was passing in the sufferer's heart during these hours. But here we can only guess ; for Jesus, with unbroken firm- ness, preserved a lofty, a heroic, a majestic silence. He had not so deadened his human feelings by fanatical exaltation as to rejoice, as many martyrs have done, in the midst of his suffer- ings. But he showed such strength of soul, such self-command, that in the midst of hideous tortures not a sigh or lamentation broke from his lips, — at any rate until the very hour of his death. Such was the fruit of his unrelaxed self-discipline, and, at the last, of his prayer in Gethsemane ! 2 So after all we are not wholly without indications of the mood in which he met his death. He had done all he could to keep his con- sciousness unclouded, and even in these hours he lived with God. He doubtless thought of his suffering and death, since the event had shown that they were inevitable, as a part of his life-task, — needful to insure the establishment of the kingdom of God. He had been faithful, he had shrunk from nothing, and it was not in vain that he had braved the worst. He could think of the past without self-reproach ; and the 1 See Psalm xxii. 7-9 ; compare vol. ii. pp. 308-310. 2 See pp. 424, 425. THE CRUCIFIXION. 453 future was rich in the fairest hopes. His e}*e was turned to heaven with unbroken trust in God ; with unextinguished love for man he looked down from his cross upon those blinded multitudes and that cit}- that murdered the prophets ! To a certain extent at least his thoughts are strikingly in- terpreted by a few sentences which the third Evangelist lays upon his lips. He tells us that as Jesus was being fixed to the cross, or immediately afterwards, he said : " Father, for- give them, for they know not what the^y do!" But at this moment he was surrounded onry b} 7 the Roman soldiers, who were simply doing their dut}- ; whereas the prayer must, from the nature of the case, be referred to the Jews, and especially the members of the Sanhedrim. And }'et, even if he did not give it utterance, there lived in the soul of Jesus through these hours of horror an exceeding love even of those who hated him, — and hated him because of his fideluy to God, — which might well force a prayer for them to his lips ; there lived an unshaken reverence for human nature which could not admit the possibilit}' of a wanton crime committed with open ej-es. 1 Again, when the Jewish elders mocked him, and the soldiers while offering him vinegar followed their exam- ple, Luke makes him speak a second time. One of the two robbers, he sa}'s, had been reviling him and sa} r ing, "Are not } T ou the Messiah? Well, then, rescue yourself and us ! " But the other rebuked him and said : " Have } T ou no fear of God while undergoing the same punishment as this man? And we indeed rightly, for we are receiving what our deeds deserve ; but he has done no wrong." Then he turned to the cross that stood between them and said: "Jesus, think of me when you come with your kingdom ! " Upon which Jesus spoke the words of comfort : " Of a truth I tell you that this ver} 7 day you shall be with me in paradise." Here again we are unable to accept the words as historical ; partly because the first two Gospels leave no room for them, and because of their reference to the paradise in the underworld ; - but chiefly because the} 7 represent the malefactor as expecting Jesus to return to earth as the Messiah, and to raise up and judge the dead. But, for all that, the unshaken confidence in his own future, the desire to save the lost even now, and the lofty sense of conscious dignit} T which are here ascribed to Jesus, unquestionably reflect with perfect fidelity his tone of heart and mind even in these hours of horror. 1 See pp. 228 ff., 175 : compare Acts vii. 60 and Isaiah liii. 12. 2 See ante, pp. 40, 42. 454 THE CRUCIFIXION. Another exclamation is recorded by our oldest witnesses, Matthew and Mark, as uttered from the cross. About three in the afternoon, it seems, when his life was fast ebbing, his suffering became for a moment more than he could bear, and at last he broke the lofty silence he had hitherto preserved by a piercing cry of pain that almost sounded like a cry of de- spair. The Evangelists accordingly, with the twent} T -second Psalm still in their minds, interpret the cry by the opening- words of that poem : " Eli, Eli ! lama sabacthani? " — " Mj r God, m} T Gocl ! why hast thou forsaken me ? " Now some of those who were standing b}^, the Evangelists go on to sa}% when the}' heard his ciy, exclaimed in mockery, " Listen ! he is calling for Elijah ! " upon which one of them ran up, and dipping a sponge into the vinegar put it on the end of a cane, reached it up to his lips to refresh him a little, and said, "Well, then, let us see whether Elijah will come and take him down." Or perhaps these latter words were spoken by some of the others who held their companion back : " Let it alone ! we must see whether Elijah comes to take him down." Now this supposed exclamation of Jesus has sometimes been interpreted veiy- perversely, and has even given rise within the Church to such offensive doctrines as that Jesus lost his faith in himself and his cause, or that God did actually desert him because of the sins of mankind. But in any case it seems to us far more probable that these words of the Mes- sianic passion-psalm were put into the mouth of Jesus by tra- dition than that he really uttered them. The sequel, too, throws great suspicion on the report ; for the Jews were not allowed to approach the cross, and what did the Roman sol- diers know about Elijah? Besides, if the Jews had really heard him cry ' ' Eli ! " or ' ' Eloi ! " they would hardly have mis- taken the words of the twenty-second Psalm for a cry to the precursor of the Messianic kingdom, — a mistake upon which their raillery is made to depend. We must, therefore, put aside these words, as in all probability unhistorical ; but, on the other hand, there is not the least reason to doubt the uni- form tradition that a few moments before his death Jesus uttered a cry of pain, and that, as he was gasping almost in the death- throe, some one refreshed him by putting a sponge to his lips, dipped in the soldiers' sour drink, — a mixture of vinegar, water, and eggs, — a cruse of which would certainly be there for the use of the sentries. 1 Only a few minutes afterwards, in the very death-struggle 1 Compare Luke xxiii. 36 ; John xix. 28, 29 ; Hebrews v. 7. THE CRUCIFIXION. 455 itself, followed a second cry, which Luke interprets, again at the suggestion of a passage in a psalm, 1 as his last prayer of trust: "Father! into thy hands I commend my spirit." Then his head sunk upon his breast, a deadly pallor over- spread his face, and all was over. The struggle was at an end ; the suffering was done. Com- paratively speaking, it had not been long. Jesus certainly breathed his last before sunset, and apparently soon after three in the afternoon. He had, therefore, only been upon the cross six, or at most eight, hours. But all that he had alreadj T gone through during the last few days and weeks, especially the evening, the night, and the morning that had just passed, together with the scourging and maltreatment he had undergone, and above all his intense mental suffering, had already almost completely exhausted his powers (as we saw on the way from the judgment hall) , and his remaining strength fast ebbed away. It has sometimes been supposed that the great ciy he uttered at the moment of his death was caused by sudden cessation of the action of the heart, the bursting of a blood vessel in the heart or brain, or the rup- ture of an artery. But all this is the merest guess-work. For us, let us confess it, it is a great relief that his suffer- ings were not protracted. In the midst of all the mysteries which perplex the course of human events, there is something unspeakably dark and painful in such an end to such a life. But the darkness is not unrelieved by light. Proof against the fiercest trials, unflinching when called to the supremest sacrifice, unconditionally faithful to the lofty task of his life, obedient without reserve to the holy will of his Father, Jesus did in truth lay the foundations of the kingdom of God, though far otherwise than he conceived ; he did in truth bind the world to him by eternal ties of deepest obligation, and make himself the Christ. The apostolic age did well to emphasize the fact that God, when he would bring many sons to glory, — that is to the realization of their exalted and blessed destiny as men, — had made the accomplisher of their salvation rise through suffering to a spotless moral perfec- tion, and thereby also to the highest rank in the kingdom of heaven. 2 For Jesus himself made perfect, and mankind bound to him with eternal ties, even that cross on Golgotha is not too high a price ! It is but natural that the imagination of the Christians in every age, even the earliest, should have seized upon this 1 Psalm xxxi. 5. 2 Hebrews ii. 10, v. 8, 9. 456 THE CRUCIFIXION. scene of the Master's death upon the cross ; and since the gross dishonor done to him outrages our sense of the fitness of things even now, after so many centuries, we can hardly wonder that Christian feeling early demanded some imme- diate compensation, some visible and instantaneous glorifica- tion of Jesus, to blot out at once the deep humiliation and shame of his execution. God's sacred protest at the murder of his Son must have taken some concrete shape ; the blessed fruits of the Lord's self-sacrifice, the glorious triumph of the rejected one over the hostile powers which seemed to have subdued him, must have found some visible expression ; and all this must have appeared in forms so palpable and over- whelming that the spectators returned from the hill with their hearts filled with reverence, while all who had been indifferent or hostile were covered with disma} T and shame. Hence all those metaphors in our Gospels which became more than metaphors almost immediately ; hence those fresh lines which were constantly added to the picture of the cruci- fixion to make the rehabilitation of the crucified more and more complete. Even the oldest accounts we have mention two wonders : During the last hours of the life of Jesus we are told, from noon till three o'clock, darkness came over all the earth. Perhaps the period indicated is intended to cover the whole time when Jesus was upon the cross. Now, since the Pass- over is always celebrated at full moon, an actual eclipse of the sun is of course out of the question ; but the symbolical significance of the story is as clear as possible. Nature her- self mourned for the murder of the Messiah. The sun re- fused to look upon the scene of horror, and concealed his splendor while the "Light of the World" was setting. At the very moment, we are further told, when Jesus breathed his last, the heavenly adorned and embroidered tapestry that hung as a curtain between the Holy and the Holy of Holies in the temple was rent in two from top to bottom. Here also it would be absurd to look for an historic fact ; but the thought at once suggests itself, that at the death of Jesus the partition behind which the thrice Hory One withdrew from every eye in mysterious obscurity was taken awaj T , and ac- cess to Him was made free to all : 1 while the priestly dignit}' was annulled, or rather made the portion of every one, and the fear of the Lord was superseded by trustful communion with the Father. In place of this, the Gospel of the Hebrews 1 Compare Hebrews ix. 7 ff., x. 19 ff. THE CRUCIFIXION. 457 said that the broad and lofty threshold of the temple was broken and fell to pieces : the significance may be the same as in our Gospels, or it may perhaps mean that the temple service was annulled by the great sacrifice on Golgotha. We are also told by our oldest authorities that when the officer who stood by the cross heard the great cry with which Jesus gave up his life, he exclaimed, " Surely this man was the Son of God ! " or, according to Luke, " Surely this was a right- eous man ! " Heathendom, face to face with the djing Christ, recognizes in all his majesty him whom his own people have rejected. But the same path must be pursued still further. Faith demanded still more and still greater wonders. The earth trembled, sa}'s a later account in Matthew. It shuddered with horror at the deed. The rocks were cleft, and the sepul- chral caves gaped open, while many bodies of long-buried saints, pious men of the olden time, patriarchs and prophets, returned to life. And after the resurrection of Jesus they left their graves and went into the Cit} T of God, and appeared to many of the people there. It was the foreshadowing of the resurrection at the last day. At the moment when Jesus, b}' surrendering himself freely to the very death, exalted him - self to the dignity of the Messiah, he secured his triumph over the realm of shades which must ere long give up its prey at his commanding word. Here we may add that the second part of the " Gospel of Nicodemus," which is twelve chapters long, contains a detailed description, purporting to come from two eye-witnesses, of how Jesus went down into the under- world, whence he released all the saints, with Adam at their head, and conducted them to paradise. Well might the officer and sentinels be filled with dread ! Na} T , Luke, even without mentioning the miracle of the earthquake or of the resurrec- tion of the dead, maj T well sa} T that all the people who had streamed together to witness the execution, when they had seen all that happened, went home and smote their breasts in deepest penitence and sense of guilt. Once more be it said, we sympathize intensely with the feeling that called these stories into being. But history has nothing to tell us of any restoration to honor taking place on Golgotha, of any special occurrence at the death of Jesus to reverse or mitigate his disgrace. His shameful end was, and continued to be, a fearfu* shock to his disciples, and made it simply impossible to man} 7 of the Jews and heathen to believe in him as the future Christ. There is no trace of his death vol. in. 20 458 THE CRUCIFIXION. having made an} T impression at the time upon the people ol Jerusalem or the strangers ; upon the Jews or the Romans ; upon those who witnessed or those who compassed it. On the other hand, we have what appears to be a trust* worthy account of the last honors paid b}- the hand of friend- ship to the mortal remains of Jesus. The evening was alreacly falling, and the Sabbath would soon begin. Should the body be left hanging on the cross? It was the general rule among the Romans and the Greeks to deny burial to crucified offenders, and leave them as a spoil to birds of ~prej and otner creatures. But we have alreacty seen that the rulers complied in mairv respects with the usages of the subject people ; and the Jews, partly out of humanity, but chiefly to guard the countiy of the Lord from pollution, 1 never left an} T one unburied, even though he had been hanged. Indeed, strictly speaking, no bod}' should be left hanging on the wood even for a single night, as would have occurred in this instance, owing to the rapid death of Jesus, had not one of his friends undertaken the care of his burial. It was not one of his chosen disciples, nor one of the faithful Galilsean women, who took courage for the last ser- vice of love. It was a man whom we meet for the first and last time on this occasion, and of whom we know nothing except his name (Joseph) and his birthplace (Arimathea or Ramathaim, in the ancient territory of Ephraim). We are told that he too had joined the disciples, though probably only during the stay of Jesus in Jerusalem ; and, further, that he looked with longing for the Messianic kingdom. What a crushing sense of disappointment then must have accompanied this last sacred duty of friendship ! Perhaps Joseph was acquainted with the procurator ; at an}- rate, we are told that he was a rich man, and later accounts even make him one of the elders or distinguished laj T men, who had a seat in the Sanhedrim : but the} T are careful to tell us he had taken no part in the hostile deliberations and violent measures of that body against the Nazarene. Be this as it may, no sooner had Joseph perceived or heard that the Master had breathed his last upon the instrument of torture than he asked and obtained an audience of Pilate, and begged the body of the crucified Jesus, in order that he might give it an honorable burial. It was a bold step. How easil}- he might be suspected of 1 Deuteronomy xxi. 23. THE CRUCIFIXION. 459 siding with the "King of the Jews," who had been con- demned as i tumult-maker ! And still worse, what hatred and ignominy from his own people and his own colleagues he was dragging down upon his head ! But he could not let such thoughts restrain him. Jesus had inspired him with so deep a reverence that he could not suffer his mortal remains to be left hanging on the cross, and then after a while be thrust in shame into the earth. If he had been unable to rescue him, or if the sudden catastrophe had so taken him by surprise that he had not even attempted any thing, he would at least do all that still remained. The procurator granted his request (which was probably backed, according to the custom of the time, b} r a consider- able sum of money) , and gave hini a written order to the of- ficer at Golgotha, or else despatched a messenger with him. Mark, indeed, tells us that Pilate was astonished to hear that the Nazarene was dead already ; that he sent for the officer in charge, and when he learned from him that Jesus had been dead some time, granted Joseph's request. But this seems highly improbable when we consider the short space of time in which the whole transaction was completed, and the abso lute necessity of the responsible man remaining on the spot at Golgotha, where the two robbers still hung alive upon the stakes. Enough ! Joseph went with a few dependants to the hill. The centre cross was loosened and laid upon the ground, the nails were drawn out, the cords cut through ; and, since Gol- gotha at that moment was an utterly unsuitable place in which to pa} r due honors to the dead, the body was immedi- ately laid in the usual open coffin. The near approach of the Sabbath would prevent all but a very few from following the coffin as it was borne to a place hard b}', where Joseph pos- sessed a sepulchre hewn out of the rock, or had obtained leave to use it on this occasion. The later tradition adds, in honor of Jesus, that it was a new sepulchre in which no one had as yet been laid. 1 Here reverent and careful hands cleansed the body from blood, wrapped the head in a napkin, and shrouded the limbs in broad strips of linen. If under any circumstances a body that had been so mangled would have been deemed suitable for embalmment, now at any rate there was no time for it. It was needless. All was done that friendship and reverence could do for him whose death was mourned with such unutterable woe, and nothing essential was wanting to the last honors paid him. 1 See p. 361. 460 THE CRUCIFIXION. So now the stiffly-shrouded corpse was carefully borne into the cave, and laid in one of the niches in the side. Accord- ing to Jewish wont, the mouth of the sepulchre was closed by a great stone or mass o f rock, which served as a door and protected the tomb from violation by beasts of prey. This stone would be left unmoved until another corpse, belonging to the possessor's family, should be brought there likewise to its place of rest. The mournful duty was now done, and in the deep affliction of his soul the bold and faithful friend turned homeward. Meanwhile the evening had quite set in and the Sabbath had begun. This was an hour, especially at Jerusalem, of joyous, consecrated rest. The Sabbath lamp was lighted, the Sab- bath garments donned, and the Sabbath meal prepared with more than usual sumptuousness in honor of the feast and the innumerable guests. As the} 7 reclined at table, the members of the Council and many of the Pharisees besides might re- hearse the day's events with a feeling of satisfaction and re- lief, and might thank the Lord for his mighty help and the unmistakable signs he had given them of his satisfaction with their zeal in his honor. Outside there, by the sepulchre, all was still and cold and lonely, and yet not altogether deserted. The moonlight re- vealed two female forms, bent down in speechless agony, and the stillness of the night was only broken by their sobs. They were Mary of Magdala and her namesake, the faithful friends who had followed Jesus from Galilee. Had the}' ac- companied the bier from the hill of death ? Or had they not heard till later on what Joseph had been doing? There they sat now, over against that cave, and could not tear themselves away. What was not hidden there, behind that stone, for ever ! What inestimable treasures destroyed by rude and wanton hands ! What glorious promises dashed at once and for ever ! And we too stand with them in thought ; and as we gaze upon that stone and think of him who lies behind it, concep- tions and emotions rush upon the brain and heart, and force the lips to utterance. Rest sweetly from thy toilsome work, thou noble benefactor, deliverer of mankind, great son of God ! Thy triumph is secure. Thy name shall be borne on the breath of the winds through all the world ; and with that name no thought except of goodness, nobleness, and love shall link itself in the bosoms of thy brothers who have THE CRUCIFIXION. 461 learned to know thee and what thou art. Thy name shall be the symbol of salvation to the weak and wandering, of resto- ration to the fallen and the guilt}', of hope to all who sink in comfortless despair. Thy name shall be the nrighty cry of progress in freedom, in truth, in purity, — the living symbol of the dignity of man, the epitome of all that is noble, loft}', and hoi}' upon earth. To thy name shall be inseparably bound that ideal of humanity which thou didst bring into the world, and which can never be rejected from it more. Thy life was short, yet in it thou didst more than any one of all thy breth- ren to uplift the lives and souls of men. And now that thou art dead, it shall be seen that they for whom thou didst give thyself up to the very death are not ungrateful. From thy cross goes forth a power which is slowly but surely regenerat- ing the world. Thy spirit, which remains behind, shall fulfil thy task. The future is thine own. Thou great deliverer, thou monarch in the realm of truth, of love, of peace, we do thee homage ! Book II. THE APOSTLES. Chapter I. THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS. Matthew XXVII. 62-XXVIII. ; Luke XXIV. 13-53 ; Acts 1. 3-14; 1 Corinthians XV. 3-8. 1 SO Jesus and his cause appeared to have been finally crushed. A single vigorous and well-concerted measure had smothered the Messianic agitation. The prophet of Gali- lee had paid, bj^ a malefactor's death, for his audachVy in com- ing to Jerusalem itself to preach his gospel and unfurl his banner of freedom and of the spirit, for his heroic effort to make God's kingdom come. Who was there left to take up his task? His best disciples and his closest friends were fugitives and apostates. Yet hopeless as things seemed to be, the unshaken confi- dence with which Jesus had faced his lot was justified by the event. From his momentary defeat he rose again with wider and deeper influence than ever. Were there no danger of misunderstanding, we would gladly use an expression of his own, 2 and speak of this as his u rising again" or " resurrec- tion." But this word is commonly used to signify something ve^ different from his triumph after defeat. For when the faith of the Apostles and other disciples, recovering from the shock under which at first it had tottered and collapsed, appeared once more in renovated strength, it took the form of a be- lief that Jesus had risen up from the dead and ascended to heaven. This is what is generally meant by the " Resurrec- tion ; " and if we were to employ the word, it might seem as though we accepted this early belief as an historical fact. 1 Mark xvi. ; Luke xxiv. 1-12. 2 Compare pp. 328 f., 350. 1 See, for instance, Revelation xx. 12-14 ; and compare op. 272, 313, 387 8. 2 Compare vol. i. pp. 528-531; ii. pp. 395, 396; pp. 331 ff., 378 ff. tnougii we accepted this early belief as an historical fact. l Mark xvi. ; Luke xxiv. 1-12. 2 Compare pp. 328 f., 350. RESURRECTION Oi JESUS. 4.63 Moreover, in saying that the belief in the ' ' resurrection " was but the form assumed by the reviving faith of the disci- ples, we have explained our reasons for dealing wdth it in our Second Book, which treats of the Apostles, instead of includ- ing it in the history of Jesus himself as the last scene of his life on earth ; for, amidst all the doubts that hang around this subject, of one thing at least we ma}* be sure, namely, that it forms a chapter of the inner life of the disciples, not of the outward life of the Master. In other words, the resurrection of Jesus is not an external fact of history, but simply a form of belief assumed by the faith of his friends and earliest disciples. Let us begin by considering what that word ' c resurrection " realty meant, whether applied to Jesus or to others. Later representations, down to our own times, have regarded it as equivalent to a rising from the grave ; but the question is, what it meant in the faith and preaching of the Apostles, in the genuine, original, primitive tradition that Jesus had risen. Now, "resurrection" means elsewhere a return from the realm of shades to the human life on earth ; ' and in like manner it was said that Jesus too had left the underworld, but not, in this case, to return at once to life upon the earth, but to be taken up provisionally into heaven. Originally the resurrection and ascension of Jesus w r ere one. It w-as only later that the conception sprang up of his having paused upon earth, whether for a single day or for several w r eeks, on his journey from the ab}~ss to the height. We may therefore safety assert that if the friends of Jesus had thought as we do of the lot of those that die,' 2 they would never have so much as dreamed of their Master's resurrection or ascension. For to the Christian belief of to-da} r it would be, so to speak, a matter of course that Jesus, like all good and noble souls, — and indeed above all others, — would go straight "to a better world," " to heaven," " to God," at the instant of his death ; but in the conception of the Jews, in- eluding the Apostles, this was impossible. Heaven was the abode of the Lord and his angels onty ; and if an Enoch or an Elijah had been caught up there alive, to dwell there for a time, it was certain that all who died, without exception, even the purest and most hoty, must go down as shades into the realms of the dead in the bowels of the earth, — and thence, 1 See, for instance, Revelation xx. 12-14; and compare op. 272, 313, 387 388, 2 Compare vol. i. pp. 528-531; ii. pp. 395, 396; pp. 331 ff., 378 ff. 464 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. of course, they could not issue except by "rising again/' And this is why we are never told that Jesus rose "from death," far less "from the .grave," but always "from the dead," — that is, from the place where the shades of the de- parted abide ; from the realms of the dead. The dead, when thus waked into life again, must have a boclv, whether it were a new one, 1 or whether the old one left the grave for him. 2 Now the Apostles could not accept or endure the thought that their Master was left in the abyss a powerless and lifeless shadow, — they were convinced that he must be living in heaven in gloiy ; and, moreover, they believed themselves to have evidence of his continued existence. The only possible conclusion, therefore, was that he had risen from the realm of shades. All this is simple enough. Is it not equally clear that where there is no belief in this realm of shades a " resurrec- tion " has no meaning ? And if we have all ceased to believe in any such shadow-land, we are forced to admit that the nar- ratives we are about to consider do not concern a fact in the life of Jesus, but a conception on the part of his friends, — the origin of which we must, if possible, explain. The contradictions in the narratives themselves, though so great as to lay insuperable difficulties in the way of a literal interpretation, no longer surprise us when we know that we are dealing with a product of the religious imagination, grad- ually amplified and embellished by tradition. The following story indicates the way in which the disciples rose to the belief that their Master still lived and would yet be the Christ : — It was on the Sunday after the crucifixion that two of the disciples were going from Jerusalem to Emmaus, about two leagues distant, conversing on the way about all that had oc- curred. Now while they were discussing their divergent views or doubts they were joined by a third wa} T farer. This was no other than Jesus himself; but they were so blinded that they did not know him. "What are } t ou speaking about," he asked, " that makes you look so sad as you walk along?" "What are we speaking of?" repeated Cleopas, one of the two ; ' ' then are you the only one among all the strangers in the Holy City that does not know what has hap- pened there in these last days? " " What about?" he asked. 1 See p. 272; compare 1 Corinthians xv. 50. 2 See p, 457; compare John v. 28, 29. RESURRECTION OF JESES. 465 "About Jesus of Nazareth," they replied. "He was a prophet, mighty in deed and word in the eyes of God and of all the people ; and our high priests and councillors gave him up to death and crucified him. But we had hoped that he was the promised deliverer of Israel. [And moreover this is the third day since it was done ; and some of the women among us who went in the early morning to his tomb have filled us with consternation by declaring that the}- could not find his bod}' there, and that they saw a vision of angels who told them he was alive. Some of our number went straightway to the spot, and found it as the women had said ; but him the}' did not see.]" "How blind your eyes, how dull your hearts," cried Jesus, " to the predictions of the prophets ! Was not this suffering the very path by which it was appointed for the Messiah to ascend his throne ? " Then he went through the Law and the prophetic writings with them, and showed them in the several books all that referred to him. Thus the}' drew near to Emmaus, and he made as if he would go on alone. But they would not let him go. " Stay with us," they urged, " for the evening is closing in already." So he yielded to their pressure ; they went in, and in a few moments they were all reclining at the evening meal. Then Jesus, taking the place of the head of the family as usual, took the bread, uttered the thanksgiving, broke it, and handed it to them. In a moment the scales fell from their eyes, they looked at one another, they looked at him, — they knew him ; but at that very moment he vanished mi- raculously from their sight ! Every doubt disappeared from their minds. "Did not our hearts burn within us," they said, "when he was speaking with us and explaining the Scriptures to us on the way ? " They instantly rose up from the table and hurried back in the dark to Jerusalem. There the Eleven and the other disciples anticipated them by the exclamation, " The Lord has truly risen and appeared to Si- mon ! " — upon which the two related, in their turn, what had happened to them on the way, and how they had recognized Jesus as he broke the bread. The source and origin of this beautiful picture are difficult to ascertain. Luke must have accepted it literally when he took it up into the cycle of his stories of the resurrection, to which it does not properly belong ; 1 but this proves nothing Perhaps it was Luke, or perhaps some earlier narrator, who 1 Compare Luke xxiv. 24 with verse 12, and verse 34 with verses 37 and 41, tt seq. ; and see Mark xvi. 13 b. 20* 466 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. retouched the picture with no great skill, and added such traits, for instance, as the visit of the women and the other disciples to the tomb, which we have included in brackets. No such place as Emmaus has been found within two leagues of Jerusalem. There is an Emmaus (or Mcopolis) at a distance of six or seven leagues from the City of the Tem- ple, but this cannot be the place intended. There is a bath- ing place of the same name on the Sea of Gennesareth, — and this tempts us to ask whether the scene was not origi- nally laid in Galilee (which really witnessed the. reviving faith of the disciples) , and subsequently transferred to Jeru- salem without change of names. Finally, we ma} T note that Jesus appears in different places — to the two travellers and to Simon — at the same time. But in spite of all these 1 races of composite origin, the background and general outline ol the picture still furnish us with precious materials for retra- cing the origin of the belief of the disciples in the resurrection ; for we must never forget that a powerful imagination, sup- ported by the symbolical forms of expression then current, might well translate reminiscences into present facts, sus- pense or other emotions into external events. The friends of Jesus — so we read this story — were bit- terly disappointed in their fairest hopes by the cross of Jesus. And yet they still regarded their Master as a mighty prophet, and their hearts and mouths still overflowed with him. And while they thought and spoke of him, — at one in burning love, but often widely severed in opinions and expectations, — Jesus himself came to them. Not the glorified Christ from heaven, 1 but the Jesus they had known on earth. They did not perceive or did not notice it ; but he was there, drawn to their sides by the magic power of loving and reverent remem- brance, — he was with them, speaking to them, drawing out their thoughts, and then correcting and instructing them, — until at last, in the light of the event, they began to under- stand his teaching of the last few weeks, 2 so fruitless at the time. They saw how the Scripture pointed out, in man}- a special utterance and in the common lot of prophets, what the sad end must be, and how the temporal defeat would lead to victory and would win the Messianic crown. When rightly looked into, the Scripture was full of hints and predictions of the event. 3 How could they be so slow of heart ! They would fain prolong those moments of his presence, hardly L Matthew xviii. 20, xxviii. 20. 2 See pp. 326 ff., and 405. » Acts ii. 27, xiii. 34, 35 (Psalm xvi. 10; Isaiah lv. 3, liii. 10; Hosea vi. 2), INSURRECTION OF JESUS. 467 realized, in the life of reminiscence, — they would not let him go ! And then as they lay down to meat and broke the bread, that symbolic action on the last evening of the Master's life started back into their minds, the impression of that last meeting was renewed ; they remembered all he told them, and above all that clear announcement of his death and of his triumph ; * and then — the scales fell from their e} T es, he was the. Promised One once more! And now he is gone from their bodily sight, — but henceforth nothing can disturb their faith, He is the Christ. He cannot be a prey to the realm of shades. He lives ! He will come again ! Are we then to understand that the friends of Jesus had visions of their departed Master which, though really but the fruit and the expression of reviving faith, were looked upon bj r them as conclusive proof that he had left the underworld and was living still? We cannot be absolutely certain, but in all probability we must answer this question in the affirma- tive ; for we have a statement on the subject that is free from all ambiguity, and is far more ancient and more trustworthy than the great mass of stories of the resurrection. It is a passage in a letter written by Paul to the community at Cor- inth, in the } T ear 58 a.d., in which he reminds them what he had told them a few j'ears before, in accordance with what he himself had heard from eye-witnesses many years before, — not long after the death of Jesus. It was k ' that Christ died for the forgiveness of our sins, according to the Scripture ; and was buried and was raised up the third day, according to the Scripture ; and appeared to Cephas (Peter) , and after- wards to the Twelve. Then he appeared to more than live hundred brethren at once, most of whom are still living, but some have fallen asleep. Then he appeared to James, and afterwards to all the Apostles, and last of all to me also." Now, on the assumption that it comes from the hand of Paul, this enumeration, which evidently aims at completeness, deserves our confidence ; for Paul would certainly take care to inform himself accurately in such a matter. In speaking of the "resurrection," he does not mean the reanimation of the body of Jesus ; and indeed he expressly excludes such a thought by ascribing to the Christ a glorified and spiritual bod} T not made of flesh and blood. 2 It is equally certain that he thinks of the Christ as having appeared from heaven ; and 1 See pp. 407, 409. 2 1 Corinthians xv. 42-54; 2 Corinthians v. 1-4; Philippian? iii. 21. 468 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. his ranking the appearance to himself, — unquestionably the product of his own fervid imagination, 1 — as parallel with those which preceded it, seems to indicate that they were all visions alike. And indeed the return to earth of one already dead and glorified, or the veritable apparition of a spirit, is a thing which far transcends the limits of credibility. And, besides, we know that the Israelites, though well aware of the difference between a vision and something seen under ordinary conditions,- were yet firmly convinced that what the}' saw in the ecstasy of a vision had an objective reality corresponding to it. 3 It may deserve our attention also that in this passage Paul first supports the faith in the resurrection of Jesus by an appeal to the Scripture, 4 and subsequently confirms it by a reductio ad absurdum. 6 In other words, he is more inclined to demonstrate that Christ must have risen than to build upon adequate testimon} 7 to the fact that he had risen. With regard to each of the separate appearances for which the Apostle vouches, we may note that even the one witnessed by five hundred believers offers no insuperable difficulty ; for when we remember how infectious the excited condition fa- vorable to visions sometimes is, it seems far from impossible, that the whole of a numerous gathering of disciples might believe themselves to see the Master. History furnishes other instances, not less striking, of a number of people in a state of spiritual exaltation seeing one and the same image before their eyes. Nor need we wonder at the preservation of the expression, "the Twelve," though one of course was wanting. Who are meant by u all the Apostles" it is im- possible to say. *' James " is the brother of Jesus. As to James, we ma} T remark that the only other ancient authority which speaks of Jesus appearing to him is the Gos- pel according to the Hebrews. There it is said that when the risen Jesus had given his grave-clothes to the high priest's servant, he showed himself to James, who had sworn after the Last Supper (at which he was not realty present) that he would never eat bread again till he had seen Jesus risen from the dead. So Jesus now brought him a cake of bread, offered thanks, broke it, and gave it to him with the words: ''Eat this bread, my brother; for the Son of Man has risen from the dead " The whole story is evidently a later invention in 1 Compare 2 Corinthians xii. 1-4. 2 See, for instance, Acts ix. 7, x. 10, 11, 17, 19. 8 See 2 Kings vi. 17; 2 Corinthians xii. 3. 4 1 Corinthians xv. 4: compare pp. 37 f. 6 1 Corinthians xv. 12-19. RESURRECTION OF JESUS. 469 honor of James, who was held in high esteem b} 7 the community at Jerusalem. Returning to the statement in the Epistle to the Corinthians, we observe that Peter is mentioned as the first who saw the Master. Now of course the first appearance was the really critical event. It gave the impulse ; and the rest were the natural consequence of the fervent longing of all the disciples to share the privilege of him who had already seen the glori- fied Master It deserves our attention therefore that both here and in the stoiy of the journey to Emmaus Peter is mentioned before an}' of the others. Now Peter's fervent and excitable temperament, 1 acting upon his deep sense of the injury he had done to his beloved Master and his longing to receive assurance of forgiveness, might well throw him into just such a state of exaltation 2 as might make him see the form he loved rise up before him, with an expression of exalted tenderness and generous forgiveness, as a mighty incentive and a glorious consolation. 3 But it ought to be mentioned that, according to another tradition preserved in our Gospels, it was not Peter, but the faithful friends who had seen Jesus die, — the two Marys, whom we left in speechless agony at the sepulchre, — to whom the first assurance was vouchsafed that their Master had arisen. It was an angel, or Jesus himself, who brought the proclamation to them (with or without their companion, Sa- lome), and told them to carry the great news to the disciples, and especially to Peter. In itself this account is at least as credible as the other. The tried attachment and touching fidelity of these women to Jesus, working upon the more sen- sitive female S3'stem, would make them eminently susceptible of such impressions as we are discussing ; and it seems more probable that tradition would gradually substitute Peter for the women than that they should have usurped his place. In fact we find the women, in this version of the events, specially charged to take the glad news to Peter, 4 and may fanc} T that we see therein the first indication of a feeling that gradually gave the place of honor to the Apostle, to the exclusion of the women. On the other hand, great doubt is thrown upon the whole picture of the women and their vision by its un- historical setting, — representing Jerusalem as the locality, the Sunday morning as the time, and the empty tomb as the 1 Compare p. 181. 2 Compare Acts x. 10. 8 See Luke xxii. 31, 32; compare verse 61; John xxi. 15-17; and Mattbiw xiv. 30, 31. •» Mark xvi 7 ; compare John xx. 2-6. 470 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. scene of the vision ; whereas, as we shall presently see, all these three traits are of much later origin. Paul's statement is irreconcilable with the tradition pre- served in the Gospels in other points besides the question of priority between Peter and the Marys. We will therefore simply give the Gospel tradition now, without further refei - ence to Paul's statement, and without venturing at present to pronounce decisively in favor of the latter as compared with the primitive nucleus of the former. The later traditions in the Gospels have little value. Of course it needs the utmost circumspection to separate this primitive tradition from the various accretions of later date ; but a careful comparison of the texts generally leads us to a definite conclusion. The impression we arrive at is that the first and perhaps the only appearance of the Christ took place in Galilee, a good many days after the death of Jesus. The Eleven, once more in their native land, had met upon one of the well-known mountains, and there they saw the glorified Master. But not all of them. Some of them still doubted, still distrusted themselves or the others who bowed down in transport and did reverence to him, as he appeared to them on high. We see at once how much there is to commend this nar- rative to our acceptance. It can hardly be doubted that im- mediately after the Master's death, if not as soon as he was taken prisoner, the disciples fled in haste from the hostile orthodoxy of Jerusalem to their own native land. 1 It was only here that they took breath and came to themselves again. It was here where they had gone in and out with him unceas- ingly, where every footpath and everj- hill- top, the fertile shores of the lake and the desolate wilderness, were alike enriched with treasured reminiscences of his wondrous and impressive preaching, of his private instruction never more to be forgotten, and his confidential intercourse with his chosen ones ; it was here where the fair days gone by, and the noble yet winning personality which shone through all their memo- lies, rose up so vividly before their minds ; it was here that they felt the conviction gradually, not suddenly, sink deep into their souls that it was impossible he had deceived him- self and them, impossible that God had suffered him to fail. Had he not himself foreseen the end before it came, yet i Sec pj, 419, 420 ; and Matthew xxvi. 32, xxviii. 7 (Mark xir. 28, xvi 7> REStmUECTlON OF JESUS. 471 without losmg either faith or hope? And at the thought their faith and hope revived. Perhaps if we had been told that they saw him on the Sunday morning after his death, for instance, we might feel that the time was too short to allow all these influences to have their full effect. But this is not what we are told. The very fact that it was in Galilee the} r saw him is itself a proof that ample time intervened to admit of the power of recollection bringing them completely under the Master's influence again. The uniform tradition as to the third day refers to the time of his leaving the realms of death for heaven, not to that of his appearance to his friends. It is perhaps an inference from Scripture, and per- haps grew out of an expression used b} r Jesus himself, but in either case it is probably due to the misunderstanding of a proverbial expression. 1 For the rest, it is hardly necessary, after all that we have said, to point out that when once the faith of the disciples was restored, it must necessaril}' take the form of the belief in the Master's resurrection or glorified existence ; and that it is, to say the least of it,' exceedingly comprehensible that some of them in a state of transport should have seen him. That some of them were in doubt and were only subsequently swept down the stream of general conviction appears to us a genuine historical trait, and it never quite disappears from the later stories. 2 Finally, we may observe that the provisional as- sumption of Jesus into heaven, where he would at once re- ceive from God the office of Messiah in anticipation of his return to earth, was needed to satisf} 7 the demand of the dis- ciples for their Master's complete restoration from the shame of his death upon the cross. 8 Their joyful certainty that Jesus was now exalted to his kingly rank found utterance in the words which they put into his mouth; first the declaration, "To me is given all pow T er in heaven and upon earth ; " then the command, " Go forth to make all peoples nry disciples, baptizing them into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit ; " and finally the promise, "Lo! Iara with 30U in your labor, da} T b} T da} r , till I return to crown }'ou." A later tradi- tion, preserved in the spurious conclusion of Mark, 4 repre- sents Jesus as appearing to the disciples, when assembled in a certain chamber, and uttering these three sayings in the 1 See pp. 275, **28; Hosea vi. 2; Matthew xii. 40, et seq. 2 Mark xvi. 11 13, 14; Luke xxiv. 11, 37, 41; John xx. 27. 8 Acts 1:. 36. 4 Mark xvi. 9-20- 472 EESttiRECTtoisr of JEstrs. following form: "Go out into all the world to preach tho Gospel to every creature. And whoever believes and is bap- tized [that is to say, openly avows his faith] shall be saved, but whoever believes not shall be condemned, at the Messi- anic judgment. And miraculous powers shall alwa} T s wait on faith, such as the power to cast out devils in my name ; to speak in fresh tongues ; to take serpents in the hand ; to drink poison without being hurt ; to lay hands on the sick and heal them." The primitive symbolical significance of this promise still shines through the words ; * but here they are taken literally, after the manner of the Apocryphal Gospels. 2 The command about baptism has gained such importance as to justify a moment's delay to consider it. That Jesus never directly enjoined the Twelve to call the heathen to a share in the privileges of the Golden Age is above all doubt ; 8 and this saying must therefore be of comparatively late ori- gin, dating from a period at which the mission to the heathen was not onfy fully recognized, but even declared to have origi- nated with the Twelve. A moment's reflection makes it obvious that Jesus himself instituted no such ceremony as baptism to incorporate converted Jews and heathen into a community of future members of the kingdom of God, and if further evidence be wanted it is supplied by Paul. 4 On the other hand, the rise of such a practice in the community, perhaps at a very early period, is perfectly natural ; and so, too, the much later custom of baptizing the infant children of Christians, though not even remotely contemplated in the injunction we are now considering, is easy to understand, and enlists our perfect sympathy. Baptism into the name of God the Father, Jesus Christ the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit, means baptism into the confession of or faith in these three, and is a short epitome of Christian doctrine of which Jesus certainly never dreamed ; nay, it is obvious from all accounts that, even in the apostolic age, it was as } T et quite unknown ; 5 and the still later age which drew up the words by no means intended them as a baptismal formula, but rather as a state- ment of the conditions of admission into the community. In making the utterance of these words, instead of the imposi- i See Luke x. 19. 2 Acts v. 16, viii. 7, xvi. 18, ii. 4, x. 46, xix. 6, xxviii. 5, 8. 3 See pp. 293, 294; Galatians ii. 7-9; Acts x., xi. 4 1 Corinthians i. 17. 5 Acts ii. 38, viii. 16, x. 48, xix. 5; Romans vi, 3; 1 Corinthians i. 13, 15; Galatians iii. 27. RESURRECTION OF JESUS. 473 tion of these conditions, the first act of admission into the community of Christ, the Church has confounded words with things. In a word, the phenomenon we are now considering ib compounded of a remarkable perversion of a Biblical phrase and an expression of the religious sense of Christendom, wlu'sh is equally simple and deserving of respect. In general we may be pretty sure that the oldest tradition, whether preserved in the Epistle to the Corinthians or in Matthew, knew nothing of any words pronounced by the risen Christ when he appeared. All these belong to the later transformations of the story, and form but one of many deviations and accretions. In fact, the original story is gradually disguised past all recognition. The appearances of Jesus are transferred to Jerusalem, obviously with the view of making the scene of the Messiah's defeat that of his restoration and triumph also ; the}' are placed upon the third day, as taking place while Jesus passed on high from the shadow-land ; they are robbed of their true character and become more and more material, after the general manner of legends. A variety of special occasions, circumstances, and sayings were from time to time added, unconsciously or by design, till the whole was expanded into a second life upon earth of several weeks' duration. Setting the two or three divergent accounts side by side as we go along, let us listen to the story ! The compulsory rest of the Sabbath was over. Before the Saturday night was gone (or early on Sunday morning) the two Marys (with or without Salome, or Salome and Johanna and others) went through one of the city gates to visit the tomb, to sit once more * in mournful contemplation by the cave in which so much that was dear to them lay buried, or to bear the corpse from its resting place and embalm it with spices and balsam that the}' had bought as soon as ever the Sabbath closed (or had provided just before it began) . If the}* cherished such a purpose as this they remembered anx- iously upon the way that they had no one with them who could roll away the heavy stone that stood at the entrance of the cave. But their anxiety was groundless; for when they looked they found that the stone was moved away already. Then they went in, and there to the right they saw a young man sitting in a long white robe (or two men in shining garments) who said to them, in their bewilderment i See p. 460. 474 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. and terror, ' Be not afraid! You seek Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified. He is not here ! He has risen ! Come and see the place where they laid him ! Now make all speed and go to his disciples, and above all to Peter, and tell them that he will go before } t ou to Galilee, where you will see him, as he told } t ou." In one of the accounts the words are expanded thus : " Why look for the living among the dead? Remember how, when he was still in Galilee, he told } T ou that the Son of Man must be given up into the power of the heathen and be crucified, and must rise again on the third day." Then, it is added, they remembered the words that he had spoken. Here Galilee, as the appointed place of meeting, has dropped out. With their feet winged with terror, but also with great joy, they hurried from the cave to take the news to the disciples (or according to another account thej T were too much over- come to sa}' a word to an} r one ; or according to a third, they told it all to the Apostles and the other disciples who only thought it an idle tale). And Peter ran to the sepulchre, and, stooping down, saw the shrouding clothes lying there, and went home full of amazement. It is quite superfluous to analyze this story, the improb- abilities of which we can see growing as it were before our very e} T es. Compare, for instance, the simple visit to the tomb recorded by Matthew, with the impossible embalming of a mutilated corpse six-and-thirty hours after death, sug- gested by Mark and Luke. 1 Only a single word about the empty grave. This trait undoubtedly belongs to the later tradition. But it has been asked : When the Apostles had seen Christ, would the} r not go to Jerusalem to make sure whether the Master had realty left his grave? Not at all. It would never occur to them. The appearance of Christ would itself fill them with a joyful certainty. And such an examination of the sepulchre would be revolting to all the feelings of the age, to say nothing of the fact that the body would no longer be capable of recognition. And above all their belief in the resurrection of Jesus, like the belief of Paul subsequently, stood in no immediate connection with the condition of his mortal bod} T . So too when Herod feared that John had risen again, he never dreamed of ordering a search to ascertain whether the head and body of his victim were still lying where the}' had been buried. The legend of the empty grave rose up either to confute those who denied i See p. 459. RESURRECTION OF JESLS. 47.1 ine resurrection of Jesus by a palpable proof, 1 or else under the influence of the section of Jewish-Christians who thought that at the resurrection the bodies in the graves would come to life again ; 2 in either case it is one of the indications of the increasingly material conception gradually formed of the resurrection. It was subsequently said that the two Marys, as the}' hast- ened from the grave to bear the angels' message to the dis- ciples, met Jesus, who greeted them, and when the}' fell down and embraced his feet said to them, "Be not afraid ; go and tell it to my brothers [the Apostles] , that they may go to Galilee. There they will see me ! " This story evi- dently forms a transition. The real revelation upon which the stress is laid still takes place in Galilee ; but here, for the first time, a preliminary revelation is vouchsafed in Jeru- salem, and that apparently between the resurrection and the ascension. Such, at any rate, is the intention of the follow- ing story, of still later origin and of very obvious purport : The disciples were together, speaking of their faith and doubt, their hope and fear, when suddenly Jesus himself stood among them, with a greeting of peace upon his lips. They were in terror and alarm, thinking they saw a ghost : but he said, "Why are you dismayed, and why are you in doubt ? Look at my hands and feet, for it is I myself. Touch me and see ; for a spirit has no flesh and bones, as you can see I have." And now they could not believe it for joy, and were still lost in wonder ; but he said, " Have you nothing to eat here?" upon which they gave him some broiled fish and a piece of honeycomb, which he ate before their eyes. Then he said : " So now all that I told you before we were parted has come to pass ; namely, that every thing written concerning me in the Law and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled." Then he made them understand the true meaning of the Scripture, and said : " Thus it is written that the Christ must suffer and rise from the dead on the third day ; and that, in the proclamation of his exaltation and re- turn, repentance and the forgiveness of sins must be preached to all peoples, beginning with Jerusalem. And this preach- ing is your task. And behold I make the gift which my Father promised come down upon you ! Do you then remain in the city till you are girt with power from above." i See pp. 479, 480. 2 See Matthew xxii. 28, xxvii. 52, 64 : John v. 28, 29. £76 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. Then he led them out to the road to Bethany. There he raised his hands and blessed them ; and, as he blessed them, he passed away and was taken up into heaven. Then they bowed down to earth, and returned to Jerusalem filled with joy that he was glorified ; and there they remained continu- ally in the temple, praising and blessing God. The meaning of this story may be gathered from the closing scene. It represents Jesus as appearing to his friends when passing from the shadow-land to the abode of God. We must therefore place it on the third day, — the Sunday, — and prob- ably in the morning, not long after the resurrection ; for the interview itself, including the explanation of the Scripture, would occupy some hours, and it must have been over before evening, since the Evangelist can hardly intend to represent the Master as leading out his disciples, and himself going up on high, in the darkness of the night. We make this remark because, when w T e read the last chapter of Luke straight through, the insertion of the story of the travellers to Emmaus makes it appear as if all these events took place in the depth of night. In other respects the second part of our story is not without value ; but the introduction, with its wounds in the hands and feet, its flesh and bone, its fish and honeycomb, is an attempt to give a palpable and grossly material proof of the resurrection of Jesus. Thus the original conception is obliterated, every thing that could remind us of a vision has disappeared, and there is not a trace of the supersensual character which would naturally have marked all intercourse with a glorified one. Presently the round number of forty days was fixed upon as the period during which the risen Master remained on earth, so as to allow for all the appearances mentioned by tradition taking place before the ascension. During this period it is expressly said that he ate and drank with his friends ! We are further told in the Acts that during these days he gave his disciples absolute proof of his continued ex- istence, and spoke to them about the kingdom of God. He told them not to leave Jerusalem, but to wait there for what God had promised them by his mouth ; for, in contrast with John's baptism of water, they should soon receive the baptism of the spirit. The disciples asked, ''Master! has the time now come for you to restore to Israel its independence, power, and gloiy, such as it had in the age of David and Solomon?" " It is not given you to know the time and opportunity which the Father has reserved to himself," was the reply ; " but you RESURRECTION OF JESUS. 477 shall be strengthened when the Holy Spirit comes upon you, and shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and all Judrea and Samaria, even to the ends of the earth." While he thus spoke he was taken up on high before their eyes, and a cloud enveloped him and carried him away out of their sight. As they were still gazing into heaven where he disappeared, two figures robed in white stood by them and said : "Ye men of Galilee, why stand and gaze into the heavens? This Jesus, who has been taken up from you on high, shall come back in the same manner as ye have seen him go." Then the Eleven went back from the Mount of Olives to Jerusalem, and re- mained in their upper chamber, of one mind with each other, persevering in prayer, together with certain women and the mother and brothers of Jesus. This isolated and very late tradition is out of harmony with all the earliest accounts, which have nothing to tell us of a separate ascension ; nor does it agree with the narrative in Luke, the only other passage in which the ascension is spoken of. It is on the strength of this tradition that the Church observes the Thursday, forty (thirty-nine) days after Easter S unda}', as Ascension Day ; but it does not appear that this tradition was commonly accepted in the second century, for in the Epistle of Barnabas * we read : ' ' We [Christians] celebrate [not the seventh day as the Jews do but] the eighth [that is the first] da}* with thankful joy, as the da}' on which Jesus rose from the regions of the dead, revealed himself to his friends, and ascended to heaven." The importance of the subject has induced us to go in some detail into all these later and utterly unhistorical elaborations and perversions of the apostolic faith in the resurrection ; and we have therefore fallen into some danger of losing sight of the real religious meaning and the original significance of that faith itself. We must therefore once more call to mind that, under the conceptions of the universe and the religious doc trines current at the time, this idea of Jesus rising out of the realm of shades was the necessary form, and nothing but the form, under which the Apostles expressed their moral certainty that their Master lived and had been exalted. It was this certainty itself, — which is ours as much as it was theirs, — that forms the essence aud the glory of their faith. Above all, we must never forget what a triumph won by Jesus over the prejudices of his disciples' hearts this belief represented 1 See p. 22. 478 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. It shows that he had so impressed them with his unequalled moral greatness and glory as to make tliem say : ' ' Though dead, he cannot be a lifeless shade ; he must still live, although alone of all that ever died. The realm of shades cannot retain him captive ; and until the time shall come for him to mount his throne on earth, he must abide in heaven." Nay, think ! He died as a malefactor, as a disgrace to humanity, renounced by God and man. His disciples' fairest hopes were anni- hilated, and they must throw away their faith in him. . . . And yet they could not ! Hardly had the} 7 recovered from the first bewilderment of that crushing blow when they felt and knew that they could not have been deceived in him ; that he must be the Lord of the Messianic kingdom, the hope of all the faithful, the blessed dispenser of God's most glorious gifts, — for he could be no less ! For the shame of the cross God had amply compensated him with the gloiy of heaven ; and what the unbelief of his nation had hitherto prevented him from doing and being, he would ere long accomplish and make plain. For by him and by no other must the Golden Age most surely come. Nay, so mighty was his influence, even after his death, that in moments of holy transport his disciples even saw him. Truly, if we may argue from the effect to the cause, from the impression Jesus made to his own personalit}', we are filled with wondering reverence and admi- ration to think what he must have been ! How much higher the tribute we pay to Jesus by thus explaining the belief in his resurrection, than by wasting our strength in the hopeless effort to prop up the belief that his body came back to life and left its grave on the third day ! Were it only at the price of such a miracle that his disciples could regain their faith, our lofty estimate of his power over them, of his moral influence and his moral force, of the personality from which they issued, would lose one of its great supports. Here then at the close we may speak, as we could not speak at first, of the "resurrection" of Jesus, — using the word as he himself employed it, to signify his triumph. There is still one story of the resurrection which we have not given, and which stands in no connection with the rest. In its present form it is a very late tradition, } T et it strikes us as setting forth in emblematic guise the triumph of Jesus over the very powers which had trampled him in the dust. Let us listen to it : — Hardly had the Saturday morning broken when a numerous deputation of high priests and Pharisees again begged audience RESURRECTION OF JESUS. 479 of the procurator. What makes them so restlessly uneasy? Have they not just averted the dangers which were threaten- ing their religion and their people ? Have the}' not established their own influence and authority more firmly than ever? Is not their enemy crushed for ever? The evening before, their hearts were light and the} T held their least in joyful triumph. But dread forebodings rose once more at night, and banished sleep, — forebodings that some way, they knew not how, the Nazarene would hold his own against them yet. But counsel comes b}' night, and they soon decided what to do. And this was wiry the early morning found them at the palace of the Roman. They were at once admitted, and explained their fear and their request as follows: "Will it please you, we have remembered that this deceiver, when he was alive, said, ' After three days I shall rise again.' Give orders then that the grave be guarded for three da}'s, or may be his disciples will come and steal him away and then saj' to the people, ' He is risen from the dead.' And then the last deceit would be worse than the first." With unhesitating alacrity Pilate granted the request. " A sufficient watch is at your service. Guard the grave as se- curely as }'ou may." They thanked him and retired. Then they hastened to their work. The}' placed a strip of linen across the stone at the entrance of the tomb, and secured it at both ends with cla}- bearing the impress of their seal. Surely no one would dare to break it ! Then they left the watch with strict injunctions to vigilance, — injunctions which relieved their own minds, though the admirable discipline of the Roman s} T stem rendered them quite superfluous. Surely they might now be perfectly at rest ! The first pale gleam of the third morning was breaking from the east ; the guards were standing at the entrance of the cave, — when suddenly the earth began to rock and trem- ble ! Is that a flash of lightning shooting down from heaven ? Ah, no ! It is an angel of the Lord, whose appearance shines like the fire of heaven, and whose garments glitter like snow. With a touch of his finger he rolls back the stone from the mouth of the tomb and seats himself upon it as his throne. There is the seal all broken ! There are the sentries, motion- less and powerless in their terror, paralyzed with apprehen- sion, without power of speech or thought, gazing with ashy faces on the apparition ! No sooner had they recovered the Use of their limbs than they fled for their very lives to Jeru- salem to those wl/o had given them their charge. The San- 480 RESURRECTION OF JESUS. hedrim assembled in utter consternation. The case seemed hopeless ; but these high priests and eiders were never at a loss. They gave the soldiers a great sum of money and said, ' ' Spread it about that his disciples came and stole him away while you were asleep. Should the procurator hear about it, we will find means of appeasing him, and you have no need to fear." The soldiers took the money and repeated their lesson to every one they could get hold of. And that is the origin of the tying story of the theft. "Was such a foolish report really circulated among the Jews ? In an} T case this story, which is worked out elaborately in the "Gospel of Nicodemus," is quite absurd. Is it likely that the enemies of Jesus would have heard a prophecy of his rising again when his very friends never dreamed of it for a moment, and when he had never once spoken of his "resur- rection " in public ? Is not the conduct here ascribed to the councillors and the soldiers — the latter of whom would have needlessly exposed themselves to the heaviest punishment — so clumsy and childish as to be impossible ? But once set aside these difficulties and accept the picture as emblematic, and how fine and true its strokes appear ! The powers of Church and State have combined against the Nazarene and brought him to his fall. On the one side the high priests and Pharisees defending the Law, the temple, and last, not least, their own authority and influence, against the sacrilegious blows of this seducer of the people ; on the other side, the procurator, who cherishes no personal hostility to him, but overcomes his own indifferent toleration, and sacrifices the Nazarene in the interests of order. The new religious move- ment is crushed for ever by this combination. Both Church and State combine to keep it down. They take measures which cannot fail. The one puts its seal upon the stone, the other sets its watch before the grave, — in vain ! As by the finger of God the seal is broken and the watch is smitten down. Jesus stands up ! Though hurled to the ground, he rises again ; his momentary defeat was but a step to his abiding triumph. The alliance of ecclesiastical and civil authorities is powerless against the truth, against the kingdom of God, against the Christ. The triumph is his ! In the following pages we shall trace the history of this triumph in the establishment of the apostolic community and the preaching of the gospel to the heathen. This triumph has its witnesses in every age, in our age, in our hearts, whenever the principles of Jesus vanquish the obstinate re- COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 481 sistance of routine and prejudice, of impurity and selfishness ; whenever his ideal conquers the commonplace reality. Of this triumph every Easter that Christians observe is the grate- ful record and the joyful promise. In this, the truest sense, " Christ is arisen" indeed ! Chapter II. THE COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. Acts I. 15- V., XII. 1-23.1 A VEIL of obscurity hangs over the short period which separates the death of Jesus from the work of Paul. Only two facts shine through it. Of the first we have al- read} T spoken, and its significance will become still clearer presently. It is that the followers of Jesus regained their faith in his Messianic dignity, — which faith took the form of a belief that he had risen from the regions of the dead, and had been exalted to heaven, whence he would soon return. The second fact which now demands our attention is that a com- munity of believers was formed at Jerusalem, and had its branches in other parts of the Hoh* Land. But with regard to this matter our curiosity is rather excited than satisfied ; for the accounts we possess are very meagre, and at the same time far from trustworthy ; and since we have no means of controlling them, we must use all the greater caution in accepting what they tell us. Not only is the length of the period in question unknown ; not only are we left completely in the dark as to many details, — but even the great facts and the general course of events are far from clear. We are, therefore, driven to suppositions which we cannot really substantiate, and of which we must consequently be very sparing. The first question that forces itself upon us is, How came the disciples of Jesus to establish themselves at Jerusalem ? It is true that we need not suppose any collective emigration on a large scale to have taken place ; but nevertheless it is true that at a certain period, not long after the Master's death, a certain number of disciples, whose example was 1 Matthew xxvii. 3-10 VOL. III. 21 482 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. soon followed by others, felt it their dut3 T to leave their be- loved and entrancing country, their nearest relatives, and their several callings, and go and settle in the hostile capital. Unquestionably this movement was made with a view to the establishment of the kingdom of God at the approaching re- turn of the Christ. "The City of the Lord" was the nat- ural centre of the glories of this future age ; and moreover Jesus himself had made it the scene of his last labors, and of that sublime effort frustrated, alas ! by the unbelief of the people. 1 But a step that required such courage and involved such sacrifices 2 as the removal to Jerusalem did would hardly be undertaken except on some definite occasion and with some definite object. As to the occasion we cannot find even a hint in the book of Acts, which never lets the Apostles return to Galilee at all. 3 Their object was probably something more than to wait at Jerusalem in longing for the Messiah ; it was to prepare for and if possible hasten his return by taking up his work, by preaching the kingdom of God to Israel :n a city which might well be deemed the nation's heart. We find the number of the disciples given as about one hundred and twenty souls ; but this figure raises our suspicion by being just ten times the number of the tribes and of the Apostles, and it is rendered still more doubtful by the fact that we have alread}' heard of five hundred brethren in the Epistle to the Corinthians. The statement that the mother and brothers of Jesus were among the believers approves itself more readily to our acceptance, for the Epistle just re- ferred to mentions that the Christ appeared to James, who was probably the head of the family. It would be extremely interesting to know when and how their disbelief was over- come ; 4 for we must take the vision not as the cause but as the result of James's faith. But our search for further light on this point is fruitless. The first step which the band of disciples took, before the outside world knew any thing of its existence, is said to have been the selection of an Apostle to take the place of Judas. Of course the traitor had lost his place among the Twelve for ever ; but bej^ond that we are told that the divine vengeance had already fallen upon him. Various traditions were cur- rent on this point. In the first place we hear that within a few hours of the consummation of his crime, when he saw his Master condemned to death by the Sanhedrim and handed 1 See pp. 326, 327. 2 See pp. 345, 331, 187 f£. « See p. 476. 4 Compare pp. 237- 241. COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 483 ovei to the Roman governor, he came to himself. He saw (too late, alas!) the enormity of his crime, and could think of nothing but returning to the Sanhedrim — as if that would avail! — and giving them hack the thirty shekels, the price of blood, which burned in his hands. "I have sinned/' he cried, " in giving up an innocent man to death ! " But thej* would not take the money back ; and answered chyly, " That is your affair, not ours ! " Then the wretched man fell a pre}' to despair. He rushed into the temple, flung the coins upon the floor, went out and hanged himself. The h'gk priests, as scrupulous as ever, considered what they could do with the money. As the price of blood, it could not be thrown into the treasury. 1 Finalh T they determined to purchase the Pot- ter's Field with it, and make it a burial place for strangers. Hence the name Hakelclama, or Blood-acre, was given to this field, which la} T south of Sion, in the valle} T of Hinnoin. 2 Another legend, embodied in the account of the selection of a new Apostle, brings this same burial ground into con- nection with Judas in an equally arbitrary, though quite a different manner. According* to this version he had bought a piece of land for the price of his treacheiy, and had sub- sequently come to a miserable end there, though not by his own hand. He had fallen down, his bowels had burst asun- der, and his blood, that streamed over his newly-acquired pos- session, gave it the name it subsequently bore. A third tradition, not contained in the Bible, told how the wretched man was tortured by a fearful dropsy ; how his bod} T swelled until at last a cart could easily pass through a space too nar- row for him to go through ; and how, after nameless agonies, he died, stock blind, whether crushed by a cart, or a loath- some victim of disease. We feel at once that these stories are without historical foundation, though, for the honor of humanit}^, we would willingly accept as true the account of Judas's repentance. The general purport of the stories is determined b} T the Jew- ish belief in retribution, while the details are furnished by misapplied passages of the Old Testament, — the story of Ahithophel, who betrayed David ; 3 the prophecies of the earliest Zechariah 4 (not Jeremiah, as the first Evangelist sa}-s) ; 6 and above all the cursing psalms, one of which speaks of a snare, a desej ted inheritance, and darkened i See p. 394. 2 See Map IV. « See vol. ii. p. 49. ■* See pp. 410, 411. 6 Matthew xxvii. 9. 484 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. eyes ; * another of an early death, deposition from a post 01 honor, and a curse that penetrates like water into the enemy's bowels. 2 As a matter of fact, we are wholly ignorant as to what befell Judas. Let us return then to the faithful disciples at Jerusalem We are told that Peter stood up one da} T among the brethren, who were about a hundred and twenty in number, and after showing that the Scripture foretold the fearful fate of the betra} T er, and that another should take his place, urged the appointment of a successor. The choice must fall on one who, with the Twelve, had been a faithful and steadfast fol- lower of Jesus from the baptism of John to the ascension of the Master ; one who might join the elder Apostles in bearing testimon}^ to the resurrection of Jesus. Then the assembly selected two of its members who fully complied with all the conditions laid down, and whose spirit and power fitted them for so sublime a task. The} T were Joseph, the son of Sabbas, surnamed "the just," and Matthias. The choice between these two they- determined to leave to the Omniscient, and so had recourse to lots. After offering a prayer to God, the knower of hearts, that he would show them whom he had chosen to take the place of the castaway, they drew a lot for each of the two ; and the result was that Matthias was re- ceived into the apostolic circle. The Apostolate is here represented as a definite office of superintendence conferred on a certain number of men, who form a close college, and are the only qualified witnesses to the resurrection of Jesus ; and this may well lead us to suspect that the whole stoiy is invented, 3 w T ith the spe- cific purpose of showing that there was no vacancy for Paul in the college, and that moreover he was entirely incompetent and unsuited for the post of an Apostle, inasmuch as he had not been a follower of Jesus during his public ministiy. If this is realty what the story means, then the writer of Acts must have simply accepted the tradition without understand- ing its drift. In itself, however, apart from the legend of Judas and the citation of texts connected with it ; apart from the whole discourse of Peter, the fictitious character of which is palpable at the first glance, 4 — apart, in a word, from all the accessories, it is not impossible that the number of twelve was again completed by the choice of Matthias ; and a certain amount of probability is given to the supposition by the fact 1 Psalm lxix. 22 (Matthew xxvii. 5), 25 (Acts i. 18-20), 23. 2 Psalm cix. 8, 18. 3 See p. 180. 4 Acts i. 18, 19- COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 485 uhat the first Epistle to the Corinthians * and the book of Rev- elation 2 both speak of " the Twelve," notwithstanding that Judas had fallen away. This measure, if really taken, dis- plays a scrupulous anxiety to keep in harmony with the num- ber of the tribes, and evinces the Jewish narrowness, which regarded the blessings of the kingdom of God as reserved ex- clusively for Israel ; but it also shows a settled determination, which earns our admiration by the courage and fidelity it re- veals, of standing up before the people of the Lord, without loss of time, as witnesses to the Messiah, who was now ex- alted in heaven and would soon return in his glory. When and how did the Apostles begin their preaching of Jesus, the Messiah, and of his kingdom? The following story is given us in answer : — The day of Pentecost, the harvest thanksgiving of the Jews, had come. The disciples were together in their usual place of assembly, in the morning, when suddenly a sound was heard from heaven, as of a mighty rushing wind, and all the house re-echoed, while at the same time the}' saw tongues, as if of fire, which split up and came down on each of them. At the same moment that which the wind and fire did but represent as symbols came itself to pass. The Holy Spirit came down upon them, and for a time they were utterly car- ried away by it ; and, as indicated by those forms upon their heads, began to speak with other tongues, according as the Spirit gave them utterance. This miracle made a deep impression. Crowds of Jews were collected to the spot, and among them were foreigners from all the nations upon the earth, whose zeal had brought them away from their heathen birthplaces to settle in the City of the Temple. Picture their amazement when each one of them (fifteen nations are enumerated) recognized his own native language in the rapturous utterances of these men ! They asked in consternation, "Are not all the speakers men of Galilee ? Then how comes it that each one of us hears them rehearse God's mighty deeds in his own native lan- guage?" But while some were lost in amazement and per- plexity, wondering what this could mean, others mocked the inspiration of the disciples and said : k ' They are full of sweet wine ! " Did these reckless taunts reach the disciples and bring them to themselves ? At any rate they rose ; and Peter, as 1 1 Corinthians xv. 5. 2 Revelation xxi. 14. 486 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. their head and representative, solemnly began his first dis- course, amid perfect silence. They were not drunk, he ex- claimed, for who would drink before nine o'clock, the hour of morning pra}'er? But this that they had seen was the fulfil- ment of Joel's prophecy, 1 that before the coming of God's kingdom the Lord would pour out his spirit over young and old, men and women, after which terrible signs and wonders in heaven would follow, and then the day of judgment. Then there would be no salvation except in calling on the name of the Messiah. Now this Messiah, whose approach these signs had shown to be close at hand, was no other than Jesus of Nazareth. He had been marked out b}- God as filling this high rank b} T the miraculous powers given him ; and yet more by his resurrection, when Israel under God's will had given him up to the heathen to be crucified. This resurrection proved him to be the great son of David,' 2 upon whom his ancestor's thoughts were really fixed when he sang of his de- liverance from the realms of the dead and from corruption. 8 And, lastly, this pouring out of the holy gift which God had promised proved be} T ond contradiction that Jesus was now the Messiah, pro vis ion all} 7 " exalted to God's right hand, in accord- ance again with a prophetic song of David. 4 The assembled people were deeply impressed by this ad dress, and asked, in response to its appeal, what the}^ were to do. Upon which Peter resumed: " Repent and be baptized as believers in Jesus, the Messiah, for the remission of your sins. Then you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. For 3 r ours is the Messianic kingdom with all its blessings, yours and your children's ; and all the heathen, who b} T God's grace shall be taken into Israel, shall share it with 3-011." Great was Peter's rejoicing ; for when he had once more earnestly admonished his hearers to separate themselves from their stiff-necked contemporaries, that the}- might not share their condemnation, no fewer than three thousand announced their conversion, and were baptized on that same day ! Well-grounded objections may be urged against the credi- bility of this account. The signs which accompany the lofty inspiration of the disciples betraj^ themselves at once as products of the imagination of the Christian communhYy. Conscious of possessing the Holy Spirit, conscious of owing 1 Joel ii. 28-32 ; compare vol. ii. pp. 454, 455 2 Psalm cxxxii. 11. 8 Psalm xvi. 8-11; compare vol. i. p. 210. 4 Psalm ex. 1. COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 487 it to the risen Master, the community of Jesus imagined that the gift must have been imparted at some definite moment, 1 whether at Pentecost, or, as another account would have it, on the still earlier occasion of one of the appearances of the Christ. 2 Round this conception the outward symbols of the manifestation would readily cluster. Nor is it strange that the first revelation or working of the Spirit should be made to consist in speaking with other tongues ; that is to sa} T , with other than the usual tongues, — with human tongues touched by God, in a burst of religious ecstas}\ This phenomenon, which is the counterpart of the ancient " prophesying," 3 is known to us from Paul's description 4 as an attempt to give utterance to religious transport, without using the under- standing, in broken sentences, incoherent exclamations, and inarticulate sounds ; sometimes it would take the form of exalted praise, which could only find expression in cries of joy and sighs. We also gather that the phenomenon ap- peared repeatedly in the apostolic communities, and that it was very highly esteemed. What more natural than that tradition should make it the first sign of life in the assembly of the faithful? We ma} T note in this connection that the Book of Acts mentions the phenomenon on several other occasions, and always to mark the beginning of a genuine and formal entrance into the Messianic community. 5 But in the passage we are now discussing this "speaking with tongues " is designedly represented as consisting in the use of all manner of foreign words, as a S}*mbol that the gospel was destined for all peoples. This brought the legend into agreement not only with a Jewish tradition, that when the voice of God proclaimed the Law from Mount Sinai it sounded as if the words were uttered in every language of the world, but also with the expectation that in the Messianic age the confusion of tongues and division of mankind that had reigned since the building of the tower of Babel would be superseded by the original unity of language and universal peace. Finally, the closing portions of the story seem no more historical than what precedes. Peter's discourse, like the other speeches in this book, is simply invented for him by the author in accordance with the usual custom of the time ; 6 nor can we well believe that his first discourse resulted in a conversion in mass and the baptism of three thousand 1 Compare pp. 118, 119. 2 John xx. 22. 3 See vol. i. p. 453. 4 1 Corinthians xii.-xiv. 6 Acts x. 44 ff., xix. 1 ff., viii. 15 ff. 6 See pp. 23, 24. 488 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. people in a single day. We shall observe the same exaggera- tion in stating numbers upon other occasions, when we shall hear of five thousand and afterwards of man}' tens of thou- sands of conversions. 1 We need not even suppose that our story rests upon the reminiscence of any one particular fact, such as the common transport of the disciples spoken of as the appearance of the Christ to five hundred brethren. 2 The birth of the community of Jesus is buried in obscurity, and it ma} T very well have taken place at Jerusalem by gradual and imperceptible degrees. Afterwards, when the very natural desire to fix some special day for it arose, the feast of Pentecost presented itself as the first national festival after the fatal Passover ; and if that day had already come to be regarded as the commemoration of the giving of the Law, which it certainly was in later times, then as the festival of the old dispensation it would seem pre- eminently suitable for the introduction of the new. In a word, after all the reservations we have been obliged to make, we find very little of this story left unchallenged ; but we must not forget that this little is the kernel of the whole, — ■ the one fact of inestimable significance that a community of believers did actually spring up ; to which we may safely add that in its early j^outh this community already numbered among its characteristics those bursts of inspiration known as " speaking with tongues." But whether it began as a close community to which no one was admitted without solemn consecration, and how the prac- tice of baptism arose, we cannot tell. Jesus did not institute the ceremony in question. Some have supposed, though on insuificient grounds, that it was first introduced in the case of converted heathen, and therefore a good deal later than the time we are now discussing. If, on the other hand, it was really established at Jerusalem at an earlier period, and for the benefit of Jews who joined the community of the Messiah, then it was obviously borrowed from John. 3 In fact the whole work of the Twelve was an imitation of that of John, and bears testimony to the strength of his influence. Properly speaking the Apostles were not carrying on the work of Jesus, but that of his predecessor, — not only inasmuch as they plunged the future citizens of the kingdom of God beneath the purif3 T ing waters, but in the exclusive prominence they gave to the last judgment, and in their preaching of the speedy and sudden dawn of the Messianic age. 1 Acts xxi. 20. 2 See pp. 467, 468. « See p. 104 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 489 Now let us return for a moment to Peter's discourse. It is given us as a specimen of the primitive apostolic preaching, and as such it certainly deserves our confidence. The same ma}- be said of a second discourse, put into the mouth of Peter, which we shall present^ hear, and which resembles the first prett}- closely in its general purport and contents as well as in the occasion of its deliveiy and its handling of the subject. 1 Three points at once excite our observation. This preaching does not concern Jesus, the hero of faith, the friend of man, the noble rescuer of humanity, whose obedience and love culminated in his death upon the cross. Far from it ! It concerns Israel's Messiah, approved as the Messiah by his resurrection, in spite of his death upon the cross in shame. On the strength of Psalm ex., which Jesus himself, though with quite a different intention, had already applied to the Messiah,' 2 he was declared henceforth to be sitting "on the right hand of God" in heaven. Not only was this the high- est place of honor, but it assured him the widest power of protecting and blessing his friends and opposing and subduing his enemies during the initial establishment of his kingdom upon earth. Finally, here and everywhere the warp and weft of the apostolic teaching, which also forms the substance of several of the books of the New Testament, consists in the belief that the end of the world was now really and truly close at hand; that the "last days" had alread} T come; and that very soon Jesus would return from heaven, then for the first time coming in his true Messianic character. To that consummation the breathless longing of his friends was directed ; in that expectation the} T so toiled for him that nothing could terrhy or dishearten them. Little as they had understood their Master, they nevertheless clung to him faithfully, and bore enthusiastic witness to his exaltation. Amidst all their mistakes and all their narrowness, their faith and courage do them immortal honor. Be the how and the when what the}- may, a body of be- lievers in Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah shortly to be expected was, as a fact, established at Jerusalem, where it constantly increased. Its members, in after years at any rate, were known by the nickname of " Nazarenes," after the birthplace of their Messiah. We have a right, derived not only from the subsequent course of events, but from the very earliest accounts, to call this body of believers a com 1 See pp. 494, 495. 2 See pp. 383, 384. 21* 490 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. munity. Let us see what is told us of its internal condition or communal life. The believers, so we read, displa3 T ed unflagging interest in the preaching of the Apostles and unremitting zeal in prayer for the coming of the Messianic kingdom. So far from cher- ishing an} T thought of separating themselves from their people, the}' went daily to the national sanctuar}" as one man ; but from the very first the}' were drawn b} T special ties to one an- other, were constantly together, and faithfully attended the common meals, — a custom which rose spontaneously out of their brotherly affection, and in its turn was admirably suited to keep it alive. Then as they ate together, — full of jo} T to think of the glorious future, but without intemperance or excess, — they commemorated their Master and his parting meal. The praise of God was upon their lips, the favor of all the people was their lot, and their numbers grew from day to clay. But the strongest proof that they were one in heart and soul was the community of goods the} T established. They had every thing in common, we are told repeatedly, and no one regarded his possessions as his own. They sold their lands and houses to divide the proceeds according to the necessities of each, and consequently none of them was ever in want ; for, without the least compulsion, all who possessed any property sold it of their own accord, and gave the whole price to the Apostles for them to divide as they thought fit. Special mention is made in this connection of a certain Joseph, be- cause of the significance his person afterwards acquired. He was a Levite, a native of the island of C} r prus ; and his re- markable eloquence gained him the name from the apostles of Barnabas, — that is, "son of exhortation," or properly " of prophecy." He sold a piece of land that he possessed, and brought the money to the Twelve for them to dispose of as they would. In contrast with this noble conduct, we are told of the action of a certain man named Ananias, and bis wife Sapphira. They had not wholly forsaken the world, but neither did they wish to seem backward in the eyes of the rest or to lose their future reward. 1 So they sold their land ; but Ananias, with the knowledge of his wife, kept back a part of the mone^y and brought the rest to the Apostles pretending it was the whole. Then Peter, instructed by the Holy Spirit and perceiving the attempted fraud, rebuked Ananias for his hypocrisy. He 1 Compare pp. 108, 345. COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 491 might have kept his land. No one- compelled him to part with it ; and if he chose to sell it he might have done what- evei he liked with the proceeds. But this hypocrisy was from the Evil One ; it was a lie directed not against men, but against the Holy Spirit that dwelt in the community and in the Apostles. Divine retribution was at hand. Hardly had Peter en^ed when the culprit sank at his feet, a corpse. Some of the younger brethren, most suited by their age for such a service, laid Ananias on a bier, carried him out, and buried him ; for in those days it was not usual to keep a corpse unburied longer than was absolutely necessary. But this scene did not close the appalling drama. About three hours afterward, Sapphira, not knowing what had taken place, came into the assembly of the people. There before Peter lay the sum of money brought by Ananias, still untouched. As Sapphira was looking round for her husband, Peter, point- ing with his finger to the coin, demanded sternly: "Is that the price for which you sold j-our land?" " It is," she an- swered unabashed. Then the sombre words of. doom passed Peter's lips : " Why have you conspired together to test the power of the Holy Spirit to detect your fraud? I hear the returning steps of those who have buried j'our husband, and now the same men shall carry you out also." At that word, she dropped to the ground and was no more ; while the young- men who had returned from the burial place, w r hich was out- side the city, entered at the very moment and found the same task awaiting them once more. The guilty pair were laid in the same tomb. How could such a signal judgment fail to make the profoundest impression upon the community and upon all the Jews that heard of it ! This legend is told to the glory of the youthful commu- nity whose wrongs were so terribly avenged, and still more to the honor of its leader, the Apostle, who was endowed with such dread powers from on high. But the fact is that, to say nothing of its impossibility, it ascribes distinctly immoral conduct to Peter, both in making him tempt Sap- phira to the lie instead of preventing her from telling it, and in making him twice exhibit a spirit of dire vengeance. Even the previous sketch of the life of the community, though not an invention, by no means deserves our implicit confidence. In the first place, the author, or the tradition he recorded, evidently gives us an ideal sketch ; and in itself this is no more than natural, — for Christianit}*, soon torn by quarrels and dissensions, and stained by worldliness and self-seeking, i92 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. fell under a delusion common alike to individuals and socw ties, 1 in looking back with yearning to the infancy of the faith as a time of innocence and of unqualified purit}^ and love. But the exaggeration of this sketch is more than in- voluntary. It is deliberate. The very form in which it is given bears the marks of conscious art ; for the life of the community is sketched twice in succession, in similar style, but with heightened colors on the second occasion, and each account is followed by a miracle, a persecution, and a tri- umph won by the Apostles. 2 Nor does the writer once trouble himself as to how it was possible for more than three thousand souls to assemble and take their meals to- gether ; and before long he is himself compelled to mention dissensions which sprang from differences of birth 3 or faith. 4 So, too, in spite of his own assertion, that there was abso- lute communit} T of goods among the believers, and that in consequence none of them were in need, we presently find him mentioning exceptions to the rule ; not only in Ananias and Sapphira, but in a certain Mary who had a house of her own, which she had not sold, 5 to sa} r nothing of certain " poor" widows to whom a daily allowance was made, — not without some partiality. 6 But in spite of all this, if we substitute a liberal munifi- cence for community of goods, we need not hesitate to accept the main features of the picture as true, and to indorse the testimoiry subsequently borne to the Christians by their ene- mies in a time of great persecutions : u See how they love one another ! " How could it be otherwise with the first commnnit}* of Jesus? Would not older and more recent dis- ciples alike be drawn toward one another and above all toward the Apostles? Would not the feeling that they shared a common life, a common hope, and a common dan- ger urge them cheerfully and liberally to perform the duties of brotherly affection? Would not many of them even sell some piece of property to enable them to supply the wants of needy brethren? Moreover such acts were fostered by the expectation that the world was soon coming to an end. Then no one would enjoy his earthly possessions more, but all these saciifices would be rewarded at the Messianic judg- ment. We may be sure, however, that not many rich or distinguished men belonged to the community ; and the fact that a few years afterwards we find many poor among the 1 See vol. i. p. 52. ' 2 Acts ii. 42 ff., iv. 32 ff. 8 Acts vi. 1. * Acts xi. 2. 5 Acts xii. 12. 6 Acts vi. 1. COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 49c believers at Jerusalem need not in any way drive us to the supposition that an attempt had really been made to estab- lish an impossible community of goods. There is no room to doubt that the belief in the return of Jesus to establish the kingdom of God was the main charac- teristic of the community at Jerusalem, and in the eyes of the outside public it constituted its only reason for existence or principle of cohesion. We are also safe in asserting that the believers regularly observed their religious duties as Jews, frequently trod the courts of the temple, and in general ful- filled the precepts of the Law and tradition. How could they do otherwise in such an orthodox atmosphere ? Apart from that new life of love, with which the spirit of Jesus inspired them, there was nothing to distinguish them from their fellow-countrymen and believers, except that while man}* looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, they alone held that that Messiah would be Jesus of Nazareth. In all other respects they were Jews, both in the outer forms of religion and in their ideas and convictions. If we are jus- tified in regarding them as a separate sect at all, then they were certainly a sect of Jews. But this one point of faith that distinguished them from others involved a principle the consequences and bearings of which the}* did not yet in the least degree realize. A cruci- fied Messiah was a conception so directly contradictory of all religious prejudices that it must in time annihilate them. Jesus, though executed upon Golgotha, was yet the Messiah. Iji virtue of his resurrection? So it was said. But as a matter of fact it was in virtue of his moral and religious greatness, in virtue of the might of his spirit, in virtue of the truth he had revealed and the love he had displayed. The true grounds of his Messiahship must have been more and more clearly felt by many of his disciples ; and when felt they could not fail to transform or annul the whole Jewish scheme of life and of the world. At the very least, this belief in Jesus secured the preservation of his image with all its beautiful and sacred reminiscences, and of the words which interpreted his principles, — those might}*, life-giving, and renovating principles so little understood as yet. And when thus preserved and honored, his image and his words must force themselves at last into fullest recognition. From the very day of its institution at Pentecost, we are told, the community, and especially its leaders, enjoyed uni- 494 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. versal respect. And well they might ; for the Apostles per- formed a profusion of signs and wonders. The following story serves as an illustration, and further records the first collision with the priestly authorities : — On a certain day Peter and John were going to the temple at about three o'clock in the afternoon, — the hour of evening pra} r er and sacrifice ; 1 and at the same time there was a man of about middle life carried to the same place. He had been a cripple from his birth, and was set down every day close by one of the entrances to the sanctuary known as the Beau- tiful Gate, to beg alms of those who came to the temple. As the two Apostles passed him he asked an alms. They turned their earnest gaze upon him, and Peter said, " Look at us ! " He looked fixedly, expecting them to give him something , and Peter continued, lt Silver and gold I have not, but what I have I give you : In the name of Jesus Christ the Naza- rene [that is to say, by virtue of my faith in him] , stand up and walk ! " On this he took him by the hand and raised him up, while at the same moment his feet and ankles re- ceived their strength. He stood and walked like other men, and went into the temple with his benefactors, leaping for joy and praising God ! Now when the people, who recog- nized him as the beggar of the Beautiful Gate, saw him walk- ing about, they were lost in amazement ; and since he still clung to the Apostles a great crowd gathered round them in the southern colonnade, known as Solomon's. Peter seized the opportunity of addressing the crowd. It was not by their own power or goodness, he said, that they had done this wonder. It was the God of the fathers who had wrought it to the glory of his servant Jesus, the Holy and Just One, who had been delivered b} T this same multitude to the Roman governor, and when he had determined to set him free had been denied and rejected, while a murderer had been preferred to him. But if they had slain the Prince of life, God had raised him up from the land of shades. It was to this that the Apostles bore witness ; and it was the power of this faith in his Messiahship which Jesus had given them that had completely restored the cripple before all their eyes. And now, since the people and their leaders had alike rejected Jesus because they did not know that he was the Messiah, and since God had thus fulfilled the predictions of all the prophets that his Anointed One must suffer, it remained for them to repent and be converted, that their sins might be l Compare pp. 140, 250. community at Jerusalem. 495 blotted out. Then should come, after a time of woe and ter- ror, the season of refreshment, — the dawn of the Golden Age, — when Jesus should return from heaven. Thither he had been received for a time till God should send him as the Mes- siah, at the restoration of all things, 1 as foretold by Moses a and Samuel, and all their successors. And to them in par- ticular, since they might claim the prophets and God's cove- nant with Abraham 3 as their own, He had sent his servant first, with all the blessings that would follow on repentance. So spoke the two Apostles to the people ; but when the priests, the ruler of the temple-guard, and the Sadducees ap- proached, the}* were much disturbed by their preaching, espe- cially of the resurrection ; and accordingly they seized them, and threw them into prison, since it was now too late in the day to allow of the instantaneous trial prescribed by custom. Meanwhile, however, man}* of the hearers were already con- verted, and the community henceforth numbered about five thousand. The next day the Sanhedrim assembled, with Annas and Caiaphas, the high priests ; 4 and Peter and John, together with the former cripple, were brought before them. They were required to declare by what power or name (by the Evil One or by God) they had performed this cure. Then Peter, seized by the Holy Spirit, cried out in stirring words that if they were on their tri^l for the blessing they had con- ferred upon the unfortunate cripple, then all the councillors and all Israel with them must know that the wonder had been worked by the name of Jesus Christ, the Nazarene, whom they had crucified, but whom God had raised again. He was the stone rejected by the builders, but made the corner-stone by God. 5 The promised blessings were to be looked for Trom him alone. There was no salvation except by faith in him ! The Sanhedrim was completely at a loss. What was the meaning of such confidence on the part of these unlettered laymen whom they now recognized as the companions of Jesus? And there stood the cripple beside them, whose re- storation could not be got rid of! They sent the prisoners out while they consulted together. The miracle was already the wonder of all the city, and could not possibly be denied. All they could do was to try to stop the matter going any further by forbidding their prisoners, under the sternest threats, to utter another word to any one about Jesus as the 1 See p. ?25. 2 Deuteronomy xviii. 15 ff. * Genesis xxii. 18. 4 See p. 96. " & See p 390. 496 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. Messiah. In vain ! Peter and John demanded whether it was right in the sight of God to obe}' them rather than Him, for it was a moral impossibility for them to keep silence. This provoked more violent threats than ever ; but the end of it was that the}' could find no excuse for punishing them, and had to release them for fear of the people, who glorified God with one voice for this great miracle. As soon as the Apostles were at liberty', they went to their friends and told them all that had taken place. Then they offered a fervent and united prayer to the Creator of all things. ]Now that the prophecy of David, concerning opposition and enmity to the Lord's anointed, 1 had been fulfilled at Jerusa- lem ; now that tetrarch and procurator, heathen and Jew, had conspired against Jesus, — the3 r prayed that God might give them courage to preach in spite of all these threats, with power to work miracles in the name of Jesus. And in token that the prayer was heard, the whole place of assembly shook, the Holy Spirit seized them all again ; the}' came forward undismaj'ed, and continued to bear mighty witness to the resurrection of Jesus. A second persecution ran a similar course. After the divine judgment had fallen upon Ananias and Sapphira, the commu- nity was constantly augmented by whole troops of men and women, and the Apostles displayed miraculous powers with- out parallel. Here is a specimen of their mighty deeds. In Solomon's colonnade the believers assembled, one in heart with the Apostles ; all who had not joined the community stood respectfully aside, and the masses were evidently im- pressed with deepest awe. As the Apostles advanced to the colonnade, one might see sick people carried out along the way and laid on beds or mattresses by the side of the street, in the hope that Peter's shadow at least might fall upon them, for even that sufficed to heal them. And from the neighbor- ing places, too, they came with the sick and the possessed, and not one of them returned uncomforted. But the high priest and the other Sadducees could no longer endure to look on passively while the Apostles made such mighty progress, and accordingly they threw them into the city gaol. It was but labor lost ! In the night the angel of the Lord unbolted the prison doors and led them out, commanding them to resume the preaching of salvation to the people in the temple ; and this they did in the early hours of the morning. Meanwhile the high priest and the others had summoned the whole San- l Psalm ii. 1, 2. COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 497 hcdrim and sent to the prison for the Apostles ; but the mes- senger returned alone and said: "The doors were firmly barred and bolted, and the sentries at their posts, but the prisoners were gone." We may well believe that the presi- dent, the captain of the temple-guard, and the high priests were at their wits' end now. At that very moment some one rushed in with the news that the veiy men whom they had thrown into prison were standing up and teaching in the tem- ple ! The captain and his men hastened to secure them and bring them before the Council ; but they used no violence, for fear they should be stoned by the people. There stood the Twelve before the Sanhedrim, while the high priest sternly cried : " We forbade you expressly to speak about your faith, and yet you have made it echo through Jerusalem, and are tiying to throw the responsibilhry of that man's execution upon us." Then Peter, in the name of all the rest, answered with undaunted firmness that they ought to obey God rather than men ; and it was God who had raised up Jesus, whom they had slain on the cross ; it was God who had exalted him as Prince and Saviour, to give repentance and forgiveness to Israel. " And we are his witnesses of these things," he con- cluded ; "and, moreover, the Holy Spirit, which God gives to all who obe3 T Him, shows that the}' are true." The members of the Sanhedrim waxed furious and were almost sentencing the Apostles to death, when one of them, a Pharisee of the name of Gamaliel, a teacher of the Law, held in high honor by all the people, stood up, ordered the accused to be removed, and then delivered his opinion, sup- ported by historical analogies. He advised his colleagues to pause before proceeding to violence ; for a bad cause was sure to collapse of itself. Thus a certain Theudas had arisen a short time back, with great pretensions, and had collected about four hundred followers. But he was killed, his follow- ers were scattered, and his pretensions came to nothing. Afterwards Judas, the Galilsean, had headed a revolt on oc- casion of the census ; 1 but he too was destroyed, and his followers dispersed. In the same wa}-, if this preaching was false doctrine, a mere human invention, it would fall to pieces of itself without the interference of the Sanhedrim. Violence was at best superfluous, and if by chance it should be a truth from God with which they had to do, then surely they must avoid all violent resistance, not only as vain presumption but as sinful fighting against God. i See pp. 4, 5, 6, 56, 89. 498 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. The Sanhedrim listened to reason. The Apostles were called in, condemned to be scourged, once more forbidden to speak of the Nazarene, and then dismissed. Filled with jo}^ at having been counted wortlry to suffer ignominy for their Master's title, the}^ left the judgment hall and ceased not, day by day, in the temple and at home, to preach Jesus as the Messiah. In these two stories we can find little else than half inten- tional and half unconscious fiction. The miracles, which are so recklessly multiplied, are some of them superfluous, — such as the liberation of the Apostles by night, followed at once by their recapture ; and others, such as the cures effected by Peter's shadow, of the nature of magic. The helpless clum siness of the Jewish authorities, so sharply contrasting with the intrepid decision of the Apostles, sounds equally unhis- torical, and we cannot help exclaiming, " Wiry did not they believe, like the rest?" Indeed, at this rate Jerusalem with all its neighborhood would very soon have been cleared of sick people and of unbelievers alike ! All that we are at libert} T to accept as historical is that a collision with the au- thorities probably took place, though the whole drift of the stories that record it, together with all the details, appears in- credible. The writer's intention is clearly to glorify the com- munity at Jerusalem, especially the Apostles, and most of all Peter. This is why he makes the miracles take place as pub- licly as possible, and instantly acquire the utmost fame. A second object of the writer, or his authority, is to represent the Jewish people, especially the national or religious party, as at first distinctly favorable to the cause of Jesus. This is why we are so constantly, conspicuously, and emphatically assured that the masses reverenced, honored, and protected the believers and their chiefs, while none but the Sadducees persecuted them, and the Twelve found an advocate, not to say a deliverer, in the Pharisee Gamaliel. This Rabban Gamaliel I., the grandson of Hillel, and the renowned leader of the school of Jerusalem, who died in 58 a.d., is known to us from other sources ; but he certainly never uttered this discourse, for it betra} T s a strong suspicion, to sa} T the least of it, that this preaching of the Christ was really of divine origin, and moreover it is a tissue of contra- dictions. Theudas and Judas were not put down without violence, so that their fate could not furnish an argument against interfering with the Apostles. The principle, "Let error work its way unchecked, and it will ruin itself," is one COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. 499 which cannot possibly be carried out ; and we shall soon see Paul, who is introduced to us as a disciple of Gamaliel, act in directest contradiction to his master's supposed advice. But the most conclusive fact of all is that this Theudas, of whom Gamaliel is made to speak, was a prophet, or popular leader, who did not appear till more than ten years after the time we are now speaking of, and a good thirty years after Judas of Galilee, so that our writer has committed a twofold sin against chronolog} T . 1 A few more miracles ascribed to Peter will be spoken of elsewhere,' 2 since the scene is laid awa} T from Jerusalem, and thej* occur in a different connection. Presently, when Paul appears in the Acts as a worker of miracles, we shall gain fresh light as to the origin of all these stories. At present, therefore, we need say no more. But hereafter, whenever we find ourselves in contact with the primitive community of Jerusalem, or transported into its midst, we shall have to con- sider it with especial reference to the dissensions of the ap- ostolic age ; and we will therefore seize this opportunity, passing over eight or nine eventful years, of giving the only remaining narrative about the community of Jerusalem, which stands in no connection with these apostolic dissensions. It simpfy dwells upon the relations of the believers to the Jew- ish government and people now hostile and persecuting, ia- stead of favorable as at first; and, though embellished by tradition, it records an event which may well be accepted in the main as historical. It was the last year of the reign of Herod Agrippa I. In his zeal for the Jewish religion, but on what special occasion we cannot say, this friend of the Pharisees laid violent hands upon some of the believers in Jerusalem. Nay, one of the Twelve, James the son of Zebedee, fell a victim to the sword, and ere long the communit}' was threatened with a still hea- vier blow. For the king observed that the Jews were pleased b} T what he had done ; so he seized on Peter also, just before the Passover, and put him under careful guard, intending to pass public sentence of death upon him as soon as the feast was over. The last night had set in. The Apostle slept peacefully in his prison, while the congregation w r atched in fervent prayer to God to rescue this precious life. Alas ! there was little hope of his escape, for heavy bolts and bars held him relent- 1 Compare pp. 56, 96. 2 See chap. vi. p. 54-i. 500 COMMUNITY AT JERUSALEM. ler>sly in his captivity, and he was guarded by four soldiers, relieved every three hours, who must answer with their lives for his safe custody. At this very moment he lay between two of the soldiers, with one of his arms fettered to each of them, while the two others kept strict watch at the gate, a little way apart from one another. But lo ! when all was quiet, when no one suspected any thing, a glow of heavenly light shone of a sudden through the darkness of the prison, and an angel of the Lord stood by the wretched bed. He pushed Peter's side and woke him, with the words : " Rise up quickly ! " Then the fetters dropped from his hands and he rose mechanically. " Gird up your garments and bind 3 T our sandals to }X>ur feet," continued the angel ; and when the Apostle had obeyed, he added : " Throw on } T our mantle and follow me ! " Peter did so, thinking all the while that it was a vision, and that he should soon find himself upon his bed and in his fetters again. Thej passed unobserved b} T the first and second watch, and reached the iron gate that opened into tbe street, unchallenged. The gate opened of itself; they went out, turned round the corner, walked along one street together, and all at once the angel was gone ! It was only now that Peter returned to full consciousness, and said: " Now I know for certain that the Lord hath sent his angel to rescue me from the violence of Herod and the people's thirst for blood." So he hastened along the way that led to the house of Mary the mother of John, surnamed Mark, where a number of the faithful were assembled in praj^er. He knocked at the door, and the maid Rhoda came at the summons ; but before she opened she asked who it was that came at such an untimely hour. When she recognized Peter's voice, she was so delighted that she forgot to open the door for him, and ran in and told them all that Peter was standing outside. They said she was raving, but she persisted in say- ing : " Indeed, indeed, he is there ! " " Then it must be his guardian angel," they said ; " it can surely bode no good ! " Meanwhile Peter knocked again and yet again ; and when at last they opened the door, there to the amazement of them all stood Peter himself. He motioned them with his hand to keep silence, and told them how the Lord had brought him out of the prison. Then he told them to inform James and all the brethren who were not present of what had taken place, and departed himself elsewhere. Picture the deadly terror of the soldiers when the morning broke and they found the prisoner had vanished without a COMMUXITY AT JEfctJSALEM. 501 trace ! When the king sent for Peter and heard that he was gone, he had the sentinels thrown into chains, tried, and exe- cuted. Little did he think that the avenging hand of God was already stretched over his own head ! It was but a few weeks afterwards, when he had left Jerusalem for his mag- nificent residential city of Csesarea-Palestina, that he received a Phoenician embassy there. He had been violently incensed against Tyre and Sidon, and had forbidden the export of corn and other necessaries of life from his kingdom to these cities. The Phoenicians, who were reduced to great perplexities by this measure, found means of bribing Blastus, the king's first chamberlain and favorite, to espouse their cause, and then had begged for peace. On a certain day, therefore, Herod granted their embass}^ a solemn public audience, and an- nounced his resolution. Seated on his throne and clad in his robes of state, he delivered an address to them in the pres- ence of the people, and laid down the conditions of peace. The splendor of his appearance impressed all present with a sense of his incomparable majest} T , and the substance of whjit he said so delighted them that he had no sooner finished thnn they burst into rapturous applause, and the blasphemous ciy echoed from end to end of the quadrangle, " It is a god thut speaks, and not a man ! " Herod did not reject this sacri- legious flatter} 7 ". So the angel of the Lord smote him, and a few days afterwards he sank under an equally loathsome and painful disease of the bowels. This angel is already known to us from the narratives of the Old Testament, where he appears as an explanation, or rather a description, of sudden sickness and death. 1 For the rest we find the occasion and manner of Herod's death described almost identically in Josephus. This historian however knows nothing of an embassy from the Phoenicians and a public audience granted them ; but speaks of games in honor of the emperor Claudius, at which the king, when the first rays of the sun shone upon his silvered robe, was greeted by his sycophants as a god. Five days afterwards he was a corpse, having suffered ever-increasing agonies meanwhile. This confirmation gives a certain guarantee for the truth of the story we are considering, which stands alone in the book of Acts. The account of Peter's rescue is of course fabu- lous, nor does it seem to have occurred to the writer how un- worthy of God it would be to make victims of the unoffending sentinels. But that James was slain and Peter imprisoned i See vol. ii. pp. 29, 291. 502 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. may be accepted as fact ; and, instead of the messenger from heaven who gives the latter his liberty, we may suppose that the death of the persecutor, which so often opened prison doors, or the intercession of some friend, or any other of the hundred chances that might give a favorable turn to things, resulted in Peter's regaining his freedom. We msij remark in passing that Peter's message to the ab- sent brethren contains the first mention of James the son of Joseph, the brother of Jesus, as a distinguished member of the communit3 T at Jerusalem. We shall presently meet him again in this capacity, together with Peter. But then a great development will already have taken place, of which at present the primitive community had not even a presentiment, against which it ranged itself in vain, by which the cause of Jesus was shaken free from the ceremonial re- straints of the Mosaic law and the national exclusiveness of the Israelitish prophets. Upon this important subject we will now fix our attention. Chapter III. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. Matthew XVII. 1-9; Acts VI.-VIII. 8, 26-40, XI. 19-21; Mat- thew XV. 21-28.1 ON a certain day, says a celebrated legend that rose towards the close of the apostolic age, Jesus took his three chosen friends, Peter, James, and John, and went up a lofty mountain to be alone with them. Here in the sight of the three his form was transfigured, his countenance shone like the sun, and his garments glittered like the light. At the same moment thej saw two figures at his side in the like heavenly glory, and recognized them at once as Moses and Elijah, who were conversing with Jesus. Then Peter spoke, and said to Jesus : " Lord ! it is well for us to be here. If it please thee I will make three booths : one for thee, and one for Moses, and one for Elijah." But before he had finished speaking the shining cloud that girds the Deity had descended upon the mountain-top and streamed over the three figures i Luke ix. 28-36 : Mark ix. 2-10, vii. 24-30. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. £)03 till the3 T seemed to melt into tbe glow and were lost to sight, while the voice of God sounded from the cloud to Peter and the others : " This is my beloved Son ; hear him ! " Then in a moment all was gone ; but there was no doubt of whom the voice had spoken, for when the disciples looked round they could see none but Jesus. Even without the additional light which the comparison with an Old Testament precedent 1 throws upon the details of this picture, its general purport can hardly be mistaken; while the importance attached to it may be gathered from a distinct reference being made to it in the latest book of the Bible, the second Epistle of Peter. 2 In the presence of his friends and disciples Jesus is transfigured, — that is to say, he is recognized b}' them as the Messiah ; but the lawgiver and the representative prophet 3 still stand in undiminished glory at his side. And Peter, together with James and John, wishes to preserve all these three forces, — the Jewish law and national expectation no less than the Gospel, — and to build tents for them all. Vain is the wish, and vain the pro- ject ! The divine will makes itself known, and Moses and Elijah disappear, leaving Jesus alone singled out as the son of God's good pleasure. 4 There should not and could not be any permanent alliance between the new religious truth and the ancient practices of external piety prescribed by the Law, or the ancient conceptions of a proud, unloving nationality. 5 But the Apostles had not } T et perceived this incompatibil- ity. 6 It was outside their circle and without their help that this great step was made, as we shall see in this and the fol- lowing chapters. It is not without reason that Peter, James, and John, whom the evangelical tradition represents as the chosen friends of Jesus, and who were held in the highest estimation at Jerusalem and elsewhere as the pillars of the communit3 T , — it is not without reason that these three men are specially indicated as wishing to retain both Moses and Elijah, while Peter, pre-eminently the Apostle of the Jews, is made their spokesman. 7 James the son of Joseph we must probably regard as virtually taking the place of James the son of Zebedee, who was cut off early. Nor must we overlook the statement made by all the three Evangelists — i Exodus xxiv. 15, 16, 18. 2 2 Peter i. 16b.-18. 8 See pp. 49, 50. 4 Psalm ii. 7 ; Isaiah xlii. 1; and Deuteronomy xviii. 15; compare p. 119. 5 See p. 213. 6 See pp. 211, 232, 292 ff. ' Galatians ii. 7, 9, 12; 1 Corinthians i. 12. 504 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. though Mark has it in the wrong place — that the disciples were very much alarmed by what took place. LuKe says that terror came upon them when Moses and Elijah went into the cloud and disappeared ; while according to Matthew, when the voice from heaven had corrected their first inten- tion, they fell down to the ground in fear, but were touched, raised up, and encouraged by Jesus. We may mention, incidentally, that here again 1 Luke rep- resents the vision as a more palpable fact than the others make it, though even Mark speaks of the whiteness of the garments of Jesus, which shone as no bleacher upon earth could make them. The third Gospel further speaks of the mountain, as if a real and well-known mountain were in- tended ; and in the same spirit the later tradition, overlook- ing the emblematic character of the story, pointed out Ta- bor as the mount of the Transfiguration. Luke also tells us that Jesus went up to pray, 2 and adds the not very appro- priate comments that the disciples were drowsj', though they kept themselves awake ; that Peter did not know what he was saying, — an unlucky touch which reappears in Mark, — and that the Apostle did not speak until the representatives of the old dispensation were on the point of departing. Finally, Luke stands alone in saying that when Moses and Elijah appeared in glory the}^ discoursed of the death upon the cross which Jesus must endure at Jerusalem ; and though this trait does not at all astonish us, especially in Luke, 3 it is quite foreign to the main conception of the scene. This conception is that the authorny of the Law and the prophets must be annulled. But of course this could not be done suddenly, nor without a conflict. It was a question which only came forward gradually, and could not be settled without man} T a strain in the bosom of the community. Let us listen to what is told us of the origin of the first of these collisions between the old and the new spirit ! So far from being appalled or discouraged by the mortal peril that threatened, them and the maltreatment they had experienced, the Apostles were but stimulated to continue their preaching of Jesus as the Messiah both in the temple and at home ; 4 and consequently the numbers of the faithful still increased. If only this outward success had been ac- companied by undiminished brotherly affection and unbroken harmony ! But alas ! the season of first love had all too 1 See p. 120. 2 See p. 261. 3 See pp. 465, 475, 494, 495. * See p. 498. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. 505 booh passed by. Differences of language and of country asserted themselves, and peace had fled. For though most of the members of the community had been born and bred on Jewish soil, and were so-called He- brews, yet there was also a large number of Grecians among them, — that is to say, foreign Jews, who had settled in Jeru- salem or the neighborhood, 1 but continued for the most part to speak their native Greek, which was then the language of the'woiid. Among them there were even certain proselytes, or men of heathen birth, who had undergone circumcision, accepted the whole Mosaic law, and been incorporated as members of the Jewish people. Now these two elements, the Hebrew and the Grecian, had never completely amalga- mated ; and, as the communny increased, it fell more and more completely into two separate groups. The cause of this may be found partly in the natural tendenc} T to associate with one's fellow-townsmen and fellow-countr3 T men ; but partly, perhaps, in a certain tone of superior^ assumed by the natives of Palestine toward the Jews from heathen lands ; and yet more in greater or less diversities of feeling and opin- ion which could not alwa} T s be kept back. For the Grecians, who had grown up and possibly lived for many jesus in a heathen atmosphere, were for the most part less intolerant and bitter than the others, while their frequent contact with the Grecian civilization had in many cases opened their minds and expanded their horizon ; and, finally, they knew by experience that even at a distance from the temple and its dazzling ceremonial an earnest piet}' was possible. The occasion, however, that revealed the elements of dissen- sion is said to have been of a purely material nature. The Grecians complained of the Hebrews, apparently with justice, on the ground that in the daily distribution of money or food to the need} 7 - members of the community their widows had to give way to the others, and always came off worst. This could not possibl}' be an accident ; but the charge of par- tiality was not pressed against the Apostles personally, or at an} T rate not against them alone, but against those who sur- rounded them, and in general the whole Hebrew-speaking, or rather Aramaic-speaking, portion of the community. An end must certainly be put to these complaints, and at the same time to the . strained and uneasj^ relations which they indicated. So the Twelve summoned a meeting of all the believers, and laid the whole question before them, with the 1 See p. 485. vol. in. 22 506 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. words, "We should have to sacrifice the work of preaching if we gave the sustenance of the poor the attention it requires ; so do you, brethren, ]ook round for some of your number who are favorably known to all of you, and select seven of them amply endowed with the gifts of the Spirit and of wisdom needful for this delicate and laborious work of love ; and we will then commit this service to them, and devote the whole of our own time and strength to pra} T er in our assemblies and to the preaching of the Lord." The proposal was received with unmingled approval, and the brethren selected Stephen, a man conspicuous for his mighty faith and glowing enthusiasm, Philip, Prochorus, Ni^anor, Timon, Parmenas, and finally a certain proselyte, Nicolas of Antioch. These men were then presented to the Apostles, who consecrated them to the service by prayer, and by laying their hands upon them. Meanwhile, the community at Jerusalem was constantly increasing ; even the priests, in man}^ cases, forgot their enmity and became believers. But before long a fearful storm was to break. Among the Seven, Stephen distinguished himself from the first by the wealth of his divine gifts and powers, which en- abled him to do great signs and wonders among the Jews. He directed his preaching especially to foreigners, whom he found in their several sjmagogues ; for we must know that the Holy City was full of houses of prayer. According to the Talmud there were no fewer than four hundred and eight}' ; but, of course, the greater number of them would be small and insignificant. It appears that almost every district or great cit}% in which there were mairy Jews, had one of these synagogues in Jerusalem, which served for the use of saay of its citizens who might permanently settle in Jerusalem, and also for those who went up to celebrate a feast. It was & kind of general rendezvous. Thus, in connection with Ste- phen's work, we are told of S3'iiagogues of the Asians, or natives of the coast of Asia Minor ; of the Cilicians. in whose capital (Tarsus) many Jews were settled ; of the Alexan- drians, for two of the five quarters of the magnificent capital of Eg3^pt were entirely Jewish ; of the C3 T rengeans, for one- fourth of the population of Cyrene was Jewish ; 1 and, lastly, of the Libertini, or Roman " freedmen," — that is to sa}\ Jews who had been captured in war, and carried to Rome as slaves, or had been born in slavery there, but who had subsequently » See p. 448. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. 507 been set free b} r their masters. Now in these S3 T nagogues Stephen encountered the most violent opposition, both be- cause of his great success and because of the special views which he enunciated. In his mouth the preaching of Jesus as the Messiah appeared to threaten religion with insult and danger. So some of the worshippers attempted to refute him, and argued with him as to the abiding authority of the Law and the eternal significance of the temple and its service. It was all in vain ! These controversies, as is often the case, instead of making Stephen withdraw the assertions to which so much exception was taken, only drove him to more uncom- promising utterances than ever ; and } T et his opponents could never hold their own against his penetration and skill, and above all against his enthusiasm. So they incited certain fanatics to accuse Stephen publicly of blasphemous (heretical) language against the Law of Moses and the whole Jewish religion. 1 This made a great commotion, both among the populace and the members of the Sanhedrim ; and as Stephen, who went his wa} r undaunted, was again discoursing in a syna gogue, he found himself suddenly surrounded by his enemies, seized, and dragged before the Council. The trial began at once. False witnesses 2 had been se- cured, and gave their testimon}' : "This man preaches day by day against the temple and the Law. For we have heard him say that ere long this Jesus of Nazareth will devastate the temple and abolish the institutions given us b}^ Moses." In burning indignation all the senators fixed their eyes upon the prisoner, and behold ! his face was flooded with a heavenly glory. But the president asked sternly, " Is it true what they have said ? " and Stephen instantly replied in a long discourse, in which he ran through the whole history of Israel from Abraham's call to the building of Solomon's temple, in a vein which strongly reminds us of Ezra's confession on occasion of the introduction of the Mosaic law. 3 Stephen traced in detail the fulfilment of God's prediction to the patriarch that his posterity should sojourn in a strange land ; should long be oppressed there ; should be avenged and brought out by God ; should then be blessed with the revelation of the true religion, and should be brought into the land of promise, where thej* must worship Him. It was only indirectly and incidentally that he refuted the accusation brought against him by speaking of God's election, guidance, 1 Compare pp. 434, 435. 2 Compare p. 429. 3 See vol. ii. p. 500. 508 STEFHEN AND PHILIP. and protection of Israel ; by describing Moses as the great man of God to whom the angel of the Lord on Sinai revealed the commandments, the observance of which gives life, and by appealing to the prophets 1 in support of his ideas about the temple. The real conception and drift of the discourse was to hurl back the charge of impiety with redoubled force upon the people, and *o explain by historical analogy the cause of the unfavorable reception which his preaching of the Messiah had met from Israel. For the greater and more numerous God's blessings had been, the more corrupt and wicked had Israel always shown itself. Moses had felt it more than an}- one, — Moses, who foretold the coming of a prophet, like himself; namely, the Messiah : Moses, who was himself a type of that Messiah in his person and his lot, espe- cially in the treatment he experienced at the hands of his peo- ple. For when he tried to rescue his brothers they renounced him ; and afterwards, in spite of all that God had done for them and given them through him, the}' disobeyed and de- serted him, and made themselves a golden calf, whereupon God gave them over to idolatry. And in the same way their age-old superstition, that the Most High actually dwelt in the temple, was a proof of their narrowness and w T ant of spiritu- ality. As Stephen thus set forth the rebellious spirit of Israel, his words grew hotter every moment ; and though he had begun very courteously, addressing the senators as " fa- thers " and the rest as u brethren," and begging their atten- tion, he ended by bursting into a violent denunciation, in which he chastised them as a stiff-necked people, externally pious, but inwardly estranged from God, deaf to His voice, and no better than so man}' heathen. " You never fail," he cried, "to resist the Holy Spirit, as your fathers did before you ! Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? It was they who slew all who foretold the coming of the Right- eous One, and it is you who have now betrayed and murdered the Righteous One himself; it is you who have accepted the Law ordained by angels, but have not observed it ! " The hearers were seized with ungovernable rage, and gnashed their teeth against him ; but he did not so much as see them, for he was gazing in a transport into heaven, where he saw the Divine Glory and saw Jesus standing at God's right hand, as though he had risen to receive him. " See there ! " he cried ; "I can see the heavens opened, and the Son of Man standing on God's right hand." Then the sena- i See vol. ii., pp. 527, 528. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. 509 tors shrieked with rage and horror ; and, putting their fingers into their ears, they rushed upon Stephen as a single man, droA r e him out of the city, and stoned him on the very spot- Not a shade of fear ov vindictiveness passed over the martyr's soul. As the stones came crashing upon him, he raised his hands on high, and said : " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit ! " Then he fell upon his knees and uttered one last cry. It was a prayer for his murderers, tC Lord, lay not this sin to their charge ! " and he breathed his last, crushed among the stones. At the fall of night certain pious men came to the deserted place of punishment, drew out the mangled corpse from beneath the stones, gave it decent burial, and made great mourning for the dead, with funeral music and fasting. But only very few were bold and generous enough to think and act in this way, for the madness of fanaticism was now aroused. The death of Stephen was the signal for a furious persecution, which scattered all the brethren through every district of Judaea and Samaria, except the Apostles only, who remained at Jerusalem. Among the persecutors a certain man in the early prime of life, named Saul, particularly distinguished himself. He was present at the death of Stephen ; and when the two witnesses whose duty it was to throw the first stones laid aside their mantles, he took charge of them. It rejoiced his heart to see the blasphemer rooted out from the people of the Lord. And yet ! — This is a most remarkable narrative, and is doubly interest- ing because the first martyr appears in it as the herald of the independent development of the Christian comniunit}'. We must not leave it therefore till we have submitted it to a careful examination. In the main we may regard it as historical, though of course we cannot believe in the assembly of all these thou- sands of disciples, in the conversion of a whole host of priests, in the mighty miracles of Stephen, in the transfiguration of his countenance till it became like an angel's, or even in the genuineness of his discourse, — which contains several small inaccuracies that we have not stayed to point out. 1 All this, and more of the like nature, we pass over ; nor will we ven- ture to decide whether Stephen's prayer to be received for a time into heaven, together with his glorified Lord, was really 1 Acts vii. 2, 6, 16, 29, et seq. 510 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. uttered by him in sacred transport at the moment of his mar- t3Tdom, or was put into his mouth in after times, when the Christians believed that all the martyrs would be exempt from the necessity of descending to the land of shades. 1 Again, though the writer represents the Sanhedrim as behaving like a band of savage robbers, an^l Stephen as the victim of a tumult, he puts us in the way of correcting his own account, and lets us see that the trial and the defence took the regular course by speaking of the two witnesses who laid aside their outer garments and began the execution as required by law and order. Perhaps it is also clue to this inaccuracy of de- scription that we are no longer able to discover whether the Sanhedrim demanded and obtained permission to carry out the sentence, or whether they exceeded their powers by dis- pensing with it. 2 It has been conjectured that just at this time there was not a procurator in office at all, — the old one having been deposed and the new one not yet having arrived, — and that the Sanhedrim in consequence ma}' have taken more upon themselves than they would otherwise have ventured to do. The striking similarity between the wa} T in which Ste- phen meets his fate and the account in the third Gospel of the last hours of Jesus may rouse a certain amount of suspicion, but this suspicion must fall less upon the narrative we are now considering than upon the other. 3 On the other hand, the partial coincidence between the charge brought against Stephen and that which the first two Gospels represent as preferred against Jesus seems to plead for the accuracy of both accounts. And here too the u falseness " of the evidence does not consist in its being an invention, but in the turn which it gave to Stephen's words. He certainly never in- tended to sa} T that when Jesus returned he would violentl}' destro} T the temple and abolish the whole Law, but simply that in the kingdom of God the service of the temple would give way to a purer form of worship, and the idolatry of forms and ceremonies to a life in the true spirit of the Law. Finally, the writer once more corrects himself by letting us know 4 that not all the believers, but only the Grecians who sympathized with Stephen, were persecuted and expelled from Jerusalem. Not only the Apostles, therefore, remained 1 Revelation vi. 9, 11, xx. 4; compare Phil ippians i. 23. 2 See pp. 437, 438. 8 Compare Acts vii. 56, 59, 60 with Luke xxii. 69, xxiii. 46, 34; and see pp. 432 ff., 451 ff. * Acts ix. 26 ff., and xi. 19 ff., in contrast with viii. 1. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. 511 in Jerusalem, but all those who had been on their side ; for they had not exposed themselves to any clanger, and had not roused the spirit of fanaticism. The persecution was violent, 1 but limited ; though the account in Acts may be true to this extent, that the community in general suffered in its repu- tation among the rigid Jews, when the attitude assumed by the more free-thinking members brought suspicion upon the whole. Now the evidence it supplies of these internal divisions is just what makes the story, on the whole, deserve our confi- dence. Stephen is evidently our author's hero. 2 He wishes to secure him full recognition, and consequently makes the light fall full upon him while the Apostles sink into the back- ground. But when the progress of the narrative necessarily brings out the differences of view that had very early found their wa}- into the community, the author endeavors to conceal or disguise the fact as completely as possible. So he simply dismisses the accusation against Stephen as " false," just as he afterwards does in the case of Paul ; 3 he makes the whole com- munity victims of the persecution ; and, above all, he finds the point of difference between the two parties in no religious ques- tion at all, but in a simple matter of the distribution of alms ; while he makes the Seven not the representatives of a party within the communit} T , but officers selected b}- all the faithful together, and consecrated by the Apostles themselves with prayer and the laying on of hands. Now this attempt at concealment is the ve^ best evidence of the fact — which peeps through the narrative in spite of the author — that in the community at Jerusalem, even in the first period of its existence, two divergent tendencies were gradually discerni- ble. In general terms they may be described as that of the Hebrews, — who formed the great majority, recognized the Twelve as their leaders, and in their turn exercised a marked influence upon them, — and that of the Grecians, whose champions or leaders were the Seven. We are safe in assuming that all the Seven were Grecians. This belief is suggested by their names, which are all Greek ; for though Palestinian Jews had sometimes Greek names, as was the case with the two Apostles Andrew and Philip for in- stance, 3'et it cannot be an accident that there is not a single Hebrew name in the seven. Besides, we are expressly told that Nicolas came from Antioch, and was even born a hea- then, while Stephen and Philip are pointed out as Greeks i Galatians i. 13. 2 Acts vi. 5, 8, 10, 15. 3 Acta xxi. 28, 21. 512 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. with almost equal certainty by the circles in which they worked and the whole tone of their teaching. And even in the case of the other four, whose names alone we know, the circum- stances of their appointment and the drift of the story which records it require us to suppose a foreign origin. It remains a myster} 7 wiry Barnabas, himself a Grecian Jew, a generous giver, and a man of liberal views, does not appear among the Seven. And now the question forces itself upon us whether com- plaints about the distribution of alms were really the beginning of the whole affair. Many have traced the institution of the order of k ' deacons " in the appointment of the Seven ; but this is out of the question. It would be more to the point to speak of " elders ; " for it was to them, according to a later account, 1 that the management and distribution of funds for the poor was entrusted at Jerusalem. But the writer evi- dently intends to represent the office of the Seven (a sacred number) as purely local and temporary, confined to Jerusalem, and terminated by this persecution. Setting this point aside then, there is no inherent difficulty in believing that the neg- lect of the Greek widows was the occasion of the independent appearance of the two schools ; for how often does it happen that a deep-seated difference is first openly avowed upon some far more trivial occasion than the one we are now considering ! But, unfortunately for our belief in this version of the affair, there is a somewhat analogous case of which we still possess the genuine and original account by Paul ; and there the au- thor of Acts represents a split which was really caused by a conflict of principle of extreme importance, as though it were occasioned by an insignificant disagreement on another mat- ter. 2 This naturally makes us suspicious in the case of the Seven also ; and when we look a little closer we find that our author yet again corrects himself, for instead of making Stephen busy himself with distributing the gifts of love, he represents him as constantly preaching the word of God. And in the same way he speaks of Philip, not as an almoner but as a preacher, and expressly mentions the name given him, descriptive of his office, in the words, " Philip the Evan- gelist, one of the Seven." 8 That sounds exceedingly like a parallel to "James the Apostle, one of the Twelve;" and perhaps we must look upon all the Seven as preachers. The original occasion, then, upon which the}^ came forward as 1 Acts xi. 30. 2 Acts xv. 37 ff. compared with Galatians ij. 13, 14. 8 Acts xxi. 8. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. 513 representatives of the Greek school is certainly lost, and we must regard their appointment as almoners by the community and their consecration by the Apostles as a fiction. We have frequently spoken of two schools in the commu- nity, but we must not suppose that as yet there was any distinctly marked and conscious difference of view between them. What difference there was, was rather felt and to some extent manifested in the mutual bearing of the parties than clearly expressed. The great majority of the followers of Jesus were naturally more strict in the observances of ex- ternal religion in the rigidly orthodox Jerusalem than his im- mediate associates had ever been in Galilee. 1 But the minority also clustered round a nucleus of personal disciples of Jesus who had joined him earl}' or late in his ministry, and had perhaps grasped his principles better than the Twelve had done ; 2 or if the}' had only heard and seen him during his stay in Jerusalem, yet the manner of his first appearance there, his sayings about renewing the temple and about sacri- fice, his castigation of the Pharisees, and much more besides, had sufficed to teach them his spirit, 3 — r and the minority which gathered round them moved with more freedom than the rest. Inclination and capacity, backed by a certain amount of gen- eral culture, helped towards this result. If they cherished but a languid interest in the temple service, and insisted ex- clusively upon conduct in harmony with the (moral) spirit of the Law, the}* felt that in doing so they were bringing their hearts and lives into sympathy with the prophets, and above all with the Master himself. The}' expected that when Jesus returned, "the Law and the prophets" would be ful- filled in this moral sense, to the exclusion of all the com- mandments of men. Though they had not the least idea of detaching themselves from their people, yet we may gather from the discourse of Stephen, from what we are soon to hear of Philip, and from the course of events at Antioch, that the}' had largely overcome their national exclusiveness and were quite disposed to throw open the approach to the kingdom of God to others than Jews ; and this result was due partly to their indifference to Levitical purity, which was the great wall of partition between Israel and the heathen, partly to their strong sense of the stubbornness displayed by Israel against Moses and the prophets, against Jesus and his witnesses. But all this does not imply that there was any sharp division 1 See pp. 211-215, 232, 276 ff. 2 g ee pp. 184, 198, 302. 8 See pp. 365 ff., 373, 431, 383-386, 218. 22* 514 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. or opposition between them and the Hebrew believeis. Far from it. Bat it was they who first preached the exclusive importance of a life in the Master's spirit, and began to work out or apply the great principle involved in the recognition of the Crucified as the Messiah. 1 And now that we understand the significance of this re- cord and of the person of Stephen, and observe that Paul took an active part in his execution and in persecuting his companions, we cannot help thinking of the first martyr's work in connection with that of the Apostle of the gentiles himself. It is true that the charge preferred against Stephen, when interpreted bj~ his own defence, indicates a position far below that to which Paul attained ; for in Stephen and his friends we can see no trace of the great Apostle's doctrine concerning the Law, the crucifixion, and salvation by faith, — of his piercing insight, his undaunted thoroughness, his defi- nite breach with Judaism. Yet certainly Stephen was Paul's precursor, and we have now witnessed the beginning of the new work of the Spirit, the first sign of life of the new com- munit}' of the Christ, the clear indication of a new period in the history of the Gospel. The persecution set on foot against a portion of the com- munity had, as usual, exactty the opposite effect to the one intended. When Stephen had been executed and several of the Grecians, thrown into prison and dragged before the tribunal, a considerable number of the believers, feeling that they were no longer safe at the seat of orthodox} 7 , left Jeru- salem for other Judsean cities, and in some cases even went to Samaria. And wherever they went or stayed, even if the}' did not come forward publicly as preachers, they could not help taking such opportunities as occurred of speaking on the subject that lay next their hearts ; and thus they won fresh followers for Jesus, and little communities were formed in various places in the Jewish land. The work of Philip the Evangelist, one of the Seven, is es- pecially commemorated. He went to a city in Samaria, preached Jesus there as the Messiah, and met with the success that might have been anticipated from the state of religious excitement in which he found the Samaritans. 2 This was a great step in advance, and a proof of Philip's freedom of spirit. Indeed, the writer of Acts himself desires us to look upon it as a step towards preaching to the gentiles ; for i See p. 493. 2 See p. 99. 3TEPHEN AND PHILIP. 515 though the Samaritans themselves claimed to be genuine Israelites, though they worshipped the Lord, practised cir- cumcision, observed all the law of Moses, and lived in expec- tation of the Messianic kingdom, 3'et the Jews looked upon them as no better than heathen ; and what is more, there was not a Jew, there was not a member of the community, not even Philip himself, who would have thought for a moment of reckoning them among the posterity of Abraham, for whom the Messiah and his salvation were supposed to be ex- clusively destined. So now the narrow circle was broken through for the first time, and the approach to the Messianic kingdom thrown open to others than Jews. The honor of this decisive step belongs to Philip. Yet we must not for a mo- ment suppose that he had definitely relinquished the idea of Israel's hereditary right to the kingdom of God, or was pre- pared to go forward, without shrinking, and accept and preach with full consciousness the principle of the abandon- ment of all privileges of birth or nationality, — the principle of equality, as opposed to the national exclusiveness and pride of the Jews. Philip's large-heartedness was fostered, as we have seen, by the freer conceptions he had embraced, and he was conscious of acting in the true spirit of the Master ; * but he was far from realizing the full significance of the step to which he was impelled hy his love of Jesus and his zeal for the kingdom of God. Details are wanting. Our author only cared to chronicle the fact itself. He does not even tell us the name of the city ; he simply makes his usual statement that Philip per- formed miracles, such as the cure of man} 7 demoniacs, out of whom the devils came with piercing shrieks, and of many maimed and crippled ones, — all which called general atten- tion to his preaching, and caused great joy in the city. After this we are told of another act of Philip, which bears witness to the same free spirit. The supernatural cir- cumstances by which it is surrounded were intended to make it more striking, and perhaps clothe it with the divine sanc- tion. An angel of the Lord, we are told, commanded Philip to leave Samaria and hasten southwards, along the least fre- quented of the roads from Jerusalem to Gaza. He obeyed ; and in doing so he overtook the travelling carriage of a dis- tinguished Ethiopian, — the chamberlain and first treasurer of the Queen of Meroe, who was called (after the usual cus- tom of these Ethiopian princesses) Candace. Now, although 1 See p. 301. 516 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. tlds stianger was a heathen, — that is to say, was uneir- cumcised, — yet he worshipped Israel's God, and was now returning from a visit to the temple. There he sat, with a parchment-roll in his hand, reading to himself, but above his breath, as Le drove along. The roll contained the prophe- cies of Isaiah in the Greek version, and the traveller was reading the verses that describe how the servant of the Lord is struck down without complaint or resistance. 1 Prompted by the Holy Spirit, Philip walked beside the carriage, and asked the great officer whether he understood what he was reading ; and he answered that he could not understand it without further instruction, begging him at the same time to take the seat beside him and explain whether the prophet was really speaking about himself or some one else. What bet- ter opening could there have been for the Evangelist to speak of Jesus, in whom that passage of Scripture was fulfilled? He found a grateful hearer in the chamberlain ; and when a few hours had sped b} 7 , he announced himself a convert, and desired to be baptized. The} 7 were close by a stream ; the Ethiopian ordered the carriage to stop ; the two descended, and Philip consecrated his companion as a future citizen of the kingdom of God. But, just as they were stepping out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord suddenly snatched away the preacher miraculously, 2 so that the other could not so much as take leave of him, but was left to continue his homeward journe} T full of deep joy in his new faith in Jesus. Mean- while, Philip was transported to Ashdod, at a distance of five or six leagues, whence he journe} T ed through the cities near the sea-coast, preaching eveiy where, till he came to Caesarea, a city largely inhabited by heathen, where he took up his abode. Still more important events remain. We heard just now of persecuted brethren scattered over Judaea and Samaria ; but there were also many who passed the boundaries of Jew- ish land and went to Phoenicia, the island of C} r prus, and An- tioch, the magnificent capital of Syria. Now wherever they went they preached their faith to the Jews of the place, and of course to them only. At last, however, certain Cyprians and Cyrenaeans, who had formerly been attracted to Jerusalem by religious zeal, and were now expelled from it bj T religious rancor, settled in Antioch, and there began to speak to hea- then on the subject of their faith, and to preach Jesus and his principles and kingdom to them. They experienced God's 1 See vol. ii. pp. 420, 421. 2 Compare vol. ii. pp. 140, 152. STEPHEN AND PHILIP. 517 unmistakable support and blessing we are told, so that great numbers believed, renounced their idolatry and superstition, and were converted to the Lord. They were the first-fruits of the mightj' harvest that the heathen world should yield ! What we said of Philip is still more applicable here. The step was of incalculable consequence ; for the writer evidently means that these heathen were not compelled or even urged to submit to circumcision and other Jewish ordinances as a condition of their admittance. What freedom and boldness, what a fine spirit of humanitj', what zeal for the cause of Jesus on the part of the preachers all this shows ! We would gladly know more of them, but have only the name of one, — Lucius the Cyrensean, — and at most can only conjec- ture that Barnabas the C}'prian was another. Yet, on the other hand, we must not suppose that these men had arrived at the conviction that the Law was annulled, that the distinc- tion between Jew and heathen was abolished, and that hence- forth faith must be the only condition of admission into the kingdom of God. 1 The glory of first discovering and preach- ing this remains with Paul. Indeed, it would be impossible to accept the statement that a community of Grecian Jews and uncircumcised converts was formed at Antioch in any such way as would overshadow the services of Paul or rob his apostleship to the Gentiles of its originality. Ere long we shall see the Apostle of the gentiles hurl down the wall of partition ; but meanwhile our thoughts involunta- rily turn to the second great condition which made it possible to preach the gospel in Greek society, — the condition which must have moved the preachers already spoken of, and with- out which Paul, in spite of the might of his conviction, would have ploughed upon the rocks ! This second condition was the sense of want on the p^_t of the heathen world itself. The capacity for receiving the gospel lay in the longing for a deeper knowledge of the truth, a purer worship of the Deity, a mightier support for the moral life, and a firmer foundation for hope in the future than the ancient and superannuated re- ligions could give. 2 Heathendom was ready to hear of the God of Jesus and the kingdom Jesus came to establish. Had not the gentile world been straining for deliverance, how could the religion of a crucified Jew have found accept- ance with it? The heathen then did not fail on their side to press for admission ; and it was to this pressure rerhaps, 1 Compare Galatians ii. 13. 2 See p. ? 518 STEPHEN AND PHILIP. more than to a 113' thing else, that they owed their participation in the kingdom of God. This fact is set before our eyes in a miraculous stoiy, from which we may perhaps make out the views of the liberal school before Paul as to tne conversion of heathen. We will give it as it appears in the first Gospel, and therewith close this chapter, as we opened it, with an emblematic scene : — Jesus was once journeying in a heathen land (Phoenicia 2 ) . A woman of the country came to him and cried : " Have pity on me, Lord, thou son of David ! my daughter is grievously afflicted by a demon." But Jesus did not answer a word. Then his disciples came to him and said : " Send her aw T ay, for she is shouting after us;" upon which he said: "I am only sent to the lost sheep of Israel's house." But then the woman fell at his feet and cried imploring^ : ' ' Lord ! help me ! " Jesus still refused. " We may not take the children's bread," he answered, " and throw it to the dogs ; " on which she said : " No, Lord ! but the dogs may have the fragments that fall from the table of their masters." Then Jesus }*ielded. 4t O woman ! great is your faith," he exclaimed ; " 3'our pra} T er is granted." And the sufferer was healed. The meaning of this story, which Mark reproduces with sundry modifications, designed for the most part to soften the harshness of the expressions, is easy to perceive. Against its literal truth we might urge the title of " son of David " given to Jesus by a heathen woman ; the implication that his mis- sion was to cure diseases, and that it would prejudice his own nation if he helped a heathen who happened to be thrown in his way ; the repulsive harshness and national arrogance here attributed to the Christ ; and, finally, the performance of the cure at a distance. All these difficulties disappear if we accept it symbolically. The Phoenician woman becomes the heathen world beseeching the Christ to rescue her children from the power of Satan. 2 In vain ! The salvation of the kingdom of God is only offered to the children of the house- hold (to Israel), not to the dogs (the heathen). 8 But she perseveres ; she is content if she may but pick up the chance fragments that fall within her grasp ; and her perseverance wins the day. Observe that this healing from a distance, — that is to say, this benefit conferred upon the heathen world b} 7 the emissa- ries of Jesus and not b} r him in person, 4 — is as it were wrung 1 See pp. 281 ff. 2 Acts xxvi. 18 ; compare pp. 322-324. s Set p. 389 ; Matthew vii. 6; 2 Peter ii. 22. 4 See p. 309. APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 519 from hiiii, that is from his community ; and that as }'et there is not the least idea of placing the heathen on the same level with the Jews. But at the same time the longing for salva- tion on the part of the heathen gives the actual proof of their equality, nay, their superiority for a time, to the unbe- lieving Israel. We are now to see the Apostle of the hea- then vindicating their rights, and realizing the presentiment of Jesus. 1 Chapter IV, THE APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. Galatians I. 13-20; Acts IX. 1-30. WHOM have we to thank for the fact that the name and the gospel of the crucified Galilsean were preached throughout the ancient world, triumphing alike over supreme indifference and furious hostility, over the brilliance of sar- castic wit and the bitterness of deadly hatred? Whose fault is it that the purpose of Jesus himself, who labored to found the kingdom of God and not " a religion," was thwarted by the rise under his name of a new and separate religion, — of the Christian church and the church's doctrines ? One answer serves for both these questions, for they indicate the twin results of the rise and work of Paul. Of Paul! After Jesus, to whom he himself declared that he owed all he was and all he had, we surety are acquainted with no mightier personality than Paul's. By turns received with acclamation and loaded with scorn and hatred, Paul, with his giant spirit and his restless energy, whether compre- hended or not, has directly or indirectly dominated the de- velopment of Christianity ; and to this ver} T day the great majority of believers have not derived their knowledge of the Master and the influence it exercises upon them direct from the fountain head, — that is to sa}' from the Jesus of history himself, — but rather from the channels cut out by Paul in his conception and preaching of the Christ. And now that we come to speak of Paul we have firmer ground beneath our feet than we have hitherto trodden ; for we have access to genuine and perfectly trustworthy sources i See pp. 301 ff., 235, 236. 520 APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. of informatioi about him ; and consequently his image stands before us in much sharper and clearer outlines than that of Jesus. Though many details, especially concerning his out- ward lot, are doubtful or unknown, } T et his own words give us adequate knowledge of his character, his doctrine, his work, his struggles, and much else of extreme importance. To begin with, we ask who he was ; arid we hear from his own mouth 1 that he was in every respect of purely Jewish origin, — a fact to which he evidently attached no little weight before his conversion. Neither he nor any of his forefathers had belonged to the Greek-speaking Jews ; from father to son they had all been Hebrews. Still less was there a single drop of foreign blood in his veins which could give a pre- text for disputing his claim to be a true Israelite and member of God's chosen people. He could show the highest patent of nobility in his descent from Abraham, and the title it gave him as a son of the promise, an heir of the Messianic salvation. Sprung from the tribe of Benjamin, circumcised on the eighth day after his birth, he had been brought up in strict and stern compliance with the ordinances of the Law and the tradition, for which he early displayed unbounded reve- rence and burning zeal. He threw himself with heart and soul into the Pharisaic camp. We gather from the line of argument adopted in his letters, and from the scholastic learning which he had at his command, that he was educated as a Rabbi ; in which case he would follow the usual custom of learning a trade, which subsequently enabled him to pro- vide for his own support on his missionary journe} T s. We think of him as a city child, unacquainted with the free, fresh scenes of Nature ; and we know that he could not boast of a powerful frame, an impressive cast of features, or other external advantages. On the other hand, he could afterwards declare that con- cerning the Law he had been irreproachable in his observ- ance of the commandments, and was prominent as a zealot among his contemporaries and associates. He was a spe- cially ardent champion for the maintenance of the oral law, and against every thing that might infringe on its authority. Not content with all this, he was stirred by his zeal for Juda- ism to take a prominent part in the persecution of the com- munity of Jesus. The Master himself he had probably never 1 Romans xi. 1; 2 Corinthians xi. 22; Galatians i. 13, 14; Philippians iii 4-6 ; compare pp. 35, 90, 91, 93, 94, 277, 505. APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 521 seen, and perhaps had heard little and taken no special no- tice of him daring his life. He certainly took no part in his death, and was not present on the occasion. It follows, therefore, that he was not in the Cit} T of the Temple at the Passover in the year 35 a.d. At what period he became acquainted with the sect of Nazarenes we do not know ; but whenever it was, he was so deeply shocked in his inmost soul- by the preaching of the Crucified, that, when the false doctrine spread and the Greek Jews that it counted among its adherents began to attract attention, he heartily rejoiced in the violent measures taken against them, and even gave them a powerful stimulus himself. He repeatedly calls him- self a persecutor of the community, — a devastator of the faith. So much we learn directly or indirectly from his own let- ters. The writer of Acts gives several additional particulars, telliug us that he bore the Jewish name of Saul as well as his better-known name of Paul ; that he was a tent-maker, — a trade, observe, which was poorly paid, but left the mind free for deep reflection, — and that he had inherited the rights of Roman citizenship 1 from his father. How the lat- ter had acquired them we are not told. But when the same author tells us that Paul was born in Tarsus, in Cilicia, it is difficult to reconcile the statement with the Apostle's own repeated assertion that he was a Hebrew, — a Hebrew born of Hebrews. The celebrated ecclesiastical father, Jerome, noticed this contradiction, and therefore followed another tradition which pointed to the Jewish city of Giseala as the Apostle's birthplace, and supposed that he had removed to Tarsus as a child. This only very partially removes the dif- ficulty. It makes veiy little difference, however, whether he saw the light at Tarsus or not ; for though this city was a considerable place, rejoicing in special immunities, — a centre of commercial industry, a seat of philosophy and general cul- ture sometimes mentioned in a breath with Athens and Alex- andria, and the cradle of sundry men of distinction, — yet in an}' case Paul's education and development were quite unin- fluenced by Greek culture. He was a stranger to Greek philosoplxy, literature, and eloquence, and even after he had spent years in the society of Greeks he still had great diffi- culty in writing their language, and nearly alwaj's dictated his letters. 2 Finally, we are told in Acts that he was edu- i See p. 2. ' 2 Galatians vi. 11 ; Philemon verse 19 ; Romans xvi. 22 ; 1 Corinthians xvi 21. 62 Z APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. cated in Jerusalem, in the school of Gamaliel, and was still young at the time of Stephen's mailyrdom. Against this it may be urged that he shows no signs of having paid any attention to the Baptist, and was not at Jerusalem when Jesus was crucified. 1 What changed this persecutor of the community into the most zealous of all the preachers of that faith which he had formerly laid waste? To this great question we have un- fortunately no direct answer from the man himself. He simply tells us in general terms that God had destined and formed him from his birth for the Apostolate, and emphati- cally denies that he was brought to better thoughts, or that his views of the gospel had been determined or modified after his conversion by the influence, the preaching, or the explana- tions of any Apostle, Evangelist, or other believer whatever. We also note that he was at Damascus when the great revo- lution in his faith took place ; and that when Jesus, whom he had previously regarded as a blasphemer, became to him the Christ, the Son of God, he very soon, if not immediately, felt impelled to take up the mission to the heathen as his special task. 2 The book of Acts, on the contrary, goes into detail upon this point. So deeply does the author feel the importance of vindicating against the Jewish-Christians Paul's immediate call to his office by the Christ, that he gives the stor} T of his conversion three times over, — once in the course of the his- tory, and twice afterwards in addresses which he puts upon the lips of Paul. 3 When Saul had witnessed the stoning of the first martyr, says the book of Acts, he w r as filled with rage against the community ; broke in upon the faithful from house to house, armed with the high priest's authority ; dragged men, and even women, before the authorities to be hurled into prison ; rejoiced when the} T were put to death ; had many of them scourged in the synagogues, or compelled them to revile Jesus as a false prophet ; and even followed up the persecu- tion into foreign cities. Thus, he asked and obtained a written commission from the high priest or the Sanhedrim to present to the chiefs of the synagogues at Damascus, eight days' journey from Jerusalem ; hoping, with such credentials, to succeed in bringing any followers of the Nazarene he 1 Philemon verse 9. 2 Galatians i. 12, 15-17 8 Acts ix. 1 ff., xxii. 3 ff., xxvi. 9 ff. APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 523 might find there, whether man or woman, in chains to Jeru- salem. But as he was on his way, and had almost reached Damascus, there suddenly shone and streamed about him a light before which the blaze of the mid-day sun grew pale. It was the divine glory that surrounds the exalted Christ. He fell to the earth and heard a voice cry : " Saul, Saul ! why persecutest thou me? " t; Who art thou, Lord? " he replied in terror. "I am Jesus, whom thou persecutest," said the voice. "It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks;" (that is to say, "It is vain for thee to endeavor to resist my power, like an obstinate bullock kicking against the ox- goad.") "Lord, what wouldst thou have me to do?" he asked. " Stand up ! " was the reply, " and go into Damas- cus, where the task laid on thee by God will be told thee." Then Saul arose, but the heavenly glory had struck him blind, and his companions had to lead him by the hand. The}* took him into the cit}', to what was called the Straight Street, and to the house of a certain Judas, where he spent three days in contemplation and pra}*er, in total blindness, and too much depressed, ashamed, and bewildered to eat or drink. Then, as he prayed, he had a vision in which a cer- tain Ananias, a follower of Jesus, came to him to lay his hands upon him and restore his sight. At the very same moment the Lord appeared to this Ananias himself, who was a man of rigid piety according to the Law, and was held in high esteem by the Jews of Damascus. He commanded him to go to Saul, and told him in what street and house he would find him. Ananias pleaded that Saul was a furious perse- cutor ; but the Lord only repeated his command the more emphatically, and assured him that his former adversary was to be a chosen instrument for the preaching of the Christ to heathen, to kings, and to Israelites, and would brave suffer- ings both manifold and heavy in the cause. Ananias obeyed, came to Saul in the name of Jesus, and laid his hands upon him. Then it seemed as if scales fell from the eyes of Saul ; and when Ananias told him of his mission, and the glorious task that awaited him, he rose up and was baptized, and then refreshed himself with food. So far the author of Acts. We have combined his three narratives into one, so as to miss nothing ; but may notice that he shows great carelessness in saj'ing on one occasion that Saul's companions fell down with him to the earth on seeing the heavenly glory, and on another that they stood still in bewilderment ; on one that they heard the voice but 524 APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. saw no one, on another that they saw the light but heard no one speak. In other respects the emphasis falls upon dif- ferent speakers in the narrative, according to the audience and the purpose which have drawn it forth. 1 As for its credibilit}^, we cannot believe that the Christ realty appeared to Paul and conversed with him, as the author represents, and struck him blind by his glor}\ Again, we know upon Paul's own authority that the part here played by Ananias, if not his very existence, is a pure fiction ; for he tells us ex- pressly that no man whatsoever exercised any influence upon this crisis of his life. But in spite of all this it is not im- possible that a trustworthy tradition lies at the foundation of this stor}* of the vision near Damascus, — a tradition drawn from Paul's own preaching, but afterwards elaborated and embellished ; for we ma}' regard it as almost certain that he saw the exalted Christ in a vision at the time of his conver- sion. 2 Paul himself of course believed that the Christ had come in person from above, had revealed himself to him, and suddenly arrested him in his career ; but we, on the other hand, feel bound to attempt the explanation both of the vision and the conversion from Paul's own inner life. The materials are supplied by his own letters, and especially the information the}' give us as to his general conceptions and style of argument, his character and physical con- stitution, his relations with the Twelve, and other such circumstances. Let us give a concise account of what we gather from these sources. Why was Paul such a furious persecutor of the community? Could he conceive of an}' more joyful and glorious news than that which had called the community into life and still sus- tained it, to which its spokesmen and the very fact of its ex- istence bore ceaseless and emphatic testimony? Could any thing be more welcome to him than the news that he who was to mount the throne of the Messiah had come in very truth, as the fullest pledge 8 of the instant dawn of the Golden Age ? No! He could conceive no news more glorious, — if only he could have believed it ! But the Nazarene had died upon the cross, and thereby had proved himself a lying prophet. Before as well as after Paul's conversion the death of Jesus 1 See chap. x. p. 611. 2 1 Corinthians xv. 8, ix. 1 ; compare 2 Corinthians xii. 1. 8 See p. 64. APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 525 on the cross was unquestionably the one point upon which the whole thing seemed to him to hinge. 1 One would judge from his letters that Jesus only came for the sake of being crucified and raised up from the shadow-land ; and just as the cross was afterwards his gloiy, so it was his one great stumbling- block while he still retained his Jewish Messianic beliefs. Surel}* this preaching of a Messiah who had suffered an infa- mous death must have appeared to him as something worse than an absurdit}', — as a positive abomination. Even the Twelve of course saw that the cross was in direct contradic- tion with the traditional doctrine of retribution and the na- tional expectations ; and the truth was that the}' had never been able to remove this contradiction. All they could do was to throw the blame upon the people and their leaders ; declare that the resurrection had annulled the cross ; appeal to the Scripture in proof that it had all been preordained and foretold by God ; 2 and probably add that the death of Jesus had been a sacrifice of atonement for the people's want of obedience 3 (as indicated in the prophecy about the servant of the Lord) , while at the same time it was the sacrifice to initiate the glorious kingdom of God. 4 But Paul was far too keen-sighted and deep-thinking a theologian to be content with so superficial and undecided a view. If we put ourselves into the Jewish attitude of mind, — that is to say, if we see and endeavor to demonstrate a special deed of God and there- fore a special divine purpose in such an event, — we shall soon perceive that a philosophic nature like Paul's, accus- tomed to weigh and to think out the consequences of every thing, could not rest in such evasions. For if they repre- sented the case truly, then this death, the death of the Son of God upon the cross, would after all be largely accidental and arbitrary, and the Christ would have died without aivv sufficient cause, — would have died for nothing. 5 Paul saw that who- ever accepted this Nazarene whom the Law had condemned and loaded with its curse placed himself outside the Law by that veiy fact, and renounced his allegiance to it. The Greek- speaking members of the community were already beginning to show what it must come to. In fact, the persecutor had at least a presentiment that if the crucified leader were really 1 1 Corinthians i. 18, 23, 24, ii. 2; Galatians vi. 14, et seq. 2 See pp. 465, 475, 486, 494-496, 507, 508, 516. 3 1 Corinthians xv. 3; Revelation v. 9, et seq. ; compare vol. ii. pp. 420-425. 510. 4 See p. 416. 6 Galatians ii. 21. 526 APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. the Christ, then the great and vital question, " How am I to be justified before God ? " would have to receive a very differ- ent answer from the one it had hitherto met. Not, 4 ' By strict observance of the Law of the Lord," but, "By ac- cepting in faith what God has given me in this death." In that case the cross would open a new way to salvation ; and God would have said to men on Golgotha : u To accomplish your own justification is an impossibilit}'. Here I myself am offering the great and only sacrifice of atonement not only for individual shortcomings, but as a substitute for your own righteousness." In that case it would be impossible and im- pious to abide by the Law, for whoever sought salvation by the Law would be admitting that his Messiah had died for nothing. And what must this lead to? Any one who be- came an adherent of the Crucified, in giving up salvation by the Law must give up every thing, including all his national privileges, with it, — for he must look upon Jew and heathen as alike before God ; he must regard the partition wall be- tween them as thrown down ; he could have no possible reason for confining the Christ and his salvation to Abraham's posterhYy, which would have no special merit more than others ; for the divine grace would be the sole means of deliverance to all alike. In a word, the preaching of a crucified Messiah drew with it the overthrow of the whole Jewish religion. Awaj T then with so pestilent a heresy ! Such were the thoughts which rose before the mind of Paul ; not at first of course, in perfect clearness and in all their scope, but more as a presentiment, vague at first, but grad- ually gaining distinctness. What choice had he but to perse- cute ? And } T et, after all, was it so absolutely and obviousry impossible that God had really sent a new and higher revela- tion in this death upon the cross? Had he himself found peace, real peace, in this righteousness of the Law? Did it quench his burning thirst for truth and holiness, give rest to his tossed and harassed soul, and reconcile him with his God? Alas, it did not ! His unswerving loyalty to truth, his in- tense religious feeling, forced this answer from him. And then as he fought against these Nazarenes, not only with out- ward force, but with the weapons of argument and Scripture, as he stood up against them in the sjnagogues to drive them to bay with his incisive arguments, new difficulties rose before him. There in the Scripture stood the suffering servant of the Lord by the side of the mighty son of David ! He himself yearned for the Messianic salvation ; but he well knew that it APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 527 could only be given to a righteous people : and was Israel either righteous now, or in the way of becoming so? Alas, no ! Then wmat if God — inasmuch as the previously offered and accepted means of salvation, namely the Law, had proved inadequate — had realty opened this new way? What if the great Redeemer and Comforter, before appearing in his gkuy, had indeed died a death of atonement, and so had opened the kingdom of God to the unrighteous, and put all who believed in him into their true relationship towards God by the force of this their faith? And did not all that he heard of Jesus from the mouth of his followers, his golden sajings and his holy life, his gentleness and power, his self- consecration and obedience, make an impression of perfect righteousness upon him which he could not shake off? No ! it was impossible. The Law and the cross were and must remain in irreconcilable contradiction. It was impossible ; for it would involve the annulling of the dispensation or- dained by God for salvation, and the cancelling of Israel's election. But then if for a moment Jesus were supposed really to be the Messiah, would not the cross be as much or- dained by God for salvation as the Law had been ? And was it so certain that the calling of the heathen was no part of the divine scheme? Well, be all that as it might, what really settled the whole matter was that the cross itself proved this Nazarene not to be the Messiah. That cross was an unmis- takable judgment of God against him ; was the irrefragable proof, which all might read, that God had rejected him. Now his own disciples admitted that all this would be unanswera- ble had not God raised him up again ! " But," said they, " he rose again and we saw him ! Peter, the Twelve, more than five hundred brethren at once, James, all the Apostles. He appeared to us in glory from on high ! " A lie ! cried the persecutor. But could he really abide b} T this answer? A lie? There was nothing of the impostor in what he had picked up or heard about the Master, nor was there any ap- pearance of deceit in what he saw of the disciples. Suppose he really had risen ! Then all would be clear enough. Why should not it be true ? No, it could not be true ! He would not suffer the thought for a single moment. His zeal for the Law and the tradition waked with fresh force within him. Awaj T with these here- tics ! Search them out ! force them to revile this Jesus ! and if they will not, hurl them into prison and condemn them to death ! I lis fury was redoubled by the very fact of his vacil- 528 APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. lation. Now Paul was a man of nervous and excitable tem- perament, — an impetuous and fiery spirit in a weak bod}*- More than once, in times of great perplexity or at dangerous crises, his system was so overwrought that he became deaf and blind to the external world, while visions or revelations were for a time vouchsafed to him, and utter prostration sub- sequently paid the price of the strain. 1 Moreover, this un- wearied and impetuous zealot, for what he held to be the truth of God, was of an}" thing but a cruel disposition. On the contrary, the utmost tenderness and depth of feeling and the truest humanity were a part of his character, and he must have done violence to his own nature in becoming a persecu- tor. 2 And when he witnessed the joyful securhvv, the exalted might of faith, the peaceful courage in the face of death which characterized the martyrs, 3 how could he help being constantly shaken in his purpose and his conviction? Suppose this Jesus really had risen again and appeared to his friends ! In that case he (Paul) had been fighting against God up to that hour, and was fighting against Him still ! But it could not be ! He must not and would not admit the thought ! Meanwhile, as he set his teeth against the nascent conviction, the image of the risen Master, shining with the glory of hea- ven, laid hold of his imagination in spite of himself. The strain increased. Determined to smother his own doubts, he journeyed to the distant Damascus to persecute the fugitives even there ! On his way, all that he had thought and lived and fought through rushed once more upon his soul. That question, " What if he really did ? " forced itself into his mind, do what he would. The witness of the Scripture ; the ac- counts he had heard of the Nazarene ; the experiences of his own heart ; the fervid longing of his own soul ; the invincible faith and courage of the disciples ; the scenes of terror which he himself was on the point of renewing ; the image of the glorified One as he was said to have appeared, — all these things chased each other through his brain. This resurrec- tion ! It was there that the whole matter lay ! Damascus was already before him ; but the tension had now reached its limit ! It was as if the heavenly glory burst upon his strain- ing eye, while the words broke upon his ear: " Saul, Saul! why persecutest thou me ? " The Apostle of the Gentiles was born ! 1 Compare Galatians ii. 2 ; 2 Corinthians x. 10, xii. 1 ff, 2 2 Corinthians xi. 29 ; Romans ix. 2, 3. 3 See p. 508. APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 529 We have endeavored to throw light upon Paul's gospel ; 1 that is to sa}', his characteristic and original insight into the Christian truth by his conversion, and again to explain his conversion b} T the nature of his gospel. The truth of the explanation, considered as a mental history, is guaranteed in its main features b}' this harmony. Paul's persecuting zeal shows that from the first he perceived that belief in a crucified Messiah was incompatible with the Jewish religion. And his special call to preach the Son of God to the heathen is an equally strong proof of the same fact. But we must not infer that when the great change had taken place within him he was at once perfectly clear as to his faith, — knew what to think upon ever}' point, — and, in a word, had arrived at such consistent and satisfactory views that he was prepared to preach the Christ immediately. It was impossible ! The shock was so violent, the revolution seemed so enormous, the necessity of recovering himself — of reckoning with his own past self, of finding his bearings in this new religious world — was so great, that he must cer- tainly have withdrawn for some considerable time. For, in the first place, much of what we have said as to the signifi- cance and consequences of faith in the Crucified lmiy not have risen before the mind of Paul with any sharpness of outline until after his conversion ; and, at an}' rate, as long as he rejected the faith many of its consequences can only have been dimly felt by him ; nor can they have combined into a distinct and definite conception until that faith had become his own, and had been fortified in his heart against all assaults of doubt. Hitherto he had regarded these things with a hostile eye, and had only forced them to their results to show how bad they were. It was very different to think them over and think them through with sj'mpathetic earnest- ness, now that they had acquired the intensest fascination for him. And since he never doubted for a moment, to the veiy last, in the divine origin of the Law and the prophets, he must have been keenly sensible of a difficulty which impera- tively demanded a solution. It was the difficulty of bringing God's ancient revelation into its true connection with the new one, and so explaining the significance and intention of the first as to make its transitory office consistent with its divine character. Only b} T solving this problem could he gain a con- viction as firm, as compact, and as complete^ rounded as the one he had relinquished. 1 Romans ii. 16, xvi. 25 , 2 Corinthians iv. 3, xi. 4 ; Galatians i. 11, 12, 6, ii. 2. 7. vol. in. 23 530 APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. At the same time he knew very well that it would be use- less to seek the light he needed from men, — from flesh and blood, as he expressed it. 1 That was certain. He was not at all the man to surrender himself to another's guidance and walk by another's light. Besides, even had it been oth- erwise, he could not possibly have expected any help from the Twelve ; for they still failed to see even as much as his eyes, quickened by hostility, had discerned before his conversion, when he was still a persecutor. They still failed to see that whoever became an adherent of the Crucified had broken with the Law, and must regard the cross as the greatest deed of God. So he left the busy Damascus and betook himself to Arabia, to some quiet place in the neighborhood. Here he remained a considerable time, and the interval of repose bore rich fruits for his inner life ; so that when he returned to active work he had in truth become a new man, and was fully equipped with his new conviction. During the next five-ancl- twenty 3*ears he was far from standing still. He expanded and consolidated his views in the midst of his restless activ- it3 T , and indeed in consequence of it, and more especiahy in the coarse of the hot controversies in which he was involved. But it was now that the great revolution took place, and that the formation of his views and character alike was completed in principle and in essence. We must remember that this transition involved a com- plete change in the foundations alike of his religious and his moral life, and therefore an enormous strain, not only upon his intellectual but still more upon his moral powers. Was it not a sublime resolve, involving the stern suppression of all self-love and self-satisfaction, thus to break with his own past, unconditionally to relinquish all the results of his ser- vices, all in which he had hitherto gloried, to which he had devoted himself with heart and soul, and in w T hich he had excelled so man}- of his companions, henceforth to find shame and humiliation in the prosecuting zeal that had been his glory? 2 The substance of his preaching henceforth ran: u Not by the Law, but by grace, not b} T works, but 03- faith, we are saved ; and therefore all distinction between Jew and heathen is henceforth abolished ! " And this shows that the Jew within him had died for ever ; but not, we may be sure, without causing him the deepest trouble and affliction of soul, — not without a long and desperate wrestle for the very life 1 Galatians i. 16, 17; compare p. 319. 2 Philippians iii. 4 ff. ; 2 Corinthians xi. 21 ff. ; Galatians i. 13, 14. APOSTLE OF THE GENTILES. 531 All this he ascribed to the influence of the cross upon him. His whole soul turned to the Christ who had suffered himself to be nailed to the cross in obedience to God and in love to mankind, and had taken pit}' upon him, his enenry and perse- cutor. Nay, he felt so closely bound to him that it was as if he had himself been crucified with him, or in his person ; had died with him to the Law, to the world, and to sin ; had risen with him from the regions of the dead, henceforth a new man, living like the Christ, and with him, to God alone. He felt himself in such close communion with Christ that it was as if his former self — the self-seeking Jew — had gone, and as if Christ himself lived henceforth in him. 1 Did not the spirit of Christ — and what was that but Christ himself ? — work in him and control him more and more ? The life he now lived was in truth a new, a holy, an eternal life, free from the Law with its restraints and curse. He no longer knew any thing of a Lawgiver in heaven, whom he must serve in trembling, but only of a Father whose grace was his all, love of whom was now the principle of his obedience and of his whole moral life, whose Spirit dwelt in him as the pledge of a blessed future. The Law could not form man to obedience, for man's carnal nature — the fountain and the seat of sin — made the Law powerless. But when Christ laid aside upon the crows the flesh, the carnal nature, which he had received at his birth, then upon that same cross the carnal nature of all who should cleave to him and become one with him was as good as slain, and with the flesh the power of sin was destroyed. Then they might not, and could not, fail any longer to live for God bj- the Spirit. 2 Thus the whole inner life of Paul hinged upon the contrast between Law and faith, sin and grace, flesh and spirit, Adam and Christ. 3 Adam was the representative of the old, carnal, sinful race of man ; Christ of the new, spiritual, and holy race that would be revealed in all its gloiy at the coming of the kingdom of God. To Christ, this second Adam, Paul ascribed a pre-existence in heaven, as the Son of God or t}'pe of humanity, before he took upon himself the carnal nature in order to redeem the posterity of Adam. 4 Like all the believers, he expected him to return from heaven shortly, to complete the work of salvation. Meanwhile, it was his task to preach this Christ to the world, i Galatians vi. 14, ii. 19, 20; 2 Corinthians v. 14 ff. ; Romans vi. 4 ff. 2 Romans viii. 1 ff. ; 2 Corinthians i. 22; Galatians v. 5. 8 1 Corhr. hians xv. 21 ff., 45 ff . ; Romans v. 12 ff. 4 Galatians iv. 4; 1 Corinthians xv. 47; 2 Corinthians viii. 9; Roma as viii. 3 Philippians ii. 5 ff. 532 APOSTLE OE THE GENTILES. especially to the heathen world, hitherto deprived of the glad tidings, — so that when he should come he might find the world prepared and believing. How long Paul sta} T ed in Arabia we do not know ; but it must have been several months, and perhaps a } T ear or two. He was probably residing all this time m some village on the great plain that stretches south-west of the river Euphrates, and is known as the Arabian desert. There he supported himself b}~ his trade, while his heart and head were ceaseless!}' busied with deep speculations, with the examination of the Scripture, with the internal conflict of his soul, and with pra} T er to God. As soon as he had come to a clear and definite conclusion, he came back from his retirement, a new man in very truth, and began the work of his Lord. He chose Damascus, the nearest great city, — Damascus which he had once before approached upon so different a mission, — as the scene of his first labors. And here for the first time, accordingly, the Christ was preached to the heathen world by a preacher who distinctly knew what he was doing, and did it on the strength of an established principle. For though Paul ma} T have cho- sen the s} T nagogue as his basis, there is no reasonable doubt that from the first he appeared as the Apostle of the heathen. 1 Bat it appears that before long his preaching was impeded, and his life, or at least his liberty, very seriously threatened,