{"1": {"fulltext": "BBS\\nMto\\nm mm\\n11111\\nwBBm\\nWSai\\n31\\nf\u00c3\u00b6\u00c2\u00bb", "height": "3496", "width": "2248", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Vi- -4 ClY\\ns A\\no I-\\nv\\nA\\\\ v\\nv\\n\u00c2\u00b0x.\\n,0\\nOf- c^\\nC- e,\\nV rO\\nHi v\\nk\\nV\\n,S\\nV* V\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2D\\nfrS, S\\n-X\\n%4- %,f\\nC -V a", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\\nin 2011 with funding from\\nTh^Library of Congress\\nV A\\nvV ,f-\\n-p.\\nV\\nv x\\nv\\nv *Vj5\\nUittp:/7www.arehive.org/details/riddleofuniverse01 haec\\nc\\no V", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3417", "width": "2041", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3417", "width": "2041", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "THE\\nRIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "ERNST HAECKEL", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE\\nOF THE UNIVERSE\\nAT THE CLOSA OF\\nTHE NINETEENTH CENTURY\\nBY\\nERNST HAECKEL\\n(Ph.D., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., and Professor at the\\nUniversity of Jena)\\nAUTHOR OF THE HISTORY OF CREATION\\nTHE EVOLUTION OF MAN ETC.\\nTRANSLATED BY\\nJOSEPH McCABE\\nHARPER BROTHERS PUBLISHERS\\nNEW YORK AND LONDON\\n1900", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "66490\\nry of Congress\\nTwo Copies Received\\nOCT 26 1900\\nCftflirigirt entry\\nFIRST COPY,\\n2nd. Copy Delivered: to\\nGftBE\u00c3\u009f DlViSluN\\nOC T 29 19 00\\nCopyright, 1900, by Harper Brothers.\\nAll rights reserved.", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nPAGE\\nAuthor s Preface v\\nTranslator s Preface xi\\nCHAPTER I\\nThe Nature of the Problem i\\nCHAPTER II\\nOur Bodily Frame 22\\nCHAPTER III\\nOur Life 39\\nCHAPTER IV\\nOur Embryonic Development. 53\\nCHAPTER V\\nThe History of our Species 71\\nCHAPTER VI\\nThe Nature of the Soul 88\\nCHAPTER VII\\nPsychic Gradations. 108\\nCHAPTER VIII\\nThe Embryology of the Soul 132\\nCHAPTER IX\\nThe Phylogeny of the Soul 148\\niii", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER X\\nConsciousness 170\\nCHAPTER XI\\nThe Immortality of the Soul 188\\nCHAPTER XII\\nThe Law of Substance 211\\nCHAPTER XIII\\nThe Evolution of the World 233\\nCHAPTER XIV\\nThe Unity of Nature 254\\nCHAPTER XV\\nGod and the World 275\\nCHAPTER XVI\\nKnowledge and Belief 292\\nCHAPTER XVII\\nScience and Christianity 308\\nCHAPTER XVIII\\nOur Monistic Religion 331\\nCHAPTER XIX\\nOur Monistic Ethics 347\\nCHAPTER XX\\nSolution of the World-Problems 365\\nConclusion 380\\nIndex 385", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\nTHE present study of the monistic philosophy is\\nintended for thoughtful readers of every condi-\\ntion who are united in an honest search for the truth.\\nAn intensification of this effort of man to attain a\\nknowledge of the truth is one of the most salient\\nfeatures of the nineteenth century. That is easily ex-\\nplained, in the first place, by the immense progress\\nof science, especially in its most important branch,\\nthe history of humanity it is due, in the second place,\\nto the open contradiction that has developed during\\nthe century between science and the traditional Rev-\\nelation and, finally, it arises from the inevitable ex-\\ntension and deepening of the rational demand for an\\nelucidation of the innumerable facts that have been\\nrecently brought to light, and for a fuller knowledge\\nof their causes.\\nUnfortunately, this vast progress of empirical knowl-\\nedge in our Century of Science has not been ac-\\ncompanied by a corresponding advancement of its\\ntheoretical interpretation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that higher knowledge of\\nthe causal nexus of individual phenomena which we\\ncall philosophy. We find, on the contrary, that the\\nabstract and almost wholly metaphysical science\\nwhich has been taught in our universities for the", "height": "3423", "width": "2077", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\nlast hundred years under the name of philosophy\\nis far from assimilating our hard-earned treasures of\\nexperimental research. On the other hand, we have\\nto admit, with equal regret, that most of the repre-\\nsentatives of what is called exact science are con-\\ntent with the special care of their own narrow branches\\nof observation and experiment, and deem superfluous\\nthe deeper study of the universal connection of the\\nphenomena they observe that is, philosophy. While\\nthese pure empiricists do not see the wood for the\\ntrees, the metaphysicians, on the other hand, are satis-\\nfied with the mere picture of the wood, and trouble not\\nabout its individual trees. The idea of a philosophy\\nof nature, to which both those methods of research,\\nthe empirical and the speculative, naturally converge,\\nis even yet contemptuously rejected by large numbers\\nof representatives of both tendencies.\\nThis unnatural and fatal opposition between science\\nand philosophy, between the results of experience and\\nof thought, is undoubtedly becoming more and more\\nonerous and painful to thoughtful people. That is\\neasily proved by the increasing spread of the immense\\npopular literature of natural philosophy which has\\nsprung up in the course of the last half-century. It is\\nseen, too, in the welcome fact that, in spite of the\\nmutual aversion of the scientific observer and the\\nspeculative philosopher, nevertheless eminent thinkers\\nfrom both camps league themselves in a united ef-\\nfort to attain the solution of that highest object of in-\\nquiry which we briefly denominate the world-riddles.\\nThe studies of these world riddles which I offer\\nin the present work cannot reasonably claim to give\\na perfect solution of them; they merely offer to a\\nwide circle of readers a critical inquiry into the prob-\\nvi", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\nlern, and seek to answer the question as to how nearly\\nwe have approached that solution at the present day.\\nWhat stage in the attainment of truth have we actually\\narrived at in this closing year of the nineteenth cen-\\ntury? What progress have we really made during its\\ncourse towards that immeasurably distant goal\\nThe answer which I give to these great questions\\nmust, naturally, be merely subjective and only partly\\ncorrect; for my knowledge of nature and my ability\\nto interpret its objective reality are limited, as are\\nthose of every man. The one point that I can claim\\nfor it, and which, indeed, I must ask of my strongest\\nopponents, is that my Monistic Philosophy is sincere\\nfrom beginning to end it is the complete expression\\nof the conviction that has come to me, after many\\nyears of ardent research into Nature and unceasing\\nreflection, as to the true basis of its phenomena. For\\nfully half a century has my mind s work proceeded,\\nand I now, in my sixty-sixth year, may venture to\\nclaim that it is mature I am fully convinced that this\\nripe fruit of the tree of knowledge will receive no\\nimportant addition and suffer no substantial modifi-\\ncation during the brief spell of life that remains to me.\\nI presented all the essential and distinctive elements\\nof my monistic and genetic philosophy thirty-three\\nyears ago, in my General Morphology of Organisms, a\\nlarge and laborious work, which has had but a limited\\ncirculation. It was the first attempt to apply in detail\\nthe newly established theory of evolution to the whole\\nscience of organic forms. In order to secure the accept-\\nance of at least one part of the new thought which it\\ncontained, and to kindle a wider interest in the greatest\\nadvancement of knowledge that our century has wit-\\nnessed, I published my Natural History of Creation\\nvii", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\ntwo years afterwards. As this less complicated work,\\nin spite of its great defects, ran into nine large editions\\nand twelve different translations, it has contributed\\nnot a little to the spread of monistic views. The same\\nmay be said of the less known Anthropogeny* (1874),\\nin which I set myself the difficult task of rendering the\\nmost important facts of the theory of man s descent\\naccessible and intelligible to the general reader; the\\nfourth, enlarged, edition of that work appeared in\\n1 89 1. In the paper which I read at the fourth Inter-\\nnational Congress of Zoology at Cambridge, in 1898,\\non Our Present Knowledge of the Descent of Man f\\n(a seventh edition of which appeared in 1899), I treated\\ncertain significant and particularly valuable advances\\nwhich this important branch of anthropology has re-\\ncently made. Other isolated questions of our modern\\nnatural philosophy, which are peculiarly interesting,\\nhave been dealt with in my Collected Popular Lectures\\non the Subject of Evolution (1878). Finally, I have\\nbriefly presented the broad principles of my monistic\\nphilosophy and its relation to the dominant faith in\\nmy Confession of Faith of a Man of Science Monism\\nas a Connecting Link between Religion and Science\\n(1892, eighth edition, 1899).\\nThe present work on The Riddle of the Universe\\nis the continuation, confirmation, and integration of\\nthe views which I have urged for a generation in the\\naforesaid volumes. It marks the close of my studies\\non the monistic conception of the universe. The earlier\\nThere are two English translations, The Evolution of Man\\n(1879) and The Pedigree of Man (1880).\\nt The English translation, by Dr. Hans Gadow, bears the title\\nof The Last Link.\\nEnglish translation, by J. Gilchrist, with the title of Monism.\\nviii", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\nplan, which I projected many years ago, of construct-\\ning a complete System of Monistic Philosoplry on\\nthe basis of evolution will never be carried into effect\\nnow. My strength is no longer equal to the task,\\nand many warnings of approaching age urge me to\\ndesist. Indeed, I am wholly a child of the nineteenth\\ncentury, and with its close I draw the line under my\\nlife s work.\\nThe vast extension of human knowledge which has\\ntaken place during the present century, owing to a\\nhappy division of labor, makes it impossible to-day\\nto range over all its branches with equal thorough-\\nness, and to show their essential unity and connec-\\ntion. Even a genius of the highest type, having an\\nequal command of every branch of science, and largely\\nendowed with the artistic faculty of comprehensive\\npresentation, would be incapable of setting forth a\\ncomplete view of the cosmos in the space of a moderate\\nvolume. My own command of the various branches of\\nscience is uneven and defective, so that I can attempt\\nno more than to sketch the general plan of such a\\nworld-picture, and point out the pervading unity of its\\nparts, however imperfect be the execution. Thus it\\nis that this work on the world-enigma has something\\nof the character of a sketch-book, in which studies of\\nunequal value are associated. As the material of the\\nbook was partly written many years ago, and partly\\nproduced for the first time during the last few years,\\nthe composition is, unfortunately, uneven at times;\\nrepetitions, too, have proved unavoidable. I trust those\\ndefects will be overlooked.\\nIn taking leave of my readers, I venture the hope\\nthat, through my sincere and conscientious work in\\nspite of its faults, of which I am not unconscious\\nix", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "AUTHOR S PREFACE\\nI have contributed a little towards the solution of the\\ngreat enigma. Amid the clash of theories, I trust\\nthat I have indicated to many a reader who is absorbed\\nin the zealous pursuit of purely rational knowledge\\nthat path which, it is my firm conviction, alone leads\\nto the truth the path of empirical investigation and\\nof the Monistic Philosophy which is based upon it.\\nErnst Haeckel.\\nJena, Germany.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nFHE hour is close upon us when we shall commence\\nour retrospect of one of the most wonderful sec-\\ntions of time that was ever measured by the sweep\\nof the earth. Already the expert is at work, dissect-\\ning out and studj\u00c3\u00a4ng his particular phase of that vast\\nworld of thought and action we call the nineteenth\\ncentury. Art, literature, commerce, industry, politics,\\nethics all have their high interpreters among us;\\nbut in the chance of life it has fallen out that there is\\nnone to read aright for us, in historic retrospect, what\\nafter ages will probably regard as the most salient\\nfeature of the nineteenth century the conflict of the-\\nology with philosophy and science. The pens of our\\nHuxleys, and Tyndalls, and Darwins lie where they\\nfell; there is none left in strength among us to sum\\nup the issues of that struggle with knowledge and\\nsympathy.\\nIn these circumstances it has been thought fitting\\nthat we should introduce to English readers the latest\\nwork of Professor Haeckel. Germany, as the reader\\nwill quickly perceive, is witnessing the same strange\\nreaction of thought that we see about us here in Eng-\\nland, yet Die Weltr\u00c3\u00a4thsel found an immediate and very\\nextensive circle of readers. One of the most prominent\\nxi", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nzoologists of the century, Professor Haeckel, has a\\nunique claim to pronounce with authority, from the\\nscientific side, on what is known as the conflict of\\nscience and religion. In the contradictory estimates\\nthat are urged on us for the modern ecclesiastic is\\nas emphatic in his assurance that the conflict has\\nended favorably to theology as the rationalist is with\\nhis counter-assertion the last words of one of the\\nleading combatants of the second half of the century,\\nstill, happily, in full vigor of mind, will be heard with\\nrespect and close attention.\\nA glance at the index of the work suffices to indicate\\nits comprehensive character. The judgment of the dis-\\ntinguished scientist cannot fail to have weight on all\\nthe topics included yet the reader will soon discover\\na vein of exceptionally interesting thought in the chap-\\nters on evolution. The evolution of the human body\\nis no longer a matter of serious dispute. It has passed\\nthe first two tribunals those of theology and of an a\\npriori philosophy and is only challenged at the third\\nand last that of empirical proof by the decorative\\nheads\u00c2\u00bb of scientific bodies and a few isolated thinkers.\\nApparent rari nantes in gurgite vasto.\\nBut the question of the evolution of the human mind,\\nor soul, has been successfully divorced from that of\\nthe body. Roman Catholic advanced theologians,\\nwhose precise terminology demanded a clear position,\\nadmit the latter and deny the former categorically.\\nOther theologians, and many philosophers, have still\\na vague notion that the evidence for the one does not\\nimpair their sentimental objection to the other. Dr.\\nHaeckel s work summarizes the evidence for the evo-\\nxii\\nI", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nlution of mind in a masterly and profoundly interesting\\nfashion. It seems impossible to follow his broad sur-\\nvey of the psychic world, from protist to man, without\\nbearing away a conviction of the natural origin of\\nevery power and content of the human soul.\\nTranslator.\\nOctober, 1900.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nCHAPTER I\\nTHE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nThe Condition of Civilization and of Thought at the Close of the\\nNineteenth Century Progress of Our Knowledge of Nature,\\nof the Organic and Inorganic Sciences The Law of Substance\\nand the Law of Evolution Progress of Technical Science\\nand of Applied Chemistry Stagnancy in other Departments\\nof Life Legal and Political Administration, Education, and\\nthe Church Conflict of Reason and Dogma Anthropism\\nCosmological Perspective Cosmological Theorems Refuta-\\ntion of the Delusion of Man s Importance Number of World-\\nRiddles Criticism of the Seven Enigmas The Way to\\nSolve Them Function of the Senses and of the Brain In-\\nduction and Deduction Reason, Sentiment, and Revelation\\nPhilosophy and Science Experience and Speculation\\nDualism and Monism\\nHP HE close of the nineteenth century offers one of the\\nmost remarkable spectacles to the thoughtful ob-\\nserver. All educated people are agreed that it has in\\nmany respects immeasurably outstripped its predeces-\\nsors, and has achieved tasks that were deemed impracti-\\ncable at its commencement. An entirely new character\\nhas been given to the whole of our modern civilization,\\nnot only by our astounding theoretical progress in sound\\nknowledge of nature, but also by the remarkably fertile", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\npractical application of that knowledge in technical\\nscience, industry, commerce, and so forth. (On the\\nother hand, however, we have made little or no prog-\\nress in moral and social life, in comparison with earlier\\ncenturies; at times there has been serious reaction.\\nAnd from this obvious conflict there have arisen, not\\nonly an uneasy sense of dismemberment and falseness,\\nbut even the danger of grave catastrophes in the polit-\\nical and social world. It is, then, not merely the right,\\nbut the sacred duty, of every honorable and humani-\\ntarian thinker to devote himself conscientiously to the\\nsettlement of that conflict, and to warding off the dan-\\ngers that it brings in its train. In our conviction this\\ncan only be done by a courageous effort to attain the\\ntruth, and by the formation of a clear view of the world\\na view that shall be based on truth and conformity\\nto reality.\\nIf we recall to mind the imperfect condition of science\\nat the beginning of the century, and compare this with\\nthe magnificent structure of its closing years, we are\\ncompelled to admit that marvellous progress has been\\nmade during its course. Every single branch of science\\ncan boast that it has, especially during the latter half\\nof the century, made numerous acquisitions of the ut-\\nmost value. Both in our microscopic knowledge of the\\nlittle and in our telescopic investigation of the great\\nwe have attained an invaluable insight that seemed in-\\nconceivable a hundred years ago. Improved methods of\\nmicroscopic and biological research have not only re-\\nvealed to us an invisible world of living things in the\\nkingdom of the protists, full of an infinite wealth of\\nforms, but they have taught us to recognize in the tiny\\ncell the all-pervading elementary organism of whose\\nsocial communities the tissues the body of every", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nmulticellular plant and animal, even that of man, is\\ncomposed. This anatomical knowledge is of extreme\\nimportance; and it is supplemented by the embryo-\\nlogical discovery that each of the higher multicellular\\norganisms is developed out of one simple cell, the im-\\npregnated ovum. The cellular theory, which has\\nbeen founded on that discovery, has given us the first\\ntrue interpretation of the physical, chemical, and even\\nthe psychological processes of life those mysterious\\nphenomena for whose explanation it had been custom-\\nary to postulate a supernatural vital force or im-\\nmortal soul. Moreover, the true character of disease\\nhas been made clear and intelligible to the physician\\nfor the first time by the cognate science of Cellular\\nPathology.\\nThe discoveries of the nineteenth century in the in-\\norganic world are no less important. Physics has made\\nastounding progress in every section of its province\\nin optics and acoustics, in magnetism and electricity,\\nin mechanics and thermo-dynamics and, what is still\\nmore important, it has proved the unity of the forces\\nof the entire universe. The mechanical theory of heat\\nhas shown how intimately they are connected, and how\\neach can, in certain conditions, transform itself directly\\ninto another. Spectral anafysis has taught us that the\\nsame matter which enters into the composition of all\\nbodies on earth, including its living inhabitants, builds\\nup the rest of the planets, the sun, and the most distant\\nstars. Astro-physics has considerably enlarged our\\ncosmic perspective in revealing to us, in the immeasur-\\nable depths of space, millions of circling spheres larger\\nthan our earth, and, like it, in endless transformation,\\nin an eternal rhythm of life and death. Chemistry has\\nintroduced us to a multitude of new substances, all of\\n3", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwhich arise from the combination of a few (about sev-\\nenty) elements that are: incapable of further analysis;\\nsome of them play a most important part in every branch\\nof life. It has been shown that one of these elements\\ncarbon is the remarkable substance that effects the\\nendless variety of organic syntheses, and thus may be\\nconsidered the chemical basis of life. All the par-\\nticular advances, however, of physics and chemistry\\nyield in theoretical importance to the discovery of the\\ngreat law which brings them all to one common focus,\\nthe Law of Substance. As this fundamental cosmic\\nlaw establishes the eternal persistence of matter and\\nforce, their unvarying constancy throughout the entire\\nuniverse, it has become the pole-star that guides our\\nMonistic Philosophy through the mighty labyrinth to\\na solution of the world-problem.\\nSince we intend to make a general survey of the act-\\nual condition of our knowledge of nature and its prog-\\nress during the present century in the following chap-\\nters, we shall delay no longer with the review of its\\nparticular branches. We would only mention one im-\\nportant advance, which was contemporary with the dis-\\ncovery of the law of substance, and which -supplements\\nit the establishment of the theory of evolution. It is\\ntrue that there were philosophers who spoke of the evo-\\nlution of things a thousand years ago but the recogni-\\ntion that such a law dominates the entire universe, and\\nthat the world is nothing else than an eternal evolution\\nof substance, is a fruit of the nineteenth century. It\\nwas not until the second half of this century that it at-\\ntained to perfect clearness and a universal application.\\nThe immortal merit of establishing the doctrine on an\\nempirical basis, and pointing out its world-wide appli-\\ncation, belongs to the great scientist Charles Darwin;\\n4", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nhe it was who, in 1859, supplied a solid foundation for\\nthe theory of descent, which the able French naturalist\\nJean Lamarck had already sketched in its broad out-\\nlines in 1809, and the fundamental idea of which had\\nbeen almost prophetically enunciated in 1799 by Ger-\\nmany s greatest poet and thinker, Wolfgang Goethe.\\nIn that theory we have the key to the question of all\\nquestions, to the great enigma of the place of man in\\nnature, and of his natural development. If we are in\\na position to-day to recognize the sovereignty of the\\nlaw of evolution and, indeed, of a monistic evolution\\nin every province of nature, and to use it, in conjunc-\\ntion with the law of substance, for a simple interpreta-\\ntion of all natural phenomena, we owe it chiefly to those\\nthree distinguished naturalists; they shine as three\\nstars of the first magnitude amid all the great men of\\nthe century.\\nThis marvellous progress in a theoretical knowledge\\nof nature has been followed by a manifold practical ap-\\nplication in every branch of civilized life. If we are to-\\nday in the age of commerce, if international trade\\nand communication have attained dimensions beyond\\nthe conception of any previous age, if we have tran-\\nscended the limits of space and time by our telegraph\\nand telephone, we owe it, in the first place, to the tech-\\nnical advancement of physics, especially in the appli-\\ncation of steam and electricity. If, in photography,\\nwe can, with the utmost ease, compel the sunbeam to\\ncreate for us in a moment s time a correct picture of\\nany object we like if we have made enormous progress\\nin agriculture, and in a variety of other pursuits if, in\\nsurgery, we have brought an infinite relief to human\\npain by our chloroform and morphia, our antiseptics\\nand serous therapeutics, we owe it all to applied chem-\\n5", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nistry. But it is so well known how much we have sur-\\npassed all earlier centuries through these and other sci-\\nentific discoveries that we need linger over the question\\nno longer.\\nWhile we look back with a just pride on the immense\\nprogress of the nineteenth century in a knowledge of\\nnature and in its practical application, we find, unfortu-\\nnately, a very different and far from agreeable picture\\nwhen we turn to another and not less important prov-\\nince of modern life. To our great regret we must en-\\ndorse the words of Alfred Wallace: \\\\Compared with\\nour astounding progress in physical science and its\\npractical application, our system of government, of ad-\\nministrative justice, and of national education, and our\\nentire social and moral organization, remain in a state\\nof barbarism. To convince ourselves of the truth of\\nthis grave indictment we need only cast an unprejudiced\\nglance at our public life, or look into the mirror that is\\ndaily offered to us by the press, the organ of public sen-\\ntiment.\\nWe begin our review with justice, the fundamentum\\nregnorum. No one can maintain that its condition to-\\nday is in harmony with our advanced knowledge of\\nman and the world. Not a week passes in which we\\ndo not read of judicial decisions over which every\\nthoughtful man shakes his head in despair; many of\\nthe decisions of our higher and lower courts are simply\\nunintelligible. We are not referring in the treatment\\nof this particular world-problem to the fact that\\nmany modern states, in spite of their paper constitu-\\ntions, are really governed with absolute despotism, and\\nthat many who occupy the bench give judgment less\\nin accordance with their sincere conviction than with\\nwishes expressed in higher quarters. We readily ad-\\n6", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nmit that the majority of judges and counsel decide con-\\nscientiously, and err simply from human frailty. Most\\nof their errors, indeed, are due to defective preparation.\\nIt is popularly supposed that these are just the men of\\nhighest education, and that on that very account they\\nhave the preference in nominations to different offices.\\nHowever, this famed legal education is for the most\\npart rather of a formal and technical character. They\\nhave but a superficial acquaintance with that chief and\\npeculiar object of their activity, the human organism,\\nand its most important function, the mind. That is ev-\\nident from the curious views as to the liberty of the will,\\nresponsibility, etc., which we encounter daily. I once\\ntold an eminent jurist that the tiny spherical ovum from\\nwhich every man is developed is as truly endowed with\\nlife as the embryo of two, or seven, or even nine months\\nhe laughed incredulously. Most of the students of ju-\\nrisprudence have no acquaintance with anthropology,\\npsychology, and the doctrine of evolution the very\\nfirst requisites for a correct estimate of human nature.\\nThey have no time for it their time is already too\\nlargely bespoken for an exhaustive study of beer and\\nwine and for the noble art of fencing. The rest of their\\nvaluable study-time is required for the purpose of learn-\\ning some hundreds of paragraphs of law books, a\\nknowledge of which is supposed to qualify the jurist\\nfor any position whatever in our modern civilized com-\\nmunity.\\nWe shall touch but lightly on the unfortunate prov-\\nince of politics, for the unsatisfactory condition of the\\nmodern political world is only too familiar. In a great\\nmeasure its evils are due to the fact that most of our\\nofficials are jurists that is, men of high technical edu-\\ncation, but utterly devoid of that thorough knowledge\\n7", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nof human nature which is only obtained by the study\\nof comparative anthropology and the monistic psychol-\\nogy men without an acquaintance with those social\\nrelations of which we find the earlier types in compara-\\ntive zoology and the theory of evolution, in the cellular\\ntheory, and the study of the protists. We can only ar-\\nrive at a correct knowledge of the structure and life of\\nthe social body, the state, through a scientific knowl-\\nedge of the structure and life of the individuals who\\ncompose it, and the cells of which they are in turn com-\\nposed. If our political rulers and our representatives\\nof the people possessed this invaluable biological and\\nanthropological knowledge, we should not find our\\njournals so full of the sociological blunders and political\\nnonsense which at present are far from adorning our\\nparliamentary reports, and even many of our official\\ndocuments. Worst of all is it when the modern state\\nflings itself into the arms of the reactionary Church,\\nand when the narrow-minded self-interest of parties\\nand the infatuation of short-sighted party-leaders lend\\ntheir support to the hierarchy. Then are witnessed\\nsuch sad scenes as the German Reichstag puts before\\nour eyes even at the close of the nineteenth century. We\\nhave the spectacle of the educated German people in\\nthe power of the ultramontane Centre, under the rule\\nof the Roman papacy, which is its bitterest and most\\ndangerous enemy. Then superstition and stupidity\\nreign instead of right and reason. Never will our gov-\\nernment improve until it casts off the fetters of the\\nChurch and raises the views of the citizens on man and\\nthe world to a higher level by a general scientific edu-\\ncation. That does not raise the question of any special\\nform of constitution. Whether a monarchy or a re-\\npublic be preferable, whether the constitution should be\\n8", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\naristocratic or democratic, are subordinate questions in\\ncomparison with the supreme question Shall the mod-\\nern civilized state be spiritual or secular Shall it be\\ntheocratic ruled by the irrational formulae of faith and\\nby clerical despotism or nomocratic under the sov-\\nereignty of rational laws and civic right? The first\\ntask is to kindle a rational interest in our youth, and to\\nuplift our citizens and free them from superstition. That\\ncan only be achieved by a timely reform of our schools.\\nOur education of the young is no more in harmony\\nwith modern scientific progress than our legal and polit-\\nical world. Physical science, which is so much more\\nimportant than all other sciences, and which, properly\\nunderstood, really embraces all the so-called moral\\nsciences, is still regarded as a mere accessory in our\\nschools, if not treated as the Cinderella of the curricu-\\nlum. Most of our teachers still give the most prom-\\ninent place to that dead learning which has come down\\nfrom the cloistral schools of the Middle Ages. In the\\nfront rank we have grammatical gymnastics and an\\nimmense waste of time over a thorough knowledge\\nof classics and of the history of foreign nations. Ethics,\\nthe most important object of practical philosophy, is\\nentirely neglected, and its place is usurped by the eccle-\\nsiastical creed. Faith must take precedence over knowl-\\nedge not that scientific faith which leads to a monistic\\nreligion, but the irrational superstition that lays the\\nfoundation of a perverted Christianity. The valuable\\nteaching of modern cosmology and anthropology, of\\nbiology and evolution, is most inadequately imparted,\\nif not entirely unknown, in our higher schools; while\\nthe memory is burdened with a mass of philological\\nand historical facts which are utterly useless, either\\nfrom the point of view of theoretical education or for\\n9", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe practical purposes of life. Moreover, the antiquated\\narrangements and the distribution of faculties in the\\nuniversities are just as little in harmony with the point\\nwe have reached in monistic science as the curriculum\\nof the primary and secondary schools.\\nThe climax of the opposition to modern education and\\nits foundation, advanced natural philosophy, is reached,\\nof course, in the Church. We are not speaking here of\\nultramontane papistry, nor of the orthodox evangel-\\nical tendencies, which do not fall far short of it in igno-\\nrance and in the crass superstition of their dogmas. We\\nare imagining ourselves for the moment to be in the\\nchurch of a liberal Protestant minister, who has a good\\naverage education, and who finds room for the rights\\nof reason by the side of his faith. There, besides ex-\\ncellent moral teaching, which is in perfect harmony with\\nour own monistic ethics, and humanitarian discussion\\nof which we cordially approve, we hear ideas on the\\nnature of God, of the world, of man, and of life which\\nare directly opposed to all scientific experience. It is\\nno wonder that physicists and chemists, doctors and\\nphilosophers, who have made a thorough study of nat-\\nure, refuse a hearing to such preachers. Our theo-\\nlogians and our politicians are just as ignorant as our\\nphilosophers and our jurists of that elementary knowl-\\nedge of nature which is based on the monistic theory of\\nevolution, and which is already far exceeded in the tri-\\numph of our modern learning-.\\nFrom this opposition, which we can only briefly point\\nout at present, there arise grave conflicts in our modern\\nlife which urgently demand a settlement. Our modern\\neducation, the outcome of our great advance in knowl-\\nedge, has a claim upon every department of public and\\nprivate life; it would see humanity raised, by the in-\\n10", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nstrumentality of reason, to that higher grade of culture,\\nand, consequently, to that better path towards happi-\\nness which has been opened out to us by the progress\\nof modern science. That aim, however, is vigorously\\nopposed by the influential parties who would detain the\\nmind in the exploded views of the Middle Ages with re-\\ngard to the most important problems of life they linger\\nin the fold of traditional dogma, and would have reason\\nprostrate itself before their higher revelation. That\\nis the condition of things, to a very large extent, in the-\\nology and philosophy, in sociology and jurisprudence.\\nIt is not that the motives of the latter are to be attributed,\\nas a rule, to pure self-interest they spring partly from\\nignorance of the facts, and partly from an indolent ac-\\nquiescence in tradition. The most dangerous of the\\nthree great enemies of reason and knowledge is not\\nmalice, but ignorance, or, perhaps, indolence. The\\ngods themselves still strive in vain against these two\\nlatter influences when they have happily vanquished\\nthe first.\\nOne of the main supports of that reactionary system\\nis still what we may call anthropism. I designate by\\nthis term that powerful and world-wide group of erro-\\nneous opinions which opposes the human organism to\\nthe whole of the rest of nature, and represents it to be\\nthe preordained end of the organic creation, an entity\\nessentially distinct from it, a godlike being. Closer\\nexamination of this group of ideas shows it to be made\\nup of three different dogmas, which we may distinguish\\nas the anthropocentric, the anthropomorphic, and the\\nanthropolatrous*\\nI. The anthropocentric dogma culminates in the idea\\nE. Haeckel, Systematische Phylogenie, 1895, vol. iii., pp. 646-50.\\n(Anthropolatry means A divine worship of human nature.\\nII", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthat man is the preordained centre and aim of all ter-\\nrestrial life or, in a wider sense, of the whole universe.\\nAs this error is extremely conducive to man s interest,\\nand as it is intimately connected with the creation-myth\\nof the three great Mediterranean religions, and with the\\ndogmas of the Mosaic, Christian, and Mohammedan\\ntheologies, it still dominates the greater part of the civ-\\nilized world.\\nII. The anthropomorphic dogma is likewise connected\\nwith the creation-myth of the three aforesaid religions,\\nand of many others. It likens the creation and control\\nof the world by God to the artificial creation of a tal-\\nented engineer or mechanic, and to the administration\\nof a wise ruler. God, as creator, sustainer, and ruler\\nof the world, is thus represented after a purely human\\nfashion in his thought and work. Hence it follows, in\\nturn, that man is godlike. God made man to His\\nown image and likeness. The older, naive mythology\\nis pure homotheism/ attributing human shape, flesh,\\nand blood to the gods. It is more intelligible than the\\nmodern mystic theosophy that adores a personal God\\nas an invisible properly speaking, gaseous being,\\nyet makes him think, speak, and act in human fashion\\nit gives us the paradoxical picture of a gaseous verte-\\nbrate.\\nIII. The anthropolatric dogma naturally results from\\nthis comparison of the activity of God and man it ends\\nin the apotheosis of the human organism. A further\\nresult is the belief in the personal immortality of the\\nsoul, and the dualistic dogma of the twofold nature of\\nman, whose immortal soul is conceived as but the\\ntemporary inhabitant of the mortal frame. Thus these\\nthree anthropistic dogmas, variously adapted to the re-\\nspective professions of the different religions, came at\\n12", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nlength to be vested with an extraordinary importance,\\nand proved the source of the most dangerous errors.\\nThe anthropistic view of the world which springs from\\nthem is in irreconcilable opposition to our monistic sys-\\ntem indeed, it is at once disproved by our new cosmo-\\nlogical perspective.\\nNot only the three anthropistic dogmas, but many\\nother notions of the dualistic philosophy and orthodox\\nreligion, are found to be untenable as soon as we regard\\nthem critically from the cosmological perspective of our\\nmonistic system. We understand by that the compre-\\nhensive view of the universe which we have from the\\nhighest point of our monistic interpretation of nature.\\nFrom that stand-point we see the truth of the following\\ncosmological theorems, most of which, in our opin-\\nion, have already been amply demonstrated\\n(i) The universe, or the cosmos, is eternal, infinite,\\nand illimitable. (2) Its substance, with its two attri-\\nbutes (matter and energy), fills infinite space, and is in\\neternal motion. (3) This motion runs on through in-\\nfinite time as an unbroken development, with a peri-\\nodic change from life to death, from evolution to devo-\\nlution. (4) The innumerable bodies which are scat-\\ntered about the space-filling ether all obey the same\\nlaw of substance; while the rotating masses slowly\\nmove towards their destruction and dissolution in one\\npart of space others are springing into .new life and\\ndevelopment in other quarters of the universe. (5) Our\\nsun is one of these unnumbered perishable bodies, and\\nour earth is one of the countless transitory planets that\\nencircle them. (6) Our earth has gone through a long\\nprocess of cooling before water, in liquid form (the first\\ncondition of organic life), could settle thereon. (7) The\\nensuing biogenetic process, the slow development and\\n13", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntransformation of countless organic forms, must have\\ntaken many millions of years considerably over a hun-\\ndred.* (8) Among the different kinds of animals which\\narose in the later stages of the biogenetic process on\\nearth the vertebrates have far outstripped all other com-\\npetitors in the evolutionary race. (9) The most impor-\\ntant branch of the vertebrates, the mammals, were de-\\nveloped later (during the triassic period) from the lower\\namphibia and the reptilia. (10) The most perfect and\\nmost highly developed branch of the class mammalia\\nis the order of primates, which first put in an appear-\\nance, by development from the lowest prochoriata, at\\nthe beginning of the Tertiary period at least three mill-\\nion years ago. (11) The youngest and most perfect\\ntwig of the branch primates is man, who sprang from\\na series of manlike apes towards the end of the Tertiary\\nperiod. (12) Consequently, the so-called history of the\\nworld that is, the brief period of a few thousand\\nyears which measures the duration of civilization is\\nan evanescently short episode in the long course of or-\\nganic evolution, just as this, in turn, is merely a small\\nportion of the history of our planetary system and as\\nour mother-earth is a mere speck in the sunbeam in the\\nillimitable universe, so man himself is but a tiny grain\\nof protoplasm in the perishable framework of organic\\nnature.\\nNothing seems to me better adapted than this mag-\\nnificent cosmological perspective to give us the proper\\nstandard and the broad outlook which we need in the\\nsolution of the vast enigmas that surround us. It not\\nonly clearly indicates the true place of man in nature,\\nbut it dissipates the prevalent illusion of man s supreme\\nCf my Cambridge lecture, The Last Link, Geological Time\\nand Evolution.\\n14", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nimportance, and the arrogance with which he sets him-\\nself apart from the illimitable universe, and exalts him-\\nself to the position of its most valuable element. This\\nboundless presumption of conceited man has misled\\nhim into making himself the image of God, claiming\\nan eternal life for his ephemeral personality, and\\nimagining that he possesses unlimited freedom of\\nwill. The ridiculous imperial folly of Caligula is but\\na special form of man s arrogant assumption of divin-\\nity. Only when we have abandoned this untenable\\nillusion, and taken up the correct cosmological perspec-\\ntive, can we hope to reach the solution of the riddles\\nof the universe.\\nThe uneducated member of a civilized community is\\nsurrounded with countless enigmas at every step, just\\nas truly as the savage. Their number, however, de-\\ncreases with every stride of civilization and of science\\nand the monistic philosophy is ultimately confronted\\nwith but one simple and comprehensive enigma the\\nproblem of substance. Still, we may find it useful\\nto include a certain number of problems under that title.\\nIn the famous speech which Emil du Bois-Reymond de-\\nlivered in 1880, in the Leibnitz session of the Berlin Acad-\\nemy of Sciences, he distinguished seven world-enigmas,\\nwhich he enumerated as follows: (1) The nature of\\nmatter and force. (2) The origin of motion. (3) The\\norigin of life. (4) The (apparently preordained) or-\\nderly arrangement of nature. (5) The origin of simple\\nsensation and consciousness. (6) Rational thought,\\nand the origin of the cognate faculty, speech. (7) The\\nquestion of the freedom of the will. Three of these sev-\\nen enigmas are considered by the orator of the Berlin\\nAcademy to be entirely transcendental and insoluble\\nthey are the first, second, and fifth; three others\\nIS", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\n(the third, fourth, and sixth) he considers to be capable\\nof solution, though extremely difficult; as to the sev-\\nenth and last world-enigma/ the freedom of the will,\\nwhich is the one of the greatest practical importance,\\nhe remains undecided.\\nAs my monism differs materially from that of the Ber-\\nlin orator, and as his idea of the seven great enigmas\\nhas been very widely accepted, it may be useful to indi-\\ncate their true position at once. In my opinion, the\\nthree transcendental problems (i, 2, and 5) are settled\\nby our conception of substance (vide chap, xii.) the\\nthree which he considers difficult, though soluble, (3, 4,\\nand 6), are decisively answered by our modern theory\\nof evolution the seventh and last, the freedom of the\\nwill, is not an object for critical, scientific inquiry at all,\\nfor it is a pure dogma, based on an illusion, and has no\\nreal existence.\\nThe means and methods we have chosen for attain-\\ning the solution of the great enigma do not differ, on\\nthe whole, from those of all purely scientific investiga-\\ntion firstly, experience; secondly, inference. Scien-\\ntific experience comes to us by observation and experi-\\nment, which involve the activity of our sense-organs in\\nthe first place, and, secondly, of the inner sense-centres\\nin the cortex of the brain. The microscopic elementary\\norgans of the former are the sense-cells; of the latter,\\ngroups of ganglionic cells. The experiences which we\\nderive from the outer world by these invaluable instru-\\nments of our mental life are then moulded into ideas by\\nother parts of the brain, and these, in their turn, are\\nunited in a chain of reasoning by association. The con-\\nstruction of this chain may take place in two different\\nways, which are, in my opinion, equally valuable and\\nindispensable: induction and deduction. The higher\\n16", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\ncerebral operations, the construction of complicated\\nchains of reasoning, abstraction, the formation of con-\\ncepts, the completion of the perceptive faculty by the\\nplastic faculty of the imagination in a word, conscious-\\nness, thought, and speculation are functions of the\\nganglionic cells of the cortex of the brain, just like the\\npreceding simpler mental functions. We unite them\\nall in the supreme concept of reason*\\nBy reason only can we attain to a correct knowledge\\nof the world and a solution of its great problems. Rea-\\nson is man s highest gift, the only prerogative that es-\\nsentially distinguishes him from the lower animals.\\nNevertheless, it has only reached this high position by\\nthe progress of culture and education, by the develop-\\nment of knowledge. The uneducated man and the sav-\\nage are just as little (or just as much) rational as\\nour nearest relatives among the mammals (apes, dogs,\\nelephants, etc.). Yet the opinion still obtains in many\\nquarters that, besides our godlike reason, we have two\\nfurther (and even surer methods of receiving knowl-\\nedge emotion and revelation. We must at once dis-\\npose of this dangerous error. Emotion has nothing\\nwhatever to do with the attainment of truth. That\\nwhich we prize under the name of emotion is an\\nelaborate activity of the brain, which consists of feel-\\nings of like and dislike, motions of assent and dissent,\\nimpulses of desire and aversion. It may be influenced\\nby the most diverse activities of the organism, by the\\ncravings of the senses and the muscles, the stomach,\\nthe sexual organs, etc. The interests of truth are far\\nfrom promoted by these conditions and vacillations of\\nemotion on the contrary, such circumstances often dis-\\nAs to induction and deduction, vide The Natural History of\\nCreation.\\nB 17", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nturb that reason which alone is adapted to the pursuit\\nof truth, and frequently mar its perceptive power. No\\ncosmic problem is solved, or even advanced, by the cere-\\nbral function we call emotion. And the same must be\\nsaid of the so-called revelation, and of the truths\\nof faith which it is supposed to communicate; they\\nare based entirely on a deception, consciously or uncon-\\nsciously, as we shall see in the sixteenth chapter.\\nWe must welcome as one of the most fortunate steps\\nin the direction of a solution of the great cosmic prob-\\nlems the fact that of recent years there is a growing\\ntendency to recognize the two paths which alone lead\\nthereto experience and thought, or speculation to be\\nof equal value, and mutually complementary. Phi-\\nlosophers have come to see that pure speculation\\nsuch, for instance, as Plato and Hegel employed for\\nthe construction of their idealist systems does not\\nlead to knowledge of reality. On the other hand, sci-\\nentists have been convinced that mere experience\\nsuch as Bacon and Mill, for example, made the basis\\nof their realist systems is insufficient of itself for a\\ncomplete philosophy. For these two great paths of\\nknowledge, sense-experience and rational thought, are\\ntwo distinct cerebral functions; the one is elaborated\\nby the sense-organs and the inner sense-centres, the\\nother by the thought-centres, the great centres of\\nassociation in the cortex of the brain, which lie be-\\ntween the sense centres. (Cf. cc. vii. and x.) True\\nknowledge is only acquired by combining the activity\\nof the two. Nevertheless, there are still many philos-\\nophers who would construct the world out of their\\nown inner consciousness, and who reject our empirical\\nscience precisely because they have no knowledge of\\nthe real world. On the other hand, there are many\\n18", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nscientists who still contend that the sole object of sci-\\nence is the knowledge of facts, the objective investi-\\ngation of isolated phenomena that the age of phi-\\nlosophy is past, and science has taken its place.* This\\none-sided over-estimation of experience is as dangerous\\nan error as the converse exaggeration of the value of\\nspeculation. Both channels of knowledge are mutual-\\nly indispensable. The greatest triumphs of modern\\nscience the cellular theory, the dynamic theory of\\nheat, the theory of evolution, and the law of substance\\nare philosophic achievements not, however, the fruit\\nof pure speculation, but of an antecedent experience of\\nthe widest and most searching character.\\nAt the commencement of the nineteenth century the\\ngreat idealistic poet, Schiller, gave his counsel to both\\ngroups of combatants, the philosophers and the sci-\\nentists\\nDoes strife divide your efforts no union bless your toil\\nWill truth e er be delivered if ye your forces rend\\nSince then the situation has, happily, been profoundly\\nmodified; while both schools, in their different paths,\\nhave pressed onward towards the same high goal,\\nthey have recognized their common aspiration, and\\nthey draw nearer to a knowledge of the truth in mutual\\ncovenant. At the end of the nineteenth century we\\nhave returned to that monistic attitude which our\\ngreatest realistic poet, Goethe, had recognized from its\\nvery commencement to be alone correct and fruitful. f\\nRudolph Virchow, Die Gr\u00c3\u00bcndung der Berliner Universit\u00c3\u00a4t und\\nder Uebergang aus dem philosophischen in das naturwissenschaft-\\nliche Zeitalter. (Berlin; 1893.)\\nf Cf chap. iv. of my General Morphology, 1866 Kritik der\\nnaturwissenschaftlichen Methoden.\\n*9", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nAll the different philosophical tendencies may, from\\nthe point of view of modern science, be ranged in two\\nantagonistic groups; they represent either a dualistic\\nor a monistic interpretation of the cosmos. The for-\\nmer is usually bound up with teleological and idealis-\\ntic dogmas, the latter with mechanical and realistic\\ntheories. Dualism, in the widest sense, breaks up the\\nuniverse into two entirely distinct substances the\\nmaterial world and an immaterial God, who is repre-\\nsented to be its creator, sustainer, and ruler. Monism,\\non the contrary (likewise taken in its widest sense),\\nrecognizes one sole substance in the universe, which\\nis at once God and nature body and spirit (or mat-\\nter and energy) it holds to be inseparable. The extra-\\nmundane God of dualism leads necessarily to theism;\\nand the intra-mundane God of the monist leads to\\npantheism.\\nThe different ideas of monism and materialism, and\\nlikewise the essentially distinct tendencies of theoreti-\\ncal and practical materialism, are still very frequently\\nconfused. As this and ofher similar cases of confu-\\nsion of ideas are very prejudicial, .and give rise to in-\\nnumerable errors, we shall make the following brief\\nobservations, in order to prevent misunderstanding\\nI. Pure monism is identical neither with the theo-\\nretical materialism that denies the existence of spirit,\\nand dissolves the world into a heap of dead atoms, nor\\nwith the theoretical spiritualism (lately entitled ener-\\ngetic spiritualism by Ostwald) which rejects the no-\\ntion of matter, and considers the world to be a specially\\narranged group of energies or immaterial natural\\nforces.\\nII. On the contrary, we hold, with Goethe, that\\nmatter cannot exist and be operative without spirit,\\n20", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM\\nnor spirit without matter. We adhere firmly to the\\npure, unequivocal monism of Spinoza Matter, or in-\\nfinitely extended substance, and spirit (or energy), or\\nsensitive and thinking substance, are the two funda-\\nmental attributes or principal properties of the all-\\nembracing divine essence of the world, the universal\\nsubstance. (Cf. chap, xii.)", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II\\nOUR BODILY FRAME\\nFundamental Importance of Anatomy Human Anatomy Hip-\\npocrates, Aristotle, Galen, Vesalius Comparative Anatomy\\nGeorges Cuvier Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller Karl Gegenbaur His-\\ntology The Cellular Theory Schleiden and Schwann K\u00c3\u00b6l-\\nliker Virchow Man a Vertebrate, a Tetrapod, a Mammal,\\na Placental, a Primate Prosimias and Simise The Catar-\\nrhinae Papiomorphic and Anthropomorphic Apes Essential\\nLikeness of Man and the Ape in Corporal Structure.\\nA LL biological research, all investigation into the\\nforms and vital activities of organisms, must\\nfirst deal with the visible body, in which the mor-\\nphological and physiological phenomena are ob-\\nserved. This fundamental rule holds good for man\\njust as much as for all other living things. More-\\nover, the inquiry must not confine itself to mere ob-\\nservation of the outer form; it must penetrate to the\\ninterior, and study both the general plan and the mi-\\nnute details of the structure. The science which pur-\\nsues this fundamental investigation in the broadest\\nsense is anatomy.\\nThe first stimulus_to_ an inquiry into the human\\nframe arose, naturally, in medicine. As it was usually\\npractised by the priests in the older civilizations, we\\nmay assume that these highest representatives of the\\neducation of the time had already acquired a certain", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\namount of anatomical knowledge two thousand years\\nbefore Christ, or even earlier. We do not, however,\\nfind more exact observations, founded on the dissection\\nof mammals, and applied, by analogy, to the human\\nframe, until we come to the Greek scientists of the sixth\\nand fifth centuries before Christ Empedocles (of Ag-\\nrigentum) and Democritus (of Abdera), and especially\\nthe most famous physician of classic antiquity, Hip-\\npocrates (of Cos) It was from these and other sources\\nthat the great Aristotle, the renowned father of natural\\nhistory, equally comprehensive as investigator and\\nphilosopher, derived his first knowledge. After him\\nonly one anatomist of any consequence is found in an-\\ntiquity, the Greek physician Claudius Galenus (of Per-\\ngamus), who developed a wealthy practice in Rome in\\nthe second century after Christ, under the Emperor\\nMarcus Aurelius. All these ancient anatomists ac-\\nquired their knowledge, as a rule, not by the dissection\\nof the human body itself which was then sternly for-\\nbidden but by a study of the bodies of the animals\\nwhich most closely resembled man, especially the apes\\nthey were all, indeed, comparative anatomists.\\nThe triumph of Christianity and its mystic theories\\nmeant retrogression to anatomy, as it did to all the other\\nsciences. The popes were resolved above all things to\\ndetain humanity in ignorance they rightly deemed a\\nknowledge of the human organism to be a dangerous\\nsource of enlightenment as to our true nature. During\\nthe long period of thirteen centuries the writings of Ga-\\nlen were almost the only source of human anatomy,\\njust as the works of Aristotle were for the whole of nat-\\nural history. It was not until the sixteenth century,\\nwhen the spiritual tyranny of the papacy was broken\\nby the Reformation, and the geocentric theory, so in-\\n23", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntimately connected with papal doctrine, was destroyed\\nby the new cosmic system of Copernicus, that the\\nknowledge of the human frame entered upon a new pe-\\nriod of progress. The great anatomists, Vesalius (of\\nBrussels), and Eustachius and Fallopius (of Modena),\\nadvanced the knowledge of our bodily structure so much\\nby their own thorough investigations that little re-\\nmained for their numerous followers to do, with regard\\nto the more obvious phenomena, except the substantia-\\ntion of details. Andreas Vesalius, as courageous as\\nhe was talented and indefatigable, was the pioneer of\\nthe movement he completed in his twenty-eighth year\\n(1543) that great and systematic work De humani cor-\\nporis fabrica he gave to the whole of human anat-\\nomy a new and independent scope and a more solid\\nfoundation. On that account he was, at a later date,\\nat Madrid where he was physician to Charles V. and\\nPhilip II. condemned to death by the Inquisition as\\na magician. He only escaped by undertaking a pil-\\ngrimage to Jerusalem; in returning he suffered ship-\\nwreck on the Isle of Zante, and died there in misery and\\ndestitution.\\nThe great merit of the nineteenth century, as far as\\nour knowledge of the human frame is concerned, lies in\\nthe founding of two new lines of research of immense\\nimportance comparative anatomy and histology, or\\nmicroscopic anatomy. The former was intimately as-\\nsociated with human anatomy from the very beginning\\nindeed, it had to supply the place of the latter so long\\nbecause the dissection of human corpses was a crime\\nvisited with capital punishment that was the case even\\nin the fifteenth century But the many anatomists of\\nthe next three centuries devoted themselves mainly to\\na more accurate study of the human organism. The\\n24", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\nelaborate science which we now call comparative anat-\\nomy was born in the year 1803, when the great French\\nzoologist Georges Cuvier (a native of M\u00c3\u00b6mpelgard, in\\nAlsace) published his profound Lemons sur Vanatomie\\ncomparee, and endeavored to formulate, for the first\\ntime, definite laws as to the organism of man and the\\nbeasts. While his predecessors among whom was\\niGoethe in 1790 had mainly contented themselves with\\ncomparing the skeleton of man with those of other ani-\\nmals, Cuvier s broader vision took in the whole of the\\nanimal organization. He distinguished therein four\\ngreat and mutually independent types Vertebrata, Ar-\\nticulata, Mollusca, and Radiata. This advance was\\nof extreme consequence for our question of all ques-\\ntions/ since it clearly brought out the fact that man\\nbelonged to the vertebral type, and differed fundamen-\\ntally from all the other types. It is true that the keen-\\nsighted Linne had already, in his Systema Naturae,\\nmade a great step in advance by assigning man a defi-\\nnite place in the class of mammals he had even drawn\\nup the three groups of half -apes, apes, and men (Lemur,\\nsimia, and homo) in the order of primates. But his\\nkeen, systematic mind was not furnished with that pro-\\nfound empirical foundation, supplied by comparative\\nanatomy, which Cuvier was the first to attain. Fur-\\nther developments were added by the great comparative\\nanatomists of our own century Friedrich Meckel\\n(Halle), Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller (Berlin), Richard Owen, T.\\nHuxley, and Karl Gegenbaur (Jena, subsequently Hei-\\ndelberg). The last-named, in applying the evolution-\\nary theory, which Darwin had just established, to com-\\nparative anatomy, raised his science to the front rank\\nof biological studies. The numerous comparative an-\\natomical works of Gegenbaur are, like his well-known\\n25", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nManual of Human Anatomy, equally distinguished\\nby a thorough empirical acquaintance with their im-\\nmense multitudes of facts, and by a comprehensive con-\\ntrol of his material, and its philosophic appreciation in\\nthe evolutionary sense. His recent Comparative An-\\natomy of the Vertebrata establishes the solid foundation\\non which our conviction of the vertebral character of\\nman in every aspect is chiefly based.\\nMicroscopic anatomy has been developed, in the\\ncourse of the present century, in a very different fash-\\nion from comparative anatomy. At the beginning of\\nthe century (1802) a French physician, Bichat, made an\\nattempt to dissect the organs of the human body into\\ntheir finer constituents by the aid of the microscope,\\nand to show the connection of these various tissues\\n(hista, or tela). This first attempt led to little result,\\nbecause the scientist was ignorant of the one common\\nelement of all the different tissues. This was first dis-\\ncovered (1838) in the shape of the cell, in the plant\\nworld, by Matthias Schleiden, and immediately after-\\nwards proved to be the same in the animal world by\\nTheodor Schwann, the pupil and assistant of Jo-\\nhannes M\u00c3\u00bcller at Berlin. Two other distinguished\\npupils of this great master, who are still living, Albert\\nK\u00c3\u00b6lliker and Rudolph Virchow, took up the cellular\\ntheory, and the theory of tissues which is founded on\\nit, in the sixties, and applied them to the human or-\\nganism in all its details, both in health and disease;\\nthey proved that, in man and all other animals, every\\ntissue is made up of the same microscopic particles,\\nthe cells, and these elementary organisms are the\\nreal, self-active citizens which, in combinations of mill-\\nions, constitute the cellular state, our body. All these\\ncells spring from one simple cell, the cytula, or im-\\n26", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\npregnated ovum, by continuous subdivision. The gen-\\neral structure and combination of the tissues are the\\nsame in man as in the other vertebrates. Among\\nthese the mammals, the youngest and most highly\\ndeveloped class take precedence, in virtue of certain\\nspecial features which were acquired late. Such are,\\nfor instance, the microscopic texture of the hair, of the\\nglands of the skin, and of the breasts, and the corpus-\\ncles of the blood, which are quite peculiar to mam-\\nmals, and different from those of the other verte-\\nbrates; man, even in these finest histological rela-\\ntions, is a true mammal.\\nThe microscopic researches of Albert K\u00c3\u00b6lliker and\\nFranz Leydig (at W\u00c3\u00bcrzburg) not only enlarged our\\nknowledge of the finer structure of man and the beasts\\nin every direction, but they were especially important\\nin the light of their connection with the evolution of\\nthe cell and the tissue they confirmed the great theory\\nof Carl Theodor Siebold (1845) that the lowest animals,\\nthe Infusoria and the Rhizopods, are unicellular or\u00c2\u00bb\\nganisms.\\nOur whole frame, both in its general plan and its\\ndetailed structure, presents the characteristic type of\\nthe vertebrates. This most important and most high-\\nly developed group in the animal world was first recog-\\nnized in its natural unity in 1 80 1 by the great La-\\nmarck; he embraced under that title the four higher\\nanimal groups of Linne -mammals, birds, amphibia,\\nand fishes. To these he opposed the two lower classes,\\ninsects and worms, as invertebrates. Cuvier (18 12)\\nestablished the unity of the vertebrate type on a firmer\\nbasis by his comparative anatomy. It is quite true\\nthat all the vertebrates, from the fish up to man, agree\\nin every essential feature; they all have a firm inter-\\n27", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nnal skeleton, a framework of cartilage and bone, con-\\nsisting principally of a vertebral column and a skull;\\nthe advanced construction of the latter presents many\\nvariations, but, on the whole, all may be reduced to\\nthe same fundamental type. Further, in all verte-\\nbrates the organ of the mind, the central nervous\\nsystem, in the shape of a spinal cord and a brain, lies\\nat the back of this axial skeleton. Moreover, what\\nwe said of its bony environment, the skull, is also\\ntrue of the brain the instrument of consciousness and\\nall the higher functions of the mind; its construction\\nand size present very many variations in detail, but\\nits general characteristic structure remains always the\\nsame.\\nWe meet the same phenomenon when we compare\\nthe rest of our organs with those of the other verte-\\nbrates everywhere, in virtue of heredity, the original\\nplan and the relative distribution of the organs remain\\nthe same, although, through adaptation to different\\nenvironments, the size and the structure of particular\\nsections offer considerable variation. Thus we find\\nthat in all cases the blood circulates in two main blood-\\nvessels, of which one the aorta passes over the in-\\ntestine, and the other the principal vein passes un-\\nderneath, and that by the broadening out of the latter\\nin a very definite spot a heart has arisen this ventral\\nheart is just as characteristic of all vertebrates as the\\ndorsal heart is of the articulata and mollusca.\\nEqually characteristic of all vertebrates is the early\\ndivision of the intestinal tube into a head-gut (or\\ngill-gut), which serves in respiration, and a body-\\ngut (or liver-gut), which co-operates with the liver in\\ndigestion so are, likewise, the ramification of the mus-\\ncular system, the peculiar structure of the urinary and\\n28", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\nsexual organs, and so forth. In all these anatomical\\nrelations man is a true vertebrate.\\nAristotle gave the name of four-footed, or tetrapoda,\\nto all the higher warm-blooded animals which are dis-\\ntinguished by the possession of two pairs of legs. The\\ncategory was enlarged subsequently, and its title\\nchanged into the Latin quadrupeda, when Cuvier\\nproved that even two-legged birds and men are\\nreally four-footed he showed that the internal\\nskeleton of the four legs in all the higher land-verte-\\nbrates, from the amphibia up to man, was originally\\nconstructed after the same pattern out of a definite\\nnumber of members. The arm of man and the\\nwing of bats and birds have the same typical skele-\\nton as the foreleg of the animals which are conspicu-\\nously four-footed.\\nThe anatomical unity of the fully developed skeleton\\nin the four limbs of all tetrapods is very important.\\nIn order to appreciate it fully one has only to compare\\ncarefully the skeleton of a salamander or a frog with\\nthat of a monkey or a man. One perceives at once\\nthat the humeral zone in front and the pelvic zone be-\\nhind are made up of the same principal parts as in the\\nrest of the quadrupeds. We find in all cases that the\\nfirst section of the leg proper consists of one strong\\nmarrow-bone (the humerus, in the forearm the femur,\\nbehind) the second part, on the contrary, originally\\nalways consists of two bones (the ulna and radius, in\\nfront -the fibula and tibia, behind) When we further\\ncompare the developed structure of the foot proper we\\nare surprised to find that the small bones of which it\\nis made up are also similarly arranged and distributed\\nin every case: in the front limb the three groups of\\nbones of the forefoot (or hand correspond in all\\n29", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nclasses of the tetrapoda: (i) the carpus, (2) the meta-\\ncarpus, (3) the five fingers (digiti anteriores) in the\\nrear limb, similarly, we have always the same three\\nosseous groups of the hind foot (1) the tarsus, (2) the\\nmetatarsus, and (3) the five toes (digiti posteriores) It\\nwas a very difficult task to reduce all these little bones\\nto one primitive type, and to establish the equivalence\\n(or homology) of the separate parts in all cases they\\npresent extreme variations of form and construction in\\ndetail, sometimes being partly fused together and losing\\ntheir individuality. This great task was first success-\\nfully achieved by the most eminent comparative anat-\\nomist of our day, Karl Gegenbaur. He pointed out,\\nin his Researches into the Comparative Anatomy of\\nthe Vertebrata (1864), how this characteristic five-toed\\nleg of the land tetrapods originally (not before the\\nCarboniferous period) arose out of the radiating fin\\n(the breast-fin, or the belly- fin) of the ancient fishes.\\nHe had also, in his famous Researches into the Skull of\\nthe Vertebrata (1872), deduced the younger skull of the\\ntetrapods from the oldest cranial form among the fishes,\\nthat of the shark.\\nIt is especially remarkable that the original number\\nof the toes (five) on each of the four feet, which first\\nappeared in the old amphibia of the Carboniferous\\nperiod, has, in virtue of a strict heredity, been pre-\\nserved even to the present day in man. Also, natural-\\nly and harmoniously, the typical construction of the\\njoints, ligaments, muscles, and nerves of the two pairs\\nof legs has, in the main, remained the same as in the\\nrest of the four-footed. In all these important rela-\\ntions man is a true tetrapod.\\nThe mammals are the youngest and most advanced\\nclass of the vertebrates. It is true they are derived\\n30", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\nfrom the older class of amphibia, like birds and reptiles\\nyet they are distinguished from all the other tetrapods\\nby a number of very striking anatomical features. Ex-\\nternally, there is the clothing of the skin with hair, and\\nthe possession of two kinds of skin glands the sweat\\nglands and the sebaceous glands. A local develop-\\nment of these glands on the abdominal skin gave rise\\n(probably during the Triassic period) to the organ which\\nis especially characteristic of the class, and from which\\nit derives its name the mammarium. This important\\ninstrument of lactation is made up of milk glands\\n(mammae) and the mammar-pouches (folds of the\\nabdominal skin) in its development the teats appear,\\nthrough which the young mammal sucks its mother s\\nmilk. In internal structure the most remarkable feature\\nis the possession of a complete diaphragm, a muscular\\nwall which, in all mammals and only in mammals\\nseparates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity in\\nall other vertebrates there is no such separation. The\\nskull of mammals is distinguished by a number of re-\\nmarkable formations, especially in the maxillary ap-\\nparatus (the upper and lower jaws, and the temporal\\nbones). Moreover, the brain, the olfactory organ, the\\nheart, the lungs, the internal and external sexual or-\\ngans, the kidneys, and other parts of the body present\\nspecial peculiarities, both in general and detailed struct-\\nure, in the mammals all these, taken collectively, point\\nunequivocally to an early derivation of the mammals\\nfrom the older groups of the reptiles and amphibia,\\nwhich must have taken place, at the latest, in the\\nTriassic period at least twelve million years ago!\\nIn all these important characteristics man is a true\\nmammal.\\nThe numerous orders (12-33) which modern system-\\n3 1", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\natic zoology distinguishes in the class of mammals\\nhad been arranged in 1816 (by Blainville) in three nat-\\nural groups, which still hold good as sub-classes: (i)\\nthe monotrema, (2) the marsupialia, and (3) the placen-\\ntalia. These three sub-classes not only differ in the im-\\nportant respect of bodily structure and development,\\nbut they correspond, also, to three different historical\\nstages in the formation of the class, as we shall see\\nlater on. The monotremes of the Triassic period were\\nfollowed by the marsupials of the Jurassic, and these\\nby the placentals of the Cretaceous. Man belongs to\\nthis, the youngest, sub-class for he presents in his or-\\nganization all the features which distinguish the pla-\\ncentals from the marsupials and the still older mono-\\ntremes. First of all, there is the peculiar organ which\\ngives a name to the placentals the placenta. It serves\\nthe purpose of nourishing the young mammal embryo\\nfor a long time during its enclosure in the mother s\\nwomb; it consists of blood-bearing tufts which grow\\nout of the chorion surrounding the embryo, and pene-\\ntrate corresponding cavities in the mucous membrane\\nof the maternal uterus; the delicate skin between the\\ntwo structures is so attenuated in this spot that the nu-\\ntriment in the mother s blood can pass directly into the\\nblood of the child. This excellent contrivance for nour-\\nishing the embryo, which makes its first appearance at\\na somewhat late date, gives the foetus the opportunity\\nof a longer maintenance and a higher development in\\nthe protecting womb; it is wanting in the implacen-\\ntalia, the two older sub-classes of the marsupials and\\nthe monotremes. There are, likewise, other anatomical\\nfeatures, particularly the higher development of the\\nbrain and the absence of the marsupial bone, which\\nraise the placentals above all their implacental ances-\\n32", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\ntors. In all these important particulars man is a true\\nplacental.\\nThe very varied sub-class of the placentals has been\\nrecently subdivided into a great number of orders they\\nare usually put at from ten to sixteen, but when we in-\\nclude the important extinct forms which have been re\\ncently discovered the number runs up to from twenty to\\ntwenty-six. In order to facilitate the study of these\\nnumerous orders, and to obtain a deeper insight into\\ntheir kindred construction, it is very useful to form them\\ninto great natural groups, which I have called le-\\ngions. In my latest attempt* .to arrange the advanced\\nsystem of placentals in phylogenetic order I have sub-\\nstituted eight of these legions for the twenty-six orders,\\nand shown that these may be reduced to four main\\ngroups. These, in turn, are traceable to one common\\nancestral group of all the placentals, their fossil ances-\\ntors, the prochoriata of the Cretaceous period. These\\nare directly connected with the marsupial ancestors of\\nthe Jurassic period. We will only specify here, as the\\nmost important living representatives of these four\\nmain groups, the rodentia, the ungulata, the Carnivora,\\nand the primates. To the legion of the primates be-\\nlong the prosimiae (half -apes), the simiae (real apes),\\nand man. All the members of these three orders agree\\nin many important features, and are at the same time\\ndistinguished by these features from the other twenty-\\nthree orders of placentals. They are especially con-\\nspicuous for the length of their bones, which were orig-\\ninally adapted to their arboreal manner of life. Their\\nhands and feet are five-fingered, and the long fingers\\nare excellently suited for grasping and embracing the\\nSystematische Phylogenie, 1896, part iii., pp. 490, 494, and 496.\\nc 33", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nbranches of trees they are provided, either partially or\\ncompletely, with nails, but have no claws. The denti-\\ntion is complete, containing all four classes incisors,\\ncanine, premolars, and molars. Primates are also dis-\\ntinguished from all the other placentals by important\\nfeatures in the special construction of the skull and the\\nbrain; and these are the more striking in proportion\\nto their development and the lateness of their appear-\\nance in the history of the earth. In all these important\\nanatomical features our human organism agrees with\\nthat of all the other primates man is a true primate.\\nAn impartial and thorough comparison of the bodily\\nstructure of the primates forces us to distingiush two\\norders in this most advanced legion of the mammalia\\nhalf-apes {prosimiae or hemipitheci) and apes (simiae\\nor pitheci). The former seem in every respect to be the\\nlower and older, the latter to be the higher and younger\\norder. The womb of the half-ape is still double, or two-\\nhorned, as it is in all the other mammals. In the true\\nape, on the contrary., the right and left wombs have\\ncompletely amalgamated they blend into a pear-\\nshaped womb, which the human mother possesses be-\\nsides the ape. In the skull of the apes, just as in that\\nof man, the orbits of the eyes are completely sepa-\\nrated from the temporal cavities by an osseous par-\\ntition; in the prosimiae this is either entirely want-\\ning or very imperfect. Finally, the cerebrum of the\\nprosimia is either quite smooth or very slightly fur-\\nrowed, and proportionately small; that of the true\\nape is much larger, and the gray bed especially, the or-\\ngan of higher psychic activity, is much more developed\\nthe characteristic convolutions and furrows appear on\\nits surface exactly in proportion as the ape approaches\\nto man. In these and other important respects, par-\\n34", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\nticularly in the construction of the face and the hands,\\nman presents all the anatomical marks of a true ape.\\nThe extensive order of apes was divided by Geoffroi,\\nin 1 8 1 2, into two sub-orders, which are still universally\\naccepted in systematic zoology New World and Old\\nWorld monkeys, according to the hemisphere they re-\\nspectively inhabit. The American New World mon-\\nkeys are called Platyrrhinae (flat-nosed) their nose is\\nflat, and the nostrils divergent, with a broad partition.\\nThe Old World monkeys, on the contrary, are called\\ncollectively Catarrhinae (narrow-nosed) their nostrils\\npoint downward, like man s, and the dividing cartilage\\nis narrow. A further difference between the two groups\\nis that the tympanum is superficial in the platyrrhinae,\\nbut lies deeper, inside the petrous bone, in the catar-\\nrhinae in the latter a long and narrow bony passage\\nhas been formed, while in the former it is still short and\\nwide, or even altogether wanting. Finally, we have a\\nmuch more important and decisive difference between\\nthe two groups in the circumstance that all the Old\\nWorld monkeys have the same teeth as man i.e.,\\ntwenty deciduous and thirty-two permanent teeth (two\\nincisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in\\neach half of the jaw). The New World monkeys, on\\nthe other hand, have an additional premolar in each\\nhalf-jaw, or thirty-six teeth altogether. The fact that\\nthese anatomical differences of the two simian groups\\nare universal and conspicuous, and that they harmonize\\nwith their geographical distribution in the two hemi-\\nspheres, fully authorizes a sharp systematic division\\nof the two, as well as the phylogenetic conclusion that\\nfor a very long period (for more than a million years)\\nthe two sub-orders have been developing quite inde-\\npendently of each other in the western and eastern\\n35", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nhemispheres. That is a most important point in view\\nof the geneaology of our race; for man bears all the\\nmarks of a true catarrhina he has descended from\\nsome extinct memberof this sub-order in the Old World.\\nThe numerous types of catarrhinae which still sur-\\nvive in Asia and Africa have been formed into two sec-\\ntions for some time the tailed, doglike apes (the cyno-\\npitheci) and the tailless, manlike apes (the anthropo-\\nmorpha). The latter are much nearer to man than the\\nformer, not only in the absence of a tail and in the gen-\\neral build of the body (especially of the head), but also\\non account of certain features which are unimportant\\nin themselves but very significant in their constancy.\\nThe sacrum of the anthropoid ape, like that of man, is\\nmade up of the fusion of five vertebrae that of the cyno-\\npithecus consists of three (more rarely four) sacral ver-\\ntebrae. The premolar teeth of the cynopitheci are great-\\ner in length than breadth those of the anthropomorpha\\nare broader than they are long; and the first molar\\nhas four protuberances in the former, five in the latter.\\nFurthermore, the outer incisor of the lower jaw is broad-\\ner than the inner one in the manlike apes and man in\\nthe doglike ape it is the smaller. Finally, there is a\\nspecial significance in the fact, established by Selenka\\nin 1890, that the anthropoid apes share with man the\\npeculiar structure of the discoid placenta, the decidua\\nreflexa, and the pedicle of the allantois. In fact, even\\na superficial comparison of the bodily structure of the\\nanthropomorpha which still survive makes it clear that\\nboth the Asiatic (the orang-outang and the gibbous\\nape) and the African (the gorilla and chimpanzee) rep-\\nresentatives of this group are nearer to man in build\\nthan any of the cynopitheci. Under the latter group\\nwe include the dog-faced papiomorpha, the baboon, and\\n36", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "OUR BODILY FRAME\\nthe long-tailed monkey, at a very low stage. The ana-\\ntomical difference between these low papiomorpha and\\nthe most highly developed anthropoid apes is greater\\nin every respect, whatever organ we take for compari-\\nson, than the difference between the latter and man.\\nThis instructive fact was established with great pene-\\ntration by the anatomist Robert Hartmann, in his work\\non The Anthropoid Apes he proposed to divide the\\norder of Simiae in a new way namely, into the two\\ngreat groups of primaria (man and the anthropoid ape)\\nand the simiae proper, or pithed (the rest of the catar-\\nrhinae and all the platyrrhinse). In any case, we have\\na clear proof of the close affinity of man and the anthro-\\npoid ape.\\nThus comparative anatomy proves to the satisfaction\\nof every unprejudiced and critical student the signifi-\\ncant fact that the body of man and that of the anthro-\\npoid ape are not only peculiarly similar, but they are\\npractically one and the same in every important respect.\\nThe same two hundred bones, in the same order and\\nstructure, make up our inner skeleton the same three\\nhundred muscles effect our movements the same hair\\nclothes our skin the same groups of ganglionic cells\\nbuild up the marvellous structure of our brain; the\\nsame four chambered heart is the central pulsometer in\\nour circulation the same thirty-two teeth are set in the\\nsame order in our jaws the same salivary, hepatic, and\\ngastric glands compass our digestive process the same\\nreproductive organs insure the maintenance of our race.\\nIt is true that we find, on close examination, certain\\nminor differences in point of size and shape in most\\nof the organs of man and the ape but we discover the\\nTranslated in the International Science Series, 1872.\\n37", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nsame, or similar, differences between the higher and\\nlower races of men, when we make a careful compari-\\nson even, in fact, in a minute comparison of the va-\\nrious individuals of our own race. We find no two per-\\nsons who have exactly the same size and form of nose,\\nears, eyes, and so forth. One has only to compare at-\\ntentively these special features in many different per-\\nsons in any large company to convince one s self of the\\nastonishing diversity of their construction and the in-\\nfinite variability of specific forms. Not infrequently\\neven two sisters are so much unlike as to make their\\norigin from the same parents almost incredible. Yet\\nall these individual variations do not weaken the sig-\\nnificance of the fundamental similarity of structure;\\nthey are traceable to certain minute differences in the\\ngrowth of the individual features.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III\\nOUR LIFE\\nDevelopment of Physiology in Antiquity and the Middle Ages\\nGalen Experiment and Vivisection Discovery of the Cir-\\nculation of the Blood by Harvey Vitalism Haller Teleo-\\nlogical and Vitalistic Conception of Life Mechanical and\\nMonistic View of the Physiological Processes Comparative\\nPhysiology in the Nineteenth Century Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller\\nCellular Physiology Max Verworn Cellular Pathology\\nVirchow Mammal Physiology Similarity of all Vital Ac-\\ntivity in Man and the Ape\\nIT is only in the nineteenth century that our knowl-\\nedge of human life has attained the dignity of a\\ngenuine, independent science during the course of the\\ncentury it has developed into one of the highest, most\\ninteresting, and most important branches of knowledge.\\nThis science of the vital functions, physiology, had,\\nit is true, been regarded at a much earlier date as a de-\\nsirable, if not a necessary, condition of success in medi-\\ncal treatment, and had been constantly associated with\\nanatomy, the science of the structure of the body. But\\nit was only much later, and much more slowly, than the\\nlatter that it could be thoroughly studied, as it had to\\ncontend with much more serious difficulties.\\nThe idea of life, as the opposite of death, naturally\\nbecame the subject of speculation at a very early age.\\nIn the living man, just as in other living animals, there\\n39", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwere certain peculiar changes, especially movements,\\nwhich were wanting in lifeless nature: spontaneous\\nlocomotion, the beat of the heart, the drawing of the\\nbreath, speech, and so forth. But the discrimination\\nof such organic movements from similar phenomena\\nin inorganic bodies was by no means easy, and was\\nfrequently impossible the flowing stream, the flicker-\\ning flame, the rushing wind, the falling rock, seemed\\nto man to exhibit the same movements. It was quite\\nnatural that primitive man should attribute an inde-\\npendent life to these dead bodies. He knew no\\nmore of the real sources of movement in the one case\\nthan in the other.\\nWe find the earliest scientific observations on the\\nnature of man s vital functions (as well as on his struct-\\nure) in the Greek natural philosophers and physicians\\nof the sixth and fifth centuries before Christ. The\\nbest collection of the physiological facts which were\\nknown at that time is to be found in the Natural His-\\ntory of Aristotle; a great number of his assertions\\nwere probably taken from Democritus and Hippocrates.\\nThe school of the latter had already made attempts to\\nexplain the mystery it postulated as the ultimate\\nsource of life in man and the beasts a volatile spirit\\nof life (Pneuma) and Erasistratus (280 B.C.) al-\\nready drew a distinction between the lower and the\\nhigher spirit of life, the pneuma zoticon in the heart\\nand the pneuma psychicon in the brain.\\nThe credit of gathering these scattered truths into\\nunity, and of making the first attempt at a systematic\\nphysiology, belongs to the great Greek physician\\nGalen; we have already recognized in him the first\\ngreat anatomist of antiquity (cf. p. 23). In his re-\\nsearches into the organs of the body he never lost sight\\n40", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "OUR LIFE\\nof the question of their vital activity, their functions\\nand even in this direction he proceeded by the same\\ncomparative method, taking for his principal study\\nthe animals which approach nearest to man. What-\\never he learned from these he applied directly to man.\\nHe recognized the value of physiological experiment\\nin his vivisection of apes, dogs, and swine he made a\\nnumber of interesting experiments. Vivisection has\\nbeen made the object of a violent attack in recent years,\\nnot only by the ignorant and narrow-minded, but by\\ntheological enemies of knowledge and by perfervid\\nsentimentalists it is, however, one of the indispensa-\\nble methods of research into the nature of life, and has\\ngiven us invaluable information on the most impor-\\ntant questions. This was recognized by Galen seven-\\nteen hundred years ago.\\nGalen reduces all the different functions of the body\\nto three groups, which correspond to the three forms of\\nthe pneuma, or vital spirit. The pneuma psychicon\\nthe soul which resides in the brain and nerves, is the\\ncause of thought, sensation, and will (voluntary move-\\nment) the pneuma zoticon the heart is responsible\\nfor the beat of the heart, the pulse, and the temperature\\nthe pneuma physicon, seated in the liver, is the source\\nof the so-called vegetative functions, digestion and as-\\nsimilation, growth and reproduction. He especially\\nemphasized the renewal of the blood in the lungs, and\\nexpressed a hope that we should some day succeed in\\nisolating the permanent element in the atmosphere\\nthe pneuma, as he calls it which is taken into the\\nblood in respiration. More than fifteen centuries\\nelapsed before this pneuma oxygen was discovered\\nby Lavoisier.\\nIn human physiology, as well as in anatomy, the\\n4i", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ngreat system of Galen was for thirteen centuries the\\nCodex aureus, the inviolable source of all knowledge.\\nThe influence of Christianity, so fatal to scientific\\nculture, raised the same insuperable obstacles in this\\nas in every other branch of secular knowledge. Not a\\nsingle scientist appeared from the third to the six-\\nteenth century who dared to make independent research\\ninto man s vital activity, and transcend the limits of\\nthe Galenic system. It was not until the sixteenth\\ncentury that experiments were made in that direction\\nby a number of distinguished physicians and anato-\\nmists (Paracelsus, Servetus, Vesalius, and others). In\\n1628 Harvey published his great discovery of the cir-\\nculation of the blood, and showed that the heart is a\\npump, which drives the red stream unceasingly through\\nthe connected system of arteries and veins by a rhyth-\\nmic, unconscious contraction of its muscles. Not less\\nimportant were Harvey s researches into the procrea-\\ntion of animals, as a result of which he formulated the\\nwell-known law Every living thing comes from an\\negg (omne vivum ex ovo)\\nThe powerful impetus which Harvey gave to physio-\\nlogical observation and experiment led to a great num-\\nber of discoveries in the sixteenth and seventeenth\\ncenturies. These were co-ordinated for the first time\\nby the learned Albrecht Haller about the middle of the\\nlast century in his great work, Elementa Physiolo-\\ngiae, he established the inherent importance of the sci-\\nence, independently of its relation to practical medi-\\ncine. In postulating, however, a special sensitive\\nforce or sensibility for neural action, and a special\\nirritability for muscular movement, Haller gave\\nstrong support to the erroneous idea of a specific vital\\nforce (vis vitalis).\\n42", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "OUR LIFE\\nFor more than a century afterwards, from the mid-\\ndle of the eighteenth until the middle of the nineteenth\\ncentury, medicine and (especially) physiology were\\ndominated by the old idea that a certain number of the\\nvital processes may be traced to physical and chemical\\ncauses, but that others are the outcome of a special vital\\nforce which is independent of physical agencies. How-\\never much scientists differed in their conceptions of its\\nnature and its relation to the soul, they were all\\nagreed as to its independence of, and essential distinc-\\ntion from, the chemico-physical forces of ordinary mat-\\nter it was a self-contained force (archaeus), unknown\\nin inorganic nature, which compelled ordinary forces\\ninto its service. Not only the distinctly psychical activ-\\nity, the sensibility of the nerves and the irritability of\\nthe muscles, but even the phenomena of sense activity,\\nof reproduction, and of development seemed so won-\\nderful and so mysterious in their sources that it was im-\\npossible to attribute them to simple physical and chem-\\nical processes. As the free activity of the vital force\\nwas purposive and conscious, it led, in philosophy, to\\na complete teleology; especially did this seem indis-\\nputable when even the critical philosopher Kant\\nhad acknowledged, in his famous critique of the tele-\\nological position, that, though the mind s authority\\nto give a mechanical interpretation of all phenomena is\\ntheoretically unlimited, yet its actual capacity for such\\ninterpretation does not extend to the phenomena of or-\\nganic life; here we are compelled to have recourse to\\na purposive therefore supernatural principle. This\\ndivergence of the vital phenomena from the mechanical\\nprocesses of life became, naturally, more conspicuous\\nas science advanced in the chemical and physical ex-\\nplanation of the latter. The circulation of the blood\\n43", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nand a number of other phenomena could be traced to\\nmechanical agencies; respiration and digestion were\\nattributable to chemical processes like those we find\\nin inorganic nature. On the other hand, it seemed im-\\npossible to do this with the wonderful performances of\\nthe nerves and muscles, and with the characteristic life\\nof the mind the co-ordination of all the different forces\\nin the life of the individual seemed also beyond such a\\nmechanical interpretation. Hence there arose a com-\\nplete physiological dualism an essential distinction\\nwas drawn between inorganic and organic nature, be-\\ntween mechanical and vital processes, between material\\nforce and life force, between the body and the soul. At\\nthe beginning of the nineteenth century this vitalism\\nwas firmly established in France by Louis Dumas,\\nand in Germany by Reil. Alexander Humboldt had\\nalready published a poetical presentation of it in 1795,\\nin his narrative of the Legend of Rhodes it is repeated,\\nwith critical notes, in his Views of Nature.\\nfci the first half of the seventeenth century the famous\\nphilosopher Descartes, starting from Harvey s discov-\\nery of the circulation of the blood, put forward the idea\\nthat the body of man,- like that of other animals, is\\nmerely an intricate machine, and that its movements\\ntake place under the same mechanical laws as the\\nmovements of an automaton of human construction.\\nIt is true that Descartes, at the same time, claimed for\\nman the exclusive possession of a perfectly indepen-\\ndent, immaterial soul, and held that its subjective ex-\\nperience, thought, was the only thing in the world of\\nwhich we have direct and certain cognizanze Cogito,\\nergo sum 1 Yet this dualism did not prevent him\\nfrom doing much to advance our knowledge of the me-\\nchanical life processes in detail. Borelli followed 1 660)\\n44", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "OUR LIFE\\nwith a reduction of the movements of the animal body\\nto purely physical laws, and Sylvius endeavored, about\\nthe same time, to give a purely chemical explanation of\\nthe phenomena of digestion and respiration the former\\nfounded the iatromechanical, the latter the iatrochem-\\nical, school of medicine. However, these rational ten-\\ndencies towards a natural, mechanical explanation of\\nthe phenomena of life did not attain to a universal ac-\\nceptance and application; in the course of the eigh-\\nteenth century they fell entirely away before the advance\\nof teleological vitalism. The final disproof of the latter\\nand a return to mechanism only became possible with\\nthe happy growth of the new science of comparative\\nphysiology in the forties of the present century.\\nOur knowledge of the vital functions, like our knowl-\\nedge of the structure of the human body, was originally\\nobtained, for the most part, not by direct observation of\\nthe human organism itself, but by a study of the more\\nclosely related animals among the vertebrates, espe-\\ncially the mammals. In this sense the very earliest\\nbeginning of human anatomy and physiology was\\ncomparative. But the distinct science of compar-\\native physiology, which embraces the whole sphere of\\nlife phenomena, from the lowest animal up to man, is\\na triumph of the nineteenth century. Its famous cre-\\nator was Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller, of Berlin (born, the son of a\\nshoemaker, at Coblentz, in 1801). For fully twenty-\\nfive years from 1833 to 1858 this most versatile and\\nmost comprehensive biologist of our age evinced an ac-\\ntivity at the Berlin University, as professor and in-\\nvestigator, which is only comparable with the asso-\\nciated work of Haller and Cuvier. Nearly every one\\nof the great biologists who have taught and worked in\\nGermany for the last sixty years was, directly or in-\\n45", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ndirectly, a pupil of Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller. Starting from the\\nanatomy and physiology of man, he soon gathered all\\nthe chief groups of the higher and lower animals within\\nhis sphere of comparison. As, moreover, he compared\\nthe structure of extinct animals with the living, and\\nthe healthy organism with the diseased, endeavoring\\nto bring together all the phenomena of life in a truly\\nphilosophic fashion, he attained a biological knowledge\\nfar in advance of his predecessors.\\nThe most valuable fruit of these comprehensive stud-\\nies of Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller was his Manual of Human Phys-\\niology. This classical work contains much more than\\nthe title indicates it is the sketch of a comprehensive\\ncomparative biology. It is still unsurpassed in re-\\nspect of its contents and range of investigation. In\\nparticular, we find the methods of observation and ex-\\nperiment applied in it as masterfully as the philosophic\\nprocesses of induction and deduction. M\u00c3\u00bcller was orig-\\ninally a vitalist, like all the physiologists of his time.\\nNevertheless, the current idea of a vital force took a\\nnovel form in his speculations, and gradually trans-\\nformed itself into the very opposite. For he attempted\\nto explain the phenomena of life mechanically in every\\ndepartment of physiology. His transfigured vital\\nforce was not above the physical and chemical laws of\\nthe rest of nature but entirely bound up with them. It\\nwas, in a word, nothing more than life itself that is,\\nthe sum of all the movements which we perceive in the\\nliving organism. He sought especially to give them\\nthe same mechanical interpretation in the life of the\\nsenses and of the mind as in the working of the mus-\\ncles the same in the phenomena of circulation, res-\\npiration, and digestion as in generation and develop-\\nment. M\u00c3\u00bcller s success was chiefly due to the fact\\n46", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "OUR LIFE\\nthat he always began with the simplest life phenomena\\nof the lowest animals, and followed them step by step\\nin their gradual development up to the very highest, to\\nman. In this his method of critical comparison proved\\nits value both from the physiological and from the ana-\\ntomical point of view. Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller is, moreover,\\nthe only great scientist who has equally cultivated\\nthese two branches of research, and combined them\\nwith equal brilliancy. Immediately after his death\\nhis vast scientific kingdom fell into four distinct prov-\\ninces, which are now nearly always represented by\\nfour or more chairs human and comparative anat-\\nomy, pathological anatomy, physiology, and the his-\\ntory of evolution. This sudden division of M\u00c3\u00bcller s\\nimmense realm of learning in 1858 has been compared\\nto the dissolution of the empire which Alexander the\\nGreat had consolidated and ruled.\\nAmong the many pupils of Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller who,\\neither during his lifetime or after his death, labored\\nhard for the advancement of the various branches of\\nbiology, one of the most fortunate if not the most im-\\nportant was Theodor Schwann. When the able bot-\\nanist Schleiden, in 1838, indicated the cell as the com-\\nmon elementary organ of all plants, and proved that\\nall the different tissues of the plant are merely combi-\\nnations of cells, Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller recognized at once the\\nextraordinary possibilities of this important discovery.\\nHe himself sought to point out the same composition\\nin various tissues of the animal body for instance, in\\nthe spinal cord of vertebrates and thus led his pupil,\\nSchwann, to extend the discovery to all the animal tis-\\nsues. This difficult task was accomplished by Schwann\\nin his Microscopic Researches into the Accordance in\\nthe Structure and Growth of Plants and Animals (1839).\\n47", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThus was the foundation laid of the cellular theory,\\nthe profound importance of which, both in physiology\\nand anatomy, has become clearer and more widely\\nrecognized in each subsequent year. Moreover, it was\\nshown by two other pupils of Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller that the\\nactivity of all organisms is, in the ultimate analysis,\\nthe activity of the components of their tissues, the mi-\\ncroscopic cells these were the able physiologist Ernst\\nBr\u00c3\u00bccke, of Vienna, and the distinguished histologist\\nAlbert K\u00c3\u00b6lliker, of W\u00c3\u00bcrzburg. Br\u00c3\u00bccke correctly de-\\nnominated the cells the elementary organisms, and\\nshowed that, in the body of man and of all other ani-\\nmals, they are the only actual, independent factors of\\nthe life process. K\u00c3\u00b6lliker earned special distinction,\\nnot only in the construction of the whole science of\\nhistology, but particularly by showing that the ani-\\nmal ovum and its products are simple cells.\\nStill, however widely the immense importance of the\\ncellular theory for all biological research was acknowl-\\nedged, the cellular physiology which is based on it\\nonly began an independent development very recently.\\nIn this Max Verworn (of Jena) earned a twofold dis-\\ntinction. In his Psycho-physiological Studies of the\\nProtistae (1889) he showed, as a result of an ingenious\\nseries of experimental researches, that the theory of\\na cell-soul which I put forward in 1866 is completely\\nestablished by an accurate study of the unicellular pro-\\ntozoa, and that the psychic phenomena of the pro-\\ntistse form the bridge which unites the chemical pro-\\ncesses of inorganic nature with the mental life of the\\nhighest animals. Verworn has further developed\\nthese views, and based them on the modern theory of\\nZeil-Seelen und Seelen-Zellen. Ernst Haeckel, Gesammelte\\npopul\u00c3\u00a4re Vortr\u00c3\u00a4ge. I. Heft. 1878.\\n48", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "OUR LIFE\\nevolution; in his General Physiology. This distin-\\nguished work returns to the comprehensive point of\\nview of Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller, in opposition to the one-\\nsided and narrow methods of those modern physiolo-\\ngists who think to discover the nature of the vital phe-\\nnomena by the exclusive aid of chemical and physical\\nexperiments. Verworn showed that it is only by M\u00c3\u00bcl-\\nler s comparative method and by a profound study of\\nthe physiology of the cell that we can reach the higher\\nstand-point which will give us a comprehensive survey\\nof the wonderful realm of the phenomena of life. Only\\nthus do we become convinced that the vital processes in\\nman are subject to the same physical and chemical\\nlaws as those of all other animals.\\nThe fundamental importance of the cellular theory\\nfor all branches of biology was made clear in the second\\nhalf of the nineteenth century, not only by the rapid\\nprogress of morphology and physiology, but also by\\nthe entire reform of that biological science which has\\nalways been deemed most important on account of its\\nrelation to practical medicine pathology, or the sci-\\nence of disease. Many even of the older physicians\\nwere convinced that human diseases were natural phe-\\nnomena, like all other manifestations of life, and should\\nbe studied scientifically, like other vital functions. Par-\\nticular schools of medicine the Iatrophysical and the\\nIatrochemical had already, in the seventeenth cen-\\ntury, attempted to trace the sources of disease to certain\\nphysical and chemical changes. However, the imper-\\nfect condition of science at that period precluded any\\nlasting results of these efforts. Many of the older\\ntheories, which sought the nature of disease in super-\\nnatural and mystical causes, were almost universally\\naccepted down to the middle of the nineteenth century.\\nd 49", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nIt was then that Rudolf Virchow, another pupil oi\\nM\u00c3\u00bcller, conceived the happy idea of transferring the\\ncellular theory from the healthy to the diseased organ-\\nism he sought in the more minute metamorphoses of\\nthe diseased cells and the tissues they composed the\\ntrue source of those larger changes which, in the form\\nof disease, threaten the living organism with peril and\\ndeath. Especially during the seven years of his pro-\\nfessorship at W\u00c3\u00bcrzburg (1849-56) Virchow pursued his\\ngreat task with such brilliant results that his Cellular\\nPathology (published in 1858) turned, at one stroke, the\\nwhole of pathology and the dependent science of prac-\\ntical medicine into new and eminently fruitful paths.\\nThis reform of medicine is significant for our present\\npurpose in that it led us to a monistic and purely scien-\\ntific conception of disease. In sickness, no less than\\nin health, man is subject to the same eternal iron\\nlaws of physics and chemistry as all the rest of the\\norganic world.\\nAmong the numerous classes of animals which\\nmodern zoology distinguishes the mammals occupy\\na pre-eminent position, not only on morphological\\ngrounds, but also for physiological reasons. As man\\nbelongs to the class of mammals (see p. 27) by every por-\\ntion of his frame, we must expect him to share his\\ncharacteristic functions with the rest of the mammals.\\nSuch we find to be the case. The circulation of the\\nblood and respiration are accomplished in man under\\nprecisely the same laws and in the same manner as in\\nall the other mammals and in these alone they are\\ndetermined by the peculiar structure of their heart and\\nlungs. In mammals only is all the arterial blood con-\\nducted from the left ventricle of the heart to the body\\nby one, the left, branch of the aorta, while in birds it\\n5\u00c2\u00b0", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "OUR LIFE\\npasses along the right branch, and in reptiles along\\nboth branches. The blood of mammals is distinguish-\\ned from that of any other vertebrate by the circum-\\nstance that its red cells have lost their nucleus (by\\nreversion). The respiratory movements are effected\\nlargely by the diaphragm in this class of animals\\nalone, because only in them does it form a complete\\npartition between the pectoral and abdominal cavities.\\nSpecial importance, however, in this highest class of\\nanimals, attaches to the production of milk in the\\nbreasts (mammae), and to the peculiar method of the\\nrearing of the young, which entails the supplying of\\nthe offspring with the mother s milk. As this nutri-\\ntive process reacts most powerfully on the other vi-\\ntal functions, and the maternal affection of mam-\\nmals must have arisen from this intimate form of\\nrearing, the name of the class justly reminds us of its\\ngreat importance. In millions of pictures, most of\\nthem produced by painters of the highest rank, the\\nmadonna with the child is revered as the purest\\nand noblest type of maternal love the instinct which\\nis found in its extreme form in the exaggerated ten-\\nderness of the mother-ape.\\nAs the apes approach nearest to man of all the mam-\\nmals in point of structure, we shall expect to hear the\\nsame of their vital functions and that we find to be\\nthe case. Everybody knows how closely the habits,\\nthe movements, the sense activity, the mental life, and\\nthe parental customs of apes resemble those of man.\\nScientific physiology proves the same significant re-\\nsemblance in other less familiar processes, particularly\\nin the working of the heart, the division of the breasts,\\nand the sexual life. In the latter connection it is es-\\npecially noteworthy that the mature females of many\\n5i", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nkinds of apes suffer a periodical discharge of blood\\nfrom the womb, which corresponds to the menstrua-\\ntion of the human female. The secretion of the milk\\nin the glands and the suctorial process also take place\\nin the female ape in precisely the same fashion as in\\nwomen.\\nFinally, it is of especial interest that the speech of\\napes seems on physiological comparison to be a stage\\nin the formation of articulate human speech. Among\\nliving apes there is an Indian species which is musical\\nthe hylobates syndactylus sings a full octave in per-\\nfectly pure, harmonious half-tones. No impartial\\nphilologist can hesitate any longer to admit that our\\nelaborate rational language has been slowly and\\ngradually developed out of the imperfect speech of\\nour Pliocene simian ancestors, i", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV\\nOUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nThe Older Embryology\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Theory of Preformation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The The-\\nory of Scatulation Haller and Leibnitz The Theory of Epi-\\ngenesis C. F. Wolff The Theory of Germinal Layers Carl\\nErnst Baer Discovery of the Human Ovum Remak, K\u00c3\u00b6lli-\\nker The Egg-Cell and the Sperm-Cell The Theory of the\\nGastraea Protozoa and Metazoa The Ova and the Sperma-\\ntozoa Oscar Hertwig Conception Embryonic Develop-\\nment in Man Uniformity of the Vertebrate Embryo The\\nGerminal Membranes in Man The Amnion, the Serolemma,\\nand the Allantois The Formation of the Placenta and the\\nAfter-Birth The Decidua and the Funiculus Umbilicalis\\nThe Discoid Placenta of Man and the Ape.\\nr^ OMPARATIVE ontogeny, or the science of the de-\\nvelopment of the individual animal, is a child of\\nthe nineteenth century in even a truer sense than com-\\nparative anatomy and physiology. How is the child\\nformed in the mother s womb How do animals\\nevolve from ova? How does the plant come forth\\nfrom the seed? These pregnant questions have oc-\\ncupied the thoughtful mind for thousands of years.\\nYet it is only seventy years since the embryologist\\nBaer pointed out the correct means and methods for\\npenetrating into the mysteries of embryonic life it is\\nonly forty years since Darwin, by his reform of the\\ntheory of descent, gave us the key which should open\\nthe long-closed door, and lead to a knowledge of em-\\n53", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nbryonic agencies. As I have endeavored to give a\\ncomplete, popular presentation of this very interest-\\ning but difficult study in the first section of my An-\\nthropogeny, I will confine myself here to a brief survey\\nand discussion of the most important phenomena. Let\\nus first cast a historical glance at the older ontogeny,\\nand the theory of preformation which is connected\\nwith it.\\nThe classical works of Aristotle, the many-sided\\nfather of science, are the oldest known scientific\\nsources of embryology, as we found them to be for\\ncomparative anatomy. Not only in his great natural\\nhistory, but also in a special small work, Five Books\\non the Generation and Development of Animals, the\\ngreat philosopher gives us a host of interesting facts,\\nadding many observations on their significance; it\\nwas not until our own days that many of them were\\nfully appreciated, and, indeed, we may say, discovered\\nafresh. Naturally, many fables and errors are mixed\\nup with them it was all that was known at that time\\nof the hidden growth of the human germ. Yet during\\nthe long space of the next two thousand years the\\nslumbering science made no further progress. It was\\nnot until the commencement of the seventeenth cen-\\ntury that there was a renewal of activity. In 1600 the\\nItalian anatomist Fabricius ab Aquapendente pub-\\nlished at Padua the first pictures and descriptions of\\nthe embryos of man and some of the higher animals\\nin 1687 the famous Marcello Malpighi, of Bologna, a\\ndistinguished pioneer alike in zoology and botany,\\npublished the first consistent exposition of the growth\\nof the chick in the hatched egg.\\nAll these older scientists were possessed with the\\nidea that the complete body, with all its parts, was\\n54", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nalready contained in the ovum of animals, only it was\\nso minute and transparent that it could not be detected\\nthat, therefore, the whole development was nothing\\nmore than a growth, or an unfolding, of the parts\\nthat were already infolded (involutae). This erro-\\nneous notion, almost universally accepted until the be-\\nginning of the present century, is called the preforma-\\ntion theory sometimes it is called the evolution the-\\nory (in the literal sense of unfolding but the\\nlatter title is accepted by modern scientists for the very\\ndifferent theory of transformation.\\nClosely connected with the preformation theory, and\\nas a logical consequence of it, there arose in the last\\ncentury a further theory which keenly interested all\\nthoughtful biologists the curious theory of scatu-\\nlation. As it was thought that the outline of the en-\\ntire organism, with all its parts, was present in the egg,\\nthe ovary of the embryo had to be supposed to contain\\nthe ova of the following generation these, again, the ova\\nof the next, and so on in infinitum On that basis the\\ndistinguished physiologist Haller calculated that God\\nhad created together, 6000 years ago on the sixth day\\nof his creatorial labors the germs of 200,000,000,000\\nmen, and ingeniously packed them all in the ovary of\\nour venerable mother Eve. Even the gifted philos-\\nopher Leibnitz fully accepted this conclusion, and em-\\nbodied it in his monadist theory and as, on his theory,\\nsoul and body are in eternal, inseparable companion-\\nship, the consequence had to be accepted for the soul\\nf the souls of men have existed in organized bodies in\\ntheir ancestors from Adam downward that is, from\\nthe very beginning of things.\\nIn the month of November, 1759, a young doctor of\\ntwenty-six years, Caspar Friedrich Wolff (son of a Berlin\\n55", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntailor), published his dissertation for the degree at Halle,\\nunder the title, Theoria Generationis. Supported by a\\nseries of most laborious and painstaking observations,\\nhe proved the entire falsity of the dominant theories\\nof preformation and scatulation. In the hatched egg\\nthere is at first no trace of the coming chick and its or-\\ngans instead of it we find on top of the yolk a small,\\ncircular, white disk. This thin germinal disk be-\\ncomes gradually round, and then breaks up into four\\nfolds, lying upon each other, which are the rudiments\\nof the four chief systems of organs the nervous sys-\\ntem above, the muscular system underneath, the vas-\\ncular system (with the heart), and, finally, the aliment-\\nary canal. Thus, as Wolff justly remarked, the\\nembryonic development does not consist in an unfold-\\ning of the preformed organs, but in a series of new con-\\nstructions it is a true epigenesis. One part arises after\\nanother, and all make their appearance in a simple\\nform, which is very different from the later structure.\\nThis only appears after a series of most remarkable\\nformations. Although this great discovery one of\\nthe most important of the eighteenth century could\\nbe directly proved by a verification of the facts Wolff\\nhad observed, and although the theory of genera-\\ntion which was founded on it was in reality not a the-\\nory at all, but a simple fact, it met with no sympathy\\nwhatever for half a century. It was particularly re-\\ntarded by the high authority of Haller, who fought it\\nstrenuously with the dogmatic assertion that there is\\nno such thing as development no part of the animal\\nbody is formed before another; all were created to-\\ngether. Wolff, who had to go to St. Petersburg, was\\nlong in his grave before the forgotten facts he had ob-\\nserved were discovered afresh by Oken at Jena, in 1806.\\n56", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nAfter Wolff s epigenesis theory had been estab-\\nlished by Oken and Neckel (whose important work on\\nthe development of the alimentary canal was translated\\nfrom Latin into German), a number of young German\\nscientists devoted themselves eagerly to more accurate\\nembryological research. The most important and suc-\\ncessful of these was Carl Ernst Baer. His principal\\nwork appeared in 1828, with the title, History of the\\nDevelopment of Animals Observations and Reflections.\\nNot only the phenomena of the formation of the germ\\nare clearly illustrated and fully described in it, but it\\nadds a number of very pregnant speculations. In par-\\nticular, the form of the embryo of man and the mammals\\nis correctly presented, and the vastly different devel-\\nopment of the lower invertebrate animals is also con-\\nsidered. The two leaflike layers which appear in the\\nround germ disk of the higher vertebrates first divide,\\naccording to Baer, into two further layers, and these\\nfour germinal layers are transformed into four tubes,\\nwhich represent the fundamental organs the skin\\nlayer, the muscular layer, the vascular layer, and the\\nmucous layer. Then, by very complicated evolution-\\nary processes, the later organs arise, in substantially\\nthe same manner, in man and all the other vertebrates.\\nThe three chief groups of invertebrates, which in their\\nturn differ widely from each other, have a very different\\ndevelopment.\\nOne of the most important of Baer s many discov-\\neries was the rinding of the human ovum. Up to that\\ntime the little vesicles which are found in great num-\\nbers in the human ovary and in that of all other mam-\\nmals had been taken for the ova. Baer was the first\\nto prove, in 1827, that the real ova are enclosed in these\\nvesicles the Graafian follicles and much smaller,\\n57", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nbeing tiny spheres I -120th inch in diameter, visible to\\nthe naked eye as minute specks under favorable con-\\nditions. He discovered likewise that from this tiny\\novum of the mammal there develops first a character-\\nistic germ globule, a hollow sphere with liquid contents,\\nthe wall of which forms the slender germinal mem-\\nbrane, or blastoderm.\\nTen years after Baer had given a firm foundation to\\nembryological science by his theory of germ layers a\\nnew task confronted it on the establishment of the cellu-\\nlar theory in 1838. What is the relation of the ovum\\nand the layers which arise from it to the tissues and\\ncells which compose the fully developed organism The\\ncorrect answer to this difficult question was given about\\nthe middle of this century by two distinguished pupils\\nof Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller Robert Remak, of Berlin, and\\nAlbert K\u00c3\u00b6lliker, of W\u00c3\u00bcrzburg. They showed that the\\novum is at first one simple cell, and that the many ger-\\nminal globules, or granules, which arise from it by re-\\npeated segmentation, are also simple cells. From this\\nmulberry-like group of cells are constructed first the\\ngerminal layers, and subsequently by differentiation,\\nor division of labor, all the different organs. K\u00c3\u00b6lliker\\nhas the further merit of showing that the seminal fluid\\nof male animals is also a mass of microscopic cells.\\nThe active pin-shaped seed-animalcules, or sperma-\\ntozoa, in it are merely ciliated cells, as I first proved in\\nthe case of the seed-filaments of the sponge in 1866.\\nThus it was proved that both the materials of genera-\\ntion, the male sperm and the female ova, fell in with the\\ncellular theory. That was a discovery of which the\\ngreat philosophic significance was not appreciated until\\na much later date, on a close study of the phenomena\\nof conception in 1875.\\n58", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nAll the older studies in embryonic development con-\\ncern man and the higher vertebrates, especially the em-\\nbryonic bird, since hens eggs are the largest and most\\nconvenient objects for investigation, and are plentiful\\nenough to facilitate experiment we can hatch them\\nin the incubator, as well as by the natural function of\\nthe hen, and so observe from hour to hour, during the\\nspace of three weeks, the whole series of formations,\\nfrom the simple germ cell to the complete organism.\\nEven Baer had only been able to gather from such ob-\\nservations the fact that the different classes of verte-\\nbrates agreed in the characteristic form of the germ\\nlayers and the growth of particular organs. In the\\ninnumerable classes of invertebrates, on the other hand\\nthat is, in the great majority of animals the embry-\\nonic development seemed to run quite a different course,\\nand most of them seemed to be altogether without true\\ngerminal layers. It was not until about the middle of\\nthe century that such layers were found in some of the\\ninvertebrates. Huxley, for instance, found them in the\\nmedusae in 1849, and K\u00c3\u00b6lliker in the cephalopods in\\n1844. Particularly important was the discovery of\\nKowalewsky (1886) that the lowest vertebrate the lan-\\ncelot, or amphioxus is developed in just the same man-\\nner (and a very original fashion it is) as an inverte-\\nbrate, apparently quite remote, tunicate, the sea-squirt,\\nor ascidian. Even in some of the worms, the radiata\\nand the articulata, a similar formation of the germinal\\nlayers was pointed out by the same observer. I myself\\nwas then (since 1886) occupied with the embryology of\\nthe sponges, corals, medusae, and siphonophorae, and,\\nas I found the same formation of two primary germ\\nlayers everywhere in these lowest classes of multicellu-\\nlar animals, I came to the conclusion that this impor-\\n59", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntant embryonic feature is common to the entire animal\\nworld. The circumstance that in the sponges and the\\ncnidaria (polyps, medusas, etc.) the body consists for a\\nlong time, sometimes throughout life, merely of two\\nsimple layers of cells, seemed to me especially signifi-\\ncant. Huxley had already (1849) compared these, in\\nthe case of the medusae, with the two primary germinal\\nlayers of the vertebrates. On the ground of these ob-\\nservations and comparisons I then, in 1872, in my Phi-\\nlosophy of the Calcispongiae, published the theory of\\nthe gastraea, of which the following are the essential\\npoints\\nI. The whole animal world falls into two essentially\\ndifferent groups, the unicellular primitive animals (Pro-\\ntozoa) and the multicellular animals with complex tis-\\nsues (Metazoa). The entire organism of the protozoon\\n(the rhizopods of the infusoria) remains throughout life\\na single simple cell (or occasionally a loose colony of\\ncells without the formation of tissue, a coenobium). The\\norganism of the metazoon, on the contrary, is only uni-\\ncellular at the commencement, and is subsequently\\nbuilt up of a number of cells which form tissues.\\nII. Hence the method of reproduction and develop-\\nment is very different in each of these great categories\\nof animals. The protozoa usually multiply by non-\\nsexual means, by fission, gemmation, or spores they\\nhave no real ova and no sperm. The metazoa, on the\\ncontrary, are divided into male and female sexes, and\\ngenerally propagate sexually, by means of true ova,\\nwhich are fertilized by the male sperm.\\nIII. Hence, further, true germinal layers, and the\\ntissues which are formed from them, are found only\\nin the metazoa they are entirely wanting in the pro-\\ntozoa,\\n6q", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nIV. In all the metazoa only two primary layers ap-\\npear at first, and these have always the same essential\\nsignificance from the outer layer the external skin and\\nthe nervous system are developed from the inner layer\\nare formed the alimentary canal and all the other or-\\ngans.\\nV. I called the germ, which always arises first from\\nthe impregnated ovum, and which consists of these two\\nprimary layers, the gut-larva, or the gastrula its\\ncup -shaped body with the two layers encloses origi-\\nnally a simple digestive cavity, the primitive gut (the\\nprogaster or archenteron) and its simple opening is the\\nprimitive mouth (the prostoma or blastoporus) These\\nare the earliest organs of the multicellular body, and\\nthe two cell layers of its enclosing wall, simple epithelia,\\nare its earliest tissues all the other organs and tissues\\nare a later and secondary growth from these.\\nVI. From this similarity, or homology, of the gas-\\ntrula in all classes of compound animals I drew the con-\\nclusion, in virtue of the biogenetic law (p. 81), that all\\nthe metazoa come originally from one simple ancestral\\nform, the gastraea, and that this ancient (Laurentian),\\nlong-extinct form had the structure and composition of\\nthe actual gastrula, in which it is preserved by heredity.\\nVII. This phylogenetic conclusion, based on the\\ncomparison of ontogenetic facts, is confirmed by the\\ncircumstance that there are several of these gastraeades\\nstill in existence (gastraemaria, cyemaria, physemaria,\\netc.), and also some ancient forms of other animal\\ngroups whose organization is very little higher (the\\nolynthus of the sponges, the hydra, or common fresh-\\nwater polyp, of the cnidaria, the convoluta and other\\ncryptocaela, or worms of the simplest type, of the pla-\\ntodes).\\n61", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nVIII. In the further development of the various\\ntissue-forming animals from the gastrula we have to\\ndistinguish two principal groups The earlier and\\nlower types (the coelenteria or acoelomia) have no body\\ncavity, no vent, and no blood; such is the case with\\nthe gastraeades, sponges, cnidaria, and platodes. The\\nlater and higher types (the caelomaria or bilateria), on\\nthe other hand, have a true body cavity, and generally\\nblood and a vent; to these we must refer the worms\\nand the higher types of animals which were evolved\\nfrom these later on, the echinodermata, mollusca, artic-\\nulata, tunicata, and vertebrata.\\nThose are the main points of my gastrsea theory\\nI have since enlarged the first sketch of it (given in\\n1872), and have endeavored to substantiate it in a series\\nof Studies on the gastraea theory (1873-84). Al-\\nthough it was almost universally rejected at first, and\\nfiercely combated for ten years by many authorities,\\nit is now (and has been for the last fifteen years) ac-\\ncepted by nearly all my colleagues. Let us now see\\nwhat far-reaching consequences follow from it, and\\nfrom the evolution of the germ, especially with regard\\nto our great question, the place of man in nature.\\nThe human ovum, like that of all other animals, is\\na single cell, and this tiny globular egg cell (about the\\n1 20th of an inch in diameter) has just the same charac-\\nteristic appearance as that of all other viviparous or-\\nganisms. The little ball of protoplasm is surrounded\\nby a thick, transparent, finely reticulated membrane,\\ncalled the zona pellucida even the little, g obular,\\ngerminal vesicle (the cell-nucleus), which is enclosed\\nin the protoplasm (the cell-body), is of the same size\\nand the same qualities as in the rest of the mammals.\\nThe same applies to the active spermatozoa of the\\n62", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nmale, the minute, threadlike, ciliated cells of which\\nmillions are found in every drop of the seminal fluid\\non account of their lifelike movements they were pre-\\nviously taken to be forms of life, as the name indicates\\n(spermatozoa sperm animals). Moreover, the or-\\nigin of both these important sexual cells in their re-\\nspective organs is the same in man as in the other\\nmammals both the ova in the ovary of the female and\\nthe spermatozoa in the spermarium of the male arise\\nin the same fashion they always come from cells,\\nwhich are originally derived from the ccelous epithe-\\nlium, the layer of cells which clothes the cavity of the\\nbody.\\nThe most important moment in the life of every man,\\nas in that of all other complex animals, is the moment\\nin which he begins his individual existence; it is the\\nmoment when the sexual cells of both parents meet\\nand coalesce for the formation of a single simple cell.\\nThis new cell, the impregnated egg cell, is the indi-\\nvidual stem cell (the cytula), the continued segmenta-\\ntion of which produces the cells of the germinal layers\\nand the gastrula. With the formation of this cytula,\\nhence in the process of conception itself, the existence\\nof the personality, the independent individual, com-\\nmences. This ontogenic fact is supremely important,\\nfor the most far-reaching conclusions may be drawn\\nfrom it. In the first place, we have a clear perception\\nthat man, like all the other complex animals, inherits\\nall his personal characteristics, bodily and mental,\\nfrom his parents; and, further, we come to the mo-\\nmentous conclusion that the new personality which\\narises thus can lay no claim to immortality.\\nHence the minute processes of conception and sexual\\ngeneration are of the first importance. We are, how-\\n\u00c2\u00b03\\nf", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\never, only familiar with their details since 1875, when\\nOscar Hertwig, my pupil and fellow-traveller at that\\ntime, began his researches into the impregnation of the\\negg of the sea-urchin at Ajaccio, in Corsica. The\\nbeautiful capital of the island in which Napoleon the\\nGreat was born, in 1769, was. also the spot in which the\\nmysteries of animal conception were carefully studied\\nfor the first time in their most important aspects. Hert-\\nwig found that the one essential element in conception\\nis the coalescence of the two sexual cells and their nu-\\nclei. Only one out of the millions of male ciliated cells\\nwhich press round the ovum penetrates to its nucleus.^\\nThe nuclei of both cells, of the spermatozoon and of\\nthe ovum, drawn together by a mysterious force, which\\nwe take to be a chemical sense-activity, related to smell,\\napproach each other and melt into one. Thus, by the\\nsensitive perception of the sexual nuclei, following\\nupon a kind of erotic chemicotropism, a new cell is\\nformed, which unites in itself the inherited qualities of\\nboth parents; the nucleus of the spermatozoon con-\\nveys the paternal features, the nucleus of the ovum\\nthose of the mother, to the stem cell, from which the\\nchild is to be developed. That applies both to the bodily\\nand to the mental characteristics.\\nThe formation of the germinal layers by the repeated\\ndivision of the stem cell, the growth of the gastrula\\nand of the later germ structures which succeed it, take\\nplace in man in just the same manner as in the other\\nhigher mammals, under the peculiar conditions which\\ndifferentiate this group from the lower vertebrates. In\\nthe earlier stages of development these special charac-\\nters of the placentalia are not to be detected. The sig-\\nnificant embryonic or larval form of the chordula,\\nwhich succeeds the gastrula, has substantially the\\n4 M 6 4", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nsame structure in all vertebrates; a simple straight\\nrod, the dorsal cord, lies lengthways along the main\\naxis of the shield-shaped body the embryonic shield\\nabove the cord the spinal marrow develops out of the\\nouter germinal layer, while the gut makes its appear-\\nance underneath. Then, on both sides, to the right\\nand left of the axial rod, appear the segments of the\\npro- vertebrae and the outlines of the muscular plates,\\nwith which the formation of the members of the verte-\\nbrate body begins. The gill-clefts appear on either\\nside of the fore-gut; they are the openings of the\\ngullet, through which, in our primitive fish-ancestors,\\nthe water which had entered at the mouth for breath-\\ning purposes made its exit at the sides of the head. By\\na tenacious heredity these gill-clefts, which have no\\nmeaning except for our fish-like aquatic ancestors, are\\nstill preserved in the embryo of man and all the other\\nvertebrates. They disappear after a time. Even after\\nthe five vesicles of the embryonic brain appear in the\\nhead, and the rudiments of the eyes and ears at the\\nsides, and after the legs sprout out at the base of the\\nfish-like embryo, in the form of two roundish, flat buds,\\nthe foetus is still so like that of other vertebrates that\\nit is indistinguishable from them.\\nThe substantial similarity in outer form and inner\\nstructure which characterizes the embryo of man and\\nother vertebrates in this early stage of development is\\nan embryological fact of the first importance from it,\\nby the fundamental law of biogeny, we may draw the\\nmost momentous conclusions. There is but one ex-\\nplanation of it heredity from a common parent form.\\nWhen we see that, at a certain stage, the embryos of\\nman and the ape, the dog and the rabbit, the pig and\\nthe sheep, although recognizable as higher vertebrates,\\ne 65", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ncannot be distinguished from each other, the fact can\\nonly be elucidated by assuming a common parentage.\\nAnd this explanation is strengthened when we follow\\nthe subsequent divergence of these embryonic forms.\\nThe nearer two animals are in their bodily structure,\\nand, therefore, in the scheme of nature, so much the\\nlonger do we find their embryos to retain this resem-\\nblance, and so much the closer do they approach each\\nother in the ancestral tree of their respective group, so\\nmuch the closer is their genetic relationship. Hence it\\nis that the embryos of man and the anthropoid ape re-\\ntain the resemblance much later, at an advanced stage\\nof development, when their distinction from the em-\\nbryos of other mammals can be seen at a glance. I have\\nillustrated this significant fact by a juxtaposition of\\ncorresponding stages in the development of a number\\nof different vertebrates in my Natural History of Crea-\\ntion and in my Anthropogeny.\\nThe great phylogenetic significance of the resem-\\nblance we have described is seen, not only in the com-\\nparison of the embryos of vertebrates, but also in the\\ncomparison of their protective membranes. All ver-\\ntebrates of the three higher classes reptiles, birds, and\\nmammals are distinguished from the lower classes\\nby the possession of certain special foetal membranes,\\nthe amnion and the serolemma. The embryo is en-\\nclosed in these membranes, or bags, which are full of\\nwater, and is thus protected from pressure or shock.\\nThis provident arrangement probably arose during the\\nPermian period, when the oldest reptiles, the prorep-\\ntilia, the common ancestors of all the amniotes (animals\\nwith an amnion), completely adapted themselves to a\\nlife on land. Their direct ancestors, the amphibia, and\\nthe fishes are devoid of these foetal membranes; they\\n66", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nwould have been superfluous to these inhabitants of\\nthe water. With the inheritance of these protective\\ncoverings are closely connected two other changes in\\nthe arnniotes firstly, the entire disappearance of the\\ngills (while the gill arches and clefts continue to be in-\\nherited as rudimentary organs secondly, the con-\\nstruction of the allantois. This vesicular bag, filled\\nwith water, grows out of the hind-gut in the embryo of\\nall the arnniotes, and is nothing else than an enlarge-\\nment of the bladder of their amphibious ancestors.\\nFrom its innermost and inferior section is formed sub-\\nsequently the permanent bladder of the arnniotes, while\\nthe larger outer part shrivels up. Usually this has an\\nimportant part to play for a long time as the respiratory\\norgan of the embryo, a number of large blood-vessels\\nspreading out over its inner surface. The formation\\nof the membranes, the amnion and the serolemma, and\\nof the allantois, is just the same, and is effected by the\\nsame complicated process of growth, in man as in all\\nthe other arnniotes man is a true amniote.\\nThe nourishment of the foetus in the maternal womb\\nis effected, as is well known, by a peculiar organ, richly\\nsupplied with blood at its surface, called the placenta.\\nThis important nutritive organ is a spongy, round disk,\\nfrom six to eight inches in diameter, about an inch thick,\\nand one or two pounds in weight it is separated after\\nthe birth of the child, and issues as the after-birth.\\nThe placenta consists of two very different parts, the\\nfoetal and the maternal part. The latter contains high-\\nly developed sinuses, which retain the blood conveyed\\nto them by the arteries of the mother. On the other\\nhand, the foetal placenta is formed by innumerable\\nbranching tufts or villi, which grow out of the outer sur-\\nface of the allantois, and derive their blood from the um-\\n67", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nbilical vessels. The hollow, blood-filled villi of the\\nfoetal placenta protrude into the sinuses of the maternal\\nplacenta, and the slender membrane between the two\\nis so attenuated that it offers no impediment to the direct\\ninterchange of material through the nutritive blood-\\nstream (by osmosis).\\nIn the older and lower groups of the placentals the\\nentire surface of the chorion is covered with a number\\nof short villi these chorion-villi take the form of\\npit-like depressions of the mucous membrane of the\\nmother, and are easily detached at birth. That hap-\\npens in most of the ungulata (the sow, camel, mare,\\netc.), the cetacea, and the prosimise; these mallo-\\nplacentalia (with a diffuse placenta) have been de-\\nnominated the indeciduata. The same formation is\\npresent in man and the other placentals in the begin-\\nning. It is soon modified, however, as the villi on one\\npart of the chorion are withdrawn while on the other\\npart they grow proportionately stronger, and unite in-\\ntimately with the mucous membrane of the womb. It\\nis in consequence of this intimate blending that a por-\\ntion of the uterus is detached at birth, and carried away\\nwith loss of blood. This detachable membrane the\\ndecidua is a characteristic of the higher placentalia,\\nwhich have, consequently, been grouped under the title\\nof deciduata to that category belong the carnassia,\\nrodentia, simiae, and man. In the carnassia and some\\nof the ungulata (the elephant, for instance) the placenta\\ntakes the form of a girdle, hence they are known as the\\nzonoplacentalia in the rodentia, the insectivora (the\\nmole and the hedge-hog), the apes, and man, it takes\\nthe form of a disk.\\nEven ten years ago the majority of embryologists\\nthought that man was distinguished by certain pecu-\\n68", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT\\nliarities in the form of the placenta namely, by the pos-\\nsession of what is called the decidua reflexa, and by a\\nspecial formation of the umbilical chord which unites\\nthe decidua to the foetus. It was supposed that the\\nrest of the placentals, including the apes, were without\\nthese special embryonic structures. The funiculus\\numbilicalis is a smooth, cylindrical cord, from sixteen\\nto twenty-three inches long, and as thick as the little\\nfinger. It forms the connecting link between the foetus\\nand the maternal placenta, since it conducts the nutri-\\ntive vessels from the body of the foetus to the placenta\\nit comprises, besides, the pedicle of the allantois and\\nthe yelk-sac. The yelk-sac in the human case forms\\nthe greater portion of the germinal vesicle during the\\nthird week of gestation but it shrivels up afterwards\\nso that it was formerly entirely missed in the mature\\nfoetus. Yet it remains all the time in a rudimentary\\ncondition, and may be detected even after birth as the\\nlittle umbilical vesicle. Moreover, even the vesicular\\nstructure of the allantois disappears at an early stage\\nin the human case; with a deflection of the amnion,\\nit gives rise to the pedicle. We cannot enter here into\\na discussion of the complicated anatomical and embry-\\nological relations of these structures. I have described\\nand illustrated them in my Anthropogeny (twenty-third\\nchapter).\\nThe opponents of evolution still appealed to these\\nspecial features of human embryology, which were\\nsupposed to distinguish man from all the other mam-\\nmals, even so late as ten years ago. But in 1890 Emil\\nSelenka proved that the same features are found in the\\nanthropoid apes, especially in the orang (satyr us), while\\nthe lower apes are without them. Thus Huxley s pithe-\\ncometra thesis was substantiated once more The\\n69", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ndifferences between man and the great apes are not so\\ngreat as are those between the manlike apes and the\\nlower monkeys. The supposed evidences against the\\nnear blood-relationship of man and the apes proved,\\non a closer examination of the real circumstances, to\\nbe strong reasons in favor of it.\\nEvery scientist who penetrates with open eyes into\\nthis dark but profoundly interesting labyrinth of our\\nembryonic development, and who is competent to com-\\npare it critically with that of the rest of the mammals,\\nwill find in it a most important aid towards the eluci-\\ndation of the descent of our species. For the various\\nstages of our embryonic development, in the character\\nof palingenetic phenomena of heredity, cast a brilliant\\nlight on the corresponding stages of our ancestral tree,\\nin accordance with the great law of biogeny. But even\\nthe cenogenetic phenomena of adaptation, the formation\\nof the temporary foetal organs the characteristic foetal\\nmembranes, and especially the placenta gives us suf-\\nficiently definite indications of our close genetic relation-\\nship with the primate s.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V\\nTHE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\nOrigin of Man Mythical History of Creation Moses and Linne\\nThe Creation of Permanent Species The Catastrophic The-\\nory Cuvier Transf ormism Goethe Theory of Descent\\nLamarck Theory of Selection Darwin Evolution (Phy-\\nlogeny) Ancestral Trees General Morphology Natural\\nHistory of Creation Systematic Phylogeny Fundamental\\nLaw of Biogeny Anthropogeny Descent of Man from the\\nApe Pithecoid Theory The Fossil Pithecanthropus of Du-\\nbois\\nT^HE youngest of the great branches of the living tree\\nof biology is the science we call biological evolu-\\ntion, or phylogeny. It came into existence much later,\\nand under much more difficult circumstances, than its\\nnatural sister, embryonic evolution or ontogeny. The\\nobject of the latter was to attain a knowledge of the\\nmysterious processes by which the individual organ-\\nism, plant or animal, developed from the egg. Phy-\\nlogeny has to answer the much more obscure and\\ndifficult question What is the origin of the different\\norganic species of plants and animals?\\nOntogeny (embryology and metamorphism) could\\nfollow the empirical method of direct observation in the\\nsolution of its not remote problem it needed but to fol-\\nlow, day by day and hour by hour, the visible changes\\nwhich the foetus experiences during a brief period in\\nthe course of its development from the ovum. Much\\n7i", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmore difficult was the remote problem of phylogeny;\\nfor the slow processes of gradual construction, which\\neffect the rise of new species of animals and plants, go\\non imperceptibly during thousands and even millions\\nof years. Their direct observation is possible only\\nwithin very narrow limits v the vast majority of these\\nhistorical processes can only be known by direct in-\\nference by critical reflection, and by a comparative\\nuse of empirical sciences which belong to very different\\nfields of thought, palaeontology, ontogeny, and mor-\\nphology. To this we must add the immense opposition\\nwhich was everywhere made to biological evolution on\\naccount of the close connection between questions of\\norganic creation and supernatural myths and religious\\ndogmas. For these reasons it can easily be under-\\nstood how it is that the scientific existence of a true the-\\nory of origins was only secured, amid fierce controversy,\\nin the course of the last forty years.\\nEvery serious attempt that was made before the be-\\nginning of the nineteenth century to solve the problem\\nof the origin of species lost its way in the mythological\\nlabyrinth of the supernatural stories of creation. The\\nefforts of a few distinguished thinkers to emancipate\\nthemselves from this tyranny and attain to a natural-\\nistic interpretation proved unavailing. A great vari-\\nety of creation myths arose in connection with their re-\\nligion in all the ancient civilized nations. During the\\nMiddle Ages triumphant Christendom naturally arro-\\ngated to itself the sole right of pronouncing on the ques-\\ntion; and, the Bible being the basis of the structure\\nof the Christian religion, the whole story of creation\\nwas taken from the book of Genesis. Even Carl Linne,\\nthe famous Swedish scientist, started from that basis\\nwhen, in 1735, in his classical Sy sterna Naturae, he\\n72", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\nmade the first attempt at a systematic arrangement,\\nnomenclature, and classification of the innumerable\\nobjects in nature. As the best practical aid in that at-\\ntempt he introduced the well-known double or binary\\nnomenclature to each kind of animals and plants he\\ngave a particular specific name, and added to it the\\nwider-reaching name of the genus. A genus served\\nto unite the nearest related species thus, for instance,\\nLinne grouped under the genus dog {cants), as dif-\\nferent species, the house-dog (cants familiaris), the\\njackal (cants aureus), the wolf (cants lupus) the fox\\n(cants vulpes), etc. This binary nomenclature imme-\\ndiately proved of such great practical assistance that\\nit was universally accepted, and is still always followed\\nin zoological and botanical classification.\\nBut the theoretical dogma which Linne himself con-\\nnected with his practical idea of species was fraught\\nwith the gravest peril to science. The first question\\nwhich forced itself on the mind of the thoughtful sci-\\nentist was the question as to the nature of the concept\\nof species, its contents, and its range. And the creator\\nof the idea answered this fundamental question by a\\nnaive appeal to the dominant Mosaic legend of crea-\\ntion Species tot sunt diver sae, quot diver sas for mas\\nab initio creavit infinitum ens (There are just so many\\ndistinct species as there were distinct types created in\\nthe beginning by the Infinite). This theosophic dog-\\nma cut short all attempt at a natural explanation of\\nthe origin of species. Linne was acquainted only with\\nthe plant and animal worlds that exist to-day he had\\nno suspicion of the much more numerous extinct spe-\\ncies which had peopled the earth with their varying\\nforms in the earlier period of its development.\\nIt was not until the beginning of the nineteenth cen-\\n73", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntury that we were introduced to these fossil animals by\\nCuvier. In his famous work on the fossil bones of the\\nfour-footed vertebrates he gave (1812) the first correct\\ndescription and true interpretation of many of these fos-\\nsil remains. He showed, too, that a series of very dif-\\nferent animal populations have succeeded each other\\nin the various stages of the earth s history. Since Cu-\\nvier held firmly to Linne s idea of the absolute perma-\\nnency of species, he thought their origin could only be\\nexplained by the supposition that a series of great cat-\\naclysms and new creations had marked the history of\\nthe globe; he imagined that all living creatures were\\ndestroyed at the commencement of each of these terres-\\ntrial revolutions, and an entirely new population was\\ncreated at its close. Although this catastrophic the-\\nory of Cuvier s led to the most absurd consequences,\\nand was nothing more than a bald faith in miracles,\\nit obtained almost universal recognition, and reigned\\ntriumphant until the coming of Darwin.\\nIt is easy to understand that these prevalent ideas of\\nthe absolute unchangeability and supernatural crea-\\ntion of organic species could not satisfy the more pene-\\ntrating thinkers. We find several eminent minds al-\\nready, in the second half of the last century, busy with\\nthe attempt to find a natural explanation of the prob-\\nlem of creation. Pre-eminent among them was the\\ngreat German poet and philosopher, Wolfgang Goethe,\\nwho, by his long and assiduous study of morphology,\\nobtained, more than a hundred years ago, a clear in-\\nsight into the intimate connection of all organic forms,\\nand a firm conviction of a common natural origin.\\nIn his famed Metamorphosis of Plants (1790) he derived\\nall the different species of plants from one primitive\\ntype, and all their different organs from one primitive\\n74", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\norgan the leaf. In his vertebral theory of the skull\\nhe endeavored to prove that the skulls of the vertebrates\\nincluding man were all alike made up of certain\\ngroups of bones, arranged in a definite structure, and\\nthat these bones are nothing else than transformed ver-\\ntebrae. It was his penetrating study of comparative\\nosteology that led Goethe to a firm conviction of the\\nunity of the animal organization; he had recognized\\nthat the human skeleton is framed on the same funda-\\nmental type as that of all other vertebrates built\\non a primitive plan that only deviates more or less to\\none side or other in its very constant features, and still\\ndevelops and refashions itself daily/ This remodel-\\nling, or transformation, is brought about, according to\\nGoethe, by the constant interaction of two powerful\\nconstructive forces a centripetal force within the or-\\nganism, the tendency to specification, and a centrif-\\nugal force without, the tendency to variation, or the\\nidea of metamorphosis the former corresponds to\\nwhat we now call heredity, the latter to the modern idea\\nof adaptation. How deeply Goethe had penetrated into\\ntheir character by these philosophic studies of the con-\\nstruction and reconstruction of organic natures, and\\nhow far, therefore, he must be considered the most im-\\nportant precursor of Darwin and Lamarck,* may be\\ngathered from the interesting passages from his works\\nwhich I have collected in the fourth chapter of my\\nNatural History of Creation. These evolutionary ideas\\nof Goethe, however, like analogous ideas of Kant,\\nOwen, Treviranus, and other philosophers of the com-\\nmencement of the century (which we have quoted in\\nthe above work), did not amount to more than certain\\nCf. E. Haeckel, The Systems of Darwin, Goethe, and Lamarck.\\nLecture given at Eisenach in 1882.\\n75", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ngeneral conclusions. They had not that great lever\\nwhich the natural history of creation needed for\\nits firm foundation on a criticism of the dogma of fixed\\nspecies this lever was first supplied by Lamarck.\\nThe first thorough attempt at a scientific establish-\\nment of transformism was v made at the beginning of\\nthe nineteenth century by the great French scientist\\nJean Lamarck, the chief opponent of his colleague,\\nCuvier, at Paris. He had already, in 1802, in his Ob-\\nservations on Living Organisms, expressed the new\\nideas as to the mutability and formation of species,\\nwhich he thoroughly established in 1809 in the two vol-\\numes of his profound work, Philosophie Zoologique. In\\nthis work he first gave expression to the correct idea,\\nin opposition to the prevalent dogma of fixed species,\\nthat the organic species is an artificial abstraction,\\na concept of only relative value, like the wider-ranging\\nconcepts of genus, family, order, and class. He went\\non to affirm that all species are changeable, and have\\narisen from older species in the course of very long\\nperiods of time. The common parent forms from which\\nthey have descended were originally very simple and\\nlowly organisms. The first and oldest of them arose\\nby abiogenesis. While the type is preserved by hered-\\nity in the succession of generations, adaptation, on the\\nother hand, effects a constant modification of the species\\nby change of habits and the exercise of the various or-\\ngans. Even our human organism has arisen in the\\nsame natural manner, by gradual transformation, from\\na group of pithecoid mammals. For all these phenom-\\nena indeed, for all phenomena both in nature and in\\nthe mind Lamarck takes exclusively mechanical,\\nphysical, and chemical activities to be the true efficient\\ncauses. His magnificent Philosophie Zoologique con-\\n76", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\ntains all the elements of a purely monistic system of\\nnature on the basis of evolution. I have fully treated\\nthese achievements of Lamarck in the fourth chapter\\nof my Anthropogeny, and in the fourth chapter of the\\nNatural History of Creation.\\nScience had now to wait until this great effort to give\\na scientific foundation to the theory of evolution should\\nshatter the dominant myth of a specific creation, and\\nopen out the path of natural development. In this\\nrespect Lamarck was not more successful in resisting\\nthe conservative authority of his great opponent, Cuvier,\\nthan was his colleague and sympathizer, Geoffroy St.\\nHilaire, twenty years later. The famous controversies\\nwhich he had with Cuvier in the Parisian Academy in\\n1830 ended with the complete triumph of the latter.\\nI have elsewhere fully described these conflicts, in\\nwhich Goethe took so lively an interest. The great ex-\\npansion which the study of biology experienced at that\\ntime, the abundance of interesting discoveries in com-\\nparative anatomy and physiology, the establishment\\nof the cellular theory, and the progress of ontogeny,\\ngave zoologists and botanists so overwhelming a flood\\nof welcome material to deal with that the difficult and\\nobscure question of the origin of species was easily for-\\ngotten for a time. People rested content with the old\\ndogma of creation. Even when Charles Lyell refuted\\nCuvier s extraordinary catastrophic theory in his\\nPrinciples of Geology, in 1830, and vindicated a nat-\\nural, continuous evolution for the inorganic structure\\nof our planet, his simple principle of continuity found\\nno one to apply it to the inorganic world. The rudi-\\nments of a natural phylogeny which were buried in\\nLamarck s works were as completely forgotten as the\\ngerm of a natural ontogeny which Caspar Friedrich\\n77", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nWolff had given fifty years earlier in his Theory of\\nGeneration. In both cases a full half-century elapsed\\nbefore the great idea of a natural development won\\na fitting recognition. Only when Darwin (in 1859)\\napproached the solution of the problem from a differ-\\nent side altogether, and made a happy use of the\\nrich treasures of empirical knowledge which had\\naccumulated in the mean time, did men begin to\\nthink once more of Lamarck as his great precursor.\\nThe unparalleled success of Charles Darwin is well\\nknown. It shows him to-day, at the close of the cen-\\ntury, to have been, if not the greatest, at least the most\\neffective of its distinguished scientists. No other of\\nthe many great thinkers of our time has achieved so\\nmagnificent, so thorough, and so far-reaching a suc-\\ncess with a single classical work as Darwin did in 1859\\nwith his famous Origin of Species. It is true that the\\nreform of comparative anatomy and physiology by\\nJohannes M\u00c3\u00bcller had inaugurated a new and fertile\\nepoch for the whole of biology, that the establishment\\nof the cellular theory by Schleiden and Schwann, the\\nreform of ontogeny by Baer, and the formulation of\\nthe law of substance by Robert Mayer and Helmholz\\nwere scientific facts of the first importance; but no\\none of them has had so profound an influence on the\\nwhole structure of human knowledge as Darwin s\\ntheory of the natural origin of species. For it at once\\ngave us the solution of the mystic problem of crea-\\ntion, the great question of all questions the prob-\\nlem of the true character and origin of man himself.\\nIf we compare the two great founders of transform-\\nism, we find in Lamarck a preponderant inclination to\\ndeduction, and to forming a completely monistic scheme\\nof nature in Darwin we have a predominant applica-\\n78", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\ntion of induction, and a prudent concern to establish\\nthe different parts of the theory of selection as firmly\\nas possible on a basis of observation and experiment.\\nWhile the French scientist far outran the then limits\\nof empirical knowledge, and rather sketched the pro-\\ngramme of future investigation, the English empiri-\\ncist was mainly preoccupied about securing a unifying\\nprinciple of interpretation for a mass of empirical\\nknowledge which had hitherto accumulated without\\nbeing understood. We can thus understand how it\\nwas that the success of Darwin was just as overwhelm-\\ning as that of Lamarck was evanescent. Darwin,\\nhowever, had not only the signal merit of bringing\\nall the results of the various biological sciences to a\\ncommon focus in the principle of descent, and thus\\ngiving them a harmonious interpretation, but he also\\ndiscovered, in the principle of selection, that direct\\ncause of transformation which Lamarck had missed.\\nIn applying, as a practical breeder, the experience of\\nartificial selection to organisms in a state of nature,\\nand in recognizing in the struggle for life the se-\\nlective principle of natural selection, Darwin created\\nhis momentous theory of selection, which is what\\nwe properly call Darwinism.\\nOne of the most pressing of the many important\\ntasks which Darwin proposed to modern biology was\\nthe reform of the zoological and botanical system.\\nSince the innumerable species of animals and plants\\nwere not created by a supernatural miracle, but evolved\\nby natural processes, their ancestral tree is their nat-\\nural system. The first attempt to frame a system in\\nthis sense was made by myself in 1866, in my General\\nMorphology of Organisms. The first volume of this\\nwork General Anatomy dealt with the mechanic\\n79", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ncal science of the developed forms the second volume\\nGeneral Evolution was occupied with the science\\nof the developing forms. The systematic introduc-\\ntion to the latter formed a genealogical survey of the\\nnatural system of organisms. Until that time the\\nterm evolution had been taken to mean exclusively,\\nboth in zoology and botany, the development of indi-\\nvidual organisms embryology, or metamorphic sci-\\nence. I established the opposite view, that this his-\\ntory of the embryo (ontogeny) must be completed by a\\nsecond, equally valuable, and closely connected branch\\nof thought the history of the race (phylogeny). Both\\nthese branches of evolutionary science are, in my opin-\\nion, in the closest causal connection this arises from\\nthe reciprocal action of the laws of heredity and adap-\\ntation it has a precise and comprehensive expression\\nin my fundamental law of biogeny.\\nAs the new views I had put forward in my General\\nMorphology met with very little notice, and still less\\nacceptance, from my scientific colleagues, in spite of\\ntheir severely scientific setting, I thought I would\\nmake the most important of them accessible to a wider\\ncircle of informed readers by a smaller work, written\\nin a more popular style. This was done in 1868, in\\nThe Natural History of Creation (a series of popular\\nscientific lectures on evolution in general, and the sys-\\ntems of Darwin, Goethe, and Lamarck in particular).\\nIf the success of my General Morphology was far below\\nmy reasonable anticipation, that of The Natural His-\\ntory of Creation went far beyond it. In a period of\\nthirty years nine editions and twelve different transla-\\ntions of it have appeared. In spite of its great defects,\\nthe book has contributed much to the popularization\\nof the main ideas of modern evolution. Still, I could\\n80", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\nonly give the barest outlines in it of my chief object,\\nthe phylogenetic construction of a natural system. I\\nhave, therefore, given the complete proof, which is\\nwanting in the earlier work, of the phylogenetic sys-\\ntem in a subsequent larger work, my Systematic Phytog-\\neny (outlines of a natural system of organisms on the\\nbasis of their specific development). The first volume\\nof it deals with the protists and plants (1894), the second\\nwith the invertebrate animals (1896), the third with the\\nvertebrates (1895). The ancestral tree of both the\\nsmaller and the larger groups is carried on in this\\nwork as far as my knowledge of the three great\\nancestral documents palaeontology, ontogeny, and\\nmorphology qualified me to extend it.\\nI had already, in my General Morphology (at the\\nend of the fifth book), described the close causative\\nconnection which exists, in my opinion, between the\\ntwo branches of organic evolution as one of the most\\nimportant ideas of transforrriism, and I had framed a\\nprecise formula for it in a number of theses on the\\ncausal nexus of biontic and phyletic development\\nOntogenesis is a brief and rapid recapitulation of phy-\\nlogenesis, determined by the physiological functions of\\nheredity (generation) and adaptation (maintenance).\\nDarwin himself had emphasized the great significance\\nof his theory for the elucidation of embryology in 1859,\\nand Fritz M\u00c3\u00bcller had endeavored to prove it as regards\\nthe Crustacea in the able little work, Facts and Argu-\\nments for Darwin (1864). My own task has been to\\nprove the universal application and the fundamental\\nimportance of the biogenetic law in a series of works,\\nespecially in the Biology of the Calcispongiae (1872), and\\nin Studies on the Gastraea Theory (1873 -1 884). The\\ntheory of the homology of the germinal layers and of\\nf 81", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe relations of palingenesis to cenogenesis which I have\\nexposed in them has been confirmed subsequently by\\na number of works of other zoologists. That theory\\nmakes it possible to follow nature s law of unity in the\\ninnumerable variations of animal embryology it gives\\nus for their ancestral history a common derivation from\\na simple primitive stem form.\\nThe far-seeing founder of the theory of descent,\\nLamarck, clearly recognized in 1809 that it was of uni-\\nversal application; that even man himself, the most\\nhighly developed of the mammals, is derived from the\\nsame stem as all the other mammals and that this in\\nits turn belongs to the same older branch of the ances-\\ntral tree as the rest of the vertebrates. He had even\\nindicated the agencies by which it might be possible to\\nexplain man s descent from the apes as the nearest re-\\nlated mammals. Darwin, who was, naturally, of the\\nsame conviction, purposely avoided this least accepta-\\nble consequence of his theory in his chief work in 1859,\\nand put it forward for the first time in his Descent of\\nMan in 1 87 1. In the mean time (1863) Huxley had\\nvery ably discussed this most important consequence\\nof evolution in his famous Place of Man in Nature.\\nWith the aid of comparative anatomy and ontogeny,\\nand the support of the facts of palaeontology, Huxley\\nproved that the descent of man from the ape is a\\nnecessary consequence of Darwinism, and that no other\\nscientific explanation of the origin of the human race\\nis possible. Of the same opinion was Karl Gegenbaur,\\nthe most distinguished representative of comparative\\nanatomy, who lifted his science to a higher level by\\na consistent and ingenious application of the theory of\\ndescent.\\nAs a further consequence of the pithecoid theory\\n82", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\n(the theory of the descent of man from the ape) there\\nnow arose the difficult task of investigating, not only\\nthe nearest related mammal ancestors of man in the\\nTertiary epoch, but also the long series of the older ani-\\nmal ancestors which had lived in earlier periods of the\\nearth s history and been developed in the course of\\ncountless millions of years. I had made a start with\\nthe hypothetical solution of this great historic problem\\nin my General Morphology a further development of\\nit appeared in 1874 in my Anthropogeny (first section,\\nOrigin of the Individual second section, Origin of the\\nRace). The fourth, enlarged, edition of this work\\n(1891) contains that theory of the development of man\\nwhich approaches nearest, in my own opinion, to the\\nstill remote truth, in the light of our present knowledge\\nof the documentary evidence. I was especially pre-\\noccupied in its composition to use the three empirical\\ndocuments palaeontology, ontogeny, and morphol-\\nogy (or comparative anatomy)- as evenly and har-\\nmoniously as possible. It is true that my hypotheses\\nwere in many cases supplemented and corrected in de-\\ntail by later phylogenetic research yet I am convinced\\nthat the ancestral tree of human origin which I have\\nsketched therein is substantially correct. For the his-\\ntorical succession of vertebrate fossils corresponds com-\\npletely with the morphological evolutionary scale which\\nis revealed to us by comparative anatomy and ontogeny.\\nAfter the Silurian fishes come the dipnoi of the Devon-\\nian period the Carboniferous amphibia, the Permian\\nreptilia, and the Mesozoic mammals. Of these, again,\\nthe lowest forms, the monotremes, appear first in the\\nTriassic period, the marsupials in the Jurassic, and\\nthen the oldest placentals in the Cretaceous. Of the\\nplacentals, in turn, the first to appear in the oldest Ter-\\n83", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntiary period (the Eocene) are the lowest primates, the\\nprosimiae, which are followed by the simiae in the Mio-\\ncene. Of the catarrhinae, the cynopitheci precede the\\nanthropomorpha from one branch of the latter, dur-\\ning the Pliocene period, arises the ape-man without\\nspeech (the pithecanthropus alalus) and from him de-\\nscends, finally, speaking man.\\nThe chain of our earlier invertebrate ancestors is\\nmuch more difficult to investigate and much less safe\\nthan this tree of our vertebrate predecessors we have\\nno fossilized relics of their soft, boneless structures, so\\npalaeontology can give us no assistance in this case.\\nThe evidence of comparative anatomy and ontogeny,\\ntherefore, becomes all the more important. Since the\\nhuman embryo passes through the same chordula-stsLge\\nas the germs of all other vertebrates, since it evolves,\\nsimilarly, out of two germinal layers of a gastrula we\\ninfer, in virtue of the biogenetic law, the early existence\\nof corresponding ancestral forms vermalia, gastrae-\\nada, etc. Most important of all is the fact that the\\nhuman embryo, like that of all other animals, arises\\noriginally from a single cell for this stem-cell\\n(cytula) the impregnated egg cell points indubitably\\nto a corresponding unicellular ancestor, a primitive,\\nLaurentian protozoon.\\nFor the purpose of our monistic philosophy, however,\\nit is a matter of comparative indifference how the suc-\\ncession of our animal predecessors may be confirmed\\nin detail. Sufficient for us, as an incontestable his-\\ntorical fact, is the important thesis that man descends\\nimmediately from the ape, and secondarily from a long\\nseries of lower vertebrates. I have laid stress on the\\nlogical proof of this pithecometra-thesis in the sev-\\nenth book of the General Morphology The thesis\\n84", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\nthat man has been evolved from lower vertebrates, and\\nimmediately from the simiae, is a special inference\\nwhich results with absolute necessity from the general\\ninductive law of the theory of descent.\\nFor the definitive proof and establishment of this\\nfundamental pithecometra-thesis the palseontological\\ndiscoveries of the last thirty years are of the greatest\\nimportance; in particular, the astonishing discoveries\\nof a number of extinct mammals of the Tertiary period\\nhave enabled us to draw up clearly in its main outlines\\nthe evolutionary history of this most important class\\nof animals, from the lowest oviparous monotremes up\\nto man. The four chief groups of the placentals, the\\nheterogeneous legions of the carnassia, the rodentia,\\nthe ungulata, and the primates, seem to be separated\\nby profound gulfs, when we confine our attention to\\ntheir representatives of to-day. But these gulfs are\\ncompletely bridged, and the sharp distinctions of the\\nfour legions are entirely lost, when we compare their\\nextinct predecessors of the Tertiary period, and when\\nwe go back into the Eocene twilight of history, in\\nthe oldest part of the Tertiary period at least three\\nmillion years ago. There we find the great sub-\\nclass of the placentals, which to-day comprises more\\nthan two thousand five hundred species, represented\\nby only a small number of little, insignificant pro-\\nplacentals and in these prochoriata the characters\\nof the four divergent legions are so intermingled and\\ntoned down that we cannot in reason do other than\\nconsider them as the precursors of those features. The\\noldest carnassia (the ictopsales), the oldest rodentia (the\\nesthonychales) the oldest ungulata (the condylarthrales)\\nand the oldest primates (the lemuravales) all have the\\nsame fundamental skeletal structure, and the same typ-\\n8S", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nical dentition of the primitive placentals, consisting of\\nforty-four teeth (three incisors, one canine, four pre-\\nmolars, and three molars in each half of the jaw) all\\nare characterized by the small size and the imperfect\\nstructure of the brain (especially of its chief part, the\\ncortex, which does not become a true organ of thought\\nuntil later on in the Miocene and Pliocene representa-\\ntives) they have all short legs and five-toed, flat-soled\\nfeet (plantigrada) In many cases among these oldest\\nplacentals of the Eocene period it was very difficult to\\nsay at first whether they should be classed with the\\ncarnassia, rodentia, ungulata, or primates; so very\\nclosely, even to confusion, do these four groups of the\\nplacentals, which diverge so widely afterwards, ap-\\nproach each other at that time. Their common origin\\nfrom a single ancestral group follows incontestably.\\nThese prochoriata lived in the preceding Cretaceous\\nperiod (more than three million years ago), and were\\nprobably developed in the Jurassic period from a group\\nof insectivorous marsupials (amphiiheria) by the for-\\nmation of a primitive placenta diffusa, a placenta of\\nthe simplest type.\\nBut the most important of all the recent palaeonto-\\nlbgical discoveries which have served to elucidate the\\norigin of the placentals relate to our own stem, the legion\\nof primates. Formerly fossil remains of the primates\\nwere very scarce. Even Cuvier, the great founder of\\npalaeontology, maintained until his last day (1832) that\\nthere were no fossilized primates he had himself, it is\\ntrue, described the skull of an Eocene prosimiae (adapis),\\nbut he had wrongly classed it with the ungulata. How-\\never, during the last twenty years a fair number of well-\\npreserved fossilized skeletons of prosimiae and simiae\\nhave been discovered; in them we find all the chief\\n86", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES\\nintermediate members which complete the connect-\\ning chain of ancestors from the oldest prosimise to\\nman.\\nThe most famous and most interesting of these dis-\\ncoveries is the fossil ape-man of Java, the much-talked-\\nof pithecanthropus erectus, found by a Dutch military\\ndoctor, Eugen Dubois, in 1894. It is in truth the much-\\nsought missing link, supposed to be wanting in the\\nchain of primates, which stretches unbroken from the\\nlowest catarrhinae to the highest- developed man. I\\nhave dealt exhaustively with the significance of this dis-\\ncovery in the paper which I read on August 26, 1898,\\nat the Fourth International Zoological Congress at\\nCambridge.* The palaeontologist, who knows the con-\\nditions of the formation and preservation of fossils, will\\nthink the discovery of the pithecanthropus an unusu-\\nally lucky accident. The apes, being arboreal, seldom\\ncame into the circumstances (unless they happened to\\nfall into the water) which would secure the preserva-\\ntion and petrifaction of their skeleton. Thus, by the\\ndiscovery of this fossil man-monkey of Java the descent\\nof man from the ape has become just as clear and certain\\nfrom the palaeontological side as it was previously from\\nthe evidence of comparative anatomy and ontogeny.\\nWe now have all the principal documents which tell\\nthe history of our race.\\nVide the translation of Dr. Hans Gadow The Last Link.\\n(A. C. Black.)", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI\\nTHE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nFundamental Importance of Psychology Its Definition and Meth-\\nods Divergence of Views Thereon Dualistic and Monistic\\nPsychology Relation to the Law of Substance Confusion\\nof Ideas Psychological Metamorphoses: Kant, Virchow,\\nDu Bois-Reymond Methods of Research of Psychic Science\\nIntrospective Method (Self-Observation) Exact Method (Psy-\\ncho-Physics) Comparative Method (Animal Psychology)\\nPsychological Change of Principles Wundt Folk-Psychol-\\nogy and Ethnography Bastian Ontogenetic Psychology\\nPreyer Phylogenetic Psychology Darwin, Romanes\\nTHE phenomena which are comprised under the title\\nof the life of the soul, or the psychic activity,\\nare, on the one hand, the most important and interest-\\ning, on the other the most intricate and problematical,\\nof all the phenomena we are acquainted with. As\\nthe knowledge of nature, the object of the present\\nphilosophic study, is itself a part of the life of the soul,\\nand as anthropology, and even cosmology, presuppose\\na correct knowledge of the psyche, we may regard\\npsychology, the scientific study of the soul, both as\\nthe foundation and the postulate of all other sciences.\\nFrom another point of view it is itself a part of philoso-\\nphy, or physiology, or anthropology.\\nThe great difficulty of establishing it on a naturalistic\\nbasis arises from the fact that psychology, in turn,\\n88", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\npresupposes a correct acquaintance with the human\\norganism, especially the brain, the chief organ of\\npsychic activity. The great majority of psycholo-\\ngists have little or no acquaintance with these ana-\\ntomical foundations of the soul, and thus it happens\\nthat in no other science do we find such contradictions\\nand untenable notions as to its proper meaning and its\\nessential object as are current in psychology. This\\nconfusion has become more and more palpable during\\nthe last thirty years, in proportion as the immense\\nprogress of anatomy and physiology has increased our\\nknowledge of the structure and the functions of the\\nchief psychic organ.\\nWhat we call the soul is, in my opinion, a natural\\nphenomenon I therefore consider psychology to be a\\nbranch of natural science a section of physiology.\\nConsequently, I must emphatically assert from the\\ncommencement that we have no different methods of\\nresearch for that science than for any of the others;\\nwe have in the first place observation and experiment,\\nin the second place the theory of evolution, and in the\\nthird place metaphysical speculation, which seek to\\npenetrate as far as possible into the cryptic nature of\\nthe phenomena by inductive and deductive reasoning.\\nHowever, with a view to a thorough appreciation of\\nthe question, we must first of all put clearly before the\\nreader the antithesis of the dualistic and the monistic\\ntheories.\\nThe prevailing conception of the psychic activity,\\nwhich we contest, considers soul and body to be two\\ndistinct entities. These two entities can exist inde-\\npendently of each other there is no intrinsic neces-\\nsity for their union. The organized body is a mortal,\\nmaterial nature, chemically composed of living proto-", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nplasm and its compounds (plasma-products). The soul,\\non the other hand, is an immortal, immaterial being,\\na spiritual agent, whose mysterious activity is entirely\\nincomprehensible to us. This trivial conception is,\\nas such, spiritualistic, and its contradictory is, in a\\ncertain sense, materialistic.^ It is, at the same time,\\nsupernatural and transcendental, since it affirms the\\nexistence of forces which can exist and operate without\\na material basis it rests on the assumption that out-\\nside of and beyond nature there is a spiritual, im-\\nmaterial world, of which we have no experience, and\\nof which we can learn nothing by natural means.\\nThis hypothetical spirit world, which is supposed\\nto be^ entirely independent of the material universe,\\nand on the assumption of which the whole artificial\\nstructure of the dualistic system is based, is purely a\\nproduct of poetic imagination the same must be said\\nof the parallel belief in the immortality of the soul,\\nthe scientific impossibility of which we must prove\\nmore fully later on (chap. xi.). If the beliefs which\\nprevail in these credulous circles had a sound founda-\\ntion, the phenomena they relate to could not be subject\\nto the law of substance moreover, this single ex-\\nception to the highest law of the cosmos must have ap-\\npeared very late in the history of the organic world,\\nsince it only concerns the soul of man and of the\\nhigher animals. The dogma of free will, another\\nessential element of the dualistic psychology, is simi-\\nlarly irreconcilable with the universal law of substance.\\nOur own naturalistic conception of the psychic activ-\\nity sees in it a group of vital phenomena, which are de-\\npendent on a definite material substratum, like all other\\nphenomena. We shall give to this material basis of\\nall psychic activity, without which it is inconceivable,\\n90", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nthe provisional name of psychoplasm and for this\\ngood reason that chemical analysis proves it to be a\\nbody of the group we call protoplasmic bodies the al-\\nbuminoid carbon-combinations which are at the root\\nof all vital processes. In the higher animals, which\\nhave a nervous system and sense-organs, neuro-\\nplasm/ the nerve-material, has been differentiated out\\nof psychoplasm. Our conception is, in this sense, ma-\\nterialistic. It is at the same time empirical and nat-\\nuralistic, for our scientific experience has never yet\\ntaught us the existence of forces that can dispense\\nwith a material substratum, or of a spiritual world\\nover and above the realm of nature.\\nLike all other natural phenomena, the psychic proc-\\nesses are subject to the supreme, all-ruling law of sub-\\nstance not even in this province is there a single ex-\\nception to this highest cosmological law (compare chap,\\nxii.). The phenomena of the lowly psychic life of the\\nunicellular protist and the plant, and of the lowest ani-\\nmal forms their irritability, their reflex movements,\\ntheir sensitiveness and instinct of self-preservation\\nare directly determined by physiological action in the\\nprotoplasm of their cells that is, by physical and\\nchemical changes which are partly due to heredity and\\npartly to adaptation. And we must say just the same\\nof the higher psychic activity of the higher animals and\\nman, of the formation of ideas and concepts, of the mar-\\nvellous phenomena of reason and consciousness; for\\nthe latter have been phylogenetically evolved from the\\nformer, and it is merely a higher degree of integration\\nor centralization, of association or combination of func-\\ntions which were formerly isolated, that has elevated\\nthem in this manner.\\nThe first task of every science is the clear definition\\n9 1", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nof the object it has to investigate. In no science, how-\\never, is this preliminary task so difficult as in psychol-\\nogy; and this circumstance is the more remarkable\\nsince logic, the science of defining, is itself a part of\\npsychology. When we compare all that has been said\\nby the most distinguished philosophers and scientists\\nof all ages on the fundamental idea of psychology, we\\nfind ourselves in a perfect chaos of contradictory no-\\ntions. What, really, is the soul What is its re-\\nlation to the mind w What is the inner meaning of\\nconsciousness What is the difference between\\nsensation and sentiment What is instinct\\nWhat is the meaning of free will What is pres-\\nentation What is the difference between intel-\\nlect and reason What is the true nature of emo-\\ntion What is the relation between all these psychic\\nphenomena and the body The answers to these\\nand many other cognate questions are infinitely varied\\nnot only are the views of the most eminent thinkers\\non these questions widely divergent, but even the same\\nscientific authority has often completely changed his\\nviews in the course of his psychological development.\\nIndeed, this psychological metamorphosis of so\\nmany thinkers has contributed not a little to the colos-\\nsal confusion of ideas which prevails in psychology\\nmore than in any other branch of knowledge.\\nThe most interesting example of such an entire\\nchange of objective and subjective psychological opin-\\nions is found in the case of the most influential leader\\nof German philosophy, Immanuel Kant. The young,\\nseverely critical Kant came to the conclusion that the\\nthree great buttresses of mysticism God, freedom,\\nand immortality were untenable in the light of pure\\nreason the older, dogmatic Kant found that these\\n92", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nthree great hallucinations were postulates of prac-\\ntical reason/ and were, as such, indispensable. The\\nmore the distinguished modern school of Neokant-\\nians urges a return to Kant as the only possible\\nsalvation from the frightful jumble of modern meta-\\nphysics, the more clearly do we perceive the undeniable\\nand fatal contradiction between the fundamental opin-\\nions of the young and the older Kant. We shall re-\\nturn to this point later on.\\nOther interesting examples of this change of views\\nare found in two of the most famous living scientists,\\nR. Virchow and E. du Bois-Reymond the metamor-\\nphoses of their fundamental views on psychology can-\\nnot be overlooked, as both these Berlin biologists have\\nplayed a most important part at Germany s greatest\\nuniversity for more than forty years, and have, there-\\nfore, directly and indirectly, had a most profound in-\\nfluence on the modern mind. Rudolph Virchow, the\\neminent founder of cellular pathology, was a pure mon-\\nist in the best days of his scientific activity, about the\\nmiddle of the century; he passed at that time as one\\nof the most distinguished representatives of the newly\\nawakened materialism, which appeared in 1855, espe-\\ncially through two famous works, almost contempo-\\nraneous in appearance Ludwig B\u00c3\u00bcchner \\\\s Matter and\\nForce and Carl Vogt s Superstition and Science. Vir-\\nchow published his general biological views on the vital\\nprocesses in man which he takes to be purely me-\\nchanical natural phenomena in a series of distin-\\nguished papers in the first volumes of the Archiv f\u00c3\u00bcr\\npathologische Anatomie, which he founded. The most\\nimportant of these articles, and the one in which he\\nmost clearly expresses his monistic views of that\\nperiod, is that on The Tendencies Towards Unity\\n93", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nin Scientific Medicine (1849). It was certainly not\\nwithout careful thought, and a conviction of its philo-\\nsophic value, that Virchow put this medical confes-\\nsion of faith at the head of his Collected Essays on\\nScientific Medicine in 1856. He defended in it, clearly\\nand definitely, the fundamental principles of monism,\\nwhich I am presenting here with a view to the solu-\\ntion of the world-problem he vindicated the exclusive\\ntitle of empirical science, of which the only reliable\\nsources are sense and brain activity he vigorously\\nattacked anthropological dualism, the alleged revela-\\ntion, and the transcendental philosophy, with their\\ntwo methods faith and anthropomorphism. Above\\nall, he emphasized the monistic character of anthro-\\npology, the inseparable connection of spirit and body,\\nof force and matter. I am convinced, he exclaims,\\nat the end of his preface, that I shall never find\\nmyself compelled to deny the thesis of the unity of\\nhuman nature. Unhappily, this conviction proved\\nto be a grave error. Twenty- eight years afterwards\\nVirchow represented the diametrically opposite view\\nit is to be found in the famous speech on The Liberty\\nof Science in Modern States, which he delivered at the\\nScientific Congress at Munich in 1877, and which con-\\ntains attacks that I have repelled in my Free Science\\nand Free Teaching (1878).\\nIn Emil du Bois-Reymond we find similar contra-\\ndictions with regard to the most important and funda-\\nmental theses of philosophy. The more completely\\nthe distinguished orator of the Berlin Academy had\\ndefended the main principles of the monistic philoso-\\nphy, the more he had contributed to the refutation of\\nvitalism and the transcendental view of life, so much\\nthe louder was the triumphant cry of our opponents\\n94", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nwhen in 1872, in his famous Ignorabimus-Speech, he\\nspoke of consciousness as an insoluble problem, and\\nopposed it to the other functions of the brain as a su-\\npernatural phenomenon. I return to the point in the\\ntenth chapter.\\nThe peculiar character of many of the psychic phe-\\nnomena, especially of consciousness, necessitates cer-\\ntain modifications of our ordinary scientific methods.\\nWe have, for instance, to associate with the customary\\nobjective, external observation, the introspective method,\\nthe subjective, internal observation which scrutinizes\\nour own personality in the mirror of consciousness.\\nThe majority of psychologists have started from this\\ncertainty of the ego Cogito ergo sum, as Des-\\ncartes said I think, therefore I am. Let us first cast\\na glance at this way of inquiry, and then deal with the\\nsecond, complementary, method.\\nBy far the greater part of the theories of the soul which\\nhave been put forward during the last two thousand\\nyears or more are based on introspective inquiry that\\nis, on self-observation/ and on the conclusions which\\nwe draw from the association and criticism of these\\nsubjective experiences. Introspection is the only pos-\\nsible method of inquiry for an important section of\\npsychology, especially for the study of consciousness.\\nHence this cerebral function occupies a special posi-\\ntion, and has been a more prolific source of philosophic\\nerror than any of the others (cf. chap. x.). It is, how-\\never, most unsatisfactory, and it leads to entirely false\\nor incomplete notions, to take this self-observation of\\nthe mind to be the chief, or, especially, to be the only\\nsource of mental science, as has happened in the case\\nof many and distinguished philosophers. A great\\nnumber of the principal psychic phenomena, particu-\\n95", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nlarly the activity of the senses and speech, can only be\\nstudied in the same way as every other vital function\\nof the organism that is, firstly, by a thorough anatom-\\nical study of their organs, and, secondly, by an exact\\nphysiological analysis of the functions which depend\\non them. In order, however, to complete this external\\nstudy of the mental life, and to supplement the results\\nof internal observation, one needs a thorough knowl-\\nedge of human anatomy, histology, ontogeny, and\\nphysiology. Most of our so-called psychologists\\nhave little or no knowledge of these indispensable foun-\\ndations of anthropology; they are, therefore, incom-\\npetent to pronounce on the character even of their own\\nsoul. It must be remembered, too, that the distin-\\nguished personality of one of these psychologists usu-\\nally offers a specimen of an educated mind of the high-\\nest civilized races it is the last link of a long ancestral\\nchain, and the innumerable older and inferior links are\\nindispensable for its proper understanding. Hence it\\nis that most of the psychological literature of the day is\\nso much waste paper. The introspective method is cer-\\ntainly extremely valuable and indispensable; still it\\nneeds the constant co-operation and assistance of the\\nother methods.\\nIn proportion as the various branches of the human\\ntree of knowledge have developed during the century,\\nand the methods of the different sciences have been\\nperfected, the desire has grown to make them exact\\nthat is, to make the study of phenomena as purely em-\\npirical as possible, and to formulate the laws that result\\nas clearly as the circumstances permit if possible,\\nmathematically. The latter is, however, only feasible\\nin a small province of human knowledge, especially in\\nthose sciences in which there is question of measurable\\n9 6", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nquantities in mathematics, in the first place, and to a\\ngreater or less extent in astronomy, mechanics, and a\\ngreat part of physics and chemistry. Hence these\\nstudies are called exact sciences in the narrower\\nsense. It is, however, productive only of error to call\\nall the physical sciences exact, and oppose them to the\\nhistorical, mental, and moral sciences. The greater\\npart of physical science can no more be treated as an\\nexact science than history can; this is especially true\\nof biology and of its subsidiary branch, psychology.\\nAs psychology is a part of physiology, it must, as a\\ngeneral rule, follow the chief methods of that science.\\nIt must establish the facts of psychic activity by em-\\npirical methods as much as possible, by observation\\nand experiment, and it must then gather the laws of\\nthe mind by inductive and deductive inferences from\\nits observations, and formulate them with the utmost\\ndistinctness. But, for obvious reasons, it is rarely pos-\\nsible to formulate them mathematically. Such a pro-\\ncedure is only profitable in one section of the physiology\\nof the senses it is not practicable in the greater part\\nof cerebral physiology.\\nOne small section of physiology, which seems amen-\\nable to the exact method of investigation, has been\\ncarefully studied for the last twenty years and raised\\nto the position of a separate science under the title of\\npsycho-physics. Its founders, the physiologists Theo-\\ndor Fechner and Ernst Heinrich Weber, first of all close-\\nly investigated the dependence of sensations on the ex-\\nternal stimuli that act on the organs of sense, and par-\\nticularly the quantitative relation between the strength\\nof the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation. They\\nfound that a certain minimum strength of stimulus is\\nrequisite for the excitement of a sensation, and that a\\ng 97", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ngiven stimulus must be varied to a definite amount\\nbefore there is any perceptible change in the sensation.\\nFor the highest sensations (of sight, hearing, and press-\\nure) the law holds good that their variations are pro-\\nportionate to the changes in the strength of the stimulus.\\nFrom this empirical law .of Weber Fechner inferred,\\nby mathematical operations, his fundamental law of\\npsycho-physics, according to which the intensity of\\na sensation increases in arithmetical progression, the\\nstrength of the stimulus in geometrical progression.\\nHowever, Fechner s law and other psycho-physical laws\\nare frequently contested, and their exactness is\\ncalled into question. In any case modern psycho-\\nphysics has fallen far short of the great hopes with\\nwhich it was greeted twenty years ago the field of its\\napplicability is extremely limited. One important re-\\nsult of its work is that it has proved the application of\\nphysical laws in one, if only a small, branch of the life\\nof the soul an application which was long ago pos-\\ntulated on principle by the materialist psychology for\\nthe whole province of mental life. In this, as in many\\nother branches of physiology, the exact method has\\nproved inadequate and of little service. It is the ideal\\nto aim at everywhere, but it is unattainable in most\\ncases. Much more profitable are the comparative and\\ngenetic methods.\\nThe striking resemblance of man s psychic activity\\nto that of the higher animals especially our nearest\\nrelatives among the mammals is a familiar fact.\\nMost uncivilized races still make no material distinc-\\ntion between the two sets of mental processes, as the\\nwell-known animal fables, the old legends, and the\\nidea of the transmigration of souls prove. Even most\\nof the philosophers of classical antiquity shared the", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nsame conviction, and discovered no essential qualita-\\ntive difference, but merely a quantitative one, between\\nthe soul of man and that of the brute. Plato him-\\nself, who was the first to draw a fundamental distinc-\\ntion between soul and body, made one and the same\\nsoul (or idea pass through a number of animal and\\nhuman bodies in his theory of metempsychosis. It was\\nChristianity, intimately connecting faith in immortal-\\nity with faith in God, that emphasized the essential\\ndifference of the immortal soul of man from the mortal\\nsoul of the brute. In the dualistic philosophy the idea\\nprevailed principally through the influence of Des-\\ncartes (1643) he contended that man alone had a true\\nsoul, and, consequently, sensation and free will, and\\nthat the animals were mere automata, or machines,\\nwithout will or sensibility. Ever since the majority of\\npsychologists including even Kant have entirely\\nneglected the mental life of the brute, and restricted\\npsychological research to man: human psychology,\\nmainly introspective, dispensed with the fruitful com-\\nparative method, and so remained at that lower point\\nof view which human morphology took before Cuvier\\nraised it to the position of a philosophic science by\\nthe foundation of comparative anatomy.\\nScientific interest in the psychic activity of the brute\\nwas revived in the second half of the last century, in\\nconnection with the advance of systematic zoology and\\nphysiology. A strong impulse was given to it by the\\nwork of Reimarus General observations on the in-\\nstincts of animals (Hamburg, 1760). At the same\\ntime a deeper scientific investigation had been facili-\\ntated by the thorough reform of physiology by Jo-\\nhannes M\u00c3\u00bcller. This distinguished biologist, having\\na comprehensive knowledge of the whole field of or-\\n99\\nLofC.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nganic nature, of morphology, and of physiology, in-\\ntroduced the exact methods of observation and ex-\\nperiment into the whole province of physiology, and,\\nwith consummate skill, combined them with the com-\\nparative methods. He applied them, not only to men-\\ntal life in the broader sense (to speech, senses, and brain-\\naction), but to all the other phenomena of life. The\\nsixth book of his Manual of Human Physiology treats\\nspecially of the life of the soul, and contains eighty\\npages of important psychological observations.\\nDuring the last forty years a great number of works\\non comparative animal psychology have appeared,\\nprincipally occasioned by the great impulse which\\nDarwin gave in 1859 by his work on The Origin of\\nSpecies, and by the application of the idea of evolution\\nto the province of psychology. The more impotant\\nof these works we owe to Romanes and Sir J. Lubbock,\\nin England to W. Wundt, L. B\u00c3\u00bcchner, G. Schneider,\\nFritz Schultze, and Karl Groos, in Germany to Alfred\\nEspinas and E. Jourdan, in France and to Tito Vig-\\nnoli, in Italy.\\nIn Germany, Wilhelm Wundt, of Leipzig, is consid-\\nered to be the ablest living psychologist he has the in-\\nestimable advantage over most other philosophers of a\\nthorough zoological, anatomical, and physiological ed-\\nucation. Formerly assistant and pupil of Helmholz,\\nWundt had early accustomed himself to follow the ap-\\nplication of the laws of physics and chemistry through\\nthe whole field of physiology, and, consequently, in\\nthe sense of Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller, in psychology, as a sub-\\nsection of the latter. Starting from this point of view,\\nWundt published his valuable Lectures on human\\nand animal psychology in 1863. He proved, as he\\nhimself tells us in the preface, that the theatre of the", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nmost important psychic processes is in the unconscious\\nsoul/ and he affords us a view of the mechanism\\nwhich, in the unconscious background of the soul,\\nmanipulates the impressions which arise from the ex-\\nternal stimuli. What seems to me, however, of spe-\\ncial importance and value in Wundt s work is that he\\nextends the law of the persistence of force for the\\nfirst time to the psychic world, and makes use of a\\nseries of facts of electro-physiology by way of demon-\\nstration.\\nThirty years afterwards (1892) Wundt published a\\nsecond, much abridged and entirely modified, edition\\nof his work. The important principles of the first edi-\\ntion are entirely abandoned in the second, and the mon-\\nistic is exchanged for a purely dualistic stand-point.\\nWundt himself says in the preface to the second edition\\nthat he has emancipated himself from the fundamental\\nerrors of the first, and that he learned many years\\nago to consider the work a sin of his youth it weighed\\non him as a kind of crime, from which he longed to free\\nhimself as soon as possible. In fact, the most impor-\\ntant systems of psychology are completely opposed to\\neach other in the two editions of Wundt s famous Ob-\\nservations. In the first edition he is purely monistic and\\nmaterialistic, in the second edition purely dualistic\\nand spiritualistic. In the one psychology is treated\\nas a physical science, on the same laws as the whole of\\nphysiology, of which it is only a part thirty years af-\\nterwards he finds psychology to be a spiritual science,\\nwith principles and objects entirely different from those\\nof physical science. This conversion is most clearly\\nexpressed in his principle of psycho-physical parallel-\\nism, according to which every psychic event has a\\ncorresponding physical change but the two are com-\\n101", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\npletely independent, and are not in any natural causal\\nconnection. This complete dualism of body and soul,\\nof nature and mind, naturally gave the liveliest satis-\\nfaction to the prevailing school-philosophy, and was\\nacclaimed by it as an important advance, especially\\nseeing that it came from a -distinguished scientist who\\nhad previously adhered to the opposite system of mon-\\nism. As I myself continue, after more than forty years\\nstudy, in this narrow position, and have not been\\nable to free myself from it in spite of all my efforts, I\\nmust naturally consider the youthful sin of the\\nyoung physiologist Wundt to be a correct knowledge\\nof nature, and energetically defend it against the an-\\ntagonistic view of the old philosopher Wundt.\\nThis entire change of philosophical principles, which\\nwe find in Wundt, as we found it in Kant, Virchow,\\nDu Bois Reymond, Karl Ernst Baer, and others, is\\nvery interesting. In their youth these able and tal-\\nented scientists embrace the whole field of biological\\nresearch in a broad survey, and make strenuous efforts\\nto find a unifying, natural basis for their knowledge\\nin their later years they have found that this is not com-\\npletely attainable, and so they entirely abandon the\\nidea. In extenuation of these psychological metamor-\\nphoses they can, naturally, plead that in their youth\\nthey overlooked the difficulties of the great task, and\\nmisconceived the true goal with the maturer judgment\\nof age and the accumulation of experience they were\\nconvinced of their errors, and discovered the true path\\nto the source of truth. On the other hand, it is possible\\nto think that great scientists approach their task with\\nless prejudice and more energy in their earlier years\\nthat their vision is clearer and their judgment purer;\\nthe experiences of later years sometimes have the effect,", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nnot of enriching, but of disturbing, the mind, and with\\nold age there comes a gradual decay of the brain, just\\nas happens in all other organs. In any case, this\\nchange of views is in itself an instructive psycho-\\nlogical fact because, like many other forms of\\nchange of opinion, it shows that the highest psychic\\nfunctions are subject to profound individual changes\\nin the course of life, like all the other vital proc-\\nesses.\\nFor the profitable construction of comparative psy-\\nchology it is extremely important not to confine the crit-\\nical comparison to man and the brute in general, but\\nto put side by side the innumerable gradations of their\\nmental activity. Only thus can we attain a clear knowl-\\nedge of the long scale of psychic development which\\nruns unbroken from the lowest, unicellular forms of\\nlife up to the mammals, and to man at their head. But\\neven within the limits of our own race such gradations\\nare very noticeable, and the ramifications of the psy-\\nchic ancestral tree are very numerous. The psychic\\ndifference between the crudest savage of the lowest\\ngrade and the most perfect specimen of the highest civ-\\nilization is colossal much greater than is commonly\\nsupposed. By the due appreciation of this fact, espe-\\ncially in the latter half of the century, the Anthropol-\\nogy of the uncivilized races (Waitz) has received a\\nstrong support, and comparative ethnography has come\\nto be considered extremely important for psychological\\npurposes. Unfortunately, the enormous quantity of\\nraw material of this science has not yet been treated in\\na satisfactory critical manner. What confused and\\nmystic ideas still prevail in this department may be\\nseen, for instance, in the V\u00c3\u00b6lkergedanke of the famous\\ntraveller, Adolf Bastian, who, though a prolific writer,\\n103", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmerely turns out a hopeless mass of uncritical compila-\\ntion and confused speculation.\\nThe most neglected of all psychological methods,\\neven up to the present day, is the evolution of the soul\\nyet this little-frequented path is precisely the one that\\nleads us most quickly and securely through the gloomy\\nprimeval forest of psychological prejudices, dogmas,\\nand errors, to a clear insight into many of the chief\\npsychic problems. As I did in the other branch of or-\\nganic evolution, I again put before the reader the two\\ngreat branches of the science which I differentiated in\\n1866 ontogeny and phylogeny. The ontogeny, or\\nembryonic development, of the soul, individual or biontic\\npsychogeny, investigates the gradual and hierarchic\\ndevelopment of the soul in the individual, and seeks to\\nlearn the laws by which it is controlled. For a great\\npart of the life of the mind a good deal has been done\\nin this direction for centuries rational pedagogy must\\nhave set itself the task at an early date of the theoret-\\nical study of the gradual development and formative\\ncapacity of the young mind that was committed to it\\nfor education and formation. Most pedagogues, how-\\never, were idealistic or dualistic philosophers, and so\\nthey went to work with all the prejudices of the spir-\\nitualistic psychology. It is only in the last few decades\\nthat this dogmatic tendency has been largely super-\\nseded even in the school by scientific methods we now\\nfind a greater concern to apply the chief laws of evolu-\\ntion even in the discussion of the soul of the child. The\\nraw material of the child s soul is already qualitatively\\ndetermined by heredity from parents and ancestors;\\neducation has the noble task of bringing it to a perfect\\nmaturity by intellectual instruction and moral training\\nthat is, bv adaptation. Wilhelm Preyer was the first\\n104", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\nto lay the foundation of our knowledge of the early\\npsychic development in his interesting work on The\\nMind of the Child. Much is still to be done in the\\nstudy of the later stages and metamorphoses of the in-\\ndividual soul, and once more the correct, critical ap-\\nplication of the biogenetic law is proving a guiding star\\nto the scientific mind.\\nA new and fertile epoch of higher development\\ndawned for psychology and all other biological sciences\\nwhen Charles Darwin applied the principles of evolu-\\ntion to them forty years ago. The seventh chapter of\\nhis epoch-making work on The Origin of Species is\\ndevoted to instinct. It contains the valuable proof that\\nthe instincts of animals are subject, like all other vital\\nprocesses, to the general laws of historic development.\\nThe special instincts of particular species were formed\\nby adaptation, and the. modifications thus acquired\\nwere handed on to posterity by heredity in their for-\\nmation and preservation natural selection plays the\\nsame part as in the transformation of every other physi-\\nological function. Darwin afterwards developed this\\nfundamental thought in a number of works, showing\\nthat the same laws of mental evolution hold good\\nthroughout the entire organic world, not less in man\\nthan in the brute, and even in the plant. Hence the\\nunity of the organic world, which is revealed by the\\ncommon origin of its members, applies also to the entire\\nprovince of psychic life, from the simplest unicellular\\norganism up to man.\\nTo George Romanes we owe the further development\\nof Darwin s psychology and its special application to\\nthe different sections of psychic activity. Unfortunate-\\nly, his premature decease prevented the completion of\\nthe great work which was to reconstruct every section\\ni\u00c2\u00b05", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nof comparative psychology on the lines of monistic evo-\\nlution. The two volumes of this work which were com-\\npleted are among the most valuable productions of\\npsychological literature. For, conformably to the prin-\\nciples of our modern monistic research, his first care\\nwas to collect and arrange all the important facts which\\nhave been empirically established in the field of com-\\nparative psychology in the course of centuries in the\\nsecond place, these facts are tested with an objective\\ncriticism, and systematically distributed finally, such\\nrational conclusions are drawn from them on the chief\\ngeneral questions of psychology as are in harmony\\nwith the fundamental principles of modern monism.\\nThe first volume of Romanes s work bears the title of\\nMental Evolution in the Animal World it presents, in\\nnatural connection, the entire length of the chain of\\npsychic evolution in the animal world, from the simplest\\nsensations and instincts of the lowest animals to the\\nelaborate phenomena of consciousness and reason in\\nthe highest. It contains also a number of extracts\\nfrom a manuscript which Darwin left on instinct,\\nand a complete collection of all that he wrote in the\\nprovince of psychology.\\nThe second and more important volume of Romanes s\\nwork treats of Mental evolution in man and the origin\\nof human faculties. The distinguished psychologist\\ngives a convincing proof in it that the psychological\\nbarrier between man and the brute has been overcome.\\nMan s power of conceptual thought and of abstraction\\nhas been gradually evolved from the non-conceptual\\nstages of thought and ideation in the nearest related\\nmammals. Man s highest mental powers reason,\\nspeech, and conscience have arisen from the lower\\nstages of the same faculties in our primate ancestors\\n1 06", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "THE NATURE OF THE SOUL\\n(the simias and prosimiae) Man has no single mental\\nfaculty which is his exclusive prerogative. His whole\\npsychic life differs from that of the nearest related mam-\\nmals only in degree, and not in kind quantitatively,\\nnot qualitatively.\\nI recommend those of my readers who are interested\\nin these momentous questions of psychology to study\\nthe profound work of Romanes. I am completely at\\none with him and Darwin in almost all their views and\\nconvictions. Wherever an apparent discrepancy is\\nfound between these authors and my earlier produc-\\ntions, it is either a case of imperfect expression on my\\npart or an unimportant difference in application of\\nprinciple. For the rest, it is characteristic of this\\nscience of ideas that the most eminent philosophers\\nhold entirely antagonistic views on its fundamental\\nnotions.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII\\nPSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nPsychological Unity of Organic Nature Material Basis of the\\nSoul Psychoplasm Scale of Sensation Scale of Movement\\nScale of Reflex Action Simple and Compound Reflex Ac-\\ntion Reflex Action and Consciousness Scale of Perception\\nUnconscious and Conscious Perception Scale of Memory\\nUnconscious and Conscious Memory Association of Per-\\nceptions Instinct Primary and Secondary Instincts Scale\\nof Reason Language Emotion and Passion The Will\\nFreedom of the Will\\nTHE great progress which psychology has made, with\\nthe assistance of evolution, in the latter half of\\nthe century culminates in the recognition of the psy-\\nchological unity of the organic world. Comparative psy-\\nchology, in co-operation with the ontogeny and phy-\\nlogeny of the psyche, has enforced the conviction that\\norganic life in all its stages, from the simplest unicel-\\nlular protozoon up to man, springs from the same ele-\\nmentary forces of nature, from the physiological func-\\ntions of sensation and movement. The future task of\\nscientific psychology, therefore, is not, as it once was,\\nthe exclusively subjective and introspective analysis\\nof the highly developed mind of a philosopher, but the\\nobjective, comparative study of the long gradation by\\nwhich man has slowly arisen through a vast series of\\nlower animal conditions. This great task of separat-\\n108", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\ning the different steps in the psychological ladder, and\\nproving their unbroken phylogenetic connection, has\\nonly been seriously attempted during the last ten years,\\nespecially in the splendid work of Romanes. We must\\nconfine ourselves here to a brief discussion of a few of\\nthe general questions which that gradation has sug-\\ngested.\\nAll the phenomena of the psychic life are, without\\nexception, bound up with certain material changes in\\nthe living substance of the body, the protoplasm. We\\nhave given to that part of the protoplasm which seems\\nto be the indispensable substratum of psychic life the\\nname of psychoplasm (the soul-substance, in the\\nmonistic sense) in other words, we do not attribute\\nany peculiar essence to it, but we consider the psyche\\nto be merely a collective idea of all the psychic functions\\nof protoplasm. In this sense the soul is merely a\\nphysiological abstraction like assimilation or gene-\\nration. In man and the higher animals, in accordance\\nwith the division of labor of the organs and tissues, the\\npsychoplasm is a differentiated part of the nervous sys-\\ntem, the neuroplasm of the ganglionic cells and their\\nfibres. In the lower animals, however, which have no\\nspecial nerves and organs of sense, and in the plants,\\nthe psychoplasm has not yef reached an independent\\ndifferentiation. Finally, in the unicellular protists,\\nthe psychoplasm is identified either with the whole of\\nthe living protoplasm of the simple cell or with a por-\\ntion of it. In all cases, in the lowest as well as the\\nhighest stages of the psychological hierarchy, a cer-\\ntain chemical composition and a certain physical ac-\\ntivity of the psychoplasm are indispensable before the\\nsoul can function or act. That is equally true of\\nthe elementary psychic function of the plasmatic sen-\\n109", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nsation and movement of the protozoa, and of the com-\\nplex functions of the sense-organs and the brain in the\\nhigher animals and man. The activity of the psycho-\\nplasm, which we call the soul, is always connected\\nwith metabolism.\\nAll living organisms, without exception, are sensi-\\ntive they are influenced by the condition of their en-\\nvironment, and react thereon by certain modifications\\nin their own structure. Light and heat, gravity and\\nelectricity, mechanical processes and chemical action\\nin the environment, act as stimuli on the sensitive psy-\\nchoplasm, and effect changes in its molecular compo-\\nsition. We may distinguish the following five chief\\nstages of this sensibility\\nI. At the lowest stage of organization the whole\\npsychoplasm, as such, is sensitive, and reacts on the\\nstimuli from without that is the case with the lowest\\nprotists, with many plants, and with some of the most\\nrudimentary animals.\\nII. At the second stage very simple and undis-\\ncriminating sense-organs begin to appear on the sur-\\nface of the organism, in the form of protoplasmic fila-\\nments and pigment spots, the forerunners of the nerves\\nof touch and the eyes these are found in some of the\\nhigher protists and in many of the lower animals and\\nplants.\\nIII. At the third stage specific organs of sense, each\\nwith a peculiar adaptation, have arisen by differentia-\\ntion out of these rudimentary processes there are the\\nchemical instruments of smell and taste, and the phys-\\nical organs of touch, temperature, hearing, and sight.\\nThe specific energy of these sense-organs is not an\\noriginal inherent property of theirs, but has been gain-\\ned by functional adaptation and progressive heredity.\\nno", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nIV. The fourth stage is characterized by the cen-\\ntralization or integration of the nervous system, and,\\nconsequently, of sensation by the association of the\\npreviously isolated or localized sensations presentations\\narise, though they still remain unconscious. That\\nis the condition of many both of the lower and the\\nhigher animals.\\nV. Finally, at the fifth stage, the highest psychic\\nfunction, conscious perception, is developed by the mir-\\nroring of the sensations in a central part of the nervous\\nsystem, as we find in man and the higher vertebrates,\\nand probably in some of the higher invertebrates, not-\\nably the articulata.\\nAll living organisms without exception have the\\nfaculty of spontaneous movement, in contradistinction\\nto the rigidity and inertia of unorganized substances\\n(e.g., crystals) in other words, certain changes of place\\nof the particles occur in the living psychoplasm from\\ninternal causes, which have their source in its own\\nchemical composition. These active vital movements\\nare partly discovered by direct observation and partly\\nonly known indirectly, by inference from their effects.\\nWe may distinguish five stages of them.\\nI. At the lowest stage of organic life, in the chro-\\nmacea, and many protophyta and lower metaphyta,\\nwe perceive only those movements of growth which are\\ncommon to all organisms. They are usually so slow\\nthat they cannot be directly observed they have to be\\ninferred from their results from the change in size and\\nform of the growing organism.\\nII. Many protists, particularly unicellular algse of\\nthe groups of diatomacea and desmidiacea, accomplish\\na kind of creeping or swimming motion by secretion, by\\nejecting a slimy substance at one side.\\nin", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nIII. Other organisms which float in water for in-\\nstance, many of the radiolaria, siphonophora, kteno-\\nphora, and others ascend and descend by altering\\ntheir specific gravity, sometimes by osmosis, sometimes\\nby the separation or squeezing-out of air.\\nIV. Many plants, especially the sensitive plants\\n(mimosa) and other papilionacea, effect movements of\\ntheir leaves or other organs by change of pressure\\nthat is, they alter the strain of the protoplasm, and,\\nconsequently, its pressure on the enclosing elastic\\nwalls of the cells.\\nV. The most important of all organic movements\\nare the phenomena of contraction i.e., changes of form\\nat the surface of the organism, which are dependent on\\na twofold displacement of their elements they always\\ninvolve two different conditions or phases of motion\\ncontraction and expansion. Four different forms of\\nthis plasmatic contraction may be enumerated\\n(a) Amoeboid movement (in rhizopods, blood-cells,\\npigment-cells, etc.).\\n(b) A similar flow of protoplasm within enclosed\\ncells.\\n(c) Vibratory motion (ciliary movements) in infu-\\nsoria, spermatozoa, ciliated epithelial cells.\\n(d) Muscular movement (in most animals).\\nThe elementary psychic activity that arises from the\\ncombination of sensation and movement is called reflex\\n(in the widest sense), reflective function, or reflex action.\\nThe movement no matter what kind it is seems in\\nthis case to be the immediate result of the stimulus\\nwhich evoked the sensation; it has, on that account,\\nbeen called stimulated motion in its simplest form (in\\nthe protists). All living protoplasm has this feature\\nof irritability. Any physical or chemical change in", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nthe environment may, in certain circumstances, act as\\na stimulus on the psychoplasm, and elicit or release\\na movement. We shall see later on how this impor-\\ntant physical concept of releasing directly connects\\nthe simplest organic reflex actions with similar me-\\nchanical phenomena of movement in the inorganic\\nworld (for instance, in the explosion of powder by a\\nspark, or of dynamite by a blow). We may distinguish\\nthe following seven stages in the scale of reflex action\\nI. At the lowest stage of organization, in the lowest\\nprotists, the stimuli of the outer world (heat, light,\\nelectricity, etc.) cause in the indifferent protoplasm\\nonly those indispensable movements of growth and\\nnutrition which are common to all organisms, and are\\nabsolutely necessary for their preservation. That is\\nalso the case in most of the plants.\\nII. In the case of many freely moving protists (es-\\npecially the amoeba, the heliozoon, and the rhizopod)\\nthe stimuli from without produce on every spot of the\\nunprotected surface of the unicellular organism exter-\\nnal movements which take the form of changes of shape,\\nand sometimes changes of place (amoeboid movement,\\npseudopod formation, the extension and withdrawal of\\nwhat look like feet) these indefinite, variable processes\\nof the protoplasm are not yet permanent organs. In\\nthe same way, general organic irritability takes the\\nform of indeterminate reflex action in the sensitive\\nplants and the lowest metazoa in many multicellular\\norganisms the stimuli may be conducted from one cell\\nto another, as all the cells are connected by fine fibres.\\nIII. Many protists, especially the more highly de-\\nveloped protozoa, produce on their unicellular body\\ntwo little organs of the simplest character an organ\\nof touch and an organ of movement. Both these in-\\nh 113", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nstrum ents are direct external projections of protoplasm\\nthe stimulus, which alights on the first, is immediately\\nconducted to the other by the psychoplasm of the uni-\\ncellular body, and causes it to contract. This phenom-\\nenon is particularly easy to observe, and even produce\\nexperimentally, in many of the stationary infusoria\\n(for instance, the poteriodendron among the flagellata,\\nand the vorticella among the ciliata). The faintest\\nstimulus that touches the extremely sensitive hairs,\\nor cilia, at the free end of the cells, immediately causes\\na contraction of a thread-like stalk at the other, fixed\\nend. This phenomenon is known as a simple reflex\\narch.\\nIV. These phenomena of the unicellular organism\\nof the infusoria lead on to the interesting mechanism\\nof the neuro-muscular cells, which we find in the multi-\\ncellular body of many of the lower metazoa, especially\\nin the cnidaria (polyps and corals) Each single neuro-\\nmuscular cell is a unicellular reflex organ it has\\non its surface a sensitive spot, and a motor muscular\\nfibre inside at the opposite end; the latter contracts\\nas soon as the former is stimulated.\\nV. In other cnidaria, notably in the free swimming\\nmedusae which are closely related to the stationary\\npolyps the simple neuro-muscular cell becomes two\\ndifferent cells, connected by a filament; an external\\nsense-cell (in the outer skin) and an internal muscular\\ncell (under the skin). In this bicellular reflex organ the\\none cell is the rudimentary organ of sensation, the other\\nof movement the connecting bridge of the psycho-\\nplasmic filament conducts the stimulus from one to\\nthe other.\\nVI. The most important step in the gradual con-\\nstruction of the reflex mechanism is the division into\\n114", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nthree cells in the place of the simple connecting bridge\\nwe spoke of there appears a third independent cell, the\\nsoul-cell, or ganglionic cell with it appears also a new\\npsychic function, unconscious presentation, which has\\nits seat in this cell. The stimulus is first conducted\\nfrom the sensitive cell to this intermediate presentative\\nor psychic cell, and then issued from this to the motor\\nmuscular cell as a mandate of movement. These tri-\\ncellular reflex organs are preponderantly developed in\\nthe great majority of the invertebrates.\\nVII. Instead of this arrangement we find in most\\nof the vertebrates a quadricellular reflex organ, two dis-\\ntinct soul-cells/ instead of one, being inserted be-\\ntween the sensitive cell and the motor cell. The ex-\\nternal stimulus, in this case, is first conducted centrip-\\netally to the sensitive cell (the sensible psychic cell),\\nfrom this to the will-cell (the motor psychic cell), and\\nfrom this, finally, to the contractile muscular cell. When\\nmany such reflex organs combine and new psychic\\ncells are interposed we have the intricate reflex mechan-\\nism of man and the higher vertebrates.\\nThe important distinction which we make, in mor-\\nphology and physiology, between unicellular and multi-\\ncellular organisms holds good for their elementary\\npsychic activity, reflex action. In the unicellular\\nprotists (both the plasmodomous primitive plants, or\\nprotophyta, and the plasmophagous primitive animals,\\nor protozoa) the whole physical process of reflex action\\ntakes place in the protoplasm of one single cell their\\ncell-soul seems to be a unifying function of the psy-\\nchoplasm of which the various phases only begin to\\nbe seen separately when the differentiation of special\\norgans sets in.\\nThe second stage of psychic activity, compound re-\\n5", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nflex action, begins with the cenobitic protists (v.g., the\\nvolvox and the carchesium). The innumerable so-\\ncial cells, which make up this cell-community or coeno-\\nbium, are always more or less connected, often directly\\nconnected by filamentous bridges of protoplasm. A\\nstimulus that alights on one or more cells of the com-\\nmunity is communicated to the rest by means of the\\nconnecting fibres, and may produce a general con-\\ntraction. This connection is found, also, in the tissues\\nof the multicellular animals and plants. It was er-\\nroneously believed at one time that the cells of vegetal\\ntissue were completely isolated irom each other, but\\nwe have now discovered fine filaments of protoplasm\\nthroughout, which penetrate the thick membranes of\\nthe cells, and maintain a material and psychological\\ncommunication between their living plasmic contents.\\nThat is the explanation of the mimosa: when the\\ntread of the passer-by shakes the root of the plant, the\\nstimulus is immediately conveyed to all the cells, and\\ncauses a general contraction of its tender leaves and a\\ndrooping of the stems.\\nAn important and universal feature of all reflex phe-\\nnomena is the absence of consciousness. For reasons\\nwhich we shall give in the tenth chapter we only ad-\\nmit the presence of consciousness in man and the\\nhigher animals, not in plants, the lower animals, and\\nthe protists; consequently all stimulated movements\\nin the latter must be regarded as reflex that is, all\\nmovements which are not spontaneous, not the out-\\ncome of internal causes (impulsive and automatic\\nmovements).* It is different with the higher animals\\nwhich have developed a centralized nervous system and\\nCf Max Verworn, Psychophysiologische Protisten-Studien, pp.\\n135, 140-\\n116", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nelaborate sense-organs. In these cases consciousness\\nhas been gradually evolved from the psychic reflex ac-\\ntivity, and now conscious, voluntary action appears, in\\nopposition to the still continuing reflex action below.\\nHowever, we must distinguish two different processes,\\nas we did in the question of instinct primary and sec-\\nondary reflex action. Primary reflex actions are those\\nwhich have never reached the stage of consciousness in\\nphyletic development, and thus preserve the primitive\\ncharacter (by heredity from lower animal forms). Sec-\\nondary reflex actions are those which were conscious,\\nvoluntary actions in our ancestors, but which afterwards\\nbecame unconscious from habit or the lapse of conscious-\\nness. It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line in\\nsuch cases between conscious and unconscious psychic\\nfunction.\\nOlder psychologists (Herbart, for instance) consid-\\nered prese?itation to be the fundamental psychic phe-\\nnomenon, from which all the others are derived. Mod-\\nern comparative psychology endorses this view in so\\nfar as it relates to the idea of unconscious presentation\\nbut it considers conscious presentation to be a secondary\\nphenomenon of mental life, which is entirely wanting\\nin plants and the lower animals, and is only developed\\nin the higher animals. Among the many contradictory\\ndefinitions which psychologists have given of presen-\\ntation, we think the best is that which makes it consist\\nin an internal picture of the external object which is\\ngiven us in sensation an idea, in the broader sense.\\nWe may distinguish the following four stages in the\\nrising scale of presentative function\\nI. Cellular presentation. At the lowest stages we\\nfind presentation to be a general physiological property\\nof psychoplasm even. in the simplest unicellular protist\\n117", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nsensations may leave a permanent trace in the psycho-\\nplasm, and these may be reproduced by memory. In\\nmore than four thousand kinds of radiolaria, which I\\nhave described, every single species is distinguished by\\nspecial, hereditary skeletal structure. The construc-\\ntion of this specific, and often highly elaborate, skeleton\\nby a cell of the simplest description (generally globular)\\nis only intelligible when we attribute the faculty of pres-\\nentation, and, indeed, of a special reproduction of the\\nplastic feeling of distance/ to the constructive proto-\\nplasm as I have pointed out in my Psychology of the\\nRadiolaria*\\nII. Histionic presentation. In the coenobia or cell-\\ncolonies of the social protists, and still better in the\\ntissues of plants and lower, nerveless animals (sponges,\\npolyps, etc.), we find the second stage of unconscious\\npresentation, which consists of the common psychic ac-\\ntivity of a number of closely connected cells. If a single\\nstimulus may, instead of simply spending itself in the\\nreflex movement of an organ (the leaf of a plant, for in-\\nstance, or the arm of a polyp), leave a permanent im-\\npression, which can be spontaneously reproduced later\\non, we are bound to assume, in explaining the phenom-\\nenon, a histionic presentation, dependent on the psycho-\\nplasm of the associated tissue-cells.\\nIII. Unconscious presentation in the ganglionic cells.\\nThis third and higher stage of presentation is the\\ncommonest form the function takes in the animal world\\nit seems to be a localization .of presentation in definite\\nsoul-cells. In its simplest form it appears at the sixth\\nstage of reflex action, when the tricellular reflex organ\\narises the seat of presentation is then the intermediate\\n*E. Haeckel, General Natural History of the Radiolaria\\n1887.\\n118", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\npsychic cell, which is interposed between the sensitive\\ncell and the muscular cell. With the increasing devel-\\nopment of the animal nervous system and its progres-\\nsive differentiation and integration, this unconscious\\npresentation also rises to higher stages.\\nIV. Conscious presentation in the cerebral cells.\\nWith the highest stage of development of the animal\\norganization consciousness arises, as a special function\\nof a certain central organ of the nervous system. As\\nthe presentations are conscious, and as special parts of\\nthe brain arise for the association of these conscious\\npresentations, the organism is qualified for those highest\\npsychic functions which we call thought and reflection,\\nintellect and reason. Although the tracing of the phy-\\nletic barrier between the older, unconscious, and the\\nyounger, conscious, presentation is extremely difficult,\\nwe can affirm, with some degree of probability, that the\\nevolution of the latter from the former was polyphyletic\\nbecause we find conscious and rational thought, not\\nonly in the highest forms of the vertebrate stem (man,\\nmammals, birds, and a part of the lower vertebrates),\\nbut also in the most highly developed representatives of\\nother animal groups (ants and other insects, spiders and\\nthe higher crabs among the articulata, cephalopods\\namong the mollusca).\\nThe evolutionary scale of memory is closely connected\\nwith that of presentation; this extremely important\\nfunction of the psychoplasm the condition of all fur-\\nther psychic development consists essentially in the\\nreproduction of presentations. The impressions in the\\nbioplasm, which the stimulus produced as sensations,\\nand which became presentations in remaining, are re-\\nvived by memory they pass from potentiality to actu-\\nality. The latent potential energy of the psychoplasm\\n119", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nis transformed into kinetic energy. We may distin-\\nguish four stages in the upward development of mem-\\nory, corresponding to the four stages of presentation.\\nI. Cellular memory. Thirty years ago Ewald He-\\nring showed memory to be a general property of organ-\\nized matter in a thoughtful work, and indicated the\\ngreat significance of this function, a to which we owe\\nalmost all that we are and have. Six years later, in\\nmy work on The Perigenesis of the Plastidule, or the Un-\\ndulatory Origin of the Parts of Life an Experiment in\\nthe Mechanical Explanation of Elementary Evolutionary\\nProcesses, I developed these ideas, and endeavored to\\nbase them on the principles of evolution. I have at-\\ntempted to show in that work that unconscious mem-\\nory is a universal and very important function of all\\nplastidules that is, of those hypothetical molecules, or\\ngroups of molecules, which Naegeli has called micellae,\\nothers bioplasts, and so forth. Only living plastidules,\\nas individual molecules of the active protoplasm, are re-\\nproductive, and so gifted with memory; that is the\\nchief difference between the organic and inorganic\\nworlds. It might be stated thus Heredity is the\\nmemory of the plastidule, while variability is its compre-\\nhension. The elementary memory of the unicellular\\nprotist is made up of the molecular memory of the\\nplastidules or micellae, of which its living cell-body is\\nconstructed. As regards the extraordinary perform-\\nances of unconscious memory in these unicellular pro-\\ntists, nothing could be more instructive than the infi-\\nnitely varied and regular formation of their defensive\\napparatus, their shells and skeletons in particular,\\nthe diatomes and cosmaria among the protophytes, and\\nthe radiolaria and thalamophora among the protozoa,\\nafford an abundance of most interesting illustrations.\\n120", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nIn many thousand species of these protists the specific\\nform which is inherited is relatively constant, and proves\\nthe fidelity of their unconscious cellular memory.\\nII. Histionic memory. Equally interesting exam-\\nples of the second stage of memory, the unconscious\\nmemory of tissues, are found in the heredity of the in-\\ndividual organs of plants and the lower, nerveless ani-\\nmals (sponges, etc.). This second stage seems to be a\\nreproduction of the histionic presentations, that associa-\\ntion of cellular presentations which sets in with the\\nformation of coenobia in the social protists.\\nIII. In the same way we must regard the third stage,\\nthe unconscious memory of those animals which have\\na nervous system, as a reproduction of the correspond-\\ning unconscious presentations which are stored up\\nin certain ganglionic cells. In most of the lower ani-\\nmals all memory is unconscious. Moreover, even in\\nman and the higher animals, to whom we must ascribe\\nconsciousness, the daily acts of unconscious memory\\nare much more numerous and varied than those of the\\nconscious faculty; we shall easily convince ourselves\\nof that if we make an impartial study of a thousand\\nunconscious acts we perform daily out of habit, and\\nwithout thinking of them, in walking, speaking, writ-\\ning, eating, and so forth.\\nIV. Conscious memory, which is the work of cer-\\ntain brain-cells in man and the higher animals, is an\\ninternal mirroring of very late development, the\\nhighest outcome of the same psychic reproduction of\\npresentations which were mere unconscious processes\\nin the ganglionic cells of our lower animal ancestors.\\nThe concatenation of presentations usually called\\nthe association of ideas also runs through a long\\nscale, from the lowest to the highest stages. This,\\n121", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntoo, is originally and predominantly unconscious in-\\nstinct only in the higher classes of animals does it\\ngradually become conscious reason The psychic\\nresults of this association of ideas are extremely\\nvaried still, a very long, unbroken line of gradual de-\\nvelopment connects the simplest unconscious associa-\\ntion of the lowest protist with the elaborate conscious\\nchain of ideas of the civilized man. The unity of con-\\nsciousness in man is given as its highest consequence\\n(Hume, Condillac). All higher mental activity be-\\ncomes more perfect in proportion as the normal associa-\\ntion extends to more numerous presentations, and in\\nproportion to the order which is imposed on them by\\nthe criticism of pure reason. In dreams, where this\\ncriticism is absent, the association of the reproduced\\nimpressions often takes, the wildest forms. Even in\\nthe work of the poetic imagination, which constructs\\nnew groups of images by varyin the association of\\nthe impressions received, and in hallucinations, etc.,\\nthey are often most unnaturally arranged, and seem\\nto the prosaic observer to be perfectly irrational. This\\nis especially true of supernatural forms of belief, the\\napparitions of spiritism, and the fantastic notions of\\nthe transcendental dualist philosophy; though it is\\nprecisely these abnormal associations of faith and\\nof revelation that have often been deemed the great-\\nest treasures of the human mind (cf. chap. xvi.).\\nThe antiquated psychology of the Middle Ages\\n(which, however, still numbers many adherents) con-\\nsidered the mental life of man and that of the brute to\\nbe two entirely different phenomena the one it attrib-\\nuted to reason, the other to instinct. In harmony\\nwith the traditional story of creation, it was assumed\\nthat each animal species had received a definite, un-\\n122", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nconscious psychic force from the Creator at its forma-\\ntion, and that this instinct of each species was just as\\nunchangeable as its bodily structure. Lamarck proved\\nthe untenableness of his error in 1809 by establishing\\nthe theory of Descent, and Darwin completely demol-\\nished it in 1859. He proved the following important\\ntheses with the aid of his theory of selection\\n1. The instincts of species show individual differ-\\nences, and are just as subject to modification under the\\nlaw of adaptation as the morphological features of their\\nbodily structure.\\n2. These modifications (generally arising from a\\nchange of habits) are partly transmitted to offspring\\nby heredity, and thus accumulate and are accentuated\\nin the course of generations.\\n3. Selection, both artificial and natural, singles out\\ncertain of these inherited modifications of the psychic\\nactivity it preserves the most useful and rejects the\\nleast adaptive.\\n4 The divergence of psychic character which thus\\narises leads, in the course of generations, to the forma-\\ntion of new instincts, just as the divergence of morpho-\\nlogical character gives rise to new species.\\nDarwin s theory of instinct is now accepted by most\\nbiologists; Romanes has treated it so ably, and so\\ngreatly expanded it in his distinguished work on Mental\\nEvolution in the Animal World, that I need merely re-\\nfer to it here. I will only venture the brief statement\\nthat, in my opinion, there are instincts in all organisms\\nin all the protists and plants as well as in all the ani-\\nmals and in man though in the latter they tend to dis-\\nappear in proportion as reason makes progress at their\\nexpense.\\nThe two chief classes of instincts to be differentiated\\n123", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nare the primary and secondary. Primary instincts are\\nthe common lower impulses which are unconscious and\\ninherent in the psychoplasm from the commencement\\nof organic life; especially the impulses to self-preser-\\nvation (by defence and maintenance) and to the preser-\\nvation of the species (by generation and the care of the\\nyoung). Both these fundamental instincts of organic\\nlife, hunger and love, sprang up originally in perfect\\nunconsciousness, without any co-operation of the intel-\\nlect or reason. It is otherwise with the secondary in-\\nstincts. These were due originally to an intelligent\\nadaptation, to rational thought and resolution, and to\\npurposive conscious action. Gradually, however, they\\nbecame so automatic that this other nature acted\\nunconsciously, and, even through the action of hered-\\nity, seemed to be innate n in subsequent generations.\\nThe consciousness and deliberation which originally\\naccompanied these particular instincts of the higher\\nanimals and man have died away in the course of the\\nlife of the plastidules (as in abridged heredity\\nThe unconscious purposive actions of the higher ani-\\nmals (for instance, their mechanical instincts) thus\\ncome to appear in the light of innate impulses. We\\nhave to explain in the same way the origin of the a\\npriori ideas of man they were originally formed\\nempirically by his predecessors.*\\nIn the superficial psychological treatises which ig-\\nnore the mental activity of animals and attribute to\\nman only a true soul, we find him credited also with\\nthe exclusive possession of reason and consciousness.\\nThis is another trivial error (still to be found in many\\na manual, nevertheless) which the comparative psy-\\nVide Natural History of Creation, E. Haeckel.\\n124", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nchology of the last forty years has entirely dissipated.\\nThe higher vertebrates (especially those mammals\\nwhich are most nearly related to man) have just as\\ngood a title to reason as man himself, and within\\nthe limits of the animal world there is the same long\\nchain of the gradual development of reason as in the\\ncase of humanity. The difference between the reason\\nof a Goethe, a Kant, a Lamarck, or a Darwin, and that\\nof the lowest savage, a Veddah, an Akka, a native\\nAustralian, or a Patagonian, is much greater than the\\ngraduated difference between the reason of the latter\\nand that of the most rational mammals, the anthro-\\npoid apes, or even the papiomorpha, the dog, or the\\nelephant. This important thesis has been convinc-\\ningly proved by the thoroughly critical comparative\\nwork of Romanes and others. We shall not, there-\\nfore, attempt to cover that ground here, nor to enlarge\\non the distinction between the reason and the intel-\\nlect; as to the meaning and limits of these concepts\\nphilosophic experts give the most contradictory defi-\\nnitions, as they do on so many other fundamental ques-\\ntions of psychology. In general it may be said that\\nthe process of the formation of concepts, which is com-\\nmon to both these cerebral functions, is confined to the\\nnarrower circle of concrete, proximate associations in\\nthe intellect, but reaches out to the wider circle of ab-\\nstract, more comprehensive groups of associations, in\\nthe work of reason. In the long gradation which con-\\nnects the reflex actions and the instincts of the lower\\nanimals with the reason of the highest, intellect pre-\\ncedes the latter. And there is the fact, of great im-\\nportance to our whole psychological treatise, that even\\nthese highest of our mental faculties are just as much\\nsubject to the laws of heredity and adaptation as are\\n125", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntheir respective organs; Flechsig pointed out in 1894\\nthat the organs of thought, in man and the higher\\nmammals, are those parts of the cortex of the brain\\nwhich lie between the four inner sense-centres (cf chap-\\nters x. and xi.).\\nThe higher grade of development of ideas, of intellect\\nand reason, which raises man so much above the brute,\\nis intimately connected with the rise of language. Still\\nhere also we have to recognize a long chain of evolu-\\ntion which stretches unbroken from the lowest to the\\nhighest stages. Speech is no more an exclusive pre-\\nrogative of man than reason. In the wider sense, it is\\na common feature of all the higher gregarious animals,\\nat least of all the articulata and the vertebrates, which\\nlive in communities or herds they need it for the pur-\\npose of understanding each other and communicating\\ntheir impressions. This is effected either by touch\\nor by signs, or by sounds having a definite meaning.\\nThe song of the bird or of the anthropoid ape {hylo-\\nbates), the bark of the dog, the neigh of the horse, the\\nchirp of the cricket, the cry of the cicada, are all speci-\\nmens of animal speech. Only in man, however, has\\nthat articulate conceptual speech developed which has\\nenabled his reason to attain such high achievements.\\nComparative philology, one of the most interesting\\nsciences that has arisen during the century, has shown\\nthat the numerous elaborate languages of the different\\nnations have been slowly and gradually evolved from\\na few simple primitive tongues (Wilhelm Humboldt,\\nBopp, Schleicher, Steinthal, and others). August\\nSchleicher, of Jena, in particular, has proved that the\\nhistorical development of language takes place under\\nthe same phylogenetic laws as the evolution of other\\nphysiological faculties and their organs. Romanes\\n126", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\n(1893) has expanded this proof, and amply demon-\\nstrated that human speech, also, differs from that of\\nthe brute only in degree of development, not in essence\\nand kind.\\nThe important group of psychic activities which we\\nembrace under the name of emotion plays a con-\\nspicuous part both in theoretical and practical psychol-\\nogy. From our point of view they have a peculiar im-\\nportance from the fact that we clearly see in them the\\ndirect connection of cerebral functions with other phys-\\niological functions (the beat of the heart, sense action,\\nmuscular movement, etc.) they, therefore, prove the\\nunnatural and untenable character of the philosophy\\nwhich would essentially dissociate psychology from\\nphysiology. All the external expressions of emotional\\nlife which we find in man are also present in the higher\\nanimals (especially in the anthropoid ape and the\\ndog) however varied their development may be, they\\nare all derived from the two elementary functions of\\nthe psyche, sensation and motion, and from their com-\\nbination in reflex action and presentation. To the\\nprovince of sensation, in a wide sense, we must attrib-\\nute the feeling of like and dislike which determines the\\nemotion; while the corresponding desire and aversion\\n(love and hatred), the effort to attain what is liked and\\navoid what is disliked, belong to the category of move-\\nment. Attraction and repulsion seem to be the\\nsources of will, that momentous element of the soul\\nwhich determines the character of the individual. The\\npassions, which play so important a part in the psychic\\nlife of man, are but intensifications of emotion. Ro-\\nmanes has recently shown that these also are common\\nto man and the brute. Even at the lowest stage of or-\\nganic life we find in all the protists those elementary\\n127", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nfeelings of like and dislike, revealing themselves in\\nwhat are called their tropisms, in the striving after light\\nand darkness, heat or cold, and in their different rela-\\ntions to positive and negative electricity. On the other\\nhand, we find at the highest stage of psychic life, in\\ncivilized man, those finer shades of emotion, of delight\\nand disgust, of love and hatred, which are the main-\\nsprings of civilization and the inexhaustible sources\\nof poetry. Yet a connecting chain of all conceivable\\ngradations unites the most primitive elements of feel-\\ning in the psychoplasm of the unicellular protist with\\nthe highest forms of passion that rule in the ganglionic\\ncells of the cortex of the human brain. That the latter\\nare absolutely amenable to physical laws was proved\\nlong ago by the great Spinoza in his famous Statics\\nof Emotion.\\nThe notion of will has as many different meanings\\nand definitions as most other psychological notions\\npresentation, soul, mind, and so forth. Sometimes will\\nis taken in the widest sense as a cosmic attribute, as\\nin the World as will and presentation of Schopen-\\nhauer sometimes it is taken in its narrowest sense as\\nan anthropological attribute, the exclusive prerogative\\nof man as Descartes taught, for instance, who consid-\\nered the brute to be a mere machine, without will or sen-\\nsation. In the ordinary use of the term, will is derived\\nfrom the phenomenon of voluntary movement, and is\\nthus regarded as a psychic attribute of most animals.\\nBut when we examine the will in the light of compara-\\ntive physiology and evolution, we find as we do in the\\ncase of sensation that it is a universal property of liv-\\ning psychoplasm. The automatic and the reflex move-\\nments which we observe everywhere, even in the uni-\\ncellular protists, seem to be the outcome of inclinations\\n128", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nwhich are inseparably connected with the very idea of\\nlife. Even in the plants and lowest animals these in-\\nclinations, or tropisms, seem to be the joint outcome of\\nthe inclinations of all the combined individual cells.\\nBut when the tricellular reflex organ arises (page\\n115), and a third independent cell the psychic, or\\nganglionic/ cell is interposed between the sense-cell\\nand the motor cell, we have an independent elementary\\norgan of will. In the lower animals, however, this will\\nremains unconscious. It is only when consciousness\\narises in the higher animals, as the subjective mirror\\nof the objective, though internal, processes in the neuro-\\nplasm of the psychic cells, that the will reaches that\\nhighest stage which likens it in character to the human\\nwill, and which, in the case of man, assumes in com-\\nmon parlance the predicate of liberty. Its free do-\\nminion and action become more and more deceptive\\nas the muscular system and the sense-organs develop\\nwith a free and rapid locomotion, entailing a correlative\\nevolution of the brain and the organs of thought.\\nThe question of the liberty of the will is the one which\\nhas more than any other cosmic problem occupied the\\ntime of thoughtful humanity, the more so that in this\\ncase the great philosophic interest of the question was\\nenhanced by the association of most momentous con-\\nsequences for practical philosophy for ethics, educa-\\ntion, law, and so forth. Emil du Bois-Reymond, who\\ntreats it as the seventh and last of his seven cosmic\\nproblems, rightly says of the question Affecting\\neverybody, apparently accessible to everybody, inti-\\nmately involved in the fundamental conditions of hu-\\nman society, vitally connected with religious belief, this\\nquestion has been of immeasurable importance in the\\nhistory of civilization. There is probably no other ob-\\n1 129", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nject of thought on which the modern library contains so\\nmany dusty folios that will never again be opened.\\nThe importance of the question is also seen in the fact\\nthat Kant put it in the same category with the questions\\nof the immortality of the soul and belief in God. He\\ncalled these three great questions the indispensable\\npostulates of practical reason/ though he had already\\nclearly shown them to have no reality whatever in the\\nlight of pure reason.\\nThe most remarkable fact in connection with this\\nfierce and confused struggle over the freedom of the\\nwill is, perhaps, that it has been theoretically rejected,\\nnot only by the greatest critical philosophers, but even\\nby their extreme opponents, and yet it is still affirmed\\nto be self-evident by the majority of people. Some of\\nthe first teachers of the Christian Churches such as\\nSt. Augustine and Calvin rejected the freedom of the\\nwill as decisively as the famous leaders of pure ma-\\nterialism, Holbach in the eighteenth and B\u00c3\u00bcchner in\\nthe nineteenth century. Christian theologians deny it,\\nbecause it is irreconcilable with their belief in the om-\\nnipotence of God and in predestination. God, omnip-\\notent and omniscient, saw and willed all things from\\neternity he must, consequently, have predetermined\\nthe conduct of man. If man, with his free will, were\\nto act otherwise than God had ordained, God would not\\nbe all-mighty and all-knowing. In the same sense\\nLeibnitz, too, was an unconditional determinist. The\\nmonistic scientists of the last century, especially La-\\nplace, defended determinism as a consequence of their\\nmechanical view of life.\\nThe great struggle between the determinist and the\\nindeterminist, between the opponent and the sustainer\\nof the freedom of the will, has ended to-day, after more\\n130", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "PSYCHIC GRADATIONS\\nthan two thousand years, completely in favor of the\\ndeterminist. The human will has no more freedom\\nthan that of the higher animals, from which it differs\\nonly in degree, not in kind. In the last century the\\ndogma of liberty was fought with general philosophic\\nand cosmological arguments. The nineteenth century\\nhas given us very different weapons for its definitive\\ndestruction the powerful weapons which we find in\\nthe arsenal of comparative physiology and evolution.\\nWe now know that each act of the will is as fatally\\ndetermined by the organization of the individual and\\nas dependent on the momentary condition of his envi-\\nronment as every other psychic activity. The charac-\\nter of the inclination was determined long ago by\\nheredity from parents and ancestors the determina-\\ntion to each particular act is an instance of adaptation\\nto the circumstances of the moment wherein the\\nstrongest motive prevails, according to the laws which\\ngovern the statics of emotion. Ontogeny teaches us\\nto understand the evolution of the will in the individu-\\nal child. Phylogeny reveals to us the historical de-\\nvelopment of the will within the ranks of our verte-\\nbrate ancestors.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII\\nTHE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nImportance of Ontogeny to Psychology Development of the Child-\\nSoul Commencement of Existence of the Individual Soul\\nThe Storing of the Soul Mythology of the Origin of the Soul\\nPhysiology of the Origin of the Soul Elementary Processes\\nin Conception Coalescence of the Ovum and the Spermato-\\nzoon Cell-Love Heredity of the Soul from Parents and An-\\ncestors Its Physiological Nature as the Mechanics of the\\nProtoplasm Blending of Souls (Psychic Amphigony) Re-\\nversion, Psychological Atavism The Biogenetic Law in Psy-\\nchology Palingenetic Repetition and Cenogenetic Modifica-\\ntion Embryonic and Post-Embryonic Psychogeny.\\nTHE human soul whatever we may hold as to\\nits nature undergoes a continual development\\nthroughout the life of the individual. This ontogenetic\\nfact is of fundamental importance in our monistic psy-\\nchology, though the professional psychologists pay\\nlittle or no attention to it. Since the embryology of the\\nindividual is, on Baer s principle and in accordance\\nwith the universal belief of modern biologists the\\ntrue torch-bearer for all research into the organic\\nbody, it will afford us a reliable light on the momen-\\ntous problems of its psychic activity.\\nAlthough, however, this embryology of the soul is\\nso important and interesting, it has hitherto met with\\nthe consideration it deserves only within a very narrow\\ncircle. Until recently teachers were almost the only\\n132", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nones to occupy themselves with a part of the problem\\nsince their avocation compelled them to assist and su-\\npervise the formation of the psychic activity in the child,\\nthey were bound to take a theoretical interest, also, in\\nthe psychogenetic facts that came under their notice.\\nHowever, these teachers, for the most part, both in re-\\ncent and in earlier times, were dominated by the cur-\\nrent dualistic psychology in so far as they reflected at\\nall and they were totally ignorant of the important\\nfacts of comparative psychology, and unacquainted\\nwith the structure and function of the brain. More-\\nover, their observations only extended to children in\\ntheir school-days, or in the years immediately preced-\\ning. The remarkable phenomena which the individ-\\nual psychogeny of the child offers in its earliest years,\\nand which are the joy and admiration of all thoughtful\\nparents, were scarcely ever made the subject of serious\\nscientific research. Wilhelm Preyer was the pioneer\\nof this study in his interesting work on The Mind of the\\nChild (1881). To obtain a perfectly clear knowledge of\\nthe matter, however, we must go further back still\\nwe must commence at the first appearance of the soul\\nin the impregnated ovum.\\nThe origin of the human individual body and soul\\nwas still wrapped in complete mystery at the begin-\\nning of the nineteenth century. Caspar Friedrich Wolff\\nhad, it is true, discovered the true character of embry-\\nonic- development in 1759, in his theoria generationis,\\nand proved with the confidence of a critical observer\\nthat there is a true epigenesis i.e., a series of very re-\\nmarkable formative processes in the evolution of the\\nfoetus from the simple ovum. But the physiologists of\\nthe time, with the famous Albert Haller at their head,\\nflatly refused to entertain these empirical truths, which\\n133", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmay be directly proved by microscopic observation, and\\nclung to the old dogma of preformation. This theory\\nassumed that in the human ovum and in the egg of\\nall other animals the organism was already present,\\nor preformed/ in all its parts the evolution of\\nthe embryo consisted literally in an unfolding (evo-\\nlutio) of the folded organs. One curious consequence\\nof this error was the theory of scatulation, which we\\nhave mentioned on p. 55 since the ovary had to be\\nadmitted to be present in the embryo of the woman, it\\nwas also necessary to suppose that the germs of the next\\ngeneration were already formed in it, and so on in in-\\nfinitum: Opposed to this dogma of the Ovulists\\nwas the equally erroneous notion of the Animalcu-\\nlists the latter held that the germ was not really in\\nthe female ovum, but in the paternal element, and that\\nthe store of succeeding generations was to be sought in\\nthe spermatozoa.\\nLeibnitz consistently applied this theory of scatula-\\ntion to the human soul he denied that either soul or\\nbody had a real development (epigenesis) and said in\\nhis Theodicy Thus I consider that the souls which\\nare destined one day to become human exist in the\\nseed, like those of other species that they have existed\\nin our ancestors as far back as Adam that is, since the\\nbeginning of the world in the forms of organized bod-\\nies. Similar notions prevailed in biology and philos-\\nophy until the third decade of the present century, when\\nthe reform of embryology by Baer gave them their\\ndeath blow. In the province of psychology, however,\\nthey still find many adherents they form one group of\\nthe many curious mystical ideas which give us a living\\nillustration of the ontogeny of the soul.\\nThe more accurate knowledge which we have recent-\\n!34", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nly obtained, through comparative ethnology, of the va-\\nrious forms of myths of ancient and modern uncivilized\\nraces, is also of great interest in psychogeny. Still, it\\nwould take us too far from our purpose if we were to\\nenter into it with any fulness here we must refer the\\nreader to Adalbert Svoboda s excellent work on Forms\\nof Faith (1897). I n respect of their scientific and poet-\\nical contents, we may arrange all pertinent psychoge-\\nnetic myths in the following five groups\\nI. The myth of transmigration. The soul lived for-\\nmerly in the body of another animal, and passed from\\nthis into a human body. The Egyptian priests, for in-\\nstance, taught that the human soul wandered through\\nall the species of animals after the death of the body,\\nreturning to a human frame after three thousand years\\nof transmigration.\\nII. The myth of the in-planting of the soul. The\\nsoul existed independently in another place a psycho-\\ngenetic store, as it were (in a kind of embryonic slumber\\nor latent life) it was taken out by a bird (sometimes\\nrepresented as an eagle, generally as a white stork),\\nand implanted in the human body.\\nIII. The myth of the creation of the soul. God cre-\\nates the souls, and keeps them stored sometimes in a\\npond (living in the form of plankton), according to other\\nmyths in a tree (where they are conceived as the fruit\\nof a phanerogam) the Creator takes them from the\\npond or tree, and inserts them in the human germ dur-\\ning the act of conception.\\nIV. The myth of the scatulation of the soul (the the-\\nory of Leibnitz which we have given above).\\nV. The myth of the division of the soul (the theory\\nof Rudolph Wagner [1855] and of other physiologists).\\nIn the act of procreation a portion is detached from\\n135", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nboth the (immaterial) souls of the parents; the ma-\\nternal contribution passes in the ovum, the paternal\\nin the spermatozoa; when these two germinal cells\\ncoalesce, the two psychic fragments that accompany\\nthem also combine to form a new (immaterial) soul.\\nAlthough the poetic fancies we have mentioned as\\nto the origin of the individual human soul are still wide-\\nly accepted, their purely mythological character is now\\nfirmly established. The deeply interesting and re-\\nmarkable research which has been made in the course\\nof the last twenty-five years into the more minute proc-\\nesses of the impregnation and germination of the ovum\\nhas made it clear that these mysterious phenomena\\nbelong entirely to the province of cellular physiology\\n(cf. p. 48). Both the female element, the ovum, and\\nthe male fertilizing body, the sperma or spermatozoa,\\nare simple cells. These living cells possess a certain\\nsum of physiological properties to which we give the\\ntitle of the cell-soul, just as we do in the permanently\\nunicellular protist (see p. 48). Both germinal cells\\nhave the faculty of movement and sensation. The\\nyoung ovum, or egg-cell, moves after the manner of an\\namoeba; the minute spermatozoa, of which there are\\nmillions in every drop of the seminal fluid, are ciliated\\ncells, and swim about as freely in the sperm, by means\\nof their lashes or cilia, as the ordinary ciliated infuso-\\nria (the flagellata).\\nWhen the two cells meet as a result of copulation,\\nor when they are brought into contact through arti-\\nficial fertilization (in the fishes, for instance), they at-\\ntract each other and become firmly attached. The\\nmain cause of this cellular attraction is a chemical sen-\\nsitive action of the protoplasm, allied to smell or taste,\\nwhich we call erotic chemicotropism it may also\\n136", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nbe correctly (both in the chemical and the romantic\\nsense) termed cellular affinity or sexual cell-love.\\nA number of the ciliated cells in the sperm swim rap-\\nidly towards the stationary egg-cell and seek to pene-\\ntrate into it. As Hertwig showed in 1875, as a rule only\\none of the suitors is fortunate enough to reach the de-\\nsired goal. As soon as this favored spermatozoon has\\npierced into the body of the ovum with its head (the\\nnucleus of the cell), a thin mucous layer is detached\\nfrom the ovum which prevents the further entrance of\\nspermatozoa. The formation of this protective mem-\\nbrane was only prevented when Hertwig kept the ovum\\nstiff with cold by lowering the temperature, or benumbed\\nit with narcotics (chloroform, morphia, nicotine, etc.)\\nthen there was super-impregnation or poly-spermy\\na number of sperm-threads pierced into the body of\\nthe unconscious ovum. This remarkable fact proved\\nthat there is a low degree of cellular instinct (or, at\\nleast, of specific, lively sensation) in the sexual cells\\njust as effectively as do the important phenomena that\\nimmediately follow in their interior. Both nuclei\\nthat of the ovum and of the spermatozoon attract each\\nother, approach, and, on contact, completely fuse to-\\ngether. Thus from the impregnated ovum arises the\\nimportant new cell which we call the stem-cell (cy-\\ntula), from the repeated segmentation of which the\\nwhole polycellular organism is evolved.\\nThe psychological information which is afforded by\\nthese remarkable facts of impregnation, which have\\nonly been properly observed during the last twenty-\\nfive years, is supremely important; its vast signifi-\\ncance has hitherto been very far from appreciated. We\\nshall condense the main conclusions of research in the\\nfollowing five theses:\\n137", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nI. Each human individual, like every other higher\\nanimal, is a single simple cell at the commencement\\nof his existence.\\nII. This stem-cell (cytula) is formed in the same\\nmanner in all cases that is, by the blending or copu-\\nlation of two separate cells of diverse origin, the female\\novum and the male spermatozoon.\\nIII. Each of these sexual cells has its own cell-\\nsour that is, each is distinguished by a peculiar\\nform of sensation and movement.\\nIV. At the moment of conception or impregnation,\\nnot only the protoplasm and the nuclei of the two sex-\\nual cells coalesce, but also their cell-souls in other\\nwords, the potential energies which are latent in both,\\nand inseparable from the matter of the protoplasm,\\nunite for the formation of a new potential energy, the\\ngerm-soul of the newly constructed stem-cell.\\nV. Consequently each personality owes his bodily\\nand spiritual qualities to both parents; by heredity\\nthe nucleus of the ovum contributes a portion of the\\nmaternal features, while the nucleus of the sperma-\\ntozoon brings a part of the father s characteristics.\\nBy these empirical facts of conception, moreover,\\nthe further fact of extreme importance is established,\\nthat every man, like every other animal, has a begin-\\nning of existence the complete copulation of the two\\nsexual cell-nuclei marks the precise moment when not\\nonly the body, but also the soul, of the new stem-\\ncell makes its appearance. This fact suffices of itself\\nto destroy the myth of the immortality of the soul, to\\nwhich we shall return later on. It suffices, too, for\\nthe destruction of the still prevalent superstition that\\nman owes his personal existence to the favor of God.\\nIts origin is rather to be attributed solely to the eros", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nof his parents, to that powerful impulse that is common\\nto all polycellular animals and plants, and leads to\\ntheir nuptial union. But the essential point in this\\nphysiological process is not the embrace, as was\\nformerly supposed, or the amorousness connected there-\\nwith; it is simply the introduction of the spermatozoa\\ninto the vagina. This is the sole means, in the land-\\ndwelling animals, by which the fertilizing element can\\nreach the released ova (which usually takes place in\\nthe uterus in man). In the case of the lower aquatic\\nanimals (fishes, mussels, medusae, etc.) the mature\\nsexual elements on both sides are simply discharged\\ninto the water, and their union is let to chance; they\\nhave no real copulation, and so they show none of those\\nhigher psychic erotic functions which play so con-\\nspicuous a part in the life of the higher animals. Hence\\nit is, also, that all the lower, non- copulating animals\\nare wanting in those interesting organs which Darwin\\nhas called secondary sexual characters, and which\\nare the outcome of sexual selection such are the beard\\nof man, the antlers of the stag, the beautiful plumage\\nof the bird of paradise and of so many other birds, to-\\ngether with other distinctions of the male which are\\nabsent in the female.\\nAmong the above theses as to the physiology of con-\\nception the inheritance of the psychic qualities of the\\ntwo parents is of particular importance for psycho-\\nlogical purposes. It is well known that every child\\ninherits from both his parents peculiarities of char-\\nacter, temperament, talent, acuteness of sense, and\\nstrength of will. It is equally well known that even\\npsychic qualities are often (if not always) transmitted\\nfrom grandparents by heredity often, in fact, a man\\nresembles his grandparents more than his parents in\\n139", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ncertain respects and that is true both of bodily and\\nmental features. All the chief laws of heredity which\\nI first formulated in my General Morphology, and pop-\\nularized in my Natural History of Creation, are just as\\nvalid and universal in their application to psychic phe-\\nnomena as to bodily structure in fact, they are fre-\\nquently more striking and conspicuous in the former\\nthan in the latter.\\nHowever, the great province of heredity, to the ines-\\ntimable importance of which Darwin first opened our\\neyes in 1859, is thickly beset with obscure problems and\\nphysiological difficulties We dare not claim, even af-\\nter forty years of research, that all its aspects are clear\\nto us. Yet we have done so much that we can confi-\\ndently speak of heredity as a physiological function of\\nthe organism, which is directly connected with the fac-\\nulty of generation and we must reduce it, like all other\\nvital phenomena, to exclusively physical and chemical\\nprocesses, to the mechanics of the protoplasm. We now\\nknow accurately enough the process of impregnation\\nitself we know that in it the nucleus of the spermato-\\nzoon contributes the qualities of the male parent, and\\nthe nucleus of the ovum gives the qualities of the\\nmother, to the newly born stem-cell. The blending of\\nthe two nuclei is the physiological moment of\\nheredity by it the personal features of both body and\\nsoul are transmitted to the new individual. These\\nfacts of ontogeny are beyond the explanation of the\\ndualistic and mystic psychology which still prevails\\nin the schools whereas they find a perfectly simple in-\\nterpretation in our monistic philosophy.\\nThe physiological fact which is most material for a\\ncorrect appreciation of individual psychogeny is the con-\\ntinuity of the psyche through the rise and fall of genera-\\n140", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\ntions. A new individual comes into existence at the\\nmoment of conception; yet it is not an independent\\nentity, either in respect of its mental or its bodily feat-\\nures, but merely the product of the blending of the two\\nparental factors, the maternal egg-cell and paternal\\nsperm-cell. The cell-souls of these two sexual cells\\ncombine in the act of conception for the formation of a\\nnew cell-soul, just as truly as the two cell-nuclei, which\\nare the material vehicles of this psychic potential en-\\nergy, unite to form a new nucleus. As we now see that\\nthe individuals of one and the same species even sis-\\nters born of the same parents\u00e2\u0080\u0094 always show certain\\ndifferences, however slight, we must assume that these\\nvariations were already present in the chemical plas-\\nmatic constitution of the generative cells themselves.*\\nThese facts alone would suffice to explain the infinite\\nvariety of individual features, of soul and of bodily\\nform, that we find in the organic world. As an ex-\\ntreme, but one-sided, consequence of them, there is the\\ntheory of Weismann, which considers the amphimixis,\\nor the blending of the germ-plasm in sexual generation,\\nto be the universal and the sole cause of individual vari-\\nability. This exclusive theory, which is connected with\\nhis theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm, is, in\\nmy opinion, an exaggeration. I am convinced, on the\\ncontrary, that the great laws of progressive heredity and\\nof the correlative functional adaptation apply to the soul\\nas well as to the body. The new characteristics which\\nthe individual has acquired during life may react to\\nsome extent on the molecular texture of the germ-\\nplasm in the egg-cell and sperm-cell, and may thus\\nbe transferred to the next generation by heredity in\\nLaw of individual variation. Vide Natural History of Cre-\\nation.\\n141", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ncertain conditions (naturally, only in the form of latent\\nenergy).\\nAlthough in the soul-blending at the moment of con-\\nception only the latent forces of the two parent souls are\\ntransmitted by the coalescence of the erotic cell-nuclei,\\nstill it is possible that the hereditary psychic influence\\nof earlier, and sometimes very much older, generations\\nmay be communicated at the same time. For the laws\\nof latent heredity or atavism apply to the soul just as\\nvalidly as to the anatomical organization. We find\\nthese remarkable phenomena of reversion in a very sim-\\nple and instructive form in the alternation of genera-\\ntions of the polyps and medusae. Here we see two very\\ndifferent generations alternate so regularly that the\\nfirst resembles the third, fifth, and so on while the sec-\\nond (very different from the preceding) is like the fourth,\\nsixth, etc. (Natural History of Creation). We do not\\nfind such alternation of generations in man and the\\nhigher animals and plants, in which, owing to continu-\\nous heredity, each generation resembles the next nev-\\nertheless, even in these cases we often meet with phe-\\nnomena of reversion, which must be reduced to the same\\nlaw of latent heredity.\\nEminent men often take more after their grand-\\nparents than their parents even in the finer shades of\\npsychic activity in the possession of certain artistic\\ntalents or inclinations, in force of character, and in\\nwarmth of temperament; not infrequently there is a\\nstriking feature which neither parents nor grandpar-\\nents possessed, but which may be traced a long way back\\nto an older branch of the family. Even in these re-\\nmarkable cases of atavism the same laws of heredity\\napply to the psyche and to the physiognomy, to the per-\\nsonal quality of the sense-organs, muscles, skeleton,\\n142", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nand other parts of the body. We can trace them most\\nclearly in the reigning dynasties and in old families\\nof the nobility, whose conspicuous share in the life of\\nthe State has given occasion to a more careful historical\\npicture of the individuals in the chain of generations\\nfor instance, in the Hohenzollerns, the princes of\\nOrange, the Bourbons, etc., and in the Roman Caesars.\\nThe causal-nexus of biontic (individual) and phyletic\\n(historical) evolution, which I gave in my General\\nMorphology as the supreme law at the root of all bio-\\ngenetic research, has a universal application to psy-\\nchology no less than to morphology. I have fully\\ntreated the special importance which it has with re-\\ngard to man, in both respects, in the first chapter of\\nmy Anthropogeny. In man, as in all other organisms,\\nthe embryonic development is an epitome of the his-\\ntorical development of the species. This condensed\\nand abbreviated recapitulation is the more complete\\nin proportion as the original epitomized development\\n(palingenesis) is preserved by a constant heredity;\\non the other hand, it falls off from completeness in\\nproportion as the later disturbing development (ceno-\\ngenesis) is accentuated by varying adaptation.\\nWhile we apply this law to the evolution of the soul,\\nwe must lay special stress on the injunction to keep\\nboth sides of it critically before us. For, in the case of\\nman, just as in all the higher animals and plants, such\\nappreciable perturbations of type (or cenogeneses) have\\ntaken place during the millions of years of develop-\\nment that the original simple idea of palingenesis, or\\nepitome of history, has been greatly disturbed and\\naltered. While, on the one side, the palin genetic re-\\ncapitulation is preserved by the laws of like-time and\\nlike-place heredity, it is subject to an essential ceno-\\nJ 43", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ngenetic change, on the other hand, by the laws of abbre-\\nviated and simplified heredity. That is clearly seen\\nin the embryonic evolution of the psychic organs, the\\nnervous system, the muscles, and the sense-organs.\\nBut it applies in just the same manner to the psychic\\nfunctions, which are absolutely dependent on the nor-\\nmal construction of these organs. Their evolution is\\nsubject to great cenogenetic modification in man and\\nall other viviporous animals, precisely because the com-\\nplete development of the embryo occupies a longer time\\nwithin the body of the mother. But we have to distin-\\nguish two periods of individual psychogeny: (i) the\\nembryonic, and (2) the post-embryonic development of\\nthe soul.\\nI. Embryonic Psychogeny. The human foetus, or\\nembryo, normally takes nine months (or two hundred\\nand seventy days) to develop in the uterus. During\\nthis time it is entirely cut off from the outer world, and\\nprotected, not only by the thick muscular wall of the\\nwomb, but also by the special foetal membranes (em-\\nbryolemmata) which are common to all the three higher\\nclasses of vertebrates reptiles, birds, and mammals.\\nIn all the classes of amniotes these membranes (the\\namnion and the serolemma) develop in just the same\\nfashion. They represent the protective arrangements\\nwhich were acquired by the earliest reptiles (prorep-\\ntilia), the common parents of all the amniotes, in the\\nPermian period (towards the end of the palaeozoic age),\\nwhen these higher vertebrates accustomed themselves\\nto live on land and breathe the atmosphere. Their\\nancestors, the amphibia of the Carboniferous period,\\nstill lived and breathed in the water, like their earlier\\npredecessors, the fishes.\\nIn the case of these older and lower vertebrates that\\n144", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nlived in the water, the embryonic development had the\\npalingenetic character in a still higher degree, as is\\nthe case in most of the fishes and amphibia of the pres-\\nent day. The familiar tadpole and the larva of the\\nsalamander or the frog still preserve the structure of\\ntheir fish-ancestors in the first part of their life in the\\nwater they resemble them, likewise, in their habits of\\nlife, in breathing by gills, in the action of their sense-\\norgans, and in other psychic organs. Then, when the\\ninteresting metamorphosis of the swimming tadpole\\ntakes place, and when it adapts itself to a land-life, the\\nfish-like body changes into that of a four-footed, crawl-\\ning amphibium; instead of the gill-breathing in the\\nwater comes an exclusive breathing of the atmosphere\\nby means of lungs, and, with the changed habits of\\nlife, even the psychic apparatus, the nervous system,\\nand the sense-organs reach a higher degree of con-\\nstruction. If we could completely follow the psychog-\\neny of the tadpole from beginning to end, we should be\\nable to apply the biogenetic law in many ways to its\\npsychic evolution. For it develops in direct commu-\\nnication with the changing conditions of the outer\\nworld, and so must quickly adapt its sensation and\\nmovement to these. The swimming tadpole has not\\nonly the structure but the habits of life of a fish, and\\nonly acquires those of a frog in its metamorphosis.\\nIt is different with man and all the other amniotes\\ntheir embryo is entirely withdrawn from the direct in-\\nfluence of the outer world, and cut off from any recip-\\nrocal action therewith, by enclosure in its protective\\nmembranes. Besides, the special care of the young\\non the part of the amniotes gives their embryo much\\nmore favorable conditions for the cenogenetic abbre-\\nviation of the palingenetic evolution. There is, in the\\nK 145", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nfirst place, the excellent arrangement for the nourish-\\nment of the embryo in the reptiles, birds, and mono-\\ntremes (the oviparous mammals) it is effected by the\\ngreat yellow nutritive yelk, which is associated with\\nthe egg in the rest of the mammals (the marsupials\\nand placentals) it is effected by the mother s blood,\\nwhich is conducted to the foetus by the blood-vessels\\nof the yelk-sac and the allantois. In the case of the\\nmost highly developed placentals this elaborate nutri-\\ntive arrangement has reached the highest degree of\\nperfection by the construction of a placenta hence in\\nthese classes the embryo is fully developed before birth.\\nBut its soul remains during all this time in a state of\\nembryonic slumber, a state of repose which Preyer has\\njustly compared to the hibernation of animals. We\\nhave a similar long sleep in the chrysalis stage of those\\ninsects which undergo a complete metamorphosis\\nbutterflies, bees, flies, beetles, and so forth. This sleep\\nof the pupa, during which the most important forma-\\ntions of organs and tissues take place, is the more in-\\nteresting from the fact that the preceding condition of\\nthe free larva (caterpillar, grub, or maggot) included\\na highly developed psychic activity, and that this is,\\nsignificantly, lower than the stage which is seen after-\\nwards (when the chrysalis sleep is over) in the perfect,\\nwinged, sexually mature insect.\\nMan s psychic activity, like that of most of the high-\\ner animals, runs through a long series of stages of de-\\nvelopment during the individual life. We may single\\nout the five following as the most important of them\\nI. The soul of the new-born infant up to the birth\\nof self-consciousness and the learning of speech.\\nII. The soul of the boy or girl up to puberty (i.e.,\\nuntil the awakening of the sexual instinct).\\n146", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE SOUL\\nIII. The soul of the youth or maiden up to the time\\nof sexual intercourse (the idealist period).\\nIV. The soul of the grown man and the mature\\nwoman (the period of full maturity and of the found-\\ning of families, lasting until about the sixtieth year\\nfor the man and the fiftieth for the woman until in-\\nvolution sets in)\\nV. The soul of the old man or woman (the period\\nof degeneration).\\nMan s psychic life runs the same evolution upward\\nprogress, full maturity, and downward degeneration\\nas every other vital activity in his organization.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX\\nTHE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nGradual Historical Evolution of the Human Soul from the Animal\\nSoul Methods of Phylogenetic Psychology Four Chief\\nStages in the Phylogeny of the Soul I. The Cell-Soul (Cyto-\\npsyche) of the Protist (Infusoria, Ova, etc.) Cellular Psychol-\\nogy II. The Soul of a Colony of Cells, or the Cenobitic Soul\\n(Coenopsyche) Psychology of the Morula and Blastula III.\\nThe Soul of the Tissue (Histopsyche) Its Twofold Nature\\nThe Soul of the Plant The Soul of the Lower, Nerveless\\nAnimal Double Soul of the Siphonophora (Personal andKor-\\nmal Soul) IV. The Nerve-Soul (Neuropsyche) of the Higher\\nAnimal Three Sections of its Psychic Apparatus Sense-\\nOrgans, Muscles, and Nerves Typical Formation of the\\nNerve-Centre in the Various Groups of Animals Psychic\\nOrgan of the Vertebrate the Brain and the Spinal Cord\\nPhylogeny of the Mammal Soul.\\nTHE theory of descent, combined with anthropolog-\\nical research, has convinced us of the descent of\\nour human organism from a long series of animal an-\\ncestors by a slow and gradual transformation occupy-\\ning many millions of years. Since, then, we cannot\\ndissever man s psychic life from the rest of his vital\\nfunctions we are rather forced to a conviction of the\\nnatural evolution of our whole body and mind it be-\\ncomes one of the main tasks of the modern monistic\\npsychology to trace the stages of the historical develop-\\nment of the soul of man from the soul of the brute. Our\\nphylogeny of the soul seeks to attain this object it\\n148", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nmay also, as a branch of general psychology, be called\\nphylogenetic psychology, or, in contradistinction to bi-\\nontic (individual), phyletic psychogeny. And, although\\nthis new science has scarcely been taken up in earnest\\nyet, and most of the professional psychologists deny\\nits very right to existence, we must claim for it the ut-\\nmost importance and the deepest interest. For, in our\\nopinion, it is its special province to solve for us the\\ngreat enigma of the nature and origin of the human\\nsoul.\\nThe methods and paths which will lead us to the re-\\nmote goal of a complete phylogenetic psychology a\\ngoal that is still buried in the mists of the future, and\\nalmost imperceptible to many do not differ from those\\nof other branches of evolutionary research. Compar-\\native anatomy, physiology, and ontogeny are of the first\\nimportance. Much support is given also by palaeon-\\ntology, for the order in which the fossil remains of the\\nvarious classes of vertebrates succeed each other in the\\ncourse of organic evolution reveals to us, to some ex-\\ntent, the gradual growth of their psychic power as well\\nas their phyletic connection. We must admit that we\\nare here, as we are in every branch of phylogenetic re-\\nsearch, driven to the construction of a number of hy-\\npotheses in order to fill up the considerable lacunae of\\nempirical phylogeny. Yet these hypotheses cast so\\nclear and significant a light on the chief stages of his-\\ntorical development that we are afforded a most gratify-\\ning insight into their entire course.\\nThe comparative psychology of man and the higher\\nanimals enables us to learn from the highest group of\\nthe placentals, the primates, the long strides by which\\nthe human soul has advanced beyond the psyche of the\\nanthropoid ape. The phylogeny of the mammals and of\\n149", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe lower vertebrates acquaints us with the long series\\nof the earlier ancestors of the primates which have arisen\\nwithin this stem since the Silurian age. All these ver-\\ntebrates agree in the structure and development of their\\ncharacteristic psychic organ the spinal cord. We\\nlearn from the comparative anatomy of the vermalia\\nthat this spinal cord has been evolved from a dorsal aero-\\nganglion, or vertical brain, of an invertebrate ancestor.\\nWe learn, further, from comparative ontogeny that this\\nsimple psychic organ has been evolved from the stratum\\nof cells in the outer germinal layer, the ectoderm, of the\\nplatodes. In these earliest flat-worms, which have no\\nspecialized nervous system, the outer skin -covering\\nserves as a general sensitive and psychic organ. Fi-\\nnally, comparative embryology teaches us that these\\nsimple metazoa have arisen by gastrulation from blas-\\ntseades, from hollow spheres, the wall of which is merely\\none simple layer of cells, the blastoderm and the same\\nscience, with the aid of the biogenetic law, explains how\\nthese protozoic ccenobia originally sprang from the sim-\\nplest unicellular organisms.\\nOn a critical study of these different embryonic for-\\nmations, the evolution of which from each other we can\\ndirectly observe under the microscope, we arrive, by\\nmeans of the great law of biogeny, at a series of most\\nimportant conclusions as to the chief stages in the de-\\nvelopment of our psychic life. We may distinguish\\neight of these to begin with:\\nI. Unicellular protozoa with a simple cell-soul: the\\ninfusoria.\\nII. Multicellular protozoa with a communal soul:\\nthe catallacta.\\nIII. The earliest metazoa with an epithelial soul:\\nthe platodes.\\n*5\u00c2\u00b0", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nIV. Invertebrate ancestors with a simple vertical\\nbrain the vermalia.\\nV. Vertebrates without skull or brain, with a simple\\nspinal cord: the acrania.\\nVI. Animals with skull and brain (of five vesicles)\\nthe craniota.\\nVII. Mammals with predominant development of the\\ncortex of the brain the placentals.\\nVIII. The higher anthropoid apes and man, with\\norgans of thought (in the cerebrum) the anthropo-\\nmorpha.\\nAmong these eight stages in the development of the\\nhuman soul we may further distinguish more or less\\nclearly a number of subordinate stages. Naturally,\\nhowever, in reconstructing them we have to fall back\\non the same defective evidence of empirical psychology\\nwhich the comparative anatomy and physiology of the\\nactual fauna affords us. As the craniote animals of\\nthe sixth stage and these are true fishes are already\\nfound fossilized in the Silurian system, we are forced to\\nassume that the five preceding series of ancestors (which\\nwere incapable of fossilization) were evolved in an ear-\\nlier, pre-Silurian age.\\nI. The cell-soul (or cytopsyche) first stage of phyletic\\npsychogenesis. The earliest ancestors of man and all\\nother animals were unicellular protozoa. This fun-\\ndamental hypothesis of rational phylogeny is based,\\nin virtue of the phylogenetic law, on the familiar em-\\nbryological fact that every man, like every other\\nmetazoon (i.e., every multicellular organism with tis-\\nsues), begins his personal existence as a simple cell,\\nthe stem -cell (cytula), or the impregnated egg -cell\\n(see p. 63) As this cell has a soul from the com-\\nmencement, so had also the corresponding unicellu-\\nI 5 I", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nlar ancestral forms, which were represented in the old-\\nest series of man s ancestors by a number of different\\nprotozoa.\\nWe learn the character of the psychic activity of\\nthese unicellular organisms from the comparative\\nphysiology of the protists of to-day. Close observa-\\ntion and careful experiment have opened out to us in\\nthis respect, in the second half of the nineteenth cen-\\ntury, a new world of the most interesting phenomena.\\nThe best description of them was given by Max Ver-\\nworn in his thoughtful work, based on original re-\\nsearch, Psycho-physiological Studies of the Protists.\\nThe work includes also the few earlier observations\\nof the psychic life of the protist. Verworn came to\\nthe firm conclusion that the psychic processes are un-\\nconscious in all the protists, that the phenomena of\\nsensation and movement coincide with the molecular\\nvital processes in their protoplasm, and that their ulti-\\nmate causes are to be sought in the properties of the\\nprotoplasmic molecules (the plastidules) Hence the\\npsychic phenomena of the protists form a bridge that\\nconnects the chemical processes of the inorganic world\\nwith the psychic life of the highest animals; they\\nrepresent the germ of the highest psychic phenomena\\nof the metazoa and of man.\\nThe careful observations and many experiments of\\nVerworn, together with those of Wilhelm Engelmann,\\nWilhelm Preyer, Richard Hertwig, and other more\\nrecent students of the protists, afford conlcusive evi-\\ndence for my theory of the cell-soul (1866). On the\\nstrength of several years of study of different kinds\\nof protists, especially rhizopods and infusoria, I pub-\\nlished a theory thirty-three years ago to the effect that\\nevery living cell has psychic properties, and that the\\n152", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\npsychic life of the multicellular animals and plants is\\nmerely the sum total of the psychic functions of the\\ncells which build up their structure. In the lower\\ngroups (in algae and sponges, for instance) all the cells\\nof the body have an equal share in it (or with very slight\\ndifferences); in the higher groups, in harmony with\\nthe law of the division of labor, only a select portion\\nof them are involved the soul-cells. The impor-\\ntant consequences of this cellular psychology were\\npartly treated in my work on The Perigenesis of the\\nPlastidule (1876), and partly in my speech at Munich,\\nin 1877, on Modern Evolution in Relation to the Whole\\nof Science. A more popular presentation of them\\nis to be found in my two Vienna papers (1878) on The\\nOrigin and Development of the Sense-Organs and\\non Cell-Souls and Soul-Cells.\\nMoreover, the cell-soul, even within the limits of the\\nprotist world, presents a long series of stages of devel-\\nopment, from the most simple and primitive to a com-\\nparatively elaborate activity. In the earliest and sim-\\nplest protists the faculty of sensation and movement\\nis equally distributed over the entire protoplasm of the\\nhomogeneous morsel in the higher forms certain cell-\\ninstruments, or organella, appear, as their physio-\\nlogical organs. Motor cell-parts of that character are\\nfound in the pseudopodia of the rhizopods, and the vi-\\nbrating hairs, lashes, or cilia of the infusoria. The\\ncell-nucleus, which is wanting in the earlier and lower\\nprotists, is considered to be an internal central organ\\nof the cell-life. It is especially noteworthy, from a\\nphysiologico-chemical point of view, that the very ear-\\nliest protists were plasmodomous, with plant-like nu-\\ntrition hence protophyta, or primitive plants; from\\nthese came as a secondary stage, by metasitism, the\\n153", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nfirst plasmophagi, with animal nutrition the proto-\\nzoa, or primitive animals.* This metasitism, or cir-\\nculation of nutritive matter, implies an important psy-\\nchological advance; with it began the development\\nof those characteristic properties of the animal soul\\nwhich are wanting in the plant.\\nWe find the highest development of the animal cell-\\nsoul in the class of ciliata, or ciliated infusoria. When\\nwe compare their activity with the corresponding psy-\\nchic life of the higher, multicellular animals, we find\\nscarcely any psychological difference; the sensitive\\nand motor organella of these protozoa seem to accom-\\nplish the same as the sense-organs, nerves, and muscles\\nof the metazoa. Indeed, we have found in the great\\ncell-nucleus (meganucleus) of the infusoria a central\\norgan of psychic activity, which plays much the same\\npart in their unicellular organism as the brain does\\nin the psychic life of higher animals. However, it is\\nvery difficult to determine how far this comparison is\\njustified; the views of experts diverge considerably\\nover the matter. Some take all spontaneous bodily\\nmovement in them to be automatic, or impulsive, and\\nall stimulated movement to be reflex; others are con-\\nvinced that such movements are partly voluntary and\\nintentional. The latter would attribute to the infusoria\\na certain degree of consciousness, and even self-con-\\nsciousness; but this is rejected by the others. How-\\never that very difficult question may be settled, it does\\nnot alter the fact that these unicellular protozoa give\\nproof of the possession of a highly developed cell-\\nsoul, which is of great interest for a correct decision\\nas to the psyche of our earliest unicellular ancestors.\\nCf. E. Haeckel, Systematic Phytogeny, vol. i.\\n*54", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nII. The communal or cenobitic soul (coenopsyche)\\nsecond stage of phyletic psychogenesis. Individual\\ndevelopment begins, in man and in all other multi-\\ncellular animals, with the repeated segmentation of\\none simple cell. This stem-cell, the impregnated ovum,\\ndivides first into two daughter cells, by a process of\\nordinary indirect segmentation; as the process is re-\\npeated there arise (by equal division of the egg) suc-\\ncessively four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, sixty -four\\nsuch new cells, or blastomeres. Usually (that is,\\nin the case of the majority of animals) an irregular en-\\nlargement sooner or later takes the place of this original\\nregular division of cells. But the result is the same\\nin all cases the formation of a (generally spherical)\\ncluster of heterogeneous (originally homogeneous)\\ncells. This stage is called the morula mulberry,\\nwhich it somewhat resembles in shape). Then, as\\na rule, a fluid gathers in the interior of this aggregate of\\ncells; it changes into a spherical vesicle; all the cells\\ngo to its surface, and arrange themselves in one simple\\nlayer the blastoderm. The hollow sphere which is\\nthus formed is the important stage of the germinal\\nvesicle, the blastula, or blastosphere.\\nThe psychological phenomena which we directly\\nobserve in the formation of the blastula are partly\\nsensations, partly movements, of this community of\\ncells. The movements may be divided into two groups\\n(i) the inner movements, which are always repeated in\\nsubstantially the same manner in the process of or-\\ndinary (indirect) segmentation of cells (formation of\\nthe axis of the nucleus, mitosis, karyokinesis, etc.)\\n(2) the outer movements, which are seen in the\\nregular change of position of the social cells and\\ntheir grouping for the construction of the blastoderm.\\n155", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nWe assume that these movements are hereditary and\\nunconscious, because they are always determined in\\nthe same fashion by heredity from the earlier protist\\nancestors. The sensations also fall into two groups\\n(i) the sensations of the individual cells, which reveal\\nthemselves in the assertion of their individual inde-\\npendence and their relation to neighboring cells (with\\nwhich they are in contact, and partly in direct com-\\nbination, by means of protoplasmic fibres) (2) the\\ncommon sensation of the entire community of cells,\\nwhich is seen in the individual formation of the blastula\\nas a hollow vesicle.\\nThe causal interpretation of the formation of the\\nblastula is given us by the biogenetic law, which ex-\\nplains the phenomena we directly observe to be the\\noutcome of heredity, and relates them to correspond-\\ning historical processes which took place long ago in\\nthe origin of the earliest protist-coenobia, the blastaeads.\\nBut we get a physiological and psychological insight\\ninto these important phenomena of the earliest cell-\\ncommunities by observation and experiment on their\\nmodern representatives. Such permanent cell -com-\\nmunities or colonies are still found in great numbers\\nboth among the plasmodomous primitive plants (for\\ninstance, the paulotomacea, diatomacea, volvocinae,\\netc.) and the plasmophagous primitive animals (the\\ninfusoria and rhizopods). In all these coenobia we\\ncan easily distinguish two different grades of psychic\\nactivity: (1) the cell-soul of the individual cells (the\\nelementary organisms and (2) the communal soul\\nof the entire colony.\\nIII. The tissue -soul (histopsyche) third stage of\\nphyletic psychogenesis. In all multicellular, tissue-\\nforming plants (metaphyta) and in the lowest, nerve-\\n156", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nless classes of tissue-forming animals (metazoa) we\\nhave to distinguish two different forms of psychic ac-\\ntivity namely (i) the psyche of the individual cells\\nwhich compose the tissue, and (2) the psyche of the tis-\\nsue itself, or of the cell-state which is made up of the\\ntissues. This tissue-soul is the higher psychologi-\\ncal function which gives physiological individuality to\\nthe compound multicellular organism as a true cell-\\ncommonwealth. It controls all the separate cell-\\nsouls of the social cells the mutually dependent\\ncitizens which constitute the community. This fun-\\ndamental twofold character of the psyche in the meta-\\nphyta and the lower, nerveless metazoa is very impor-\\ntant. It may be verified by unprejudiced observation\\nand suitable experiment. In the first place, each sin-\\ngle cell has its own sensation and movement, and, in\\naddition, each tissue and each organ, composed of a\\nnumber of homogeneous cells, has its special irritabil-\\nity and psychic unity (e.g., the pollen and stamens).\\nA. The plant-soul (phytopsyche) is, in our view, the\\nsummary of the entire psychic activity of the tissue-\\nforming, multicellular plant (the metaphyton, as dis-\\ntinct from the unicellular protophyton) it is, however,\\nthe subject of the most diverse opinions even at the\\npresent day. It was once customary to draw an essen-\\ntial distinction between the plant and the animal, on\\nthe ground that the latter had a soul and the plant\\nhad none. However, an unprejudiced comparison of\\nthe irritability and movements of various higher plants\\nand lower animals convinced many observers, even at\\nthe beginning of the century, that there must be a\\nsoul on both sides. At a later date Fechner, Leit-\\ngeb, and others strongly contended for the plant-soul.\\nBut a profounder knowledge of the subject was ob-\\n157", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntained when the similarity of the elementary structure\\nof the plant and of the animal was proved by the cellu-\\nlar theory, and especially when the similarity of con-\\nduct of the active, living protoplasm in both was shown\\nin the plasma theory of Max Schultze (1859). Modern\\ncomparative physiology has shown that the physio-\\nlogical attitude towards various stimuli (light, heat,\\nelectricity, gravity, friction, chemical action, etc.) of\\nthe sensitive portions of many plants and animals\\nis exactly the same, and that the reflex movements\\nwhich the stimuli elicit take place in precisely the same\\nmanner on both sides. Hence, if it was necessary to\\nattribute this activity to a soul in the lower, nerveless\\nmetazoa (sponges, polyps, etc.), it was also necessary\\nin the case of many (if not all) metaphyta, at least in the\\nvery sensitive mimosa, the fly-traps (dionaea and\\ndrosera), and the numerous kinds of climbing plants.\\nIt is true that modern vegetal physiology has given\\na purely physical explanation of many of these stimu-\\nlated movements, or tropisms, by special features of\\ngrowth, variations of pressure, etc. Yet these me-\\nchanical causes are neither more nor less psychophysi-\\ncal than the similar reflex movements of the sponges,\\npolyps, and other nerveless metazoa, even though\\ntheir mechanism is entirely different. The character of\\nthe tissue-soul reveals itself in the same way in both\\ncases the cells of the tissue (the regular, orderly struct-\\nure of cells) transmit the stimuli they have received\\nin one part, and thus provoke movements of other\\nparts, or of the whole organ. This transmission of\\nstimuli has as much title to be called psychic activity\\nas its more complete form in the higher animals with\\nnerves the anatomic explanation of it is that the social\\ncells of the tissue, or cell-community, are not isolated", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nfrom each other (as was formerly supposed), but are\\nconnected throughout by fine threads or bridges of\\nprotoplasm. When the sensitive mimosa closes its\\ngraceful leaves and droops its stalk at contact, or on\\nbeing shaken when the irritable fly-trap (the dionaea)\\nswiftly clasps its leaves together at a touch, and capt-\\nures a fly the sensation seems to be keener, the trans-\\nmission of the stimulus more rapid, and the movement\\nmore energetic than in the reflex action of the stimu-\\nlated bath-sponge and many other sponges.\\nB. The soul of the nerveless metazoa. Of very special\\ninterest for comparative psychology in general, and for\\nthe phylogeny of the animal soul in particular, is the\\npsychic activity of those lower metazoa which have\\ntissues, and sometimes differentiated organs, but no\\nnerves or specific organs of sense. To this category\\nbelong four different groups of the earliest coelen-\\nterates: (a) the gastrseads, (b) the platodaria, (c) the\\nsponges, and (d) the hydropolyps, the lowest form of\\ncnidaria.\\nThe gastraeads (or animals with a primitive gut)\\nform a small group of the lowest ccelenterates, which\\nis of great importance as the common ancestral group\\nof all the metazoa. The body of these little swimming\\nanimals looks like a tiny (generally oval) vesicle,\\nwhich has a simple cavity with one opening the prim-\\nitive gut and the primitive mouth. The wall of the di-\\ngestive cavity is formed of two simple layers of cells,\\nor epithelium, the inner of which the gut-layer is\\nresponsible for the vegetal activity of nourishment,\\nwhile the outer, or skin-layer, discharges the animal\\nfunctions of movement and sensation. The homoge-\\nneous sensitive cells of the skin-layer bear long, slender\\nhairs or lashes (cilia), by the vibration of which the\\nr 59", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nswimming motion is effected. The few surviving forms\\nof gastraeads, the gastrsemaria (trichoplacidae) and cye-\\nmaria (orthonectidae) are extremely interesting, from\\nthe fact that they remain throughout life at a stage\\nof structure which is passed by all the other metazoa\\n(from the sponge to man) at the commencement of their\\nembryonic development. As I have shown in my The-\\nory of the Gastraea (1872), a very characteristic embry-\\nonic form, the gastrula, is immediately developed from\\nthe blastula in all the tissue animals. The germinal\\nmembrane (blastoderm), which represents the wall of\\nthe hollow vesicle, forms a depression at one side, and\\nthis soon sinks in so deep that the inner cavity of the\\nvesicle disappears. The half of the membrane which\\nbends in is thus laid on, and inside, the other half;\\nthe latter forms the skin-layer, or outer germinal layer\\n(ectoderm or epiblast), and the former becomes the gut-\\nlayer, or inner germinal layer (endoderm or hypoblast).\\nThe new cavity of the cup-shaped body is the digestive\\nstomach cavity (the pro gaste), and its opening is the\\nprimitive mouth (or prostoma)* The skin-layer, or ec-\\ntoderm, is the primitive psychic organ in the metazoa\\nfrom it, in all the nerve animals, not only the external\\nskin and the organs of sense, but also the nervous sys-\\ntem, are developed. In the gastraeads, which have no\\nnerves, all the cells which compose the simple epithe-\\nlium of the ectoderm are equally organs of sensation\\nand of movement we have here the tissue-soul in its\\nsimplest form.\\nThe platodaria, the earliest and simplest form of the\\npiatodes, seem to be of the same primitive construction.\\nSome of these cryptocoela the convoluta, etc. have\\nCf Anthropogeny and Natural History of Creation.\\n160", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nno specific nervous system, while their nearest rela-\\ntives, the turbellaria, have already differentiated one,\\nand even developed a vertical brain.\\nThe sponges form a peculiar group in the animal world,\\nwhich differs widely in organization from all the other\\nmetazoa. The innumerable kinds of sponges grow, as\\na rule, at the bottom of the sea. The simplest form of\\nsponge, the olynthus, is in reality nothing more than a\\ngastraea, the body-wall of which is perforated like a\\nsieve, with fine pores, in order to permit the entrance of\\nthe nourishing stream of water. In the majority of\\nsponges even in the most familiar one, the bath-sponge\\nthe bulbous organism constructs a kind of stem or tree,\\nwhich is made up of thousands of these gastraeads, and\\npermeated by a nutritive system of canals. Sensation\\nand movement are only developed in the faintest degree\\nin the sponges they have no nerves, muscles, or organs\\nof sense. It was therefore quite natural that such\\nstationary, shapeless, insensitive animals should have\\nbeen commonly taken to be plants in earlier years.\\nTheir psychic life for which no special organs have\\nbeen differentiated is far inferior to that of the mi-\\nmosa and other sensitive plants.\\nThe soul of the cnidaria is of the utmost importance\\nin comparative and phylogenetic psychology for in this\\nnumerous group of the coelenterates the historical evo-\\nlution of the nerve-soul out of the tissue-soul is repeated\\nbefore our eyes. To this group belong the innumerable\\nclasses of stationary polyps and corals, and of swim-\\nming medusae and siphonophora. As the common an-\\ncestor of all the cnidaria we can safely assign a very sim-\\nple polyp, which is substantially the same in structure\\nas the common, still surviving, fresh-water polyp the\\nhydra. Yet the hydrae, and the stationary, closely re-\\nl 161", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nlated hydropolyps, have no nerves or higher sense-or-\\ngans, although they are extremely sensitive. On the\\nother hand, the free-swimming medusae, which are de-\\nveloped from them and are still connected with them by\\nalternation of generations have an independent ner-\\nvous system and specific sense-organs. Here, also, we\\nmay directly observe the ontogenetic evolution of the\\nnerve-soul (neuropsyche) out of the tissue-soul (histo-\\npsyche), and thus learn its phylogenetic origin. This\\nis the more interesting as such phenomena are polyphy-\\nletic that is, they have occurred several times more\\nthan once, at least quite independently. As I have\\nshown elsewhere, the hydromedusae have arisen from the\\nhydropolyps in a different manner from that of the evo-\\nlution of the scyphomedusae from the scyphopolyps\\nthe gemmation is terminal in the case of the latter, and\\nlateral with the former. In addition, both groups have\\ncharacteristic hereditary differences in the more minute\\nstructure of their psychic organs. The class of siphon-\\nophora is also very interesting to the psychologist. In\\nthese pretty, free-swimming organisms, which come\\nfrom the hydromedusae we can observe a double soul\\nthe personal soul of the numerous individualities which\\ncompose them, and the common, harmoniously acting\\npsyche of the entire colony.\\nIV. The nerve-soul (neuropsyche) fourth stage of\\nphyletic psychogeny. The psychic life of all the higher\\nanimals is conducted, as in man, by means of a more or\\nless complicated psychic apparatus. This appara-\\ntus is always composed of three chief sections the or-\\ngans of sense are responsible for the various sensations\\nthe muscles effect the movements the nerves form the\\nconnection between the two by means of a special cen-\\ntral organ, the brain or ganglion. The arrangement\\n162", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nand action of this psychic mechanism have been fre-\\nquently compared with those of a telegraphic system\\nthe nerves are the wires, the brain the central, and the\\nsense-organs subordinate stations. The motor nerves\\nconduct the commands of the will centrif ugally from the\\nnerve-centre to the muscles, by the contraction of which\\nthey produce the movements the sensitive nerves trans-\\nmit the various sensations centripetally that is, from\\nthe peripheral sense-organs to the brain, and thus ren-\\nder an account of the impressions they receive from the\\nouter world. The ganglionic cells, or psychic cells,\\nwhich compose the central nervous organ, are the most\\nperfect of all organic elements they not only conduct\\nthe commerce between the muscles and the organs of\\nsense, but they also effect the highest performances of\\nthe animal soul, the formation of ideas and thoughts,\\nand especially consciousness.\\nThe great progress of anatomy, physiology, his-\\ntology, and ontogeny has recently added a wealth\\nof interesting discoveries to our knowledge of the\\nmechanism of the soul. If speculative philosophy\\nassimilated only the most important of these signif-\\nicant results of empirical biology, it would have a very\\ndifferent character from that it unfortunately presents.\\nAs I have not space for an exhaustive treatment of\\nthem here, I will confine myself to a relation of the chief\\nfacts.\\nEach of the higher animal species has a character-\\nistic psychic organ; the central nervous system of\\neach has certain peculiarities of shape, position, and\\ncomposition. The medusae, among the radiating\\ncnidaria, have a ring of nervous matter at the border\\nof the fringe, generally provided with four or eight\\nganglia. The mouth of the five-rayed cnidarion is\\n163", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ngirt with a nerve-ring, from which proceed five branches.\\nThe bi-symmetrical platodes and the vermalia have a\\nvertical brain, or acroganglion, composed of two dorsal\\nganglia, lying above the mouth; from these upper\\nganglia two branch nerves proceed to the skin and\\nthe muscles. In some of the vermalia and in the mol-\\nlusca a pair of ventral lower ganglia are added,\\nwhich are connected with the former by a ring round\\nthe gullet. This ring is found also in the articulata\\nbut in these it is continued on the belly side of the\\nlong body as a ventral medulla, a double fibre like a\\nrope-ladder, which expands into a double ganglion in\\neach member. The vertebrates have an entirely dif-\\nferent formation of the psychic organ; they have al-\\nways a spinal medulla developed at the back of the\\nbody; and from an expansion of its fore part there\\narises subsequently the characteristic vesicular brain.\\nAlthough the psychic organs of the higher species\\nof animals differ very materially in position, form, and\\ncomposition, nevertheless comparative anatomy is in\\na position to prove a common origin for most of them\\nnamely, from the vertical brain of the platodes and\\nvermalia; they have all, moreover, had their origin\\nin the outermost layer of the embryo, the ectoderm, or\\nouter skin -layer. Hence we find the same typical\\nstructure in all varieties of the central nervous organ\\na combination of ganglionic cells, or psychic cells\\n(the real active elementary organs of the soul), and of\\nnerve -fibres, which effect the connection and trans-\\nmission of the action.\\nThe first fact we meet in the comparative psychol-\\nogy of the vertebrates, and which should be the em-\\nCf Natural History of Creation.\\n164", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\npirical starting-point of all scientific human psychology,\\nis the characteristic structure of the central nervous\\nsystem. This central psychic organ has a particular\\nposition, shape, and texture in the vertebrate as it has\\nin all the higher species. In every case we find a spi-\\nnal medulla, a strong cylindrical nervous cord, which\\nruns down the middle of the back, in the upper part of\\nthe vertebral column (or the cord which represents it).\\nIn every case a number of nerves branch off from this\\nmedulla in regular division, one pair to each segment\\nor vertebra. In every case this medullary cord arises\\nin the same way in the foetus; a fine groove appears\\nin the middle axis of the skin at the back then the par-\\nallel borders of this medullary groove are lifted up a\\nlittle, bend over towards each other, and form into a\\nkind of tube.\\nThe long dorsal cylindrical medullary tube which\\nis thus formed is thoroughly characteristic of the ver-\\ntebrates it is always the same in the early embryonic\\nsketch of the organism, and it is always the chief feat-\\nure of the different kinds of psychic organ which evolve\\nfrom it in time. Only one single group of invertebrates\\nhas a similar structure the rare, marine tunicata,\\ncopelata, ascidia, and thalidiae. These animals have\\nother important peculiarities of structure (especially\\nin the chorda and the gut) which show a striking di-\\nvergence from the other invertebrates and resemblance\\nto the vertebrates. The inference we draw is that both\\nthese groups, the vertebrates and the tunicates, have\\narisen from a common ancestral group of the vermalia,\\nthe prochordonia* Still, there is a great difference\\nbetween the two classes in the fact that the body of the\\nSee chaps, xvi. and xvii. of my Anthropogeny.\\n65", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntunicate does not articulate, or form members, and has\\na very simple organization (most of them subsequently\\nattach themselves to the bottom of the sea and degen-\\nerate). The vertebrate, on the other hand, is charac-\\nterized by an early development of internal members,\\nand the formation of pro- vertebrae (vertebratio) This\\nprepares the way for the much higher development of\\ntheir organism, which finally attains perfection in man.\\nThis is easily seen in the finer structure of his spinal\\ncord, and in the development of a number of segmental\\npairs of nerves, the spinal nerves, which proceed to the\\nvarious parts of the body.\\nThe long ancestral history of our vertebrate soul\\ncommences with the formation of the most rudimentary\\nspinal cord in the earliest acrania; slowly and gradu-\\nally, through a period of many millions of years, it\\nconducts to that marvellous structure of the human\\nbrain which seems to entitle the highest primate form\\nto quite an exceptional position in nature. Since a\\nclear conception of this slow and steady progress of\\nour phyletic psychogeny is indispensable for a true\\npsychology, we must divide that vast period into a\\nnumber of stages or sections in each of them the per-\\nfecting of the structure of the nervous centre has been\\naccompanied by a corresponding evolution of its func-\\ntion, the psyche. I distinguish eight of these periods\\nin the phylogeny of the spinal cord, which are charac-\\nterized by eight different groups of vertebrates (i) the\\nacrania; (2) the cyclostomata (3) the fishes; (4) the\\namphibia (5) the implacental mammals (monotr ernes\\nand marsupials) (6) the earlier placental mammals,\\nespecially the prosimiae; (7) the younger primates,\\nthe simiae and (8) the anthropoid apes and man.\\nI. First stage the acrania their only modern\\n166", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nrepresentative is the lancelot or amphioxus; the psy-\\nchic organ remains a simple medullary tube, and con-\\ntains a regularly segmented spinal cord, without brain.\\nII. Second stage the cyclostomata the oldest group\\nof the craniota, now only represented by the petromy-\\nzontes and myxinoides the fore-termination of the\\ncord expands into a vesicle, which then subdivides\\ninto five successive parts the great-brain, intermedi-\\nate-brain, middle-brain, little-brain, and hind-brain:\\nthese five cerebral vesicles form the common type from\\nwhich the brain of all craniota has evolved, from the\\nlamprey to man.\\nIII. Third stage the primitive fishes (selachii) sim-\\nilar to the modern shark in these oldest fishes, from\\nwhich all the gnathostomata descend, the more pro-\\nnounced division of the. five cerebral vesicles sets in.\\nIV. Fourth stage the amphibia. These earliest\\nland animals, making their first appearance in the Car-\\nboniferous period, represent the commencement of the\\ncharacteristic structure of the tetrapod and a correspond-\\ning development of the fish-brain: it advances still\\nfurther in their Permian successors, the reptiles, the\\nearliest representatives of which, the tocosauria, are the\\ncommon ancestors of all the amniota (reptiles and birds\\non one side, mammals on the other).\\nV.-VIII. Fifth to the eighth stages the mammals.\\nI have exhaustively treated, and illustrated with a num-\\nber of plates, in my Anthropogeny, the evolution of our\\nnervous system and the correlative question of the de-\\nvelopment of the soul. I have now, therefore, merely\\nto refer the reader to that work. It only remains for\\nme to add a few remarks on the last and most interest-\\ning class of facts pertaining to this to the evolution of\\nthe soul and its organs within the limits of the class\\n167", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmammalia. In doing so, I must remind the reader\\nthat the monophyletic origin of this class that is, the\\ndescent of all the mammals from one common ancestral\\nform (of the Triassic period) is now fully established.\\nThe most important consequence of the monophy-\\nletic origin of the mammals is the necessity of deriving\\nthe human soul from a long evolutionary series of other\\nmammal souls. A deep anatomical and physiological\\ngulf separated the brain structure and the dependent\\npsychic activity of the higher mammals from those of\\nthe lower: this gulf, however, is. completely bridged\\nover by a long series of intermediate stages. The pe-\\nriod of at least fourteen (more than a hundred, on other\\nestimates) million years, which has elapsed since the\\ncommencement of the Triassic period, is amply suffi-\\ncient to allow even the greatest psychological advance.\\nThe following is a summary of the results of investi-\\ngation in this quarter, which has recently been very\\npenetrating\\nI. The brain of the mammal is differentiated from\\nthat of the other vertebrates by certain features, which\\nare found in all branches of the class especially by a\\npreponderant development of the first and fourth ves-\\nicles, the cerebrum and cerebellum, while the third ves-\\nicle, the middle brain, disappears altogether.\\nII. The brain development of the lowest and earliest\\nmammals (the monotremes, marsupials, and procho-\\nriates) is closely allied to that of their palaeozoic ances-\\ntors, the Carboniferous amphibia (the stegocephala) and\\nthe Permian reptiles (the tocosauria).\\nIII. During the Tertiary period commences the typ-\\nical development of the cerebrum, which distinguishes\\nthe younger mammals so strikingly from the older.\\nIV. The special development (quantitatively and\\n1 68", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE PHYLOGENY OF THE SOUL\\nqualitatively) of the cerebrum which is so prominent\\na feature in man, and which is the root of his pre-\\neminent psychic achievements, is only found, outside\\n4 humanity, in a small section of the most highly devel-\\noped mammals of the earlier Tertiary epoch, especially\\nin the anthropoid apes.\\nV. The differences of brain structure and psychic\\nfaculty which separate man from the anthropoid ape\\nare slighter than the corresponding interval between\\nthe anthropoid apes and the lower primates (the ear-\\nliest simise and prosimiae).\\nVI. Consequently, the historical, gradual evolution\\n4L of the human soul from a long chain of higher and\\nlower mammal souls must, by application of the uni-\\nversally valid phyletic laws of the theory of descent,\\nbe regarded as a fact which has been scientifically\\nproved.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X\\nCONSCIOUSNESS\\nConsciousness as a Natural Phenomenon Its Definition Diffi-\\nculties of the Problem Its Relation to the Life of the Soul\\nOur Human Consciousness Various Theories I. Anthro-\\npistic Theory (Descartes) II. Neurological Theory (Darwin)\\nIII. Animal Theory (Schopenhauer) IV. Biological Theory\\n(Fechner) V. Cellular Theory (Fritz Schultze) VI. Atomistic\\nTheory Monistic and Dualistic Theories Transcendental\\nCharacter of Consciousness The Ignorabimus Verdict of\\nDu Bois-Reymond Physiology of Consciousness Discov-\\nery of the Organs of Thought by Flechsig Pathology\\nDouble and Intermittent Consciousness Ontogeny of Con-\\nsciousness Modifications at Different Ages Phylogeny of\\nConsciousness Formation of Concepts\\n]\\\\T0 phenomenon of the life of the soul is so wonder.\\nful and so variously interpreted as consciousness.\\nThe most contradictory views are current to-day, as they\\nwere two thousand years ago, not only with regard to\\nthe nature of this psychic function and its relation to\\nthe body, but even as to its diffusion in the organic\\nworld and its origin and development. It is more re-\\nsponsible than any other psychic faculty for the erro-\\nneous idea of an immaterial soul and the belief in\\npersonal immortality many of the gravest errors\\nthat still dominate even our modern civilization may\\nbe traced to it. Hence it is that I have entitled con-\\nsciousness the central mystery of psychology it\\n170", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nis the strong citadel of all mystic and dualistic er-\\nrors, before whose ramparts the best-equipped efforts\\nof reason threaten to miscarry. This fact would suf-\\nfice of itself to induce us to make a special critical\\nstudy of consciousness from our monistic point of view.\\nWe shall see that consciousness is simply a natural\\nphenomenon like any other psychic quality, and that\\nit is subject to the law of substance like all other nat-\\nural phenomena.\\nEven as to the elementary idea of consciousness, its\\ncontents and extension, the views of the most distin-\\nguished philosophers and scientists are widely diver-\\ngent. Perhaps the meaning of consciousness is best\\nconceived as an internal perception, and compared with\\nthe action of a mirror. As its two chief departments\\nwe distinguish objective and subjective consciousness\\nconsciousness of the world, the non-ego, and of the\\nego. By far the greater part of our conscious activity,\\nas Schopenhauer justly remarked, belongs to the con-\\nsciousness of the outer world, or the non-ego: this\\nworld-consciousness embraces all possible phenomena\\nof the outer world which are in any sense accessible to\\nour minds. Much more contracted is the sphere of\\nself-consciousness, the internal mirror of all our own\\npsychic activity, all our presentations, sensations, and\\nvolitions.\\nMany distinguished thinkers, especially on the phys-\\niological side (Wundt and Ziehen, for instance) take\\nthe ideas of consciousness and psychic function to be\\nidentical all psychic action is conscious the prov-\\nince of psychic life, they say, is coextensive with that\\nof consciousness. In our opinion, such a definition\\ngives an undue extension to the meaning of con-\\nsciousness, and occasions many errors and misunder-\\n171", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nstandings. We share, rather, the view of other phi-\\nlosophers (Romanes, Fritz Schultze, and Paulsen),\\nthat even our unconscious presentations, sensations,\\nand volitions pertain to our psychic life; indeed,\\nthe province of these unconscious psychic actions\\n(reflex action, and so forth) is far more extensive\\nthan that of consciousness. Moreover, the two prov-\\ninces are intimately connected, and are separated by\\nno sharp line of demarcation. An unconscious pres-\\nentation may become conscious at any moment; let\\nour attention be withdrawn from it by some other ob-\\nject, and forthwith it disappears from consciousness\\nonce more.\\nThe only source of our knowledge of consciousness\\nis that faculty itself; that is the chief cause of the\\nextraordinary difficulty of subjecting it to scientific\\nresearch. Subject and object are one and the same\\nin it: the perceptive subject mirrors itself in its own\\ninner nature, which is to be the object of our inquiry.\\nThus we can never have a complete objective certainty\\nof the consciousness of others; we can only proceed\\nby a comparison of their psychic condition with our\\nown. As long as this comparison is restricted to nor-\\nmal people we are justified in drawing certain conclu-\\nsions as to their consciousness, the validity of which is\\nunchallenged. But when we pass on to consider ab-\\nnormal individuals (the genius, the eccentric, the stu-\\npid, or the insane) our conclusions from analogy are\\neither unsafe or entirely erroneous. The same must\\nbe said with even greater truth when we attempt to\\ncompare human consciousness with that of the animals\\n(even the higher, but especially the lower). In that\\ncase such grave difficulties arise that the views of phys-\\niologists and philosophers diverge as widely as the\\n173", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\npoles on the subject. We shall briefly enumerate the\\nmost important of these views.\\nI. The anthropistic theory of consciousness. It is pe-\\nculiar to man. To Descartes we must trace the wide-\\nspread notion that consciousness and thought are man s\\nexclusive prerogative, and that he alone is blessed with\\nan immortal soul. This famous French philosopher\\nand mathematician (educated in a Jesuit College) es-\\ntablished a rigid partition between the psychic activity\\nof man and that of the brute. In his opinion the hu-\\nman soul, a thinking, immaterial being, is completely\\nseparated from the body, which is extended and ma-\\nterial. Yet it is united to the body at a certain point\\nin the brain (the glandula pinealis) for the purpose of\\nreceiving impressions from the outer world and effecting\\nmuscular movements. The animals, not being en-\\ndowed with thought, have no soul they are mere auto-\\nmata, or cleverly constructed machines, whose sensa-\\ntions, presentations, and volitions are purely mechan-\\nical, and take place according to the ordinary laws of\\nphysics. Hence Descartes was a dualist in human\\npsychology, and a monist in the psychology of the\\nbrute. This open contradiction in so clear and acute\\na thinker is very striking; in explaning it, it is not\\nunnatural to suppose that he concealed his real opin-\\nion, and left the discovery of it to independent scholars.\\nAs a pupil of the Jesuits, Descartes had been taught to\\ndeny the truth in the face of his better insight; and\\nperhaps he dreaded the power and the fires of the\\nChurch. Besides, his sceptical principle, that every\\nsincere effort to attain the truth must start with a doubt\\nof the traditional dogma had already drawn upon him\\nfanatical accusations of scepticism and atheism. The\\ngreat influence which Descartes had on subsequent\\n173", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nphilosophy was very remarkable, and entirely in har-\\nmony with his book-keeping by double entry. The\\nmaterialists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries\\nappealed to the Cartesian theory of the animal soul and\\nits purely mechanical activity in support of their mon-\\nistic psychology. The spiritualists, on the other hand,\\nasserted that their dogma of the immortality of the soul\\nand its independence of the body was firmly established\\nby Descartes theory of the human soul. This view\\nis still prevalent in the camp of the theologians and\\ndualistic metaphysicians. The scientific conception\\nof nature, however, which has been built up in the\\nnineteenth century, has, with the aid of empirical prog-\\nress, in physiological and comparative psychology,\\ncompletely falsified it.\\nII. Neurological theory of consciousness. It is pres-\\nent only in man and those higher animals which have\\na centralized nervous system and organs of sense.\\nThe conviction that a large number of animals at\\nleast the higher mammals are not less endowed than\\nman with a thinking soul and consciousness prevails\\nin modern zoology, exact physiology, and the monistic\\npsychology. The immense progress we have made\\nin the various branches of biology has contributed to\\nbring about a recognition of this important truth.\\nWe confine ourselves for the present to the higher ver-\\ntebrates, and especially the mammals. That these\\nmost intelligent specimens of these highly developed\\nvertebrates apes and dogs, in particular have a\\nstrong resemblance to man in their whole psychic\\nlife has been recognized and speculated on for thou-\\nsands of years. Their faculty of presentation and\\nsensation, of feeling and desire, is so like that of man\\nthat we need adduce no proof of our thesis. But even\\n174", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nthe higher associational activity of the brain, the for-\\nmation of judgments and their connection into chains\\nof reasoning, thought, and consciousness in the nar-\\nrower sense, are developed in them after the same fash-\\nion as in man they differ only in degree, not in kind.\\nMoreover, we learn from comparative anatomy and his-\\ntology that the intricate structure of the brain (both in\\ngeneral and in detail) is substantially the same in the\\nmammals as it is in man. The same lesson is enforced\\nby comparative ontogeny with regard to the origin of\\nthese psychic organs. Comparative physiology teaches\\nus that the various states of consciousness are just\\nthe same in these highest placentals as in man; and\\nwe learn by experiment that there is the same reaction\\nto external stimuli. The higher animals can be nar-\\ncotized by alcohol, chloroform, ether, etc., and may be\\nhypnotized by the usual methods, just as in the case of\\nman.\\nIt is, however, ^impossible to determine mathemati-\\ncally at what stage of animal life consciousness is to be\\nfirst recognized as such. Some zoologists draw the line\\nvery high in the scale, others very low. Darwin, who\\nmost accurately distinguishes the various stages of\\nconsciousness, intelligence, and emotion in the higher\\nanimals, and explains them by progressive evolution,\\npoints out how difficult, or even impossible, it is to de-\\ntermine the first beginning of this supreme psychic fac-\\nulty in the lower animals. Personally, out of the many\\ncontradictory theories, I take that to be most probable\\nwhich holds the centralization of the nervous system to\\nbe a condition of consciousness and that is wanting in\\nthe lower classes of animals. The presence of a central\\nnervous organ, of highly developed sense-organs, and\\nan elaborate association of groups of presentations,\\n175", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nseem to me to be required before the unity of conscious-\\nness is possible.\\nIII. Animal theory of consciousness. All animals,\\nand they alone, have consciousness. This theory\\nwould draw a sharp distinction between the psychic\\nlife of the animal and of the plant. Such a distinc-\\ntion was urged by many of the older writers, and was\\nclearly formulated by Linne in his celebrated Systema\\nNaturae the two great kingdoms of the organic world\\nare, in his opinion, divided by the fact that animals\\nhave sensation and consciousness, and the plants are\\ndevoid of them. Later on Schopenhauer laid stress on\\nthe same distinction Consciousness is only known\\nto us as a feature of animal nature. Even though it\\nextend upwards through the whole animal kingdom,\\neven to man and his reason, the unconsciousness of the\\nplant, from which it started, remains as the basic feat-\\nure. In the lowest animals we have but the dawn of\\nit. The inaccuracy of this view was obvious by about\\nthe middle of the present century, when a deeper study\\nwas made of the psychic activity of the lower animal\\nforms, especially the coelenterates (sponges and cni-\\ndaria) they are undoubtedly animals, yet there is no\\nmore trace of a definite consciousness in them than in\\nmost of the plants. The distinction between the two\\nkingdoms was still further obliterated when more care-\\nful research was made into their unicellular forms.\\nThere is no psychological difference between the plas-\\nmophagous protozoa and the plasmodomous proto-\\nphyta, even in respect of their consciousness.\\nIV. Biological theory of consciousness. It is found\\nin all organisms, animal or vegetal, but not in lifeless\\nbodies (such as crystals). This opinion is usually as-\\nsociated with the idea that all organisms (as distin-\\n176", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nguished from inorganic substances) have souls: the\\nthree ideas lif e, soul, and consciousness are then\\ntaken to be coextensive. Another modification of this\\nview holds that, though these fundamental phenomena\\nof organic life are inseparably connected, yet conscious-\\nness is only a part of the activity of the soul, and of the\\nvital activity. Fechner, in particular, has endeavored\\nto prove that the plant has a soul, in the same sense\\nas an animal is said to have one and many credit the\\nvegetal soul with a consciousness similar to that of\\nthe animal soul. In truth, the remarkable stimulated\\nmovements of the leaves of the sensitive plants (the mi-\\nmosa, drosera, and dionaea), the automatic movements\\nof other plants (the clover and wood-sorrel, and espe-\\ncially the hedysarum), the movements of the sleeping\\nplants (particularly the papilionacea) etc., are strik-\\ningly similar to the movements of the lower animal\\nforms: whoever ascribes consciousness to the latter\\ncannot refuse it to such vegetal forms.\\nV. Cellular theory of consciousness It is a vital prop-\\nerty of every cell. The application of the cellular the-\\nory to every branch of biology involved its extension\\nto psychology. Just as we take the living cell to be\\nthe elementary organism in anatomy and physiolo-\\ngy, and derive the whole system of the multicellular\\nanimal or plant from it, so, with equal right, we may\\nconsider the cell-soul to be the psychological unit,\\nand the complex psychic activity of the higher organism\\nto be the result of the combination of the psychic activ-\\nity of the cells which compose it. I gave the outlines\\nof this cellular psychology in my General Morphology\\nin 1866, and entered more fully into the subject in my\\npaper on Cell-Souls and Soul-Cells. I was led to a\\ndeeper study of this elementary psychology by my\\nM 177", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nprotracted research into the unicellular forms of life.\\nMany of these tiny (generally microscopic) protists\\nshow similar expressions of sensation and will, and\\nsimilar instincts and movements, to those of higher\\nanimals; that is especially true of the very sensitive\\nand lively infusoria. In the relation of these sensitive\\ncell-organisms to their environment, and in many other\\nof their vital expressions (for instance, in the wonder-\\nful architecture of the rhizopods, the thalamophorae,\\nand the infusoria), we seemed to have clear indications\\nof conscious psychic action. If, then, we accept the\\nbiological theory of consciousness (No. IV.), and credit\\nevery psychic function with a share of that faculty, we\\nshall be compelled to ascribe it to each independent pro-\\ntist cell. In that case its material basis would be either\\nthe entire protoplasm of the cell, or its nucleus, or a por-\\ntion of it. In the psychade theory of Fritz Schultze\\nthe elementary consciousness of the psychade would\\nhave the same relation to the individual cells as per-\\nsonal consciousness has to the multicellular organism\\nof the personality in the higher animals and man.\\nIt is impossible definitively to disprove this theory,\\nwhich I held at one time. Still, I now feel compelled\\nto agree with Max Verworn, in his belief that none of\\nthe protists have a developed self-consciousness, but\\nthat their sensations and movements are of an uncon-\\nscious character.\\nVI. Atomistic theory of consciousness. It is an ele-\\nmentary property of all atoms. This atomistic hy-\\npothesis goes furthest of all the different views as to\\nthe extension of consciousness. It certainly escapes\\nthe difficulty which so many philosophers and biolo-\\ngists experience in solving the problem of the first or-\\nigin of consciousness. It is a phenomenon of so pecu-\\n178", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nliar a character that a derivation of it from other psy-\\nchic functions seems extremely hazardous. It seemed,\\ntherefore, the easiest way out of the difficulty to con-\\nceive it as an inherent property of all matter, like gravi-\\ntation or chemical affinity. On that hypothesis there\\nwould be as many forms of this original consciousness\\nas there are chemical elements each atom of hydrogen\\nwould have its hydrogenic consciousness, each atom\\nof carbon its carbonic consciousness, and so forth.\\nThere are philosophers, even, who ascribe conscious-\\nness to the four elements of Empedocles, the union of\\nwhich, by love and hate/ produces the totality of\\nthings.\\nPersonally, I have never subscribed to this hypoth-\\nesis of atomic consciousness. I emphasize the point\\nbecause Emil du Bois-Reymond has attributed it to\\nme. In the^controversy I had with him (1880) he vio-\\nlently attacked my pernicious and false philosophy,\\nand contended that I had, in my paper on The Peri-\\ngenesis of the Plastidule, laid it down as a meta-\\nphysical axiom that every atom has its individual con-\\nsciousness/ On the contrary, I explicitly stated that I\\nconceive the elementary psychic qualities of sensation\\nand will, which may be attributed to atoms, to be un-\\nconscious just as unconscious as the elementary mem-\\nory which I, in company with that distinguished physi-\\nologist, Ewald Hering, consider to be a common func-\\ntion of all organized matter or, more correctly, liv-\\ning substance. Du Bois-Reymond curiously confuses\\nf soul and consciousness whether from oversight\\nor not I cannot say. Since he considers consciousness\\nto be a transcendental phenomenon (as we shall see\\npresently), while denying that character to other psy\\nchic functions the action of the senses, for example I\\n179", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmust infer that he recognizes the difference of the two\\nideas. Other parts of his eloquent speeches contain\\nquite the opposite view, for the famous orator not in-\\nfrequently contradicts himself on important questions\\nof principle. However, I repeat that, in my opinion,\\nconsciousness is only pari of the psychic phenomena\\nwhich we find in man and the higher animals the\\ngreat majority of them are unconscious.\\nHowever divergent are the different views as to the\\nnature and origin of consciousness, they may, never-\\ntheless, on a clear and logical examination, all be re-\\nduced to two fundamental theories the transcenden-\\ntal (or dualistic) and the physiological (or monistic).\\nI have myself always held the latter view, in the light\\nof my evolutionary principles, and it is now shared by\\na great number of distinguished scientists, though it\\nis by no means generally accepted. The transcenden-\\ntal theory is the older and much more common it has\\nrecently come once more into prominence, principally\\nthrough Du Bois-Reymond, and it has acquired a great\\nimportance in modern discussions of cosmic problems\\nthrough his famous Ignorabimus speech. On ac-\\ncount of the extreme importance of this fundamental\\nquestion we must touch briefly on its main features.\\nIn the celebrated discourse on The Limits of Nat-\\nural Science, which E. du Bois-Reymond gave on\\nAugust 14, 1872, at the Scientific Congress at Leipzig,\\nhe spoke of two absolute limits to our possible\\nknowledge of nature which the human mind will never\\ntranscend in its most advanced scienc^4never, as the\\noft-quoted termination of the address, Ignorabimus,\\nemphatically pronounces. The first absolutely in-\\nsoluble world-enigma is the connection of matter\\nand force, and the distinctive character of these fun-\\n180", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\ndamental natural phenomena we shall go more fully\\ninto this problem of substance in the twelfth chap-\\nter. The second insuperable difficulty of philosophy is\\ngiven as the problem of consciousness the question\\nhow our mental activity is to be explained by material\\nconditions, especially movements, how substance [the\\nsubstance which underlies matter and force] comes,\\nunder certain conditions, to feel, to desire, and to think.\\nFor brevity, and in order to give a characteristic\\nname to the Leipzig discourse, I have called it the Ig-\\nnorabimus speech this is the more permissible, as\\nE. du Bois-Reymond himself, with a just pride, eight\\nyears afterwards, speaking of the extraordinary con-\\nsequences of his discourse, said Criticism sounded\\nevery possible note, from friendly praise to the severest\\ncensure, and the word Ignorabimus/ which was the\\nculmination of my inquiry, was at once transformed\\ninto a kind of scientific shibboleth. It is quite true\\nthat loud praise and approbation resounded in the halls\\nof the dualistic and spiritualistic philosophy, and es-\\npecially in the camp of the Church militant even\\nthe spiritists and the host of believers, who thought\\nthe immortality of their precious souls was saved by\\nthe Ignorabimus, joined in the chorus. The se-\\nverest censure came at first only from a few scientists\\nand philosophers from the few who had sufficient\\nscientific knowledge and moral courage to oppose the\\ndogmatism of the all-powerful secretary and dictator\\nof the Berlin Academy of Science.\\nTowards the end, however, the author of the Igno-\\nrabimus speech briefly alluded to the question wheth-\\ner these two great world-enigmas, the general prob-\\nlem of substance and the special problem of conscious-\\nness., are not two aspects of one and the same problem.\\n181", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThis idea/ he said, is certainly the simplest, and\\npreferable to the one which makes the world doubly\\nincomprehensible. Such, however, is the nature of\\nthings that even here we can obtain no clear knowl-\\nedge, and it is useless to speak further of the question.\\nThe latter sentiment I have always stoutly contested,\\nand have endeavored to prove that the two great, ques-\\ntions are not two distinct problems. The neuro-\\nlogical problem of consciousness is but a particular\\naspect of the all -pervading cosmological problem of\\nsubstance.\\nThe peculiar phenomenon of consciousness is not,\\nas Du Bois-Reymond and the dualistic school would\\nhave us believe, a completely transcendental prob-\\nlem it is, as I showed thirty-three years ago, a phys-\\niological problem, and, as such, must be reduced to\\nthe phenomena of physics and chemistry. I subse-\\nquently gave it the more definite title of a neurologi-\\ncal problem, as I share the view that true conscious-\\nness (thought and reason) is only present in those\\nhigher animals which have a centralized nervous sys-\\ntem and organs of sense of a certain degree of devel-\\nopment. Those conditions are certainly found in the\\nhigher vertebrates, especially in the placental mam-\\nmals, the class from which man has sprung. The\\nconsciousness of the highest apes, dogs, elephants, etc.,\\ndiffers from that of man in degree only, not in kind,\\nand the graduated interval between the consciousness\\nof these rational placentals and that of the lowest\\nraces of men (the Veddahs, etc.) is less than the corre-\\nsponding interval between these uncivilized races and\\nthe highest specimens of thoughtful humanity (Spi-\\nnoza, Goethe, Lamarck, Darwin, etc.). Consciousness\\nis but a part of the higher activity of the soul, and as\\n182", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nsuch it is dependent on the normal structure of the cor-\\nresponding psychic organ, the brain.\\nPhysiological observation and experiment determined\\ntwenty years ago that the particular portion of the\\nmammal-brain which we call the seat (preferably the\\norgan) of consciousness is a part of the cerebrum, an\\narea in the late-developed gray bed, or cortex, which is\\nevolved out of the convex dorsal portion of the primary\\ncerebral vesicle, the fore-brain. Now, the morpho-\\nlogical proof of this physiological thesis has been suc-\\ncessfully given by the remarkable progress of the mi-\\ncroscopic anatomy of the brain, which we owe to the\\nperfect methods of research of modern science (K\u00c3\u00b6lliker,\\nFlechsig, Golgi, Edinger, Weigert, and others).\\nThe most important development is the discovery of\\nthe organs of thought by Paul Flechsig, of Leipzig he\\nproved that in the gray bed of the brain are found the\\nfour seats of the central sense-organs, or four inner\\nspheres of sensation the sphere of touch in the ver-\\ntical lobe, the sphere of smell in the frontal lobe, the\\nsphere of sight in the occipital lobe, and the sphere of\\nhearing in the temporal lobe. Between these four\\nsense-centres lie the four great thought-centres,\\nor centres of association, the real organs of mental life\\nthey are those highest instruments of psychic activity\\nthat produce thought and consciousness. In front we\\nhave the frontal brain or centre of association behind,\\non top there is the vertical brain, or parietal centre of\\nassociation, and underneath the principal brain, or\\nthe great occipito-temporal centre of association\\n(the most important of all) lower down, and inter-\\nnally, the insular brain or the insula of Reil, the insular\\ncentre of association. These four thought-centres,\\ndistinguished from the intermediate sense-centres\\ni*3", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nby a peculiar and elaborate nerve-structure, are the\\ntrue and sole organs of thought and consciousness.\\nFlechsig has recently pointed out that, in the case of\\nman, very specific structures are found in one part of\\nthem these structures are wanting in the other mam-\\nmals, and they, therefore, ^afford an explanation of the\\nsuperiority of man s mental powers.\\nThe momentous announcement of modern physiol-\\nogy, that the cerebrum is the organ of consciousness\\nand mental action in man and the higher mammals,\\nis illustrated and confirmed by the pathological study\\nof its diseases. When parts of the cortex are destroyed\\nby disease their respective functions are affected, and\\nthus we are enabled, to some extent, to localize the ac-\\ntivities of the brain when certain parts of the area are\\ndiseased, that portion of thought and consciousness\\ndisappears which depends on those particular sections.\\nPathological experiment yields the same result; the\\ndecay of some known area (for instance, the centre of\\nspeech) extinguishes its function (speech). In fact,\\nthere is proof enough in the most familiar phenomena\\nof consciousness of their complete dependence on chem-\\nical changes in the substance of the brain. Many bev-\\nerages (such as coffee and tea) stimulate our powers of\\nthought others (such as wine and beer) intensify feel-\\ning; musk and camphor reanimate the fainting con-\\nsciousness; ether and chloroform deaden it, and so\\nforth. How would that be possible if consciousness\\nwere an immaterial entity, independent of these ana-\\ntomical organs? And what becomes of the conscious-\\nness of the immortal soul when it no longer has the\\nuse of these organs?\\nThese and other familiar facts prove that man s con-\\nsciousness and that of the nearest mammals is\\n184", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nchangeable, and that its activity is always open to\\nmodification from inner (alimentation, circulation, etc.)\\nand outer causes (lesion of the brain, stimulation, etc.).\\nVery instructive, too, are the facts of double and in-\\ntermittent consciousness, which remind us of alter-\\nnate generations of presentations. The same indi-\\nvidual has an entirely different consciousness on dif-\\nferent days, with a change of circumstances he does\\nnot know to-day what he did yesterday yesterday he\\ncould say, I am I to-day he must say, I am an-\\nother being. Such intermittence of consciousness\\nmay last not only days, but months, and even years\\nthe change may even become permanent.\\nAs everybody knows, the new-born infant has no\\nconsciousness. Prey er has shown that it is only de-\\nveloped after the child has begun to speak for a long\\ntime it speaks of itself in the third person. In the im-\\nportant moment when it first pronounces the word I,\\nwhen the feeling of self becomes clear, we have the be-\\nginning of self-consciousness, and of the antithesis to\\nthe non-ego. The rapid and solid progress in knowl-\\nedge which the child makes in its first ten years, under\\nthe care of parents and teachers, and the slower progress\\nof the second decade, until it reaches complete maturity\\nof mind, are intimately connected with a great advance-\\nment in the growth and development of consciousness\\nand of its organ, the brain. But even when the pupil\\nhas got his certificate of maturity his consciousness\\nis still far from mature; it is then that his world-\\nconsciousness first begins to develop, in his manifold\\nrelations with the outer world. Then, in the third dec-\\nade, we have the full maturity of rational thought and\\nconsciousness, which, in cases of normal development,\\nyield their ripe fruits during the next three decades.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThe slow, gradual degeneration of the higher mental\\npowers, which characterizes senility, usually sets in at\\nthe commencement of the seventh decade sometimes\\nearlier, sometimes later. Memory, receptiveness, and\\ninterest in particular objects gradually decay though\\nproductivity, mature consciousness, and philosophic\\ninterest in general truths often remain for many years\\nlonger.\\nThe individual development of consciousness in ear-\\nlier youth proves the universal validity of the biogenetic\\nlaw and, indeed, it is still recognizable in many ways\\nduring the later years. In any case, the ontogenesis\\nof consciousness makes it perfectly clear that it is not\\nan immaterial entity, but a physiological function\\nof the brain, and that it is, consequently, no exception\\nto the general law of substance.\\nFrom the fact that consciousness, like all other psy-\\nchic functions, is dependent on the normal development\\nof certain organs, and that it gradually unfolds in\\nthe child in proportion to the development of those\\norgans, we may already conclude that it has arisen\\nin the animal kingdom by a gradual historical de-\\nvelopment. Still, however certain we are of the fact\\nof this natural evolution of consciousness, we are, un-\\nfortunately, not yet in a position to enter more deeply\\ninto the question and construct special hypotheses in\\nelucidation of it. Palaeontology, it is true, gives us a\\nfew facts which are not without significance. For in-\\nstance, the quantitative and qualitative development\\nof the brain of the placental mammals during the Ter-\\ntiary period is very remarkable. The cavity of many\\nof the fossil skulls of the period has been carefully ex-\\namined, and has given us a good deal of reliable infor-\\nmation as to the size, and, to some extent, as to the\\n186", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "CONSCIOUSNESS\\nstructure, of the brain they enclosed. We find, within\\nthe limits of one and the same group (the ungulates,\\nthe rodents, or the primates), a marked advance in the\\nlater miocene and pliocene specimens as compared with\\nthe earlier eocene and oligocene representatives of the\\nsame stem; in the former the brain (in proportion to\\nthe size of the organism) is six to eight times as large\\nas in the latter.\\nMoreover, that highest stage of consciousness, which\\nis reached by man alone, has been evolved step by\\nstep even by the very progress of civilization from\\na lower condition, as we find illustrated to-day in the\\ncase of uncivilized races. That is easily proved by a\\ncomparison of their languages, which is closely con-\\nnected with the comparison of their ideas. The higher\\nthe conceptual faculty advances in thoughtful civil-\\nized man, the more qualified he is to detect common\\nfeatures amid a multitude of details, and embody them\\nin general concepts, and so much the clearer and\\ndeeper does his consciousness become.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XI\\nTHE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nThe Citadel of Superstition Athanatism and Thanatism Indi-\\nvidual Character of Death Immortality of the Unicellular\\nOrganisms (Protists) Cosmic and Personal Immortality\\nPrimary Thanatism (of Uncivilized Peoples) Secondary\\nThanatism (of Ancient and Recent Philosophers) Athan-\\natism and Religion Origin of the Belief in Immortality\\nChristian Athanatism Eternal Life The Day of Judgment\\nMetaphysical Athanatism Substance of the Soul Ether\\nSouls and Air Souls Fluid Souls and Solid Souls Immor-\\ntality of the Animal Soul\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Arguments for and Against Athan-\\natism Athanatist Illusions.\\n17 HEN we turn from the genetic study of the soul\\nto the great question of its immortality, we come\\nto that highest point of superstition which is regarded\\nas the impregnable citadel of all mystical and dual-\\nistic notions. For in this crucial question, more than\\nin any other problem, philosophic thought is compli-\\ncated by the selfish interest of the human personality,\\nwho is determined to have a guarantee of his existence\\nbeyond the grave at any price. This higher neces-\\nsity of feeling is so powerful that it sweeps aside all\\nthe logical arguments of critical reason. Consciously\\nor unconsciously, most men are influenced in all their\\ngeneral views, and, therefore, in their theory of life, by\\nthe dogma of personal immortality and to this theo-\\nretical error must be added practical consequences of\\n1 88", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nthe most far-reaching character. It is our task, there-\\nfore, to submit every aspect of this important dogma to\\na critical examination, and to prove its untenability in\\nthe light of the empirical data of modern biology.\\nIn order to have a short and convenient expression\\nfor the two opposed opinions on the question, we shall\\ncall the belief in man s personal immortality athan-\\natism (from athanes or athanatos immortal). On\\nthe other hand, we give the name of thanatism\\n(from thanatos death) to the opinion which holds\\nthat at a man s death not only all the other physiologi-\\ncal functions are arrested, but his soul also disap-\\npears that is, that sum of cerebral functions which\\npsychic dualism regards as a peculiar entity, inde-\\npendent of the other vital processes in the living body.\\nIn approaching this physiological problem of death\\nwe must point out the individual character of this or-\\nganic phenomenon. By death we understand simply\\nthe definitive cessation of the vital activity of the indi-\\nvidual organism, no matter to which category or stage\\nof individuality the organism in question belongs.\\nMan is dead when his own personality ceases to exist,\\nwhether he has left offspring that they may continue\\nto propagate for many generations or not. In a cer-\\ntain sense we often say that the minds of great men\\n(in a dynasty of eminent rulers, for instance, or a fam-\\nily of talented artists) live for many generations and\\nin the same way we speak of the soul of a noble\\nwoman living in her children and children s children.\\nBut in these cases we are dealing with intricate phe-\\nnomena of heredity, in which a microscopic cell (the\\nsperm-cell of the father or the egg-cell of the mother)\\ntransmits certain features to offspring. The particu-\\nlar personalities who produce those sexual cells in thou-", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nsands are mortal beings, and at their death their per-\\nsonal psychic activity is extinguished like every other\\nphysiological function. r\\nA number of eminent zoologists^ Weismann being\\nparticularly prominent have recently defended the\\nopinion that only the lowest unicellular organisms,\\nthe protists, are immortal, in contradistinction to the\\nmulticellular plants and animals, whose bodies are\\nformed of tissues. This curious theory is especially\\nbased on the fact that most of the protists multiply\\nwithout sexual means, by division or the formation of\\nspores. In such processes the whole body of the\\nunicellular organism breaks up into two or more\\nequal parts (daughter cells), and each of these portions\\ncompletes itself by further growth until it has the\\nsize and form of the mother cell. However, by the\\nvery process of division the individuality of the\\nunicellular creature has been destroyed both its\\nphysiological and its morphological unity have gone.\\nThe view of Weismann is logically inconsistent with\\nthe very notion of individual an indivisible en-\\ntity; for it implies a unity which cannot be divided\\nwithout destroying its nature. In this sense the\\nunicellular protophyta and protozoa are throughout\\nlife physiological individuals, just as much as the\\nmulticellular tissue-plants and animals. A sexual\\npropagation by simple division is found in many of\\nthe multicellular species (for instance, in many\\ncnidaria, corals, medusae, etc.); the mother animal,\\nthe division of which gives birth to the two daugh-\\nter animals, ceases to exist with the segmentation.\\nThe protozoa, says Weismann, have no indi-\\nviduals and no generations in the matazoic sense.\\nI must entirely dissent from his thesis. As I was\\n190", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nthe first to introduce the title of metazoa, and oppose\\nthese multicellular, tissue-forming animals to the uni-\\ncellular protozoa (infusoria, rhizopods, etc.), and as\\nI was the first to point out the essential difference in\\nthe development of the two (the former from germinal\\nlayers, and the latter not), I must protest that I con-\\nsider the protozoa to be just as mortal in the physio-\\nlogical (and psychological) sense as the metazoa nei-\\nther body nor soul is immortal in either group. The\\nother erroneous consequences of Weismann s notion\\nhave been refuted by Moebius (1884), who justly re-\\nmarks that every event in the world is periodic, and\\nthat there is no source from which immortal organic\\nindividuals might have sprung.\\nWhen we take the idea of immortality in the widest\\nsense, and extend it to the totality of the knowable uni-\\nverse, it has a scientific significance; it is then not\\nmerely acceptable, but self evident, to the monistic\\nphilosopher. In that sense the thesis of the indestruc-\\ntibility and eternal duration of all that exists is equiva-\\nlent to our supreme law of nature, the law of substance\\n(see chap. xii.). As we intend to discuss this immor-\\ntality of the cosmos fully later on, in establishing the\\ntheory of the persistence of matter and force, we shall\\nnot dilate on it at present. We pass on immediately\\nto the criticism of that belief in immortality which is\\nthe only sense usually attached to the word, the im-\\nmortality of the individual soul. We shall first in-\\nquire into the extent and the origin of this mystic and\\ndualistic notion, and point out, in particular,, the wide\\nacceptance of the contradictory thesis, our monistic,\\nempirically established thanatism. I must distin-\\nguish two essentially different forms of thanatism\\nprimary and secondary; primary thanatism is the\\n191", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\noriginal absence of the dogma of immortality (in the\\nprimitive uncivilized races) secondary thanatism is\\nthe later outcome of a rational knowledge of nature\\nin the civilized intelligence.\\nWe still find it asserted in philosophic, and espe-\\ncially in theological, works that belief in the personal\\nimmortality of the human soul was originally shared\\nby all men or, at least, by all rational men. That\\nis not the case. This dogma is not an original idea of\\nthe human mind, nor has it ever found universal ac-\\nceptance. It has been absolutely proved by modern\\ncomparative ethnology that many uncivilized races of\\nthe earliest and most primitive stage had no notion\\neither of immortality or of God. That is true, for in-\\nstance, of the Veddahs of Ceylon, those primitive pyg-\\nmies whom, on the authority of the able studies of the\\nSarasins, we consider to be a relic of the earliest in-\\nhabitants of India it is also the case in several of the\\nearliest groups of the nearly related Dravidas, the Ind-\\nian Seelongs, and some native Australian races. Sim-\\nilarly, several of the primitive branches of the Ameri-\\ncan race, in the interior of Brazil, on the upper\\nAmazon, etc., have no knowledge either of gods or\\nimmortality. This primary absence of belief in im-\\nmortality and deity is an extremely important fact it\\nis, obviously, easy to distinguish from the secondary\\nabsence of such belief, which has come about in the\\nhighest civilized races as the result of laborious critico-\\nphilosophical study.\\nDifferently from the primary thanatism w r hich orig-\\ninally characterized primitive man, and has always\\nbeen widely spread, the secondary absence of belief\\nE. Haeckel, A Visit to Ceylon.\\n192", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nin immortality is only found at a late stage of history\\nit is the ripe fruit of profound reflection on life and death,\\nthe outcome of bold and independent philosophical\\nspeculation. We first meet it in some of the Ionic phi-\\nlosophers of the sixth century B.C., then in the founders\\nof the old materialistic philosophy, Democritus and\\nEmpedocles, and also in Simonides and Epicurus, Sen-\\neca and Plinius, and in an elaborate form in Lucretius\\nCarus. With the spread of Christianity at the decay\\nof classical antiquity, athanatism, one of its chief ar-\\nticles of faith, dominated the world, and so, amid other\\nforms of superstition, the myth of personal immortal-\\nity came to be invested with a high importance.\\nNaturally, through the long night of the Dark Ages\\nit was rarely that a brave free-thinker ventured to ex-\\npress an opinion to the contrary the examples of Gal-\\nileo, Giordano Bruno, and other independent philos-\\nophers, effectually destroyed all freedom of utterance.\\nHeresy only became possible when the Reformation\\nand the Renaissance had broken the power of the pa-\\npacy. The history of modern philosophy tells of the\\nmanifold methods by which the matured mind of man\\nsought to rid itself of the superstition of immortality.\\nStill, the intimate connection of the belief with the Chris-\\ntian dogma invested it with such power, even in the\\nmore emancipated sphere of Protestantism, that the\\nmajority of convinced free-thinkers kept their senti-\\nments to themselves. From time to time some dis-\\ntinguished scholar ventured to make a frank declara-\\ntion of his belief in the impossibility of the continued\\nlife of the soul after death. This was done in France\\nin the second half of the eighteenth century by Vol-\\n1 taire, Danton, Mirabeau, and others, and by the lead-\\ners of the materialistic school of those days, Holbach,\\nn 193", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nLamettrie, etc. The same opinion was defended by the\\nable friend of the Materialists, the greatest of the Ho-\\nhenzollerns, the monistic philosopher of Sans-souci.\\nWhat would Frederick the Great, the crowned thana-\\ntist and atheist, say, could he compare his monistic\\nviews with those of his successor of to-day?\\nAmong thoughtful physicians the conviction that the\\nexistence of the soul came to an end at death has been\\ncommon for centuries generally, however, they re-\\nfrained from giving it expression. Moreover, the em-\\npirical science of the brain remained so imperfect dur-\\ning the last century that the soul could continue to be\\nregarded as its mysterious inhabitant. It was the\\ngigantic progress of biology in the present century,\\nand especially in the latter half of the century, that\\nfinally destroyed the myth. The establishment of\\nthe theory of descent and the cellular theory, the\\nastounding discoveries of ontogeny and experimental\\nphysiology above all, the marvellous progress of the\\nmicroscopic anatomy of the brain, gradually deprived\\nathanatism of every basis; now, indeed, it is rarely\\nthat an informed and honorable biologist is found to\\ndefend the immortality of the soul. All the monistic\\nphilosophers of the century (Strauss, Feuer bach, B\u00c3\u00bcch-\\nner, Spencer, etc.) are athanatists.\\nThe dogma of personal immortality owes its great\\npopularity and its high importance to its intimate con-\\nnection with the teaching of Christianity. This cir-\\ncumstance gave rise to the erroneous and still preva-\\nlent belief that the myth is a fundamental element\\nof all the higher religions. That is by no means\\nthe case. The higher Oriental religions include no\\nbelief whatever in the immortality of the soul; it is\\nnot found in Buddhism, the religion that dominates\\nJ 94", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nthirty per cent, of the entire human race; it is not\\nfound in the ancient popular religion of the Chinese,\\nnor in the reformed religion of Confucius which suc-\\nceeded it; and, what is still more significant, it is\\nnot found in the earlier and purer religion of the\\nJews. Neither in the five Mosaic books/ nor in\\nany of the writings of the Old Testament which were\\nwritten before the Babylonian Exile, is there any\\ntrace of the notion of individual persistence after\\ndeath.\\nThe mystic notion that the human soul will live for-\\never after death has had a polyphyletic origin. It was\\nunknown to the earliest speaking man (the hypotheti-\\ncal homo primigenius of Asia), to his predecessors, of\\ncourse, the pithecanthropus and prothylobates, and to\\nthe least developed of his modern successors, the Ved-\\ndahs of Ceylon, the Seelongs of India, and other dis-\\ntant races. With the development of reason and deep-\\ner reflection on life and death, sleep and dreams, mystic\\nideas of a dualistic composition of our nature were\\nevolved\u00e2\u0080\u0094 independently of each other\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in a number of\\nthe earlier races. Very different influences were at\\nwork in these polyphyletic creations\u00e2\u0080\u0094 worship of ances-\\ntors, love of relatives, love of life and desire of its pro-\\nlongation, hope of better conditions of life beyond the\\ngrave, hope of the reward of good and punishment\\nof evil deeds, and so forth. Comparative psychology\\nhas recently brought to our knowledge a great variety\\nof myths and legends of that character; they are, for\\nthe most part, closely associated with the oldest forms\\nof theistic and religious belief. In most of the modern\\nreligions athanatism is intimately connected with the-\\nism; the majority of believers transfer their material-\\nistic idea of a personal God to their immortal soul.\\n*95", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThat is particularly true of the dominant religion of\\nmodern civilized states, Christianity.\\nAs everybody knows, the dogma of the immortality\\nof the soul has long since assumed in the Christian\\nreligion that rigid form which it has in the articles of\\nfaith I believe in the resurrection of the body and\\nin an eternal life. Man will arise on the last day/\\nas Christ is alleged to have done on Easter morn, and\\nreceive a reward according to the tenor of his earthly\\nlife. This typically Christian idea is thoroughly ma-\\nterialistic and anthropomorphic it is very little supe-\\nrior to the corresponding crude legends of uncivilized\\npeoples. The impossibility of the resurrection of the\\nbody is clear to every man who has some knowledge\\nof anatomy and physiology. The resurrection of Chri st,\\nwhich is celebrated every Easter by millions of Chris-\\ntians, is as purely mythical as the awakening of the\\ndead, which he is alleged to have taught. These mystic\\narticles of faith are just as untenable in the light of\\npure reason as the cognate hypothesis of eternal life.\\nThe fantastic notions which the Christian Church\\ndisseminates as to the eternal life of the immortal soul\\nafter the dissolution of the body are just as material-\\nistic as the dogma of the resurrection of the body.\\nIn his interesting work on Religion in the Light of the\\nDarivinian Theory, Savage justly remarks It is one\\nof the standing charges of the Church against science\\nthat it is materialistic. I must say, in passing, that\\nthe whole ecclesiastical doctrine of a future life has al-\\nways been, and still is, materialism of the purest type.\\nIt teaches that the material body shall rise, and dwell\\nin a material heaven. To prove this one has only to\\nread impartially some of the sermons and ornate dis-\\ncourses in which the glory of the future life is extolled\\n196", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nas the highest good of the Christian, and belief in it is\\nlaid down to be the foundation of morality. According\\nto them, all the joys of the most advanced modern civ-\\nilization await the pious believer in Paradise, while\\nthe All-loving Father reserves his eternal fires for\\nthe godless materialist.\\nIn opposition to the materialist athanatism, which is\\ndominant in the Christian and Mohammedan Churches,\\nwe have, apparently, a purer and higher form of faith\\nin the metaphysical athanatism, as taught by most of\\nour dualist and spiritualist philosophers. Plato must\\nbe considered its chief creator: in the fourth century\\nbefore Christ he taught that complete dualism of body\\nand soul which afterwards became one of the most im-\\nportant, theoretically, and one of the most influential,\\npractically, of the Christian articles of faith. The body\\nis mortal, material, physical; the soul is immortal,\\nimmaterial, metaphysical. They are only temporarily\\nassociated, for the course of the individual life. As\\nPlato postulated an eternal life before as well as after\\nthis temporary association, he must be classed as an\\nadherent of metempsychosis, or transmigration of\\nsouls the soul existed as such, or as an eternal idea,\\nbefore it entered into a human body. When it quits\\none body it seeks such other as is most suited to its\\ncharacter for its habitation. The souls of bloody ty-\\nrants pass into the bodies of wolves and vultures, those\\nof virtuous toilers migrate into the bodies of bees and\\nants, and so forth. The childish naivety of this Pla-\\ntonic morality is obvious; on closer examination his\\nviews are found to be absolutely incompatible with the\\nscientific truth which we owe to modern anatomy,\\nphysiology, histology, and ontogeny; we mention\\nthem only because, in spite of their absurdity, they\\n197", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nhave had a profound influence on thought and culture.\\nOn the one hand, the mysticism of the Neo-Platonists,\\nwhich penetrated into Christianity, attaches itself to\\nthe psychology of Plato on the other hand, it became\\nsubsequently one of the chief supports of spiritualistic\\nand idealistic philosophy/ The Platonic idea gave\\nway in time to the notion of psychic substance this\\nis just as incomprehensible and metaphysical, though\\nit often assumed a physical appearance.\\nThe conception of the soul as a substance is far\\nfrom clear in many psychologists; sometimes it is re-\\ngarded as an immaterial entity of a peculiar charac-\\nter in an abstract and idealistic sense, sometimes in a\\nconcrete and realistic sense, and sometimes as a con-\\nfused tertium quid between the two. If we adhere to\\nthe monistic idea of substance, which we develop in\\nchap, xii., and which takes it to be the simplest element\\nof our whole world-system, we find energy and matter\\ninseparably associated in it. We must, therefore, dis-\\ntinguish in the substance of the soul the character-\\nistic psychic energy which is all we perceive (sensation,\\npresentation, volition, etc.), and the psychic matter,\\nwhich is the inseparable basis of its activity that is,\\nthe living protoplasm. Thus, in the higher animals\\nthe matter of the soul is a part of the nervous sys-\\ntem; in the lower nerveless animals and plants it is a\\npart of their multicellular protoplasmic body; and in\\nthe unicellular protists it is a part of their protoplasmic\\ncell-body. In this way we are brought once more to\\nthe psychic organs, and to an appreciation of the fact\\nthat these material organs are indispensable for the\\naction of the soul; but the soul itself is actual it is\\nthe sum-total of their physiological functions.\\nHowever, the idea of a specific soul substance\\n198", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nfound in the dualistic philosophers who admit such\\na thing is very different from this. They conceive\\nthe immortal soul to be material, yet invisible, and\\nessentially different from the visible body which it\\ninhabits.\\nThus invisibility comes to be regarded as a most im-\\nportant attribute of the soul. Some, in fact, compare\\nthe soul with ether, and regard it, like ether, as an ex-\\ntremely subtle, light, and highly elastic material, an\\nimponderable agency, that fills the intervals between\\nthe ponderable particles of the living organism, others\\ncompare the soul with the wind, and so give it a gas-\\neous nature; and it is this simile which first found\\nfavor with primitive peoples, and led in time to the fa-\\nmiliar dualistic conception. When a man died, the\\nbody remained as a lifeless corpse, but the immortal\\nsoul flew out of it with the last breath.\\nThe comparison of the human soul with physical\\nether as a qualitatively similar idea has assumed a\\nmore concrete shape in recent times through the great\\nprogress of optics and electricity (especially in the last\\ndecade) for these sciences have taught us a good deal\\nabout the energy of ether, and enabled us to formulate\\ncertain conclusions as to the material character of this\\nall-pervading agency. As I intend to describe these\\nimportant discoveries later on (in chap, xii.), I shall do\\nno more at present than briefly point out that they ren-\\nder the notion of an etheric soul absolutely untena-\\nble. Such an etheric soul that is a psychic sub-\\nstance which is similar to physical ether, and which,\\nlike ether, passes between the ponderable elements of\\nthe living protoplasm or the molecules of the brain,\\ncannot possibly account for the individual life of the\\nsoul. Neither the mystic notions of that kind which\\n199", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwere warmly discussed about the middle of the century,\\nnor the attempts of modern Neovitalists to put their\\nmystical vital force on a line with physical ether,\\ncall for refutation any longer.\\nMuch more widespread, and still much respected, is\\nthe view which ascribes a v gaseous nature to the sub-\\nstance of the soul. The comparison of human breath\\nwith the wind is a very old one they were originally\\nconsidered to be identical, and were both given the\\nsame name. The anemos and psyche of the Greeks,\\nand the anima and Spiritus of the Romans, were origi-\\nnally all names for a breath of wind they were trans-\\nferred from this to the breath of man. After a time\\nthis living breath was identified with the vital\\nforce, and finally it came to be regarded as the soul\\nitself, or, in a narrower sense, as its highest manifes-\\ntation, the spirit. From that the imagination went\\non to derive the mystic notion of individual spirits\\nthese, also, are still usually conceived as aeriform\\nbeings though they are credited with the physio-\\nlogical functions of an organism, and they have been\\nphotographed in certain well-known spiritist circles.\\nExperimental physics has succeeded, during the\\nlast decade of the century, in reducing all gaseous\\nbodies to a liquid most of them, also, to a solid con-\\ndition. Nothing more is needed than special appara-\\ntus, which exerts a violent pressure on the gases at a\\nvery low temperature. By this process not only the\\natmospheric elements, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro-\\ngen, but even compound gases (such as carbonic-acid\\ngas) and gaseous aggregates (like the atmosphere)\\nhave been changed from gaseous to liquid form. In\\nthis way the invisible substances have become vis-\\nible to all, and in a certain sense tangible. With\\n200", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nthis transformation the mystic nimbus which formerly\\nveiled the character of the gas in popular estimation\\nas an invisible body that wrought visible effects has\\nentirely disappeared. If, then, the substance of the\\nsoul were really gaseous, it should be possible to liquefy\\nit by the application of a high pressure at a low tem-\\nperature. We could then catch the soul as it is breathed\\nout at the moment of death, condense it, and exhibit\\nit in a bottle as immortal fluid (Fluidum animae\\nimmortale). By a further lowering of temperature\\nand increase of pressure it might be possible to solidify\\nit to produce soul-snow. The experiment has not\\nyet succeeded.\\nIf athanatism were true, if, indeed, the human soul\\nwere to live for all eternity, we should have to grant\\nthe same privilege to the souls of the higher animals,\\nat least to those of the nearest related mammals (apes,\\ndogs, etc.). For man is not distinguished from them\\nby a special kind of soul, or by any peculiar and ex-\\nclusive psychic function, but only by a higher de-\\ngree of psychic activity, a superior stage of develop-\\nment. In particular, consciousness the function of\\nthe association of ideas, thought, and reason has\\nreached a higher level in many men (by no means in\\nall) than in most of the animals. Yet this difference\\nis far from being so great as is popularly supposed;\\nand it is much slighter in every respect than the cor-\\nresponding difference between the higher and the low-\\ner animal souls, or even the difference between the\\nhighest and the lowest stages of the human soul itself.\\nIf we ascribe personal immortality to man, we are\\nbound to grant it also to the higher animals.\\nIt is, therefore, quite natural that we should find\\nthis belief in the immortality of the animal soul among", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmany ancient and modern peoples we even meet it\\nsometimes to-day in many thoughtful men who pos-\\ntulate an immortal life for themselves, and have,\\nat the same time, a thorough empirical knowledge of\\nthe psychic life of the animals. I once knew an old\\nhead-forester, who, being left a widower and without\\nchildren at an early age, had lived alone for more than\\nthirty years in a noble forest of East Prussia. His\\nonly companions were one or two servants, with whom\\nhe exchanged merely a few necessary words, and a\\ngreat pack of different kinds of dogs, with which he\\nlived in perfect psychic communion. Through many\\nyears of training this keen observer and friend of nat-\\nure had penetrated deep into the individual souls of\\nhis dogs, and he was as convinced of their personal\\nimmortality as he was of his own. Some of his most\\nintelligent dogs were, in his impartial and objective\\nestimation, at a higher stage of psychic development\\nthan his old, stupid maid and the rough, wrinkled man-\\nservant. Any unprejudiced observer, who will study\\nthe conscious and intelligent psychic activity of a fine\\ndog for a year, and follow attentively the physiological\\nprocesses of its thought, judgment, and reason, will\\nhave to admit that it has just as valid a claim to im-\\nmortality as man himself.\\nThe proofs of the immortality of the soul, which have\\nbeen adduced for the last two thousand years, and are,\\nindeed, still credited with some validity, have their or-\\nigin, for the most part, not in an effort to discover the\\ntruth, but in an alleged necessity of emotion that\\nis, in imagination and poetic conceit. As Kant puts\\nit, the immortality of the soul is not an object of pure\\nreason, but a postulate of practical reason. But we\\nmust set practical reason entirely aside, together", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\nwith all the exigencies of emotion, or of moral educa-\\ntion, etc./ when we enter upon an honest and impar-\\ntial pursuit of truth for we shall only attain it by the\\nwork of pure reason, starting from empirical data and\\ncapable of logical analysis. We have to say the same\\nof athanatism as of theism; both are creations of\\npoetic mysticism and of transcendental faith, not of\\nrational science.\\nWhen we come to analyze all the different proofs that\\nhave been urged for the immortality of the soul, we find\\nthat not a single one of them is of a scientific character\\nnot a single one is consistent with the truths we have\\nlearned in the last few decades from physiological psy-\\nchology and the theory of descent. The theological\\nproof that a personal creator has breathed an immor-\\ntal soul (generally regarded as a portion of the divine\\nsoul) into man is a pure myth. The cosmological\\nproof that the moral order of the world demands\\nthe eternal duration of the human soul is a baseless\\ndogma. The teleological proof that the higher des-\\ntiny of man involves the perfecting of his defective,\\nearthly soul beyond the grave rests on a false an-\\nthropism. The moral proof that the defects and the\\nunsatisfied desires of earthly existence must be fulfilled\\nby compensative justice on the other side of eternity\\nis nothing more than a pious wish. The ethnological\\nproof that the belief in immortality, like the belief in\\nGod, is an innate truth, common to all humanity is\\nan error in fact. The ontological proof that the soul,\\nbeing a simple, immaterial, and indivisible entity,\\ncannot be involved in the corruption of death is based\\non an entirely erroneous view of the psychic phenom-\\nena; it is a spiritualistic fallacy. All these and sim-\\nilar proofs of athanatism are in a parlous condition\\n203", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthey are definitely annulled by the scientific criticism\\nof the last few decades.\\nThe extreme importance of the subject leads us to\\noppose to these untenable proofs of immortality a\\nbrief exposition of the sound scientific arguments\\nagainst it. The physiological argument shows that\\nthe human soul is not an independent, immaterial\\nsubstance, but, like the soul of all the higher animals,\\nmerely a collective title for the sum-total of man s cere-\\nbral functions and these are just as much determined\\nby physical and chemical processes as any of the other\\nvital functions, and just as amenable to the law of sub-\\nstance. The histological argument is based on the ex-\\ntremely complicated microscopic structure of the brain\\nit shows us the true elementary organs of the soul\\nin the ganglionic cells. The experimental argument\\nproves that the various functions of the soul are bound\\nup with certain special parts of the brain, and cannot\\nbe exercised unless these are in a normal condition;\\nif the areas are destroyed, their function is extin-\\nguished; and this is especially applicable to the or-\\ngans of thought, the four central instruments of men-\\ntal activity. The pathological argument is the com-\\nplement of the physiological when certain parts of the\\nbrain (the centres of speech, sight, hearing, etc.) are\\ndestroyed by sickness, their activity (speech, vision,\\nhearing, etc.) disappears; in this way nature herself\\nmakes the decisive physiological experiment. The\\nontogenetic argument puts before us the facts of the\\ndevelopment of the soul in the individual we see how\\nthe child-soul gradually unfolds its various powers;\\nthe youth presents them in full bloom, the mature man\\nshows their ripe fruit; in old age we see the gradual\\ndecay of the psychic powers, corresponding to the senile\\n204", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\ndegeneration of the brain. The phylo genetic argument\\nderives its strength from palaeontology, and the com-\\nparative anatomy and physiology of the brain; co-\\noperating with and completing each other, these sciences\\nprove to the hilt that the human brain (and, conse-\\nquently, its function the soul) has been evolved step\\nby step from that of the mammal, and, still further\\nback, from that of the lower vertebrate.\\nThese inquiries, which might be supplemented by\\nmany other results of modern science, prove the old\\ndogma of the immortality of the soul to be absolutely\\nuntenable; in the twentieth century it will not be re-\\ngarded as a subject of serious scientific research, but\\nwill be left wholly to transcendental faith. The\\ncritique of pure reason shows this treasured faith\\nto be a mere superstition, like the belief in a personal\\nGod which generally accompanies it. Yet even to-\\nday millions of believers not only of the lower,\\nuneducated masses, but even of the most cultured\\nclasses look on this superstition as their dearest pos-\\nsession and their most priceless treasure. It is,\\ntherefore, necessary to enter more deeply into the sub-\\nject, and assuming it to be true to make a critical\\ninquiry into its practical value. It soon becomes ap-\\nparent to the impartial critic that this value rests, for\\nthe most part, on fancy, on the want of clear judgment\\nand consecutive thought. It is my firm and honest\\nconviction that a definitive abandonment of these\\nathanatist illusions would involve no painful loss,\\nbut an inestimable positive gain for humanity.\\nMan s emotional craving clings to the belief on\\nimmortality for two main reasons firstly, in the hope\\nof better conditions of life beyond the grave and, sec-\\nondly, in the hope of seeing once more the dear and\\n205", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nloved ones whom death has torn from us. As for the\\nfirst hope, it corresponds to a natural feeling of the\\njustice of compensation, which is quite correct subjec-\\ntively, but has no objective validity whatever. We\\nmake our claim for an indemnity for the unnumbered\\ndefects and sorrows of our earthly existence, without\\nthe slightest real prospect or guarantee of receiving it.\\nWe long for an eternal life in which we shall meet no\\nsadness and no pain, but an unbounded peace and joy.\\nThe pictures that most men form of this blissful exist-\\nence are extremely curious; the immaterial soul is\\nplaced in the midst of grossly material pleasures. The\\nimagination of each believer paints the enduring splen-\\ndor according to his personal taste. The American Ind-\\nian, whose athanatism Schiller has so well depicted,\\ntrusts to find in his Paradise the finest hunting-grounds\\nwith innumerable hordes of buffaloes and bears; the\\nEskimo looks forward to sun-tipped icebergs with an\\ninexhaustible supply of bears, seals, and other polar\\nanimals; the effeminate Cingalese frames his Para-\\ndise on the wonderful island-paradise of Ceylon with\\nits noble gardens and forests adding that there will\\nbe unlimited supplies of rice and curry, of cocoanuts\\nand other fruit, always at hand; the Mohammedan\\nArab believes it will be a place of shady gardens of\\nflowers, watered by cool springs, and filled with loyely\\nmaidens; the Catholic fisherman of Sicily looks for-\\nward to a daily superabundance of the most valuable\\nfishes and the finest macaroni, and eternal absolution\\nfor all his sins, which he can go on committing in his\\neternal home; the evangelical of North Europe longs\\nfor an immense Gothic cathedral, in which he can chant\\nthe praises of the Lord of Hosts for all eternity. In a\\nword, each believer really expects his eternal life to be\\n206", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\na direct continuation of his individual life on earth,\\nonly in a much improved and enlarged, edition.\\nWe must lay special stress on the thoroughly mate-\\nrialistic character of Christian athanatism, which is\\nclosely connected with the absurd dogma of the resur-\\nrection of the body. As thousands of paintings of\\nfamous masters inform us, the bodies that have risen\\nagain, with the souls that have been born again, walk\\nabout in heaven just as they did in this vale of tears\\nthey see God with their eyes, they hear His voice with\\ntheir ears, they sing hymns to His praise with their\\nlarynx, and so forth. In fine, the modern inhabitants\\nof the Christian Paradise have the same dual character\\nof body and soul, the same organs of an earthly body,\\nas our ancient ancestors had in Odin s Hall in Wal-\\nhalla, as the immortal Turks and Arabs have in\\nMohammed s lovely gardens, as the old Greek demi-\\ngods and heroes had in the enjoyment of nectar and\\nambrosia at the table of Zeus.\\nBut, however gloriously we may depict this eternal\\nlife in Paradise, it remains endless in duration. Do\\nwe realize what eternity means? the uninterrupted\\ncontinuance of our individual life forever! The pro-\\nfound legend of the wandering Jew, the fruitless\\nsearch for rest of the unhappy Ahasuerus, should teach\\nus to appreciate such an eternal life at its true value.\\nThe best we can desire after a courageous life, spent in\\ndoing good according to our light, is the eternal peace\\nof the grave. Lord, give them an eternal rest.\\nAny impartial scholar who is acquainted with geo-\\nlogical calculations of time, and has reflected on the\\nlong series of millions of years the organic history of\\nthe earth has occupied, must admit that the crude no-\\ntion of an eternal life is not a comfort, but a fearful\\n207.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmenace, to the best of men. Only want of clear judg-\\nment and consecutive thought can dispute it.\\nThe best and most plausible ground for athanatism\\nis found in the hope that immortality will reunite us\\nto the beloved friends who have been prematurely taken\\nfrom us by some grim mischance. But even this sup-\\nposed good fortune proves to be an illusion on closer\\ninquiry; and in any case it would be greatly marred\\nby the prospect of meeting the less agreeable acquaint-\\nances and the enemies who have troubled our existence\\nhere below. Even the closest family ties would in-\\nvolve many a difficulty. There are plenty of men who\\nwould gladly sacrifice all the glories of Paradise if it\\nmeant the eternal companionship of their better half\\nand their mother-in-law. It is more than questionable\\nwhether Henry VIII. would like the prospect of living\\neternally with his six wives; or Augustus the Strong\\nof Poland, who had a hundred mistresses and three\\nhundred and fifty-two children. As he was on good\\nterms with the Vicar of Christ, he must be assumed to\\nbe in Paradise, in spite of his sins, and in spite of the\\nfact that his mad military ventures cost the lives of\\nmore than a hundred thousand Saxons.\\nAnother insoluble difficulty faces the athanatist\\nwhen he asks in what stage of their individual develop-\\nment the disembodied souls will spend their eternal\\nlife. Will the new-born infant develop its psychic\\npowers in heaven under the same hard conditions of\\nthe struggle for life which educate man here on\\nearth? Will the talented youth who has fallen in the\\nwholesale murder of war unfold his rich, unused men-\\ntal powers in Walhalla? Will the feeble, childish old\\nman, who has filled the world with the fame of his\\ndeeds in the ripeness of his age, live forever in mental\\n208", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "THE IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL\\ndecay? Or will he return to an earlier stage of devel-\\nopment? If the immortal souls in Olympus are to live\\nin a condition of rejuvenescence and perfectness, then\\nboth the stimulus to the formation of, and the interest\\nin, personality disappear for them.\\nNot less impossible, in the light of pure reason, do\\nwe find the anthropistic myth of the last judgment,\\nand the separation of the souls of men into two great\\ngroups, of which one is destined for the eternal joys of\\nParadise and the other for the eternal torments of hell\\nand that from a personal God who is called the\\nFather of Love And it is this Universal Father\\nwho has himself created the conditions of heredity and\\nadaptation, in virtue of which the elect, on the one\\nside, were bound to pursue the path towards eternal\\nbliss, and the luckless poor and miserable, on the other\\nhand, were driven into the paths of the damned?\\nA critical comparison of the countless and manifold\\nfantasies which belief in immortality has produced\\nduring the last few thousand years in the different\\nraces and religions yields a most remarkable picture.\\nAn intensely interesting presentation of it, based on\\nmost extensive original research, may be found in\\nAdalbert Svoboda s distinguished works, The Illusion\\nof the Soul and Forms of Faith. However absurd and\\ninconsistent with modern knowledge most of these\\nmyths seem to be, they still play an important part,\\nand, as a postulates of practical reason, they exercise\\na powerful influence on the opinions of individuals and\\non the destiny of races.\\nThe idealist and spiritualist philosophy of the day\\nwill freely grant that these prevalent materialistic\\nforms of belief in immortality are untenable; it will\\nsay that the refined idea of an immaterial soul, a Pia-\\no 209", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntonic idea or a transcendental psychic substance,\\nmust be substituted for them. But modern realism\\ncan have nothing whatever to do with these incompre-\\nhensible notions they satisfy neither the mind s feel-\\ning of causality nor the yearning of our emotions. If\\nwe take a comprehensive glance at all that modern\\nanthropology, psychology, and cosmology teach with\\nregard to athanatism, we are forced to this definite con-\\nclusion: The belief in the immortality of the human\\nsoul is a dogma which is in hopeless contradiction with\\nthe most solid empirical truths of modern science.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII\\nTHE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nThe Fundamental Chemical Law of the Constancy of Matter\\nThe Fundamental Physical Law of the Conservation of En-\\nergy Combination of Both Laws in the Law of Substance\\nThe Kinetic, Pyknotic, and Dualistic Ideas of Substance\\nMonism of Matter Ponderable Matter Atoms and Elements\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Affinity of the Elements\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Soul of the Atom (Feeling\\nand Inclination) Existence and Character of Ether\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ether\\nand Ponderable Matter Force and Energy\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Potential and\\nActual Force Unity of Natural Forces Supremacy of the\\nLaw of Substance\\nFHE supreme and all-pervading law of nature, the\\ntrue and only cosmological law, is, in my opin-\\nion, the law of substance its discovery and establish-\\nment is the greatest intellectual triumph of the nine-\\nteenth century, in the sense that all other known laws\\nof nature are subordinate to it. Under the name of\\nlaw of substance we embrace two supreme laws of\\ndifferent origin and age the older is the chemical law\\nof the conservation of matter, and the younger is\\nthe physical law of the conservation of energy. It\\nwill be self-evident to many readers, and it is acknowl-\\nedged by most of the scientific men of the day, that\\nthese two great laws are essentially inseparable. This\\nfundamental thesis, however, is still much contested\\nCf. Monism, by Ernst Haeckel.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nin some quarters, and we must proceed to furnish the\\nproof of it. But we must first devote a few words to\\neach of the two laws.\\nThe law of the persistence or indestructibility of\\nmatter, established by Lavoisier in 1789, may be for-\\nmulated thus The sum of matter, which fills infinite\\nspace, is unchangeable. A body has merely changed\\nits form, when it seems to have disappeared. When\\ncoal burns, it is changed into carbonic-acid gas by com-\\nbination with the oxygen of the atmosphere; when a\\npiece of sugar melts in water, it merely passes from\\nthe solid to the fluid condition. In the same way, it is\\nmerely a question of change of form in the cases where\\na new body seems to be produced. A shower of rain\\nis the moisture of the atmosphere cast down in the form\\nof drops of water when a piece of iron rusts, the sur-\\nface layer of the metal has combined with water and\\nwith atmospheric oxygen, and formed a rust, or oxy-\\nhydrate of iron. Nowhere in nature do we find an\\nexample of the production, or creation, of new\\nmatter; nowhere does a particle of existing matter\\npass entirely away. This empirical truth is now the\\nunquestionable foundation of chemistry; it may be\\ndirectly verified at any moment by means of the bal-\\nance. To the great French chemist Lavoisier belongs\\nthe high merit of first making this experiment with the\\nbalance. At the present day the scientist, who is oc-\\ncupied from one end of the year to the other with the\\nstudy of natural phenomena, is so firmly convinced of\\nthe absolute constancy of matter that he is no longer\\nable to imagine the contrary state of things.\\nWe may formulate the law of the persistence of force\\nor conservation of energy thus: The sum of force,\\nwhich is at work in infinite space and produces all phe-", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nnomena, is unchangeable. When the locomotive rushes\\nalong the line, the potential energy of the steam is trans-\\nformed into the kinetic or actual energy of the mechan-\\nical movement; when we hear its shrill whistle, as it\\nspeeds along, the sound-waves of the vibrating atmos-\\nphere are conveyed through the tympanum and the\\nthree bones of the ear into the inner labyrinth, and\\nthence transferred by the auditory nerve to the acoustic\\nganglionic cells which form the centre of hearing in\\nthe temporal lobe of the gray bed of the brain. The\\nwhole marvellous panorama of life that spreads over\\nthe surface of our globe is, in the last analysis, trans-\\nformed sunlight. It is well known how the remark-\\nable progress of technical science has made it possible\\nfor us to convert the different physical forces from one\\nform to another; heat may be changed into molar\\nmovement, or movement of mass; this in turn into\\nlight or sound, and then into electricity, and so forth.\\nAccurate measurement of the quantity of force which\\nis used in this metamorphosis has shown that it is con-\\nstant or unchanged. No particle of living energy is\\never extinguished; no particle is ever created anew.\\nFriedrich Mohr, of Bonn, was very near to the discov-\\nery of this great fact in 1837, but the discovery was\\nactually made by the able Swabian physician, Robert\\nMayer, of Heilbronn, in 1842. Independently of Mayer,\\nhowever, the principle was reached almost at the same\\ntime by the famous physiologist, Hermann Helmholtz\\nfive years afterwards he pointed out its general appli-\\ncation to, and fertility in, every branch of physics. We\\nought to say to-day that it rules also in the entire prov-\\nince of physiology that is, of organic physics\\nbut on that point we meet a strenuous opposition from\\nthe vitalistic biologists and the dualist and spiritualist\\n213 A", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nphilosophers. For these the peculiar spiritual forces\\nof human nature are a group of free forces, not sub-\\nject to the law of energy the idea is closely connected\\nwith the dogma of the freedom of the will. We have,\\nhowever, already seen (p. 204) that the dogma is un-\\ntenable. Modern physics v draws a distinction between\\nforce and energy, but our general observations\\nso far have not needed a reference to it.\\nThe conviction that these two great cosmic theorems,\\nthe chemical law of the persistence of matter and the\\nphysical law of the persistence of force, are fundament-\\nally one, is of the utmost importance in our monistic\\nsystem. The two theories are just as intimately united\\nas their objects matter and force or energy. Indeed,\\nthis fundamental unity of the two laws is self-evident\\nto many monistic scientists and philosophers, since they\\nmerely relate to two different aspects of one and the\\nsame object, the cosmos. But, however natural the\\nthought may be, it is still very far from being general-\\nly accepted. It is stoutly contested by the entire dual-\\nistic philosophy, vitalistic biology, and parallelistic\\npsychology even, in fact, by a few (inconsistent) mon-\\nists, who think they find a check to it in conscious-\\nness, in the higher mental activity of man, or in other\\nphenomena of our free mental life.\\nFor my part, I am convinced of the profound im-\\nportance of the unifying law of substance, as an\\nexpression of the inseparable connection in reality\\nof two laws which are only separated in conception.\\nThat they were not originally taken together and their\\nunity recognized from the beginning is merely an ac-\\ncident of the date of their respective discoveries. The\\nearlier and more accessible chemical law of the per-\\nsistence of matter was detected by Lavoisier in 1789,\\n214", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nand, after a general application of the balance, became\\nthe basis of exact chemistry. On the other hand, the\\nmore recondite law of the persistence of force was only\\ndiscovered by Mayer in 1842, and only laid down as the\\nbasis of exact physics by Helmholtz. The unity of the\\ntwo laws still much disputed is expressed by many\\nscientists who are convinced of it in the formula Law\\nof the persistence of matter and force. In order to have\\na briefer and more convenient expression for this fun-\\ndamental thought, I proposed some time ago to call it\\nthe law of substance or the fundamental cosmic\\nlaw it might also be called the universal law, or\\nthe law of constancy, or the axiom of the constancy\\nof the universe. In the ultimate analysis it is found\\nto be a necessary consequence of the principle of caus-\\nality.*\\nThe first thinker to introduce the purely monistic con-\\nception of substance into science and appreciate its\\nprofound importance was the great philosopher Ba-\\nruch Spinoza; his chief work appeared shortly after\\nhis premature death in 1677, just one hundred years\\nbefore Lavoisier gave empirical proof of the constancy\\nof matter by means of the chemist s principal instru-\\nment, the balance. In his stately pantheistic system\\nthe notion of the world (the universe, or the cosmos)\\nis identical with the all-pervading notion of God it\\nis at one and the same time the purest and most rational\\nmonism and the clearest and most abstract monotheism.\\nThis universal substance, this divine nature of the\\nworld, shows us two different aspects of its being, or\\ntwo fundamental attributes matter (infinitely extended\\nsubstance) and spirit (the all-embracing energy of\\nCf Monism, by Ernst Haeckel.\\n3*5", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthought) All the changes which have since come over\\nthe idea of substance are reduced, on a logical analysis,\\nto this supreme thought of Spinoza s with Goethe I\\ntake it to be the loftiest, prof oundest, and truest thought\\nof all ages. Every single object in the world which\\ncomes within the sphere of our cognizance, all individ-\\nual forms of existence, are but special transitory forms\\naccidents or modes of substance. These modes\\nare material things when we regard them under the\\nattribute of extension (or occupation of space but\\nforces or ideas when we consider them under the at-\\ntribute of thought (or energy To this profound\\nthought of Spinoza our purified monism returns after\\na lapse of two hundred years for us, too, matter (space-\\nfilling substance) and energy (moving force) are but\\ntwo inseparable attributes of the one underlying sub-\\nstance.\\nAmong the various modifications which the funda-\\nmental idea of substance has undergone in modern\\nphysics, in association with the prevalent atomism,\\nwe shall select only two of the most divergent theories\\nfor a brief discussion, the kinetic and the pyknotic.\\nBoth theories agree that we have succeeded in reducing\\nall the different forces of nature to one common original\\nforce; gravity and chemical action, electricity and\\nmagnetism, light and heat, etc., are only different man-\\nifestations, forms, or dynamodes, of a single primitive\\nforce (prodynamis) This fundamental force is gen-\\nerally conceived as a vibratory motion of the smallest\\nparticles of matter a vibration of atoms. The atoms\\nthemselves, according to the usual kinetic theory of\\nsubstance, are dead, separate particles of matter, which\\ndance to and fro in empty space and act at a distance.\\nThe real founder and most distinguished representative\\n\u00c2\u00ab6", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nof the kinetic theory is Newton, the famous discoverer\\nof the law of gravitation. In his great work, the Philo-\\nsophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), ne\\nshowed that throughout the universe the same law of\\nattraction controls the unvarying constancy of gravi-\\ntation; the attraction of two particles being in direct\\nproportion to their mass and in inverse proportion to\\nthe square of their distance. This universal force of\\ngravity is at work in the fall of an apple and the tidal\\nwave no less than in the course of the planets round\\nthe sun and the movements of all the heavenly bodies.\\nNewton had the immortal merit of establishing the law\\nof gravitation and embodying it in an indisputable\\nmathematical formula. Yet this dead mathematical\\nformula, on which most scientists lay great stress, as\\nso frequently happens, gives us merely the quantitative\\ndemonstration of the theory; it gives us no insight\\nwhatever into the qualitative nature of the phenomena.\\nThe action at a distance without a medium, which New-\\nton deduced from his law of gravitation, and which be-\\ncame one of the most serious and most dangerous dog-\\nmas of later physics, does not afford the slightest ex-\\nplanation of the real causes of attraction; indeed, it\\nlong obstructed our way to the real discovery of them.\\nI cannot but suspect that his speculations on this mys-\\nterious action at a distance contributed not a little to\\nthe leading of the great English mathematician into\\nthe obscure labyrinth of mystic dreams and theistic\\nsuperstition in which he passed the last thirty-four years\\nof his life we find him, at the end, giving metaphysical\\nhypotheses on the predictions of Daniel and on the\\nparadoxical fantasies of St. John.\\nIn fundamental opposition to the theory of vibra-\\ntion, or the kinetic theory of substance, we have the\\n217", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmodern theory of condensation, or the pyknotic\\ntheory of substance. It is most ably established in\\nthe suggestive work of J. C. Vogt on The Nature of\\nElectricity and Magnetism on the Basis of a Simplified\\nConception of Substance (1891). Vogt assumes the\\nprimitive force of the world, the universal prodynamis,\\nto be, not the vibration or oscillation of particles in\\nempty space, but the condensation of a simple primitive\\nsubstance, which fills the infinity of space in an un-\\nbroken continuity. Its sole inherent mechanical form\\nof activity consists in a tendency to condensation or\\ncontraction, which produces infinitesimal centres of\\ncondensation these may change their degree of thick-\\nness, and, therefore, their volume, but are constant as\\nsuch. These minute parts of the universal substance,\\nthe centres of condensation, which might be called\\npyknatoms, correspond in general to the ultimate sep-\\narate atoms of the kinetic theory; they differ, how-\\never, very considerably in that they are credited with\\nsensation and inclination (or will movement of the\\nsimplest form), with souls, in a certain sense in har-\\nmony with the old theory of Empedocles of the love\\nand hatred of the elements. Moreover, these atoms\\nwith souls do not float in empty space, but in\\nthe continuous, extremely attenuated intermediate\\nsubstance, which represents the uncondensed portion\\nof the primitive matter. By means of certain con-\\nstellations, centres of perturbation, or systems of de-\\nformation, great masses of centres of condensation\\nquickly unite in immense proportions, and so obtain a\\npreponderance over the surrounding masses. By that\\nprocess the primitive substance, which in its original\\nstate of quiescence had the same mean consistency\\nthroughout, divides or differentiates into two kinds.\\n218", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nThe centres of disturbance, which positively exceed the\\nmean consistency in virtue of the pyknosis or conden-\\nsation, form the ponderable matter of bodies the finer,\\nintermediate substance, which occupies the space be-\\ntween them, and negatively falls below the mean con-\\nsistency, forms the ether, or imponderable matter. As\\na consequence of this division into mass and ether there\\nensues a ceaseless struggle between the two antago-\\nnistic elements, and this struggle is the source of all\\nphysical processes. The positive ponderable matter,\\nthe element with the feeling of like or desire, is contin-\\nually striving to complete the process of condensation,\\nand thus collecting an enormous amount of potential\\nenergy; the negative, imponderable matter, on the\\nother hand, offers a perpetual and equal resistance to\\nthe further increase of its strain and of the feeling of\\ndislike connected therewith, and thus gathers the ut-\\nmost amount of actual energy.\\nWe cannot go any further here into the details of the\\nbrilliant theory of J. C. Vogt. The interested reader\\ncannot do better than have recourse to the second vol-\\nume of the above work for a clear, popular exposition\\nof the difficult problem. I am myself too little informed\\nin physics and mathematics to enter into a critical dis-\\ncussion of its lights and shades still, I think that this\\npyknotic theory of substance will prove more accept-\\nable to every biologist who is convinced of the unity\\nof nature than the kinetic theory which prevails in\\nphysics to-day. A misunderstanding may easily arise\\nfrom the fact that Vogt puts his process of condensa-\\ntion in explicit contradiction with the general phenom-\\nenon of motion but it must be remembered that he is\\nspeaking of vibratory movement in the sense of the\\nphysicist. His hypothetical condensation is just as\\n219", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmuch determined by a movement of substance as is the\\nhypothetical vibration only the kind of movement\\nand the relation of the moving elements are very dif-\\nferent in the two hypotheses. Moreover, it is not the\\nwhole theory of vibration, but only an important section\\nof it, that is contradicted by the theory of condensation.\\nModern physics, for the most part, still firmly ad-\\nheres to the older theory of vibration, to the idea of an\\nactio in distans and the eternal vibration of dead atoms\\nin empty space; it rejects the pyknotic theory. Al-\\nthough Vogt s theory may be still far from perfect,\\nand his original speculations may be marred by many\\nerrors, yet I think he has rendered a very good service\\nin eliminating the untenable principles of the kinetic\\ntheory of substance. As to my own opinion and that\\nof many other scientists I must lay down the following\\ntheses, which are involved in Vogt s pyknotic theory,\\nas indispensable for a truly monistic view of substance,\\nand one that covers the whole field of organic and in-\\norganic nature\\nI. The two fundamental forms of substance, pon-\\nderable matter and ether, are not dead and only moved\\nby extrinsic force, but they are endowed with sensation\\nand will (though, naturally, of the lowest grade) they\\nexperience an inclination for condensation, a dislike of\\nstrain; they strive after the one and struggle against\\nthe other.\\nII. There is no such thing as empty space; that\\npart of space which is not occupied with ponderable\\natoms is filled with ether.\\nIII. There is no such thing as an action at a dis-\\ntance through perfectly empty space; all action of\\nbodies upon each other is either determined by imme-\\ndiate contact or is effected by the mediation of ether.\\n220", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nBoth the theories of substance which we have just\\ncontrasted are monistic in principle, since the opposi-\\ntion between the two conditions of substance mass\\nand ether is not original; moreover, they involve a\\ncontinuous immediate contact and reciprocal action of\\nthe two elements. It is otherwise with the dualistic\\ntheories of substance which still obtain in the idealist\\nand spiritualist philosophy, and which have the sup-\\nport of a powerful theology, in so far as theology in-\\ndulges in such metaphysical speculations. These\\ntheories draw a distinction between two entirely dif-\\nferent kinds of substance, material and immaterial.\\nMaterial substance enters into the composition of the\\nbodies which are the object of physics and chemistry\\nthe law of the persistence of matter and force is con-\\nfined to this world (apart from a belief in its creation\\nfrom nothing and other miracles). Immaterial sub-\\nstance is found in the spiritual world to which the\\nlaw does not extend; in this province the laws of\\nphysics and chemistry are either entirely inapplicable\\nor they are subordinated to a vital force, or a free\\nwill, or a divine omnipotence, or some other phan-\\ntom which is beyond the ken of critical science. In\\ntruth, these profound errors need no further refutation\\nto-day, for experience has never yet discovered for us\\na single immaterial substance, a single force which is\\nnot dependent on matter, or a single form of energy\\nwhich is not exerted by material movement, whether it\\nbe of mass, or of ether, or of both. Even the most elabo-\\nrate and most perfect forms of energy that we know the\\npsychic life of the higher animals, the thought and rea-\\nson of man depend on material processes, or changes in\\nthe neuroplasm of the ganglionic cells they are incon-\\nceivable apart from such modifications. I have already\\n221", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nshown (chap, xi.) that the physiological hypothesis of a\\nspecial, immaterial soul-substance is untenable.\\nThe study of ponderable matter is primarily the con-\\ncern of chemistry. Few are ignorant of the astonish-\\ning theoretical progress which this science has made\\nin the course of the century and the immense practical\\ninfluence it has had on every aspect of modern life.\\nWe shall confine ourselves here to a few remarks on\\nthe more important questions which concern the nat-\\nure of ponderable matter. It is well known that an-\\nalytical chemistry has succeeded in resolving the im-\\nmense variety of bodies in nature into a small number\\nof simple elements that is, simple bodies which are\\nincapable of further analysis. The number of these\\nelements is about seventy. Only fourteen of them are\\nwidely distributed on the earth and of much practi-\\ncal importance; the majority are rare elements (prin-\\ncipally metals) of little practical moment. The af-\\nfinity of these groups of elements, and the remark-\\nable proportions of their atomic weights, which\\nLothar Meyer and Mendelejeff have proved in their\\nPeriodic System of the Elements, make it extremely\\nprobable that they are not absolute species of ponder-\\nable matter that is, not eternally unchangeable par-\\nticles. The seventy elements have in that system\\nbeen distributed into eight leading groups, and ar-\\nranged in them according to their atomic weight, so\\nthat the elements which have a chemical affinity are\\nformed into families. The relations of the various\\ngroups in such a natural system of the elements recall,\\non the one hand, similar relations of the innumerable\\ncompounds of carbon, and, again, the relations of par-\\nallel groups in the natural arrangement of the animal\\nand plant species. Since in the latter cases the af-", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nunity of the related forms is based on descent from a\\ncommon parent form, it seems very probable that the\\nsame holds good of the families and orders of the chem-\\nical elements. We may, therefore, conclude that the\\nempirical elements we now know are not really sim-\\nple, ultimate, and unchangeable forms of matter, but\\ncompounds of homogeneous, simple, primitive atoms,\\nvariously distributed as to number and grouping. The\\nrecent speculations of Gustav Wendt, Wilhelm Preyer,\\nSir W. Crookes, and others, have pointed out how we\\nmay conceive the evolution of the elements from a sim-\\nple primitive material, the prothyl.\\nThe modern atomistic theory, which is regarded as\\nan indispensable instrument in chemistry to-day, must\\nbe carefully distinguished from the old philosophic\\natomism which was taught more than two thousand\\nyears ago by a group of distinguished thinkers of\\nantiquity Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus: it\\nwas considerably developed and modified later on by\\nDescartes, Hobbes, Leibnitz, and other famous philos-\\nophers. But it was not until 1808 that modern atomism\\nassumed a definite and acceptable form, and was fur-\\nnished with an empirical basis by Dalton, who formu-\\nlated the law of simple and multiple proportions\\nin the formation of chemical combinations. He first\\ndetermined the atomic weight of the different elements,\\nand thus created the solid and exact foundation on\\nwhich more recent chemical theories are based; these\\nare all atomistic, in the sense that they assume the\\nelements to be made up of homogeneous, infinitesimal,\\ndistinct particles, which are incapable of further an-\\nalysis. That does not touch the question of the real\\nnature of the atoms their form, size, psychology, etc.\\nThese atomic qualities are merely hypothetical while\\n223", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe chemistry of the atoms, their chemical affinity*\\nthat is, the constant proportion in which they com-\\nbine with the atoms of other elements is empirical.*\\nThe different relation of the various elements towards\\neach other, which chemistry calls affinity/ is one of\\nthe most important properties of ponderable matter;\\nit is manifested in the different relative quantities or\\nproportions of their combination in the intensity of\\nits consummation. Every shade of inclination, from\\ncomplete indifference to the fiercest passion, is exem-\\nplified in the chemical relation of the various elements\\ntowards each other, just as we find in the psychology\\nof man, and especially in the life of the sexes. Goethe,\\nin his classical romance, Affinities, compared the re-\\nlations of pairs of lovers with the phenomenon of the\\nsame name in the formation of chemical combinations.\\nThe irresistible passion that draws Edward to the sym-\\npathetic Ottilia, or Paris to Helen, and leaps over all\\nbounds of reason and morality, is the same powerful\\nunconscious attractive force which impels the living\\nspermatozoon to force an entrance into the ovum in\\nthe fertilization of the egg of the animal or plant the\\nsame impetuous movement which unites two atoms of\\nhydrogen to one atom of oxygen for the formation of a\\nmolecule of water. This fundamental unity of affinity\\nin the whole of nature, from the simplest chemical process\\nto the most complicated love story, was recognized by T\\nthe great Greek scientist, Empedocles, in the fifth cen-\\ntury B.C., in his theory of the love and hatred of the\\nelements. It receives empirical confirmation from\\nthe interesting progress of cellular psychology, the\\ngreat significance of which we have only learned to\\nCf. Monism, by Ernst Haeckel.\\n224", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nappreciate in the last thirty years. On those phenom-\\nena we base our conviction that even the atom is not\\nwithout a rudimentary form of sensation and will, or,\\nas it is better expressed, of feeling (aesthesis) and in-\\nclination (tropesis) that is, a universal soul of\\nthe simplest character. The same must be said of the\\nmolecules which are composed of two or more atoms.\\nFurther combinations of different kinds of these mole-\\ncules give rise to simple and, subsequently, complex\\nchemical compounds, in the activity of which the same\\nphenomena are repeated in a more complicated form.\\nThe study of ether, or imponderable matter, per-\\ntains principally to physics. The existence of an ex-\\ntremely attenuated medium, filling the whole of space\\noutside of ponderable matter, was known and applied\\nto the elucidation of various phenomena (especially\\nlight) a long time ago but it was not until the second\\nhalf of the nineteenth century that we became more\\nclosely acquainted with this remarkable substance, in\\nconnection with our astonishing empirical discoveries in\\nthe province of electricity, with their experimental de-\\ntection, their theoretical interpretation, and their prac-\\ntical application. The path was opened in particular\\nby the famous researches of Heinrich Hertz, of Bonn,\\nin 1888. The premature death of a brilliant young\\nphysicist of so much promise cannot be sufficiently\\ndeplored. Like the premature death of Spinoza, Ra-\\nphael, Schubert, and many other great men, it is one\\nof those brutal facts of human history which are enough\\nof themselves to destroy the untenable myth of a wise\\nProvidence and an All-loving Father in heaven.\\nThe existence of ether (or cosmic ether) as a real ele-\\nment is a positive fact, and has been known as such\\nfor the last twelve years. We sometimes read even\\np 225", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nto-day that ether is a pure hypothesis this erro-\\nneous assertion comes not only from uninformed phi-\\nlosophers and popular writers, but even from cer-\\ntain prudent and exact physicists. But there would\\nbe just as much reason tp deny the existence of pon-\\nderable matter. As a matter of fact, there are meta-\\nphysicians who accomplish even this feat, and whose\\nhighest wisdom lies in denying or calling into ques-\\ntion the existence of an external universe; accord-\\ning to them only one real entity exists their own\\nprecious personality, or, to be more correct, their im-\\nmortal soul. Several modern physiologists have em-\\nbraced this ultra -idealist view, which is to be found\\nin Descartes, Berkeley, Fichte, and others. Their\\npsycho -monism affirms: One thing only exists,\\nand that is my own mind. This audacious spiritual-\\nism seems to us to rest on an erroneous inference from\\nKant s correct critical theory, that we can know the\\nouter world only in the phenomenal aspect which is\\naccessible to our human organs of thought\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the brain\\nand the organs of sense. If by those means we can\\nattain only an imperfect and limited knowledge of the\\nmaterial world, that is no reason for denying its exist-\\nence altogether. In my opinion, the existence of ether\\nis as certain as that of ponderable matter\u00e2\u0080\u0094 as certain\\nas my own existence, as I reflect and write on it. As\\nwe assure ourselves of the existence of ponderable mat-\\nter by its mass and weight, by chemical and mechani-\\ncal experiments, so we prove that of ether by the expe-\\nriences and experiments of optics and electricity.\\nAlthough, however, the existence of ether is now\\nregarded as a positive fact by nearly all physicists,\\nand although many effects of this remarkable sub-\\nstance are familiar to us through an extensive experi-\\n226", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nence, especially in the way of optical and electrical\\nexperiments, yet we are still far from being clear and\\nconfident as to its real character. The views of the\\nmost eminent physicists, who have made a special\\nstudy of it, are extremely divergent; they frequently\\ncontradict each other on the most important points.\\nOne is, therefore, free to choose among the contradic-\\ntory hypotheses according to one s knowledge and\\njudgment. I will put in the following eight theses\\nthe view which has approved itself to me after mature\\nreflection on the subject, though I am no expert in\\nthis department\\nI. Ether fills the whole of space, in so far as it is\\nnot occupied by ponderable matter, as a continuous\\nsubstance it fully occupies the space between the\\natoms of ponderable matter.\\nII. Ether has probably no chemical quality, and\\nis not composed of atoms. If it be supposed that it\\nconsists of minute homogeneous atoms (for instance,\\nindivisible etheric particles of a uniform size), it must\\nbe further supposed that there is something else be-\\ntween these atoms, either empty space or a third,\\ncompletely unknown medium, a purely hypothetical\\ninterether the question as to the nature of this\\nbrings us back to the original difficulty, and so on in\\ninfinitum.\\nIII. As the idea of an empty space and an action\\nat a distance is scarcely possible in the present condi-\\ntion of our knowledge (at least it does not help to a\\nclear monistic view), I postulate for ether a special\\nstructure which is not atomistic, like that of ponderable\\nmatter, and which may provisionally be called (with-\\nout further determination) etheric or dynamic structure.\\nPIV. The consistency of ether is also peculiar, on\\n227", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nour hypothesis, and different from that of ponderable\\nmatter. It is neither gaseous, as some conceive, nor\\nsolid, as others suppose; the best idea of it can be\\nformed by comparison with an extremely attenuated,\\nelastic, and light jelly.\\nV. Ether may be called imponderable matter in the\\nsense that we have no means of determining its weight\\nexperimentally. If it really has weight, as is very\\nprobable, it must be so slight as to be far below the\\ncapacity of our most delicate balance. Some physi-\\ncists have attempted to determine its weight by the\\nenergy of the light-waves, and have discovered that it\\nis some fifteen trillion times lighter than atmospheric\\nair on that hypothesis a sphere of ether of the size of\\nour earth would weigh at least two hundred and fifty\\npounds\\nVI. The etheric consistency may probably (in ac-\\ncordance with the pyknotic theory) pass into the gas-\\neous state under certain conditions by progressive con-\\ndensation, just as a gas may be converted into a fluid,\\nand ultimately into a solid, by lowering its tempera-\\nture.\\nVII. Consequently, these three conditions of mat-\\nter may be arranged (and it is a point of great impor-\\ntance in our monistic cosmogony) in a genetic, contin-\\nuous order. We may distinguish five stages in it (i)\\nthe etheric, (2) the gaseous, (3) the fluid, (4) the vis-\\ncous (in the living protoplasm), and (5) the solid state.\\nVIII Ether is boundless and immeasurable, like\\nthe space it occupies. It is in eternal motion and\\nthis specific movement of ether (it is immaterial whether\\nwe conceive it as vibration, strain, condensation, etc.),\\nin reciprocal action with mass-movement (or gravita-\\ntion) is the ultimate cause of all phenomena.\\n228", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nThe great question of the nature of ether/ as\\nHertz justly calls it, includes the question of its re-\\nlation to ponderable matter; for these two forms of\\nmatter are not only always in the closest external con-\\ntact, but also in eternal, dynamic, reciprocal action.\\nWe may divide the most general phenomena of nature,\\nwhich are distinguished by physics as natural forces\\nor functions of matter, into two groups; the first of\\nthem may be regarded mainly (though not exclusively)\\nas a function of ether, and the second a function of\\nponderable matter as in the following scheme which\\nI take from my Monism\\nThe World (Nature, or the Cosmos)\\nETHER Imponderable.\\nMASS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ponderable.\\ni. Consistency:\\nEtheric (i.e., neither gaseous,\\nnor fluid nor solid).\\n1. Consistency:\\nNot etheric (but gaseous, fluid,\\nor solid).\\n2. Structure:\\nNot atomistic, not made up of\\nseparate particles (atoms), but\\ncontinuous.\\n2. Structure:\\nAtomistic, made up of infinitesi-\\nmal, distinct particles (atoms)\\ndiscontinuous.\\n3. Chief Functions\\nLight, radiant heat, electricity,\\nand magnetism.\\n3. Chief Functions:\\nGravity, inertia, molecular heat,\\nand chemical affinity.\\nThe two groups of functions of matter, which we have\\nopposed in this table, may, to some extent, be regarded\\nas the outcome of the first division of labor in the\\ndevelopment of matter, the primary ergonomy of\\nmatter. But this distinction must not be supposed\\nto involve an absolute separation of the two antithetic\\ngroups; they always retain their connection, and are\\n229", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nin constant reciprocal action. It is well known that\\nthe optical and electrical phenomena of ether are close-\\nly connected with mechanical and chemical changes\\nin ponderable elements the radiant heat of ether may\\nbe directly converted into the mechanical heat of the\\nmass gravitation is impossible unless the ether effects\\nthe mutual attraction of the separated atoms, because\\nwe cannot admit the idea of an actio in distans. In\\nlike manner, the conversion of one form of energy into\\nanother, as indicated in the law of the persistence of\\nforce, illustrates the constant reciprocity of the two\\nchief types of substance, ether and mass.\\nThe great law of nature, which, under the title of the\\nlaw of substance, we put at the head of all physical\\nconsiderations, was conceived as the law of the persist-\\nence of force by Robert Meyer, who first formulated it,\\nand Helmholtz, who continued the work. Another Ger-\\nman scientist, Friedrich Mohr, of Bonn, had clearly\\noutlined it in its main features ten years earlier (1837).\\nThe old idea of force was, after a time, differentiated\\nby modern physics from that of energy, which was at\\nfirst synonymous with it. Hence the law is now usu-\\nally called the law of the persistence of energy/ How-\\never, this finer distinction need not enter into the gen-\\neral consideration, to which I must confine myself here,\\nand into the question of the great principle of the per-\\nsistence of substance. The interested reader will find\\na very clear treatment of the question in Tyndall s ex-\\ncellent paper on The Fundamental Law of Nature,\\nin his Fragments of Science. It fully explains the\\nbroad significance of this profound cosmic law, and\\npoints out its application to the main problems of very\\ndifferent branches of science. We shall confine our\\nattention to the important fact that the principle of\\n230", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "THE LAW OF SUBSTANCE\\nenergy and the correlative idea of the unity of natu-\\nral forces, on the basis of a common origin, are now\\naccepted by all competent physicists, and are re-\\ngarded as the greatest advance of physics in the nine-\\nteenth century. We now know that heat, sound, light,\\nchemical action, electricity, and magnetism are all\\nmodes of motion. We can, by a certain apparatus,\\nconvert any one of these forces into another, and prove\\nby an accurate measurement that not a single particle\\nof energy is lost in the process.\\nThe sum-total of force or energy in the universe re-\\nmains constant, no matter what changes take place\\naround us; it is eternal and infinite, like the matter\\non which it is inseparably dependent. The whole\\ndrama of nature apparently consists in an alternation\\nof movement and repose; yet the bodies at rest have\\nan inalienable quantity of force, just as truly as those\\nthat are in motion. It is in this movement that the\\npotential energy of the former is converted into the\\nkinetic energy of the latter. As the principle of the\\npersistence of force takes into account repulsion as\\nwell as attraction, it affirms that the mechanical value\\nof the potential energy and the kinetic energy in the\\nmaterial world is a constant quantity. To put it brief-\\nly, the force of the universe is divided into two parts,\\nwhich may be mutually converted, according to a fixed\\nrelation of value. The diminution of the one involves\\nthe increase of the other the total value remains un-\\nchanged in the universe. The potential energy and\\nthe actual, or kinetic, energy are being continually\\ntransformed from one condition to the other; but the\\ninfinite sum of force in the world at large never suffers\\nthe slightest curtailment.\\nOnce modern physics had established the law of sub-\\ntS| 231", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nstance as far as the simpler relations of inorganic bod-\\nies are concerned, physiology took up the story, and\\nproved its application to the entire province of the or-\\nganic world. It showed that all the vital activities\\nof the organism without exception are based on a\\nconstant reciprocity of force and a correlative change\\nof material, or metabolism, just as much as the simplest\\nprocesses in lifeless bodies. Not only the growth\\nand the nutrition of plants and animals, but even their\\nfunctions of sensation and movement, their sense-action\\nand psychic life, depend on the conversion of potential\\ninto kinetic energy, and vice versa. This supreme\\nlaw dominates also those elaborate performances of\\nthe nervous system which we call, in the higher ani-\\nmals and man, the action of the mind.\\nOur monistic view, that the great cosmic law applies\\nthroughout the whole of nature, is of the highest mo-\\nment. For it not only involves, on its positive side,\\nthe essential unity of the cosmos and the causal con-\\nnection of all phenomena that come within our cogni-\\nzance, but it also, in a negative way, marks the highest\\nintellectual progress, in that it definitely rules out the\\nthree central dogmas of metaphysics God, freedom,\\nand immortality. In assigning mechanical causes to\\nphenomena everywhere, the law of substance comes\\ninto line with the universal law of causality.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII\\nTHE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nThe Notion of Creation Miracles Creation of the Whole Uni-\\nverse and of its Various Parts Creation of Substance (Cos-\\nmological Creation) Deism One Creative Day Creation of\\nSeparate Entities Five Forms of Ontological Creationism\\nTheory of Evolution I. Monistic Cosmogony Beginning\\nand End of the World The Infinity and Eternity of the Uni-\\nverse Space and Time Universum perpetuum mobile En-\\ntropy of the Universe II. Monistic Geogeny History of the\\nInorganic and Organic Worlds III. Monistic Biogeny\\nTransformism and the Theory of Descent Lamarck and\\nDarwin IV. Monistic Anthropogeny Origin of Man\\nIT HE greatest, vastest, and most difficult of all cos-\\nmic problems is that of the origin and develop-\\nment of the world the question of creation/ in a\\nword. Even to the solution of this most difficult world-\\nriddle the nineteenth century has contributed more than\\nall its predecessors in a certain sense, indeed, it has\\nfound the solution. We have at least attained to a\\nclear view of the fact that all the partial questions of\\ncreation are indivisibly connected, that they represent\\none single, comprehensive cosmic problem, and that\\nthe key to this problem is found in the one magic\\nword evolution. The great questions of the crea-\\ntion of man, the creation of the animals and plants,\\nthe creation of the earth and the sun, etc., are all\\nparts of the general question, What is the origin of the\\n233", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwhole world? Has it been created by supernatural\\npower, or has it been evolved by a natural process What\\nare the causes and the manner of this evolution? If\\nwe succeed in finding the correct answer to one of these\\nquestions, we have, according to our monistic concep-\\ntion of the world, cast a brilliant light on the solution\\nof them all, and on the entire cosmic problem.\\nThe current opinion as to the origin of the world in\\nearlier ages was almost a universal belief in creation.\\nThis belief has been expressed in thousands of inter-\\nesting, more or less fabulous, legends, poems, cosmog-\\nonies, and myths. A few great philosophers were de-\\nvoid of it, especially those remarkable free-thinkers of\\nclassical antiquity who first conceived the idea of nat-\\nural evolution. All the creation-myths, on the con-\\ntrary, were of a supernatural, miraculous, and trans-\\ncendental character. Incompetent, as it was, to inves-\\ntigate for itself the nature of the world and its origin\\nby natural causes, the undeveloped mind naturally\\nhad recourse to the idea of miracle. In most of these\\ncreation-myths anthropism was blended with the belief\\nin the miraculous. The creator was supposed to have\\nconstructed the world on a definite plan, just as man\\naccomplishes his artificial constructions; the concep-\\ntion of the creator was generally completely anthropo-\\nmorphic, a palpable anthropistic creationism. The\\nall-mighty maker of heaven and earth, as he is called\\nin Genesis and the Catechism, is just as humanly con-\\nceived as the modern creator of Agassiz and Reinke,\\nor the intelligent engineer of other recent biologists.\\nEntering more fully into the notion of creation, we\\ncan distinguish as two entirely different acts the pro-\\nduction of the universe as a whole and the partial pro-\\nduction of its various parts, in harmony with Spinoza s\\n234", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nidea of substance (the universe) and accidents (or modes,\\nthe individual phenomena of substance). This dis-\\ntinction is of great importance, because there are many\\neminent philosophers who admit the one and reject the\\nother.\\nAccording to this creationist theory, then, God has\\nmade the world out of nothing. It is supposed\\nthat God (a rational, but immaterial, being) existed\\nby himself for an eternity before he resolved to create\\nthe world. Some supporters of the theory restrict God s\\ncreative function to one single act; they believe that\\nthis extramundane God (the rest of whose life is shroud-\\ned in mystery) created the substance of the world in a\\nsingle moment, endowed it with the faculty of the most\\nextensive evolution, and troubled no further about it.\\nThis view may be found, for instance, in the English\\nDeists in many forms. It approaches very close to our\\nmonistic theory of evolution, only abandoning it in the\\none instant in which God accomplished the creation.\\nOther creationists contend that God did not confine\\nhimself to the mere creation of matter, but that he\\ncontinues to be operative as the sustainer and ruler\\nof the world. Different modifications of this belief\\nare found, some approaching very close to pantheism\\nand others to complete theism. All these and similar\\nforms of belief in creation are incompatible with the\\nlaw of the persistence of matter and force; that law\\nknows nothing of a beginning.\\nIt is interesting to note that E. du Bois-Reymond has\\nidentified himself with this cosmological creationism\\nin his latest speech (on Neovitalism, 1894). It is\\nmore consonant with the divine omnipotence/ he says,\\nto assume that it created the whole material of the\\nworld in one creative act unthinkable ages ago in such\\n*35", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwise that it should be endowed with inviolable laws to\\ncontrol the origin and the progress of living things\\nthat, for instance, here on earth rudimentary organ-\\nisms should arise from which, without further assist-\\nance, the whole of living nature could be evolved, from\\na primitive bacillus to the graceful palm-wood, from a\\nprimitive micrococcus to Solomon s lovely wives or to\\nthe brain of Newton. Thus we are content with one\\ncreative day, and we derive organic nature mechanic-\\nally, without the aid of either old or new vitalism.\\nDu Bois Reymond here shows, as in the question of\\nconsciousness, the shallow and illogical character of\\nhis monistic thought.\\nAccording to another still prevalent theory, which\\nmay be called ontological creationism, God not only\\ncreated the world at large, but also its separate contents.\\nIn the Christian world the old Semitic legend of crea-\\ntion, taken from Genesis, is still very widely accepted\\neven among modern scientists it finds an adherent\\nhere and there. I have fully entered into the criticism\\nof it in the first chapter of my Natural History of Crea-\\ntion. The following theories may be enumerated as\\nthe most interesting modifications of this ontological\\ncreationism\\nI. Dualistic creation. God restricted his interference\\nto two creative acts. First he created the inorganic\\nworld, mere dead substance, to which alone the law of\\nenergy applies, working blindly and aimlessly in the\\nmechanism of material things and the building of the\\nmountains; then God attained intelligence and com-\\nmunicated it to the purposive intelligent forces which\\ninitiate and control organic evolution.*\\nReinke, Die Welt als That (1899).\\n236", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nII. Trialistic creation. God made the world in three\\ncreative acts (a) the creation of the heavens the ex-\\ntra-terrestrial world, (b) the creation of the earth (as,\\nthe centre of the world) and of its living inhabitants,\\nand (c) the creation of man (in the image and likeness\\nof God). This dogma is still widely prevalent among\\ntheologians and other educated people it is taught\\nas the truth in many of our schools.\\nIII. Heptameral creation a creation in seven days\\n(teste Moses). Although few educated people really\\nbelieve in this Mosaic myth now, it is still firmly im-\\npressed on our children in the biblical lessons of their\\nearliest years. The numerous attempts that have been\\nmade, especially in England, to harmonize it with the\\nmodern theory of evolution have entirely failed. It\\nobtained some importance in science when Linne adopt-\\ned it in the establishment of his system, and based his\\ndefinition of organic species (which he considered to be\\nunchangeable) on it There are as many different\\nspecies of animals and plants as there were different\\nforms created in the beginning by the Infinite. This\\ndogma was pretty generally held until the time of\\nDarwin (1859), although Lamarck had already proved\\nits untenability in 1 809.\\nIV. Periodic creation. At the beginning of each\\nperiod of the earth s history the whole population of\\nanimals and plants was created anew, and destroyed\\nby a general catastrophe at its close; there were as\\nmany general creative acts as there are distinct geolog-\\nical periods (the catastrophic theory of Cuvier [1818]\\nand Louis Agassiz [1858]). Palaeontology, which\\nseemed to support this theory in its more imperfect\\nstage, has since completely refuted it.\\nV. Individual creation. Every single man and\\n237", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nevery individual animal and plant does not arise by\\na natural process of growth, but is created by the favor\\nof God. This view of creation is still often met with\\nin journals, especially in the births column. The\\nspecial talents and features of our children are often\\ngratefully acknowledged to be gifts of God their\\nhereditary defects fit into another theory.\\nThe error of these creation-legends and the cognate\\nbelief in miracles must have been apparent to thought-\\nful minds at an early period more than two thousand\\nyears ago we find that many attempts were made to\\nreplace them by a rational theory, and to explain the\\norigin of the world by natural causes. In the front\\nrank, once more, we must place the leaders of the Ionic\\nschool, with Democritus, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Aris-\\ntotle, Lucretius, and other ancient philosophers. The\\nfirst imperfect attempts which they made astonish\\nus, in a measure, by the flashes of mental light in\\nwhich they anticipate modern ideas. It must be re-\\nmembered that classical antiquity had not that solid\\ngroundwork for scientific speculation which has been\\nprovided by the countless observations and experiments\\nof modern scientists. During the Middle Ages es-\\npecially during the domination of the papacy scien-\\ntific work in this direction entirely ceased. The tort-\\nure and the stake of the Inquisition insured that an\\nunconditional belief in the Hebrew mythology should\\nbe the final answer to all the questions of creation.\\nEven the phenomena which led directly to the observa-\\ntion of the facts of evolution the embryology of the\\nplant and the animal, and of man remained un-\\nnoticed, or only excited the interest of an occasional\\nkeen observer; but their discoveries were ignored or\\nforgotten. Moreover, the path to a correct knowledge\\n238", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nof natural development was barred by the dominant\\ntheory of preformation, the dogma which held that the\\ncharacteristic form and structure of each animal and\\nplant were already sketched in miniature in the germ\\n(cf. p. 54). _ 1\\nThe science which we now call the science ot evolu-\\ntion (in the broadest sense) is, both in its general out-\\nline and in its separate parts, a child of the nineteenth\\ncentury; it is one of its most momentous and most\\nbrilliant achievements. Almost unknown in the pre-\\nceding century, this theory has now become the sure\\nfoundation of our whole world-system. I have treated\\nit exhaustively in my General Morphology (1866), more\\npopularly in my Natural History of Creation (1868),\\nand in its special application to man in my Anthro-\\npogeny (1874). Here I shall restrict myself to a brief\\nsurvey of the chief advances which the science has made\\nin the course of the century. It falls into four sections,\\naccording to the nature of its object; that is, it deals\\nwith the natural origin of (1) the cosmos, (2) the earth,\\n(3) terrestrial forms of life, and (4) man.\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MONISTIC COSMOGONY\\nThe first attempt to explain the constitution and the\\nmechanical origin of the world in a simple manner by\\nNewtonian laws that is, by mathematical and\\nphysical laws\u00e2\u0080\u0094 was made by Immanuel Kant in the\\nfamous work of his youth (1755). General History of\\nthe Earth and Theory of the Heavens. Unfortunately,\\nthis distinguished and daring work remained almost\\nunknown for ninety years it was only disinterred in\\n1845 by Alexander Humboldt in the first volume of\\nhis Cosmos. In the mean time the great French math-\\n239", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nematician, Pierre Laplace, had arrived independently\\nat similar views to those of Kant, and he gave them\\na mathematical foundation in his Exposition du Sys-\\nteme du Monde (1796). His chief work, the Mecanique\\nCeleste, appeared a hundred years ago. The analo-\\ngous features of the cosmogony of Kant and Laplace\\nconsist, as is well known, in a mechanical explana-\\ntion of the movements of the planets, and the conclu-\\nsion which is drawn therefrom, that all the cosmic\\nbodies were formed originally by a condensation of\\nrotating nebulous spheres. This nebular hypothe-\\nsis has been much improved and supplemented since,\\nbut it is still the best of all the attempts to explain the\\norigin of the world on monistic and mechanical lines.\\nIt has recently been strongly confirmed and enlarged\\nby the theory that this cosmogonic process did not\\nsimply take place once, but is periodically repeated.\\nWhile new cosmic bodies arise and develop out of ro-\\ntating masses of nebula in some parts of the universe,\\nin other parts old, extinct, frigid suns come into colli-\\nsion, and are once more reduced by the heat generated\\nto the condition of nebulae.\\nNearly all the older and the more recent cosmogo-\\nnies, including most of those which were inspired by\\nKant and Laplace, started from the popular idea that\\nthe world had had a beginning. Hence, according to a\\nwidespread version of the nebular hypothesis, in the\\nbeginning was made a vast nebula of infinitely at-\\ntenuated and light material, and at a certain moment\\ncountless ages ago a movement of rotation was\\nimparted to this mass. Given this first beginning\\nof the cosmogonic movement, it is easy, on mechanical\\nprinciples, to deduce and mathematically establish the\\nfurther phenomena of the formation of the cosmic\\n240", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nbodies, the separation of the planets, and so forth.\\nThis first origin of movement is Du Bois-Reymond s\\nsecond world-enigma he regards it as transcen-\\ndental. Many other scientists and philosophers are\\nequally helpless before this difficulty they resign\\nthemselves to the notion that we have here a primary\\nsupernatural impetus to the scheme of things, a\\nmiracle.\\nIn our opinion, this second world enigma is\\nsolved by the recognition that movement is as innate\\nand original a property of substance as is sensation.\\nThe proof of this monistic assumption is found, first,\\nin the law of substance, and, secondly, in the discov-\\neries which astronomy and physics have made in the\\nlatter half of the century By the spectral analysis of\\nI Bunsen and Kirchhof! (i860) we have found, not only\\nthat the millions of bodies, which fill the infinity of\\nspace, are of the same material as our own sun and\\nearth, but also that they are in various stages of evo-\\nlution; we have obtained by its aid information as to\\nthe movements and distances of the stars, which the\\ntelescope would never have given us. Moreover, the\\ntelescope itself has been vastly improved, and has, in\\nalliance with photography, made a host of scientific\\ndiscoveries of which no one dreamed at the beginning\\nof the century. In particular, a closer acquaintance\\nwith comets, meteorites, star-clusters, and nebulae has\\nhelped us to realize the great significance of the smaller\\nbodies which are found in millions in the space between\\nthe stars.\\nWe now know that the paths of the millions of heav-\\nenly bodies are changeable, and to some extent irregu-\\nlar, whereas the planetary system was formerly thought\\nto be constant, and the rotating spheres were described\\nQ 241", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nas pursuing their orbits in eternal regularity. Astro-\\nphysics owes much of its triumph to the immense prog-\\nress of other branches of physics, of optics, and elec-\\ntricity, and especially of the theory of ether. And here,\\nagain, our supreme law of substance is found to be one\\nof the most valuable achievements of modern science.\\nWe now know that it rules unconditionally in the most\\ndistant reaches of space, just as it does in our planetary\\nsystem, in the most minute particle of the earth as\\nwell as in the smallest cell of our human frame. We\\nare, moreover, justified in concluding, if we are not\\nlogically compelled to conclude, that the persistence\\nof matter and force has held good throughout all time\\nas it does to-day. Through all eternity the infinite\\nuniverse has been, and is, subject to the law of sub-\\nstance.\\nFrom this great progress of astronomy and physics,\\nwhich mutually elucidate and supplement each other,\\nwe draw a series of most important conclusions with\\nregard to the constitution and evolution of the cosmos,\\nand the persistence and transformation of substance.\\nLet us put them briefly in the following theses\\nI. The extent of the universe is infinite and un-\\nbounded it is empty in no part, but everywhere filled\\nwith substance.\\nII. The duration of the world is equally infinite\\nand unbounded it has no beginning and no end it\\nis eternity.\\nIII. Substance is everywhere and always in unin-\\nterrupted movement and transformation: nowhere is\\nthere perfect repose and rigidity yet the infinite quan-\\ntity of matter and of eternally changing force remains\\nconstant.\\nIV. This universal movement of substance in space\\n242", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\ntakes the form of an eternal cycle or of a periodical pro-\\ncess of evolution.\\nV. The phases of this evolution consist in a peri-\\nodic change of consistency, of which the first outcome\\nis the primary division into mass and ether the er-\\ngonomy of ponderable and imponderable matter.\\nVI. This division is effected by a progressive con-\\ndensation of matter as the formation of countless in-\\nfinitesimal centres of condensation/ in which the in-\\nherent primitive properties of substance feeling and\\ninclination are the active causes.\\nVII. While minute and then larger bodies are being\\nformed by this pyknotic process in one part of space,\\nand the intermediate ether increases its strain, the op-\\nposite process the destruction of cosmic bodies by\\ncollision is taking place in another quarter.\\nVIII. The immense quantity of heat which is gen-\\nerated in this mechanical process of the collision of\\nswiftly moving bodies represents the new kinetic en-\\nergy which effects the movement of the resultant nebu-\\nlae and the construction of new rotating bodies. The\\neternal drama begins afresh. Even our mother earth,\\nwhich was formed of part of the gyrating solar system\\nmillions of ages ago, will grow cold and lifeless after\\nthe lapse of further millions, and, gradually narrow-\\ning its orbit, will fall eventually into the sun.\\nIt seems to me that these modern discoveries as to\\nthe periodic decay and re-birth of cosmic bodies, which\\nwe owe to the most recent advance of physics and as-\\ntronomy, associated with the law of substance, are\\nespecially important in giving us a clear insight into\\nthe universal cosmic process of evolution. In their\\nlight our earth shrinks into the slender proportions\\nof a mote in the sunbeam, of which unnumbered\\n243", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmillions chase each other through the vast depths of\\nspace. Our own human nature, which exalted itself\\ninto an image of God in its anthropistic illusion, sinks\\nto the level of a placental mammal, which has no more\\nvalue for the universe at large than the ant, the fly of\\na summer s day, the microscopic infusorium, or the\\nsmallest bacillus. Humanity is but a transitory phase\\nof the evolution of an eternal substance, a particular\\nphenomenal form of matter and energy, the true pro-\\nportion of which we soon perceive when we set it on\\nthe background of infinite space and eternal time.\\nSince Kant explained space and time to be merely\\nforms of perception space the form of external,\\ntime of internal, sensitivity there has been a keen\\ncontroversy, which still continues, over this important\\nproblem. A large section of modern metaphysicians\\nhave persuaded themselves that this critical fact\\npossesses a great importance as the starting-point of\\na purely idealist theory of knowledge, and that, con-\\nsequently, the natural opinion of the ordinary healthy\\nmind as to the reality of time and space is swept aside.\\nThis narrow and ultra idealist conception of time\\nand space has become a prolific source of error. It\\noverlooks the fact that Kant only touched one side\\nof the problem, the subjective side, in that theory, and\\nrecognized the equal validity of its objective side.\\nTime and space, he said, have empirical reality, but\\ntranscendental ideality. Our modern monism is quite\\ncompatible with this thesis of Kant s, but not with the\\none-sided exaggeration of the subjective aspect of the\\nproblem the latter leads logically to the absurd ideal-\\nism that culminates in Berkeley s thesis, Bodies are\\nbut ideas; their essence is in their perception. The\\nthesis should be read thus Bodies are only ideas\\n244", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nfor my personal consciousness their existence is just\\nas real as that of my organs of thought, the ganglionic\\ncells in the gray bed of my brain, which receive the im-\\npress of bodies on my sense-organs and form those\\nideas by association of the impressions. It is just\\nas easy to doubt or to deny the reality of my own con-\\nsciousness as to doubt that of time and space. In the\\ndelirium of fever, in hallucinations, in dreams, and in\\ndouble-consciousness, I take ideas to be true which are\\nmerely fancies. I mistake my own personality for\\nanother (vide p. 185) Descartes famous Cogito ergo\\nsum applies no longer. On the other hand, the real-\\nity of time and space is now fully established by that\\nexpansion of our philosophy which we owe to the law\\nof substance and to our monistic cosmogony. When\\nwe have happily got rid of the untenable idea of\\nempty space, there remains as the infinite space-\\nfilling -medium matter, in its two forms of ether and\\nmass. So also we find a time-filling event in the\\neternal movement, or genetic energy, which reveals\\nitself in the uninterrupted evolution of substance, in\\nthe perpetuum mobile of the universe.\\nAs a body which has been set in motion continues\\nto move as long as no external agency interferes with\\nit, the idea was conceived long ago of constructing an\\napparatus which should illustrate perpetual motion.\\nThe fact was overlooked that every movement meets\\nwith external impediments and gradually ceases, un-\\nless a new impetus is given to it from without and a\\nnew force is introduced to counteract the impediments.\\nThus, for instance, a pendulum would swing back-\\nward and forward for an eternity at the same speed if\\nthe resistance of the atmosphere and the friction at\\nthe point it hangs from did not gradually deprive it of\\n245", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe mechanical kinetic energy of its motion and con-\\nvert it into heat. We have to furnish it with fresh\\nmechanical energy by a spring (or, as in the pendulum-\\nclock, by the drag of a weight). Hence it is impossi-\\nble to construct a machine that would produce, with-\\nout external aid, a surplus of energy by which it could\\nkeep itself going. Every attempt to make such a per-\\npetuum mobile must necessarily fail; the discovery of\\nthe law of substance showed, in addition, the theoreti-\\ncal impossibility of it.\\nThe case is different, however, when we turn to the\\nworld at large, the boundless universe that is in eternal\\nmovement. The infinite matter, which fills it objec-\\ntively, is what we call space in our subjective impres-\\nsion of it time is our subjective conception of its eternal\\nmovement, which is, objectively, a periodic, cyclic evo-\\nlution. These two forms of perception teach us the\\ninfinity and eternity of the universe. That is, more-\\nover, equal to saying that the universe itself is a per-\\npetuum mobile. This infinite and eternal machine\\nof the universe sustains itself in eternal and uninter-\\nrupted movement, because every impediment is com-\\npensated by an equivalence of energy, and the un-\\nlimited sum of kinetic and potential energy remains\\nalways the same. The law of the persistence of force\\nproves also that the idea of a perpetuum mobile is just as\\napplicable to, and as significant for, the cosmos as a\\nwhole as it is impossible for the isolated action of any\\npart of it. Hence the theory of entropy is likewise un-\\ntenable.\\nThe able founder of the mechanical theory of heat\\n(1850), Clausius, embodied the momentous contents of\\nthis important theory in two theses. The first runs:\\nThe energy of the universe is constant that is one-\\n246", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nhalf of our law of substance, the principle of energy\\n(vide p. 230). The second thesis is: The energy of\\nthe universe tends towards a maximum. In my opin-\\nion this second assertion is just as erroneous as the\\nfirst is true. In the theory of Clausius the entire energy\\nof the universe is of two kinds, one of which (heat of\\nthe higher degree, mechanical, electrical, chemical\\nenergy, etc.) is partly convertible into work, but the\\nother is not the latter energ}^, already converted into\\nheat and distributed in the cooler masses, is irrevo-\\ncably lost as far as any further work is concerned.\\nClausius calls this unconsumed energy, which is no\\nlonger available for mechanical work, entropy (that is,\\nforce that is directed inward) it is continually in-\\ncreasing at the cost of the other half. As, therefore,\\nthe mechanical energy of the universe is daily being\\ntransformed into heat, and this cannot be reconverted\\ninto mechanical force, the sum of heat and energy in\\nthe universe must continually tend to be reduced and\\ndissipated. All difference of temperature must ulti-\\nmately disappear, and the completely latent heat must\\nbe equally distributed through one inert mass of mo-\\ntionless matter. All organic life and movement must\\ncease when this maximum of entropy has been reached.\\nThat would be a real end of the world.\\nIf this theory of entropy were true, we should have\\na beginning corresponding to this assumed end\\nof the world a minimum of entropy, in which the dif-\\nferences in temperature of the various parts of the cos-\\nmos would be at a maximum. Both ideas are quite\\nuntenable in the light of our monistic and consistent\\ntheory of the eternal cosmogenetic process; both con-\\ntradict the law of substance. There is neither begin-\\nning nor end of the world. The universe is infinite,\\n247", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nand eternally in motion the conversion of kinetic into\\npotential energ}^ and vicissim, goes on uninterrupted-\\nly and the sum of this actual and potential energy\\nremains constant. The second thesis of the mechan-\\nical theory of heat contradicts the first, and so must\\nbe rejected.\\nThe representatives of the theory of entropy are\\nquite correct as long as they confine themselves to dis-\\ntinct processes, in which, under certain conditions, the\\nlatent heat cannot be reconverted into work. Thus,\\nfor instance, in the steam-engine the heat can only be\\nconverted into mechanical work when it passes from\\na warmer body (steam) into a cooler (water) the proc-\\ness cannot be reversed. In the world at large, however,\\nquite other conditions obtain conditions which per-\\nmit the reconversion of latent heat into mechanical\\nwork. For instance, in the collision of two heavenly\\nbodies, which rush towards each other at inconceivable\\nspeed, enormous quantities of heat are liberated, while\\nthe pulverized masses are hurled and scattered about\\nspace. The eternal drama begins afresh the rotat-\\ning mass, the condensation of its parts, the formation\\nof new meteorites, their combination into larger bodies,\\nand so on.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MONISTIC GEOGENY\\nThe history of the earth, of which we are now going\\nto make a brief survey, is only a minute section of the\\nhistory of the cosmos. Like the latter, it has been the\\nobject of philosophic speculation and mythological fan-\\ntasy for many thousand years. Its true scientific study,\\nhowever, is much younger; it belongs, for the most\\npart, to the nineteenth century. The fact that the\\nearth is a planet revolving round the sun was deter-\\n248", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nmined by the system of Copernicus (1543) Galilei,\\nKepler, and other great astronomers, mathematically\\ndetermined its distance from the sun, the laws of its\\nmotion, and so forth. Kant and Laplace indicated,\\nin their cosmogony, the way in which the earth had\\nbeen developed from the parent sun. But the later\\nhistory of the earth, the formation of its crust, the\\norigin of its seas and continents, its mountains and\\ndeserts, was rarely made the subject of serious scien-\\ntific research in the eighteenth century, and in the first\\ntwo decades of the nineteenth. As a rule, men were\\nsatisfied with unreliable conjectures or with the tradi-\\ntional story of creation; once more the Mosaic legend\\nbarred the way to an independent investigation.\\nIn 1822 an important work appeared, which followed\\nthe same method in the scientific investigation of the\\nhistory of the earth that had already proved the most\\nfertile the ontological method, or the principle of act-\\nualism. It consists in a careful study and manipula-\\ntion of actual phenomena with a view to the elucidation\\nof the analogous historical processes of the past. The\\nSociety of Science at G\u00c3\u00b6ttingen had offered a prize in\\n1818 for the most searching and comprehensive in-\\nquiry into the changes in the earth s crust which are\\nhistorically demonstrable, and the application which\\nmay be made of a knowledge of them in the investi-\\ngation of the terrestrial revolutions which lie beyond\\nthe range of history. This prize was obtained by\\nKarl Hoff, of Gotha, for his distinguished work, History\\nof the Natural Changes in the Crust of the Earth in the\\nLight of Tradition (1822-34). Sir Charles Lyell then\\napplied this ontological or actualistic method with great\\nsuccess to the whole province of geology; his Princi-\\nples of Geology (1830) laid the firm foundation on which\\n249", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe fabric of the history of the earth was so happily\\nerected. The important geogenetic research of Alex-\\nander Humboldt, Leopold Buch, Gustav Bischof, Ed-\\nward S\u00c3\u00bcss, and other geologists, were wholly based on\\nthe empirical foundation and the speculative principles\\nof Karl Hoff and Charles Lyell. They cleared the way\\nfor purely rational science in the field of geology they\\nremoved the obstacles that had been put in the path\\nby mythological ancy and religious tradition, espe-\\ncially by the Bible and its legends. I have already dis-\\ncussed the merits of Lyell, and his relations with his\\nfriend Charles Darwin, in the sixteenth and seventeenth\\nchapters of my Natural History of Creation, and must\\nrefer the reader to the standard works on geology for\\na further acquaintance with the history of the earth\\nand the great progress which dynamical and historical\\ngeology have made during the century.\\nThe first division of the history of the earth must\\nbe a separation of inorganic and organic geogeny;\\nthe latter begins with the first appearance of living\\nthings on our planet. The earlier section, the inor-\\nganic history of the earth, ran much the same course\\nas that of the other planets of our system. They w T ere\\nall cast off as rings of nebula at the equator of the ro-\\ntating solar mass, and gradually condensed into inde-\\npendent bodies. After cooling down a little, the glow-\\ning ball of the earth was formed out of the gaseous mass,\\nand eventually, as the heat continued to radiate out\\ninto space, there was formed at its surface the thin solid\\ncrust on which we live. When the temperature at the\\nsurface had gone down to a certain point, the water de-\\nscended upon it from the environing clouds of steam,\\nand thus the first condition was secured for the rise of\\norganic life. Many million years certainly more\\n2 5\u00c2\u00b0", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nthan a hundred have passed since this important\\nprocess of the formation of water took place, introducing\\nthe third section of cosmogony, which we call biogeny.\\nIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MONISTIC BIOGENY\\nThe third phase of the evolution of the world opens\\nwith the advent of organisms on our planet, and con-\\ntinues uninterrupted from that point until the present\\nday. The great problems which this most interesting\\npart of the earth s history suggests to us were still\\nthought insoluble at the beginning of the nineteen h cen-\\ntury, or, at least, so difficult hat their solution seemed to\\nbe extremely remote. Now, at the close of the century,\\nwe can affirm with legitimate pride that they have been\\nsubstantially solved by modern biology and its theory\\nof transf ormism indeed, many of the phenomena of\\nthe organic world are now interpreted on physical prin-\\nciples as completely as the familiar physical phenome-\\nna of inorganic nature. The merit of making the first\\nimportant step in this difficult path and of pointing out\\nthe way to the monistic solution of all the problems of\\nbiology must be accorded to the great French scientist,\\nJean Lamarck; it was in 1809, the year of the birth of\\nCharles Darwin, that he published his famous Philo-\\nsophie Zoologique. In this original work not only is\\na splendid effort made to interpret all the phenomena\\nof organic life from a monistic and physical point of\\nview, but the path is opened which alone leads to the\\nsolution of the greatest enigma of this branch of sci-\\nence the problem of the natural origin of organic spe-\\ncies. Lamarck, who had an equally extensive em-\\npirical acquaintance with zoology and botany, drew\\nthe first sketch of the theory of descent; he showed\\n251", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthat all the countless members of the plant and animal\\nkingdoms have arisen by slow transformation from\\nsimple, common ancestral types, and that it is the\\ngradual modification of forms by adaptation, in recip-\\nrocal action with heredity, which has brought about\\nthis secular metamorphosis.\\nI have fully appreciated the merit of Lamarck in the\\nfifth chapter, and of Darwin in the sixth and seventh\\nchapters, of the Natural History of Creation. Darwin,\\nfifty yea s afterwards, not only gave a solid founda-\\ntion to all the essential parts of the theory of descent,\\nbut he filled up the lacunae of Lamarck s work by his\\ntheory of selection. Darwin reaped abundantly the\\nsuccess that Lamarck had never seen, with all his\\nmerit. His epoch-making work on The Origin of Spe-\\ncies by Natural Selection has transformed modern biol-\\nogy from its very foundations, in the course of the last\\nforty years, and has raised it to a stage of development\\nthat yields to no other science in existence. Darwin is\\nthe Copernicus of the organic world, as I said in 1868,\\nand E. du Bois-Reymond repeated fifteen years after-\\nwards.*\\nIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 MONISTIC ANTHROPOGENY\\nThe fourth and last phase of the world s history must\\nbe for us men that latest period of time which has wit-\\nnessed the development of our own race. Lamarck\\n(1809) had already recognized that this evolution is\\nonly rationally conceivable as the outcome of a natural\\nprocess, by descent from the apes, our next of kin\\namong the mammals. Huxley then proved, in his\\nfamous essay on The Place of Man in Nature, that this\\nCf Monism, by Ernst Haeckel.\\n252", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD\\nmomentous thesis is an inevitable consequence of the\\ntheory of descent, and is thoroughly established by\\nthe facts of anatomy, embryology, and palaeontology.\\nHe considered this question of all questions to be\\nsubstantially answered. Darwin followed with a brill-\\niant discussion of the question under many aspects in\\nhis Descent of Man (1871). I had myself devoted a\\nspecial chapter to this important problem of the science\\nof evolution in my General Morphology (1866). In\\n1874 I published my Anthropogeny, which contains\\nthe first attempt to trace the descent of man through\\nthe entire chain of his ancestry right up to the earliest\\narchigonous monera the attempt was based equally\\non the three great documents of evolutionary sci-\\nence anatomy, embryology, and palaeontology. The\\nprogress we have made in anthropogenetic research\\nduring the last few years is described in the paper\\nwhich I read on Our Present Knowledge of the Origin\\nof Man at the International Congress of Zoologists\\nat Cambridge in 1898.*\\nThe Last Link, translated by Dr. Gadow.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV\\nTHE UNITY OF NATURE\\nThe Monism of the Cosmos Essential Unity of Organic and In-\\norganic Nature Carbon-Theory The Hypothesis of Abio-\\ngenesis Mechanical and Purposive Causes Mechanicism\\nand Teleology in Kant s Works Design in the Organic and\\nInorganic Worlds Vitalism Neo vitalism Dysteleology (the\\nMoral of the Rudimentary Organs) Absence of Design in,\\nand Imperfection of, Nature Telic Action in Organized Bod-\\nies Its Absence in Ontogeny and Phylogeny The Platonist\\nIdeas No Moral Order Discoverable in the History of the\\nOrganic World, of the Vertebrates, or of the Human Race\\nPrevision Design and Chance\\n/^NE of the first things to be proved by the law of\\nsubstance is the basic fact that any natural force\\ncan be directly or indirectly converted into any other.\\nMechanical and chemical energy, sound and heat, light\\nand electricity, are mutually convertible; they seem\\nto be but different modes of one and the same funda-\\nmental force or energy. Thence follows the important\\nthesis of the unity of all natural forces, or, as it may\\nalso be expressed, the monism of energy. This fun-\\ndamental principle is now generally recognized in the\\nentire province of physics and chemistry, as far as it\\napplies to inorganic substances.\\nIt seems to be otherwise with the organic world and\\nits wealth of color and form. It is, of course, obvious\\nthat a great part of the phenomena of life may be im-\\n254", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nmediately traced to mechanical and chemical energy,\\nand to the effects of electricity and light. For other\\nvital processes, however, especially for psychic activity\\nand consciousness, such an interpretation is vigorously\\ncontested. Yet the modern science of evolution has\\nachieved the task of constructing a bridge between\\nthese two apparently irreconcilable provinces. We are\\nnow certain that all the phenomena of organic life are\\nsubject to the univer al law of substance no less than\\nthe phenomena of the inorganic universe.\\nThe unity of nature which necessarily follows, and\\nthe demolition of the earlier dualism, are certainly\\namong the most valuable results of modern evolution.\\nThirty-three years ago I made an exhaustive effort to\\nestablish this monism of the cosmos and the es-\\nsential unity of organic and inorganic nature by a\\nthorough, critical demonstration, and a comparison of\\nthe accordance of these two great divisions of nature\\nwith regard to matter, form, and force.* A short epit-\\nome of the result is given in the fifteenth chapter of\\nmy Natural History of Creation. The views I put\\nforward are accepted by the majority of modern scien-\\ntists, but an attempt has been made in many quarters\\nlately to dispute them and to maintain the old antith-\\nesis of the two divisions of nature. The ablest of\\nthese is to be found in the recent Welt als That of the\\nbotanist Reinke. It defends pure cosmological dual-\\nism with admirable lucidity and consistency, and only\\ngoes to prove how utterly untenable the teleological\\nsystem is that is connected therewith. According to\\nthe author, physical and chemical forces alone are at\\nwork in the entire field of inorganic nature, while in\\nGeneral Morphology, book 2, chap. v.\\n2 55", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe organic world we find, intelligent forces, regula-\\ntive or dominant forces. The law of substance is sup-\\nposed to apply to the one, but not to the other. On\\nthe whole, it is a question of the old antithesis of a\\nmechanical and a teleological system. But before we\\ngo more fully into it, let us glance briefly at two other\\ntheories, which seem to me to be of great importance\\nin the decision of that controversy the carbon-theory\\nand the theory of spontaneous generation.\\nPhysiological chemistry has, after countless analy-\\nses, established the following five facts during the last\\nforty years\\nI. No other elements are found in organic bodies\\nthan those of the inorganic world.\\nII. The combinations of elements which are pecu-\\nliar to organisms, and which are responsible for their\\nvital phenomena, are compound protoplasmic sub-\\nstances, of the group of albuminates.\\nIII. Organic life itself is a chemico-physical proc-\\ness, based on the metabolism (or interchange of mate-\\nrial) of these albuminates.\\nIV. The only element which is capable of building\\nup these compound albuminates, in combination with\\nother elements (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sul-\\nphur),, is carbon.\\nV. These protoplasmic compounds of carbon are\\ndistinguished from most other chemical combinations\\nby their very intricate molecular structure, their insta-\\nbility, and their jelly-like consistency.\\nOn the basis of these five fundamental facts the fol-\\nlowing carbon-theory was erected thirty-three years\\nago The peculiar chemico-physical properties of\\ncarbon especially the fluidity and the facility of de-\\ncomposition of the most elaborate albuminoid com-\\n256", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\npounds of carbon are the sole and the mechanical\\ncauses of the specific phenomena of movement, which\\ndistinguish organic from inorganic substances, and\\nwhich are called life, in the usual sense of the word\\n(see The Natural History of Creation). Although this\\ncarbon-theory is warmly disputed in some quarters,\\nno better monistic theory has yet appeared to replace\\nit. We have now a much better and more thorough\\nknowledge of the physiological relations of cell-life,\\nand of the chemistry and physics of the living proto-\\nplasm, than we had thirty-three years ago, and so it is\\npossible to make a more confident and effective defence\\nof the carbon-theory.\\nThe old idea of spontaneous generation is now taken\\nin many different senses. It is owing to this indis-\\ntinctness of the idea, and its application to so many\\ndifferent hypotheses, that the problem is one of the most\\ncontentious and confused of the science of the day. I\\nrestrict the idea of spontaneous generation also called\\nabiogenesis or archigony to the first development of\\nliving protoplasm out of inorganic carbonates, and dis-\\ntinguish two phases in this beginning of biogenesis\\n(i) autogony, or the rise of the simplest protoplasmic\\nsubstances in a formative fluid, and (2) plasmogony,\\nthe differentiation of individual primitive organisms\\nout of these protoplasmic compounds, in the form of\\nmonera. I have treated this important, though diffi-\\ncult, problem so exhaustively in the fifteenth chap-\\nter of my Natural History of Creation that I may con-\\ntent myself here with referring to it. There is also a\\nvery searching and severely scientific inquiry into it\\nin my General Morphology (1866). Naegeli has also\\ntreated the hypothesis in quite the same sense in his\\nmechanico-physiological theory of descent (1884), and\\nr 257", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nhas represented it to be an indispensable thesis in any\\nnatural theory of evolution. I entirely agree with his\\nassertion that to reject abiogenesis is to admit a mir-\\nacle.\\nThe hypothesis of spontaneous generation and the\\nallied carbon-theory are of great importance in deciding\\nthe long-standing conflict between the teleological (du-\\nalistic) and the mechanical (monistic) interpretation\\nof phenomena. Since Darwin gave us the key to the\\nmonistic explanation of organization in his theory of\\nselection forty years ago, it has become possible for us\\nto trace the splendid variety of orderly tendencies of\\nthe organic world to mechanical, natural causes, just\\nas we could formerly in the inorganic world alone.\\nHence the supernatural and telic forces, to which the\\nscientist had had recourse, have been rendered super-\\nfluous. Modern metaphysics, however, continues to\\nregard the latter as indispensable and the former as\\ninadequate.\\nNo philosopher has done more than Immanuel Kant\\nin defining the profound distinction between efficient\\nand final causes, with relation to the interpretation of\\nthe whole cosmos. In his well-known earlier work\\non The General Natural History and Theory of the\\nHeavens he made a bold attempt to treat the consti-\\ntution and the mechanical origin of the entire fabric\\nof the universe according to Newtonian laws. This\\ncosmological nebular theory was based entirely on\\nthe mechanical phenomena of gravitation. It was ex-\\npanded and mathematically established later on by\\nLaplace. When the famous French astronomer was\\nasked by Napoleon I. where God, the creator and sus-\\ntainer of all things, came in in his system, he clearly\\nand honestly replied Sire, I have managed with-\\n258", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nout that hypothesis. That indicated the atheistic\\ncharacter which this mechanical cosmogony shares\\nwith all the other inorganic sciences. This is the more\\nnoteworthy because the theory of Kant and Laplace\\nis now almost universally accepted; every attempt to\\nsupersede it has failed. When atheism is denounced\\nas a grave reproach, as it so often is, it is well to remem-\\nber that the reproach extends to the whole of modern\\nscience, in so far as it gives a purely mechanical inter-\\npretation of the inorganic world.\\nMechanicism (in the Kantian sense) alone can give\\nus a true explanation of natural phenomena, for it\\ntraces them to their real efficient causes, to blind and\\nunconscious agencies, which are determined in their\\naction only by the material constitution of the bodies\\nwe are investigating. Kant himself emphatically\\naffirms that there can be no science without this me-\\nchanicism of nature, and that the capacity of human\\nreason to give a mechanical interpretation of phenom-\\nena is unlimited. But when he came subsequently to\\ngive an elucidation of the complex phenomena of or-\\nganic nature in his critique of the teleological system,\\nhe declared that these mechanical causes were inade-\\nquate that in this we must call final causes to our as-\\nsistance. It is true, he said, that even here we must\\nrecognize the theoretical faculty of the mind to give a\\nmechanical interpretation, but its actual competence\\nto do so is restricted. He grants it this capacity to\\nsome extent but for the majority of the vital processes\\n(and especially for man s psychic activity) he thinks we\\nare bound to postulate final causes. The remarkable\\n\u00c2\u00a779 of the critique of judgment bears the character-\\nistic heading On the Necessity for the Subordi-\\nnation of the Mechanical Principle to the Teleological\\n259", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nin the Explanation of a Thing as a Natural End. 1 It\\nseemed to Kant so impossible to explain the orderly\\nprocesses in the living organism without postulating\\nsupernatural final causes (that is, a purposive creative\\nforce) that he said It is quite certain that we cannot\\neven satisfactorily understand, much less elucidate,\\nthe nature of an organism and its internal faculty on\\npurely mechanical natural principles; it is so certain,\\nindeed, that we may confidently say, It is absurd for\\na man to conceive the idea even that some day a New-\\nton will arise who can explain the origin of a single\\nblade of grass by natural laws which are uncontrolled\\nby design such a hope is entirely forbidden us.\\nSeventy years afterwards this impossible Newton of\\nthe organic world appeared in the person of Charles\\nDarwin, and achieved the great task that Kant had\\ndeemed impracticable.\\nSince Newton (1682) formulated the law of gravi-\\ntation, and Kant (1755) established the constitution\\nand mechanical origin of the entire fabric of the world\\non Newtonian laws, and Laplace (1796) provided a\\nmathematical foundation for this law of cosmic me-\\nchanicism, the whole of the inorganic sciences have be-\\ncome purely mechanical, and at the same time purely\\natheistic. Astronomy, cosmogony, geology, meteor-\\nology, and inorganic physics and chemistry are now ab-\\nsolutely ruled by mechanical laws on a mathematical\\nfoundation. The idea of design has wholly disap-\\npeared from this vast province of science. At the close\\nof the nineteenth century, now that this monistic view\\nhas fought its way to general recognition, no scientist\\never asks seriously of the purpose of any single\\nphenomenon in the whole of this great field. Is any\\nastronomer likely to inquire seriously to-day into the\\n260", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\npurpose of planetary motion, or a mineralogist to seek\\ndesign in the structure of a crystal? Does the phys-\\nicist investigate the purpose of electric force, or the\\nchemist that of atomic weight? We may confidently\\nanswer in the negative certainly not, in the sense\\nthat God, or a purposive natural force, had at some\\ntime created these fundamental laws of the mechan-\\nism of the universe with a definite design, and causes\\nthem to work daily in accordance with his rational\\nwill. The anthropomorphic notion of a deliberate\\narchitect and ruler of the world has gone forever from\\nthis field; the eternal, iron laws of nature have\\ntaken his place.\\nBut the idea of design has a very great significance\\nand application in the organic world. We do undeni-\\nably perceive a purpose in the structure and in the life\\nof an organism. The plant and the animal seem to be\\ncontrolled by a definite design in the combination of\\ntheir several parts, just as clearly as we see in the ma-\\nchines which man invents and constructs as long as\\nlife continues the functions of the several organs are\\ndirected to definite ends, just as is the operation of the\\nvarious parts of a machine. Hence it was quite nat-\\nural that the older naive study of nature, in explaining\\nthe origin and activity of the living being, should pos-\\ntulate a creator who had arranged all things with\\nwisdom and understanding, and had constructed each\\nplant and animal according to the special purpose of\\nits life. The conception of this almighty creator of\\nheaven. and earth was usually quite anthropomor-\\nphic; he created everything after its kind. As long\\nas the creator seemed to man to be of human shape, to\\nthink with his brain, see with his eyes, and fashion\\nwith his hands, it was possible to form a definite pict-\\n261", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nure of this divine engineer and his artistic work in\\nthe great workshop of creation. This was not so easy\\nwhen the idea of God became refined, and man saw in\\nhis invisible God a creator without organs a gas-\\neous being. Still more unintelligible did these anthro-\\npomorphic ideas become when physiology substituted\\nfor the conscious, divine architect an unconscious,\\ncreative vital force a mysterious, purposive, nat-\\nural force, which differed from the familiar forces of\\nphysics and chemistry, and only took these in part,\\nduring life, into its service. This vitalism prevailed\\nuntil about the middle of the nineteenth century.\\nJohannes M\u00c3\u00bcller, the great Berlin physiologist, was\\nthe first to menace it with a destructive dose of facts.\\nIt is true that the distinguished biologist had him-\\nself (like all others in the first half of the century)\\nbeen educated in a belief in this vital force, and\\ndeemed it indispensable for an elucidation of the ulti-\\nmate sources of life; nevertheless, in his classical and\\nstill unrivalled Manual of Physiology (1833) ne gave a\\ndemonstrative proof that there is really nothing to be\\nsaid for this vital force. M\u00c3\u00bcller himself, in a long\\nseries of remarkable observations and experiments,\\nshowed that most of the vital processes in the human\\norganism (and in the other animals) take place ac-\\ncording to physical and chemical laws, and that many\\nof them are capable of mathematical determination.\\nThat was no less true of the animal functions of the\\nmuscles and nerves, and of both the higher and the\\nlower sense-organs, than of the vegetal functions of\\ndigestion, assimilation, and circulation. Only two\\nbranches of the life of the organism, mental action and\\nreproduction, retained any element of mystery, and\\nseemed inexplicable without assuming a vital force.\\n263", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nBut immediately after M\u00c3\u00bcller s death such important\\ndiscoveries and advances were made in these two\\nbranches that the uneasy phantom of vital force\\nwas driven from its last refuge. By a very remarkable\\ncoincidence Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller died in the year 1858,\\nwhich saw the publication of Darwin s first communi-\\ncation concerning his famous theory. The theory of\\nselection solved the great problem that had mastered\\nM\u00c3\u00bcller the question of the origin of orderly arrange-\\nments from purely mechanical causes.\\nDarwin, as we have often said, had a twofold im-\\nmortal merit in the field of philosophy firstly, the\\nreform of Lamarck s theory of descent, and its estab-\\nlishment on the mass of facts accumulated in the\\ncourse of the half -century secondly, the conception\\nof the theory of selection, which first revealed to us the\\ntrue causes of the gradual formation of species. Dar-\\nwin was the first to point out that the struggle for\\nlife is the unconscious regulator which controls the\\nreciprocal action of heredity and adaptation in the\\ngradual transformation of species it is the great se-\\nlective divinity which, by a purely natural choice/\\nwithout preconceived design, creates new forms, just\\nas selective man creates new types by an artificial\\nchoice with a definite design. That gave us the solu-\\ntion of the great philosophic problem How can pur-\\nposive contrivances be produced by purely mechanical\\nprocesses without design? Kant held the problem to\\nbe insoluble, although Empedocles had pointed out the\\ndirection of the solution two thousand years before.\\nHis principle of teleological mechanism has become\\nmore and more accepted of late years, and has fur-\\nnished a mechanical explanation even of the finest and\\nmost recondite processes of organic life by the func-\\n263", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntional self-production of the purposive structure. Thus\\nhave we got rid of the transcendental design of the\\nteleological philosophy of the schools, which was the\\ngreatest obstacle to the growth of a rational and mon-\\nistic conception of nature.\\nVery recently, however, this ancient phantom of a\\nmystic vital force, which seemed to be effectually ban-\\nished, has put in a fresh appearance a number of dis-\\ntinguished biologists have attempted to reintroduce it\\nunder another name. The clearest presentation of it\\nis to be found in the Welt als That, of the Kiel botanist,\\nJ. Reinke. He takes upon himself the defence of the\\nnotion of miracle, of theism, of the Mosaic story of\\ncreation, and of the constancy of species; he calls\\nvital forces, in opposition to physical forces, the di-\\nrective or dominant forces. Other neovitalists prefer,\\nin the good old anthropomorphic style, a supreme\\nengineer, who has endowed organic substance with a\\npurposive structure, directed to the realization of a\\ndefinite plan. These curious teleological hypotheses,\\nand the objections to Darwinism which generally ac-\\ncompany them, do not call for serious scientific refu-\\ntation to-day.\\nThirty-three years ago I gave the title of dystele-\\nology to the science of those extremely interesting\\nand significant biological facts, which, in the most\\nstriking fashion, give a direct contradiction to the tele-\\nological idea of the purposive arrangement of the liv-\\ning organism. This science of rudimentary, abor-\\ntive, arrested, distorted, atrophied, and cataplastic in-\\ndividuals is based on an immense quantity of remark-\\nable phenomena, which were long familiar to zoologists\\nCf General Morphology, vol. ii., and The Natural History of\\nCreation.\\n264", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nand botanists, but were not properly interpreted, and\\ntheir great philosophic significance appreciated, until\\nDarwin.\\nAll the higher animals and plants, or, in general,\\nall organisms which are not entirely simple in structure,\\nbut are made up of a number of organs in orderly co-\\noperation, are found, on close examination, to possess\\na number of useless or inoperative members, sometimes,\\nindeed, hurtful and dangerous. In the flowers of most\\nplants we find, besides the actual sex-leaves that effect\\nreproduction, a number of other leaf-organs which have\\nno use or meaning (arrested or miscarried pistils,\\nfruit, corona, and calix-leaves, etc.). In the two large\\nand variegated classes of flying animals, birds and\\ninsects, there are, besides the forms which make con-\\nstant use of their wings, a number of species which\\nhave undeveloped wings and cannot fly. In nearly\\nevery class of the higher animals which have eyes there\\nare certain types that live in the dark they have eyes,\\nas a rule, but undeveloped and useless for vision. In\\nour own human organism we have similar useless\\nrudimentary structures in the muscles of the ear, in\\nthe eye-lid, in the nipple and milk-gland of the male,\\nand in other parts of the body indeed, the vermiform\\nappendix of our caecum is not only useless, but ex-\\ntremely dangerous, and inflammation of it is respon-\\nsible for a number of deaths every year.\\nNeither the old mystic vitalism nor the new, equally\\nirrational, neovitalism can give any explanation of\\nthese and many other purposeless contrivances in the\\nstructure of the plant and the animal but they are very\\nsimple in the light of the theory of descent. It shows\\nthat these rudimentary organs are atrophied, owing\\nto disuse. Just as our muscles, nerves, and organs\\n265", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nof sense are strengthened by exercise and frequent use,\\nso, on the other hand, they are liable to degenerate more\\nor less by disuse or suspended exercise. But, although\\nthe development of the organs is promoted by exercise\\nand adaptation, they by no means disappear without\\nleaving a trace after neglect; the force of heredity\\nretains them for many generations, and only per-\\nmits their gradual disappearance after the lapse of a\\nconsiderable time. The blind struggle for existence\\nbetween the organs determines their historical dis-\\nappearance, just as it effected their first origin and de-\\nvelopment. There is no internal purpose whatever\\nin the drama.\\nThe life of the animal and the plant bears the same\\nuniversal character of incompleteness as the life of\\nman. This is directly attributable to the circumstance\\nthat nature organic as well as inorganic is in a per-\\nennial state of evolution, change, and transformation.\\nThis evolution seems on the whole at least as far as\\nwe can survey the development of organic life on our\\nplanet to be a progressive improvement, an historical\\nadvance from the simple to the complex, the lower to\\nthe higher, the imperfect to the perfect. I have proved\\n-in my General Morphology that this historical progress\\nor gradual perfecting (teleosis) is the inevitable re-\\nsult of selection, and not the outcome of a preconceived\\ndesign. That is clear from the fact that no organism\\nis perfect; even if it does perfectly adapt itself to its\\nenvironment at a given moment, this condition would\\nnot last very long; the conditions of existence of the\\nenvironment are themselves subject to perpetual change\\nand they thus necessitate a continuous adaptation on\\nthe part of the organism.\\nUnder the title of Design in the Living Organism,\\n266", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nthe famous embryologist, Karl Ernst Baer, published\\na work in 1876 which, together with the article on Dar-\\nwinism which accompanied it, proved very acceptable\\nto our opponents, and is still much quoted in opposition\\nto evolution. It was a revival of the old teleological\\nsystem under a new name, and we must devote a line\\nof criticism to it. We must premise that, though Baer\\nwas a scientist of the highest order, his original monis-\\ntic views were gradually marred by a tinge of mysti-\\ncism with the advance of age, and he eventually be-\\ncame a thorough dualist. In his profound work on\\nthe evolution of animals (1828), which he himself\\nentitled Observation and Experiment, these two methods\\nof investigation are equally applied. By careful ob-\\nservation of the various phenomena of the development\\nof the animal ovum Baer succeeded in giving the first\\nconsistent presentation of the remarkable changes which\\ntake place in the growth of the vertebrate from a simple\\negg-cell. At the same time he endeavored, by far-see-\\ning comparison and keen reflection, to learn the causes\\nof the transformation, and to reduce them to general\\nconstructive laws. He expressed the general result of\\nhis research in the following thesis The evolution of\\nthe individual is the story of the growth of individual-\\nity in every respect. He meant that the one great\\nthought that controls all the different aspects of ani-\\nmal evolution is the same that gathered the scattered\\nfragments of space into spheres and linked them into\\nsolar systems. This thought is no other than life it-\\nself, and the words and syllables in which it finds\\nutterance are the varied forms of living things.\\nBaer, however, did not attain to a deeper knowledge\\nof this great genetic truth and a clearer insight into\\nthe real efficient causes of organic evolution, because\\n267", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nhis attention was exclusively given to one half of evo-\\nlutionary science, the science of the evolution of the\\nindividual, embryology, or, in a wider sense, ontogeny.\\nThe other half, the science of the evolution of species,\\nphylogeny, was not yet in existence, although Lamarck\\nhad already pointed out the way to it in 1809. When\\nit was established by Darwin in 1859, the aged Baer\\nwas no longer in a position to appreciate it the fruit-\\nless struggle which he led against the theory of selec-\\ntion clearly proved that he understood neither its real\\nmeaning nor its philosophic importance. Teleological\\nand, subsequently, theological speculations had inca-\\npacitated the ageing scientist from appreciating this\\ngreatest reform of biology. The teleological observa-\\ntions which he published against it in his Species and\\nStudies in his eighty-fouth year are mere repetitions\\nof errors which the teleology of the dualists has opposed\\nto the mechanical or monistic system for more than\\ntwo thousand years. The telic idea which, accord-\\ning to Baer, controls the entire evolution of the ani-\\nmal from the ovum, is only another expression for the\\neternal idea of Plato and the entelecheia of his pupil\\nAristotle.\\nOur modern biogeny gives a purely physiological ex-\\nplanation of the facts of embryology, in assigning the\\nfunctions of heredity and adaptation as their causes.\\nThe great biogenetic law, which Baer failed to appre-\\nciate, reveals the intimate causal connection between\\nthe ontogenesis of the individual and the phylogenesis\\nof its ancestors; the former seems to be a recapitula-\\ntion of the latter. Nowhere, however, in the evolution\\nof animals and plants do we find any trace of design,\\nbut merely the inevitable outcome of the struggle for\\nexistence, the blind controller, instead of the provident\\n268", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nGod, that effects the changes of organic forms by a mu-\\ntual action of the laws of heredity and adaptation. And\\nthere is no more trace of design in the embryology\\nof the individual plant, animal, or man. This ontogeny\\nis but a brief epitome of phytogeny, an abbreviated and\\ncondensed recapitulation of it, determined by the physi-\\nological laws of heredity.\\nBaer ended the preface to his classical Evolution of\\nAnimals (1828) with these words The palm will be\\nawarded to the fortunate scientist who succeeds in re-\\nducing the constructive forces of the animal body to\\nthe general forces or life-processes of the entire world.\\nThe tree has not yet been planted which is to make his\\ncradle. The great embryologist erred once more.\\nThat very year, 1828, witnessed the arrival of Charles\\nDarwin at Cambridge University (for the purpose of\\nstudying theology!) the fortunate scientist who\\nrichly earned the palm thirty years afterwards by his\\ntheory of selection.\\nIn the philosophy of history that is, in the general\\nreflections which historians make on the destinies of\\nnations and the complicated course of political evolu-\\ntion there still prevails the notion of a moral order\\nof the universe. Historians seek in the vivid drama\\nof history a leading design, an ideal purpose, which\\nhas ordained one or other race or state to a special tri-\\numph, and to dominion over the others. This teleo-\\nlogical view of history has recently become more strong-\\nly contrasted with our monistic view in proportion as\\nmonism has proved to be the only possible interpreta-\\ntion of inorganic nature. Throughout the whole of\\nastronomy, geology, physics, and chemistry there is no\\nquestion to-day of a moral order, or a personal God,\\nwhose hand hath disposed all things in wisdom and\\n269", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nunderstanding. And the same must be said of the\\nentire field of biology, the whole constitution and his-\\ntory of organic nature, if we set aside the question of\\nman for the moment. Darwin has not only proved by\\nhis theory of selection that the orderly processes in the\\nlife and structure of animals and plants have arisen\\nby mechanical laws without any preconceived design,\\nbut he has shown us in the struggle for life the pow-\\nerful natural force which has exerted supreme control\\nover the entire course of organic evolution for millions\\nof years. It may be said that the struggle for life\\nis the survival of the fittest or the victory of the\\nbest that is only correct when we regard the strong-\\nest as the best (in a moral sense). Moreover, the\\nwhole history of the organic world goes to prove\\nthat, besides the predominant advance towards per-\\nfection, there are at all times cases of retrogression to\\nlower stages. Even Baer s notion of design has no\\nmoral feature whatever.\\nDo we find a different state of things in the history\\nof peoples, which man, in his anthropocentric presump-\\ntion, loves to call the history of the world Do we\\nfind in every phase of it a lofty moral principle or a wise\\nruler, guiding the destinies of nations? There can be\\nbut one answer in the present advanced stage of nat-\\nural and human history No. The fate of those branch-\\nes of the human family, those nations and races which\\nhave struggled for existence and progress for thou-\\nsands of years, is determined by the same eternal\\nlaws of iron as the history of the whole organic world\\nwhich has peopled the earth for millions of years.\\nGeologists distinguish three great epochs in the or-\\nganic history of the earth, as far as we can read it in\\nthe monuments of the science of fossils the primary,\\n270", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nsecondary, and tertiary epochs. According to a recent\\ncalculation, the first occupied at least thirty-four mill-\\nion, the second eleven million, and the third three\\nmillion years. The history of the family of vertebrates,\\nfrom which our own race has sprung, unfolds clearly\\nbefore our eyes during this long period. Three differ-\\nent stages in the evolution of the vertebrate correspond\\nto the three epochs the fishes characterized the pri-\\nmary (palaeozoic) age, the reptiles the secondary (meso-\\nzoic), and the mammals the tertiary (caenozoic). Of the\\nthree groups the fishes rank lowest in organization,\\nthe reptiles come next, and the mammals take the\\nhighest plage. We find, on nearer examination of the\\nhistory of the three classes, that their various orders\\nand families also advanced progressively during the\\nthree epochs towards a higher stage of perfection.\\nMay we consider this progressive development as the\\noutcome of a conscious design or a moral order of\\nthe universe? Certainly not. The theory of selection\\nteaches us that this organic progress, like the earlier\\norganic differentiation, is an inevitable consequence of\\nthe struggle for existence. Thousands of beautiful and\\nremarkable species of animals and plants have per-\\nished during those forty-eight million years, to give\\nplace to stronger competitors, and the victors in this\\nstruggle for life were not always the noblest or most\\nperfect forms in a moral sense.\\nIt has been just the same with the history of human-\\nity. The splendid civilization of classical antiquity\\nperished because Christianity, with its faith in a loving\\nGod and its hope of a better life beyond the grave, gave\\na fresh, strong impetus to the soaring human mind.\\nThe Papal Church quickly degenerated into a pitiful\\ncaricature of real Christianity, and ruthlessly scattered\\n271", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe treasures of knowledge which the Hellenic philos-\\nophy had gathered it gained the dominion of the world\\nthrough the ignorance of the credulous masses. In\\ntime the Reformation broke the chains of this mental\\nslavery, and assisted reason to secure its right once\\nmore. But in the new, as in the older, period the great\\nstruggle for existence went on in its eternal fluctuation,\\nwith no trace of a moral order.\\nAnd it is just as impossible for the impartial and crit-\\nical observer to detect a wise providence in the fate\\nof individual human beings as a moral order in the his-\\ntory of peoples. Both are determined with iron neces-\\nsity by a mechanical causality which connects every\\nsingle phenomenon with one or more antecedent causes.\\nEven the ancient Greeks recognized ananke, the blind\\nheimarmene, the fate that rules gods and men, as\\nthe supreme principle of the universe. Christianity re-\\nplaced it by a conscious Providence, which is not blind,\\nbut sees, and which governs the world in patriarchal\\nfashion. The anthropomorphic character of this no-\\ntion, generally closely connected with belief in a per-\\nsonal God, is quite obvious. Belief in a loving Fa-\\nther, who unceasingly guides the destinies of one bill-\\nion five hundred million men on our planet, and is\\nattentive at all times to their millions of contradictory\\nprayers and pious wishes, is absolutely impossible;\\nthat is at once perceived on laying aside the colored\\nspectacles of faith and reflecting rationally on the\\nsubject.\\nAs a rule, this belief in Providence and the tutelage\\nof a loving Father is more intense in the modern\\ncivilized man just as in the uncultured savage when\\nsome good fortune has fallen him: an escape from\\nperil of life, recovery from a severe illness, the winning\\n272", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "THE UNITY OF NATURE\\nof the first prize in a lottery, the birth of a long-delayed\\nchild, and so forth. When, on the other hand, a mis-\\nfortune is met with, or an ardent wish is not fulfilled,\\nProvidence is forgotten. The wise ruler of the\\nworld slumbered or refused his blessing.\\nIn the extraordinary development of commerce of the\\nnineteenth century the number of catastrophes and\\naccidents has necessarily increased beyond all imagi-\\nnation of that the journal is a daily witness. Thou-\\nsands are killed every year by shipwreck, railway\\naccidents, mine accidents, etc. Thousands slay each\\nother every year in war, and the preparation for this\\nwholesale massacre absorbs much the greater part of\\nthe revenue in the highest civilized nations, the chief\\nprofessors of Christian charity. And among these\\nhundreds of thousands of annual victims of modern\\ncivilization strong, industrious, courageous workers\\npredominate. Yet the talk of a moral order goes on.\\nSince impartial study of the evolution of the world\\nteaches us that there is no definite aim and no special\\npurpose to be traced in it, there seems to be no alterna-\\ntive but to leave everything to blind chance/ This\\nreproach has been made to the transformism of La-\\nmarck and Darwin, as it had been to the previous\\nsystems of Kant and Laplace there are a number of\\ndualist philosophers who lay great stress on it. It is,\\ntherefore, worth while to make a brief remark upon it.\\nOne group of philosophers affirms, in accordance\\nwith its teleological conception, that the whole cosmos\\nis an orderly system, in which every phenomenon has\\nits aim and purpose there is no such thing as chance.\\nThe other group, holding a mechanical theory, ex-\\npresses itself thus: The development of the universe\\nis a monistic mechanical process, in which we discover\\ns 273", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nno aim or purpose whatever; what we call design in\\nthe organic world is a special result of biological agen-\\ncies; neither in the evolution of the heavenly bodies\\nnor in that of the crust of our earth do we find any trace\\nof a controlling purpose all is the result of chance.\\nEach party is right according to its definition of\\nchance. The general law of causality, taken in con-\\njunction with the law of substance, teaches us that\\nevery phenomenon has a mechanical cause; in this\\nsense there is no such thing as chance. Yet it is not\\nonly lawful, but necessary, to retain the term for the\\npurpose of expressing the simultaneous occurrence of\\ntwo phenomena, which are not causally related to each\\nother, but of which each has its own mechanical cause,\\nindependent of that of the other. Everybody knows\\nthat chance, in its monistic sense, plays an important\\npart in the life of man and in the universe at large.\\nThat, however, does not prevent us from recognizing\\nin each chance event, as we do in the evolution of\\nthe entire cosmos, the universal sovereignty of nat-\\nure s supreme law, the laio of substance.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XV\\nGOD AND THE WORLD\\nThe Idea of God in General Antithesis of God and the World;\\nthe Supernatural and Nature Theism and Pantheism\\nChief Forms of Theism Polytheism Tritheism Ampithe-\\nism Monotheism Religious Statistics Naturalistic Mono-\\ntheism Solarism Anthropistic Monotheism The Three\\nGreat Mediterranean Religions Mosaism Christianity\\nThe Cult of the Madonna and the Saints Papal Polytheism\\nIslam Mixotheism Nature of Theism An Extramun-\\ndane and Anthropomorphic God; a Gaseous Vertebrate\\nPantheism Intramundane God (Nature) The Hylozoism of\\nthe Ionic Monists (Anaximander) Conflict of Pantheism and\\nChristianity Spinoza Modern Monism Atheism\\nCOR thousands of years humanity has placed the\\nlast and supreme basis of all phenomena in an\\nefficient cause, to which it gives the title of God (deus,\\ntheos). Like all general ideas, this notion of God has\\nundergone a series of remarkable modifications and\\ntransformations in the course of the evolution of rea-\\nson. Indeed, it may be said that no other idea has had\\nso many metamorphoses for no other belief affects in\\nso high a degree the chief objects of the mind and of\\nrational science, as well as the deepest interests of the\\nemotion and poetic fancy of the believer.\\nA comparative criticism of the many different forms\\nof the idea of God would be extremely interesting and\\ninstructive but we have not space for it in the present\\n275", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwork. We must be content with a passing glance at\\nthe most important forms of the belief and their rela-\\ntion to the modern thought that has been evoked by a\\nsound study of nature. For further information on\\nthis interesting question the reader would do well to\\nconsult the distinguished work of Adalbert Svoboda,\\nForms of Faith (1897).\\nWhen we pass over the finer shades and the varie-\\ngated clothing of the God-idea and confine our atten-\\ntion to its chief element, we can distribute all the dif-\\nferent presentations of it in two groups the theistic\\nand pantheistic group. The latter is closely connected\\nwith the monistic, or rational, view of things, and the\\nformer is associated with dualism and mysticism.\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THEISM\\nIn this view God is distinct from, and opposed to, the\\nworld as its creator, sustainer, and ruler. He is al-\\nways conceived in a more or less human form, as an\\norganism which thinks and acts like a man only on\\na much higher scale. This anthropomorphic God,\\npolyphyletically evolved by the different races, as-\\nsumes an infinity of shapes in their imagination, from\\nfetichism to the refined monotheistic religions of the\\npresent day. The chief forms of theism are polythe-\\nism, triplotheism, amphitheism, and monotheism.\\nThe polytheist peoples the world with a variety of\\ngods and goddesses, which enter into its machinery\\nmore or less independently. Fetichism sees such sub-\\nordinate deities in the lifeless body of nature, in rocks,\\nin water, in the air, in human productions of every\\nkind (pictures,, statues, etc.). Demonism sees gods in\\nliving organisms of every species trees, animals, and\\n276", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\nmen. This kind of polytheism is found in innumer-\\nable forms even in the lowest tribes. It reaches the\\nhighest stage in Hellenic polytheism, in the myths of\\nancient Greece, which still furnish the finest images to\\nthe modern poet and artist. At a much lower stage\\nwe have Catholic polytheism, in which innumerable\\nn saints (many of them of very equivocal repute) are\\nvenerated as subordinate divinities, and prayed to to\\nexert their mediation with the supreme divinity.\\nThe dogma of the Trinity, which still comprises\\nthree of the chief articles of faith in the creed of Chris-\\ntian peoples, culminates in the notion that the one God\\nof Christianity is really made up of three different per-\\nsons (i) God the Father, the omnipotent creator of heav-\\nen and earth (this untenable myth was refuted long\\nago by scientific cosmogony, astronomy, and geology)\\n(2) Jesus Christ; and (3) the Holy Ghost, a mystical\\nbeing, over whose incomprehensible relation to the\\nFather and the Son millions of Christian theologians\\nhave racked their brains in vain for the last nineteen\\nhundred years. The Gospels, which are the only\\nclear sources of this triplotheism, are very obscure as\\nto the relation of these three persons to each other, and\\ndo not give a satisfactory answer to the question of\\ntheir unity. On the other hand, it must be carefully\\nnoted what confusion this obscure and mystic dogma\\nof the Trinity must necessarily cause in the minds of\\nour children even in the earlier years of instruction.\\nOne morning they learn (in their religious instruction)\\nthat three times one are one, and the very next hour\\nthey are told in their arithmetic class that three times\\none are three. I remember well the reflection that this\\nconfusion led me to in my early school-days.\\nFor the rest, the Trinity is not an original ele-\\n277", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nment in Christianity; like most of the other Christian\\ndogmas, it has been borrowed from earlier religions.\\nOut of the sun-worship of the Chaldean magi was\\nevolved the Trinity of Ilu, the mysterious source of the\\nworld; its three manifestations were Anu, primeval\\nchaos; Bel, the architect of the world; and Aa, the\\nheavenly light, the all-enlightening wisdom. In the\\nBrahmanic religion the Trimurti is also conceived as\\na divine unity made up of three persons Brahma\\n(the creator), Vishnu (the sustainer), and Shiva (the\\ndestroyer). It would seem that in this and other ideas\\nof a Trinity the sacred number, three, as such as\\na symbolical number has counted for something.\\nThe three first Christian virtues Faith, Hope, and\\nCharity form a similar triad.\\nAccording to the amphitheists, the world is ruled by\\ntwo different gods, a good and an evil principle, God\\nand the Devil. They are engaged in a perpetual strug-\\ngle, like rival emperors, or pope and anti-pope. The\\ncondition of the world is the result of this conflict. The\\nloving God, or good principle, is the source of all that\\nis good and beautiful, of joy and of peace. The world\\nwould be perfect if His work were not continually\\nthwarted by the evil principle, the Devil; this being\\nis the cause of all that is bad and hateful, of contra-\\ndiction and of pain.\\nAmphitheism is undoubtedly the most rational of\\nall forms of belief in God, and the one which is least\\nincompatible with a scientific view of the world. Hence\\nwe find it elaborated in many ancient peoples thou-\\nsands of years before Christ. In ancient India Vishnu,\\nthe preserver, struggles with Shiva, the destroyer. In\\nancient Egypt the good Osiris is opposed by the wicked\\nTyphon. The early Hebrews had a similar dualism\\n278", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\nof Aschera (or Keturah), the fertile mother-earth, and\\nElion (Moloch or Sethos), the stern heavenly father.\\nIn the Zend religion of the ancient Persians, founded\\nby Zoroaster two thousand years before Christ, there\\nis a perpetual struggle between Ormuzd, the good god\\nof light, and Ahriman, the wicked god of darkness.\\n(In Christian mythology the Devil is scarcely less\\nconspicuous as the adversary of the good deity, the\\ntempter and seducer, the prince of hell, and lord of\\ndarkness. A personal devil was still an important\\nelement in the belief of most Christians at the begin-\\nning of the nineteenth century. Towards the middle\\nof the century he was gradually eliminated by being\\nprogressively explained away, or he was restricted to\\nthe subordinate role he plays as Mephistopheles in\\nGoethe s great drama. To-day the majority of edu-\\ncated people look upon belief in a personal devil as\\na mediaeval superstition, while belief in God (that\\nis, the personal, good, and loving God) is retained as\\nan indispensable element of religion. Yet the one be-\\nlief is just as much (or as little) justified as the other.\\nIn any case, the much-lamented imperfection of our\\nearthly life, the struggle for existence, and all that\\npertains to it, are explained much more simply and\\nnaturally by this struggle of a good and an evil god\\nthan by any other form of theism.\\nThe dogma of the unity of God may in some re-\\nspects be regarded as the simplest and most natural\\ntype of theism; it is popularly supposed to be the\\nmost widely accepted element of religion, and to pre-\\ndominate in the ecclesiastical systems of civilized coun-\\ntries. In reality, that is not the case, because this al-\\nleged monotheism usually turns out on closer in-\\nquiry to be one of the other forms of theism we have\\n279", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nexamined, a number of subordinate deities being gen-\\nerally introduced besides the supreme one. Most of\\nthe religions which took a purely monotheistic stand-\\npoint have become more or less polytheistic in the\\ncourse of time. Modern statistics assure us that of\\nthe one billion five hundred million men who people\\nthe earth the great majority are monotheists of these,\\nnominally, about six hundred millions are Brahma-\\nBuddhists, five hundred millions are called Christians,\\ntwo hundred millions are heathens (of various types),\\none hundred and eighty millions are Mohammedans,\\nten millions are Jews, and ten millions have no re-\\nligion at all. However, the vast majority of these\\nnominal monotheists have very confused ideas about\\nthe deit} T or believe in a number of gods and god-\\ndesses besides the chief god angels, devils, etc.\\nThe different forms which monotheism has assumed\\nin the course of its polyphyletic development may be\\ndistributed in two groups those of naturalistic and\\nanthropistic monotheism. Naturalistic monotheism\\nfinds the embodiment of the deity in some lofty and\\ndominating natural phenomenon. The sun, the deity\\nof light and warmth, on whose influence all organic\\nlife insensibly and directly- depends, was taken to be\\nsuch a phenomenon many thousand years ago. Sun-\\nworship (solarism, or heliotheism) seems to the modern\\nscientist to be the best of all forms of theism, and the\\none which may be most easih T reconciled with modern\\nmonism. For modern astrophysics and geogeny have\\ntaught us that the earth is a fragment detached from\\nthe sun, and that it will eventually return to the bosom\\nof its parent. Modern physiology teaches us that the\\nfirst source of organic life on the earth is the formation\\nof protoplasm, and that this synthesis of simple inor-\\n280", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\nganic substances, water, carbonic acid, and ammonia,\\nonly takes place under the influence of sunlight. On\\nthe primary evolution of he plasmodomous plants fol-\\nlowed, secondarily, that of the plasmophagous animals,\\nwhich directly or indirectly depend on them for nour-\\nishment; and the origin of the human race itself is\\nonly a later stage in the development of the animal\\nkingdom Indeed, the whole of our bodily and mental\\nlife depends, in the last resort, like all other organic\\nlife, on the light and heat rays of the sun. Hence in\\nthe light of pure reason, sun-worship, as a form of nat-\\nuralistic monotheism, seems to have a much better\\nfoundation than the anthropistic worship of Christians\\nand of other monotheists who conceive their god in\\nhuman form. As a matter of fact, the sun-worshippers\\nattained, thousands of years ago, a higher intellectual\\nand moral standard than most of the other theists.\\nWhen I was in Bombay, in 1881, I watched with the\\ngreatest sympathy the elevating rites of the pious\\nParsees, who, standing on the sea-shore, or kneeling\\non their prayer-rugs, offered their devotion to the sun\\nat its rise and setting.*\\nMoon worship (lunarism and selenotheism) is of\\nmuch less importance than sun-worship. There are\\na few uncivilized races that have adored the moon as\\ntheir only deity, but it has generally been associated\\nwith a worship of the stars and the sun.\\nThe humanization of God, or the idea that the Su-\\npreme Being feels, thinks, and acts like man (though\\nin a higher degree), has played a most important part,\\nas anthropomorphic monotheism, in the history of civ-\\nilization. The most prominent in this respect are the\\nVide A Visit to Ceylon, E. Haeckel, translated by C. Bell.\\n281", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthree great religions of the Mediterranean peoples\\nthe old Mosaic religion, the intermediate Christian\\nreligion, and the younger Mohammedanism. These\\nthree great Mediterranean religions, all three arising\\non the east coast of the most interesting of all seas, and\\noriginating in an imaginative enthusiast of the Se-\\nmitic race, are intimately connected, not only by this\\nexternal circumstance of an analogous origin, but\\nby many common features of their internal contents.\\nJust as Christianity borrowed a good deal of its my-\\nthology directly from ancient Judaism, so Islam has\\ninherited much from both its predecessors. All the\\nthree were originally monotheistic all three were sub-\\nsequently overlaid with a great variety of polytheistic\\nfeatures, in proportion as they extended, first along\\nthe coast of the Mediterranean with its heterogeneous\\npopulation, and eventually into every part of the world.\\nThe Hebrew monotheism, as it was founded by Moses\\n(about 1600 B.C.), is usually regarded as the ancient\\nfaith which has been of the greatest importance in the\\nethical and religious development of humanity. This\\nhigh historical appreciation is certainly valid in the\\nsense that the two other world conquering Mediter-\\nranean religions issued from it Christ was just as trul^r\\na pupil of Moses as Mohammed was afterwards of Christ.\\nSo also the New Testament, which has become the\\nfoundation of the belief of the highest civilized nations\\nin the short space of nineteen hundred years, rests on\\nthe venerable basis of the Old Testament. The Bible,\\nwhich the two compose, has had a greater influence and\\na wider circulation than any other book in the world.\\nEven to-day the Bible in spite of its curious mingling\\nof the best and the worst elements is in a certain sense\\nthe book of books. Yet when we make an impar-\\n283", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\ntial and unprejudiced study of this notable historical\\nsource, we find it very different in several important\\nrespects from the popular impression. Here again\\nmodern criticism and history have come to certain con-\\nclusions which destroy the prevalent tradition in its\\nvery foundations.\\nThe monotheism which Moses endeavored to estab-\\nlish in the worship of Jehovah, and which the prophets\\nthe philosophers of the Hebrew race afterwards\\ndeveloped with great success, had at first to sustain\\na long and severe struggle with the dominant polythe-\\nism which was in possession. Jehovah, or Yahveh,\\nwas originally derived from the heaven-god, which,\\nunder the title of Moloch or Baal, was one of the most\\npopular of the Oriental deities (the Sethos or Typhon\\nof the Egyptians, and the Saturn or Cronos of the\\nGreeks). There were, however, other gods in great\\nfavor with the Jewish people, and so the struggle with\\nidolatry continued. Still, Jehovah was, in princi-\\nple, the only God, explicitly claiming, in the first pre-\\ncept of the decalogue I am the Lord thy God thou\\nshalt have no other gods beside me.\\nChristian monotheism shared the fate of its moth-\\ner, Mosaism; it was generally only monotheistic in\\ntheory, while it degenerated practically into every\\nkind of polytheism. In point of fact, monotheism was\\nlogically abandoned in the very dogma of the Trinity,\\nwhich was adopted as an indispensable foundation\\nof the Christian religion. The three persons, which\\nare distinguished as Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, are\\nthree distinct individuals (and, indeed, anthropomor-\\nphic persons), just as truly as the three Indian deities\\nof the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) or the\\nTrinity of the ancient Hebrews (Anu, Bel, and Aa).\\n283", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nMoreover, in the most widely distributed form of Chris-\\ntianity the virgin mother of Christ plays an impor-\\ntant part as a fourth deity in many Catholic countries\\nshe is practically taken to be much more powerful and\\ninfluential than the three male persons of the celestial\\nadministration. The cult of the madonna has been de-\\nveloped to such an extent in these countries that we\\nmay oppose it to the usual masculine form of mono-\\ntheism as one of a feminine type. The Queen of\\nHeaven becomes so prominent, as is seen in so many\\npictures and legends of the madonna, that the three\\nmale persons practically disappear.\\nIn addition, the imagination of the pious Christian\\nsoon came to increase this celestial administration by\\na numerous company of saints of all kinds, and\\nbands of musical angels, who should see that eternal\\nlife should not prove too dull. The popes the great-\\nest charla ans that any religion ever produced have\\nconstantly studied to increase this band of celestial\\nsatellites by repeated canonizations. This curious com-\\npany received its most interesting acquisition in 1870,\\nwhen the Vatican Council pronounced the popes, as\\nthe vicars of Christ, to be infallible, and thus raised\\nthem to a divine dignity. When we add the personal\\nDevil that they acknowledge, and the bad angels\\nwho form his court, we have in modern Catholicism,\\nstill the most extensive branch of Christianity, a rich\\nand variegated polytheism that dwarfs the Olympic\\nfamily of the Greeks.\\nIslam, or the Mohanlmedan monotheism, is the\\nyoungest and purest form of monotheism. When the\\nyoung Mohammed (born 570) learned to despise the\\npolytheistic idolatry of his Arabian compatriots, and\\nbecame acquainted with Nestorian Christianity, he\\n284", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\nadopted its chief doctrines in a general way; but he\\ncould not bring h mself to see anything more than a\\nprophet in Christ, like Moses. He found in the dogma\\nof the Trinity what every emancipated thinker finds\\non impartial reflection an absurd legend which is\\nneither reconcilab e with the first principles of reason\\nnor of any value whatever for our religious advance-\\nment. He justly regarded the worship of the immacu-\\nlate mother of God as a piece of pure idolatry, like the\\nveneration of pictures and images. The longer he re-\\nflected on it, and the more he strove after a purified\\nidea of deity, the clearer did the certitude of his great\\nmaxim appear God is the only God there are no\\nother gods beside him.\\nYet Mohammed could not free himself from the an-\\nthropomorphism of the God-idea. His one only God\\nwas an idealized, almighty man, like the stern, vin-\\ndictive God of Moses, and the gentle, loving God of\\nChrist. Still, we must admit that the Mohammedan\\nreligion has preserved the character of pure monothe-\\nism throughout the course of its historical development\\nand its inevitable division much more faithfully than\\nthe Mosaic and Christian religions. We see that to-\\nday, even externally, in its forms of prayer and preach-\\ning, and in the architecture and adornment of its\\nmosques. When I visi ed the East for the first time, in\\n1873, and admired the noble mosques of Cairo, Smyrna,\\nBrussa, and Constantinople, I was inspired with a feel-\\ning of real devotion by the simple and tasteful decora-\\ntion of the interior, and the lofty and beautiful archi-\\ntectural work of the exterior. How noble and inspir-\\ning do these mosques appear in comparison with the\\nmajority of Catholic churches, which are covered in-\\nternally with gaudy pictures and gilt, and are out-\\n285", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwardly disfigured by an immoderate crowd of human\\nand animal figures! Not less elevated are the silent\\nprayers and the simple devotional acts of the Koran\\nwhen compared with the loud, unintelligible verbosity\\nof the Catholic Mass and the blatant music of their\\ntheatrical processions.\\nUnder the title of mixotheism we may embrace all the\\nforms of theistic belief which contain mixtures of re-\\nligious notions of different, sometimes contradictory,\\nkinds. In theory this most widely diffused type of\\nreligion is not recognized at all; in the concrete it is\\nthe most important and most notable of all. The vast\\nmajority of men who have religious opinions have al-\\nways been, and still are, mixotheists their idea of God\\nis picturesquely compounded from the impressions re-\\nceived in childhood from their own sect, and a number\\nof other impressions which are received later on, from\\ncontact with members of other religions, and which\\nmodify the earlier notions. In educated people there is\\nalso sometimes the modifying influence of philosophic\\nstudies in maturer years, and especially the unpreju-\\ndiced study of natural phenomena, which reveals the\\nfutility of the theistic idea. The conflict of these con-\\ntradictory impressions, which is very painful to a sensi-\\ntive soul, and which often remains undecided through-\\nout life, clearly shows the immense power of the hered-\\nity of ancient myths on the one hand and the early\\nadaptation to erroneous dogmas on the other. The\\nparticular faith in which the child has been brought\\nup generally remains in power, unless a conversion\\ntakes place subsequently, owing to the stronger influ-\\nence of some other religion. But even in this superses-\\nsion of one faith by another the new name, like the old\\none, proves to be merely an outward label covering a\\n286", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\nmixture of the most diverse opinions and errors. The\\ngreater part of those who call themselves Christians\\nare not monotheists (as they think), but amphitheists,\\ntriplotheists, or polytheists. And the same must be\\nsaid of Islam and Mosaism, and other monotheistic\\nreligions. Everywhere we find associated with the\\noriginal idea of a sole and triune God later beliefs\\nin a number of subordinate deities angels, devils,\\nsaints, etc. a picturesque assortment of the most di-\\nverse theistic forms.\\nAll the above forms of theism, in the proper sense of\\nthe word whether the belief assumes a naturalistic or\\nan anthropistic form represent God to be an extra-\\nmundane or a supernatural being. He is always op-\\nposed to the world, or nature, as an independent being\\ngenerally as its creator, sustainer, and ruler. In most\\nreligions he has the additional character of personality,\\nor, to put it more definitely still, God as a person is\\nlikened to man. In his gods man paints himself.\\nThis anthropomorphic conception of God as one\\nwho thinks, feels, and acts like man prevails with the\\ngreat majority of theists, sometimes in a cruder and\\nmore naive form, sometimes in a more refined and\\nabstract degree. In any case the form of theosophy\\nwe have described is sure to affirm that God, the su-\\npreme being, is infinite in perfection, and therefore far\\nremoved from the imperfection of humanity. Yet,\\nwhen we examine closely, we always find the same\\npsychic or mental activity in the two. God feels,\\nthinks, and acts as man does, although it be in an\\ninfinitely more perfect form.\\nThe personal anthropism of God has become so nat-\\nural to the majority of believers that they experience\\nno shock when they find God personified in human\\n287", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nform in pictures and statues, and in the varied images\\nof the poet, in which God takes human form that is,\\nis changed into a vertebrate. In some myths, even,\\nGod takes the form of other mammals (an ape, lion,\\nbull, etc.), and more rarely of a bird (eagle, dove, or\\nstork), or of some lower vertebrate (serpent, crocodile,\\ndragon, etc.).\\nIn the higher and more abstract forms of religion\\nthis idea of bodily appearance is entirely abandoned,\\nand God is adored as a pure spirit without a body.\\nGod is a spirit, and they who worship him must\\nworship him in spirit and in truth. Nevertheless,\\nthe psychic activity of this pure spirit remains just\\nthe same as that of the anthropomorphic God. In real-\\nity, even this immaterial spirit is not conceived to be\\nincorporeal, but merely invisible, gaseous. We thus\\narrive at the paradoxical conception of God as a gaseous\\nvertebrate.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PANTHEISM\\nPantheism teaches that God and the world are one.\\nThe idea of God is identical with that of nature or sub-\\nstance. This pantheistic view is sharply opposed in\\nprinciple to all the systems we have described, and to\\nall possible forms of theism, although there have been\\nmany attempts made from both sides to bridge over\\nthe deep chasm that separates the two. There is al-\\nways this fundamental contradiction between them,\\nthat in theism God is opposed to nature as an extramun-\\ndane being, as creating and sustaining the world, and\\nacting upon it from without, while in pantheism God,\\nas an intramundane being, is everywhere identical\\nwith nature itself, and is operative within the world\\nas force or energy. The latter view alone is com-\\n288", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\npatible with our supreme law the law of substance.\\nIt follows necessarily that pantheism is the world-\\nsystem of the modern scientist. There are, it is true,\\nstill a few men of science who contest this, and think\\nit possible to reconcile the old theistic theory of human\\nnature with the pantheistic truth of the law of sub-\\nstance. All these efforts rest on confusion or sophistry\\nwhen they are honest.\\nAs pantheism is a result of an advanced conception\\nof nature in the civilized mind, it is naturally much\\nyounger than theism, the crudest forms of which are\\nfound in great variety in the uncivilized races of ten\\nthousand years ago. We do, indeed, find the germs\\nof pantheism in different religions at the very dawn of\\nphilosophy in the earliest civilized peoples (in India,\\nEgypt, China, and Japan), several thousand years be-\\nfore the time of Christ still, we do not meet a definite\\nphilosophical expression of it until the hylozoism of\\nthe Ionic philosophers, in the first half of the sixth cen-\\ntury before Christ. All the great thinkers of this flour-\\nishing period of Hellenic thought are surpassed by the\\nfamous Anaximander, of Miletus, who conceived the\\nessential unity of the infinite universe (apeiron) more\\nprofoundly and more clearly than his master, Thales,\\nor his pupil, Anaximenes. Not only the great thought\\nof the original unity of the cosmos and the development\\nof all phenomena out of the all-pervading primitive\\nmatter found expression in Anaximander, but he even\\nenunciated the bold idea of countless worlds in a peri-\\nodic alternation of birth and death.\\nMany other great philosophers of classical antiquity,\\nespecially Democritus, Heraclitus, and Empedocles,\\nhad, in the same or an analogous sense, a profound\\nconception of this unity of nature and God, of body\\nt 289", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nand spirit, which has obtained its highest expression\\nin the law of substance of our modern monism. The\\nfamous Roman poet and philosopher, Lucretius Cams,\\nhas presented it in a highly poetic form in his poem\\nDe Rerum Natura. However, this true pantheistic\\nmonism was soon entirely displaced by the mystic\\ndualism of Plato, and especially by the powerful influ-\\nence which the idealistic philosophy obtained by its\\nblending with Christian dogmas. When the papacy\\nattained to its spiritual despotism over the world, pan-\\ntheism was hopelessly crushed Giordano Bruno, its\\nmost gifted defender, was burned alive by the Vicar\\nof Christ in the Campo dei Fiori at Rome on Feb-\\nruary 17, 1600.\\nIt was not until the middle of the seventeenth century\\nthat pantheism was exhibited in its purest form by the\\ngreat Baruch Spinoza he gave for the totality of things\\na definition of substance in which God and the world\\nare inseparably united. The clearness, confidence,\\nand consistency of Spinoza s monistic system are the\\nmore remarkable when we remember that this gifted\\nthinker of two hundred and fifty years ago was with-\\nout the support of all those sound empirical bases which\\nhave been obtained in the second half of the nineteenth\\ncentury. We have already spoken, in the first chapter,\\nof Spinoza s relation to the materialism of the eigh-\\nteenth and the monism of the nineteenth century. The\\npropagation of his views, especially in Germany, is due,\\nabove all, to the immortal works of our greatest poet and\\nthinker, Wolfgang Goethe. His splendid God and\\nthe World, Prometheus, Faust, etc., embody the great\\nthoughts of pantheism in the most perfect poetic crea-\\ntions.\\nAtheism affirms that there are no gods or goddesses,\\n290", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "GOD AND THE WORLD\\nassuming that god means a personal, extramundane\\nentity. This godless world system substantially\\nagrees with the monism or pantheism of the modern\\nscientist; it is only another expression for it, empha-\\nsizing its negative aspect, the non-existence of any su-\\npernatural deity. In this sense Schopenhauer justly\\nremarks Pantheism is only a polite form of atheism.\\nThe truth of pantheism lies in its destruction of the\\ndualist antithesis of God and the world, in its recog-\\nnition that the world exists in virtue of its own inher-\\nent forces. The maxim of the pantheist, God and\\nthe world are one/ is merely a polite way of giving\\nthe Lord God his conge.\\nDuring the whole of the Middle Ages, under the bloody\\ndespotism of the popes, atheism was persecuted with\\nfire and sword as a most pernicious system. As the\\ngodless man is plainly identified with the wicked\\nin the Gospel, and is threatened simply on account of\\nhis want of faith with the eternal fires of hell, it\\nwas very natural that every good Christian should be\\nanxious to avoid the suspicion of atheism. Unfortu-\\nnately, the idea still prevails very widely. The atheistic\\nscientist who devotes his strength and his life to the\\nsearch for the truth, is freely credited with all that is\\nevil; the theistic church-goer, who thoughtlessly fol-\\nlows the empty ceremonies of Catholic worship, is at\\nonce assumed to be a good citizen, even if there be no\\nmeaning whatever in his faith and his morality be de-\\nplorable. This error will only be destroyed when, in\\nthe twentieth century, the prevalent superstition gives\\nplace to rational knowledge and to a monistic concep-\\ntion of the unity of God and the world.\\n291", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVI\\nKNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nThe Knowledge of the Truth and Its Sources the Activity of the\\nSenses and the Association of Presentations Organs of Sense\\nand Organs of Thought Sense-Organs and their Specific\\nEnergy Their Evolution The Philosophy of Sensibility\\nInestimable Value of the Senses Limits of Sensitive Knowl-\\nedge Hypothesis and Faith Theory and Faith Essential\\nDifference of Scientific (Natural) and Religious (Supernatural)\\nFaith Superstition of Savage and of Civilized Races Con-\\nfessions of Faith Unsectarian Schools The Faith of Our\\nFathers Spiritism Revelation\\nP VERY effort of genuine science makes for a knowl-\\nedge of the truth. Our only real and valuable\\nknowledge is a knowledge of nature itself, and con-\\nsists of presentations which correspond to external\\nthings. We are incompetent, it is true, to penetrate\\ninto the innermost nature of this real world the thing\\nin itself but impartial critical observation and com-\\nparison inform us that, in the normal action of the\\nbrain and the organs of sense, the impressions received\\nby them from the outer world are the same in all ra-\\ntional men, and that in the normal function of the\\norgans of thought certain presentations are formed\\nwhich are everywhere the same. These presenta-\\ntions we call true, and we are convinced that their con-\\ntent corresponds to the knowable aspect of things.\\nWe know that these facts are not imaginary, but real.\\n292", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nAll knowledge of the truth depends on two different,\\nbut intimately connected, groups of human physio-\\nlogical functions: firstly, on the sense-impressions of\\nthe object by means of sense-action, and, secondly, on\\nthe combination of these impressions by an associa-\\ntion into presentations in the subject. The instru-\\nments of sensation are the sense-organs (sensilla or\\naestheta) the instruments which form and link to-\\ngether the presentations are the organs of thought\\n(phroneta). The latter are part of the central, and the\\nformer part of the peripheral, nervous system that\\nimportant and elaborate system of organs in the higher\\nanimals which alone effects their entire psychic activity.\\nMan s sense-activity, which is the starting-point of\\nall knowledge, has been slowly and gradually devel-\\noped from that of his nearest mammal relatives, the\\nprimates. The sense-organs are of substantially the\\nsame construction throughout this highest animal\\ngroup, and their function takes place always according\\nto the same physical and chemical laws. They have\\nhad the same historical development in all cases. In\\nthe mammals, as in the case of all other animals, the\\nsensilla were originally parts of the skin the sensitive\\ncells of the epidermis are the sources of all the differ-\\nent sense-organs, which have acquired their specific\\nenergy by adaptation to different stimuli (light, heat,\\nsound, chemical action, etc.). The rod-cells in the ret-\\nina of the eye, the auditory cells in the cochlea of the\\near, the olfactory cells in the nose, and the taste-cells\\non the tongue, are all originally derived from the sim-\\nple, indifferent cells of the epidermis, which cover the\\nentire surface of the body. This significant fact can\\nbe directly proved by observation of the embryonic de-\\nvelopment of man or any of the higher animals. And\\n2 93", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nfrom this ontogenetic fact we confidently infer, in virtue\\nof the great biogenetic law, the mportant phylogenetic\\nproposition, that in the long historical evolution of our\\nancestors, likewise, the higher sense-organs with their\\nspecific energies were originally derived from the epi-\\ndermis of lower animals, from a simple layer of cells\\nwhich had no trace of such differentiated sensilla.\\nA particular importance attaches to the circumstance\\nthat different nerves are qualified to perceive different\\nproperties of the environment, and these only. The\\noptic nerve accomplishes only the perception of light,\\nthe auditory nerve the perception of sound, the olfac-\\ntory nerve the perception of smell, and so on. No mat-\\nter what stimuli impinge on and irritate a given sense-\\norgan, its reaction is always of the same character.\\nFrom this specific energy of the sense nerves, which\\nwas first fully appreciated by Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller, very\\nerroneous inferences have been drawn, especially in\\nfavor of a dualistic and priori theory of knowledge.\\nIt has been affirmed that the brain, or the soul, only\\nperceives a certain condition of the stimulated nerve,\\nand that, consequently, no conclusion can be drawn\\nfrom the process as to the existence and nature of the\\nstimulating environment. Sceptical philosophy con-\\ncluded that the very existence of an outer world is\\ndoubtful, and extreme idealism went on positively to\\ndeny it, contending that things only exist in our im-\\npressions of them.\\nIn opposition to these erroneous views, we must re-\\ncall the fact that the specific energy was not orig-\\ninally an innate, special quality of the various nerves,\\nbut it has arisen by adaptation to the particular ac-\\ntivity of the epidermic cells in which they terminate.\\nIn harmony with the great law of division of labor\\n294", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nthe originally indifferent sense-cells of the skin un-\\ndertook different tasks, one group of them taking over\\nthe stimulus of the light rays, another the impress of\\nthe sound waves, a third the chemical impulse of odor-\\nous substances, and so on. In the course of a very\\nlong period these external stimuli effected a gradual\\nchange in the physiological, and later in the morpho-\\nlogical, properties of these parts of the epidermis, and\\nthere was a correlative modification of the sensitive\\nnerves which conduct the impressions they receive to\\nthe brain. Selection improved, step by step, such par-\\nticular modifications as proved to be useful, and thus\\neventually, in the course of many million years, cre-\\nated those wonderful instruments, the eye and the ear,\\nwhich we prize so highly their structure is so remark-\\nably purposive that they might well lead to the erro-\\nneous assumption of a creation on a preconceived de-\\nsign. The peculiar character of each sense-organ and\\nits specific nerve has thus been gradually evolved by\\nuse and exercise that is, by adaptation and has then\\nbeen transmitted by heredity from generation to gen-\\neration. Albrecht Rau has thqroughly established this\\nview in his excellent work on Sensation and Thought,\\na physiological inquiry into the nature of the human\\nunderstanding (1896). It points out the correct sig-\\nnificance of M\u00c3\u00bcller s law of specific sense-energies,\\nadding searching investigations into their relation to\\nthe brain, and in the last chapter there is an able phi-\\nlosophy of sensitivity based on the ideas of Ludwig\\nFeuerbach. I thoroughly agree with his convincing\\nwork.\\nCritical comparison of sense-action in man and the\\nother vertebrates has brought to light a number of ex-\\ntremely important facts, the knowledge of which we\\n295", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nowe to the penetrating research of the nineteenth cen-\\ntury, especially of the second half of the century. This\\nis particularly true of the two most elaborate aesthetic\\norgans, the eye and the ear. They present a different\\nand more complicated structure in the vertebrates than\\nin the other animals, and have also a characteristic\\ndevelopment in the embryo. This typical ontogenesis\\nand structure of the sensilla of all the vertebrates is\\nonly explained by heredity from a common ances-\\ntor. Within the vertebrate group\u00c2\u00bb however, we find a\\ngreat variety of structure in points of detail, and this\\nis due to adaptation to their manner of life on the part of\\nthe various species, to the increasing or diminishing\\nuse of various parts.\\nIn respect of the structure of his sense-organs man\\nis by no means the most perfect and most highly-\\ndeveloped vertebrate. The eye of the eagle is much\\nkeener, and can distinguish small objects at a distance\\nmuch more clearly than the human eye. The hearing\\nof many mammals, especially of the Carnivora, ungu-\\nlata, and rodentia of the desert, is much more sensi-\\ntive than that of man, and perceives slight noises at\\na much greater distance that may be seen at a glance\\nby their large and very sensitive cochlea. Singing\\nbirds have attained a higher grade of development,\\neven in respect of musical endowment, than the ma-\\njority of men. The sense of smell is much more de-\\nveloped in most of the mammals, especially in the Car-\\nnivora and the ungulata, than in man if the dog could\\ncompare his own fine scent with that of man, he would\\nlook down on us with compassion. Even with regard\\nto the lower senses taste, sex-sense, touch, and tem-\\nperature man has by no means reached the highest\\nstage in every respect.\\n296", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nWe can naturally only pass judgment on the sen-\\nsations which we ourselves experience. However, an-\\natomy informs us of the presence in the bodies of many\\nanimals of other senses than those we are familiar with.\\nThus fishes and other lower aquatic vertebrates have\\npeculiar sensilla in the skin which are in connection\\nwith special sense-nerves. On the right and left sides\\nof the fish s body there is a long canal, branching into\\na number of smaller canals at the head. In this mu-\\ncous canal there are nerves with numerous branches,\\nthe terminations of which are connected with peculiar\\nnerve-aggregates. This extensive epidermic sense-\\norgan probably serves for the perception of changes\\nin the pressure, or in other properties, of the water.\\nSome groups are distinguished by the possession of\\nother peculiar sensilla, the meaning of which is still\\nunknown to us.\\nBut it is already clear from the above facts that our\\nhuman sense-activity is limited, not only in quantity,\\nbut in quality also. We can thus only perceive with\\nour senses, especially with the eye and the sense of\\ntouch, a part of the qualities of the objects in our en-\\nvironment. And even this partial perception is in-\\ncomplete, in the sense that our organs are imperfect,\\nand our sensory nerves, acting as interpreters, com-\\nmunicate to the brain only a translation of the impres-\\nsions received.\\nHowever, this acknowledged imperfection of our\\nsenses should not prevent us from recognizing their\\ninstruments, and especially the eye, to be organs of\\nthe highest type together with the thought-organs in\\nthe brain, they are nature s most valuable gift to man.\\nVery truly does Albrecht Rau say All science is\\nsensitive knowledge in the ultimate analysis; it does\\n297", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nnot deny, but interpret, the data of the senses. The\\nsenses are our first and best friends. Long before the\\nmind is developed the senses tell man what he must do\\nand avoid. He who makes a general disavowal of the\\nsenses in order to meet their dangers acts as thought-\\nlessly and as foolishly as the man who plucks out his\\neyes because they once fell on shameful things, or the\\nman who cuts off his hand est at any time it should\\nreach out to the goods of his neighbor. Hence Feuer-\\nbach is quite right in calling all philosophies, religions,\\nand systems wh ch oppose the principle of sense-action\\nnot only erroneous, but really pernicious. Wi hout the\\nsenses there is no knowledge Nihil est in intellectu,\\nquod non f iter it in sensu as Locke said. Twenty years\\nago I pointed out, in my chapter On the Origin and\\nDevelopment of the Sense-Organs, the great service\\nof Darwinism in giving us a profounder knowledge\\nand a jus er appreciation of the senses.\\nThe thirst for knowledge of the educated mind is\\nnot contented with the defective acquaintance with the\\nouter world which is obtained through our imperfect\\nsense-organs. He endeavors to build up the sense-im-\\npressions which they have brought him into valuable\\nknowledge. He transforms them into specific sense-\\nperceptions in the sense-centres of the cortex of the\\nbrain, and combines them into presentations, by asso-\\nciation, in the thought-centres. Finally, by a further\\nconcatenation of the groups of presentations he at-\\ntains to connected knowledge. But this knowledge re-\\nmains defective and unsatisfactory until the imagina-\\ntion supplements the inadequate power of combination\\nof the intelligence, and, by the association of stored-up\\nCollected Popular Lectures Bonn, 1878.\\n298", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nimages, unites the isolated elements into a connected\\nwhole. Thus are produced new general presentative\\nimages, and these suffice to interpret the facts perceived\\nand satisfy reason s feeling of causality.\\nThe presentations which fill up the gaps in our\\nknowledge, or take its place, may be called, in a broad\\nsense, faith. That is what happens continually in\\ndaily life. When we are not sure about a thing we\\nsay, I believe it. In this sense we are compelled to\\nmake use of faith even in science itself we conjecture\\nor assume that a certain relation exists between two\\nphenomena, though we do not know it for certain. If it\\nis a question of a cause, we form a hypothesis though\\nin science only such hypotheses are admitted as lie\\nwithin the sphere of human cognizance, and do not\\ncontradict known facts. Such hypotheses are, for in-\\nstance in physics the theory of the vibratory move-\\nment of ether, in chemistry the hypothesis of atoms\\nand their affinity, in biology the theory of the molecular\\nstructure of living protoplasm, and so forth.\\nThe explanation of a great number of connected phe-\\nnomena by the assumption of a common cause is called\\na theory. Both in theory and hypothesis faith (in\\nthe scientific sense) is indispensable; for here again it\\nis the imagination that fills up the gaps left by the in-\\ntelligence in our knowledge of the connection of things.\\nA theory, therefore, must always be regarded only as\\nan approximation to the truth; it must be understood\\nthat it may be replaced in time by another and better-\\ngrounded theory. But, in spite of this admitted un-\\ncertainty, theory is indispensable for all true science;\\nit elucidates facts by postu ating a cause for them.\\nThe man who renounces theory altogether, and seeks\\nto construct a pure science with certain facts alone (as\\n299", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\noften happens with wrong-headed representatives of\\nour exact sciences must give up the hope of any\\nknowledge of causes, and, consequently, of the satis-\\nfaction of reason s demand for causality.\\nThe theory of gravitation in astronomy (Newton),\\nthe nebular theory in cosmogony (Kant and Laplace),\\nthe principle of energy in physics (Meyer and Helm-\\nholtz), the atomic theory in chemistry (Dalton), the\\nvibratory theory in optics (Huyghens), the cellular\\ntheory in histology (Schleiden and Schwann), and the\\ntheory of descent in biology (Lamarck and Darwin),\\nare all important theories of the first rank; they ex-\\nplain a whole world of natural phenomena by the as-\\nsumption of a common cause for all the several facts of\\ntheir respective provinces, and by showing that all the\\nphenomena thereof are inter-connected and controlled\\nby laws which issue from this common cause. Yet the\\ncause itself may remain obscure in character, or be\\nmerely a provisional hypothesis. The force of grav-\\nity in the theory of gravitation and in cosmogony,\\nenergy itself in its relation to matter, the ether of\\noptics and electricity, the atom of the chemist, the\\nliving protoplasm of histology, the heredity of\\nthe evolutionist these and similar conceptions of other\\ngreat theories may be regarded by a sceptical philos-\\nophy as mere hypotheses and the outcome of scien-\\ntific faith, yet they are indispensable for us, until\\nthey are replaced by better hypotheses.\\nThe dogmas which are used for the explanation of\\nphenomena in the various religions, and which go by\\nthe name of faith (in the narrower sense), are of a\\nvery different character from the forms of scientific\\nfaith we have enumerated. The two types, however\\nthe natural faith of science and the supernatural\\n300", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nfaith of religion are not infrequently confounded,\\nso that we must point out their fundamental differ-\\nence. Religious faith means always belief in a mira-\\ncle, and as such is in hopeless contradiction with the\\nnatural faith of reason. In opposition to reason it pos-\\ntulates supernatural agencies, and, therefore, may be\\njustly called superstition. The essential difference of\\nthis superstition from rational faith lies in the fact that\\nit assumes supernatural forces and phenomena, which\\nare unknown and inadmissible to science, and which\\nare the outcome of illusion and fancy; moreover, su-\\nperstition contradicts the well-known laws of nature,\\nand is therefore irrational.\\nOwing to the great progress of ethnology during the\\ncentury, we have learned a vast quantity of different\\nkinds and practices of superstition, as they still sur-\\nvive in uncivilized races. When they are compared\\nwith each other and with the mythological notion of\\nearlier ages, a manifold analogy is discovered, fre-\\nquently a common origin, and eventually one simple\\nsource for them all. This is found in the demand of\\ncausality in reason, in the search for an explanation\\nof obscure phenomena by the discovery of a cause.\\nThat applies particularly to such phenomena as threat-\\nen us with danger and excite fear, like thunder and\\nlightning, earthquakes, eclipses, etc. The demand for\\na causal explanation of such phenomena is found in\\nuncivilized races of the lowest grade, transmitted from\\ntheir primate ancestors by heredity. It is even found\\nin many other vertebrates. When a dog barks at the\\nfull moon, or at a ringing bell, of which it sees the ham-\\nmer moving, or at a flag that flutters in the breeze, it\\nexpresses not only fear, but also the mysterious im-\\npulse to learn the cause of the obscure phenomenon.\\n301", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThe crude beginnings of religion among primitive races\\nspring partly from this hereditary superstition of their\\nprimate ancestors, and partly from the worship of an-\\ncestors, from various emotional impulses, and from\\nhabits which have become traditional.\\nThe religious notions of modern civilized peoples,\\nwhich they esteem so highly, profess to be on a much\\nhigher level than the crude superstition of the sav-\\nage; we are told of the great advance which civiliza-\\ntion has made in sweeping it aside. That is a great\\nmistake. Impartial comparison and analysis show\\nthat they only differ in their special form of faith\\nand the outer shell of their creed. In the clear light of\\nreason the refined faith of the most liberal ecclesiasti-\\ncal religion inasmuch as it contradicts the known\\nand inviolable laws of nature is no less irrational a\\nsuperstition than the crude spirit-faith of primitive\\nf etichism on which it looks down with proud disdain.\\nAnd if, from this impartial stand-point, we take a\\ncritical glance at the kinds of faith that prevail to-day\\nin civilized countries, we find them everywhere satu-\\nrated with traditional superstition. The Christian be-\\nlief in Creation, the Trinity, the Immaculate Concep-\\ntion, the Redemption, the Resurrection and Ascension\\nof Christ, and so forth, is just as purely imaginative as\\nthe belief in the various dogmas of the Mohammedan,\\nMosaic, Buddhistic, and Brahmanic religions, and is\\njust as incapable of reconciliation with a rational knowl-\\nedge of nature. Each of these religions is for the sin-\\ncere believer an indisputable truth, and each regards\\nthe other as heresy and damnable error. The more\\nconfidently a particular sect considers itself the only\\nark of salvation, and the more ardently this convic-\\ntion is cherished, the more zealously does it contend\\n302", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nagainst all other sects and give rise to the fearful re-\\nligious wars that form the saddest pages in the book of\\nhistory. And all the time the unprejudiced critique of\\npure reason teaches us that all these different forms\\nof faith are equally false and irrational, mere creatures\\nof poetic fancy and uncritical tradition. Rational sci-\\nence must reject them all alike as the outcome of super-\\nstition.\\nThe incalculable injury which irrational superstition\\nhas done to credulous humanity is conspicuously re-\\nvealed in the ceaseless conflict of confessions of faith.\\nOf all the wars which nations have waged against each\\nother with fire and sword the religious wars have been\\nthe bloodiest of all the forms of discord that have shat-\\ntered the happiness of families and of individuals those\\nthat arise from religious differences are still the most\\npainful. Think of the millions who have lost their\\nlives in Christian persecutions, in the religious con-\\nflicts of Islam and of the Reformation, by the Inquisi-\\ntion, and under the charge of witchcraft. Or think of\\nthe still greater number of luckless men who, through\\nreligious differences, have been plunged into family\\ntroubles, have lost the esteem of their fellow-citizens\\nand their position in the community, or have even been\\ncompelled to fly from their country. The official con-\\nfession of faith becomes most pernicious of all when it is\\nassociated with the political aims of a modern state, and\\nis enforced as religious instruction in our schools.\\nThe child s mind is thus early diverted from the pur-\\nsuit of the truth and impregnated with superstition.\\nEvery friend of humanity should do all in his power\\nto promote unsectarian schools as one of the most val-\\nuable institutions of the modern state.\\nThe great value which is, none the less, still very\\n303", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nwidely attached to sectarian instruction is not only due\\nto the compulsion of a reactionary state and its depen-\\ndence on a dominant clericalism, but also to the weight\\nof old traditions and emotional cravings of various\\nkinds. One of the strongest of these is the devout rev-\\nerence which is extended everywhere to sectarian tra-\\ndition, to the faith of our fathers. In thousands of\\nstories and poems fidelity to it is extolled as a spiritual\\ntreasure and a sacred duty. Yet a little impartial study\\nof the history of faith suffices to show the absurdity of\\nthe notion. The dominant evangelical faith of the\\nsecond half of the nineteenth century is essentially dif-\\nferent from that of the first half, and this again from\\nthat of the eighteenth century. The faith of the eigh-\\nteenth century diverges considerably from the faith\\nof our fathers of the seventeenth, and still more from\\nthat of the sixteenth, century. The Reformation, re-\\nleasing enslaved reason from the tyranny of the popes,\\nis naturally regarded by them as darkest heresy but\\neven the faith of the papacy itself had been completely\\ntransformed in the course of a century. And how dif-\\nferent is the faith of the Christian from that of his heath-\\nen ancestors. Every man with some degree of inde-\\npendent thought frames a more or less personal religion\\nfor himself, which is always different from that of his\\nfathers; it depends largely on the general condition\\nof thought in his day. The further we go back in\\nthe history of civilization, the more clearly do we find\\nthis esteemed faith of our fathers to be an indefen-\\nsible superstition which is undergoing continual trans-\\nformation.\\nOne of the most remarkable forms of superstition,\\nwhich still takes a very active part in modern life, is\\nspiritism. It is a surprising and a lamentable fact\\n3\u00c2\u00b04", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nthat millions of educated people are still dominated by\\nthis dreary superstition; even distinguished scientists\\nare entangled in it. A number of spiritualist journals\\nspread the faith far and wide, and our superior cir-\\ncles do not scruple to hold seances in which spirits\\nappear, rapping, writing, giving messages from the\\nbeyond, and so on. It is a frequent boast of spiritists\\nthat even eminent men of science defend their super-\\nstition. In Germany, A. Z\u00c3\u00b6llner and Fechner are quoted\\nas instances in England, Wallace and Crookes. The\\nregrettable circumstance that physicists and biologists\\nof such distinction have been led astray by spiritism\\nis accounted for, partly by their excess of imagination\\nand defect of critical faculty, and partly by the power-\\nful influence of dogmas which a religious education\\nimprinted on the brain in early youth. Moreover, it\\nwas precisely through the famous seances at Leipzig,\\nin which the physicists, Z\u00c3\u00b6llner, Fechner, and Wilhelm\\nWeber, were imposed on by the clever American con-\\njuror, Slade, that the fraud of the latter was afterwards\\nfully exposed he was discovered to be a common im-\\npostor. In other cases, too, where the alleged marvels\\nof spiritism have been thoroughly investigated, they\\nhave been traced to a more or less clever deception the\\nmediums (generally of the weaker sex) have been found\\nto be either smart swindlers or nervous persons of\\nabnormal irritability. Their supposed gift of tele-\\npathy (or action at a distance of thought without\\nmaterial medium has no more existence than the\\nvoices or the groans of spirits, etc. The vivid\\npictures which Carl du Prel, of Munich, and other spir-\\nitists give of their phenomena must be regarded as the\\noutcome of a lively imagination, together with a lack\\nof critical power and of knowledge of physiology,\\nu 305", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThe majority of religions have, in spite of their great\\ndifferences, one common feature, which is, at the same\\ntime, one of their strongest supports in many quarters.\\nThey declare that they can elucidate the problem of\\nexistence, the solution of which is beyond the natural\\npower of reason, by the supernatural way of revelation\\nfrom that they derive the authority of the dogmas which\\nin the guise of divine laws control morality and the\\npractical conduct of life. Divine inspirations of\\nthat kind form the basis of many myths and legends,\\nthe human origin of which is perfectly clear. It is\\ntrue that the God who reveals himself does not always\\nappear in human shape, but in thunder and lightning,\\nstorm and earthquake, fiery bush or menacing cloud.\\nBut the revelation which he is supposed to bring to the\\ncredulous children of men is always anthropomorphic\\nit invariably takes the form of a communication of\\nideas or commands which are formulated and expressed\\nprecisely as is done in the normal action of the human\\nbrain and larynx. In the Indian and Egyptian re-\\nligions, in the mythologies of Greece and Rome, in the\\nOld and the New Testaments, the gods think, talk,\\nand act just as men do the revelations, in which they\\nare supposed to unveil for us the secrets of existence\\nand the solution of the great world-enigma, are crea-\\ntions of the human imagination. The truth which\\nthe credulous discover in them is a human invention\\nthe childlike faith in these irrational revelations is\\nmere superstition.\\nThe true revelation that is, the true source of ra-\\ntional knowledge is to be sought in nature alone. The\\nrich heritage of truth which forms the most valuable\\npart of human culture is derived exclusively from the\\nexperiences acquired in a searching study of nature,\\n306", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "KNOWLEDGE AND BELIEF\\nand from the rational conclusions which it has reached\\nby the just association of these empirical presentations.\\nEvery intelligent man with normal brain and senses\\nfinds this true revelation in nature on impartial study,\\nand thus frees himself from the superstition with which\\nthe revelations of religion had burdened him.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVII\\nSCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nIncreasing Opposition between Modern Science and Christian\\nTheology\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Old and the New Faith Defence of Rational\\nScience against the Attacks of Christian Superstition, espe-\\ncially against Catholicism Four Periods in the Evolution of\\nChristianity I. Primitive Christianity (the First Three Cen-\\nturies) The Four Canonical Gospels The Epistles of Paul\\nII. The Papacy (Ult amontane Christianity) Retrogres-\\nsion of Civilization in the Middle Ages Ultramontane Falsi-\\nfication of History The Papacy and Science The Papacy\\nand Christianity III. The Reformation Luther and Calvin\\nThe Year of Emancipation IV. The Pseudo-Christianity\\nof the Nineteenth Century The Papal Declaration of War\\nagainst Reason and Science (a) Infallibility, (b) The Encyc-\\nlica, (c) The Immaculate Conception\\n/^\\\\NE of the most distinctive features of the expiring\\ncentury is the increasing vehemence of the oppo-\\nsition between science and Christianity. That is both\\nnatural and inevitable. In the same proportion in\\nwhich the victorious progress of modern science has\\nsurpassed all the scientific achievements of earlier ages\\nhas the untenability been proved of those mystic views\\nwhich would subdue reason under the yoke of an al-\\nleged revelation and the Christian religion belongs to\\nthat group. The more solidly modern astronomy,\\nphysics, and chemistry have established the sole do-\\nminion of inflexible natural laws in the universe at\\n308", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nlarge, and modern botany, zoology, and anthropology\\nhave proved the validity of those laws in the entire king-\\ndom of organic nature, so much the more strenuously\\nhas the Christian religion, in association with dualistic\\nmetaphysics, striven to deny the application of these\\nnatural laws in the province of the so-called spiritual\\nlife that is, in one section of the physiology of the\\nbrain.\\nNo one has more clearly, boldly, and unanswerably\\nenunciated this open and irreconcilable opposition be-\\ntween the modern scientific and the outworn Christian\\nview than David Friedrich Strauss, the greatest theo-\\nlogian of the nineteenth century. His last work, The\\nOld Faith and the New, is a magnificent expression of\\nthe honest conviction of all educated people of the pres-\\nent day who understand this unavoidable conflict be-\\ntween the discredited, dominant doctrines of Christian-\\nity and the illuminating, rational revelation of modern\\nscience all those who have the courage to defend the\\nright of reason against the pretensions of superstition,\\nand who are sensible of the philosophic demand for a\\nunified system of thought. Strauss, as an honorable\\nand courageous free-thinker, has expounded far better\\nthan I could the principal points of difference between\\nthe old and the new faith. The absolute irreconcil-\\nability of the opponents and the inevitability of their\\nstruggle for life or death have been ably presented\\non the philosophic side by E. Hartmann, in his inter-\\nesting work on The Self -Destruction of Christianity.\\nWhen the works of Strauss and Feuerbach and The\\nHistory of the Conflict between Religion and Science of\\nJ. W. Draper have been read, it may seem superfluous\\nfor us to devote a special chapter to the subject. Yet\\nwe think it useful, and even necessary for our purpose,\\n3\u00c2\u00b09", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nto cast a critical glance at the historical course of this\\ngreat struggle; especially seeing that the attacks of\\nthe Church militant on science in general, and on\\nthe theory of evolution in particular, have become ex-\\ntremely bitter and menacing of late years. Unfortu-\\nnately, the mental relaxation which has lately set in,\\nand the rising flood of reaction in the political, social,\\nand ecclesiastical world, are only too well calculated to\\ngive point to those dangers. If any one doubts it, he\\nhas only to look over the conduct of Christian synods\\nand of the German Reichstag during the last few years.\\nQuite in harmony are the recent efforts of many secular\\ngovernments to get on as good a footing as possible\\nwith the spiritual regiment, their deadly enemy\\nthat is, to submit to its yoke. The two forces find a\\ncommon aim in the suppression of free thought and\\nfree scientific research, for the purpose of thus more\\neasily securing a complete despotism.\\nLet us first emphatically protest that it is a question\\nfor us of the necessary defence of science and reason\\nagainst the vigorous attacks of the Christian Church\\nand its vast army, not of an unprovoked attack of\\nscience on religion. And, in the first place, our defence\\nmust be prepared against Romanism or Ultramontan-\\nism. This one ark of salvation, this Catholic Church\\ndestined for all, is not only much larger and more\\npowerful than the other Christian sects, but it has the\\nexceptional advantage of a vast, centralized organiza-\\ntion and an unrivalled political ability. Men of sci-\\nence are often heard to say that the Catholic supersti-\\ntion is no more astute than the other forms of supernat-\\nural faith, and that all these insiduous institutions are\\nequally inimical to reason and science. As a matter\\nof general theoretical principle the statement may pass,\\n310", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nbut it is certainly wrong when we look to its practical\\nside. The deliberate and indiscriminate attacks of the\\nultramontane Church on science, supported by the\\napathy and ignorance of the masses, are, on account\\nof its powerful organization, much more severe and\\ndangerous than those of other religions.\\nIn order to appreciate correctly the extreme impor-\\ntance of Christianity in regard to the entire history of\\ncivilization, and particularly its fundamental oppo-\\nsition to reason and science, we must briefly run over\\nthe principal stages of its historical evolution. It may\\nbe divided into four periods (i) primitive Christianity\\n(the first three centuries), (2) papal Christianity (twelve\\ncenturies, from the fourth to the fifteenth), (3) the Ref-\\normation (three centuries, from the sixteenth to the\\neighteenth), and (4) modern pseudo-Christianity.\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY\\nPrimitive Christianity embraces the first three cen-\\nturies. Christ himself, the noble prophet and enthu-\\nsiast, so full of the love of humanity, was far below the\\nlevel of classical culture; he knew nothing beyond\\nthe Jewish traditions he has not left a single line of\\nwriting. He had, indeed, no suspicion of the advanced\\nstage to which Greek philosophy and science had pro-\\ngressed five hundred years before.\\nAll that we know of him and of his original teaching\\nis taken from the chief documents of the New Testa-\\nment the four gospels and the Pauline epistles. As\\nto the four canonical gospels, we now know that they\\nwere selected from a host of contradictory and forged\\nmanuscripts of the first three centuries by the three\\nhundred and eighteen bishops who assembled at the\\n3 11", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nCouncil of Nicsea in 327. The entire list of gospels\\nnumbered forty the canonical list contains four. As\\nthe contending and mutually abusive bishops could\\nnot agree about the choice, they determined to leave\\nthe selection to a miracle. They put all the books (ac-\\ncording to the Synodicon of Pappus) together under-\\nneath the altar, and prayed that the apocryphal books,\\nof human origin, might remain there, and the genuine,\\ninspired books might be miraculously placed on the\\ntable of the Lord. And that, says tradition, really oc-\\ncurred The three synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark,\\nand Luke all written after them, not by them, at the\\nbeginning of the second century) and the very different\\nfourth gospel (ostensibly after John, written about\\nthe middle of the second century) leaped on the table,\\nand were thenceforth recognized as the inspired (with\\ntheir thousand mutual contradictions) foundations of\\nChristian doctrine. If any modern unbeliever finds\\nthis story of the leap of the sacred books incredible,\\nwe must remind him that it is just as credible as the\\ntable-turning and spirit-rapping that are believed to\\ntake place to-day by millions of educated people; and\\nthat hundreds of millions of Christians believe just as\\nimplicitly in their personal immortality; their resur-\\nrection from the dead, and the Trinity of God dog-\\nmas that contradict pure reason no more and no less\\nthan that miraculous bound of the gospel manuscripts.\\nThe most important sources after the gospels are the\\nfourteen separate (and generaFy forged) epistles of\\nPaul. The genuine Pauline epistles {three in number,\\naccording to recent criticism to the Romans, Gala-\\ntians, and Corinthians) were written before the canoni-\\ncal gospels, and contain less incredible miraculous mat-\\nter than they. They are also more concerned than the\\n312", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\ngospels to adjust themselves with a rational view of\\nthe world. Hence the advanced theology of modern\\ntimes constructs its ideal Christianity rather on the\\nbase of the Pauline epistles than on the gospels, so\\nthat it has been called Paulinism.\\nThe remarkable personality of Paul, who possessed\\nmuch more culture and practical sense than Christ, is\\nextremely interesting, from the anthropological point\\nof view, from the fact that the racial origin of the two\\ngreat religious founders is very much the same. Re-\\ncent historical investigation teaches that Paul s father\\nwas of Greek nationality, and his mother of Jewish.\\nThe half-breeds of these two races, which are so very\\ndistant in origin (although they are branches of the\\nsame species, the homo mediterraneus) are often dis-\\ntinguished by a happy blending of talents and tem-\\nperament, as we find in many recent and actual in-\\nstances. The plastic Oriental imagination and the\\ncritical Western reason often admirably combine and\\ncomplete each other. That is visible in the Pauline\\nteaching, which soon obtained a greater influence than\\nthe earliest Christian notions. Hence it is not incor-\\nrect to consider Paulinism a new phenomenon, of which\\nthe father was the philosophy of the Greeks, and the\\nmother the religion of the Jews. Neoplatonism is an\\nanalogous combination.\\nAs to the real teaching and aims of Christ (and as\\nto many important aspects of his life) the views of con-\\nflicting theologians diverge more and more, as histori-\\ncal criticism (Strauss, Feuer bach, Baur, Renan, etc.)\\nputs the accessible facts in their true light, and draws\\nimpartial conclusions from them. Two things, cer-\\nAs to the Greek paternity of Christ, vide p. 328.\\n3*3", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\ntainly, remain beyond dispute the lofty principle of\\nuniversal charity and the fundamental maxim of ethics,\\nthe golden rule/ that issues therefrom; both, how-\\never, existed in theory and in practice centuries before\\nthe time of Christ (cf. chap. xix.). For the rest, the\\nChristians of the early centuries were generally pure\\nCommunists, sometimes a Social Democrats, who, ac-\\ncording to the prevailing theory in Germany to-day,\\nought to have been exterminated with fire and sword.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PAPAL CHRISTIANITY\\nLatin Christianity, variously called Papistry, Ro-\\nmanism, Vaticanism, Ultramontanism, or the Roman\\nCatholic Church, is one of the most remarkable phe-\\nnomena in the history of civilized man in spite of the\\nstorms that have swept over it, it still exerts a most pow-\\nerful influence. Of the four hundred and ten million\\nChristians who are scattered over the earth the majori-\\nty that is, two hundred and twenty-five millions\\nare Roman Catholics; there are seventy-five million\\nGreek Catholics and one hundred and ten million\\nProtestants. During a period of one thousand two\\nhundred years, from the fourth to the sixteenth cen-\\ntury, the papacy has almost absolutely controlled and\\ntainted the spiritual life of Europe on the other hand,\\nit has won but little territory from the ancient religions\\nof Asia and Africa. In Asia Buddhism still counts\\nfive hundred and three million followers, the Brah-\\nmanic religion one hundred and thirty- eight millions,\\nand Islam one hundred and twenty millions.\\nIt is the despotism of the papacy that lent its darkest\\ncharacter to the Middle Ages; it meant death to all\\nfreedom of mental life, decay to all science, corruption\\n3H", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nto all morality. From the noble height to which the\\nlife of the human mind had attained in classical an-\\ntiquity, in the centuries before Christ and the first cen-\\ntury after Christ, it soon sank, under the rule of the\\npapacy, to a level which, in respect of the knowledge of\\nthe truth, can only be termed barbarism. It is often\\nprotested that other aspects of mental life poetry and\\narchitecture, scholastic learning and patristic philos-\\nophy were richly developed in the Middle Ages. But\\nthis activity was in the service of the Church; it did\\nnot tend to the cultivation, but to the suppression, of\\nfree mental research. The exclusive preparing for an\\nunknown eternity beyond the tomb, the contempt of\\nnature, the withdrawa from the study of it, which are\\nessential elements of Christianity, were urged as a\\nsacred duty by the Roman hierarchy. It was not until\\nthe beginning of the sixteenth century that a change\\nfor the better came in with the Reformation.\\nIt is impossible for us here to describe the pitiful ret-\\nrogression of culture and morality during the twelve\\ncenturies of the spiritual despotism of Rome. It is very\\npithily expressed in a saying of the greatest and the\\nablest of the Hohenzollerns Frederick the Great con-\\ndensed his judgment in the phrase that the study of his-\\ntory led one to think that from Constantine to the date\\nof the Reformation the whole world was insane. L.\\nB\u00c3\u00bcchner has given us an admirable, brief description\\nof this period of insanity in his work on Religious\\nand Scientific Systems. The reader who desires a closer\\nacquaintance with the subject would do well to consult\\nthe historical works of Ranke, Draper, Kolb, Svoboda,\\netc. The truthful description of the awful condition of\\nthe Christian Middle Ages, which is given by these and\\nother unprejudiced historians, is confirmed by all the\\n315", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nreliable sources of investigation, and by the historical\\nmonuments which have come down from the saddest\\nperiod of human history. Educated Catholics, who are\\nsincere truth-seekers, cannot be too frequently recom-\\nmended to study these historical sources for themselves.\\nThis is the more necessary as ultramontane literature\\nhas still a considerable influence. The old trick of de-\\nceiving the faithful by a complete reversal of facts and\\nan invention of miraculous circumstances is still work-\\ned by it with great success. We will only mention\\nLourdes and the Holy Coat of Treves. The ultra-\\nmontane professor of history at Frankfurt, Johannes\\nJanssen, affords a striking example of the length they\\nwill go in distorting historical truth; his much-read\\nworks (especially his History of the German People\\nsince the Middle Ages) are marred by falsification to an\\nincredible extent. The untruthfulness of these Jesu-\\nitical productions is on a level with the credulity and\\nthe uncritical judgment of the simple German nation\\nthat takes them for gospel.\\nOne of the most interesting of the historical facts\\nwhich clearly prove the evil of the ultramontane des-\\npotism is its vigorous and consistent struggle with sci-\\nence. This was determined on, in principle, from the\\nvery beginning of Christianity, inasmuch as it set faith\\nabove reason and preached the blind subjection of the\\none to the other; that was natural, seeing that our\\nwhole life on earth was held to be only a preparation\\nfor the legendary life beyond, and thus scientific re-\\nsearch was robbed of any real value. The deliberate\\nand successful attack on science began in the early\\npart of the fourth century, particularly after the Coun-\\ncil of Nicsea (327), presided over by Constantine called\\nthe Great because he raised Christianity to the po-\\n3 l6", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nsition of a state religion, and founded Constantinople,\\nthough a worthless character, a false-hearted hypo-\\ncrite, and a murderer. The success of the papacy in its\\nconflict with independent scientific thought and in-\\nquiry is best seen in the distressing condition of sci-\\nence and its literature during the Middle Ages. Not\\nonly were the rich literary treasures that classical an-\\ntiquity had bequeathed to the world destroyed for the\\nmost part, or withdrawn from circulation, but the rack\\nand the stake insured the silence of every heretic\\nthat is, every independent thinker. If he did not keep\\nhis thoughts to himself, he had to look forward to being\\nburned alive, as was the fate of the great monistic phi-\\nlosopher, Giordano Bruno, the reformer, John Huss,and\\nmore than a hundred thousand other witnesses to the\\ntruth. The history of science in the Middle Ages\\nteaches us on every page that independent thought\\nand empirical research were completely buried for\\ntwelve sad centuries under the oppression of the om-\\nnipotent papacy.\\nAll that we esteem in true Christianity, in the sense\\nof its founder and of his noblest followers, and that we\\nmust endeavor to save from the inevitable wreck of this\\ngreat world religion for our new monistic religion, lies\\non its ethical and social planes. The principles of true\\nhumanism, the golden rule, the spirit of tolerance, the\\nlove of man, in the best and highest sense of the word\\nall these true graces of Christianity were not, indeed,\\nfirst discovered and given to the world by that religion,\\nbut were successfully developed in the critical period\\nwhen classical antiquity was hastening to its doom.\\nThe papacy, however, has attempted to convert all\\nthose virtues into the direct contrary, and still to hang\\nout the sign of the old firm. Instead of Christian char-\\n317", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nity, it introduced a fanatical hatred of the followers of\\nall other religions with fire and sword it has pursued,\\nnot only the heathen, but every Christian sect that\\ndared resist the imposition of ultramontane dogma.\\nTribunals for heretics were erected all over Europe,\\nyielding unnumbered victims, whose torments seemed\\nonly to fill their persecutors, with all their Christian\\ncharity, with a peculiar satisfaction. The power of\\nRome was directed mercilessly for centuries against\\neverything that stood in its way. Under the notorious\\nTorquemada (1481-98), in Spain alone eight thousand\\nheretics were burned alive and ninety thousand pun-\\nished with the confiscation of their goods and the\\nmost grievous ecclesiastical fines in the Netherlands,\\nunder the rule of Charles V., at least fifty thousand\\nmen fell victims to the clerical bloodthirst. And while\\nthe heavens resounded with the cry of the martyrs, the\\nwealth of half the world was pouring into Rome, to\\nwhich the whole of Christianity paid tribute, and the\\nself-styled representatives of God on earth and their\\naccomplices (not infrequently Atheists themselves) wal-\\nlowed in pleasure and vice of every description. And\\nall these privileges, said the frivolous, syphilitic Pope,\\nLeo X., have been secured to us by the fable of Jesus\\nChrist.\\nYet, with all the discipline of the Church and the\\nfear of God, the condition of European society was\\npitiable. Feudalism, serfdom, the grace of God, and\\nthe favor of the monks ruled the land the poor helots\\nwere only too glad to be permitted to raise their mis-\\nerable huts under the shadow of the castle or the clois-\\nter, their secular and spiritual oppressors and exploit-\\ners. Even to-day we suffer from the aftermath of these\\nawful ages and conditions, in which there was no ques-\\n318", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\ntion of care for science or higher mental culture save\\nin rare circumstances and in secret. Ignorance, pov-\\nerty, and superstition combined with the immoral op-\\neration of the law of celibacy, which had been intro-\\nduced in the eleventh century, to consolidate the ever-\\ngrowing power of the papacy. It has been calculated\\nthat there were more than ten million victims of fa-\\nnatical religious hatred during this Golden Age of\\npapal domination; and how many more million hu-\\nman victims must be put to the account of celibacy,\\noral confession, and moral constraint, the most per-\\nnicious and accursed institutions of the papal despot-\\nism! Unbelieving philosophers, who have collected\\ndisproofs of the existence of God, have overlooked one\\nof the strongest arguments in that sense the fact that\\nthe Roman Vicar of Christ could for twelve centu-\\nries perpetrate with impunity the most shameful and\\nhorrible deeds in the name of God.\\nIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE REFORMATION\\nThe history of civilization, which we are so fond of\\ncalling the history of the world, enters upon its third\\nperiod with the Reformation of the Christian Church,\\njust as its second period begins with the founding of\\nChristianity. With the Reformation begins the new\\nbirth of fettered reason, the reawakening of science,\\nwhich the iron hand of the Christian papacy had re-\\nlentlessly crushed for twelve hundred years. At the\\nsame time the spread of general education had already\\ncommenced, owing to the invention of printing about\\nthe middle of the fifteenth century; and towards its\\nclose several great events occurred, especially the dis-\\ncovery of America in 1492, which prepared the way for\\n3*9", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe renaissance of science in company with that of art.\\nIndeed, certain very important advances were made in\\nthe knowledge of nature during the first half of the six-\\nteenth century, which shook the prevailing system to\\nits very foundations. Such were the circumnaviga-\\ntion of the globe by Magellan in 1522, which afforded\\nempirical proof of its rotundity, and the founding of\\nthe new system of the world by Copernicus in 1543.\\nYet the 31st of October in the year 151 7, the day on\\nwhich Martin Luther nailed his ninety-five theses to\\nthe wooden door of Wittenburg Cathedral, must be\\nregarded as the commencement of a new epoch; for\\non that day was forced the iron door of the prison in\\nwhich the Papal Church had detained fettered reason\\nfor twelve hundred years. The merits of the great re-\\nformer have been partly exaggerated, partly underesti-\\nmated. It has been justly pointed out that Luther, like\\nall the other reformers, remained in manifold subjection\\nto the deepest superstition. Thus he was throughout\\nlife a supporter of the rigid dogma of the verbal inspi-\\nration of the Bible; he zealously maintained the doc-\\ntrines of the resurrection, original sin, predestination,\\njustification by faith, etc. He rejected as folly the\\ngreat discovery of Copernicus, because in the Bible\\nJoshua bade the sun, not the earth, stand still. He\\nutterly failed to appreciate the great political revolu-\\ntions of his time, especially the profound and just agi-\\ntation of the peasantry. Worse still was the fanatical\\nCalvin, of Geneva, who had the talented Spanish phy-\\nsician, Serveto, burned alive in 1553, because he re-\\njected the absurd dogma of the Trinity. The fanati-\\ncal true believers of the reformed Church followed\\nonly too frequently in the blood-stained footsteps of\\ntheir papal enemies as they do even in our own day.\\n320", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nDeeds of unparalleled cruelty followed in the train of\\nthe Reformation the massacre of St. Bartholomew\\nand the persecution of the Huguenots in France, bloody\\nheretic-hunts in Italy, civil war in England, and the\\nThirty Years War in Germany. Yet, in spite of those\\ngrave blemishes, to the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-\\nturies belongs the honor of once more opening a free\\npath to the thoughtful mind, and delivering reason\\nfrom the oppressive yoke of the papacy. Thus only\\nwas made possible that great development of different\\ntendencies in critical philosophy and of new paths in sci-\\nence which won for the subsequent eighteenth century\\nthe honorable title of the century of enlightenment.\\nIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE PSEUDO-CHRISTIANITY OF THE NINE-\\nTEENTH CENTURY\\nAs the fourth and last stage in the history of Chris-\\ntianity we oppose our nineteenth century to all its prede-\\ncessors. It is true that the enlightenment of preceding\\ncenturies had promoted critical thought in every direc-\\ntion, and the rise of science itself had furnished pow-\\nerful empirical weapons; yet it seems to us that our\\nprogress along both lines has been quite phenomenal\\nduring the nineteenth century. It has inaugurated\\nan entirely new period in the history of the human mind,\\ncharacterized by the development of the monistic phi-\\nlosophy of nature. At its very commencement the\\nfoundations were laid of a new anthropology (by the\\ncomparative anatomy of Cuvier) and of a new biology\\n(by the Philosophie Zoologique of Lamarck). The two\\ngreat French scientists were quickly succeeded by two\\ncontemporary German scholars Baer, the founder\\nof the science of evolution, and Johannes M\u00c3\u00bcller, the\\nx 321", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nfounder of comparative morphology and physiology.\\nA pupil of M\u00c3\u00bcller, Theodor Schwann, created the far-\\nreaching cellular theory in 1838, in conjunction with\\nM. Schieiden. Lyell had already traced the evolution\\nof the earth to natural causes, and thus proved the ap-\\nplication to our planet of the mechanical cosmogony\\nwhich Kant had sketched with so much insight in 1755.\\nFinally, Robert Mayer and Helmholtz established the\\nprinciple of energy in 1842 the second, complement-\\nary half of the great law of substance, the first half\\nof which (the persistence of matter) had been previous-\\nly discovered by Lavoisier. Forty years ago Charles\\nDarwin crowned all these profound revelations of the\\nintimate nature of the universe by his new theory of\\nevolution, the greatest natural -philosophical achieve-\\nment of our century.\\nWhat is the relation of modern Christianity to this\\nvast and unparalleled progress of science? In the first\\nplace, the deep gulf between its two great branches,\\nconservative Romanism and progressive Protestant-\\nism, has naturally widened. The ultramontane clergy\\n(and we must associate with them the orthodox evan-\\ngelical alliance had naturally to offer a strenuous\\nopposition to this rapid advance of the emancipated\\nmind; they continued unmoved in their rigid literal\\nbelief, demanding the unconditional surrender of rea-\\nson to dogma. Liberal Protestantism, on the other\\nhand, took refuge in a kind of monistic pantheism, and\\nsought a means of reconciling two contradictory prin-\\nciples. It endeavored to combine the unavoidable\\nrecognition of the established laws of nature, and the\\nphilosophic conclusions that followed from them, with\\na purified form of religion, in which scarcely anything\\nremained of the distinctive teaching of faith. There\\n322", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nwere many attempts at compromise to be found between\\nthe two extremes; but the conviction rapidly spread\\nthat dogmatic Christianity had lost every foundation,\\nand that only its valuable ethical contents should be\\nsaved for the new monistic religion of the twentieth\\ncentury. As, however, the existing external forms\\nof the dominant Christian religion remained unaltered,\\nand as, in spite of a progressive political development,\\nthey are more intimately than ever connected with the\\npractical needs of the State, there has arisen that wide-\\nspread religious profession in educated spheres which\\nwe can only call pseudo-Christianity \u00e2\u0080\u0094at the bot-\\ntom it is a religious lie of the worst character. The\\ngreat dangers which attend this conflict between sin-\\ncere conviction and the hypocritical profession of mod-\\nern pseudo-Christians are admirably described in Max\\nNordau s interesting work on The Conventional Lies\\nof Civilization.\\nIn the midst of this obvious falseness of prevalent\\npseudo-Christianity there is one favorable circumstance\\nfor the progress of a rational study of nature its most\\npowerful and bitterest enemy, the Roman Church,\\nthrew off its mask of ostensible concern for higher men-\\ntal development about the middle of the nineteenth\\ncentury, and declared a guerre Voutrance against in-\\ndependent science. This happened in three important\\nchallenges to reason, for the explicitness and resolute-\\ni ness of which modern science and culture cannot but\\nI be grateful to the Vicar of Christ. (i) In Decem-\\nber, 1854, the pope promulgated the dogma of the im-\\nmaculate conception of Mary. (2) Ten years after-\\nwards\u00e2\u0080\u0094in December, 1864 the pope published, in\\nhis famous encyclica, an absolute condemnation of the\\nwhole of modern civilization and culture; in the sylla-\\n323", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nbus that accompanied it he enumerated and anathe-\\nmatized all the rational theses and philosophical prin-\\nciples which are regarded by modern science as lucid\\ntruths. (3) Finally, six years afterwards on July\\n13, 1870 the militant head of the Church crowned\\nhis folly by claiming infallibility for himself and all\\nhis predecessors in the papal chair. This triumph\\nof the Roman curia was communicated to the aston-\\nished world five days afterwards, on the very day on\\nwhich France declared war with Prussia. Two months\\nlater the temporal power of the pope was taken from\\nhim in consequence of the war.\\nThese three stupendous acts of the papacy were such\\nobvious assaults on the reason of the nineteenth cen-\\ntury that they gave rise, from the very beginning, to\\na most heated discussion even within orthodox Catho-\\nlic circles. When the Vatican Council proceeded to\\ndefine the dogma of infallibility on July 13, 1870,\\nonly three-fourths of the bishops declared in its favor,\\n451 out of 601 assenting; many other bishops, who\\nwished to keep clear of the perilous definition, were ab-\\nsent from the council. But the shrewd pontiff had\\ncalculated better than the timid discreet Catholics\\neven this extraordinary dogma was blindly accepted by\\nthe credulous and uneducated masses of the faithful.\\nThe whole history of the papacy, as it is substanti-\\nated by a thousand reliable sources and accessible doc-\\numents, appears to the impartial student as an un-\\nscrupulous tissue of lying and deceit, a reckless pur-\\nsuit of absolute mental despotism and secular power,\\na frivolous contradiction of all the high moral pre-\\ncepts which true Christianity enunciates charity and\\ntoleration, truth and chastity, poverty and self-denial.\\nWhen we judge the long series of popes and of the Ro-\\n324", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nman princes of the Church, from whom the pope is\\nchosen, by the standard of pure Christian morality,\\nit is clear that the great majority of them were pitiful\\nimpostors, many of them utterly worthless and vicious.\\nThese well-known historical facts, however, do not\\nprevent millions of educated Catholics from admitting\\nthe infallibility which the pope has claimed for himself\\nthey do not prevent Protestant princes from going to\\nRome, and doing reverence to the pontiff (their most\\ndangerous enemy) they do not prevent the fate of the\\nGerman people from being intrusted to-day to the hands\\nof the servants and followers of this pious impostor\\nin the Reichstag thanks to the incredible political\\nindolence and credulity of the nation.\\nThe most interesting of the three great events by\\nwhich the papacy has endeavored to maintain and\\nstrengthen its despotism in the nineteenth century is\\nthe publication of the encyclica and the syllabus in\\nDecember, 1864. In these remarkable documents all\\nindependent action was forbidden to reason and science,\\nand they were commanded to submit implicitly to faith\\nthat is, to the decrees of the infallible pope. The\\ngreat excitement which followed this sublime piece of\\neffrontery in educated and independent circles was in\\nproportion with the stupendous contents of the ency-\\nclica. Draper has given us an excellent discussion\\nof its educational and political significance in his His-\\ntory of the Conflict between Science and Religion.\\nThe dogma of the immaculate conception seems,\\nperhaps, to be less audacious and significant than the\\nencyclica and the dogma of the infallibility of the pope.\\nYet not only the Roman hierarchy, but even some of\\nthe orthodox Protestants (the Evangelical Alliance,\\nfor instance), attach great importance to this thesis.\\n325", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nWhat is known as the immaculate oath that is,\\nthe confirmation of faith by an oath taken on the im-\\nmaculate conception of Mary is still regarded by mill-\\nions of Christians as a sacred obligation. Many\\nbelievers take the dogma in a twofold application;\\nthey think that the mother of Mary was impregnated\\nby the Holy Ghost as well as Mary herself. Compara-\\ntive and critical theology has recently shown that this\\nmyth has no greater claim to originality than most of\\nthe other stories in the Christian mythology; it has\\nbeen borrowed from older religions, especially Buddhism.\\nSimilar myths were widely circulated in India, Persia,\\nAsia Minor, and Greece several centuries before the\\nbirth of Christ. Whenever a king s unwedded daugh-\\nter, or some other maid of high degree, gave birth to a\\nchild, the father was always pronounced to be a god,\\nor a demi-god; in the Christian case it was the Holy\\nGhost.\\nThe special endowments of mind or body which often\\ndistinguished these children of love above ordinary\\noffspring were thus partly explained by heredity.\\nDistinguished sons of God of this kind were held in\\nhigh esteem both in antiquity and during the Middle\\nAges, while the moral code of modern civilization re-\\nproaches them with their want of honorable parentage.\\nThis applies even more forcibly to daughters of God,\\nthough the poor maidens are just as little to blame for\\ntheir want of a father. For the rest, every one who is\\nfamiliar with the beautiful mythology of classical an-\\ntiquity knows that these sons and daughters of the\\nGreek and Roman gods often approach nearest to the\\nhighest ideal of humanity. Recollect the large legiti-\\nmate family, and the still more numerous illegitimate\\noffspring, of Zeus.\\n326", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nTo return to the particular question of the impreg-\\nnation of the Virgin Mary by the Holy Ghost, we are\\nreferred to the gospels for testimony to the fact. The\\nonly two evangelists who speak of it, Matthew and\\nLuke, relate in harmony that the Jewish maiden Mary\\nwas betrothed to the carpenter Joseph, but became preg-\\nnant without his co-operation, and, indeed, by the Holy\\nGhost. As we have already related, the four canonical\\ngospels which are regarded as the only genuine ones by\\nthe Christian Church, and adopted as the foundation of\\nfaith, were deliberately chosen from a much larger num-\\nber of gospels, the details of which contradict each other\\nsometimes just as freely as the assertions of the four.\\nThe fathers of the Church enumerate from forty to fifty\\nof these spurious or apocryphal gospels some of them\\nare written both in Greek and Latin for instance, the\\ngospel of James, of Thomas, of Nicodemus, and so\\nforth. The details which these apocryphal gospels\\ngive of the life of Christ, especially with regard to his\\nbirth and childhood, have just as much (or, on the\\nwhole, just as little) claim to historical validity as the\\nfour canonical gospels.\\nNow we find in one of these documents an historical\\nstatement, confirmed, moreover, in the Sepher Toldoth\\nJeschua, which probably furnishes the simple and nat-\\nural solution of the world-riddle of the supernatural\\nconception and birth of Christ. The author curtly\\ngives us in one sentence the remarkable statement\\nwhich contains this solution Josephus Pandera, the\\nRoman officer of a Calabrian legion which was in\\nJudaea, seduced Miriam of Bethlehem, and was the\\nfather of Jesus. Other details given about Miriam\\n(the Hebrew name for Mary) are far from being to the\\ncredit of the Queen of Heaven.\\n327", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nNaturally, these historical details are carefully avoid-\\ned by the official theologian, but they assort badly with\\nthe traditional myth, and lift the veil from its mystery\\nin a very simple and natural fashion. That makes it\\nthe more incumbent on impartial research and pure\\nreason to make a critical examination of these state-\\nments. It must be admitted that they have much more\\ntitle to credence than all the other statements about the\\nbirth of Christ. When, on familiar principles of science,\\nwe put aside the notion of supernatural conception\\nthrough an overshadowing of the Most High as a\\npure myth, there only remains the widely accepted ver-\\nsion of modern rational theology that Joseph, the\\nJewish carpenter, was the true father of Christ. But\\nthis assumption is explicitly contradicted by many\\ntexts of the gospels Christ himself was convinced that\\nhe was a Son of God, and he never recognized his\\nfoster-father, Joseph, as his real parent. Joseph, indeed,\\nwanted t\u00c3\u00b6 leave his betrothed when he found her preg-\\nnant without his interference. He gave up this idea\\nwhen an angel appeared to him in a dream and paci-\\nfied him. As it is expressly stated in the first chapter\\nof Matthew (vv. 24, 25), there was no sexual intercourse\\nbetween Joseph and Mary until after Jesus was born.\\nThe statement of the apocryphal gospels, that the\\nRoman officer, Pandera, was the true father of Christ,\\nseems all the more credible when we make a careful\\nanthropological study of the personality of Christ. He\u00c2\u00ab\\nis generally regarded as purely Jewish. Yet the char-\\nacteristics which distinguish his high and noble person-\\nality, and which give a distinct impress to his religion,\\nare certainly not Semitical they are rather features of\\nthe higher Arian race, and especially of its noblest\\nbranch, the Hellenes. Now, the name of Christ s real\\n328", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE AND CHRISTIANITY\\nfather, Pandera, points unequivocally to a Greek\\norigin in one manuscript, in fact, it is written Pan-\\ndora. Pandora was, according to the Greek mythol-\\nogy, the first woman, born of the earth by Vulcan and\\nadorned with every charm by the gods, who was es-\\npoused by Epimetheus, and sent by Zeus to men with\\nthe dread Pandora box/ containing every evil, in\\npunishment for the stealing of divine fire from heaven\\nby Prometheus.\\nAnd it is interesting to see the different reception that\\nthe love-story of Miriam has met with at the hands of\\nthe four great Christian nations of civilized Europe.\\nThe stern morality of the Teutonic races entirely repu-\\ndiates it the righteous German and the prudish Briton\\nprefer to believe blindly in the impossible thesis of a\\nconception by the Holy Ghost. It is well known\\nthat this strenuous and carefully paraded prudery of\\nthe higher classes (especially in England) is by no\\nmeans reflected in the true condition of sexual morality\\nin high quarters. The revelations which the Pall\\nMall Gazette, for instance, made on the subject twelve\\nyears ago vividly recalled the condition of Babylon.\\nThe Romantic races, which ridicule this prudery and\\ntake sexual relations less seriously, find Mary s Ro-\\nmance attractive enough the special cult which Our\\nLady enjoys in France and Italy is often associated\\nwith this love-story with curious nai vete. Thus, for\\nexample, Paul de Regia (Dr. Desjardin), author of Jesus\\nof Nazareth considered from a Scientific, Historical, and\\nSocial Standpoint (1894), finds precisely in the illegiti-\\nmate birth of Christ a special title to the halo that ir-\\nradiates his noble form.\\nIt seemed to me necessary to enter fully into this im-\\nportant question of the origin of Christ in the sense of\\n329", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nimpartial historical science, because the Church mili-\\ntant itself lays great emphasis on it, and because it re-\\ngards the miraculous structure which has been founded\\non it as one of its strongest weapons against modern\\nthought. The highest ethical value of pure primitive\\nChristianity and the ennobling influence of this re-\\nligion of love on the history of civilization are quite\\nindependent of those mythical dogmas. The so-called\\nrevelations on which these myths are based are in-\\ncompatible with the firmest results of modern science.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XVIII\\nOUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nMonism as a Connecting Link between Religion and Science\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThe Cultur-Kampf The Relations of Church and State\\nPrinciples of the Monistic Religion Its Three-fold Ideal the\\nGood, the True, and the Beautiful Contradiction between\\nScientific and Christian Truth Harmony of the Monistic\\nand the Christian Idea of Virtue Opposition between Monistic\\nand Christian Views of Art Modern Expansion and Enrich-\\nment of Our Idea of the World Landscape-Painting and the\\nModern Enjoyment of Nature The Beauties of Nature This\\nWorld and Beyond Monistic Churches\\nJ\\\\A ANY distinguished scientists and philosophers of\\nthe day, who share our monistic views, consider\\nthat religion is generally played out. Their mean-\\ning is that the clear insight into the evolution of the\\nworld which the great scientific progress of the nine-\\nteenth century has afforded us will satisfy, not only\\nthe causal feeling of our reason, but even our highest\\nemotional cravings. This view is correct in the sense\\nthat the two ideas, religion and science, would indeed\\nblend into one if we had a perfectly clear and consec-\\nutive system of monism. However, there are but a\\nfew resolute thinkers who attain to this most pure and\\nlofty conception of Spinoza and Goethe. Most of the\\neducated people of our time (as distinct from the un-\\ncultured masses) remain in the conviction that religion\\n33 r", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nis a separate branch of our mental life, independent of\\nscience, and not less valuable and indispensable.\\nIf we adopt this view, we can find a means of reconcil-\\ning the two great and apparently quite distinct branch-\\nes in the idea I put forward in Monism, as a Con-\\nnecting-Link between Religion and Science, in 1892.\\nIn the preface to this Confession of Faith of a Man of\\nScience I expressed myself in the following words with\\nregard to its double object In the first place, I must\\ngive expression to the rational system which is logi-\\ncally forced upon us by the recent progress of science\\nit dwells in the intimate thoughts of nearly every im-\\npartial and thoughtful scientist, though few have the\\ncourage or the disposition to avow it. In the second\\nplace, I would make of it a connecting-link between re-\\nligion and science, and thus do away with the antith-\\nesis which has been needlessly maintained between\\nthese two branches of the highest activity of the hu-\\nman mind. The ethical craving of our emotion is sat-\\nisfied by monism no less than the logical demand for\\ncausality on the part of reason.\\nThe remarkable interest which the discourse en-\\nkindled is a proof that in this monistic profession of\\nfaith I expressed the feeling not only of many scientists,\\nbut of a large number of cultured men and women of\\nvery different circles. Not only was I rewarded by\\nhundreds of sympathetic letters, but by a wide circu-\\nlation of the printed address, of which six editions\\nwere required within six months. I had the more rea-\\nson to be content with this unexpected success, as this\\nconfession of faith was originally merely an occa-\\nsional speech which I delivered unprepared on October\\n9, 1892, at Altenburg, during the jubilee of the Scien-\\ntific Society of East Germany. Naturally there was\\n332", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nthe usual demonstration on the other side I was fierce-\\nly attacked, not only by the ultramontane press, the\\nsworn defenders of superstition, but also by the lib-\\neral controversialists of evangelical Christianity,\\nwho profess to defend both scientific truth and purified\\nfaith. In the seven years that have ensued since that\\ntime the great struggle between modern science and\\northodox Christianity has become more threatening;\\nit has grown more dangerous for science in propor-\\ntion as Christianity has found support in an increasing\\nmental and political reaction. In some countries the\\nChurch has made such progress that the freedom of\\nthought and conscience, which is guaranteed by the\\nlaws, is in practice gravely menaced (for instance,\\nin Bavaria). The great historic struggle which Dra-\\nper has so admirably depicted in his Conflict between\\nReligion and Science is to-day more acute and signifi-\\ncant than ever. For the last twenty-seven years it has\\nbeen rightly called the cultur-kampf.\\nThe famous encyclica and syllabus which the mili-\\ntant pope, Pius IX., sent out into the entire world in\\n1864 were a declaration of war on the whole of modern\\nscience; they demanded the blind submission of rea-\\nson to the dogmas of the infallible pope. The enor-\\nmity of this crude assault on the highest treasures of\\ncivilization even roused many indolent minds from\\nthe slumber of belief. Together with the subsequent\\npromulgation of the papal infallibility (1870), the en-\\ncyclica provoked a deep wave of irritation and an en-\\nergetic repulse which held out high hopes. In the\\nnew German empire, which had attained its indis-\\npensable national unity by the heavy sacrifices of the\\nwars of 1866 and 1871, the insolent attacks of the pope\\nwere felt to be particularly offensive. On the one hand\\n333", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nGermany is the cradle of the Reformation and the mod-\\nern emancipation of reason; on the other hand, it un-\\nfortunately has in its 1 8, ooo, ooo Catholics a vast host\\nof militant believers, who are unsurpassed by any other\\ncivilized people in blind obedience to their chief shep-\\nherd.\\nThe dangers of such a situation were clearly recog-\\nnized by the great statesman who had solved the po-\\nlitical world-riddle of the dismemberment of Ger-\\nmany, and had led us by a marvellous statecraft to\\nthe long-desired goal of national unity and power.\\nPrince Bismarck began the famous struggle with the\\nVatican, which is known as the cidtur-kampf, in 1872,\\nand it was conducted with equal ability and energy by\\nthe distinguished Minister of Worship, Falk, author\\nof the May laws of 1873. Unfortunately, Bismarck\\nhad to desist six years afterwards. Although the great\\nstatesman was a remarkable judge of men and a real-\\nistic politician of immense tact, he had underestimated\\nthe force of three powerful obstacles first, the un-\\nsurpassed cunning and unscrupulous treachery of the\\nRoman curia secondly, the correlative ingratitude\\nand credulity of the uneducated Catholic masses, on\\nwhich the papacy built; and, thirdly, the power of\\napathy, the continuance of the irrational, simply be-\\ncause it is in possession. Hence, in 1878, when the\\nabler Leo XIII. had ascended the pontifical throne,\\nthe fatal To Canossa was heard once more. From\\nthat time the newly established power of Rome grew\\nin strength partly through the unscrupulous intrigues\\nand serpentine bends of its slippery Jesuitical politics,\\npartly through the false Church-politics of the German\\ngovernment and the marvellous political incompetence\\nof the German people. We have, therefore, at the close\\n334", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nof the nineteenth century to endure the pitiful spectacle\\nof the Catholic Centre being the most important sec-\\ntion of the Reichstag, and the fate of our humiliated\\ncountry depending on a papal party, which does not\\nconstitute numerically a third part of the nation.\\nWhen the cultur-kampf began in 1872, it was justly\\nacclaimed by all independent thinkers as a political\\nrenewal of the Reformation, a vigorous attempt to free\\nmodern civilization from the yoke of papal despotism.\\nThe whole of the Liberal press hailed Bismarck as a\\npolitical Luther as the great hero, not only of the\\nnational unity, but also of the rational emancipation\\nof Germany. Ten years afterwards, when the papacy\\nhad proved victorious, the same Liberal press changed\\nits colors, and denounced the cultur-kampf as a great\\nmistake; and it does the same thing to-day. The\\nfacts show how short is the memory of our journalists,\\nhow defective their knowledge of history, and how poor\\ntheir philosophic education. The so-called Peace be-\\ntween Church and State is never more than a suspen-\\nsion of hostilities. The modern papacy, true to the des-\\npotic principles it has followed for the last sixteen hun-\\ndred years, is determined to wield sole dominion over the\\ncredulous souls of men; it must demand the absolute\\nsubmission of the cultured State, which, as such, de-\\nfends the rights of reason and science. True and en-\\nduring peace there cannot be until one of the comba-\\ntants lies powerless on the ground. Either the Church\\nwins, and then farewell to all free science and free\\nteaching then are our universities no better than\\njails, and our colleges become cloistral schools; or\\nelse the modern rational State proves victorious then,\\nin the twentieth century, human culture, freedom, and\\nprosperity will continue their progressive development\\n335", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nuntil they far surpass even the height of the nineteenth\\ncentury.\\nIn order to compass these high aims, it is of the first\\nimportance that modern science not only shatter the\\nfalse structures of superstition and sweep their ruins\\nfrom the path, but that it also erect a new abode for\\nhuman emotion on the ground it has cleared a palace\\nof reason, in which, under the influence of our new\\nmonistic views, we do reverence to the real trinity of\\nthe nineteenth century the trinity of the true, the\\ngood, and the beautiful. In order to give a tangible\\nshape to the cult of this divine ideal, we must first of\\nall compare our position with the dominant forms of\\nChristianity, and realize the changes that are involved\\nin the substitution of the one for the other. For, in\\nspite of its errors and defects, the Christian religion\\n(in its primitive and purer form) has so high an ethi-\\ncal value, and has entered so deeply into the most im-\\nportant social and political movements of civilized his-\\ntory for the last fifteen hundred years, that we must\\nappeal as much as possible to its existing institutions\\nin the establishment of our monistic religion. We do\\nnot seek a mighty revolution, but a rational reforma-\\ntion, of our religious life. And just as, two thousand\\nyears ago, the classic poetry of the ancient Greeks\\nincarnated their ideals of virtue in divine shapes, so\\nmay we, too, lend the character of noble goddesses to\\nour three rational ideals. We must inquire into the\\nfeatures of the three goddesses of the monist truth,\\nbeauty, and virtue; and we must study their relation\\nto the three corresponding ideals of Christianity which\\nthey are to replace.\\nI. The preceding inquiries (especially those of the\\nfirst and third sections) have convinced us that truth\\n336", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nunadulterated is only to be found in the temple of the\\nstudy of nature, and that the only available paths to\\nit are critical observation and reflection the empirical\\ninvestigation of facts and the rational study of their\\nefficient causes. In this way we arrive, by means of\\npure reason, at true science, the highest treasure of\\ncivilized man. We must, in accordance with the argu-\\nments of our sixteenth chapter, reject what is called\\nrevelation/ the poetry of faith, that affirms the dis-\\ncovery of truth in a supernatural fashion, without the\\nassistance of reason. And since the entire structure\\nof the Judaeo-Christian religion, like that of the Mo-\\nhammedan and the Buddhistic, rests on these so-called\\nrevelations, and these mystic fruits of the imagination\\ndirectly contradict the clear results of empirical re-\\nsearch, it is obvious that we shall only attain to a\\nknowledge of the truth by the rational activity of gen-\\nuine science, not by the poetic imagining of a mystic\\nfaith. In this respect it is quite certain that the Chris-\\ntian system must give way to the monistic. The god-\\ndess of truth dwells in the temple of nature, in the green\\nwoods, on the blue sea, and on the snowy summits of\\nthe hills not in the gloom of the cloister, nor in the nar-\\nnow prisons of our jail-like schools, nor in the clouds\\nof incense of the Christian churches. The paths which\\nlead to the noble divinity of truth and knowledge are\\nthe loving study of nature and its laws, the observa-\\ntion of the infinitely great star-world with the aid of\\nthe telescope, and the infinitely tiny cell-world with the\\naid of the microscope not senseless ceremonies and\\nunthinking prayers, not alms and Peter s Pence. The\\nrich gifts which the goddess of truth bestows on us are\\nthe noble fruits of the tree of knowledge and the ines-\\ntimable treasure of a clear, unified view of the world\\nY 337", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nnot belief in supernatural miracles and the illusion of\\nan eternal life.\\nII. It is otherwise with the divine ideal of eternal\\ngoodness. In our search for the truth we have entirely\\nto exclude the revelation of the churches, and de-\\nvote ourselves solely to the study of nature but, on the\\nother hand, the idea of the good, which we call virtue,\\nin our monistic religion coincides for the most part\\nwith the Christian idea of virtue. We are speaking,\\nnaturally, of the primitive and pure Christianity of the\\nfirst three centuries, as far as we learn its moral teach-\\ning from the gospels and the epistles of Paul; it does\\nnot apply to the Vatican caricature of that pure doc-\\ntrine which has dominated European civilization, to its\\ninfinite prejudice, for twelve hundred years. The best\\npart of Christian morality, to which we firmly adhere,\\nis represented by the humanist precepts of charity and\\ntoleration, compassion and assistance. However, these\\nnoble commands, which are set down as Christian\\nmorality (in its best sense), are by no means original\\ndiscoveries of Christianity they are derived from earlier\\nreligions. The Golden Rule, which sums up these pre-\\ncepts in one sentence, is centuries older than Chris-\\ntianity. In the conduct of life this law of natural mo-\\nrality has been followed just as frequently by non-Chris-\\ntians and atheists as it has been neglected by pious\\nbelievers. Moreover, Christian ethics was marred by\\nthe great defect of a narrow insistence on altruism and\\na denunciation of egoism. Our monistic ethics lays\\nequal emphasis on the two, and finds perfect virtue in\\nthe just balance of love of self and love of one s neigh-\\nbor (cf. chap. xix.).\\nIII. But monism enters into its strongest opposi-\\ntion to Christianity on the question of beauty. Primi-\\n33*", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\ntive Christianity preached the worthlessness of earthly\\nlife, regarding it merely as a preparation for an eter-\\nnal life beyond. Hence it immediately followed that\\nall we find in the life of man here below, all that is beau-\\ntiful in art and science, in public and in private life,\\nis of no real value. The true Christian must avert\\nhis eyes from them; he must think only of a worthy\\npreparation for the life beyond. Contempt of nature,\\naversion from all its inexhaustible charms, rejection\\nof every kind of fine art, are Christian duties; and\\nthey are carried out to perfection when a man sepa-\\nrates himself from his fellows, chastises his body, and\\nspends all his time in prayer in the cloister or the her-\\nmit s cell.\\nHistory teaches us that this ascetical morality that\\nwould scorn the whole of nature had, as a natural con-\\nsequence, the very opposite effect to that it intended.\\nMonasteries, the homes of chastity and discipline,\\nsoon became dens of the wildest orgies; the sexual\\ncommerce of monks and nuns has inspired shoals of\\nnovels, as it is so faithfully depicted in the literature\\nof the Renaissance. The cult of the beautiful, which\\nwas then practised, was in flagrant contradiction with\\nthe vaunted abandonment of the world and the\\nsame must be said of the pomp and luxury which soon\\ndeveloped in the immoral private lives of the higher\\necclesiastics and in the artistic decoration of Christian\\nchurches and monasteries.\\nIt may be objected that our view is refuted by the\\nsplendor of Christian art, which, especially in the best\\ndays of the Middle Ages, created works of undying\\nbeauty. The graceful Gothic cathedrals and Byzan-\\ntine basilicas, the hundreds of magnificent chapels,\\nthe thousands of marble statues of saints and martyrs,\\n339", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe millions of fine pictures of saints, of profoundly\\nconceived representations of Christ and the madonna\\nall are proofs of the development of a noble art in the\\nMiddle Ages, which is unique of its kind. All these\\nsplendid monuments of mediaeval art are untouched\\nin their high aesthetic value, whatever we say of their\\nmixture of truth and fancy. Yes; but what has all\\nthat to do with the pure teaching of Christianity with\\nthat religion of sacrifice that turned scornfully away\\nfrom all earthly parade and glamour, from all material\\nbeauty and art that made light of the life of the fam-\\nily and the love of woman that urged an exclusive con-\\ncern as to the immaterial goods of eternal life? The\\nidea of a Christian art is a contradiction in terms a\\ncontradictio in adjecto. The wealthy princes of the\\nChurch who fostered it were candidly aiming at very\\ndifferent ideals, and they completely attained them.\\nIn directing the whole interest and activity of the hu-\\nman mind in the Middle Ages to the Christian Church\\nand its distinctive art they were diverting it from nature\\nand from the knowledge of the treasures that were hid-\\nden in it, and would have conducted to independent\\nscience. Moreover, the daily sight of the huge images\\nof the saints and of the scenes of sacred history con-\\ntinually reminded the faithful of the vast collection\\nof myths that the Church had made. The legends\\nthemselves were taught and believed to be true nar-\\nratives, and the stories of miracles to be records of act-\\nual events. It cannot be doubted that in this respect\\nChristian art has exercised an immense influence on\\ngeneral culture, and especially in the strengthening\\nof Christian belief an influence which still endures\\nthroughout the entire civilized world.\\nThe diametrical opposite of this dominant Christian\\n340", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nart is the new artistic tendency which has been devel-\\noped during the present century in connection with\\nscience. The remarkable expansion of our knowl-\\nedge of nature, and the discovery of countless beauti-\\nful forms of life, which it includes, have awakened quite\\na new aesthetic sense in our generation, and thus given\\na new tone to painting and sculpture. Numerous sci-\\nentific voyages and expeditions for the exploration\\nof unknown lands and seas, parti} 7 in earlier centuries,\\nbut more especially in the nineteenth, have brought to\\nlight an undreamed abundance of new organic forms.\\nThe number of new species of animals and plants soon\\nbecame enormous, and among them (especially among\\nthe lower groups that had been neglected before) there\\nwere thousands of forms of great beauty and interest,\\naffording an entirely new inspiration for painting, sculp-\\nture, architecture, and technical art. In this respect a\\nnew world was revealed by the great advance of mi-\\ncroscopic research in the second half of the century, and\\nespecially by the discovery of the marvellous inhabi-\\ntants of the deep sea, which were first brought to light\\nby the famous expedition of the Challenger (1872-76).\\nThousands of graceful radiolaria and thalamophora,\\nof pretty medusas and corals, of extraordinary mol-\\nluscs, and crabs, suddenly introduced us to a wealth\\nof hidden organisms beyond all anticipation, the pe-\\nculiar beauty and diversity of which far transcend all\\nthe creations of the human imagination. In the fifty\\nlarge volumes of the account of the Challenger expe-\\ndition a vast number of these beautiful forms are\\ndelineated on three thousand plates; and there are\\nmillions of other lovely organisms described in other\\ngreat works that are included in the fast-growing liter-\\nature of zoology and botany of the last ten years. I\\n341", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF. THE UNIVERSE\\nbegan on a small scale to select a number of these\\nbeautiful forms for more popular description in my\\nArt Forms in Nature (1899).\\nHowever, there is now no need for long voyages and\\ncostly works to appreciate the beauties of this world.\\nA man needs only to keep his eyes open and his mind\\ndisciplined. Surrounding nature offers us everywhere\\na marvellous wealth of lovely and interesting objects\\nof all kinds. In every bit of moss and blade of grass,\\nin every beetle and butterfly, we find, when we exam-\\nine it carefully, beauties which are usually overlooked.\\nAbove all, when we examine them with a powerful glass\\nor, better still, with a good microscope, we find every-\\nwhere in nature a new world of inexhaustible charms.\\nBut the nineteenth century has not only opened our\\neyes to the aesthetic enjoyment of the microscopic world\\nit has shown us the beauty of the greater objects in\\nnature. Even at its commencement it was the fashion\\nto regard the mountains as magnificent but forbidding,\\nand the sea as sublime but dreaded. At its close the\\nmajority of educated people especially they who dwell\\nin the great cities are delighted to enjoy the glories\\nof the Alps and the crystal splendor of the glacier world\\nfor a fortnight every year, or to drink in the majesty of\\nthe ocean and the lovely scenery of its coasts. All these\\nsources of the keenest enjoyment of nature have only\\nrecently been revealed to us in all their splendor, and\\nthe remarkable progress we have made in facility and\\nrapidity of conveyance has given even the less wealthy\\nan opportunity of approaching them. All this progress\\nin the aesthetic enjoyment of nature and, proportion-\\nately, in the scientific understanding of nature implies\\nan equal advance in higher mental development and,\\nconsequently, in the direction of our monistic religion.\\n342", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nThe opposite character of our naturalistic century to\\nthat of the anthropistic centuries that preceded is es-\\npecially noticeable in the different appreciation and\\nspread of illustrations of the most diverse natural ob-\\njects. In our own days a lively interest in artistic\\nwork of that kind has been developed, which did not\\nexist in earlier ages it has been supported by the re-\\nmarkable progress of commerce and technical art which\\nhave facilitated a wide popularization of such illustra-\\ntions. Countless illustrated periodicals convey along\\nwith their general information a sense of the inexhaust-\\nible beauty of nature in all its departments. In par-\\nticular, landscape-painting has acquired an importance\\nthat surpassed all imagination. In the first half of the\\ncentury one of our greatest and most erudite scientists,\\nAlexander Humboldt, had pointed out that the devel-\\nopment of modern landscape -painting is not only of\\ngreat importance as an incentive to the study of nature\\nand as a means of geographical description, but that\\nit is to be commended in other respects as a noble edu-\\ncative medium. Since that time the taste for it has\\nconsiderably increased. It should be the aim at every\\nschool to teach the children to enjoy scenery at an early\\nage, and to give them the valuable art of imprinting\\non the memory by a drawing or water-color sketch.\\nThe infinite wealth of nature in what is beautiful\\nand sublime offers every man with open eyes and an\\naesthetic sense an incalculable sum of choicest gifts.\\nStill, however valuable and agreeable is the immediate\\nenjoyment of each single gift, its worth is doubled by a\\nknowledge of its meaning and its connection with the\\nrest of nature. When Humboldt gave us the outline\\nof a physical description of the world in his magnifi-\\ncent Cosmos forty years ago, and when he combined\\n343", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nscientific and aesthetic consideration so happily in his\\nstandard Prospects of Nature, he justly indicated how\\nclosely the higher enjoyment of nature is connected\\nwith the scientific establishment of cosmic laws/ and\\nthat the conjunction of the two serves to raise human\\nnature to a higher stage of perfection. The astonish-\\nment with which we gaze upon the starry heavens and\\nthe microscopic life in a drop of water, the awe with\\nwhich we trace the marvellous working of energy in\\nthe motion of matter, the reverence with which we\\ngrasp the universal dominance of the law of substance\\nthroughout the universe all these are part of our\\nemotional life, falling under the heading of natural\\nreligion.\\nThis progress of modern times in knowledge of the\\ntrue and enjoyment of the beautiful expresses, on the\\none hand, a valuable element of our monistic religion,\\nbut is, on the other hand, in fatal opposition to Chris-\\ntianity. For the human mind is thus made to live on\\nthis side of the grave Christianity would have it ever\\ngaze beyond. Monism teaches that we are perishable\\nchildren of the earth, who for one or two, or, at the\\nmost, three generations, have the good fortune to enjoy\\nthe treasures of our planet, to drink of the inexhausti-\\nble fountain of its beauty, and to trace out the marvel-\\nlous play of its forces. Christianity would teach us\\nthat the earth is a vale of tears, in which we have\\nbut a brief period to chasten and torment ourselves in\\norder to merit the life of eternal bliss beyond. Where\\nthis beyond is, and of what joys the glory of this\\neternal life is compacted, no revelation has ever told\\nus. As long as heaven was thought to be the blue\\nvault that hovers over the disk of our planet, and is il-\\nlumined by the twinkling light of a few thousand stars,\\n344", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC RELIGION\\nthe human imagination could picture to itself the am-\\nbrosial banquets of the Olympic gods above or the laden\\ntables of the happy dwellers in Valhalla. But now all\\nthese deities and the immortal souls that sat at their\\ntables are houseless and homeless/ as David Strauss\\nhas so ably described for we know from astrophysical\\nscience that the immeasurable depths of space are filled\\nwith a prosaic ether, and that millions of heavenly\\nbodies, ruled by eternal laws of iron, rush hither and\\nthither in the great ocean, in their eternal rhythm of\\nlife and death.\\nThe places of devotion, in which men seek the\\nsatisfaction of their religious emotions and worship\\nthe objects of their reverence, are regarded as sacred\\nchurches. The pagodas of Buddhistic Asia, the\\nGreek temples of classical antiquity, the synagogues\\nof Palestine, the mosques of Egypt, the Catholic cathe-\\ndrals of the south, and the Protestant cathedrals of the\\nnorth, of Europe all these houses of God serve to\\nraise man above the misery and the prose of daily life,\\nto lift him into the sacred, poetic atmosphere of a high-\\ner, ideal world. They attain this end in a thousand\\ndifferent ways, according to their various forms of wor-\\nship and their age. The modern man who has sci-\\nence and art and, therefore, religion needs no\\nspecial church, no narrow, enclosed portion of space.\\nFor through the length and breadth of free nature,\\nwherever he turns his gaze, to the whole universe or\\nto any single part of it, he finds, indeed, the grim strug-\\ngle for life, but by its side are ever the good, the true,\\nand the beautiful his church is commensurate with\\nthe whole of glorious nature. Still, there will always\\nbe men of special temperament who will desire to have\\ndecorated temples or churches as places of devotion\\n345", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nto which they may withdraw. Just as the Catholics\\nhad to relinquish a number of churches to the Reforma-\\ntion in the sixteenth century, so a still larger number\\nwill pass over to free societies of monists in the com-\\ning years.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIX\\nOUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nMonistic and Dualistic Ethics Contradiction of Pure and Prac-\\ntical Reason in Kant His Categorical Imperative The Neo-\\nKantians Herbert Spencer Egoism and Altruism Equiv-\\nalence of the Two Instincts The Fundamental Law of Ethics\\nthe Golden Rule Its Antiquity Christian Ethics Contempt\\nof Self, the Body, Nature, Civilization, the Family, Woman\\nRoman Catholic Ethics Immoral Results of Celibacy Ne-\\ncessity for the Abolition of the Law of Celibacy, Oral Confes-\\nsion, and Indulgences State and Church Religion a Private\\nConcern Church and School State and School Need of\\nSchool Reform\\nTHE practical conduct of life makes a number of\\ndefinite ethical claims on a man which can only\\nbe duly and naturally satisfied when they are in com-\\nplete harmony with his view of the world. In accord-\\nance with this fundamental principle of our monistic\\nphilosophy, our whole system of ethics must be ration-\\nally connected with the unified conception of the cos-\\nmos which we have formed by our advanced knowl-\\nedge of the laws of nature. Just as the infinite uni-\\nverse is one great whole in the light of our monistic\\nteaching, so the spiritual and moral life of man is a part\\nof this cosmos, and our naturalistic ordering of it must\\nalso be monistic. There are not two different, separate\\nworlds the one physical and material, and the other\\nmoral and immaterial.\\n347", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nThe great majority of philosophers and theologians\\nstill hold the contrary opinion. They affirm, with\\nKant, that the moral world is quite independent of\\nthe physical, and is subject to very different laws hence\\na man s conscience, as the basis of his moral life, must\\nalso be quite independent of our scientific knowledge\\nof the world, and must be based rather on his religious\\nfaith. On that theory the study of the moral world\\nbelongs to practical reason, while that of nature, or of\\nthe physical world, is referred to pure or theoretical\\nreason. This unequivocal and conscious dualism of\\nKant s philosophy was its greatest defect it has caused,\\nand still causes, incalculable mischief. First of all\\nthe critical Kant had built up the splendid and mar-\\nvellous palace of pure reason, and convincingly proved\\nthat the three great central dogmas of metaphysics\\na personal God, free will, and the immortal soul had\\nno place whatever in it, and that no rational proof could\\nbe found of their reality. Afterwards, however, the\\ndogmatic Kant superimposed on this true crystal\\npalace of pure reason the glittering, ideal castle in the\\nair of practical reason, in which three imposing church-\\nnaves were designed for the accommodation of those\\nthree great mystic divinities. When they had been\\nput out at the front door by rational knowledge they\\nreturned by the back door under the guidance of\\nirrational faith.\\nThe cupola of his great cathedral of faith was crowned\\nby Kant with his curious idol, the famous categorical\\nimperative. According to it, the demand of the uni-\\nversal moral law is unconditional, independent of any\\nregard to actuality or potentiality. It runs Act at\\nall times in such wise that the maxim (or the subjective\\nlaw of thy will) may hold good as a principle of a uni-\\n348", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nversal law. On that theory all normal men would have\\nthe same sense of duty. Modern anthropology has\\nruthlessly dissipated that pretty dream it has shown\\nthat conceptions of duty differ even more among un-\\ncivilized than among civilized nations. All the actions\\nand customs which we regard as sins or loathsome\\ncrimes (theft, fraud, murder, adultery, etc.) are con-\\nsidered by other nations in certain circumstances to\\nbe virtues, or even sacred duties.\\nAlthough the obvious contradiction of the two forms\\nof reason in Kant s teaching, the fundamental antag-\\nonism of pure and practical reason, was recognized\\nand attacked at the very beginning of the century, it\\nis still pretty widely accepted. The modern school\\nof neo-Kantians urges a return to Kant so press-\\ningly precisely on account of this agreeable dualism;\\nthe Church militant zealously supports it because it\\nfits in admirably with its own mystic faith. But it\\nmet with an effective reverse at the hands of modern\\nscience in the second half of the nineteenth century,\\nwhich entirely demolished the theses of the system of\\npractical reason. Monistic cosmology proved, on the\\nbasis of the law of substance, that there is no person-\\nal God; comparative and genetic psychology showed\\nthat there cannot be an immortal soul and monistic\\nphysiology proved the futility of the assumption of\\nfree will. Finally, the science of evolution made\\nit clear that the same eternal iron laws that rule ;n the\\ninorganic world are valid too in the organic and moral\\nworld.\\nBut modern science gives not only a negative sup-\\nport to practical philosophy and ethics in demolishing\\nthe Kantian dualism, but it renders the positive service\\nof substituting for it the new structure of ethical mon-\\n349", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nism. It shows that the feeling of duty does not rest\\non an illusory categorical imperative, but on the\\nsolid ground of social instinct, as we find in the case\\nof all social animals. It regards as the highest aim of\\nall morality the re-establishment of a sound harmony\\nbetween egoism and altruism, between self-love and\\nthe love of one s neighbor. It is to the great English\\nphilosopher, Herbert Spencer, that we owe the found-\\ning of this monistic ethics on a basis of evolution.\\nMan belongs to the social vertebrates, and has, there-\\nfore, like all social animals, two sets of duties first\\nto himself, and secondly to the society to which he be-\\nlongs. The former are the behests of self-love or ego-\\nism, the latter of love for one s fellows or altruism. The\\ntwo sets of precepts are equally just, equally natural,\\nand equally indispensable. If a man desire to have\\nthe advantage of living in an organized community,\\nhe has to consult not only his own fortune, but also\\nthat of the society, and of the neighbors who form\\nthe society. He must realize that its prosperity is his\\nown prosperity, and that it cannot suffer without his\\nown injury. This fundamental law of society is so\\nsimple and so inevitable that one cannot understand\\nhow it can be contradicted in theory or in practice yet\\nthat is done to-day, and has been done for thousands\\nof years.\\nThe equal appreciation of these two natural impulses,\\nor the moral equivalence of self-love and love of others,\\nis the chief and the fundamental principle of our mo-\\nrality. Hence the highest aim of all ethics is very\\nsimple it is the re-establishment of the natural equal-\\nity of egoism and altruism, of the love of one s self and\\nthe love of one s neighbor. The Golden Rule says:\\nDo unto others as you would that they should do unto\\n350", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nyou. From this highest precept of Christianity it\\nfollows of itself that we have just as sacred duties tow-\\nards ourselves as we have towards our fellows. I have\\nexplained my conception of this principle in my Mon-\\nism, and laid down three important theses, (i) Both\\nthese concurrent impulses are natural laws, of equal\\nimportance and necessity for the preservation of the\\nfamily and the society; egoism secures the self-pres-\\nervation of the individual, altruism that of the species\\nwhich is made up of the chain of perishable individ-\\nuals. (2) The social duties which are imposed by the\\nsocial structure of the associated individuals, and by\\nmeans of which it secures its preservation, are merely\\nhigher evolutionary stages of the social instincts, which\\nwe find in all higher social animals (as habits which\\nhave become hereditary (3) In the case of civilized\\nman all ethics, theoretical or practical, being a sci-\\nence of rules, is connected with his view of the world\\nat large, and consequently with his religion.\\nFrom the recognition of the fundamental principle\\nof our morality we may immediately deduce its high-\\nest precept, that noble command, which is often called\\nthe Golden Rule of morals, or, briefly, the Golden Rule.\\nChrist repeatedly expressed it in the simple phrase:\\nThou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Mark\\nadds that there is no greater commandment than this,\\nand Matthew says: In these two commandments\\nis the whole law and the prophets. In this greatest\\nand highest commandment our monistic ethics is com-\\npletely at one with Christianity. We must, however,\\nrecall the historical fact that the formulation of this\\nsupreme command is not an original merit of Christ,\\nas the majority of Christian theologians affirm and\\ntheir uncritical supporters blindly accept. The Gold-\\n35*", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nen Rule is five hundred years older than Christ; it\\nwas laid down as the highest moral principle by many\\nGreek and Oriental sages. Pittacus, of Mylene, one\\nof the seven wise men of Greece, said six hundred and\\ntwenty years before Christ Do not that to thy neigh-\\nbor that thou wouldst not suffer from him. Confu-\\ncius, the great Chinese philosopher and religious found-\\ner (who rejected the idea of a personal God and of the\\nimmortality of the soul), said five hundred years B.C.\\nDo to every man as thou wouldst have him do to thee\\nand do not to another what thou wouldst not have him\\ndo to thee. This precept only dost thou need; it is\\nthe foundation of all other commandments. Aristotle\\ntaught about the middle of the fourth century B.C.\\nWe must act towards others as we wish others to act\\ntowards us. In the same sense, and partly in the\\nsame words, the Golden Rule was given by Thales,\\nIsocrates, Aristippus, Sextus, the Pythagorean, and\\nother philosophers of classic antiquity several cen-\\nturies before Christ. From this collection it is clear\\nthat the Golden Rule had a polyphyletic origin that\\nis, it was formulated by a number of philosophers at\\ndifferent times and in different places, quite indepen-\\ndently of each other. Otherwise it must be assumed\\nthat Jesus derived it from some other Oriental source,\\nfrom ancient Semitic, Indian, Chinese, or especially\\nBuddhistic traditions, as has been proved in the case\\nof most of the other Christian doctrines.\\nAs the great ethical principle is thus twenty-five hun-\\ndred years old, and as Christianity itself has put it at\\nthe head of its moral teaching as the highest and all-\\nembracing commandment, it follows that our monistic\\nethics is in complete harmony on this important point,\\nnot only with the ethics of the ancient heathens, but also\\n35 2", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nwith that of Christianity. Unfortunately this harmony\\nis disturbed by the fact that the gospels and the Paul-\\nine epistles contain many other points of moral teach-\\ning, which contradict our first and supreme command-\\nment. Christian theologians have fruitlessly striven\\nto explain away these striking and painful contradic-\\ntions by their ingenious interpretations. We need not\\nenter into that question now, but we must briefly con-\\nsider those unfortunate aspects of Christian ethics\\nwhich are incompatible with the better thought of the\\nmodern age, and which are distinctly injurious in their\\npractical consequences. Of that character is the con-\\ntempt which Christianity has shown for self, for the\\nbody, for nature, for civilization, for the family, and\\nfor woman.\\nI. The supreme mistake of Christian ethics, and\\none which runs directly counter to the Golden Rule,\\nis its exaggeration of love of one s neighbor at the ex-\\npense of self-love. Christianity attacks and despises\\negoism on principle. Yet that natural impulse is ab-\\nsolutely indispensable in view of self-preservation;\\nindeed, one may say that even altruism, its apparent\\nopposite, is only an enlightened egoism. Nothing\\ngreat or elevated has ever taken place without egoism,\\nand without the passion that urges us to great sacri-\\nfices. It is only the excesses of the impulse that are\\ninjurious. One of the Christian precepts that were\\nimpressed upon us in our early youth as of great impor-\\ntance, and that are glorified in millions of sermons, is\\nLove your enemies, bless them that curse you, do\\ngood to them that hate you, and pray for them which\\ndespitefully use you and persecute you. It is a very\\nideal precept, but as useless in practice as it is unnat-\\nural. So it is with the counsel to, If any man will take\\nz 353", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\naway thy coat, let him have thy cloak also/ Trans-\\nlated into the terms of modern life, that means When\\nsome unscrupulous scoundrel has defrauded thee of\\nhalf thy goods, let him have the other half also. Or,\\nagain, in the language of modern politics: When\\nthe pious English take from you simple Germans one\\nafter another of your new and valuable colonies in\\nAfrica, let them have all the rest of your colonies also\\nor, best of all, give them Germany itself. And,\\nwhile we touch on the marvellous world-politics of\\nmodern England, we may note in passing its direct\\ncontradiction of every precept of Christian charity,\\nwhich is more frequently on the lips of that great nation\\nthan of any other nation in the world. However, the\\nglaring contradiction between the theoretical, ideal,\\naltruistic morality of the human individual and the\\nreal, purely selfish morality of the human community,\\nand especially of the civilized Christian state, is a fa-\\nmiliar fact. It would be interesting to determine math-\\nematically in what proportion among organized men\\nthe altruistic ethical ideal of the individual changes\\ninto its contrary, the purely egoistic real politics\\nof the state and the nation.\\nII. Since the Christian faith takes a wholly dualis-\\ntic view of the human organism and attributes to the\\nimmortal soul only a temporary sojourn in the mortal\\nframe, it very naturally sets a much greater value on\\nthe soul than on the body. Hence results that neglect\\nof the care of the body, of training, and of cleanliness\\nwhich contrasts the life of the Christian Middle Ages\\nso unfavorably with that of pagan classical antiquity.\\nChristian ethics contains none of those firm commands\\nas to daily ablutions which are theoretically laid down\\nand practically fulfilled in the Mohammedan, Hindoo,\\n354", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nand other religions. In many monasteries the ideal of\\nthe pious Christian is the man who does not wash and\\nclothe himself properly, who never changes his malo-\\ndorous gown, and who, instead of regular work, fills\\nup his useless life with mechanical prayers, senseless\\nfasts, and so forth. As a special outgrowth of this\\ncontempt of the body we have the disgusting discipline\\nof the flagellants and other ascetics.\\nIII. One source of countless theoretical errors and\\npractical blemishes, of deplorable crudity and privation,\\nis found in the false anthropism of Christianity that\\nis, in the unique position which it gives to man, as the\\nimage of God, in opposition to all the rest of nature. In\\nthis way it has contributed, not only to an extremely\\ninjurious isolation from our glorious mother nature/\\nbut also to a regrettable contempt of all other organ-\\nisms. Christianity has no place for that well-known\\nlove of animals, that sympathy with the nearly related\\nand friendly mammals (dogs, horses, cattle, etc.),\\nwhich is urged in the ethical teaching of many of the\\nolder religions, especially Buddhism. Whoever has\\nspent much time in the south of Europe must have\\noften witnessed those frightful sufferings of animals\\nwhich fill us friends of animals with the deepest sym-\\npathy and indignation. And when one expostulates\\nwith these brutal Christians on their cruelty, the\\nonly answer is, with a laugh But the beasts are not\\nChristians. Unfortunately Descartes gave some sup-\\nport to the error in teaching that man only has a sen-\\nsitive soul, not the animal.\\nHow much more elevated is our monistic ethics than\\nthe Christian in this regard! Darwinism teaches us\\nthat we have descended immediately from the primates,\\nand, in a secondary degree, from a long series of earlier\\n355", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmammals, and that, therefore, they are our brothers\\nphysiology informs us that they have the same nerves\\nand sense-organs as we, and the same feelings of pleas-\\nure and pain. No sympathetic monistic scientist\\nwould ever be guilty of that brutal treatment of ani-\\nmals which comes so lightly to the Christian in his\\nanthropistic illusion to the child of the God of love.\\nMoreover, this Christian contempt of nature on prin-\\nciple deprives man of an abundance of the highest\\nearthly joys, especially of the keen, ennobling enjoy-\\nment of nature.\\nIV. Since, according to Christ s teaching, our planet\\nis a vale of tears, and our earthly life is valueless\\nand a mere preparation for a better life to come, it has\\nsucceeded in inducing men to sacrifice all happiness\\non this side of eternity and make light of all earthly\\ngoods. Among these earthly goods, in the case of\\nthe modern civilized man, we must include the count-\\nless great and small conveniences of technical science,\\nhygiene, commerce, etc., which have made modern life\\ncheerful and comfortable we must include all the grati-\\nfications of painting, sculpture, music, and poetry,\\nwhich flourished exceedingly even during the Middle\\nAges (in spite of its principles), and which we esteem\\nas ideal pleasures we must include all that invalu-\\nable progress of science, especially the study of nature,\\nof which the nineteenth century is justly proud. All\\nthese earthly goods, that have so high a value in the\\neyes of the monist, are worthless nay, injurious for\\nthe most part, according to Christian teaching the\\nstern code of Christian morals should look just as un-\\nfavorably on the pursuit of these pleasures as our hu-\\nmanistic ethics fosters and encourages it. Once more,\\ntherefore, Christianity is found to be an enemy to civili-\\n356", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nzation, and the struggle which modern thought and\\nscience are compelled to conduct with it is, in this addi-\\ntional sense, a cultur-kampf.\\nV. Another of the most deplorable aspects of Chris-\\ntian morality is its belittlement of the life of the family,\\nof that natural living together with our next of kin\\nwhich is just as necessary in the case of man as in the\\ncase of all the higher social animals. The family is\\njustly regarded as the foundation of society, and the\\nhealthy life of the family is a necessary condition of\\nthe prosperity of the State. Christ, however, was of a\\nvery different opinion: with his gaze ever directed to\\nthe beyond, he thought as lightly of woman and the\\nfamily as of all other goods of this life. Of his in-\\nfrequent contact with his parents and sisters the gos-\\npels have very little to say but they are far from rep-\\nresenting his relations with his mother to have been so\\ntender and intimate as they are poetically depicted in\\nso many thousands of pictures. He was not married\\nhimself. Sexual love, the first foundation of the fam-\\nily union, seems to have been regarded by Jesus as a\\nnecessary evil. His most enthusiastic apostle, Paul,\\nwent still farther in the same direction, declaring it to\\nbe better not to marry than to marry It is good for\\na man not to touch a woman. If humanity were\\nto follow this excellent counsel, it would soon be rid\\nof all earthly misery and suffering it would be killed\\noff by such a radical cure within half a century.\\nVI. As Christ never knew the love of woman, he\\nhad no personal acquaintance with that refining of\\nman s true nature that comes only from the intimate\\nlife of man with woman. The intimate sexual union,\\non which the preservation of the human race depends,\\nis just as important on that account as the spiritual\\n357", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\npenetration of the two sexes, or the mutual comple-\\nment which they bring to each other in the practical\\nwants of daily life as well as in the highest ideal func-\\ntions of the soul. For man and woman are two differ-\\nent organisms, equal in worth, each having its charac-\\nteristic virtues and defects. As civilization advanced,\\nthis ideal value of sexual love was more appreciated,\\nand woman held in higher honor, especially among the\\nTeutonic races she is the inspiring source of the high-\\nest achievements of art and poetry. But Christ was as\\nfar from this view as nearly the whole of antiquity;\\nhe shared the idea that prevailed everywhere in the\\nEast that woman is subordinate to man, and inter-\\ncourse with her is unclean. Long-suffering nature\\nhas taken a fearful revenge for this blunder; its sad\\nconsequences are written in letters of blood in the his-\\ntory of the papal Middle Ages.\\nThe marvellous hierarchy of the Roman Church, that\\nnever disdained any means of strengthening its spirit-\\nual despotism, found an exceptionally powerful instru-\\nment in the manipulation of this unclean idea, and\\nin the promotion of the ascetic notion that abstinence\\nfrom intercourse with women is a virtue of itself. In the\\nfirst few centuries after Christ a number of priests vol-\\nuntarily abstained from marriage, and the supposed\\nvalue of this celibacy soon rose to such a degree that\\nit was made obligatory. In the Middle Ages the seduc-\\ntion of women of good repute and of their daughters by\\nCatholic priests (the confessional was an active agency\\nin the business) was a public scandal many commu-\\nnities, in order to prevent such things, pressed for a\\nlicense of concubinage to be given to the clergy.\\nAnd it was done in many, and sometimes very ro-\\nmatic, ways. Thus, for instance, the canon law that\\n358", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nthe priest s cook should not be less than forty years old\\nwas very cleverly explained in the sense that the\\npriest might have two cooks, one in the presbytery,\\nanother without if one was twenty-four and the other\\neighteen, that made forty -two together two years\\nabove the prescribed age. At the Christian councils,\\nat which heretics were burned alive, the cardinals and\\nbishops sat down with whole troops of prostitutes.\\nThe private and public debauchery of the Catholic\\nclergy was so scandalous and dangerous to the com-\\nmonwealth that there was a general rebellion against\\nit before the time of Luther, and a loud demand for a\\nreformation of the church in head and members. It\\nis well known that these immoral relations still con-\\ntinue in Roman Catholic lands, although more in\\nsecret. Formerly proposals were made from time to\\ntime for the definitive abrogation of celibacy, as was\\ndone, for instance, in the chambers of Baden, Ba-\\nvaria, Hesse, Saxony, and other lands but they have,\\nunfortunately, hitherto proved unavailing. In the\\nGerman Reichstag, in which the ultramontane Centre\\nis now proposing the most ridiculous measures for the\\nsuppression of sexual immorality, there is now no\\nparty that will urge the abolition of celibacy in the in-\\nterest of public morality. The so-called Freethought\\nParty and the utopian social democracy coquette with\\nthe favor of the Centre.\\nThe modern state that would lift not only the mate-\\nrial, but the moral, life of its people to a higher level\\nis entitled, and indeed bound, to sweep away such\\nunworthy and harmful conditions. The obligatory\\ncelibacy of the Catholic clergy is as pernicious and\\nimmoral as the practice of auricular confession or\\nthe sale of indulgences. All three have nothing what-\\n359", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\never to do with primitive Christianity. All three are\\ndirectly opposed to true Christian morality. All three\\nare disreputable inventions of the papacy, designed\\nfor the sole purpose of strengthening its despotic rule\\nover the credulous masses and making as much\\nmaterial profit as possible out of them.\\nThe Nemesis of history will sooner or later exact a\\nterrible account of the Roman papacy, and the millions\\nwho have been robbed of their happiness by this de-\\ngenerate religion will help to give it its death-blow in\\nthe coming twentieth century at least, in every truly\\ncivilized state. It has been recently calculated that\\nthe number of men who lost their lives in the papal\\npersecutions of heretics, the Inquisition, the Christian\\nreligious wars, etc., is much more than ten millions.\\nBut what is this in comparison with the tenfold greater\\nnumber of the unfortunate moral victims of the in-\\nstitutions and the priestly domination of the degen-\\nerate Christian Church with the unnumbered millions\\nwhose higher mental life was extinguished, whose con-\\nscience was tortured, whose family life was destroyed,\\nby the Church? We may with truth apply the words\\nof Goethe in his Bride of Corinth\\nVictims fall, nor lambs nor bulls,\\nBut human victims numberless.\\nIn the great cultur-kampf, which must go on as long\\nas these sad conditions exist, the first aim must be the\\nabsolute separation of Church and State. There shall\\nbe a free Church in a free State that is, every Church\\nshall be free in the practice of its special worship and\\nceremonies, and in the construction of its fantastic\\npoetry and superstitious dogmas with the sole con-\\ndition that they contain no danger to social order or\\n360", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nmorality. Then there will be equal rights for all. Free\\nsocieties and monistic religious bodies shall be equally\\ntolerated, and just as free in their movements as Lib-\\neral Protestant and orthodox ultramontane congrega-\\ntions. But for all these faithful of the most diverse\\nsects religion will have to be a private concern. The\\nstate shall supervise them, and prevent excesses but\\nit must neither oppress nor support them. Above all,\\nthe ratepayers shall not be compelled to contribute to\\nthe support and spread of a faith which they hon-\\nestly believe to be a harmful superstition. In the United\\nStates such a complete separation of Church and State\\nhas been long accomplished, greatly to the satisfaction\\nof all parties. They have also the equally important\\nseparation of the Church from the school that is,\\nundoubtedly, a powerful element in the great advance\\nwhich science and culture have recently made in\\nAmerica.\\nIt goes without saying that this exclusion of the\\nChurch from the school only refers to its sectarian\\nprinciples, the particular form of belief which each\\nChurch has evolved in the course of its life. This sec-\\ntarian education is purely a private concern, and\\nshould be left to parents and tutors, or to such priests or\\nteachers as may have the personal confidence of the\\nparents. Instead of the rejected sectarian instruction,\\ntwo important branches of education will be introduced\\nmonistic or humanist ethics and comparative relig-\\nion. During the last thirty years an extensive litera-\\nture has appeared dealing with the new system of ethics\\nwhich has been raised on the basis of modern science\\nespecially evolutionary science. Comparative re-\\nligion will be a natural companion to the actual ele-\\nmentary instruction in biblical history and in the\\n361", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nmythology of Greece and Rome. Both of these will\\nremain in the curriculum. The reason for that is ob-\\nvious enough the whole of our painting and sculpt-\\nure, the chief branches of monistic aesthetics, are inti-\\nmately blended with the Christian, Greek, and Roman\\nmythologies. There will only be this important dif-\\nference that the Christian myths and legends will\\nnot be taught as truths, but as poetic fancies, like the\\nGreek and Roman myths the high value of the ethical\\nand sesthetical material they contain will not be les-\\nsened, but increased, by this means. As regards the\\nBible, the book of books will only be given to the\\nchildren in carefully selected extracts (a sort of school\\nBible in this way we shall avoid the besmirching\\nof the child s imagination with the unclean stories\\nand passages which are so numerous in the Old Tes-\\ntament.\\nOnce the modern State has freed itself and its schools\\nfrom the fetters of the Church, it will be able to de-\\nvote more attention to the improvement, of education.\\nThe incalculable value of a good system of education\\nhas forced itself more and more upon us as the many\\naspects of modern civilized life have been enlarged and\\nenriched in the course of the century. But the devel-\\nopment of the educational methods has by no means\\nkept pace with life in general. The necessity for a\\ncomprehensive reform of our schools is making itself\\nfelt more and more. On this question, too, a number\\nof valuable works have appeared in the course of the\\nlast forty years. We shall restrict ourselves to mak-\\ning a few general observations which we think of spe-\\ncial importance.\\nI. In all education up to the present time man has\\nplayed the chief part, and especially the grammatical\\n362", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "OUR MONISTIC ETHICS\\nstudy of his language the study of nature was entirely\\nneglected.\\n2. In the school of the future nature will be the chief\\nobject of the study a man shall learn a correct view of\\nthe world he lives in he will not be made to stand out-\\nside of and opposed to nature, but be represented as its\\nhighest and noblest product.\\n3. The study of the classical tongues (Latin and\\nGreek), which has hitherto absorbed most of the pu-\\npils time and energy, is indeed valuable but it will\\nbe much restricted, and confined to the mere elements\\n(obligatory for Latin, optional for Greek).\\n4. In consequence, modern languages must be all the\\nmore cultivated in all the higher schools (English and\\nFrench to be obligatory, Italian optional)\\n5. Historical instruction must pay more attention to\\nthe inner mental and spiritual life of a nation, and to\\nthe development of its civilization, and less to its ex-\\nternal history (the vicissitudes of dynasties, wars, and\\nso forth).\\n6. The elements of evolutionary science must be\\nlearned in conjunction with cosmology, geology must\\ngo with geography, and anthropology with biology.\\n7. The first principles of biology must be familiar to\\nevery educated man; the modern training in observa-\\ntion furnishes an attractive introduction to the biologi-\\ncal sciences (anthropology, zoology, and botany). A\\nstart must be made with descriptive system (in con-\\njunction with aetiology or bionomy) the elements of\\nanatomy and physiology to be added later on.\\n8. The first principles of physics and chemistry must\\nalso be taught, and their exact establishment with the\\naid of mathematics.\\n9. Every pupil must be taught to draw well, and\\n363", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nfrom nature and, wherever it is possible, the use of\\nwater-colors. The execution of drawings and of water-\\ncolor sketches from nature (of flowers, animals, land-\\nscapes, clouds, etc.) not only excites interest in nature\\nand helps memory to enjoy objects, but it gives the\\npupil his first lesson in seeing correctly and under-\\nstanding what he has seen.\\nio. Much more care and time must be devoted than\\nhas been done hitherto to corporal exercise, to gymnas-\\ntics and swimming but it is especially important to\\nhave walks in common every week, and journeys on\\nfoot during the holidays. The lesson in observation\\nwhich they obtain in this way is invaluable.\\nThe chief aim of higher education up to the present\\ntime, in most countries, has been a preparation for the\\nsubsequent profession, and the acquisition of a certain\\namount of information and direction for civic duties.\\nThe school of the twentieth century will have for its\\nmain object the formation of independent thought, the\\nclear understanding of the knowledge acquired, and\\nan insight into the natural connection of phenomena.\\nIf the modern state gives every citizen a vote, it should\\nalso give him the means of developing his reason by a\\nproper education, in order to make a rational use of\\nhis vote for the commonweal.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XX\\nSOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nA Glance at the Progress of the Nineteenth Century in Solving\\nCosmic Problems I. Progress of Astronomy and Cosmology\\nPhysical and Chemical Unity of the Universe Cosmic\\nMetamorphoses Evolution of the Planeta y System Anal-\\nogy of the Phylogeneiic Processes on the Earth and on\\nOther Planets Organic Inhabitants of Other Heavenly Bod-\\nies Periodi Variation in the Making of Worlds II. Prog-\\nress of Geology and Palaeontology N ptuni m and Vulcan-\\nism Theory of Continuity III. Progress of Physics and\\nChemistry IV. Progress of Biology Cellular Theory and\\nTheory of Descent V. Anthropology Origin of Man Gen-\\neral Conclusion\\nA T the close of our philosophic study of the riddles\\nof the universe we turn with confidence to the\\nanswer to the momentous question, How nearly have\\nwe approached to a solution of them? What is the\\nvalue of the immense progress which the passing nine-\\nteenth century has made in the knowledge of nature?\\nAnd what prospect does it open out to us for the future,\\nfor the further development of our system in the twen-\\ntieth century, at the threshold of which we pause?\\nEvery unprejudiced thinker who impartially consid-\\ners the solid progress of our empirical science, and the\\nunity and clearness of our philosophic interpretation\\nof it, will share our view the nineteenth century has\\nmade greater progress in knowledge of the world and\\n365", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nin grasp of its nature than all its predecessors it has\\nsolved many great problems that seemed insoluble a\\nhundred years ago it has opened out to us new prov-\\ninces of learning, the very existence of which was un-\\nsuspected at the beginning of the century. Above all,\\nit has put clearly before our eyes the lofty aim of mon-\\nistic cosmology, and has pointed out the path which\\nalone will lead us towards it the way of the exact em-\\npirical investigation of facts, and of the critical genetic\\nstudy of their causes. The great abstract law of me-\\nchanical causality, of which our cosmological law\\nthe law of substance is but another and a concrete\\nexpression, now rules the entire universe, as it does the\\nmind of man; it is the steady, immovable pole-star,\\nwhose clear light falls on our path through the dark\\nlabyrinth of the countless separate phenomena. To\\nsee the truth of this more clearly, let us cast a brief\\nglance at the astonishing progress which the chief\\nbranches of science have made in this remarkable\\nperiod.\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY\\nThe study of the heavens is the oldest, the study of\\nman the youngest, of the sciences. With regard to\\nhimself and the character of his being man only ob-\\ntained a clear knowledge in the second half of the pres-\\nent century with regard to the starry heavens, the mo-\\ntions of the planets, and so on, he had acquired aston-\\nishing information forty-five hundred years ago. The\\nancient Chinese, Hindoos, Egyptians, and Chaldaeans\\nin the distant East knew more of the science of the\\nspheres than the majority of educated Christians did in\\nthe West four thousand years after them. An eclipse\\nof the sun was astronomically observed in China in the\\n366", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nyear 2697 B.C., and the plane of the ecliptic was deter-\\nmined by means of a gnome eleven hundred years B.C.,\\nwhile Christ himself had no knowledge whatever of as-\\ntronomy indeed, he looked out upon heaven and earth,\\nnature and man, from the very narrowest geocentric\\nand anthropocentric point of view. The greatest ad-\\nvance of astronomy is generally, and rightly, said to be\\nthe founding of the heliocentric system of Copernicus,\\nwhose famous work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Celes-\\ntium, of itself caused a profound revolution in the minds\\nof thoughtful men. In overthrowing the Ptolemaic\\nsystem, he destroyed the foundation of the Christian\\ntheory, which regarded the earth as the centre of the\\nuniverse and man as the godlike ruler of the earth.\\nIt was natural, therefore, that the Christian clergy,\\nwith the pope at its head, should enter upon a fierce\\nstruggle with the invaluable discovery of Copernicus.\\nYet it soon cleared a path for itself, when Kepler and\\nGalileo grounded on it their true mechanics of the\\nheavens, and Newton gave it a solid foundation by\\nhis theory of gravitation (1686).\\nA further great advance, comprehending the entire\\nuniverse, was the application of the idea of evolution\\nto astronomy. It was done by the youthful Kant in\\n1755 in his famous general natural history and theory\\nof the heavens he undertook the discussion, not only\\nof the constitution, but also of the mechanical ori-\\ngin of the whole world-structure on Newtonian prin-\\nciples. The splendid Systeme du Monde of Laplace,\\nwho had independently come to the same conclusions\\nas Kant on the world-problem, gave so firm a basis to\\nthis new Mecanique Celeste in 1796 that it looked as\\nif nothing entirely new of equal importance was left\\nto be discovered in the nineteenth century. Yet here\\n367", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nagain it had the honor of opening out entirely new\\npaths and infinitely enlarging our outlook on the uni-\\nverse. The invention of photography and photome-\\ntry, and especially of spectral analysis (in i860 by\\nBunsen and Kirchoff), introduced physics and chem-\\nistry into astronomy and led to cosmological conclu-\\nsions of the utmost importance. It was now made\\nperfectly clear that matter is the same throughout the\\nuniverse, and that its physical and chemical properties\\nin the most distant stars do not differ from those of the\\nearth under our feet.\\nThe monistic conviction, which we thus arrived at,\\nof the physical and chemical unity of the entire cosmos\\nis certainly one of the most valuable general truths\\nwhich we owe to astrophysics, the new branch of as-\\ntronomy which is honorably associated with the name\\nof Friedrich Z\u00c3\u00b6llner. Not less important is the clear\\nknowledge we have obtained that the same laws of\\nmechanical development that we have on the earth rule\\nthroughout the infinite universe. A vast, all-embrac-\\ning metamorphosis goes on continuously in all parts of\\nthe universe, just as it is found in the geological his-\\ntory of the earth it can be traced in the evolution of\\nits living inhabitants as surely as in the history of peo-\\nples or in the life of each human individual. In one\\npart of space we perceive, with the aid of our best tele-\\nscopes, vast nebulae of glowing, infinitely attenuated\\ngas; we see in them the embryos of heavenly bodies,\\nbillions of miles away, in the first stage of their devel-\\nopment. In some of these stellar embryos the\\nchemical elements do not seem to be differentiated yet,\\nbut still buried in the homogeneous primitive matter\\n(prothyl) at an enormous temperature (calculated to run\\ninto millions of degrees) it is possible that the origi-\\n368", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nnal basic substance (vide p. 229) is not yet divided\\ninto ponderable and imponderable matter. In other\\nparts of space we find stars that have cooled down into\\nglowing fluid, and yet others that are cold and rigid\\nwe can tell their stage of evolution approximately by\\ntheir color. We find stars that are surrounded with\\nrings and moons like Saturn and we recognize in the\\nluminous ring of the nebula the embryo of a new moon,\\nwhich has detached itself from the mother-planet, just\\nas the planet was released from the sun.\\nMany of the stars, the light of which has taken thou-\\nsands of years to reach us, are certainly suns like our\\nown mother-sun, and are girt about with planets and\\nmoons, just as in our own solar system. We are justified\\nin supposing that thousands of these planets are in a\\nsimilar stage of development to that of our earth that\\nis, they have arrived at a period when the temperature\\nat the surface lies between the freezing and boiling\\npoint of water, and so permits the existence of water\\nin its liquid condition. That makes it possible that\\ncarbon has entered into the same complex combinations\\non those planets as it has done on our earth, and that\\nfrom its nitrogenous compounds protoplasm has been\\nevolved that wonderful substance which alone, as far\\nas our knowledge goes, is the possessor of organic life.\\nThe monera (for instance, chromacea and bacteria),\\nwhich consist only of this primitive protoplasm, and\\nwhich arise by spontaneous generation from these in-\\norganic nitrocarbonates, may thus have entered upon\\nthe same course of evolution on many other planets as\\non our own; first of all, living cells of the simplest\\ncharacter would be formed from their homogeneous\\nprotoplasmic body by the separation of an inner nu-\\ncleus from the outer cell body (cytostoma). Further,\\n2 A 369", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe analogy that we find in the life of all cells whether\\nplasmodomous plant-cells or plasmophagous animal-\\ncells justifies the inference that the further course of\\norganic evolution on these other planets has been\\nanalogous to that of our own earth always, of course,\\ngiven the same limits of temperature which permit water\\nin a liquid form. In the glowing liquid bodies of the\\nstars, where water can only exist in the form of steam,\\nand on the cold extinct suns, where it can only be in the\\nshape of ice, such organic life as we know is impossible.\\nThe similarity of phylogeny, or the analogy of or-\\nganic evolution, which we may thus assume in many\\nstars which are at the same stage of biogenetic devel-\\nopment, naturally opens out a v/ide field of brilliant\\nspeculation to the constructive imagination. A favor-\\nite subject for such speculation has long been the ques-\\ntion whether there are men, or living beings like our-\\nselves, perhaps much more highly developed, in other\\nplanets? Among the many works which have sought\\nto answer the question, those of Camille Flammarion,\\nthe Parisian astronomer, have recently been extremely\\npopular they are equally distinguished by exuberant\\nimagination and brilliant style, and by a deplorable\\nlack of critical judgment and biological knowledge.\\nWe may condense in the following thesis the present\\ncondition of our knowledge on the subject\\nI. It is very probable that a similar biogenetic proc-\\ness to that of our own earth is taking place on some of\\nthe other planets of our solar system (Mars and Venus),\\nand on many planets of other solar systems first sim-\\nple monera are formed by spontaneous generation, and\\nfrom these arise unicellular protists (first plasmodom-\\nous primitive plants, and then plasmophagous primi-\\ntive animals).\\n370", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nII. It is very probable that from these unicellular\\nprotists arise, in the further course of evolution, first\\nsocial cell-communities (coenobia), and subsequently\\ntissue-forming plants and animals (metaphyta and\\nmetazoa).\\nIII. It is also very probable that thallophyta (algae\\nand fungi) were the first to appear in the plant-king-\\ndom, then diaphyta (mosses and ferns), finally antho-\\nphyta (gymnosperm and angiosperm flowering plants).\\nIV. It is equally probable that the biogenetic proc-\\ness took a similar course in the animal kingdom\\nthat from the blastseads (catallacta) first gastraeads\\nwere formed, and from these lower animal forms (cce-\\nlenteria) higher organisms (ccelomaria) were afterwards\\nevolved.\\nV. On the other hand, it is very questionable wheth-\\ner the different stems of these higher animals (and\\nthose of the higher plants as well) run through the\\nsame course of development on other planets as on our\\nearth.\\nVI. In particular, it is wholly uncertain whether\\nthere are vertebrates on other planets, and whether,\\nin the course of their phyletic development, taking\\nmillions of years, mammals are formed as on earth,\\nreaching their highest point in the formation of man\\nin such an event, millions of changes would have to\\nbe just the same in both cases.\\nVII. It is much more probable, on the contrary, that\\nother planets have produced other types of the higher\\nplants and animals, which are unknown on our earth\\nperhaps from some higher animal stem, which is su-\\nperior to the vertebrate in formation, higher beings\\nhave arisen who far transcend us earthly men in\\nintelligence.\\n371", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nVIII. The possibility of our ever entering into di-\\nrect communication with such inhabitants of other\\nplanets seems to be excluded by the immense distance\\nof our earth from the other heavenly bodies, and the\\nabsence of the requisite atmosphere in the intervening\\nspace, which contains only ether.\\nBut while many of the stars are probably in a sim-\\nilar stage of biogenetic development to that of our earth\\n(for the last one hundred million years at least), others\\nhave advanced far beyond this stage, and, in their plan-\\netary old age, are hastening towards their end the\\nsame end that inevitably awaits our own globe. The\\nradiation of heat into space gradually lowers the tem-\\nperature until all the water is turned into ice; that\\nis the end of all organic life. The substance of the\\nrotating mass contracts more and more the rapidity\\nof its motion gradually falls off. The orbits of the\\nplanets and of their moons grow narrower. At length\\nthe moons fall upon the planets, and the planets are\\ndrawn into the sun that gave them birth. The col-\\nlision again produces an enormous quantity of heat.\\nThe pulverized mass of the colliding bodies is distrib-\\nuted freely through infinite space, and the eternal\\ndrama of sun-birth begins afresh.\\nThe sublime picture which modern astrophysics\\nthus unveils before the mind s eye shows us an eternal\\nbirth and death of countless heavenly bodies, a peri-\\nodic change from one to the other of the different cos-\\nmogenetic conditions, which we observe side by side\\nin the universe. While the embryo of a new world is\\nbeing formed from a nebula in one corner of the vast\\nstage of the universe, another has already condensed\\ninto a rotating sphere of liquid fire in some far distant\\nspot a third has already cast off rings at its equator,\\n37 2", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nwhich round themselves into planets a fourth has be-\\ncome a vast sun whose planets have formed a second-\\nary retinue of moons, and so on. And between them\\nare floating about in space myriads of smaller bodies,\\nmeteorites, or shooting-stars, which cross and recross\\nthe paths of the planets apparently like lawless vaga-\\nbonds, and of which a great number fall onto the plan-\\nets every day. Thus there is a continuous but slow\\nchange in the velocities and the orbits of the revolving\\nspheres. The frozen moons fall onto the planets,\\nthe planets onto their suns. Two distant suns, per-\\nhaps already stark and cold, rush together with in-\\nconceivable force and melt away into nebulous clouds.\\nAnd such prodigious heat is generated by the collision\\nthat the nebula is once more raised to incandescence,\\nand the old drama begins again. Yet in this per-\\npetual motion the infinite substance of the universe,\\nthe sum total of its matter and energy, remains eter-\\nnally unchanged, and we have an eternal repetition\\nin infinite time of the periodic dance of the worlds, the\\nmetamorphosis of the cosmos that ever returns to its\\nstarting-point. Over all rules the law of substance.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PROGRESS OF GEOLOGY\\nThe earth and its origin were much later than the\\nheavens in becoming the object of scientific investiga-\\ntion. The numerous ancient and modern cosmogonies\\ndo, indeed, profess to give us as good an insight into\\nthe origin of the earth as into that of the heavens but\\nthe mythological raiment, in which all alike are clothed,\\nbetrays their origin in poetic fancy. Among the count-\\nless legends of creation which we find in the history of\\nreligions and of thought there is one that soon took\\n373", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nprecedence of all the rest the Mosaic story of creation\\nas told in the first book of the Hexateuch. It did not\\nexist in its present form until long after the death of\\nMoses (probably not until eight hundred years after-\\nwards) but its sources are much older, and are to be\\nfound for the most part in Assyrian, Babylonian, and\\nHindoo legends. This Hebrew legend of creation ob-\\ntained its great influence through its adoption into the\\nChristian faith and its consecration as the Word of\\nGod. Greek philosophers had already, five hundred\\nyears before Christ, explained the natural origin of the\\nearth in the same way as that of other cosmic bodies.\\nXenophanes of Colophon had even recognized the true\\ncharacter of the fossils which were afterwards to prove\\nof such moment the great painter, Leonardo da Vinci,\\nof the fifteenth century, also explained the fossils as\\nthe petrified remains of animals which had lived in\\nearlier periods of the earth s history. But the author-\\nity of the Bible, especially the myth of the deluge, pre-\\nvented any further progress in this direction, and in-\\nsured the triumph of the Mosaic legend until about the\\nmiddle of the last century. It survives even at the\\npresent day among orthodox theologians. However,\\nin the second half of the eighteenth century, scientific\\ninquiry into the structure of the crust of the earth set\\nto work independently of the Mosaic story, and it soon\\nled to certain conclusions as to the origin of the earth.\\nThe founder of geology, Werner of Freiberg, thought\\nthat all the rocks were formed in water, while Voigt\\nand Hutton (1788) rightly contended that only the\\nstratified, fossil-bearing rocks had had an aquatic ori-\\ngin, and that the Vulcanic or Plutonic mountain ranges\\nhad been formed by the cooling down of molten matter.\\nThe heated conflict of these Neptunian and Plu-\\n374", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\ntonic schools was still going on during the first three\\ndecades of the present century it was only settled when\\nKarl Hoff (1822) established the principle of actual-\\nism/ and Sir Charles Lyell applied it with signal suc-\\ncess to the entire natural evolution of the earth. The\\nPrinciples of Geology of Lyell (1830) secured the full\\nrecognition of the supremely important theory of con-\\ntinuity in the formation of the earth s crust, as opposed\\nto the catastrophic theory of Cuvier.* Palaeontology,\\nwhich had been founded by Cuvier s work on fossil\\nbones (1812), was of the greatest service to geology\\nby the middle of the present century it had advanced\\nso far that the chief periods in the history of the earth\\nand its inhabitants could be established. The com-\\nparatively thin crust of the earth was now recognized\\nwith certainty to be the hard surface formed by the\\ncooling of an incandescent fluid planet, which still con-\\ntinues its slow, unbroken course of refrigeration and\\ncondensation. The crumpling of the stiffened crust,\\nthe reaction of the molten fiery contents on the cool\\nsurface, and especially the unceasing geological ac-\\ntion of water, are the natural causes which are daily\\nat work in the secular formation of the crust of the\\nearth and its mountains.\\nTo the brilliant progress of modern geology we owe\\nthree extremely important results of general import. In\\nthe first place, it has excluded from the story of the\\nearth all questions of miracle, all questions of super-\\nnatural agencies, in the building of the mountains and\\nthe shaping of the continents. In the second place,\\nour idea of the length of the vast period of time which\\nhad been absorbed in their formation has been consid-\\n*Cf. The Natural History of Creation, chaps, iii., vi., xv., and\\nxvi.\\n375", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nerably enlarged. We now know that the huge moun-\\ntains of the palaeozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic forma-\\ntions have taken, not thousands, but millions of years\\nin their growth. In the third place, we now know that\\nall the countless fossils that are found in those forma-\\ntions are not sports of nature, as was believed one\\nhundred and fifty years ago, but the petrified remains\\nof organisms that lived in earlier periods of the earth s\\nhistory, and arose by gradual transformation from a\\nlong series of ancestors.\\nIII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PROGRESS OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY\\nThe many important discoveries which these funda-\\nmental sciences have made during the nineteenth cen-\\ntury are so well known, and their practical application\\nin every branch of modern life is so obvious, that we\\nneed not discuss them in detail here. In particular,\\nthe application of steam and electricity has given to\\nour nineteenth century its characteristic machinist-\\nstamp. But the colossal progress of inorganic and\\norganic chemistry is not less important. All branches\\nof modern civilization medicine and technology, in-\\ndustry and agriculture, mining and forestry, land and\\nwater transport have been so much improved in the\\ncourse of the century, especially in the second half,\\nthat our ancestors of the eighteenth century would find\\nthemselves in a new world, could they return. But\\nmore valuable and important still is the great theoreti-\\ncal expansion of our knowledge of nature, which we\\nowe to the establishment of the law of substance. Once\\nLavoisier (1789) had established the law of the persist-\\nence of matter, and Dalton (1808) had founded his new\\natomic theory with its assistance, a way was open to\\n376", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nmodern chemistry along which it has advanced with a\\nrapidity and success beyond all anticipation. The\\nsame must be said of physics in respect of the law of\\nthe conservation of energy. Its discovery by Robert\\nMayer (1842) and Hermann Helmholtz (1847) inaugu-\\nrated for this science also a new epoch of the most fruit-\\nful development; for it put physics in a position to\\ngrasp the universal unity of the forces of nature and\\nthe eternal play of natural processes, in which one\\nforce may be converted into another at any moment.\\nIV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PROGRESS OF BIOLOGY\\nThe great discoveries which astronomy and geology\\nhave made during the nineteenth century, and which\\nare of extreme importance to our whole system, are,\\nnevertheless, far surpassed by those of biology. In-\\ndeed, we may say that the greater part of the many\\nbranches which this comprehensive science of organic\\nlife has recently produced have seen the light in the\\ncourse of the present century. As we saw in the first\\nsection, during the century all branches of anatomy\\nand physiology, botany and zo ology, ontogeny and phy-\\nlogeny, have been so marvellously enriched by count-\\nless discoveries that the present condition of biological\\nscience is immeasurably superior to its condition a\\nhundred years ago. That applies first of all quanti-\\ntatively to the colossal growth of our positive informa-\\ntion in all those provinces and their several parts. But\\nit applies with even greater force qualitatively to the\\ndeepening of our comprehension of biological phenom-\\nena, and our knowledge of their efficient causes. In\\nthis Charles Darwin (1859) takes the palm of victory\\nby his theory of selection he has solved the great prob-\\n377", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nlern of organic creation, of the natural origin of the\\ncountless forms of life by gradual transformation.\\nIt is true that Lamarck had recognized fifty years\\nearlier that the mode of this transformation lay in the\\nreciprocal action of heredity and adaptation. How-\\never, Lamarck was hampered by his lack of the prin-\\nciple of selection, and of that deeper insight into the true\\nnature of organization which was only rendered possi-\\nble after the founding of the theory of evolution and\\nthe cellular theory. When we collated the results of\\nthese and other disciplines, and found the key to their\\nharmonious interpretation in the ancestral development\\nof living beings, we succeeded in establishing the mon-\\nistic biology, the principles of which I have endeavored\\nto lay down securely in my General Morphology.\\nV.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY\\nIn a certain sense, the true science of man, rational\\nanthropology, takes precedence of every other science.\\nThe saying of the ancient sage, Man, know thyself,\\nand that other famous maxim, Man is the measure\\nof all things, have been accepted and applied from all\\ntime. And yet this science taking it in its widest sense\\nhas languished longer than all other sciences in the\\nfetters of tradition and superstition. We saw in the\\nfirst section how slowly and how late the science of\\nthe human organism was developed. One of its chief\\nbranches embryology was not firmly established\\nuntil 1828 (by Baer), and another, of equal importance\\nthe cellular theory until 1838 (by Schwann). And\\nit was even later still when the answer was given to the\\nquestion of all questions, the great riddle of the\\norigin of man. Although Lamarck had pointed out\\n378", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "SOLUTION OF THE WORLD-PROBLEMS\\nthe only path to a correct solution of it in 1809, and\\nhad affirmed the descent of man from the ape, it fell to\\nDarwin to establish the affirmation securely fifty years\\nafterwards, and to Huxley to collect the most important\\nproofs of it in 1863, in his Place of Man in Nature.\\nI have myself made the first attempt, in my Anthro-\\npogeny (1874), to present in their historical connection\\nthe entire series of ancestors through which our race\\nhas been slowly evolved from the animal kingdom in\\nthe course of many millions of years.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "CONCLUSION\\nHHHE number of world-riddles has been continually\\ndiminishing in the course of the nineteenth century\\nthrough the aforesaid progress of a true knowledge of\\nnature. Only one comprehensive riddle of the universe\\nnow remains the problem of substance. What is\\nthe real character of this mighty world-wonder that\\nthe realistic scientist calls Nature or the Universe, the\\nidealist philosopher calls Substance or the Cosmos,\\nthe pious believer calls Creator or God? Can we affirm\\nto-day that the marvellous progress of modern cosmol-\\nogy has solved this problem of substance/ or at least\\nthat it has brought us nearer to the solution?\\nThe answer to this final question naturally varies con-\\nsiderably according to the stand-point of the philosophic\\ninquirer and his empirical acquaintance with the real\\nworld. We grant at once that the innermost character\\nof nature is just as little understood by us as it was by\\nAnaximander and Empedocles twenty-four hundred\\nyears ago, by Spinoza and Newton two hundred years\\nago, and by Kant and Goethe one hundred years ago.\\nWe must even grant that this essence of substance be-\\ncomes more mysterious and enigmatic the deeper we\\npenetrate into the knowledge of its attributes, matter\\nand energy, and the more thoroughly we study its\\ncountless phenomenal forms and their evolution. We\\ndo not know the thing in itself that lies behind these\\nknowable phenomena. But why trouble about this\\n380", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "CONCLUSION\\nenigmatic thing in itself when we have no means\\nof investigating it, when we do not even clearly know\\nwhether it exists or not? Let us, then, leave the fruit-\\nless brooding over this ideal phantom to the pure\\nmetaphysician, and let us instead, as real physi-\\ncists, rejoice in the immense progress which has been\\nactually made by our monistic philosophy of nature.\\nTowering above all the achievements and discov-\\neries of the century we have the great, comprehensive\\nlaw of substance, the fundamental law of the con-\\nstancy of matter and force. The fact that substance\\nis everywhere subject to eternal movement and trans-\\nformation gives it the character also of the universal\\nlaw of evolution. As this supreme law has been firm-\\nly established, and all others are subordinate to it, we\\narrive at a conviction of the universal unity of nature\\nand the eternal validity of its laws. From the gloomy\\nproblem of substance we have evolved the clear law\\nof substance. The monism of the cosmos which we\\nestablish thereon proclaims the absolute dominion of\\nthe great eternal iron laws throughout the universe.\\nIt thus shatters, at the same time, the three central\\ndogmas of the dualistic philosophy the personality\\nof God, the immortality of the soul, and the freedom\\nof the will.\\nMany of us certainly view with sharp regret, or even\\nwith a profound sorrow, the death of the gods that were\\nso much to our parents and ancestors. We must con-\\nsole ourselves in the words of the poet\\nThe times are changed, old systems fall,\\nAnd new life o er their ruins dawns.\\nThe older view of idealistic dualism is breaking up\\nwith all its mystic and anthropistic dogmas but upon\\n381", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE\\nthe vast field of ruins rises, majestic and brilliant, the\\nnew sun of our realistic monism, which reveals to us\\nthe wonderful temple of nature in all its beauty. In\\nthe sincere cult of the true, the good, and the beauti-\\nful, which is the heart of our new monistic religion,\\nwe find ample compensation for the anthropistic ideals\\nof God, freedom, and immortality which we have\\nlost.\\nThroughout this discussion of the riddles of the uni-\\nverse I have clearly defined my consistent monistic\\nposition and its opposition to the still prevalent dual-\\nistic theory. In this I am supported by the agreement\\nof nearly all modern scientists who have the courage\\nto accept a rounded philosophical system. I must not,\\nhowever, take leave of my readers without pointing\\nout in a conciliatory way that this strenuous opposition\\nmay be toned down to a certain degree on clear and\\nlogical reflection may, indeed, even be converted\\ninto a friendly harmony. In a thoroughly logical\\nmind, applying the highest principles with equal force\\nin the entire field of the cosmos in both organic and\\ninorganic nature the antithetical positions of theism\\nand pantheism, vitalism and mechanism, approach\\nuntil they touch each other. Unfortunately, consec-\\nutive thought is a rare phenomenon in nature. The\\ngreat majority of philosophers are content to grasp\\nwith the right hand the pure knowledge that is built\\non experience, but they will not part with the mystic\\nfaith based on revelation, to which they cling with the\\nleft. The best type of this contradictory dualism is\\nthe conflict of pure and practical reason in the critical\\nphilosophy of the most famous of modern thinkers,\\nImmanuel Kant.\\nOn the other hand, the number is always small of\\n382", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "CONCLUSION\\nthe thinkers who will boldly reject dualism and em-\\nbrace pure monism. That is equally true of consist-\\nent idealists and theists, and of logical realists and\\npantheists. However, the reconciliation of these ap-\\nparent antitheses, and, consequently, the advance\\ntowards the solution of the fundamental riddle of the\\nuniverse, is brought nearer to us every year in the ever-\\nincreasing growth of our knowledge of nature. We\\nmay, therefore, express a hope that the approaching\\ntwentieth century will complete the task of resolving\\nthe antitheses, and, by the construction of a system\\nof pure monism, spread far and wide the long-desired\\nunity of world-conception. Germany s greatest think-\\ner and poet, whose one hundred and fiftieth anniver-\\nsary will soon be upon us\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Wolfgang Goethe\u00e2\u0080\u0094 gave\\nthis philosophy of unity a perfect poetic expression,\\nat the very beginning of the century, in his immortal\\npoems, Faust, Prometheus, and God and the World\\nBy eternal laws\\nOf iron ruled,\\nMust all fulfil\\nThe cycle of\\nTheir destiny.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAbiogenesis, 257, 369.\\nAbortive organs, 264.\\nAccidents, 216.\\nAcrania, 166.\\nAction at a distance, 217.\\nActualism, 249.\\niEsthesis, 225.\\nAffinity, 224.\\nAltruism, 350.\\nAmphibia, 167.\\nAmphimixis, 141.\\nAmpitheism, 278.\\nAnanke, 272.\\nAnatomy, 2.2., etc.\\ncomparative, 24.\\nAnaximander, 289, 379.\\nAnthropism, II.\\nAnthropistic illusion, 14, etc.\\nworld-theory, 13.\\nAnthropocentric dogma, II, etc\\nAnthropogeny, 83.\\nAnthropolatric dogma, 12.\\nAnthropomorpha, 36.\\nAnthropomorphic dogma, 12.\\nApes, 36, 37, 167.\\nanthropoid, 37.\\nArchaeus, 43.\\nArchigony, 257.\\nAristotle, 23, 268.\\nAssociation, centres of, 183.\\nof ideas, 121.\\nof presentations, 121, 122.\\nAstronomy, progress of, 366.\\nAstrophysics, 368.\\nAtavism, 142.\\nAthanatism, 189.\\n2B\\nAthanatistic illusions, 205.\\nAtheism, 290.\\nAtheistic^science, 260.\\nAtom, the, 222.\\nAtomism, 22T,.\\nAtomistic consciousness, 187.\\nAttributes of ether, 227.\\nof substance, 216.\\nAugustine of Hippo, 130.\\nAuricular confession, 319, 359.\\nAutogony, 257.\\nBaer (Carl Ernst), 57.\\nBastian (Adolf), 103.\\nBeginning of the world, 240,\\n247.\\nBible, the, 2S2, 362.\\nBiogenesis, 257.\\nBiogenetic law, 81, 143.\\nBismarck, 334.\\nBlastoderm, 150, 155.\\nBlastosphere, 153.\\nBlastula, 153.\\nBruno (Giordano), 290, 317.\\nB\u00c3\u00bcchner (Ludwig), 93.\\nBuddhism, 326, 355.\\nCalvin, 130.\\nCanonical gospels, 312.\\nCarbon as creator, 256.\\ntheory, 257.\\nCatarrhinae, 35.\\nCatastrophic theory, 74.\\nCategorical imperative, 350.\\nCauses, efficient, 258.\\nfinal, 258.\\n385", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nCelibacy, 358.\\nCell-love, 137.\\ncommunity, soul of the, 155.\\nsoul, 151.\\nstate, 157.\\nCellular pathology, 50.\\nphysiology, 48.\\npsychology, 153, 177.\\ntheory, 26.\\nCenobitic soul, 155.\\nCenogenesis, 82.\\nof the psyche, 144.\\nChance, 274.\\nChemicotropism, 64, 1 36.\\nChordula, 64.\\nChorion, 68.\\nChrist, father of, 327.\\nChristian art, 339.\\ncivilization, 356.\\ncontempt of the body, 354.\\nanimals, 355.\\nnature, 355.\\nself, 353-\\nthe family, 357.\\nwoman, 358.\\nethics, 352.\\nChristianity, 347.\\nChurch and school, 362.\\nstate, 361.\\nCnidaria, 161.\\nConception, 64.\\nConcubinage of the clergy, 358.\\nConfession of faith, 302.\\nConsciousness, 170.\\nanimal, 176.\\natomistic, 178.\\nbiological, 176.\\ncellular, 177.\\ndevelopment of, 185.\\ndualistic, 182.\\nhuman, 173.\\nmonistic, 182.\\nneurological, 174.\\nontogeny of, 186.\\npathology of, 182.\\nphysiological, 180.\\ntranscendental, 180.\\nConstancy of energy, 212, 231.\\nmatter, 212.\\nConstantine the Great, 316.\\nConstellations of substance, 218.\\nConventional lies, 323,\\nCopernicus, 24, 320, 367.\\nCosmic immortality, 191.\\nCosmogonies, 234.\\nCosmological dualism, 257.\\ncreationism, 235.\\nlaw, 211.\\nperspective, 14.\\nCosmos, the, 229.\\nCreation, 73, 79, 234.\\ncosmological, 235.\\ndualistic, 236.\\nheptameral, 237\\nindividual, 237.\\nmyths of, 236.\\nperiodic, 237.\\ntrialistic, 237.\\nCultur-kampf, 334.\\nCuvier, 74.\\nCyclostomata, 167.\\nCynopitheci, 46.\\nCytology, 26, etc.\\nCytopsyche, 151.\\nCytula, 64.\\nDarwin (Charles), 78, etc.\\nDecidua, 69.\\nDeduction, 16.\\nDemonism, 276.\\nDescartes, 99, 355.\\nDescent of the ape, 85, etc.\\nof man, 87.\\ntheory of, 77.\\nDesign, 264, 266.\\nin nature, 260.\\nin organisms, 266.\\nin selection, 261.\\nDestruction of heavenly bodies,\\n243.\\nDeterminists, 130.\\nDiaphragm, 31.\\nDivision of labor in matter, 229.\\nDraper, 309, 333.\\nDualism, 20, etc.\\nDu Bois-Reymond, 15, 180, 235.\\nDu Prel (Carl), 305.\\nDuty, feeling of, 350.\\nDynamodes, 216.\\nDysteleology, 260.\\n386", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nEchinodermata, 62.\\nEctoderm, 160.\\nsense-cells in the, 293.\\nEgoism, 350.\\nElements, chemical, 222.\\nsystem of the, 222.\\nEmbryo, human, 64.\\nEmbryology, 54.\\nEmbryonic psychogeny, 144.\\nsleep, 146.\\nEmpedocles, 23, 224.\\nEncyclica (of Pius IX.), 323.\\nEnd of the world, 247.\\nEnergy, kinetic, 231.\\npotential, 231.\\nprinciple of, 230.\\nspecific, 294.\\nEntelecheia, 268.\\nEntoderm, 160.\\nEntropy of the universe, 247.\\nEpigenesis, 56, 133.\\nErgonomy of matter, 229.\\nEternity of the world, 242.\\nEther, 225.\\nEtheric souls, 199.\\nEthics, fundamental law of, 350.\\nGastraea, 160.\\ntheory of the, 60.\\nGastraeads, 159.\\nGastrula, 61.\\nGegenbaur, 25, 30.\\nGeneration, theory of, 55.\\nGenus, 73.\\nGeology, periods of, 270.\\nprogress of, 373.\\nGerminal disk, 57.\\nGills, 65.\\nGod, 275.\\nthe father, 277.\\nthe son, 277, 328.\\nGoethe, 20, etc.\\nGoethe s monism, 331.\\nGolden Rule, the, 351.\\nGospels, 312.\\nGravitation, theory of, 217.\\nGut-layer, 159.\\nHaller, 42.\\nHarvey, 42.\\nHelmholtz (Hermann), 213, 230.\\nHeredity, psychic, 138.\\nHertz (Heinrich), 225.\\nEvolution, theory of, 54, 239, Hippocrates, 23.\\n243.\\nchief element in, 267.\\nExperience, 16.\\nExtra-mundane God, 288.\\nFaith, confession of, 303.\\nof our fathers, 304.\\nFamily, the, and Christianity,\\n357-\\nFate, 2-J2.\\nFechner, 97, etc.\\nFecundation, 63.\\nFetishism, 276.\\nFeuerbach (Ludwig), 295.\\nFlechsig, 183.\\nFoetal membranes, 66.\\nFolk-psychology, 103.\\nForces, conversion of, 231.\\nFrederick the Great, 194, 315.\\nGalen, 23, 40.\\nGaseous souls, 199.\\nvertebrates, 288.\\nI Histology, 26.\\nj Histopsyche, 156.\\nJ Hoff (Carl), 250.\\ni Holbach (Paul), 193.\\nHoly Ghost, 277, 326.\\nHumboldt (Alexander), 343.\\nHydra, 161.\\nHylozoism, 289.\\nHypothesis, 299.\\nIatrochemicists, 45.\\nIatromechanicists, 45.\\nIdeal of beauty, 338.\\nof truth, 337.\\nof virtue, 339.\\nIgnorabimus, 180.\\nImmaculate conception, 326.\\nImmaterial substance, 221.\\nImmortality of animals, 201.\\nof the human soul, 188.\\nof unicellular organisms,\\n190.\\npersonal, 192.\\n387", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nImperfection of nature, 264.\\nImponderable matter, 225.\\nImpregnation, 64.\\nIndeterminists, 130.\\nInduction, 16.\\nIndulgences, 359.\\nInfallibility of the pope, 324.\\nInstinct, 105, 123.\\nIntellect, 125, etc.\\nIntramundane God, 288.\\nIntrospective psychology, 95.\\nIslam, 284.\\nJanssen (Johannes), 316.\\nJehovah, 283.\\nJourneys on foot, 364.\\nKant, 258, etc.\\nKant s metamorphosis, 92, etc.\\nKinetic energy, 231.\\ntheory of substance, 216.\\nK\u00c3\u00b6lliker, 26, 48.\\nLamarck, 76, etc.\\nLamettrie, 194.\\nLandscape-painting, 343.\\nLanguage, 126.\\nstudy of, 363.\\nLast judgment, 209.\\nLavoisier, 212.\\nLeap of the gospels, miraculous,\\n312.\\nLey dig, 27.\\nLife, definition of, 39.\\nLimits of our knowledge, 182.\\nLove, 357.\\nof animals, 355.\\nof neighbor, 350.\\nof self, 350.\\nLucretius Carus, 290.\\nLunarism, 281.\\nLuther, 320.\\nLyell, 77, 250.\\nMadonna, cult of the, 284, 327,\\nMalphigi, 54.\\nMammals, 30, etc.\\nMammary glands, 31.\\nMan, ancestors of, 82.\\nMarsupials, 32, 86.\\nMass, 222.\\nMaterialism, 20.\\nMayer (Robert), 213, 377.\\nMechanical causality, 366.\\nexplanation, 259.\\ntheory of heat, 247.\\nMechanicism, 259.\\nMediterranean religions, the, 282.\\nMemory, cellular, 120.\\nconscious, 121.\\nhistionic, 1 21\\nunconscious, 121.\\nMephistopheles, 279.\\nMetabolism, 232.\\nMetamorphoses of the cosmos,\\n372.\\nof philosophers, 92.\\nMetaphyta, 156.\\nMetasitism, 153.\\nMetazoa, 60, 157.\\nMiddle Ages, 315, 358.\\nMixotheism, 286.\\nMohammedanism, 284.\\nMohr (Friedrich), 213.\\nMonera, 257, 369.\\nMonism, 20, and passim.\\nof energy, 254.\\nof Spinoza, 331.\\nof the cosmos, 255.\\nMonistic anthropogeny, 252.\\nart, 341.\\nbiogeny, 251.\\nchurches, 345.\\ncosmology, 368.\\nethics, 347.\\ngeogeny, 248.\\nMonotheism, 279.\\nMonotrema, 32.\\nMoon- worship, 281.\\nMoral order of the universe, 269\\nMorula, 155.\\nMosaism, 28$.\\nM\u00c3\u00bcller (Johannes), 25, 45, 262.\\nMythology of the soul, 135.\\nNatural religion, 344.\\nNavel-cord, 69.\\nNeo-kantians, 349.\\nNeovitalism, 264.\\nNeptunian geology, 375.\\n388", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nNeuromuscular cells, 114.\\nNeuroplasm, 91, 109.\\nNeuropsyche, 162.\\nNomocracy, 9.\\nOntogenetic psychology, 103.\\nOntological creationism, 235.\\nmethods, 249.\\nOrbits of the heavenly bodies,\\n241.\\nOrigin of movement, 15, 241.\\nof feeling, 15, 241.\\nOvary, 63.\\nPalingenesis, 82.\\nof the psyche, 143.\\nPandera (the father of Christ),\\n328.\\nPantheism, 288.\\nPapacy, 314.\\nPapal ethics, 359.\\nPapiomorpha, 37.\\nPaul, 313, 357.\\nepistles of, 312.\\nPaulinism, 313.\\nPedicle of the allantois, 69.\\nPerpetual motion, 245.\\nPersistence of force, 212, 231.\\nof matter, 212.\\nPhroneta, 293.\\nPhylogeny, 71, 81.\\nof the apes, 51.\\nsystematic, 81.\\nPhysiology, 39.\\nPhytopsyche, 157.\\nPithecanthropus, 87.\\nPithecoid theory, 82, etc.\\nPithecometra-thesis, 69, 85.\\nPlacenta, 32, 68.\\nPlacentals, 32, 86.\\nPlasmodoma, 153.\\nPlasmogony, 257.\\nPlasmophaga, 154.\\nPlato, 99, 197.\\nPlato s theory of ideas, 269.\\nPlatodaria, 160.\\nPlatodes, 160.\\nPlatyrrhinse, 35.\\nPneuma zoticon, 40.\\nPolytheism, 276.\\nPonderable matter, 222.\\nPreformation theory, 54.\\nPrimaria, 33.\\nPrimates, 33, 86.\\nPrimitive Christianity, 311.\\ngut, 61, 161.\\nProdynamis, 2i6 r\\nProgaster, 161.\\nProplacentals, 85.\\nProsimiae, 34.\\nProstoma, 161.\\nProthyl, 223.\\nProtoplasm, 90.\\nProtozoa, 60.\\nProvertebrse, 166.\\nPseudo-Christianity, 321.\\nPsychade theory, 178.\\nPsyche, 88.\\nPsychogeny, 135.\\nphyletic, 149.\\npost-embryonic, 146.\\nPsychology, 88 et seqq.\\nontogenetic, 104.\\nphylogenetic, 104.\\nPsychomonism, 226.\\nPsychophysics, 97.\\nPsychoplasm, 91, no.\\nPupa, sleep of the, 146.\\nPyknosis, 218.\\nPyknotic theory of substance,\\n218.\\nReason, 17, 125.\\nReflex action, 112.\\narches, 114.\\nReformation, the, 319.\\nReligion a private concern, 361.\\nRemak, 58.\\nRevelation, 306.\\nReversion, 142.\\nRomance of the Virgin Mary,\\n327.\\nRomanes, 106.\\nRudimentary organs, 264.\\nSaints, 284.\\nScale of emotion, 127.\\nof memory, 120.\\nof movement, ill.\\nof presentation, 1 18.\\n389", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nScale of reason, 122.\\nof reflex action, 113.\\nof will, 127.\\nScatulation theory, 55.\\nSchleiden, 26, 47.\\nSchool, and Church, 361.\\nand State, 362.\\nreform of the, 363.\\nSchwann, 26, 47.\\nSelachii, 166.\\nSelection, theory of, 79.\\nSelf-consciousness, 171.\\nSense-knowledge, 297.\\norgans, 293.\\nSenses, philosophy of the, 295.\\nSentiment, 17, etc., 331.\\nSiebold, 27.\\nSimise, 34.\\nSocial duties, 351.\\ninstincts, 350.\\nSolar systems, 241, 369.\\nSolarism, 280.\\nSoul, 88 et seqq.\\napparatus of the, 162.\\nblending of the, 141.\\ncreation of the, 135.\\ndivision of the, 135.\\netheric, 199.\\ngaseous, 199.\\nhistionic, 157.\\nhistory of the, 167.\\nhydra, 161.\\nlife of the, 90.\\nliquid, 200.\\nmammal, 167.\\nnerve, 162.\\norigin of the, 135.\\nof the plant, 157.\\npersonal, 162.\\nsolid, 201.\\nsubstance of the, 198.\\ntransmigration of the, 135\\nSources of knowledge, 293.\\nSpace and time, 244.\\ninfinity of, 242.\\nreality of. 244.\\nSpecies, 73.\\nSpectral analysis, 241.\\nSpermarium, 63\\nSpermatozoa, 58.\\nSpinal cord, 165.\\nSpinoza, 21, 215, 290.\\nSpirit world, 221.\\nSpirit-rapping, 305.\\nSpiritism, 304.\\nSpiritualism, 20.\\nSponge, soul of the, 161.\\nStem-cell, 63, 138, 151.\\nStimulated movement, 113, 116.\\nStimuli, conduction of, 158.\\nStrauss (David), 309, 313.\\nStruggle for life, 270.\\nSubstance, 215.\\nlaw of, 211, etc.\\nstructure of, 229.\\nSuperstition, 301.\\nS\u00c3\u00bcss (Edward), 250.\\nSyllabus, 323.\\nSynodikon (of Pappus), 312.\\nTable-turning, 305.\\nTeleological explanation, 259.\\nTeleology, 258.\\nTetrapoda, 29.\\nThanatism, 189.\\nprimary, 192.\\nsecondary, 192.\\nTheism, 276.\\nTheocracy, 9.\\nTheory, 299.\\nThought, organs of, 126, 183, 293.\\nTime and space, 244.\\nreality of, 246.\\nTissue, theory of, 26.\\nTissue-forming animals, 157.\\nplants, 156.\\nTransformism, 76.\\nTrimurti, 278.\\nTrinity, dogma of the, 277.\\nmonistic, 336.\\nTriplotheism, 277.\\nTropesis, 225.\\nTropismata, 128.\\nTunicata, 165.\\nTurbellaria, 161.\\nUltramontanism, 310.\\nUnderstanding, 125.\\nUnity of natural forces, 231.\\nof substance, 214,\\n390", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nUniversum perpetuum mobile,\\n245-\\nUterus, 34.\\nVaticanism, 314.\\nVertebrates, 27, passim.\\nVerworn (Max), 48, 116.\\nVesalius, 24.\\nVibration, theory of, 216.\\nVirchow, 26, 50.\\nVirchow s metamorphosis, 93.\\nVital force, 42, 262.\\nVitalism, 43, 262.\\nI Vivisection, 41.\\nI Vogt (Carl), 93.\\nVogt (J.E.), 218.\\nWater-color drawing, 364.\\nWeismann, 1 90.\\nWill, liberty of the, 129.\\nscale of the, 128.\\nWolff (C.F.), 56.\\nWoman and Christianity, 358.\\nWorld-consciousness, 171.\\nWorld-riddles, number of, 15.\\nWundt (Wilhelm), 100, 171.\\nTHE END", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "BISMARCK S AUTOBIOGRAPHY\\nBISMARCK, The Man and the Statesman Being the-\\nReflections and Reminiscences of Otto, Prince von\\nBismarck, Written and Dictated by Himself after his\\nRetirement from Office. Translated from the German\\nunder the Supervision of A. J. Butler, late Fellow of\\nTrinity College, Cambridge. Two Yols. With Two\\nPhotogravure Portraits. 8vo, Cloth, Ornamental, Un-\\ncut Edges and Gilt Tops, $7 50.\\nIn his reflections and reminiscences, Prince Bismarck presents\\nhimself in the more familiar garb of polite society, with the\\npolished manner of a man of the world, keeping his tongue under\\ncontrol, a great and commanding figure, self-centred and self-re.\\nstrained, a courtier and a statesman, filling not unworthily with\\nhis gigantic personality the world stage on which he moved.\\nLondon Times.\\nThe book is remarkably full as regards internal affairs and espe-\\ncially as regards the influences which prevailed at the Berlin court,\\nas to the characters both of the kings of Prussia and the other men\\nwith whom Bismarck was brought in contact, and it contains a\\nminute criticism on the workings of the Prussian and German\\nConstitutions. London Daily Chronicle.\\nThis is a great work, one of the most important produced in\\nmodern times. It is a work gloriously full of great lights, and\\ncarries the study of the founding and founded empire and its in-\\nner motives on through the Culturkampf down to the last days of\\nthe lamented Frederick I. Independent, N. Y.\\nHARPER BROTHERS, Publishers\\nNEW YOEK AND LONDON\\n$WThe above work will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, to any\\npart of the United States, Canada, or Mexico, on receipt of the p/tHce.", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "By Gr. W. E. RUSSELL\\nCOLLECTIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS. By One\\nWho Has Kept a Diary. With One Illustration.\\nCrown 8vo, Cloth, Ornamental, Deckel Edges and Gilt\\nTop, $2 50.\\nIt does not often happen that a volume of reminiscences pre-\\nsents so much interesting and attractive matter. It is difficult\\nto lay aside a book which contains so much of the salt which sea-\\nsons life. Such a volume is a never-failing resource for the reader\\nwearied of overmuch feeding on the solid viands of literature.\\nEspecially commendable is the spirit of kindness which pervades\\nthe narratives. There are no flings at living pygmies or dead\\nlions. Brooklyn Eagle.\\nTHE RIGHT HONORABLE WILLIAM EWART\\nGLADSTONE. Queen s Prime- Ministers.) Portrait.\\nCrown 8vo, Cloth, $1 00.\\nMr. George W. E. Russell, who writes this book, has done a\\ndifficult task well. The personal biography is necessarily brief,\\nbecause the plan of the book calls for a political biography, and\\nbecause Gladstone entered public life at twenty-two, and has lived\\nand breathed the air of Parliament ever since. Yet it would not\\nbe possible to measure his public career justly without that knowl-\\nedge of his personality and his ingrained tastes. Mr. Russell has\\nprovided the needful information in a succinct form, and his final\\nchapter, in which he analyzes Mr. Gladstone s character, is elo-\\nquent in its restraint and vigor of touch. Atlantic Monthly.\\nHARPER BROTHERS, Publishers\\nNEW YORK AND LONDON\\nEither of the above works will be sent by mail, \u00e2\u0080\u00a2postage pre-\\npaid, to any part of the United States, Canada, or Mexico, on receipt\\nof the price.", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "o A\\n^jm i v*\\n,0 o", "height": "3400", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "Cr N /v 2-,\\no\\nV", "height": "3423", "width": "2037", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS\\n020 196 522 6\\nHi", "height": "3522", "width": "2364", "jp2-path": "riddleofuniverse01haec_0426.jp2"}}