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THE 

CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK 

ON 

EMBALMING 


A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON THE SCIENCE AND ART OF 
EMBALMING, GIVING THE LATEST AND MOST SUCCESS¬ 
FUL METHODS OF TREATMENT, INCLUDING 
DESCRIPTIVE AND MORBID ANATOMY, 
PHYSIOLOGY, SANITATION, 

DISINFECTION, ETC. 

BY EUAB MYERS, M.D., 

»* 

LECTURER AND DEMONSTRATOR IN THE MYERS (FORMERLY CHAMPION) 

COLLEGE OF EMBALMING 


FOURTH EDITION 

GREATLY ENLARGED AND ALMOST ENTIRELY REWRITTEN 


PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 

BY OVER ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS, HALF-TONES, AND COLORED PLATES 


SPRINGFIELD, OHIO: 

The Champion Chemical Company 
1900 





(i 7771 


I-—— 

|L f oi%4j f Mt <Junure«M 

j 'Wi I. 'jmt Ktcti<£0 

OCT 29 1900 

CtjagUmtj 

/VI < lAoi 

*A- V 
SECim copy. 

fr^i w d V* 

OftOtH DWiStOK, 

OCT 30 1900 


Copyright, 1897 and 1900 

BY THE 

CHAMPION CHEMICAL CO. 


All Rights Reserved. 















PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 


The unprecedented exhaustion of three large editions in so short a time 
has practically demonstrated the esteem in which the Champion Text=Book 
has been held by the profession. 

The period of nearly four years, which has elapsed since the first edition 
appeared, at the present rate of progress in all the departments of em¬ 
balming, makes thorough revision and numerous additions necessary to 
keep up with the times. 

In the second and third editions, issued three and two years ago respec¬ 
tively, inadvertencies and errors were corrected, though no attempt was 
made at general revision. 

The work has now been thoroughly revised and almost wholly rewritten, 
with much new matter added and many new features introduced. The 
volume is materially increased in size, the type new, the letters and num¬ 
bers on the plates designating the important parts are enlarged, with a 
number of new plates added, which is a very necessary and valuable 
feature. The paper is equal to or even better than that of the former 

editions. 

The thoroughly practical character of the work has been maintained, as 
far as possible, throughout, as a guide in the operations necessary for the 
embalming of all kinds of bodies for preservation and disinfection. 

In the new matter will be found a Compendium of Practical Questions 
and Answers, covering all the more important subjects, which will mate¬ 
rially aid the student in his comprehension of the same. 

The Practical Dictionary will prove convenient and useful in giving 
definitions of words of an unusual or technical character. 

The following books have been especially helpful in the work of 
revision, in addition to those for which acknowledgment has been made 
heretofore : “Bacteria and Their Products,” Woodhead; “The Principles 

of Bacteriology,” Hueppe; “ The Story of the Bacteria,” Prudden; “ Phys¬ 
iological Chemistry,” Novy; Standard Dictionary; Gould’s Medical Dic¬ 
tionary, etc. 

Thanks are due to my associates in business and their suggestions 
and hearty cooperation, for the beautiful volume we are now able to 

offer. 

To Mr. Leroy Edgar Miller for aid in rearranging and revising; also tor 
seeing the work through the press. 




iii 



IV 


PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION 


To Dr. H. W. Morey, F. D., for the chapter on Hints on Funeral 
Directing. 

And last, but not least, since their very liberal encouragement has 
made the revision possible, I thank the undertakers and embalmers, 
especially of the United States and Canada, for their kind and generous 
reception of the former editions. 

Eliab Myers 

Springfield, Ohio, October 1, 1900. 









PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 


The embalmers and funeral directors of this country have made fre¬ 
quent complaints that they were unable to find, in books on embalming 
heretofore published, such information as they desire on numerous topics 
of professional inquiry, especially those which have been the subject of 
recent investigation or introduction. 

To meet this confessed demand for a work of more modern character 
along this line, the preparation of the Champion TexTBook on Embalming 
was undertaken. 

The purpose of the author has been to supply, within the compass of a 
single volume of moderate size, the information necessary to a full un¬ 
derstanding of the subjects belonging properly to the science and art of 
embalming. 

This work is intended both as a text=book for the student and a com¬ 
plete reference book for the embalmer. To meet these ends, we have 
endeavored to furnish that information which our teaching and long ex¬ 
perience in the practice of embalming have suggested to us to be the most 
needful to the student and practitioner. We have treated of anatomy and 
physiology to the extent necessary to give a good understanding of the 
structure and functions of the body, thus laying a sure foundation for the 
successful study and practice of embalming. After tracing the history of 
this art from ancient times down through the intervening ages, the most 
modern, simplest, and best methods have been clearly set forth. Morbid 
anatomy and the treatment of special diseases, including those which give 
the embalmer the most trouble, are much more fully considered than in 
any similar work, thus adding largely to the value of the Text=Book. The 
best and latest information concerning sanitation, disinfection, infection, 
and bacteriology, is also set forth in a terse and practical form, while much 
useful information is given on other subjects. 

The very comprehensive Glossary, at the conclusion of the work, cannot 
but prove helpful to both student and practitioner ; while, within the com¬ 
pass of the General Index, has been included every term and subject on 
which information is likely to be sought. 

We have appropriated to our use many important facts found in the 
works constituting the physician’s library, that have a direct bearing upon 
the subjects of which we treat; but, nevertheless, we have relied chiefly 
upon our own observations and experiences, especially in the operations 
and methods of treatment given. 


V 









VI 


FEEFACE TO FIRST EDITION 

We have made it a rule to write pointedly and briefly, without unnec¬ 
essary verbiage, or circumlocution, on all subjects treated; and, where it 
could be done without sacrificing clearness or accuracy, have practiced 
careful abridgement of the text. As far as possible technical terms have 
been eliminated. Where it has been necessary to introduce them, they 
have been placed in the Glossary, with a clear, concise definition. 

Our illustrations are of a preeminent character, much superior to any 
hitherto published in a similar work, and will add greatly to an elucidation 
of the text and a proper understanding of the methods taught. 

We are especially indebted to the works of the following authors in the 
preparation of this book : 

Anatomy:— Gray ; Potter. 

Physiology:— Flint; Steele; Baldwin; Huxley. 

Morbid Anatomy and Pathology: — Flint; Osler ; Stille ; Bristows: Aitken ; 
Quatn ; Green ; Peper’s System. 

Bacteriology and Sanitation:— Sternberg ; Abbott ; Sykes. 

The Author. 

Springfield, Ohio, Jan. 1, 1897. 





TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


-A Autii 

Portrait of Author. Frontispiece 

Preface to Fourth Revised Edition. iii 

Preface to First Edition. v 

Table of Contents. vii 

List of Illustrations.xxv 


PART FIRST. 

ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 1 

Introduction to Part First. 3 

Chapter I.— Osteology. 4 

General Description of the Bones. 4 

Number of Bones. 4 

The Distribution of the Bones. 4 

Classification of Bones. 5 

The Long Bones. 5 

The Short Bones. 5 

The Flat Bones. 5 

The Irregular Bones. 6 

The Composition of Bones. 6 

The Structure of Bones. 6 

Fresh or Living Bone. 6 

The Lacunae. 7 

Development of Bone. 7 

Injury and Repair of Bones. 7 

Bones of the Head.*. 8 

The Bones of the Skull and Face. 8 

The Skull Bones. 8 

The Cranial Cavity. 8 

Bones of the Trunk. 8 

The Trunk. 8 

The Spinal Column. 8 

A. The Bones — Anatomical Plates . 9-24 

The Ribs. 25 

The Innominata. 25 

The Extremities. 25 

Bones of the Upper Extremity. 26 

The Shoulder. 26 

The Scapula. 26 

The Shoulder=Joint. 26 

The Elbow. 26 

The Carpus. 26 

The Hand. 26 

Bones of the Lower Extremity. 26 

The Femur. 26 

The Knee;Joint. 26 

The Fibia. 26 


vii 




















































Vlll 


CHAMPION TEXT--BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Chapter I.—Osteology — Continued. page. 

Bones of the Lower Extremity— Continued. 

The Foot. 27 

Sesamoid Bones. 27 

Wormian Bones. 27 

The Joints. 27 

Articulations. 27 

The Structures. 27 

Articular Lamella. 27 

Cartilage.. 28 

Fibro^cartilage . 28 

Synovial Membrane. 28 

The Ligaments.. 28 

Poupart’s Ligament. 28 

B. The Ligaments — Anatomical Plates . 29-36 

Chapter II.—The Muscles.,... 37 

Composition of Muscles. 37 

Contractility. 38 

Kinds of Muscles. 38 

Arrangement of Muscles. 38 

Modification of Muscles. 39 

Attachment of Muscles. 39 

Classification. 39 

The Tendons. 39 

Aponeurosis. 40 

Fasciae.‘. 40 

Superficial Fascia.... 40 

C. The Muscles.—Anatomical Plates . i.. 41-56 

Deep Fascia. 57 

Wonders of the Muscles. 57 

Muscular Sense. 57 

Development of the Muscles. 57 

Number of Muscles. 58 

The Sternocleidomastoid. 58 

The Biceps. 58 

The Sartorius. 59 

The Adductor Longus. 59 

The Diaphragm. 59 

Scarpa’s Triangle. 60 

The Popliteal Space. 60 

Axillary Space. 60 

Chapter III.—The Absorbents.*, 61 

The Skin. 61 

Structure of the Skin. 61 

Cuticle, Epidermis, Scarfiskin. 61 

Corium, Derma, Cutis Vera. 62 

Rete Mucosum... 63 

Uses of the Skin. 63 

The Mucous Membrane. 64 

Subcutaneous Tissues. 64 

The Hair. 65 

The Nails. 66 

The Lymphatic System. 67 

The Lymphatics. 67 

The Lacteals. 68 

























































TABLE OF CONTENTS j x 

Chapter III.—The Absorbents— Continued. page. 

The Lymphatic Glands— Cohtinued. 

The Villi. 68 

The Lymphatic Glands. 69 

The Thoracic Duct. 69 

The Lymphatic Duct. 69 

The Lymph. 69 

VISCERAL ANATOMY. 70 

Chapter IV.—The Nervous System. 71 

General Description. 71 

Nervous Tissue. 71 

The Nerves. 71 

Nerve^Current. . 72 

NerveiSensations. 72 

The Sympathetic System. 73 

The Cerebrospinal System. . . 73 

The Cranial Cavity.!.L.. 73 

The Brain. 73 

The Cerebrum. 75 

The Cerebellum. 75 

The Medulla Oblongata. 76 

The Spinal Cord *. 76 

D. The Heart.—Anatomical Plates . 77-80 

The Cranial Nerves. 81 

Chapter V.—The Organs of Respiration. 82 

Mouth and Nose. 82 

The Pharynx or Throat. 83 

The Larynx. 83 

Glottis and Epiglottis. 84 

Vocal Cords. 84 

The Thoracic Cavity. 84 

The Thorax or Chest. v . 84 

The Trachea or Windpipe. 84 

The Bronchi. 86 

The Lungs. 86 

Structure of the Lungs. 87 

The Pleurae.. 88 

The Mediastinum. 88 

Chapter VI.—The Digestive Organs.. 89 

The Alimentary Canal. 89 

The Mouth. 89 

The Salivary Glands. 89 

The Tongue. 91 

The Teeth. 91 

The Jaws. 91 

The Pharynx.!. 92 

The Esophagus. 92 

The Abdominal Cavity. 92 

The Abdomen or Belly. 92 

E. Thoracic and Abdominal Viscera with their Blood-Vessels—Ana¬ 

tomical Color Plates . 93-108 

Abdominal Openings. 169 

Abdominal Viscera. 169 

Regions of the Abdomen. 109 

The Regional Contents. 109 




























































X 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


>y 


Chapter VI.—The Digestive Organs— Continued. page. 

The Abdominal Cavity— Continued. 

Right Hypochondriac. 109 

Epigastric. HO 

Left Hypochondriac. HO 

Right Lumbar. HO 

Umbilical. HO 

Left Lumbar. Ill 

Right Inguinal. HI 

Hypogastric. Ill 

Left Inguinal. Ill 

The Stomach. . Ill 

The Fuudus. 112 

The Pylorus. 112 

The Peptic or Gastric Glands. 113 

The Small Intestine.. v . 113 

The Duodenum. 113 

The Jejunum. 314 

The Ileum. 114 

The Large Intestine. 114 

The Cecum. 114 

The Appendix Vermiformis. 115 

The Colon. 115 

The Sigmoid Flexure. 115 

The Rectum. 115 

The Liver. 115 

Hepatic Lobules. . 117 

The Bile. 117 

The Biliary Ducts. 117 

The Hepatic Duct. 117 

The Cystic Duct. 117 

The Ductus Communis Choledoclms. 118 

The GalhBladder.. 118 

The Pancreas,. 118 

The Pancreatic Duct. 118 

Ductless Glands. 118 

The Spleen. 118 

The Thyroid Gland or Body. 119 

The Thymus Gland. 119 

The Suprarenal Capsules. 119 

The Kidneys. 119 

The L T reters. 120 

The Peritoneum. 120 

Peritoneal Sacs. 121 

The Omenta. 121 

The Mesenteries. 121 

The Pelvic Cavity. 121 

The Bladder. 122 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 123 

Organs of Circulation. 123 

Circulatory Systems. 123 

Chapter VII.—The Heart and Blood. 124 

The Heart. 124 

The Pericardium. 125 

The Endocardium. 125 




























































XI 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Chapter VII.—The Heart and Blood— ^Continued. page. 

The Heart— Continued. 

Heart’s Weight and Size. 125 

Its Cavities. 125 

The Right Auricle . 126 

The Right Ventricle. 126 

The Left Auricle. 127 

The Left Ventricle. 127 

Valves of the Heart.5.1...... 127 

Its Movements and Sounds. 128 

Its Capacity. 129 

The Blood . 129 

Composition of Blood. 129 

The Circulation of the Blood. 130 

Chapter VIII.—The Blood=Vessels. 132 

The Arteries. 132 

The Large Trunks. 132 

The Main Artery. 132 

Arterial Anastomosis. 133 

Accompanying Vessels. 133 

Vasa Vasoium........,. 133 

Their Coats. 4 . 133 

The Veins. !. .:. 134 

Venous Anastomosis .; v .*... 135 

Venous Coats. 135 

Venous Valves. 135 

Kinds of Veins. 136 

Deep Veins. 136 

Superficial or Peripheral Veins.-. 136 

The Sinuses. 136 

The Capillaries. 137 

Where Found. 137 

Their Walls.<...._?. 137 

Chapter IX.—Arteries of the Systemic Circulation. 138 

The Aorta. 138 

The Branches of the Aorta.. j..^. 138 

The Coronary Arteries. 138 

The Innominate.J. 139 

The Common Carotid. 139 

The External Carotid. 140 

The Superior Thyroid. 140 

TheLinguinal . 140 

The Facial. 140 

The Occipital. 140 

The Posterior Auricular. 140 

The Ascending Pharyngeal. 140 

The Temporal. 140 

The Internal Maxillary. 140 

The Internal Carotid. 140 

F. Blood - Vessels of the Head, Neck, etc.—Anatomical Col emulates...141-156 

The Tympanic..'....*. 157 

The Arterise Receptaculi. 157 

The Anterior Meningeal. 157 

The Ophthalmic. 157 

The Posterior Communicating. 157 































































Xll 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Chapter IX.—Arteries of the Systemic Circulation— Continued. 
The Internal Carotid— Continued. page. 

The Anterior Choroid. 157 

The Anterior Cerebral. 157 

The Middle Cerebral. 157 

The Subclavian......:. 157 

The Vertebral. 157 

The Basilar. 157 

The Circle of Willis. 158 

The Thyroid Axis. 158 

The Inferior Thyroid. 158 

The Transversalis Colli. 158 

The Suprascapular. 158 

The Internal Mammary. 158 

The Superior Intercostal. 158 

The Axillary. 158 

The Brachial. 159 

^The Radial. 159 

The Ulnar. 159 

The Superficial Palmar Arch. 159 

The Deep Palmar Arch... 159 

The Thoracic Aorta. 160 

The Pericardiac. 160 

The Bronchial . 160 

The Esophageal. 160 

The Posterior Mediastinals. 160 

The Intercostals. 160 

The Abdominal Aorta*.... 160 

The Phrenic.. 160 

The Celiac Axis. 160 

The Gastric. 160 

The Hepatic. 160 

The Splenic. 160 

The Superior Mesenteric. 162 

The Inferior Mesenteric. 162 

The Suprarenal. 162 

The Renal . 162 

The Spermatics. 162 

The Ovarian. 162 

The Lumbar. 162 

The Middle Sacral. 162 

The Common Iliacs. 162 

The Internal Iliac. 162 

The Anterior Trunk (of Internal Iliac). 162 

The Superior Vesical . 162 

The Middle Vesical... 163 

The Inferior Vesical. 163 

The Middle Hemorrhoidal. 163 

The Uterine. 163 

The Vaginal . 163 

The Obturator . 163 

The Internal Pudic. 163 

The Sciatic. 163 

The Posterior Trunk (of Internal Iliac). 163 

The Iliolumbar. 163 
























































TABLE OF CONTENTS x iii 

Chapter IX.—Arteries of the Systemic Circulation— Continued. 
The Posterior Trunk (of Internal Iliac). page. 

The Lateral Sacral. 163 

The Gluteal... 163 

The External Iliac. 163 

The Deep Epigastric .*. 164 

The Deep Circumflex Iliac. 164 

The Femoral. 164 

The Superficial Epigastric. 164 

The Superficial Circumflex Iliac. 164 

G. Blood Vessels of Peroneal Regions and Lower Extremities .— Ana¬ 
tomical Color Plates . 165-172 

The Superficial External Pudic. 173 

The Deep External Pudic. 173 

The Profunda Femoris. 173 

The External Circumflex.. 173 

The Internal Circumflex. 173 

The Perforating. 173 

The Muscular Branches.... 173 

The Anastomica Magna. 173 

The Popliteal. 173 

The Anterior Tibial. 174 

The Dorsal Pedis. 174 

The Posterior Tibial. 174 

The Internal Plantar. 174 

The External Plantar. 174 

Chapter X.—Veins of the Systemic Circulation. 175 

Veins of the Head and Neck. 175 

The External Veins of the Head. 175 

The Facial... 175 

The Temporal. 175 

The Internal Maxillary. 175 

The Temporomaxillary. 175 

The Posterior Auricular. 176 

The Occipital. 176 

The Veins of the Diploe. 176 

The Cerebral Veins. 176 

The Superficial Cerebral. . 176 

The Deep Cerebral. 176 

The Cerebellar. 176 

The Sinuses of the Dura Mater. 176 

The Superior Longitudinal. 176 

The Inferior Longitudinal. 177 

The Strait. 177 

The Lateral. 177 

The Occipital. 177 

The Sinuses of the Base of the Skull. 177 

The Cavernous. 117 

The Circular.. 177 

The Transverse. 177 

The Inferior Petrosal. 177 

The Superior Petrosal. 178 

The Veins of the Neck.*.... 178 

The External Jugular. 178 

The Posterior External Jugular. 178 
























































CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



xiv 



Chapter X.—Veins of the Systemic Circueation— Continued. 

PAGE. 



The Anterior Jugular. E9 

The Internal Jugular. 119 

The Vertebral. 119 

The 'Veins of the Upper Extremities. 179 

* The Superficial Veins. 119 

The Anterior Ulnar.•* 179 

The Posterior Ulnar. 179 

The Common Ulnar. 179 

The Radial. 180 

The Median... 180 

The Median Cephalic. ISO 

The Median Basilic. 180 

The Basilic. 180 

The Cephalic. ISO 

-The Deep Veins of the Upper Extremities. 180 

Two Digital Veins. ISO 

The Deep Palmar Veins. 181 

The Axillary. 181 

The Subclavian. 181 

The Innominates. 181 

The Superior Vena Cava. 181 

The Principal Veins of the Thorax. 182 

The Azygos Veins. 182 

The Right Azygos. r.. 182 

The Left Lower Azygos.:.... 182 

The Left Upper Azygos. 182 

The Spinal Veins. 182 

The Veins of the Lower Extremities. 182 

The Principal Superficial Veins. 182 

The Internal Saphenous. 183 

The External Saphenous. 183 

The Deep Veins of the Lower Extremities.184 

The External and Internal Plantars. 184 

The Anterior Tibials. 184 

The Popliteal. 184 

The Femoral. 184 

The External Iliac.. 184 

The Internal Iliac. 184 

The Common Uiacs. 184 

The Inferior Vena Cava. 185 

The Cardiac Veins.. A . 185 

Chapter XI.— The Other Circulatory Systems . 186 

The Lesser or Pulmonary Circulation. 186 

The Pulmonary Artery..•^. 186 

The Pulmonary Veins. .•. 186 

The Pulmonary Capillaries. K .. 187 

The Portal System of Veins.*.188 

The Portal Vein. 188 

The Inferior Mesenteric. 188 

II. Portal and Fetal Systems.—Anatomical Color Plates . 189-192 

The Superior Mesenteric. 193 

The Splenic. 193 

The Gastrics. 193 


























































TABLE OF CONTENTS xv 

Chapter XI.—The Other Circulatory Systems— Continued, page. 

The Fetal Circulation. 193: 

The Placenta. 194 

The Foramen Ovale. 195 

The Eustachian Valve. 195 

The Umbilical or Hypogastric Arteries. 195 

The Umbilical Vein. 196 

The Ductus Arteriosus. 196 

The Ductus Venosus. 196 

The Umbilical Cord. 196 

Placental Circulation. 196 

Chapter XII.—The Organs of Special Senses. 198 

The Eye. 198 

The Eyeball. 198 

The Tunics... 199 

The Sclerotic... 199 

The Cornea. 199 

The Choroid. 199 

The Iris. 199 

The Retina. 200 

Chambers of the Eye. 200 

The Aqueous Humor. 200 

The Vitreous Humor. 200 

The Crystalline Lens. 201 

The Lachrymal Apparatus. 201 

Appendages of the Eye. 201 

• The Ear. 202 

The External Ear. 202 

The Middle Ear. 203 

The Internal Ear. 203 

The Nose. 204 

Organs of Taste and Touch. 204 

The Tongue. 204 

The Skin. 205 

Chapter XIII.—The Body : Its Composition and Chemistry.... 206 

Weight of the Different Parts...... 206 

The Chemical Constituents. 206 

Chief Chemical Compounds of the Body. 207 

Fats.■. 207 

Carbohydrates. 208 

Proteins.‘.. 209 

Saliva. 210 

Gastric Juice. 211 

Pancreatic Juice. . 212 

Bile. 213 

Blood. 213 

Milk. 215 

Urea. 215 

PART SECOND. 

ANCIENT AND MODERN EMBALMING. 217 

Introduction to Part Second. 218 

Chapter XIV.—Ancient Embalming. 220 

Egyptian Methods. 221 

Reasons for Embalming. . 222. 

























































XVI 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Chapter XIV.—Ancient Embalming— Continued. 

Embalmers of the Medical Fraternity. 

Selecting the Pattern. 

Removing the Brain.. 

Incising the Body. 

Treatment of the Viscera. 

Ingredients Used. 

The Mummy Wrappings. 

The Cartounage... 

Treatment of the Intestines. 

Classes of Embalming. 

An Intermediate Mode. 

When Embalming Ceased. 

Jewish Methods. 

Like Those of Egypt. 

Embalming the Poor. 

In the Time of Christ. .. 

Methods of Romans and Other Nations. 

Among the Romans. 

The Babylonians. 

The Scythians. 

The Ethiopians.. 

Among Persians, Assyrians, etc. 

The Greeks. 

The Guanclies.. . 

On the Western Hemisphere. 

Among Early Peruvians. 

The Aztecs.. 

North American Indians. 

Among Early Christians. 

Chapter XV.—Modern Embalming. 

Dr. Frederick Ruysch. 

Dr. William Hunter. 

John Hunter. 

The Hunterian Method. . 

M. Boudet’s Process.. 

M. Franchiui’s Process. . 

Jean Nicholas Gannal. 

Dr. Gannal.:_ 

M. Sucquet. 

M. Falcony.. 

Dr. Cliaussier’s Method. 

Franciolla’s Method. 

Brunetti .. 

A Method in Vogue in Belgium. 

Dr. Tscheirnoff’s Method. 

The Florentine Process. 

A German Process. 

Embalming but Little Practised in England. 

No Good Embalming Done Abroad. 

Chapter XVI.—Up=to=Date Embalming. 

The Methods of To=day. % . 

Preservation as a Reason. 

Sanitation as a Reason. 

Necessity for a Thorough Embalmment. 


page, 
.. 223 
.. 223 
.. 224 
.. 225 
.. 226 
.. 226 
.. 227 
.. 227 
.. 229 
.. 230 
.. 230 
.. 231 
.. 231 
.. 232 
.. 233 
.. 233 
.. 234 
... 234 
.. 234 
.. 234 
.. 234 
234 
.. 234 
.. 234 
.. 235 
.. 235 
.. 235 
.. 235 
.. 236 
.. 237 
.. 237 
.. 238 
... 239 
... 239 
... 240 
.. 240 
... 241 
.. 241 
... 242 
.. 242 
... 243 
... 243 
... 244 
... 244 
... 245 
... 246 
246 
... 247 
... 248 
... 250 
... 250 
... 251 
... 252 
... 253 



























































TABLE OF CONTENTS 


XVII 


Chapter XVI.—Up=to-Date Embarming— Continued. page. 

The Condition, Appearance* and Disease. 25 

Appearance After Thorough Embalmment. 255 

Chapter XVII.—Death: Its Modes, Signs, and Changes. 256 

Modes of Death. 256 

Syncope. 257 

Apnea, Asphyxia. 257 

Coma. 260 

Signs of Death. 261 

Cessation of the Heart’s Action. 261 

Cessation of Respiration. 262 

Loss of Vitality. 263 

Changes of Death. 264 

Cooling of the Body. 264 

Hypostasis, or Post-Mortem Discoloration. 264 

Post-Mortem Staining. 265 

Rigor Mortis . 265 

Summary of the Signs of Death. 267 

Chapter XVIII. — Putrefaction : Its Modifications and 

Peculiarities. 269 

Adipocere. 272 

“Skin-slip” : Its Causes and Prevention. 273 

Its Causes. 273 

Its Prevention.. 274 

Chapter XIX.—The Blood: Its Characteristics and Changes 275 

Composition of Blood. 275 

Circulation of Blood. 276 

Coagulation of the Blood. 276 

Causes of Arteries Being Empty After Death. 279 

Circulation of Fluid. 279 

Chapter XX.—Arterial Embalming. 281 

Raising and Injecting Arteries. 281 

Selection of the Artery. 281 

To Distinguish the Artery. 282 

Raising and Incising the Artery. 283 

The Injection of Fluid. 284 

A Second Injection. 285 

The Brachial Artery and Basilic Vein... 287 

Location. 287 

The Linear Guide. 287 

The Anatomical Guide. 287 

To Raise the Artery. 287 

To Raise the Basilic Vein. 288 

The Femoral Artery and Vein. 288 

Location. 288 

The Linear Guide. 289 

The Anatomical Guide. 289 

To Raise the Artery. 289 

To Raise the Vein. 290 

The Common Carotid Artery and Internal Jugular Vein. 290 

Location. 291 

The Linear Guide. 291 

The Anatomical Guide. 291 

To Raise the Artery. 291 

To Raise the Jugular Vein. 292 


B 
























































CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


xviii 

Chapter XX.—Arterial Embalming— Continued. page. 

The Radial Artery. 292 

Location. . 292 

The Anatomical Guide. 292 

To Raise the Artery. 294 

The Posterior and Anterior Tibial Artery. 294 

Location. 294 

The Guide to the Posterior Tibia. 294 

To Raise the Artery. 294 

The Guide to the Anterior Tibia. 295 

To Raise the Artery. 295 

Chapter XXI.—Cavity Embalming. 296 

Necessity for Cavity Embalming. 296 

Sterilizing Effete Matter .. 296 

The Thoracic Cavity. 298 

Its Location and Contents. 298 

To Inject the Pleural Sacs. . 300 

To Inject Fluid into the Lung Cavities. 302 

Gases in the Pleurse and Pericardium. 303 

The Abdominal Cavity. 303 

Its Regions. 303 

Position of Its Contents. 305 

Organs Requiring Special Treatment. 306 

The Stomach. 308 

Its Dilatation. 308 

Its Contraction. 309 

Chapter XXII. — Cranial Embalming — So-called Needle 

Processes. 310 

The Eye Process. 310 

The Operation. 310 

The Barnes Process. 311 

The Operation. 311 

The Nasal Process... 312 

The Operation. 312 

Embalming Through Soft Tissues on Outside of Skeleton. 313 

The Operation.313 

Chapter XXIII.—Removal of the Blood. 315 

Reasons for its Removal. 315 

The Methods. 315 

From the Heart Direct. 315 

Another Method. 319 

Through the Basilic Vein. 320 

Through the Femoral Vein. 320 

Through the Jugular Vein. 321 

Circulation Not Destroyed by Tapping the Heart. 322 

Chapter XXIV.—Discolorations and Their Removal. 323 

To Remove Venous Congestion. 323 

Flushing of the Face. 325 

Post-Mortem Discoloration, or Hypostasis. 325 

Post-Mortem Staining. 326 

Brownish or Greenish Spots. 326 

Bruises and Ecchymoses. 326 

Discoloration Caused by Biliverdin. 327 

Bleachers and Fluids Not Effective. 327 

The Ice Mixture. m ’ m ]“ 328 





























































TABLE OF CONTENTS x j x 

PAGE. 

Chapter XXV.—Gases : Their Production and Elimination 329 

What They Are. 329 

Where Found. 329 

How Eliminated. 330 

Purging and Its Treatment. 331 

Purging from the Stomach. 331 

Treatment. 332 

Purging from the Lungs . 332 

Treatment. 333 

PART THIRD, 

MORBID ANATOMY AND TREATMENT OF SPECIAL DIS¬ 
EASES. 335 

Introduction to Part Third. 336 

Chapter XXVI.—Diseases Affecting the Vascular System 337 
Diseases of the Arteries, Weakening the Walls and Causing 

Aneurisms. 337 

Treatment. 340 

Diseases of the Heart and Blood-Vessels Affecting the Circu¬ 
lation. 340 

Treatment. 342 

Valvular Diseases of the Heart. 343 

Treatment. 344 

Chapter XXVII.—Infectious and Contagious Diseases. 345 

Scarlatina — Scarlet Fever. 345 

Treatment. 347 

Diphtheria. 348 

Treatment. 350 

Typhoid Fever. 351 

Treatment. 353 

Typhus Fever. 355 

Hospital, Jail, Camp, and Ship Fever. 355 

Treatment. 356 

Measles. 357 

Treatment. 357 

Tuberculosis.—Consumption. 358 

Treatment. 359 

Tubercular Meningitis. 360 

Treatment. 362 

Scrofula. 362 

Tuberculosis of the Lymphatic Glands. 362 

Treatment..... 363 

Cerebrospinal Meningitis—Spotted Fever. 363 

Treatment. 365 

Chapter XXVIII.—Infectious and Contagious Diseases— 

Continued. 366 

Smallpox. 366 

Treatment. 367 

Cholera, Asiatic. 368 

Treatment. 371 

Yellow Fever. 371 

Treatment. 373 

Bubonic Plague. 373 

Treatment.«... 374 




















































XX 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


Chapter XXVIII.—Infectious and Contagious Diseases.— 
Continued. PAG _ E - 

Tetanus—Lockjaw. 375 

Tetanus Neonatorum. 375 

Treatment. a. 376 

Anthrax—Splenic Fever. 376 

Wool-Sorters’ Disease—Rag-Pickers’ Disease. 376 

Treatment. 378 

Syphilis. 379 

Treatment. 379 

Syphilitic Disease of the Lungs. 380 

Treatment . 381 

Chapter XXIX.—Diseases Affecting the Blood. 383 

Septicemia—Blood Poison.'.. 383 

Treatment. 384 

Pyemia. 385 

Treatment. 386 

Erysipelas. 387 

Treatment. 388 

Purpura. 389 

Treatment. 391 

Leukemia. 391 

Treatment. 393 

Puerperal or Childbed Fever. 394 

Treatment. 395 

Peritonitis. 396 

Treatment. 397 

Chapter XXX.—Diseases of the Air-Passages and Chest... 398 

Pneumonia—Lung Fever. 398 

Acute or Croupous Pneumonia—Pneumonitis. 398 

Treatment. 400 

Gangrene of the Lungs. 401 

Treatment. 401 

Pleurisy—Pleuritis. 402 

Inflammation of the Pleura. 402 

Treatment. 404 

Pericarditis . 404 

Inflammation of the Pericardium. 404 

Treatment. 406 

Hypostatic Congestion of the Lungs. 407 

Hypostatic Pneumonia—Splenization. 407 

Treatment. 407 

Anemia of the Lungs. 408 

Treatment. 410 

Other Diseases of the Air-Passages and Chest. 410 

Laryngitis, Bronchitis, etc. 410 

Cpiapter XXXI.—Diseases of the Digestive System. 411 

Appendicitis. 411 

Inflammation of the Appendix Vermiformis... ... 411 

Treatment. 412 

Obstinate Constipation. 413 

Treatment. 414 

Dysentery—Flux. 414 

Treatment,.. .415 


/ 























































TABLE OF CONTENTS 


XXI 


Chapter XXXI.— Diseases of the Digestive System— Con¬ 
tinued. PAGE. 


Cholera Infantum.... . 416 

Treatment. . 416 

Hernia or Rupture. 416 

Treatment. 416 

Jaundice.. 416 

Treatment. 417 

Intestinal Catarrh. 418 

Treatment.;. 419 

Sporadic Cholera—Cholera Morbus. 420 

Treatment. 420 

Other Diseases of the Alimentary Canal. 421 

Gastritis, Enteritis, Colitis, and Eutercolitis. 421 

Treatment. 421 

Chapter XXXII.— Diseases of the Kidneys and Bladder . 422 


Bright’s Disease. 

Acute Bright’s Disease. 

Waxy Bright’s Disease.;. 

Cirrhotic Bright’s Disease. 

Treatment. . 

Nephritis. 

Inflammation of the Kidney. 

Diabetes. 

Sugar in the Urine. 

Treatment. 

Diseases of the Bladder.. 

Treatment . 

Chapter XXXIII.— Diseases of the Nerves 

Paralysis.. 

Treatment. 

Apoplexy—Cerebral Hemorrhage. 

Treatment.. 


422 

422 

422 

423 

424 

425 
425 
425 

425 

426 
426 

426 

427 

427 

428 

429 
431 


Chapter XXXIV.— Cancerous and Constitutional Diseases. 432 


Malignant Tumors.—Cancer. 432 

Treatment. 432 

Cancer of the Stomach. . 432 

Treatment. 434 

Cancer of the Liver. 434 

Treatment. 435 

Benign Tumors. 436 

Treatment. 436 

Dropsy. 437 

Treatment. 438 

Rheumatism. 440 

Treatment. 441 

Chapter XXXV.— Death from Accidental Causes . 442 

Post-Mortem Cases. 442 

Treatment. . 442 

Drowned Cases. 445 

Treatment. 445 

A “Floater”. 446 

Treatment. 446 

Lightning or Electricity. 447 

Treatment. 447 

























































CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


xxii 

Chapter XXXV.—Death from Accidental, Causes.— Continued. 

PAGE. 

Cases of Mutilation. 448 

Railroad and Other Accidents. 448 

Treatment. 448 

Gunshot Wounds. 450 

Treatment. 450 

Asphyxia. 451 

Treatment. 452 

Death from Freezing. 452 

Treatment. 453 

Chapter XXXVI.—Death from Poison. 454 

Corrosive Poisons. 455 

Irritant Poisons. 456 

Narcotic Poisons. 457 

Treatment. 458 

Opium or Morphin Poisoning. 458 

Treatment. 458 

Poisoning by Arsenic... 460 

Treatment. 461 

Poisoning by Mercury. 461 

Acute Mercurial Poisoning. 461 

Treatment. 462 

Chronic ^Mercurial Poisoning—Mercurialism. 463 

Treatment. 463 

Poisoning by Carbonic Acid. 464 

Treatment. 464 

Poisoning by Carbonic Oxid. 465 

Treatment. 465 

Poisoning by Coal Gas. 466 

Treatment. . 467 

Chapter XXXVII.—Miscellaneous Diseases. 468 

Chronic Alcoholism. 468 

Treatment. 469 

Acute Alcoholism. 469 

Treatment. 470 

Delirium Tremens. 470 

Treatment. 470 

Jaundice of the News Born. 471 

Treatment. 472 

Death of Mother and Fetus in Utero... 473 

Treatment. 473 

Senility or Old Age. 474 

Treatment. 475 

Gangrene—Mortification. 476 

Senile Gangrene. 476 

treatment.,. 477 

Sunstroke. 477 

Treatment. 478 

PART FOURTH. 

BACTERIOLOGY, SANITATION, AND DISINFECTION. 479 

Introduction to Part Fourth. 480 

Chapter XXXVIII.—Bacteriology. 481 

History of Bacteriology...... 481 
























































TABLE OF CONTENTS 


xxiii 


Chapter XXXVIII.—Bacteriology— Continued. page. 

Bacteria: Their Forms and Growth. 486 

Bacteria in Air, Water, and Earth. 492 

Chapter XXXIX.—Infection and Contagion. 495 

Channels of Infection. 496 

Susceptibility and Immunity. 497 

Chapter XL.—Disinfection and Its Effects. 499 

Deodorants—Deodorizers .. 505 

Chapter XLI.—Antiseptics and Disinfectants. 507 

Antiseptics. 507 

Disinfectants. 508 

Chapter XLII.—Disinfection of Rooms and Their Contents.* 513 

Sulphur Fumes ( Sulphur Dioxid). 516 

Formaldehyde Gas. .. 518 

To Disinfect with Schering’s Pastilles. 521 

Formalin Distillation. 522 

Novy’s Formaldehyde Gas Generator. 523 

Chapter XLIII.—Transportation of Bodies. 526 

The Shipping Rules. 527 

Comments Upon the Rules. 530 


PART FIFTH. 


GENERAL MISCELLANY. 539 

Introduction to Part Fifth. 540 

Chapter XLIV.— Hints on Funeral Directing . 541 

Chapter XLV.— Resuscitation . 545 

Howard’s Method of Artificial Respiration. 545 

Action of Operator. 546 

Rules of the Royal Humane Society. 546 

Rule I.—If from Drowning or Other Suffocation or Nar¬ 
cotic Poisoning. 546 

Treatment to Restore Natural Breathing. 546 

First.—To Maintain a Free Entrance of Air into the Wind¬ 


pipe. 


546 

Second.—To Adjust the Patient’s Position. 547 

Third.—To Imitate the Movements of Breathing. 547 

Fourth.—To Excite Inspiration... 547 

Treatment After the Natural Breathing Has Been Restored... 548 

Fifth.—To Induce Circulation and Warmth. 548 

Rule II.— If from Intense Cold. 548 

Rule III.—If from Intoxication. 548 

Rule IV.— If from Apoplexy or Sunstroke. 548 

Syncope and Asphyxia. 548 

Syncope. 549 

Treatment. 549 

Asphyxia from Breathing Noxious Gases. 549 

Asphyxia from Mechanical Obstruction of the Air?Passages 549 
Asphyxia from Advancing Coma or from Narcotics and . 

Anesthetics. 549 

Asphyxia from Drowning. 550 

1. Position of Patient. 550 

2. Position and Action of Operator. 550 

3. Suspended Animation from Lightning Stroke or 

Electricity. 550 














































xxiv 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


PAGE. 

Chapter XLVI.—Post-Mortem Wounds. 552 

Chapter XLVII.— Instruments : Their Selection and Care.. 555 

Sterilizing Instruments. 556 

Selecting Instruments. 557 

COMPENDIUM OF PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.. 559 

Introduction. 560 

I. Anatomy and Physiology. 561 

Bones, Muscles, etc. 561 

Visceral Anatomy. 564 

Nervous System. 566 

' Respiratory Organs. 569 

Organs of Digestion. 571 

The Circulatory System. 574 

Arteries. 579 

Veins. 583 

II. Embalming.. . 585 

III. Sanitation and Disinfection. 601 

A PRACTICAL DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL 

TERMS. 607 

Introduction. 608 

A, 609; B, 612; C, 613; D, 617; E, 619; F, 621; G, 622; H, 623; 

I, 624; J, 626; K, 626; L, 627; M, 628; N, 630- O, 631; P, 632; 

Q, 636; R, 636; S, 637; T, 641; U, 642; V, 643; W, 644; 

X, 644; Y, 644; Z, 644. 

GENERAL INDEX. 645 




1 




















LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Portrait of Author, 


. Frontispiece 


ANATOMICAL HALF TONES AND COLOR PLATES. 

PLATE. 


PAGE. 


A. The Bones—Seven Plates . 9 - 24 . 

I. BONES OF THE SKELETON.. 10 

H. BONES OF THE HEAD. 12 


Fig. 1—Front View of Cranium. Fig. 2—Side View of Cranium. 
Figs. 3 and 4—Vertical Section of Facial Bones. Fig. 5— 
Ethmoid Bone—Upper Surface. Fig. 6—Ethmoid Bone— 
Nasal Surface. Fig. 7—Palate Bone—Nasal Surface. Fig. 

8—Hyoid Bone—Anterior Aspect. 

III. BONES OF THE HEAD—Continued. 14 

Fig. 1—Base of Skull—Inner Surface. Fig. 2—Inferior Surface 
of Cranium—Base of Skull. Figs. 3 and 4—Temporal Bone 
—External Surface (3); Inner Surface (4). Figs. 5 and 6— 
Sphenoid Bone—Inner Surface (5); Anterior Surface (6). 
Figs. 7 and 8—Inferior Maxillary—Outer Surface (7); Inner 
Surface (8). 

IV. BONES OF TRUNK. 16 

Fig. 1—Spine (vertebrae), Thorax, Clavicle, and Portion of Scap¬ 
ula. Fig. 2—Pelvis. Fig. 3—True or Sternal Ribs. Fig. 4— 
Sternum—Anterior Surface. Fig. 5—Os Innominatum of 
Right Side—Inner Surface. Fig. 6—Os Innominatum of 
Left Side—Outer Surface. Figs. 7 and 8—Os Coccygis— 
Posterior Surface (7); Anterior and Upper Surfaces (8). 

V. BONES OF TRUNK—Continued. 18 

Fig. 1—Posterior View of Trunk. Figs. 2 and 3 —Atlas and Axis 
—Anterior Surface (2); Posterior Surface (3). Figs. 4 and 5— 
Atlas—Superior Surface (4); Inferior Surface (5). Fig. 6— 
Axis—Anterior Surface. Fig. 7—Cervical Vertebra—Su¬ 
perior Surface. Figs. 8 and 9—A Dorsal (8) and a Lumbar 
Vertebra (9)—Superior Surfaces. 

VI. BONES OF UPPER EXTREMITIES. 2a 

Figs. 1 and 2—Clavicle (left)—Superior Surface (1); Inferior Sur¬ 
face (2). Fig. 3—Scapula—Posterior and Outer Surface. 

Fig. 4— Scapula—Internal or Concave Surface. Fig. 5— 
Scapula—Front View of Anterior Margin. Fig. 6—Humerus 
(left)—Posterior View. Fig. 7—Humerus (left)—Anterior 
View. Figs. 8 and 9—Ulna—Posterior View (8); Anterior 
View (9). Figs. 10 and 11—Radius—Anterior View (10); 


XXV 












XXVI 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


PAGE. 


PLATE. 

VI. BONES OF UPPER EXTREMITIES — Continued. 

Posterior View (11). Fig. 12—Bones of Right Hand—Pos¬ 
terior Surface. Figs. 13 and 14—Carpus, Metacarpus, and 
Phalanges of.Thumb (left)—Posterior Surface (13); Anterior 
Surface (14). Fig. 15 and 17—Carpal Bones (left), First Row 
—Superior Articular Surface (15); Inferior Surface (17). 

Fig. 16 and 18—Carpal Bones (left), Second Row—Intercar- 
pal Articular Surface (16); Digital Surface (18). 

VII. BONES OF LOWER EXTREMITIES. 22 

Fig. 1—Femur (left) —Anterior Surface. Fig. 2-Femur (left)— 
Posterior Surface. Figs. 3 and 4—Left Patella (Kneecap)— 
Anterior Surface (3); Posterior Surface (4). Figs. 5 and 6.— 
Tibia (left)—Anterior and Inner Surfaces (5); Posterior Sur¬ 
face (6). Figs. 7 and 8—Fibula (left)—Anterior Surface (7); 
Posterior Surface (8). Figs. 9 and 10—Bones of Foot (right) 

—Upper or Dorsal Surface (9); Inferior or Plantar Surface 
(10). Figs. 11 and 12—Tarsal and Metatarsal Bones (left)— 
Upper or Dorsal Surface (11); under or Plantar Surface (12). 

B. The Ligaments —Three Plates .!. 29-36 

VIII. LIGAMENTS OF HEAD, TRUNK, AND UPPER EXTREM¬ 
ITIES. 30 

Fig. 1—Ligaments of the Vertebrae, Sternal End of Ribs, Pelvis, 
and Iliofemoral Articulation—Anterior Surface. Figs. 2 
and 3—Ligaments of Right Temporomaxillary Articulation 
—External Surface (2); Internal Surface (3). Figs. 4 and 5— 
Internal Ligaments Connecting Occipital Bone with Axis 
and of the Articulation Between Atlas and Axis—Posterior 
View. Figs. 6 and 7—Ligaments of Sternoclavicular and 
Sternocostal Articulation with Anterior Intercostal Liga¬ 
ments —Anterior Surface (6); Posterior Surface (7). Figs. 8 
and 9—Ligaments of Shoulder-Joint and Scapuloclavicular 
Articulation. Figs. 10 and 11—Ligaments of Left Elbow* 
Joint—Anterior Surface (10); Posterior Surface (11). Fig. 

12—Ligaments of Left Wrist=Joint and Hand—Anterior 
Surface. Fig. 13—Ligaments of Left Wrist* Joint and Hand 
—Anterior Surface. 

IX. LIGAMENTS OF PELVIS AND ADJOINING ARTICULA¬ 
TIONS. 32 

Ligaments of Lower Part of Spine, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral 
Articulations. 

X. LIGAMENTS OF SPINE, PELVIS, AND JOINTS OF LOWER 

EXTREMITIES. 34 

Fig. 1—Ligaments of Cervical and Dorsal Vertebrae. Fig. 2— 
Dorsal Ligaments of Spinal Column, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral 
Articulation. Fig. 3—Ligaments of Left Knee-Joint. Figs. 

4 and 5—Ligaments of Left Knee*Joint—Internal Anterior 
View (4); Posterior View (5). Fig. 6—Ligaments of Sole of 
Left Foot. Fig. 7—Ligaments of Left Foot—Internal Sur¬ 
face. Fig. 8—Ligaments of Left Foot—External and Dorsal 
Surfaces. 

C. The Muscles—Seven Plates 


4-1-56 








LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


xxvii 


PLATE. PAGE. 

XI. MUSCLES OF HEAD AND NECK. 42 


Fig. 1—Muscles of Face and Neck—Anterior Surfaces. Fig. 

2—Muscles of Neck—Right Side. Fig. 2—Muscles of 
Neck—Front View. Fig. 4—Deep Muscles of Right Side 
of Neck. 

XII. MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR PART OF NECK, TRUNK, 

PHARYNX, PALATE, LOWER JAW, AND TONGUE.. 44 
Fig. 1—Muscles of Back of Pharynx and Lower Jaw. Fig. 2— 
Muscles of Palate and Throat—Posterior View. Fig. 3— 
Muscles of Tongue—Lateral View of Right Side. Fig. 4— 
Internal Muscles of Lower Jaw. Fig. 5—Muscles of Soft 
Palate. Fig. 6—Muscles of Posterior Surface of Neck and 
Upper Part of Thorax. Fig. 7—Deep Muscles of Neck 
and Back. 

XIII. MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK, ARMS, AND FEET. 46 

Fig. 1—Muscles of Face, Trunk, Arms, and Upper Part of 
Thighs—Anterior View. Fig. 2—Plantar Fascia or Apo¬ 
neurosis of Right Foot. Fig. 3—Plantar Muscles, First 
Layer—Inferior Surface, Right Foot. Fig. 4—Second 
Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. Fig. 5—Thii'd 
Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. Fig. 6—Fourth 
Layer of Dorsal Muscles of Right Foot. 

XIV. MUSCLES OF TRUNK, NECK, AND ARMS (Posterior View, 

with some of Anterior Surface). 48 

Fig 1—Muscles of Trunk, Upper Part of Thighs, and Arms. 

Fig. 2—Deep Muscles of Neck—Anterior View. Fig. 3— 
Deep Muscles of Back of Neck. Fig. 4—Tendons and Ten¬ 
dinous Sheaths on Posterior Surface of Carpus. Fig. 5— 
Tendons and Tendinous Aponeuroses of Right Wrist and 
Hand. 

XV. DEEP MUSCLES OF ABDOMEN, DIAPHRAGM, AND 


PELVIS. 50 

XVI. MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR AND EXTERNAL SUR¬ 
FACES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 52 

Fig. 1 —Muscles of Anterior Surface of Lower Extremities. 


Fig. 2—Muscles of External Surface of Right Side of Pel¬ 
vis and Lower Extremity. 

XVII. MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR AND INNER SURFACES 

OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 54 

Fig. 1—Muscles of Posterior Surface of Pelvis and Lower Ex¬ 
tremities. Fig. 2—Muscles of Inner surface of Pelvis, 
Thigh, Leg, and Foot. 

D. The Heart—Two Plates . 77-80 

XVIII. THE HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVES. 78 

Anterior Surface, with Pericardial Covering. 

XIX.' THE HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVES—Continued. 79 
Internal Cavities of Ventricles—Anterior View. 

E. Thoracic and Abdominal Viscera , with their Blood-Vessels —Ten 

Plates . .. 93-108 













xxviii 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


PLATE. 


PAGE. 


XX. VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOMEN, AND PELVIS (AN¬ 
TERIOR VIEW). 94 

Thoracic Parietes with Viscera Enclosed (Abdomen and 
Abdominal Viscera in Natural Position). 


XXI. VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOMEN, AND PELVIS 

(ANTERIOR VIEW)—Continued... 96 

Lungs, in Position, and Deeper Abdominal Viscera 
(Small Intestine Being Removed). 

XXII. PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP- 

ERBLOOD-VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA. 98 
Small Intestine (Jejunum and Ilium), Mesenteries, and 
Mesenteric Vessels. 


XXIII. PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP¬ 
ER BLOOD-VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued.. 99 

Fig. 1—Internal Arrangement of Hepatic Blood-vessels 
(Liver Divided Transversely). Fig. 2—Internal Struc¬ 
ture of Kidney, with Blood-Vessels and Ducts. 


XXIV. PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP¬ 
ER BLOOD-VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued. 100 

Large Intestine, with Principal Blood-Vessels. 

XXV. PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP¬ 
ER BLOOD-VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued. 101 

View of Posterior Surface of the Deep Viscera of Abdo¬ 
men and Pelvis, with Principal Blood-Vessels. 

XXVI. PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP¬ 
ER BlOOD-VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 
—Continued.. 102 


View of Posterior Surface of the Superficial Viscera of 
Abdomen and Blood-Vessels. 


XXVII. THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 
PRINCIPAL VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYM¬ 
PHATICS... 103 

Posterior View of Solar Plexus and Minor Plexuses, with 
some of the Deep Blood-Vessels. 

XXVIII. THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 
PRINCIPAL VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYM¬ 
PHATICS—Continued . 104 

Anterior View of the Trunk. 

XXIX. THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL YISCERA, WITH 
PRINCIPAL VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYM¬ 
PHATICS—Continued. . 106 

Posterior View of the Trunk. 

I. Blood > Vessels of Head, Neck , etc.—Twelve Plates . 141-156 

XXX. BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS 

OF NERVES AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 142 

Base of Brain, Showing Origin of Nerves and Arteries. 














LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


xxix 


PLATE. PAGE. 

XXXI. BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS 


OF NERVES AND BLOOD-VESSELS—Continued... 143 
Vertical Longitudinal Section of Brain, Cerebrum, and 
Crebellum, through Center. 

XXXII. BLOOD-VESSELS OF HEAD AND NECK. 144 

Arteries of Anterior Surface of Head and Neck. 

XXXIII. BLOOD - VESSELS OF LATERAL SURFACE OF 

HEAD, FACE, AND NECK. 145 

XXXIV. ARTERIES OF RIGHT SIDE OF NECK. 146 

XXXV. BLOOD - VESSELS OF (RIGHT) SIDE OF NECK. 147 

XXXVI. BLOOD - VESSELS OF NECK, TRUNK, AND UPPER 

EXTREMITIES. 148 

Principal Arteries and Veins of Neck, Thorax, and Arms, 
with Deep Blood-Vessels of Abdominal Cavity. 

XXXVII. BLOOD-VESSELS OF (LEFT) SIDE OF HEAD AND 

FACE. 150 

LXXVIII. POSTERIOR SURFACE OF LUNGS AND TRACHEA, 
WITH THEIR PRINCIPAL ARTERIES, VEINS, 
AND NERVES. 151 

XXXIX. ARTERIES OF ANTERIOR SURFACE OF ARM, 

FOREARM, AND HAND. 152 


Fig. 1—Superficial Arteries on Internal and Anterior Sur¬ 
face of Arm, Forearm, and Hand. Fig. 2—Deep Ar¬ 
teries of Arm, Forearm, and Hand—Anterior Surface. 

XL. THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 

PRINCIPAL VESSELS. 154 

Principal Chylopoietic Viscera, Blood-Vessels, and Ducts. 

XLI. CELIAC AXIS AND ITS BRANCHES. 155 

O. Blood - Vessels of Perinecd Regions and Lower Extremities — Four 

Plates . 165-172 

XLII. BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS. 166 

Arteries of Pelvis and Internal Genital Organs in Female 
Subject. 

XLIII. BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS—Con¬ 
tinued.. 167 

Arteries of Pelvis in Male Subject. 

XLIV. ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 168 
Fig. 1—Arteries on Internal Surface of Pelvis, Thigh, and 
Knee of the Right Extremity. Fig. 2—Arteries on 
Dorsal Surface of Right Foot. Fig. 3—Plantar Arch 
of Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 

XLV. ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 

—Continued. 170 

Fig. 1—Arteries on Anterior Surface of Right Leg and 
Foot. Fig. 2—Arteries on Posterior Surface of Right 
Leg. Fig. 3—Deep Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 

H. Portal and Fetal Systems.—Two Plates 


189-192 

















CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


xxx 

PLATE. 

XLVI. PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS. 190 

Portal Vein and Its Branches, Liver, Stomach, Pancreas, 
Spleen, Portion of Large and Small Intestines in Posi¬ 
tion (Transverse Colon Removed.) 

XLVII. FETAL CIRCULATION, WITH PLACENTA AND UM¬ 
BILICAL CORD. 191 

ENGRAVINGS AND HALF-TONES. 

Fig. 1.—Lacunae and Haversian Canals. 7 

Fig. 2.—A Muscle. 37 

Fig. 3.—The Diaphragm, showing Under Surface, with Openings, etc... 59 

Fig. 4.—Section of Skin Magnified. 62 

Fig. 5.—Section of Mesentery. 67 

Fig. 6.—Mucous Membrane of Ilium, showing Villi (highly magnified) 68 

Fig. 7.—The Cerebrospinal System. 72 

Fig. 8.—The Brain and Spinal Cord. 74 

Fig. 9.—The Upper Air-Passages. 82 

Fig. 10.—The Thoracic Viscera. 85 

Fig. 11.—Larynx, Trachea, and Bronchi. 86 

Fig. 12.—The Alimentary Canal, a Portion of Esophagus Being Re¬ 
moved . 90 

Fig. 13.—The Jaws and Teeth. . 91 

Fig. 14.—Regions of the Abdomen and their Contents. 110 

Fig. 15.—The Stomach. ]11 

Fig. 16.—Beginning of Large Intestine. 114 

Fig. 17.—Under Surface of Liver, showing Lobes, Fissures, Vessels, etc. 116 

Fig. 18.—The Peritoneum. 120 

Fig. 19.—Kidneys, Bladder, etc. 122 

Fig, 20.—The Heart and Vessels. 124 

Fig. 21.—Valves of the Heart. 126 

Fig. 22.—Blood Corpuscles. 129 

Fig. 23.—Blood-Crystals. 130 

Fig. 24.—Circulation of Blood.. 130 

Fig. 25.—Venous Valves. 135 

Fig. 26.—Capillaries. t 137 

Fig. 27.—Plan of Branches of Aortic Arch. 138 

Fig. 28.—Arch of Aorta and its Branches. 139 

Fig. 29.—The Abdominal Aorta and its Branches. 161 

Fig. 30.—Sinuses at Base of Brain.. 178 

Fig. 31.—Venae Cavae, Venae Azygos, etc. 183 

Fig. 32.—Transverse Section of Thorax, showing Pulmonary Vessels, 

Heart, Lungs, etc. 187 

Fig. 33.—Vertical Section of Eye, showing Chambers, Tunics, Muscles, etc 198 

Fig. 34.—Sectional View of the Ear... 203 

Fig. 35.—Sectional View of Right Nasal Cavity. 204 

Fig. 36.—Mummy, Mummy-Cases, and Sarcophagus... 224 

Fig. 37.—Inner and Outer Mummy-Cases.. 228 

Fig. 38.—Chambers and Valves of the Heart and the Larger Blood-Ves¬ 
sels, showing the Course of Circulation. 277 

Fig. 39.—Raising the Brachial Artery. 286 

Fig. 40.—Injecting the Arterial System through the Radial Artery.! 293 

Fig. 41.—Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities, showing Relative Position 

of Internal Organs.. . 298 











































LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxx j 

PAGE. 

Fig. 42.—Beginning a Dissection. 301 

Fig. 43.—Dissecting tiie Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities. 304 

Fig. 44.—Section of Nose. 312 

Fig. 45.—Aspirating 1 Blood from the Heart. 316 

Fig. 46.—Front View of the Thorax. 317 

Fig. 47.—Bacillus Diphtheriae. 348 

Fig. 48.—Section through Wall of Intestine, showing Invasion of Ty¬ 
phoid Bacilli. 351 

Fig. 49.—Bacillus Typlii Abdominalis. 352 

Fig. 50.—Bacillus Tuberculosis in Giant Cell. 358 

Fig. 51.—Spirillum Cliolerae Asiatics... 368 

Fig. 52.—Bacillus Cadaveris. 372 

Fig. 53.—Bacillus Tetani. 375 

Fig. 54.—Bacillus Authracis. 377 

Fig. 55.—Section from Margin of an Erysipelatous Inflammation, show¬ 
ing Streptococci in Lymph Spaces. 387 

Fig. 56.—Micrococcus Pneumoniae Crou posse.'. 398 

Fig. 57.—Single Colony of Micrococcus Pneumoniae Crouposae. 399 

Fig. 58.—Colonies of Bacteria. 486 

Fig. 59.—Pus containing Streptococci. . 487 

Fig. 60.—Forms of Bacteria. 489 

Fig. 61.—Bacillus Cadaveris. 491 

Fig. 62.—Bacillus Tuberculosis. 492 

Fig. 63.—Novy’s Formaldehyde Generator. 523 



























PART FIRST. 


ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 













INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST. 


Anatomy is the science of organization. The word “anatomy v properly 
signifies dissection, but it has been appropriated to the study and knowl¬ 
edge of the apparent properties of organized bodies. 

In Part First we treat of the anatomy of the human body, not in its 
minutia, but, we might say, superficially. We have endeavored to give it 
in sufficient detail, however, that the student of embalming may under¬ 
stand the matter that follows. He should be familiar with the divisions 
of the body, its various organs and parts ; the location and contents of the 
cavities ; the consistency and composition of the various structures ; the 
different circulations ; the structure and position of the arteries and veins, 
and their relation to each other, and to other parts, for the purpose of 
raising them when necessary, and also to avoid rupturing or mutilating 
them while performing operations upon the body. 

We also treat of physiology, so that the functions of the different organs 
and fluids of the body may be understood. 

Still, many students of embalming will, no doubt, skim very lightly over 
this part and even skip some chapters entirely ; yet, the real student, who 
desires to lay deep the foundation for future success, should study every 
page, for the more he knows about the construction of the body, the better 
able he will be to care for it, when the last spark of life is finally extinct. 

The very excellent anatomical plates, which appear in this part of the 
work, cannot but be a great aid to the student in the study of anatomy. 
Many of these are in colors, showing the arteries and veins in contrast, 
which makes it easy to follow their course, and comprehend their relation. 
The substitution of large=sized letters and figures, for the smaller and more 
indistinct ones used in previous editions, to indicate the principal parts, 
greatly enhances the value of these plates. A careful study of them, in 
connection with the text, is advised. 




3 








CHAPTER I. 


OSTEOLOGY. 


Osteology is that part of anatomical science that treats of 
the structure, articulation, development, and use of the bones 
of the skeleton. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 

Number of Bones. —The classified bones of the skeleton in 
the adult are two hundred in number. The six small bones of 
the ear; the small sesamoid bones, varying from five to eight, 
found at the first joint of the thumb and toe ; and the Wormian 
bones, sometimes found in the cranial sutures; are not classified, 
and are, therefore, not included in the number. The patella 
(knee-cap) is a typical sesamoid bone, but, being large, and 
having such an important place in the anatomy of the body, is 
usually classified among the irregular bones. The teeth are never 
enumerated among the bones. 

The number of bones in youth is greater. The sacrum and 
coccyx, each a single bone in the adult, are in youth made up 
respectively of five and four “ false vertebrae ” ; in youth the 
sternum consists of eight pieces, becoming three in the adult; 
and the innominate, which in youth is composed of three sepa¬ 
rate parts, ossifies into a single bone in the adult. 

The Distribution of the Bones in the body is as follows: 
cranium and face, 22 ; spine, including sacrum and coccyx, 26 ; 
ribs, sternum, and os hyoides, 26 ; upper extremities, 64 ; lower 
extremities, 62 ; total, 200. 

The bones are placed in such a position as to bestow T individ¬ 
ual character upon the body, afford points of connection to the 






OSTEOLOGY 


numerous muscles, and give firmness and strength to the entire 
fabric. In the extremities they are hollow cylinders, and, by 
their conformation and structure, are admirably calculated to 
support weight and resist violence. In the head and trunk the 
bones are flattened and arched for the purpose of protecting 
cavities and providing an extensive surface for attachment. In 
some situations they present projections, which serve as levers ; 
in others, smooth grooves, which act as pulleys for the passage of 
tendons. By their numerous divisions and mutual apposition, 
the bones are equally adapted to fulfill every movement of the 
body which may tend to its preservation, or be conducive to its 
welfare. 

Classification of Bones. —The bones are divided into four 
classes : long, short, flat, and irregular. 

The Long Bones are found in the extremities, and consist of 
a shaft and two extremities. The shaft is cylindrical in form, 
and the structure is dense and hard, being hollowed out in the 
interior to form the medullary canal. The extremities are broad 
and expanded, for the purpose of articulation and for muscular 
attachment. The texture at the extremities is spongy, with only 
a thin coating of compact tissue. The long bones are the 
clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpal, 
metatarsal, and phalanges. 

The Short Bones. — Where strength and compactness are 
required, and motion is slight and limited, the part is composed 
of a number of short bones bound together by ligaments. Their 
texture is spongy with a thin crust of compact tissue ; such are 
the bones of the carpus and tarsus. 

The Flat Bones are adapted to enclose cavities, and afford 
broad surfaces for the attachment of muscles. The} 7 are com¬ 
posed of two thin layers of compact tissue, with an intermediate 
quantity of cancellous tissue. In the bones of the cranium, the 
two layers of compact tissue are known as the tables of the skull, 
and the intermediate cancellous tissue, as diploe. The flat bones 




6 


CHAMPION TEXT-.B O OK ON EMBALMING 


are the occipital, frontal, parietal, nasal, lachrymal, vomer, scap¬ 
ula, innominate, sternum, and ribs. 

The Ir regular Bones include all the remaining bones. In 
form they are irregular—in some parts short and thick, in others 
flat. Their structure is similar to that of other bones, having a- 
dense exterior and a spongy, cancellous interior. They are the 
vertebra, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, malar, supe¬ 
rior and inferior maxillary, palate, turbinate, hyoid, and patella. 

The Composition of Bones at maturity is about one part 
animal or organic matter, consisting of gelatin, vessels, and fat, 
and about two parts mineral or inorganic matter, consisting of 
phosphate and carbonate of lime (62J per cent.), with fluorid 
of lime, phosphate of magnesium, sodium, and chlorid of sodium 
(4J per cent.). The proportion varies with age. In youth it is 
nearly half-and-half, while in old age the mineral is greatly in 
excess. Heat will remove the animal matter and leave the 
mineral; dilute muriatic or nitric acid will remove the mineral 
matter and leave the animal. 

Put a bone for a few minutes into a hot fire, and, when carefully 
removed, it will have the same shape as before, but be much 
lighter, perfectly white, very brittle, and will easily crumble. 
The animal or organic part has been burnt out, leaving only the 
earthy or inorganic. Immerse a long, slender bone for some time 
in dilute muriatic acid. The bone will retain its original shape, 
but be lighter in weight, soft, and pliable, so that it can be 
twisted or tied into a knot. The acid has eaten out the earthy 
part, but left unaffected the animal. 

The Structure of Bones. —Bone is composed of an outer, 
compact layer, and an inner, cellular or spongy structure. The 
spongy structure increases in quantify and becomes more porous 
at the ends of a long bone, while the compact portion increases 
near the middle, where strength is needed. 

Fresh or Living Bone is moist, pinkish in color, and covered 
with a tough membrane, called the periosteum (peri, around ; 




OSTEOLOGY 


7 





Fig. 1. Lacunae and Haversian Canals, 

witb tiny tubes or canaliculi radiating from 
tbe former, as shown in a thin slice of bone, 
highly magnified. One Haversian canal is 
seen lengthwise and three crosswise. 


osteon , a bone), filled with marrow, and lined with a similar 
membrane, the endosteum (en, in ; osteon , a bone). 

The Lacunae. —If a thin, transverse section of bone be placed 
under the microscope, black spots, 
with lines running in all direc¬ 
tions, are seen. These are cavities, 

called lacunae, from which radiate 
small tubes. The lacunae are ar¬ 
ranged in circles around large 
tubes, called Haversian canals, 
which serve as passages for the 
blood-vessels. By means of these 
canals the blood circulates through 
the bone-tissue, nourishing it. 

Development of Bone. —The 
bone-structure, does not reach its 
full development until about the twenty-fifth year. The skeleton 
of the body in infancy is composed largely of cartilage, which 
is a white, glistening substance, commonly known as gristle. 
As age advances, earthy matter is deposited in the cartilage, the 
bone gradually becoming harder and growing proportionately 
to other parts of the body. The bones in childhood being tough 
are not easily fractured, and when broken readily heal again, 
while those of elderly people are brittle and liable to fracture, 
and do not easily reunite. 

Injury and Repair of Bones. —The proper growth and de¬ 
velopment of the bones is often hindered by disease or injury. 
Lack of a proper amount of earthy matter makes the bones soft 
and allows them to be easily bent out of.shape, causing de¬ 
formity. The breaking of a bone is by no means an infrequent 
occurrence. When broken the blood oozes out of the fractured 
ends. This soon becomes a watery fluid, which, in the course of 
a couple of weeks, thickens to a gristly substance, forming a 
cement which holds the fractured ends in place. In five or six 


8 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


weeks the broken parts will have reunited, bone matter having 
been gradually deposited about the Iracture. ibis new loima- 
tion is larger than the adjacent bone, but the extra matter is 
gradually absorbed, and often no trace ol the injury remains. 

BONES OF THE HEAD. 

The Bones of the. Skull and the Face form a cavity for the 

protection of the brain. They are immovable, except the lower 
jaw which is hinged at the back, so as to allow the opening and 
shutting of the mouth. 

The Skull Bones are composed, in general, of two compact 
plates, with a spongy layer (diploe) between. The outer plates 
are joined together by notched edges, or sutures, similar to what 
the carpenter terms dovetailing. 

The Cranial Cavity thus formed affords a perfect shelter 
for the brain. It is oval in shape and adapted to resist pressure. 
It communicates at the base, through the foramen magnum, with 
the spinal canal. The cranial cavity and spinal canal together 
are called the cerebrospinal canal. 

BONES OF THE TRUNK. 

The Trunk contains the two largest cavities, the chest, or 
thorax, and abdomen. The principal bones are those of the 
spine, the ribs, the breast-bone, and the pelvis or hips. 

The Spinal Column consists of twenty-four bones, called 
vertebrse ( verto , to turn), one placed upon another, between 
which are placed pads of cartilage. A canal is hollowed out 
of the column for the protection of the spinal cord. There are 
projections (processes) at the back and sides, which serve as 
levers for the attachment of muscles and ligaments. The skull 
articulates with the spine in a peculiar manner. On the top 
of the upper vertebra (atlas) are two little hollows (facets), lined 
with a synovial membrane, which receive the projections on 
the lower part of the skull, one on either side of the foramen 


A 

THE BONES 


SEVEN PLATES—I.-VII 


2 


9 



PLATE I. 


BONES OF THE SKELETON. 



Skull ‘ 


Patella 


Tibia 


Fibula 


Bones of ( 
Anklet 
and Foot 


Spinal Column 

Radius 

Ulna 

Pelvis 

Sacrum 
End of Spine 
Carpal Bones 

Metacarpal 

Phalanges 


Femur 


Collar-bone 

Shoulder-blade 

Breast-bone 

True Ribs 
Humerus 

False Ribs 


10 























ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON. 


The Head 
(22 bones). 


The Trunk 

(o4 bones). 


The 

Extremities 
(124 bones). 


1. Cranium 
(8 bones). 


2. Face 

(14 bones). 


Frontal (forehead). 

Two Parietal (sides). 

Two Temporal (temple) bones. 

Sphenoid ( base of skull). 

Ethmoid (sieve=like bone at root of nose). 
Occipital (back and base of skull). 

Two Superior Maxillary ( upper jaw). 
Inferior Maxillary (lower jaw ). 

Two Malar (cheek ). 

Two Lachrymal (in orbit of eye). 

Two Turbinated (scroll=like). 

Two Nasal (bridge of nose). 

Vomer (bone between the nostrils). 

Two Palate. 


1. Spinal Column 
(24 bones). 


Seven Cervical Vertebrae. 
- Twelve Dorsal Vertebrae. 
Five Lumbar Vertebra?. 


2. Ribs 

(24 bones). 


f Twenty True Ribs, 
j Four False Ribs. 


3. Sternum (breast=bone). 

4. Hyoides (bone at root of tongue). 


5. Pelvis. 

(4 bones). 


Two Innominates. 
• Sacrum. 

Coccyx. 


1. Upper 

(04 bones). 


2. Lower 

(00 bones). 


Shoulder. 
Arm. 

> 

Forearm. 

Hand 

Thigh_ 

Knee. 

Leg. 

Foot. 


{ Scapula. 

Clavicle. 

\ Humerus. 

f Ulna. 

^Radius. 

I Eight Carpal Bones. 

■[ Five Metacarpal Bones. 
( Phalanges (14 bones). 

\ Femur. 

-J Patella. 

j Tibia. 

[ Fibula. 

f Seven Tarsal Bones. 

1 Five Metatarsal Bones. 
(Phalanges (14 bones). 


11 























. Q: 


h it; I 


12 









PLATE 


BONES OF HEAD. 


Fig 1.—Front View of Cranium. 


A. Frontal bone. 

B. Farietal bone. 

C. Great wing of sphenoid bone. 

D. Temporal i, temple) bone. 

1. Frontal suture. 

2. Mastoid process. 


E. Malar (cheek) bone. 

E. Superior maxillary (upper jaw ). 

G. Nasal bone. 

H. Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). 

3. Infraorbital foramen. 


Fig. 2.—Side View of Cranium. 


A. Frontal bone. 

B. Parietal bone. 

C. Great wing of sphenoid bone. 

D. Temporal (temple) bone. 

1. Frontal eminence. 


E. Malar (cheek) bone. 

F. Superior maxillary (upper jaw). 

G. Nasal bone. 

H. Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). 

| 2. Mastoid process. 


Fig. 3.—Vertical Section of Facial Bones. 


Showing inner surface of orbit, antrum highmorianum, and lateral 
surface of superior maxillary, with portions of sphenoid, 
temporal, and palate bones posteriorly. 


Frontal bone. 

Nasal bone. 
Superior maxillary, 
Palate bone. 


E. Ethmoid bone. 

F. Lachrymal bone, 

G. Sphenoid bone. 


Fig. 4.—Vertical Section of Facial Bones. 

Showing interior and outer Avail of nasal cavity, with portions ol 
frontal, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses. 


Frontal bone. 

Sphenoid bone. 

Pterygoid process. 

Vertical plate of palate. 
Horizontal plate of palate. 


F. Hard palate. 

G. inferior spongy bone. 

H. Nasal plate of ethmoid bone, 
if. Nasal bone. 


Fig. 5.—Ethmoid Bone —Upper Surface. 
Fig. 6.—Ethmoid Bone —Nasal Surface. 
Fig. 7.—Palate Bone —Nasal Surface. 
Fig. 8.—Hyoid Bone —Anterior Aspect. 


13 









14 















PLATE III. 


BONES OF THE HEAD—(Continued). 


A. 

B. 

a. 

D. 

E. 


A. 

a 

D. 

E. 
E. 

G. 

H. 


Fig. 1.—Base of Skull —Inner Surface. 


Frontal bone. 

Lesser wing of sphenoid bone. 
Greater wing of sphenoid bone. 
Squamous plate of temporal bone. 
Petrous portion of temporal bone. 


Fig. 2.-Inferior Surface 

Bony or bard palate. 

Superior maxillary. 

Horizontal plate of palate bone. 
Pterygoid process of sphenoid bone 
Greater wing of sphenoid. 

Vomer. 

Squamous plate of temporal bone. 


F. Mastoid portion of temporal bone. 

G. Occipital bone. 

H. Basilar process of occipital bone. 

I. Ethmoid bone. 

Z. Foramen magnum. 


of Cranium—Base of Skull. 

I. Mastoid process. 

K. Petrous portion of temporal bone. 

L. Basilar process. 

M. Occipital. 

O. Zygomatic arch. 

Z. Foramen magnum. 


Figs. 3 and 4.—Temporal Bone —External Surface (3); Inner Surface (4) 


A. Squamous plate. 

B. Mastoid portion. 


C. Petrous portion. 


Figs. 5 and 6.—Sphenoid Bone—Inner Surface (5); Anterior Surface (6;. 

A. Body. C. Greater wings. 

B. Lesser wings. D. Pterygoid process (6). 

Figs. 7 and 8.-Inferior Maxillary—Outer Surface (7); Inner Surface (8). 

A. Body. I B. Ascending ramus. 


15 








Fip. t>. 


Fig 1. 


Fix. 


16 









brjtehU 


PLATE !V. 


BONES OF TRUNK. 


Fig. 1.—Spine (Vertebrae), Thorax 

A. Atlas, first veretebra. 

B. Axis, second vertebra. 

C. Last cervical vertebra. 

F. First dorsal vertebra. 

G. Last dorsal vertebra. 

H. First lumbar vertebra. 

I. Last lumbar verteora. 

K. First rib. 


Fig. 2. 

Sacrum. 

I nnominatum. 

Ilium. 

Ischium. 


Clavicle, and portion of Scapula. 

M. First false or asternal rib. 

IV. Last floating rib. 

O. Body of sternum. 

P. Manubrium or first bone of sternum, 

Q. Fusiform or xiphoid cartilage. 

P. Clavicle. 

iS. Scapula. 

T. Glenoid cavity. 


Pelvis. 

E. Pubes. 

N. Acetabulum. 

B. Spine of pubes. 

U. Symphysis pubis 


Fig. 3.—True or Sternal Ribs. 


Fig. 4.—Sternum-Anterior Surface. 


A. Manubrium, or first bone. 

B. Body or middle portion. 


C. Fusiform or xiphoid process 


Fig. 5.—Os Innominatum of Right Side-Inner Surface. 

A. Ilium. 

B. Ischium. 


C. Pubes. 

I D. Obturator foramen. 


Fig. 6.—Os Innominatum of Left Side —Outer Surface 

A. Ilium. 

B. Ischium. 


Cl Pubes. 

E. Acetabulum. 


Figs. 7 and 8.—Os Coccygis —Posterior Surface (7); Anterior and Upper Surfaces (8). 






ms 




18 





















PLATE V. 

BONES OF TRUNK—(Continued) 


Fig. 1.—Posterior View of Trunk. 


A. Atlas. (See Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5.) 

B. Axis. 

C. Last cervical vertebra. 

D. First dorsal vertebra. 

E. Last dorsal vertebra. 

F. First lumbar vertebra. 

G. Last lumbar vertebra. 

I. Transverse processes. 

L. First rib. 


M. Last rib. 

N. Clavicle. 

i O. Scapula. (See Table VI., Figs 3,4,and5.) 

P. Sacrum. 

Q. Coccyx. 

B. Ilia. 

8. Ischium. 

T Pubes. 


Fig. 2.—Atlas and Axis - Anterior Surface. 

A. Atlas. | B. Axis. 


Fig. 3.—Atlas and Axis —Posterior Surface. 


A. Atlas. 

B. Axis. 

C Odontoid process. 


D. Articular surface of atlas for occipital 
condyle. 


Figs. 4 and 5.-Atlas—Superior Surface (4); Inferior Surface (5). 


A. Body. 

B. Odontoid process. 


Fig. 6.—Axis—Anterior Surface. 

H. Transverse processes. 


Fig. 7.—Cervical Vertebra—Superior Surface. 


Figs. 8 and 9.—A Dorsal (8); and a Lumbar Vertebra (9)—Superior Surfaces. 


19 













20 


























PLATE VI. 


BONES OF UPPER EXTREMITIES. 


a. 

b. 


Figs. 1 and 2.—Clavicle 

Body. 

Sternal end. 


(Left)—Superior Surface (1); Inferior Surface (2). 

c. Acromial end. 


Fig. 3.—Scapula-Posterior and Outer Surface. 


a. Supraspinatus fossa. 

b. Infraspinatus fossa. 

c. Spine. 

d. Acromion process. 


e. Art icular surface for clavicle. 
/. Coracoid process. 

o. Neck. 

p. Glenoid cavity. 


Fig- 4.—Scapula—Internal or Concave Surface. 


a. Subscapular fossa. 

b. Anterior angle or condyle. 

c. Glenoid cavity. 

d. Margin or brim of glenoid cavity. 


e. Acromion process. 

Ji. Suprascapular notch. 

o. Tubercle for origin of triceps muscle. 


Fig. 5.—Scapula—Front View of Anterior Margin. 

a. Glenoid cavity. d. Inferior angle. 

b. Brim of cavity. e. Spine. 

c. Anterior margin. 


Fig. 6.—Humerus (Left)—Posterior View. 


a. Head of humerus. 

b. Greater Tuberosity. 

c. Neck (anatomical). 

d. Body. 

e. External ridge. 


/. Internal ridge. 

q. Internal condyle. 

h. External condyle. 

i. Trochlea. 


Fig. 7.-Humerus (Left)-Anterior View. 


a. 

b. 


Figs. 8 and 9.—Ulna—Posterior View (3); Anterior View (9). 


Olecranon process. 
Coronoid process. 


c. Greater sigmoid notch. 


Figs. 10 and 11.—Radius—Anterior View (10); Posterior View (11). 


Fig. 12.—Bones of Right Hand—Posterior Surface. 


A. Carpus. 

B. Metacarpus. 

a. Navicular. 

b. Lunar. 

c. Cuneiform. 

d. Trapezium. 

e. Trapezoid. 

/. Magnum. 


C. Phalanges. 

g. Unciform. 
h-m. Metacarpal bones. 

n. Bases of metacarpal bones 

o. Heads of metacarpal bones. 
p-t. Phalanges. 


Figs. 13 and 14.—Carpus, Metacarpus, and Phalanges of Thumb (Left)—Posterior 

Surface (13;; Anterior Surface (14). 

Figs. 15 and 17.—Carpal Bones (Left), First Row —Superior Articular Surface (15); 

Inferior Surface (17). 

a. Navicular. I c. Cuneiform. 

b. Lunar. | d. Pisiform. 


Figs. 16 and 18.—Carpal Bones (Left), Second Row—Intercarpal Articular Surface 

(16); Digital Surface (18). 


a. Trapezium. 

b. Trapezoid. 

c. Magnum. 


d. Unciform. 

e. Hamular process of unciform bone. 


21 























PLATE VII. 


BONES OF LOWER EXTREMITIES. 


Fig. 1.-Femur (Left)—Anterior Surface. 


a. Head. 

b. Fossa for ligamentum teres. 

c. Neck. 

d. Trochanter major. 

e. Trochanter minor. 


/. Anterior Intertrochanterian line. 

g. Body. 

h. External condyle. 

i. Internal condyle. 

k. Articular surface for patella. 


Fig. 2.—Femur (Left)—Posterior Surface. 


a-e. As in Fig. 1. 

/. Posterior intertrochanterian line. 

g. Superior oblique lines of lineaaspera. 

h. Lineaaspera. 

i. Interior oblique line of linea aspera. 


k. Body. 

l. Popliteal fossa. 
in. External condyle. 

n. Internal condyle. 

o. Intercondyloid fossa. 


Figs. 3 and 4.—Left Patella (Knee=Cap)—Anterior Surface (3); Posterior Surface (4). 


Figs. 5 and 6.—Tibia (Left) Anterior and Inner Surfaces (5); Posterior Surface (6). 


a. Internal condyle. 

b. External condyle. 

c. Internal articular surface. 

d. External articular surface. 


e. Intercondyloid eminence. 

/. Articular surface for head of fibula. 

1. Articular surface for astragalus. 
in. {5). i. (6). Internal malleolus. 


Figs. 7 and 8.—Fibula (Left)—Anterior Surface (7); Posterior Surface (8). 


a. Head. 

b. Superior articular surface. 

c. Body 


d. External malleolus. 

e. Tibial surface. 

/. Articular surface of astragalus. 


Figs 9 and 10.—Bones of Foot (Right)—Upper or Dorsal Surface (9); Inferior or 

Plantar Surface (10). 


a. Astragalus. 

b. Os calcis. 

c. Navicular. 

d. e,f. Cuneiform bones. 
g. Cuboid. 


hj i. Metatarsal bones. 

k, m. First phalanges. 

l, n. Second phalanges. 

o. Third or ungual phalanges. 


Figs. 11 and 12.—Tarsal and Metatarsal Bones (Left)—Upper or Dorsal Surface (11); 

Under or Plantar Suface (12). 


I. Astragalus. 

II. Os calcis. 

III. Navicular. 

IV. Internal cuneiform bone 


V. Middle cuneiform bone. 

VI. External cuneiform bone. 

VII. Cuboid. 


n. Metatarsal bones. 

o. Bases. 

p. Heads. 


q. Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal bone. 

r. Sesamoid bones of great toe. 


23 





































OSTEOLOGY 


25 


magnum, allowing the head to rock to and fro. The second 
vertebra (axis) has a peg (odontoid process), which projects 
through a hole in the atlas, so that when we move the head 
sidewise, the atlas turns around the peg of the axis. The 
spinal column serves as a support for the whole body. 

The vertebrae are named from the region in which they are 
located, seven being in the cervical region, twelve in the dorsal, 
and five in the lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx, which form 
the terminal bones of the spinal column in the adult, in the 
child consisted of five arid four vertebrae respectively. 

The Ribs are twentyTour in number, and are arranged in 
pairs on each side of the chest. They are also attached to the 
spine at the back. The upper seven pairs are attached by 
cartilages to the sternum (breastbone) ; the next three pairs 
are fastened to each other and to the cartilage above; and 
the last two pairs, the floating ribs, are loose. The long, 
slender, and arched ribs give lightness and strength, and the 
cartilages give elasticity to the chest—properties essential to 
the protection of the organs within, and to freedom of motion in 
respiration. 

The Innominata (nameless), pr hip-bones, at the front and 
the sides, with the sacrum and coccyx at the back, form the 
pelvic cavity. The hip-bones constitute the pubic arch, being 
joined by a seam, termed the symphysis pubis. The hip-bone 
in the young consists of three parts on each side, which unite in 
adult life to form a single one ; but the different parts retain 
their several names : viz., ilium, ischium, and pubes. 

The Extremities are connected to the trunk, and are four in 
number : two upper, joined to the thorax through the inter¬ 
vention of the shoulder; and two lower, connected with the 
pelvis. The upper pair, comprising the shoulders, arms, fore¬ 
arms, and hands, are subservient to tact and prehension ; the 
lower pair, comprising the thighs, legs, and feet, to support 
and locomotion. 


8 




26 


CHAMPION TEXT IBOOK ON EMBALMING 


BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 

The Shoulder. —The bones of the shoulder are the clavicle 
(collar-bone) and the scapula (shoulder-blade). The clavicle is 
a long bone shaped like the italic /. It articulates at one end 
with the sternum and at the other with the scapula. 

The Scapula is a thin, Hat, triangular bone, situated on the 
top and back of the chest, forming the back part of the shoulder. 

The Shoulder'Joint. —The h umerus, or arm-bone, articulates 
with the shoulder-blade by a ball-and-socket joint. This consists 
of a cup-like cavity, the glenoid, in the scapula, and a rounded 
head of the humerus to fit it, thus affording a free, rotary motion. 

The Elbow is formed by the humerus and ulna articulation. 
The ulna is small at the lower end, while the radius, or large 
bone of the forearm, on the contrary, is small at its upper end, 
and large at its lower end, where it forms the wrist-joint. 

The Carpus, or wrist, consists of two rows of short bones, 
one row of which articulates with the radius, forming the wrist- 
joint, and the other with the metacarpal bones. 

The Hand. — The metacarpal bones, or bones of the palm, sup-, 
port the fingers and thumb. Each finger has three bones, while 
the thumb has two. The first is articulated with the metacarpal 
bone, the second with the first, and the third with the second. 
The bones of the fingers and thumb are called the phalanges. 

BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 

The Femur, or thigh-bone, is the longest, largest, and strongest, 
bone in the skeleton. It articulates with the hip-bone by a 
ball-and-socket joint. The acetabulum, a cup-shaped depression, 
receives the head of the femur, forming a very strong joint. 

The Knee s Joint is strengthened and protected by the patella, 
or knee-cap, the largest sesamoid bone, which is firmly fastened 
over the joint in the tendon of the quadriceps muscle. 

The Tibia, or shin-bone, the largest bone of the leg, articulates 
with the femur, forming the knee-joint; with the foot, forming the 
ankle-joint; and with the fibula, the small outside bone of the leg. 





OSTEOLOGY 


27 


The Foot, in general arrangement, is very similar to that 
of the hand. The several parts of the foot are the tarsus, the 
metatarsus, and the phalanges. The numerous bones are joined 
together with cartilages, giving elasticity to the foot in walking. 

A study of Plates I to VII will give a very good idea of the 
appearance and relative size of the bones. 

Sesamoid Bones are small osseous masses, developed in 
tendons, which exert a degree of force upon the parts over 
which they glide. They are enveloped entirely by the fibrous; 
tissue of the tendon in which they exist, except on the side that 
articulates with the part over which they glide. 

Wormian Bones are sometimes found in the cranial sutures, 
but are not constant in number or size. 

The Joints are movable or immovable. The movable joints 
are covered with a soft, smooth cartilage, which fits so perfectly 
as to be air tight. It is lined witli a thin (synovial) membrane,, 
which secretes a viscid fluid not unlike the white of an egg. 
Th is fluid lubricates the joints and prevents friction. The body 
is the onlv selboiling machine in existence. The immovable 

J <~D 

joints have no synovial membrane. The bones which form the 
joint are bound together firmly with strong ligaments (from ligo , 
I join), so as to keep them always in apposition. 

Articulations are divided into three classes : (1) synarthrosis,, 
immovable; (2) amphiarthrosis, synchondrosis, or symphysis, 
having limited motion; (3) diarthrosis, having free motion. 
The latter is divided into gliding joints, balbaiuTsocket joints, 
and hinge^joints. The varieties of motion in joints are : flexion, 
extension, adduction, abduction, rotation, circumduction, and 
gliding. 

The Structures that enter the formation of joints are 
articular lamella, cartilage, fibro^cartilage, synovial membrane, 
and ligaments. 

Articular Lamella is a layer of compact bone which forms 
the articular surface, and to which the cartilage is attached ; it is. 



28 


CHAMPION I EXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


white and dense, contains no Haversian canals or canaliculi, and 
lias large lacunae. 

Cartilage is either temporary or permanent. The first forms 
the original framework of the skeleton, and becomes ossified. 
Permanent cartilage is not prone to ossification, and is divided into 
three varieties : (1) articular, covering the ends of bones in joints ; 
(2) costal, forming part of the skeleton; (3) reticular, arranged 
in lamellae, or plates, to maintain the shape of certain parts. 

Fibro'Cartilage consists of a mixture of white fibrous and 
cartilaginous tissues, and is flexible, tough, and clastic. It is 
divided into four groups : (1) interarticular, separating the bones 
of a joint; (2) connecting, binding bones together ; (3) circum¬ 
ferential, deepening cavities ; (4) stratiform, lining grooves. 

Synovial Membrane is a thin, delicate membrane, resem¬ 
bling serous membrane in structure, forming a short, wide tube, 
or capsule, and lining the joints and articular surfaces. It 
secretes a thick, viscid, glairy fluid, called synovia, which acts as 
a lubricator, preventing friction. Synovial, membranes are 
classified as (1) articular, lubricating joints ; (2) bursal, forming 
closed sacks ; (3) vaginal, ensheathing tendons. 

The Ligaments, which bind the bones together at the joints, 
are strong bands of a smooth, silvery-white, fibrous tissue. It is 
solid and inelastic, softer than cartilage, but harder than mem¬ 
brane. The bond formed is so strong that the bones are some¬ 
times broken without injury to the fastenings. There are a vast 
number of ligaments in the human body, various in form and 
office, and each with its own special name. 

Pouparfs Ligament is the only ligament which calls for a 
special description. It is attached to the anterior superior spinous 
process (upper front part of the os innominatum, or hip-bone,) and 
to the center of the pubic arch, forming the upper boundary of 
Scarpa’s triangle, and the division between the abdomen and thigh. 

For shape, size, position, and names of ligaments, see Plates 
VIII to X. 














B 

THE LIGAMENTS 


three PLATES-Vlll.-X 


29 



























-rW id 1^. 


PLATE VIII. 

LIGAMENTS OF HEAD, TRUNK, AND UPPER EXTREMITIES 


Fig. 1.—Ligaments of the Vertebrae, Sternal End of Ribs, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral 

Articulation—Anterior Surface. 


1. Anterior vertebral ligament. 

2. Anterior occipito=atlantoid ligament. 

3. Intervertebral fibro cartilage. 

4. Intertransverse ligaments. 

5. Posterior costovertebral ligaments. 


6. Internal costotransverse ligaments. 

7. External costotransverse ligaments. 

8. Posterior intercostal ligaments. 

9. Lumbocostal ligaments. 


Figs. 2 and 3.—Ligaments of Right Temporomaxillary Articulation-External Sur¬ 
face (2); Internal Surface (3). 

1. Capsular ligament. 

Figs. 4 and 5.—Internal Ligaments Connecting Occipital Bone with Axis and of the 
Articulation between Atlas and Axis—Posterior View, the Posterior 
Half Arches of these Bones having been removed. 


Figs. 6 and 7.—Ligaments of Sternoclavicular and Sternocostal Articulations with 
Anterior Intercostal Ligaments - Anterior Surface (6); Posterior Surface (7). 


1. Interclavicular ligament. 

2. Internal capsular ligament of sterno¬ 

clavicular articulation. 

3. Rhomboid ligament. 


4. 4. Ligamenta coruscantia. 

5. Anterior proper sternal ligament. 

6. Posterior proper sternal ligament. 


Figs. 8 and 9.—Ligaments of Shoulder=Joint and Scapuloclavicular Articulation. 


1. Claviculo=acrominal ligament. 

2. External capsular ligament of clavicle. 

3. Trapezoid ligament. 

4. Conoid ligament. 

5. Coraco=acrominal ligament. 


6. Transverse ligament of scapula. 

7. Capsular ligament of shoulder=joint. 

8. Tendon of long head of biceps. 

9. Glenoid ligament. 


Figs. 10 and 11. —Ligaments of Left Elbow=Joint - Anterior Left Surface (10): 

Posterior Surface (11). 

1. Capsular ligament. I 5. Oblique ligament of radioulnar articu- 

2. External lateral ligament. | lation. 

3. Internal lateral ligament. 6. Interosseous ligament. 

4. Orbicular ligament of radius. 


Fig. 12.—Ligaments of Left Wri3t=Joint and Hand. 


1. Interosseous ligament. 

2. External lateral ligament. 

3. Internal lateral ligament. 

4. Posterior radiocarpal ligament. 

5. Posterior superficial carpal ligaments. 
8. Posterior deep carpal ligaments. 

7. Internal lateral ligament of carpus. 


8. Proper ligaments of carpus. 

9. Dorsal carpometacarpal ligaments. 

10, 10. Dorsal ligaments of metacarpal 

bases. 

11, 11. External lateral ligaments of fin¬ 

gers. 

12, Internal lateral ligaments of fingers. 


Fig. 13.—Ligaments of Left Wrist=Joint and Hand-Anterior Surface. 


1. Interosseous ligaments. 

, 3. Anterior radiocarpal ligaments 
. Lateral radial ligaments. 

. Lateral ulnar ligament. 

. Triangular cartilage. 

7. Anterior proper carpal ligaments. 


8,8. Anterior carpometacarpal liga¬ 
ments. 

9, 9. Anterior intermetacarpal ligaments. 
10, 11,12. Ligaments of metacarpo=pha- 
langeal articulation. 
























PLATE IX. 


LIGAMENTS OF PELVIS AND ADJOINING ARTICULATIONS. 


Fig. 1.—Ligaments of Lower Part of Spine, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral Articulation 


m. Last lumbar vertebra. 

n. Sacrum. 

o. Coccyx. 

p. Ilium. 

q. Crest of ilium. 

r. Anterior superior spine of ilium. 

s. Anterior inferior spine of ilium. 


t. Horizontal ramus of pubes. 

u. Descending ramus of pubes. 

v. Symphysis pubis. 

w. Ascending ramus of ischium. 

x. Tuber of ischium. 

y. Descending ramus of ischium. 


(For Bones of Pelvis see Plate IV.) 


10. Superior iliolumbar ligaments. 

11. Inferior iliolumbar ligaments. 

12. Anterior iliosacral ligaments. 

18. Lesser sciatic ligaments. 

14. Anterior sacrococcygeal ligament. 

15. Obturator ligaments. 


16, 17. Capsular ligaments of hip. 
18. Accessory ligaments of hip. 

IS). Bursa of internal iliac muscle. 

20. Subpubic ligament. 

21. Jnterpubic ligament. 

































PLATE X. 


LIGAMENTS OF SPINE, PELVIS, AND JOINTS OF LOWER 

EXTREMITIES. 


Fig. 1.—Ligaments of Cervical and Dorsal Vertebrae. 


L. Superior attachment of posterior liga¬ 
ment. 

2. Apparatus ligamentosus colli (neck ). 


3. Capsular ligament. 

5. Posterior costotransverse ligament. 
G. Ligaments of necks of ribs. 


Fig. 2 —Dorsal Ligaments of Spinal Column, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral Articulations. 

(For bones of pelvis see Plate IV.) 


1. Interspinous ligaments. 

2. Posterior intercostal ligaments. 

3. Lumbocostal ligaments. 

4. 5. Transverse ligaments. 

G, 7. Iliolumbar ligaments. 

8, 9, 10. Iliosacral ligaments. 


11. Posterior irregular ligaments. 

12. Posterior sacrococcygeal ligaments, 

13. 14. Sacrosciatic ligaments. 

15. Obturator ligament. 

16. Subpubic ligament. 

17. 18, 19. Capsular ligaments. 


Fig. 3.—Ligaments of Left Knee=Joint. 


1. Ligament of patella. 

3. Internal lateral ligament. 


4. Capsular ligament. 


Figs. 4 and 5. —Ligaments of Left Knee=Joint—Internal Anterior View (4); Posterior 

View (5). 


1,2. Semilunar cartilages. 
3, 4. Crucial ligaments. 


Fig. 6.-Ligaments 

1. Astragalo=calcanean ligaments. 

2. Oalcaneo=cuboid ligament. 

3. Calcaneo=navicular ligament. 

4. Cuboideo=navicular ligament. 

5. 6, 7. Cuneiform ligaments. 

8, 11. Cuboideo=metatarsul ligaments. 


G. Capsular ligament of head of fibula. 
7. Interosseous membrane of leg. 


of Sole of Left Foot. 

9, 10, 12. Metatarsal ligaments. 

13. Fibrocartilaginous sheaths for flexor 

tendons. 

14, 15. Lateral ligaments of phalanges. 

1G. Crucial ligaments. 

17. Intersesainoid ligaments. 


Fig. 7.-Ligaments of Left Foot-Internal Surface. 


1. Internal lateral or deltoid ligament. 

2. Posterior ligament of ankle. 

3 Posterior astragalo=calcanean liga¬ 
ment. 

4. Plantar calcaneo=cuboid ligament. 

5, 6. Navicular ligaments. 


7, 8, 0. Naviculo=cuneiform ligaments. 

10. Dorsal intercuneiform ligament. 

11. Dorsal ligament of base of first meta¬ 

tarsal bone. 

12. Plantar ligament. 

13. Internal lateral ligaments of toes. 


Fig 8.-Ligaments of Left Foot -External and Dorsal Surfaces. 


1. Interosseous membrane of leg. 

2. Posterior tibiofibular ligaments. 

3. 4. Anterior tibiofibular ligaments. 
5, G, 7. Lateral ligaments of ankle. 

8. Tarsal apparatus ligamentosus. 

9, 10. Calcaneo=cuboid ligaments. 

11, 12, 13. Dorsal navicular ligaments. 


14, 15. Dorsal naviculo=cuneiform liga¬ 
ments. 

16. Dorsal intercuneiform ligaments. 

17, 18, 19. Dorsal ligaments of tarsus and 

metatarsus. 

20. External lateral ligaments of toes. 


35 
























» 

















» 










CHAPTER II. 


THE MUSCLES. 


The 3Iuscles are the moving organs of the animal frame. 
They constitute by their size and number the great bulk of the 
outer solt tissues of the body, upon which they bestow form and 
symmetry. In the extremities they are situated around the 
bones, which they invest and defend, while they form to some 
of the joints their principal protection. In the trunk they are 
spread out to enclose the cavities and constitute a defensive wall, 
capable of yielding to internal pressure, and again returning to its 
original position. Their color presents the deep-red that is char¬ 
acteristic of flesh, and their form is variously modified to execute 
the varied range of movements which they are required to effect. 

Composition of 3Iuscles. —Muscle is composed of a number 
of parallel fibers, placed side by side, supported and held together 
by a delicate web of areolar or cellular tissue, so that, if it were 
possible to remove the muscular substance, we should have 
remaining a beautiful, reticular framework, possessing the exact 
form and size of the muscle without its 
color and solidity. The fibers are sep¬ 
arated by a very elastic, delicate mem¬ 
brane, the sarcolemma, but are bound 
together into bundles, or fasciculi, by 
an areolar membrane, or sheath, the in¬ 
ternal perimysium. The aggregation 
of fasciculi constituting a muscle, is in turn bound together by 
the external perimysium. 

The microscope shows that these fibers are made up of minute 

filaments (fibrils), and that each fibril is composed of cells 
- 



Fig. 2. A Muscle. 


Microscopic view, showing the fibrils 
at one end and the disk or cells of the 
fiber at the other. 













38 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


arranged like a string of beads. This gives the muscle its striped 
or striated appearance. The cells are filled with a fluid or 
semi-fluid mass of living (protoplasmic) matter, which, when 
separated, appears of a yellowish, sirupy consistence, and is 
known as the muscle plasma. 

Contractility is a peculiar and wonderful property possessed 
by muscles, resulting from the elastic nature of the muscular 
tissue. Contraction is effected by an effort of the will, by cold, 
by certain kinds of irritation, by a sharp blow, etc. When a 
muscle contracts it becomes shorter and thicker, drawing the 
ends nearer together. Bending the elbow nicely illustrates this 
action. The biceps muscle on the front of the arm can be 
seen and felt to become shorter and thicker as it contracts. 
Contractility does not always cease at death, as a contraction 
of the muscles is frequently noticed in certain cold-blooded 
animals long after the head has been severed from the body. 

Kinds of Muscles. —There are two classes of muscles, volun¬ 
tary and involuntary. The voluntary muscles are those capable 
of being put in motion by the will, and are composed of reddish 
fibers. Each one is intended to aid in some movement of the 
body. All muscles lying on the outside of the skeleton are 
voluntary. Involuntary muscles, on the other hand, are not 
capable of being put into action by the will, and are composed 
of paler fibers, which differ also in shape. Involuntary mus¬ 
cular tissue enters into the formation of the internal organs, as 
the stomach, intestines, etc. The heart is an involuntary mus¬ 
cle, but its fiber is similar in appearance and structure to those 
of the voluntary t} r pe. The muscles which move the arms, legs, 
and head are under the control of the will, while the heart beats 
on day and night. The eyelid combines both classes of muscles, 
so that we wink constantly, yet we.may restrain or accelerate 
that motion. 

Arrangement ot Muscles. —The muscles are generally 
arranged in pairs, one expanding as the other contracts, giving 










THE MUSCLES 


39 


the bone to which they are attached its backward and forward, 
or other movements. 

Grasp the arm tightly above the elbow and bend the forearm ; 
the muscle on the inside (biceps) can be'felt as it swells and 
becomes hard and prominent, while the outside muscle (triceps) 
relaxes. Straighten the arm, and the conditions are reversed. 
\Y hen the muscles of one side of the face become palsied, those 
on the opposite side draw the mouth that way. 

Modification of Muscles. —Muscles present various modifica¬ 
tions in the arrangement of their fibers in relation to their ten¬ 
dinous structure. Sometimes they are completely longitudinal, 
and terminate at each extremity in tendon, the entire muscle 
being fusiform in its shape ; in other situations they are dis¬ 
persed like the rays of a fan, converging to a tendinous point, as 
the temporal, pectoral, gluteal, etc., and constitute a radial muscle. 
Again they are penniform, converging like the plumes of a pen 
to one side of the tendon, which runs the whole length of a muscle, 
as in the peroneal; or bipenniform, converging to both sides of the 
tendon. In other muscles the fibers pass obliquely from the 
surface spread out on one side (of a tendinous expansion), to 
that of another extended on the opposite side, as in the semi- 
membranous ; or they are composed of penniform and bipenniform 
fasciculi, as in the deltoid, and constitute a compound muscle. 

Attachment of Muscles. —Muscles are attached to the peri¬ 
osteum and perichondrium of bone and cartilage, to the subcu¬ 
taneous, areolar tissue, and to ligaments. The more fixed ex¬ 
tremity of a muscle is called the origin, and the more movable, 
the insertion. 

Classification. —The muscles may be arranged in conformity 
with the general divisions of the body, into those of the head 
and face, of the neck, of the trunk, of the upper extremities, and 
of the lower extremities. 

The Tendons are white, glistening, fibrous cords, or bands. 
They vary in length and thickness, are strong and only slightly 


40 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


elastic, have few blood-vessels and nerves, and serve to connect 
the muscles with the structure on which they act. This union 
is so firm that, under extreme violence, the bone itself rather 
breaks than permits of the separation of the tendon from its 
attachment. The muscular fibers spring from the sides of the 
tendon, allowing more of them to act upon the bone than if 
directly attached. This mode of attachment gives strength and 
elegance. 

Aponeuroses are glistening, pearly-white, fibrous membranes, 
similar in structure and use to the tendons, from which they 
differ, principally in having a flat form. They are destitute of 
nerves and blood-vessels, except the thicker ones, which are 
sparingly supplied with the latter. They are classed as (a) 
aponeuroses of insertion, when at the extremities of muscles, 
attaching them to the bone; (b) aponeuroses of intersection, 
when they interrupt the continuity of muscle, being continuous 
on both sides with muscular fibers ; (c) aponeuroses of invest¬ 
ment, when they ensheath the entire limb, or the individual 
muscle, preventing its displacement. Many aponeuroses serve 
both for investment and insertion. 

Fasci8e ( fascia , a bandage) are fibro-areolar or aponeurotic 
laminse of variable thickness and strength, found in all regions 
of the body, investing the soft and more delicate structures. 
They surround and bind together the muscles of the extremities. 
Fasciae are divided into superficial, or fibro-areolar, and deep, or 
aponeurotic. 

Superficial Fascia is composed of fibro-areolar tissue and is 
found immediately beneath the skin over nearly the entire body, 
varying in thickness in the different parts, being very thick in 
the groin and very thin on the palms of the hand and soles 
of the feet. It is composed of two or more layers, between 
which are found the superficial vessels, nerves, and lymphatics; 
connects the skin to the sub-jacent parts ; facilitates the move¬ 
ments of the skin ; serves as a soft and safe repository for the 


















c 

THE MUSCLES 


SEVEN PLATES —XI.-XVII 







42 




















PLATE XI 


HUSCLES OF HEAD AND NECK. 

Fig. 1 -Muscles of Face and. Neck—Anterior Surfaces, 


1. Occipito=frontalis. 

2. Tenuon of occipito=frontalis. 

4. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

7. Levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 

8. Levator labii superioris proprius. 

11. Levator anguli oris. 

13. Buccinator. 

14. Orbicularis oris. 

1(5. Quudratus menti. 


Fig. 2.—Muscles 

D. Mastoid process. 

E. Occipital bone. 

F. Clavicle. 

6r. Scapula. 


1. Manubrium. 

14. Sternohyoid. 

15. Sternothyroid. 

If), 17. Omohyoid. 

20. Rectus capitis anticus major. 


17. Levator menti. 

18. Masseter. 

19. Temporal. 

20. 21, 22. Sternocleidomastoid. 

28. Sternohyoid. 

25. Anterior margin of trapezius. 

27. Levator anguli scapulae. 

28. Scalenus anticus, 

29. Scalenus medius. 


Neck-Right Side. 

II. Acromion. 

I. Coracoid process. 
K. First rib. 


22. Scalenus medius. 

28. Levator anguli scapulae, 

24. Splenius capitis. 

25. Sternocleidomastoid. 

29. Deltoid. 


Fig. 3. —Muscles of Neck-Front View. 


A. Inferior maxillary. 

B. Os hyoides. 

D. Thyroid gland. 

E. Trachea. 


F. Mastoid process. 

(A Clavicle. 

H. Manubrium sterni. 


1, 2. Digastric. 
10. Thyrohyoid. 
13. Sternohyoid. 
15. Omohyoid. 


18. Sternothyroid. 

19. Scalenus anticus. 

20. Scalenus posticus. 


Fig 4.—Deep Muscles of Right Side and Neck. 


A. Mastoid process. 

B. Zygomatic arch. 

C. Meatus auditorius externus. 

6r. Superior maxillary. 

1,1. Orbicularis oris. 

2. Buccinator. 

3. Superior constrictor of pharynx. 
6. Middle constrictor of pharynx. 

8. Mylohyoid. 

9. Thyrohyoid. • 

10. Inferior constrictor of pharynx. 


K. Trachea. 

N. Acromion. 

O. Coracoid process. 


13. Rectus capitis anticus major. 

14, 15, 16. Scaleni. 

17. Levator anguli scapulse. 

18. Splenius capitis. 

20. Superior rhomboid. 

22. Supraspinatus. 











44 





















PLATE Xil 


MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR PART OF NECK, TRUNK, PHARYNX, 
PALATE, LOWER JAW, AND TONGUE. 

Fig- 1-—Muscles of Back of Pharynx and Lower Jaw. 

A. Basilar process. i Q. Esophagus. 

B. Petros bone. 

1, 2, 3. Constrictors of pharynx. I 7. Internal pterygoid. 

6. Mylohyoid. | 8. Masse ter. 


Fig. 2.—Muscles of Palate and Throat-Posterior View. 


A. Basilar process. 

B. Petrous bone. 

C. Ramus of lower jaw. 

E. Posterior nares. 

F. Condyle of lower jaw. 

1, 2, 3. Constrictors of pharynx. 

5. Levator palati mollis. 


G. Base of tongue. 

H. Epiglottis. 

I. Cricoid cartilage. 

K. Esophagus. 

L. Trachea. 

6. Circumflexus palati mollis. 

7. Crico=arytenoideus posticus 


Fig. 3.—Muscles of Tongue—Lateral View of Right Side. 


A. Body of lower jaw. 

B. Ramus of lower jaw. 

D. Hyoid bone. 

1. Lingualis. 

2. Genioglossus. 

3. Hyoglossus. 


F. Larynx. 
F. Tongue. 


6. Geniohyoid. 

8. Thyrohyoid membrane. 


Fig. 4.—Internal 

A. Body of sphenoid bone. 

B. Petrous bone. 

C. D, E. Lower jaw. 

1. Pterygoideus internus. 

2. Pterygoideus externus. 

3. Masseter. 


Muscles of the Lower Jaw. 

F. Hard palate. 

H. Posterior nares. 


4. Mylohyoideus (divided). 

5. Genioglossus (divided). 


A. 

B. 

c. 

2 . 

3. 


A. 

B. 

1 . 

2 . 


A. 

B. 

1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 


Fig. 5.—Muscles of Soft Palate. 


Sphenoid bone. 

Petros bone. 

Condyle of inferior maxillary. 

Levator palati mollis. 
Circumflexus palati mollis. 


D. Ramus of inferior maxillary. 

E. Hard palate. 

H. Posterior nares. 

5. Palatipharyngeus. 


Fig. 6.—Muscles of Posterior 

Occipital bone. 

Superior semilunar line. 

Splenius capitis. 

Splenius colli. 


Surface of Neck and Upper Part of Thorax 

C. Mastoid process. 

3. Serratus posticus superior. 

7. Longissimus dorsi. 


Fig. 7.—Deep Muscles of Neck and Back. 


Occipital bone. 
Mastoid process. 

Biventer cervieis. 

Com plexus cervieis. 
Trachelomastoideus. 
Transversalis cervieis. 
Cervicalis ascendens. 
Lumbocostal is. 
Longissimus dorsi. 


F. Ilium. 


8. Sacrolumbal is. 

9. Spinalis dorsi. 

10. Spinalis cervieis. 

11. Semispinalis dorsi. 

12. Levatores costarum. 

13. Intercostals. 


45 


















46 























PLATE XIII. 

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK, ARMS, AND FEET. 

Fig- 1.—Muscles of Face, Trunk, Arms, and Upper Part of Thighs — Anterior View 


A. Occipitofrontalis tendon. 

B. Malar bone. 

C. Inferior maxillary. 

D. Thyroid gland. 

E. Trachea. 

V. Clavicle. 

(I. Manubrium of sternum. 

II. Body of sternum. 

I. Coracoid process. 

1. Frontalis. 

2. Pyramidalis nasi. 

3. Attollens auris. 

4. Attrahens auris. 

5. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

0. Levator labii superioris alseque nasi 
with compressor nasi. 

7. Levator labii superioris proprius. 

8. Zygomaticus minor. 

9. Zygomaticus major. 

11. Masseter. 

12. Buccinator. 

13. Triangularis menti. 

13. Orbicularis oris. 

17. Platysma=myoides. 

18. Sternocleidomastoid. 

19. Sternohyoid. 

20. Scaleni. 

21. Pectoralis major. 

22. Pectoralis minor. 

1-3. Subclavian. 

24. Seratus magnus anticus. 

25. External oblique (abdominis). 

23. Linea alba. 

27. Rectus abdominis. 

28. Transverse aponeuroses of rectus 

abdominis. 

29. Pyramidalis abdominis. 


JC Acromion. 

L. First rib. 

M. second rib. 

N. Third rib. 

O. Fourth rib. 

P. Symphysis pubis. 

Q. Anterior superior spine of ilium. 

It. Humerus. 

B. Interclavicular ligament. 

30. Obliquis internus. 

31. Poupart’s ligament. 

34, 35. Abdominal rings. 

37. Deltoid. 

38. Coraeobrachialis. 

39. Short head of biceps. 

40. Long head of biceps. 

41. Biceps. 

42. Subscapular. 

43. Brachialis. 

44. Internal head of biceps. 

45. Pronator teres. 

46. Supinator longus. 

47. Flexor carpi radialis. 

48. Palmaris longus. 

49. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 

52. Anterior annular ligament of carpus 

53. Abductor of thumb. 

54. Palmaris brevis. 

55. Adductor of thumb. 

63. Adductor indicis. 

64. Lumbricales. 

66. Fascia lata femoris. 

68. Falciform process of fascia lata. 

69. Adductor longus. 

70. External femoral ring. 

70-. Sartorius. 


Fig. 2.—Plantar Fascia or Aponeurosis of Right Foot. 

Fig. 3.—Plantar Muscles, First Layer —Inferior Surface, Right Foot. 


Fig. 4. —Second Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. 
Fig. 5.—Third Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. 


Fig. 6.—Fourth Layer of Dorsal Muscles of Right Foot. 































PLATE XIV 


MUSCLES OF TRUNK, NECK, AND ARMS. 

(Posterior View, with some of Anterior Surface.) 

Fig 1.—Muscles of Trunk, Upper Part of Thighs, and Arms. 


A. Occipitofrontalis tendon. 

B. Superior semicircular line of occiput. 

1. Frontalis. 

3. Attoilens auris. 

4. Retrahentes auris. 

5. Attrahens auris. 

6. Masseter. 

7. Occipitalis. 

8. 8, 8. Sternocleidomastoid. 

10. Splenius colli. 

11. Complexus cervicis. 

12. Levator auguli scapulae. 

13. Trapezius. 

14. Rhomboideus minor. 

15. Rhomboideus major. 

16. Latissimus dorsi. 

17. Serratus posticus inferior. 

22. Obliquus abdominis internus. 

23. Gluteus maxim us (divided ). 

24. Gluteus medius. 

25. Pyriform is. 

26. Gemellus superior. 


H. Crest of ilium. 


28. Gemellus inferior. 

29. Quadratus femoris. 

30. Obturator externus. 

31. Vastus externus. 

32. Semimembranosus. 

33. Adductor magnus. 

35. Infraspinatus. 

36. Teres minor. 

37. Teres major. 

38. Deltoid. 

39. Triceps brachialis. 

40. Long head of triceps. 

41. External head of triceps. 

42. Internal head of triceps. 

43. Anconeus. 

45. Supinator longus. 

46. Extensor digitorum communis, 

47. Extensor carpi ulnaris. 

50. Abductor pollicis longus. 

52. Flexor digitorum communis. 


Fig. 2.—Deep Muscles of Neck—Anterior View. 


Fig. 3.—Deep Muscles of Back of Neck. 


Fig. 4.—Tendons and Tendinous Sheaths on Posterior Surface of Carpus. 
Fig. 5.—Tendons and Tendinous Aponeuroses of Right Wrist and Hand. 


49 





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jps SM 

(lilted 











































PLATE XV. 


DEEP MUSCLES OF ABDOMEN, DIAPHRAGM, AND PELVIS. 


a. Inferior border of thorax. 

b. Xiphoid process. 

c. Cut edges of oblique and transversal is 

muscles. 

d. Symphysis pubis. 

1. Costal portion of diaphragm. 

2. Tendon of diaphragm. 

3. Internal crus of diaphragm. 

4. Middle crus of diaphragm. 

5. External crus of diaphragm. 

6. Opening of vena cava. 

7. Esophageal opening. 

8. Aortic opening. 

9. Psoas major. 

10. Psoas minor. 

11. Q,uadratus lumborum. 


e. Horizontal ramus of pubes. 

/. Lumbar vertebrae. 

g. Sacrum. 

h. Coccyx. 

i. Crest of ilium. 

12. Transversalis and fascia transversal is. 

13. Iliacus in tern us. 

14. Pyriformis. 

15. Levator ani. 

16. Sartorius. 

17. Rectus femoris. 

18. Pectineus. 

19. Adductor longus. 

20. Tensor fasciae latse. 

2L Gluteus medius. 


51 


























PLATE XVI. 


MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR AND EXTERNAL SURFACES 
OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Fig. 1.—Muscles of Anterior Surface of Lower Extremities. 


B. Anterior superiour spinous process. 
D. Symphysis pubis. 

F. Patella. 

а. Crest of ilium. 

c. Trochanter major. 
e. Trochanter minor. 

h. Tibia. 

i. Malleolus internus. 

k. Malleolus extern us. 

m. Fibula. 

n. Linea alba. 

l. Obliquis abdominis extern us. 

2. Transversalis abdominis. 

3 . Tensor fasciae latse. 

4. Gluteus medius. 

5. Iliacus internus. 

б. Psoas major. 

7. Pectineus. 

8. Sartorius. 

9. Adductor longus. 

10 . Rectus femoris. 

11 . Tendon of biceps femoris. 

12 . Ligament of patella. 

13 . Vastus internus. 


6r. Tuberosity of tibia. 

L. Anterior annular ligament of ankle= 
joint. 

o. Pou part’s ligament. 

p. Internal pillar of external abdominal 

ring. 

q. External pillar of external abdominal 

ring. 

r. External abdominal ring. 
ft. Internal abdominal ring. 

t. Posterior boundary of inguinal canal. 

14. Vastus extern us. 

15. Gracilis. 

16. Adductor magnus. 

17. Tibialis anticus. 

18. Extensor longus pollicis pedis. 

19. Extensor digitorum communis 

longus. 

20. Peroneus tertius. 

21. Peroneus longus et brevis. 

22. Gastrocnemius. 

25. Extensor digitorum communis 
brevis. 

28. Soleus. 


Fig. 2.—Muscles of External Surface of Right Side of Pelvis and Lower Extremity. 


A. Crest of ilium. 

B. Anterior superior spine of ilium. 

c. External condyles of knee=joint. 

d. Tibia. 

/. Anterior annular ligament of ankle. 

1. Tensor fasciae latoe. 

2. Fascia lata. 

3. Gluteus medius. 

4. Gluteus maximus. 

5. Sartorius. 

6. Rectus femoris. 

7. Vastus externus. 

8. Biceps femoris ( caput longum ). 

9. Caput breve bicipitis femoris. 

10 . Tibialis anticus. 

11 . Extensor digitorum communis longus. 


E. Patella, 


g. External portion of annular liga¬ 

ment. 

h. Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal bone. 

12. Tendon of Achilles. 

13. Peroneus tertius. 

14. Peroneus longus. 

16. Sheaths of long and short peroneal 

tendons. 

17. Soleus. 

18. Gastrocnemius. 

20. Extensor digitorum communis 

brevis. 

21. Adductor digiti minimi. 


53 





































PLATE XVII. 


MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR AND INNER SURFACES OF PELVIS 

AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 


G. 

H. 
1 \ 


a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 

/■ 

i. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 
9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 


Fig. 1.—Muscles of Posterior Surface of Pelvis and Lower Extremities. 


Trochanter major. 
Sacrum. 

External malleolus. 


Q. Internal malleolus. 
It. Tendon of Achilles. 


Crest of ilium. 

Ilium. 

Coccyx. 

Tuber of ischium. 

Ascending ramus of ischium. 
Descending ramus of pubes. 
Lesser sacrosciatic ligament. 


k. Greater sacrosciatic ligament. 

l. Lineaaspera. 

m. Femur. 

n. Popliteal fossa. 

o. Fibula. 

s. Oblique line of tibia. 


Gluteus maximus. 

Gluteus medius. 

Pyriform is. 

Gemellus superior. 

Obturator interims. 

Gemellus inferior. 

Q,uadratus femoris. 
Obturator externus. 

Long head of biceps femoris. 
Short head of biceps femoris. 
Tendon of biceps femoris. 
Semitendinosus. 
Semimembranosus. 
Adductor magnus. 


15. Inferior opening of Hunter’s canal. 

16. Gracilis. 

17. Sartorius. 

18. Vastus externus. 

19. Popliteus. 

20. Gastrocnemius. 

21. External head of gastrocnemius. 

22. Internal head of gastrocnemius. 

23. Plantaris. 

25. Tendon of Achilles. 

26. Soleus. 

27. Peroneus longus. 

28. Peroneus brevis. 

29. Flexor pollicis pedis longus. 


Fig 2.—Muscles of Inner Surface of Pelvis, Thigh, Leg, and Foot. 


A. Crest of ilium. 

B. Sacrum. 

E. Symphysis pubis. 

c. Coccyx. 

d. Linea innominata interna. 

m. Ascending ramus of ischium. 

n. Anterior sacral foramen. 

1. Psoas major. 

2. Iliacus interims. 

3. Obturator In tern us. 

4. Pyriformis. 

5. Sartorius. 

6. Adductor longus. 

7. Gracilis. 

8. Vastus internus. 

9. Rectus femoris. 

10. Adductor magnus. 

11. Semimembranosus. 

12. Semitendinosus. 


Q. Patella. 

B. Internal surface of tibia. 


o. Tuber of ischium. 

p. Internal condyles of knee=joint. 
s. Internal malleolus. 


13. Gastrocnemius (internal head). 

14. Soleus. 

15. Tendon of Achilles. 

16. Flexor digitorum communis longus 

perforans. 

17. Flexor pollicis pedis longus. 

18. Tibialis posticus. 

19. Tendo tibialis antici. 

20. Tendo extensoris pollicis pedis longi. 

21. Adductor pollicis pedis. 

22. Gluteus maximus. 


55 



























THE MUSCLES 


57 


passage of the cutaneous vessels and nerves; and retains the 
warmth of the body. 

Deep Fascia is a dense, inelastic, unyielding, fibrous mem¬ 
brane, forming sheaths for the muscles, affording them broad 
surfaces for attachment and binding down the whole in a 
shapely mass. It consists of shining, parallel, tendinous fibers, 
connected together by other fibers disposed in a reticular man¬ 
ner. The deep fascia is usually exposed on removal of the 
superficial, forming a strong investment, which not only binds 
down the muscles of each region collectively, but gives a 
separate sheath to each, as well as to the vessels and nerves. 

Wonders of the Muscles. —The action of many muscles is 
required to keep the human body in an upright position. The 
center of gravity is so high up, and the joints work so easily, 
that were it not for the muscular action the skeleton would 
constantly topple over. But for the steadying effect of the 
muscles of the neck the head would be forced to respond to its 
tendency to fall forward. The strong muscles of the back 
restrain the hips’ natural forward incline, while the muscles 
of the calf counteract the pulling forward of the great muscles 
of the thigh, acting over the knee-cap. So it is with other 
sets of muscles, all acting so perfectly that they are unthought 
of until science calls attention to them. 

Muscular Sense is useful in many ways. The sensation 
of weight is felt in lifting an object. Cultivation of this sense 
enables one to form a very precise estimate of the weight of a 
body by simply lifting it. Walking is a perilous performance 
which constant practice alone has made safe. Some authorities 
define walking as perpetual falling with constant self-recovery. 
In running we simply incline our bodies more and fall faster. 

Development of the Muscles. — Proper exercise develops 
and improves the muscles, while violent, unguarded exercise is 
injurious. A muscle remaining entirely idle loses the power to 
take up the nourishment provided, becomes soft and weak, grow- 




58 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

ing constantly smaller, and finally the muscular tissue almost 
wholly disappears. Exercise increases the flow of blood to the 
muscles, promoting their nourishment and stimulating their 
growth. The large, hard, and strong muscles of men engaged 
in manual labor, contrasted with the thin and flabby muscles of 
professional men, who are unaccustomed to exercise, clearly show 
the effects of exercise. Exercise is essential to the health of the- 
whole body, increasing the circulation and power of breathing, 
and stimulating every part of the body to a healthy growth. 
To obtain the best advantage exercise should be regular and 
systematic, and taken in proper amounts. 

Number of Muscles. —There are about five hundred muscles 
in the human body, each having a special use, and all working 
together harmoniously and perfectly. Many of the external 
muscles can be seen and traced on Plates XI to XVII, but be¬ 
neath these are still larger numbers, many being quite tiny and 
delicate, too small to be seen with the unaided e} T e. It is not 
necessary in a work of this kind to describe all of the muscles— 
only a few that serve as guides to the arteries and veins which 
are usually employed in embalming. A brief description is also 
given of the diaphragm, and of several locations, a knowledge 
of which is deemed of importance to the embalmer. 

The Sternocleidomastoid arises by two heads from the 
sternum and the inner third of the clavicle, and passes upward 
and backward to be inserted into the mastoid process of the 
temporal bone and the superior curved line of the occipital bone, 
behind the ear. The anterior border serves as a guide to the 
common carotid artery and internal jugular vein. 

The Biceps arises by two heads, the long head from the 
upper margin of the glenoid cavity, the short head from the 
apex of the coracoid process of the scapula, and is inserted into 
the back of the tuberosity of the radius and the fascia of the 
forearm. The inner border serves as a guide to the brachial 
artery and basilic vein. 1 


THE MUSCLES 


59 


The Sartorius arises from the anterior superior spinous 
process of the ilium (front part of the hip-bone) and half of the 
notch below-it, and passes obliquely downward and inward, to be 
inserted into the upper internal surface of the tibia. It is the 
longest muscle of the body. The inner border serves as a guide 
to the femoral artery and vein. 

The Adductor Longus has its origin'in the front surface of 
the pubic bone, and is inserted in the inner border of the middle 
third of the femur. It forms the inner boundary of Scarpa’s 
triangle. Its action is to draw the lower extremities together. 



Fig. 3- The Diaphragm, Showing Under Surface, with Openings, etc. 


The Diaphragm (a partition wall) is a thin musculo-fibrous 
septum, placed obliquely across the trunk, separating the thorax 






















60 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

from the abdomen, and forming the floor of the former cavity 
and the roof of the latter. It is the great muscle of respiration. 
It has three openings, the aortic, esophageal, and that of the 
vena cava, but is impervious to liquids contained in, or injected 
into, either cavity. 

Scarpa’s Triangle is situated in the upper front part of the 
thigh, with the base upward, which is bounded by Poupart’s 
ligament; the outer border is bounded by the sartorius muscle, 
and the inner bv the adductor lomms muscle. The femoral 
artery passes out from* the abdomen at the center of the base 
of the triangle (Poupart’s ligament), and extends downward 
through the center of the triangle to the apex. 

The Popliteal Space, commonly called the hollow of the 
knee, occupies the space behind the knee, including the lower 
third of the thigh and upper fifth of the leg. 

Axillary Space. —The axilla (armpit) is a pyramidal space, 
situated between the upper and lateral part of the chest and the 
inner side of the arm. It extends from the interval between the 
two scalene muscles on the first rib to the humerus at the point 
where the pectoral muscles are inserted. 





CHAPTER III. 


THE ABSORBENTS. 


THE SKIN. 

The Skin or Integument ( intego , to cover) is the first 
tissue that is incised in cutting into the body. It is a tough, 
thin, elastic investment, with which the entire surface of the 
body is covered. Its perfect elasticity adapts it to every motion 
of the body. The skin surface of an adult of average size is 
about sixteen square feet. It is not a mere covering, but is an 
active and important excretory and absorbent organ. Like the 
joints, it is selfioiling, but for a different reason, namely, to 
preserve its smoothness and delicacy. It also replaces itself as 
fast as worn out. The skin varies in thickness in different parts 
of the body, being quite thick where exposed to friction and 
pressure, as on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands. At 
the openings of the body, as the mouth, it becomes merged into 
the mucous membrane. 

Structure of the Skin. —The skin consists of two distinct 
layers, outer and inner, and also a thin middle layer, which is 
attached to the under surface of the outer layer. 

Cuticle, Epidermis, Scarf-skin. —The outer layer is vari¬ 
ously called the cuticle ( cuticula , little skin), epidermis ( epi, 
upon; derma, skin), and scarf-skin, and is what is commonly 
styled the skin. It forms a defensive covering to the surface of 
the true skin ; limits the evaporation of watery vapor from the 
free surface ; is the part raised by a blister, and that is detached 
and slips in a case of so-called “skin-slip.” If the soft or middle 
layer is removed from the under surface the cuticle is perfectly 

transparent. It neither bleeds nor suffers from heat or cold ; 

61 









62 


CHAMPION TEXPBOOK ON EMBALMING 


neither does it possess blood-vessels. It can be torn or cut with¬ 
out producing hemorrhage or pain. 

The cuticle is composed entirely of small, flat cells or scales, 
which are constantly being shed from the surface in the form 
of scurf or dandruff, but are constantly being renewed from the 
cutis or inner layer of the skin. In the usual discolorations the 
outer layer is not affected, there being no blood-vessels to fill 
with blood ; neither is it stained by any coloring matter. 

Coriura, Derma, Cutis Vera—The inner layer is called 
corium, derma, and cutis vera (true skin), all meaning the same 
thing. The term “corium,” 
though used to designate the 
entire layer, is more properly 
applied to the deeper and prin¬ 
ciple portion of this layer. It 
consists of strong, interlacing, 
fibro-areolar tissue, and merges 
into the fattv tissue beneath, in 
which is found an abundance 
of blood-vessels, nerves, lym¬ 
phatics, and glands. The su¬ 
perficial or papillary portion of 
the layer consists of numerous 
small, highly sensitive, and vascular elevations, the papillae, 
which rise perpendicularly from its surface into the rete mucosum. 
The papillae form the essential element of the organ of touch ; 
are conical in shape ; average about one hundredth of an inch in 
length ; are few, short, and minute on the general surface of the 
body, where there is slight sensibility, and long, large, and closely 
aggregated on other parts, where there is great sensitiveness, as 
in the palmar surface of the hands, the bottom of the feet, etc. 

The derma is filled with blood-vessels, the smallest subdivisions 
of arteries and veins, and with the network of capillaries between 
them. These capillaries are so small, and lie so closely together, 


Epidermis 


Derma 



Hair 

follicle 

Coloring 

matter 

Nerve ter 
mi nation 


Sweat 

gland 


Fig. 4. Section of Skin Magnified. 


















THE ABSORBENTS 


63 


that in puncturing the inner layer with a fine needle, many of 
them will be ruptured, and, in the living body, blood will ooze 
from the wound. It is these vessels, with the addition of those 
in the subcutaneous tissues, that fill with blood, producing the 
red or dark-bluish discolorations. 

Rete Mucosum. — The middle layer is commoi 
soft or pigment layer. The technical name is the rete mucosum. 
This layer is made up of small grains, forming a pigment, which 
gives to the skin its color and complexion. This matter varies 
in color in the different races. In the negro it is almost entirely 
black ; in the European, various shades, from the most pro¬ 
nounced brunette to the lightest blond ; in the Malayan, it is 
of a brownish ; in the Mongolian, of a yellowish ; and in the 
American Indian, of a reddish or copper color. In the purest 
complexion there is some of the pigment. Exposure to the sun 
readily tans, while the African, living for a time in the secluded 
forest, or away from the sun, loses much of his normal color. 

The rete mucosum softens quickly after death by decomposi¬ 
tion, allowing the cuticle to become detached, which will slip if 
anything comes in contact with it. This is called “skin-slip.” 
It will also become detached in cases of dropsy where the water 
accumulates, as the cuticle, being extremely compact, will not 
allow the water to pass through it rapidly. 

Uses of the Skin. —As an excretory organ, the skin removes 
certain waste material from the body. This process of elimina¬ 
tion is produced by the perspiration, or sweat. This office of the 
skin is a very important one. If the skin were to be covered 
with a coat of varnish, or other impervious covering, thus pre¬ 
venting sweating, death would soon result. The amount of 
sweat secreted in a day averages about two pints, varying 
according to weather, amount of exercise,* etc. The sudoriferous 
or sweat-glands are small tubes, opening in the outside ol the 
skin and coiled up just below the true skin. They cover every 
portion of the skin, being numerous and important in their 


dy called the 






64 


CHAMPION TEXT* B O OK ON EMBALMING 


office, secreting the perspiration. The skin serves also as an 
organ of sensation, the nerves conveying the sense of touch, pain, 
and temperature being situated in it. It assists in the respira¬ 
tory process, slightly absorbing oxygen, and giving off carbonic 
acid gas. The skin has, likewise, an absorptive power by which 
certain substances are carried into the system during life. This 
power of absorption ceases with death. 

The Mucous Membrane is continuous with the skin, begin¬ 
ning where the skin seems to stop, at the external openings of 
the body, as the mouth, nose, etc., and lines the alimentary canal 
from the lips to the anus, as well as all the other cavities and 
canals that have external openings. It is analogous to the skin 
in structure, consisting of two layers, a deep, fibrous layer, con¬ 
taining blood-vessels, and a superficial, bloodless one, the epithe¬ 
lium. It is, however, much redder than the skin, as is seen in 
the lips ; more sensitive; more liable to bleed ; and secretes a 
tenacious, viscid fluid, the mucus, with which it keeps itself con¬ 
tinually moistened. The epithelium is composed of one or more 
layers of flattened cells, called epithelial cells. The endothelium 
of the blood-vessels is analogous. 

Subcutaneous Tissues. —Immediately underneath the skin, 
into which it merges, lies the fibro=areolar, cellular or connective 
tissue, which connects the skin to the subjacent parts. The term 
“connective” is peculiarly applicable to this tissue, as it is the 
great connective medium by which the different parts of the body 
are held together, and is consequently found throughout the 
body. The terms “cellular” and “areolar,” on the other hand, 
are given because its meshes are easily distended and separated 
into spaces, or areolae, which open freely into each other and 
are easily blown up with air or gas, or permeated by fluid. It 
thus affords a ready exit for inflammatory or other effused fluids, 
and for gases. This tissue also enters into the structure of the 
derma, mucous membrane, tendons, ligaments, etc. 

Under the subcutaneous layer of the connective tissue, coex- 









THE ABSORBENTS 


65 


tensive with the skin, is the inelastic, superficial fascia, covering 
and binding together the muscles. Beneath this, and still more 
closely investing the muscles and vessels, is the deep fascia. 

Within the meshes of the areolar, connective tissue is to be 
found adipose (fatty) tissue, variable in quantity in different 
parts of the body and very variable in different persons. The 
fat is contained in tiny cells, of which there is said to be sixty= 
five millions in a cubic inch of fat. In a fleshy person the 
adipose tissue is very abundant. Owing to the presence of this 
fatty tissue in the subcutaneous layer, this layer is sometimes 
styled the fatty layer. 

An understanding of these subcutaneous tissues is of the ut¬ 
most importance to the embalmer. The skin being made up of 
compact tissues, liquids and gases will transude through it very 
slowly, while they pass through the underlying tissues very 
freely. Gases and fluids are liable, therefore, to accumulate 
underneath the skin after death, causing trouble for the em- 
balmer, unless treated properly. Transudation of blood into 
these tissues frequently causes discoloration. On the other hand, 
on account of the loose, open character of these subcutaneous 
tissues, a channel is furnished for the injection of fluid to all 
parts of the body, chiefly by gravitation, by introducing the 
needle under the skin. 

In general dropsy the water accumulates in the cellular tissue 
in all cases, to a greater or less extent; in some, only in sufficient 
quantities to distend the skin enough to remove wrinkles, while 
in others it will stretch the skin to its fullest extent, enormously 
increasing the size and weight of the body. 

In putrefaction, the accumulation of gas in the areolar tissue 
beneath the skin causes the extensive bloating that is seen in 
some cases. 

The Hair is but a modified form of the cuticle, and exists on 
nearly the whole surface of the body, varying in length and size. 
It forms a protection from heat and cold, and shields the head 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


66 

from blows. The roots of the hairs are imbedded in small 
openings in the skin, called hair*follicles, which are from one* 
twelfth to one*fourth of an inch in depth. The outside of a 
hair is compact and hard, consisting of a layer of colorless scales, 
which overlie one another like shingles on a roof. The interior 
is porous and conveys the liquids by which the hair is nourished. 
It also contains pigmentary matter, upon which the color of the 
hair depends. The hair and scalp are kept soft and pliable by 
the oily secretion of the small glands which open into the hair 
follicles, called sebaceous glands. That portion of a hair outside 
the skin is called the shaft. Each hair grows from a tiny bulb 
(papilla), which is an elevation of the cutis at the bottom of a 
little hollow of the skin. (See Fig. 4.) The hair is produced 
from the surface of the bulb, like the cuticle, by the constant 
formation of new cells at the bottom. When the hair is pulled 
out, this bulb, if uninjured, will produce a new hair, but once 
destroyed it will never grow again. Hair grows at the' rate of 
five to seven inches a year. 

The popular idea that hair grows after death is due to the 
shrinking of the skin, allowing the portion of the hair below the 
surface to project. This is especially noticeable in the beard. 
It is true that we often hear of hair having grown quite exten¬ 
sively on the head and face of bodies that have been disinterred. 
If such is the case, scientifically we can not account for it. 
There is certainly not enough nutrition left in the parts to pro¬ 
duce the growth. The hair, next to the teeth and bones, is the 
least destructible part of the body, and its color is often preserved 
after other portions of the body have decayed. 

The Nails begin near the tips of the fingers and toes, and 
consist of two parts, a root and a body. The latter is the part 
exposed to view, being about four times the length of the root. 
They protect the tender fingers and toes, and give the power to 
grasp firmly, and pick up easily, any desired object. The nail is 
firmly set in a groove (matrix) in the cuticle, from which it grows 











THE ABSORBENTS 


67 


at the root in length and from beneath in thickness. So long as 
the matrix at the root is uninjured, the nail will be reproduced 
after an accident. 

Like the hair the nail is a mere modified form of the epi¬ 
dermis, its horny appearance and feeling being due to the fact 
that the scales, or plates, of which it is composed are much 
harder and more closely packed. It is thrown into ridges which 
run parallel to each other except at the back part, where they 
radiate from the center of the root. The whitish, semicircular 
portion near the root, called the lunula ( lunula , little moon), 
owes its different color to the fact that its ridges contain fewer 
blood-vessels and therefore less blood. The thumb nail will 
grow from the root to its free end in about five months, and the 
nail of the great toe in twenty months. 

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 

The Lymphatics are very delicate, transparent, nerveless 
vessels which exist beneath the skin and in all the mucous 



Fig. 5. Section of Mesentery, 

Showing Lacteals, Lymphatics, and Thoracic Duct. 


membranes. Thus they permeate nearly every portion of the 
body, being closely interlocked with the blood»capillaries. The 
parts of the body free from them are the brain, spinal cord, eye¬ 
ball, cartilage, tendons, membranes of the ovum, placenta, 









68 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


umbilical cord, nails, cuticle, hair, and bone. They are formed,, 
like arteries and veins, of three coats, and are nourished by 
nutrient vessels. Like the veins, the lymphatics are provided 
with valves which permit the matter they convey to flow only 
one way. Their economy in the human system seems to be 
to gather up portions of waste matter capable of further use, 
emptying it, now known as lymph, into the veins, whence it is 
conveyed to the heart. 

The Lacteals, or chyliferous vessels, are small lymphatics, 
which have their origin in the mucous membrane lining the 
small intestine. Through them the greater part of the digested 
food is absorbed from the small intestine and transferred to the 
circulatory system. 

The Villi are delicate, hair-like projections from the lining 
membrane of the small intestine in which the lacteals have their 
origin. They are about one-third of an inch in length and vast 



Fig. 6. Mucous Membrane of Ilium, Showing Villi (highly magnified). 

1, cellular structure of epithelium, 2, a vein; 3, fibrous layer; 4, villi covered 
with epithelium; 5, a villus in section; 6, a villus partially uncovered; 7, a villus 
tripped of epithelium; 9, openings of glands; 10, 11, 12, glands; 13, capillaries. 

in number, covering the entire surface of the intestine. Each 
villus, in addition to its lacteal, possesses an artery and accom- 
panying vein, with their network of capillaries. The villi, 





















THE A B SORB ENTS 


69 


■dipping into the digested, liquefied food-substance in the intestine, 
appropriates a liberal portion, which is taken up in the lacteals, 
where it becomes a milky=white fluid, called chyle. The blood= 
vessels in the villi also absorb a part of the liquid food. 

The Lymphatic Glands are small, hard, pinkish bodies, 
varying in size from a pinhead to an almond, placed along the 
course of these absorbent vessels. They are found principally 
in the mesentery, along the great blood-vessels, in the popliteal 
space, groin, mediastinum, neck, axilla, and front of the elbow. 
The lymphatic vessels pass through these glands. They receive 
their names from the region in which they are situated, as the 
mediastinal, axillary, etc. In these glands are formed corpuscles, 
resembling the white corpuscles of the blood, which are taken 
up by the stream of lymph as it flows past. 

The Thoracic Duct is a tube or canal which commences in 
the receptaculum chyli, in front of the second lumbar vertebra, 
passes through the aortic opening in the diaphragm, ascending 
to the left subclavian vein at its junction with the internal 
jugular, into which it empties. It is the channel for the lymph 
and chyle from the whole body, except the right side of the body 
above and including the convex surface of the liver. Its average 
length in adults is from fifteen to eighteen inches, and its 
diameter is about that of a goose-quill, except along the middle 
part, where it is considerably less. It has three coats and is 
provided with valves. 

The Lymphatic Duct is about an inch in length, terminates 
in the right subclavian vein at its junction with the internal 
jugular, and drains the lymphatics of those parts not connected 
with the thoracic duct. 

The Lymph is an alkaline fluid of a thin, colorless, or yel¬ 
lowish appearance. It closely resembles in appearance and 
composition blood deprived of its red corpuscles and diluted 
with water. This is the fluid which flows through the lym¬ 
phatic system. 



VISCERAL ANATOMY. 


THE THREE GREAT CAVITIES 


Of the body are the cranial, in the head, and the thoracic and 
abdominal, in the trunk. 

Visceral anatomy treats of the organs contained in these cav¬ 
ities, with their appendages and coverings. 

These organs and appendages are called the viscera, or visceral 
organs; and those of any cavity are called the viscera of that 
cavity. 

The chapters immediately following are devoted, in the main, 
to the consideration of visceral anatomy. 











CHAPTER IV. 


THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 

The Nervous System includes the brain, the spinal chord, 
and the nerves. It is also divided into the cerebrospinal and 
sympathetic systems. Although distinct from all other systems 
of the body, the nervous system unites the various parts and 
organs into one complete, organic whole. It is the medium 
through which all impressions upon the mind are received and 
acted upon. The movements of the body and all the processes 
of life are regulated by it. 

Nervous Tissue is composed of two kinds of matter, white 
and gray, and consists of two different structures, nerve-cells and 
nerve=fibers. The nerve^cell is the part that is capable of 
creating nerveTorce, while the nerve-fiber acts as conductor 
of this force. The nerve-cells form the gray matter of the 
nervous tissue, and are of a pulpdike substance of about the 
consistency of blanc-mange. The nerve^fibers consist of minute, 
white, glistening fibers, sometimes as small as one twenty-five- 
thousandth part of an inch. Every nerve-fiber is connected 
with a nerve-cell. 

The NerVes are white, glistening cords, made up of bundles 
of nerve^fibers, and penetrate every part of the body. These 
bundles divide and subdivide as they proceed. They also gather 
into little masses or nerve^centers, called ganglions ( ganglion , a 
knot). These nerve^centers answer to the offices along a tele¬ 
graph line where messages are sent and received, while the 
nerves correspond to the wires that carry the messages. Nerves 
contain two kinds of nerve-fibers, one of which conducts from 




72 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



the nerve^centers to the muscles or organs, and the other from 
the latter to the nerve=centers. The first are called motor nerves 

and the latter sensory nerves. 

If you place a finger on a 
hot stove the sensation of pain 
travels to the nerve-center 
through the sensory nerves. 
A peculiar force is generated 
in the nerve-center which is 
conducted through the motor 
nerves to the muscle which 
controls the finger, causing it 
to contract and thus be re¬ 
moved from contact with the 
hot surface of the stove. 

N e r v e - C u r r e n t. —This 
passing of the sensation 
to the nerve-center, and 
of force back to the mus¬ 
cle, constitutes what is 
called the nerve-current. 
This current travels at about 
the rate of one hundred and 
ten feet a second, being much 
slower than an electric-cur¬ 
rent. About one-twentietli of 
a second is required for a sen¬ 
sation to pass from the foot to 
the brain, and an equal time 
is required for the force gen¬ 
erated to travel back. 

Nerve-Sensations. —Hear¬ 
ing, feeling, tasting, seeing, 
Fig 7 . The cerebrospinal System. and smelling are all different 










THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 


73 


kinds ot sensations, each with its special nerve-centers which 
preside over it. There are also several varieties of motor nerves, 
some coming from centers which preside over the heart and 
stomach, others over muscles, etc. Certain motor nerves, called 
vasomotor nerves, are distributed to the walls of the blood-vessels 
and control the circulation by regulating the size of the blood¬ 
vessels, causing them to dilate or contract according to the 
amount of blood needed. 

The Sympathetic System consists of nerves and nerve- 
centers, or ganglions. There are two chains of ganglions, one 
on each side of the spinal column, within the body, running the 
whole length and extending into the chest and abdomen. There 
are thirty pairs of these ganglions. The sympathetic system of 
nerves supplies the involuntary muscular tissue, governs all acts 
of secretion, equalizes the circulation, and controls the nutrition 
of the body. Nerves from the ganglions are distributed to the 
mucous membrane and the organs concerned in nutrition-—the 
stomach, liver, intestines, etc. The vasomotor nerves belong to 
this system. Thus all the organs of the body are bound together 
with cords of sympathy, so that if one suffers all suffer with it. 

The Cerebrospinal System consists of the brain and spinal 
cord, and the nerves coming from them. This system supplies 
the greater part of the body with nerves. It presides over 
sensation, special senses, voluntary motion, intellect, and all 
movements which characterize different individuals. 

THE CRANIAL CAVITY. 

The cranial cavity is the smallest of the three large cavities of 
the body, and contains the brain and its coverings, or meninges 
—the arachnoid, pi a mater, and dura mater. 

THE BRAIN. 

The Brain is the seat of the mind, and it is the functions 
which the brain performs that distinguishes man from other 
animals. Man becomes a conscious, intelligent, responsible being 


74 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Cere¬ 

bellum? 

Spinal 

cord. 


Spinal 

cord. 


_ Cere¬ 
brum 


through the action of the brain. The average brain weighs 
about forty-nine and a half ounces in the adult male and forty- 
four ounces in the female. It is egg-shaped, soft, and yielding, 
closely filling the skull cavity. It is surrounded by a delicate 

double membrane, called the arach¬ 
noid, forming a closed sac, and filled, 
as are also the brain spaces, with a 
watery liquid. Within the mem¬ 
brane, still more closely investing the 
brain, is a fine vascular membrane, 
called the pia mater, which dips 
down between the convolutions and 
laminae and is prolonged into the 
interior, forming the velum inter- 
positum and choroid plexuses of the 
fourth ventricle. This tissue re¬ 
ceives its blood supply from the internal carotid 
and vertebral arteries, and so copiously does it 
bathe the adjacent parts that it is said to use 
one=fifth of the entire circulation of the body. 
It is plentifully supplied with lymphatics and 
nerves. The outermost envelope of the brain 
is the dura mater, a dense, tough, glistening, 
fibrous membrane, which lines the interior of 
the cranium and the spinal column. It sepa¬ 
rates the various parts of the organs by strong 
partitions. 

The brain is composed of a number of nerve- 
centers, or ganglions, which are connected with 
one another and with the motor and sensory 
nerves of the system. The brain consists of 
both white and gray matter, and is divided 
into three portions, cerebrum, cerebellum, and 



Fig. 8. Tlie Brain and 
Spinal Cord. 


medulla oblongata. 







THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 


75 




The Cerebrum (the brain) occupies the front and upper 
part of the cavity of the cranium, and comprises about Severn 
eighths of the entire weight of the brain. It is divided into two 
lateral halves, or hemispheres, right and left, by the great longi¬ 
tudinal fissure, which extends throughout the entire length of the 
cerebrum, reaching to the base in front and behind, but in the 
middle it is interrupted by a transverse commissure of white 
matter, the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemis¬ 
pheres. In this fissure lodges the falx cerebri. Each hem¬ 
isphere is divided, by fissures on the under surface of the 
brain, into three lobes, anterior, middle, and posterior. Thus, 
we are provided with two brains, as well as hands, feet, eyes, and 
ears ; and one hemisphere has been known to be destroyed in 
large part without particular injury to the mental powers. 

The cerebrum is the center of intelligence and of thought, and 
is a mass of white fibers, with cells of gray matter on the outside, 
or lodged here and there in ganglions. The surface is not 
smooth, except in infancy, but is arranged in large convolutions 
and sulci, which arrangement very largely increases the surface 
for the gray matter. This surface has been estimated in some 
cases to measure as much as six hundred and seventy square 
inches. Depth and intricacy of these convolutions are character¬ 
istic of high mental power. Persons of weak mind are often¬ 
times said to be lacking in gray matter, while brainy persons are 
said to possess it in large quantities. When the cerebrum 
becomes seriously injured or diseased the person is often unable 
to converse intelligently from an inability to remember words 
and lack of force to articulate them. 

The Cerebellum (a small brain) is situated beneath the 
posterior lobes of the cerebrum in the inferior occipital fossae. 
It is connected by the crura (connecting bands) to the rest of the 
brain, two to the cerebrum, two to the medulla oblongata, and 
two blending together in front, forming the pons Varolii. It is 
about the size of a small fist and weighs about five ounces. In 


7 G 


# 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


structure it is similar to the cerebrum, being divided into hemis¬ 
pheres, but unlike that portion has parallel ridges, which, letting 
the gray matter down deep into the white matter within, give it 
a peculiar appearance, called the arbor-vitae, or tree of life. 
This part of the brain is the center for the control of the volun¬ 
tary muscles, particularly those of locomotion. If it is injured 
or diseased the power of locomotion is greatly hindered, the 
muscles not acting together as they should. The falx cerebelli 
projects between the lateral lobes of the cerebellum. 

The Medulla Oblongata ( medulla , marrow ; oblongus, rather 
long) is the upper, enlarged part of the spinal cord, extending 
from the upper border of the atlas to the pons Varolii, and con¬ 
necting the spinal cord with the various ganglions of the brain. 
Its anterior surface rests on the basilar groove of the occipital 
bone, while its posterior surface forms the floor of the fourth 
ventricle. It is about an inch and a quarter in length and an 
inch wide, and is composed of a mass of white matter, within 
which is imbedded a collection of gray matter, or nerve-cells. 
By connecting the spinal chord with the brain, it serves to con¬ 
duct the sensation and motor stimulus to and from the brain. 
Probably its most important function is its entire control over 
the acts of respiration, and if it is injured or destroyed, breathing 
ceases and death results. Within the medulla oblongata is also 
supposed to lie the centers of the vasomotor and cardiac nerves, 
and nerves of phonation, deglutition, mastication, and expres¬ 
sion. 

The Spinal Cord is the cylindrical elongated part of the 
cerebrospinal axis, which is contained in the spinal canal. Its 
length is usually about sixteen or seventeen inches. It com¬ 
mences at the upper border of the axis and terminates at the 
lower border of the first lumbar vertebra in the cauda equina. 
It has two enlargements, one in the cervical region, and one in 
the lumbar. It is composed of gray matter internally and white 
matter externally. It gives out thirty-one pairs of nerves—eight 


D 

THE HEART 


TWO PLATES — XVII).-XIX 






c-a 


PLATE XVIII. 


THE HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVES. 



Anterior Surface with Pericardial Covering. 


A. Left ventricle. 

B. Right ventricle. 

C. Apex of pericardium. 

. Appendix of right auricle. 

. Appendix of left auricle. 
e. Transverse or auriculo=ventricular 
groove. 

1. Pulmonary artery. 

3. Right coronary artery. 

4. Front branch of left coronary artery. 


D. Left auricle. 

E. Ascending aorta. 

F. Apex of heart. 

/. Anterior longitudinal sulcus. 
h, h, h. Pericardium divided and throwu 
back. 


5. Commencement of great coronary 
vein. 


TS 






PLATE XIX. 


THE HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVES_Continued. 



internal Cavities of Ventricles Anterior View. 


A. Pulmonary artery. 

B. Aorta. 

C. Superior vena cava. 

D. Inferior vena cava. 

E. Right ventricle. 

b. Appendix of right auricle. 

/. Appendix of left auricle. 
g. Pulmonary veins. 
m. Apex of heart. 

7i. Wall of the ventricles. 
o. Opening of pulmonary artery. 
Opening of aorta. 


F. Left ventricle. 

G. Pulmonary opening. 
II. Left auricle. 

I. Right auricle. 


q. Tricuspid or right auriculo=ventricu- 

lar valve. 

r. Bicuspid or left auriculo=ventricuiar 

valve. 

s. Tendinous cords. 

u Fleshy surface of cut edge of right 
ventricle. 


7!) 





































THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 


81 


cervical, twelve dorsal, five lumbar, five sacral, and one coccygeal 
—which divide and subdivide, going to all parts of the trunk 
and extremities. Each nerve arises by two roots, the anterior 
being the motory, and the posterior, the sensory root. These 
roots soon unite into one sheath, though they preserve their 
special functions. 

The Cranial Nerves, consisting of twelve pairs, arise from 
the lower part of the brain and medulla oblongata. They are 
as follows : — 

1. Olfactory, nerves of smell. 

2. Optic, nerves of vision. 

3. Motor oculi, 



4. Pathetic 


6. Abducens, ) 

5. Trigeminus (trifacial), nerves of the face, which divide 
into three branches, going respectively to the upper part of the 
face, eyes, and nose; to the upper jaw and teeth ; and to the 
lower jaw and mouth, the latter branch becoming the nerve of 
taste. 

7. Facial, nerves of expression.' 

8. Auditory, nerves of hearing. 

9. Glossopharyngeal, nerves of the pharynx, tonsils, etc. 

10. Pneumogastric, nerves of the larynx, lungs, liver, stom¬ 
ach, and heart (in part). 

11. Accessory, nerves regulating the vocal movements of tne 
larynx. 

12. Hypoglossal, nerves giving motion to the tongue. 


10 


CHAPTER V. 


THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 



Nose 


Back of 


nasal passage { 

Back of mouth j 
Tonsil 

Pharynx 


Mouth 


Tongue 


Epiglottis 


Cartilage ) 
of Larynx 1 

Esophagu 


Trachea 


The Respiratory Organs comprise the respiratory tract, or 
air-passages, the lungs, and certain muscles which assist in the 
act of breathing. The respiratory tract consists of the passages 

of the nose and mouth, 
the pharynx, larynx, and 
trachea, or windpipe. All 
these organs are located 
above the diaphragm—the 
great muscle of respiration 
—chiefly in the neck and 
thorax. 

Mouth and Nose. —The 

air-passages begin with the 
mouth and nose. The 
proper passages for the air 
to enter in the act of 
breathing are those of the 
nose. These passages are 
lined with a smooth, soft, 
mucous membrane, the sur- ’ 
face of which is greatly 
increased by the projection 
into the nasal cavity of 
peculiarly shaped bones. This mucous membrane is constantly 
kept moist, thus catching particles of dust from the air as it 
passes through the nose, and serving to a certain extent in ren¬ 
dering the air moist. The air is slightly warmed, likewise, in 

82 


Os Hvoides 


Larynx 


- Cartilages 


Fig. 9. The Upper Air=Passages. 

Sectional view, showing relative positions, 
connections, and openings. 











THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 


83 


passing through these passages. Minute filaments, or cilia, 
along the air=passages, besides assisting the inward and out¬ 
ward movement of the air, are useful in catching dust and 
fine particles swept inward with the breath. Although it is 
possible to breathe through the mouth, it is always better to 
use the nose for this purpose, as the mouth cannot properly 
perform this office. 

The Pharynx, or Throat, is a musculomembranous sac, 
conical in form, four and a half inches long, with the base 
upward and the apex downward, extending from the basilar 
process of the occipital bone to the lower border of the cricoid 
cartilage in front, and the bottom of the fifth cervical vertebra 
behind. It lies behind the nose, mouth, and larynx; that 
portion behind the nose is known as the nasopharynx, and 
that behind the mouth, as the oropharynx. It serves as an 
air^passage to the larynx as well as a food=passage to the 
esophagus, which is a continuation of the pharynx. (See 
Fig. 9.) It has seven openings communicating with it—the 
two posterior nares, from the nose ; the two Eustachian tubes, 
from the middle ears ; one from the mouth ; one to the larynx ; 
and the terminal opening into the esophagus. The arteries that 
supply the pharynx are the superior thyroid, ascending pharyn¬ 
geal, pterygopalatine, and descending palatine. 

The Larynx is a musculomembranous, cartilaginous, trian- 
gular=shapecl box, situated between the root of the tongue and 
the trachea, into which it merges. It is composed of nine 
cartilages, which are connected together by ligaments and 
moved by numerous muscles. There are three single cartilages : 
the thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis ; and three pairs : the aryte¬ 
noid, cornicula laryngis, and cuneiform. The thyroid is the 
largest cartilage, and consists of two lateral lamellae, which, 
unite at an acute angle in front, forming the prominent pro¬ 
jection seen in the front of the neck, called the pomum Adami, 
or Adam’s apple. • 


84 


CHAMPION TEXT.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Glottis and Epiglottis. —The opening into the larynx from 
the throat is called the glottis. Just above this opening is a 
leafdike portion of fibrocartilage, called the epiglottis (epi, 
upon ; glottis , tongue), which, during the act of breathing, lies 
in such a position as to leave the larynx unobstructed. When 
food or drink is being swallowed, the larynx is drawn up 
beneath the tongue, and the epiglottis shuts down, closing the 
glottis and preventing the entrance into the windpipe of any 
foreign substance. However, should anything enter the larynx 
by any means, a fit of coughing will result until such substance 
is dislodged. 

Vocal Cords. —The larynx is also called the special organ 
of the voice, as there are stretched across its upper part, at 
either side of the glottis, folds of elastic mucous membrane, 
called the vocal cords, which, by their vibration, due to the 
passage of air from the lungs, produce sound, or voice. When 
not in use the vocal cords spread apart, leaving a V-shaped 
orifice for the passage of the air. On being tightened for use, 
the edges sometimes approach to within a hundredth part of 
an inch of each other. The lips, tongue, palate, and teeth .assist 
in the modulation of speech. 

THE THORACIC CAVITY. 

The Thorax, or Chest, is the smaller and upper of the 
two main cavities of the trunk. It extends from the neck to 
the diaphragm ; is conical in shape, with the apex above and 
the base below T ; is bounded at the back by the spinal column, 
in front by the sternum, at the side by the ribs, and below by 
the diaphragm. It contains the lungs, pleurae, heart, peri¬ 
cardium, aorta, venae cavae, trachea, esophagus, and numerous 
other organs. 

The Trachea, or Windpipe, is a cylindrical, membrano* 
cartilaginous tube about four and a half inches in length and one 
inch in diameter. It begins at the lower border of the larynx, 




THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 


85 


opposite the fifth cervical vertebra, and ends opposite the third 
dorsal, where it divides into the two bronchi, one for each lung. 
It is composed of a fibro=elastic membrane, containing from six¬ 
teen to twenty Oshaped, stiff, cartilaginous rings, connected by 
muscular fibers, which keep the walls rigid and prevent their 



Fig. 10. The Thoracic Viscera. 

Showing location and relative position of the heart, lungs, trachea, aortic 
arch, venae cavae, pulmonary vessels, etc. 

* 

collapse during the act of breathing. The openings of the car¬ 
tilages are behind, where they are attached to the esophagus. 
The thyroid gland lies at the side and in front of the upper 
portion of the trachea. 


















































































































86 


CHAMPION TEXPBOOK ON EMBALMING 


0 


The Bronchi are the right and left divisions of the trachea, 
which enter the lungs, dividing and subdividing into many 
bronchial tubes, ramifying all parts of the lungs. The last and 
most minute subdivisions are called bronchioles. A smooth 
mucous membrane, which is constantly kept moist by a secre¬ 
tion of mucus, lines the trachea and bronchial tubes through¬ 
out, extending with the vessels 
into all parts of the lungs. The 
stiff cartilaginous rings, so no¬ 
ticeable in the rough surface of 
the trachea and bronchi, disap¬ 
pear in the smaller bronchial 
tubes, so that, while the former 
are kept constantly open for the 
free admission of air, the latter 
are provided with elastic fibers, 
by which they may be almost 
closed. The right bronchus is 
wider, shorter, and more hori¬ 
zontal than the left, is only 
about one inch in length, and 
enters the right lung opposite 
the fourth dorsal vertebra. The 
left is smaller, more oblique, 
two inches long, and enters the 
left lung opposite the fifth dor¬ 
sal vertebra, about one inch 
lower than the right. The arteries are the tracheal branches of 
the inferior thyroid and the bronchial branches of the thoracic 
aorta. The veins open into the thyroid plexus and the bron¬ 
chial veins. 

The Lungs are the essential organs of respiration ; are two 
in number, one on each side ; weigh together about forty4wo 
ounces; and fill the greater part of the thorax. Like manv 



Fig. 11. Larynx, Trachea, and Bronchi. 

A, trachea; B, right lung; C, left lung; 
D, larynx. 
















THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 


87 


the organs, they are heavier in the male than in the female. 
They are separated from each other by the heart and other con¬ 
tents of the mediastinum. Each lung is conical in shape, with 
the apex extending into the root of the neck about one inch above 
the first rib, and with the base, which is broad and concave, 
resting on the diaphragm. A long, deep fissure, penetrating 
nearly to the root, divides each lung into two lobes, and a lesser 
fissure subdivides the upper lobe of the right lung. The right 
lung is larger, heavier (by about an ounce), broader, and shorter 
than the left. The root of the lung is where the bronchial ves¬ 
sels and nerves, bound together by areolar tissue, enter the lung. 
The color of the lungs at birth is pinkish-white, which, as age 
advances, becomes mottled with slate-colored patches, from the 
deposits of carbonaceous granules in the areolar tissue of the 
organ. 

Structure of the Lungs. —The lungs are composed of an 
external serous coat (the pleurae), covering the entire surface 
as far as the root; a subserous, elastic, areolar tissue, investing 

the entire organ and extending inward between the lobules; 

_ \ 

and the parenchyma, or true lung tissue. The parenchyma is 
composed of lobules, which, although closely connected together 
by interlobular, areolar tissue, are quite distinct from each other. 
The lobules vary in size, those on the surface being large, while 
those in the interior are smaller. Each lobule consists of several 
air-cells, arranged around the termination of a bronchiole, and 
surrounded by plexuses of pulmonary and bronchial arteries and 
veins, lymphatics, and nerves. The lungs are nourished by the 
bronchial arteries, and supplied with blood for oxygenation by 
the pulmonary arteries. The bronchial arteries are derived from 
the thoracic aorta, and the pulmonary artery, from the right 
ventricle of the heart. The bronchial veins open into the vena 
azygos on the right side and superior intercostal on the left. 
The pulmonary veins, which carry the oxygenated blood from 
the lungs to the heart, open by four orifices into the left auricle. 


88 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The Pleurae are two delicate, serous, shut sacs, one surround¬ 
ing each lung, and deflected or turned back upon itself, so as to 
line the chest walls. The pleurae meet for a short space behind 
the middle of the sternum, at the approximation of the anterior 
borders of the lungs. The visceral layer invests the lungs as far 
as the root, while the parietal layer lines the inner surface of the 
walls of the chest, the diaphragm, and the pericardium. This 
membrane secretes a thin fluid, which acts as a lubricator, pre¬ 
venting friction between the surface of the lungs and the chest' 
walls during the act of breathing. The space between the two 
layers is called the cavity of the pleura. 

The Mediastinum is the space between the two pleurae in 
the median line of the thorax, extending from the sternum 
to the vertebral column, and containing all the viscera of the 
chest, except the lungs, including the heart and pericardium, 
the large blood-vessels, esophagus, etc. It is divided into the 
superior mediastinum (upper portion), and the anterior, middle, 
and posterior mediastinum (lower portion). 





CHAPTER VI. 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


The Organs of Digestion consist of the alimentary canal 
and accessory organs. All food, before it is in a condition to 
afford nourishment to the tissues, must undergo a certain process, 
called digestion. It is while passing through these organs that 
digestion takes place. 

The Alimentary Canal, the chief organ of digestion, is a 
musculomembranous tube, about twenty'five or thirty feet in 
length, extending from the mouth to the anus, and lined through¬ 
out with mucous membrane. It is divided into different parts, 
each with its distinctive name and duties. These are the mouth, 
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. 
The first three lie above the diaphragm, and the others below it. 
The accessory organs are the tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver, 
pancreas, etc. 

The Mouth, placed at the commencement of the alimentary 
canal, is an ovabshaped cavity, formed by the lips, cheeks, jaws, 
palate, and tongue, in which the mastication of the food takes 
place. It opens posteriorly into the pharynx by the fauces, and 
contains the tongue, teeth, hard palate, soft palate, uvula, anterior 
and posterior pillars of the fauces, tonsils, and the openings of 
Stenson’s and Wharton’s ducts and of the ducts of Rivinus. 

The Salivary Glands are the parotid, lying below and in 
front of the external ear, and the submaxillary and sublingual, 
lying in the corresponding fossae on the inner surface of the in¬ 
ferior maxillary bone. All of these glands open into the mouth 
by ducts, and are stimulated to action by the presence of food in 
the mouth, and by the operation of chewing. The fluid secreted 

11 89 




90 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 


by these glands is called the saliva. It is mixed with the lood 
during the act of mastication and keeps the interior ol the mouth 
moistened. The saliva is of the greatest importance in the 



1. Mouth. 

2. Hard palate. 

3. Lower jaw. 

4. Teeth. 

5. 5, 6, (3. Mucous membrane. 

7. Roof of mouth. 

8. 8. Soft palate. 

9. 9. Pharynx. 

10. Uvula. 

11. 11. Tongue. 

12. Floor of mouth. 

13. Trachea. 

14. 14, 15. Esophagus. 

16. Stomach. 

17. Cardiac end. 

18. Pyloric end. 

19. Lesser curvature. 

20. Greater curvature. 

21. Cardiac orifice. 

22. Pyloric valve. 

23. Beginning of duodenum. 

24. Descending duodenum. 

25. Ending of duodenum. 

26. Transverse duodenum. 

27. Gall bladder. 

28. Cystic duct. 

29. 30. Hepatic duct. 

31. Choledoch duct. 

32. Pancreatic opening. 

33. Pancreatic duct. 

34. Choledoch opening. 

35. Jejunum. 

36. 36, 36. Ilium. 

37. 38. Ending of ilium. 

39. Ilioceeal valve. 

40. 41. Cecum. 

42. Vermiform appendix. 

43, 43, 44. Ascending colon. 

45. Transverse colon. 
46,47,47. Descending colon. 
48, 49. Sigmoid flexure. 

50. Rectum. 

51. Sphincter muscle. 

52. Anus. 


Fig. 12. The Alimentary Canal, a Portion of Esophagus Being Removed. 


proper digestion of the food, moistening and softening the food, 
so that when it enters the stomach the digestive juices there can 
readily act upon it. 














THE DIGESTIVE OH GASS 


91 


The Tongue is the organ of the special sense of taste. It is 
situated in the floor of the mouth, in the interval between the 
two lateral portions of the body of the lower jaw. Its base, or 
root, is directed backward, and is connected with the hyoid bone 
by numerous muscles ; with the epiglottis by three folds of mucous 
membrane, which form the glossoepiglottic ligaments ; and with 
the soft palate and pharynx, by means of the anterior and 
posterior pillars of the fauces. Its mucous membrane is reflected 
over the floor of the mouth to the inner surface of the gums, 
forming in front a fold, the frenum of the tongue. Papillae 
■cover nearly the entire surface of the dorsum of the tongue, 
giving it its characteristic roughness. The arteries are the 
lingual, submental, and ascending pharyngeal. 

The Teeth are a very important factor in the scheme of 
digestion. Their office is to reduce 
the food to a proper condition as to 
fineness, so that it can pass through 
the pharynx and esophagus into 
the stomach, and there be easily 
acted upon. This process is called 
mastication. The teeth, of which 
there are thirty-two in the com¬ 
plete adult set, sixteen in each 
jaw, consist of crown, neck, and 
root. The crown is the part above 
the gums, and is covered with a 
white, glistening substance, called 
enamel, which is the hardest sub¬ 
stance in the human body. The 

*/ 

permanent teeth in each jaw are 
as follows: four incisor, two canine, four bicuspid, and six 
molar. 

The J aws possess the mechanism for grinding the food. The 
lower jaw being movable, its muscles bring it against the upper 



Opening for nerves and blood-vessels. 

Fig. 13. Tlie Jaws and Teeth. 








92 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


jaw, giving it also a sidewise motion. The tongue, lips, and 
cheeks assist in mastication by keeping the food mass between 
the teeth. 

The Pharynx, which is fully described in the preceding 
chapter, forms that part of the alimentary canal which lies 
back of the nose, mouth, and larynx. It has two openings in 
its lower part, one to the esophagus, into which it emerges, and 
the other to the larynx. It thus forms an important link in 
the alimentary canal as well as the respiratory tract. 

The Esophagus (gullet) is a musculomembranous canal, 
about nine inches long, extending from the pharynx, at the 
lower border of the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and the fifth 
cervical vertebra, along the front of the spine, through the 
posterior mediastinum, passing through the esophageal opening 
into the abdomen, to the cardiac orifice of the stomach, opposite 
the ninth dorsal vertebra, where it terminates. It is located in 
the neck, between the trachea and the vertebral column. Its 
general direction is vertical. It is the narrowest part of the 
alimentary canal. The esophageal arteries are chiefly brandies 
from the thoracic aorta. The veins empty into the vena azygos 
minor. 

THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. 

The Abdomen, or Belly, is the largest cavity of the body, 
extending from the diaphragm to the floor of the pelvis. 
Though the pelvic cavity is really a part of the general abdom¬ 
inal cavity, it is here considered as a separate cavity. Thus 
restricted, the abdominal cavity is bounded above by the 
diaphragm, below by the brim of the pelvis, at the back by 
the vertebral column and the psoas and quadratus muscles, and 
in front and at the sides by the transversalis fascia, the lower 
ribs, and the iliac venter. The muscles forming the boundaries 
of the cavity are lined upon their inner surface by a layer of 
fascia, differently arranged, according to the part to which it is 
attached. 




E 

THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

WITH THEIR BLOOD-VESSELS 


TEN PLATES — XX.-XXIX 


12 


93 






94 






PLATE XX 


VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOMEN AND PELVIS 
( ANTERIOR VIEW). 


Thoracic Parietes with Viscera Enclosed (Abdomen and Abdominal 

Viscera in Natural Position). 


I. Costal pleura. 

II. Left lung. 

III. Anterior mediastinum. 

IV. Phrenic pleura. 

V. Diaphragm. 

VI. Peritoneum. 

VII. External inguinal fossa. 

VIII. Peritoneal coat of bladder. 

IX. Urinary bladder. 

X. Suspensory ligament of liver. 

XI. Umbilicus. 

XII. Round ligament of liver (obliter¬ 
ated umbilical vein). 

XIII. Lateral ligaments of bladder (ob¬ 
literated umbilical arteries). 


a. Clavicle. 

b. Sternum. 

c. First rib. 

d. Tenth rib. 


XIV. Middle ligament of bladder (ob¬ 
literated urachus). 

XV. Stomach. 

XVI. Right lobe of liver (with gall= 
bladder). 

XVII. Left lobe of liver (with gall= 
bladder). 

XVIII. Transverse colon. 

XIX. Cecum. 

XX. Jejunum and ilium. 

XXI. Descending colon. 

XXII. Sigmoid flexure. 

XXIII. Rectum. 


e. Costal cartilages. 
/. Ilium 

g. Os pubis. 


Muscles. 


h. Pectoralis minor. 

i. Internal intercostal. 

k. Triangular of sternum. 

l. Subscapular. 

m. Latissimus dorsi. 

n. Abdominal (oblique external and in¬ 

ternal, and transversalis). 

o. Sartorius. 

p. Rectus femoris. 


q. Tensor fasciae latse. 

r. Adductor femoris longus. 

.v. Pectineus. 

t. Poupart’s ligament. 

w. Spermatic cord. 

x. Divided margin of obliquus externus. 
i/. Fascia transversalis. 

2 . Inferior pillar of external abdominal 
ring (annulus abdominalis). 


Blood=Vessels and Nerves. 


1. Axillary artery. 

2. Axillary vein. 

3 . Internal mammary artery and vein. 

4 . Superior anterior intercostal arteries. 

5. Inferior anterior intercostal arteries. 
0. Sternal branches of internal mam¬ 
mary artery. 

7. Brachial plexus. 

8. Transverse artery and vein of the 

scapula, with suprascapular nerve. 

9. Posterior intercostal arteries. 

10. Intercostal nerves. 

11. Crural artery. 


12. Crural vein. 

13. Epigastric artery and veins. 

14. Great saphenous vein. 

15. Circumflex artery and veins of ilium 

16. Crural nerve. 

17. Anterior branch of the obturator 

nerve. 

18. Anterior external cutaneal nerve of 

the thigh. 

19. Cutaneal branch of the iliohypogas 

trie nerve. 

20. Lumboinguinal nerve 


95 









96 













PLATE XXI. 


VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOITEN AND PELVIS 
(ANTERIOR VIEW)—Continued. 


Lungs, in Position, and Deeper Abdominal Viscera (Small Intestine 

Being Removed). 


I. Superior lobe of right lung. 

II. Middle lobe of right lung. 

III. Inferior lobe of right lung. 

IV. Superior lobe of left lung. 

V. Inferior lobe of left lung. 

VI. Pleura. 

VII. Anterior mediastinal space. 

VIII. Diaphragm. 

IX. Esophagus. 

X. Stomach. 

XI. Spleen. 

XII. Left lobe of liver (a portion of 
left extremity being removed ). 

XIII. Right lobe of liver. 

XIV. Gall=bladder. 

a. Clavicle. 

b. First rib. 


XV. 

Suspensory ligament of liver. 

XVI. 

Duodenum. 

XVII. 

Jejunum. 

XVIII. 

Mesentery. 

XIX. 

Cecum. 

XX. 

Vermiform appendix. 

XXI. 

Ascending colon. 

XXII. 

Right flexure of colon. 

XXIII 

Transverse colon. 

XXIV. 

Left flexure of colon. 

XXV. 

Descending colon. 

XXVI. 

Sigmoid flexure of colon. 

XXVII. 

Rectum. 

XXVIII. 

Peritoneum. 

XXIX. 

Ilium (divided). 


c. Eleventh rib. 

d. Crest of ilium. 


Muscles. 


e. Psoas major. 

/. Internal iliac. 

g. Rectus fern oris. 

h. Gluteus medius. 

i. Vastus externus. 

k. External obturator. 

l. Obturator ligament. 

m. Adductor magnus. 

n. Adductor brevis. 


o. Adductor longus. 

p. Gracilis. 

q. Pectineus. 

r. Tensor fasciae latae. 

s. Sartorius. 

t. Crural. 

u. Neck of femur. 

v. Trochanter major. 


Arteries and Veins. 


1. Crural artery. 

2. Crural vein. 

3. Superficial epigastric artery and 

vein. 


4. Deep artei’y and vein of thigh. 

5. External circumflex artery and vein 

of thigh. 

6. Obturator nerve. 


97 


W 












PLATE XXII. 


PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD= 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA. 



Small Intestine (Jejunum and Ilium), Mesenteries, and Mesenteric Vessels. 


A. Superior mesenteric vein. 

B. Superior mesenteric artery. 

C. Ascending colon. 

or. Omentum (raised and thrown back). 
b. Cecum. 

d. Transverse colon. 

e. Commencement of jejunum. 

5. Ileocolic arteries and veins. 


D. Ileac arteries and veins. 

F. Ilium. 

F. Jejunal arteries and veins. 

/. Jejunum. 
h. Mesenteries. 

1. Right mesocolon. 


6. Right colic arteries and veins 


- J 


98 










PLATE XXIII. 


PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD- 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA—Continued. 



Fig. 1.—Internal Arrangement of Hepatic Blood= Vessels, (Liver 

Divided Transversely). 


A. Gallbladder. 
II Right lobe. 

C. Left lobe. 


I). Inferior vena cava. 
E. Portal vein. 

E. Lobus quadratus. 


IV. Lobus Spigelii. 


V Porta hepatis. 


a. Anterior margin. 

b. Posterior margin. 

c. Suspensory ligament of liver. 

cl. Round ligament of liver (in fossa 
umbilicalis). 

h. Hepatic artery. 

i. Choledoch duct. 


k. Cystic duct. 

l. Hepatic duct. 

m. Ductus venosus. 

n. Cystic artery. 

o. Fundus of gall=bl adder 

p. Neck of gall=bladder. 

q. Hepatic veins. 


Fig. 2. 



Fig. 2.—Internal Structure of Kidney, 
with Blood=Vessels and Ducts. 


a. Cortical. 

b. Pyramid. 

c. Mammillary process. 

d. Calyx renalis. 

e. Pelvis renalis. 

f. Ureter. 

g. Renal artery, 

h. Renal vein. 


99 


life 






PLATE XXIV. 


PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA—Continued. 



Large Intestine, with Principal Blood=Vessels. 


A. Ascending colon. 

B. Transverse colon. 

C. Descending colon. 

D. Sigmoid flexure. 

a. Divided end of jejunum. 

b. Divided end of ilium. 

i. Commencement of rectum. 

1. Superior mesenteric artery. 

3. Middle colic artery and vein. 

4. Right colic artery and vein. 


E. Cecum. 

F. Superior mesenteric vein. 
Gr. Mesentery. 


k. Transverse colon. 

l. Right mesocolon. 


5. Ileocecal artery and vein. 

6. Inferior mesenteric artery. 


100 












PLATE XXV. 


PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA—Continued. 



View of Posterior Surface of Deep Viscera of Abdomen and Pelvis, with 

Principal Blood=Vessels. 

a. Tenth dorsal vertebra. 

b. Last rib. 

c. Ilium. 

d. Diaphragm. 

e. Suprarenal gland. 

1. Descending abdominal aorta 

2. Inferior vena cava. 

3. Renal artery and vein. 

4. Common iliac artery. 


/. Right kidney. 

g. Left kidney. 

h. Sigmoid flexure of colon. 

i. Ascending colon and cecum, 
k. Rectum. 

5. Common iliac vein. 

6. Internal iliac artery. 

7. Internal iliac vein. 

8. External iliac vein. 


101 














PLATE XXVI. 


PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA—Continued. 





: ... ■ 

:■ : .r.'. 


■ ;£4«>' r U 

■yV'i%4 




■ 

■ j,.. 


: - . 

,y-Ac 








View of Posterior Surface of Superficial Viscera of Abdomen 

and Blood=Vessels. 


a. Inferior vena cava. 

b. Li ver. 

c. Spleen. 

d. Pancreas. 

e. f. Pancreas. 

g. Duodenum. 

1. Celiac artery. 

2. Splenic artery. 

3. Hepatic artery. 

4. Superior mesenteric artery. 

5. Inferior mesenteric artery. 

6. Internal hemorrhoidal artery and 

vein. 


h. Ileum. 

i. Cecum. 

k. Ascending colon. 

l. Descending colon. 

m. Sigmoid flexure of colon, 

n. Rectum. 

7. Left colic artery. 

8. Left colic vein. 

9. Minor mesenteric veim 

10. Splenic vein. 

11. Great mesenteric vein. 

12. Iliocolic artery and vein. 

13. Right colic artery and vein, 

( 102 ) 












PLATE XXVII. 


THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS. 





■ w 


Posterior View of Solar Plexus and Minor Plexuses, with Some of the 

Deep Blood=Vessels. 


A. Diaphragm. 

B, b. Inferior vena cava (with hepatic 

veins). 

c. Esophagus. 

d. Stomach divided (with branches of 

par vagum). 

/. Head of pancreas. 

2. Right coronary artery. 

3. Splenic artery. 

4. Hepatic artery (with hepatic plexus). 

5. Renal artery and vein. 


C. Spleen. 

D. Right kidney. 

E. Left kidney. 

g. Tail of pancreas. 
i. Suprarenal gland. 
k. Ureters. 


6. Internal spermatic artery and vein 

(with internal spermatic plexus). 

7. Superior mesenteric artery. 

9. Solar (celiac) plexus. 

13. Superior aortic (abdominal) plexus. 


103 

















104 










PLATE XXVIII. 

THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPH ATICS—Continued. 




a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 
/• 


1 . 

4. 

5. 

6 . 


17. 

18. 

19. 

20 . 
21 . 


Anterior View of the Trunk. 


Right subclavian artery. 
Left subclavian artery. 
Right subclavian vein. 
Left innominate vein. 
Left internal jugular. 
Right internal jugular. 
Right innominate vein. 
Right lobe of liver. 

Left lobe of liver. 

Right lung. 


K. Right axillary artery. 

L. Diaphragm. 

M. Left subclavian vein. 

N. Mesenteries. 

O. Superior mesenteric artery. 

P. Superior mesenteric vein. 

Q. Right axillary vein. 

R. Abdominal aorta. 

8. Azygos vein. 

T. Left common carotid artery. 


Clavicle. 

First rib. 
Thyroid gland. 
Trachea. 

Right bronchus. 
Left bronchus. 


g. Dorsal vertebrae. 
i. Posterior mediastinum. 
k. Edge of diaphragm, 
m. Spleen. 
p. Ascending colon. 
r. Jejunum and ilium. 


Arteries and Veins. 


Arch of aorta. 

Right common carotid artery. 
Innominate artery. 
Intercostal arteries and veins. 


7. Superior vena cava. 

13. Left lower azygos vein. 

15. Great mesenteric vein. 

16. Jejunal and ileac arteries and veins. 


Thoracic duct. 

Right (minor) duct. 
Bronchial glands. 
Pulmonic glands. 
Deep jugular glands. 


Ducts and Glands. 

22. Axillary glands. 

23. Intercostal glands. 

24. Mesentery plexus with mesenterie 

glands. 


105 











106 









PLATE XXIX. 


THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS—Continued. 

Posterior View of the Trunk. 


A. Right kidney. 

B. Left kidney. 

C. Diaphragm. 

D. Heart. 

E. Aorta. 

6r. Left common iliac artery. 

b. Spinous process of first dorsal ver¬ 

tebra. 

c. First rib. 
cl. Scapula. 

e. Spinal cord. 

/. Esophagus. 

(/. Trachea. 

i. Parietal layer of pleura. 
m. Left bronchus, 
o. Pelvis of the kidney. 

7. Sacral median artery and vein. 

8. Innominate artery. 

9. Subclavian artery. 

10. Common carotid artery. 

12. Intercostal arteries, veins, and 
nerves. 

18. Ischiadic artery and vein. 

19. Superior gluteal artery and vein. 

20. Subclavian vein. 

21. Superior vena cava. 

23. Left lower azygos. 

24. Lumbar veins. 


H. Ascending vena cava. 
Hz. Left renal artery. 

K. Left common iliac vein. 

L. Apex of right lung. 

M. Azygos vein. 


p. Ureter. 

q. Suprarenal gland. 

r. Peritoneum. 

s. Rectum. 

t. External sphincter ani muscle. 

u. Levator ani muscle. 

v. Great sacrosciatic ligament. 

x. Ilium. 

y. Psoas major muscle. 

z. Gluteus muscle. 

30. Intercostal glands. 

32. Intercostal nerves. 

33. Thoracic ganglions. 

37. Thoracic part of sympathetic nerve 
( with thoracic ganglion ). 

41. Anterior external cutaneous nerve 

of thigh. 

42. Crural nerve. 

44. Lumbar ganglion of sympathetic 

nerve. 

45. Ischiadic plexus. 

























■ 
















* 



















THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


109 


Abdominal Openings. — The openings in the diaphragm are 
three in number : the aortic, for the passage of the aorta, vena 
azygos, and thoracic duct; caval, for the inferior vena cava ; and 
esophageal, for the esophagus and pneumogastric nerves. The 
other openings in the abdominal walls are the umbilicus, for 
the transmission (in the fetus) of the umbilical vessels; two 
femoral openings, or crural rings, for the passage of the femoral 
vessels ; and an opening on either side, for the spermatic cord in 
the male, and the round ligament in the female. 

Abdominal Viscera. —The abdomen contains the greater 
part of the alimentary canal, some of the accessory organs of 
digestion, etc. Most of these, as well as the walls of the cavity, 
are covered by a serous membrane, the peritoneum. The prin¬ 
cipal contents of the abdomen are as follows :— 

Stomach. Gall=Badder. Uterus (during pregnancy). 

Large Intestine. Spleen. Abdominal Aorta. 

Small Intestine. Pancreas. Inferior Vena Cava. 

Appendix Vermiformis. Kidneys. Receptaculum Chyli. 

Omenta. Ureters. Thoracic Duct. 

Mesentaries. Suprarenal Capsules. Spermatic Vessels. 

Liver. Bladder (when distended). Solar Plexus, Etc. 

Regions of the Abdomen. —The abdomen, for convenience 
of description of its viscera, as well as of reference to the 
morbid condition of the contained parts, is artificially divided 
into nine regions, by two horizontal lines, one between the 
cartilages of the ninth ribs and the other between the crests of 
the ilia, and two vertical lines from the cartilages of the eighth 
rib on each side to the center of Poupart’s ligament. The nine 
regions thus formed are named as follows :—. 

O 

Right Side: ' Center: Leftside: 

Right Hypochondriac. Epigastric. Left Hypochondriac. 

Right Lumbar. Umbilical. Left Lumbar. 

Inguinal, or Iliac. Hypogastric. Left Inguinal, or Iliac. 

The Regional Contents are respectively as follows 

Right Hypochondriac— Right lobe of liver, gallbladder, 
duodenum, pancreas, hepatic flexure of colon, upper part of 
right kidney, and right suprarenal capsule, 
is 






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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Epigastric. —Right twothirds of stomach, left lobe and lobus 
Spigelii of liver, hepatic vessels, celiac axis, solar plexus, pan¬ 
creas, and parts of aorta, inferior vena cava, azygos veins, and 
thoracic duct. 



No. 14. Regions of the Abdomen and Their Contents. 


The dotted outline shows the edge of the costal cartilages. 


Left Hypochondriac. —Splenic end of stomach, spleen, tail 
of pancreas, splenic flexure of colon, upper half of left kidney,, 
and left suprarenal capsule. 

Right Lumbar. — Ascending colon, lower half of right kid¬ 
ney, and part of small intestine. 

Umbilical. — Transverse colon, transverse duodenum, part of 
the great omentum and mesentary, part of jejunum and ileum„ 
and receptaculum chyli. 


















THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


111 


Left Lumbar. — Descending colon, part of omentum, lower 
half of left kidney, and part of small intestine. 

Right Inguinal. — Right ureter, cecum, appendix vermifor- 
mis, and spermatic vessels of that side. 

Hypogastric. — Part of small intestine, bladder in children 
and when distended in adults, and uterus during pregnancy. 

Left Inguinal. — Left ureter, spermatic vessels, and sigmoid 
flexure of colon. 

The Stomach, the principal organ of digestion, is pyriform 
in shape, of musculomembranous structure. It is about twelve 
inches in length by four inches in average diameter, and, when 
moderately full, will contain on an average from three to 
five pints of fluid. It is held in position by the lesser omentum, 
and is situated diagonally across the upper part of the abdomen, 
in the epigastric and right and left hypochondriac regions, above 


E 



D 


Fig. 15. The Stomach. 

A, fundus; B, pylorus; C, lesser curvature; D, greater 
curvature; E, esophageal opening; F, duodenum. 

the transverse colon, and below the liver and diaphragm. The 
muscular fibers composing the walls of the stomach are arranged 
in three layers, the first running lengthwise of, the second 







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CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


around, and the other obliquely across, the stomach. When 
food enters the stomach, the lining membrane, which in rest is 
of a pinkish color, becomes bright-red from the increased flow 
of blood to its blood-vessels, and the secretion of gastric juice, 
the digestive fluid of the stomach, begins. The muscular fibers 
of the walls are stimulated to action by the presence of food in 
the stomach, and, by alternate contractions and expansions, give 
it a sort of motion which causes the contents to roll about in its 
interior, thoroughly mixing them with the gastric juice. The 
digested portion of the food is taken up into the circulation, 
and the remainder passes through the pyloric orifice into the 
small intestine, where digestion is completed. Stomach digestion 
requires from one to four hours, according to the condition of 
the food when received. 

The Fundus, or cardiac end, is the left extremity of the 
stomach. It lies beneath the ribs, in contact with the spleen, to 
which it is connected by the gastrosplenic omentum. 

The Pylorus, or lesser end, lies in contact with the anterior 
wall of the abdomen, near the end of the cartilage of the right 
eighth rib. The lesser curvature of the stomach is concave, ex¬ 
tends from the esophageal to the pyloric orifice, along the upper 
border of the organ, and is connected to the liver by the gastro- 
hepatic omentum, and to the diaphragm by the gastrophrenic 
ligament. The greater curvature is convex, and extends between 
the same orifices, along the lower border, and gives attachment 
to the great omentum. The esophageal orifice is situated between 
the fundus and the lesser curvature. It is the highest part of 
the organ, and somewhat funnel-shaped. The pyloric orifice 
opens into the duodenum, the aperture being guarded by a kind 
of valve, the pyloric. 

The arteries of the stomach are the gastric, arising from the 
celiac axis, the pyloric and right gastroepiploic branches of the 
hepatic, and the left gastroepiploic and vasa branches of the 
splenic artery. Veins terminate in the splenic and portal veins. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


113 


The Peptic or Gastric Glands, which secrete the gastric 
juice, are located in the coating of the stomach, with the mouths 
opening inward. They are not always simple tubes, being fre¬ 
quently branched ; but whether simple or complex, their action 
is the same. Small rounded cells are formed at the beginning 
of the tubes and gradually work their way outward to the mouth, 
where they burst, liberating the gastric juice, a clear, straw- 
colored liquid, containing pepsin and hydrochloric acid. In the 
healthy adult about fourteen pints is secreted daily. 

The Small Intestine is a convoluted tube, about twenty feet 
in length, and is the organ in which chylification takes place. 
When the food enters the small intestine it is a grayish, semb 
liquid mass, called chyme. Here it is mixed with pancreatic 
juice, bile, and intestinal juice, all digestive fluids. The interior 
membrane is lined with hairdike projections, called villi, which 
absorb the digested food into the circulatory system. The small 
intestine has three coats : a muscular, a cellular or submucous, 
and a mucous. iThe mucuous coat contains the crypts of Lie- 
berkuhn, or simple follicles ; Brunners or duodenal glands ; and 
the solitary glands, situated throughout the intestine, though 
most numerous at the lower portion of the ileum. They are 
agminated into twenty to thirty oval patches, named Peyer’s 
patches, situated opposite the mesenteric attachments,* some of 
which are as much as four inches in length. They are most 
numerous and largest in the ileum. The small intestine is 
divided into three parts : duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 

The Duodenum is so called from being equal in length to the 
breadth of twelve fingers (about ten inches). It is the shortest, 
the widest, and the most fixed part of the small intestine. It is 
only partially covered by the peritoneum, and has no mesentery. 
From the pylorus, it ascends obliquely upward and backward 
two and a half inches to the under surface of the liver, then 
descends three and a half inches in front of the kidney, and 
passes four inches transversly across the spine to the left side of 




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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


the second lumbar vertebra, terminating in the jejunum, where 
the mesenteric artery crosses the intestine. The ductus communis 
choledoclius and the pancreatic duct open into the descending 
portion. 

The Jejunum ( jejunus , empty) is so named from being usually 
found empty, and includes about twoffifths of the remainder 
of the intestine, its coils lying around the umbilical region. 

The Ileum is so named from its twisted course, and comprises 
the remainder of the small intestine. It lies below the umbilicus, 
and terminates in the right iliac fossa, at the ileocecal valve. 

The Large Intestine extends 
from the termination of the ileum 
to the anus, and its chief office 
is the expulsion from the body of 
the undigested portion of the food. 
It is about five feet in length, 
much larger than the small in¬ 
testine, more fixed in position, and 
is sacculated. In its course it de¬ 
scribes an arch, which surrounds 
the convolutions of the small in¬ 
testine. It has the same coats as 
the small intestine, and is divided 
into the cecum, colon, and rectum. 

The Cecum ( csecns, blind) is 
a blind pouch below the entrance 
to the small intestine, lying in 
the right iliac fossa. It is the 
beginning of the large intestine, 
of which it is the most dilated 
part, measuring two and oneffialf 
inches in diameter. It is two=thirds covered by peritoneum. The 
ileocecal valve guards the entrance of the small intestine, and 
when the cecum is distended prevents any reflex into the ileum. 



Fig. 16. Beginning of Large Intestine, 

Showing cecum, colon, appendix, ileoceal 
valve, etc. 












THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


115 


The Appendix Vermiformis is a narrow, worm-like tube, 
supposed to be the rudiment of the lengthened cecum found in 
all mammalia, except the orang-outang and wombat. It is about 
the size of a goose-quill, and is three to six inches long. It 
is directed backward and upward from the lower part of the 
cecum, being retained by a fold of the peritoneum. 

The Colon extends from the ileum to the rectum, and is divided 
into the ascending, transverse, and descending colon, and the 
sigmoid flexure. The ascending colon extends upward to the 
under surface ol the liver, where it forms the hepatic flexure of 
the colon. The transverse colon crosses the abdomen just below 
the liver, stomach, and spleen, to the left hypochondrium, 
where it terminates in the splenic flexure of the colon. The 
descending colon descends in front of the left kidney to the left 
iliac fossa. 

The Sigmoid Flexure is the narrowest part of the colon, and 
is curved like the letter S, first upward, then downward, extending 
from the crest of the left ileum to the sacroiliac synchondrosis. 

The Rectum ( rectus , straight) is the lower portion of the large 
intestine, extending from the sigmoid flexure to the anus. It is 
six or eight inches in length. The lower inch, or inch and a 
half, has no peritoneal investment. The sphincter ani closes the 
anus. The glands are the same as in the small intestine, except 
for the absence of Brunner’s glands. 

The Liver is the largest glandular organ in the body, weigli- 
ingTrom three to four pounds, and measuring transversely about 
twelve inches, in its anteroposterior diameter about six or seven 
inches, and in its greatest thickness about three inches. It is 
intended mainly for the secretion of bile, but effects also impor¬ 
tant changes in certain constituents of the blood in its passage 
through the gland. It is situated in the right hypochondrium, 
and extends across the epigastrium into the left hypochondrium. 
Its upper surface is convex and its under surface concave. The 
right extremity of the liver is thick and rounded, while the left 


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CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


side is thin and flattened. Five fissures on the under surface 
divide it into five lobes : right lobe, left lobe, lobus quadratus, 
lobus Spigelii, and lobus caudatus. The right and left lobes 



Fig. 17. Under Surface of the Liver, Showing Lobes, Fissures, Vessels, Etc. 


form the bulk of the liver, the right being about six times the 
size of the left. Of the three small lobes, the lobus quadratus 
is the largest, and the lobus caudatus the smallest. 

The liver is surrounded by a serous or peritoneal covering, 
folds of which form four ligaments, which attach it to the 
diaphragm. A fifth ligament, the ligamentum teres, resulting 
from the obliteration of the umbilical vein, likewise assists in 
keeping it in position. An inner, fibrous coat .also lines the 
entire organ. The hepatic artery carries nutrition to the liver 
and its ramifying vessels. The portal vein conveys venous 
blood, collected from the digesting viscera, to the liver, wdiere it 
undergoes certain changes, and this superfluous blood is again 
caught up by the branches of the hepatic veins and discharged 
into the vena cava. 





THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


117 


Hepatic Lobules. — The mass of the liver is composed of 
small, granular bodies, or lobules, about the size of a millet 
seed, held together by an extremely fine, areolar tissue, in which 
are the ramifications of the portal vein, hepatic duct, artery, 
veins, their branches and capillaries, the lymphatics, and the 
nerves. Each lobule is composed of a mass of very small 
spheroidal cells, known as hepatic cells, and plexuses of biliary 
ducts and other vessels. These cells are the chief agents in the 
secretion of the bile. 

The Bile is a bitter, viscid, golden-brown, or greenislnyellow, 
liquid, secreted by the liver, and discharged into the duodenum, 
where it mixes with the chyme, aiding in digestion, chiefly act¬ 
ing on the fats. It is the only secretion of the body taken from 
the venous blood ; but it must be remembered that the blood 
collected by the portal system differs from ordinary venous blood, 
as it contains, with the waste materials of the body, portions of 
partially digested food gathered from the digestive organs. 
About three pounds of bile is secreted daily ; when digestion is 
not going on, and the opening of the duct into the duodenum is 
closed, the bile is stored in the gall-bladder, to be discharged 
when the operation of digestion is again resumed. If a diseased 
condition of the liver shuts off the supply of bile through the 
regular channel, the constituents enter the blood direct, causing 
the disease known as jaundice. • 

The Biliary Ducts convey the bile to the intestine ; they are 
the hepatic, the cystic, and the ductus communis choledochus. 
The small branches of the hepatic duct, which have their origin 
in the substance of the liver, and by their union form this duct, 
are also called biliary ducts. 

The Hepatic Duct, leaves the liver in two branches, which 
unite to form a vessel the size of a quill and one and a half 
inches long. 

The Cystic Duct is the smallest of the three, being one inch 
long, and conveys the bile to and from the gallbladder. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The Ductus Communis Choledochus is the largest of the 
three, is about three inches long, of the size of a goose-quill, and 
formed by a union of the hepatic and cystic ducts. It enters the 
duodenum by a common opening with the pancreatic duct. 

The GalDBladder, the reservoir for the bile, is a conical, . 
pear-shaped sac, three or four inches long, an inch in diameter, 
holds from an ounce to an ounce and a half, and lies on the 
under surface of the liver. 

The Pancreas (the sweetbread) is a racemose gland, similar 
in structure to the salivary glands, is about seven inches in 
length, of a grayish-white color, and situated behind the stomach. 

It secretes another digestive fluid, called the pancreatic juice. 
While the bile acts particularly on the fats, the pancreatic juice 
acts directly on the sugars and starches still undigested. The 
head of the pancreas extends to the right, occupying a part of 
the epigastric region ; the tail lies above the left kidney, in 
contact with the lower end of the spleen, and in the left hypo¬ 
chondriac region ; and the body lies behind the stomach and 
transverse colon and in front of the aorta, portal vein, inferior 
vena cava, splenic vein, and the crura of the diaphragm. The 
arteries are the great pancreatic and small pancreatics, from the 
splenic ; the superior pancreaticoduodenal, from the hepatic; 
and the inferior pancreaticoduodenal, from the superior mesen¬ 
teric. The veins open into the splenic and mesenteric veins. 

The Pancreatic Duct extends the whole length of the pan¬ 
creas. It collects the pancreatic juice and carries it to the 
duodenum, which it enters about three inches below the pylorus, 
by an opening common to it and the ductus communis chole¬ 
dochus. 

Ductless Glands. —The spleen, thyroid and thymus glands, 
and suprarenal capsules, constitute the ductless or blood glands. 

The Spleen possesses no excretory duct, is oblong, flattened, 
soft, very brittle, highly vascular, of a dark-bluish-red color, and 
is situated in the left hypochondriac region, embracing the car- 


THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


119 


diac end of the stomach. It is about five inches long, three 
inches wide, and two inches thick. The vessels are the splenic 
artery, which is large and tortuous, and the splenic vein, which 
empties into the portal vein. 

The Thyroid Gland or Body is a ductless organ, consisting 
of two lateral, conical lobes, connected across the upper part of 
the trachea by a narrow transverse portion, called the isthmus. 
It weighs from one to two ounces and is larger in females than 
males. Occasionally it becomes enormously enlarged, constitut¬ 
ing the disease called bronchocele or goitre. The tissue of this 
gland is soft, spongy, and of a brownish-red color. Its functions 
are unknown. 

The Thymus Gland is a temporary organ, attaining its 
full size at the end of the second year, gradually dwindling 
thereafter, almost disappearing at puberty. It is situated below 
the thyroid in the neck, being composed of two unequally sized 
lobes, which occasionally emerge into one mass. It is a pinkish* 
gray color, soft and lobulated on the surface, and contains in 
a central cavity (the reservoir of the thymus) a milky fluid. 

The Suprarenal Capsules are two small, crescentic -shaped 
bodies, situated one on each kidney. They are quite large in 
fetal life, but diminish in adult age. The vessels are the supra¬ 
renal branches of the aorta, renal, and inferior phrenic arteries, 
and the suprarenal vein, which on the right side of the body 
empties into the inferior vena cava, and on the left, into the 
left renal vein. 

The Kidneys, the largest tubular glands of the body, are 
located in the lumbar region, behind the peritoneum, one on 
either side of the vertebral column, and secrete the urine. They 
are oblong and flattened, about four inches in length, two inches 
in breadth and an inch in thickness, the left being a little larger, 
thinner, and higher up than the right. Beds of surrounding 
fat, the blood-vessels, and the peritoneum cover them and hold 
them in position. The outer border is convex, and the inner, 



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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


facing the spinal column, concave. Each kidney in the male 
adult weighs from four and one^half to six ounces, and in the 
female onedialf ounce less. The substance is darkled in color, 
dense in texture, hut 


easily lacerable. The 
vessels are the renal 
artery and vein. A 
deep fissure, the hil- 
um, in the concave 
border, gives ingress 
and egress to these 
vessels, the nerves, the 
lymphatics, and the 
ureter. 

The Ureters, one 
on each side, are cylin¬ 
drical, membraneous 
tubes, about sixteen or 
eighteen inches long, 
which convey the urine 
from the kidneys to 
the bladder. 

The Peritoneum 
(to extend around) is 
a serous membrane, 
and, like all mem¬ 
branes of this class, 
is a shut serous sac. 

Its visceral laver is 

«/ 

reflected more or less 
completely over all the 



'aeses f/uoru 
r Fo rumen 
ofWUn&loT 


' JZesser 
Onienlui 




Fig. 18. The Peritoneum. 

Vertical section of abdomen, showing its reflections. 


abdominal and pelvic viscera. Its free surface is smooth, moist, 
and shining. Its attached surface is connected to the viscera 
and the parietes of the abdomen by the subperitoneal, areolar 

































THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 


121 


tissue. In tlie female it is not completely closed, the Fallopian 
tubes communicating with it by their free extremities, and thus 
it is continuous with their mucous membrane. 

Peritoneal Sacs. —The peritoneum is divided into two sacs, 
the greater and the lesser. The greater sac extends over the 
anterior twodhirds of the liver, behind and above the stomach, 
below, behind, and in front of the great omentum, and below 
the mesocolon. The lesser sac, or cavity of the great omentum, 
extends behind and below the liver and stomach, above the 
mesocolon, and within the great omentum. 

The Omenta. —The great (or gastrocolic) omentum consists 
of four layers of peritoneum, the most anterior and posterior of 
which belong to the greater sac and internal to the lesser sac. 
The two anterior layers descend from the stomach and the 
spleen, over the small intestine, and then ascend as the posterior 
layers, to enclose the transverse colon. 

The lesser (or gastrohepatic) omentum consists of two layers of 
peritoneum, the upper belonging to the greater sac, the lower to 
the lesser sac. It extends from the transverse fissure of the liver 
to the lesser curvature of the stomach, and contains in its free 
margin the : — 

Hepatic Artery. Ductus Communis Choledochus. 

Portal Vein. First Part of the Duodenum. 

Lymphatics. Hepatic Plexus of Nerves. 

The gastrosplenic omentum connects the stomach with the 
spleen, and contains the splenic vessels and the vasa brevia. 

The Mesenteries are folds of the peritoneum connecting the 
various parts of the intestinal canal (except the duodenum) to 
the abdominal walls. They are the mesentery proper; the 
mesocecum ; the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid 
mesocolon ; and the mesorectum. 

THE PELVIC CAVITY. 

The Cavity of the Pelvis is a basindike hollow contained 
between the pelvic hones, and forms the lower part and outlet oi 




122 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


vxr 


the general abdominal cavity. It contains the bladder, the in¬ 
ternal organs of generation in both sexes, and the rectum. The 
uterus, or womb, in the female, lies in front of the rectum, and 
behind the bladder. During pregnancy it 
enlarges until at the latter end of the term, 
it nearly fills the abdominal cavity. 

The Bladder, the urinary reservoir, is a 
musculomembranous sac, located in the 
pelvic cavity. Its shape, position, and rela¬ 
tions are greatly influenced by age, sex, and 
the degree of distension of the organ. Dur¬ 
ing infancy, it is conical in shape, and pro¬ 
jects into the hypogastric region. In the 
adult, when quite empty, it is a small, trian¬ 
gular sac, and, when fully distended, ex¬ 
tends into the abdomen, nearly as high 
as the umbilicus. It is larger in the 
female than in the male, and, when full, 
ordinarily contains about a pint. It has 
four coats and three openings, two for the 
ureters at the base, and that of the urethra, 
the channel of discharge, at the neck. 



Fig. 19. Kidneys, Bladder, Etc 


K, K, kidneys; B, bladder; 
U, U, ureters; A, aorta; V C I, 
inferior vena cava; 1, 1, open 
ing of ureters; 2, opening oj 
urethra. 


Numerous ligaments hold the bladder in position. The vessels 
are branches of the vesical arteries and the iliac veins. 









THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 


AN IMPORTANT SYSTEM. 

The constant wearing away of the organs and tissues of the body is as 
unceasingly* being repaired by means of the nutriment furnished by the 
blood. This is carried and distributed by the circulatory system, which 
is necessarily one of importance. 

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 

The movement of the blood through and to every part of the body is 
called circulation, and the organs which produce and carry it on are called 
the organs of circulation. These are the heart and blood-vessels; and the 
latter are divided, according to the kind of work done, into three classes: 
arteries, veins, and capillaries. 

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS. 

The aorta with its branches, the inter-connecting capillaries, and the 
returning veins, constitute the greater or systemic circulation. The arteries 
which convey the blood to the lungs, with the veins that return the blood 
to the heart, and the capillaries between, form the lesser or pulmonary 
circulation. The portal system of veins is an adjunct of the systemic 
system. The fetal circulation is that of the unborn child. 

In a work on embalming, a careful and thorough study of this won¬ 
derful system, which permeates every portion, and almost every tissue, of 
the body, is most necessary, and its treatment in this work, therefore, is. 
very full. 


123 



CHAPTER VII. 


THE HEART AND BLOOD. 


THE HEART. 

The Heart is a hollow, muscular organ, conical in shape, 
placed between the lungs in the 
mediastinal space, and is sur¬ 
rounded by the pericardium. It 
is placed obliquely in the chest, 
the base being directed upward 
and backward to the right, and 
the apex to the front and left, 
corresponding to the interspace 
between the cartilages of the fifth 
and sixth ribs, one ‘inch to the 
inner side and two inches below 
the left nipple. It is placed be¬ 
hind the lower two-thirds of the 
sternum, and projects farther into 
the left than into the right side 
of the chest, extending from the 
median line about three inches 
into the left and only one and a 
half inches into the right side. 

Its anterior surface is round and 
convex and formed chiefly by the 
right ventricle and part of the 
left. Its posterior surface is flattened and rests upon the dia¬ 
phragm, and is formed chiefly by the left ventricle. 



Fig. 20. The Heart and Vessels. 

A, right ventricle; B, left ventricle; (J, 
right auricle; D, left auricle; E, arch of 
aorta; F, pulmonary artery; G, innominate 
artery; H. common carotids; I, I, subcla- 
vians; K, superior vena cava; L, pulmo¬ 
nary veins. 





THE HEART AND BLOOD 


125 


The Pericardium (peri, around ; kardia, heart) is a conical, 
membranous, closed sac, containing the heart and the roots of 
the great vessels. It lies behind the sternum and between the 
pleurae, its apex upward, its base below, attached to the tendon 
of the diaphragm. It is a fibroserous membrane, composed of 
two coats, an inner or serous, and an outer or fibrous, the inner 
coat being reflected over the heart and vessels. Between the 
pericardium and the heart there is a small quantit} r of clear 
fluid, which acts as a lubricator, allowing the heart to move 
freely without producing friction. 

The Endocardium ( endon , within ; kardia, heart) is a serous 
membrane which lines the cavities of the heart, being continuous 
with the lining membrane of the great blood-vessels. It also 
assists by its reduplications in forming the valves. It is smooth 
and transparent, giving to the inner surface of the heart its 
glistening appearance. 

Heart’s Weight and Size. — In the adult the heart is about 
five inches in length, three and a half in breadth, and two and a 
half in thickness, being about the size of one’s fist. It weighs 
from ten to eleven ounces in the male, and from eight to nine in 
the female. The heart increases in size and weight as age ad¬ 
vances, but the increase is less marked in women than in men. 

Its Cavities. —The interior of the heart is divided by a longi¬ 
tudinal, muscular septum into two lateral halves, which, from 
their position, are named the right and left sides. A transverse 
constriction divides each half into two cavities ; the upper cavity 
on each side is called the auricle, and the lower cavity, the ven¬ 
tricle. There are, therefore, a right and left auricle, and a right 
and left ventricle. The walls of the ventricles are thick and 
strong, while those of the auricles are rather thin and less strong. 
The muscular septum of the heart is complete, no communi¬ 
cation existing, after fetal life, between the right and left sides. 
The right is the venous side of the heart, and receives the venous 
blood from every portion of the body, through the inferior and 


126 


CHAMPION TEXT-.B O OK ON EMBALMING 


superior vense cavse and the coronary sinus, into the right auricle. 
The blood then passes from the right auricle into the right ven¬ 
tricle, and from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery 
to the lungs for arteri- 
alization. It is returned 
as arterial blood through 
the pulmonary veins to the 
left auricle ; from the left 
auricle it passes into the 
left ventricle, and from the 
left ventricle it is carried 
through the aorta and its 
divisions to all parts of the 
body. 

The Right Auricle is 

larger than the left, and 
when full holds about two 
fluid ounces. Its walls are 
about a line (one-twelfth of an inch) in thickness, and are com¬ 
posed of two layers of muscular fibers, which are involuntary in 
their action. The right auricle consists of a principal cavity 
and the appendix auriculse. Two large veins, the superior and 
inferior vense cavse, and the coronary sinus open into the right 
auricle. The latter is guarded by a valve, while the vense cavse 
are not. The Eustachian valve, which is large in the fetus, and 
serves to direct the blood through the foramen ovale, is rudi¬ 
mentary in the adult, and is sometimes altogether wanting ; it 
does not prevent the blood from flowing either way through 
the opening of the inferior vena cava. The auriculo-ventricular 
opening, communicating with the right ventricle, is oval, about 
an inch broad, surrounded by a fibrous ring, and is guarded by 
the tricuspid valve. 

The Right Ventricle is conical in form and has a capacity 
of about two fluid ounces. The walls are three or four lines 



Fig. 21. Valves of the Heart, 

Showing fibrous structure, and shape of valves: 
A, tricuspid; B, bicuspid; C, aortic; D, pulmonary. 









THE HEART AND BLOOD 


127 


in thickness, being much stronger than those of the right 
auricle. The tricuspid valve consists of three triangular seg¬ 
ments, connected at their bases with the auriculo-ventricular 
orifice and by their sides with each other. The opening of the 
pulmonary artery is at the superior and internal angle of the 
ventricle, is circular in form, surrounded by a fibrous ring, 
and is guarded by the semilunar valve, which consists of 
three halfimoonlike segments. 

The Left Auricle is smaller than the right, its walls being 
a line and a half in thickness, and it receives the arterialized 
blood from the lungs. The openings of the pulmonary veins 
are generally four in number, sometimes only three, as the two 
veins from the left lung frequently end in a common opening. 
These openings are not guarded by valves. The left auriculo* 
ventricular opening is smaller than the right, and is guarded 
by the mitral valve. 

The Left Ventricle is longer, thicker, and 'more conical 
than the right, projecting toward the posterior aspect. The 
walls are about twice as thick as those of the right ventricle. 
The aortic opening is small and circular, placed in front, and 
to the right, of the auriculo=ventricular opening, from which 
it is separated by one of the segments of the mitral valve. It 
is surrounded by a fibrous ring and is guarded by the semilunar 
valve. 

Valves of the Heart. — The flow of the blood in only one 
direction through the heart is effected by a system of valves 
placed at the openings. Between the auricles and ventricles 
are the auriculo-ventricular valves. The one on the right side 
is called the tricuspid valve, because it consists of three folds or 
flaps of membrane ; that on the left side the biscupid, because 
made up of two flaps. The latter is also called the mitral valve 
from a fancied resemblance to a bishop’s miter. These valves 
allow the blood to flow from the auricles to the ventricles, but 
are so arranged that it cannot flow in the opposite direction. 


123 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


At the opening of the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle 
is the pulmonary valve, and at the opening of the aorta from the 
left ventricle is the aortic valve. These two sets of valves, on 
account of the halfnnoon shape of their segments (three each), 
are called semilunar valves. They control the How ol the blood 
into the arteries, and entirely prevent its regurgitation. Valves 
are not found at the openings of the venae cavae into the right 
auricle, nor of the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, being 
unnecessary, as the auricles do not contract with much force. 
Indeed, the blood would naturally run down into the ventricles 
whenever the valves between the cavities were opened. Not so 
the ventricles. It is necessary for them to expel their contents 
with great force. Especially is this true of the left one, which 
must send the blood to the extremities, for which duty its strong 
walls well fit it. The aortic valve prevents the reflow of the 
blood from the arteries during the expansion or relaxation of 
the ventricle, and the mitral valve prevents the blood from 
being forced back into the auricle during the contraction of 
the ventricle. 

Its Movements and Sounds. —The movements of the heart 
are two, contraction and relaxation. When the heart contracts, 
its chambers become smaller and the blood is forced from them 
into the blood-vessels ; when it relaxes, or regains its proper 
size, the chambers are again filled with blood, ready to be sent 
out into the arteries by the next contraction. The first move¬ 
ment is called systole, and the latter, diastole. The alternation 
of these movements constitutes the beating of the heart, which is 
heard so clearly between the fifth and sixth ribs, and can be felt 
so distinctly at the wrist, where it is known as the pulse. 

There are two different sounds occurring alternately with.each 
movement of the heart. The first sound, or that which occurs 
when the heart contracts, is caused principally by the closing of 
the valves between the auricles and ventricles. The second 
sound, or that which occurs when the heart begins to relax, is 


THE HEART AND BLOOD 


129 


caused by the closing of the valves at the pulmonary and aortic 
openings. These sounds have certain characteristics by which it 
is possible to determine the condition of the valves of the heart, 
and to tell whether one or more of them is diseased. 

The average frequency of the pulse=beat, or heart=contraction, 
is seventy-two to seventy=six times per minute. It varies, how¬ 
ever, in different persons, and in the same person under different 
conditions. Sudden emotions or sickness cause increase in fre¬ 
quency ; it is also more frequent while a person is working than 
when resting. 

Its Capacity. —At each contraction of the heart each ven¬ 
tricle forces into the vessels from two to two and one-half 
ounces of blood. The average amount of blood in the body 
of the average weight of one hundred and fifty pounds, the 
conditions being normal, is about fifteen to sixteen pounds. 
Hence, it will be seen that all the blood in the body passes 
through the heart in less than two minutes. As the heart is 
unceasing in its work day and night, the aggregate force exerted 
by it in twenty-four hours is something stupendous. 

THE BLOOD. 

The Blood is the liquid by means of which the circulation 
is effected. It permeates every part of the body except the 
cuticle, nails, hair, teeth, etc,, its office being 
to carry nutrition to the different tissues of 
the body. It is the most abundant fluid in 
the body, comprising about one* tenth of the 
body’s entire weight. 

Composition of Blood.— The blood is com¬ 
posed of a thin, colorless liquid, the plasma, or 
liquor sanguinis, filled with red disks, or cells. 

These cells are so minute that it takes about Fi $- 22 • Biood=corpusies. 
thirty-two hundred laid side by side to measure an inch, and 
about sixteen thousand if laid flatwise. A microscope shows 






130 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


them to be rounded at the edges with concave sides. There 
is also a white, globular cell to about every six hundred and 
sixty=six red ones. The plasma also 
contains fibrin, albumen, and such 
mineral substances as iron, lime, 
magnesia, phosphorus, potash, etc. 

The blood contains the material 
for building up every organ. The 
plasma is rich in mineral matter 
for the bones, and albumen for the 
muscles. The red corpuscles con¬ 
tain oxygen, which is so essential to 
every operation of life. It stimu¬ 
lates to action and tears down' all 
that is worn out. In the latter process it unites with, and burns 
out, parts of muscles and other tissues, much as wood is burned. 
The unburned portion is caught up in the circulation, carried 

back to the lungs, where it undergoes puri¬ 
fication, only to be again sent forth on its 
mission. 

The Circulation of flic Blood is an in¬ 
teresting study. The blood goes from the 
heart and then returns again to the heart. 
Starting with the left ventricle the blood is 
forced through the aorta and its branches 
to all parts of the body. From the arteries 
it passes through the capillaries. The sec¬ 
ond set of capillaries then takes it up and 
passes it into the veins, and they in turn 
into either the superior * or inferior vena 
cava, from which it is emptied into the 
right auricle of the heart. It then passes 
into the right ventricle, from whence it is sent through the 
pulmonary artery to the lungs, to be returned through the 



Fig. 24. Circulation of Blood. 


Sectional view of heart and 
vessels, showing the course of 
blood through same. 



Fig. 23. Blood-Crystals. 








THE HEART AND BLOOD 


131 


pulmonary veins to the left auricle, and then to the left 
ventricle, from which place it started. Blood, when it leaves 
the left ventricle, and while it is in the arteries, is red in color ; 
when returning through the veins, it is bluish. Arterial blood 
is pure and contains much oxygen ; venous blood is impure, 
containing much carbonic acid and other waste matter. The 
blue, impure blood, while passing through the lungs, loses its 
carbonic acid gas and takes up oxygen, becoming again bright- 
red in color. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


THE BLOOD VESSELS. 


THE ARTERIES. 

The Arteries are the vessels or canals which convey the 
blood from the heart to the different parts of the body. They 
have dense, strong, and very elastic walls. Though generally 
found empty after death, they still retain their cylindrical 
shape. Unlike the veins, no valves are found in the course 
of the arteries, though powerful valves are located at the pul¬ 
monary opening in the right ventricle and the aortic opening 
in the left ventricle. It is on account of the absence of valves, 
and because found empty after death, that the arteries are 
chosen by the embalmer for the purpose of injecting the 
dead body. 

The Large Trunks are located generally as far as possible 
out of harm’s way and are commonly found close to the bones, 
or running through safe passages provided for them. They are 
usually very straight and take the shortest route to the part of 
the body to be supplied b\ T them with blood. Some arteries, 
however, are very tortuous in their course, as the facial and 
other arteries of the head, to accommodate themselves to the 
movements of the parts. In their ultimate, minute branchings 
the arteries connect with the veins through the capillaries. 

The Main Artery of the body is the aorta, which starts at 
the left ventricle of the heart and divides and subdivides into 
innumerable branches. With each division, these branches 
become smaller, finally terminating in a network of capillaries. 
While each branch is smaller than the trunk from which it is 
derived, the combined area of the branches of an artery is 




THE BLOOD-VESSELS 


133 


greater than the area of the trank, and the aggregate area 
of all the branches far exceeds that of the parent trunk, the 
aorta. 

The arteries are usually named, (a) from the part in the body 
where they are found, as the brachial, popliteal, iliac, etc.; 
(6) from the organ which they supply, as the hepatic, esopha- 
. geal, mammary, etc. 

Arterial Anastomosis. — The arteries communicate freely 
with each other by anastomosis, or inosculation. This intercom¬ 
munication is very free among the larger branches, but increases 
in frequency as the size decreases, being so numerous between 
the very smallest branches as to form a close network that per¬ 
vades nearly every tissue of the body. In the extremities, the. 
anastomoses are most frequent and of the largest size around 
the joints. By anastomoses between arteries, or arterial branches,, 
in the same part of the body, collateral circulation is established 
in the case of a ligature, or the destruction of a principal artery. 

Accompanying Vessels. — The arteries are accompanied by 
veins, with which they are enclosed generally in a thin, fibro- 
areolar investment, or sheath. Frequently, an accompanying 
nerve is enclosed also with the artery. This sheath is formed, 
usually, by a prolongation of the deep fascia of the part. The 
included vessels are loosely connected with their sheath by a 
delicate areolar tissue. Some arteries, as those in the cranium, 
are not included in sheaths. 

Vasa Vasorum. — The walls of all the larger arteries are 
supplied with blood-vessels, called vasa vasorum (vessels of 
vessels), which carry nourishment to the external and middle 
coats, and, according to some authorities, to the inner coat as 
well. These arise from a branch of the artery, or from a 
neighboring vessel. Minute veins return the blood from these 
arterial coats, emptying finally into the vense cavse. 

Their Coats. —The walls are composed of three coats : in¬ 
ternal, or endothelial; middle, or muscular and elastic ; external* 


134 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


or cellular and connective. These coats are made up in turn of 
different layers. The internal coat consists of the endothelium, a 
layer of flat cells, and the tunica intima, composed of elastic 
tissue in longitudinal arrangement. 

The middle coat is by far the thickest of the three coats, being 
formed of three fibrous layers, in circular, triangular, and longi¬ 
tudinal arrangement. In the largest arteries this coat is very 
thick, of a yellowish color, and highly elastic. It diminishes in 
thickness and elasticity as the arteries become smaller, while the 
proportion of muscular fiber increases. 

The external coat consists mainly of longitudinal, fibrillated, 
connective tissue, and contains elastic fibers in all but the 
smallest arteries. In the largest vessels it is thin, but increases 
in relative thickness, as the size decreases. In mediurmsized 
arteries and larger there are two layers. 

The two inner coats are very easilv separated from the external 
by a ligature. If a fine string or thread be tied tightly around 
the artery and then removed, the external coat will be undivided, 
while the two interior coats will be found separated in the track 
of the ligature, and can be easily dissected from the outer coat. 

THE VEINS. 

The Y eins are tubelike vessels that return the blood from the 
capillaries in the different parts of the body to the heart. They 
all carry carbonized or venous blood to the right side of the 
heart, except the pulmonary veins, which convey oxygenated 
blood to the left side. The portal vein, with the series of veins 
uniting to form it, is an appendage of the systemic system, and 
conveys the blood from the viscera of the digestive organs to the 
liver, from whence it is carried, through the hepatic vein to the 
inferior vena cava. 

The veins, like the arteries, are found in nearly every tissue 
of the body. They have their origin in minute plexuses which 
communicate with the capillaries. At first exceedingly small, 


THE BL O OD * VESSELS 


135 


# 

they increase in size and decrease in number as they gradually 
unite and flow into one another ; joining finally to form two 
large veins, the ascending and descending venae cavse, which 
empty into the right auricle. The veins, like the arteries, are 
supplied with nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum. 

The veins are larger and more numerous than the arteries ; 
consequently, the capacity of the venous system is much greater 
than that of the arterial. This is not true, however, of the 
pulmonary veins. 


Venous Anastomosis. —Veins anastomose with each other 
much more freely than do the arteries, especially in certain 
regions, as in the cranium, neck, along the spinal column, etc. 
This communication exists between the larger trunks as well as 
between the smaller branches. 

Venous Coats. —The venous walls are composed of three 
coats : inner, or serous ; middle, or muscular and fibrous ; and 
outer, or connective and areolar. These coats are, with some 
modifications, analogous to those of the arteries. As they do 
not receive the direct impulse of the heart, their 
walls are much thinner and less elastic than those 
of the arteries ; especially is this true of the middle 
coat. Unlike the arteries, when the veins are empty 
their walls collapse. Usually the blood remains in 
the veins for several days after death. 

Venous Valves. —In the veins, at convenient in¬ 
tervals, are placed strong and perfect valves, which 
allow the blood to flow T through them only in the 
direction of the heart. Commonly, two valves are 
found opposite each other, especially in the smaller 
veins, and in the larger veins at points where other 
veins join them. 

The valves are very numerous in the veins of 
the extremities, and much more so in the lower, where the 
blood is conducted against the force of gravity, than in the 


Fig. 25. 
Venous 
Valves. 











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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


% 

upper. Too much standing, or too tight elastics, often cause 
the veins in the leg to swell, so that the valves cannot work ; 
the veins then become permanently enlarged, or varicosed, 
and il they burst the bleeding may be profuse and even 
dangerous. 

A number of veins, however, are without valves. These are 
the venae cavae, hepatic, portal, renal, uterine, ovarian, cerebral, 
spinal, pulmonary, umbilical, and the small veins generally. 
There are rudimentary valves in the neck through which the 
blood will pass either way. 

Kinds of Veins. —Veins are divided, from their location and 
structure, into three classes : deep veins, superficial veins, and 
sinuses. 

Deep Veins accompany the arteries, in the same sheath, 
and are given usually the same names. The secondary arteries, 
as the radial, ulnar, brachial, etc., have each two veins, one lying 
on each side of the artery, called venae comites. The larger 
veins, as the axillary, subclavian, femoral, etc., have usually 
only one accompanying vein. The deep veins in the skull and 

spinal column, the hepatic and some others, do not accompany 
arteries. 

Superficial or Peripheral Veins are sometimes called 
cutaneous veins, from the fact that they are found immediately 
beneath the skin, between layers of superficial fascia. They 
drain the venous blood from the structures in the outer por¬ 
tions of the body, emptying into deep veins at convenient 
points. 

The Sinuses are venous channels, differing from veins in 
structure and distribution, but serving the same purpose. The 
sinuses of the cranium are formed by the separation of the 
layers of tlio dura mater and lie in deep grooves. Sinuses 

are also found along the spinal column and on the outer 
surface of the heart. 


THE BLOOD-VESSELS 



Fig. 26. Capillaries, 

With a terminating artery 
and a commencing vein. 


1 0*7 

lo i 

THE CAPILLARIES. 

The Capillaries ( c&pillus , a hairj are tlie minute network 
of vessels formed throughout the tissues of the body between 
the terminating arteries and the commencing veins. They so 

blend, however, with the extremities of these 
two classes ol vessels, that it is not an easy 
matter to tell just where an artery ends and 
a vein begins. Their diameter is from one 
tliree=thousandth to one sixdhousandth of 
an inch. The smallest are those of the 
brain and mucous membrane of the intes¬ 
tines ; the largest, those of the derma and 
marrowbones. 

Where Found. —They exist in nearly every 
part of every tissue of the body, and are so 
closely packed together, that it is impossible to prick the skin 
with the- point of a needle without injuring many of them. 
They are altogether wanting in the epidermis, and its modified 
forms, the epithelium and endothelium, in the nails, hair, and 
teeth, and to a certain extent, in the cartilage. The number of 
capillaries, and the size of the interspaces, or meshes, determine 
the degree of vascularity of a part. 

By union with each other, the capillaries form a true plexus 
of vessels of nearly uniform diameter, branching and inoscu¬ 
lating in every direction, distributing blood to all parts as neces¬ 
sity demands. They receive the blood from the smallest sub¬ 
divisions of the arteries, and carry on the work of nourishing and 
rebuilding the body. They also begin the process of removing 
the waste matter from the wornout portions of the tissues. 

Their Walls, which consist of a transparent, homogeneous 
membrane, continuous with the innermost haver of the arterial 
and venous walls, are so thin that their fluid contents readily 
exude through the delicate membrane, irrigating and nourishing 
the tissues in which they lie. 











CHAPTER- IX. 


ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 


The Aorta, or great artery, is the main trunk of the sys¬ 
temic circulation. It commences at the aortic opening of the left 
ventricle of the heart, arching backward over 
the root of the left lung into the posterior 
part of the thorax, where it descends on the 
left side of the spinal column, through the 
aortic opening of the diaphragm, to the fourth 
lumbar vertebra, where it divides into the 
right and left common iliac arteries. The 
aorta is divided into the arch, the thoracic 
aorta, and the abdominal aorta. The arch 
is divided into the ascending, transverse, and 
descending portions. The upper border of 
tlie arch is located in the thorax, about an 
inch below the upper margin of the sternum ; the arch ends at 
the lower border of the fourth dorsal vertebra. 

The Branches of the Aorta are as follows : — 


R* Coronary 







Fig. 27. Plan of Branches 
of Aortic Arch. 


From the Arch: 

Two Coronary. 

Innominate. 

Left Common Carotid. 

Left Subclavian. 

From the Thoracic Aorta: 

Pericardiacs. 

Bronchiaes. 

Esopiiageals. 

Twenty Intercostals. 
Posterior Mediastinals. 


The Coronary Arteries arise 

t/ 

semilunar valves, and run in the 
to supply the tissues of the heart. 


From the Abdominal Aorta: 

Two Phrenic. 

{ Gastric. 

Hepatic. 

Splenic. 

Superior Mesenteric. 

Inferior Mesenteric. » 

Two Suprarenal. 

Two Renal. 

Two Spermatic (or Ovarian). 

Eight Lumbar. 

Middle Sacral. 

from the aorta behind the 
vertical grooves of the heart, 













ARTERIES OF T1JE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


139 


TKgrold Gla* d ' 


RtVayus \ 


fueurnnt Laryngeal 


Left Fayut 
Left Phrenic 
Thoracic!) uct 


The Innominate arises from the summit of the arch of the 
aorta, is one and a half inches in length, and divides at the 

right sternoclavicu¬ 
lar articulation into 
the right common 
carotid and right 
subclavian. On the 
left side these arise 
directly from the 
arch of the aorta. 

The Common 
Carotid arises on 
the left side from 
the aorta, and on 
the right from the 
innominate, the left 
being longer and 
deeper than the 
>iv4 right. Their course 
is indicated by a 
line drawn from a 
point midway be¬ 
tween the angle of 
the lower jaw and 
the mastoid process 
to the sternoclavi¬ 
cular articulations. 
At the lower part 

Fig. 28. Arch of Aorta and Its Branches. ol the neck they 

are separated only by the width ot the trachea, and they aie each 
contained in a sheath of the deep cervical fascia with the inter¬ 
nal jugular vein externally and the pneumogastric nerve between 
the artery and vein. They divide at the level of the upper border 
of the thyroid cartilage into the external and internal carotids. 































140 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The External Carotid ascends from its origin to the space 
between the neck of the ramus of the lower jaw and the ex¬ 
ternal auditory, canal, where it divides into the temporal and 
internal maxillary. It diminishes in- size rapidly on account of 
the number and size of the branches given off. The branches, 
which supply the tissues of the neck, face, and head, and anas¬ 
tomose freely with those of the opposite side, are as follows : — 

(1) The Superior Thyroid, the first branch, takes a downward 
course, and supplies the thyroid gland and muscle, larynx, etc. 

(2) The Lingual supplies the under surface of the tongue. 

(3) The Facial, the largest branch, ascends obliquely and 
tortuously forward and upward, and gives off four cervical and 
six facial branches. 

(4) The Occipital arises opposite the facial, and courses 
upward, and its branches anastomose freely with those of the 
vertebral and deep cervical. 

(5) The Posterior Auricular supplies the external and in¬ 
ternal ear. 

(6) The Ascending Pharyngeal, the smallest branch, 
reaches certain muscles and nerves, the pharynx, and dura mater. 

(7) The Temporal, the smallest of the two terminal branches, 
is in direction a continuation of the external carotid, and divides 
into the anterior and posterior temporal, which ramify over the 
surface of the-skull, freely anastomosing with the branches from 
the opposite side. 

(8) The Internal Maxillary, the other terminal, passes 
inward at right angles to the vessel, to supply the deep structures 
of the face. 

The Internal Carotid ascends in front of the transverse 
processes of the three upper cervical vertebrae, and close to the 
tonsil, traverses the carotid canal in the temporal bone, and, 
after passing the anterior clinoid process, and piercing the dura 
mater, divides into its terminal branches, the anterior and middle 
cerebral. Its branches are : — 


! 


F 

BLOOD-VESSELS OF HEAD, 

NECK, ETC. 


TWELVE PLATES—XXX.-XLI 









PLATE XXX. 


BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS OF NERVES 

AND BLOODVESSELS. 



A. 

B. 

C. 


a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 


1 . 

2 . 

3 . 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 


12 . 

13 . 

14 . 

15 . 

16 . 

17 . 

18 . 


Section at Base of Brain, Showing Origins of Nerves and Arteries. 


Anterior lobe of cerebrum. 

Middle lobe of cerebrum. 

Posterior lobe of cerebrum. 

Fissure of Sylvius. 

Longitudinal fissure of cerebrum. 
Commissure of optic nerves. 

Tuber cinereum. 

Corpora mammillaria v. candicantia. 


D. 

E. 


f. 

ti¬ 

ll. 

i. 

k. 


Olfactory (first pair). 
Optic (second pair). 
Motor oculi (third pair). 
Pathetic (fourth pair). 
Trigeminus (fifth pair). 
Abducens (sixth pair). 


Vertebral. 

Basilar. 

Anterior spinal. 

Posterior inferior cerebellar. 
Anterior inferior cerebellar. 
Superior cerebellar. 

Deep cerebral. 


Nerves. 

7 . 

8 . 

9 . 

10 . 

11 . 

Arteries. 

19 . 


20 . 

21 . 

22 . 

23 . 


Cerebellum (arbor vitae). 
Medulla oblongata. 


Optic tract. 

Pons Vai’olii. 

Crus cerebeili ad pontein. 
Pyramidal body. 

Olivary body. 


Facial, portio dura of seventh pair. 
Auditory, portio mollis of seventh 
pair. 

Glossopharyngeal of eighth pair. 
Pneumogastric of eighth pair. 
Lingual or hypoglossal (ninth pair ). 


Communicating branches (forming 
with anterior cerebral, internal 
carotid, and posterior or deep cere 
bral arteries, the circle of Willis). 

Internal carotid. 

Fossae of Sylvius. 

Choroid. 

Corporis callosi. 


142 








PLATE XXXI. 


BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS OF NERVES 
AND BLOOD=VESSELS—(Continued). 



Vertical Longitudinal Section of Brain, Cerebrum, and Cerebellum, 

through Center. 


I Frontal bone and frontal sinus. 

II. Crista galli. 

III. Perpendicular lamina of ethmoid 

bone. 

IV. Body of sphenoid. 

V. Posterior clinoid process. 

VI. Sella turcica. 

A. Anterior lobe of cerebri. 

JJ. Middle lobe of cerebri. 

C. Posterior lobe of cerebri. 

a. Convolutions of cerebrum. 

b. Sulci. 

c. Corpus callosum. 

d. Genu corporis callosi. 

e. Splenium corporis callosi. 

/. Septum lucidum. 

g. Fornix. 

h. Anterior crus. 

i. Foramen of Monro. 

k. Thalamus of optic nerve. 

l. Anterior commissure. 

m. Soft commissure. 

n. Posterior commissure. 

o. Pineal gland. 


VII. Sphenoidal sinus. 

VIII. Basilar part of occipital bone. 

IX. Occipital part of occipital bone. 

X. Vomer. 

XT. Roof of pharynx. 

XII. Tentorium cerebelli enclosing 
straight sinus. 

D. Cerebellum (arbor vitae). 

E. Medulla oblongata. 


p. Peduncle or crus of pineal gland. 

q. Corpora quadrigemina. 

r. Pons Varolii. 

s. Aqueduct of Sylvius. 

t. Tuber cinereum. 

u. Infundibulum. 

v. Pituitary gland. 

w. Commissure of optic nerves. 

x. Optic nerve. 

y. Fourth ventricle. 

z. Corpus mammillare v. candicans 
a. Anterior valve of cerebellum. 

/3. Artery corporis callosi. 


143 







PLATE XXXII. 


BLOOD-VESSELS OF HEAD AND NECK. 


< 7 . 

O. 

b. 

e. 

d. 

e. 

f. 

h. 

i. 

k. 

l . 

1 . 

5. 

2 . 

a! 

4. 

6 . 
9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13 . 



Arteries of Anterior Surface of Head and Neck. 


Zygomaticus major muscle. 
Sternocleidomastoid muscle. 

Orbicularis palpebarum muscle. 
Corrugator supercilii muscle. 
Levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 
Levator labii superioris proprius. 
Zygomaticus minor muscle. 
Masseter muscle. 

Buccinator muscle. 

Orbicularis oris muscle. 

Triangularis menti muscle. 

Subclavian artery. 

Ascending cervical. 

Internal mammary artery. 
Transverse scapular artery. 
Transverse artery of neck. 

Inferior thyroid artery. 

External maxillary artery. 
Coronary artery of lower lip. 
Coronary artery of upper lip. 
Angular artery. 

Dorsals of nose. 


P. Sternohyoid muscle. 
li. Trachea. 

m. Quadratus menti muscle. 

n. Levator anguli oris muscle. 

t. Trapezius muscle. 

u. Omohyoid muscle. 

v. Scalenus anticus muscle. 

w. Scalenus medius muscle. 

x. Clavicle. 

q. Thyroid gland. 
s. Larynx. 

7. Common carotid artery. 

8. Superior thyroid artery. 

14. Alaries of nose. 

15. Opthalmic artery. 

16. Frontal artery. 

17. Supraorbital artery. 

18. Infraorbital artery. 

19. Deep temporal artery (from internal 

maxillary). 

20. Temporal (superficialis) artery. 

21. Frontal branch of temporal artery. 


144 













PLATE XXXIII. 



BLOOD-VESSELS OF LATERAL SURFACE OF HEAD, 

FACE, AND NECK. 


A. Platysma=myoides muscle. 


D. Sternocleidomastoid. 


b. Trapezius muscle. 

c. Deltoid muscle. 

e. Splenius capitis muscle. 

/. Splenius colli muscle. 

h. Retrahens auris muscle. 

i. Attolens auris muscle. 

k. Masseter muscle. 

n. Zygomaticus minor muscle. 

o. Orbicularis oris muscle. 

p. Triangularis menti muscle. 

l. External jugular vein. 

2. Occipital vein. 

4. Internal jugular vein. 

5. Anterior facial vein. 

10. Frontal vein. 


q. Quadratus menti muscle. 

r. Orbicularis palpebarum muscle. 

s. Frontal muscle. 

t. Levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 

u. Lower jaw. 

v. Digastricus maxillae inferioris. 
iv. Mylohyoid muscle. 

x. Sternohyoid muscle. 

y. Omohyoid muscle. 


11. External carotid artery. 

12. Posterior auricular artery. 

13. Temporal (superficial) artery. 
18. Frontal artery. 


3. Common branch, between external 
and internal jugular. 

6. Labial vein. 

8. Temporal vein. 


9. Cerebral opthalmic vein. 

15. External maxillary artery. 

16. Submental artery. 

17. Angular artery. 


145 



















PLATE XXXIV. 


ARTERIES OF (RIGHT) SIDE OF NECK. 



A. Inferior maxillary. 

B. Os hyoides. 

F. Trachea. 


P. Sternocleidomastoid muscle. 
R. Scalenus anticus muscle. 


c. Clavicle. 

d. Larynx. 

e. Thyroid gland. 

g. Acromion process. 

h. Mastoid process. 

i. Styloid pi'ocess. 

k. Processus transversus atlantis. 

l. Digastric muscle (anterior belly). 
in. Mylohyoid muscle. 

n. Hyoglossus. 


o. Styloglossus muscle. 
q. Levator anguli scapulae muscle. 

s. Medius scalenus muscle. 

t. Omohyoid muscle. 

u. Sternohyoid muscle. 

v. Thyrohyoid muscle. 

w. Pharynx. 

x. Esophagus. 

y. Subclavius muscle. 

z. Major Pectoralis muscle. 


1,2. Right common carotid artery. 

3. External carotid artery. 

4. Internal carotid artery. 

8. Hyoid branch of lingual artery. 

9. External maxillary, or facial. 

12. Occipital artery. 


13. Posterior auricular artery. 

14. Temporal (superficial) artery. 

15. Right subclavian artery. 

20. Transversalis colli artery. 

22. External thoracic artery. 

27. Axillary artery. 


5. Superior thyroid artery. 

6. Superior laryngeal artery. 

7. Lingual artery. 

10. Ascending palatine artery. 

11. Submental artery. 


16. Trunk of thyrocervical artery. 

17. Inferior thyroid artery. 

18. Ascending cervical artery. 

19. Transversalis humeri artery. 


146 












PLATE XXXV. 

BLOOD-VESSELS OF (RIGHT) SIDE OF NECK. 



a. Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). 

b. Os hyoides. 

c. Clavicle. 

d. Larynx. 

e. Thyroid gland. 

/. Trachea. 

g. Acromion process. 

h. Mastoid process. 

k. Processus transversus atlantis. 

l. Digastric ( anterior belly). 

m. Mylohyoid muscle. 

n. Hyoglossus muscle. 

1. Superior vena cava. 

2. Left innominate vein. 

3. Right innominate vein. 

4. Right subclavian vein. 

5. Axillary vein. 

6. External jugular. 

7. Internal jugular. 

8. Facial vein. 

16. External carotid artery. 

17. Internal carotid artery. 

18. Superior thyroid artery. 

19. Lingual artery. 

21. Temporal artery. 

22. Posterior aricular artery. 


o. Styloglossus muscle. 

p. Sternocleidomastoid. 

q. Levator anguli scapulae. 

r. Scalenus anticus. 

s. Scalenus medius. 

t. Omohyoid muscle. 

u. Sternohyoid muscle. 

v. Thyrohyoid muscle. 

w. Pharynx. 

x. Esophagus. 

y. Subclavian muscle. 

z. Pectoralis major muscle. 

9. Internal maxillary vein. 

10. Anterior jugular. 

11. Arch of aorta. 

12. Innominate artery. 

13. Right common carotid artery. 

14. Right subclavian artery. 

15. Axillary artery. 

I 20. External, maxillary, or facial artery. 

23 . Occipital artery. 

24. Inferior thyroid artery. 

25. Transversalis humeri. 

26. Transversalis colli. 

27 . External thoracis. 


147 




























PLATE XXXVI 


BLOOD-VESSELS OF NECK, TRUNK, AND UPPER 

EXTREMITIES. 


Principal Arteries and Veins of Neck, Thorax, and Arms, with Deep 
Blood=Vessels of Abdominal Cavity. 


D. Sartorius muscle. 

E. Poupart’s ligament. 

I. Lungs. 

(4. Clavicle. 

H. Heart. 

M. Right auricle. 

a. Lower jaw. 

b. Os hyoid. 

c. Larynx. 

d. Thyroid gland. 

e. Trachea. 

/. Esophagus. 
h. First rib. 

a. Transverse abdominal. 

0. Internal iliac. 
y. Spermatic cord. 
k. Tendon of biceps of elbow. 
Brachialis anticus. 


Arteries 

2. Ascending aorta. 

3. Pulmonary artery. 

4 . Arch of aorta. 

6. Common carotid artery. 

7. Right subclavian artery. 

9. Left subclavian artery. 

10. Left innominate vein. 

11. Right innominate vein. 

12. Internal jugular vein. 

12 8 . Subcutaneous vein of neck. 

14. Subclavian. 

26. Abdominal aorta. 

34. Common iliac artery. 

35. Internal iliac artery. 

1. Superior vena cava. 

5. Innominate artery. 

8. Left common carotid artery. 

15. Superior thyroid vein. 

17. Inferior thyroid vein. 

18. Labial vein. 

19. Posterior cephalic vein. 

20. Facial (or labial) artery. 

21. Anterior facial vein. 

23. Pulmonary vein. 

24. Anterior branch of left coronary 

vein of heart. 

25. Right coronary artery and vein of 

heart. 

27. Inferior phrenic artery. 


N. Left auricle. 

O. Right ventricle. 

P. Left ventricle. 

8, 8. Kidneys. 

U. Diaphragm. 

V. Bladder. 

1. Pericardium, 
r. Esophagus. 

t. Suprarenal capsules. 

u. Ureter. 
w. Rectum. 

y. Quadratus lumborum. 

2 . Psoas muscle. 

v. Supinator longus. 

£. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 

7 r. Flexor pollicis longus. 
p. Flexor digitorium communis pro 
fundus. 


and Vein. 

36. External iliac artery. 

39. Inferior vena cava. 

40. Renal vein. 

41. Hepatic vein. 

43. Common iliac vein. 

44. Internal iliac vein. 

49. Axillary artery. 

50. Axillary vein. 

52. Basilic vein. 

54. Brachial artery. 

56. Radial artery. 

57. Ulnar artery. 

62. Deep palmar arch. 


28. Celiac axis artery. 

29. Superior mesenteric artery. 

30. Inferior spermatic artery. 

31. Inferior mesenteric artery. 

33. Renal artery and vein. 

37. Circumflex iliac artery and vein. 

38. Iliolumbar artery and vein. 

42. Internal spermatic vein. 

45. External ilac vein. 

46. Middle sacral artery and vein. 

51. Cephalic vein. 

53. Median vein. 

60. Recurrent radial artery. 

61. Recurrent ulnar artery. 

63. Superficial branch of radial. 


149 














PLATE XXXVII. 

BLOOD-VESSELS OF (LEFT) SIDE OF HEAD AND FACE 



Gr. Body of maxillary. 

a. Frontal bone. 

b. Great wing of sphenoid bone. 

c. Superior maxillary. 

d. Inner wall of orbit. 

e. Malar bone. 

1. Deep temporal artery and vein. 

2. Internal jugular vein. 

3. Anterior facial arteries and veins. 

4. Infraorbital artery and vein. 

1. Left common carotid artery. 

3. External jugular vein. 

7. Occipital artery. 

8. Posterior auricular artery and vein. 

9. Temporal (superficial) artery. 

10. Internal maxillary artery. 

13. Posterior alveolar artery and vein. 


/. Inferior maxillary. 
h. External pterygoid muscle. 
1. Orbicularis oris muscle. 
m. Buccinator muscle. 


5. Posterior facial arteries and veins. 

16. Superior labial artery. 

17. Occipital vein. 


II. External maxillary artery. 

15. Coronaria labii inferioris artery. 

16. Coronaria labii superioris artery. 

17. Dorsal artery of nose. 

18. Angular artery. 

19. Cerebral opthalmic artery and vein. 

20. Frontal artery and vein. 


150 





PLATE XXXVIII. 


POSTERIOR SURFACE OF LUNGS AND TRACHEA, WITH THEIR 
PRINCIPAL ARTERIES, VEINS, AND NERVES. 



а , Larynx. 

g. Middle lobe of right lung. 

1.1. Common carotid arteries. 

2.2. Internal jugular veins. 

3. Trachea. 

4. Glottis. 

5. Bronchi. 

б. Left pulmonary artery. 

7. Pulmonary veins. 

2. Great vein of heart. 

6. Innominate artery. 

10. Superior vena cava. 

11. Pneumogastric (vagus) nerve. 

12. Recurrent laryngeal branch of pneu¬ 

mogastric nerve. 


k. Right ventricle. 


8. Left ventricle. 

9. Right auricle. 

10. Apex of lungs. 

11. Lower lobe of lungs. 

12,12. Subclavian arteries. 

14. Pulmonary artery. 

15. Aorta. 

13. Recurrent branches of tracheal 

nerve. 

14. Recurrent branches of cardiac nerve. 

15. Superior laryngeal nerve. 

16. Cardiac branch of sympathetic nerve. 

17. Cardiac plexus. 


151 















Mtmn 






PLATE XXXIX. 


ARTERIES OF ANTERIOR SURFACE OF ARM, FOREARM, 

AND HAND. 


a. 

b. 

c. 
e. 
/• 
9- 

h. 

i. 

k. 

l. 
n. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 , 

17. 


a. 

b. 
cl. 
€. 
/• 
9- 

h. 

i. 

k. 

l. 
m. 

1 

2 . 

3. 

8 . 

9 . 

12 . 

13 . 

14. 


Fig. 1.—Superficial Arteries on Internal and Anterior Surface of 

Arm, Forearm, and Hand. 


Deltoid muscle. 

Pectoralis major muscle. 

Latissimus major muscle. 

Semilunar fascia of biceps. 

Co raco= brachial is muscle. 

Long head of triceps. 

Short head of triceps. 

Brachialis anticus muscle. 

Internal intermuscular ligament. 
Internal condyle of humerus. 
Pronator teres muscle. 

Biceps muscle. 

Brachial artery. 

Radial artery. 

Supinator longus muscle. 

Volar branch of radial artery. 
Muscular branch to ball of thumb. 

13, 14. Branches from princeps pollicis. 
Common volar digital artery. 


q. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 

r. Extensor carpi radialis longus. 

s. Flexor pollicis longus muscle. 

t. Flexor digitorum communis sublimis, 

u. Abductor pollicis longus muscle. 

v. Extensor pollicis brevis muscle. 

iv. Anterior annular ligament of wrist. 

x. Ball of thumb, abductor and flexor 

brevis pollicis. 

y. Tendon of flexor longus pollicis. 

z. Abductor pollicis muscle. 

5. Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. 

6. Palmaris longus muscle. 

8. Superficial palmar arch. 

9. Interosseous arteries. 

18. Volar ulnar artery. 

19. Digitalis dorsalis artery. 

20. Deep or communicating branch. 


Fig. 2.—Deep Arteries of Arm, Forearm, and Hand —Anterior Surface. 


Coraco=brachial muscle. 

Latissimus dorsi muscle. 

Short head of triceps. 

Brachialis anticus. 

Supinator brevis. 

Internal intermuscular ligament. 
Internal condyle of humerus. 
Tendon of biceps (divided). 
Extensor carpi radialis longus. 
Extensor carpi radialis brevis. 
Tendon of long supinator (divided). 

Biceps muscle. 

Ulnar artery. 

Interosseous artery. 

Anterior recurrent ulnar. 

Posterior recurrent ulnar. 

Dorsal branch of radial. 
Superficialis volte. 

Dorsal branch of ulnar. 


n. Radial insertion of pronator teres. 

p. Interosseous membrane. 

q. Flexor pollicis longus muscle. 

r. Flexor muscle (divided). 

s. Pronator quadratus muscle. 

t. Tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris 

(divided). 

u. Anterior annular ligament (divided). 

v. Abductor digiti minimi muscle. 

w. Opponens digiti minimi muscle. 

x. Interosseous muscle. 

4. Radial artery. 

5. Deep palmar arch. 

6. Triceps muscle. 

17. Deep branch of ulnar. 

18. Princpes pollicis. 

19. Indicis radialis. 

20. Digitalis communis (divided). 

21. Interossse palmares. 


153 














PLATE XL 


A. 

n. 

c. 

D. 

E. 


a- 

i. 


2 . 

3. 

4. 

1 . 

2 . 

6 . 


THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 

VESSELS. 



Principal Chylopoietic Viscera, Blood=Vessels, and Ducts. 


Left lobe of liver (under surface). 
Right lobe of liver. 

Lobus quadratics of liver. 

Lobus Spigelii of liver. 
Gall=bladder. 


F. Cystic duct. 

G. Lower margin of left lobe of liver. 
IT. Ductus communis choledochus. 
R. Left kidney. 


Hepatic duct. 

Descending part of duodenum, with 
place of entrance of choledoch duct. 


k. Pancreatic duct. 
m. Pancreas, 
o. Part of duodenum. 


Splenic artery. 

Gastric artery. 

Hepatic artery. 

Abdominal aorta. 

Celiac axis artery. 
Gastroduodenal arteries. 


5. Pancreas. 

6. Spleen. 

8. Stomach. 

7. Renal artery and vein. 

8. Superior mesenteric artery and vein. 

9. Portal vein. 


154 





























PLATE XLI. 

CELIAC AXIS AND ITS BRANCHES. 



Pancreas, Spleen, and Duodenum in Position, the Stomach Having Been 
Raised and the Transverse Mesocolon Removed. 


155 






























































































































ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 157 


(1) The Tympanic, supplying the tympanum. 

(2) The Arterim Receptaculi, supplying the walls of the 
sinuses, the Gasserian ganglion, and the pituitary body. 

(3) The Anterior Meningeal, supplying the dura mater/ 

(4) The Ophthalmic, supplying the eye and its appendages. 

(5) The Posterior Communicating anastomoses with the 
posterior cerebral, a branch of the basilar. 

(6) The Anterior Choroid, supplying the choroid plexus, 
corpus fimbriatum, etc. 

(7) The Anterior Cerebral is joined to its fellow by the an¬ 
terior communicating branch, which is about two lines long. 

(8) The Middle Cerebral, the largest branch, passes ob¬ 
liquely outward through the fissure of Sylvius, within which 
it divides into three branches: anterior, median, and poste¬ 
rior. 

The Subclavian arises on the left side from the arch of the 
aorta, and is divided into three portions by the scalenus anticus 
muscle, the parts being external, posterior, and internal to that, 
muscle. At the outer border of the first rib it becomes the 
axillary artery. Its branches are about all given off from its 
first portion. They are the vertebral, thyroid axis, internal 
mammary, and superior intercostal. 

The Vertebral, the first and largest branch, passes up the 
neck, through the foramina in the transverse processes of six 
cervical vertebrae, and enters the skull through the foramen 
magnum. It then passes in front of the medulla oblongata and 
joins its fellow to form the basilar artery. It gives off two 
branches in the neck, the lateral spinal and muscular, supplying 
the spinal column and neck, and four within the cranium, the 
posterior meningeal, anterior and posterior spinal, and posterior 
inferior cerebellar, supplying the upper part of the spinal column 
and back part of the brain. 

The Basilar, so named from its position at the base of the 

skull, is a single trunk formed by the junction of the two. 

16 








158 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


vertebral arteries, and ascends from the posterior to the anterior 
border of the pons Varolii, where it divides into two large 
branches, the right and left posterior cerebral. The latter ar¬ 
teries and their branches supply adjacent parts of the brain. 

The Circle of Willis is an anastomosis at the base of the 
brain, between the branches of the internal carotid and vertebral 
arteries, to equalize the cerebral circulation. The two vertebral 
arteries join to form the basilar, which ends in the two posterior 
cerebral. These are connected with the internal carotid by the 
two posterior communicating. The circle is completed by the 
connection of the two anterior cerebral branches of the internal 
carotid through the short anterior communicating artery. 

The Thyroid Axis is a short, thick trunk, dividing almost 
immediately into three branches : — 

(1) The Inferior Thyroid, anastomosing with the superior 
thyroid, and giving of branches : the laryngeal, tracheal, eso¬ 
phageal, muscular, and ascending cervical, which supply those 
parts respectively. 

(2) The Transversalis Colli, dividing into two branches, 
superficial cervical and posterior scapular. 

(3) The Suprascapular, supplying the superficial tissue of 
the neck, back of the scapula, and the shoulderqoint. 

The Internal Mammary descends along the costal cartilages 
to the sixth interspace, where it divides into the. musculophrenic 
and superior epigastric, the latter anastomosing with the deep 
epigastric branch of the external iliac. It gives off branches 
to the diaphragm, mediastinum, pericardium, sternum, inter¬ 
costal spaces, etc. 

The Superior Intercostal gives of branches to the inter¬ 
costal spaces, to the posterior spinal muscles, and to the spinal 
cord. 

The Axillary is the continuation of the subclavian, extend¬ 
ing from the outer border of the first rib to the lower margin 
of the axillary space (armpit), where it becomes the brachial. 


ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 159 


It is deep seated at the beginning, but becomes superficial at its 
termination. Its seven branches supply the tissues of the 
thorax, shoulder, and mammary gland. 

The Brachial is the continuation of the axillary from the 
lower border of the armpit to where it divides into the radial 
and ulnar, which is usually about onedialf inch below the bend 
of the elbow. It is superficial throughout its entire extent, being 
covered by the integument and deep and superficial fascise. Its 
branches are the superior profunda, nutrient, inferior profunda, 
anastomotica magna, and muscular, which supply the tissues 
of the arm. The lower branches, particularly the anastomotica 
magna, anastomose freely with branches from the radial and 
ulnar around the elbow both front and back. This anastomosis 
is of importance to the embalmer when the brachial artery is 
raised, as that portion of the member below the point of injection 
is thereby supplied by collateral circulation. 

The Radial is one of the divisions of the brachial, extending 
on the radial side of the forearm, from the bifurcation to the deep 
palmar arch, and terminates by anastomosing with the super¬ 
ficial palmar arch. Its branches supply the tissues of the radial 
side of the forearm, wrist, and hand, and inosculate with the 
branches from the brachial and ulnar arteries. 

The Ulnar is the other division of the brachial, along the 
ulnar side of the forearm. Its branches supply the tissues on 
the ulnar side of the forearm, wrist, and hand, and anastomose 
freely with branches of the radial and brachial arteries. 

The Superficial Palmar Arch is that part of the ulnar 
lying in the palm of the hand, and anastomoses with the super- 
ficialis volse from the radial and a branch from the radialis 
indicis at the root of the thumb. It gives off four digital 
branches to the sides of the fingers, except the inside of the 
index finger, which is supplied by the radialis indicis. 

The Deep Palmar Arch is formed by the palmar portion of 
the radial artery anastomosing with the deep or communicating 











160 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


branch of the ulna. It gives off the radialis indicis, palmar 
interosseous, perforating, and recurrent branches. 

The Thoracic Aorta begins at the lower border of the fifth 
dorsal vertebra, and descends along the left side of the spine 
to the aortic opening in the diaphragm, where it ends directly 
in front of the last dorsal vertebra. Its branches are : — 

(1) The Pericardiac, which vary in number and origin, 
supplying the pericardium. 

(2) The Bronchial, supplying all the tissues of the lungs. 
They vary in number and origin, being usually one on the 
right side and two on the left. 

(3) The Esophageal, usually four or five in number, supply¬ 
ing the esophagus. 

(4) The Posterior Mediastinals, supplying the mediastinum. 

(5) The Intercostals, usually ten in number on each side, 
dividing into the anterior and posterior branches, and supplying 
the upper spaces and the spinal cord and tissues of the back. 

The Abdominal Aorta descends along the spinal column 
from the diaphragm to the fourth lumbar vertebra, where it 
divides into the right and left common iliacs. It diminishes in 
size rapidly on account of the many large branches given off 
in its course. Its branches are : — 

(1) The Phrenic, supplying the under surface of the dia¬ 
phragm. 

(2) The Celiac Axis, arising near the diaphragm, running 
forward for half an inch and dividing into the gastric, hepatic, 
and splenic arteries. (See Plate XLI.) 

(a) The Gastric, supplying the cardiac end and lesser curva¬ 
ture of the stomach, and the lesser omentum. 

(b) The Hepatic, supplying the liver, gall-bladder, pyloric 
end and greater curvature of the stomach, duodenum, and 
pancreas. 

(c) The Splenic, supplying the spleen, pancreas, and cardiac 
end and greater curvature of the stomach. The latter is sup- 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


161 


plied by the left gastroepiploic, a principal branch, which, after 
circling half way around the outer circumference of the stomach, 



Fig. 29. The Abdominal Aorta and Its Branches. 

meets and anastomoses with the right gastroepiploic, Ironi the 
hepatic artery. 












































162 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


(3) The Superior Mesenteric, supplying the small intestine, 
cecum, and ascending and transverse colon. It arises about 
one-fourth of an inch below the celiac axis, arching forward 
and downward to the left, and gives off these branches : inferior 
pancreatico-duodenal, vasa intestini tenuis, ileocolic, and right 
and middle colic. 

(4) The Inferior Mesenteric, supplying the descending colon, 
sigmoid flexure, and most of the rectum, giving off the follow¬ 
ing branches : left colic, sigmoid, and superior hemorrhoidal. 

(5) The Suprarenal, supplying the suprarenal capsules. 

(6) The Renal, one on each side, supplying the kidneys. 

(7) The Spermatics (in the male), supplying the testes. 

(7a) The Ovarian (in the female), supplying the ovaries, 

uterus, Fallopian tube, and skin of the labia and groin. 

(8) The Lumbar, usually four on each side, supplying the 
lumbar vertebrae. 

(9) The Middle Sacral, arising at the division of the aorta 
and supplying the sacrum and coccyx. 

The Common Iliacs extend from the division of the aorta, at 
the fourth lumbar vertebra, to the margin of the pelvis, where 
they each divide into the external and internal iliacs. They 
are each about two inches long, the right being somewhat larger 
than the left. They give off a number of small branches to the 
peritoneum, psoas muscles, ureters, and surrounding cellular tissue. 

The Internal Iliac is a short, thick vessel, about one and a 
half inches long, extending downward to the upper margin 
of the sacrosciatic foramen, where it divides into an anterior and 
posterior branch. 

The Anterior Trunk gives off the following branches : — 

(1) The Superior Vesical, distributing branches to the apex 
and body of the bladder, vas deferens, and ureter. This is that 
part of the fetal hypogastric artery which remains pervious after 
birth. The remaining portion dwindles after birth to a fibrous 
cord, in which condition it continues through life. 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 163 


(2) The Middle Vesical (usually a branch of the above), 
supplying the base of the bladder and under surface of the 
seminal vesicles. 

(3) The Inferior Vesical (in the male), distributing to the 
bladder, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles. 

(4) The Middle Hemorrhoidal ( usually arising with above), 
supplying the rectum. 

(5) The Uterine (in the female), supplying the uterus and 
broad ligament. 

(6) The Vaginal ( in the female, same as 3), supplying the 
mucous membrane of the vagina and contiguous part of rectum. 

(7) The Obturator (sometimes arising from the posterior 
trunk and sometimes from the epigastric artery), the largest 
branch, giving off a number of branches within the pelvis and 
extending through the obturator foramen, dividing into the 
internal and external branches, which supply the muscles and 
tissues of the hip. 

(8) The Internal Pudic, the smallest of the two terminal 
branches, supplying the external organs of generation. 

(9) The Sciatic, the other terminal branch, distributing to 
the muscles of the back part of the pelvis and hip. 

The Posterior Trunk (of the internal iliac) gives off three 
branches : — 

(1) The Iliolumbar, distributing to muscles in the lower 
lumbar and iliac regions. 

(2) The Lateral Sacral, supplying the sacral region. 

(3) The Gluteal, the largest branch of the internal iliac, and 
the apparent continuation of the posterior trunk, supplying the 
gluteus muscles. 

The External Iliac is larger in the adult than the internal 
iliac, and extends in an obliquely downward course, along the 
inner border of the psoas muscle, from the bifurcation of the 
common iliac to Poupart’s ligament, where it enters the thigh 
and becomes the femoral artery. Besides a number of small 




164 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


branches to the psoas muscle and neighboring glands, it gives 
off two branches of considerable size : — 

(1) The Deep Epigastric, which arises usually a few lines 
above Poupart’s ligament, passes between the peritoneum and 
the transversalis fascia, to the sheath of the rectus muscle which 
it perforates, and ascends behind that muscle, to anastomose by 
numerous branches with the terminal branches of the internal 
mammary and inferior intercostal. 

(2) The Deep Circumflex Iliac, which arises opposite the 
above and ascends obliquely behind Poupart’s ligament to the 
anterior superior spinus process of the ilium, continuing thence 
along the crest of the ilium. It supplies the internal oblique 
and transversalis muscles, and other parts, and anastomoses with 
the iliolumbar, gluteal, lumbar, and deep epigastric. 

The Femoral is the continuation of the external iliac. It 
arises immediately behind Poupart’s ligament, passes down the 
forepart and inner side of the thigh, and terminates at* the open¬ 
ing in the adductor magnus muscle, where it becomes the 
popliteal. Its course corresponds to a line drawn from the 
center of Poupart’s ligament to the inner side of the inner 
condyle of the femur. It is very superficial in the upper third 
ot the thigh, where it lies in Scarpa’s triangle in a strong, 
fibrous sheath, with the femoral vein on the inside and the 
anterior crural nerve on the outside. In the middle third it 
is more deeply seated, being covered by the sartorius muscle 
in addition to the integument and superficial and deep faciae, 
and contained in an aponeurotic canal, called Hunter’s canal. 
The vein now lies on the outer side in close apposition with the 
artery, with the internal saphenous nerve still more external. 
The femoral artery gives off seven branches, as follows : 

(1) The Superficial Epigastric, to the inguinal glands, 
superficial fascia of the abdomen, and the integument. 

(2) The Superficial Circumflex Iliac, to the skin over the 
iliac crest. 


G 

BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL 
REGIONS AND LOWER 
EXTREMITIES 


FOUR PLATES —XLIl.-XLV 










PLATE XLII 


BLOOD=VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS. 



Arteries of Pelvis and Internal Genital Organs in Female Subject. 


a. Sacrum. 

b. Crest of ilium. 

c. Spina ilii anterior superior. 

1. Abdominal aorta. 

2. Common iliac artery. 

3. External iliac artery. 

4. Internal iliac artery. 

5. Uterine arteries. 

6. Internal spermatic arteries. 

7. Fimbriated end of Fallopian tube. 


g. Uterus. 

k. Fallopian tubes. 

l. Lateral ligament of uterus. 

8. Vessels of the lateral ligament. 

9. Ovum, with ovarian ligament. 

10. Poupart’s ligament. 

11. Internal iliac muscle. 

12. Psoas magnus muscle. 

13. Circumflex iliac artery. 

15. Rectum. 


lfili 








PLATE XLIII. 


BLOOD=VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS-Continued. 



Arteries of Pelvis in Male Subject. 


a. Last lumbar vertebra. 

b. Sacrum. 

c. Crest of ilium. 

e. Internal ilac muscle. 

1. Abdominal aorta. 

2. Inferior mesenteric artery. 

3. Bladder. 

4 „ Common iliac artery. 

5. Ureters. 

6,6. Psoas magnus muscles. 

7. Inferior epigastric arteries. 


/. Transverse abdominal muscle. 
g. Rectus abdominis muscle. 

k. Rectum. 

l. Yas deferens. 

8. Rectus abdominus muscle. 

9. Anterior superior spinous proces 
10 Internal iliac muscle. 

11. Inferior epigastric artery. 

12. Middle sacral artery. 

13. Internal spermatic artery. 


167 












Fig. 2, 


Fig 1. 



ms 









PLATE XLIV 


ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 


Fig. 1.—Arteries on Internal Surface of Pelvis, Thigh, and Knee of 

the Right Extremity. 


A. Abdominal aorta. 

B. External iliac artery. 

C. Internal iliac artery. 

D. Femoral artery. 

c. Spinal canal. 

d. Sacrum. 

g. Symphysis pubis. 

h. Crest of ilium. 

i. Anterior superior spine of ilium. 

k. Lesser sacrosciatic ligament. 

l. Rectum. 

m. Internal iliac muscle. 

n. Psoas major muscle. 

o. Pyriform muscle. 

1. Fourth lumbar vertebra. 

2. Fifth lumbar vertebra. 

4. Iliolumbar artery. 

5. Obturator artery. 

10. Middle hemorrhoidal artery. 

11. Vesical artery. 

12. Circumflex iliac artery. 


E. Profunda femoris. 

F. Popliteal artery. 

Gr. Common iliac artery. 


p. Internal obturator muscle. 

r. Sartorius muscle. 

s. Vastus interims muscle. 

t. Rectus femoris muscle. 

u. Adductor magnus muscle. 

v. Semimembranous muscle. 

x. Tendo gracilis. 

y. Gastrocnemius (interims) muscle. 

z. Solens muscle. 


15. Circumflexa femoris interna. 

16. Perforating profunda femoral (11. 

17. Perforating profunda femoral (2). 

18. Perforating profunda femoral (8). 

19. Femoral in Hunter’s canal. 

20. Anastomotica magna artery. 

22. Inferior internal articular of knee. 


Fig. 2.—Arteries on Dorsal Surface of Right Foot. 


A. 

Interosseous arteries. 

C. 

Os calcis. 

B. 

Dorsal pedis artery. 

D. 

Astragalus. 

c. 

Navicular bone. 

d. 

Tuber ossis metatarsi (5.) 

2. 

External tarsal artery. 

8. 

Communicating branch to deep 

3. 

6. 

Internal tarsal artery. 

Digital arteries. 


palmar arch. 


Fig. 3.—Plantar Arch of Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 


a. Os calcis. 

b. Tuberosities of metatarsal bones. 

c. Head of metatarsal bones. 

d. Short flexor of foot and toes. 

e. Abductor of great toe. 

/. Short flexor of great toe. 

1. Posterior tibial artery. 

2. External plantar artery. 

3. Branches of internal plantar. 

4. Digital arteries. 


g. Long flexor of great toe. 

h. Long flexor of toes. 

i. Accessory muscle. 

k. Abductor of the toes (5). 

l. Short flexor of toes (5). 
m. Transverse of foot. 

5. Communicating branch of deep 

plantar arch. 

6. Plantaris pollicis pedis. 

7. Interosseus plantar artery. 

\ 
















Fig. 2. 


Fig. 


1 . 



170 










PLATE XLV. 


ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES—Continued. 


A. 

B. 


f. 

a- 

i. 

k. 


0- 

14. 

15. 
1 ( 1 . 
17. 


A. 

B. 

C. 


k. 

l. 
m. 

0 - 

V- 

s. 

e. 

i- 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 


A. 

B. 


a. 

1 . 

3. 

4. 


Fig. 1.—Arteries on Anterior Surface of Right Leg and Foot. 


Anterior tibia! artery. 

Point where anterior tibial is usually 
raised. 

Patella. 

Tuberosity of the tibia. 

Internal malleolus. 

External malleolus. 

Extensor digitorum communis 
long us. 

Peroneous tertius muscle. 

Recurrent tibial artery. 

Dorsal artery of foot. 

External malleolaris artery. 

Internal malleolaris artery. 


C. Digital arteries. 


q. Tendo communis extensoris. 

x. Ligament of patella. 

y. Tibialis anticus muscle. 

z. Extensor pollicis pedis longus. 

y. Soleus muscle. 

6. Gastrocnemius muscle. 


18. External tarsal artery. 

19. Internal tarsal artery. 

20. Interossse metatarsi dorsalis. 


Fig. 2.—Arteries on Posterior Surface of Right Leg. 


Popliteal artery. 

Posterior tibial artery. 

Anterior tibial artery. 

Popliteal space. 

Head of fibula. 

Fibula. 

Popliteus. 

Heads of gastrocnemius muscle. 
Perineus longus muscle. 

Perineus brevis muscle. 

Flexor longus pollicis pedis. 

Internal superior articular of knee. 
External superior articular of knee. 
Internal inferior articular of knee. 


D. Posterior tibial at point where usually 
raised. 

JEJ. Femoral artery. 

n. External malleolus. 

o. Internal malleolus. 

y. Short head of biceps femoris. 

rj. Tibialis posticus muscle. 

Flexor digitorum longus muscle, 
i. Tendon of Achilles. 
k. Soleus muscle. 


13. External inferior articular of knee. 
15. Peroneal of fibula. 

17. External posterior malleolar. 


Fig. 3.—Deep Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 


External plantar artery. 
Plantar arch. 

Tuber os calcis. 

Posterior tibial artery. 

Internal plantar artery. 
Tibialis plantaris pollicis pedis. 


C. Digitalis pedis plantar. 


| d. Short flexor of toes. 

5. Perforating branches. 

7. Interosseous plantar. 

9. External plantar of toe. 


171 


























I 


ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 173 

(3) The Superficial External Pudic, to the integument of 
the lower abdomen, penis and scrotum in the male, and labium 
in the female. 

(4) The Deep External Pudic, to the skin of the scrotum 
and perineum in the male and labium in the female. 

(5) The Profunda Femoris, called also the deep femoral, is 
the largest branch. It arises from the back part of the femoral, 
one to two inches below r Poupart’s ligament, descends beneath the 
adductor longus muscle and terminates at the lower third of the 
back part of the thigh. It gives off the following branches: — 

(a) The External Circumflex, supplying the muscles at the 
front of the thigh. 

(b) The Internal Circumflex, supplying the muscles at the 
back part of the thigh. 

(c) The Perforating, usually three in number, piercing the 
adductor brevis and adductor magnus muscles, which they sup¬ 
ply. The terminal branch of the profunda perforates the ad¬ 
ductor magnus muscle and is, hence, sometimes called the fourth 
perforating artery. 

(6) The Muscular Branches, varying from two to seven, 
and supplying chiefly the sartorius and vastus internus muscles. 

(7) The Anastomotica Magna, arising in Hunter’s canal, 
and dividing into a superficial and deep branch, the latter 
anastomosing around the knee-joint with the superior internal 
articular and recurrent tibial. 

The Popliteal is a continuation of the femoral, and extends 
downward through the popliteal space behind the knee to the 
lower border of the popliteal muscle, where it divides into the 
anterior and posterior tibial. It gives off the following branches : 
muscular (superior and inferior), cutaneous, superior external and 
internal articular, azygos articular, and inferior articular (ex¬ 
ternal and internal). These supply the knee-joint and tissues 
around the knee, and anastomose freely with each other and 
with other branches above and below the knee. 


18 










174 


CHAMPION TEXT *BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The Anterior Tibial extends from the division of the pop¬ 
liteal to the front of the ankle=joint, where it becomes the 
dorsalis pedis. It is superficial in its lower third, lying on 
the anterior surface of the tibia. Its branches supply the tissues 
in its course and it gives off the internal and external malleolar 
at its lower part. 

The Dorsalis Pedis extends from the front of the ankle to 
the first interosseous space, where it terminates in the dorsalis 
liallucis and communicating. It gives off branches to the outer 
and front part of the foot and toes. 

The Posterior Tibial extends from the division of the pop¬ 
liteal along the back of the tibia to the fossa below the internal 
malleolus, where it divides into the internal and external 
plantar. Its branches supply the tissues of the leg, heel, and 
sole of the foot. 

The Internal Plantar passes along the inner side of the 
foot and great toe. 

The External Plantar passes along outward and forward, 
and at the base of the metatarsal bones it inosculates with the 
communicating branches from the dorsalis pedis, forming the 
plantar arch. Its branches supply the muscles on the outer 
part of the foot, interosseous tissues, the three outer toes, and 
the outer side of the second toe. 


CHAPTER X. 




VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 


The Systemic Veins may be classified as : (1) those of the 
head and neck, upper extremities, and thorax, terminating in 
the superior vena cava ; (2) those of the lower extremities, pelvis, 
and abdomen, emptying into the inferior vena cava; (3) the 
cardiac veins, opening directly into the right auricle of the heart. 

The Veins of the Head and Neck may be subdivided into 
four groups : (1) veins of the exterior of the head ; (2) veins of 
the diploe and cranium ; (3) sinuses of the dura mater ; (4) veins 
of the neck. (See Plates XXX.-XXXVIII.) 

The External Veins of the Head freely anastomose with 
their fellows of the opposite side and with adjacent branches. 
The principal ones are :— 

(1) The Facial, draining the forehead and front of the face, 
and emptying into the internal jugular. 

(2) The Temporal, a large vein, commencing by a minute 
plexus on the side and vertex of the skull, draining the side 
of the head, and uniting with the internal maxillary to form 
the temporomaxillary. 

(3) The Internal Maxillary, receiving branches correspond¬ 
ing to those of the internal maxillary artery. 

(4) The Temporomaxillary, formed by a union of the last 
two, descending through the parotid gland between the sterno- 
mastoid muscle and the ramus of the jaw, and dividing into 
two branches, one of which passes inward to join the facial and 
enters the internal jugular, while the other is joined by the 
posterior auricular and becomes the external jugular. 

175 










176 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


(5) The Posterior Auricular, descending behind the ex¬ 
ternal ear and receiving the stylomastoid and some tributaries 
from back of the ear. 

(6) The Occipital, gathering the blood from the back part 
of the head. 

The Veins of the Diploe are large and capacious, their walls 
being thin and formed only of epithelium, resting upon a layer 
of elastic tissue, and presenting at irregular intervals poucli- 
like dilatations, or culs=de-sac, which serve as reservoirs of the 
blood. 

The Cerebral Veins are remarkable for the extreme thin¬ 
ness of their coats, in consequence of the muscular tissue being 
wanting, and the absence of valves. They are divided into 
superficial and deep. 

The Superficial Cerebral ramify upon the surface of the 
brain, being lodged in the sulci between the convolutions. They 
receive branches from the substance of the brain and terminate 
in the sinuses. 

The Deep Cerebral, or ventricular, two in number, run 
backward and parallel between the layers of the velum inter- 
positum, pass out of the brain at the great transverse fissure, 
and unite into one before entering the straight sinus. 

The Cerebellar occupy the surface of the cerebellum and 
are disposed into three sets : superior, terminating in the straight 
sinus; inferior, terminating in the lateral sinuses ; and lateral 
anterior, terminating in the superior petrosal sinuses. 

The Sinuses of the Dura Mater are venous channels analo¬ 
gous to the veins, their outer coat being formed by the dura 
mater and the inner by a continuation of the lining membrane of 
the veins. They are divided into : (1) those at the upper and back 
part of skull; (2) those at the base of skull. The former are : — 

(1) The Superior Longitudinal occupies the attached mar¬ 
gin of the falx cerebri, commencing at the foramen cecum, 
increasing in size as it runs backward, and opening into the 




VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


177 


torcular Heropliili. It receives the superior cerebral veins, and 
numerous veins from the diploe and dura mater. 

(2) The Inferior Longitudinal (or inferior longitudinal 
vein) is contained in the posterior part of the free margin of 
the falx cerebri, and terminates in the straight sinus. 

(3) The Straight is situated at the junction of the falx 
cerebri with the tentorium, is triangular in form, and increases 
in size as it runs obliquely downward and backward from the 
termination of the inferior longitudinal to the lateral sinus. 

(4) The Lateral, right and left, are of large size, situated in 
the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli, increase in size 
as they proceed from behind forward, and empty into the in¬ 
ternal jugular veins. 

(5) The Occipital, generally single, sometimes two, is the 
smallest of the cranial sinuses. It is situated in the attached 
margin of the falx cerebelli, and terminates in the torcular 
Heropliili. 

The Sinuses of the Base of the Skull, with the lateral 
sinuses, form a complete circuit. (See Fig. 30.) They are: — 

(1) The Cavernous are vessels of reticular structure, large 
in size, situated on either side of the sella turcica, extending 
from the sphenoidal fissure to the apex of the petrous portion 
of the temporal bone. They receive some cerebral veins and 
the ophthalmic, a large vein receiving tributaries corresponding 
to the branches given off by the ophthalmic artery. 

(2) The Circular is formed by two transverse vessels, con¬ 
necting the two cavernous sinuses, forming with these a circle 
around the pituitary body. 

(3) The Transverse (or basilar) connects the two inferior 
petrosal and cavernous sinuses, at their junction. 

(4) The Inferior Petrosal commences in front at the termi¬ 
nation of the cavernous-sinus and behind joins the lateral sinus, 
external to the jugular foramen, forming with the lateral sinus 

the internal jugular vein. 

12 






178 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


(5) The Superior Petrosal is situated along the superior 
border of the petrous portion of the temporal bone in the front 
part of the attached margin of the tentorium, and connects the 
cavernous and lateral sinuses on each side. 

The V eins of the Neck, which drain the above, are the four 
jugulars—external, posterior 
external, anterior, and inter¬ 
nal—and the vertebral. 

The External Jugular 
receives the great part of the 
blood from the exterior of the 
cranium and deep parts of 
the face, being formed by a 
juncture of the posterior di¬ 
vision of the temporomaxil- 
lary and posterior auricular. 

It commences in the substance 
of the parotid gland, on a level 
with the angle of the jaw, 
runs perpendicularly down the 
neck, crossing the sternocleido¬ 
mastoid muscle, and termi¬ 
nates in the subclavian, on 

the outer side, or in front, of 
the scalenus anticus muscle. 

It has two pairs of valves, one 
at its entrance into the subclavian and the other just above the 
clavicle, which, however, do not prevent the regurgitation of 
blood or upward flow of fluid. It receives the posterior external 
jugular, suprascapular, and transverse cervical veins, and some¬ 
times the occipital. 

The Posterior External Jugular runs down the back of 
the neck, opening into the external jugular, just below the 
middle of its course. 















VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


179 


The Anterior Jugular commences near the hyoid bone and 
drains the trout part of the neck, running downward and enter¬ 
ing the subclavian near the external jugular. 

The Internal Jugular collects the blood from the interior 
ot the cranium, from the superficial parts of the face, and from 
the neck. It is formed by the junction of the lateral and 
inferior petrosal sinuses, descends vertically and unites with the 
subclavian vein at the root of the neck, to form the innominate. 
In its course down the side of the neck it lies at first on the 
outside of the internal carotid and then of the common carotid 
artery. It receives in its course the facial, lingual, pharyngeal, 
superior and middle thyroid, and the occipital. 

The Vertebral commences in the occipital region by numer¬ 
ous small veins from the deep muscles of the upper and back 
part of the neck, descends by the side of the vertebral artery, 
and empties into the innominate. 

The Veins of the Upper Extremities are superficial and 
deep. Both sets are supplied with valves, which are more 
numerous in the deep than in the superficial. 

The Superficial Veins lie in the superficial fascia, begin¬ 
ning at the back part of the hand, where they form a more or 
less complete arch. They are the anterior, posterior, and com¬ 
mon ulnar, radial, median, median basilic, median cephalic, 
basilic, and cephalic. They anastomose freely with each other 
and with the deep veins. 

The Anterior Ulnar commences on the anterior surface on 
the ulnar side of the hand and wrist and ascends along the 
inner side of the forearm to the bend of the elbow, where it 
joins the posterior ulnar to form the common ulnar. 

The Posterior Ulnar runs along the posterior surface of the 
forearm to its juncture w T ith the anterior ulnar. 

The Common Ulnar is a short trunk, formed by the 
union of the two former, and joins with the median basilic to 
form the basilic. It is sometimes wanting, in which case the 





180 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


anterior and posterior ulnars open separately into the median 
basilic. 

The Radial commences at the hack of the thumb and radial 
side of the hand, communicates with the deep veins of the palm,, 
courses along the side of the forearm, and unites at the bend of 
the elbow with the median cephalic to form the cephalic. 

The Median collects the blood from the superficial structures 
on the palmar surface of the hand and along the middle line of 
the forearm. Just below the elbow it receives a branch from 
the venae comites of the brachial artery, and immediately divides 
into the median cephalic and median basilic. 

The Median Cephalic is a short vessel which passes outward, 
joining the radial to form the cephalic. 

The Median Basilic is also short, but larger than the above,, 
and passes obliquely inward, joining the common ulnar to form 
the basilic. 

The Basilic is a vein of considerable size, passes upward 
along the inner side of the biceps muscle, pierces the deep fascia 
a little below the middle of the arm, ascends in the course of 
the brachial artery, and joins the venae comites of that vessel 
to form the axillary. 

The Cephalic ascends on the outer border of the biceps 
muscle, and terminates in the axillary vein just below the 
clavicle. 

The Deep Veins of the Upper Extremities accompany 
the arteries, usually as venae comites, one on either side, and are 
connected at intervals by short transverse branches. The deep 
veins inosculate freely with each other and with the superficial 
branches. 

Two Digital Veins accompany each artery along the side 
of the fingers, uniting at their base and passing along the inter¬ 
osseous spaces in the palm, terminating in the venae comites of 
the superficial palmer arch. Branches from these vessels on the 
ulnar side terminate in the deep ulnar veins. The latter, as, 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


181 


they pass in front of the wrist, communicate with the inter¬ 
osseous and superficial veins and at the elbow unite with the 
deep radial to form the vena; comites of the brachial artery. 
The interosseous veins accompany the interosseous arteries, com¬ 
mencing in front of the wrist and terminating in the vena 
comites of the ulnar artery. 

The Deep Palmar Veins accompany the deep palmar arch, 
receive numerous tributaries, communicate with the deep ulnar 
at the side of the hand, and terminate on the outer side in the 
vena comites of the radial artery. The latter continue as the 
vena comites of the brachial artery. 

The Axillary is of large size, formed by the union of the 
basilic vein and the vena comites of the brachial artery, at 
the lower part of the axillary space, and terminates beneath 
the clavicle, where it becomes the subclavian. It receives a 
number of tributaries, the largest being the cephalic, received 
near its termination. Valves are found in the axillary opposite 
the lower border of the subscapular muscle and at the termina¬ 
tion of the cephalic and subscapular veins. 

The Subclavian is the continuation of the axillary, from the 
outer margin of the first rib to the sternoclavicular articulation, 
where it unites with the internal jugular to form the innominate. 
At the angle of this junction the thoracic duct enters on the left 
side, and the lymphatic duct on the right. It receives the external, 
anterior, and internal jugulars, and a branch from the cephalic. 

The Innominates are two large trunks, one on each side of 
the root of the neck, formed by juncture of the subclavian and 
the internal jugular. The right is about one and a half and the 
left three inches long. They unite below the first rib to form 
the superior vena cava, and receive the vertebral, internal mam¬ 
mary, inferior thyroid, and superior intercostal; sometimes the 
left also receives some thymic and pericardiac veins. 

The Superior Vena Cava is about three inches long, 
receives all the blood from the upper half of the body, and 







182 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


terminates in the right auricle of the heart. It is partly covered 
with the pericardium, and receives the right superior phrenic, 
vena azygos major, and small pericardiac and mediastinal veins. 

The Pincipal Veins of the Thorax are the 

* * 

Internal Mammary. Bronchial. Right Azygos (Major). 

Inferior Thyroid. Mediastinal. Left Lower Azygos (Minor). 

Superior Intercostals. Pericardiac. Left Upper Azygos ( Minimus). 

The Azygos Veins (see Fig. 31) are the only veins of 
this region needing particular description. They unite the 
superior and inferior vense cavse, supplying their place in the 
region behind the heart, where these trunks are wanting. 

The Right Azygos begins by a branch from the right 
lumbar veins, passes through the aortic opening in the dia¬ 
phragm, and ends in the superior vena cava, having drained 
nine or ten of the right lower intercostals, the vena azygos minor, 
the right bronchial, esophageal, mediastinal, and vertebral veins. 

The Left Lower Azygos begins by a branch from the left 
lumbar or renal, passes into the thorax through the left crus of 
the diaphragm, crosses the vertebral column and ends in the 
right azygos, having drained four or five lower intercostals. 

The Left Upper Azygos, sometimes very small or altogether 
wanting, receives veins from the intercostal spaces above the left 
lower azygos ; sometimes also the left bronchial. 

The Spinal Veins are divided into: (1) those placed on the 
exterior of the spinal column ; (2) those situated on the interior 
of the spinal column ; (3) those of the bodies of the vertebrse ; 
(4) those of the spinal cord. They have no valves and empty 
into the vertebral and other veins. 

The Veins of the Lower Extremities, like those of the 
upper, are superficial and deep. Valves are more numerous 
in the veins of the lower than of the upper extremities, and, as 
in the upper, more numerous in the deep than in the superficial. 

The Principal Superficial Veins are the internal or lo?^g 
saphenous and the external or short saphenous. 


VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


183 



Fig. 31. Vense Cavse, Vense Azygos, Etc. 


The Internal Saphenous 

commences at the inner side of 
the arch on the dorsum of the 
foot, ascends in front of the inner 
malleolus and along the inner 
side of the leg and thigh, and 
enters the femoral at the saphe¬ 
nous opening, one and one-half 
inches below Poupart’s liga¬ 
ment. It receives the blood 
from the superficial branches 
of the leg and thigh and, at the 
saphenous opening, the super¬ 
ficial epigastric, superficial cir¬ 
cumflex iliac, and external 
pudic veins. It also communi¬ 
cates with numerous deep veins. 
The valves vary in number 
from two to six. 

The External Saphenous 

is formed by the branches from 

%J 

the dorsum and outer side of 
the foot, and ascends behind 
the outer malleolus up the 
middle of the back of the leg, 
and empties into the popliteal 
vein. It receives a number of 
large tributaries from the back 
part of the leg and communi¬ 
cates at the foot and ankle 
with the deep veins. It has 
from three to nine valves, one 
of which is always near its 
termination. 



























184 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The Deep Veins of the Lower Extremities, like those of 

the upper, accompany the arteries and their branches as vense 

comites. 

The External and Internal Plantars unite to form the 
posterior tibial, which accompany the artery, and are joined 
by the peroneal veins. 

The Anterior Tibials are formed by a continuation upward 
of the venae comites of the dorsalis pedis artery, which form, by 
their junction with the posterior tibial, the popliteal. 

The Popliteal ascends through the popliteal space to the 
tendinous aperture in the adductor magnus muscle, where it 
becomes the femoral. It receives the sural, articular, and ex¬ 
ternal saphenous veins, and has usually tour valves. 

The Femoral accompanies the femoral artery through the 
upper two-thirds of the thigh. In the lower part of its course 
it lies external to the artery ; higher up it lies behind it; and 
beneath Poupart’s ligament it lies to the inner side on the same 
plane. It lias four or five valves, and receives numerous muscu¬ 
lar tributaries, the profunda femoris, and internal saphenous. 

The External Iliac commences at the termination of the 
femoral beneath the crural arch, and passing upward along 
the brim of the pelvis, terminates opposite the sacroiliac sym¬ 
physis, by uniting with the internal iliac to form the common 
iliac. It receives the epigastric, circumflex iliac, and a small pu¬ 
bic vein. It frequently contains one, and sometimes two, valves. 

The Internal Iliac is formed by the venae comites of the 
branches of the internal iliac artery (except the umbilical). It 
receives the blood from the exterior of the pelvis, through the 
gluteal, sciatic, internal pudic, and obturator veins, and from 
the organs of the pelvis through the hemorrhoidal and vesico- 
prostatic plexuses in the male and the uterine and vaginal 
plexuses in the female. 

The Common Iliacs are formed by the junction of the ex¬ 
ternal and internal iliacs, and pass obliquely upward and inward, 


VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 


185 


uniting between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae to form 
the inferior vena cava. The left is the longer, and receives, in 
addition to the iliolumbar and lateral sacral received by both, 
the middle sacral vein. 

The Inferior Vena Cava returns the blood to the heart from 
all parts of the body below the diaphragm. It extends from the 
juncture of the common iliacs along the front of the spine, on 
the right side of the aorta, through the tendinous center of the 
diaphragm, and terminates in the lower and back part of the 
auricle. At its termination is a valve, the Eustachian, which 
is large in fetal life, but usually small or altogether wanting in 
the adult. It receives the 

Right and Left Lumbar. Right Suprarenal. 

Right Spermatic. Right Phrenic. 

Right and Left Renal. Right and Left Hepatic. 

The left spermatic, suprarenal, and phrenic usually enter the 
left renal. The above veins drain the blood from the organs 
and parts respectively named. 

The Cardiac Veins return the blood from the tissues of the 
heart into the right auricle. They are the great, middle, pos¬ 
terior, anterior, and right cardiac veins, venae Tliebesii, and the 
coronary sinus. The latter is a dilated portion of the great 
cardiac (coronary) vein, about an inch in length, and enters 
the auricle between the inferior vena cava and the auriculo- 
ventricular aperture, its orifice being guarded by the coronary 

valve. 








CHAPTER XI. 


THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS. 


THE LESSER OR PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 

The Pulmonary System consists of the pulmonary artery,, 
which conveys the carbonated or impure blood from the heart 
to the lungs, where it undergoes oxygenation ; the pulmonary 
veins, which return the arterial blood to the heart; and the 
capillaries between. 

The Pulmonary Artery, which is the only artery which car¬ 
ries venous blood (except in fetal life), is a short, wide vessel,, 
about two inches long. It arises from the left side of the base of 
the right ventricle in front of the aorta, passes upward and back¬ 
ward to the under surface of the aortic arch, to which it is 
attached by a fibrous cord, the remains of the ductus arteriosus 
of fetal life. At this point it divides into two branches, the right 
and left pulmonary arteries, which, passing to their respective 
lungs, again divide, sending a branch to each lobe. Within the 
lobes these branches divide and subdivide, to ramify throughout 
the lung tissue and end in the dense network of capillaries. In 
the lungs the branches of the pulmonary artery are usually 
above, and in front of, a bronchial tube, with the venous branch 
below. At the root of the lung the artery is in the middle, with 
the vein in front and the bronchus behind. 

The Pulmonary Veins are the only veins (except the umbil¬ 
ical vein in fetal life) that carry arterial blood. Unlike the 
veins of the systemic system generally, they are devoid of valves,, 
are only slightly larger than the arteries they attend, and accom¬ 
pany those vessels singly. They originate in the network of 

capillaries upon the walls of the air-cells, where they are con- 

186 




THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 


187 


tinuous with the ramifications of the smallest branches of the 
pulmonary artery, and unite to form a single trunk from each 
lobe. The vein from the middle lobe of the right lung usually 

TRIANGULARIS STERNI 



Fig. 32. Transverse Section of Thorax, Showing Pulmonary Vessels, Heart, Lungs, Etc. 

unites with that from the upper lobe, thus giving two veins 
from each side ; occasionally, the two from the left side enter 
the auricle by a common opening. 

The Pulmonary Capillaries form plexuses which lie imme¬ 
diately beneath the mucous membrane, in the walls and septa of 
the air-cells and of the intercellular passages. They form a 
very minute network, the meshes being smaller than the vessels. 
The walls are very thin, allowing the air to come in contact with 
the blood within the vessels. The vessels of neighboring lobes . 
are distinct from each other, and do not anastomose. 





















188 


CHAMPION TENTHOOK ON EMBALMING 


THE PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS. 

The Portal System is an appendix of the systemic. It is 
composed of four large veins, the inferior and superior mesen¬ 
teric, splenic, and gastric, which carry the blood, together with 
portions of the digested food, from the digestive viscera. These 
unite to form a large trunk, the portal vein (vena portae), ex¬ 
tending from the pancreas to the liver, which it enters and 
ramifies, distributing its blood to every part. The venous blood, 
after undergoing certain changes in the liver, is again collected 
by the hepatic veins and emptied into the vena cava. 

The Portal Vein is about four inches long, being formed by 
the junction of the superior mesenteric and splenic, their union 
taking place in front of the vena cava and behind the upper 
border of the great end of the pancreas. Passing upward 
through the right border of the lesser omentum to the under 
surface of the liver, it enters the transverse fissure, where it is 
somewhat enlarged, forming the sinus of the portal vein ; it 
then divides into two branches, the right being the larger but 
shorter. These branches divide and subdivide into still smaller 
branches which accompany the ramifications of the hepatic 
artery and hepatic duct throughout the substance of the liver. 
The portal vein lies behind and between the hepatic duct and 
artery, the former being to the right and the latter to the left. 
Filaments ol the hepatic plexus of nerves and numerous lym¬ 
phatics, surrounded by a quantity of loose areolar tissue, ac¬ 
company these structures. 

The Inferior Mesenteric returns the blood from the rectum, 
sigmoid flexure, and descending colon. It ascends beneath the 
peritoneum in the lumbar region, passes behind the transverse 
portion ol the duodenum, and the pancreas, and terminates in 
the splenic vein. Its hemorrhoidal branches inosculate with 
those ol the internal iliac, thus establishing a communication 
between the portal and general venous systems. Other anasto¬ 
moses with veins of the systemic system also take place. 




H 

PORTAL AND FETAL SYSTEMS 


TWO PLATES— XLVl.-XLVIl 


nl‘Y) 


19 










PLATE XLVI. 


PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS. 



iMtt 

fiwi 


SSSkShk 

ill 


'>rit 

mm 




Portal Vein and Its Branches, Liver, Stomach, Pancreas, Spleen, Portion of 
Large and Small Intestines in Position (Transverse Colon Removed). 


11)0 











PLATE XLVII. 


FETAL CIRCULATION WITH PLACENTA AND UMBILICAL CORD. 


a. Right ventricle of heart. 

b. Left ventricle of heart. 

c. Left auricle of heart. 

d. Origin of aorta. 

e. Arch of aorta. 

/. Pulmonary artery. 

g. Loft branch (divided). 

h. Left pulmonary veins. 

i. Ductus arteriosus. 

Jc. Descending aorta. 

1. Superior vena cava. 

m. Left innominate vein. 

n. Common iliac artery. 

o. External iliac artery. 

p. Internal iliac artery. 

q. Umbilical artery. 

r. Umbilicus. 

s. Umbilical vein. 

t. Fundus of bladder. 

u. Urachus. 

v. Placenta. 

w. Amnion. 

x. Chorion. 

y. Spongy portion of placenta 

z. Left lobe of liver. 


a. 

0. 

y- 

s. 


e. 

V- 

L. 

/X. 

y. 


Right lobe of liver. 
Gall=bladder. 

Umbilical vein. 

Portal vein, anastomosing 
with umbilical vein. 
Ductus venosus. 

Hepatic vein. 

Inferior vena cava. 

Lobus Spigelii. 

Kidney. 

Suprarenal capsule. 


















THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 


193 


The Superior Mesenteric returns the blood from the small 
intestine, cecum, and ascending and transverse colon. The 
laige tiunk, tormed by the union of its numerous branches, 
ascends along the right side and in front of the corresponding 
artery, passes in front of the transverse portion of the duodenum, 
and unites, behind the upper border ot the pancreas, with the 
splenic vein to form the portal vein. Usually the right gastro= 
epiploic vein empties into the superior mesenteric close to the 
termination, but in Plate XLV. it opens into the splenic vein. 

The Splenic commences by five branches, which return the 
blood from the substance of the spleen. These form a single 
vessel which passes from left to right behind the upper border 
of the pancreas below the artery and terminates at its greater 
end by uniting at a right angle with the superior mesenteric to 
form the vena portae. It is of large size, is not tortuous like the 
artery, and receives the following additional branches: vasa 
brevia, left gastroepiploic, pancreatic branches, pancreatico' 
duodenal, and inferior mesenteric. 

The Gastrics are two in number. The smaller (the pyloric) 
runs along the lesser curvature of the stomach toward the 
pyloric end, receives branches from the pylorus and duodenum, 
and terminates in the vena portse ; the larger (the coronary) 
begins near the pylorus, runs along the lesser curvature of the 
stomach toward the esophageal opening, and curves down¬ 
ward and backward between the folds of the lesser omentum 
to end in the vena portse. 

THE FETAL CIRCULATION. 

The Circulation in the Unborn Child is quite different 
from that in the child after birth. The nutrition of the embryo, 
though the whole unfolding is extremely complex, is at first of 
the simplest form, gradually developing by about the fifteenth 
day into the vitelline circulation, the first stage of the blood=vas- 

cular system. Even during this stage the form of circulation is 
20 * 





194 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


quite simple, being carried on partly within the embryo and 
partly external to it, in the vascular area of the umbilical vesicle, 
by means of a tubular heart, from which and to which the blood 
is carried by two arteries and two veins. 

About the fifth week the vitelline circulation develops into the 
placental circulation, the second stage of the blood-vascular 
system, and the one with which we have to deal especially 
under this head. The placental circulation continues until 
birth, being gradually transformed into the after-birth circula¬ 
tory system, the third stage. In order to understand better the 
plan by which the placental circulation is carried on, we will 
first explain some organs and modifications of organs peculiar 
to the circulation in fetal life. (See Plate XLVI.) 

The Placenta is the organ by which the connection between 
the fetus and mother is maintained, serving the purposes both of 
circulation and respiration. It is a soft, spongy, vascular body, 
adherent to the uterus, and surrounding the fetus, with which it 
is connected by the umbilical cord. There are, therefore, two 
parts, the maternal or uterine portion, and the fetal or inner 
portion. The former is developed from the decidua vera, while 
the latter is formed out of the villi of the chorion. The maternal 
portion consists of a number of sinuses formed by an enlarge¬ 
ment of the vessels of the uterine wall. These bring the uterine 
blood into close proximity with the villi of the fetal placenta, 
which dip into the sinuses. The interchange of fluids necessary 
for the growth of the fetus and for the depuration of the blood 
takes place through the walls of the villi, though there is no 
direct continuity between the maternal and fetal vessels. The 
fetal vessels form tufts of capillaries, the blood from which is 
returned by small veins which end in tributaries of the umbilical 
vein. The maternal arteries open into spaces communicating 
with a plexus of veins which anastomose freely with each other, 
and give rise, at the edge of the placenta, to a venous channel, 
the placental sinus, which runs around its whole circumference. 


THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 


195 


The placenta is detached from the uterus at birth, forming the 
chief part of the afterbirth. 

The Foramen Ovale. —In the fetus there is a communicating 
opening in the septum between the two auricles, called the 
foramen ovale, which allows the blood to pass from one to the 
other. It is at first a free, oval opening, but about the middle 
period of fetal life a fold grows up from the posterior wall of the 
auricle to form a sort of valve. After birth, as respiration is 
established, and there remains no longer any need for this short- 
cut in the circulation, the foramen ovale gradually closes. By 
about the tenth day the closure is complete and all communica¬ 
tion between the two sides of the heart henceforth ceases. 

The Eustachian Valve is formed by a semilunar duplicature 
of the lining membrane of the right auricle, its convex margin 
being attached to the wall of the inferior vena cava, at its 
entrance into the auricle. It is large in fetal life and serves 
to direct the blood from the vena cava on through the foramen 
ovale into the left auricle. It also prevents the flow of the blood 
in the opposite direction. The valve dwindles after birth, being 
commonly small, and sometimes altogether wanting, in the adult, 
though occasionally it persists in adult life. 

The Umbilical or Hypogastric Arteries arise from the 
internal iliacs, a short distance from their points of origin, 
ascend along either side of the bladder, pass out of the um¬ 
bilicus as a part of the umbilical cord, and continue to the 
placenta, being coiled around the umbilical vein. The name 
hypogastric is applied usually to the portion within the fetus 
and umbilical to the portion without. They return the vitiated 
blood from the fetus to the placenta. At birth the portions 
extending from the summit of the bladder to the umbilicus 
contract and ultimately dwindle to solid, fibrous cords, thus 
continuing through life, while the portions between the bladder 
and their origin in the internal iliacs, though reduced in size, 
continue as the superior vesical arteries. 










196 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The Umbilical Vein is a large vessel, having its origin in 
the placenta. It extends along the umbilical cord, enters the 
abdomen at the umbilicus, and passes upward along the free 
margin of the suspensory ligament of the liver to its under 
surface, where it gives off branches to the left lobe and lobi 
quadratus and Spigelii. At the transverse fissure it divides into 
two main branches, the larger, after being joined by the portal 
vein, entering tlie right lobe, while the smaller, now called the 
ductus venosus, continues onward and joins the left hepatic 
vein, as it enters the inferior vena cava. The umbilical vein 
becomes completely obliterated shortly after birth and con¬ 
tinues in adult life as the round ligament of the liver. 

The Ductus Arteriosus is a short tube, about half an inch 
long at birth and the size of a goose=quill. It forms the con¬ 
tinuation of the pulmonary artery, and serves to conduct the 
chief part of the blood from the right ventricle into the de¬ 
scending aorta. The ductus arteriosus begins to contract imme¬ 
diately after respiration is established, becoming completely closed 
by the tenth day after birth, and remains in adult life as an im¬ 
pervious cord, connecting the pulmonary artery to the aortic arch. 

The Ductus Venosus is a short vein, being really a con¬ 
tinuation of the umbilical vein from the liver along the longi¬ 
tudinal fissure to the inferior vena cava, which it enters with 
the left hepatic vein. It continues in adult life as a fibrous cord. 

The Umbilical Cord appears about the end of the fifth week 
after pregnancy. It consists of the coils of the two umbilical 
arteries and the umbilical vein, united by a gelatinous tissue. 

Placental Circulation. —The origin of the blood destined for 
the nourishment of the fetus, as already explained, is the 
placenta. From the placenta it is carried to the fetus by the 
umbilical vein, which enters the fetus at the umbilicus, and 
passes upward to the under surface of the liver. Here a portion 
of the blood is supplied to the left, quadratus, and Spigelian 
lobes. At the transverse fissure the largest portion enters the 


THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 


197 


right lobe, being joined by the portal venous blood. The 
remainder passes onward through the ductus venosus and enters 
the inferior vena cava jointly with the blood from the liver 
delivered by the left hepatic vein. The blood from the umbilical 
vein, therefore, enters the vena cava in three different ways : a 
portion enters through the liver and the hepatic veins ; a greater 
quantity passes through the same organs in connection with the 
portal venous blood ; and the smallest part enters direct through 
the ductus venosus. 

In the inferior vena cava this diversified blood is mixed with 
that being returned from the lower extremities and the abdom¬ 
inal viscera. This blood enters the right auricle, and, guided 
by the Eustachian valve, passes through the foramen ovale into 
the left auricle, where it becomes mixed with the small quantity 
of blood returned by the pulmonary veins. Thence it passes 
into the left ventricle, and then into the aorta, whence it is dis¬ 
tributed almost entirely to the head and upper extremities, a 
small portion only reaching the descending aorta. 

From the head and upper extremities the blood is returned 
through the superior vena cava to the right auricle. From there 
it passes into the right ventricle, but little of this current passing 
through the foramen ovale into the left auricle. From the right 
ventricle the blood enters the pulmonary artery, but the lungs 
being solid only a small quantity is distributed to them, the 
greater part passing through the ductus arteriosus directly into 
the descending aorta at its commencement. The portion dis¬ 
tributed to the lungs is returned by the pulmonary veins to the 
left auricle, thence to the left ventricle, from which it also passes 
into the aorta. 

The mixed blood in the descending aorta passes downward to 
supply the lower extremities, the viscera of the abdomen, and 
the pelvis. The principal portion, however, is conveyed by the 
umbilical arteries to the placenta, where it undergoes purifica¬ 
tion, and is fitted for return to, and support of, the fetus. 







CHAPTER XXL 


THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES. 


The organs of the special senses are five in number—-those 
of sight, of hearing, of smell, of taste, and of touch —,namely, 
the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the skin. 


THE EYE. 


The Organ of Sight is the eye, which is situated in a bony 
cavity of the skull (the orbit) protected by the overhanging 



Fig. 33. Vertical Section of Eye, Showing Chambers, 
Tunics, Muscles, Etc. 


1. Cornea. 

2. Aqueous humor. 

3. Pupil. 

4. Iris. 

5. Crystalline lens. 

6. Ciliary processes. 

7. Canal around lens. 

8. Sclerotic coat. 

9. Choroid coat. 

10. Retina. 

11. Vitreous humor. 

12. Optic nerve. 

13. Superior rectus. 

14. Inferior rectus. 

15. Superior oblique. 


brow. The position of the eye is such as to insure the most 
extensive range of vision, and, by the action upon it by numer¬ 
ous muscles, it is capable of being directed to any point. 

The Eyeball, the globe of the eye, is spherical in shape and 
about one inch in diameter. It is imbedded in the fat of the 
orbit, but is surrounded by a thin, membranous sac which * 

19S 


















































































THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 


199 


isolates it, so as to allow free movement. The eyeball is com¬ 
posed of several investing tunics, or membranes, and of fluid 
and solid refracting media, called humors. 

The Tunics, or membranes, are three in number: (1) scle¬ 
rotic and cornea ; (2) choroid and iris ; (3) retina. 

The Sclerotic or outer membrane, (called sclera or sclerotica), 
is white, tough, dense, and hard, giving form and shape to the 
eye, and constituting what is known as the white of the eye. It 
completely surrounds the eyeball, being much thicker behind 
than in front. 

The Cornea is the projecting, transparent portion of the 
external coat, and forms the front sixth of the globe. Its struc¬ 
ture is quite complicated, being made up of four distinct layers. 

The Choroid is a thin, highly vascular membrane, of a dark* 
brown or chocolate color, lying immediately within the sclera. It 
is pierced behind by the optic nerve and extends as far front as 
the ciliary ligament. In addition to containing numerous blood¬ 
vessels, it absorbs the superfluous light which enters the eye. 
The ciliary processes, varying in number from sixty to eighty, 
are formed by the plaiting and folding inward of the various 
layers of the choroid at its front margin. 

The Iris (rainbow) is so called from its varied colors in 
different persons, which determines the color of the eye. It is a 
thin colored curtain stretched vertically across the front of the 
eye, and having a contractile aperture in the center, called the 
pupil. It is provided with circular and radiating, unstriped 
muscular fibers, by the action of which the central aperture may 
be enlarged or diminished. This is an important use of the iris, 
for by its contraction and expansion the amount of light admitted 
into the eye is regulated, as all the light reaching the eye enters 
through the pupil. Too much light irritates the retina. To 
prevent this the iris contracts, and the pupil becomes smaller. 
If too little light is received, more light is allowed to enter, by 
the iris relaxing, and thus allowing the pupil to become larger. 






200 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The contraction of these fibers, unlike the action of unstriped 
muscular fibers generally, on account of their peculiar arrange¬ 
ment, is very rapid. The admission of the rays of light through 
the pupil, which is immediately in front of the crystalline lens, 
prevents the image which falls upon the retina from being 
blurred, as would otherwise be the case. 

The Retina, the inner and last membrane, is of a delicate 
structure, and contains a complicated arrangement of nervous 
tissue, given off from the optic nerve. It is the retina which 
gives rise to the sensation of sight. The retina never exceeds 
one-eightieth of an inch in thickness. A lining membrane 
covers the inner surface. About one-fourth of the outer thick¬ 
ness of the retina is composed of a multitude of colorless, trans¬ 
parent rods, packed side by side, like the seeds in the disk of a 
sunflower. These rods are interspersed with cones. From the 
ends of the rods and cones delicate nerve-fibers arise, expanding 
into glandular bodies. A layer of fine nerve=fibers and gray 
ganglions, much like the gray matter of the brain, constitutes 
the interior portion of the retina. From these ganglions emanate 
filaments which unite with the fibers of the optic nerve. The 
rods and cones are' to the eye what the bristles, otoliths, and 
Cortian fibers are to the ear. 

Chambers of the Eye. —The interior of the eye is divided 
into three chambers, each filled with a characteristic watery or 
semifluid substance, termed the humors. These are (1) the 
aqueous; (2) the vitreous; (3) the crystalline. 

The Aqueous Humor is a clear, limpid, alkalin fluid, en¬ 
closed in a delicate membrane that fills the anterior chamber of 
the eye between the cornea and crystalline lens. It is hardly 
more than water, holding a few organic and saline substances in 
solution. The iris divides it into two parts, a small portion lying 
behind that membrane. 

The Vitreous Humor, or body, forms about four-fifths of the 
entire globe, completely filling the cavity of the retina back of 


THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 


201 




the lens. It is a perfectly transparent, albuminous substance, 
of a jelly-like consistency, enclosed in a structureless, transparent 
membrane, the hyaloid, which merges at the edge of the crystal¬ 
line lens into the suspensatory ligament, by which it is attached 
to the lens. 

The Crystalline Lens, or humor, is a transparent, elastic, 
doubly-convex body, which separates the aqueous and vitreous 
humors. It is denser, and capable of refracting light more 
strongly, than either of these. It is more convex behind than 
in front and is kept in place by the suspensory ligament, which, 
attaches it to the ciliary processes. This ligament being kept, 
tense under ordinary conditions, the front surface of the lens is 
consequently flattened. The crystalline lens converges the rays 
of light which enter the eye and brings them to a focus on the 
retina. When in healthy condition the lens has the power of 
changing its capacity so as to adapt itself to near and to distant 
objects. 

The Lachrymal Apparatus consists of the lachrymal gland 
and its excretory ducts. The lachrymal gland is situated in a 
depression of the bony wall of the orbit, at its outer angle. It 
is oval in form, about the size of an almond, and its office is to 
secrete the tears, which flow through small ducts and are spread 
out upon the eyeball. This secretion is constantly being formed, 
keeping the eyeball moist, and further assisting in preventing 
friction between the ball and lids, and also in washing out dust 
and other foreign matter which find their way into the eye. At 
the inner angle of the eye is a small basin, called the lachrymal 
reservoir, which receives the overflow. At either side ol this 
basin are two small canals through which the overplus passes 
into the nasal duct, which empties into the nose. 

Appendages of the Eyes—The eyelids are folds of skin, 
which may be drawn over the eyeball, serving as a screen to 
protect it. They are lined on the inner surface with a very 
sensitive mucous membrane, which aids in preventing injury to 







'202 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


the eye from any irritating substances. The eyelashes, which 
fringe the eyelids on their free edges, serve as a kind of sieve to 
exclude dust and other foreign bodies, and also shield the eye 
from too strong light. An oily substance is secreted by a series of 
small glands, called the Meibomian glands, located on the inner 
surface of the eyelids, which act as a lubricator. This substance, 
covering the edge of the lids, prevents the lids from adhering to 
•each other, and also intercepts the overflow of tears upon the 
-cheek. The conjunctiva is the mucous membrane of the eye. 
It lines the inner surface of the eyelids and is reflected over the 
forepart of the sclera and cornea. The inner canthus of the 
eye is the point for the introduction of the needle in the eye 
needle process. Six muscles give the eyeball its various mo¬ 
tions : four straight, the recti, and two oblique, the obliqui. 

THE EAR. 

The Organ of Hearing, the ear, is a very complicated and 
important portion of the human anatomy. It consists of three 
parts : (1) the external ear ; (2) the middle ear ; (3) the in¬ 
ternal ear. 

The External Ear is too conspicuous and well-known to 
need much description. It is composed of a curiously folded 
sheet of cartilage, covered with skin, arranged to catch sound. 
Attached to it are three small muscles, scarcely more than 
rudimentary in man, but fully developed in many animals, so 
that the ear can be freely moved. From the outer ear a tube, 
or canal, called the auditory canal, or external auditory meatus, 
extends inward about an inch or an inch and a quarter. A 
thin membrane, called the drum, or membrane of the tym¬ 
panum, is stretched across the inner end. This membrane is 
kept soft and elastic by the secretion of a waxy substance, called 
the ear-wax, or cerumen. Short, stiff hairs spring from the 
walls of the canal, preventing the entrance of insects and for¬ 
eign bodies. 




THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 


203 




The Middle Ear is located just within the drum of the ear, 
and is a small, irregularly-shaped chamber, or cavity, called 
the tympanum. Across this chamber hangs a chain of three 
tiny bones, the auditory ossicles, named respectively : (1) stapes 
(stirrup); (2) malleus (hammer); (3) incus (anvil). These 
bones are so very small that they weigh together but a few 
grains, yet they are covered with periosteum, are supplied with 

blood-vessels, and articulate 
with each other by perfect 
joints, and the joints, in turn, 
have svnovial membranes, 
cartilages, ligaments, and 
muscles. The malleus is at¬ 
tached to the drum of the 
ear, and the stapes to a mem¬ 
brane of the internal ear, 
while the incus lies between 
the other two. A thin, deli¬ 
cate membrane separates the 
middle from the internal ear. 
Opening into the middle ear 

Fig. 34. Sectional View of the Ear. . 1 1 

. is a small canal, called tne 

1, Eustachian tube; n, auditory canal; o, drum; 

icSeT",T vMmi ilfoula^anali; Y uSai Eustachian tube, which leads 

to upper part of throat. 


p . . 

cochlea 
auditory meatus, 


The Internal Ear is a cavity, very irregular in shape and 
complicated in structure, hollowed out of the solid bone. From 
its complex character it is sometimes called the labyrinth. It is 
made up, in large part, of spiral tubes, which open in front into 
a sort of court or antechamber, about the size ol a giain of wheat, 
called the vestibule. These spiral tubes consist of three semi¬ 
circular canals and the winding stair ol the cochlea, 01 snail- 
shell, which coils around two and a half times. In the walls of 
the internal ear are expanded the delicate fibrils of the auditoiy 
iiervs. The labyrinth is filled with watery fluid, in which floats 










204 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


a little bag containing hairdike bristles, fine sand, and two 
ear^stones, called otoliths. Within the cochlea are minute ten¬ 
drils, termed the fibers of Corti, which are regularly arranged, 
the longest at the bottom and the shortest at the top. 

THE NOSE. 

The Sense of Smell is seated in the nose, the external por¬ 
tion of which constitutes the most prominent feature of the face. 
It is composed of cartilage covered 
with muscles and* skin, and joined to 
the skull by small bones. The nasal 
passages, or chambers, are situated im¬ 
mediately back, and open at the rear 
into the pharynx, being lined by a 
continuation of the mucous membrane 
of the throat. This membranous lining 
is supplied with filaments or branches 
of the olfactory nerve, the nerve of 
smell, as shown in the accompanying 
cut. These filaments enter the nasal 
passages through the cribriform plate 
of the ethmoid (sieve) bone in the roof. It is through this sieve- 
bone that the needle is introduced in the nasal needle process. 
By means of the peculiar property of the olfactory nerves it 
protects the lungs from the inhalation of deleterious gases and 
assists the organ of taste in discriminating the properties of 
food. To properly enjoy this sense the lining membrane of the 
nose must always be kept in a healthy condition. 



Fig. 35. Sectional View of Right 
Nasal Cavity. 


ORGANS OF TASTE AND TOUCH. 


The Tongue, the organ of taste, has already been quite fully 
described in the chapter on “The Digestive Organs” (see p. 91). 
The sense of taste is located in the papillae upon the tongue and 
in the upper part of the palate. A substance, to have taste, 
must be soluble, as it can only come in contact with the nerve 







THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 


205 


of taste by being absorbed. Taste enables us to distinguish 
between wholesome and unwholesome foods and drinks. It is 
in close sympathy with the stomach and often indicates that the 
stomach will rebel against certain articles of food. By taste, 
flavors are appreciated, and these, when pleasant, stimulate the 

flow of the saliva and gastric juice, and thus aid in the digestion 
of the various foods. 

The Skin is the seat of the sense of touch, and because its 
nerves are spread over the whole body, this is sometimes called 
the common sense. This sense enables us £o appreciate pain, 
heat, cold, roughness, hardness, and numerous other qualities. 
The sense of touch is very acute in the tip of the tongue and 
the tips of the fingers. 



CHAPTER XIII. 


THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY. 


WEIGHT OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS. 

The weight of the different parts of the human body of aver¬ 
age size (150 pounds) is about as follows : — 


Lb. Oz. 


The skeleton. 21 8 

Muscles and tendons. 77 8 

Skin and subcutaneous fat. 16 5 

Brain. 3 2% 

Eyes. 34 

Spinal cord. 134 

Tongue and hyoid bone. 3 

Esophagus. 134 

Stomach. 7 

Small intestine. 1 11)4 

Large intestine. 1 1)4 

Salivary glands. 234 


Lb. Oz. 

Liver. 4 134 

Pancreas. 3 

Spleen. 834 

Thyroid gland and thymus. % 

Blood (about one-eighth of body) 17 

Heart. 10% 

Kidneys.\. 10% 

Larynx, trachea, and bronchi. 2% 

Lungs. 2 1034 

Un weighed parts. 1 12 % 

Total.;. 150 00 


Another classification is as follows : muscles and their appur¬ 
tenances, 66J pounds ; skeleton, 23 pounds ; skin, 10 pounds ; fat, 
27 pounds; brain, 3 pounds ; thoracic viscera, 34 pounds ; ab¬ 
dominal viscera, 10 pounds ; blood (estimated amount drained 
from body), 7 pounds ; total 150 pounds. Of the total amount 
about 86 pounds is water and 64 pounds is solid matter. 


THE CHEMICAL CONSTIUENTS' 

The chief inorganic, proximate constituent of the human body 
is w T ater, which, as will be seen from the above classification, 
amounts to about 57 per cent, of the entire weight of the body. 
Some authorities make this proportion considerably larger. Next 
in quantity are calcium phosphates and carbonates; sodium and 
potassium chlorids; phosphates, sulphates, and carbonates of 
soda and potash; phosphates and carbonates of magnesium ; 

206 




























THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 207 


fluoric! of calcium; and certain compounds containing iron, 
silica, and manganese, besides traces of accidental substances, 
such as copper, lead, and aluminum. To these must be added 
ammonium, which exists in combination with the urine, and car¬ 
bonic acid, oxygen, and hydrogen gases. 

The percentage of the ultimate elements is as follows : — 


Oxygen. 

Hydrogen... 
Nitrogen. 

Chlorin. 

Fluorin. 

Carbon. 

Phosphorus, 
Calcium. 


72. 

9.1 

2.5 

.085 

.08 

13.5 

1.15 

1.3 


Sulphur.1476 

Sodium.-.1 

Potassium.026 

Iron.01 

Magnesium.0012 

Silica.0002 

Manganese trace.0000 

Total. m0000 


The entire body, with its natural moisture, is composed, there¬ 
fore, of about 84 parts of gaseous elements (the first five named 
above) to about 16 parts of solid elements. The greater part of 
the oxygen and hydrogen exists in the state of water, but the 
drier residue still contains some of the gaseous as well as the solid 
elements. The solids would consist of the following elements : 
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, silica,, 
chlorin, fluorin, potassium, sodium, calcium, lithium, magnesium, 
and iron (manganese, copper, lead), and may be arranged under 
the heads: proteids, carbohydrates (or amyloids), fats, and min¬ 
erals. Such a body would lose in 24 hours (in grains) : water, 
40,000 (nearly 6 lbs.); other matters, 14,500. In the latter 
would be included: carbon, 4,000; nitrogen, 300; mineral 
matters, 400. 


CHIEF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OF THE BODY. 

The chief chemical compounds of the body, many of them 
very complex indeed, are described in the following pages, 
together with the processes they undergo, either in building up 
and sustaining life, or in eliminating the waste. 

Feats are widely distributed in the human body ; indeed, pro¬ 
toplasm always contains some fat, and every cell, therefore, has 
more or less of these compounds. The fat is stored up, usually,. 





















208 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

iii the subcutaneous areolar tissues and about the abdominal vis¬ 
cera. Fats are neutral compounds, resulting from the union of 
glycerin, a triatomic alcohol, with a monobasic fatty acid. If the 
fatty acid is stearic acid, the resulting fat is trbstearin or stearin. 
Similarly, with palmitic and oleic acids, the corresponding fats, 
palmitin and olein, result. Ordinary fats are really mixtures, in 
variable amounts, of several fats : stearin, palmatin, and olein. 

When pure, fats are colorless, tasteless, and odorless, and are 
insoluble in, and lighter than, water. They are soluble in boiling 
absolute alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzol, and are neutral 
in reaction. As the result of exposure to physical, chemical, or 
living agents, they are readily divided into their constituent parts, 
glycerin and fatty acid. Fat taken in as food is not absorbed into 
the system until it reaches the small intestine, where the pan¬ 
creatic juice acts upon it. The fatty acid, thus separated, com¬ 
bines with the sodium carbonate present and forms a sodium 
soap. A small amount of this soap emulsifies a large amount of 
fat, thus dividing it into very minute globules, in which form it 
becomes absorbed. Many bacteria exercise a similar fatesplitting 
action, and, by their activity, fatty acids are formed in the intes¬ 
tines. The bile secretion also aids in the absorption of fat. A 
part of the fat deposited in the body is derived directly from the 
fat in the food, and part is formed in the body out of proteins 
and carbohydrates. The fat deposited in the tissues serves as a 
reserve to generate heat and energy. The large amount of carbon 
and hydrogen contained in the fat explains the great quantity 
of heat generated when fat is oxidized, and the need of an 
abundance of fat as food in a cold climate. 

Carbohydrates comprise those substances which usually con¬ 
tain hydrogen and oxygen in the same proportion as does water 
(H 2 O) and six carbon atoms or a multiple of six. Recent 
investigations, however, have shown that there may be carbohy¬ 
drates containing from four to nine or more carbon atoms. Car¬ 
bohydrates are present in comparatively small amounts in the 


THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 209 


animal body, either free or as constituents of certain complex 
proteids. They constitute, however, the greater part of the solids 
of plants, just as proteids make up the greater part of the solids 
of animal bodies. They are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of 
certain alcohols. Carbohydrates are classified as (a) mono-sac- 
cliarides or glycoses, including pentoses, hexoses, (dextrose, 
laevulose), and rhamnose ; (6) di-saccharides or saccharoses, as 
cane-sugar, milk-sugar, maltose, and iso-maltose ; (c) poly-sac¬ 
charides ; (d) mannite ; (e) inosite. Dextrose or glucose (grape or 
starch-sugar) is formed during digestion. It is present in small 
quantity in the blood, and in lesser amount in normal urine. 
Lactose, (milk-sugar) occurs in the milk of all animals, the 
amount varying from 3 to 6 per cent. Maltose, another sugar, is 
formed by the ferments of the saliva, pancreas, and liver. The 
formation of dextrose precedes that of maltose. Starch, or 
amylum, is a highly complex carbohydrate, and is converted into 
and deposited as fat. It is insoluble in cold water. In the 
presence of clilorid of zinc, and other salts, it swells up and dis¬ 
solves. On heating with water to 60° to 70°, it swells to a paste, 
but does not .form a true solution. At a higher temperature, it 
does dissolve, forming soluble starch. Dextrin is the name of a 
number of compounds that are the first hydration products of 
starch. Glycogen is found in the liver, and in greater or less 
amounts in all the animal tissues. It is a noil-crystallized, white, 
tasteless powder, present in small amounts in normal blood. 

Proteins. —Representatives of this group are found in every 

living organism. They are present within the cell as an integral 

part of protoplasm, and are always present in the fluids without 

the cell. They contain, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and 

oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, and some have phosphorus and 

iron. The animal organism cannot make protoplasm, hence lives 

and grows on inorganic nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus. These 

elements are supplied only through the proteins existing ready 

made in our food. However, not all the members of this group 
21 






210 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


are capable of sustaining life ; this is notably true of the albu¬ 
minoids. Those members are of utility as real food, which, when 
acted upon by the digestive fluids, yield peptons, which in turn 
can be reconstructed into serum, albumin, and globulin. The 
members of this group constitute by far the most complex bodies 
known to the chemist. Proteins may be classified as (a) albu¬ 
minous bodies, as albumins, globulins, peptons, etc.; ( b ) proteids, 
or complex albuminous bodies, which on cleavage yield members 
of the preceding group, as hemoglobins, caseins, nucleins, etc.; 
(c) albuminoids, or albumimlike bodies, as keratins, elastins, etc. 
Albumin coagulates in a slightly acid or neutral solution, espe¬ 
cially in the presence of a neutral salt, as clilorid of sodium. 
Globulin requires a neutral salt to keep it in solution. Hemo¬ 
globin, on heating, decomposes into liematin and globulin. The 
albumoses are precipitated by clilorid of sodium, and the precipi¬ 
tate, unlike albumin and globulin, dissolves on heating. Peptons 
are not coagulated by heat. 

Saliva is a mixture of the secretions of the parotid, submax¬ 
illary, and sublingual glands. The reaction of mixed saliva is 
usually alkaline, but, on fasting, during the latter part of the 
night, two or three hours after meals, and after much talking, 
may become acid ; it also becomes acid on standing a few hours. 
Saliva is more or less viscid and foams readily. Its character 
varies according to the gland from which mostly derived ; the 
parotid gland yields a fluid secretion, while slimy secretions are 
given out by the others. In fevers, the diminution or even sup¬ 
pression of the saliva results, causing dryness of the mouth and 
throat and altered taste ; a decrease is also noticed in diabetes, 
severe diarrhea, and cholera. Potassium iodid, or mercury, pro¬ 
duces an abnormally increased flow, known as salivation. An 
increased flow is also caused by irritant poisons, such as acids 
and alkalis ; by certain foods, as lemons, etc.; by some diseases, 
especially in inflammatory conditions of the mouth, tonsils, and 
palate. Salivary calculi, consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate 


THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 211 


and phosphate, cemented with organic matter, are occasionally 
deposited in the salivary ducts. The tartar deposited on the 
teeth has essentially the same composition. These calcium 
salts are held in solution in the saliva by carbonic acid. On 
exposure to the air this passes off and the salts are deposited. 
The amount of saliva secreted in twenty-four hours is 1400 
to 1500 c. c. (21} to 23 grs.). The flow is increased after meals 
and by pilocarpin. The ferment or enzyme present is known as 
ptyalin, and possesses a diastatic action, converting starch into 
dextrin, then into iso-maltose and maltose. Eventually glucose 
forms, probably the result of the action of an inverting ferment. 
A microscopic examination will show epithelial cells from the 
mouth and tongue, as well as salivary and mucous corpuscles. 
Bacteria are always present. 

Gastric Juice is the combined product of the cardiac and py¬ 
loric glands of the stomach, and normally possesses an intense 
acid reaction, due to the presence of free hydrochloric acid. It is 
a watery fluid which filters easily and is not slimy. The contents 
of the stomach may include (a) microscopical constituents, as re¬ 
mains of food, squamous epithelial cells, blood-cells, various 
micro-organisms, sarcins, yeasts, etc.; ( b ) soluble chemical con- 
stiuents, as proteolytic enzyme, pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid, 
organic acids, acid phosphates, peptones, etc. The secretion from 
the pyloric end of the stomach is said to be alkalin and to con¬ 
tain only pepsin, while that from the cardiac end is intensely acid. 
The hydrochloric acid is derived from the sodium chlorid in the 
blood, being freed by action of the carbon dioxid, also found in 
the blood. Hydrochloric acid is an effective germicide, but does 
not affect the spores. It also stops the diastatic action of ptyalin 
on starch. Salivary digestion of starch does not necessarily cease 
when the food reaches the stomach ; nor does it follow that all 
bacteria are destroyed in the stomach. Indeed, the starch con¬ 
version will continue until free hydrochloric acid has permeated 
the entire food-mass in the stomach. If the mass of food is large, 





212 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


or the amount of hydrochloric acid secreted small, this diastatic 
action may continue for a considerable time after the food reaches 
the stomach. With the decrease in the quantity of free acid, its 
inhibiting effect on bacteria is diminished, and, in consequence, 
the bacterial growth in the stomach may become enormously de¬ 
veloped, resulting in various fermentations. The longer food re¬ 
mains in the stomach because of sluggish action, the more marked 
will such decomposition be. If a sufficient interval is allowed 
between meals the stomach will undoubtedly disinfect itself. 

Pancreatic Juice is a clear, thick, alkaline fluid, rich in 
solids, and possesses very active ferment properties. It contains 
at least three distinct ferments, besides albumin, leucin, fats, soap, 
and salts. These solid constituents make up about 10 per cent, 
of the secretion. Ingestion of food stimulates the flow ; during 
starvation there is no secretion. Steapsin, one of the ferments, 
acts upon the neutral fat taken into the body with the food, and 
splits it up, by hydration or saponification, into free fatty acids 
and glycerin. However, only a small portion of the fat under¬ 
goes the change. The free acids combine with sodium carbonate 
to form soaps, and the resulting soap solution readily emulsifies 
the remaining neutral fat, bringing it into a finely divided con¬ 
dition, suitable for absorption. A considerable portion may at 
times be decomposed into free fatty acids, through the activity 
of bacteria. The free fatty acids are not absorbed, as such, but 
appear to be regenerated in the intestinal walls by synthesis, into 
neutral fat. The cleavage of fats by the pancreatic ferment, and 
the subsequent emulsification, is necessary to the proper absorp¬ 
tion of fat. The second ferment, amylopsin, resembling that of 
ptyalin of the saliva, acts on starches, splitting up the bodies 
into dextrin and isounaltose. The third ferment, trypsin, is pro¬ 
teolytic in its action. This ferment does not exist as such in the 
substance of the gland, but is represented by a parent=substance, 
trypsinogen, which is most abundant in form fourteen to eigh¬ 
teen hours after a meal. This zymogen, during the process of 


THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 213 


secretion, is converted into trypsin. Trypsin, in its purest con¬ 
dition, gives proteid reactions, is soluble in water, and insoluble 
in alcohol and glycerin. 

Bile is a mixture of the secretion of liver cells and of mucin 
derived from the cells lining the galhbladder and duct. It is a 
thick, tenacious fluid, is yellowish, sometimes greenish ; is alka- 
lin in reaction ; is of a bitter taste ; and does not coagulate on 
heating. In health, about one pint is secreted every twenty-four 
hours. The secretion is continuous, but variable. A slight ob¬ 
struction of the bile-duct may lead to retention of the bile ; as a 
result, the bile=constituents are absorbed, and may appear in the 
urine. Bile contains, as characteristic constituents, certain salts 
of bile-acids, bile-pigments, and small quantities of lecithin, 
cliolesterin, soap, neutral fat, urea, and salts of calcium, mag¬ 
nesium, iron, and copper. The bile-acids are usually present as 
sodium salts. A number of bile^pigments are known, but, usually, 
in normal bile, there are but two, bilirubin and biliverdin. The 
former is of a reddish^yellow color; the latter greenish. The 
color of bile is due to the predominance of one or the other. 
The bile-pigments are soluble in alkalis, insoluble in acids, and 
yield insoluble compounds with calcium and other metals. 
Bilirubin is slightly soluble in acohol and in ether, and readily 
soluble in chloroform. Biliverdin is insoluble in chloroform. 
Bilirubin, in addition to being in the bile, is met with in bile= 
stones as a calcium compound, in old blood extravasations (hema- 
toidin), and in urine and tissues during jaundice. 

Blood is usually a dark-red, thick, opaque fluid. It consists of 
red and white corpuscles and plates or crystals suspended in the 
liquid portion, the plasma. The solid portion may constitute 
nearly one-half the weight of the blood. The blood of the adult 
man contains in each milimeter about 5,000,000 red and 7,500 
white blood corpuscles, and 250,000 blood plates. That of woman 
contains about 500,000 red corpuscles less. The blood possesses 
a distinct alkaline reaction, due, chiefly, to sodium carbonate. 


214 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


This alkalinity is decreased considerably in febrile conditions, 
diabetic coma, cancer, and after excessive muscular exercise, due 
to the increased production of acids, which result in the increased 
disintegration of protein tissues. The average diameter of the 
red corpuscles in the blood of man is about - 32 V 0 of an inch. The 
opacity of the blood is due to the suspended blood*corpuscles. 
The white corpuscles, or leucocytes, differ considerably in form and 
size, being larger and lighter than the red cells, and contain from 
one to four nuclei each. They show ameboid movement. The 
leucocytes consist largely of the complex proteid, neucleodiiston. 
The blood'plates are supposed by some to be derived from nuclei, 
and hence consist chiefly of nuclein. The plasma contains about 
8.2 per cent, of solids ; of this amount, 6.9 per cent, is due to pro¬ 
teins and 0.87 per cent, to inorganic constituents, such as chlorids, 
phosphates, and carbonates. There are three albuminous sub¬ 
stances contained in the plasma : fibrinogen, serum globulin, and 
serum albumin. Fibrinogen resembles the globulins, but is dis¬ 
tinguished from serum globulin, especially, by its behavior with 
sodium chlorin, which precipitates it on sembsaturation. Fibrin¬ 
ogen solutions coagulate when heated to 56° or less. The globu¬ 
lins, fibrinogen, and serum globulin make up most of the proteids 
of the blood. Serum albumin, which is present in plasma, and 
possibly other proteins of the blood, is made by the epithelial cells 
of the intestine out of the pepton prepared by the digestive fluids. 
The pepton made in the stomach and intestine is not absorbed 
and carried through the body as such, but is regenerated, syn¬ 
thesized, to serum albumin by the cells of the intestinal wall. 
The blood coming from the intestines does not contain pepton 
or albumose in solution. Coagulation of the blood takes place 
in a few minutes after blood is removed from the body, when 
it clots, forming a solid jelly, consisting of a network of fibrin 
threads, containing in its meshes the blood ^corpuscles and the 
fluid part of the blood. Finally the clot shrinks, and a light* 
yellow fluid, called blood=serum, is squeezed out. If the blood, 


THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 215 


as soon as drawn from the body, is rapidly stirred with the 
hand, or whipped with a bundle of sticks, glass rods, or wire, 
the solid clot will not form, but, instead, the hand or stirring 
rods will be covered with shreds of fibrin or blood-fiber. The 
resulting fluid is called defibrinated blood ; it is blood-serum 
containing in suspension blood-corpuscles. The fibrin shreds, 
when washed, are pure white, and resemble, in many respects, 
the white of an egg. Coagulation, therefore, implies the forma¬ 
tion of fibrin. This change is brought about by the action of 
the fibrin ferment derived from leucocytes, on serum globulin 
and fibrinogen. The fibrin ferment is apparently a globulin, not 
a nuclein. It is not present in fresh arterial blood, nor is it 
present in pepton or histon plasma. 

Milk is a secretion of the mammary gland, and is composed of 
water, casein, globulin, albumin, fats, milk-sugar, and inorganic 
salts. Its color is due, in part, to suspended fat globules, and in 
part to the casein held in solution by calcium phosphate. The 
reaction of milk is usually alkaline or amphoteric, but may be 
acid. Casein is a complex proteid belonging to the nucleo-albu- 
mins. It is insoluble in water, but is dissolved readily in the 
presence of alkalis. Casein is derived, apparently, from a nucleo- 
proteid contained in the protoplasm of the cells of the gland. The 
globulin of milk, or lacto-globulin, is probably identical with 
serum globulin. The fat is present as an emulsion of fat globules. 
The sugar present in milk, lactose, is a specific product of the 
gland-cells and is not directly derived from the blood. 

Urea, the chief solid constituent of urine, is the principal 
form in which waste nitrogen leaves the body. The nitrogen 
present in the complex proteins, derived from the food and 
present in the fluids and cells of the body, when disintegration 
results, passes through a series of successive cleavage products, 
and eventually appears in the urine as urea, or as other waste 
nitrogenous substances. The original source of urea is the pro¬ 
tein matter of the foods and tissues. The total nitrogen in the 


216 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


food is eliminated by the kidneys within twenty=four hours as 
waste nitrogen. Some of this waste nitrogen naturally results 
from the destruction of the tissues of the body, and of hemo¬ 
globin. The remainder probably results from the direct break¬ 
ing down of circulating proteins. The urea, which is made in 
the liver, is carried by the blood to the kidneys, and there ex¬ 
creted. Since the kidney is the organ eliminating urea, it follows 
that in structural disease of the kidneys such elimination will be 
decreased or even suppressed. In that case, urea accumulates in 
the blood and tissues, and is partially excreted by the sweat, 
vomit, and intestinal discharges. Poisoning will follow either 
nomeli urination of urea and other waste products, or nomforma- 
tion of urea. Ammonia is always found in normal urine, not 
free, but combined as a salt,—chlorid, sulphate, or phosphate. 


PART SECOND. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN EMBALMING. 



INTRODUCTION TO PART SECOND. 


Embalming was made use of by the ancients in compliance with the 
religious superstitions that prevailed in the early centuries of the world’s 
history. Modern embalming was first practiced as a novelty, but later to 
preserve bodies for the purpose of scientific investigation by the students 
of anatomy. A few bodies are on exhibition in some of the museums of 
the world, which prove that the methods followed by the modern surgeons 
from time to time were successful. 

Just when the present methods were introduced we cannot be certain, 
but they received their greatest impulse during the Civil War in this coun¬ 
try (1861-65), when bodies at the front were embalmed successfully and 
shipped many hundreds of miles, requiring a number of days before inter¬ 
ment could take place. Since that time great improvement has been made 
in the methods of embalming and in the instruments and fluids used for 
the purpose. 

Bodies were formerly embalmed for preservation only, and the operations 
were merely mechanical; but to-day they are embalmed as a sanitary 
measure as well, which requires a knowledge of sanitation. 

Embalming is the filling of the body with a fluid for its preservation 
and disinfection. 

It is not necessary to disinfect all bodies, especially those dying of non* 
Infectious diseases, but all those dying of infectious diseases should be 
embalmed, so as to render the body nondnfectious. This can be done only 
with a disinfectant fluid, while preservation may be accomplished by the 
use of a fluid that is only an antiseptic. A disinfectant fluid will preserve 
as well as disinfect; therefore, no harm will result from the disinfection of 
all bodies. 

The amount of fluid that is injected into a body, by most embalmers, is 
not sufficient to fill it. Usually, about four quarts of fluid only are used 
for embalming all kinds and sizes of bodies, whether they are of a hundred 
or of two hundred pounds weight; whether dying of ordinary disease or 
of some special disease; whether the temperature is high or low, humid 
or dry. 

All tissues, except osseous, whether solid, semisolid, or liquid, furnish a 
soil for the growth of bacteria, and should be filled with fluid to prevent 
their growth or to destroy them. Only such parts of the body as are filled 
with fluid will be preserved and disinfected. If too small a quantity is 
injected to fill the body, then the embalmment will not be complete. 

218 



INTRODUCTION TO PART SECOND 


219 


In a great majority of cases, however, nature assists in preserving the 
body for “the usual length of time” ; thus, the presence of rigor mortis, or 
a high, dry, or cold temperature, will retard putrefaction, especially in the 
more solid of the soft tissues. When such is the case all that is necessary 
for the preservation of the body is to fill the cavities and inject a small 
quantity into the arteries ; but to disinfect a body, it should be filled thor¬ 
oughly with fluid. 

The amount of fluid should vary according to the size and condition 
of the body, surrounding temperature, etc. While but a gallon will be 
required to fill some cases, two or three gallons will be necessary to fill 
others. 

It is not necessary to withdraw blood to make it possible to preserve the 
body, as the filling with a sufficient quantity of fluid will sterilize all 
liquids, of whatever character, as well as the solids and semisolids. But, 
if only a sufficient quantity of fluid is used to aid nature “ the usual length 
of time,” then blood should be withdrawn in order to lessen the danger of 
putrefaction and to remove the source of subsequent discolorations. 

The usual methods by which embalming is accomplished are arterial, 
cavity, and subcutaneous, which will be treated of separately in the follow¬ 
ing chapters. 


CHAPTER XIV. 


ANCIENT EMBALMING. 


We are so accustomed to plume ourselves upon the achieve¬ 
ments of this (nineteenth) century, its discoveries and inventions," 
and its progress in the arts and sciences, that we are often prone 
to forget its indebtedness to all preceding ages and generations. 
St. Paul, the great and learned apostle, declared that he was 
“ debtor both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians ; both to the 
wise, and to the unwise.” So, likewise, are we of to-day— 

“We the heirs of all the ages, in the foremost files of time.” 

For every age is the inheritor of the wisdom conveyed through 
the successes and failures of all its predecessors, and is enabled, 
by the proper application of such wisdom, to further its own 
advancement. Forward is the watchword of Time. The earth 
does not 

“Stand at gaze like Joshua’s moon in Ajalon.” 

Nevertheless, its inhabitants, in their accomplishments, crept 
before they walked, and walked before they began their grand 
triumphal march toward great material and intellectual vic¬ 
tories—Tor which march, in these latter days, the music of the 
spheres themselves seem furnishing the lively quickstep. 

In the pride that swells our hearts at the knowledge that we 
“live and move and have our being,” in this age par excellence 
of all the eons yet emanated from the Deity, this reflection may 
beget within us a seemly humility. The present age—that con¬ 
tributes to the world such triumphs of the electrician, bacteri¬ 
ologist, and general scientist, to say nothing of corresponding 
conquests in numberless other fields and pursuits ; that, having 








ANCIENT EMBALMING 


221 


found the X=ray, proposes to subjugate, therewith, the microbe ; 
that sets no limit to its ambition, and whose bright lexicon con¬ 
tains no such word as “impossible”—has accomplished only that 
which its forerunners have rendered feasible, when it ceases to 
speak of “first principles” and presses on to perfection. 

In nothing is this tendency to press on toward perfection more 
clearly demonstrated than in the progress which has been made 
in the art of embalming. What was, in ancient times, a labor 
attended with much ceremony, delay, and many drawbacks, 
becomes, to the thoroughly -equipped scientific operator of to-day, 
a simple task, accomplished in a brief space of time, by the use 
of a comparatively small quantity of preservative fluid. 

The embalmer does not enter our houses heavily laden with 
hundred^pound weights of myrrh, aloes, saffron, and cassia. He 
is not burdened with opobalsam — the resinous exudation called 
balm of Gilead, yielded by terebinthine evergreens of Asia and 
Africa—; his assistants are not loaded down with gypsum, or 
bitumen. 

Among the distinctive characteristics of the work of our times 
are skilled scientific methods and simplicity of detail, which 
enable us effectually to discard a majority of the cumbersome 
requisites indispensable to the laborers of bygone ages. 

Still, to the forerunner in any field of meritorious performance, 
is due, of right, that acknowledgment belonging to the pioneer, 
however convincingly he who comes afterward may be able to 
say, “And yet show I unto you a more excellent way.” 

EGYPTIAN METHODS. 

It seems peculiarly appropriate that Egypt—that land of 
mystery—should have been the first, so far as we have knowl¬ 
edge, to embalm the human body after death. Egypt, with its 
hieroglyphed, cartouched monoliths, mighty pyramidal stair¬ 
ways ascending toward the sky, and grove-shaded temples ap¬ 
proached through massive gateways and avenues of sphinxes! 


222 


CHAMPION TEXT, BO OK ON EMBALMING 


Egypt, the land of beauty, bearing olives, dates, and citron trees ; 
glowing pomegranates and ruddydiued guavas; perennially 
green acacias, papyrus reeds that fringe the stream, and gardens 
sweet with rose and heliotrope ! 

Reasons for Embalming. —The men who reared Luxor 
and graved pictorial history on Karnac’s walls and lofty pillars, 
with so lasting, yet so delicate a stroke, must have been beings 
deeply imbued with sentiments and sympathies of a religious 
nature. To these feelings, doubtless, may be ascribed their 
reason for making such an elaborate disposition of the remains 
of their departed friends. Other assumptions as to the causes 
from which this custom took its rise have been made, but their 
credibility fades into insignificance when compared with this. 
One of these other assumptions is based on the assertion that 
sanitary expediency was the prompting motive ; another, that 
the periodical overflow of the Nile furnished hindrances to the 
ordinary form of interment. Still, w T e cannot but be firmly per¬ 
suaded that a deeply^rooted religious belief or superstition pro¬ 
moted this endeavor, their aim being to make the best possible 
provision lying in their power to secure a happy future for those 
whom they loved. 

Herodotus, the Greek historian, tells us the Egyptians were 
the first people to believe that the soul is immortal. In addition 
to this faith they held that this immortal tenant of the human 
frame would never fully abandon its place of habitation so long 
as the body withstood the ravages of corruption. Embalming 
but emphasized their idea that if the body be kept free from 
putrefaction, its immaterial tenant would revisit it from time to 
time, and return to take up its abode once more at the expira¬ 
tion of a certain period. It was a tenet of their faith, that, after 
death, the soul was compelled to make the circuit of all forms of 
animal life—bird, beast, and reptile—, until it had dwelt for a 
time in each of them. It then passed through earth, air, and 
water, and after the “circle of necessity” had been completed, 


ANCIENT EMBALMING 


223 


returned to its long^empty tenement and entered in. This 
journey could not be traveled under 3,000 years, and the 
embalmer’s aim was so to preserve the body, that, when such a 
period should have elapsed, the home-coming soul would find all 
things in readiness for its reception. 

The lengthy and painstaking preparation bestowed upon the 
body in the embalming of that day speaks well for the estimate 
of worth the Egyptians placed on the immortal part of man. 

Embalmers of the Medical Fraternity. — It is probable 
that the embalmers of that period belonged to the medical 
fraternity, as we read in the fiftieth chapter of Genesis that 
“the physicians embalmed Israel,” the father of Joseph, who died 
in Egypt. Some writers have objected to this statement on the 
ground that embalmers were, according to Herodotus, simply 
persons appointed by law “ to exercise this art as their peculiar 
business.” Also, it is so claimed, for the reason that such persons 
were drawn from the ranks of the priesthood. It is easy to recon¬ 
cile these objections with the Bible statement when it is remem¬ 
bered that Egyptian physicians were a body of specialists. “So 
wisely,” says Herodotus, “was medicine managed by them, that 
no doctor was permitted to practice any but his own peculiar 
branch.” The embalmer, even though from priestly ranks, 
originally must have been compelled to acquire some knowledge 
of the action of drugs and essences employed in the embalming of 
the body, upon its organs and tissues. Knowledge of this char¬ 
acter may have given him a right to the title of “physician,” 
and license to practice in “his own peculiar branch,” as an 
embalmer. 

Selecting the Pattern. — Immediately after death the body 
of the deceased was brought to the embalmers by his friends. 
To these friends were displayed wooden models and painted rep¬ 
resentations of different forms in which mummies were, so to 
speak, “done up.” A favorite style was that of likeness to the god 
Osiris, who, in addition to other peculiarities, had the beard cut 


224 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


and arranged in a form belonging exclusively to the gods. All 
who had lived virtuous lives and were accounted worthy of being 
finally reunited after death with the god ^ earcophagus . 2> 
from whom they emanated, were entitled to ? ut f n r n ™ u £^Cwith 

, ,. . . ,. t . ii • i’i cover elevated, show- 

have their bodies preserved m this likeness ing mummy, 
and to be called by this holy name. 

Removing the Brain. — When the pat¬ 
tern was finally agreed upon, and the price 3 
to be paid for the service about to be rendered 




SJ.TO ' 


determined, the friends withdrew, leaving Fig.36. Mummy, Mummy=cases, 
the subject in the embalmers’ hands. Her- and Sarc °P lia £ us - 
odotus says the work was begun by removing the brain, through 
the nostrils, with a curved iron hook or probe, and that the 
cavity from which the brain was extracted was then cleansed 
by an injection of certain astringent drugs with which the skull 
was filled. 

Diodorus does not mention, in his account of the process, the 
•extraction of the brain in this manner ; and this statement has 
met with dissent, on the ground that extraction of the brain 
through the nostrils would be an exceedingly difficult, if not 
absolutely impossible, undertaking. That even if it could have 
been done, the nose must by this means necessarily have been 
mutilated and the likeness destroyed ; whereas we are informed 
that “so perfectly were all the members preserved, that even the 
hairs of the eyelids and eyebrows remained undisturbed, and 
the whole appearance of the person was so unaltered that every 
feature might be recognized.'’ Gryphius suggests that the brain 
might have been extracted through a foramen, or orifice, in the 
back part of the head, near the upper vertebra of the neck. 

But, as heads indicating this disposition of the brain have not 
generally been found in mummies, it gives room for still an¬ 
other theory—that of the injection of cedar oil, or some similar 
tissue=destroying substance, through the nostrils or ear^passages, 
by way of an artificial canal prepared for it, and the subsequent 




























ANCIENT EMBALMING 


225 


coming away of the brain in a state of dissolution. The in¬ 
jection of spirituous or aromatic wines could then have acted 
as cleansing agents, followed by the final injection of melted 
bitumen, or sweet balsam, which becomes a solid mass, filling 
the skull, when cold. Many mummy skulls have been found 
to be full of earthy matter, in place of either of the above, and 
some to have been prepared with wax and tannin. 

While the care of the head was in process in the hands of one 
embalmer, other necessary features of the work were assigned to 
his assistants. 

Incising the Body. — Diodorus says: “First, one, who is 
denominated the scribe, marks upon the left side of the body, as 
it lies upon the ground, the extent of the incision which is to be 
made ; then another, who is called parascliistes (the dissector), 
cuts open as much of the flesh as the law permits, with an 
Ethiopian stone, and immediately runs away, pursued by those 
who are present, throwing stones at him, amid bitter execrations, 
as if to cast upon him all the odium of this necessary act.” 

The stone thus made use of was undoubtedly in the form of a 
flint knife. It may have been called Ethiopian on account of 
its black color. Stones used in Egypt for the purpose of cutting 
were invariably of flint, and were commonly employed by the 
people. The stone knives found in excavations and tombs, at 
Thebes and elsewhere, and exhibited in museums of Europe, are 
of two kinds. One is broad and flat, usually set into some kind 
of a handle ; the other, which is without doubt the knife of the 
embalmer, is short, pointed, and of razor=like sharpness. 

The pursuit of the parascliistes already mentioned was prob¬ 
ably a religious formality, the people having no real desire to 
harm him, and he entertaining no actual fear. It indicates, 
however, that the delicate sentiment which leads modern em- 
balmers to practice their art without spectators, was utterly 
lacking among these ancient practitioners. 

In contradistinction to the odium cast upon this knifemser, 
22 




226 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


was the high esteem in which the embalmers themselves were 
held. They were associates of the priests, and were permitted 
free access to the temple, as sacred persons. 

Treatment of the Viscera. —Through the hole cut in the 
side of the dead, the lungs, liver, stomach, spleen, and all the 
organs, except the heart and the kidneys, were removed from 
the body. The heart may have been left as the principal organ 
and source of vital heat, but it is a matter of uncertainty why 
the kidneys were not removed. Perhaps some religious super¬ 
stition determined their being left. The body was likewise 
divested of the entrails. These, and the cavity from which the 
organs had been removed, were then washed with Phoenician 
or palm wine and other binding drugs. The entrails were after¬ 
ward returned to the body, if not otherwise disposed of, which 
was sometimes the case, through the sacred eye of Osiris, which 
was placed above the incision. 

Ingredients Used. — This being done, the body was repeat¬ 
edly anointed with oil of cedar. Myrrh, cassia, aloes, and 
saffron—all fragrant gums and odoriferous spices, with the 
exception of frankincense, which was consecrated to the worship 
of their gods—were introduced into the cavity, and the body 
was sewn up. 

After a certain time, the body was swathed in lawn fillets,, 
which were glued together with a kind of very thin gum, and 
then crusted over with the most exquisite perfumes. 

Some historians make no reference to any further preservative 
process between the use of the aromatics and the binding up of 
the body in anointed and perfumed linen ; but, from others we 
learn that after the application of the drugs and spices and the 
sewing up of the ventral incision, came the salting of the body. 
It was kept in natron or anatron, known to chemistry as potas¬ 
sium nitrate, or salt of niter, and to people in general as salt¬ 
peter, an antiseptic used in the curing of meat, for seventy or 
seventyTwo days. This was an arbitrary period to which ‘the 


ANCIENT EMBALMING 


227 


embalmers were strictly confined. Upon the expiration of these 
days, the body was washed and wrapped in linen bandages 
dipped in oil of myrrh. 

Diodorus, who speaks of the actual face of the body being left 
exposed after restoration, in cartonnage and case, to relatives 
and friends, is contradicted by Herodotus, who says the features 
and the whole body were enveloped in wrappings and entirely 
concealed. 

The head was swathed in cloths made fast with flaxen fila¬ 
ments, sometimes of a delicate color. If the body were that of 
a Pharaoh, or other sacred person, under these filaments were 
sometimes pushed the stems of lotus buds. The lotus, a name 
applying to several kinds of water lilies, was a favorite and a 
sacred flower in Egypt, and was used in religious ceremonies. 
It appears in hieroglyphics on Egyptian monuments, and en¬ 
tered into their works of art. 

Honorable women of high rank were kept for three or four 
days after death before being delivered to the embalmers. 

The Mummy Wrappings. —In passing, it may be interesting 
to some to learn the exact nature of the mummy wrappings. 
The words byssus and linon , used in describing them, indicate 
that they were linen, not cotton, although cotton cloth was 
manufactured in Egypt, and dresses of that material were com¬ 
monly worn. Sometimes, however, these cerecloths were of 
finely^wrought silk, and have been known to be over one thou¬ 
sand yards in length. 

The above was one of the most magnificent styles of embalm¬ 
ing, and was used for persons of quality. Its expense amounted 
to £250, or over $1,200 in American money. 

The Cartonnage. —When the usual routine work of embalm¬ 
ing had been finished, the mummy was enclosed in a first case, 
called a cartonnage, or mummy-case. It consisted of many 
layers of linen, hardened together by a kind of glue, and coated 
outside with stucco. It was cut according to exact measurements 


228 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of the mummied body, and made to conform exactly to its shape, 
by being fitted upon it when damp, and retaining the bent lines 
imparted in this way, while in the process of drying. It was 



Fig. 37. Inner and Outer Mummy=Cases. 

richly ornamented with a network of bugles, beads, etc., and the 
pictured face directly over the mummy’s face was sometimes 
overlaid with gold leaf. Three or four other cases, likewise orna- 

































































ANCIENT EMBALMING 


229 


mented and gilded, were superimposed upon this cartonnage, 
and the whole was then inclosed in a sarcophagus of wood or 
stone, embellished with painting or sculpture. These sarcophagi 
were otten ot cedar or a robproof wood called gimmis wood. 
They were of many different shapes, and the shapes of those 
fashioned in wood differed from those of stone. 

Treatment of the Intestines. —The intestines of all persons 
embalmed by the most expensive process—for none of the first 
quality were embalmed without the removal of the intestines— 
were deposited in four vases of alabaster, hard stone, glass, porce¬ 
lain, or bronze, and these were placed with them in the sarco¬ 
phagus or tomb. These vases were variously ornamented, 
usually with the heads of the genii of Amenti. Herodotus does 
not inform us with reference to what became of the intestines of 
persons not embalmed as above mentioned. Porphyry says they 
were thrown into the river. Plutarch gives a similar account 
and explains the reason for such disposal. He speaks of them 
as being the cause of all the faults committed by man. The 
intestines were embalmed in spices, and a separate portion 
allotted to each of the four vases. In one was contained the 
large intestine in company with the stomach. In another the 
small intestine was placed. The lungs and heart, and the galb 
bladder and liver, were among the contents of the remaining two. 

The most costly of these vases were of oriental alabaster, from 
ten to twenty inches high, and about onedliird of the height in 
diameter. Each bore* an inscription embracing the name of the 
god the likeness of whose head it bore. 

In those instances where the intestines were returned to the 
body, images in wax of these four genii of Amenti were put into 
the cavity with them, as guardians of those parts subject to their 
influence. Sometimes, instead, a metal plate, usually of lead, 
bearing their images, was substituted. The sacred eye of Osiris 
was placed over the incision, whether the entrails were returned 
to the body or placed in the vases. 


230 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Sometimes in the higher grade of embalming, the skin of the 
face itself, as well as, or instead of, the semblance on the carton- 
nage, was covered with a mask ot gold leal. In other instances, 
the entire body was so overlaid ; sometimes merely the eyelids 
or the finger nails alone. 

Classes of Embalming —Egyptian embalming may be 
classified under two general heads: those bodies embalmed with 
the ventral incision ; and those without. Under those embalmed 
with the incision, are classed bodies prepared with balsamic 
matter and those preserved by natron only. Balsamic embalm¬ 
ing was performed with a mixture of resin and aromatics, or 
asphaltum and pure bitumen. The first named of these bodies 
—those filled with resinous matter—became of an olive color, 
the skin dry and flexible, as if tanned, and adhering to the 
bones. The features remained as in life. The features of those 
preserved in natron—simply salted and dried — were completely 
destroyed, and they became unrecognizable. The hair also fell 
out and the head became bald. But little care was exercised in 
the bandaging, which scarcely separated the bodies from the . 
earth in which they were interred. 

An Intermediate Grade of embalming, between the most 
costly and the revolting form above indicated, was the injecting 
of cedar oil into the abdomen, through the fundament, by means 
of a syringe. This was done without making a ventral incision, 
or removing the bowels. 

Cedar oil, which possesses heating and drying qualities, also 
corroded and consumed the substance of the bowels on which 
it acted. It consumed as well the surplus humidity of the body 
which brings about putrefaction. Care was taken to prevent 
this oil’s escape while the body was kept in natron during the 
appointed time. It was then drawn off, bringing with it the 
bowels upon which it had acted destructively, in a state of disso¬ 
lution. The natron dissolved the flesh and caused the skin to 
cling to the bones. The body was then restored to the friends 


ANCIENT EMBALMING 


231 


without further attention. This manner of preserving the dead 
cost about £60, or $300. 

When the dead left no estate and the friends were very poor, 
the body was simply cleansed with an injection of syrmsea , and 
afterward kept salted in the customary manner for the usual 
seventy days. 

II a stranger were found dead in Egypt, the law required that 
he should be mummified in the most magnificent and expensive 
manner. 

When Embalming Ceased. —It is not positively known when 
the custom of embalming ceased in Egypt. It has been sug¬ 
gested that it may have been when that land became a Roman 
province. It is probable that after this time embalming became 
less universal and gradually fell into disuse, rather than that it 
was suddenly abandoned. After the sixth century, interest in 
this disposition of human bodies declined so sensibly that onlv a 
few of the more studious and scholarly were informed of the real 
secret of the art. 

A description of Egyptian tombs, with their artistic adorn¬ 
ments, the mummy pits with which Egypt is honeycombed, and 
the funeral customs there observed, would be of interest to the 
curious inquirer concerning Egyptian antiquities, but such 
description would form a lengthy article of itself, and does not, 
strictly speaking, come within the province of this article. 

JEWISH METHODS. 

The Jews adopted the custom of embalming to some extent, 
the “manner of the Jews” being to employ “linen clothes with the 
spices” in winding the body. When Lazarus was resurrected by 
the Savior’s command, “Come forth,” he appeared at the aperture 
of the tomb, “bound hand and foot with grave clothes, and his 
face was bound about with a napkin.” But by whatever process 
his body may have been prepared for the sepulture, it is evident 
that his sister Martha did not believe it sufficient to preserve it 


232 


CHAMPION TEXT. BO OK ON EMBALMING 


effectually and with thoroughness ; for, when Jesus had said to 
the bystanders, “Take ye away the stone’’ that obstructed the 
mouth of the cave, she had protested, declaring, “Lord, by this 
time lie stinketh, for he hath been dead four days.” So ham¬ 
pered was Lazarus by the wrappings in which he was swathed, 
that, though life had returned to him, he was unable to make use 
of his renewed vitality until the authoritative mandate, “Loose 
him, and let him go,” had been obeyed. 

Like those of Egypt. —Jacob, who died in Egypt, was prob¬ 
ably embalmed after the Egyptians’ most expensive and elaborate 
manner, for Joseph, who “commanded the physicians to embalm 
his father,” was high in the royal favor—“the man whom the 
king delighted to honor.” When Joseph went up to the land of 
Canaan to bury his father, “with him went up all the servants 
of Pharaoh, the elders of his house, and all the elders of the land 
of Egypt.” 

Probably this same form of embalming was used with Joseph, 
when “he died being an hundred and ten years old ; and they 
embalmed him and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.” Before 
dying, he “took an oath of the children of Israel saying, God 
will surely visit you, and ye shall carry up my bones from 
hence.” 

Wherever the body of Joseph was kept, whether in an apart¬ 
ment of a house, according to the usage of some of the Egyptians, 
or in a tomb prepared for it, this oath was strictly fulfilled by the 
descendants of those who made it, nearly two centuries afterward, 
when the Israelites returned to their own land. 

This custom, here referred to, of keeping the mummied body, 
for a long time, in a place set apart for it in the former home of 
the person deceased, was sometimes permitted ; but some specious 
reason was usually assigned in excuse for it, as it was considered 
a very grave thing to deprive one entitled to it of the right of 
burial. No grief and shame could be more terrible to surviving 
friends than to have departed dear ones, by a verdict rendered 


ANCIENT EMBALMING 


after post-mortem judgment, which was common in Egypt, ac¬ 
counted unworthy of burial. 

Embalming the Poor. —The poor among the Jews, those 
known as the “common people,'' were embalmed with bitumen, 
which was a cheap material, easily procured. It was a mineral 
pitch, found in large quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea, 
which for this reason was also called the Asphaltic Lake. This 
lake was located in Palestine, about one hundred miles from 
Damiata in Egypt, and the bitumen used by the Egyptians 
came from this place. The body and its envelopes were smeared 
with this substance “with more or less care and diligence.” 
This bitumen, however, must have possessed considerable pre¬ 
servative power, as sepulchres have been opened in which thou¬ 
sands of bodies deposited in rows, one above another, without 
coffins, have been kept from decay for centuries, by its use. Coal 
tar, petroleum, and naphtha are of the same derivation. Mum¬ 
mies prepared by this substance are, of course, black, hard, and 
shining. The skin appears as if varnished. They a^e dry, 
heavy, and without odor. 

But the more usual form of embalming among the Jews, 
appears to have been made use of more to perfume the body and 
keep at a distance, as long as possible, the disagreeable odor 
which belongs to death, than with the expectation that it would, 
for any great length of time, ward off putrefaction. It -was 
simply the binding of spices upon the limbs and body with the 
usual linen bandages. 

In the Time of Christ . — In this manner, at the near 
approach of the Jewish Sabbath, which must not be defiled 
by the presence of the unburied victims of the law, Jesus, when 
taken down from the cross, where he had suffered for the sins of 
the whole world, was ministered unto by Joseph of Arimathea, a 
secret disciple, and Nicodemus, who “brought a mixture of myrrh 
and aloes, about an hundred-pound weight.” When the Sabbath 
was over, very early on the first day of the week, came the faithful 




234 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


women who had loved and followed him, with spices and oint¬ 
ment they had prepared wherewith to anoint him, not knowing 
that, already, this loving service had been performed by the hand 
of pious affection. 

But even in this simple style, embalming was not, it appears, 
a prevalent mode of disposing of the dead, among the Jews. 

METHODS OF THE ROMANS AND OTHER NATIONS. 

Among the Romans. — The funeral rites of the Romans and 
many other nations embraced embalming in some form. The 
deceased, after being washed in hot water, sometimes varied with 
oil, every day for seven days, to revive him in case he was 
simply in a condition of suspended animation, was “dressed and 
embalmed with the performance of a variety of singular cere¬ 
monies.” After this his body was placed on a funeral pile and 
burnt. The ashes were then gathered in a vase or urn, and 
deposited in the tomb. 

The Babylonians made use of honey in anointing their dead, 
or immersed them in this viscid fluid. 

The Scythians immured the body in a coating of wax. 

The Ethiopians washed it over with a sort of plastering 
called parget. 

Among Persians, Assyrians, Etc. — Embalming was prac¬ 
ticed also among the Persians, Assyrians, and many other 
ancient nations. 

The Greeks acquired the art through their conquests/ 

The Guanchos, the original inhabitants of the Canary Islands, 
probably obtained the custom of embalming their dead from the 
Atlanteans who inhabited the famous “lost Atlantis,” an ante¬ 
diluvian island or continent, which, the ancients asserted, was 
overwhelmed and swallowed by the “great deep.” These 
islanders coated the body with a liquid composed of a solution 
of resinous matter in an oil or volatile liquid—a sort of varnish 
—, after which they wrapped it in goat skin and placed it in a 
wooden case. ^} 


A NCIENT EMBALMING 


235 


ON THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

Among Early Peruvians. —Without doubt, the aborigines 
of the Western Continent were familiar with the practice of this 
•art. The early Peruvians, we learn from accounts contained in 
Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru,” preserved the dead body of the 
royal Incas by some marvelous process which did not give 
evidence of foreign applications, and secreted them under 
mounds of earth and in the interiors of their temples. He 
presents an ancient picture of these embalmed Peruvian mon- 
archs sitting “ natural as life, in the chairs of gold,” in the 
temples of the sun, at Cuzco. They were clothed in their accus¬ 
tomed princely attire. The raven-black or silver=gray of the 
hair on their bowed heads was still unchanged, and their hands 
were crossed upon their bosoms in the grim dignity of death. 

The Aztecs, a highly civilized race, and one of the most 
interesting and powerful of the indigenous tribes of America, 
inhabiting the plateau of Anahuac, later known as Mexico, who 
were conquered by Cortez in 1519, and whose history has been 
traced back to the twelfth century, made careful preservation of 
the bodies of their dead, especially those who could claim royal 
descent. Aztec legends relate how, after the deluge, seven per¬ 
sons issued from the tomb to which their mummied bodies had 
been committed, and, in renewed existence, repeopled the earth. 

North American Indians. —The art was not unknown 
among the early North American Indians. Mummies remark¬ 
ably well preserved have been found among the Flatheads, 
Dakotas, and Chinooks ; and the Florida and Virginia Indians 
•so preserved the bodies of their kings. Quite a number of good 
mummies have been found in Kentucky caves. 

In 1899, the well-preserved mummy of a woman and child 
was found in a cave in the Yosemite Valley, which, on account 
-of its almost giant size (6 feet, 8 inches), and other character¬ 
istics, some authorities believe to be a relic of the lost tribe of the 
stone age, possibly antedating the Christian era 3,000 years. 


CHAMPION TEXT.BO OK ON EMBALMING 


AMONG EARLY CHRISTIANS. 

The Early Christians, for a time, embalmed their dead, 
according to those forms with which they were familiar in 
Palestine. No special reason, so far as we have been able 
to determine, has been given for their abandonment of this 
ceremony. It may be inferred that they feared, by its continu¬ 
ance, to cast discredit upon the power of God to call together 
the scattered dust of the body which had returned to its native 
element, and present it like unto Christ’s “own glorious body” 
on the morning of the resurrection. But, if so, in this they 
erred. When the Creator stated to Adam, “For dust thou art, 
and unto dust slialt thou return,” he put forth a simple statement 
of fact; it was not the issuance of a command. 

No word was ever spoken by Jesus indicating his disapproval 
of attempts, with which, as a Jew, he was fully familiar, to pre¬ 
serve the body from decay after death. St. Paul, the greatest 
of the Christian apostles, inquired of the Corinthians: “ What f 
know ye not that your body is a temple of the Holy Ghost 
which is in you, which we have of God and ye are not your 
own ?” Men preserve with care, in original grandeur and 
dignity, the palace where an earthly king has dwelt, and the inn 
where some mighty man has tarried for a night. Shall they let 
this temple of the “King of Kings” become dishonored so long 
as preservation is a possibility ? Shall they willingly give it 
over to decay and corruption? 

No ; let us care for the body, made in God’s own image, while 
we live ; and let our friends, in recognition of the temple it has 
been—of the soul and its Creator—give to it all the deference 
they can offer, when we shall have passed on to dwell in it 
no more, 

“Until the morning’s happier light 
Its glory shall restore, 

And eyelids that are sealed in death 
Shall wake to close no more.” 


CHAPTER XV. 


MODERN EMBALMING. 


Great progress has been made in embalming, especially 
during the present (nineteenth) century,and earlier methods have 
given way to more modern and 'enlightened ones. The begin¬ 
ning of these modernized methods was made as early as the 
-seventeenth century, as the following account will show. Which 
one of the early modern embalmers justly merits the title of 
father of the present system matters but little, for like every 
form of advancement it has had growth and development, and 
the methods of none of these forerunners have survived, at least 
in this country ; only their investigations led into new channels, 
resulting ultimately in the prevailing methods. 

The processes explained in this chapter are exclusively 
European. 

Dr. Frederic Ruyscli, who occupied the chair of anatomy at 
Amsterdam, Holland, during the closing third of the seventeenth, 
and early years Qf the eighteenth, century (1665-1717), was 
probably the first to practice a successful system of arterial in¬ 
jection, whicji, however, he used only in preparing specimens 
for his anatomical work. He did not stop with a simple injection 
of the arteries, but, after permitting the body to remain for some 
hours to allow a diffusion of the fluid through the structures, lie 
proceeded to lay open the body as in making a post-mortem 
examination. The viscera of the chest and abdomen were 
removed, and the fluid in them sponged out. The organs were 
then steeped in spirits of wine, replaced, and covered with a 
preservative solution. He brought his method of preserving- 
dead bodies to such extreme perfection that his specimens were 




238 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


'the wonder of his generation, and indeed of later ones. Peter 
the Great, who was among the distinguished personages to in¬ 
spect his work, possibly paid the highest compliment to his art 
by kissing the lifelike lips of a child preserved by the great 
anatomist, without at first discovering the fact that the lips were 
those of the dead. Dr. Ruysch’s method is said to have pre¬ 
served the natural color of the bodv, as well as the form and 
suppleness of the limbs. He left behind him at his death a 
large assortment of injected portions of the human body, but no 
specimen of the body entire. Peter the Great secured a large 
number of these specimens, which he carried to St. Petersburg. 
Whether or not the Ruyscliian method was as perfect as claimed 

for it, or whether some of the statements concerning it should 

«* 

be largely discounted, the brilliant anatomist was the first known 
arterial injector, as well as one of the most skilful of any age. 
However, he neglected to take the world, or other scientists, into 
his confidence; hence, but little, if anything, is now known as 
to the chemicals used by him, or the manner of their injection. 
His discoveries were, consequently, lost to science. For this 
reason, others, whose methods were published to the world, have 
been considered by many as better entitled to the honor natu¬ 
rally accruing from a great discovery. 

Dr. William Hunter, an eminent Scottish physician, anato¬ 
mist, and physiologist of the eighteenth century (1718-1783), is- 
given the credit by many of being the original inventor of the 
injection method. Unlike Dr. Ruysch he published his plan of 
injection in minute detail. The artery usually selected by him 
was the femoral. His solution was composed of oil of turpen¬ 
tine, five pints; Venice turpentine, one pint; oil of lavender, 
two fluid ounces ; oil of rosemary, two fluid ounces ; and Ver¬ 
million. This was forced into the vessel until it reached over 
the whole body, giving the skin a general reddish appearance. 
As in Dr. Ruysch’s method, complete diffusion of the fluid,, 
through the minute vessels of the body, was secured by leaving 


MODERN EMBALMING 


239 


the body untouched for a time. The body was then opened, the 
thoracic and abdominal organs were removed, emptied, and 
cleaned, their vessels injected with the fluid, and the organs 
steeped in camphorated spirits of wine. The cavities were 
washed with the camphorated spirits, the viscera were replaced, 
and the intervening spaces were filled with a powder composed 
of camphor, rosin, and niter. This powder was also placed in 
the mouth, nostrils, and other external cavities, and the body 
was rubbed over with essential oils of rosemary and lavender. 
The final operation consisted in placing the body thus prepared 
in a coffin upon a bed of dry plaster of Paris, put there to extract 
all moisture from the body. The coffin was then closed for four 
years, when it was opened. In case desiccation had not been 
complete by this time, another bed of the plaster was added. 

John Hunter (1728-1793), a younger brother of William, 
was but little less renowned along the same lines, and also 
helped greatly to advance the science of embalming, devoting 
much attention to experiments witli various preparations. 

Some of the most perfect specimens of modern embalming to 
be seen to-day are Hunterian, and are found in the museum 
of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. One is the body of 
the wife of the eccentric Martin A r an Butchell, preserved, some 
authorities say, by Dr. John Hunter, by the injection of cam¬ 
phorated spirits of wine, etc., into the arteries and veins. Other, 
and probably more creditable, authorities ascribe the work of 
preservation to the older brother, and declare that the method 
used was the same as the one so fully outlined above. Another 
body preserved in this museum was that of a young woman, 
who died about 1780, in the Lock Hospital, of consumption. 

The Hunterian Method was practiced with or without modi¬ 
fication by many succeeding British anatomists. Dr. Matthew 
Baillic, instead of removing the intestines or other viscera, in¬ 
jected the preserving fluid into the stomach, lungs, and rectum, 
after having made a complete injection of the arterial system. 


240 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Dr. Sheldon used as liis preservative fluid camphor dissolved in 
spirits, in the proportion of one ounce of camphor to six of 
spirits. He removed the viscera, and coated them and the vis¬ 
ceral cavities with tar, enveloping the body with a tarred sheet. 
His method is said to have been successful. Joshua Brooks, the 
last of the great English anatomists having a distinctive school 
of anatomy of his own, practiced the Hunterian method with 
but slight if any alteration. 

M. Bomlet’s Process was a modification of the Egyptian, he 
being one of the last to follow ancient methods, as well as the 
first to use corrosive sublimate as a preservative. He embalmed 
with tan, salt, asphalt, Peruvian bark, camphor, cinnamon, and 
other aromatics, and corrosive sublimate. Pie also completely 
enveloped the body in bandages, varnish being coated over the 
body and cavities and outer bandage. 

M. Franchini’s Process consisted of injecting the arteries 
through the common carotid artery with a solution consisting 
of eight decigrams of arsenious acid, combined with a small 
quantity of cinnabar, dissolved in nine kilograms of spirits of 
wine. By this method bodies could be kept odorless and natural 
in color for sixty days, after which they began to desiccate, and 
would mummify so as to last for all time. He had previously 
used a substance which had to be reduced to a fluid by heat 
and which became hard when cooled. This was given up for 
the simpler method outlined above. 

Jean Nicholas Gannel (1791-1852), a shrewd and pro¬ 
gressive French chemist, introduced a new system of merit in 
the 30’s of this (nineteenth) century. Indeed several methods 
bear his name, for he used different preparations at different 
times. He claimed to be able to preserve a body for five or six 
months by using acetate of alumina, which he obtained by 
decomposing sulphate of alumina and potash by the. action of 
acetate of lead, using five or six liters of this acetate of alumina 
of a density of 18° (Beaumi’s areometer) to a body. He was also 



MODERN EMBALMING 


241 


able to preserve a body thirty to sixty days by using a solution of 
one kilogram of sulphate of alumina to five liters of water. In 
injecting the body he used one of the carotids, injecting down¬ 
ward. Later he found it necessary to open the abdomen in 
order to relieve the stomach and bowels of gas. M. Gannal’s 
secret formula, which he claimed contained no arsenic, on being 
analyzed by a governmental commission, was found to contain 
that substance. Embalming with arsenious solutions having 
become common in France in Louis Philippe’s time, the govern¬ 
ment interfered and prohibited the sale of arsenic, and all com¬ 
positions containing it, for embalming bodies, as well as for 
several other uses. The further use of M. Gannal’s solution was 
therefore stopped. This prohibited solution was formed by 
saturating forty liters of water with five hundred grains of 
arsenious acid, and dissolving therein by heat equal parts of 
sulphate and acetate of alumina, until the liquid attained a 
density of 20° (Beaumi’s areometer). 

Dr. Gannal, of Paris, son of the above, and himself a chemist 
of no mean note, recently communicated the following concern¬ 
ing his father’s method, which is presumedly the system still 
adhered to by himself: — 

“My father found in 1836 that chlorid of aluminum injected 
into the carotid artery had a remarkably preservative effect. 
* * * My father’s system, which lias not' been changed, con¬ 

sists in injecting a quantity of the liquid, which marks 32° of 
density, estimated at ten per cent, of the weight of the body. 
About half an hour suffices for the injections, and for the rest 
of the process an hour and a half. After the liquid has been 
injected into the arteries the body is wrapped in bands of flannel, 
covered with a sheet and then laid in a leaden coffin. 1 hen 
four or five liters of various essences are poured over the body, 
and the coffin is finally soldered up. In this way the remains 
are absolutely preserved indefinitely.” 

Dr. Gannal disapproves of the use of a glass plate in the 
coffin or casket, as he says air will inevitably find its way in, 
which is not desirable ; though he admits that the only result 

2-3 



242 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK OX EMBALMING 


of this exposure to the air is that the body becomes a dry, hard, 
parchmentslike mass. He concludes with a list of distinguished 
Frenchmen embalmed by his father and himself. 

M. Sucquet, in a contest before a board of prominent French 
physicians, in which MM. Gannal, Dupre, and others partici¬ 
pated, won a signal victory for his method, using a nomarsenic 
preparation. His solution was composed chiefly of chlorid of 
zinc, which he injected arterially. M. Dupre made use of car¬ 
bonic and sulphurous gasses, and M. Gannal injected a solution 
composed of equal parts of the sulphate and the chlorid of 
alumina, at a density of 34°. Bodies prepared according to 
these processes in the presence of the board of physicians men¬ 
tioned, were buried for fourteen months, when they were disin¬ 
terred in the presence of the same commission. M. Gannal’s 
subject was found to have undergone putrefaction, while the one 
prepared by M. Sucquet was in an excellent state of preserva¬ 
tion. The latter body, on exposure to the air, without showing 
any signs of putrefaction, dried to a state of hardness little 
short of that of wood or stone. In consequence of the remark¬ 
able success of M. Sucquet’s method, it came into extensive use 
on the continent of Europe and to a considerable extent in this 
country. 

M. Falcony had a desiccatory process which mummified the 
body, giving it a yellow appearance, but preserving it well, by 
simply placing the body, without any mutilation or injection, in 
a bed of dry sawdust to which powdered zinc sulphate had been 
added. In a paper read before the French academy, he said 
he found, after careful tests with different salts, zinc sulphate 
of different degrees of strength, according to the condition of 
the body, weather, etc., to be the best preservative material; that 
a gallon would perfectly preserve a body. Bodies so preserved 
remained flexible for about forty days, after which they began 
to dry up, though still retaining their natural color. Others 
practiced this system with remarkable success. 


) 


MODERN EMBALMING 


243 


Dr. Chaussier’s Method, as given in Tlienard’s Chemistry, 
was, in brief, as follows : The body, completely emptied and 
thoroughly washed, was kept constantly saturated with corrosive 
sublimate ; the salt gradually combined with the flesh, giving it 
firmness and rendering it imputrescible and incapable of being 
injured by insects or worms. The author states that he has seen 
a head prepared in this manner, which had been exposed for 
several years to the alternation of sun and rain without suffering 
change, and was easily recognized, though the flesh had become 
hard as wood. 

Franciolla’s Method was not greatly different from some of 
the others given. The formula used by him was as follows: 
arsenious acid, four ounces ; carbonate of potash, two ounces; 
powdered alum, eight ounces. The acid and potash were dis¬ 
solved by boiling in three quarts of water, the alum added, and 
the whole diluted by the addition of water until it made one 
gallon of the preparation. He opened the abdomen, emptied 
the stomach and other organs, washed, dried, and injected them ; 
then injected the bronchial tubes by puncturing the trachea. 
For arterial injection the right common carotid artery was 
selected, the blood being removed from the veins by puncturing 
the inferior vena cava, a little below the renal vein, and the 
jugular vein. The blood was let out of the vena cava before 
the abdomen was cleansed, and was removed by a sponge or 
pump. After injecting the head and neck, Franciolla turned 
the injector downward and continued the injection until com¬ 
pleted. Later in his practice he selected the splenic artery for 
injecting. He poured a solution over the bowels before replac¬ 
ing them ; a strong solution of bichromate of potash being 
sometimes used, though not with the best of satisfaction. He 
also advocated filling the abdominal and thoracic cavities with 
a liquid preparation of corn-starch, water, alcohol, and corrosive 
sublimate, which, after hardening, would prevent the sinking of 
the parts. 


244 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Brunetti, another Italian, used a method, which, it is claimed, 
reserved bodies so that they resisted decay for hundreds of 
years, but they became hard as stone and were of course 
useless for anatomical study. They, however, retained their 
form and size in a remarkable degree. By this process the 
circulatory system was thoroughly cleansed by washing for Irom 
two to five hours with cold water, until it issued from the 
body looking clear. Alcohol was then injected to remove the 
water, and sulphuric ether to carry out of the system all fatty 
and greasy substances, these operations occupying five to ten 
hours. Equal time was spent in injecting a strong solution 
of tannin, after which the body was dried by means of a current 
of warm air which had been passed over heated chlorid of 
calcium. 

A Method in Vogue in Belgium lias proven quite successful, 
though the process is tedious and requires considerable time for 
the preparation of the body. The preserving fluid is composed 
of the following ingredients : onedialf pound each of alumina 
and sulphate of alumina, and one ounce of corrosive sublimate, 
dissolved in one gallon of water. The bod}^ is first thoroughly 
washed with soap and tepid water to remove every particle 
which might obstruct the pores of the skin, for the process 
depends largely upon absorption of the solution through the 
pores. After the body has been thoroughly dried by the vigor¬ 
ous use of clean towels, the solution is applied externally, keeping 
the body moist. The application must be renewed from time to 
time as absorption and evaporation lessen the supply. The 
theory of this part of the process is to keep the body as nearly 
as possible completely immersed. The stomach and intestines 
are removed through an incision in the abdomen and thor¬ 
oughly cleaned. Blood is withdrawn from the system by open¬ 
ing the inferior vena cava, and the arteries are injected through 
the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is punctured and the 
pleural cavities are filled with a solution of arsenite of soda. 


MODERN EMBALMING 


245 


Dr. TscheirnofTs Method was as interesting as it was thor¬ 
ough, but its necessaiy expensiveness was fatal to its general 
use. The mutilation of the body, incident to this method, also 
detracted from its popularity. He first opened the abdomen by 
making an incision extending from the sternum to the umbilical 
region, with a short cross incision about midway. This gave a 
diamond'Shaped opening exposing the abdominal viscera. En¬ 
trance to the thoracic cavity was gained by carefully cutting the 
ribs loose from the sternum and turning the latter back over 
the face. This exposed to view the heart, lungs, and aortal 
arch. The next step was to displace the bowels and sponge out 
all fluid or serum found around the intestines. The intestines 
and other internal organs, whose contents were liable to putre¬ 
faction, were emptied, the bladder being vacated through the 
urinary canal by means of a catheter, after which they were 
injected with fluid. He then injected the arteries through 
the descending aorta, which was exposed by moving the small 
intestine to the right, to be replaced on completion of the 
operation. 

This did not complete the surgical part of the process, for the 
back of the skull was trepanned, making a twofinch circular 
hole, through which the brain, or as much of it as could be 
reached, was removed by means of a long=handled, slender, 
specially'made spoon. This cavity was filled with a thin paste 
made by fully saturating a halfigallon of water with alum, and 
thickening to the proper consistency by the addition of plaster 
of Paris. The wound was then carefully closed and sewed up. 
The thoracic and abdominal cavities and their contents were 
washed and dried and the viscera surrounded with tannic acid. 
The sternum was then replaced and the wound temporarily 
closed, and the body completely enveloped in a sheet saturated 
with fluid, in which-condition it was left for twelve hours. The 
envelop was then removed, the cavities of the thorax and abdo¬ 
men reopened, and the plaster of Paris and alum paste, men- 



246 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


tioned above, was poured over and around the viscera, filling all 
the space to the level of the ribs. After the paste set tannic 
acid was sprinkled over the top, the sternum was replaced and 
the wound carefully and permanently sewed up. The inside 
of the mouth was filled with cotton saturated with embalming 
fluid, in order that the face should retain its fulness ; the nose- 
cavity was also filled with paste. The entire body w T as coated 
finally with a preparation of Canada balsam and turpentine, 
which is transparent and excludes the air. 

The Florentine Process of embalming, used chiefly for the 
preservation of subjects for the dissecting table, as described by 
Dr. Venali, an Italian authority on the subject, was somewhat 
like Dr. TscheirnofFs. The abdomen was opened by a trans¬ 
verse incision across the body, the stomach and intestines emptied 
of any gaseous, liquid, or solid contents, and then injected ; the 
cavity cleaned, sponged, and sprinkled with tannic acid. The 
thoracic cavity was entered from the abdomen, through the dia¬ 
phragm, and similarly treated. Arterial injection was made 
through the femoral artery, the opening being m'ade about eight 
inches below Poupart’s ligament. 

A German Process of preservation is given, which, when 
properly followed, has kept bodies so perfectly that they retained 
their form, color, and flexibility, so that, after a period of several 
years even, they made good subjects for purposes of dissection, 
and were free from offensive smells. The formula for this pre¬ 
serving fluid is as follows : in 3,000 grams of boiling water, 
dissolve alum, 100 grams ; sodium chlorid, 25 grams ; potash, 60 
grams ; arsenic acid, 10 grams. This solution is then cooled 
and filtered to 10 liters, when four liters of glycerine and one 
liter of mythylic alcohol is added. Bodies are injected arterially 
and saturated with the liquid, 8 or 10 liters being used to a 
body, according to the size and condition. 

Dr. Efisio Marini, a surgeon of Naples, has been attracting 
no little attention in recent years by his much^vaunted preserva- 







MODERN EMBALMING 


247 




tive scheme, claimed to rival the best methods of embalming the 
world has ever seen. According to reports he does not incise, 
nor does he inject; he simply submits his subject to a series 
of baths in a liquid, the composition of which he, perhaps 
wisely, keeps to himself. If these reports are to be believed, 
decomposition is prevented to the end of time ; there is nothing 
leathery about the appearance of the body ; when desired for 
anatomical purposes, the subject may be made, to regain all its 
primitive freshness ; carry the treatment to a further stage, and 
the subject attains the density, as well as the consistency, of 
marble, giving the true metallic ring when tapped with a key ; a 
final process will restore the softness, the flexibility, and even 
the complexion it possessed when alive. As Dr. Marini’s method 
is used almost exclusively for preserving bodies for anatomical 
purposes, naturally none of his subjects have been reported as 
reaching: this countrv, so verification of these remarkable claims 
is not possible. 

Embalming but Little Practiced in England. —Singularly 
enough, while the English, in the latter portion of the eighteenth, 
and first part of the nineteenth, century, made such wonderful 
progress in embalming, the art is but little practiced to-day in 
that country ; and then generally for others than natives of 
Great Britain—especially for Americans. The late Dr. Benjamin 
Ward Richardson, F. R. C. S., in his work on “The Art of Em¬ 
balming,” published a few years ago, said : — 

“Embalming at the present day is, in England, an exceptional 
process, and when we are called upon to perform it here, it is, in 
ninety mine cases out of the hundred, for some one foreign to 
our country. I have embalmed fifty bodies, but only in two 
or three instances the bodies of English people, and in these 
exceptional instances the deceased, although they were born and 
died in England, had lived the greater part of their lives abroad, 
and were embalmed in order to be conveyed to friends at a 
distance, who wished to bury them.” 

The Sunnyside, of New York, in a recent issue, published the 



248 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


following concerning the condition of bodies embalmed abroad 
and shipped to this country: — 

“No Good Embalming Done Abroad.- —As an evidence of 
how limited is the knowledge of embalming in Europe it is 
stated as a fact, by the New T York supply bouses, that, with but 
very few exceptions, all bodies received from Europe are in a 
revolting condition, unfit to be seen by any of the friends or 
relatives. The exceptional few cases were those received from 
H. L. Mills, a London undertaker who graduated from the U. S. 
School of Embalming, and Beiliold Wiesel, Frankfort, Germany, 
who, by the way, has long been a regular reader of The Sunny- 
side , and a student of the ‘Champion Text'Book on Embalming/ 
Mr. Wiesel, like Mr. Mills, does modern arterial work. 

“Bodies have been received in New York for the embalming 
of which French ‘embalmers’ charged from $100 to $500 and 
not a single one lias ever been presentable. Most of them were 
in the worst stages of decomposition rendering an immediate 
resealing of the casket imperative. 

“A few bodies have been received from Egypt and Japan, well 
preserved, but in a mummified condition. The embalming 
process had evidently been akin to the ancient Egyptian mode. 
That is, all the viscera, etc., had been removed and herbs, spices, 
ointments, and bandages, had been freely used. No bodies 
embalmed by Dr. Marini’s much-vaunted process have reached 
this country, hence the expert embalmers of New York have 
had no opportunity of judging his skill. From the foregoing 
the conclusion is reached that what the foreign world most 
sadly needs are embalmers using modern, up-to-date American 
methods. In view of this it is remarkable that there are no 
foreign undertakers, especially European, progressive enough 
to study the art and science of American embalmers.” 

The editor of the above-mentioned journal, in response to an 
inquiry as to the reliability of this information, emphasizes it as 
follows : — 

“ We consider the information in ‘ No Good Embalming Done 
Abroad’ reliable to this extent, that in New York, at which 
point nine-tenths of the bodies received from Europe arrive, 
seldom does the body arrive in a condition that will permit of 
the casket being open for even an hour. My information was 


MODERN EMBALMING 


249 


received from several supply house embalmers, wlio have to 
handle bodies received from foreign countries. Again, on the 
arrival of the body of every prominent person, I have asked 
if the casket had been opened, and about the embalming, and in 
ninety-nine cases out of one hundred, have been informed that 
the body had gone to pieces.” 

However, within the last few years some interest has been 
developed among British undertakers on the subject of embalm¬ 
ing, brought about largely through the introduction of the earlier 
editions of this work into that country, and the agressive policy 
of its publishers. 

Two of the papers published in that country in the interest 
of the undertakers, have more or less vigorously advocated em¬ 
balming, and whereas one undertaker, a few years ago, claimed 
to be the only person holding a diploma from an American 
school of embalming, and was thus supposed to be able to em¬ 
balm, now quite a number of undertakers advertise to do 
embalming. 

What has been said about the British undertakers does not 
apply, however, to the profession in its advanced Australian 
possessions, where embalming is said to be practiced quite 
extensively. 


CHAPTER XVI. 


UP-TO-DATE EMBALMING. 


European methods and processes were treated of wholly in 
the last chapter; in this and succeeding chapters the latest and 
most improved processes in vogue in this country will be taken up. 

The Methods of To-day, especially as practiced in America, 
are far in advance of those of three thousand years ago, or 
indeed of any processes that have been practiced in the distant 
or more recent past. We do not eviscerate, or make any inde¬ 
cent exposure of the remains ; and we accomplish in a few hours 
what our old friends, the Egyptians, required days and weeks to 
perform. Our modern methods, simplified by our modern in¬ 
struments and appliances, place us in a position where compari¬ 
son with the crude work of the Egyptians would be odious. 

Prof. Charles W. McCurdy, ScJ)., Ph.D., in his recently pub¬ 
lished thesis on “ Embalming and Embalming Fluids,” has well 
said : 

In fact, the methods of embalming as taught and practiced 
in the present, demand a higher order of intelligence, a more 
thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the body, a steadier judg¬ 
ment, and a more skilful hand, than was at any time required of 
or presented by the ancients, who relied largely upon atmos¬ 
pheric influences for the preservation of their dead. 

******* 

Were modern embalmers so disposed, I have no doubt they 
could attain the preservative excellence of their ancient brethren, 
indeed far surpass them, and prepare our dead for the judgment 
day ; but, embalming, except for temporary convenience, as a 
rule, is not deemed desirable here or in Europe ; and as it forms 
no part of the theological system of Christian nations, we have 
no ambition to rival them in mummification. 


250 




UP-TO-DATE EMBALMING 


251 


The late Dr. Thomas Holmes, of Brooklyn, N. Y., whose death 
took place January 9, 1900, at the age of 83, without doubt, is 
entitled justly to the honor of being called the “father of em¬ 
balming” in this country. During the War of the Rebellion, Dr. 
Holmes embalmed many bodies for shipment to their friends, to 
be buried in the cemeteries near their old homes, instead of being- 
left to moulder in the clay of alien soil. 

Embalming is practiced to-day chiefly for two reasons, viz : 
that of preservation and that of sanitation. Other minor reasons 
may be advanced, but these are the principal ones. 

PRESERVATION AS A REASON. 

In performing the “last sad rites” over the dead, the period of 
mourning prior to interment usually lasts from two to four days, 
and in case of shipment the time intervening between the death 
and burial sometimes is prolonged for months. 

Previous to the introduction of embalming as practiced to-day 
in this country, the undertaker, or whoever took charge of the 
funeral, usually had to handle a putrefying mass of animal tis¬ 
sue, sometimes in a horribly corrupt state, and always with more 
or less putrid odor. Indeed, at the time of the funeral, in such 
cases, the casket frequently had to be closed and allowed to re¬ 
main outside of the church or home while the funeral was being- 
held, on account of the putrescent odor. Of course, ice, where 
used, would, in some cases, modify these .results to a certain extent. 
Sometimes rigor mortis, when well marked, would last lor the 
“usual period of time,” preventing putrefaction. But still, in 
extremely hot weather, this was not sufficient to prevent the com¬ 
mencement of putrefaction. 

With the increased demand for more expensive funerals came 
the demand for better means of preserving the body until the 
interment could take place. To put a mass ol putrefying animal 
matter into a fine plush casket, or an elegantly finished metallic 
casket, lined with the finest of fabrics, could not be thought ol ; 



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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


therefore, it was necessary to preserve the body until the inter¬ 
ment could be made. 

Moreover the population of this country is migratory. Fami¬ 
lies separate more widely than they do in the older countries. 
One member of a family leaves and goes into a new part of the 
country, or one may be on a visit to friends in a distant part, and 
sicken and die ; or death may be caused by an accident. In 
such instances it becomes necessary to ship the remains to friends, 
maybe a thousand miles distant, taking a period of a week or ten 
days from the time of death until the interment can take place. 
In all such cases, it is necessary to prevent putrefaction, and this 
can be done only by the application of preservatives. 

SANITATION AS A REASON. 

Sanitation as a reason for embalming is one of very great im¬ 
portance. All bodies dying from infectious diseases should be 
thoroughly sterilized, or incinerated at once, for the purpose of 
destroying the germs of contagion and infection. If the body is 
to be interred, then embalming will be the only safe means by 
which these micro-organisms can be destroyed. 

By the action of the National Baggage Agents’ Association, 
with the aid of enactments of legislatures and boards of health, 
in many States, it is made incumbent upon every person who 
ships bodies dying from infectious diseases or who holds public 
funerals, to embalm them thoroughly, and prepare.them in a 
manner that will prevent dissemination of disease. Health 
boards in every State, county, city, and town, where such laws are 
not already in force, should require this. It would lessen the 
danger in our own, and be a safeguard to future generations, if 
all bodies, whether to be shipped or not, were disinfected thor¬ 
oughly. 

If interred without disinfection, the spores of the bacteria are 
not destroyed, and, as they will retain their vitality for a long 
time in either earth or water, they remain a constant source of 


UP- TO DA TE EMBALMING 


253 


danger. Our water supplies may become contaminated by 
streams running through or near cemeteries, which receive the 
drainage therefrom, and take up the spores and convey them to 
any distance, thus spreading the disease. The occasional chang¬ 
ing of cemeteries, and the frequent disinterment and removal of 
bodies from one burial place to another, are the means often of 
spreading disease, where disinfection was not effected at the time 
of burial. Therefore, the thorough embalmment, and consequent 
disinfection, of all bodies is the only safeguard and should be 
rigorously enforced. 

NECESSITY FOR THOROUGH EMBALMMENT. 

Embalming, as practiced by the majority of undertakers, will 
not thoroughly sterilize the body, for the reason that the fluid 
injected does not reach all the tissues, nor does it extend to the 
abnormal and fecal matter contained in the viscera and within 
the cavities of the body. Too many employ only the cavity 
method of treating the body, which, in many cases, with the aid 
of rigor mortis and an average temperature, will be sufficient to 
preserve the body for the “ usual length of time,” but it will not 
disinfect it. 

Again, the artery may be raised at some point and fluid 
injected, in addition to the operations upon the cavities, and still 
the body will not be sterilized, because enough fluid has not 
been used. To thoroughly disinfect a body, a strong disinfectant 
fluid should be used and in sufficient quantity to fill the capil¬ 
laries of the entire system ; also to fill the lungs, alimentary 
canal, and pleural and peritoneal sacs. 

It will take more fluid for this purpose than is usually injected. 
Two or three quarts injected into the arteries, and a like amount 
injected into the cavities, of a body weighing 175 to 200 pounds, 
is not sufficient. It cannot be stated exactly how much fluid 
should be injected into a body, but a rule we have followed more 
recently has been to inject into the arteries a quantity equal to 


254 


CHAMPION TEXT, BO OK OX EMBALMING 


about one-twentieth of the weight of a body of average size. 
In a smaller body, a little larger ‘proportion might be injected, 
and in a larger body a little less. This amount will be sufficient 
to fill the capillaries, and, when the body is in a perfectly relaxed 
state, can be easily injected. If a body is in a rigid condition,, 
or the walls of the arteries are contracted, it will be impossible 
to inject this amount, but a much greater amount can be injected 
in some bodies. Frequently, from two to three gallons can be 
introduced into the arteries of an average=sized body ; this quan¬ 
tity will do no harm, unless the fluid is composed of chemicals 
that will affect the tissues, by causing discoloration. 

The Condition, Appearance, and Disease, of the body to 
be embalmed should be taken into consideration before com¬ 
mencing the operation. If post-mortem contraction of the 
arteries has taken place and passed off, and the blood lias settled 
into the dependent parts, and no discoloration appears upon the 
surface, the artery can be raised and the injection of fluid follow 
at once ; but, if the face be discolored, the body should be placed 
on an incline and blood should be withdrawn from the heart 
and vessels. This can best be accomplished by alternately with¬ 
drawing the blood and injecting fluid. The morbid condition 
resulting from the disease should be understood, and the parts 
involved should be injected thoroughly. If gases are present 
in the cavities they should be removed through the hollow- 
needle and fluid injected before the removal of the needle, for 
the reason that the fluid should be mixed with the material 
from which the gas is produced, in order to thoroughly ster¬ 
ilize it. 

Sometimes the fluid cannot be injected through the arteries on 
account of their obstruction by clots, disease of their walls, or 
extensive mutilation. When this is the case, fluid may be in¬ 
jected hypodermically through the cellular or fatty tissues im- 
diately beneath the skin, over the upper portion of the body. A 
large amount of fluid can be injected in this manner, which. 



UP-TO-DATE EMBALMING 


255 


settles downward, gravitating through the tissues, perfectly ster¬ 
ilizing them. 

Appearance after Thorough Embalmment. —Changes in 
the appearance of the surface, owing to the chemicals contained 
in the fluid that has been injected into the body, will manifest 
themselves, very likely, within a few hours after death. A lifelike 
appearance will follow the introduction of some fluids, while a 
marbledike whiteness, or a brownish or leaden tinge succeeds the 
use of others. In some bodies none of the above changes occur. 
These changes will indicate that the fluid is having an effect 
upon the rete mucosum and dermis only, and not, as some 
would have you believe, that the body will keep forever. Neither 
does it indicate, in those bodies where the changes do not take 
place, that a second injection should be resorted to to keep them 
the “usual length of time.” The rule is that ordinary cases do 
not require a second injection, but occasionally an exception will 
occur. Very frequently special cases, such as septicemia, con¬ 
sumption, typhoid fever, peritonitis, morphine cases, etc., require 
a second or even a third injection. Cases to be preserved indefi¬ 
nitely, such as those to be shipped, those to be kept for identifi¬ 
cation, those to be placed in family vaults, etc., may require a 
number of injections. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGNS, AND CHANGES. 


MODES OF DEATH. 

A little experience in the sick chamber will suffice to teach 
us that, although all men must die, all do not die in the same 
manner. In one instance, the thread of existence is suddenly 
snapped ; the passing from life, and apparent health, perhaps, to 
death, is made in a moment. In another, the process of disso¬ 
lution is slow and tedious, and we hardly know the instant at 
which this change is completed. One man may retain possession 
of his intellectual faculties up to his last breath ; another may 
lie unconscious and insensible to all outward impressions for 
many hours or days before the solemn change is completed. 

In our inquiry and investigation, we seek to ascertain the 
mechanism and the laws governing these mysterious changes. 
In this investigation, we need not go into any deep physiological 
questions respecting conditions that are essential to life. It is 
sufficient for our purpose to remark that life is inseparably con¬ 
nected with continued circulation of the blood. As long as the 
circulation continues, life, or organic life at least, remains. When 
the blood ceases to circulate, death will soon follow. Our in¬ 
quiry into the different modes of death, therefore, resolves itself 
into an investigation of the different ways in which the circula¬ 
tion of the blood may finally cease. 

There is ample provision made in the construction of the body 
for maintaining and carrying on the circulation. First, a great 
hydraulic apparatus is distributed throughout the body, consist¬ 
ing of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Next, there is 
a large pneumatic apparatus within the body, consisting of the 





DEA TH: ITS MODES , SIGNS\ AND CHANGES 


257 


% 

lungs and respiratory tract. These are worked and regulated by 
the power which is vested in the nervous system. If either of 
these systems fails to continue in action the circulation will 
stop, and life will cease. The functions that these machines 
respectively perform are called vital functions ; consequently, the 
heart, the lungs, and the brain are called vital organs. If the 
functions of one of these organs cease, those of the other two 
will be arrested speedily. 

T1 le phenomena of death vary remarkably, according as the 
interruption begins in the one or in the other of these organs. 
Bichat describes death as beginning at the head, beginning at 
the heart, and beginning at the lungs. 

Syncope. —For the heart to continue to propel the current of 
blood, two things are necessary : first, the power or faculty of 
contracting ; second, a sufficient quantity of blood in its chambers 
to be moved, and also to stimulate them to contraction. If this 
proper stimulus is withheld, or is largely deficient, the heart 
will soon cease to beat. This would -indicate, therefore, that there 
are two ways in which death may be said to begin at the heart: 
that of death by anemia ; and that of death by asthenia. Death 
by anemia is caused by want of due supply of blood to the heart; 
in death by asthenia there is a total failure of contractile power 
in that organ. The state of suspended animation common to 
both of these forms of dying is expressed by the term syncope. 

Apnea, Asphyxia. —Death beginning at the lungs is caused 
by the want of due arterialization of the blood. There are two 
perfectly distinct modes in which this cause of death may pro¬ 
ceed. although the ultimate results are identical: first, when ac¬ 
cess of air to the lungs is suddenly prevented by the closure of 


the respiratory tract; second, when the muscles of respiration 
cease to act as a result of some disease or injury of the brain. 
The first form results in death by asphyxia ; the second form, in 


death by coma. 

The term “asphyxia” properly signifies pulselessness, or want of 


24 


258 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


pulse ; but, from long continued use ol its current signification, 
it cannot be restored to its proper meaning without much con¬ 
fusion, although the term “apnea” (privation of breath) would be 
a much better term to express this mode of death, to which the 
word asphyxia is so commonly applied. 

Air may be prevented from entering the lungs in various 
ways : by closure of the mouth and nostrils ; by submersion of 
the same openings in some liquid, or in gases, which, though not 
in themselves poisonous, contain no oxygen ; by mechanical ob¬ 
struction of the larynx or trachea, from within by morsels ol 
food, or from without by hanging ; by pressure upon the chest 
and abdomen, which prevents the movements of the chest, ribs, 
and diaphragm ; by paralysis of the muscles, as from injury or 
disease of the spinal cord, above the origin of the nerves which 
supply the muscles of respiration, including the diaphragm ; or 
from a section of the phrenic or intercostal nerves ; or by wounds 
extending through the walls of the thorax, which admit the air 
freely to the surface of the lungs. It may occur also when botli 
pleurae become filled with liquid, as in dropsy or large effusions. 

If the prevention of air entering the lungs is sudden and com¬ 
plete, certain external phenomena will present themselves: 
strong contractions of all the muscles concerned in breathing 
occur; struggling efforts at respiration are made, prompted by 
the uneasy sensations which every one who has tried how long 
he can hold his breath has experienced, and which, when un¬ 
relieved, soon rises to agony. This extreme distress is transient 
only, being succeeded by sensations of vertigo, then loss of con¬ 
sciousness and convulsions. In a short time all these phenomena 
cease, except a few irregular twitches or tremors of the extremities; 
the muscles relax, but the movements of the heart, and even the 
pulse at the wrist, still continue for a short time after all other 
signs of life cease. During this process, which is only of two or 
three minutes duration, the face becomes flushed and turgid, and 
then livid and purplish. Even before life is extinct the veins of 








DEATH: ITS MODES , SIGNS\ AND CHANGES 259 


the head and neck swell and the eyeballs seem to protrude from 
their sockets. 

The internal changes which cause these outward symptoms 
proceed from the preventing of the chemical alteration, naturally 
produced in the blood within the capillaries of the pulmonary 
circulation. The blood, continuing venous, passes at first in 
considerable quantities into the pulmonary veins, and thence to 
the left side of the heart and, in turn, to all parts of the body. 
This venous blood, loaded with carbonic acid, is inadequate to 
sustain or to excite the functions of the parts it thus reaches. 

In the brain, the effect of the unnatural circulation is felt at 
once and is shown by the convulsions that ensue. The motion 
of the blood in the pulmonary capillaries is impeded from the 
first, and its current is retarded gradually until it stagnates 
altogether. The right cavities of the heart are distended, while 
the venous congestion becomes general. The blood that passes 
through the left side of the heart still retains the carbonic acid, 
and, in a very short time, all the blood in the body is charged 
with this gas, which results in the enfeeblement of the contractile 
power of the heart and arteries, and gives the surface of the 
body that dark-bluish color seen in asphyxiated cases. In this 
state, even after the heart has ceased to beat, if the cause which 
excluded the air be removed, and fresh air he readmitted, as by 
artificial respiration, the venous blood in the pulmonary capil¬ 
laries undergoes the required change—that is, becomes arterial- 
ized—,and begins to pass onward, and, by degrees, the circulation 
is restored. 

When death has occurred from asphyxia, the left side of the 
heart is found to contain a small quantity of dark blood, while 
its right chambers are greatly distended, and the lungs, the vense 
cavee, and the whole venous system, are gorged with venous 
blood. 

After sudden death, however caused, the blood seldom coagu¬ 
lates ; and the venous congestion, consequent upon rapid apnea, 


260 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


although great at first, will subside in due time, by descending 
into the dependent portions of the body. 

Death by asphyxia is extremely common. It may be pro¬ 
duced by anything that will close the glottis, such as edema of 
the subunucous tissues of the larynx, or inflammation or tume¬ 
faction of its lining membrane, or the presence in the windpipe 
and bronchi of what are called false membranes, such as are 
formed in croup, diphtheria, etc. It may be the result of disease 
in the substance of the lungs themselves, preventing them from 
receiving the required amount of air, as in pneumonia and in 
pulmonary apoplexy ; or it may proceed from disorders of the 
bronchial mucous membrane, the air=passages becoming closed 
by excessive secretions, as in bronchitis; or from disease of the 
pleurae, in which there are extensive effusions, causing pressure 
upon the lungs ; or from diseases of any kind which extend into 
the thoracic cavity, with like effect. 

Coma. — Death beginning at the head ends by paralyzing the 
respiration and circulation. The nerve^centers situated above 
the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii are not essential to life, 
except in so far as animal life, and the possibility of adaptation 
to surroundings, are concerned. Diseases of the brain, however, 
are liable to prove fatal by indirect action on the medulla and 
pons through pressure, extension of inflammation, and the like. 
Certain poisons, also, whether introduced from without — such 
as opium and narcotics generally—,or arising within, owing to 
the elimination of waste products, as in uremia, effect the nerve 
centers, both cerebral and spinal, and not only produce uncon¬ 
sciousness, or coma, but also paralyze the respiratory and cardiac 
centers. 

In death produced in this manner, the individual lies uncon¬ 
scious, reflex action is abolished, the breathing becomes ster¬ 
torous, the chest ceases to expand, the blood is no longer aerated, 
and thenceforward precisely the same internal changes occur as 
in death by asphyxia. 


DEATH: ITS MODES,\ SIGNS ,, AND CHANGES 


261 


The differences between the two forms of dying amount to 
this : in death by asphyxia, the chemical changes of the blood 
which take place in the lungs cease first,,and then the circulation 
of venous blood through the arteries suspends the sensibility ; in 
death by coma, the sensibility ceases first, and, in consequence 
of this, the movements of the thorax and the chemical changes 
of the blood which take place in the lungs, cease also. There¬ 
fore the circulation of venous blood through the arteries is in 
one case the cause, and in the other the effect, of the cessation 
of animal life. In one case, the circulation ceases because the 
actions of respiration cease ; while, in the other, the failure of 
the acts of respiration arises from a suspension of the nervous 
powers. 

SIGNS OF DEATH. 

It is not always easy to determine when life is extinct. There 

is no early, single, positive sign to determine whether the solemn 

change has taken place or not. It requires the combination of a 

number of signs to determine when the spark of life has become 

finally extinguished. In apparent death, the functions of the 

vital organs are reduced to such an extent that life seems to be 

destroved. The conditions which most resemble actual death 
«/ 

are syncope, asphyxia, and trance—particularly the last— ; also, 
to some degree, hibernation, hypnotism, and catalepsy. 

Cessation of the Heart’s Action. — The most reliable evi¬ 
dence of death is proof of the cessation of the heart’s action. 
Tiffs proof is very hard to obtain. If it .were possible to cut 
down to and examine the heart ocularly, the proof would be 
positive ; but, to depend upon external tests and signs, the heart 
and large vessels being located so deeply, makes it uncertain. 
Mere pulselessness is no proof, for the heart may still be beating, 
and the blood may be passing through in such a manner that no 
contraction of the smaller branches of the arteries will be percept¬ 
ible to the touch. The ear, placed against the surface of the chest 
over the heart to gather sounds, cannot be relied upon. The use 



262 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of the stethoscope, in the hands of a physician or any other expert, 
and continued for some length of time, may determine whether 
the heart has ceased to act or not. When the body is in a condi¬ 
tion of suspended animation, the heart beats very slowly and 
feebly ; the number of beats may be reduced even to ten or twelve 
per minute, and the heart action be so feeble that it will require a 
positive expert to determine that there is any sound whatever. 

The application of a tight ligature around a finger or toe has 
been recommended by Magnus ; when the string has been so 
applied, if life is extinct and the circulation has ceased entirely, 
there will be no change in color in the surface of the distal end 
of the digit, but, if the circulation still continues, it matters not 
how feebly, the surface of the extremity will sooner or later as¬ 
sume a bluish tint from strangulation of the venous flow. 

If the arm is brought out from the body and placed in a de¬ 
pendent position and an artery raised and opened and found 
empty, it indicates that the heart has ceased to act; if the artery 
is not empty, whether blood spurts from the wound or not, it 
would not be proof that either life or death is present. 

If cessation of the heart’s action is absolutely established, we 
know positively death is present and no other signs need be con¬ 
sidered. 

Cessation of Respiration. —Respiration may appear to be 
suspended, but still may be going on. We may observe the 
chest very closely and not be able to see the least movement; by 
placing the hands over the chest the movement may not be felt. 
The motion of the abdominal wall, that is so constant in the res¬ 
piratory movement, may appear to have ceased entirely, yet res¬ 
piration may be going on very slowly and superficially. 

If a cold mirror be held before the mouth and nostrils, the 
moisture in the air coming from the lungs will be condensed on 
the surface if respiration is going on ; if a flock of cotton wool be 
laid upon the lips and across the nostrils, it will move to and fro 
if respiration has not ceased; if a cup of water be placed on the 


DEATH: ITS MODES\ SIGNS , AND CHANGES 263 


chest, the reflection oil its surface will move if respiration is still 
going on. These are all methods well adapted for the detection 
of respiration. 

If the results are all negative, the indications are that respira¬ 
tion has ceased, but still they are not positive. Moisture coming 
from the body and not from the lungs may condense on the 
cold mirror in sufficient quantity to be noticeable ; the flock of 
cotton across the lips and nose may be moved by air currents 
other than those coming from the lungs ; a movement of the re¬ 
flection on the surface of the cup of water may be observed, 
resulting from shaking of the floor from walking or other 
causes. 

Loss of Vitality. —With the cessation of the circulation, the 
skin becomes ashyqmle in color, which is due to failure of the 
blood to remain in the upper surfaces of the body ; the tissues 
lose their elasticity ; the tension of the eyeball is reduced ; the 
cornea becomes opaque ; the pupils fail to react to light. If life 
is still present and a bright light is thrown on the pupil, the 
pupil will contract, and, on its removal, will dilate again. If life 
be extinct, and the skin is pulled up, it fails to resume its normal 
position at once, having lost its elasticity ; if irritants are applied 
to the skin they do not cause a vital reaction. If a match or 
hot iron be applied to the skin, if life is present, a blister will 
rise and fill in the usual manner; if deatli is present, the blister 
will not appear. If the skin is cut or punctured, the wound will 
remain open, if death is present. 

Certain parts may retain their independent vitality after so¬ 
matic death. The muscles may be made to contract bv the 
application of an electric current two or three hours after death, 
the muscular energy as yet not having disappeared. In cases 
of sudden death, or in diseases that produce great shock to the 
system, contractions of the muscles may take place after death, 
with sufficient force even to change the entire position of the 
body, especially in those who die in full muscular vigor. 




204 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

CHANGES OF DEATH. 

The following changes of the body not only indicate death, 
but aid in fixing the probable time at which death occurred : — 

Cooling* of the Body. —After death, except under certain 
special circumstances, as in fatal cases oi cholera and yellow 
fever, the body ceases to be a source of heat-production, and, 
therefore, is to be looked upon as an inert mass, possessed ol a 
higher temperature than the average medium, which parts with 
heat according to certain physical laws. The superficial coldness 
found in collapse, which is due to the cessation of the peripheral 
circulation, must not be mistaken for cadaveric coldness ; for 
there is still an amount of internal heat after death which has to 
pass off, and the body, which is cold to the touch before death, 
may rise in temperature as the internal heat radiates. A thick 
coating of adipose tissue, a covering of woolen clothing, etc., re¬ 
tards cooling of the body ; a high temperature will also retard, 
while a low temperature will increase, the cooling. 

According to Drs. Wilkes and Taylor, if a body, dying of an 
ordinary disease, is placed in an average temperature in a nude 
condition, it will cool at a rate of about one degree, F., per hour. 
If that be the case, and the conditions of temperature are of the 
average, a body that is found with a surface temperature of 
eighty degrees will have been dead about eighteen and one-half 
hours, the natural temperature of the body being ninety weight 
and one* half degrees ; the difference between eighty and ninety* 
eight and one=half degrees indicates the period of time that has 
intervened since death. 

Hypostasis, or Postmortem Discoloration. —The blood 

gravitates to the dependent parts of the body after death, which 
gives rise to livid discoloration upon the under surface of the 
trunk and neck. These discolorations are termed hypostases, 
and usually occur from eiglit to ten hours after death. In cases 
of long*continued sickness, as for instance in the adynamic fevers 
the muscular power of the body is so weak that the heart and 



DEATH: ITS MODES ; SIGNS\ AND CHANGES 265 


vessels are unable to iorce the blood from the dependent portions 
into the upper parts of the body ; failing to keep it all circulating 
throughout the whole body, it settles and fills the capillaries and 
small vessels of the under surfaces of the body, even while life is 
present, causing discolorations. Then, again, postmortem dis¬ 
colorations may be confounded, in some cases, with ecchymoses, 
or extravisations of blood ; but they differ from ecchymoses in 
the fact that the blood is contained in the vessels and not extrav- 
isated into the tissues, as may be shown by an incision into the 
skin. If the blood remains in a liquid state, the hypostatic dis¬ 
colorations may be made to disappear by turning the body over. 
The fact that these discolorations may appear before death, ren¬ 
ders hypostasis a sign that cannot of itself be depended upon. 

Post-Mortem Staining. —While hypostasis is making its ap¬ 
pearance, other changes are taking place in the upper part of 
the body. The blood undergoes earlier and more rapid change 
than any of the tissues in the body. The hemoglobin escapes 
from the red corpuscles of the blood, partly by. exudation and 
partly by the destruction of the corpuscles themselves, and is 
dissolved in the liquid of the blood, and passes through the walls 
of the vessels into the surrounding tissues, causing a discoloring, 
known as post-mortem staining. This is of a uniform, pinkish- 
red color, and must be distinguished with care from the redness 
of hyperemia, which appears only in points and layers. This 
staining may be noticed along the course of the large vessels, as 
over the ventral regions, and along the external jugulars, the 
saphenous veins, etc. The amount of discoloring is in propor¬ 
tion to the amount of blood in the veins and the rapidity of its 
decomposition. 

Rigor Mortis. —Arrest of nutrition is accompanied in the 
muscles by the state of rigidity, known as rigor mortis, or posh 
mortem or cadaveric rigidity. This rigidity is due to coagula¬ 
tion of the muscle plasma. Tt comes on after the muscular 
energy is used up, or, in other words, as soon as the muscle has 


266 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


lost its vitality—that is, when the application of the poles of the 
battery to the muscle will fail to make it contract. The rigidity 
usually begins in the muscles of the neck and face, and gradually 
extends from above downward, so that while the upper parts of 
the body appear flaccid, the lower extremities are rigid. Putre¬ 
faction usually begins in the same region and follows in the same 
order. As a rule, while rigor mortis is present, putrefaction pro¬ 
gresses very slowly. In rare cases, however, putrefaction goes 
on rapidly in the soft viscera, producing gas sufficient to distend 
the walls of the abdomen and fill the other cavities, while the 
muscles remain markedly rigid. Usually, while rigor mortis is 
present, if fluid is injected into the cavities, preventing the growth 
of the putrefactive bacteria within, the body can be kept “the 
usual length of time; ” this is the reason for the apparent success 
of those who do nothing more than cavity embalming. As soon 
as rigor mortis disappears, the external soft parts of these bodies 
begin to putrefy. 

Rigor mortis takes place in all bodies after death ; the muscles 
become firm and shortened, apparently in a state of chronic con¬ 
traction. The time of its appearance and its intensity depends 
on the state of muscular nutrition at the time of death ; the 
greater the store of muscular energy, the longer it is before rigid¬ 
ity sets in and the longer it lasts ; on the contrary, the greater 
the exhaustion of the body, the sooner the rigidity sets in and 
the sooner it passes off. In persons dying in vigorous health, as 
by accident, rigor mortis is longer in making its appearance than 
in those dying from exhausting diseases, as consumption, the 
adynamic fevers, etc. In cases of full muscular vigor, the rigid¬ 
ity will come on in from one to twelve hours and will last from 
one to ten days ; while in those of exhaustion, it may come on at 
once and pass off within an hour. 

Rigor mortis is not positive as a sign of death, as there is 
rigidity of the muscles following apparent death, as in cases of 
asphyxia or trance. If the body is rigid, in a case in which there 


DEATH: ITS MODES\ SIGNS , AND CHANGES 267 


is a doubt that death is present, the rigidity may be broken up. 
If it is a case of trance or that of contraction of the muscles fol¬ 
lowing drowning, it is likely to return, especially in case of trance ; 
but if death is actually present it will not return. 

Putrefaction is a sure sign of death, but it will not be noticed 
until two or three days or more have supervened ; it cannot be 
considered, therefore, as an early sign. In an average tempera¬ 
ture, the body having died of an ordinary disease, a deep-green 
color will be noticed in the lower surface of the abdomen exter¬ 
nally, and sloughing of the mucous membrane in the throat and 
pillars of the fauces internally. Putrefaction is treated of fully 
in the following chapter. 

SUMMARY OF THE SIGNS OF DEATH. 

It must not be forgotten that somatic deatli must be differen¬ 
tiated from suspended animation due to trance, asphyxia, pro¬ 
found syncope, hibernation, hypnotism, and catalepsy. For this 
purpose we have summarized the following signs of death ; if a 
majority, or a large number at least, of these are affirmative, you 
can rest assured that death is present:— 

If death is present— 

By placing the ear to the chest over the heart, no sounds will 
be heard. 1 

On tying a ligature around an extremity, no swelling or dis¬ 
coloration will appear beyond the ligature. 

If a cold mirror be held over the mouth, the surface will not 
become moistened. 

If the ear is applied over the lungs, no sounds of respiration 
will be heard. 

If a cup of water is placed on the chest, there will be no move¬ 
ments of rays or ripples on the surface. 

If the skin is cut, no blood will flow, nor will the wound close. 

If the skin is punctured by a large needle, the wound will not 
close up. 



268 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


If heat be applied to the skin, no blister will form. 

If ammonia be injected hypodermically, there will be no red¬ 
dening of the skin. 

If the hand of the subject be held to the light, instead of the 
light showing pink through the inner edges of the fingers, it will 
be opaque. 

• The blood sinks in a few hours after death to the most depend¬ 
ent parts, reddening them a livid hue (postmortem discoloration), 
while the upper surfaces become very pale. 

The eves will be sunken into the sockets. 

The eyeballs will become flattened. 

The cornea becomes opaque. 

The iris loses its sensibility to light and hangs loosely, render¬ 
ing the pupil irregular in shape. 

The pupil will neither dilate nor contract, if a strong light is 
held before it. 

The eyelid loses its elasticity. 

The white, transparent color of the conjunctiva is lost, often 
becoming black or gray. 

Rigor mortis may or may not be present. 

The body cools finally to the temperature of the surrounding 
atmosphere. 

If an artery be opened, as a rule, it will be found empty. 

If putrefaction is present, all other signs may be ignored. 

In conclusion, do not consider from this summarizing that each 
sign enumerated is a positive indication of death, or that all of 
them are infallible. But, if a fair number of these signs indicate 
the presence of death, you are justified in the conclusion that 
death is really present. 


CHAPTER XVIII. 


PUTREFACTION: ITS MODIFICATIONS AND PECULIARITIES. 


After death has occurred, the tissues of the body undergo various 
changes as to the color and consistency of the solids, semisolids, 
and fluids. By these changes, known under the several names of 
putrefaction, decomposition, decay, etc., due to the presence of 
bacteria, the tissues are finally resolved into their constituent 
elements. Putrefaction may occur locally during life, and septic 
changes may take place to some extent before death. However, 
the term is not applied, usually, until the changes in color, con¬ 
sistency, and smell are clearly perceptible. Putrefaction may be 
defined as the separating of the constituent elements of the 
body, due to the presence and growth of bacteria. 

The first external sign of putrefaction is a deep-green color in 
the surface of the abdomen, beginning in the right iliac region, 
over the cecum and appendix. This gradually extends until the 
whole wall of the abdomen is covered. If the larynx and trachea 
are examined, the mucous membrane will exhibit changes in 
color and consistencv. 

i/ 

Putrefaction takes place first in the soft or less compact tissues ; 
then the fibrous or harder tissues follow, while the most compact 
tissues, as those of the uterus, resist the final change longest of 
all. In the course of time, however, all of the tissues are entirely 
decomposed, becoming detached from the skeleton, which is ex¬ 
posed and gradually falls to pieces. 

Putrefaction is effected by micro-organisms, known as sapro¬ 
phytes, or putrefactive bacteria. When rigor mortis passes off, de¬ 
composition generally begins. The discolorations that result are 
due to alterations in the transuded hemoglobin. The process of 


209 





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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


putrefaction is accompanied by the generation of gases very 
offensive to the smell, such as sulphureted hydrogen, nitrogen, 
carbonic acid, ammonia, etc. 

It is impossible to say how long it will take for a body to de¬ 
compose, as it depends partly on the condition of the body itself, 
but principally upon temperature, moisture, and exposure. A 
moist, high temperature, with free exposure, favors rapid putre¬ 
faction. A dry, high temperature has a tendency to dry the 
tissues, and in this way produces mummification instead of putre¬ 
faction. Moisture alone tends to produce saponification of the 
tissues, more particularly of the fatty, causing the formation of a 
substance known as adipocere, as when the body lies in water or 
moist earth. (See page 272.) 

Putrefaction progresses more rapidly in the air than in the 
water; while in the earth its progress is much slower than in 
water. With an average temperature, under ordinary circum¬ 
stances, putrefaction will appear about the third day. If the 
temperature be high and moist, it will begin much sooner ; if it 
is extremely high, without moisture, dessication or mummification 
will result, for the reason that bacteria do not grow or develop in 
a high temperature unless moisture is present. If a body dies in 
the high altitudes, where no moisture exists, where there are no 
dews, where the lands have to be irrigated to produce vegetation, 
putrefaction will be very slow if it takes place at all. The atmos¬ 
phere, being so dry, absorbs the moisture from the body so 
rapidly that the bacteria which exist in the body cannot develop. 
If the body be placed in the earth in the high altitudes, where 
the ground is perfectly free from moisture, dessication will result, 
and the body will be preserved for all time. 

At the recent World’s Fair in Chicago, there were several 
mummies from the high table lands of Peru. These, from all 
appearances, had been buried in a sitting posture, indicating that 
they were of the aboriginal tribes and that they may have been 
centuries old. These bodies were not embalmed but were pre- 



PUTREFACTION: ITS MODIFICATIONS 


271 


served by nature’s method. The ancient embalmers seem to have 
been aided by a very dry atmosphere, as mummies are found 
only in countries and localities where natural conditions existed 
that materially aided in dessication or mummification. 

Putrefaction is less rapid in a body placed at some depth in the 
water. This is due, no doubt, to the absence of aerobic bacteria, 
which exist and grow only where there is plenty of oxygen. 
However, there are present in the alimentary canal anaerobic 
bacteria, which develop without free oxygen. The temperature 
of the water being low, these anaerobic bacteria will slowly pro¬ 
duce putrefaction, eliminating gases sufficient to bring the body 
finally to the surface, where the aerobic bacteria will enter, and 
putrefaction will progress more rapidly. 

In some cases that are placed in the ground, putrefaction will 
not begin for a long time, while in others it will progress rapidly. 
In our demonstrations we have noticed the results in a number 
of different cases. A body that had been placed in a very wet 
soil, the top of the box resting under two feet of earth, and water 
entirely covering it, in the month of July, when the temperature 
was very high, at the end of ten days, had the appearance of 
what is commonly called a “ floater putrefaction had progressed 
to a very great degree. In another case the body had been buried 
twenty-four hours after death, during the last week in August, in 
a dry, sandy soil, at a deptli of about five feet, and in December, 
when it was taken up and used for demonstrations, it did not ex¬ 
hibit any signs of putrefaction whatever. 

When the body is exposed to the atmosphere in the low alti¬ 
tudes, in passing through its various changes, it will be many 
months before the soft tissues become entirely disintegrated. 
The uterus has been found fit for judicial examination nine 
months after death, in a case where antiseptics had not been 
used. 

It is difficult to state how far putrefaction shall have advanced 
in a given time, for, under similar conditions apparently, a very 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


great divergence of results have been observed. r lhe necessary 
conditions for putrefaction are heat and moisture. Putrefaction 
will not continue in a temperature below freezing ; neither in a 
high temperature where no moisture exists. 

ADIPOCERE. 

Adipocere ( Adeps, fat; cera, wax) is a substance formed by 
spontaneous change in dead animal tissues. It somewhat re¬ 
sembles spermaceti in consistency and is of a dulhwhite or buff 
color, but it is less crystallin in fracture, the surface being marked 
by blood'vessels and other textures. When adipocere is formed 
in damp situations, or in the early stages of its formation, it is 
soft, and, if rubbed between the fingers, a greasy feeling is com¬ 
municated. Its odor is peculiar and somewhat disagreeable. 

When dissolved in ether, adipocere leaves a delicate, filament¬ 
ous web. It burns with a blue flame, and white ash results. It 
is a soap, composed of margaric and oleic acids, combined with 
ammonia, the fixed alkalis, and alkalin earths. With the age of 
the specimen, the relative proportion of the latter ingredients 
varies. 

If a recent specimen is examined witli the microscope, it is 
found to be composed of broken down tissues and fatty granules, 
together with a few acicular scales or crystals. These granules 
are seen in what was muscular tissue to assume the same arrange¬ 
ment as the muscular filaments, thus having an appearance re¬ 
sembling the early stage of fatty degeneration. 

Adipocere was first described long ago. The flesh of animals 
exposed to moisture or placed in running water will change very 
readily into adipocere. Dilute alcohol or greatly weakened nitric 
acid will produce it in abundance, as is seen in the specimen jars of 
the anatomist. When bodies of men or other animals are buried 
in peat moss, they are frequently found to have been converted 
completely into adipocere. When the bodies were moved from 
the Cimetiere des Innocents , at Paris, to the Catacombs, in 1786-87, 





PUTREFACTION: ITS MODIFICATIONS 


273 


Fourcroy found many of these bodies converted into what he 
named adipocire, which name has since been retained, taking in 
this country, of course, the Anglicized form. It has been sug¬ 
gested that possibly this substance, formed from the waste flesh 
of animals, could be adapted to some useful purpose, but the te- 
nacity of the disagreeable odor, and the presence of other difficul¬ 
ties, have interfered very materially, preventing the suggestions 
from being acted upon. 

Chemists differ in opinion in regard to the immediate changes 
which give origin to adipocere, but when it is considered that 
after death the tissues are usually resolved into their primary ele¬ 
ments by some process, if not by putrefaction, it is possible to per¬ 
ceive that adipocere may be derived, not only from free fat, but 
from elements of fat existing and obtained from decomposition 
of their tissues. It may be described as both an educt and pro¬ 
duct. This opinion is confirmed by the results of the researches 
of Bauer and Yoit, who showed that fatty matter was derived 
from metamorphosis of albumen in starved animals, to which 
phosphorus had been administered. 

The formation of adipocere has a special interest for the path¬ 
ologist, who has pointed out that the change is analogous almost 
to fatty degeneration in the living body, thereby establishing the 
pathological doctrine that fatty degeneration is the result of retro¬ 
grade metamorphosis due to defective nutrition. It is this condi¬ 
tion that is sometimes supposed by the nomprofessioned to be 
petrifaction. 

“ SKIN=SLIP ITS CAUSES AND PREVENTION. 

Its Causes. —Many embalmers have'been led to believe that 
slipping of the skin is caused by certain fluids used in injecting 
the arterial system. This is an error needing correction. “Skim 
slip” is caused by the putrefactive softening of the rete mucosum. 
It occurs in all cases where putrefaction has advanced extensively. 
The early softening is almost exclusively in cases of heart, liver, 


274 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


and kidney diseases, and other morbid changes that result in 
dropsy, and there is always more or less dropsical effusion into 
the subcutaneous tissues which transudes into the rete, result¬ 
ing in putrefactive softening. The general effusion into the sub¬ 
cutaneous and other tissues prevents the fluid from passing 
through the capillaries, thereby interfering with a proper distri¬ 
bution of the fluid to the skin. Slipping of the skin occurs at 
times'when fluid is used only in the cavities, none being injected 
into the arteries ; under such circumstances the fluid certainly 
could not produce “skimslip.” No fluid that contains strong 
antiseptics injected into the vascular system will cause slipping 
of the skin. 

Its Prevention. —Cases that die from diseases causing drop¬ 
sical effusion in the subcutaneous tissues should be handled care¬ 
fully. A little formalin should be added to the fluid that is 

J 

injected, say from one to two ounces to each quart of fluid. Form¬ 
alin hardens the tissues more rapidly and completely than any 
other known substance. Zinc has a similar effect, but it is not so 
rapid or powerful in its action. Formalin, having a great affinity 
for water, will act admirably in this class of cases. It will harden 
the soft layer of the skin, and, at the same time, destroy the 
bacteria. A cloth moistened with formalin, placed upon the 
parts exposed when the skin is slipping, and covered with rubber 
or oiled silk, or something that will exclude the air, will have a 
tendency to harden the soft layer. Such treatment will be satis¬ 
factory and is all that is necessary. 


CHAPTER XIX. 


THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGES. 


The Blood is the circulatory fluid, by means of which the 
nutrition of the body is effected. It carries nourishment to 
all the tissues (except the cuticle, nails, etc.,), and the waste, in the 
form of carbonic acid, to the lungs, where it is thrown off. It is 
a fluid, when pure and free from carbonic acid, of a brigliffred, or 
rather, scarlet color (arterial) ; when impure and full of carbonic 
acid, of a dull'red or purple color (venous). 

The exact proportion of the blood to the entire weight of the 
body is not known, as it is impossible to gather all the blood in 
the body. The approximate amount is about oneffenth of the 
weight of the body, or about fifteen pounds of blood in a body 
weighing one hundred and fifty pounds. 

To the embalmer, the blood is the most important fluid in the 
body, for the reason that it frequently appears near the surface 
in the parts exposed, causing a dark=bluish discoloration ; it 
often closes up the channels through which the embalming fluid 
is conveyed into the tissues ; it also decomposes readily, forming 
gases within the vessels. In many cases it should be removed, 
and it is a good plan to remove it in all cases, but its property of 
coagulation after a period of time often prevents this. 

Composition of Blood. —The blood is composed partly of a 
watery substance, called plasma or liquor sanguinis, and partly 
of red and white corpuscles. The red and white corpuscles consti¬ 
tute a little less than onedialf of the mass of the blood. The red 
corpuscles are about -^Vo - °f an hicli in diameter and about Tshsir 
of an inch in thickness ; their color is due to the hemoglobin. 
White corpuscles (leucocytes) are much larger and less abundant, 





276 


CHAMPION TEXT.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


existing only in the proportion of about one to six hundred and 
sixty=six of the red corpuscles. The plasma also contains librin, 
albumen, and various mineral substances. 

Circulation of Blood. —If reference is made to the anatomy of 
the heart, arteries, and veins, in Part First, a complete anatomical 
description of these vessels will be found. This description should 
be studied until it is comprehended thoroughly, then it will be 
easy to understand the circulation of the blood. 

The blood, in making the complete round of the circulatory 
system, passes through two circulations, the greater or systemic, 
and the lesser or pulmonary. 

The systemic circulation begins in the left ventricle and ends 
in the right auricle. The blood passes from the left ventricle, 
through the aortic opening and the aorta and its branches, to the 
capillaries in every tissue of the body, where nourishment is 
given off to, and the waste is received from, the tissues ; then it 
passes through the veins to the right auricle ; thence through the 
right auriculo=ventricular opening into the right ventricle. 

The pulmonary circulation begins in the right ventricle and 
ends at the left auricle. The blood, in making the circuit of this 
circulation, passes from the right ventricle, through the pulmon¬ 
ary artery and its branches, to the capillaries in the walls of the 
air-cells, where carbonic acid gas is given off and oxygen is re¬ 
ceived, purifying it; it then passes through the pulmonary veins 
to the left auricle ; thence through the auriculo-ventricular open¬ 
ing into the left ventricle. 

In the above description of the circuit of the blood, it will be 
seen that venous blood passes through the pulmonary artery, 
while arterial blood passes through the pulmonary veins in the 
pulmonary circulation. Except in fetal life, this is the only 
artery that 'carries venous blood, and these are the only veins 
that carry arterial blood. 

Coagulation of the Blood. —The blood, while circulating 
freely in the living body, retains its fluidity ; but after death, or 









THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS 


277 


when drawn from the vessels and exposed to the air in the proper 
temperature, it coagulates or sets into a jellydike mass. This 



Fig. 38. Chambers and Valves of the 
sels, showing Course of Circulation. 


Heart and the larger Blood=Ves- 


mass will separate, after a time, into a clear, yellowish liquid, 
called serum, and a semisolid, reddish portion, called the clot or 


Right 

vSub Clrvirh 


Pulmonary 

Veins 


Superior \ 


Cava 


^nominate 

B 

\£FT (OMMON 

C fl, 50TI D 

Uft Sots Clai//a»U 


Pulmonary 0 

VEINb 




INFERIOR 

Vena 

C/AVPv 









278 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


crassamentum. The former is composed of the plasma, minus 
the fibrin, which has united with, and now binds together, the 
red and white corpuscles to form the crassamentum. 

While in the vessels after death, the blood coagulates very 
slowly—as a rule, much slower than when removed from the 
body and exposed to the air. When the blood is perfectly nor¬ 
mal and the temperature is high, it will coagulate much quicker 
than if the body is exposed to a low temperature. Heat in¬ 
creases wdiile cold retards the tendency to coagulation. As a 
rule, when the blood is in a normal condition and in an ordi¬ 
nary temperature, it coagulates in from twelve to twenty-four 
hours after death. Therefore, if the blood is to be removed, the 
operation for removal should take place as soon as possible after 
life ceases. 

After death, the blood is found usually in the veins, the arteries 
being emptied by postmortem contraction of their muscular 
coats, this taking place within an hour or two after death. In 
the large veins and right side of the heart the coagulation may 
be firm, wdiile in the smallest or peripheral veins and capillaries 
it is generally liquid, being seldom found perfectly coagulated. 
Coagula are sometimes found in the left side of the heart and 
arteries, but they are much smaller than those found in the right 
side of the heart and large veins. 

The coagulation of blood can be retarded or prevented by the 
addition of certain chemicals, such as a solution of potash or soda 
and some of their salts ; but practically v T e cannot make applica¬ 
tion of these means of liquifying or preventing coagulation, as it 
is impossible to reach the blood while in the vessels. It is true 
some have advocated the injection and ejection of solutions of 
these salts for the purpose of liquefying and removing clots, but 
that operation is impracticable. 

There are other conditions that prevent or retard coagulation. 
Poison of venomous serpents, narcotics, prussic acid, suffocation, 
whether by drowning, hanging, or poisonous gases, prevent, while 



THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS 279 


lightning, electricity, blows on the abdomen, cholera, or violent 
exercise, retard coagulation in the vessels. 

There are certain diseases that will accelerate coagulation, such 
as pneumonia and typhoid fever in their first stages, apoplexy, 
sudden death in persons of full habit, etc. 

Cause of Arteries Being Empty After Death. —As stated, 
the arteries are usually found empty after death. This condition 
is due to the tonic contraction of the noil-striated muscular fiber 
in the heart and in the muscular coats of the arteries. The mus¬ 
cular walls of the ventricles and the arteries are the first to lose 
their irritability, and become rigid and contracted within an hour 
or two after death, usually remaining in that state for from a few 
minutes to an hour or two ; but in rare cases the walls may 
continue rigid for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, then become 
flaccid again. The contraction of the arteries is so great as to 


produce marked diminution of their caliber. This, no doubt, con¬ 
tributes largely to the passage of the blood from the arteries into 
the veins, which almost invariably takes place within an hour 
or two after death. It also frequently prevents a free flow of fluid 
through the arterial system. 

After death, the blood is found in the deep veins and dependent 
parts of the body. The body should always be placed on an in¬ 
cline, in order to gravitate the blood to the dependent parts of 
the trunk, thus facilitating its removal. After the body has been 
embalmed, it should lie placed on a level with the head slightly 
elevated, so that the fluid will remain distributed to all parts of 
the body. 

Circulation of Fluid. —In arterial embalming, fluid is in¬ 
jected into the arteries and capillaries of the systemic circulation. 
It does not pass through or into the heart when the valves are 
intact, unless it makes the entire circuit of the systemic and pul¬ 
monary circulations, which it is not likely to do, unless a large 
amount of blood is withdrawn. If the semilunar valve at the 
aortic opening, and the mitral valve at the auriculo^ventricular 



280 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


opening, are diseased and fail to close the openings, the fluid will 
regurgitate or take a backward course, through these openings 
into the ventricle and auricle, thence through the pulmonary 
veins to the capillaries around the air-cells, and back through 
the pulmonary artery to the pulmonary opening on the right side 
of the heart—that is, providing these vessels are empty—; but, 
as above stated, if the valves are intact, no fluid will enter the 
chambers of the heart or the lungs in this manner. 

If the artery is raised at any point in either of the upper ex¬ 
tremities, and the body be upon the incline, the fluid will pass 
through the axillary and subclavian, and on the right side in¬ 
nominate, into the aorta ; from there it takes a downward course 
through the arteries to the most dependent parts, filling them 
first, and reaching each arterial branch successively, as the level 
of the fluid rises, supplying all of the tissues, reaching the upper 
extremities, neck, and head last. After this point is reached, 
however, it is well to continue the injection until all the capil¬ 
laries are completely filled, which will be indicated usually by 
incising the skin, when fluid will issue from the incision. 


/ 


CHAPTER XX. 


ARTERIAL EMBALMING. 


RAISING AND INJECTING ARTERIES. 

Selection of the Artery. —In the selection of an artery for 
injection, convenience should govern the operator. If the body 
is already dressed, the radial or posterior tibial likely will be 
most convenient, as their use will not necessitate the removal 
or cutting of the clothing. If blood is to be withdrawn through 
the vein, then one of the brachials, femorals, or carotids should 
be selected. The common carotid should be avoided on account 
of the mutilation, leaving an unsightly scar, that may interfere 
with the wishes of the friends with regard to the dressing of the 
body. If a large amount of blood is to be withdrawn, the femoral 
artery and vein should be raised, as they are more dependent 
when the body is placed on an incline, and consequently more 
blood can be withdrawn from the femoral vein than from any 
other. A drainage-tube, sufficiently long to reach above Poupart’s 
ligament as far as the common iliac, is all that is necessary, as 
there are no valves intervening between the bifurcation of the 
common iliac and the right auricle. There is no necessity for 
undue exposure in either sex. 

As far as injection of fluid is concerned, one artery is just as 
good as another. All arteries are parts of the same channel, 
branches of the great aorta. No valves exist in any part of their 
course. 

It is believed, quite commonly, that by injecting the femoral 
artery there is great danger of “flushing the face.” This belief is 
erroneous. Flushing of the face does not result from the injection 
of the femoral artery unless the arteries are full; then it will be 

281 




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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of a brighbred color, except in asphyxia, in which case the blood 
in both the arteries and the veins will be of a dark>purplish color. 
When the flush is of a dark=bluish color, it always results from 
the injection of a vein, except, as stated above, in a case of as¬ 
phyxia. The internal saphenous vein is mistaken frequently for 
the femoral artery. It is a superficial vein, usually is found 
empty, and lies a short distance to the inner side of the femoral 
artery in Scarpa’s triangle. This vein is taken up frequently, not 
only by the younger members of the profession, but by the older, 
when the guides are not followed closely. After the arteries are 
emptied there is no danger of flushing the face from the little 
blood that remains. This is so diluted, if fluid is injected slowly, 
that its effect upon the surface will not be noticed. 

If postmortem contraction has not taken place, and the arteries 
are full, either the operator should wait until they are emptied 
by the contraction of their walls, or he should place the body 
upon a high incline, raise the femoral artery, insert the drainage^ 
tube, directing the outer end into a vessel, and allow the blood to 
drain out of the arteries as much as possible. 

Usually it will not be necessary to wash out the arteries, as the 
blood, especially if liquid, will run out by gravitation. If the 
blood is coagulated extensively, it will not pass out of the arteries 
by gravitation, nor can it be washed out. If a small clot occludes 
the channel, possibly it may be dissolved or forced out by the 
washing process. To wash out the arteries, raise the brachial 
artery as well as the femoral, and inject fluid through the former ; 
after the clot is dissolved, the fluid will appear at the opening 
in the femoral artery. This process only washes out the large 
channel between the two points of incision. 

To Distinguish the Artery. —There is no excuse for making 
the mistake of injecting a vein instead of an artery, if the location, 
relation, appearance, and touch of the artery be noted carefully. 

An artery is usually constant in its position ; it is accompanied 
by one or two veins—primary arteries by one, secondary by two, 


ARTERIAL EMBALMING 


283 


called venae comites,—and sometimes by a nerve; the artery, 
vein (or veins), and nerve are contained in a common sheath. 
Arteries, when empty, soon alter death, are of a creamy-white 
color : they retain their cylindrical form, while veins flatten or 
collapse. Arteries have a firm leel to the touch, while veins are 
soft and velvetv. 

A vein that accompanies an artery, if a single one, is constant 
in its relation to the artery in the various parts of its course. 
Superficial veins have no sheath, nor are they, as a rule, accom¬ 
panied by other vessels ; they are found within the layers of the 
superficial iascia. Veins, alter death, are usually full of blood, and 
when full appear bluish ; when empty, they are of the same 
color as the arteries. The superficial veins that are usually mis¬ 
taken for the arteries—the basilic and internal saphenous—are 
commonly empty, and are of the same color as the artery. 

The nerves are white, inelastic, hard, and dense in structure, 
and are not hollow like the accompanying vessels. 

Raising and Incising the Artery. —To raise an artery at 
any point, the embalmer should be acquainted with the anatomy 
of the part as well as the linear and anatomical guides for mak¬ 
ing the incision. He should be able also to distinguish between 
an artery, vein, and nerve. In raising an artery, an incision 
should be made through the skin at the proper place, of sufficient 
length to expose an inch or more of the artery when it is raised 
out of the wound ; then dissect carefully down through the fat, 
superficial fascia, and deep fascia, to the sheath of the artery ; 
raise the vessels out of the wound ; incise the sheath with the 
curved-bistoury on the grooved'director, or with the scissors. 
Cleanse the artery by separating from it the vein (or veins) and 
nerve, if there be any ; then take it upon the end of the finger 
or the shank of the aneurismmeedle or bistoury, and make an 
incision through the wall, in the direction of its long axis, with 

the curved-bistourv or scissors. 

•/ 

Never make a diagonal or transverse cut in the artery, for the 


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CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


reason that it weakens it, and, if the cut is made too extensive, an 
artery will break under a small amount of force, resulting from 
the introduction of the arteriabtube. 

An artery may be raised in any part of its course without 
reference to the collateral circulation, as there is always suffi¬ 
cient collateral circulation to supply the distal end of the artery 
with plenty of fluid. 

The Injection of Fluid. — After the incision of the artery is 
made, insert an arteriabtube of proper size, with the nozzle 
toward the heart; pass two threads underneath the artery, tying 
the artery around the tube with one, leaving the other loose 
around the distal end of the artery. Then commence the injec¬ 
tion of the artery, and when fluid appears at the distal end tie 
it also. 

Fluid should be injected into an artery very slowly and care¬ 
fully, as rapid or forcible injection may rupture an artery or the 
capillaries. In cases of consumption, the arteries may be affected 
or weakened by the disease, the ends being filled with fibrous 
plugs, and the walls, having been destroyed partly by disease, 
may give way when force is used. Therefore, in these cases 
especially, the injection should be made slowly and carefully.’ 
The walls of the arteries and capillaries, particularly in the case 
of old people, are frequently rendered brittle by atheromatous de¬ 
posits, causing them to rupture easily ; or they may be destroyed 
entirely. In the former case, fluid will pass directly into the tissues 
in such quantities as to produce a brownish or grayish spot; 
while in the latter, no fluid will reach the part, and a soft spot 
will likely result from putrefaction. 

If blood still remains in the arteries, rapid injection will force 
it in volume to the surface, it not having time to mix with the 
fluid. If its course is through the common carotids, it would 
cause a flushing of the face and neck of a brighbred color. For 
these reasons, it is necessary to inject slowly and carefully to have 
the best results. 


AR TER I A L EMBALMING 


285 


I lie appearance of fluid at the distal end indicates an intact 
collateral circulation. It the fluid does not appear at the point 
ot incision by the time the other parts of the body have re¬ 
ceived enough, remove the tube and tie the proximal end, insert 
the arteriabtube into the distal end, and till that part of the body 
with fluid. 

Alter removing the arteriabtube from the artery and drainage-¬ 
tube from the vein (if it has been used for the removal of blood), 
sew up the wound, and cover with adhesive plaster. 

A Second Injection becomes necessary in some cases, enough 
fluid to preserve and disinfect the body properly not having 
been injected during the first injection. Sometimes rigor mortis 
is present, which interferes ; in other cases, as in consumption, 
the arteries are weakened within the lungs and leakage would 
follow, if sufficient fluid were injected at one time to preserve the 
tissues ; so that it becomes necessary to inject a second time. 
If the arteries are strong, and the walls of the arteries and tissues 
are in a perfectly relaxed state, a second injection will not be 
necessary, as a sufficient amount of fluid can be injected in a 
single operation to preserve and disinfect the body. 

If the case is one in which it is deemed necessary to make a 
second injection, the arteriabtube should not be removed after 
the first injection, but, after the removal of the pump, the outer 
end of the tube should be capped ; or, better still, an arterial 
tube with a cuboff or stop=cock, which is sold to the profession 
by the different supply houses in the country, should be used. 
These tubes can be closed by simply turning the cuboff, which 
makes them much more convenient than capping the ordinary 
* tubes. After waiting several hours, or until the fluid has passed 
or transuded through the tissues, the cap can be removed, or the 
cuboff turned, the pump applied, and usually as much fluid 
injected as in the first injection. After the body has received as 
much fluid as is thought necessary to preserve and sterilize it, the 
tube can be removed, and the wound closed in the usual manner. 





























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287 


THE BRACHIAL ARTERY AND BASILIC VEIN. 

Location. —The brachial artery passes downward through the 
brachial region, extending from the lower part of the axillary 
space to the bifurcation at the elbow, along the inner border of 
the biceps muscle. Anomalies may exist in the artery in this 
region ; instead of dividing at the elbow, it may divide at the 
lower margin of the axillary space, and descend along the inner 
border of the muscle as two trunks, each reduced to about half 
the normal size, in the same sheath, and reunite in the lower 
part of its course, and then again divide at or below the elbow ; 
or they may continue on through the forearm as the radial and 
ulnar arteries. 

The Linear Guide. —The course of the brachial artery may 
be marked out by drawing a line from the middle of the axillary 
space (anmpit) to the center of the elbow, provided the palm of 
the hand be turned upward. This line will be immediately over 
the artery, which will be found by cutting through the skin at 
any point on the line, and dissecting through the subcutaneous 
tissues toward the center of the arm. 

The Anatomical Guide, used for locating the brachial artery, 
is the inner border of the biceps muscle. The artery lies in the 
groove between the biceps and triceps muscles, close to the inner 
border of the biceps. It is not covered by the muscle in any 
part of its course. It will be found beneath the deep fascia, 
inclosed in a sheath with the venae comites arid median nerve. 

To Raise the Artery, the arm should be brought out from the 
body to a right angle, and the palm of the hand turned upward. 
In this position the linear guide will indicate the exact position 
of the artery, or the inner border of the biceps muscle can.be used 
as the guide. Make an incision through the skin in the middle 
third of the arm, pushing the fatty or cellular tissue to either side 
of the cut with the handle of the scalpel ; pass the grooved=direc- 
tor underneath the superficial fascia from one end of the incision 
to the other, pushing the farther end out through the fascia ; then 


4 


288 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

cut on the grooved-director, with the sharp-pointed bistoury or 
scissors, through the superficial fascia. Dissect through the deep 
fascia in the same manner. The incision through the tissues 
should be two or three inches in length. 

After the deep fascia is divided, the sheath of the vessel will be 
brought to view. It should be raised upon the handle of the 
aneurismmeedle and opened. The nerve will usually be seen 
first, the artery lying beneath it, with the accompanying veins 
attached to either side and in front. These should be separated 
and the artery brought up out of the incision ; place it upon the 
end of the finger or the shank of the aneurism-needle, and make 
a cut through the wall in the direction of its long axis with the 
curved sharp-pointed bistoury or scissors. A double thread should 
be drawn through, beneath it, one thread being drawn to the 
upper part of the cut and the other to the lower. The arteriabtube 
should be inserted into the artery and the artery tied around 
the tube, the distal end being left open until fluid appears and 
then tied. 

To Raise the Basilic Vein. —If the basilic vein is to be raised 
at the same time, it will be found lying to the inner side of the 
artery, within the layers of the superficial fascia. It should be 
raised and opened in the same manner as the artery ; insert the 
vein-tube, push it through the vein until it reaches the heart 
and tie the vein around the tube in the same manner as the 
artery is tied around the arteriabtube. The pump should then 
be attached to the veinTube, and all the blood that is possible 
should be withdrawn ; then attach the pump to the arteriabtube, 
and inject a pint or two of fluid ; then pump out blood again as 
before, continuing alternately pumping out blood and injecting 
fluid, until all the blood possible is withdrawn, and enough fluid 
has been injected into the body. 

THE FEMORAL ARTERY AND VEIN. 

Location. —The femoral artery is situated in the anterior and 
inner side of the thigh. It extends from Poupart’s ligament 






ARTERIAL EMBALMING 


289 


downward and inward to the upper border of the popliteal space, 
back of the knee, where it becomes the popliteal artery. 

The Linear Guide. —To locate the course of the femoral ar¬ 
tery, a line should be drawn from the front of the prominence of 
the ilium (liip=bone) to the center of the pubic arch. This line 
indicates Poupart’s ligament. A second line should be drawn 
from the center of Poupart’s ligament to the inner side of the 
knee-joint. The latter line will indicate the course and position 
of the femoral artery, when the foot is turned out. 

The Anatomical Guide is the inner border of the sartorius 
muscle, which arises from the front part of the hip-bone and 
passes obliquely downward and inward to be inserted into the 
upper, internal surface of the tibia, just below the knee-joint. 
In the upper part of its course the femoral artery passes through 
Scarpa’s triangle, from its base to its apex. The base of the 
triangle is bounded by Poupart’s ligament; the inner side by 
the adductor longus muscle, and the outer side by the sartorius 
muscle. 

To Raise the Artery, an incision should be made in the 
lower part of Scarpa’s triangle, about two or three inches in 
length, beginning about two inches below Poupart’s ligament, 
extending the cut downward along the inner border of the sar¬ 
torius muscle. It is necessary to make the incision near the 
sartorius muscle, as the artery lies close to the inner border 
of the muscle in the middle third of the thigh. It the in¬ 
cision were made carelessly, at a little distance from the inner 
border of the muscle, it would be immediately over the internal 
saphenous vein, which is large, with rather firm walls, and 
usually is empty. This vessel can be mistaken easily lor the 
artery, which mistake often occurs, and, when fluid is injected 
through it, “flushing of the face” results. After the incision is' 
made through the skin, the fat should be scraped to either side 
by the handle of the scalpel ; the grooved-director should be 
passed beneath the superficial fascia from one end of the incision 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


to the other, and the fascia cut through on the grooved'director 
with the sharp^pointed curved'bistoury ; then the deep fascia 
should be raised and severed in the same manner. The sheath 
of the vessels will now be seen, which can be brought to the 
surface by the hook or finger, and the handle of the instrument 
placed underneath. The sheath should be opened in the usual 
manner by the grooved=director and bistoury or scissors. 

The artery will be found in front, the vein lying a little to the 
inner side and back of the artery. The artery should be raised 
upon the finger or the shank of the arteriahhook or aneurism^ 
needle, and opened with the curveddfistoury or scissors, making 
the incision in the direction of the long axis of the vessel. Pass 
threads beneath ; insert the arteriabtube with the point towards 
the heart and tie the artery around it; then 'attach the pump 
and begin the injection slowly and carefully. Inject enough 
fluid to fill the tissues thoroughly. After sufficient fluid has 
been injected, the tube may be capped, if there is a suspicion 
that another injection will be necessary. If not, remove the 
tube, tie the artery, and sew up the incision. 

To Raise the Vein. — If it is desired to remove the blood at 
the same time, the vein can be raised out of the wound, and 
opened by making a cut in the direction of *the long axis, and a 
silk veimtube, of sufficient length to reach above Poupart’s liga¬ 
ment as far as the common iliac, inserted and tied in the vein. 
If the body now be placed on the incline, and the arms extended 
above the head, the blood will flow by gravitation and the 
pressure of fluid in the peripheral vessels and capillaries. 

THE COMMON CAROTID ARTERY AND INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN. 

The common carotid is the largest artery that is used for em¬ 
balming purposes. Why it is selected by embalrners we are not 
able to state, unless it is from a misapprehension. It has no 
advantages over arteries in other regions. True, it is large in 
size, but it lies deeper and nearer the parts that are exposed 





ARTERIAL E MR ARMING 


291 


to view, making it possible for the mutilation easily to be seen. 
1 luid cannot enter the circulation more readily from the neck 
than it can from the upper or lower extremities. Blood can be 
withdrawn through the basilic or femoral vein as well as through 
the jugular. Physicians use the carotid artery for the purpose 
of injecting heavy or semiliquid solutions. 1 The embalmer uses 
nothing but thin liquid solutions, which will fill the entire cir¬ 
culation just as easily, from other regions. Therefore, there is 
no reason why the carotid artery should be raised in any case 
whatever, where the arterial system is intact. 

Location. The common carotid artery is situated in the 
neck, and extends from the upper border of the larynx (Adam’s 
apple) to the junction of the sternum and clavicle (sterno¬ 
clavicular articulation). The right arises from the innominate 
and the left from the arch of the aorta. 

The Linear Guide is a line drawn from midway between the 
angle of the lower jaw and the mastoid process behind the ear, 
down to the junction of the sternum and clavicle. The artery 
will be found beneath this line. 

The Anatomical Guide is the anterior border of the sterno¬ 
cleidomastoid muscle, which arises from the upper end of the 
sternum and inner end of the clavicle, or collar-bone, crossing 
upward and a little backward to be inserted into the mastoid 
process of the temporal bone. 

To Raise the Artery, the operator should not make an in¬ 
cision above the clavicle, because of the mutilation that results, 
which cannot easily be hidden from view. The incision should 
be made through the skin over the front of the clavicle and upper 
end of the breast-bone, in a tranverse direction, about three inches 
in length in the adult. The skin should be dissected and drawn 
upward, and the fat scraped from the superficial fascia and 
tissues beneath. The tendon of the lower end of the sternocleido¬ 
mastoid muscle should be cut through and the deep fascia severed, 
when the sheath of the vessel will be brought to view. This 


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CHAMPION TEXT,BOOK ON EMBALMING 


should be opened, when the artery will be found on the inner 
side, the vein on the outer side, and the pneumogastric nerve in 
the middle. Raise the artery upon the finger or the shank of 
the aneurism meedle ; make an incision with the curved-bistoury 
or scissors in the direction of its long axis ; insert an arteriabtube 
with its point toward the heart; tie the artery around the tube ; 
commence the injection slowly and carefully. When fluid appears 
at the distal end, tie it as directed for raising the brachial and 
femoral arteries. After sufficient fluid has been injected, remove 
the tube and tie the artery, sew up the wound neatly, and cover 
with adhesive plaster. 

To Raise the Jugular Vein. —If blood is to be withdrawn, 
the jugular vein should be raised and opened by making an in¬ 
cision in its long axis ; insert and tie in a silk vein-tube, pointing 
it upward, for the purpose of draining the blood from the head 
and face. If it is desired to remove more blood than is contained 
in the head, withdraw the vein-tube, insert in the proximal end 
of the vein, and push it in until the end of the tube passes into 
the right auricle ; tie the vein around the tube, attach the aspi¬ 
rator, and begin aspirating the blood as already directed. 

THE RADIAL ARTERY. 

Location. —The radial artery extends from the bifurcation of 
the brachial artery at the elbow to the palm, on the radial side 
of the arm. 

The Anatomical Guide is the groove between the outer edge 
of the bone and the first prominent tendon of the flexor muscles 
of the hand and fingers, near the Wrisbjoint, where the physician 
takes the pulse-rate. When the hand and arm are extended as 
far back as possible, this groove is seen extending from the wrist- 
joint to the elbow. The artery lies in the center of the groove, 
being superficial near the wrist-joint, becoming deeper in its 
course toward the elbow. It can be raised easily and no mistake 
will be made, as no other vessels accompany it, except the venae 












Fig. 40. INJECTING THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM THROUGH THE RADIAL ARTERY. 




















294 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


comites, which are too small to receive the radial arteriabtube. 
Its position makes it very convenient for the purpose, when 
the body is already dressed for burial. At the point where it is 
usually raised, it lies-very superficial, being covered only by the 
skin, a thin layer of fat, and the superficial and deep fascia. 

To Raise the Artery, make an incision along the groove 
through the skin not more than an inch in length ; remove the 
fat, cut through the fascia on the grooved'director with the sharp* 
pointed curved*bistoury, raise the vessels, open the sheath, and sepa¬ 
rate the vense comites from the artery ; make an incision through 
the wall of the artery in the direction of its long axis, insert the 
smallest arteriabtube, tie the artery around the tube, leaving the 
distal end open until fluid appears, when it should be tied. After 
enough fluid has been injected, remove the arteriabtube, tie the 
artery, sew up the incision, and cover with adhesive plaster. 

THE POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERIES. 

Either the posterior or anterior tibial artery may be raised for 
the injection of fluid, for the same reasons that are advanced 
for using the radial. 

Location. — These arteries extend from the lower border of 
the popliteal space, one along the posterior, and the other along 
the anterior, surface of the tibia. 

The Guide to the Posterior Tibial is the groove behind and 
below the inner malleolus (ankle). 

To Raise the Artery, the incision should begin on a level 
with the upper border of the ankle, and extend in a curved line 
around the border of the malleolus to a distance of about two 
inches. The fascise will be found very thick for the purpose of 
protection, as the vessel in this part of the body is exposed so 
greatly. After the fascise are opened the artery will be found 
accompanied by the vense comites within its sheath. The 
artery and vense comites should be separated, the artery raised 
upon the shank of the aneurismmeedle, an incision made in the 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 


295 


direction of the long axis with the curved-bistoury, the arterial* 
tube inserted, and the artery tied in the usual manner. 

The Guide to the Anterior Tibi a l is the outer edge of the 
front of the tibia (shimbone). 

To Raise the Artery, the incision through the skin should 
begin just above the instep and extend downward a couple of 
inches, the fasciae opened, and the tendons drawn to one side. 
The artery will be found close to the outer side of the bone. 
The vessels should be raised out of the cut, separated, the artery 
opened in the direction of its long axis, and the tube inserted 
and tied. 


i 


CHAPTER XXL 


CAVITY EMBALMING. 


NECESSITY FOR CAVITY EMBALMING. 

The embalmer cannot exclude cavity embalming and thor¬ 
oughly sterilize the body. The amount of fluid he injects 
through the arterial system is only sufficient to sterilize the tissues 
of the body ; he cannot use a sufficient quantity to sterilize the 
contents of the different subdivisions of the cavities. The phy¬ 
sician or anatomist, who embalms for the purpose of dissection, 
can sterilize the body by injecting a very large amount of fluid 
into the arterial system. If the embalmer or funeral director 
were to inject the amount of fluid through the arteries that is 
necessary to sterilize all of the morbid or effete matter, as well 
as the normal tissues of the body, the results would usually be 
disastrous—the features would be distorted, the body would 
appear unnatural in size, and the complexion would be materially 
changed, according to the quality or kind of chemicals used in 
the fluid. The embalmer can only inject a quantity equal to 
about one-twentieth of the weight of the body into the arterial 
system, while the anatomist can inject enormous quantities, as he 
does not care to preserve the features nor the natural color of the 
body. Therefore, for the embalmer, cavity embalming is a nec¬ 
essary adjunct to arterial embalming. 

Sterilizing Effete Matter .— Abnormal material is found, as 
a rule, in the different serous sacs and in the alimentary canal, 
especially in the stomach and the intestines, and it is these parts 
that require special treatment. In consumption, sometimes, a 







CAVITY EMBALMING 


297 


# 

large quantity of abnormal matter is found within the lungs 
themselves ; this should receive treatment by the cavity method. 
The abnormal matter within the lungs, the material effused into 
the pleural sacs and peritoneum, and the effete material in the 
stomach and small and large intestines, cannot be reached by 
arterial embalming, in the average^sized body, when only four 
or five quarts of fluid are used. The fluid reaches the walls of 
the pleural sacs, the peritoneum, the normal tissues of the 
lungs, and the walls of the intestines, but a sufficient quantity 
does not pass into the contents of either to sterilize the effete or 
effused material. 

The only wav that we have vet found to sterilize such matter 

t ) %! 

is to inject a sufficient quantity of fluid directly into the material. 
This can be done by inserting a hollowmeedle at a point from 
which we can operate without endangering the circulation. Any 
embalmer can do this if he understands the anatomy of the 
parts, and knows the position of the aorta and its branches. 
Wounding the smallest subdivisions of the arteries and capil¬ 
laries of the circulation will not injure the arterial system suffi¬ 
ciently to prevent the sterilization of the tissues; it is the 
wounding of the larger vessels that must be avoided, as this will 
allow sufficient leakage to prevent the fluid reaching all parts of 
the body. To inject the usual amount of fluid into the arteries 
will preserve, in many cases, but will not sterilize. To inject a 
large amount of fluid into the cavities will often preserve the 
body for the “usual length of time,” but it will not sterilize the 
whole body. To thoroughly sterilize the body, fluid must be 
injected into every part, filling all the tissues and the abnormal 
and effete matter within the body. 

The operations of cavity embalming can be performed success¬ 
fully only by an embalmer who understands the great cavities 
of the trunk, the location of the visceral organs contained 
therein, and the great aorta and its branches. We will consider 
first the thoracic cavity. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


THE THORACIC CAVITY. 

Its Location and Contents— The thoracic cavity is the 
smaller and upper cavity of the trunk. It is conoid in shape, is 
bounded at the base by the diaphragm, at the apex by the root 



Fig. 41. Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities, showing 
Relative Position of Internal Organs. 

of the neck, in front by the sternum, at the sides by the ribs, and 
behind by the vertebral column. It is divided into the right 
and left sides and the median space, called the mediastinum, in 

































CA VITY EMBALMING 


299 


the center. The right side contains the right lung and pleura ; 
the lelt side, the left lung and pleura ; the mediastinum, the 
heart, pericardium, thoracic aorta, vense cavse, trachea, gullet, 
and other vessels. 

The pleurae are shut, serous sacs, placed between the lungs 
and walls of the cavity. They are large enough for one side to 
envelope the entire surface of the lung, while the other is re¬ 
flected over the walls of the cavity, which it lines. The spaces 
between the lungs and the walls of the thorax are within the 
pleural sac. These spaces are sometimes called pleural cavities. 

The pericardium is a shut, serous sac, which envelopes the 
heart. One wall of the sac is attached to the surface of the 
heart, while the other hangs loose. The space between the two 
walls is sometimes called the pericardial cavity. 

The serous sacs secrete a fluid called serum. It is of an oily 
character and moistens the surfaces of the sacs, so that while 
respiration and the heart’s action continue, the surfaces will 
glide over each other without friction. When these sacs become 
inflamed, effusions are poured out, filling them to a greater or 
less extent, making it necessary to remove the effusion, or mix 
w T ith it a sufficient quantity of fluid to sterilize it, as it forms a 
good soil for the development of bacteria. 

The heart li es diagonally across the mediastinal space, with 
the base toward the back and right side, into which it extends 
about one and a half inches, while the apex is directed toward 
the front and left side, into which it extends three and onedialf 
inches. When in a normal position, the right auricle lies im¬ 
mediately back of the anterior margin of the third intercostal 
space, through which we direct the needle to reach the auricle, 
when withdrawing blood from the heart by the direct operation. 

The aorta begins at the left ventricle, extending upward an 
inch and a half or two inches, then arching over backward to the 
front and left of the center of the backbone, to which it is at¬ 
tached, and extends downward in the same position through the 


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CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 


diaphragm to the fourth lumbar vertebra. It is this vessel that 
is wounded usually in the direct operation upon the right auricle 
of the heart. 

The trachea descends from the neck down through the middle 
space to the root of the lungs. The gullet is immediately behind 
the trachea, extending downward through the middle space and 
diaphragm to the stomach. The superior and inferior vense- 
cavse enter the right auricle, the former through the upper, and 
the latter through the lower wall, of' the auricle. 

To Inject the Pleural Sacs. —'Hie pleural sacs can be treated 
by inserting the needle at a point immediately over the stomach 
in the epigastric region and directing it upward and through the 
diaphragm near its upper border. To treat the right sac, the 
needle should be directed upward and to the right side through 
the diaphragm, pressing it downward over the lung to a point as 
near the back part of the sac as possible. If the pleural sac con¬ 
tains effused matter, this can be pumped out and fluid injected. 
Enough fluid should be injected to sterilize the material that re¬ 
mains ; this, however, will be a matter of conjecture only. The 
left pleural sac should be treated in a similar manner, but the 
needle should be directed upward and to the left side. 

The pericardium can be reached from the same point by per¬ 
forating the diaphragm at the lower border of the heart. The 
contents can be withdrawn and fluid injected. 

Fluid injected into these sacs does not preserve the visceral 
organs. It settles immediately to the back part, while the organs 
all lie to the front. Unless an unusual amount is injected, it will 
scarcely reach to the back part of the organs, as there is consider¬ 
able space to the side and back of the lungs. If the lungs are 
attached to the front wall of the chest, it will be better to insert 
the needle between the ribs on either side, at a point four or five 
inches from the center of the breast-bone, as the operation from the 
epigastric region will necessitate the passing of the instrument 
through the lung, which might result in the rupturing of the 




Fig. 42. BEGINNING A DISSECTION 
















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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


nutrient vessels conveying the fluid, thus causing leakage. An 
infant'trocar is sufficiently large to reach the pleural sacs, when 
the operation is made between the ribs. The effusion, if it is 
liquid, can be pumped out through the needle before the fluid is 
injected. The amount of fluid injected will depend, to a great 
extent, upon the judgment of the operator. 

To Inject Fluid into the Lung Cavities. —Cavities in the 
lungs result from tubercular disease. These cavities may be 
filled with morbid material, such as purulent matter, or broken- 
down lung Tissue. The arteries leading to these cavities have 
been destroyed in the general destruction of the tissues during 
the disease. The ends of the vessels are filled with fibrous plugs. 
This is nature’s method of preventing fatal hemorrhages in these 
cases. Indeed, in a majority of cases, no hemorrhage occurs dur¬ 
ing the long continuance of the disease. It is through the nutri¬ 
ent vessels of the lungs (the bronchial arteries) that fluid is 
conveyed into the normal tissues of the lungs. When fluid is in¬ 
jected into the arterial system, it reaches the walls of the cavities 
through these vessels, but none enters the cavity to mix with its 
contents. It then becomes necessary to reach the contents of 
these cavities through the windpipe, which is composed of the 
larynx, trachea, and bronchi. The ends of the bronchi are not 
filled with fibrous plugs as are the arteries. Hence, fluid injected 
into the windpipe or respiratory tract will reach the cavities and 
their contents. 

Fluid injected into the mouth or nose will pass usually into the 
lungs, through the respiratory tract, but, in some cases, the glottis, 
or opening into the larynx, becomes closed by the epiglottis being 
forced down over the opening by the tongue, which has fallen 
back into the pharynx or throat. When this condition exists, it 
is best to use a strong, curved, inflexible nasal-tube ; the best are 
made of steel, and are about ten or twelve inches in length. This 
can be passed down through the nose and pharynx to the lower 
margin of the glottis, and the epiglottis be pulled upward and 




CA VITY EMBALMING 


303 


forward, opening the glottis, through which the end of the nasal* 
tube can be passed. When the nasabtube has been passed into 
the larynx in this manner, fluid can be injected into the cavities 
ol the lungs through the trachea and bronchi. A sufficient quan¬ 
tity should be injected to fill the cavities and the whole of the 
respiratory tract. 

If the operator does not succeed in introducing the nasabtube 
into the larynx, he should introduce the infanbtrocar into the 
trachea through the notch at the upper end of the sternum or 
breasbbone. It can be introduced easily at this point, and fluid 
can be injected in sufficient quantity to fill the cavities in the 
lungs. The needle should be directed straight back toward the 
vertebral column, until it passes through the front wall of the 
trachea. It is an easy matter to tell when the point is within 
the trachea, as the canal is nearly one inch in diameter. 

Gases in the Plenne and Pericardium. —Gases frequently 
accumulate in the pleurae and pericardium, prior to the general 
putrefaction of the body. This is due to the presence of putre¬ 
factive bacteria in the abnormal matter so often found in them. 
These materials form very excellent soil for the development of 
bacteria, and, as soon as death takes place, they begin to grow in 
such numbers that gas is produced sometimes in great quantities, 
even sufficient to make pressure upon the large vessels in the 
mediastinum and right side of the heart, forcing the blood into 
the superficial veins and capillaries of the surface of the head, 
neck, and face, causing discoloration. Gas may develop early 
and rapidly, and pass out through the. subcutaneous tissues to 
the cellular or fat tissue beneath the skin, causing swelling of the 
neck. When anv of these results occur, the cavities should be 
treated at once, first removing the gas through the hollow*needle. 

THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. 

Its Regions. —The abdominal cavity extends from the dia¬ 
phragm down to the margin of the pelvis. The front wall and 













CAVITY EMBALMING 


305 


sides are formed by the transversalis fascia, lower ribs, and iliae, 
and the back wall, by the vertebral column. The abdomen is 
divided, for the purpose of an easy understanding of the location 
of the different visceral organs contained within the cavity, by 
certain arbitrary transverse and perpendicular lines, into nine 
regions. The two transverse lines are drawn from the ninth rib 
and the crest of the ilium respectively on one side to the same 
points on the opposite side. The two perpendicular lines are 
drawn, one on either side, from the anterior end of the eighth 
rib to the center of Poupart’s ligament. 

These regions are named the right and left hypochondriac on 
either side, under the cartilages of the ribs ; the epigastric be¬ 
tween them, in the middle, above the stomach ; the right and 
left lumbar on either side, between the lower margin of the ribs 
and the hip-bones ; the umbilical between them, in the center ; 
the right and left inguinal or iliac, on either side ; and the hypo¬ 
gastric between them, in the middle of the lower part of the 
abdomen. 

Position of Its Contents. — The various visceral organs of 
the abdomen are located as follows: the liver in the right 
hypochondriac region ; the large end of the stomach and the 
spleen in the left hypochondriac ; the small end of the stomach 
across the epigastric region, just below the diaphragm ; the kid¬ 
neys in the right and left lumbar regions ; the small intestine in 
the umbilical and hypogastric regions ; the beginning of the 
large intestine and vermiform appendix in the right iliac region. 
The large intestine ascends through the right lumbar to the 
lower surface of the liver, then makes an abrupt turn, crossing 
transversely through the epigastric region to the spleen, where it 
makes an abrupt turn, passing downward through the left lum¬ 
bar region to the margin of the pelvis, through which it passes 
to the anus. 

The peritoneum is a shut, serous sac, the back wall of which is 
attached to and covers the intestines and other visceral organs, the 


306 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


front wall being deflected to the diaphragm and anterior wall of 
the abdomen, which it lines throughout. This sac secretes serum 
for the purpose of oiling the surfaces, so that they will glide past 
each other without friction. The space between the front wall 
of the abdomen and the intestines is within the peritoneal sac, 
and is sometimes called the peritoneal cavity. 

The pelvis is a basin-like cavity, forming an outlet to the 
abdominal cavity. It contains the rectum, bladder, and internal 
organs of generation. The bladder, when full, extends into the 
abdomen. The womb, in the female, enlarges during pregnancy 
so as to extend into the abdominal cavity, which it nearly fills 
during the latter part of the term. 

Organs Requiring Special Treatment. —The organs within 
the abdominal cavity which require special treatment are the 
stomach, small and large intestines, and the peritoneum, which 
extends well down into the pelvis in a cul-de-sac (known as 
Douglas’ cul-de-sac). In the treatment of the organs of this 
cavity, it is necessary to avoid the mutilation of the aorta and 
its larger branches. The operator should keep in mind the loca¬ 
tion of the abdominal aorta, and the gastric, splenic, hepatic, 
renal, mesenteric, and the iliac arteries. 

It becomes necessary, frequently, to insert the trocar into the 
stomach to let off the gas, pump out its contents, and inject 
fluid. The stomach lies near the diaphragm and can be 
reached with less danger to the large arteries from a point at 
the margin of the ribs on the left side, transversely across 
from the lower point of the breast-bone. The point of the 
needle should be directed downward and to the left side of the 
backbone, until the front wall of the stomach is pierced. 
From this point, all other parts of the abdominal cavity can be 
reached through the cavity of the peritoneum. 

After the stomach has been treated, the needle should be turned 
downward and across, through the peritoneal sac, to the organs 
which require treatment. There is usually a sufficient quantity 


CAVITY EMBALMING 


307 


of gas within the intestines to cause more or less distension of the 
abdominal walls. When this is the case, it is an easy matter to 
push a sharp-pointed instrument through the wall of the intes¬ 
tines and remove the gas. 

The needle should not be removed, after the gas has escaped, 
until fluid has been injected into the intestinal canal. If the 
needle be removed after the gas escapes, it will be impossible to 
enter the canal subsequently, at the same point or in the vicinity, 
for the purpose of injecting fluid, as the walls of the canal will 
collapse. If fluid is injected into the peritoneal cavity, after all the 
gas has been removed, with the view of sterilizing the contents of 
the alimentary canal, the operation will be a failure, as fluid thus 
injected will settle downward through the tissues into the space 
beneath the intestines, and will not reach the fecal matter con¬ 
tained within the canal. Therefore, fluid should be injected into 
the intestinal canal after the gas has escaped, and before the needle 
has been removed, to succeed in mixing it with the contents for 
sterilization. In fact, whenever gas is removed from any part of 
the body, fluid should be injected before the needle is withdrawn, 
as it is not likely that the needle will subsequently enter the same 
space again. 

The pleural and pericardial sacs frequently contain effusions 
of a dropsical character, or as a result of inflammation. These 
effusions can be removed by introducing the needle at the same 
point in the epigastric region from which the stomach is treated. 
To remove effusions from the peritoneal sac, the needle can be 
passed downward from the same point through which the stomach 
was treated, the pump attached, and the effusions pumped out; 
or a point of entrance may be selected on the median line, above 
the pubic arch, and the fluid allowed to drain out through the 
drainage-tube or needle. 

The pelvis can be reached through either one of the outlets of 
the abdomen, through the perineum, or from a puncture through 
the abdominal wall above the pubic arch. 




308 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 


THE STOMACH. 

The stomach, when in position, lies near the diaphragm, in the 
upper part of the abdominal cavity. It is an organ larger at one 
end than the other. The larger end is called the splenic end ; the 
smaller, the pyloric end, or the pylorus. It is somewhat oval in 
shape, and curved upon itself with a large and small curvature. 
It will hold, when full, ordinarily, from three to five pints. But, 
as a result of disease, it will vary greatly in size, as for instance 
by dilatation or by contraction. 

Its Dilatation. —The following are some of the causes of dila¬ 
tation of the stomach : (a) anything that will prevent the egress 
of the digested food into the duodenum, such as cancer, affecting 
the pylorus, which may obstruct the duodenal opening by the 
formation of a hard scirrhus ring, or by the projection inward of 
fungoid growths; (/>) the narrowing of the pylorus, caused by 
fibroid thickening, which takes place beneath the mucous mem¬ 
brane, or even thickening of the mucous membrane itself, or by a 
single ulcer near the pylorus, or by the cicatrix of a healed ulcer ; 
(c) pressure of tumors upon the pylorus or duodenum externally, 
preventing the contents of the stomach passing into the duo¬ 
denum ; (d) displacement of the stomach by adhesions or by the 
pylorus being dragged down out of its usual place ; (e) or, dila¬ 
tation from paralysis, as a result of injury to the splanchnic 
nerves, etc. 

In cases of this kind, when the abdomen is laid open, the 
stomach is found to be greatly increased in size. Often it ap¬ 
pears to fill the whole abdominal cavity. The greater curvature 
will be below the umbilicus ; in extreme cases it will be even as 
low as the pubes. When the stomach is opened, it is found 
filled, partially or wholly, with a dark fluid, the amount of which 
is sometimes enormous. The wrinkles are effaced entirely by 
the constant stretching, and the mucous membrane presents a 
level surface, which is generally more or less softened by the 
acid contents after death. In cases in which the dilatation is 


OA VITY EMBALMING 


309 


very great, and the stomach is filled with enormous quantities 
of the material as described, there will be dilatation of the ab¬ 
domen also. 

Its Contraction. —We sometimes have atrophy of the stomach. 
The walls become thin and smooth, especially the mucous mem¬ 
brane, which adheres to the adjacent coats. The size of the organ 
is materially diminished. Sometimes the stomach is collapsed by 
pressure, and is found in a position very high in the abdomen ; 
while at other times it is dragged downward by adhesions, and 
will be found in a position much lower than normal. 

It is not always easy for the embalmer to locate the organ, 
especially when it is nearly or entirely empty. It will be an 
easy matter to puncture the stomach with the hollowmeedle, if 
dilated either chronically or by gases formed within. But, if 
small and collapsed and pressed up against the diaphragm, there 
will be no certainty in the operation through the abdominal 
wall, although in about ninety-five per cent, of the cases, it can 
be punctured by inserting the needle immediately over the 
normal location. Remember, this should be done near the mar¬ 
gin of the ribs on the left side, at a point transversely across 
from the tip of the breast-bone. The stomach should always be 
punctured, as well as the small and large intestines, to relieve 
the pressure formed by gases, to prevent purging. 


CHAPTER XXII. 


CRANIAL EMBALMING—SO=CALLED NEEDLE PROCESSES. 


THE EYE PROCESS. 

Embalming by the needle process was first introduced by 
the late Benjamin Ward Richardson, of London, England, in 
1884. He introduced a small needle through the inner canthus 
of the eye, and passed it along the inner wall to the point of the 
socket, through one of the foramina in that part of the orbit, 
into the spaces beneath the brain, called the subarachnoid spaces, 
through which he injected fluid into the circulation. 

In 1891, F. A. Sullivan, who was then teaching embalming in 
this country, taught the eye process, and claimed it as his own 
method, giving no credit whatever to Dr. Richardson, to whom 
all credit for the so=called needle processes should be accorded. 

The Operation. —The body should be placed in an elevated 
position on the embalming board. A small embalmingmeedle, 
about six inches in length, known as the eye-trocar, should be 
introduced at the inner corner of the eye, directing its course 
along the inner wall of the orbit, through the small foramen at 
the point of the socket, into the cranial cavity, to a distance of 
about four or five inches. The injector should be attached to the 
needle, and the injection should be begun very slowly and with¬ 
out force. After a few minutes the rapidity can be slightly in¬ 
creased. From two to four pints can be injected in this manner, 
in from twenty to thirty minutes. 

The only objection to this method is, that an accident may 
occur if too much force is used at the beginning of the opera¬ 
tion, or, if the needle is withdrawn too soon, fluid may regurgitate 
and fill the loose tissues behind the eye and push it forward. If 

310 








CRANIAL EMBALMING 


311 


this result should obtain, it is no serious matter, as the fluid will 
disappear after a short period of time, by absorption and gravita¬ 
tion, and allow the eye to settle back into its place. To prevent 
such a result, however, be careful to inject slowly and use the 
least force at the beginning of the injection, and after the in¬ 
jection is finished, allow the needle to remain in position for a 
period of five to ten minutes before removal. Do not lower the 

bodv until after the needle is removed. 

«/ 

This method includes all the science that there is in embalm¬ 
ing through the cerebrospinal cavity. 

THE BARNES PROCESS. 

The introduction of the needle through the foramen magnum 
into the cerebral cavity was recommended by Dr. Barnes, of 
Chicago, in 1893. When the needle is thus introduced, it reaches 
the subarachnoid spaces from the back part, while by the eye 
process it reaches them through the front part. When fluid is 
introduced by the needle, therefore, whether through the foramen 
magnum or through the orbit, it reaches the same spaces, and is 
distributed to the tissues of the body, in precisely the same 
manner. 

The Operation. — To introduce the needle through the fora¬ 
men magnum, it is necessary to incline the head to one side ; 
then bend it downward to the chest; draw a line from the angle 
of the lower jaw, straight around the neck, and a second line 
from the mastoid process to the center of the clavicle or collar* 
bone ; the lines will cross just back of, and a little below, the 
lobe of the ear. Introduce the needle on the first line one 'inch 
behind the point where the second line crosses the first, directing 
the needle upward and inward toward the opposite eyebrow, 
when the needle will enter the cavity. 

Dr. Barnes claims that this method of introducing the needle 
constitutes the most scientific process of embalming that has 
been introduced since embalming began. Whether it does or 
not, we will not question. 


312 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

THE NASAL PROCESS. 

The introduction of the needle through the cribriform plate of 
the ethmoid or sieve bone at the root of the nose can be accom¬ 
plished as readily and easily as by either of the other methods. 
It can be passed through, also, at the suture between the eth¬ 
moid and sphenoid bones, a little 
distance back of the sieve bone. At 
either point but little pressure will 
be required, and, when the needle 
penetrates the cranial cavity, it will 
reach the same space as when intro¬ 
duced through either the orbit or the 
foramen magnum. This method re¬ 
quires no special position of the 
head or of the body, and any amount 
of force that the operator may exert 
can be used in injecting the fluid ; 
it will neither bulge the eye nor dis¬ 
figure in any other manner. 

The Operation. —Place the body upon the embalming board 
in the usual position. Introduce the needle through either one 
of the anterior nares, directing it upward between the turbinated 
bones and along the side of the septum until it reaches the sphe¬ 
noid bone, which is back of the ethmoid ; then bring the point 
of the needle forward, pressing slightly against the bone, and 
when it reaches the suture between these bones it will pass through 
readily ; or, bring it still further forward, when it will reach the 
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, through wdiich it will pass 
with ease. After the needle is introduced in this manner, the in¬ 
jector should be attached and fluid injected. 

The fluid will pass into the circulation as readily, when intro¬ 
duced in this manner, as it will by either of the methods be- 
before mentioned ; distribution of fluid is just the same. It passes 
into the subarachnoid spaces, filling the area between the cover- 



Fig. 44. Section of Nose, 

Showing inclination of trocar in 
the Nasal Process. 










CRANIAL EMBALMING 


318 


ings of the brain and spinal cord. The fluid reaches the vascular 
system by exudation through the walls of the smallest arteries 
veins, and capillaries in the coverings of the brain and spinal 
cord, especially the pia mater or vascular membrane. A portion 
of the fluid may pass into the sinuses through the walls. We 
have injected, in this manner, two quarts of fluid in eighteen 
minutes ; in another case, a pint in a minute and a half; in an¬ 
other, a pint in three minutes. In some cases, a large amount of 
fluid can be injected ; in others, a small amount; and, in still 
others, none at all. 

The results obtained by these processes are not constant; there¬ 
fore, we would not recommend any one of the needle processes 
to take the place of arterial embalming. As an auxiliary, they 
certainly have their place among other methods of embalming. 
In giving the treatment for special cases, we point out where the 
needle processes can be used to* advantage. 

EMBALMING THROUGH SOFT TISSUES ON OUTSIDE OF SKELETON. 

In some cases, on account of the mutilation or destruction of 
the arteries, it is impossible to inject fluid through the arterial 
system into the tissues of the body. It is true, in many cases, 
that arteries that are mutilated may be tied and fluid injected just 
as well as if no mutilation existed, but in cases of extensive mutil¬ 
ation from accident, and in postmortem cases, there will be 
leakage, on account of the anastomoses, that it is impossible to 
control. To preserve these parts, therefore, it becomes necessary 
to introduce fluid into the tissues through other channels than 
the arteries. 

The Operation. —The fluid can be injected directly into the 
parts through a hollow-needle. The needle that is employed in 
treating the cavities, or the infant-trocar, can be used lor this pur¬ 
pose. The needle should be inserted in the top of the upper cen¬ 
ter of the part which it is desired to treat, passing it through the 
skin into the cellular tissue beneath, when the fluid can be in- 


314 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


jected very easily. Tlie needle should be passed over the upper 
surface of all the tissues that require fluid, pointing it in all direc¬ 
tions, and injecting sufficient fluid to sterilize the tissues beneath. 
To preserve the upper extremities, the needle can be inserted 
through the skin on the top of the arm and fore-arm, at a num¬ 
ber of points between the wrist and shoulder. The lower ex¬ 
tremities and the trunk can be treated in a similar manner. 

Fluid thus injected will settle downward through the tissues 
by gravitation. Large amounts of fluid can be injected in this 
way. In an average-sized body, in which the cellular tissue was 
filled to a considerable extent with gas, we have injected three 
gallons of fluid by this method. 

In the treatment of “floaters,” the injection of fluid into the 

subcutaneous tissues is very essential. The fluid introduced thus 

«/ 

will destroy the bacteria within the tissues, and the needle, as 
well as the perforation through the skin after the needle is re¬ 
moved, forms an exit through which the gas will pass out more 
rapidly. 

If the face and neck are in a natural condition, when the 
arteries of the trunk have been destroyed extensively, as in a 
postmortem case, or as the result of an accident, do not inject 
fluid under the skin in these parts, but use one of the needle 
processes. After the fluid appears at the open end of the veins 
and arteries, showing that the blood is all washed out, a cord 
may be tied tightly around the root of the neck, which will 
strangulate the vessels so that fluid may be injected in sufficient 
quantity to fill the capillaries of the head, face, and neck, which 
will preserve the parts and retain their natural appearance. 

The embalmer should be acquainted with all the methods of 
introducing fluid into the tissues, so that, when called to a case, 
he will be ready to use whatever method is necessary, in that par¬ 
ticular case, to preserve and disinfect the body. 




CHAPTER XXIII. 


REMOVAL OF THE BL00D 6 


Reasons for Its Removal. — Blood should be removed from 
the venous side of the vascular system, for several reasons. This 
removal will relieve congestion of the superficial or peripheral 
vessels of the head, face, and neck, in a body that is full of blood, 
thereby removing the discoloration. It will free the tissues from 
an excess of blood, which is a material in which putrefaction 
takes place quickly, decreasing the chance of preservation, and 
giving rise to post-mortem discoloration and postmortem staining. 

It is not necessarv to withdraw blood in all cases, but it is 
certainly a good practice to withdraw it whenever it can be done. 
The greater the quantity of blood extracted from the body, the 
less likelihood there will be of discolorations and early putrefac¬ 
tion. More blood can be withdrawn, and the most satisfactorv 
results will follow, if the operation of withdrawal of blood is per¬ 
formed alternately with that of the injection of fluid into the 
arteries, whether the withdrawal be by the direct operation upon 
the heart or through one of the veins. 

The Methods of removing the blood from the body are three : 
first, by the direct operation upon the heart; second, by aspira¬ 
tion through the basilic vein ; third, by drainage through the 
femoral or jugular vein. 

From the Heart Direct. — To remove blood from the heart 
direct, a cardiac-needle and an aspirator are required. An ordi- 
narv hollow-needle or trocar may be used, but the cardiac- 
needle is better, as it is less likely to become closed by clots. It 
should be very sharp, six or more inches in length, and of fair 
caliber. The arrow-pointed and diamond-pointed needles are 

315 




















REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD 


317 


excellent for the purpose, as they will pass directly through the 
heart, without a tendency to turn to one side, as is likely to be 
the case witli the pen-pointed needle. 



Fig. 46. Front View of the Thorax. 


The ribs and sternum are represented in relation to the lungs, heart, and other 
internal organs. M, mitral valve; T, tricuspid valve; A, aortic semilunar valves; 
P, pulmonary semilunar valves; X. point for introduction of needle in the direct 
operation. 

To reach the right auricle of the heart, the needle should be 
introduced at a point immediately to the right of the margin 
of the breastbone,. in the third intercostal space, which will be 
found in the adult about four inches below the upper end of the 
breast-bone. (See Fig. 46.) The needle should be directed 

















318 


CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 


backward, toward the right of the center of the backbone, to the 
depth of about four inches, or until the point of the needle 
touches the spinal column, when it will have entered the right 
auricle. Never direct the point toward the center, much less to 
the left side of the center, of the backbone. The surface of the 
front part of the body of the dorsal vertebra is round, and, if 
the point of the needle should be pushed through the auricle, it 
would strike the vertebra, and be deflected to the left and pierce 
the thoracic aorta, which lies in front, and to the left, of the 
center of the backbone, to which it is attached. To wound the 
aorta thus would be to destroy the circulation. Therefore, it is 
very important to give the needle its proper inclination. 

In many cases, especially if one has had experience in tapping 
the heart in this manner, it is possible to determine when the 
needle passes through the wall of the auricle, but it is not the 
case at all times. When it is the case, the needle need not be 
pushed so deep as to wound the aorta. But there is no certainty, 
and we should not rely on imaginary depth alone. 

The needle can be pushed through to the right side of the 
backbone, or entirely to the back wall of the cavity on the right 
side of the backbone, without injury to the circulation, and 
then be withdrawn again until the slotted portion of the needle 
is found to be in the cavity of the auricle. This is indicatd by 
blood appearing in the vacuum in the bottle, when the pump is 
operated. It matters not if the needle passes entirely through 
the auricle, which it will do. if it is pushed against the right 
front of the back-bone, as only a little blood will escape, which 
will amount to nothing. If blood does escape in this man¬ 
ner, it can be pumped from the mediastinal space, if found 
necessary. 

After the needle has been introduced, place the body high on 
the incline and raise the arms over the head, for the purpose of 
gravitating the blood toward the heart; attach the aspirator and 
withdraw the needle slowly and carefully a short distance until 


REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD 


319 


the slotted portion enters the cavity, when blood will begin to 
flow. Allow the needle to remain in this position as long as 
the flow continues; when it ceases, push the needle in a little 
farther, then withdraw it again to its former position, which 
operation will aid in the removal of clots — if there are any — in 
the slots of the instrument. 

To remove the blood from the lower extremities, the position 
of the body must be reversed, as blood can only be removed 
from the body by the aid of gravitation, or while the mouth of 
the tube, or the point of the needle, is immersed in the fluid. 
The cavities of the heart are not filled by the pressure of the 
air, as is the vacuum produced in the common pump, but by 
the force of gravity. 

When the heart is emptied, and no more blood can be with¬ 
drawn, the injection of fluid through the artery should begin,, 
and an amount of fluid equal to or greater than the amount of 
blood withdrawn, should be injected ; then more blood should 
be pumped from the heart, and fluid injected into the artery 
alternately, until sufficient fluid is injected to fill the capil¬ 
laries. 

Another Method. — The needle may be introduced through 
the anterior wall of-the abdomen, at the point through which 
the cavities are injected, and directed upward toward the heart 
through the diaphragm and into the right ventricle. By this 
operation, blood can be withdrawn just as well as from the right 
auricle, but there is greater danger of wounding the aorta or the 
valves at the aortic opening. Moreover, as the heart is rather 
pendulous in its position, it is easily moved to the right or left 
of its usual location, and thus the puncturing of the right ven¬ 
tricle is made more uncertain. 

Too much care cannot be exercised in the introduction of the 
needle, because of the large vessels that are found in this region. 
To wound the aorta, or any of the large arteries, is to destroy 
the circulation, so that fluid cannot reach the tissues of the body 


320 


CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 


through these channels. Therefore, on account of the great dan¬ 
ger of destroying the circulation, this method of piercing the 
heart is not recommended. 

Through the Basilic Vein.— To remove the blood through 
the basilic vein, will require an aspirator and a silk vein-tube, of 
proper caliber to enter the vein, and long enough to reach the 
heart. This method of removing the blood is made use of, gen¬ 
erally, when the brachial artery is raised. Raise and incise the 
vein as already directed ; insert the vein-tube, and pass it 
through until the end of the tube reaches the right auricle of 
the heart; then tie the vein around the tube, attach the pump 
and begin the aspiration of blood. Remove all the blood that 
is possible ; then begin the injection of fluid, and continue alter¬ 
nately aspirating blood and injecting fluid until no more blood 
can be removed. 

It makes no difference which basilic vein is used. It is 
true the curve is, more gradual in the left than in the right, 
but, if the right is used, the tube will enter the heart just as 
well, if a. little assistance is given in directing the end of the 
tube when it reaches the bifurcation back of the junction of 
the collar-bone and breastbone. By pressing the finger down¬ 
ward into the hollow behind the joint, the- end of the tube will 
start downward through the right innominate vein toward the 
right auricle. 

Through the Femoral Vein. — To remove the blood through 
the femoral vein, there will be needed a drainage-tube, or silk 
vein-tube, of sufficient length to reach above Poupart’s ligament 
as far as the common iliac, and allow six or eight inches to re¬ 
main out of the wound, so that the blood can be directed into a 
conveniently-placed vessel. It should be of large caliber, sav 
No. 14 or No. 16 in size, and twelve to fifteen inches in length. 
The advantage of withdrawing blood through the femoral vein, 
besides the convenience in raising it at the same time the femoral 
artery is raised, is that by its use, pumping the blood is not 




REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD 


% 


321 

usually required. There are no valves in the ascending vena 
cava, or in the common iliac vein, to prevent the flow of the 
blood from the heart, and if the blood is sufficiently thin to 
run, and there are no clots intervening, it will pass out through 
the drainage=tube by gravitation, and by the pressure upon the 
peripheral veins of the fluid that is being injected, at the same 
time, through the artery. The body should be placed on a high 
incline, say from forty to fifty degrees. The arms may be held 
in an upright position by an assistant, when blood will begin to 
flow. Then commence the injection of the fluid through the 
femoral artery. As the fluid begins to press upon the tissues 
and capillaries, the blood will flow more freely, and the use of 
the aspirator will not be required — that is, if the blood is per¬ 
fectly thin or liquid. 

If the blood is thick, or if it is full of coagula, it may be 
necessary to attach the aspirator. But, in the great majority of 
cases, if the body is placed high enough on the incline, the 
aspirator will not be necessary. 

Through the Jugular Vein— If the common carotid is 
raised, the internal jugular may be used for the purpose of with¬ 
drawing the blood. By inserting the tube into the jugular vein 
toward the base of the skull, the blood will drain out. If the 
tube is turned and entered toward the heart, the aspirator will 
have to be used. 

Every operator should be prepared to withdraw blood either 
by the direct method from the heart, or through a vein, be¬ 
cause he will fail sometimes in one operation and may be 
successful in the other. I herefore, it the basilic vein is laised, 
and the operator fails to get blood, he should try the direct 
operation upon the heart; or, if he should fail by the direct op¬ 
eration, he should then raise the basilic or some other vein, and 
endeavor to withdraw blood. 

Sometimes the heart may be lying in an abnormal position, 
and it will be impossible to withdraw blood from the right 

28 



322 


CHAMPION TEXT, BO OK ON EMBALMING 


auricle by the direct operation ; in such a case, it will be neces¬ 
sary to use one of the veins. 

The direct operation through the third intercostal space is the 
simplest and quickest method of withdrawing blood from the 
body. If the directions for introducing the needle are followed 
carefully, there will be no danger of wounding or mutilating the 
arterial system, and as much blood can be withdrawn in this 
manner as through either of the veins. 

Circulation Not Destroyed by Tapping the Heart.— 
Objection has been made to the direct operation on the heart, by 
some embalmers, who raise the point that the circulation is 
destroyed thereby, and that arterial embalming, therefore, would 
be non-effective. The point is not well taken. The right auricle 
being the only part wounded, the fluid would have to make the 
entire circuit of the circulatory system before it could escape 
from the wound. (See “Circulation of Fluid,” page 279.) The 
valves of the heart act just the same after death as before. 
During life they prevent the backward flow of the blood, and 
after death they prevent the flow of the fluid into the heart. 
Therefore, fluid does not enter the left cavities of the heart at 
all, unless the aortic valves are injured or destroyed ; nor does 
it enter the right cavities unless it has made the entire circuit of 
the systemic circulation. 

However, the heart may be occupying an abnormal position, 
as a result of effusion into one of the pleural sacs, or some other 
disease. In this case the left side of the heart (or the aorta, for 
that matter,) may be injured by the needle. Injury even to the 
left auricle or left ventricle would not destroy the circulation 
sufficiently to interfere with arterial embalming, unless the aortic 
valves were destroyed. Wounding the aorta, as already stated, 
would destroy the circulation of fluid. 




CHAPTER XXIV. 


DISCOLORATIONS AND THEIR REMOVAL. 


Discolorations take place in all bodies sooner or later after 
death, as a result of putrefactive or other changes. The surface 
of the body becomes changed to a deep=green color, due to putre¬ 
faction ; or it may become a dark=blue color, owing to the blood 
settling into certain parts ; or it may become flushed, due to the 
injection of fluid into the arteries before they are empty, or to 
the injection of a vein instead of an artery. It matters not what 
the cause may be, the desire of the embalmer is to remove these 
discolorations from the parts that are exposed to view when it 
can be done. These exposed parts may be involved to a greater 
or less extent; the whole surface of the body may be discolored, 
or a mere spot may be changed. The head, neck, and face may 
be of a dark=bluish color, resulting from the position of the body 
after death, the head being allowed to lie lower or more de¬ 
pendent than the trunk, causing the blood to gravitate towards 
it. The same discolorations of the surface will result from the 
forming of gases in the thoracic and abdominal cavities in such 
quantities as to cause pressure upon the large veins and right 
side of the heart, sufficient to force the blood into the head, face, 
and neck. The capillaries and small vessels in the skin and 
subcutaneous tissues in these parts are very greatly distended 
with the venous blood, causing the darkdfluish discolorations. 

Venous Congestion. — The body should be placed on a high 
inclined position, and blood should be withdrawn by one of the 
methods described in the previous chapter. If the discoloration 
is caused by the pressure of gas within the thoracic and abdom¬ 
inal cavities, the gas should be removed at once, and the body 




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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


allowed to remain on the incline, until all the blood will have 
gravitated to the trunk and dependent portions of the body. 

If the blood is less fluid than normal, thus interfering with its 
passage through the veins, or if it has become coagulated in the 
large vessels and right side of the heart, and still remains fluid 
in the peripheral veins and capillaries, it may be aided in its 
gravitation by spreading a damp cloth over the face and rubbing 
the hand downward over the surface toward the heart. This 
should be continued for some length of time, or, until the dis¬ 
coloration entirely disappears. The cloth will protect the sur¬ 
face, preventing the skin from slipping, which occurs in some 
cases when the hand is rubbed over the bare surface. 

If the above method fails, place a mixture of fine ice and salt 
over the surface, with a thin cloth intervening between the ice 
and skin, and wrap the whole with a woolen blanket or cloth to 
exclude the air and external heat; allow the mixture to remain 
until the surface is frozen from one-eighth to one=fourth of an 
inch in depth. Cold retards or prevents the coagulation of 
blood, and if the surface is frozen, it removes the blood from 
the surface by pressure. (For “Ice Mixture” see page 328.) Never 
make use of hot applications, as they increase the tendency of 
the blood to coagulate, and will in no way assist in its removal. 
It is said that the needle operations aid in removing blood when 
other means fail. No doubt, good results will follow their use 
if the blood is not firmly coagulated, but if it is, they can do no 
good, as blood that has become thoroughly coagulated' in the 
vessels, cannot be removed by anv means that are known. 

If the blood is firmly coagulated in the small veins and capil¬ 
laries of the surface, there is nothing that will remove the dis¬ 
coloration. In time, it will be modified, becoming of a reddish 
cast, and finally of a dull-red color, owing to the escape by transu¬ 
dation through the tissues of the carbonic acid gas in the blood ; 
the hemoglobin or coloring matter of the blood remains, which 
gives it the reddish appearance. Cold applications, hot applica- 


DISCOLORATIONS AND THEIR REMOVAL 


325 


tions, rubbing the surface, or working with it in any manner, 
will have no effect upon the discoloration after the blood is coagu¬ 
lated firmly in the capillaries. In many cases of discoloration, 
the results of treatment are very unsatisfactory. 

Even when the blood is quite thin and is carried downward by 
gravitation, the rims of the ears, in many cases, will remain full 
of blood, presenting the usual discoloration. An instrument, 
known as the leecher, has been recommended for its removal, by 
scarifying the posterior surface of the ear and removing the blood 
by suction. This operation is scarcely necessary for the reason 
that, if the rim of the ear is turned upward, the blood will gravi¬ 
tate through the vessels and enter the larger veins at the base of 
the ear and be carried off by gravitation. 

“Flushing of the Face/’ —Discoloration caused by the injec¬ 
tion of an artery when it is full of blood, or the injection of a vein 
by mistake for an arter\% usually cannot be removed. If the flush 
is noticed at once, before the capillaries are dilated to a great ex¬ 
tent—there not having been much blood forced into them— ,it 
will be possible to remove it by withdrawing the blood through 
the vessel through which the injection has taken place. This 
may be aided by pressure upon the surface, and rubbing with the 
hand. If the capillaries are distended fully, by the injection of 
sufficient fluid to fill the vessels thoroughly, and the fluid has 
been allowed to remain for some length of time, it will be im¬ 
possible to remove the flush ; the effect can only be modified by 
by the use of powder or tints. 

Post-Mortem Discoloration, or Hypostasis, is due to the 

presence of blood near the surface in the back and dependent 
parts of the body, especially of the trunk. The blood remains in 
the vessels which are filled to distension, and is not transuded 
into the surrounding tissues as in bruises and ecchymoses. This 
discoloration can be removed only by turning the body upon the 
face, when the blood will gravitate to the front part of the body 
or trunk. This method, however, is never practised, as its re- 


326 


CHAMPION TEXT. BO OK ON EMBALMING 


moval is not necessary, the back part of the body not being ex* 
posed to view. It is only when the discolorations appear on the 
fingers or rims of the ears that it becomes necessary to remove 
them. This can be done by raising the rim of the ear and ele¬ 
vating the ends of the fingers, when the blood will gravitate to 
other parts. 

Post-Mortem Staining* is a bright-red discoloration, which is 
seen frequently along the course of the superficial veins over the 
ventral region and extremities and sometimes in the face. This 
takes place usually about eight or ten hours after death. It is 
due to putrefactive or other changes that take place in the blood. 
The red corpuscles being reduced, the hemoglobin is eliminated 
into the liquor sanguinis, or watery portion of the blood, where it 
is dissolved thoroughly, when it passes out through the walls of 
the capillaries and vessels into the surrounding tissues, producing 
a continuous bright-red color, which can be seen through the 
skin. The hemoglobin, or red coloring matter of the blood, is a 
permanent color and cannot be removed by any bleaching pro¬ 
cess that is known. It is just as impossible to remove post¬ 
mortem staining as it is to remove the normal color of the negro’s 
skin. 

Brownish or Greenish Spots, which appear occasionally 
under the eyes, along the nose, and at the corners of the mouth, 
are caused, usually, by putrefactive changes in the blood-vessels 
and capillaries, or by destruction of the circulation in the part, 
due to embolism in young people and atheroma in old people, 
either of which prevents the fluid from reaching the parts. These 
spots may be removed by injecting hypodermically a bleaching 
solution, using just enough fluid to reach the circumference of 
the discoloration. 

Bruises and Ecchymoses are spots caused by blood exuda¬ 
tions, due to rupture of the capillaries near the surface. The 
walls of the capillaries being destroyed, the blood passes out into 
the tissues and no channels remain through which the blood can 


DISCOLORATIONS AND THEIR REMOVAL 


327 


gravitate to the dependent parts. These parts are usually of a 
dark-blue color, but after a time they will change to a dull-red 
color, due to the transudation of the carbonic acid gas that the 
venous blood contains. Spots of this kind may be covered with 
flesh=tints; they cannot be removed by the application of 
bleachers. 

Discoloration Caused by Biliverdin usually takes place 
during life. It is caused by the blood taking up the bile in the 
liver, when the usual channel of exit is obstructed, and carrying 
it to the tissues of the body. It stains all the tissues, including 
the skin and conjunctiva (mucous membrane of the eye) a 
yellowish or brownish color. A similar discoloration will result 
in certain diseases, such as Bright’s disease, cancer, consumption, 
etc., or may be due to chemical changes in the pigment or tissues 
of the skin itself. These stainings cannot be removed ; the 
color is permanent and unbleachable. The injection of a good 
bleaching fluid through the arteries sometimes will modify the 
appearance, but will not remove the discoloration entirely. The 
best effect can be secured by placing the body, after it has been 
embalmed thoroughly, in a darkened room, and have artificial 
light reflected upon it. If this is done properly the case can 
be made to look almost perfectly natural in color and ap¬ 
pearance. 

Bleachers and Fluids Not Effective. —So-called bleachers 
and fluids, used on the face in the usual manner, serve no pur¬ 
pose whatever, unless it be to destroy odors. Fluid thus placed 
on the outside of the body does not penetrate or pass into the 
tissues. The skin is a very compact tissue, and, if penetration 
should take place at all, it would be very slowly. Tissues of the 
body are composed of about twoThirds water and one-third solid 
matter. The air on the outside of the body is much dryer than 
the tissues of the body, even when the humidity is great. The 
air, therefore, takes up the moisture, leaving the chemicals within 
the meshes of the cloth, absorbent cotton, or lintine, or upon the 


328 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


surface of the body, none of the chemicals having penetrated 
through the skin into the tissues beneath. 

To make the application of fluids or bleachers effective at all, 
they should be covered with rubber, oiled silk, or some other 
fabric which is impervious to air. But even then, absorption 
would take place so slowly that its effect would be very limited. 

It is advisable not to apply fluids or bleachers upon the out¬ 
side of the body, as they will do little, if any, good, while they 
have a tendency to soil the clothing and other fine fabrics which 
may be placed upon or around the body. 

The Ice Mixture. —The following is the formula for removing 
discoloration by the blood when it is not coagulated firmly in the 
capillaries and small superficial veins: 


$ Finely powdered ice.three parts. 

Common salt.one part. 

Mix. 


Place the mixture about two inches thick, between two thin 
muslin cloths, and apply to the affected part; then cover with a 
blanket or thick towels to exclude the air. The application can 
he removed in from two to four hours, or when the discoloration 
has disappeared. 




CHAPTER XXV. 


OASES: THEIR PRODUCTION AND ELIMINATION. 


An erroneous idea prevails among a great majority of em- 
balmers as to the production and elimination of gases that are 
lound in the body after death. It is supposed by them that 
these gases are produced by some chemical reaction, and that 
they are destroyed by the fluids that are used for the preserva¬ 
tion and disinfection of the body. 

What They Are. — First, what are these gases? They are 
merely some of the elements of which the body is composed, set 
free by the action of the putrefactive bacteria, and recombined 
in the form of sulpliureted hydrogen, carbonic acid, ammonia, 
etc. They are not destroyed by the fluid that is injected for the 
purpose of preservation and disinfection ; the fluid only destroys 
the odor. During their production, the gases transude rapidly 
through the tissues into the cellular tissue beneath the skin, and 
slowly through the skin itself, which causes the body to swell in 
proportion to the amount of gas produced. If the production 
of these gases is stopped, in time they will be eliminated from 
the body by the above process. 

Where Found. — Gases may be found in the peritoneal cavity, 
for instance, from several causes : first, escape from the alimentary 
canal through a perforation in the peritoneal wall; second, 
transudation through the intestinal wall into the peritoneum ; 
third, decomposition of materials within the peritoneal sac. Gas 
may be found in all parts of the peritoneal cavity, or it may be 
limited to a small space by the adhesion of the walls of the 
peritoneum. More or less gas is always found in the alimentary 
canal. It may be found in the small intestine in small quanti- 

329 




CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


330 

ties, or in the large intestine alone. r lhere may be an amount in 
the large intestine sufficient to distend the walls ot the abdominal 
cavity to their greatest extent. 

Oases are produced within the thoracic cavity, especially in 
the pleural and pericardial sacs, due to the decomposition ol 
their abnormal contents, as when they are filled with more or less 
solid, semisolid, or liquid matter. Gases are formed sometimes 
within the lungs, the result of putrefaction of the lung substance, 
as in cases of pneumonia, tuberculosis, gangrene, etc. 

Gas may be formed in the pelvic cavity, or in the spaces be¬ 
hind the peritoneum in the abdominal cavity, as a result of de¬ 
composition, or the presence of a large amount of purulent matter 
in abscesses, or in the subperitoneal, connective tissue. Gas may 
be formed in the bladder, resulting from decomposition of material 
within it, sufficient to distend the abdominal walls. 

If gases are present in these several locations, and are still 
being developed without interference, they will transude through 
the tissues, finally getting into the fatty or cellular tissue, especi¬ 
ally the layer between the skin and superficial fascia, bloating the 
body, as is seen in the “ floater/’ or in any other body in which 
putrefaction has been going on for some time. 

How Eliminated. —As stated before, these gases are not de¬ 
stroyed by the introduction of fluid into the body—it is impossible 
to destroy them with anything. But, by the injection of fluid 
into the parts affected, the putrefactive bacteria are destroyed and 
no more gas is produced. Fluid injected into the arteries will 
not reach the contents of the several cavities of the organs men¬ 
tioned ; it only reaches the walls of the cavities which are filled 
with capillaries. The morbid material contained within these 
several cavities can only be reached by the hollowmeedle, through 
which the gases can escape and sufficient fluid be injected to 
sterilize the contents thoroughly. Fluid is mixed with the con¬ 
tents of these cavities for the purpose, as stated before, of destroy¬ 
ing the bacteria which are present, and to assist in the elimination 








GASES: THEIR PRODUCTION AND ELIMINATION 331 


of the gas by the direct connection of the cavity with the surface 
oi the body through the opening made by the needle. Gases 
that are not eliminated in this manner will transude through the 
deeper tissues into the cellular tissue, thence slowly through the 
skin itself, until finally the body will be reduced to its normal 
size. The elimination of gas through the skin can be assisted 
greatly by making a number of punctures through the skin over 
the parts which are swollen. 

Odors that accompany the gases eliminated from the body 

should be destroved bv deodorizers. Most of the fluids that are 

«/ «/ 

sold for the purpose of preserving and disinfecting the body will 
also destroy the odors that accompany the gases. 

PURGING AND ITS TREATMENT. 

The definition of purging is a diarrhea or dysentery ; preter¬ 
natural evacuation of the intestines; looseness of the bowels. 
Purging also means to cleanse, clean, or purify, by separating or 
carrying off whatever is impure, heterogeneous, foreign, or super¬ 
fluous. The term, as understood by the embalmer, also includes 
the after=deatli evacuation from the mouth and nose, and it is 
this phase which more especially interests him. 

There are two kinds of purging from the mouth and nose. 
One comes from the stomach through the upper end of the ali¬ 
mentary canal, and the other comes from the lungs through the 
respiratory tract. The purge from the former is a brownish, 
coffee^grounddike material, while that from the latter is a bloody, 
frothy mixture. 

Purging from the Stomach. — In purging from the stomach, 
the contents, which consist largely of animal and vegetable 
matter, undergo a chemical or putrefactive change, liquifying 
the substance, and producing gas. The gas thus produced finally 
distends the walls of the stomach and makes its escape through 
the gullet, mouth, and nose. At the same time gases are pro¬ 
duced in the intestines by the putrefactive changes taking place 


332 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


in the contents, especially in the large intestine. The gas thus 
formed fills the intestines, dilating the canal sufficiently to fill 
the entire abdominal cavity, pressing the stomach against the 
diaphragm with enough force to cause the contents to escape 
through the upper end of the alimentary canal. The purged 
matter has a very strong and peculiar odor. At times the quan¬ 
tity is enormous, and, unless the gas be removed, the clothing 
and everything around the body will be soiled, and a very 
unpleasant odor will permeate the room. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of a case of purging from the 
stomach, it is necessary to remove the gas from both the stomach 
and intestines. The hollow-needle should be introduced into 
the stomach through the abdominal wall at a point in the epi¬ 
gastrium over that organ. The point of the needle should be 
directed to the left side of the backbone at such a distance that 
it will not wound the great aorta. The gas should be allowed to 
escape through the needle and rubber tubing into a bottle con¬ 
taining fluid which will destroy the odor. After all the gas has 
escaped from the stomach, and before the needle is removed, fluid 
should be injected, as frequently it will be impossible to enter that 
organ again with the needle. Then the needle should be with¬ 
drawn and directed downward through the space between the 
peritoneal walls and through the wall of the large intestine, 
from which the gas will escape through the needle. Before the 
needle is withdrawn, inject fluid in sufficient quantity to sterilize 
the contents of the intestines. Gas should be removed from all 
parts of the abdominal cavity. The operator should always 
bear in mind that when gas escapes fluid should be injected 
before the removal of the needle. When the gas is removed 
and fluid injected, as directed, no further purging will follow. 

Purging from the Lungs. — Purging of # a red, frothy char¬ 
acter, through the respiratory tract, comes from the lungs. Some¬ 
times, in a case of drowning, it is produced by the presence of bac¬ 
teria, which can easily be checked by the introduction of fluid into 



GASES: THEIR PRODUCTION AND ELIMINATION 333 


the lungs, through the respiratory tract. In a case of consumption, 
it will give way immediately on the injection of fluid directly 
through the windpipe, but in cases of pneumonia in the second 
stage, it frequently becomes very obstinate. The reason for this 
obstinacy is that no fluid can reach the diseased lung, either 
through the nutrient arteries, or by way of the respiratory tract. 
T1 le lung, having filled the entire side of the cavity of the thorax, 
making pressure upon the arteries and capillaries of the nutrient 
circulation and upon the bronchi, which are filled to a certain 
extent bv a bloody mucous, renders it impossible for fluid to 
enter the diseased portion of the lung. This being the case, the 
bacteria of putrefaction will begin to develop sooner or later 
within the diseased portion of the lung, causing liquefication of 
the lung substance and the formation of gas. The gas will force 
the liquefied matter, with more or less froth, which is in the 
bronchi of the normal portion, out through the respiratory 
tract, and it will finally appear at the mouth and nose as bloody, 
frothy purge. 

Treatment. —The usual methods of treatment, that have been 
recommended, are the turning of the body over and making 
pressure over the chest and up against the diaphragm to force 
this matter from the cavity, and then to inject fluid into the res¬ 
piratory tract; to repeat this a number of times, if the case be 
obstinate ; also, to close up the respiratory tract, in order to keep 
the purge from passing out through the windpipe, either by in¬ 
troducing cotton or some other substance into the glottis, or by 
tying a tape around the windpipe. 

Such treatment is not successful, as it will not arrest the growth 
of bacteria in the lungs, and consequently will not stop the pro¬ 
duction of gas. If the gas cannot pass out through the respira¬ 
tory tract it will transude through the tissues into the cellular or 
fat tissue beneath the skin, causing a swelling of the surface in 
the neck and upper portion of the body. The bacteria must be 
destroyed to stop the production of gas. To accomplish this, the 


334 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


portion of the lung which is involved should be mutilated with 
the knife, which should be passed through the front wall of the 
chest between the ribs into the diseased lung ; then the hollow* 
needle should be introduced, and fluid injected into all parts of 
the diseased lung. This can be done a few hours after the body 
has been embalmed without destroying the effects of arterial em¬ 
balming. 

Usually such treatment is successful. If all parts are not 
reached and gas is still formed, it will pass out through the open¬ 
ings made by the knife and hollowmeedle. If necessary, the 
treatment can be repeated in the course of a few hours. 




PART THIRD. 


MORBID ANATOMY AND TREATMENT OF SPECIAL 

DISEASES. 





INTRODUCTION TO PART THIRD. 


Morbid (or Pathological) Anatomy treats of the changes produced by 
disease in the solids and fluids of the body, as in the tissues, skin, blood, 
secretions, etc. It also shows what effusions are to be found in the several 
cavities — as blood^serum, purulent matter, etc.,—and the effects wrought 
on the various organs. 

The morbid changes which take place in the different organs and tissues, 
as a result of the many diseases that human flesh is heir to, are scarcely 
understood by the embalmer. In many cases his knowledge of the real 
condition is very slight indeed. There is nothing more essential in the 
practise of embalming than to understand which organs and tissues are 
affected, and what are their condition at death. 

In Part Third we have endeavored to place before our readers, in as plain 
language as possible, the morbid anatomy of certain diseases, with the 
proper mode of treatment of the body dying from each. Only the most im¬ 
portant diseases, and those whose treatment is likely to give the embalmer 
the most trouble, are thus considered. 

We show which organs and tissues are affected by complication and 
otherwise, so that the embalmer may know where to look for, and bow to 
reach, all diseased tissues, for the purpose of destroying the bacteria of in¬ 
fection and putrefaction, and of preserving the parts, and t hereby have no 
“ failures.” 

These diseases are considered under a somewhat arbitrary, though more 
or less logical, classification. In the first class are included diseases which 
affect the circulation in such a manner as to make it impossible or difficult 
to get a good arterial circulation of fluid, some of which conditions are 
present in various other diseases, the description of which follow. 

i s 

336 













CHAPTER XXVI. 


DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM. 


DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES WEAKENING THE WALLS AND CAUSING ANEURISMS. 

To fully understand this subject, it is very important, in study¬ 
ing the morbid process to which arteries are subject, to keep in 
mind the following anatomical facts: the bloodstream, as it 
passes through the arteries, glides over the surface of the endo¬ 
thelium (the layer of the flattened cells); outside of this layer is 
the tunica intima, composed of elastic tissue in longitudinal ar¬ 
rangement ; the endothelium and the tunica intima together 
constitute the internal coat ; still more external is the middle or 
muscular coat, composed of a fibrous arrangement in circular, 
triangular, and longitudinal manner, and, in the larger arteries, 
mixed with elastic tissue ; outside of all is the external coat, 
consisting of longitudinal, fibrilated, connective tissue. 

Acute inflammation of the artery affects only a limited portion 
of the vessel, and leads occasionally to ulceration. In some 
cases, this has arisen from the irritation caused by an embolus 
(clot), which, becoming detached from the cardiac valve, has 
blocked a distant artery. Sometimes there will be softening and 
swelling of the arterial coats in circumscribed spots, which be¬ 
come flabby and inelastic, and ultimately bulge outward and form 
aneurisms. This condition is the great cause of aneurism in 
hard-working young men. 

‘ Chronic inflammation of the arteries is so infrequent that it is 
scarcely worth noticing, unless as. a precursor of the disease 
known as atheroma. 

Atheromatous disease is met with oftener than any other, and 
is much more serious. It presents three tolerably welbdefined 
stages. In the first stage, it the vessel is slit open, grayish 

29 337 




338 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


patches, which thicken the lining membrane, are noticed. These 
patches seem to lie on the surface of the membrane, but this ap¬ 
pearance is deceptive. They lie underneath the endothelium, 
which is not affected at all in the beginning of the morbid pro¬ 
cess. Indeed, the material of which the patches are formed is 
really situated external to the tunica intima, between that and 
the middle coat. It is half cartilaginous in consistence, and is 
formed by the rapid, abnormal multiplication of the deep cells of 
the tunica intima, the new growth pushing up this tunic with its 
endothelium on the inner side, and so causing the bulging into 
the interior of the vessel. It seems to be in the nature of an in¬ 
flammatory change—that is, it consists in the throwing out of 
cellular elements in consequence of some influence which has ex¬ 
cited them to unnatural growth. 

In the second stage, the cellular elements, of which the new 
growth is composed, undergo the process of fatty degeneration, 
and, in consequence, become yellowish in appearance and pasty 
in consistence. It was the pastedike appearance of the mass that 
gained for it the designation of atheroma (meal). In this stage, 
it frequently happens that the whole of the internal coat with its 
endothelium is involved in the softening, and gives way under 
the pressure of the blood, leaving an excavation, the contents 
being literally washed out. The floor of this excavation is formed 
by the middle and external coats of the artery. When this is the 
case, the blood insinuates itself between the coats of the vessel, 
which, being weakened by the removal of the internal coat, 
yields to the pressure of blood, and a sacculated aneurism is or¬ 
iginated. Cerebral vessels, probably on account of the thinness 
of the walls, are liable to rupture when they are the seat of aneur¬ 
isms. Sometimes, the diseased coronary artery has given away, 
filling the pericardium with blood. 

Occasionally, however, the pasty mass, instead of being washed 
away, becomes the seat of calciferous (lime) deposits. This is 
known as the third stage. The appearance of the vessel, in which 


DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 339 


the atheromatous disease lias reached this stage, is very striking. 
Plates, which present to the naked eye the appearance, but do not 
show the structure, of bone, are observed at intervals in the walls 
of the vessel, with their sharp points projecting into the interior of 
the vessel. I11 the aorta it is not uncommon to find such plates 
an inch long and half an inch broad, and in the smaller arteries 
the calcific matter forms a ring around the vessel. In the latter 
the calcareous particles appear to be deposited in the patch while 
it is still firm, so that the second stage is not marked. 

Atheromatous disease sometimes invades the aorta, while the 
small vessels are not affected ; or, on the other hand, the small 
vessels may be the seat of the calcific change and the large ves¬ 
sels be healthy. Occasionally, the disease is limited to a few ves¬ 
sels. Next to the aorta, the arteries of the lower extremities are 
prone to this form of arteritis (inflammation of the arteries). The 
dangers to which an atheromatous state of the vessels exposes a 
person in whom it exists are various. The stream of blood is re¬ 
tarded by the projection of the new growth into the vessel, and 
still more by the destruction of the elasticity of its coats. Hence, 
the failure in the nutrition of the organ, which depends for its 
supply of blood on the diseased vessel, will follow. This is said 
to be the cause of cerebral softening. 

Arteries have been occluded completely by the deposit of fibrin 
011 the spiculated edges of the calcareous plates. This is one of 
the causes of senile gangrene. The plugging of distant vessels by 
emboli, at times, results from the detachment of such fibrinous 
clots and the washing away of the atheromatous material. Ri¬ 
gidity of the larger arteries, from the atheromatous change, is like¬ 
wise one of the most frequent causes of hypertrophy (enlargement) 
of the left ventricle of the heart, in which increased work is caused 
bv the destruction of the elasticity of the vessels. Anasarca of 

t/ 

the lower extremities may occur in elderly men from the plug¬ 
ging of the vessels, or it may result from dilatation and weaken¬ 
ing of the left ventricle, thereby weakening the blood=current. 


340 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


When a number of these atheromatous spots have washed 
out, the distant vessels may fill up with debris, which has a 
yellowish^white appearance, causing occlusion sufficient to pre¬ 
vent the flow of fluid. In one case, in following up a dissection, 
it was noticed that a number of points in the aorta were diseased 
in this manner. One dissecting aneurism was present, while 
other points seemed to have been washed out. In some rare 
cases of dropsy there have been noticed a substance composed 
of white plates in the arteries in sufficient quantity to impede 
the flow of fluid. This is due, presumably, to the separation of 
the solid and semisolid portions of the blood from the liquor 
sanguinis, hemoglobin being absent. It is a grayisffiwhite color. 
This has been mistaken, by some, for the atheromatous deposits. 

Treatment.— The use of great force in the injection of fluid, in 
cases of this kind, may produce disastrous results. If it is kept 
in mind that the aorta is the vessel most frequently diseased, and 
that the injection of fluid can be accomplished with very little 
force, the results will be satisfactory, provided the aneurisms 
that are present are not burst. If undue pressure is used, these 
aneurisms, or weakened walls of the vessel, will undoubtedly give 
way, when it will be impossible to fill the arteries and capillaries. 
In a case where such results obtain, fluid must be injected be¬ 
neath the skin into the cellular tissue in all parts of the body. 
Fill the cavities thoroughly. Treated in this manner, preserva¬ 
tion and disinfection can be accomplished. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD=VESSELS AFFECTING THE 

CIRCULATION. 

In the embalment of a body it is not always easy to get an 
arterial circulation ; in fact, in a number of cases, it is impossible 
to get an arterial circulation at all. It is not always owing to the 
contraction of the arteries, or to the presence of blood-clot, but is 
frequently the result of disease of the heart, arteries, veins, or 
capillaries. 


DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 34 1 


First, the heart is liable to organic disease, either of its pro¬ 
pelling muscular walls, its regulating valves, or its controlling 
nervous system. It will be found that disease of any of these 
parts of the cardiac apparatus, affects its several functions. Thus, 
disease of the walls of the heart affects the force or pressure ; dis¬ 
ease of the valves disturbs the distribution or quantity of blood 
in the several parts of the circulation. 

Second, disease of the arteries interferes with the quantity of 
blood transmitted through them, and produces disturbances of 
distribution or pressure. 

Third, when the capillary walls are degenerated or ruptured, or 
their channels are blocked as a result of embolism or thrombosis 
in the arteries or veins, nutrition is disturbed in various ways. 

Lastly, the veins may be the seat of a variety of lesions, which 
prevent the return of blood and lead to hemorrhage or dropsy. 

The pressure of blood within the circulation may be either in¬ 
creased or diminished, or irregularly distributed. The most 
marked instance of increased pressure is seen in simple hyper¬ 
trophy of the left ventricle without valvular disease, especially if 
the hypertrophy be associated with increased peripheral resistance, 
as observed in chronic Bright’s disease. In the arteries there is 
fullness, elongation, thickening, and atheroma, with their results. 
The pulse is full and strong, and the capillaries are distended and 
may be ruptured, hemorrhage being the result. 

Diminished pressure of the circulation is more common, and is 

seen in dilatation, with thickening of the cardiac walls, and in 

atrophy, with fatty degeneration. The effects of diminished 

pressure within the circulation generally are the reverse of those 

of increased pressure : the arteries are comparatively empty and 

small ; the pulse is weak, small, and irregular; the cavities are 

• 

supplied insufficiently with blood ; the surfaces are' anemic, or 
passively congested ; and the various functions are discharged 
feebly ; the backward pressure within the veins, on the con¬ 
trary, is increased ; the blood tends to accumulate within them ; 

j 7 7 


342 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


the walls are dilated ; the valves are disorganized ; and passive 
congestion, thrombosis, dropsy, and chronic inflammation are the 
frequent results. 

The quantity of blood distributed in hypertrophy of the heart 
is large, while in atrophy the quantity is less and the pulse is 
wiery. The most frequent disturbance observed is irregularity of 
distribution. This condition generally affects the pressure and 
quantity together, and may affect the one more than the other. 
Irregular distribution of blood and pressure is present more mark¬ 
edly in valvular imperfection, and is seen also in obstruction 
of the arteries, and other allied conditions, especially of the aorta. 
In the parts of the circulation and in the organs situated behind 
the seat of the disease, irregularity of the distribution of blood 
and of pressure is a manifested form of dilatation, such as en¬ 
largement and engorgment of the heart, congested and associated 
changes of the lungs and abdominal viscera, of hemorrhage, and 
of various exudations and effusions, whether as edema, dropsy, or 
catarrh. On the other hand, the portions of the circulatory ap¬ 
paratus beyond the seat of the disease are underfilled and under¬ 
sized. The organs are deprived of a sufficient supply of blood, 
and anemia, with its further consequences, is the result. 

In cases of hypertrophy without valvular disease, accompanied 
by disease of the arteries, capillaries, and veins, there is liable 
to be ecchymoses (blood=spots) on the surface. These discolora¬ 
tions are the result of the blood breaking through the walls of the 
capillaries into the cellular and connective tissues, producing 
bluish or reddish spots. 

Treatment. — In case of thinness of the walls of the heart 
and of the arteries and capillaries, we are liable to have rup¬ 
ture during the injection of fluid. Therefore, in all cases, and 
in case of'the aged especially, fluid should be injected very 
slowly and without force, as, frequently, if force is used, rupture 
will follow, and the entire destruction of the circulatory flow of 
fluid will result. Indeed, in some cases, it will be impossible 


DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 343 

to inject fluid through the arteries with sufficient force to reach 

* 

the capillaries in the tissues, without causing rupture. In cases 
of rupture resulting from, the injection of fluid, and in those 
cases where sufficient force cannot be used to reach the capil¬ 
laries, the fluid should be injected into the tissues direct through 
the hollow-needle. The cavities can be treated in the usual 
manner. Ecchymoses cannot be removed by bleachers applied 
to the surface, or by hypodermic injections. If they appear on 
the parts that are exposed to view, as the face, neck, and backs 
of the hands, they should be covered with flesh tints, or powder. 

VALVULAR DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

Valvular lesions of the heart are situated, generally, in the 
left side, at the mitral and aortic openings. Lesions on the right 
side are comparatively rare. The valves are frequently thick¬ 
ened and contracted ; or, they may be encumbered simply with 
vegetations of greater or less size, without being incapacitated for 
the performance of their functions. Sometimes they are ren¬ 
dered more or less rigid by the deposit of calcareous matter. 
The aortic and mitral valves may become enlarged and thick¬ 
ened sufficiently to almost close the orifices ; or they may become 
atrophied, rendering them liable to rupture or perforation. En¬ 
largement of the heart follows either of the above conditions. 
When the aortic valve is diseased sufficiently to interfere with, 
or prevent, perfect closure of the aortic orifice, fluid, when injected 
into the arteries, will enter the left side of the heart; and, in 
tapping the heart, if the left side be perforated by the trocar, a 
partial destruction of the circulation will result, and the fluid 
will fail to permeate a part, at least, of the tissues. The lungs 
may become involved, resulting in edema, hemorrhages, or pul¬ 
monary apoplexy. Dropsy of the serous sacs, or general dropsy, 
may be present. Death may have been caused by heart failure 
or by apoplexy. The face and upper surfaces of the body are con¬ 
gested and edematous, rendering the removal of blood necessary. 


344 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Treatment. — When the semilunar valve, which guards the 
aortic opening, is diseased in such a manner as to prevent the 
closure of the orifice, fluid, when injected into the arterial sys¬ 
tem, will pass into the left ventricle. If the mitral valve, which 
guards the opening between the left auricle and left ventricle, is 
diseased at the same time, the fluid will pass on into the left auri¬ 
cle. In withdrawing blood from the heart by the direct opera¬ 
tion, when the above valves are diseased, great care should be 
taken not to wound the left side of the heart. If the septum be¬ 
tween the right and left sides of the heart is wounded, the circu¬ 
lation of fluid will be destroyed. 

A less dangerous method of withdrawing blood from the heart, 
under these circumstances, would be through the basilic or the 
femoral vein, as the heart may be moved out of its normal posi¬ 
tion by an effusion into oue or the other pleural sac ; for instance, 
if the heart be forced a little to the right side by an effusion into 
the left pleural sac, it would cause the operator, if not aware of 
the abnormal position, to wound the left side. Death may have 
been caused by asphyxia, due to edema of the glottis, hydroperi¬ 
cardium, or pulmonary congestion, resulting in congestion of the 
face and neck, on account of which the blood must be removed 
at once. 

Dropsical effusions almost always occur in valvular disease of 
the heart; sometimes they are limited to the serous cavities only, 
but more frequently anasarca, or general dropsy, is the result. 
The water should be removed from the serous cavities by the use 
of the aspirator, and from the cellular tissue, especially in the 
extremities, by the rubber bandage ; then fluid, containing a little 
formalin, should be injected into the arteries in sufficient quan¬ 
tity to fill the capillaries of the skin, which will harden the 
pigment layer, preventing “skin slip.” The cavities should be 
filled in the usual manner. Fluid should be injected into the 
lungs through the respiratory tract; then place the body upon 
the level with the head slightly elevated. 


CHAPTER XXVII. 


INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 


SCARLATINA - SCARLET FEVER. 

Scarlet fever is an acute infectious disease. Infection with 
the specific scarlatinal poison occurs almost always by contagion, 
which takes place very readily. There seems to be no doubt 
that the disease is transmitted by objects which the patient has 
touched, such as linen, clothing, furniture, toys, etc. Even per¬ 
sons who have been with the sick may be the means of trans¬ 
mitting the disease, the poison, having attached itself to the 
meshes of the garments while moist, will be detached easily on 
becoming dry, and be received through one of the various chan¬ 
nels by those coming into contact. In England it has been 
thought that the contagion might be carried by milk. 

Scarlatinal poison is destroyed with great difficulty. It keeps 
its contagious powers for months. In some cases it is very hard 
to point out the source of the contagion. The tenacity of the 
scarlatinal poison may well explain the reason. The disease 
may be communicated as late as the end of th£ desquamative 
period. The details as to the manner of contagion are yet un¬ 
known. Statements have been made repeatedly about the pres¬ 
ence of bacteria in the blood and in the tissues of scarlet fever 
patients, but the specific poison of scarlet fever has probably 
never been observed, though the disease has been repeatedly 
produced in healthy persons through inoculation. 

The predisposition to scarlet fever is far less usual than to 
measles or smallpox. Frequently, where there are several chil¬ 
dren in the family, only one or two are sick, while the rest 
escape, although equally exposed. The liability to the disease 

345 




346 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


is greatly diminished as age increases, although adults are some¬ 
times affected. Between the ages of two and ten years is the 
period when the majority of the patients are affected. It is 
very rare in the first year of life. Children with fresh wounds, 
either accidental or surgical, especially are liable to scarlet fever. 
One attack of the disease renders the person immune, as very 
few are attacked a second time, so that after the disease is over, 
an immunity from contagion is enjoyed, hut there are exceptions 
to this rule. 

Scarlet fever is met with in every part of the globe. Sporadic 
cases in the large towns are found at almost all times, while in 
the autumn, from time to time, there are more or less extensive 
epidemics in one place or another. There is considerable varia¬ 
tion in the different epidemics of scarlet fever. Sometimes it 
prevails in a very mild form, with few deaths, and at other times 
it prevails in a more severe and grave form, and many deaths 
result. 

This disease being contagious, especially among children of 
the ages of two to ten years, children of that age should be kept 
away from the patient. The patient should be isolated, and all 
persons, except the nurse, should be kept out of the room. In¬ 
deed, the nurse should not be allowed to come in contact with 
others, as the poison which is liable to attach itself to the cloth¬ 
ing, hair, hands, and underneath the nails of the nurse, are 
liable to be the source of contagion. We might say that there 
are cases of so-called puerperal scarlatina, resulting from the 
entrance into the system of the scarlatinal poison through the 
excoriations or wounds caused by the passage of the child 
through the female genital organs. In these cases following 
childbirth, death may result, and carelessly the scarlatina may 
be overlooked, supposing it to be a case of septicemia. In cases 
of septicemia there is an eruption on the surface, due to the 
septicemic condition. Therefore, the scarlatinal eruption may be 
mistaken for the eruption of septicemia. If there is any doubt, 





INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


347 


be very careful not to expose any one to the contagion. To be 
on the safe side, treat the case as one of scarlatina. 

The kidneys are affected frequently in scarlatina, and this is 
usually a dangerous complication. Ordinarily, there is found 
in the urine a trace of albumen, and in rare cases the quantity 
of albumen may be considerable. There is a changed appear¬ 
ance of the urine in some cases, and the microscope reveals but 
few abnormal constituents. In genuine scarlatina, nephritis 
rarely ever developes before the end of the second week or the 
beginning of the third. Sometimes it begins even later. It 
may follow the severest case or the mildest. The severity of the 
disease seems, therefore, not to be essential. In case of nephritis, 
general dropsy follows, and frequently death occurs. It may 
occur from extensive ascites, or hydrothorax, or it may result 
from uremic poisoning. In some cases cardiac failure may be 
strongly developed. 

Treatment. —In cases dying after desquamation has already 
taken place, if the body is treated properly, and the room thor¬ 
oughly fumigated, there will be no danger in exposing the body ; 
it need only be known as a case of Bright’s disease or acute ne¬ 
phritis. The body may be shipped without danger to others, 
without the usual means of protection required in cases of infec¬ 
tious diseases. Of course, if desquamation is not complete, it 
must be treated precisely as a case dying earlier in the disease. 

Cases dying before desquamation should be embalmed thor¬ 
oughly, as all infectious cases should be, not for the purpose of 
exposing them to view, but as a sanitary measure. As stated 
above, the bacteria are very tenacious and hard to destroy. 
From experience and investigation we know that these bacteria 
will resist the effects of water, cold, freezing, earth, etc., retaining 
the power of development for a long period of time. To place a 
body dying from scarlatina in the ground without first destroying 
these bacteria, or scarlatinal poison, exposes future generations to 
a source of dissemination, at least. 


348 


CHAMPION TEXT* BO OK ON EMBALMING 




Ill preparing the body, first remove the clothing, rendering the 
body nude. Inject fluid into the arteries until sufficient has been 
injected to fill the capillaries thoroughly ; fill the cavities and ex¬ 
ternal openings ; wash the body with hot water and soap, and 
also with strong disinfectant fluid. Allow the body to remain 
upon the board ; close and seal all the doors and windows, mak¬ 
ing the compartment as nearly air-tight as possible ; then disin¬ 
fect the room by the use of formaldehyde gas. After thorough 
disinfection, dress the body and place in the coffin or casket, and 
remove for burial. If it is to be shipped, follow the rules adopted 
by the General Baggage Masters’ Association in preparing bodies 
for shipment. 


DIPHTHERIA. 

Diptheria is an acute infectious disease, caused by an infectious 
bacillus. It is highly contagious, and the malignant form is a 
very grave disease, with a high mortality rate. It is principally 

a disease of childhood, although no age 
is entirely exempt. Occasionally an 
adult becomes infected. It is charac¬ 
terized by a falsemiembrane in the 
throat, nose, and other parts of the mu- 
j^. cous surfaces. The fauces are usually 
the only parts covered with the false 
mem brane. Although a constitutional 
fe&tivdisease, the morbid changes are appar¬ 
ently not very great. 

The disease is endemic in our large 
cities, and, at certain periods of the 
year, becomes epidemic. Diphtheria 
seems to have increased in our large 
cities in the last few years, while other 
contagious diseases have diminished. The disease seems to be 
specially virulent in country districts where it has prevailed. 



Fig. 47. 

Bacillus Diphtheriae, from colony 
upon an agar plate, 24 hours old, X 
1U00. From a photo micrograph by 
Fr&nkel and Pfeiffer. 









INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


349 


Diphtheria is highly contagious, and readily communicated 
from one person to another. The bacilli may be received from 
the false membrane or discharges from the patient; from the 
secretions from the nose and throat of convalescents, in which 
virulent bacilli persist; from healthy persons who have been 
in contact with others having virulent germs on their person or 
clothing. 

Diphtheria is specially fatal to physicians and nurses, and may 
be to the embalmer, if due care is not exercised. The particularlv 
dangerous period to the physician or nurse is while examining 
and swabbing the throat, for the patient may cough mucus and 
pieces of the false membrane into the face and mouth of the phy¬ 
sician or nurse. The virus is found in the room of the patient, 
and is hard to remove ; it also attaches itself to the bedding and 
clothing. Osier says : “A majority of the cases die of faucial or 
laryngeal disease. The exudation may occur in the mouth and 
cover the inner surfaces of the cheeks ; it may extend beyond 
the lips on to the skin.” 

The exudation varies in amount in different cases. The ton¬ 
sils and pillars of the fauces are covered with pale membrane. 
In fatal cases the exudation is much more extensive, involving 
the uvula, the soft palate, the posterior nares, and the pharynx. 
The parts are covered with a dense false membrane, which ad¬ 
heres firmly in places, and in others begins to separate. In the 
most severe cases there is a gangrenous condition of the parts. 
The false membrane is of a gray or dirty=greenish color. There 
mav be sloughing of the tonsils and palate, and the erosions may 
be deep enough in the tonsils to open the carotid artery, or a 
false aneurism may be produced in the deep tissues of the neck. 
The nose may be filled completely by the false membrane, which 
may extend through the Eustachian tube into the middle ear and 
into the conjunctiva. 

In cases where the larynx becomes involved—so-called laryn¬ 
geal diphtheria—the pharyngeal exudation may be very extensive, 


350 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


but in many cases it is slight upon the tonsils and lauces, and 
abundant upon the epiglottis and the larynx, which may be 
closed entirely by the pseudomembrane. The exudation may 
extend into the trachea and into the larger bronchi. The lym¬ 
phatic glands of the neck are enlarged, and there is general infil¬ 
tration of the tissues ; the salivary glands may be enlarged. The 
false membrane extends, in rare instances, to the esophagus and 
the stomach. While the infectious or diphtheretic bacilli are 
limited to the false membrane, the whole body is impregnated 
witli a virulent poison. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of diphtheretic cases the em- 
balmer should be extremely careful. The blood is very poison¬ 
ous, and, if he should wound himself, or receive the least particle 
of the blood through an abrasion, death would result most likely 
from blood poisoning. Therefore, in handling or operating on 
these cases, the embalmer should wear gloves, or some other pro¬ 
tection should be used on the hands to cover abrasions; these 
may exist without the knowledge of the operator. He should 
also dress himself in a suit of old clothes—a suit used onlv in 
handling infected bodies. He should cover his head with a rub¬ 
ber cap, and also wear a rubber coat fitting closely around the 
neck and reaching to the feet. Rubber, having no meshes, can 
be cleaned easily. 

The body should be undressed and placed upon the board ; 
then washed with a solution of biclilorid of mercurv, and a strong 
disinfecting fluid should be injected in the nose and mouth, fill¬ 
ing the trachea and lungs. Raise an artery at some convenient 
point and fill the tissues with fluid. Inject about one pint of 
fluid for every twenty pounds of weight of the body—that is, if a 
body weighs 150 to 160 pounds, inject at least one gallon of fluid 
to fill the capillaries, rather more than less than that quantity. 
Remember that the tissues must be filled to insure disinfection. 
After injecting the arteries, fill the cavities thoroughly. Then 
inject again into the nose, mouth, throat, and lungs, and fill all 





INFECTIOUS AND CONI AGIO US DISEASES 


351 


the openings of the body with pledgets of absorbent cotton soaked 
in fluid. 

The room should now be closed tightly and disinfected thor¬ 
oughly with formaldehyde gas or sulphur fumes. After the room 
and body have been disinfected in this manner, the body may be 
dressed for burial. If the body is to be shipped, it should be 
wrapped in cotton at least one inch in thickness, protected by a 
roller or manyAailed bandage, and the whole wrapped in a sheet 
wet with a strong solution of mercuric chlorid, and then placed 
in a hermetically^sealed coffin, casket, or box. 

TYPHOID FEVER. 

Typhoid fever is an acute infectious disease, caused by the 
presence of the typhoid bacilli. They are found in the alimen¬ 
tary canal, principally in the lower part of the small intestine. 

If death results early in the 
disease, the body will not be much 
emaciated ; the pallor will not be 
so great on account of the thick¬ 
ness of the blood, caused by ex¬ 
cessive perspiration and diarrhea, 
and the bluish color of the tissue, 
resulting from the loss of the 
liquid portion of the blood. The 
body, at this stage, will not be 
hard to preserve; rigor mortis 
being well marked, it will keep 
usually, without the use of fluid, 
for two or three days in ordinary 
weather; but the body should be disinfected as one dying 
in a later stage, on account of the presence of the typhoid 
bacilli. 

If death occurs later in the disease, say at any time after three 
or four weeks, the pallor will be much greater. Rigor mortis will 



Fig. 48. 


Section through wall of intestine showing 
invasion by typhoid bacilli, X 950 (Baum- 
garten). 










352 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

not be so well marked. In fact, it will come on and pass off, 
when the body is extremely emaciated, within the hour. 

In cutting down into the different cavities of the body, the tis¬ 
sues will be found light in color, the blood very thin, and there 

will be a hypostatic congestion in 
both lungs; the posterior part of 
the lungs will be quite solid. 
Hypostatic congestion will be 
found in the dependent parts of 
the body, even before death. The 
small intestine will be found to be 
denuded of mucous membrane in 
patches two or three inches in 
length. Peyer’s patches and the 
solitary glands will be sloughed 
off and cleansed, showing deep 
ulceration. 

In many cases the contents of 
the small intestine will be of a 
pea'Soupdike=green material, filled 
with typhoid bacilli and putrefactive bacteria. This matter is 
very poisonous ; if the least particle is taken into the stomach, 
it will produce the disease. A very small quantity of this matter 
may get into the clothing, and, when it becomes dry and is 
brushed off, it may be carried by the air and deposited on such 
material as is taken into the stomach, such as cold food or the 
water we drink ; therefore, it is very necessary to be extremely 
‘careful in handling bodies of this kind. 

The ulcerations may be deep enough to have perforated the 
walls of the intestines, and the contents, containing more or less 
undigested food, may be found in the peritoneal cavity ; the 
spleen may be found enlarged from two to five times its usual 
size, or its capsule may have burst, and a great quantity of blood 
may have escaped into the peritoneal sac. The kidneys and liver 



Fig. 49. 

Bacillus Typhi Abdominalis (Typhus ba¬ 
cillus), from single gelatin colony, X 1000. 
From a photomicrograph by Sternberg. 




N 


INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 353 

may be found affected more or less ; the large and small intes¬ 
tines will be filled with gas in all cases. 

Treatment. —\Y lien the embalmer is called to embalm a case 
dying from typhoid fever, it is not only his duty to preserve the 
case, but to disinfect it thoroughly. If the body is to be shipped, 
it must be disinfected to meet the requirements of the shipping 
authorities oi this country, and must be prepared specially, ac¬ 
cording to the rules adopted by the General Baggage Masters’ 
Association. 

It is necessary to disinfect the body, even if it is not to be 
shipped, for the protection of the community. If a public funeral 
is to be held, the body should be disinfected thoroughly, to pre¬ 
vent the dissemination of the disease. If the body should be 
buried without being disinfected properly, the spores of the bac¬ 
teria will remain dormant within the grave for a long period of 
time, as earth does not seem to destrov them. Under these circum- 
stances, if the body should be disinterred for removal at any time, 
the spores may be thrown out on the surface and be carried 
away by the wind, or washed into the streams ; or they may be 
washed out of the grave through the drainage from the cemetery, 
and be carried into the larger streams, which form the source of 
the water supplies to the inhabitants along their course. I11 this 
manner, the disease is no doubt frequently disseminated. There¬ 
fore, all bodies dying from typhoid fever should be disinfected in 
a thorough manner before burial. 

To treat a case of typhoid fever, the body should be taken from 
the bed, the clothing removed, and the body washed with a 
strong disinfectant solution, as well as soap and water. The 
washable material that was used on the bed, with the cloth¬ 
ing upon the body, should be rolled up closely and placed in a 
wash boiler of water and boiled for at least an hour. After the 
body has been carefully washed, it should be embalmed. 

If the abdomen is distended with gas to a great extent, it will 
be better to treat this cavity before raising an artery. If it is not 


jO 


354 


CHAMPION TEXT.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


distended with gas, an artery may be raised first and fluid in¬ 
jected into the arterial system. 

To operate on the abdominal cavity, an atmospheric pump, 
with complete tubing, and a hollow-needle of about ten or twelve 
inches in length, are necessary. Connect the needle with the 
tubing, place the goose-neck loosely in the bottle, already filled 
with fluid. Do not push the cork into the neck but let it lie upon 
the rim, so as to allow the gas to pass out freely ; then introduce 
the needle at the proper point in the epigastric region (as described 
in the chapter on “Cavity Embalming”), pushing the needle 
downward until the stomach is reached, always keeping in mind 
the location of the abdominal aorta and its large branches. The 
gas in the stomach will pass out through the needle and tubing 
into the bottle containing the fluid, through which it will pass, 
destroying the odor and any bacteria it may contain, and then 
escape through the neck of the bottle. This will be indicated by 
bubbles forming on the surface of the fluid. After all the gas 
has escaped, before removing the needle, the goose-neck should be 
pushed tightly into the bottle, and fluid should be pumped into 
that part of the cavity from which the gas escaped. 

From the same point of introduction, the needle may be pushed 
through the peritoneal sac into other parts of the abdominal cav¬ 
ity that contain gas. When the needle enters these parts, the 
goose-neck should be loosened from the neck of the bottle as be¬ 
fore. After the gas has escaped, the goosemeck should be tight¬ 
ened again in the bottle and fluid should be injected before the 
needle is removed. Inject the canals and cavities in this manner 
successively, filling each, until all the gas is removed, and all 
parts of the abdominal cavity have received fluid. This should 
be done for the purpose of mixing the fluid with the contents of 
the alimentary canal and other parts of the cavities. 

If all the gas is removed from these cavities before the fluid is 
injected, it will be impossible to introduce the needle again into 
the several cavities that had contained gas, on account of their 










INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


355 


walls collapsing, and fluid injected would be received only by the 
peritoneal sac and would settle down through its walls into the 
tissues beneath. It is necessary that fluid should be mixed with 
tiie contents of the intestinal canal and other organs of the body, 
and to do this the fluid must be injected after the gas escapes, 
before the removal of the needle. 

After the abdominal cavity has been relieved of the gas and 
fluid injected, the needle should be turned upward through the 
front border of the diaphragm, and the serous sacs in the thoracic 
cavities should be treated, as directed in the chapter on “Cavity 
Embalming.” Fluid should be injected through the respiratory 
tract to reach the congested part of the lung, and, if persistent 
purging from the lungs should follow in twenty-four to thirty-six 
hours after death, the needle should be inserted through the front 
wall of the thoracic cavity, into the diseased portion of the lung, 
the part mutilated as much as possible, and fluid injected in 
large quantities. This will destroy the bacteria that are contained 
within the diseased portion of the lung, and purging will cease. 

After the cavities have been treated properly, an artery should 
be selected and raised for the purpose of arterial embalming. If 
blood is withdrawn, it should be sterilized by a solution of cldorid 
of lime, about five or six ounces to the gallon. 

If a body is treated in this manner, and enough fluid is used, 
there will be no danger of the dissemination of the disease. 

TYPHUS FEVER. 

Known Also As Hospital, Jail, Camp, and Ship Fever. 

Typhus fever is an acute infectious disease, entirely distinct 
from typhoid fever, with which it was formerly confounded. The 
similarity of the two diseases, which caused the assumption of 
similar names, consists in a number of complications which may 
appear in both diseases. An essential difference, however, which 
exists in the whole course of the disease, is the intestinal lesion, 
which is characteristic of typhoid fever, but is never seen in 


356 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


typhus fever. Another, the chief distinction between the two 
affections, is the inability to find the bacillus, which causes the 
typhoid, in the typhus case. 

We have not been able yet to determine the pathogenic bac¬ 
teria that causes typhus fever. We have much less information 
as to the way in which the affection occurs, than in relation to 
typhoid fever. Several microbes have been described in connec¬ 
tion with the disease, such as streptobacilli, diplococci, and 
ascomycetes, but the question still remains open for investigation. 
The disease is rare at present. Epidemics are infrequent, although 
sporadic cases occur from time to time in the centers of large 
population. 

Typhus fever is a most highly contagious affection ; even the 
doctors and nurses in attendance on the sick are almost invari¬ 
ably attacked. It is a very grave disease, and a large percentage 
of those attacked die. Clothes and bedding retain the poison 
for a long time. Emaciation is not very apparent, unless the 
case is protracted, through the intercurrence of complications, 
when it may reach an extreme degree. Rigor mortis is not well 
marked and usually lasts but a short time. Hypostasis occurs 
rapidly, and putrefaction begins soon after death. The only 
constant lesion noticed in this disease is the profoundly changed 
condition of the blood, which is dark in color and very fluid. If 
clots exist at all thev are large and soft and easily broken down. 

%j dD 

The amount of fibrin and the number of red corpuscles are 
diminished, but the number of white corpuscles is increased. 

Treatment. — In treating a case of typhus fever, it must 
always be remembered that it is infectious and highly contag¬ 
ious ; therefore, the dress should be one in which the germ is not 
so likely to be carried, as that described under the directions for 
the handling of infectious cases. The body should be laid upon 
the board and washed with a strong disinfectant; an artery 
should be raised and fluid injected in sufficient quantity to fill 
the tissues ; the cavities should be filled in the usual manner 









INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 357 

No special treatment can be given, as it is not known what parts 
of the body are infested with the specific micro-organisms of the 
disease. If the body is to be shipped, it should be wrapped in 
cotton, as directed in the rules for the shipment of bodies. 

MEASLES. 

Measles is an acute infectious disease, characterized by coryza 
and a peculiar red eruption. It is a disease of childhood, but 
adults are liable to the infection when unprotected. Adults are 
attacked more frequently by measles than by scarlet fever. 
Within the first few months of infantile life there is less liability 
of attack, although infants two or three weeks old may have the 
disease. Both sexes are affected equally. The contagion is 
communicated by the breath and by the secretions, those of the 
nose being the most dangerous. The disease can be conveyed in 
the clothing, especially when secretions from the nose come in 
contact with the meshes. 

Death rarely results from measles alone, but complications 
produce many fatalities among children. There is no character¬ 
istic post-mortem appearance in any of the tissues. In the 
bronchi the mucous membrane indicates a catarrhal condition, 
death usually resulting from pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, or 
other complications in the lungs. The post-mortem condition is 
referable to those diseases. There is an invariable swollen con¬ 
dition of the bronchial glands. Pleuritic effusions, as a result 
of pleurisy, may occur in some cases. Sometimes, later on, there 
may be a tubercular invasion, which will produce the same 
condition that is found in tuberculosis. There is a congested con¬ 
dition of the mucous membrane of the stomach and small 
intestines. Peyer’s patches or glands may be swollen and con¬ 
gested to a very considerable extent. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of measles the complication 
producing death must be considered. If it be pneumonia, or 
consumption, or any other disease of the lungs, the treatment 


858 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


recommended for the disease should govern the operator; other¬ 
wise, the body should be injected very thoroughly and the tissues 
and cavities filled with fluid with a view to disinfection. If the 
body is to be shipped it must be prepared according to the 
shipping rules governing the same. For burial in the local 
cemeteries, the rules as laid down by the health board in the 
locality where the death takes place should govern. 

TUBERCULOSIS - CONSUMPTION. 

Consumption (tuberculosis) is one of the most widespread and 
deadly diseases known. A larger percentage of deaths is due to 

this disease than to any other. It is 
an acute infectious disease, due to the 
presence of tubercular bacilli. It pre¬ 
vails in all climates and altitudes. 
Usually in the high altitudes it is 
longer in developing, due to the ab- 

It is true deaths occur frequently in 
the higher altitudes, but this is the re¬ 
sult usually of persons seeking higher 
altitudes for the purpose of being 
cured. The disease having almost 
run its course, but little of the lung 
remaining, it is impossible for them 
to live in an atmosphere so rarified. 

Morbid changes take place very frequently in the larynx, 
trachea, and bronchi. Tubercles commonly develop first in the 
upper part of both lungs ; sometimes only in one. Their de¬ 
velopment is always, in a greater or less degree, associated with 
other morbid changes of the lungs, such as congestion and edema 
of the lungs, bronchial catarrh, pneumonia, etc. 

Cavities from the size of a pea to the size of an orange are 
found usually throughout the lungs. Sometimes they are large 


sence of moisture or damp atmosphere. 



Fig. 50. 


Bacillus Tuberculosis in giant cell, X 
1000. From photomicrograph made at 
‘he Army Medical Museum, Washing¬ 
ton, by Gray. 






359 


INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


enough to involve the whole lung ; pus from these cavities fre¬ 
quently escapes into the pleura or into the abdominal cavity. 
There is always a complication of pleurisy with effusion of 
serum or suppurative matter into the pleural cavities. Sometimes 
this may be a straw-colored liquid, having the consistency almost 
of water ; at other times it may be heavy pus; and at still other 
times a plastic effusion which adheres to the parietal walls of the 
pleura. Extensive pleuritic effusions may be found, causing the 
lung to adhere to the front or side of the chest. Very extensive 
morbid changes sometimes take place in the mesenteries, perito¬ 
neum, intestines, and other organs. Sometimes there is ulceration 
of the intestines, abscesses of the mesenteries, circumscribed or 
general peritonitis, abscesses of the liver, kidneys, etc. 

In children frequently the serous membrane of the brain is 
affected, and in tubercular diathesis, often rickets, or necrosis of 
the vertebra, or softening of the bones in general, is present. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of the disease, it must be re¬ 
membered that preservation is not all, but disinfection must be 
considered as well, as the inhalation, or taking into the system, 
of these tubercular bacilli will result, in many cases, in tubercu¬ 
losis ; especially when a condition of the system prevails in which 
the tubercular bacilli may grow. 

To stamp out the disease, it is highly necessary that every case 
dying of tuoerculosis should be disinfected thoroughly, as the 
spores will remain alive in a body placed in the ground, even 
after putrefaction has taken place, and be ready for development 
when they reach the proper soil. This can result from the dis¬ 
interment of bodies that have been buried, or from outlets from 
graves in cemeteries, through sewers or ditches that carry the 
water, filled witli these bacilli, into streams which assist in form¬ 
ing the water supplies of our larger cities. 

The fluid, which is injected through the arterial system, reaches 
the lungs, when they are not diseased, by means of the bronchial 
arteries, which are branches of the thoracic aorta ; but in the case 


360 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of consumption these arteries usually are destroyed or closed with 
fibrous plugs. Consequently, in many cases, fluid will not reach 
these cavities. The only positive evidence of fluid having reached 
the lungs is when it appears at the mouth or nostrils, which 
usually is the result of these plugs being forced out, or of the 
rupture of the wall of the artery in some part of the cavity. 
When such is the case, it is possible to complete the injection 
through the arterial system by closing the glottis. This can be 
done by the introduction of a tampon or tampons of cotton 
through the nose or mouth, into the pharynx, for the purpose of 
closing the glottis. When this is accomplished, the injection 
may be proceeded with, and when the cavities are filled with 
fluid, the leakage will not interfere further with the injection 
through the arteries. 

If the fluid does not appear at the nose or mouth, during the 
injection of fluid through the arteries, it will be necessary to in¬ 
ject fluid through the trachea into the cavities of the lungs, fill¬ 
ing the lungs full. The operation should be repeated, especially 
in warm weather, in a few hours. The pleural cavities should be 
emptied by pumping them out and then filling them with fluid. 
Gases should be removed from the abdominal cavity and fluid in- 
jected in large quantities into the intestinal canal and peritoneum. 

A body treated in the above manner with a good disinfecting 
fluid, will be both preserved and disinfected. 












TUBERCULAR MENINGITIS. 

Tuberculosis of the meninges is nearly always a secondary af¬ 
fection. It follows existing tubercular disease of some other organ. 
The inner covering of the brain (pia mater) is singled out most 
frequently for the secondary infection by the tubercular bacilli. 
The path these bacilli traverse to reach the pia mater is not 
known, unless it be by the circulation. The original tubercular 
disease would undoubtedly end in death, the meningitis merely 
terminating life more quickly. Again, the primary trouble may 




INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


361 


not be noticed at all, or it may have long since appeared to have 
been arrested, so that the meningitis may appear to be a primary 
disease. It most frequently follows pulmonary tuberculosis, com¬ 
ing on as a complication in very advanced cases. It may follow 
tubercular pleurisy, but tubercular pleurisy is usually a sequel of 
pulmonary affection. 

Strumpell, in his “ Text-book of Medicine,” says : — 

“In children, and sometimes in adults, the virus may be car¬ 
ried to the meninges from cheesy, tubercular, bronchial, or mes¬ 
enteric glands, or from tubercular or fungous disease of the bones 
or joints. Another danger to adults is tubercular disease of the 
genitourinary apparatus. It should also be noticed that a single 
large tubercle in the brain may lead to miliary tuberculosis of 
the meninges. In short, we see that it is not impossible for any 
tubercular infiltration, wherever situated, to communicate infec¬ 
tion either to the meninges alone, or simultaneously to them and 
many other organs.” 

In tubercular meningitis the pia mater is the membrane that 
is affected. Sometimes, the tubercules are very abundant, and 
the inflammatory exudation comparatively scanty ; and in other 
cases the inflammation is considerable, although but few tuber¬ 
cles can be found. The tubercles are found usually in greatest 
number along the course of the large blood-vessels, chiefly in the 
furrows and clefts of the surface of the brain, in the fissure of 
Sylvius, the pons, medulla, and the cerebellum. Often the re¬ 
gions supplied by one or more arteries are affected more than 
other parts. This, no doubt, is due to the infection being carried 
by the circulation. There is, in the region involved, a gelatin- 
like exudation which varies in amount. Sometimes it is purulent 
in character ; sometimes hemorrhages in the pia mater will give 
it a bloody appearance. 

Usually the brain is flattened from the pressure of the exuda¬ 
tion. In some cases, the space all around the brain is filled, 
rendering it impossible to introduce fluid into the cranial cavity. 
Sometimes the brain substance itself is involved in inflammatory 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


362 

changes, and capillary hemorrhages are found. The ventricles 
and subarachnoid spaces are tilled with a-serous effusion. The 
spinal cord, in the majority of cases, is involved. The coverings 
around the cord are inflamed, resulting in the effusion of serous 
liquid, making pressure upon the vessels which supply the cord. 

Treatment. —In these cases, it frequently is impossible to 
reach the parts with fluid by the injection of the arterial system. 
The effusion of serous matter into the cerebrospinal canal is so 
extensive that it makes pressure upon all the vessels and capil¬ 
laries that supply the viscera that are involved. The injection 
of fluid through the cranial cavity by one of the needle pro¬ 
cesses, seems to be the only means of treatment. Of course, in 
cases of small effusions, where the pressure is not so great, the 
injection of fluid through the circulatory system will be suc¬ 
cessful. As has been stated above, many other organs are 
affected at the same time. Therefore, it is necessary to inject a 
sufficient quantity of fluid to fill every tissue in the body, and, 
to do this, the arteries should be filled in the usual manner, in 
addition to the needle operation, unless enough fluid is injected 
by the latter process. Usually too little fluid is injected by the 
cranial operations to fill the entire body. For shipment, these 
cases must be disinfected just the same as a case that dies of 
pulmonary tuberculosis ; it must be prepared by covering with 
cotton and the roller bandage for the prevention of the escape 
of the bacteria. 

SCROFULA. 

Tuberculosis of the Lymphatic Glands. 

Scrofula is a tubercular disease, and is produced by bacteria 
that are similar to, if not identical with, the tubercular bacilli. 
Formerly it was thought that adenitis was essentially different 
from tuberculosis, although the final cause of death is usually 
tuberculosis of the lungs. It is true, when the bacilli are limited 
to the glands of the lymphatic system, the disease is very chronic. 
The tendency is a return to health. Tissue cells finally destroy 





INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


363 


the tubercles that are present. If the bronchial glands and 
those situated near the lungs are involved, after a time acute 
tuberculosis occurs. If the mesenteric glands are attacked, 
peritonitis, either general or circumscribed, will be a compli¬ 
cation. 

Treatment. — When the physician’s certificate gives as a 
cause of death scrofula, or chronic or tubercular adenitis, the 
case should be understood as tuberculosis, and should be treated 
in all respects as tuberculosis of the lungs. The body should be 
prepared for shipment in the same manner, as the danger of 
dissemination is equally as great. In preparing these cases, if 
the glands of the neck, or other parts of the body near the 
surface, are filled with pus, it should* be let out and the parts 
sterilized thoroughly. If they are open, forming ulcers, they 
should be washed out, filled with hardening compound, and 
covered with lintine or absorbent cotton, and a piece of muslin 
or other white fabric. The body should be injected through 
the arterial svstem, and the cavities filled in the usual manner. 


CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS-SPOTTED FEVER. 

Cerebrospinal meningitis is an acute infectious disease, occur¬ 
ring in epidemics, and sometimes sporadically, it is characterized 
by inflammation of the cerebrospinal meninges. It prevails in 
almost all parts of this country. This disease is not directly con- 
tagious, and probably is not transmitted by clothing or excretions. 
The nature of the virus is not vet understood. There is a lance- 
shaped coccus found in the meningeal exudations, in many cases, 
very similar to the pneumococcus. There may be no character¬ 
istic changes in malignant cases, or the patient mav die before 
the occurrence of exudation. The meninges of the brain and 
spinal cord are inflamed in well-marked cases. 

Osier gives the following description of the morbid changes, 
which were found in a case in Montreal, in which death occurred 



364 


CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 


about the fifth day, which he states, gives a good idea of the con¬ 
dition in this disease : — 

“The brain contained an excessive amount of blood. The 
dural sinuses and all the veins and arteries were engorged. Some 
of the veins of the pia were as large as goose-quills. On the cor¬ 
tex there was much lymph beneath the arachnoid on either side 
of the longitudinal fissure—more on the right than on the left 
hemisphere. At the base there was a purulent exudate about the 
chiasm and inner parts of the Sylvian fissure, but none on the 
pons or medulla. There was no lymph on the course of the 
middle cerebral arterv. The ventricles contained serous exudate, 
the walls were not softened. The gray matter of the brain was 
doubly congested, but presented no other hemorrhages, spots, or 
softening. In the spinal cord, the veins of the pia mater were 
engorged. On the posterior surface, from the cervical enlarge¬ 
ment to the cauda equina, was a thick layer of grayish =yellow, 
lymplio-purulent exudation, which in places produced an irregu¬ 
lar bulging of the arachnoid membrane. There were no changes 
in the thoracic or abdominal viscera. 

“This picture corresponds closely with five other cases which I 
have examined. In one case, however, the amount of exudation 
in the hemispheres was large and the convolutions were covered 
with a thick, creamy pus. Foci of hemorrhage and of encepha¬ 
litis occur in some cases. The formation of abscesses has been 
occasionally described. The involvement of the ventricles is less 
than in tuberculous meningitis. In the cases which I have- 
seen, the exudation, as is usual in the secondary meningeal in¬ 
flammation, was most apparent on the cortex. The exudation 
may extend along the lymph sheaths of the cranial nerves, par¬ 
ticularly the auditory and the optic. In long standing cases the 
inflammatory processes appear more chronic. There are thick¬ 
ening and adhesion of the membranes, areas of cortical softening 
or of atrophy, and in some cases hydrocephalus. The changes in 
the other organs are those associated with fever. In the malig¬ 
nant cases there may be hemorrhages into the skin and on the 
serous membranes. Pneumonia, pleurisy, endocarditis, dysen¬ 
tery, and nephritis have been described. The spleen varies in 
size according to the period of the disease at which death has 
occurred. When the fever has been intense, it is enlarged.” 












INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


365 


As will be seen by the above-described morbid condition the 
arachnoid membrane, and almost all other parts of the brain 
and spinal cord, will be filled by exudation. The vessels, both 
arteries and veins, are enlarged. As is stated, the veins of the 
pia mater are sometimes as large as goose^quills, due to the 
presence of blood, showing that pressure upon the capillaries 
is due to a great amount of the natural and exuded liquids of 
the body, preventing the fluid from reaching the different organs. 

Treatment. — T1 ie injection of fluid into the arterial system 
fails to reach and fill the viscera within the cerebrospinal canal. 
In all other parts of the body the different tissues will be filled, 
except when there are complications of pleurisy and pneumonia.. 
In these latter cases, fluid will be prevented from reaching the 
tissue of the lung, as in the ordinary cases of pneumonia and 
pleurisy. As in cases of pleurisy, the aim must be to relieve 
the pleural sacs of the exudation within them. Pericarditis is a 
frequent complication, and when present tbe heart sac or peri¬ 
cardium must be relieved of its contents. In cases where the 
lungs are inflamed (pneumonia), the area of the lung that is in¬ 
flamed should be treated as a simple case of pneumonia. That 
is, if persistent purging from the lungs be present, the diseased 
lung should be mutilated and fluid injected, as in the treatment 
of obstinate purging from the lungs in pneumonia. Failure of 
the fluid to enter the viscera of the cerebrospinal canal, fre¬ 
quently gives more or less trouble. Tbe exudation being filled 
with bacteria, gases are formed which are annoying for the time 
being at least; but if the arterial system and capillaries are filled 
thoroughly, and the body is kept in a recumbent position, in time, 
fluid will enter the cerebrospinal canal in sufficient quantity to de¬ 
stroy the bacteria by the penetration of the disinfecting chemicals. 



CHAPTER XXVII1. 





(NFECT10US AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.—Continued. 


SMALLPOX. 

Smallpox has been known for centuries, although formerly it 
was confounded with other diseases, it is an acute infectious dis¬ 
ease, characterized by an eruption upon the surlace ol the body. 
Smallpox is oue of the most virulent ol contagious diseases, and 
persons exposed, if unprotected by vaccination or a previous in¬ 
vasion of the disease, almost invariably are attacked by it. 

It is produced probably by a specific micro-organism, though 
the same obscurity hangs over its cause as over those of many 
other diseases of the zymotic class, such as measles, scarletina, etc. 
While, however, the causes of these two latter diseases seem still 
active, there is every probability that that of smallpox has sub¬ 
sided, and that now this disease has no other source than human 
contagion. 

The poisonous material of smallpox is given out from the 
mucous and cutaneous surfaces of the patient, especially from the 
lungs and skin, and from the exhalations, the secretions, the ex¬ 
cretions, the matter in the vesicles and pustules, and the scabs. 
These all contain the noxious germs of the disease, which may 
attach themselves to bed-clothes, and especially to woolen, felt, 
and cotton articles. Such stuffs retain the specific poison for a 
very long, but undetermined, period, just as the hat, coat, and 
cap, worn in the dissecting room, retain the peculiar odor of the 
place for a long time. It is not yet determined at what period 
the poison is generated by the patient’s'person—whether during 
the primary fever, or not until after the eruption has appeared—, 
but it is secreted probably during the primary fever. 

366 








INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


367 


Ill general, it may be stated that the poison is most powerful 
when it is most manifest to the sense of smell; that the dried 
crusts ot the pustules or scabs possess a contagious quality and 
retain it lor a long time ; and that it is unsafe for a susceptible 
person to be in the same room, or in the same house, with the 
disease. The dead body of a variolated person is equally in¬ 
fectious, and students, who have been near it, when brought into 
the dissecting room, have in consequence fallen ill with the dis¬ 
ease. The infecting distance, therefore, must be many yards 
around the patient’s room. 

Treatment. —Embalming for preservation should not be con¬ 
sidered at all, but the body should be embalmed and disinfected 
thoroughly as a sanitary measure. 

Every embalmer should be an immune to smallpox. He can¬ 
not tell at what moment he may be called into a case, even in 
the most remote parts of the country. Persons sometimes con¬ 
tract the disease at a very distant part of the country from the 
place where it develops. The disease may progress and death 
may result without even the knowledge of the physician. This 
occurs frequently. Therefore, every embalmer should be pre¬ 
pared to handle these cases. Tf the operator has not been vac¬ 
cinated, or if not recently, he should be vaccinated at once, on 
being called to the case. 

The embalmer should always dress himself in clothing which 
is free from meshes or pores — something with a smooth surface, 
as rubber. A rubber coat, extending from the neck, around 
which it should fit snugly, to the shoes, is preferable. This should 
be closely and evenly buttoned from top to bottom. The head, 
including the hair, should be covered with a cap made of the 
same material; the mustache and whiskers should be shaved 
from the face, and the hands covered with some protecting sub¬ 
stance, or by rubber gloves. 

Upon his arrival at the death chamber, he should place the 
body upon the board, raise an artery, and inject a large quantity 


368 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of fluid ; also, wrap a sheet, immersed in bichlorid of mercury 

solution (1 : 1000 or 1 : 500), around the body ; then place the 

body in a coffin or casket, bury it at once, and disinfect the room. 

A better method would be : After the body has been embalmed, 

close the doors and windows, sealing all cracks, and disinfect the 

room and contents with formaldehyde gas or sulphur, either of 

which, when properly used, will penetrate every part of the room. 

This should be done according to the methods described in the 

chapter on “ Disinfecting Rooms.’’ After the room containing 

the body has been disinfected thoroughly, wrap the body in a 

sheet which has been moistened with bichlorid of mercury solu- 

%/ 

tion (1 : 1000 or 1 : 500) ; then place it in a coffin or casket, and 
deliver to the cemetery for burial. 


CHOLERA, ASIATIC. 



Asiatic cholera is an infectious disease, produced by the comma 
bacillus of Koch, or spirillum cliolerse Asiaticse. The comma 

bacillus was discovered by Koch in 
1S84 in the excreta of cholera patients 
and in the intestinal canals of bodies 
having recently died of cholera. The 
researches of Koch, made in India 
and Egypt, and those made by various 
bacteriologists since that time, in dif¬ 
ferent parts of the world, show that 
the. comma bacillus is present always 
in the intestinal contents of cholera 
patients during the height of the dis- 

Fig. 51 .—Spirillum choierse Asiatic* oase, and tlmt it is not found in the 

[comma bacillus ]. intestinal contents of those suffering 


From a culture upon starched linen 
at end of 24 hours, x 1000. From a pho¬ 
tomicrograph by Frankel and Pfeiffer. 


from other diseases, nor in persons in 
perfect health. 


Hie disease is characterized by violent vomiting and purging, 
with rice-water evacuations, cramps, prostration, collapse, and 




INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


3G9 


other striking symptoms. It runs a rapidly fata] course, and is 
capable of being communicated to others through the dejecta of 
patients suffering from the disease. These bacilli are dissemi¬ 
nated most commonly among a community, and taken into the 
system, by means of drinking water, or by anything swallowed, 
which has been contaminated by the excretions from a patient 
suffering with cholera. In a dried state, the bacilli in cholera 
excreta may be carried in clothing to any point or distance, where 
the disease may be communicated, as they retain their vitality 
for a long period of time, only requiring a “proper soil in which 
to grow.” 

The appearance is very characteristic after death in collapse of 
cholera. The whole body has a shrunken aspect and a grayish 
or leaden pallor, which contrasts with the livid hue of the lips, 
eyelids, ears, abdomen, back, fingers, and toes. The eyes are 
sunken deeply in their sockets ; the nose is bent and sharp ; the 
temples are hollow ; the skin clings tightly to the bones ; the 
tissues of the body are hard and dry, and, owing to the wasting 
of the soft parts, the muscles stand out prominently ; decomposi¬ 
tion takes place very slowly on account of the absence of mois¬ 
ture ; rigor mortis is marked and persistent. 

The occurrence of muscular contraction after death is a very 
notable phenomenon. It may occur spontaneously, or it may be 
excited mechanically. A case is reported by Eichhorst in which 
the fibers of the biceps muscle were noticed to move tremulously, 
and then the entire muscle contracted, causing flexion of the 
forearm, three hours after death. Even the fingers performed 
movements like those made in piano playing. The lower jaw 
moves in some cases, causing the mouth to open and shut. 

Barlow reports a case as follows : — 

“The patient was a strong man ; the course of his attack was 
rapid, and he suffered most cruelly from cramps. Within two 
minutes of his ceasing to breathe, muscular contractions began, 
becoming more and more numerous. The lower extremities 

;n 


370 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


were first affected. Not only were the sartorius, rectus, vasti, and 
other muscles thrown into violent, spasmodic movements, but the 
limbs were rotated forcibly, and the toes were frequently bent. 
The motions ceased and returned ; they varied also ; now one 
muscle moved, now many. Quite as remarkable were the move¬ 
ments of the arm ; the deltoid and biceps were peculiarly in¬ 
fluenced ; occasionally the forearm was flexed upon the arm — 
flexed completely—and when I straightened it, which I did sev¬ 
eral times, its position was recovered instantly. The fingers and 
thumbs were now and then contracted, and at times /the thumbs 
were separately moved. The fibers of the pectoral muscles were 
often in full action ; distinct bundles of them were seen at inter¬ 
vals beneath the skin. After I had taken leave of the bodv, the 
nurse was horrified by a movement of the lower jaw, which was 
followed by others, and I thought for a moment that the mail 
was alive. The facial muscles became generally affected, and at 
length all was still.” 

These movements vary from slight trembling to powerful con¬ 
traction of the muscle. Cases have been known to turn com¬ 
pletely on the side, by a strange and forcible combination of 
muscular contractions. These phenomena are not peculiar to 
cholera only. In cases of yellow fever they have been observed as 
well. In both diseases they occur when the cases are severe and 
rapidly fatal, and the patient is robust, with great muscular energy. 

Still a says : — 

“On opening the abdominal cavity ol persons who have died 
in collapse of cholera, one ‘is struck by the general pink or rose 
tint of the peritoneal coat of the intestines. It is produced by a 
repletion of the minute branches of the portal venous system. 
Sometimes the color of the peritoneum is rendered very dark bv 
the pitchy blood contained in the yeins. The stomach generally 
has a thin, partially transparent liquid of a greenish or grayish 
color. The intestinal canal is, in a majority of cases, partially 
filled with liquid which has the aspect of turbid serum, more or 
less mixed with the previous contents of the bowel, if death has 
taken place very rapidly, but otherwise it is almost colorless. In 
the more prolonged cases the contents at the upper part of the 
bowel are less liquid and are darker in color.” 







371 


INFECTIOUS AND 


CONTA GIO US DISEASES 


The comma bacilli are found in the intestinal contents, espec¬ 
ially in the lower part of the small intestine, when death occurs 
at the height ol the diseas*e, and also in the diarrheal discharges ; 
when the discharges become fecal or more solid, the bacilli dis¬ 
appear. 

Treatment. —Preservation of bodies dying from this disease 
should not be considered at all. A thorough embalmment is 
necessary only as a sanitary measure. Disinfection of the body 
should be complete—internally as well as externally. First re- 
move all clothing from the body and place it upon the board. 
Then pour a firsPclass disinfecting fluid into the mouth and 
nostrils. Raise an artery and till the circulation with fluid, fore- 
ing in all that can be gotten into it. Then fill the intestinal 
canal and cavities of the chest and abdomen as full as possible. 
Soak a sheet in the fluid and wind it around the body, covering 
every portion. By this treatment the bacilli will be destroyed in 
a short time, rendering dissemination impossible. 

All bodies dying from infectious diseases should be embalmed 
thoroughly, as directed elsewhere, if interment is to take place, as 
otherwise the bacteria may get into our water supplies by some 
means; or necessary disinterment may follow at some future 
time, greatly endangering a community. The above measures, 
or cremation, should be enforced by our health boards in these 
cases. 

YELLOW FEVER. 

Yellow fever is a specific infectious disease, so named from 
the yellow color of the skin which appears in the advanced 
stages of the severe forms of the disease and in the dead body. 
The infectious germ peculiar to this disease has not yet been 
determined, although it is supposed to exist in the intestinal 
contents. It does not originate in country districts, but is pecu¬ 
liarly a disease of dense population. It prevails in cities, on the 
shores of the ocean, along the large rivers, and on ships. It 
does not prevail in a hot, dry, nor in a cold, climate. It matters 


372 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


not how violent the disease may he at any place, yellow fever 
will be arrested on the morning of a heavy frost or freeze. It 
seems that a hot, moist temperature is essential to its existence. 


In cases dying from yel¬ 
low fever, the features fre¬ 
quently are bloated ; the skin 
of the face and upper portion 
of the body is of a golden- 
yellow color, while the de¬ 
pendent parts present a 
mottled, purple and yellow, 
ecchymosed appearance. On 
section of the muscle a large 
amount of dark fluid blood 
escapes, which on exposure 
becomes bright scarlet. Pu¬ 
trefactive changes may take 
place early, sometimes ap¬ 
pearing to begin before 



Fig. 52.—Bacillus Cadaveris. 


Smear preparation from liver of yellow fever 
cadaver, kept 48 hours in antiseptic wrapping. 
From a photomicrograph (Sternberg). 


death. However, in some cases, especially in those stricken 
with the disease while in full muscular vigor, when the disease 
is severe and rapidly fatal, peculiar muscular phenomena take 
place, similar to those of cholera. 

Dr. Dowler, of New Orleans, reports a case, as follows : — 

“Not long after the cessation of respiration the left hand was 
carried by a regular motion to the throat, and then to the crown 
of the head ; the right arm followed the same route on the right 
side ; the left arm was then carried back to the throat, and 
thence to the breast, reversing all of its original motions, and 
finally the right arm did exactly the same thing.” 

All the vital organs and other viscera of the different cavities 
are affected more or less. The blood is altered in color and 
consistency. The secretions are changed. Bile is always absent 







373 


INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


from the intestinal contents. There is extreme congestion of the 
dependent portions of the lungs. 

Treatment. — When death occurs from yellow fever, the body 
should be embalmed thoroughly, to-destroy the contagion. Dis¬ 
infection of the body should be very complete both internally 
and externally. After removing the clothing from the body, it 
should be placed on the board ; then fill the mouth, nostrils, 
and other openings of the body with a strong disinfectant fluid ; 
wash the body with the same ; raise an artery at some point and 
inject sufficient fluid to fill every part of the body ; fill the ali- 
mentarv canal and the thoracic and abdominal cavities. If 
enough fluid is injected, and the body is treated as directed 
above, there will be no danger of disseminating the disease. 
Incineration, however, would be the best method of disposing 
of bodies dying of the disease. Fire is the best disinfectant; it 
will positively destroy all germs. 


BUBONIC PLAGUE. 


Bubonic plague is a specific infectious disease of very great 
virulence, which runs a very rapid course, and is characterized 
by adenitis (buboes), carbuncles, and frequently by hemorrhages. 

The disease dates from a very early period in the Christian 
era, about the second century. Between the sixth and seven¬ 
teenth centuries epidemics of varying severity occurred in 
Europe. The most disastrous was the famous “black death,” 
which occurred in the fourteenth century. It extended all over 
Europe and destroyed about onedourfh of the population. 
During the great plague of London in the seventeenth century 
(1665), it caused the death of about seventy thousand people. 
In later years it has been confined almost exclusively to Turkey 
and Southern Russia. 


Recently, interest has been aroused in the disease by its prev¬ 
alence in Eastern Asia, the South Sea Islands, and India. In 
September of 1896, in Bombay, it began and developed gradu- 


374 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


ally for about three months, maintaining a great intensity for 
about three months, and then slowly declined for about the same 
length of time. In the nine months twenty thousand or more 
people died. It broke out again in Bombay during 1898, and 
at the present time is spreading to points near our own country ; 
some cases have developed even in one of our new possessions, 
Hawaii. 

This disease is caused by a specific organism, a bacillus dis¬ 
covered by Ivitasato, which lias been studied carefully by Versin 
and by others. The bacillus pestis bubonicse is found in the 
blood and in the organs of the body ; also in the dust and soil 
of houses in which the patients have lived. Flies and fleas die 
from the disease and may convey the infection. Diseased ani¬ 
mals, such as rats, mice, and dogs, will convey the plague to 
healthy ones. 

It prevails most frequently throughout the hot season, although 
it may break out during the coldest of weather. No age is 
exempt from the disease. It prevails chiefly among the poorer 
classes, in the slums, and where hygienic conditions are at fault 
in the great cities. The disease lias not the extreme contagious¬ 
ness of smallpox or scarlet fever, although it may be communi¬ 
cated from one person to another through the air. The virus 
very readily attaches itself to houses, clothing, and bedding. 

To prevent the spread of the disease, general hygienic meas¬ 
ures should be carried out. There should be a proper receptacle 
for sewerage, a pure water supply, the cleansing and disinfection 
of houses, and the isolation of those who have the disease. 
Rooms should be disinfected thoroughly by the use of formal¬ 
dehyde gas , all evacuations of the sick should be mixed with 
the milk of lime. The bodies of those who die of the disease 
should be embalmed very thoroughly, and buried ; or, better 
still, cremated. 

Treatment. — Bodies dying from this disease should not be 
buried unless thoroughly embalmed, as the bacteria will live 


INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


a long time in the earth. Indeed, there is much in favor of the 
view that the plague is a soihdisease, the virus of which, like 
that of anthrax and tetanus, resides permanently in the soil of 
the affected district, so that, if the body were not embalmed and 
should be disinterred years hence, there would be great danger 
of disseminating the disease. Embalming for preservation 
should not be considered at all. These bodies should be em¬ 
balmed as a sanitary measure only and should he filled thor¬ 
oughly with a very strong disinfectant fluid. They cannot he 
shipped under the rules adopted for the transportation of bodies. 

TETANUS-LOCKJAW. 

Tetanus Neonatorum. 

Tetanus is an infectious disease, characterized by tonic spasms 
of the muscles, with marked exacerbations. The poison is pro¬ 
duced by the tetanus bacilli, which 
are found in earth and in putrefy¬ 
ing fluids. Tetanus usually follows 
a wound ; it prevails more exten¬ 
sively in some localities than in 
others. 

It seems to be epidemic among 
new-born children, when it is usually 
called tetanus neonatorum. It is 
due, no doubt, to the sloughing off 
of the umbilical cord, when infected 
clothing or sponges are used for 
cleaning. 

Tetanus is less frequent in temper¬ 
ate than in hot climates, and in the 
Caucasian than in the colored race, 
cially, is more frequent among the colored races than in the white. 

Tetanus, in a majority of cases, follows an injury which may 
be of the most trifling character. It is more frequently a result 



Fig. 53.—Bacillus Tetani. 


From an agar culture, X 1.000. Photo- 
micograpli by Frankel and Pfeiffer. 


Tetanus neonatorum, espe- 



376 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of punctured or contused, than of incised, wounds, and most fre¬ 
quently follows wounds of the hands and feet. 

Lesions in the spinal cord or brain are not characteristic. Con¬ 
gestion has been found in different parts of the cord and brain 
with perivascular exudations and granular changes in the nerve- 
cells. The condition of the wound varies. If the nerve is in¬ 
jured, it is reddened and swollen. Inflammatory results have 
been noticed usually in the umbilicus in tetanus neonatorum. 

The bacillus that causes the disease—a spore-producing anaer¬ 
obic—will grow without the presence of oxygen. They multi¬ 
ply, usually, in the seat of the wound, where alone the toxic 
matter is formed. The bacteria do not invade the blood and 
organs of the body. The poison that is formed in the wound is 
absorbed and carried throughout the body by the circulation, 
producing its effects upon the brain, spinal cord, and the nervous 
system in general. 

Treatment. —The treatment of a case dying from tetanus, or 
tetanus neonatorum, should be the same as for an ordinary case, 
there being no lesion or morbid material that requires treatment 
of a special character. The surface may be of a bluish color, or 
cyanosed, due to the extreme muscular contraction, making pres¬ 
sure upon the vessels, even to the extent of mutilating the peri¬ 
pheral veins and capillaries. The body should be placed high 
on the incline and the blood removed, either by the direct opera¬ 
tion on the heart or through one of the veins. 

ANTHRAX-SPLENIC FEVER. 

Wool=Sorters’ Disease—Rag=Pickers’ Disease. 

Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the bacillus 
antlirasis. The disease is widespread among animals, especially 
sheep and cattle. In man it is only the result of accidental in¬ 
oculation with the virus, or it may occur sporadically. In Europe 
and in Asia it is much more prevalent than in America. Among 
sheep in certain parts of Europe, and among herds of cattle in 


INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


Q'7'7 
0 / / 



Russia and Siberia, its ravages are not equalled by any other 
plague. It is a rare disease in this country. The disease, no 
doubt, is conveyed by direct inoculation in animals, as by the 
sting or bite ol insects, or by feeding upon the carcases of those 
animals that have died of the disease, or, more commonly, by 
feeding in pastures in which the 
germs have been preserved. These 
may come to the surface, having 
been propagated in buried carcases of 
infected animals, in several ways— 
the ground may be turned, as in 
cultivating the field, or the eartli- 
worm may bring the germs to the 
surface. Certain fields or farms may 
be infected for a long period of time. 

The disease in man is always the 
result of infection, either through 
the skin and intestines, or, in rare 

From cellular tissue of inoculated 

instances, through the lungs. Per- P A ^\ lsc k. s H line - d with s ei ? tia £ vi ? le , t - ^ 
sons whose occupations bring them 1>feiffer - 
into contact with animals, such as shepherds, butchers, and those 
who work in hair and wool, are the ones usually affected. The 
diseases known as wool-sorters’ and rag-pickers’ diseases are pro¬ 
duced by anthrax infection, by ulceration, or inoculation in 
their occupation. 

Surgeons sometimes become infected from treating animals 
having the disease, or from making autopsy on same. The case 
is reported of Dr. John J. Smith, a veterinary surgeon of Cliam- 
bersburg, Pennsylvania, who, on August 25, 1809, made an 
autopsy on some stock which had mysteriously died in a near-by 
town. The disease was found to be anthrax. Dr. Smith also 
attended other infected stock, but, being aware of the horrible 
nature of the disease to man and beast, took proper sanitary pre¬ 
cautions. Nevertheless, nine days later, an eruption appeared on 


Fig. 54.— Bacillus Anthracis. 


378 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


his hands, which he at once pronounced anthrax. Physicians 
were called immediately, who gave every care possible to the 
case, performing an operation. The victim, however, grew 
rapidly worse, his body became badly swollen, he fell into an un¬ 
conscious state, and, on the fifth day, died. 

Anthrax, if it is external, usually affects the hands, arms, or 
face, being produced by inoculation, which occurs through an ab¬ 
rasion. The points of inoculation, during the course of the dis¬ 
ease, change considerably, but finally at death, as a rule, the 
surface is covered with scabs ; the glands are swollen ; sometimes, 
in the more malignant form, there is gangrene in the parts, which 
mav have involved a considerable surface. The head and face 
are involved most frequently in those who die from anthrax, es¬ 
pecially affecting the parts which are exposed, producing a very 
unpleasant appearance. 

In internal anthrax, the mucous membrane of the stomach and 
intestines is affected variously : the spleen is enlarged ; the blood 
is dark and remains fluid for a long time after death ; sometimes 
the anthrax bacilli are found in the blood ; sometimes the lungs 
and pleura are inflamed to a considerable extent. 

Treatment. —On account of the deadlv nature of anthrax, the 
embalmer, when called to handle a case of this kind, cannot be 
too careful, both .in its treatment and in taking every precaution 
possible against becoming infected himself. 

The body should be placed on the board on the incline, and, if 
blood is withdrawn by the direct operation on the heart, or 
through one of the veins, it should be sterilized thoroughly, by 
mixing with it a strong disinfectant. An artery should be raised 
and fluid injected to fill the tissues completely ; fluid should then 
be injected through the alimentary canal in sufficient quantity to 
sterilize the contents ; also, the spleen should be treated by in¬ 
jecting a large amount of fluid around it. The peritoneum 
should be filled at the same time. As the lungs and pleura are 
involved frequently, fluid should be injected through the respira- 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


379 


tor}* tract, filling the lungs and tract completely ; also, fluid 
should be injected into the pleural sacs in sufficient quantity to 
sterilize their contents. A body dying from anthrax should be 
disinfected very thoroughly, as the germs are very tenacious. The 
face should be washed carefully with a good disinfecting fluid, 
and powder and tints be used to give it as near a normal appear¬ 
ance as possible. 


SYPHILIS 


Syphilis is a specific infectious disease, communicable by con¬ 
tact of the poison with a breach of the surface, or by hereditary 
transmission. Syphilis is characterized by a period of incubation 
and (except in cases of inheritance) by certain changes in the 
seat of infection, and in the proximate lymphatic glands. 
These are followed by eruptions on the skin and mucous mem¬ 
brane, and sometimes by lesions of the deeper tissues and 
viscera. Frequently burrowing abscesses, involving much tis¬ 
sue, are found in the peritoneum, groins, neck, and other parts 
of the body. Septicemia may be the cause of death. The 
visceral organs may become a putrid mass. The sources of in¬ 
fection are very numerous. Wherever the poison comes in 
contact with a broken surface, it may be absorbed and general 
infection follow. 

Instances of syphilis being conveyed quite independently of 
sexual relations are very common. The disease may spread by 
kissing, infectious syphilitic lesions being quite common around 
the lips and in the .mouth. Medical men not infrequently 
contract the disease by examining or operating on syphilitic 


cases. 

Treatment. —In handling a case of syphilis, the hands should 
be covered by some tenacious disinfecting salve. A preparation 
known as “hand protector” is a very good one. It should be 
rubbed over the hands and under the finger nails ; or rubber 
gloves should be worn over the hands, to prevent the matter from 


380 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


ulcerated glands and chancres entering any abrasion that might 
be in the skin. Ulcers should be washed out with fluid and 
covered with ‘•hardening compound,’' or some similar prepara¬ 
tion. The arteries should be raised and fluid injected to fill 
every part of the body. The cavities should then be treated in 
the usual manner. The external openings of the body, espe¬ 
cially the mouth and nose, should be filled witli fluid, and 
pledgets of absorbent cotton, soaked in fluid, should be intro¬ 
duced into the nostrils and the mouth. 

SYPHILITIC DISEASE OF THE LUNGS. 

In syphilitic disease of the lungs much uncertainty exists as 
to the effects which may be produced in connection with the 
lungs, but there is no doubt that specific lesions in these organs 
occur, occasionally at least, though they may be less frequent 
than in any other viscus. They are met with, usuallv, in ad- 
vanced cases of acquired syphilis, when the signs of the disease 
are markedly developed in other parts. The lungs are involved, 
occasionally, in congenital syphilis. A predisposition to syphil¬ 
itic disease is supposed to occur in tubercular or scrofulous dia¬ 
thesis. Gummata constitute the most certain and unquestionable 
lesions of syphilis of the lungs, but they are rare. They vary 
in number from one to many. In the latter case they are dis¬ 
seminated throughout the entire lung, but have a predilection 
for the deeper parts of the organ. 

These growths usually vary in size from a pea to a walnut, 
but they may reach much larger dimensions. They are rounded 
in shape and generally well defined, and found surrounded with 
a fibrous capsule. In the earlier stages, gummata in the lungs 
appear on section grayish or brownislnred, firm and dry in con¬ 
sistence ; but later on, they tend to degenerate and become more 
or less gaseous and less consistent, and they may even break 
down in the center so as to form cavities. The disease mav in- 
volve, in a chronic form, the interstitial or connective tissue, 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 


881 


resulting in fibroid infiltration of the pulmonary tissue. The 
affected parts are much indurated, and the bronchi in the region 
which is involved become more or less dilated. 

A arious parts of the lungs may be affected, but the disease 
appears to have* a preference for the base and roots of the lungs. 
The fibroid infiltration may become the seat of ulceration or 
gangrene. One lung may be affected throughout, while the 
other is quite free from disease. The lung that is involved may 
be enlarged, even to the extent that its surface is marked by the 
ribs. On section, it presents a white or yellowish color, being 
more or less bloodless, and little or no fluid can be pressed from 
the surface. Careful examination reveals minute bands of 
fibrous tissue running in all directions. Microscopic examina¬ 
tion reveals a thickening of the walls of the minute bronchioles, 
due to the fibrilated tissue, which undergoes degenerative 
changes. The vessels also become thicker, and ultimately oblit- 
erated, destroying the channels through which the blood reaches 
the lungs, and also destroying the means of injecting fluid into 
the diseased tissue. Even the bronchial tubes or their subdivis¬ 
ions may be affected by syphilitic disease, their submucous tissue, 
and occasionally their deep structure, becoming involved. Ulcer¬ 
ation may take place, followed by cicatrization, and lead to the 
thickening of their walls, narrowing or completely closing these 
channels. 

Treatment. —In cases of this kind, we may expect to find other 
organs affected. If the liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and other 
organs of the abdomen are involved, direct operations upon them 
should be resorted to in the embalming of a subject dying from 
syphilitic disorders, especially where the disease has been ex- 
tremely chronic. In the lungs, the bronchial and other arteries 
are obliterated, or partially destroyed, and in some cases the 
bronchial tubes are closed, so that it will require the introduction 
of the hollow-needle into the diseased substance to fill the mass 
with fluid. Putrefaction may take place in the tissue, on account 


382 . CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

of the absence of fluid, resulting from occlusion of the vessels 
through which fluid is usually carried to the lungs. 

In handling these cases, if there are any abrasions or minute 
cuts upon the hands of the operator, they should be covered with 
gloves, or an antiseptic paste, sufficiently tenacious to cover and 
fill the abrasions, should be used, so that inoculation cannot take 
place. Carelessness in this respect has been the cause frequently 
of inoculation. Not only may the disease be contracted in this 
manner, but the absorption of the poison may produce blood 
poisoning of the severest type. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 


DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD. 


SEPTICEMIA—BLOOD POISON. 

Septicemia usually follows injuries, surgical operations, child¬ 
birth, carbuncles, burns, scalds, dissection wounds, etc. The 
morbid conditions resulting from septicemia recently have been 
studied very carefully, and the characteristic lesions have been 
found, particularly in the blood and in the alimentary canal. 
The rapid putrefaction of the body after death is the most promi¬ 
nent manifestation of the disease. Rigor mortis comes on and 
passes off almost instantly. Indeed, sometimes it can scarcely be 
detected. Usually the embalmer is not called in until a period 
of time has elapsed after death, and, even if he were present, 
rigor mortis would be so slight and of such short duration that it 
would escape his notice entirely. 

Davaine has defined septicemia to be the “putrefaction of the 
living body,” because, in many cases, putrefaction is going on in 
the neighborhood of the wound prior to death. 

When septicemia originates in an external wound, putrefaction 
goes on rapidly, in the vicinity of the wound, after death occurs. 
The blood does not coagulate ; only a few imperfect, deep-black- 
colored clots are found after death ; the presence of this blood in 
the soft tissues greatly hastens putrefaction. Generally putrefac¬ 
tion goes on most rapidly in the dependent portions of the body 
and along the course of the large veins, especially those filled 
with blood. 

Watson says : — 

“ It has also been observed that putrefaction in the human ca¬ 
daver begins much sooner and progresses much more rapidly 




384 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


under similar circumstances when the death has been produced 
by this disease than when it has occurred from any other cause.” 
“Furthermore, this rapid decomposition is not limited to the in¬ 
ternal organs, but may frequently be strongly marked on the sur¬ 
face of the body after a lapse of a few hours.” 


Blood taken from such a body usually is acid in its reaction, 
and always gives off a peculiar, putrefactive odor. In the study 
of the blood with the microscope, it has been shown that the 
blood, as well as the various organs of the body dying from this 
disease, contains a great number of the roddmcteria. These bac¬ 
teria are in every part of the body, being carried there by the 
blood. 

Cases dying of septicemia are very hard to preserve. Indeed, 
we have known cases dying several days after parturition to de¬ 
compose very extensively within the period of tw T elve hours, the 
body swelling to its greatest distention, the features being almost 
entirely obliterated, the neck swelling out even with the face, 
and the putrefactive odor filling the apartment, indicating that 
putrefaction had progressed to a very great degree. 

The blood is not in the same condition in all cases of blood 
poisoning. In one case, the blood is found, under microscopic 
examination, to be perfectly normal, while in another, it is filled 
with roddoacteria. In the former case, abscesses may be found in 
all the tissues of the body, especially in the lungs, pleural mem¬ 
branes, and other soft tissues. 

Treatment. —It is highly important, in these cases, to remove 
at once all of the blood, or as much of it as is possible. It is 
better to raise the femoral vein for this purpose. Place the body 
on an incline, having an assistant raise the arms to cause the 
blood to descend to the lower part of the body. Open the vein 
and introduce and tie the vein Tube, which should be long 
enough to reach above Poupart’s ligament as far as the common 
iliac vein, the outer end being directed into a conveniently=placed 
receptacle. Then raise the artery and insert the arteriahtube in 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


385 


the usual manner and begin the injection of fluid. The blood, 
being very thin, will drain out through the tube without the aid 
of the pump, gravity being sufficient. Inject the fluid slowly and 
carefully, while the blood is running, continuing the injection 
until the arteries and capillaries are filled, or until the embalm¬ 
ing fluid appears at the outer end of the veimtube. Then 
remove the gas that may have formed within the thoracic and 
abdominal cavities, and fill them, including the alimentary canal, 
with fluid. The arterial-tube should be capped and left tied in 
the artery, so that in due time more fluid may be injected. 

Many of the fluids that are used for embalming purposes have 
a tendency, after so large an amount has been injected into the 
tissues, to change or discolor the skin. Even if it is known that 
such a discoloration will take place, it is far better to discolor the 
surface than to allow putrefaction to continue. 

PYEMIA. 

Pyemia is caused by the entrance of septic products into the 
blood, and is characterized by clots or emboli, and the consequent 
occurrence therein of patches of congestion, inflammation, sup¬ 
puration, or gangrene. It is caused, usually, by some one of the 
following conditions: injuries, surgical operations, burns, scalds, 
carbuncles, dissection wounds, puerpural fever, etc. 

The external appearance of the body after death varies greatly. 
In some cases the skin will be found to be of a darkmrange or 
icteric tinge, and in other cases it will be pale or anemic in ap¬ 
pearance. Sometimes, black or yellow spots, produced by the ef¬ 
fusion of blood into the areolar or fat tissue, exist on the surface 
of the body, and the edges of the wounds are generally of a dull* 
yellow color. Great emaciation follows a long continuance of the 
disease. Rigor mortis usually is well marked and will last for 
some hours. In the cellular tissue there is diffuse suppuration, 
forming a thin and unhealthy pus, which is liable to burrow. 
Sometimes suppuration takes place beneath the fascia of the ten- 
*2 


386 


CHAMPION TEXT * BOOK ON EMBALMING 


dons and muscles. In fact, suppuration or gangrene may be found 
in any part of the body, but most frequently the lungs and pleurae 
are involved. The pleural cavities may contain a large amount 
of purulent matter, and large abscesses may be found in the lungs, 
and even gangrene may be present. Abscesses may be found in 
the liver, kidneys, and spleen. Pus will be found frequently on 
the surface, and in the Haversian canals of the bones ; it also 
forms, at times, in the joints. Pyemic blood is usually normal, 
but it may contain the rod-bacteria ; in the latter case the dis- 
ease might be termed septopyemia. 

Treatment.—In cases where the blood does not contain the 
rodffiacteria, putrefaction will not follow as quickly as in septi¬ 
cemia, but the treatment must be just as thorough, because, when 
rigor mortis passes off, putrefaction will be very rapid. In those 
cases where rodffiacteria are found in the blood, and the blood has 
that peculiar, putrefactive smell, the treatment should be heroic, 
and should follow as soon after death as possible. This is best 
done by raising the femoral vein and artery, which can be done 
through the same incision. Fluid can be injected through the 
femoral artery, and, the femoral vein being the most dependent, 
more blood can be withdrawn through it than through any 
other. A short vein-tube, sufficiently long to pass beyond 
Poupart’s ligament as far as the common iliac, is all that is needed. 
It should be introduced into the vein and tied, directing the outer 
end into a vessel. The blood in these cases is as thin as water 
and will escape without the use of the atmospheric pump, gravity 
being sufficient. The injection of fluid can be begun at once. 
Enough fluid should be injected to fill every tissue of the body. 
T1 le introduction of fluid will cause the blood to flow more freely 
by making pressure upon the capillaries and smaller veins and 
the peripheral portions of the circulation. 

It will be well to inject enough fluid to make the entire circuit 
of the circulation. Fill the alimentary canal with fluid ; also the 
peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial sacs. Enough fluid should 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


387 


bo injected through the trachea to reach the abscesses within the 
lungs. Before proceeding to inject the body, remove all gases 
from the several cavities ; in some cases it will be well to pump 
out and refill the cavities. Occasionally a second injection of 
the arterial system, may be necessary. 


ERYSIPELAS. 



Fig. 55. 

■ 

Section from margin of an erysipelatous in¬ 
flammation showing streptococci, in lymph 
spaces, X 900. From a photograph by Koch. 


Erysipelas is an inflammation of the skin, caused by the pres¬ 
ence of a specific micrococcus. It is characterized by redness, 
swelling, and pain. It spreads over a large portion of the skin 
from the points of its origin. There are two varieties commonly 
recognized—the idiopathic and 
the traumatic. The latter follows 
a wound of the skin. It is 
known as a surgical disease, and 
usually is treated of in surgical 
works under the head of traumatic 
erysipelas. Puerperal erysipelas 

— that which follows childbirth 

— results from the injuries to 
the female genital organs during parturition. Erysipelas some¬ 
times occurs in a new-born infant, having its origin in the navel 
or in the small anal fissures. 

The so-called idiopathic erysipelas appears almost exclusively 
in the face, or at least spreads from that point. It frequently ex¬ 
tends to the scalp and the trunk, covering a large portion of the 
surface. It is supposed that idiopathic erysipelas is different from 
the traumatic variety, but it is a question whether or not it is es¬ 
sentially so. There are good reasons for supposing that idiopathic 
erysipelas is really traumatic in every case, the origin of which is 
due to injuries to the skin or mucous membrane, which may be 
overlooked on account of their small size. For example, we see 
cases, and many of them, in which erysipelas takes its origin in 
the excoriations on the borders of the nostrils, or on the nose, or 









388 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


in the fissure of the lobe of the ear; and quite frequently coryza 
precedes erysipelas, in which case, the first inflammatory swelling 
of the skin is at the nose. Probably nasal catarrh causes slight 
abrasions of the mucous membrane, and these furnish a point 
for the entrance of the infectious bacteria. 

Such cases suggest the possibility that the infection may take 
place in some other manner than that mentioned above. Fehliesen 
has demonstrated the characteristic chain-forming micrococcus in 
the lymphatic vessels of the serous canaliculi, of the diseased por¬ 
tion of the skin. This micrococcus is distinguished by its peculiar 
behavior in pure gelatin cultures, and invariably causes erysipelas 
in rabbits and human beings that are inoculated with it. 

In some cases the subcutaneous, connective tissue is involved 
as well as the skin, causing suppuration of the areolar tissue. It 
is soft and boggy and in a state of moist gangrene. Even the 
deep parts of the connective tissue, as of the pelvis and medias¬ 
tinal tissue, may be involved. The disease may have extended 
to the . mucous membrane of the fauces, uvula, and bronchi or 
lungs, which may slough off, and death may be caused by edema 
of the glottis, by asphyxia, or by the development of pyemia. 

Treatment. —Traumatic erysipelas is considered peculiarly 
contagious. Persons handling these cases should be careful to 
disinfect themselves thoroughly, cleansing the nails, hair, whiskers, 
and exposed surfaces, before visiting living cases upon which sur¬ 
gical operations have recently been performed, or women in child¬ 
birth. Gloves should he worn, or some antiseptic should be used, 
to prevent the absorption of the poison through the erosions or 
small abrasions on the hands. Indeed great care should be taken 
ill the handling of these cases, as the poisonous matter is absorbed 
easily, and may result in blood-poisoning or erysipelas, which is 
very dangerous. 

The body should be injected carefully through the arterial 
system and the cavities should be well filled. The gangrenous 
portions should be washed thoroughly with hot water, followed by 




DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


389 


application of a strong disinfecting or dessicating powder, which, 
if properly made, will thoroughly disinfect the external parts, and 
will also dry and harden them, leaving no odor. If the face and 
other surfaces that are exposed to view have been involved in the 
disease, there is no way to make them look natural. A little 
powder and the different pigments, judiciously used, may be bene¬ 
ficial, and add to the appearance. 

The body should remain in the room, if possible, until fumiga¬ 
tion of the apartment has been effected. Sulphur fumes or for¬ 
maldehyde gas should be used for the disinfection of the room. 
First, close and seal all the windows and doors, making the room 
practically air-tight; then follow the directions given for fumiga¬ 
ting rooms. 

PURPURA. 

Purpura is a disease in which circumscribed effusions of blood 
take place in the soft layer of the skin and connective tissue, due 
to rupture of the capillaries of the inner layer. Hemorrhages of 
this character have been seen as early as the third day after 
birth and at all periods of life. Women seem to be attacked 
more frequently than men. They may accompany the most 
various diseases of the general system. They are observed fre¬ 
quently in Bright’s disease and in valvular disease of the heart. 
They occur in phthisis, acute rheumatism, cirrhosis of the liver, 
leukemia, and in many other diseases. They have been seen to 
follow severe frights ; also sudden destruction of the peripheral 
vessels, as in severe coughing and epilepsy. Purpuric spots may 
follow the use of chloral in excessive doses, or of iodid of potas¬ 
sium in specially susceptible individuals. 

The rete mucosum and the papillary layer of the cutis are the 
chief seat of the hemorrhage in purpura. Owing to the rupture 
of the capillaries over a small area, the blood finds its way into 
the meshes of the connective tissue and fills the interspaces 
between the hairffollicles and the ducts which traverse these 
parts ; also, it finds its way into the network of the soft layer. 


390 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Absorption of the serum takes place, and changes occur also in 
the coloring matter., which is set free from the red-corpuscles, pro¬ 
ducing various tints of blue, green, and yellow, until, if life con¬ 
tinues, it is completely absorbed ; if death takes place at this 
stage, these tints will remain in the skin. 

Very large extravasations of the blood may result in a long* 
continued or even permanent discoloration of the spot. Similar 
effusions to those in the skin are found internally, in the severer 
cases, beneath the mucous membranes of the canals ; but in these 
parts they are not seen after death and their presence will make 
no difference to the embalmer. If a post-mortem examination is 
held, extensive extravasations will be seen in the pleural, pericar¬ 
dial, and peritoneal sacs, and sometimes in the arachnoid mem¬ 
brane of the brain. They will occur also in the muscles, in the 
periosteum, and even in the bones, as well as beneath the con¬ 
junctiva and in the retina. 

Purpura seems to depend on an alteration in the nutrition of 
the coats of the blood-vessels, which results in weakness and their 
inability to stand the strain of arterial pressure, so that they rup¬ 
ture ; or, on alterations in the blood itself; or, on both causes 
combined. These spots are seen, most frequently, on the feet and 
legs and on other dependent parts, such as the back of the patient, 
if he has been in a recumbent position, or where arterial pressure 
is intensified by gravity. 

Embolism and thrombosis have been suggested as an explana¬ 
tion of some cases. These discolorations consist of isolated spots, 
whose color varies from bright-red to a livid- or dark-purplisli- 
red ; if the red corpuscles have been reduced and the hemoglobin 
eliminated, it will change in time, producing tints, according 
to which is present at the time of death ; it may appear blue, 
green, or yellow. These spots do not disappear on pressure. 
Their shape is generally round or triangular and their edge is 
always uneven or denticulated. Their size varies usually from 
that pf a pin head to that of a pea or bean, and in some cases 


DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


391 


they may be as much as several inches in circumference. The 
smallest spots, not larger than a finger nail, are termed petecliise ; 
the larger, ecchymoses. The spots are usually level with the skin. 

Treatment. —Very rarely the epidermis (cuticle) is raised in 
the form of a bulla, containing serum and blood=corpuscles. 
When these spots appear, as stated above, they cannot be re¬ 
moved. The blood having passed into the tissues outside of 
the walls of the capillaries, and the pigment being of a perma¬ 
nent color, there is nothing that will affect them unless it be 
injecting directly through the hypodermic needle into the spots. 
This, no doubt, will modify the discoloration to a certain extent, 
if it does not remove it altogether. Bleachers placed upon the 
outside can do no good, as the chemicals will not pass into the 
coloring-matter which produces the spot. The flesh tints artis¬ 
tically used will cover these extravasations. In the general treat¬ 
ment of the case, the disease causing death will have to be 
considered. 

LEUKEMIA. 

This is a disease in which there is a decrease of the red cor¬ 
puscles in the blood, while the white corpuscles are increased 
correspondingly in number. In health and in normal blood, 
the proportion of white to red corpuscles is about 1 to 666, but 
in this disease the white corpuscles are so increased that the 
surface becomes almost entirely white. A pale or anemic color 
will appear in the face, hands, and other exposed parts. Its 
characteristics are well-marked in most cases. The blood- 
changes are associated with marked changes in the spleen, bone- 
marrow, and lymphatic glands. The organs just enumerated, 
being concerned in the manufacture of blood, it is very reasonable 
to suppose that leukemia is a disease which primarily affects 
them, and that an increase in the white corpuscles results from 
derangement of their normal condition. 

The cause of this disease is not known. It is supposed by 
some authors to be some specific affection, but they have not 


392 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

been able, thus far, to prove the truth of their surmise. Even 
an exciting cause can be discovered in only a lew'cases. The 
disease developes spontaneously in perfectly healthy persons. 
It is a disease of middle life, say between the ages of thirty-five' 
and forty^five years. Occasionally welbmarked cases have been 
observed even in childhood, but less frequently in old age. Men 
are much more liable to the disease then women. 

There is usually extreme wasting of the body, and sometimes 
dropsy is present. The heart and veins are distended with large 
bloodsclots. The portal, cerebral, pulmonary, and subcutaneous 
veins may be remarkably distended. There is usually a clotted 
condition of the blood, and an enormous increase of the white 
corpuscles, giving a paste-like appearance to these blood=clots, so 
that on opening the vessels at the right side of the heart, the 
clots are very often mistaken for the contents of abscesses. 

These coagula have a dark-greenish color, resembling some¬ 
what the fat of a turtle. There is diminished alkalinity of the 
blood, but the fibrin is increased. The lesions of the bone* 
marrow are the next in frequency to those of the spleen. In 
the majority of cases the marrow presents a peculiar yellowish 
or puriform appearance, resembling the consistent matter which 
forms the core of an abscess, or it may be dark in color. There 
may be hemorrhagic infarctions. The shell of the bone may be 
extended considerably, and localized swellings, which are tender 
and yield to firm pressure, are found. The spleen may attain 
the size of from six to eight pounds, and the length of a foot. 
Strong adhesions may unite it to the abdominal wall, the dia¬ 
phragm, or the stomach. The capsule may be thickened and 
the organ be in a condition of chronic hyperplasia. The swollen 
spleen pulp may be soft, and even rupture may occur from the 
intense hyperemia, filling the abdomen with blood. The lym¬ 
phatic glands are enlarged, sometimes in conjunction with 
splenic enlargement; or they may be enlarged and the spleen 
remain normal. The cervical, axillary, mesenteric, and inguinal 








DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


393 


groups of glands may be very much enlarged, but they are 
usually soft, isolated, and movable. The tonsils and the lym¬ 
phatic follicles of the pharynx and mouth may be enlarged, also. 

In these cases there is always present asthenia and anemia. 
The bodies are usually very thin, indeed. On observing the body, 
it might be supposed that nothing remained but “skin and 
bones” ; it is true there is not much else but the diseased tissues. 

Treatment. —If the blood does not pass immediately into the 
venous side, but remains a little while in the arteries, coagulation 
will take place, forming occlusions, when it will be impossible to 
inject fluid into the tissues through the arterial system. On this 
account, cases of this kind should be embalmed as quickly as pos¬ 
sible after death. If the arteries are full, open them and allow 
the blood to escape. Insert the small trocar into the left ventricle 
of the heart, keeping in mind the heart’s exact position ; pierce 
it, and inject a ten per cent, solution of salt water, say one to 
two ounces. This will produce enough irritation to bring about 
postmortem contraction of the involuntary muscular substance 
of the circulation. 

We have found this operation to work admirably in two cases. 
Of course, that is not a sufficient number of cases to determine 
positively its practicability, but it is worthy of a trial, as the re¬ 
tension of blood in the left side of the heart and arteries for a 
period of time, say from two to three hours, will result undoubt¬ 
edly in the coagulation of the blood, which will positively close 
up the channels through which the capillaries and all the tissues 
of the body are filled. If the spleen is enlarged to any consider¬ 
able extent, it can be detected easily by palpation. If it is en¬ 
larged, it is possible that blood is coagulated within, and fluid 
will not be received by the spleen through the splenic artery. 
In that case, fluid should be injected into the organ directly 
through the hollowmeedle. Inject fluid into the cavities and fill 
the arteries thoroughly in the usual manner, using sufficient fluid 
to fill the body. 


394 


CHAMPION TEXT- BOOK ON EMBALMING 


PUERPERAL OR CHILDBED FEVER. 

Puerperal fever is an acute infectious disease, due to the septic 
inoculation of wounds, resulting from childbirth. Pathogenic 
bacteria are always present. The head of the child, in its descent 
through the soft parts, produces abrasions in the parts, in many 
cases, especially through the contracted bony outlet. Sometimes, 
as a result of inertia of the womb, or a slight or incomplete dila¬ 
tation of the parts, they remain firm and hard, and instruments 
are used to aid the delivery of the child. Whether in the hands 
of an expert, or of a mere tyro, the parts may be ruptured on ac¬ 
count of pressure. Skill renders these accidents more infrequent, 
but it cannot always prevent them. The pathogenic bacteria get 
into the mutilated surfaces from some source, and are there ab¬ 
sorbed by the circulation, and deposited in the different tissues 
of the body, especially in the peritoneum and the serous mem¬ 
branes. When deposited in the peritoneum, inflammation fol¬ 
lows, and the morbid changes that take place are precisely the 
same as those which attend the inflammation of other serous 
membranes. 

The exudation from the surface of the peritoneum, when in¬ 
flammation is present, may form a false=membrane, from one= 
fourth to onedialf inch in thickness. More or less fluid matter 
will be found in the cavity of the peritoneum. In many cases 
there will be more or less suppuration. When the exudation 
is purulent, it will be either thin and greenislnyellow in color, 
or opaque^wdiite and creamy. If the material is putrid, it is of a 
grayistngreen color, quite thin, and has a putrefactive odor. Pus 
or abscesses are found in the lungs and other organs, and in the 
serous membranes, such as the pleurae, pericardium, arachnoid, 
etc. The septic matter may be taken up by the blood and carried 
to all parts of the body, resulting in septicemia, or blood poison¬ 
ing, which may cause death. Rigor mortis is never marked, 
usually coming on and passing off within an hour ; or it may be 
instantaneous. The blood may have a putrefactive odor, and be 




DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


395 


Tery thin, with here and there small, very dark or black coagula. 
Putrefaction follows very rapidly, especially in the lower or 
under surfaces of the body, and along the large veins. 

Treatment. —These cases give more trouble to the embalmer 
than any other, and must be treated very thoroughly. Nothing 
must be left undone that will assist in the preservation of the 
body. The amount of morbid material found within the peri¬ 
toneal cavity varies from one to many pints. In many cases, a 
great deal of gas accumulates within the different serous cavities, 
and should be removed at once. The morbid material should be 
pumped out, and these cavities filled with fluid. The femoral 
artery and vein should be raised for the purpose of injecting fluid 
and withdrawing blood. Raise the vein and insert a drainage- 
tube, placing the body well on the incline. Raise the arms above 
the head and allow the blood to escape, aided by the force of 
gravity. Then begin the injection of fluid through the artery. 
Fill the arterial system thoroughly, injecting sufficient fluid to fill 
all the tissues. 

These cases require a large amount of fluid. Enough should 
be injected to swell the surface. If possible, cause the fluid to 
make the whole circuit of the circulation, continuing the injection 
until the fluid appears at the opening of the femoral vein. Then 
remove the tube and close the artery, vein, and incision. 

Remove as much ol the effusions as possible from the serous 
cavities. The fluid that is first injected dissolves or dilutes the 
semisolid or thick matter, and much of this diluted material can 
be aspirated with the fluid. Then the cavities should be refilled 
thoroughly, putting in a large amount ol the fluid, say several 
quarts. Fluid should not be saved in these cases; a liberal 
amount should always be used. 

A female assistant should fill the vagina with a tampon ol 
absorbent cotton, which has been filled thoroughly with fluid. 
The body should be washed with a strong disinfectant, and fluid 
should be injected into the external openings. 


396 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


PERITONITIS. 

Acute, general peritonitis is an acute inflammation of the 
peritoneum. It may be primary or secondary. That is, the 
peritoneum may be attacked primarily, or it may result second¬ 
arily from some other disease, such as inflammation or extensive 
ulcerations of the stomach or intestines, cancer, suppurative in¬ 
flammations of the spleen, liver, pancreas, or the pelvic viscera. 
Perforation of the peritoneum occurs frequently and is followed 
by inflammation. It may result from external wounds, ulcera¬ 
tion of the stomach, intestines, or galbbladder, abscess of the 
liver, spleen, or kidneys, appendicitis, or inflammation of the 
ovaries. 

When the abdomen in a recent case of peritonitis is opened, 
the coils of the intestines are found distended and glued together 
by lymph, and the peritoneum appears to be congested in patches 
and sometimes over the whole surface. Sometimes, there will be 
but little effusion present—only a thick exudation upon the 
walls. Then again, the intestinal coils will be covered with 
lymph, and there will be present a large amount of yellowish, 
sero*fibrinous liquid. If the stomach or intestines be perforated, 
food and fecal matter may be mixed with the effused fluid. 

When purulent, the exudation is either thin and greenish* 
yellow in color, or opaque=white and creamy ; if the material is 
putrid, the exudate is grayish*green in color, thin, and has a ’ 
putrid odor. This usually results from perforative or puerperal 
peritonitis. If blood is present, it results in cases caused by 
wounds, cancer, or tubercle. The amount of effusion into the 
peritoneal cavity varies from one to several pints. These different 
conditions are produced by some of the various species of micro* 
organisms. 

Acute inflammation oi the small intestine and colon, obstruc¬ 
tion of the bowels, and other diseases, may be mistaken for 
peritonitis, as their symptoms are similar. Such being the case, 
the physician’s certificate may be misleading.. 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 


397 


Treatment. — In cases of peritonitis, the other serous mem¬ 
branes usually are involved. The serous sacs in the thoracic 
cavity—the pleurae and pericardium — will be found to have a 
greater or less amount of effusion within them, which, with the 
abnormal matter in the peritoneum, produce a condition that 
will require very thorough treatment. The amount of effusion 
within these several cavities will vary in quantity. Gas accumu¬ 
lates also very rapidly and should be removed at once with the 
morbid material. After removing the gas and effusions, the 
cavities should be filled with fluid. 

The blood should then be withdrawn and the arterial system 
injected with sufficient fluid to fill the body very thoroughly. 
The femoral artery and vqin are preferable for the purpose, as, 
the femoral vein being more dependent, a greater amount of 
blood can be withdrawn than from any other point. A veiin 
tube long enough to reach above the valves beyond Poupart’s 
ligament, and allowing the outer end to reach a vessel for the 
purpose of receiving the blood, should be inserted. The arteriab 
tube should be introduced into the artery and fluid injected, 
which will aid gravity in the removal of the blood. After the 
arterial injection, the fluid should be withdrawn from the cavi¬ 
ties and fresh fluid injected. A large amount of fluid should be 
injected in these cases, as bacteria are found frequently in the 
blood, which indicates that the germs are in every tissue after 
death. After the operation, the body should be placed on the 
level, with the head slightly elevated. 


CHAPTER XXX. 


DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST. 


PNEUMONIA-LUNG FEVER. 

Acute or Croupous Pneumonia—Pneumonitis. 

Pneumonia and pneumonitis are the technical terms, and lung 
fever the common term, used to indicate the same disease. 
Pneumonia is an acute infectious disease, produced by the diplo- 
coccus pneumoniae, which prevails in all cold climates and 
attacks all ages. 

To understand its morbid anatomy, the student should study 

the anatomy of the lung. He should 
remember that there are two circu¬ 
lations through the lungs, the pul¬ 
monary and the nutrient. The 
pulmonary circulation carries the 


air-cells, where it gives off carbonic 
acid gas and receives oxygen from 
the air. It is then taken up by the 
pulmonary veins and carried to the 
left side of the heart. 

The nutrient (bronchial) arteries 
are branches of the thoracic aorta, 
and carry the arterial blood to the lungs, for the purpose of 
nourishing the lung tissue. The waste is taken up through 
the general system of capillaries and carried back to the general 
circulation by the bronchial veins. It is through the bronchial 


blood from the right side of the 
heart, through the pulmonary artery 
and its many subdivisions, to the 



Fig. 56.—Micrococcus Pneumoniae 
Crouposae 


In sputum of a patient with pneu¬ 
monia, X1000. From photomicrograph 
by Frankel and Pfeiffer. 



















DISEASES OF THE AIBRASSAGES AND CHEST 399 


arteries that fluid is carried to the lungs in arterial embalming; 
no fluid enters the lungs through the pulmonary circulation. 
The blood-vessels and bronchi, with the connective tissue and 
lymphatics, form the bulk of the lungs. These tissues are 
elastic. The walls of the bronchi and air-cells are also elastic, 
and will admit of much dilatation. The whole are bound 
together closely by a strong, elastic, fibrous covering. 

In pneumonia there is inflammation of the walls, or mucous 
membrane, lining the bronchial tubes. Mucus of a darkish- 
red color is thrown off in abundance, forming the prune-juice 
sputum, which is coughed up by the patient 
suffering with the disease. This takes place 
during the stage of engorgement, which 
occurs early in the disease. In this stage 
the lungs are engorged ; the blood-vessels 
are filled to a certain extent in both circu¬ 
lations. The lobe or lobes of the lung that 
are involved will be enlarged, although, if 
death occurs in this stage, that part of the 
lung will be found to contain more or less 
air. Indeed, if a piece be cut from it and 
thrown into the water, it will float. 

If death occurs later in the disease, say during the second or 
third week, the condition of the lung will be cpiite different. 
This is the stage known as red hepatization. The lung involved 
will appear like the substance of the liver. It will be perfectly 
solid, and red in color, showing that the vessels are filled with 
blood. The parts will be very much enlarged, and will fill the 
side or cavity of the chest, pressing upon the outer walls suffi¬ 
ciently to bulge the intercostal muscles. If the diseased portion 
is taken from the cavity, the outer surface will have indentations 
of the ribs upon it. No air will be found in the diseased part. 
If a portion be cut from it and thrown into the water, it will 
sink like lead. The part of the lung not involved, will be filled 



Fig. 57. 

Single colony of micrococcus 
pneumoniae cron posse upon 
agar plate 24 hours old, X 100. 
(Frankel and Pfeiffer.) 


400 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


with a frothy substance. If a large portion of the lung is in¬ 
volved, there is likely to be purging of a bloody, frothy material, 
a few hours after death. 

Still later, the stage of gray hepatization comes on ; the lung 
is solid and has a gray appearance. If the lung is cut through, 
the knife turned edgewise, and the surface scraped, there will be 
purulent matter on the edge. Sometimes the lung will be soft¬ 
ened, and only a large pouch or bag of pus will be found. 

Treatment. — If death has occured during the first or en¬ 
gorgement stage, the arteries should be filled thoroughly, the 
cavities treated as usual, and fluid injected into the lungs through 
the trachea and bronchial tubes. Usually such treatment will be 
sufficient to preserve the case. 

If, however, death occurs during the second stage, known as 
red hepatization, it is necessary to embalm the body very thor¬ 
oughly, filling the tissues through the arteries, the lungs through 
the trachea, and filling the cavities in the usual manner. This 
may be all that is necessary, but in some cases, as where a large 
amount of the lung is involved, and the weather is warm, purg¬ 
ing will result in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours after death. 
When such is the case, the body may be turned over, and as 
much of the matter pressed out through the respiratory tract as 
possible, and the lungs filled again through the trachea. 

If the case is an obstinate one, the purging will return in a 
very short period. To inject fluid again through the trachea will 
not remedy the case. Some have advised to close or tie the 
trachea, but such operations are impracticable. If the trachea is 
tied or closed, gas will still be formed, and it must have an out¬ 
let. If it cannot pass out through the trachea, which is the 
natural outlet, it will pass through the tissues, get into the cellu¬ 
lar tissue beneath the skin, and swell the neck, face, and body. 
To close the respiratory tract at any point will give this result; 
therefore, it is necessary to resort to other means. 

The diseased portion of the lung should be mutilated by the 









DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 4 Q 1 


introduction of a scalpel or sharp=pointed bistoury, through the 
front wall of the chest, severing the bronchial tubes which lead 
directly to the trachea. After a thorough mutilation of the dis¬ 
eased part, inject fluid into the lung through the hollow-needle, 
which should be inserted at the point from which the mutilation 
was performed. The general embalment will have taken place 
some hours before ; consequently, if the circulation is ruptured, 
no harm will result. 

Gases are produced within the lung by putrefaction. The putre¬ 
factive bacteria get into the diseased portion of the lung, which is 
so solid that it will be impossible to receive the fluid ; therefore, 
there is nothing to prevent their growth, and to cause a liquefac¬ 
tion of the lung, in spite of all the fluid that can be put into it 
through the respiratory tract. Indeed, if much of the lung is in¬ 
volved, there will be little fluid received in that manner, and what 
is received will settle to the posterior part. The bacteria will 
grow rapidly, and putrefaction of the whole body will follow. As 
a last resort, mutilate and inject the lung as above directed. 

When death takes place during the third stage, or stage of gray 
hepatization, it is necessary to pump out the softened contents of the 
lungs, or pus, and fill the cavity within the lung with fluid. Other¬ 
wise, treat the body as directed when death has resulted during 
the first stage. 

GANGRENE OF THE LUNGS. 

Upon post-mortem examination, in cases of gangrene of the 
lungs, the morbid changes will consist of a cavity, irregular in 
outline, with ragged walls, sometimes containing loose fragments 
of lung tissue, or a dirty-greenish or brownish mass of material, 
with the regular gangrene odor. The cavity is usually in the 
middle or lower lobe of the right lung. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of a case of this kind, fluid 
should be injected into the lungs through the respiratory tract, fill¬ 
ing the diseased parts thoroughly. An artery should be raised and 
fluid injected, and the cavities should be filled in the usual manner. 


402 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 




PLEURISY-PLEURITIS. 

Inflammation of the Pleura. 

Pleurisy is defined as an inflammation of the pleura, of what¬ 
ever nature or extent. The causes of pleurisy may be local, as 
wounds or bruises of the chest wall; fracture of the ribs ; caries 
of the spine ; escape of irritating matter into the pleural cavity, 
as from the lungs in tuberculosis, or from the bronchial glands, 
or through the sides of the abdomen, as in galbstones, or abscesses 
which perforate the diaphragm, etc. 

The general or systemic causes of pleurisy are very obscure. 
It may follow a chill; or, it may occur in a rheumatic or gouty 
habit; or the bacteria, which frequently cause inflammation of 
the other serous sacs, may find their way into the pleurae. It is 
frequent as a complication of other diseases ; it always accompanies 
acute pneumonia ; it often follows scarlatina and accompany¬ 
ing diseases of the kidneys ; it arises sometimes after measles, 
which is possibly due to the inflammation of the lungs, which so 
frequently results from measles ; it may be caused by rupture of 
pyemic abscesses ; it also accompanies tuberculosis, following each 
new invasion of the lung tissue involved. 

Acute pleurisy, when idiopathic, is more often on the left side 
than on the right; it is rarely bilateral (botli sides). When due 
to acute rheumatism or nephritis, it is generally bilateral. 

Acute pleurisy is common at all ages. It is found sometimes 
in the first six months of life. In these little ones, it is often 
overlooked, unless there is an abundance of effusion. Verv often 
it is not noticed even then. At the age of five it is frequent, but 
at middle life it reaches its maximum of frequency. The younger 
the child, the more readily the effusion becomes purulent, and, in 
such cases, the inflammation often extends, before death, to the 
pericardium. Cases of pleurisy are known to have existed in 
persons beyond three score years of age, but, as a rule, it is very 




rare in an aged person. The male is affected more commonly 
than the female, owing, no doubt, to exposure to the weather. 





DISEASES 


OF THE AIR PASSAGED AND 


C1IEST 


403 


Traumatic pleurisy results from the breaking of a rib, or a 
wound, as from a knife or sword thrust, etc. 

The morbid changes that follow pleurisy differ but little from 
those of inflammation of other serous sacs. Effusions of the sero¬ 
fibrinous and the proliferative kind quickly infiltrate the tissues, 
and the natural gloss of the membrane gives place to opaqueness. 
In active cases, the effusion is not very voluminous, but is very 
rich in fibrin, and a false membrane forms on the pleura and is 
often of considerable thickness. Its attachment is very tenacious. 
Some of the loose or adherent, gluey effusion degenerates, form¬ 
ing purulent matter. Clots of fibrin will be found floating freely 
and abundantly in the effused serum, containing a great abun¬ 
dance of imprisoned cells. In the effused fluid itself, cells are 
very few in most cases, but, wdien present in large quantities, 
purulent transformation is more apt to take place during the 
course of the disease. 

In cases of large effusion in the pleural sacs, the lung is found 
compressed and often bound down by false membranes extending 
from the walls of the cavity. In adults, the lung is found usually 
thrust upward, inward, and backward—that is, in the back of the 
apex of the cavity. It may be compressed from one-fourth to one- 
eighth of its normal size. It appears flattened, leathery, blood¬ 
less, airless, and will sink in water. 

If the effusion has been present for some length of time, com¬ 
plete or partial adhesions, or bands of connective tissue, will have 
bound the lung into the position it assumes on account of the 
pressure of the effusion. Pleuritic adhesions are found very com- 
monlv after death from other diseases, their origin being unknown 
or forgotten. On the other hand, false membranes and bands 
may have become the seat of the degenerative process, and pus, 
tubercle, and the like may be found in them. The compressed 
lung will be found in the degenerative stage, with ulcerations and 
septic changes in the lung tissue. 

The pathological changes that are found in every part of the 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


contents of the side of the chest that has been diseased are very 
extensive. A great amount of purulent matter may exist. The 
position of the heart and other viscera may be changed, and the 
chambers of the heart and pulmonary veins may be full of clots- 
Secondary abscesses may exist in other parts of the body, fur¬ 
nishing a good soil for the development of bacteria. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of cases of this kind, it is always 
necessary to pump out the cavity of the chest, removing from it 
as much of the effusion as possible. Then fluid should be in¬ 
jected in sufficient quantity to sterilize thoroughly everything 
that remains. Fluid should be injected through the respiratory 
tract, as the lung itself may be involved, as is seen in the above 
description in certain cases. Fluid should be injected also into 
the arterial system in sufficient quantity to sterilize the tissues in 
every part of the body. The abdominal cavity should be treated, 
always keeping in mind that abscesses may exist in all parts of 
the peritoneal sac or in the mesenteries. Pleurisy being a very 
common disease, the effusions are overlooked in the young by the 
physician ; the embalmer should be very careful to examine the 
pleural sacs and endeavor to pump out as much of the effusion as 
possible before injecting fluid into them. No trouble should re¬ 
sult if these cases are properly treated. 

PERICARDITIS. 

Inflammation of the Pericardium. 

The pericardium (heart sac) is a seromembranous sac, with the 
visceral layer closely enveloping the heart and roots of the great 
vessels connected with the heart, while the parietal layer is loosely 
reflected along the organs, having its external surface intimatelv 
united with a dense sheath, which passes outward to the roots of 
the vessels, and continues below with the attachment of the dia¬ 
phragm. A serous fluid is thrown out in the interior of this sac, 
for the purpose of preventing friction during the movement of the 
heart, while it is expelling the blood. 


DISEASES OF THE A IE-PASSAGES AND CHEST 405 


The morbid anatomy of pericarditis is simple enough, accord¬ 
ing to Balfour:— 

“ Very early, pericarditis is rarely seen except as associated 
with Bright’s disease, and then, at first, we have merely vascular 
injection with a few shreds of lymph visible about the roots of the 
great vessels. In a few days, the whole surface of the heart may 
be covered with a fine fibrous layer which may, even at this early 
stage, have connected together the visceral and parietal layers of 
the pericardium somewhat firmly. More usually there is some 
serous exudation mingled with the fibrous matter, which is found 
covering the pericardium. This serous effusion not infrequently 
amounts to several pints ; it is always turbid from the fibrin sus¬ 
pended in it, and is of a yellowish, greenish, brownish, or reddish 
color. When, along with any considerable layer of lymph upon 
the pericardiac surfaces, there is much fluid diffused, the surface 
of the lymph is covered with shaggy processes floating in the 
fluid. In a very short time, a fine network of capillaries is de¬ 
veloped in the fibrinous exudation, and the rupture of these newly 
developed capillaries now and then gives rise to what is termed 
hemorrhagic pericarditis, in which the fluid, and even the solid 
lymph, is deeply stained with the blood coloring matter.” 


This also happens when pericarditis is associated with purpura 
or scurvy. Sometimes layers of coagulated blood are found alter¬ 
nating with layers of unstained lymph. Frequently connective 
tissue is gradually developed in the fibrinous layers, either locally, 
giving rise to partial adhesions, which at the base of the heart are 
more dense, but at the apex are drawn out to fibrinous strings ; 
or the two layers of the pericardium may be united so closely, that 
they can be separated only by the use of considerable force. Oc¬ 
casionally pus, or the cheesy or calcareous remains of such a 
deposit, is found encysted between the adhering layers of the peri¬ 
cardium ; and it happens sometimes that this calcareous layer 
envelops the whole heart, which makes it appear as though it had 
been converted into bone. 

True purulent pericarditis, though of rare occurrence under any 
circumstance, is most frequently fatal, and seems to occur more 


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CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


often in connection with general disease, or accompanying a rup¬ 
ture of local abscess of the liver or lungs into the pericardium. 
In one case, which was used for demonstration before one of our 
classes, the stomach was found adhered to the under surface of 
the diaphragm, and a fistulous canal connected the cavit} 7 of the 
stomach with the pericardium, in the latter of which was found, 
mixed with the pus, undigested particles of both animal and veg¬ 
etable matter, which had passed through the fistulous opening 
from the stomach into the pericardium. These cases are rare, but 
occur occasionally. 

When the sac is filled, more or less, with purulent or ab¬ 
normal matter from the liver, lungs, or stomach, putrefaction 
often takes place in these effusions, and causes them to become 
brownish in color and to have a strong odor. Putrefaction may 
arise from the entrance of air into the pericardium after an opera¬ 
tion by a surgeon, conducted without antiseptic precautions ; or it 
may arise in patients greatly enfeebled by exhaustive disease, 
without any entrance of air into the pericardium. An exudation 
which has become ichorous may corrode the pericardium, making 
it a dirty color. 

Putrefaction of the effusions causes the development of various 
gases within the pericardium, which sometimes will be sufficient 
to press the lungs up into the apex of the thorax, and crowd the 
diaphragm well down into the abdominal cavity, making pressure 
upon the large blood-vessels, forcing the blood upward through 
the superior vena cava and jugular veins, causing a dark discolor¬ 
ation of the face, head, and neck. In rare cases, the effusion will 
be so great as to fill the thoracic cavity, making extreme pressure 
upon the surrounding tissues. A case is reported by Flint in 
which ten pints of effused matter were removed from the peri¬ 
cardium. 

Treatment.—In the treatment of a case of pericarditis, it is 
always necessary to examine the pericardium and remove the gas 
and other contents ; also fluid should be injected before the re- 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 407 


moval of the needle. If blood has been forced into the head, 
face, and neck, the heart should be tapped after placing the body 
upon an incline, and all the blood that is possible should be 
removed. The pericardium can be reached from the same point 
through which the needle is inserted in the operation of with¬ 
drawing blood from the right auricle, by turning the needle 
downward along the right side of the heart; or it may be reached 
from the epigastrium. If the pleurae or lungs are involved in the 
disease, they should be treated specially ; otherwise, the body 
should be treated in the usual manner, by filling the cavities and 
the arterial system with plenty of fluid. 

HYPOSTATIC CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 

Hypostatic Pneumonia— Splenization. 

Hypostatic congestion of the lungs follows the long^continued 
fevers and the adynamic states generally. The back part or base 
of the lung becomes dark in color and engorged with blood-and 
serum, causing extreme solidification in many cases. This is due, 
in part, to the position assumed by the patient during the disease, 
but chiefly to the weakened heart action. Indeed, if parts of the 
involved lung are removed and thrown into the water, they will 
sink, as in the second stage of pneumonia. In cerebral apoplexy 
the bases of the lungs become engorged, but not to the extent that 
they do in the long^continued fevers, the lungs containing more 
air. In all cases of typhoid fever, and the adynamic fevers in 
general, if the body has remained for a long time in the same 
position in a recumbent posture, hypostatic congestion will be a 
complication and should not be forgotten by the operator. 

Treatment. —The treatment consists of the ordinary injection 
through the arterial system, and the filling of the cavities, with 
the addition of the injection of fluid through the respiratory tract. 
If, after a few hours, purging of a bloody, frothy material should 
result, the body should be turned and pressure made upon the 
chest and diaphragm to force out the contents as much as possible; 


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CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


then the lungs should be filled again. If purging arises again, 
and appears to he obstinate, the lungs should he mutilated and 
fluid injected, as in a case of obstinate purging in pneumonia. 


ANEMIA OF THE LUNGS. 


Anemia of the lungs means a deficiency of blood in the lungs. 
It can be general or local. Besides hemorrhage and other causes 
of general bloodlessness, certain local causes produce anemia of 
the lungs. In pulmonary vesicular emphysema, and in senile 
atrophy, destruction of the capillaries is associated with anemia. 
Partial anemia of the lung results from embolism of the branches 
of the bronchial artery supplying the part. The main vessel is 
rarely ever obstructed by an embolus. Compression or oblitera¬ 
tion by the invasion of a malignant growth, or aneurism of the 
main division, more commonly occurs. Aneurism of the pulmon¬ 
ary artery, or of one of its branches within the lung, usually 
causes anemia by pressure, or the same may result by an aneu¬ 
rism of the bronchial artery. In extreme anemia, as by death 
from hemorrhage, the lungs and the bronchial mucous membrane 
are exceedingly pale from the absence of blood. They are un¬ 
changed in all respects, except that they are lighter in weight 
than normal. 

In the general disease known as anemia, the lungs, with the 
other organs, partake of the general deficiency of red blood. The 
lungs are of normal weight, but paler and more moist than natu¬ 
ral, and are sometimes slightly edematous. The results of pul¬ 
monary anemia are atrophy of its texture, as in senile emphysema, 
and in local deficiency of blood in partial obstruction of a large 
branch of the bronchial artery. Death, and the sloughing of the 
area of lung supplied by the bronchial artery, results from com¬ 
plete destruction by embolism, or by an embolus. Hemorrhage, 
in these cases, occurs from sudden arrest of the circulation through 
a limited portion of the lung, which gives rise to stress in collat¬ 
eral circulation. There will be leakage when the arteries are full. 






DISEASES OF THE AID-PASSAGES AED CJfEST 4()9 


at least into the substance of the lung itself, if not from the mouth 
or nose. 

In atrophy of the lungs, there is wasting of the lung tissue from 
defective nutrition. It may occur in only a small portion, or it 
may involve the whole lung. The cause of simple atrophy of the 
lungs, is that general failure of nutrition which is natural to ad¬ 
vanced life. Hereditary predisposition may determine an earlier 
failure of nutritive change in the lungs. Any cause that inter¬ 
feres with the circulation in the parts, will cause atrophy of that 
part; if it extends to the main vessel supplying nutriment to the 
lung, the whole lung will he atrophied. 

The appearance of an atrophied lung may be seen best in a 
case of natural or senile atrophy. The lung is small, light, and 
more or less deeply colored ; is drier in texture and less firm and 
resisting than natural ; becomes pitted, on pressure, from want of 
elasticity ; and is capable of being srpieezed into a very small 
space. The air-cells are increased in size, and, if a portion of the 
lung be inflated and dried, large cells may be seen, evidently 
resulting from the coalescence of two or more infundibula. Fila¬ 
ments, or remnants of small bronchi, or blood-vessels, may extend 
across such cells. The pulmonary artery and its branches are 
diminished in size, and the walls of the bronchial tubes are much 
thinner than is normal. 

When atrophy of the lung is associated with, or the result of, 
other diseases, as emphysema or forcible collapse, the process is 
essentially the same, but is combined, in the former case, with an 
over-stretching of the air-cells, and a thickening, more or less, of 
the tissue derived from the bronchial walls. In this case, the 
lung is heavier, and there is more marked fatty degeneration of 
its fibrous tissue. Atrophy of the lung, too, will follow from long- 
continued pressure of fluid in the pleura. The pleura is always 
thickened from the original inflammation, and the fibrous pro¬ 
cesses are directed inward from it between the lobules, so that ex¬ 
pansion of the lung is rendered difficult. 


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CHAMPION TEXT .BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Treatment.—In either of the above cases the bronchial, or 
nutritive circulation of the lungs is destroyed to a greater or less 
extent, so that when fluid is injected into the arterial system it 
will not reach the lung tissue, and the result will be similar to 
that of pneumonia in its second stage. Fluid does not reach the 
lungs through the pulmonary circulation ; it only reaches them, 
when in a normal condition, through the bronchial portion of the 
general circulation. Therefore, in cases of this kind, fluid must 
positively be injected into the lungs through the bronchial tubes. 
Even these may be atrophied or destroyed, so that it will be nec¬ 
essary to inject, in a few hours aftertlie arterial injection is made, 
directly into the lung substance through the hollowmeedle. Ex¬ 
amine the pleural sacs, and, if they contain effusions, pump out 
the effused material and inject fluid,in large quantities. The 
pericardium may be involved, and should be treated thoroughly. 
Otherwise the cavities should be treated as in an ordinarv case. 

OTHER DISEASES OF AIR=PASSAGES AND CHEST. 

Such as Laryngitis, Bronchitis, Etc. 

The embalmer should use his judgment in the treatment of 
these cases ; there being no extensive morbid changes, no line of 
special treatment is necessary to be laid down. Usually, the fill¬ 
ing of the arteries and cavities with fluid is all that is necessary. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 


DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 

APPENDICITIS. 

Inflammation of the Appendix Vermiformis. 

The position of the appendix vermiformis is extremely variable. 
Frequently it lies behind the ilium, with its end pointing toward 
the left side of the abdomen ; or it may lie behind the cecum ; or 
upon the psoas muscle, with the end near the margin of the pel¬ 
vis. It is found in almost every region of the abdomen. It may 
be in close contact with the bladder ; or in the central portion of 
the abdomen, lying near the liver ; or at the left lower side of the 
abdomen, etc. Notwithstanding the popular idea, foreign bodies 
are not found frequently in the appendix. We have noticed in 
dissections but three cases containing foreign bodies ; one con¬ 
tained a solid fecal substance; another, apple seeds ; another, a 
liard concretion, supposed to be enteroliths. 

The appendix is often the seat of very extensive inflammation, 
some recent, while others may have been a considerable time in 
the past. As a result, the appendix may be obliterated partially 
or totally. Sometimes, the end near the cecum is dilated enor¬ 
mously, even to the size of the finger, or larger ; it may be free or 
adherent. We have noticed one case in wdiicli an abscess w T as 
capsulated, containing quite an amount of fluid. In cases where 
perforation of the walls has taken place, the extent of peritonitis 
is variable. In some cases, the perforation excites a very diffuse 
and violent peritonitis, wdiile in others, where adhesion has oc¬ 
curred, or, owing to the location, there may result only circum¬ 
scribed peritonitis, and an intra=peritoneal abscess of very small 
size may form. Perforation may take place at the back part of 
the appendix, which is not covered with the peritoneum, and 

411 




412 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 


the inflammation may occur over the psoas muscle in the neigh¬ 
borhood of the cecum only. As a result, an abscess may form 
in the pelvis or close to the sacrum. 

Large, circumscribed, fecal abscesses form, sometimes, in the 
iliac region, or at points midway between the navel and anterior 
side of the ilium. Abscesses are liable to develop in almost any 
situation. One case is reported where an enormous abscess 
developed and pushed the diaphragm up to the second rib, pro¬ 
ducing the symptoms of pneumothorax. Perforation of the pleura 
may have occurred, forming a fecal pleural fistula. Abscesses 
may burrow along the psoas muscle to the hip-bone, or may have 
passed into the neighborhood of the rectum, or abscesses may form 
even in the scrotum, or pass down in the back part into the 
gluteal region, forming large gluteal abscesses; even perforation 
into the bladder may have occurred, but it is not common ; per¬ 
foration into the bowel may have taken place, and large quanti¬ 
ties of the pus may have been carried off in this manner. A case 
is reported in which the appendix was discharged through the 
anus. Hemorrhage may have occurred, in which case a great 
deal of blood is found in the region. Even such arteries as the 
internal iliac and deep circumflex iliac have been perforated. 

Treatment.—;In cases of appendicitis, it can be seen, by care¬ 
ful study of the foregoing, that a great amount of tissue may be 
involved. When we consider the amount of purulent matter that 
may be formed in the body, as a result of this disease, it is 
easy to understand why many of these cases are very troublesome 
to handle. They require very careful treatment to preserve them. 
On account of the tendency of the pus to burrow, it may be carried 
to remote points by gravitation. The pus forms an excellent soil 
for the rapid growth of the bacteria of putrefaction. 

The injection of fluid through the arteries will reach the nor¬ 
mal tissues only, unless arteries in the neighborhood of the pus 
are perforated by the disease, forming an exit for the fluid that is 
injected into the arteries. Fluid must be injected into the cavi- 


413 


DISEASES OE THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 


ties and mixed directly with the purulent matter in sufficient 
quantity to destroy, or prevent the growth of, putrefactive bacteria. 

ll the body has not been opened by the surgeon for the relief 
of the suffer dr, or cure of the disease, just prior to death, it will be 
impossible to know how much pus is contained within the several 
parts of the abdominal cavity, unless an incision is made into the 
cavity, to which operation embalmers are not in the habit of re¬ 
sorting. It is necessary to inject fluid beneath the posterior wall 
of the peritoneum and into every part of the abdominal cavity, 
using a large amount of fluid. When this is resorted to, the loca¬ 
tion of the aorta and its larger branches must always be kept in 
mind ; if not, the circulation may be destroyed. Then, too, it 
must be remembered that the external iliac and the circumflex 
iliac are of large size, and, as stated before, they may be perforated; 
if that be the case, arterial injection would only result in filling 
the cavities, as the perforation would destroy the circulation, pre¬ 
venting the filling of the tissues in the upper portions of the body. 
In a case where perforation has resulted, it will be necessary to 
tie the artery that has been perforated ; or to make pressure by a 
compress over the region, sufficient to prevent leakage; or to 
inject through the subcutaneous, cellular tissue, over the upper 
surfaces of the body. If the body is injected thoroughly, through 
the arteries, and the cavities are filled, a sufficient amount of 
fluid being mixed with the purulent matter contained in the 
cavities, the body will be preserved, and no trouble will result. 


OBSTINATE CONSTIPATION. 

Obstinate constipation is caused by intussusception, torsion, or 
knotting of the bowels, or by foreign bodies, or by stricture. Usu¬ 
ally, the skin has an icteric or sallow appearance. The color of 
the contents of the intestinal canal and stomach—half-digested 
food, as partly-altered milk, meat, or vegetable matter—is brown, 
black, dark-green, or yellow. Sometimes the colon is distended 
so as almost to fill the abdomen. Ulceration of the mucous mem- 


414 


CHAMPION TEXT, BO OK ON EMBALMING 


brane, and perforation of the intestinal walls, with extravasation 
into the abdominal cavity, often follow. Peritonitis may result. 
Abscesses may form in the cellular tissues around the rectum. 

The accumulation of fecal matter in the sigmoid flexure may be 
very excessive. Peacock reports a case where fifteen quarts of 
semisolid, greenish^colored fecal matter were removed at the 
autopsy. Samazurier reports one of thirteen and a half pounds, 
and Chelins one of twenty-six pounds. Bristowe reports one 
where the whole length of the colon, from the anus to the cecum, 
was filled with semisolid, olive-green-colored feces, and the small 
intestine was filled throughout with semifluid, olive-green con¬ 
tents. In composition the mass consists of fecal matter with un¬ 
altered vegetable fiber ; it may be composed partly of the skin of 
grapes, cherry-stones, biliary calculi, hair, woody fiber, magnesia, 
or other foreign substances. 

Treatment. —After removing the gases, withdraw the blood 
and fill the tissues through the arteries; then treat the viscera 
very thoroughly. If the colon is filled with semifluid and semi¬ 
solid matter, remove it, if possible, by aspiration. This matter 
should be removed at all hazard, even if an incision has to be 
made for this purpose ; if an incision is necessary, make it in the 
median line above the pubic arch. After removal of these con¬ 
tents, fill the stomach and intestines, and inject fluid around the 
organs, filling the abdominal cavity. Then place the body on 
the level, elevating the head. 

DYSENTERY—FLUX. 

By dysentery is meant a disease of the large intestine, which 
may appear sporadically, but appears more frequently in epi¬ 
demics. It is undoubtedly infectious. The bacterium producing 
the disease, however, is not yet determined. The disease prevails 
in the tropical countries, where it is much more violent and 
wide-spread than in the North. In the northern climate most of 
the epidemics occur in the latter part of summer and in autumn. 






















415 


DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 


In severe cases, the inflammation is very extensive) involving 
not only the rectum, but the greater part of the colon. The af¬ 
fected membrane, on examination after death, is found to be red¬ 
dened, congested, swollen, softened, pulpy, presenting, in different 
cases, ecchymoses, excoriations (from peeling off of the epithelium), 
abrasions, and ulcerations in greater or less numbers, the latter 
being sometimes small and sometimes of considerable size. The 
ulcers may or may not be seated in the internal glands. The 
swelling of the membrane is due to submucous infiltration, and 
the latter is sometimes so great, at certain points, as to give rise 
to protuberances which resemble warty growths. The protuber¬ 
ances may be more or less numerous, and sometimes coalesce, 
giving to the surface a lobulated appearance. Patches of exuded 
fibrin are adherent, frequently, to the inflamed membrane, pre¬ 
senting a greenish or brownish color. The intestine contains 
more or less morbid material, as pus, fibrinous flakes, and bloody, 
serous liquid. The intestine may present a dark, almost black 
appearance, from congestion. Sloughing and ulceration are pres¬ 
ent. As a rule, the appearances denote progressively a greater 
amount of disease in passing from the upper part of the large in¬ 
testine downward to the anus, the greater amount being in the 
rectum and sigmoid flexure of the colon. Sometimes the mesen¬ 
teric glands are enlarged considerably, and in some instances 
contain pus. The disease usually is confined to the rectum and 
the lower part of the large intestine, but sometimes it extends 
higher up in the colon, producing ulcerations and involving the 
mesenteries, which is followed by peritonitis. 

Treatment. —If inflammation of the peritoneum has resulted, 
it should be treated as directed in the treatment for peri¬ 
tonitis. Gases will be present in the large intestine, which 
must be removed, and fluid injected in sufficient quantity to 
fill the colon and rectum. The cavities should be treated in 
the usual manner, and an artery raised and injected, filling all 

the tissues of the bodv. 

«/ 


416 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


CHOLERA INFANTUM. 

This disease is peculiar to infantile life. It rarely attacks 
children above two years of age. Great emaciation commonly 
results ; and usually death occurs during the second or third 
day. Rigor mortis comes on soon after death and passes off 
within the hour. The mucous membrane of the large and 
small intestines is of a dark=reddish color. There is more or 
less softening and congestion of the cerebral tissues. 

Treatment.— As decomposition commences soon after death, 
prompt treatment should follow. The body should be placed on 
tlie board in the usual manner and washed thoroughly, filling 
the openings with fluid ; the carotid or femoral artery may be 
raised and fluid injected ; or the tissues can be filled by one of 
the needle processes. The thoracic and abdominal cavities 
should be filled in the usual manner. 

HERNIA OR RUPTURE. 

The morbid changes in hernia or rupture are confined to the 
lower part of the abdomen, especially in the inguinal canal. 
The inflammation that is produced may result in peritonitis. 

Treatment. — A case of this kind should be treated as a 
case of peritonitis ; otherwise the treatment should be the same 
as in an ordinary case. 


JAUNDICE. 

Jaundice is not strictly a disease of itself, but is really a 
symptom of a disease. It occurs in nearly all of the hepatic 
disorders, or diseases of the liver, such as hepatitis (inflamma¬ 
tion of the liver), cirrhosis (hobnailed liver), phlebitis (inflam¬ 
mation of a vein), cancer, renal colic (passage of galbstones), 
and such troubles as may affect the ducts, causing congestion 
of the mucous membrane, sufficient to close the duct. It also 
occurs in many of the constitutional diseases, such as septi¬ 
cemia, puerperal fever, remittent fever, etc. In several of 








DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 


417 


these diseases, the amount of discoloration is very extensive, as 
in cirrhosis, cancer, hepatitis, etc.; in others, it is present only 
in a slight degree. It is due, in all cases, to the presence of 
biliverdin, or bile pigment, in the blood, which is reabsorbed 
in the liver after its secretion. 

Bile is secreted by the liver and is thrown off during diges¬ 
tion, being carried through the ducts to the duodenum, or upper 
portion of the small intestine. During the interval between the 
digestion of a meal and the next meal, the bile is deposited in 
the galbbladder, which serves as a reservoir for the excretion 
during the intervening period, as bile seems to be secreted con¬ 
stantly. If, perchance, the ducts are closed, as from diseases of 
the liver, or from one of the diseases which affects the ducts indi¬ 
rectly, producing congestion or closure, the bile cannot pass off 
through its natural channel. It is then reabsorbed by the liver, 
and taken up by the hepatic veins and carried into the general 
circulation. From the right side of the heart, it passes through 
the lungs and throughout the whole arterial circulation, and is 
deposited in all the tissues of the body. 

The biliverdin, that causes general discoloration of the surface 
of the body, is deposited in the soft layer of the skin, known as 
the pigment layer, and in the subcutaneous tissues. If life con¬ 
tinues after the ducts are reopened, and the bile passes off in its 
natural channel, the bile-pigment is taken up or reabsorbed from 
the tissues bv the blood and thrown off through the usual ex- 
cretory organs. But when death occurs during this jaundiced 
condition, the bilverdin will remain where it is deposited and 
cannot be removed ; no bleacher will have any effect upon it. 

Treatment. —Jaundice does not bring about a condition that 
is hard to preserve, but the disease which causes it may induce a 
morbid condition that will require special treatment to preserve 
the case ; for instance, in cirrhosis there may be extensive drop¬ 
sical effusions. In hepatitis, cancer, etc., dropsical effusions may 
exist, from a mere extension of the skin, sufficient to cause the 

34 


418 


CHAMPION TEXT, BO OK ON EMBALMING 


person to look as though lie were only gaining a little flesh, to 
distention of the body, sufficient to be designated anasarca. When 
dropsy is present, it always interferes with the circulation of 
fluid. Pressure upon the small arteries and capillaries may be 
sufficient to prevent fluid entering the tissues. If a complete cir¬ 
culation of fluid is not possible, putrefaction will not be arrested. 

Again, in cases of dropsical effusion, the presence of such an 
enormous amount of moisture will increase the tendency to putre¬ 
faction, especially in warm weather. A case of this kind should 
be treated as directed in dropsy, without reference to the jaun¬ 
diced condition, or discoloration from the presence of biliverdin. 
The water should be removed as far as possible, and, when tlie 
body has been embalmed thoroughly, to produce the best effect, it 
should be placed in a room with the curtains drawn in such a 
manner as to darken the room completely. 

Biliverdin is a permanent color, and nothing can remove it or 
bleach it out in a dead body. It is always best to explain to the 
family that they need not expect a perfect case, that the discolora¬ 
tion cannot be removed, but that it can be modified in some 
cases. With their permission the room can be so arranged, with 
the aid of artificial light, properly placed, that the case may be 
made to look almost perfectly natural in color. 

INTESTINAL CATARRH. 

In the majority of cases of intestinal catarrh, the conditions are 
due to an abnormal irritation of the mucous membrane of the in¬ 
testines by their contents, similar to that of gastric catarrh. The 
irritants are of a mechanical or chemical nature, in most cases, 
and depend, principally, upon the quantity and quality of the 
food, which explains why catarrh of the stomach and of the intes¬ 
tines are found so frequently to accompany each other. If noxious 
substances are taken into the system, by the ingestion of spoiled 
food, like spoiled meat, fish, beer, and many other things, they 
play a part very often in the origin of intestinal catarrh. To the 


DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 


419 


toxic catarrhs, which are produced by taking into the digestive 
tract poisonous substances, may be added the intestinal catarrhs 
caused by improper food. The intestinal mucous membrane is 
found severely inflamed, by the taking into the system of certain 
poisons by mistake, or with suicidal intent, such as the mineral 
acids and corrosive alkalis, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, etc. Im¬ 
prudent use of certain drugs, especially active cathartics, may in¬ 
duce intestinal catarrh. 

Then a great many cases of intestinal catarrh are due to infec¬ 
tious influences, such as those that are apparently spontaneous, or 
attributed to taking cold or getting wet, and those that develop 
epidemically in hot weather, which are termed cholera morbus, 
summer complaint, summer diarrhea, etc. Both sexes and all 
ages are predisposed to intestinal catarrh. There is a pro¬ 
nounced tendency to this disease in children ; in fact a greater 
number of deaths among children is produced, especially during 
the summer months, by inflammation of the alimentary tract 
any other cause. 

The pathological changes are similar to those met with in the 
inflammation of other mucous membranes. The mucous coat is 
swollen and red, secretion of mucus is increased, and purulent 
products on the surface of the membrane, and cellular infiltration 
of the tissues, are found in severe cases. The glands, both soli¬ 
tary and agminated, are swollen, finally becoming ulcerated. In 
severe cases, superficial erosions are frequent on the remainder of 
the mucous membrane. The mucous membrane, in long^con- 
tinued cases, becomes thickened, which makes the surface uneven 
and puffy ; the connective tissue becomes increased in thickness 
and results in a studded appearance. There is cystic degeneration 
of the follicles, due to the retention of the intestinal juices, caused 
by the occlusion of the mouths of the follicles. 

Treatment. —In cases in which this disease is due to the in¬ 
gestion of spoiled food or of other poisonous substances, as men¬ 
tioned above, there will be present the bacteria of putrefaction. 


than by 


420 


CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The amount of secretion varies greatly in different cases ; but 
in all cases there is sufficient to furnish a proper soil for the 
growth of bacteria, resulting in putrefaction, which, if the case is 
not properly treated, progresses very rapidly. These cases, as 
already stated, usually occur during the hot summer months, 
when heat and moisture are present to a sufficient degree for the 
rapid growth of bacteria. Therefore, in the treatment of these 
cases, the cavities should be filled very carefully. The alimentary 
canal should receive enough fluid to disinfect and sterilize its con¬ 
tents thoroughly. Several quarts should be injected into the 
abdominal cavity alone. Effusions are found, sometimes, in the 
pleural sacs, which should receive special attention. All tissues 
of the body should be filled through the arterial system. 

SPORADIC CHOLERA-CHOLERA MORBUS. 

Cholera morbus is an affection of the mucous membrane of 
the stomach and intestines, characterized by violent pain in the 
abdomen, nausea, violent and incessant vomiting, and by purg¬ 
ing of watery fluid. This disease is not contagious, and rarely 
proves fatal, although a state approaching collapse sometimes 
occurs, which is followed, usually, by a reaction. Even when the 
symptoms are the most severe during life, we do not always find 
morbid changes sufficient to account for the cause of death. 
Usually there are evidences o£ gastrointestinal catarrh; the 
mucous membrane is congested throughout; the solitary glands 
and Peyer’s patches are swollen and prominent; the blood is 
dark and thickened ; the kidnevs are congested and large. 
The appearance may resemble that of Asiatic cholera. 

Treatment. — The gas should be removed from the large and 
small intestines, and fluid should be injected before the needle is 
removed. The peritoneum should be treated carefully, the cavi¬ 
ties filled in the usual manner; fluid should be injected through 
the arteries in sufficient quantity to fill all the tissues of the 
body. 








DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 


421 


OTHER DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 

Such as Gastritis, Enteritis, Colitis, and Enterocolitis, usually known as Inflamma¬ 
tion of the Bowels, Etc. 

The morbid changes in these diseases are confined to the parts 
affected, except when perforation, or extensive and deep inflam¬ 
mation, exists, usually involving the peritoneum, causing periton¬ 
itis, as in inflammation of the stomach and intestines, both large 
and small. Cancer may involve the liver, spleen, pancreas, kid¬ 
neys, and bladder. 

Treatment. —In all such cases treat the abdominal cavity very 
thoroughly, besides the usual general treatment of the vascular 
system. The stomach and intestines should be filled with fluid. 


CHAPTER XXXII. 


DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 


BRIGHT S DISEASE. 

Acute Bright's Disease; Waxy Bright’s Disease; Cirrhotic Bright’s Disease. 

There are at least three different diseases of the kidneys 
which are known as Bright’s disease. Each of these maladies 
involves either one or the other of the structures of the organs, 
and only secondarily affects the others. For instance, one disease 
originates in the uriniferous tubules ; one in the blood-vessels, 
particularly in the Malpighian tufts; and the other in the fibri¬ 
nous stroma. The first is known as inflammatory, and may be 
either acute or chronic ; the second as waxy or amyloid ; and 
the third as cirrhotic or gouty. 

Acute Bright’s Disease. 

The first, or acute Bright’s disease, is an acute or chronic 
affection of the kidneys, caused by exposure to cold, or by 
scarlatina, or by other blood diseases, consisting of inflammation 
of the elements, passing through the various stages of trans¬ 
formation, namely, inflammatory enlargement, fatty degenera¬ 
tion, and atrophy. There is usually present, in the earlier 
stages, diminution of urine, albuminuria, frequent hemorrhage 
causing blood in the urine, tube-casts, and dropsy ; changes in 
the heart, blood-vessels, and other organs follow, death having 
been caused by dropsy, uremia, or some other complication. 

Waxy Bright’s Disease. 

The second, or waxy Bright’s disease, is a chronic affection 
of the kidneys, caused by tuberculosis, syphilis, caries, suppura¬ 
tion, and other exhausting diseases, consisting in waxy or amy- 

422 





DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER 423 


loid degeneration of tlie Malpighian bodies, small arteries, and 
sometimes other parts, with, in many cases, transudation into 
the tubules. Usually, in this disease, there is albuminous urine, 
the absence of dropsy, aiid waxy disease of other organs, such 
as the liver, spleen, and intestinal canal. Death is caused 
usually by exhaustion, uremia, or coexisting affections of the 
kidneys or other organs. 

Cirrhotic Bright’s Disease. 

The third, or cirrhotic Bright’s disease, is a chronic affection 
of the kidneys, caused generally by the abuse of alcohol, some¬ 
times by the poison of gout, occasionally by plumbism or other 
conditions. This causes increase of the fibrinous stroma, with 
thickening of the capsule of the kidney, and the ultimate 
atrophy of the organ. There is present albuminuria, enlarge¬ 
ment of the heart, polyuria, edema of the lungs, and uremia. 
Death usually results from uremia, edema of the lungs, or other 
inter=current affections. 

In the inflammatory form the kidney is enlarged ; its capsule 
strips off readily ; its surface appears more or less red, sometimes 
of a deep=purple color ; and occasionally extravasations of blood 
are present in its substance. On section, the cortical substance 
is found to be increased in bulk. Its vessels, as well as those 
of the cones, are congested. Its structure appears somewhat 
coarser than usual, while its convoluted tubes often present an 
opaque appearance, and sometimes contain blood. Fatty trans¬ 
formation follows, there being yellowish, opaque, sebaceousdook- 
ing material in patches, mingled with more natural structure. 
In some cases, there may be atrophy of the kidney, the organ 
being reduced to, or even below, the natural size. Its capsule 
will strip off with little difficulty and without tearing the sur¬ 
face. The surface is smooth, presenting a pure example, with 
little or no mottling. The small arteries are thicker and more 
prominent, all their coats, but especially the middle, being in- 


424 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


creased in volume. Many of the tubules are atrophied, but the 
epithelium of such as are not involved is for the most part 
natural. Cysts are numerous, and are found in connection with 
the tubules, the Malpighian bodies, and the cells. 

These peculiarities of the kidneys are mentioned merely for 
the purpose of showing to the undertaker the morbid conditions 
that take place during the disease ; not that he will derive much 
benefit, in the preservation of cases, by the use of embalming fluids, 
but it is the organs of the body that are affected by complication 
that give the greatest trouble. Dropsy of the feet and ankles, 
thickening, sclerosis, and atheroma of the arteries, causes the 
waxy affection of other organs, especially of the liver, which is 
enlarged, its margin being usually felt and sharply defined below 
the ribs. The spleen is increased in size also; the blood is 
lighter in color, the white corpuscles being increased, and the red 
rather flabby. There is a peculiar appearance of the eye, from 
edema of the conjunctiva, a hypertrophied condition of the heart, 
and the vessels become sclerosed and degenerated. 

In some cases, there is a great deal of dropsical effusion, while 
in others there is none at all. Even in some bodies there will be 
found pleuritic adhesions (pleurisy being one of the sequela), in¬ 
flammation of the bronchial tubes, or pneumonia. The chief 
organic changes are fatty degeneration, cirrhosis, and syphilitic 
affections of the different organs of the body, especially of the 
liver. The surface is pale and pasty, and the eyelids are found 
edematous. This peculiar appearance will be found in many 
cases. The surface will sometimes be of that light jaundiced 
color, which cannot be removed, it being permanent. It may be 
modified by the injection of a good bleaching fluid into the capil¬ 
laries through the arteries. 

Treatment. —As will be observed, the lungs are involved fre¬ 
quently, either by the presence of pneumonia or mediastinal con¬ 
gestion. In either case it will be necessary to treat the lungs 
•carefully, and in many cases there will be complications, so that 


DISEASES OF T1IE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER 425 


it is best to treat the lungs specially in all cases. True, there 
may be hydrothorax, so that it will be necessary to aspirate the 
pleural cavities and inject fluid. The amyloid condition of the 
liver, spleen, and other organs of the abdominal cavity, will make 
it necessary to treat these organs by the direct operation through 
the hollowmeedle, as the circulation within them will be partially 
or entirely destroyed. Otherwise the body should be injected in 
the usual manner, filling the arteries and cavities, which will be 
all that is required for preservation and disinfection. 

nephritis. 

Inflammation of the Kidney. 

Dropsy is always present in nephritis. It may be slight or ex¬ 
cessive. Otherwise the body will be in a condition similar to 
Bright’s disease, and will require the same treatment. 

DIABETES. 

Sugar in the Urine. 

Diabetes is not a disease of the kidneys, as was formerly sup¬ 
posed. These organs merely excrete sugar contained in the blood 
brought to them by the renal arteries. The sugar in the blood 
increases the functional activity of the kidneys, acting like a diu¬ 
retic, and hence the quantity of urine is greatly increased. 

This disease has no constant anatomical character, aside from 
lesions belonging to concommitant or consecutive affections. The 
kidneys are often enlarged or hypertrophied, atrophied, or contain 
abscesses. The blood contains sugar. It has been found in the 
saliva, in the infusions, in the serous cavities, in the humors of 
the eye, and in the spermatic fluid. 

Pulmonary affections, such as pneumonia or tuberculosis, are 
frequent complications. Desquamation of the cuticle often exists. 
Boils, and sometimes large abscesses, are found in different parts 
of the body ; also, gangrene, or ulceration without gangrene, of 
the lower extremities. Edema of the legs often occurs. 


426 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Treatment. —The treatment in these cases depends entirely 
upon the amount of tissues involved by complication. Inject the 
vascular system and cavities thoroughly in every case. If dropsy 
is present, which is frequently the case, adopt the usual means of 
removing water from the tissues. If abscesses or gangrene are 
present, use hardening compound, as directed under the head of 
gangrene. These cases should be handled carefully, as, the tis¬ 
sues, being filled more or less with water, there is a liability to 
“skimslip.” For this reason a little formalin might be added to 

I 

the fluid, to harden the skin. 

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 

The bladder may be the seat of the following morbid condi¬ 
tions : inflammation with acute or chronic abscess ; atrophy or 
hypertrophy ; mechanical' distention with chronic engorgement; 
the retention of urine ; tumors or other growths ; epithelioma and 
carcinoma ; tubercular disease ; ulceration ; vesico^vaginal or ves¬ 
icointestinal fistula. It may contain blood or purulent material. 

T reatment. —The trocar should be introduced immediately 
above the pubic arch in the median line, directing it inward and 
downward to reach into the bladder. Withdraw all liquid matter 
and inject fluid, mixing it thoroughly with the contents, filling 
the organ as full as possible. Otherwise, the body should be 
treated in the usual manner. 


CHAPTER XXXIII. 


DISEASES OF THE NERVES. 


PARALYSIS. 

Paralysis means the loss of voluntary motion in the muscles 
of the body which are controlled by the will. The complete loss 
of the power of active motion is termed paralysis, while the mere 
weakening of it is termed paresis. In complete paralysis of any 
part of the body, or of a single muscle, the slightest voluntary 
motion cannot be produced in it; while in paresis in a diseased 
part, certain movements are still possible, they ■ are more or less 
below the normal in strength, extent, and duration. 

A study of the pathological conditions, resulting from diseases 
of the nervous system, will undoubtedly throw light upon these 
cases. From the manner in which the nervous and vascular sys¬ 
tems interlock, all diseases and pathological conditions of the body 
are inseparably related to one another. The modes of interfer¬ 
ence with the functions of the vascular system, through the 
changed nervous action, are few and simple. The heart, under 
the influence of modified nervous stimulation, may depart from 
its customary order and rate of contraction ; it may be more 
rapid or slower in its number of beats per minute; it may be 
stronger or weaker than normal. The small arteries, over a 
greater or less extent of the body, may be diminished in caliber ; 
or they may become unduly dilated ; but, save for such changes as 
these, and their direct consequences, the work of the vascular sys¬ 
tem, under the above conditions, is carried on as if such changes 
had not taken place. 

On the other hand, diseases of the nervous system may be in¬ 
duced by an altered quality of the blood, or by changes in the 
action of the heart or some other part of the vascular system. 

427 




428 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The entire function of the system may be degraded, owing to the 
fact of its receiving an inadequate amount of blood from the 
slowly acting or feeble heart; or the functions of that part of the 
system may be interfered with by an undue contraction or dila¬ 
tation of the small arteries, or by an impediment in the outflow 
of blood, producing mechanical congestion. 

Again the complete or partial arrest in the flow of blood in the 
vessels of some important region, owing to thrombosis or embolism 
therein, or the rupture of one of the branches of such a vessel with 
extravasation of blood into the organ, may impair or destroy the 
functions of that particular part. Both local perversion of function 
and change in structure in the nervous system, are produced more 
frequently by an altered quality of blood, or a change in the vessels 
of the part, than by an actual morbid change in the nervous tissue. 

Thus, it can be seen that, at times, the vessels in the paralyzed 
parts, as say one upper or one lower extremity, or even onedialf 
of the body, will be contracted to a very small caliber ; or pos¬ 
sibly they will be dilated unduly. In either case, there will be 
an entire arrest of the flow of blood in the vessels, owing to a 
blood-clot; or, it is possible there will be rupture of the branch 
or branches of some vessel, with extravasations of blood in the 
organ. A large amount of blood may be found in the arteries. 
The arteries may not have emptied after death, owing to the non* 
contraction of the arteries and capillaries on one side of the body, 
producing a congestion of the surface, whereby redness may follow ; 
but this result does not occur in all cases. 

« 

Treatment. —In some cases, especially those in which the ar¬ 
teries are dilated, a complete circulation of the fluid will follow, 
while in others it may be only partial. In still other cases, the 
circulation of fluid in the diseased part will not take place at all. 
In a case where it is impossible to inject sufficient fluid into the 
parts that are paralyzed through the arterial system, fluid should 
be injected through the cellular tissue on the upper surfaces. The 
artery should be raised on the side or in an extremity that is not 


nix MASKS OF THF JSFR YFS 


429 


paralyzed, and as much fluid should be injected as is necessary 
to fill the capillaries. If it is found that none has passed into the 
paralyzed parts, then the cellular injection should follow. The 
cavities, the alimentary canal, and the lungs should be treated in the 
usual .manner. 

APOPLEXY-CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. 

The cause of cerebral hemorrhage or apoplexy is found in some 
cases in the ends of the minute cerebral arteries. In 1886, it 
was first shown by Charcot and Bouchard that, in almost every 
case of cerebral hemorrhage, there are miliary aneurisms of the 
small arteries of the brain substance, allowing the blood to escape. 
All later investigators have confirmed their discovery, and the 
importance of these miliary aneurisms. 

r Osier, in his recent work, states that one of the changes which 
may lead directly to apoplexy is “the production of miliary aneu¬ 
risms, rupture of which is the more common cause of cerebral 
hemorrhage. . . . They occur most frequently on the central ar¬ 
teries, but also on the smaller branches of the cortical vessels. 
On section of the brain substance, they may be seen as localized, 
small, dark bodies, about the size of a pin’s head. Sometimes 
they are seen in numbers upon the arteries when carefully with¬ 
drawn from the anterior perforated spaces.” 

These aneurisms mav attain the diameter of a millimeter or 
more. They usually appear like spindle-shaped dilitations of 
the entire circumference of the vessels, although sometimes the 
bulging is found to one side. Endoarteritis or periarteritis, occur- 
ing in the cerebral vessels, usually leads to apoplexy, by the pro¬ 
duction of aneurisms either large or small. It is stated that there 
are certain cases in which the most careful search fails to reveal 
anything but the diffuse degeneration of the vessels, particularly 
of the smaller branches, which indicates that spontaneous rup¬ 
ture may occur without the previous formation of aneurisms. 

The process of the development of aneurisms, starts with 
disease of the inner coat. This layer or coat presents diffuse 


430 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


proliferations, and also a fatty degeneration of the endothelium. 
Later on, the inner and the middle or muscular coats become 
hard or atrophied. The disease of the vascular wall, which 
leads to the formation of these aneurisms, is identical with ordi¬ 
nary hardening of the walls, or atheroma. We very often find 
that cerebral hemorrhage attacks persons who present either 
general arterial sclerosis, or a more limited atheromatous condi¬ 
tion of the cerebral arteries, and most of the factors, which are 
said to promote cerebral hemorrhage, are the same as favor the 
development of these hard arterial walls. 

Hemorrhage of the meninges (coverings of the brain) may be 
outside the dura mater, between it and the bone, or inside the 
dura mater, between it and the arachnoid, or between the arach¬ 
noid and the pia mater. Fracture of the skull is one of the 
chief causes of this form of hemorrhage, which results, usu¬ 
ally, from ulceration of the meningeal vessels, or from the torn 
sinuses (veins). The blood may be found either on the outside 
of the dura mater, or between it and the arachnoid. Another 
cause is the rupture of aneurisms in the larger cerebral vessels ; 
then the blood is found, usually, in the subarachnoid spaces. 

Meningeal hemorrhage may occur in the constitutional diseases 
and fevers. Blood will be found in large quantities at the base, 
but may extend into the cord. The Sylvian fissures are found 
distended with blood, owing to the frequency of the aneurism in 
the middle cerebral vessels. Hemorrhage in the cerebellum is 
not uncommon, and usually comes from the cerebral artery. It 
has long been recognized that age lias a bearing in these cases,, 
although sometimes a young person may be attacked. The ma¬ 
jority of sufferers are over fifty years of age. This is at the time 
of life when the coats of the arteries may be indurated (hard). 
Cerebral hemorrhage is more frequent in men than in women, 
which is also true of atheroma. Alcoholism, syphilis, and gout 
are reckoned among the causes of the above disorders, and the 
hereditary predisposition is very rarely demonstrable. 


DISEASES OF THE NERVES 


431 


The “apoplectic habit” also deserves mention. It is described 
as a person who is not very tall, corpulent, broad chested, with a 
short, thick neck, and round face. They are inclined to the 
pleasures of the table, and sometimes they suffer from emphy¬ 
sema, moderate hypertrophy (enlargement) of the heart, and 
general induration (hardening) of the coats of the arteries, as 
the condition of the radial and temporary arteries may disclose 
even during life. At least the coats of the arteries must be 
diseased in all cases of cerebral hemorrhage, because, if the 
arteries were normal, they could not possibly be torn, no matter 
how great the arterial tension became; but, if aneurisms have 
already been developed, then the persistent or even temporary 
elevation of the blood pressure must favor the bursting of the 
walls. Cerebral hemorrhage, for example, may follow severe 
muscular exertion, the ingestion of a large amount of food, in¬ 
dulgence in alcohol, taking a cold bath- or violent exertion of 
any kind. In cases of recent apoplexy, where death follows 
soon after the attack, usually the surface is found congested, and 
the capillaries and blood-vessels about the- face and neck full of 
blood, sufficient to cause extensive discoloration. 

Treatment. — It becomes necessary in these cases to withdraw 
blood from the heart, either by the direct operation or through 
the veins. The blood does not coagulate any sooner than in the 
ordinary case. Fluid should be injected through the arteries in 
sufficient quantity to fill the capillaries of the whole body ; it is 
well to inject a large amount; in a body weighing one hundred 
and sixty pounds, at least one gallon should be injected into the 
arteries. If that amount or more is injected into the arterial 
svstem, the fluid will reach the brain substance through the 
intact arteries and penetrate the parts wherein the circulation is 
destroved. The cavities should be relieved of gases and filled in 
the usual manner; then the body should be placed on a level, 
with the head slightly elevated. 


CHAPTER XXXIV. 


CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 


MALIGNANT TUMORS-CANCERS. 

Cancers are internal or external, soft or hard. Internally, the 
liver and stomach are most frequently the seat of cancer, followed 
by that of the womb, in the female, but they may be found in 
almost any other organ or structure. Externally, the parts ex¬ 
posed, as the face, neck, and hands, and in the female, the breast, 
are the most frequent seat of the disease. "The surfaces of these 
cancers are usually denuded of skin, and are soft and ulcerated. 

Treatment. —Internal cancers should be treated directly with 
the hollowmeedle, in addition to the general treatment of the 
body. In cancer of the womb, a pledget of cotton, filled with 
fluid, should be introduced into the vagina. 

External cancers should be cleansed thoroughly with hot water 
and sprinkled with a thick layer of hardening compound ; the 
whole then covered with bleached muslin or some other white 
fabric. It has been recommended that if the face is involved, the 
parts may be built up with plaster of Paris and treated with pig- 
« ments. This practice may be well enough in the hands of an 
artist, but, with an ordinary operator, it will result, most likely, 
in failure. The friends cannot expect the features to look natural; 
if the parts are cleansed and thoroughly deodorized, and dried by 
the use of hardening compound, and are covered with a white 
cloth, the results will be satisfactory. 

CANCER OF THE STOMACH. 

Cancer of the stomach is a malignant disease, death resulting 
sooner or later. The stomach is the seat of cancer more fre¬ 
quently than is any other organ of the body. Cancer of the 

432 




CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 433 


stomach is almost always primary; consequently-, secondary 
malignant affections of the stomach are exceedingly rare. The 
tendency to the disease increases with age. Men seem to be 
about twice as liable to gastric cancer as women. I 11 a large 
number of cases there seems to be a hereditary predisposition to 
the disease, as it is often seen that more than one member of a 
family is affected. Neither anxiety, poverty, nor intemperance 
seems to influence the development of the disease. All varieties 
of cancer are met with in the stomach. The scirrhous or hard 
cancer is the most frequent form. According to Brinton, about 
seventy-two per cent, of all cases are scirrhous. Other forms may 
exist alone or in combination with scirrhous. 

Cancer usually begins in the submucous tissue and spreads 
from this to the other coats. The muscular structure varies in 
appearance in different cases. In some, the normal tissue is 
partially destroyed, and, what appears to the naked eye as a 
muscle, under the microscope, proves to be a mass of cancer=cells 
and fibers. I 11 other cases, even at some distance from the dis¬ 
ease, the muscular fibers are found very much increased in 
thickness, and the contractile fiber-cells are greatly enlarged. 
The presence of the new growth stops nutrition, so that the 
muscular fibers in the walls of the stomach seem to be reduced 
to a mere mass of fibrous threads. This takes place at the same 
time in the mucous membrane lining the wall of the stomach. 
The glandular tissue over the tumor usually is destroyed, 
leaving nothing but cells and fibers to represent the original 
textures. The glandular structure is always disorganized at a 
distance from the original disease. This is most marked in hard 
cancer. In most cases, the cancer attacks the orifices of the 
stomach ; this occurs most frequently at the pyloric or small 
end. According to Brinton, about sixty per cent, of all cases 
are located at the pylorus, about thirteen per cent, affect the 
cardiac orifice, while the fundus is scarcely ever primarily 
affected. Cancer always has the tendency to spread in a trans- 


434 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


verse direction through the organ, so that stricture is a common 
result. It scarcely ever implicates the duodenum, and seldom 
appears at the cardiac orifice without spreading to the lower end 
of the esophagus. 

As is seen above, cancer affects the structure of the stomach, 
changing it entirely ; it also changes the circulation, destroying 
the capillaries and vessels, not only in the stomach, but, as the 
disease spreads, in the liver and the surrounding organs. Much 
tissue may be involved, requiring special attention by the em- 
balmer. 

Treatment. — A peculiar appearance of the surface or skin is 
always met with in cases of cancer, which is called a cancerous 
cachexia. This becomes more or less marked during the course 
of th.e disease, and exists in the tissues after death. It consists 
of a paleness of the lips and a greenish, or slightly jaundiced, 
hue of the skin. This will remain, with some modification, 
after the injection of fluid. Bleachers applied to the surface will 
not affect it in the least, although the injection of fluid into the 
capillaries of the skin and subcutaneous tissues will modify it to 
a degree. Fluid does not enter the cancerous structure, because 
of the destruction of the circulation, by ordinary injection ; 
therefore, it is necessary to inject fluid into the diseased parts 
through the hollowmeedle. The diseased organs should be 
punctured in every part, mutilating them as much as possible, 
and fluid should be injected into and over the surface in large 
quantities. Cancerous structure, on account of the destruction 
of the circulation in the diseased organs, should be treated in 
this manner in every part of the body. 

CANCER OF THE LIVER. 

Cancer of the liver is seldom primary, but generally is met 
with as a secondary disease. By secondary, we mean that the 
liver becomes cancerous after other organs have been affected 
with cancer. It follows most frequently when the primary 


CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 435 


growth is found in the portal system, intestines, rectum, eso¬ 
phagus, or pancreas. Sometimes the projection of the primary 
growth in the lumen of a branch of the portal vein has been 
demonstrated, thus furnishing the obvious source for cancer in 
the liver. 

These cancers are found both within the organ and upon its 
surface ; if upon the surface, they form flattened protuberances, 
which are dippled in the middle. The liver may be greatly 
enlarged — so much so, if the new growth is very extensive, as 
to occupy a great portion of the abdominal cavity. If the case 
is one of primary cancer, which is very unusual, it may be 
found either in the form of large nodules, or some diffused can¬ 
cerous infiltration, pervading the greater part of the organ, with¬ 
out complication of either of the above mentioned organs of 
digestion. 

Hepatic cancer is most frequent in advanced life, say from 
forty to sixty years. Special causes of cancer are not known. 
It seems possible, sometimes, to trace a hereditary predisposition ; 
but, in many cases, gall-stones seem to start the development. 
Frequently, in these cases, there will be peritoneal dropsy and 
enlargement of the spleen from the pressure on the portal vein, 
and jaundice from pressure on the bile-ducts. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of a case of cancer of the liver, 
if ascites is present, the peritoneum should be tapped and the 
water removed. The arterial system should be injected thor¬ 
oughly ; then ordinary injection of the cavities, without refer¬ 
ence to the treatment of the liver or the cancer itself, should 
follow. After the usual treatment in this manner, the body 
should be allowed to'remain upon the board for twelve hours or 
more. At the end of that time the tissues will have absorbed 
the fluid that has been injected through the arteries, and the 
viscera of the cavities (except the liver) will have absorbed a 
sufficient quantity to preserve the several organs. Then it will 
be necessary to puncture the liver in many places, or even to 


436 


CHAMPION TEXT*.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


break it up ; at least, it should be broken up as much as possible, 
and fluid injected into all parts of the organ, as the circulation 
in the liver is more or less destroyed. The vessels and capil¬ 
laries have been destroyed, as a result of the abnormal growth 
of the liver; therefore, the liquid injected through the arteries 

V 

will not be sufficient to reach all parts of the organ ; hence, the 
necessity for breaking up the abnormal growth and injecting 
fluid throughout, as directed. 

BENIGN TUMORS. 

By a benign (not malignant) tumor is meant a more or less cir¬ 
cumscribed mass, growing in some tissue or organ of the body, 
and dependent on a morbid excess of, or deviation from, the nor¬ 
mal nutrition of the part. Tumors are of many varieties, and 
may be found in every portion of the body. Cystic tumors of the 
ovary, which sometimes attain an enormous magnitude, are the 
kind that most requires attention. They vary in size from those 
of very small dimension to tumors weighing many pounds. As 
they grow, their walls sometimes become very thick and firm, and 
often of great toughness. The contents may be thin and slightly 
colored, or thick and of a dark color ; sometimes of a yellowish 
hue. The quantity of these contents will vary from pints to 
gallons. Encysted tumors, containing hair and fatty matter, will 
be met with occasionally. The fatty matter may be in a some¬ 
what fluid condition. 

Treatment. —To treat an ovarian or any other tumor whose 
contents are liquid, the hollowmeedle should be introduced into 
the growth and the liquid matter withdrawn. In a single*cyst 
ovarian tumor, the water can be withdrawn ’as easily as from the 
serous sacs when effusions are present; but, if it be composed of 
many cysts, the cysffwalls will have to be mutilated thoroughly 
before the contents can be withdrawn. If the matter within the 
tumor is semisolid, fluid should be injected for the purpose of di¬ 
luting the material, which then should be withdrawn and fresh 


CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 437 


fluid injected. In ovarian tumors, after the water is withdrawn, 
fluid should be injected in sufficient quantity to disinfect the 
growth. If the tumor does not contain liquid or semisolid matter, 
fluid should be injected into the mass at a number of different 
points. Circulation in these tumors is abnormal, which will pre¬ 
vent the fluid from entering in sufficient quantity by arterial in¬ 
jection. As a rule, there is no necessity for removing tumors 
from the cavity of the abdomen, or, in fact, from any other part 
of the body, if treated as directed above. The general treatment 
of the body should be the same as in an ordinary case. 

DROPSY. 

Dropsy is not a disease per se, but only a symptom of a 
disease. It often occurs as a result of disease of the heart, liver, 
or kidneys. 

A dropsy receives its name from its location. If it is seated in 
the serous cavities, it is designated by the prefix “hydro” to the 
name of the serous membrane ; as in dropsy of the peritoneum, 
it is called hydroperitoneum, or in dropsy of the pericardium or 
pleural sacs, it is called hydrothorax, etc. Dropsy of the cellular 
tissue at any point is called edema, as edema of the glottis, edema 
of the legs, arms, face, etc. Effusion in the air-cells is called 
edema of the lungs. If dropsy is confined to the abdomen, it is 
called ascites, or abdominal dropsy. A hen edema exists all over 
the surface of the body, as when the cellular tissue in all parts 
underneath the skin is filled, it is called anasarca, or general 
dropsy. W T hen there is edema of the glottis, edema ol the lungs, 
or hydrothorax, death is caused frequently by asphyxia. 

When death is caused by asphyxia, the peripheral or superficial 
veins and capillaries will be congested, and extensive discoloiation 
of the face and neck will result. r l his should be removed by 
tapping the heart direct, or raising one of the veins. In general 
dropsy, the cavities and subcutaneous tissues in every part ot the 
body are filled more or less with the dropsical fluid. T he cavities 


438 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


of the body, especially of the thorax and abdomen, will be filled 
sometimes to great distention. As much as fifty pints have been 
taken from the abdominal cavity after death. The lungs may be 
collapsed, and the heart pushed out of position, by effused dropsical 
fluid in the pleural sacs. The upper and lower extremities— 
especially the hands, forearms, feet, and legs—and other parts of 
the body, may be distended to an enormous size. 

In many cases, on account of the presence of water so near the 
surface, the cuticle will have a tendency to slip, resulting in 
“skimslip.” 

Treatment. —Dropsical cases are not hard to preserve, if treated 
properly ; to handle such a case, however, requires a good deal of 
time and work. First, cover the embalming board with a rubber 
sheet, with the sides rolled up to prevent the water from escaping 
to the floor, and soiling the carpet, etc. The lower corners should 
be brought together so as to form a spout, under which a vessel 
may be placed to receive the dropsical fluid. One of the rubber 
sheets especially manufactured for the purpose may be used, if 
desired, but a plain rubber sheet will answer all requirements. 
Next, place the body upon the embalming board thus prepared, 
and elevate the head and shoulders. 

The cavities should then be relieved of water by the insertion 
of the trocar or hollowmeedle into the serous sacs that are involved. 
They usually can be reached from the point over the stomach in 
the hypogastric region, where the needle is inserted, ordinarily, 
for cavity injection. When so introduced, the water in the ab¬ 
dominal cavity will have to be pumped out. If there is great 
distension of the abdominal cavit\% the trocar may be inserted 
immediately above the pelvic bone, on the median line, and ma¬ 
nipulated in such a manner that the water will gravitate out 
through the instrument; or, if necessary, the pump may be at¬ 
tached and the contents aspirated. If the thoracic cavity is filled ’ 
the needle should be introduced through the diaphragm (as di¬ 
rected in the chapter on “Cavity Embalming”), the pump at- 






CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 439 


taclied, and the water pumped out; or the needle can be inserted 
between the ribs, and the contents aspirated. 

After the water has been removed from the cavities, proceed 
to remove it from the extremities. This can be done best by the 
use of a rubber bandage. A bandage three inches in width by 
twelve feet in length, is sufficient for the purpose. The skin 
should be punctured, or an incision made through the skin on 
the under surface of the arm, from the elbow to the shoulder; 
then from the elbow to the wrist-joint. Many punctures should 
be made to give exit to the water. Begin the application of 
the bandage at the shoulder, wrapping it tightly and regularly 
downward without reversing until the elbow-joint is reached ; 
then carry it from that point straight down to the tips of the 
fingers and apply the bandage in the same manner upward 
toward the elbow, until that joint is reached. If the bandage is 
applied tightly and slowly, the water will be forced out of the 
punctures or incision ahead of each turn of the bandage. If 
enough punctures have not been made, more should be made 
while the bandage is being applied. These punctures will not 
show after the water is removed and the extremities are placed 
in position. 

To remove water from the lower extremities, the bandage 
should be applied, beginning at the hip-joint. It should be 
wrapped slowly and tightly to the ankle, then carried to the 
toes and the application should proceed toward the ankle in the 
same manner. Prior to the application of the bandage, the skin 
should be punctured at many places, or a single incision should 
be made through the skin on the under surface from the hip to 
the ankle. 

After the dropsical fluid has been removed in the manner 
above described, a common roller-bandage should be applied to 
the extremities. Then the heart should be tapped and the blood 
withdrawn while fluid is being injected into the arteries. Enough 
fluid should be injected to fill the capillaries in all parts of the 


440 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


body. The addition of a little formalin, say from one to two 
ounces in each quart of any of the ordinary fluids, will harden 
the tissues admirably in a case of this kind. lhe cavities 
should be filled in the usual manner. 

If death has been caused by asphyxia, the congestion of the 
surface of the neck and face can be removed, usually, without 
trouble, by the withdrawal of blood, as it is thin and does not 
coagulate readily in these cases. Usually the watery portion 
of the blood is increased greatly, which retards coagulation very 
materially. 

If cases are treated in this manner, the result will be very satis¬ 
factory. 

RHEUMATISM. 


The great majority of cases of acute rheumatism ultimately end 
in recovery ; the proportion of deaths, as the immediate result of 
an attack, being only a small per cent. On the other hand, a 
large number of persons suffer from remote effects of the disease, 
many of which are not only distressing, but likely to lead to 
death. Of the immediately fatal cases, the larger proportion are 
associated with, if not actually due to, acute diseases of the res¬ 
piratory organs. The fatal cases which present cardiac diseases, 
especially acute pericarditis, are scarcely less numerous. Alto¬ 
gether, it may be said that from onedialf to threeTourths of all 
cases of death during acute rheumatism are referable to acute car¬ 
diac and pulmonary diseases, either separately or combined. 

It is doubtful whether acute rheumatism ever proves fatal— 
that is, whether any patient dies from the excessive pain, sweat¬ 
ing, and consequent exhaustion caused by rheumatism. Hyper¬ 
pyrexia, next to pulmonary and cardiac complications, is the most 
common cause of death. In a small number of cases, acute al¬ 
coholism and other complications, mentioned elsewhere, lead to 
fatal termination. A most common effect is valvular disease of 
the heart, which, in a majority of cases, is referable to acute endo¬ 
carditis, occurring as a complication of rheumatism. 


CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 441 


It is impossible to estimate the number of diseases of the lungs, 
vessels, brain, kidneys, and other organs, which, in their turn, are 
caused by such heart diseases. The vessels suffer directly from 
the effects of rheumatism, and when, in addition, the remote ef¬ 
fects of pneumonia and pleurisy, and the other less-common com¬ 
plications of rheumatism, are considered, the ultimate changes are 
very extensive. 


Some of the complications in rheumatism are inflammation of 
the heart and pericardium, hyperemia, and inflammation of the 
lungs, trachea, and larynx, inflammation of the various serous 
membranes, various nervous affections, such as meningitis and 
mental derangement, erythema nodosum, and scarlatina, album¬ 
inuria, hyperpyrexia, hemorrhage, and lastly venous or intercur¬ 
rent conditions. Cardiac complications are by far the most fre¬ 
quent, being present in no fewer than fifty per cent, of all cases. 
Inflammation of the heart and pericardium are fully described 
under their appropriate headings. 

Treatment. —The treatment of these cases is indicated by the 
complicating disease from which the patient dies. It is necessary 
to know the disease to understand the complications. . If the case 
is one of cardiac disease, or disease of the respiratory organs, the 
treatment should be the same as that given under the proper 
heads. 


CHAPTER XXXV. 


DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES. 


POST=MORTEM CASES. 

Post-mortem (after death) examinations are held usually by 
physicians or experts, with a view to examining the viscera of the 
large cavities of the body. The different viscera have to be re¬ 
moved and the parts subjected to examination. To accomplish 
this, the different cavities must necessarily be opened. To open 
the thoracic and abdominal cavities, an incision is made usually 
from the top of the breast-bone, extending to the center of the 
pubic arch. The tissues are dissected from the breasPbone and 
the cartilages of the ribs ; then an incision is made through the 
outer ends of the cartilages, near their junction with the ribs ; the 
breast-bone is turned up over the face and held in that position, 
wdiile the contents of the thoracic and abdominal cavities are re¬ 
moved. 

In the removal of the viscera, the large vessels within these 
cavities are severed, entirely destroying the circulation. Not only 
are the large vessels severed, but also many of the smaller ones, 
which are connected with these by anastomoses, making the liga¬ 
tion of all the vessels very tedious, and, in some cases, impossible. 
If the organs of the pelvis are removed, the anastomoses of the 
internal iliac and pubic arteries will be destroyed, which makes 
it necessary to ligate the external iliac near Poupart’s ligament, 
to prevent leakage while injecting the femoral arteries. 

Treatment. —To inject the upper extremities, head, face, and 
neck, it will be necessary to ligate the innominate, left common 
carotid, and left subclavian arteries. The tube should be inserted 
into either the innominate or left common carotid — it matters 


■442 






DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CA USES 


443 


not which—,and the artery tied around it. If fluid is then in- 
jected, it will reach the above-named parts. If the fluid is 
injected through the innominate, it will pass into the right sub¬ 
clavian and ascend through the right common carotid and verte- 
• bral arteries to the outside and inside of the cranial cavity, through 
the circle of AVillis at the base of the brain, then downward through 
the left internal carotid and left vertebral artery to the subclavian 
artery, thence to the left extremity. If the left common carotid 
is used, the fluid will take the opposite direction, reaching all 
the parts in a similar manner. 

If the cranial cavity has been opened, by removing the skull¬ 
cap, and the brain and the meninges removed, injection through 
the carotids will amount to nothing ; only the upper extremities 
can be reached, after tying the subclavian on either side and 
closing the foramen magnum to prevent the escape of fluid from 
the vertebral arteries. To reach the lower extremities, ligate the 
largest of the anastomotic arteries and the external iliacs (near 
Poupart’s ligament), which supply these parts. The operation 
of ligating the arteries above mentioned will take not only a 
considerable length of time, but also will require an anatomical 
knowledge of the parts, at least sufficient to locate the arteries 
which -are to be ligated. 

If tbfe tube is not tied in one of the severed ends of the arteries, 
the arteries in the different extremities should then be raised at 
the points where the operator is directed to raise them in an or¬ 
dinary case. The point of the nozzle can be turned toward the 
distal end of the extremity, or towards the heart, just as the oper¬ 
ator chooses. As the anastomoses are not destroyed in the extrem¬ 
ities, the fluid will reach all parts of them, just as in cases where 
the whole circulation is intact. 

The walls of the cavities should be cleansed with a cloth or 
sponge and hot water, removing as much moisture as is possible ; 
sprinkle the walls thoroughly with a dessicating or hardening 
compound ; then cleanse and wipe dry each of the visceral organs, 


444 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


(lusting hardening compound over them, and replace them in the 
cavities to which they belong. After the viscera have been re¬ 
placed, the hardening compound should be dusted freely over 
them. A layer of cotton hatting or absorbent cotton may be in¬ 
troduced over the viscera and the edges of the incision drawn 4 
together and stitched in the ordinary manner. 

If the contents of the cranial cavity have been removed, and 
the trunk has not been opened, the common carotids should be 
tied, and a plug may be placed in the foramen magnum to pre¬ 
vent leakage through the vertebral arteries. Fluid can then be 
injected as in an ordinary case. 

If, at the same time, the thoracic cavity has been opened, a lig¬ 
ature may be drawn tightly around the neck, just above the 
breasbbone, which will strangulate the vessels that have been 
opened within the thorax ; then place the body well on the in¬ 
cline and fill the remainder of the cranial cavity full of fluid, al¬ 
lowing it to gravitate into the tissues of the neck and face. This 
will follow rapidly. If the brain is to be returned to the cavity, 
it should be covered with hardening compound or some dessica- 
ting powder; then the inside of the skulbcap and the raw sur¬ 
faces of the scalp that have been removed should be dusted 
liberally with the drying powder, the skulbcap returned to its 
place, and the edges of the scalp stitched together, and fluid in¬ 
jected into the cellular tissues beneath the skin in quantities 
sufficient to fill all the tissues. 

Another method, the result of which will be equally satisfactory, 
is to inject fluid through the cellular tissue over the surface of 
the extremities, at every point, instead of ligating and injecting* 
the arteries. If enough fluid is injected through the cellular 
tissue over the upper surface, it will settle downward and thor¬ 
oughly sterilize and preserve all of the tissues. 

Whether the arteries are ligated in all cases or not, the injection 
through the cellular tissue underneath the skin over the trunk is 
necessary, as the arteries carrying blood to the soft tissues on the 




DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CA USES 


445 


outside of the skeleton in the trunk cannot be reached by the 
arterial injection. The hardening compound, which is used 
within the thoracic and abdominal cavities around and over the 
visceral contents, will only dry and preserve the viscera, and will 
not penetrate or dessicate all of the soft tissues forming the walls 
of the cavities. 

Frequently, where the circulation through the neck and cranial 
cavity is intact, if a cord is tied tightly around the neck, to close 
the arterial and venous channels in that part, one of the needle 
processes can he used and fluid injected into every part of the 
face, head, and neck, as well as into the viscera of the cranial 
cavity, preserving the features in a perfectly natural condition. 
We have accomplished this successfully in a number of cases. 

The operator will be obliged to depend largely upon his own 
judgment in the treatment of these cases, as what will apply to 
one will not always apply to another. 

DROWNED CASES. 

When a body has met death in any manner, and is placed in 
the water after life is extinct, its preservation will scarcely be 
affected in the least. Even after remaining in the water for 
many hours, there is no water found in the lungs, or in any other 
part of the body, except that which it normally contains. 

But when a bodv is drowned, the conditions are different. 
Death is caused by asphyxia. At the last effort at respiration, 
water instead of air is taken into the lungs. Respiration is 
largely involuntary — that is, respiration is carried on by muscles 
not under the control of the will to a very great extent. There¬ 
fore, the drowning man holds his breath as long as possible, but 
finally the involuntary muscles compel the effort to breathe, 
when water is taken into the lungs. 

Treatment. —Water taken into the lungs and stomach hastens 
putrefaction in these organs, and, unless fluid is injected directly 
into the lungs through the respiratory tract, a bloody purging 


446 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


will follow, usually, within a few hours. After drowning, the 
body sinks, and, ordinarily, remains at the bottom of the water 
for some time, or until gases begin to generate in the cavities 
and tissues, which raise it to the surlace. It it is taken lrom 
the water, immediately after coming to the surface, it should be 
covered at once, so as entirely to exclude the light and air, as 
they will form a kind of corroding of the skin, which cannot be 
removed. If the body is embalmed at once, the natural features 
and color may be retained. 

A “FLOATER.” 

If the body is what is termed a “floater” (one that has been 
floating on the surface of the water), there will be a very disa¬ 
greeable odor, and the tissues and cavities will be filled with gases. 
If it has been exposed for some time, the subcutaneous, cellular 
tissue and the cavities will be filled with the gases, so that the skin 
will be distended to its greatest extent. It will be of a darkish* 
green- color. The middle layer will be softened, and the cuticle 
will be found loose and shreded. The eyes will be bulging out 
of their sockets, the lips puffed, etc. 

Treatment. —Cases of this kind are hard and unpleasant to 
handle, and it cannot be expected to make them fully present¬ 
able. Indeed, some say that nothing can be done with them, 
and that they should be buried at once. If these cases were 
always found near their homes, such treatment might be all that 
is necessary. But, unfortunately, the human family is migratory, 
and accidents and suicides occur away from home, making it 
necessary to ship such bodies. Even if near their homes, their 
families often insist upon giving them Christian burial, according 
to the rites of the church. 

If purging is going on when the body is received, turn it upon 
the side, and make pressure upon the ribs with the hands, and 
at the same time press the diaphragm upward with the knee, to 
Relieve the lungs and stomach of their contents. After removing 


DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 


447 


all matter and water from the lungs and stomach, these organs 
should be filled with fluid through the trachea. 

A case of this kind should be treated as follows : Place the 
body upon the board ; if the cuticle is loose and shreded, wash 
it off entirely ; cleanse the body of other matter; then raise 
an artery at some point and inject all the fluid the arteries will 
receive ; next fill the cavities ; then remove the gases from the 
cellular tissue and fill with fluid. This can be done by intro¬ 
ducing the trocar or liollowmeedle underneath the skin along 
the center of the body, over the breast-bone, the linea alba 
(white line of the abdomen), the upper surface of the upper and 
lower extremities, and under the lips, e} T elids, and the wings of 
the nose. The gases should be allowed to escape, and fluid should 
be injected in large quantities. The amount of fluid necessary 
to use in adult cases will range from three to five gallons. 

If the tissues and cavities are filled in the above manner, the 
putrefactive bacteria will be destroyed, and the body will harden 
and can be shipped to any point without giving the least trouble. 

LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY. 

Death resulting from these causes may show, in a postmortem 
examination, an entirely different condition in different bodies. 
Some may exhibit no lesion whatever, the manner of death in 
these instances being shock to the brain and general nervous sys¬ 
tem. On the other hand, the electricity, in its passage through 
the body, may produce a number of mechanical effects. A ounds, 
like those inflicted by a blunt stabbingdnstrument, may mark 
the point of entry and departure ; bones may be broken, the in¬ 
ternal viscera torn, and arteries and veins ruptured. Rigor mor¬ 
tis is not apparent as a rule, and the blood remains in a fluid 
condition. 

Treatment. —Usually, decomposition commences very soon 
after death, so the blood should be removed at once, The femoral 
vein should be raised, as more blood can be withdrawn from that 


448 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


point than from any other. After raising the femoral artery and 
vein, a drainagertube should be inserted into the vein to a point 
above Poupart’s ligament, and tied. The artery should then be 
opened and the arteriahtube inserted. The aspirator should be 
attached to the arteriahtube and fluid injected. However, before 
the injection begins, the body should be elevated, and the blood be 
allowed to drain out by gravitation, while fluid is being injected 
into the artery. After a large amount of fluid has been injected, 
the cavities should be filled in the usual manner. 

If the case is one in which the vascular system has been de- 
stroyed, treat the cavities as usual, and fill the soft tissues on the 
outside of the skeleton by the injection of fluid through the cellu¬ 
lar tissue. If the circulation is not destroyed in the head and 
neck, a cord should be tied tightly around the neck, and fluid in¬ 
jected by one of the needle processes. This will fill the capil¬ 
laries and tissues of the head, face, and neck ; whereas, fluid 
injected underneath the skin, over the parts that are exposed, 
will destroy the features, causing mottling or spots. 

CASES OF MUTILATION. 

As in Railroad and Other Accidents. 

In deatli from railroad and other similar accidents great muti¬ 
lation of the body often results. The extremities may be torn 
from the body ; the trunk itself severed in twain ; the head be 
mashed, and the brains ooze from the wounds ; vessels may 
be torn, rendering the circulation of fluid through the arteries 
impossible. 

Treatment. —The operator should use his judgment in the 
treatment of these cases, as they differ very much from the ordi¬ 
nary. If possible, the vessels should be tied and injected, but, 
where the mutilation is extensive and it is not possible to tie the 
arteries, fluid should be injected in large quantities into the sub¬ 
cutaneous, cellular tissue. 


DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CA USES 


449 


If an extremity be severed, a cord tied tightly around the 
stump will be sufficient to strangulate the vessels, so that there 
will be no leakage when the arteries are filled. The distal end 
can be injected through the subcutaneous, cellular tissue, and the 
surfaces be covered with hardening compound and sewed to the 
proximal end, or stump, covering the seam also with hardening 
compound. 

If several of the extremities are severed, they can be treated in 
the same manner. When the walls of the cavities are intact, 
fluid can be injected freely into them and into their visceral con¬ 
tents. 

If the trunk is severed in twain, the liquid contents should be 
removed as far as possible, and hardening compound used freely 
over the organs ; then the body should be sewed together and 
hardening compound placed over the wound on the outside, using 
absorbent cotton when necessary. In mutilation which severs the 
trunk, the circulation will be destroyed. Before sewing the parts 
together, the arteries should be tied and injected ; also fluid should 
be injected into the subcutaneous, cellular tissue, especially over 
the trunk and near the mutilation. All gashes and cuts should 
be sewed neatly and covered with hardening compound. Bruises 
and discolorations can be covered with pigment. 

If the nose, lips, and other parts of the face that are exposed 
should be torn away, the raw surfaces should be sprinkled with 
hardening compound and covered with some white fabric. The 
features may be built out with plaster.of Paris by an artist, and 
tinted, as recommended by some, but the ordinary operator will 
not, as a rule, find this method satisfactory. 

If a body is cut to pieces in such a manner that coaptation of 
the parts is impossible, the following treatment may be used : 
Take fifteen pounds of hardening compound and twentyffive 
pounds of sawdust; mix thoroughly ; cover the bottom of an 
ordinary rough box to a depth of about two inches with the mix¬ 
ture ; place the parts therein and cover with the remainder, al- 

36 


450 


CHAMPION TEXT.BOOK OX EMBALMING 


lowing them to remain for twenty Tour to forty weight hours, after 
which time they will be dessicated thoroughly, and can be handled 
without the presence of odor or moisture. 

GUNSHOT WOUNDS. 

In cases of death resulting from gunshot wounds, the circula¬ 
tion frequently is destroyed in the parts, the immediate^ cause of 
death being hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of these cases, it will be neces¬ 
sary to cut down to and tie the artery, if it is wounded or 
severed. Death may result from hemorrhage, caused by the 
wounding of a large vein within the trunk, or within one of the 
cavities. If a vein only is wounded, the vessel will not have 
to be tied. 

If the wound be through the aorta, or one or more of its large 
branches, the injection of fluid through the arterial system 
would not be successful in filling the capillaries of the soft tissues 
on the outside of the body. The fluid would pass through to 
the wound and there escape into the cavities of the trunk, re¬ 
sulting in cavity injection alone ; hence, the necessity for tying 
the artery on both sides of the wound. If the artery or arteries 
cannot be tied, fluid should be injected into the subcutaneous,- 
cellular tissue over the upper surfaces of the body, and the 
cavities should be filled in the usual manner. 

If the wound is through the skull, the ball having made the 
hole of entrance and exit through the skull-bones, the holes can 
be closed with putty, plaster of Paris, or pledgets of absorbent 
cotton, and the injection can proceed as if the circulation were 
not destroyed within the cavity. 

If the skullcap lias been torn away, the body should be placed 
very high on the incline, an artery raised, and fluid injected very 
slowly until fluid appears in the wound, when it should be 
allowed to gravitate and settle into the tissues. After a time, 
the injection can be repeated, and, in this way, a sufficient 


DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 


451 


amount of fluid can be injected to till the capillaries in the parts 
below the skull. After the injection through the arteries, fluid 
should be introduced directly into the remaining brain sub¬ 
stance, and the whole covered with hardening compound. The 
inside of the skullcap should be dusted with powder and the 
parts that remain should be placed in position. Fluid should 
then be injected into the subcutaneous, cellular tissue in all parts 
of the scalp that are not filled with fluid by the injection of the 
arteries. The wound should then be covered with absorbent 
cotton, and held in position with a roller bandage. 

Again, the arteries may be strangulated in the neck by the 
application of a fine cord, which should be drawn tightly to 
prevent leakage through the skull, while the extremities and the 
trunk are being injected with fluid. The face and upper por¬ 
tions should be treated by the subcutaneous injection of fluid, 
and the brain or remaining contents of the skull should receive 
special treatment, as directed above. After a time the cord 
around the neck can be removed. The judgment of the oper¬ 
ator should govern in the treatment of each case. 

ASPHYXIA 

Asphyxia is understood to mean the condition that results from 
the interruption or cessation of the function of respiration. The 
causes of asphyxia are : disease of, or injury to, the medula ob¬ 
longata, producing paralysis of the respiratory nerve=centers; 
paralysis of the nerves or muscles of respiration ; collapse or dis¬ 
ease of the lungs ; closing of the air^passages by tumors or spasms 
of the glottis; by foreign bodies; suffocation ; strangulation ; 
hanging ; drowning ; etc. 

The blood is of a dark color, owing to complete reduction of the 
hemoglobin and the proportion of the carbonic acid gas being 
greatly increased. The blood coagulates slowly or imperfectly, 
remaining fluid for a long time, or forming only a few soft 
coagula. The right side of the heart, large venous tranks, and 



452 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


the pulmonary artery, are distended with dark blood. (Some¬ 
times the left side and large arteries are full, but more frequently 
they are empty, or contain only a small amount of dark blood. 
The capillaries of the face and neck may be more or less con¬ 
gested. The lungs may be full of blood, but more frequently are 
pale and anemic. Usually the abdominal viscera are engorged. 

Treatment. —In asphyxia, the smaller vessels and capillaries 
of the surface are filled with blood, causing a dark^bluish dis¬ 
coloration, especially in the face and neck. To remove this con¬ 
gestion, the body should be placed high on the incline, and the 
blood withdrawn by tapping the heart direct or through the basilic 
or femoral vein. It is better to raise the femoral vein, as it is most 
dependent, and gravity will aid the operation. Fluid should be 
injected through the femoral artery—that is, provided the femoral 
vein is used—which will aid in forcing the blood from the vein 
by pressure upon the peripheral vessels. Fluid should be injected 
very slowly and carefully. If the radial or brachial artery is used, 
then the direct operation upon the heart, or the basilic veimtube, 
will answer for the withdrawal of blood. This should take place 
alternately with the injection of fluid through the artery—pump¬ 
ing out as much blood as possible, then injecting a pint or two of 
fluid, and pumping alternately until the blood has been with¬ 
drawn. If the rim of the ear still remains dark, it should be 
turned upward and pressed upon to remove the blood in the ves¬ 
sels and capillaries. The needle processes are not necessary, as 
the blood can be withdrawn as directed. 

DEATH BY FREEZING. 

Bodies that are frozen will be rigid, due to the freezing of the 
liquids in the tissues near the surface, very much resembling 
the condition known as rigor mortis. There is this difference, 
however: when the rigidity of freezing is broken up there will 
be heard a crackling sound, similar to that of breaking a frozen 
cloth, due to the fracture of the frozen liquids. 


DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 


453 


The surface may be frozen and still death may not be present. 
If there is a doubt, the body should be taken into a room, not 
too warm, and cold water first applied to the surface, making 
successive applications, increasing the temperature of the water 
each time. Then place in blankets, rub and chafe the surface 
of the body until signs of life return ; do not place it too near 
the fire or a strong heat too soon, as such practice will not result 
satisfactorily. If death is really present, the blood will be found 
thin, after the body has been thawed out, as freezing does not 
coagulate the blood ; in fact, it retards coagulation. 

Treatment. —As soon as the body is thawed out, the blood 
should be withdrawn, and the body filled with fluid as in any 
other case. 


CHAPTER XXXVI. 


DEATH FROM POISON. 


Fluid should not be injected into a case dying from natural 
causes, if it is known that a post-mortem examination is to be 
held, or scientific investigation is to be made. If fluid is injected, 
it will change and harden the structure so that a microscopic 
examination cannot be made; nor will the tissues have the same 
appearance after the injection. Neither should fluid be injected 
into a case dying under such circumstances as to permit a doubt 
as to whether death resulted from natural causes or from criminal 
practices. If fluid is injected, the real cause of death may be en¬ 
tirely covered, as when metallic or other poisons are used for the 
purpose of producing death. 

In all such cases, the coroner should be called at once, and the 
operator should be governed entirely by the official decision in 
the case. If the coroner permits the embalming of the body, the 
responsibility rests on him alone ; but, if embalming should be 
practiced without his permission, the mistake will rest with the 
operator. 

When murder is committed, everything should be done to aid 
the law to place the crime where it belongs. The sources of evi¬ 
dence, in cases of suspected poisoning, are the symptoms, the 
postmortem appearances, and chemical analysis of articles of 
food and drink, and of the body and excretions. The poisons most, 
commonly administered are opium, prussic acid, arsenic in vari¬ 
ous forms, phosphorus, oil of vitrol, the mercurial salts, and 
oxalic acid. Sometimes persons are found dead, as the result of 
poison, concerning the manner of whose death nothing whatever 
can be learned ; a suspicion of poisoning arises from the cir- 

454 









DEATH FROM POLS OF 


455 


cumstances under which the corpse is found. In such a case, 
chemical analysis ought invariably to be invoked. 

The effects, in the case of' many poisons, may be manifested 
either suddenly or slowly ; hence, we have acute and chronic 
poisons. Cases of chronic poisoning are usually tlie result of the 
repeated administration of small doses of lead, copper, mercury, 
phosphorus, or arsenic. The general conditions which excite a 
suspicion of poisoning are the sudden onset of serious and in¬ 
creasingly alarming symptoms in a person previously in good 
health, especially if a prominent symptom be pain in the epigas¬ 
tric region ; or where there is complete prostration of the vital 
powers, a cadaverous expression of the countenance, an abundant 
perspiration, and speedy death. In all such cases the aid of a 
chemist is required, either to confirm welbfounded, or to rebut 
ill-founded, suspicions. 

Poisons may be divided into three classes : first, corrosives; 
second, irritants ; third, neurotics. 

Corrosive Poisons. —The most commonly administered cor¬ 
rosives are the mineral acids—sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, and 
oxalic ; the alkalis—potash, soda, and ammonia ; bisulphate and 
carbonate of potash ; and zinc, tin, antimony chlorides, and silver 
nitrate. 

The mineral acids and the alkalis have scarcely any remote 
effects upon the system, their action being almost purely local. 
The symptoms of corrosive poisoning are marked and unmis¬ 
takable, except when the patient is an infant. Immediately 
after swallowing the corrosive substance, there is an acid, caustic, 
or metallic, burning sensation felt in the mouth, fauces, gullet, 
and stomach, which speedily extends over the whole abdominal 
region. Vomiting usually follows ; the contents of the stomach 
at first are altered, more or less, by the action of the poison ; no 
relief is afforded by the evacuation of the stomach ; and, later, 
the vomits may be mingled, more or less, with altered blood, 
which may be dark or even black ; shreddy mucus, casts of the 


456 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


gullet or stomach, formed by the shedding of the mucous mem¬ 
brane, and sometimes even the muscular wall of the esophagus, 
are ejected. The abnominal pain is aggravated greatly by 
pressure. The whole abdomen is distended by the gases evolved, 
owing to the action of the poison. The diaphragm is pressed 
upon, and extreme difficulty of breathing results, owing to pres¬ 
sure upon the lungs. In some cases the secretions are suppressed, 
while in others they are increased. The mouth, tongue, and 
fauces exhibit the local effects of the corrosive that has been 
taken ; a yellow coating may be observed in the case of nitric 
acid ; white, at first, and as if covered with paint, from sul¬ 
phuric acid ; and whitish or brown, and less thickly coated, from 
hydrochloric acid. Yellow or brown stains may be observed on 
the skin, extending downward from the angles of the mouth, 
caused by trickling of the acid or other corrosive fluids from the 
mouth. The surface of the body may become of a purplish 
hue, due to the difficult respiration. Death usually occurs 
within a period of twelve to twenty-four hours. 

When nitric acid or ammonia is taken, death may be 
caused by the vapors gaining access to the air-passages and 
lungs. 

Oxalic acid in concentrated solution is undoubtedlv a corrosive 

t/ 

and irritant poison, but it usually produces death by its depressive 
action upon the heart, before corrosion of the mucous membrane 
of the alimentary canal takes place. 

Irritant Poisons are of two.classes, usually: metallic irri¬ 
tants, and vegetable and .animal irritants, the latter two being 
grouped together. 

An irritant is a poison which causes inflammation of the parts 
to which it is applied, usually the alimentary canal. The most 
important of the metallic irritant poisons is arsenic ; others are 
the salts of antimony, zinc, and other metals. Elaterium, essen¬ 
tial oils, and gamboge may be cited as examples of vegetable 
irritants ; and cantharides, of animal irritants. 


DEATH FROM POISON 


457 


The symptoms differ from those of corrosive poisons by being 
much slower in development and effects upon the system. 
The post-mortem appearances, in cases of irritant and corrosive 
poisons, are corrosions in the mouth, fauces, gullet, and stomach, 
the mucous membrane being shriveled, altered in consistence 
and color, and more or less detached ; irritation and inflamma¬ 
tion of the stomach and upper portions of the small intestine ; 
ulceration ; and erosion. In corrosive poisoning the stomach 
may be perforated, the edges of the aperture may be shredded, 
and, in the case of sulphuric acid, the viscera may be blackened 
from the action of the acid upon the blood-pigment. The small 
intestine is implicated to a varying extent, or may altogether 
escape. The large intestine may be attacked, but this is more 
especially the case in poisoning by mercury. Arsenic exerts a 
specific effect upon the mucous membrane of the stomach. 

Neurotic Poisons are those which produce death through the 
nervous system. This class embraces pure narcotics, such as 
morphia, chloral hydrate, prussic acid, aconite, belladonna, car¬ 
bolic acid, strychnia, hyoscyamus, etc. The symptoms are nec- 
essarilv of the most varied character. 

Chloral hydrate causes death after a stage of unconsciousness; 
the nature of the poisoning is determined usually by the sur¬ 
roundings, there being a bottle or some other retainer which 
will show evidence of the presence of chloral. 

Prussic acid produces its effect in the course of a few minutes, 
or it may be seconds only. Usually the pupils will be dilated 
and the surface of the body cyanosed (purplish in color). 

Aconite produces death quickly without any apparent anatom¬ 
ical changes. 

In cases of belladonna, the pupils will be widely dilated. 

Carbolic acid, or phenol, whitens and shrivels the membranes 
with which it comes in contact, and not only acts as a corrosive, 
but produces speedy narcosis. The peculiar odor of phenol is 
always perceptible, though not infrequently overlooked. 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


458 

In strychnia, the anatomical appearances are very ill-marked, 
and, at most, consist of some congestion of the spinal cord, and 
even this may he wanting. 

Hyoscyamus, and others above mentioned, have no anatomical 
lesions that are noticeable. 

Treatment. —The treatment in the above cases should be the 
same as in ordinary cases. 

OPIUM OR MORPHIN POISONING. 

In consequence of the extent to which opium and its prepara¬ 
tions, including morphin, are used for the relief of pain, and the 
readiness with which the drug is procurable, poisoning by opium 
is very common, and there is no doubt that a great number of 
persons perish every year in this country through its improper 
use, as we have many preparations known as “quack remedies” 
that contain a large amount of opium. So far as toxicology is 
concerned, the effects of opium are due to the morphin it con¬ 
tains, since the effects of other active constituents of the drug are 
overshadowed by those of this, its chief alkaloid. 

The post-mortem appearances after opium poisoning are not 
prominent, or may be said to be almost nil. As a rule the brain 
is congested, and the lungs and right side of the heart are more 
or less engorged, as if death were the result of asphyxia ; but this 
is not so in all cases. 

Treatment. —The greatest trouble that the embalmer experi¬ 
ences, is in the discolorations that follow after twenty-four to forty* 
eight hours. The preservation of these cases is as easy as those 
dying from any ordinary disease. In consultation with under¬ 
takers throughout this country, we find that their experience has 
been, almost universally, that thorough injection of the arterial 
• system, and the introduction of fluid throughout the cavities, will 
preserve these bodies ; but, after twenty*four to forty*eight hours, 
a discoloration of the surface, either wholly or at certain points, 
especially over the head, neck, and face, of a chocolate or brown- 







DEATH FROM POISON 


459 


ish'yellow color, will follow. The question lias been asked many 
times, “What is the cause of this? Is it due to the introduction 
of certain chemicals, or is it due to the putrefaction of certain 
parts of the skin or other tissues of the body?'’ In fact, it has 
been a matter that has not been understood heretofore, either by 
the teachers of embalming, or by those who have had occasion 
to embalm bodies dying from the effects of opium. 

After a thorough examination of such cases and numerous ex¬ 
periments, we have come to the conclusion that this discoloration 
is due to the pathological changes of certain constituents of the 
blood. It seems that the corpuscles are disintegrated more or less 
after the full effects of the opium are present. By placing a 
portion of the blood under the microscope, we have been able 
to find an abundance of hematoidin, due to the disintegration 
of the red corpuscles, the coloring matter of which is dissolved 
more or less in the liquid portion of the blood. This pigment 
exudes into all the tissues of the body, including the middle 
layer of the skin, producing a chocolate color or brownislnyellow 
tinge. 

As will be seen, this tinge is from the imbibition of the afore¬ 
said blood'pigment, that has reached the middle layer in a state 
of solution. This may occur over the surface of the body and 
the face at different points. Many cases present general discoh 
oration’ while others fnay be discolored only in certain parts, as 
a portion of the face on either side, or as spots upon the fore¬ 
head, etc. 

This discoloration is permanent; no bleacher that may be ap¬ 
plied externally or internally can possibly remove it. Therefore, 
to preserve such a case thoroughly is all that can be expected. 
However, if the embalmer is an artist as well, he may tint the 
face with pigment to make it appear more natural. The body 
should be placed on an incline, the blood withdrawn, and the 
arteries filled with fluid ; the gases should be removed and fluid 
injected into the cavities in the usual manner. 


460 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


POISONING BY ARSENIC. 

Arsenic is classed as a metallic irritant poison, though its action 
is not limited, by any means, to that of an irritant. It acts spe¬ 
cifically on the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, 
whatever be the channel by which the poison gains access to the 
stomach. The most usual source of acute arsenical poisoning is 
the administration of white arsenic (arsenious acid), but some¬ 
times the sulphides, various arsenides, and poisonous commercial 
articles, such as dyes, wall paper, and pigments, may be taken 
into the system by inhalation or absorption. 

Poisoning by arsenic may be either acute or chronic. By acute, 
we mean that which follows the taking of large doses, especially 
that of the white arsenic or arsenious acid, which produces death 
quickly ; while by chronic, we mean that form of death which 
follows the gradual administration of arsenic, or by the inhalation 
of its fumes in the manufacture of walbpaper, pigments, etc. 

The effects of arsenic upon the system are similar, whether 
large or small doses have been taken, or by whatever channel the 
poison has gained access to the stomach. As a rule, there is 
marked inflammation of the stomach and duodenum, and usually 
of the small and large intestines, also ; but not uncommonly the 
inflammation is limited to the stomach, duodenum, and rectum, 
the intervening alimentary tract having escaped. If the poison 
has been administered in a solid form, white patches of the ar¬ 
senical compound may be found imbedded in thick, bloody muc¬ 
ous and inflammatory exudations. Portions-of the white arsenic, 
also, are converted sometimes, by the sulphureted hydrogen 
evolved during decomposition, into yellow sulphids. Ulceration 
of the stomach is rare, and perforation almost unknown. It is 
true, the above condition in part—that is inflammation of the 
stomach, duodenum, and small intestine—is present, to a greater 
or less extent, in poisoning, by all of the irritant poisons, such as 
corrosive sublimate, hydrochloric and oxalic acids, potash, soda, 
ammonia, etc. 


DEATH FROM FOLSOM 


461 


Arsenic exerts a specific effect upon the mucous membrane of 
the stomach. On account of the great penetrating character of 
arsenic, if it is taken in large doses, it will penetrate the tissues 
and reach almost every part of the body, thereby having a ten¬ 
dency to preserve the tissues, it being antiseptic in its action, and 
having the power of retarding the growth of the bacteria of putre¬ 
faction. 

Treatment. —Cases of this kind should not be hard to preserve. 
As stated above, preservation will follow its presence. The effect 
upon the circulation and upon the capillaries produced by 
the straining, caused by retching and vomiting, and the direct 
effect of the arsenic upon the blood^pigments, may produce pe¬ 
culiar discolorations, which may be hard to remove, although, if 
the usual means of removing discolorations are applied, a natural 
appearance may be produced. 

The body should be placed high upon the incline, and the 
blood withdrawn by the direct operation upon the heart, or 
through one of the veins. If there still remains a dark or bluish 
discoloration, an application of ice and salt may be made with 
good effect. Then the body should be injected carefully, through 
the arterial system, filling the tissues thoroughly. The cavities 
should be freed from gases and filled with fluid in the usual 
manner. 

POISONING BY MERCURY. 

Mercurial poisoning may be either acute or chronic : the former 
resulting from the administration of one or several large doses 
at short intervals; the latter form arising from the repeated 
administration of small doses of the less active preparations of 
the metal. 

Acute Mercurial Poisoning. 

The effects produced by a considerable dose of one of the 
more soluble compounds of mercury, such as the bichlorid or 
the nitrate, are those of. a corrosive, irritant poison. The effects 
sre immediate ; even in the act of swallowing the patient ex- 



462 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


periences an intense burning sensation in the mouth and 
throat, which is followed by excruciating pain in the stomach 
and throughout the abdomen. The local effects are frequently 
seen, as the whitening of the tongue and lauces. \\ hen a 
concentrated solution of bichlorid of mercury is applied to the 
unbroken skin, most of the effects of mercurial poisoning may 
result. 

The anatomical changes that are induced by mercurial poison¬ 
ing are those of inflammation and even erosion of the mucous 
membrane of the stomach and extravasation of blood beneath 
this membrane. The whole intestinal tract exhibits signs of ex¬ 
tensive inflammation, which is noticed especially in the large in¬ 
testine. The mucous surface of the rectum is covered with 
shreds of bloody mucus and usually exhibits signs of intense 
inflammation. The appearance of a peculiar slaty color of the 
mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, where in- 
. flammation has not been intense, has been thought to be cliarac- 
. teristic of poisoning by corrosive sublimate. There is a great re¬ 
semblance in the symptoms produced by arsenic and those pro¬ 
duced by corrosive sublimate and. other corrosive preparations 
of mercury, but the diagnosis is generally not very difficult. 
The greater frequency of bloody stools and metallic taste in the 
mouth, following almost immediately on the administration of a 
large dose of corrosive sublimate, serve to differentiate between 
the poisons. If doubt exists, an analysis of the secretions may 
be made. Mercury is most readily detected in the saliva, and 
arsenic in the urine. Where salivation, and the peculiar fetor of 
the breath exists, they will also be valuable aids in determining 
which of the poisons has been taken. 

Treatment. —Embalming should not follow, in cases of mer¬ 
curial poisoning, until permitted by the coroner or some other 
agent of the law. The treatment should be varied according to 
the condition. Generally the filling of the tissues and cavities 
in the usual manner will be all that is required. 








463 


DEATH FROM POISON 

Chronic Mercurial Poisoning—Mercurialism. 

The repeated ingestion of small doses of the more soluble and 
active salts ol mercury, such as the bicyanid and bichlorid, some¬ 
times give rise to chronic symptoms, but more frequently these 
symptoms result when one or more doses of the more insoluble 
preparations of the metal are administered, such as calomel or 
the oxids. Chronic symptoms, which follow the administration 
of one dose of mercury, may not be altogether due to the peculiar 
idiosyncrasy of the patient, but may be attributable, to a certain 
degree, to the slowness with which the mercury is eliminated from 
the system. There appears, also, to be a remarkable difference 
between mercuric and mercurous salts in respect to their toxic 
properties, which is not altogether dependent upon their differences 
in solubility. Mercuric compounds are more solvent than mercu¬ 
rous salts. Salivation is the most common result of the continued 
administration of mercuric compounds. In these cases, there is a 
previous discharge from the salivary glands, swelling and tender¬ 
ness of the gums, and a peculiar fetor of the breath. Occasionally 
there is gangrene of the cheeks, a fatal result sometimes ensuing. 

Workers in mercury, the looking-glass, barometer, and ther¬ 
mometer makers, are apt to suffer from a peculiar form of shaking 
palsy, known as the “ trembles,” which may result from the hand¬ 
ling of the oxids of the metal, but more frequently results from 
the mercurial fumes. The upper extremities are first affected, the 
whole muscular system following by degrees. The condition is 
intensified on attempting to exert the muscles, as in passing a 
glass of water to the lips, or in an attempt at locomotion ; when 
the patient tries to walk, he will break into a dancing trot. In 
advanced cases, the muscles of mastication and deglutition are 
affected, and finally delirium, mania, and idiocy, may follow the 
continued inhalation of mercurial fumes, death resulting sooner 
or later in many cases. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of these cases, the ordinary 
methods will usually suffice. There is generally a metallic tinge 


464 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


in the skin, which it is impossible to remove. Powdering or 
artistic application of tints will, in many cases, have a pleasing 
effect. 

POISONING BY CARBONIC ACID. 

To inhale carbonic acid (carbon dioxid) will produce fatal 
results sooner or later, owing to the degree of concentration. It 
accumulates in a very concentrated degree in pits, cellars, 
mines, old wells, lime-kilns, fermenting-vats, etc. When it is 
undiluted it is very rapidly fatal, as is seen when persons in- 
cautiouslv descend into an old well, or where miners enter an 
old mine, or certain parts of a mine after an explosion. Death 
in these cases results very quickly. 

Poisoning by carbonic acid produces the condition known 
as asphyxia. There is a general engorgement of the whole 
venous system. The veins of the brain are especially full. The 
blood is of a dark color and very fluid. It remains fluid for a 
long time, coagulation being retarded very materially. The 
hemoglobin is reduced completely, so that it readily transudes 
into the tissues. The normal heat of the body is retained for a 
long time after death. Rigor mortis is well marked, coming on 
slowly and remaining many hours. The appearance of the 
lungs is not constant. They are not always congested, but are 
frequently pale and anemic. The posterior and dependent parts 
of the lungs are congested hypostatically. The surface of the 
body will appear very dark, on account of the presence of an 
excess of the carbonic acid gas, due not only to that which is 
inhaled, but to a large amount being retained in the system on 
account of insufficient aeration. 

Treatment. — The body should be placed high on the incline 
and blood withdrawn. If a large amount of blood is with¬ 
drawn, the blueness of the surface will disappear, but the red 
discoloration will remain, owing to the reduction of hemoglobin, 
and its having transuded into the tissues outside of the vessels, 
especially those near the surface. An artery should then be 


DEATH FROM POISON 


465 


raised and the body filled with fluid. The cavities should be 
treated in the usual manner. On account of the hypostatic con¬ 
gestion ol the lungs, fluid should be injected through the respi¬ 
ratory tract. If this is neglected purging from the lungs is very 
liable to follow. 

POISONING BY CARBONIC OXID. 

Carbonic oxid is a far more dangerous agent than carbonic 
acid, and to it are due many of the effects sometimes ascribed to 
the latter. It is an extremely active poison. The deaths caused 
by charcoal fumes are due to the presence of carbonic oxid. It 
also exists in coal gas and constitutes its main danger. Suicide 
is committed frequently by the inhalation of charcoal fumes, but 
deaths usually occur by accident from sleeping in close rooms in 
which the fumes escape from the stove or pipe, death resulting 
very quickly. 

The special morbid characteristics are the bright, cherry-red 
color of the blood and of the structures and surfaces of the in¬ 
ternal organs. If the peripheral vessels are engorged, or the 
head and face congested, they will be of a very bright-red color. 
The post-mortem discoloration is of a similar red tint; even 
where no congestion exists, in certain parts of the body, as of the 
face, a ruddy hue is attained. The red tint of the blood is due 
to the compound which carbonic oxid forms with hemoglobin, 
which is very stable and not readily broken up ; and hence the 
oxygen-carrying power of the corpuscles is paralyzed. The hemo¬ 
globin, in these cases, resists reduction in the usual manner, 
differing, therefore, from the normal blood-coloring matter. The 
heat of the body is retained for a long time ; coagulation is re¬ 
tarded ; rigor mortis comes on slowly, is well marked, and lasts 
for a long time. 

Treatment. —After placing the body upon the incline, the 
blood should be withdrawn, by tapping the heart direct, or 
through one of the veins. If the body remains on the incline 
until the-blood settles out of the peripheral vessels, the redness 


37 


466 


CHAMPION TENTH O OK ON EMBALMING 


of tlie surface will disappear, as the redness is due to the changed 
color of the blood only, and not to the reduction of the hemo¬ 
globin. Therefore, it does not pass out into the tissues. An 
artery should be raised and the capillaries filled very thoroughly, 
followed by the filling of the cavities by the usual operations. 

POISONING BY COAL GAS. 

Coal gas employed for illuminating and heating purposes con¬ 
tains, in addition to the olefiant gas and analogous hydrocarbons, 
on which the illuminating power is dependent, certain other 
gases, called diluents, such as hydrogen, marsh gas, carbonic 
oxid, together with certain impurities, as carbonic acid, sulphu- 
reted hydrogen, and bisulphid of carbon. The characteristic odor 
of coal gas is mainly dependent upon these impurities. This 
odor is perceptible when mixed with atmospheric air to the ex¬ 
tent of 1 : 10,000, making it a valuable safeguard against acci¬ 
dents which occur from escaping gas. In addition to the danger 
from inhalation, fatal accidents often result from explosions 
which occur if a match is lighted in an atmosphere containing 
10 per cent, of gas. A less proportion than 10 per cent, is non¬ 
explosive, but will prove fatal if inhaled for a long period of time. 

Poisoning by coal gas is frequently the result of an accident 
by inhalation, which may ensue among workmen from exposure 
to a sudden rush of undiluted gas, from gas meters and mains, 
filling the apartments in which they are confined. Persons 
who are not in the habit of burning gas for illuminating pur¬ 
poses, may leave the gas-taps open, on account of not knowing 
how to turn them off properly. Occasionally, coal gas is used for 
suicidal purposes by turning it on in a close room. More fre¬ 
quently, slowly fatal cases may result from a gas-tap being left 
open through carelessness, or from the accidental extinction of the 
light, or from leaking of gas pipes in the house or from the 
main. In the latter case, the gas enters the room through 
cellars, walls, or by means of drainage or sewer pipes. * 


DEATH FBOM POISON 


467 


On handling or opening the body, the smell of gas is often very 
marked. The blood is of a dark color and it coagulates very 
readily. There is a bright color of the pulmonary tissues, froth 
in the air-passages, and congestion of the mucous membrane, 
especially at the base of the tongue. There is also engorgement 
of the cerebral -and spinal veins and rose-colored patches on the 
thighs. As in all cases of asphyxia, the surface becomes con¬ 
gested and of a dark-bluish color; this is marked in the head, 
face, and neck. Frequently, a bloody, frothy purge escapes from 
the mouth and nose. 

Treatment. —The blood should be withdrawn as soon as 
possible after death, on account of its becoming coagulated so 
quickly, to relieve the congestion and to remove the discolora¬ 
tion, especially in the parts that are exposed to view. If the 
blood has coagulated already in the large vessels, it can be re¬ 
moved from the surface by application of the ice and salt mix¬ 
ture. If the blood is coagulated firmly in the small vessels and 
capillaries, nothing will remove the discoloration. Fluid should 
be injected into the lungs through the respiratory tract; other¬ 
wise, the treatment should be as in an ordinary case. 


CHAPTER XXXVII. 


MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. 


CHRONIC ALCOHOLISM. 

In giving the morbid changes that take place in the body from 
chronic alcoholism, we can do no better than quote from Curnow : 

“The amount of fat in the blood is increased, or it becomes 
more visible. Chronic congestion or catarrh of the stomach, 
leading to atrophy of the gland-cells, and an increase of sub- 
mucous connective tissue, is very constant, but chronic ulcer is 
not frequent. The liver is first enlarged from congestion, and 
may continue so from a subsequent infiltration with fat; but 
more frequently it shrinks, owing to cirrhosis. Lobular em¬ 
physema, chronic bronchitis, and hypostatic pneumonia are 
common. The heart is flabby, dilated, and presents fatty infil¬ 
tration or even degeneration of its muscular tissue ; but it may 
be hypertrophied, probably as a result of coexistent disease of 
the kidneys. The arteries and endocardium are studded with 
atheromatous deposits ; the capillaries are congested ; and the 
veins varicosed. The kidneys exhibit the fatty, or more com¬ 
monly, the granular form of Bright’s disease. , The muscles are 
pale and flabby, and even in the bones formation of fat takes 
place at the expense of the bony texture. The nervous centers 
are atrophied and tough ; the convolutions are shrunken ; the 
nerve-cells and nerve-fibers are wasted ; and an increased amount 
of serous fluid exists in the ventricles and subarachnoid spaces. 
The abnormal adhesion of the dura mater to the cranium, the 
large Pacchionian bodies, the opaque arachnoid, and the thick¬ 
ened pia mater, will testify to an exaggerated development of 
fibrous tissue. Occasionally hemorrhage into, or softening of the 
brain, consequent on the diseased state of the blood-vessels, is 
met with. The increase of connective tissue is especially marked 
in spirit drinkers, and explains the emaciated appearance, pre¬ 
maturely aged look, sunken cheeks, and wrinkled countenance, 

468 




MISCELLANEOUS DLSEASES 


469 


which they generally present. The beer and wine drinkers, on 
the contrary, are loaded with fat, not only in the viscera, but in 
the subcutaneous tissue and the omenta; and hence, these sub¬ 
jects are corpulent, with oily skins and prominent abdomens, 
even when the face and extremities are wasted. Gouty deposits 
are also frequent.” 

In these cases dropsy is usually present. Congestion of the 
pharynx, red and inflamed conjunctiva, turgid capillaries, and 
the face filled with little pimples, known as acne rosacea, mark 
the confirmed toper. 

Treatment. —The above described morbid condition will lead 
you to determine that a great change has taken place in the con¬ 
firmed drinker, and it is no wonder that in many cases the small 
amount of fluid that is used is followed by trouble. It is true 
that alcohol is antiseptic, but the amount of alcohol in the 
system is not sufficient to prevent the growth of the bacteria of 
putrefaction. 

Owing to the destruction of the capillaries, and the interference 
with the circulation in general, fluid does not penetrate every 
part of the body. Therefore, those parts that are not impreg¬ 
nated with fluid will constitute a soil for the growth of the 
bacteria of putrefaction. Hence, the trouble we have in these 
alcohol cases. Indeed, there are cases dying from alcoholism, 
where putrefaction seems to begin immediately after death. 
Rigor mortis comes on and passes off within a few minutes. 
When putrefaction begins in such case, where rigor mortis is 
absent, the body must be filled. The fluid should be injected, 
not only through the arteries, but into the cellular tissues be¬ 
neath the skin through the hollo wmeedle as well. Also the 
cavities and all the openings of the body should be well filled 
with fluid. 

ACUTE ALCOHOLISM. 

In cases of acute alcoholism we are liable to have only local 
troubles, such as discolorations. A large amount of undigested 


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food in the stomach and gases in the small and large intestines, 
and sometimes ruptured blood-vessels, and cerebral hemorrhage, 
may be present. 

Treatment. —Special treatment will be required in each indi¬ 
vidual case, but there is no reason why a body dying from acute 
alcoholism cannot be kept in the hottest weather, if sufficient 
fluid is used. The arteries and capillaries of the circulation are 
not destroyed, as they are in chronic alcoholism. The tissues 
are in a more natural condition, not being hard or indurated; 
neither is the connective tissue filled with an unusual amount of 
albumen at any point. The chemicals will penetrate the tissues 
without any trouble, and will reach every part of the body. The 
arteries and cavities should be filled with fluid ; enough should 
be injected to bloat or swell the body. 

DELIRIUM TREMENS. 

Delirium tremens (mania a potu) is really only an incident to 
chronic alcoholism, and results from the long-continued action of 
the poison on the brain. The condition was first accurately 
described early in the nineteenth century. The essential nature 
of the affliction is associated with the loss of the cerebral power 
in the control of thoughts, emotions, and muscular action, con¬ 
sequent to an overexcitement of alcoholic stimuli; sometimes it 
is immediately dependent upon the diminution of the degree of 
excitement to which the brain has been accustomed. Death 
may result in from three to seven days. The greatest mortality 
in delirium tremens is between the ages of twenty-five and fifty. 
The pathological conditions and changes are the same as in 
chronic alcoholism 

Treatment. —These cases require very thorough treatment. 
The condition of the arteries is very often such as to prevent a 
successful injection of the vascular system, and, as all the organs 
contained in the cavities of the abdomen and chest, as well as 
the brain, are involved, a most thorough treatment of them is 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 


471 


necessary. Use one of the needle processes for the introduction 
of fluid into the brain tissue. As much fluid as the arteries will 
receive should be introduced into them. The blood should be 
withdrawn by one of the processes given. The lungs should be 
filled by the injection through the trachea. Sometimes there is 
an effusion in the pleural cavities ; aspirate to determine that 
fact; then fill the cavities with fluid. The stomach should be 
injected through the esophagus with a stomacli=tube, or through 
the holloW'Ueedle inserted in the epigastric region. The cavity 
of the abdomen should be injected to distention, allowing the 
body to remain perfectly level as long as possible, that the fluid 
may be kept in contact with the liver, spleen, pancreas, and kid¬ 
neys. A second injection of the abdominal cavity in six to eight 
hours would be advisable, after aspirating the fluid first injected. 

JAUNDICE OF THE NEW BORN. 

The normal red color of the skin in children frequently changes 
on the second, third, or fourth day after birth to a yellow or 
jaundiced hue. The yellow tinge is deeper on the face and trunk 
than on the extremities. There is usually no special digestive or 
constitutional disturbances, although weaklings more often pre¬ 
sent this discoloration than do the vigorous. In a large majority 
of cases, the hue is almost certain to vanish within a week or two, 
leaving no trouble behind. Occasionally, though, there are com¬ 
plications which produce death, leaving this jaundiced condition 
of the surface. 

The cause of this trouble is still a disputed matter. Numerous 
theories have been advanced, but no one of these has gained uni¬ 
versal acceptance to this day. Formerly there was a considerable 
tendency to regard the jaundice as a peculiar change taking 
place in the blood. This was supposed to be due to the trans¬ 
formation of the pigment of broken down corpuscles. This view 
was supported, to a certain extent, by the light color of the urine, 
and the yellow color of the stools—the yellow color of the stools 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


showing that the bile was passing through the ducts, and the 
light color of the urine indicating that it did not contain bile* 
pigment. But more recent and accurate examinations have 
shown that the urine does contain biliary ^pigment, as does also 
the kidneys of such children as happen to die during the exist¬ 
ence of the jaundice ; biliary acids will be found also in the 
effusion of serum in the serous sacs. Therefore, it may be con¬ 
sidered certain that this discoloration is due to hepatic changes. 
But just how the retention of the bile, and the consequent 
absorption by the circulation, are caused, we are not able to state. 
It is possible that the bile is not ejected properly, on account of 
weakness, or the ducts may be too narrow, or they may be tem¬ 
porarily obstructed by some foreign substance. 

It has been noted that after death there is a tendency to con¬ 
siderable passive congestion of the liver, with edema of Glisson’s 
capsule, and pressure upon the small bile*ducts. The tendency, 
for the first few days of life, to a comparatively large amount of 
bile secretion, due to the destruction of considerable numbers 
of the red globules, should be considered carefully. In rare 
instances, there is complete closure, or even absence, of the large 
biliary ducts, due to malformation. Then of course, marked 
jaundice comes on at once after birth, and is persistent, death 
resulting after a few weeks. 

Treatment. —This discoloration cannot be removed ; it is, no 
doubt, due to the bile=pigment, and is a permanent discolora¬ 
tion, which is located in the middle or soft layer of the skin and 
deeper tissues. These cases may be preserved by the injection 
of fluid into the cavities, with the addition of the application of 
fluid over the entire surface of the body. The method of apply¬ 
ing the fluid should be through the medium of cloths, lintine, or 
absorbent cotton, which should be soaked in the fluid and placed 
over the entire surface of the body, the whole being covered 
with some fabric, such as rubber cloth or oiled silk, which will 
prevent the air coming in contact with the fluid. The tissues, 







MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 


473 


being very soft, may, in due time, absorb a sufficient quantity of 
fluid to sterilize the tissues on the outside of the body. 

DEATH OF MOTHER AND FETUS IN UTERO. 

While the mother is alive, a dead fetus in the womb, thus 
protected from the air, does not putrefy, but undergoes the 
process of masceration ; the whole body becomes soft and flaccid, 
its tissues being infiltrated with fluid ; but it has no odor. The 
skin presents points filled with reddish-brown serum, and the 
epidermis is readily detached with slight friction. The color of 
the surface is of a bluish cast, which, after exposure to the air, 
becomes more or less bright-red ; it is not greenish, as is seen 
in putrefaction. The cellular tissue is infiltrated with bloody 
serum. The viscera of the different cavities have lost their 
peculiar tints and have become a reddish-brown color. The 
cranial bones are unnaturally mobile, overlapping one another 
to a greater extent than in life; and the periosteum may be 
absent from them. 

When the death of the mother also takes place, the conditions 
of the fetus are quite different. The body of the child is im¬ 
mersed in the liquor amnii (water of the womb). This water 
will become filled very quickly with putrefactive bacteria, caus¬ 
ing putrefaction to take place almost immediately in the fetus. 
If the liquor amnii were not present, there would be no cause 
for the immediate putrefaction of the fetus. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of a case of this kind it is 
essential to insert the hollow-needle and remove the water en¬ 
tirely, or as much of it as possible ; then inject fluid sufficient 
to fill the entire cavity of the womb. This takes the place of 
the former fluid, thoroughly immersing the child, making it im¬ 
possible for putrefaction to take place. 

The proper point to insert the needle, to reach the cavity of 
the womb, is the median line, between the umbilicus and pubic 
arch. It should be pushed through the wall of the abdomen, 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


and through the wall of the womb. The womb will be found 
to be a hard substance, and you will readily observe when the 
point has reached the cavity. The child may be lying immedi¬ 
ately in front of the point, and the instrument may enter the 
body of the child, which would prevent the withdrawal of water. 
Therefore, it is necessary to be careful, and manipulate the in¬ 
strument in such a maimer as to reach the water. ’ 

Fluid injected into the arteries of the mother is said to reach 
the child through the arteries and circulation connected with the 
mother, in the same manner that the nourishment reaches the 
child while life is present in both child and mother. Even if 
that were the case, the amount reaching the fetus, in this manner, 
would not be sufficient to destroy the possibility of putrefaction, 
as the medium through which putrefaction takes place has not 
been removed. The injection of fluid into the fetus is not neces¬ 
sary ; as, by filling the womb with the fluid, the child will be 
practically in pickle. 

In these cases, the mother should be treated in the usual 
manner, always considering the disease producing death. These 
cases have been troublesome to the embalmer, and very fre¬ 
quently questions are asked concerning them, and experiences 
related in regard to them ; but the method given above, if fol¬ 
lowed carefully, will result in every instance in a thoroughly 
preserved case. 


SENILITY OR OLD AGE. 

Senility (old age) is the condition of the body which usually 
supervenes naturally after the seventieth year, but sometimes 
occurs earlier. We do not know why the body should gradually 
decline after it reaches a state of maturity and vigor, but such is 
the case, to a greater or less extent. The most characteristic 
change of the structure is progressive atrophy of almost all of the 
tissues and organs of the body. The degree of waste varies, but 
the weight and height is diminished generally, except in those 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 


475 


persons who carry with them through this age an increase of fat 
or adipose tissue. 

Among the organs which exhibit simple atrophy in the highest 
degree are the brain and spinal cord, organs of generation in both 
sexes, the mucous membrane and glands of the digestive tract, 
the mucous membrane of the bronchi and bladder, the spleen, the 
lymphatic glands, and the kidneys. The muscles waste, the teeth 
fall out, and the bones become thin and deficient in animal 
matter—some much altered, as, for instance, the lower jaw. 

Among the most important changes, and one that exercises a 
very direct influence on tissue nutrition, is the excessive shrinking 
and even obliteration of the capillaries in almost all textures. 
The skin becomes much diminished in thickness, especially in the 
inner layer. When this occurs, it is easily seen why in old age 
there will follow, after the injection of fluid into the arterial sys¬ 
tem, greenish, brownish, and soft spots, in the different parts of 
the body, especially noticable in the face, neck, and hands. The 
products of degeneration may accumulate in the tissues and cause 
them to be thicker than they are in health, as is seen in the 
vessels, the walls of which are much thicker than normal. The 
blood contains fewer corpuscles and solid constituents, is more 
watery, and coagulates more readily ; also the total quantity is 
less. The pericardium, the endocardium, and the capsules of the 
liver and spleen, are opaque and toughened. Degeneration of 
the cardiac substance may lead to a state of asthenia, which 
gradually produces death. Dilatation of the orifices of the heart 
may be the more prominent lesion, or they may be contracted by 
atheroma, or by thickening of the valves or rings. Indeed, all 
kinds of cardiac lesions are met with in old age. The lungs are 
changed more or less, increasing the bronchial secretions, which 
during life have been attended by severe paroxysms of coughing. 

Treatment. —In many cases death has resulted from pneu¬ 
monia, requiring the lungs to be treated specially. The embalmer 
meets with something that he terms peculiar in these cases. As 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


is stated, there is generally an asthenic condition in most bodies, 
and apparently only a small amount of fluid would be needed to 
prevent putrefaction. But, as is seen in the above description of 
the anatomical changes that take place, all the organs are more 
or less affected. 

But it seems that the structural changes that cause the em- 
balmer the most trouble occur in the capillaries, they being fre¬ 
quently extensively shrunken or obliterated entirely in all parts 
of the body. When this condition exists, it is utterly impossible 
to fill the tissues with fluid, which is necessary to destroy the 
bacteria of putrefaction, so that it must be expected, that, in 
many cases, soft, brown, and green spots will follow the usual 
methods of embalming. When these spots do occur, fluid should 
be injected into the tissues direct, especially in the affected parts. 

GANGRENE- MORTIFICATION. 

\ 

Senile Gangrene. 

Gangrene is liable to occur in any part of the body. It is due 
to the destruction of the circulation in that part. It may be 
either moist or dry, acute or chronic. The failure of the circu¬ 
lation in the part may be due to the presence of a blood^clot, or 
to destruction of the vessels carrying nutrition to the part, as in 
case of an accident. 

In senile gangrene, the walls of the arteries become ossified, 
losing their elasticity ; they thus fail to aid in forcing the blood 
into the part, and a clot forms within the vessel. This usually 
occurs in the lower extremities, following some injurious stimu¬ 
lation of the tissues, as a slight abrasion of the foot, injury to a 
corn, or a severe cold, which sets up inflammation in the already 
weakened part. These, by still further obstructions of the circu¬ 
lation therein, impairing their vitality, cause death. 

In an extremity, for example, decomposition proceeds as fol¬ 
lows : Gases are generated in the part, principally sulphureted 
hydrogen, ammonia, and carbonic acid, the tissues at the 


MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 


477 


time undergo the process of softening or liquefaction, the part 
becoming exceedingly offensive, and, owing to alterations in the 
transuded coloring matter of the blood, changes from a reddish 
to a brownish or greenislnblack color. This is known as moist 
gangrene. It occurs only in external parts and those internal 
organs to which the air is freely accessible, as the lungs and 
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. The gasses arising 
from the parts affected in this manner have a very strong, un¬ 
pleasant odor, which will penetrate every part of the room, and 
is tenacious and will remain for some length of time, unless 
destroyed by the use of some deodorant. 

In dry gangrene, the odor is not usually so strong ; the parts 
do not assume the same changes that are noticed in the moist 
form of gangrene. They appear to the observer more like mum¬ 
mified tissue or like a piece of charcoal. 

Treatment. —In the treatment of gangrene, especially of the 
moist variety, the parts should be washed with hot water, to 
which a small amount of carbolic acid, say four per cent., is 
added. After immersing the parts, desiccating or hardening 
compound should be sprinkled freely over them ; then the ex¬ 
tremities should be wrapped in a cloth, covering every part, 
followed by a roller bandage, a number of layers of which should 
be applied. Inject the body in the usual manner, filling the 
arteries and capillaries as in an ordinary case. 

SUNSTROKE. 

Sunstroke is a condition resulting from excessive exposure to 
heat. This disease does not follow direct exposure to the rays of 
the sun only, as its name indicates, but exposure to excessive heat 
with physical exertion in boiler rooms of ships and other ex- 
tremelv hot places, will produce the disease termed sunstroke ; 
the attack may even come on at nig]it. The condition is usually 
that of prostration, collapse, restlessness, and, in severe cases, de- 
lirum, which follow each other in the order named. The surface of 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


the body is cool, the pulse small and rapid, and the temperature 
may be as low as 95° to 96° F. 

Rigor mortis comes on early. Putrefactive changes begin with 
great rapidity. Venous engorgement in the brain and its mem¬ 
branes is extreme. The venous trunks and right side of the heart 
are full of blood, and the pulmonary vessels may be greatly en¬ 
gorged. The blood itself is very dark and more fluid than nor¬ 
mal ; the left ventricle of the heart, usually, is contracted, while 
the right is dilated. There is great congestion of the lungs. 
Changes occur in the parenchyma of the liver and kidneys. The 
face becomes dark and swollen ; the brain retains a high tem¬ 
perature for some time after death ; gases follow quickly ; purging 
and general putrefaction soon begin. 

Treatment. —A case of death from sunstroke, should receive 
heroic treatment; as is noted above, putrefactive changes take 
place very early. The blood should be removed quickly ; the 
femoral artery and vein should be raised for the purpose of in¬ 
jecting fluid and withdrawing blood ; the body should be placed 
on a high incline ; the drainage-tube inserted in the vein so as 
to reach above Poupart ’ s ligament, and tied ; the artery raised 
and the arterial tube introduced as usual, and fluid injected, 
while the blood gravitates from the vein ; the blood being thin 
will run freely. If the femoral vein is used for the withdrawal 
of blood, the greater part of the blood in the body may be forced 
out by this method. 

A large quantity of fluid should be injected. From one to one 
and a half gallons should be injected into the arteries of a body 
weighing 150 lbs., and a proportionate amount into those weigh¬ 
ing more or less. After filling the arteries, the cavities should 
be treated in the usual manner. The lungs should be treated 
through the trachea, using enough fluid to fill the whole respira¬ 
tory tract. One of the needle processes might be used with benefit, 
as the congestion is so great in the cranial viscera that it might 
impede the flow of fluid through the small cranial arteries. 




PART FOURTH 


BACTERIOLOGY, SANITATION, AND DISINFECTION 



INTRODUCTION TO PART FOURTH. 


It is only within the last few decades that much progress has been 
made in the science of sanitation. Previous to the middle of the present 
(nineteenth) century, general sanitation was not practiced as it is today. 
The protection of a community from disease and epidemics in general was 
scarcely considered. 

When the cholera, the plague, or the yellow fever entered our borders, 
it ran like wildfire over the land, destroying the lives of many of the in¬ 
habitants in the courses over which it traveled. 

It is true ships were cleansed in the ordinary way, but disinfection did 
not necessarily fdllow; at least it was not carried out properly. The har¬ 
bors, streets, outhouses, alleys, etc., were filled with all kinds of filth, 
wherein infectious matter lay in wait for its victims. It was not thought 
necessary to destroy any such matter, as it was not known that disease 
lurked within. 

It was not until science proved that many diseases, and especially those 
that prevail as epidemics, were caused by micro-organisms, which inhabi¬ 
ted the filth in our streets, alleys, drainage systems, etc., that sanitary meas¬ 
ures were adopted. 

The governments of most of the states and nations have taken up the 
matter, and have enforced sanitary measures to such an extent that epi- 
demics of all kinds are now almost completely under control. When 
contagious diseases make their appearance, such safeguards are thrown 
around the patient that it is almost impossible for dissemination to take 
place. 

All embalmers should become sanitarians. They should take up the 
subject for their own protection against disease. They should prepare to 
defend themselves against the apparent arbitrary ruling of health boards, 
by fitting themselves to become intelligent members of such boards, for the 
purpose of taking care of their own interests as well as to protect the public 
health. 

Each undertaker should be able to give advice as well as to disinfect all 
materials connected with the death chamber, as during the time of mourn¬ 
ing, it is very important that sanitary measures be enforced, which can be 
done best by the funeral director or embalmer. 

In the following chapters we have aimed to give a brief history of bac¬ 
teriology, infection, disinfection, and sanitation; the best methods that are 
practiced at present in sanitation; rules for shipping bodies, etc. 

480 




CHAPTER XXXVIII. 


BACTERIOLOGY. 


HISTORY OF BACTERIOLOGY. 

During the seventeenth century Athanasius Ivircher mistook 
blood and pus corpuscles for small worms, and built up on his 
mistake a new theory of disease and putrefaction. Christian 
Lange, a professor of Pathological Anatomy, in Leipsic, expressed 
his opinion that the purpura of lying-in women, measles, and 
other fevers, were the result of putrefaction caused by worms or 
animalcula. From time to time since then, a “Pathologia 
Animata” has been put forward to explain the causation of dis¬ 
ease. Imperfect as were the observations and crude as was the 
theory on which it was based, it is marvelous that Ivircher, with 
the simpfe lenses he had at his disposal, was able to make 
out as much as he did. These lenses magnified only about 
thirty-two diameters, or one thousand times. His observations 
were not generally credited, which was natural enough. They 
were received with chilling incredulity by his contemporaries. 

Remarkable as were Kircher’s observations, still more wonder¬ 
ful were those of Anthony von Leeuwenhoek. Leeuwenhoek was 
born at Delft, Holland, in 1632. He was not considered liberally 
educated, as he had been apprenticed in his early years to a linen 
draper. During his apprenticeship he learned the art of lens 
grinding, which enabled him ultimately to produce the first really 
good microscope that had been constructed. By this instrument 
he could see much smaller objects than had hitherto been seen by 
microscopes in use at that time. 

It was in the year 1675 that he gave birth to the study of bac¬ 
teria by the observations he then made with his microscope. He 

.38 181 




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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


was still following in the trade of the linen draper in Amsterdam 
at the time he made his discoveries. He published the fact that 
he could detect living motile animalcules of the very smallest 
dimensions—smaller than anything that had heretofore been 
seen—by means of his perfected lens. He continued his work 
to the examination ot various materials tor the presence of animal 
life, as he considered it, in its most minute form. In sea water, 
in well water, in his own diarrheal stools, and in the intestinal 
canals of frogs and birds, he found micro-organisms, whose mor¬ 
phology differed, and which also differed in the peculiarity of 
their movements. 

Later, he examined the tartar scraped from between the teeth, 
and discovered a form of micro-organism upon which he laid 
great stress. He contributed a paper on this discovery, which, 
on September 14, 1683, was presented to the Royal Society of 
London. This paper was important because of the careful de- 
scription given of the objective nature of the bodies seen by him 
and for the illustrations which accompanied it. Leeuwenhoek, 
with his lens, had undoubtedly seen the bodies that we now rec¬ 
ognize as bacteria. 

He was greatly astonished when he saw distributed everywhere, 
through the material which he was examining, animalcules of 
the most microscopic dimensions, which moved themselves about 
in a remarkably energetic way. Describing them, he says : “I 
saw with very great astonishment, especially in the material men¬ 
tioned, that there were many extremely small animals which 
moved about in the most amusing fashion ; the largest of these 
(represented by him in an admirable figure) showed the liveliest 
and most active motion, moving through rain-water or saliva like 
a fish of prey darts through the water ; this form, though few in 
actual numbers, was met with everywhere ; a second form moved 
round, often in a circle, or in a kind of curve ; these were present 
in greater numbers. The form of a third kind I could not dis¬ 
tinguish clearly ; sometimes it appeared oblong, sometimes quite 


BACTERIOLOGY 


483 


round. They were very tiny, in addition to which they moved 
forward so rapidly that they tore through one another. I had 
the impression that I saw several thousands in a single drop of 
water or saliva which was mixed with a small part of the above* 
named material not larger than a grain of sand, even when nine 
parts of water or saliva were added to one part of the material 
taken from the incisor or molar teeth. Further examination of 
the material showed that out of a large number which were very 
different in length, all were of the same thickness. Some were 
curved, some straight, lying irregularly and interlaced.” 

Plenciz, a Vienna physician, a believer in the work of Leeu¬ 
wenhoek, in 1762, made observations confirming the discoveries 
of the latter. He claimed a casual relation between the micro* 
organisms discovered and described by Leeuwenhoek and all in¬ 
fectious diseases. He also claimed that infection could be nothing 
else than a living substance, and endeavored to explain the vari¬ 
ations in the incubation period of the different infectious diseases 
on these grounds. He believed that the microorganisms were 
capable of multiplying in the living body, and spoke of the possi¬ 
bilities of the transmission of infection through the air. He 
taught that each disease had its special germ, on the principle 
that only one kind of grain can grow from a given cereal. 

He found innumerable minute animalcula in all decomposing 
matter, and was so thoroughly convinced of their etiological rela¬ 
tion to the process, that he formulated the law that decomposition 
can only take place when the decomposable material becomes 
coated with a layer of the organisms, and can proceed only when 
they increase and multiply. 

The arguments of Plenciz were looked upon by some as the 
imaginations of an unbalanced mind, and by others as entirely 
absurd. 

Oxanam, in 1820, expressed himself on the subject as follows : 
“Manv authors have written concerning the animal nature of the 
contagion of infectious diseases ; many have indeed assumed it to 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


be developed from animal substances and that it is itself animal 
and possesses the property of life. I shall not waste time in 
efforts to refute these absurd hypotheses.” 

Many other medical men expressed similar opinions during 
this time, doubting the possibility of animal life existing in these 
micro-organisms. 

The true relation of the lower organisms to infectious diseases 
was established scientifically, just before the middle of the present 
century, by the coincidence of a number of important discov¬ 
eries. The cause of putrefaction in beer and the souring of wine, 
by Pasteur; the finding of rod-shaped organisms in the blood of 
all the animals that die of splenic fever (anthrax) by Pollender 
and Davaine; and the knowledge of the parasitic nature of cer¬ 
tain diseases of plants, aroused attention to the old question of 
animal contagion. Ilenle was the first to logically teach this 
doctrine of infection. The principal point that had occupied 
the attention of scientific men from time to time, up to the 
middle of this century, was the origin of these micro-organisms. 
One side claimed that they descended from creatures that existed 
previously, of the same kind. Needham, in 1749, held firmly 
to the doctrine of spontaneous generation, as a result of vegeta¬ 
tion changes, in the substances in which they are found. Pie 
experimented with a grain of barley placed in a watch crystal 
of water, carefully covered, allowed it to germinate, and claimed 
that the bacteria that were present were the result of changes in 
the barley grain itself, incidental to its germination. 

Spallanzani, in 1769, drew attention to the laxity ot Need¬ 
ham ? s methods, and demonstrated that, if infusions of decom¬ 
posable vegetable matter were placed in flasks, hermetically 
sealed, then allowed to remain in boiling water for some time, no 
living organisms nor decomposition would appear in the in¬ 
fusion so treated. Objection was raised to this method, on the 
ground that the high temperature to which the infusion had 
been raised had so altered them, and the air around them, that 


BA CTEmiOLOGY 


485 


the favorable conditions no longer existed to spontaneous gener¬ 
ation. To meet this objection he took one of the flasks that had 
been boiled and tapped it gently against some hard object until 
he produced a very minute crack ; organisms and decomposition 
appeared, as in infusions that were not so treated. 

Very little advance was made from this time until 1836, when 
Schulze called attention to the subject by his investigations. He 
allowed air, deprived of its organisms by passing through a 
strong acid or alkalin solution, to gain access to boiled infusions, 
and no living organisms or decomposition appeared in the in¬ 
fusions. 

Schwann, in 1873, robbed air of its organisms by passing it 
through highly heated tubes into his infusions. 

Schroder and VonDusch interposed cotton wool between the 
infusion and the air, robbing the air of its micro-organisms as it 
passed into the infusions by infiltration. 

Hoffman, in 1860, and Pasteur, in 1861, demonstrated that all 
that was necessary was to draw out the neck of the flask into a 
fine tube, bend it down along the side of the flask, and then bend 
in up again a few inches from its extremity, and leave the mouth 
open, to prevent the access of bacteria to the infusion in the 

flask, as when boiled the drop of water of condensation in the 

lower angle will avert the organisms and none can enter the 

flask. Doubters still existed and some still held out for “spon¬ 

taneous generation, n wanting further proof, when, in 1876-77, 
Prof. Tyndall made his investigations upon the floating matter 
in the air, and demonstrated that these organisms, being present 
in decomposing fluids, were always to be explained, either by the 
pre-existence of similar living forms in the infusion, or upon the 
wafls of the vessel containing it, or, by the infusion having been 
exposed to the air which had not been deprived of its organisms. 

Though it is during the past thirty years that the research in 
this line nas received its greatest impulse, yet it was developing 
for at least two centuries. 


486 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


Indeed, modern hygiene owes much of its value to a more in¬ 
timate acquaintance with the biological activities of the micro¬ 
organisms. Also, our knowledge in regard to infectious diseases 
has been developed to the present position. Though the con¬ 
tributions of the last few years have done more to place bacteri¬ 
ology on the footing of a science, yet during the earlier years of 
its development, many were the observations made, which formed 
the ground=work for a great deal of that which has followed. 






BACTERIA—THEIR FORMS AND GROWTH. 

The organisms known as bacteria are members of the lowest 
group of the plant kingdom. The entire body consists of a single 

cell, which is a min¬ 
ute mass of a sub¬ 
stance called proto- 
plasma, a semisolid, 
gelatinous substance, 
which, viewed with 
fmi the ordinary micro¬ 
scope, is apparently 
homogeneous, but 
which, according to 
Altmann, consists of 
small granules of an albuminous nature, embedded in a similar, 
structureless, albuminous matrix. These elementary granules or 
granulse are often arranged in threads, sometimes in such a way 
as to form a sponge-like network. It is the simplest and lowest 
form of a living thing now known, a true elementary organism 
or seat of life. Growth and reproduction are always met with 
in the cell. Each cell contains a definite, rounded body, called 
the nucleus ; also, many cells, especially plant cells, are sur¬ 
rounded by a dense wall or cell membrane. In bacteria, the 
spore corresponds to the seed in flowering plants, but contains 
no embryo. Usually it is a single-celled body. 


Fig. 58.—Colonies of Bacteria. 


HA ClK1UOCOGY 


487 


Many bacteria possess the faculty of selffmovement, carrying 
themselves in all manner of ways across the field of the micro¬ 
scope, some very quickly and others leisurely. Some bacteria 
vibrate in themselves, appearing to move, but do not change their 
place. Little threads or lashes (flagella) are found attached to 
many of the motile bacteria, either at the poles or along the sides, 
someimes only one and on some several, forming a tuft. These 
flagella are in constant motion and can be considered as organs 
ot locomotion. 

Bacteria multiply either through simple division, or through 
fructification by means of small rounded or oval bodies, called 
spores, from spora (seed). If by division, the cell elongates, and 
at one portion, usually the middle, the celbwall indents itself 
gradually, forming a septum and dividing the cell into two equal 
parts. These are called fission bacteria. Each bacterium gives 
rise to but one spore ; it may be at either end or in the middle. 
Some rods take on a peculiar shape at the site of the spore, mak¬ 
ing the rod look like a druimstick. 

What the real contents of the spores are is not known. In 
the mother cell, at the site of the spore, little granules have been 
found which are different from the rest of the cell, and these are 
supposed to be the beginnings, or sporogenous bodies. 

The most important part of the spore is its capsule. 

To this it owes its resisting power. The capsule 
consists of two separate layers, a thin membrane 
around the cell and a firm gelatinous envelope. 

When the spore is brought into favorable conditions, 
it begins to lose its shining appearance. The outer, 
firm membrane begins to swell, and it now assumes 
the shape and size of the one from which it sprang, 
the capsule having burst so as to allow the young 
bacillus to be set free. A certain amount of heat 
and oxygen are necessary for the formation of spores. Spores 
are not easily influenced by external measures because of the 



Fig. 59. 


Pus containing 
streptococci, X 800 
(Flugge). 



488 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


very tenacious envelope. It is said to be the most resisting 
object of the whole organic world. 

Chemical and physical agents that easily destroy other life 
have very little effect upon spores. Many spores subjected to a 
dry heat at a temperature of 284° F. require several hours to de¬ 
stroy them. The spores of the various potato bacilli can with¬ 
stand the application of steam at 212° F. for four hours. 

In the earlier studies of bacterial forms, certain kinds with 
marked characteristics were found in connection with various 
specific diseases and specific decompositions. These could be 
distinguished from one another with such ease that particular 
stress was laid upon the description of such typical regulation 
forms. It came to be recognized later, however, that these differ¬ 
ent cells are linked together by all possible intermediate stages. 
In order to permit of a rapid orientation it has become, therefore, 
a general practice to enumerate only three chief form groups. 

1. —Coccus forms (cocci or microcci), comprising spherical or 
ellipsoid cells. 

2. —Rod-shaped forms (bacilli), plainly elongated in one direc¬ 
tion. These may be distinguished, according to their lengths, as 
long and short rods. Many rods have an approximately uniform 
diameter throughout, and the ends may be either rectangular in 
outline or more or less rounded. In some rods the diameter of 
the cell varies in different portions, so as to produce a spindle* 
shaped or club-shaped cell, or one fashioned like a pestle, or a 
whetstone or drurmstick. Rods may be rigid or flexible, and, in 
the latter case, often appear curved. 

3. —Cork-screw forms (spirilla) comprise all spirally-twisted 
bacteria. The smallest forms often resemble rods bent with a 
comma-like flexure. The screws may be rigid or flexible, of equal 
diameter throughout, or varying in diameter at different points. 

Bacteria develop from pre-existing bacteria, or the spores of 
the same. They are not produced spontaneously. They are 
found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth. Their 














BACTERIOLOGY 


489 




1. Spheroidal bacteria (micrococcus pyogenes), one of the most common species of 

bacteria, causing suppuration. 

2. Spheroidal bacteria arranged in pairs (diplococcus). 

3. Spheroidal bacteria grouped in cuboidal masses (sarcina). 

4. Spheroidal bacteria grouped in chains (streptococcus erysipelatos), producing 

erysipelas. 

5. Diplococci, slightly lance=shaped; and surrounded by a capsule (diplococcus 

pneumoniae), causing acute pneumonia. 

6. Bacteria causing typhoid fever (typhoid bacilli). 

7. Bacilli with cilia. 

8. Bacilli with spores (bacilli tetanei), producing lockjaw. 

9. The bacillus of consumption (bacillus tuberculosis). 

10. The bacterium of diphtheria (bacillus diphtheria). 

11. The spirillum of Asiatic cholera (spirillum cholerae Asiatic®). 

12. The spirillum of recurrent fever (spirillum Obermeieri). 


490 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


wide and almost universal diffusion is due to the minuteness of 
the cells and the few requirements for their existence. They are 
disseminated specially by being carried on the floating particles 
of the air. There are very few places free from germs. It is 
said that the air on the high seas and on the mountain tops is 
free from bacteria, but this is questionable. 

It is not supposed that one kind of bacteria will produce an¬ 
other kind ; that is, a bacillus does not arise from a coccus, nor 
vice versa, nor will a typhoid fever bacillus produce a bacillus of 
tetanus. 

Bacteria which live on the dead remains of organic life, are 
known as saprophytic, and those which choose the living bodies 
of other fellow^creatures are called parasitic. Some, however, 
develop equally as well as saprophytes and parasites. These are 
called facultative. 

A temperature ranging from 50° to 100° F. is necessary to the 
living growth of most bacteria, but some will develop at a lower 
and some at a higher. As a rule, the saprophytes take the lower 
temperature, the parasites taking the normal temperature of the 
body. Some forms require a nearly constant heat, growing 
within very small limits, as the bacillus of tuberculosis. A 
majority of bacteria will be destroyed at a temperature of 140° 
F., while freezing will prevent the growth of all; in fact, several 
times freezing and thawing will be fatal. 

Certain kinds of bacteria will grow only when air or oxygen 
is present. These are called aerobic. Others cannot live when 
oxygen or air is present. These are called anaerobic. 

Sunlight is a disinfectant, and is very destructive to bacteria. 
Anthrax bacteria have been destroyed upon a few hours’ expos¬ 
ure to the sun. Tubercular bacilli have been destroyed after 
two days’ exposure to daylight. Electricity arrests the growth of 
bacteria. 

Bacteria feeding upon organic compounds produce chemical 
changes in them, not only by the withdrawal of certain elements, 


BACTERIOLOGY 


491 


but also by the excretion of these elements changed by diges¬ 
tion. The processes of oxidation and reduction are carried on by 
some bacteria. Sometimes chemical products, such as ammonia, 
hydrogen sulphid, etc., are produced by bacteria. Complex 
alkaloids are found sometimes which closely resemble those found 
in ordinary plants, and 
which are named ptoma¬ 
ines, because obtained from 
putrefying objects. Fer¬ 
mentation is due to the 
direct action of vegetable 
organisms. Many bacteria 
have the power of fer¬ 
ments. Fermentation, 
when occurring in organic 
substances and accompa¬ 
nied by the development 
of offensive gases, is called 
putrefaction, and is due 
entirely to bacteria. 

Diseases which are call¬ 
ed infectious are pathological processes or changes caused by 
bacteria, and the germs which produce them are called dis¬ 
ease-producing or pathogenic bacteria. Those which do not 
form any pathological processes are called nompathogenic 
bacteria. 

Some bacteria are endowed with the property of forming pig¬ 
ments, either in themselves, or by producing a chromogenic 
body, which, when set free, gives rise to the pigment. In some 
cases the pigments have been isolated and many of the properties 
of the anilin dves discovered in them. 

t/ 

Many bacteria have the power to form light, giving to various 
objects which they inhabit a characteristic glow or phosphor- 



Fig. 61.-Bacillus Cadaveris. 

Smear preparation from liver of yellow fever cadaver, 
kept forty=eight hours in an anticeptic wrapping, X1000. 
From photomicrograph (Sternberg). 


esccnce. 








492 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Many bacteria, especially anaerobic, produce boin noxious and 
odorless gases. Some germs form odors characteristic of them — 
some, sweet, aromatic; others, foul, disagreeable smells; and 
some, sour or rancid exhalations. 

The life of bacteria usually is of short duration ; with age 
they lose their strength and die. 

Bacteria thus carry on all the functions of high organic life. 
They breathe, eat, digest, and multiply, and are very busy 
workers. 

There are many classes-of bacteria, but it is not necessary to 
enter into their minute classification. It is sufficient to under¬ 
stand those with which we have to deal as embalmers, viz., those 
that produce putrefaction and those that cause infection. 

BACTERIA IN AIR, WATER, AND EARTH. 

The means by which bacteria are distributed are air and 
water. The air in the low valleys and upon the level surfaces 

of the earth is filled usually with float¬ 
ing particles, consisting of dust, etc., 
that are loaded with bacteria. In the 
higher altitudes, there are fewer bac¬ 
teria floating in the air; in fact, in 
the extremely high altitudes, where 
there is no moisture, there will be 
very few, if any, so that neither disease 
nor putrefaction will occur. Neither 
are they found in the air on the high 
seas. The air coming from off the 
sea along the coast is found to con¬ 
tain but few, while that coming across 
the land is full of bacteria. Many 
of them are spore-producing, while others are not. 

It must be remembered, too, that light and sunlight destroy 
both living germs and spores, which makes it impossible for them 



From a culture on glicerin=agar, X 1000. 
From a photomicrograph by Frankel 
Pfeiffer. 




BACTERIOLOGY 


493 


to retain vitality a great while when floating in the air ; but some 
are very resistent to light, being what we term tenacious. These 
may float in the air any length of time, or be exposed to strong 
sunlight for a considerable period, without being affected by 
sunlight. Such as these may be carried in the air to distant 
parts and still retain their vitality. 

Moisture screens the air, to a certain extent, of bacteria, as 
when passing over the surface of the water, or while a current 
is passing through a room with moist walls and hanging fabrics. 
If the surfaces of the walls are examined with the micro¬ 
scope, they will be found to be covered with large quantities of 
bacteria. 

When bacteria are floating in the air, they fill the air we 
breathe, and at each inspiration, many bacteria are taken into 
the system. These are deposited upon the mucous surfaces of 
the respiratory tract, and the chances are that but few reach the 
lungs. It is found by experiment, when animals are exposed to 
a current of air containing bacteria of a certain kind, that, after 
continuous inhalation for some length of time, bacteria will be 
found in large numbers on the mucous surfaces of the trachea 
and bronchi. If deposited on the mucous surface of the 
mouth, they will be taken into the alimentary tract during 
deglutition (swallowing), but, when taken into the system in 
this manner, they are likely to be destroyed on reaching the 
stomach—that is, if there is a normal condition of the digestive 
organs. If starvation exists, or if the stomach has been over¬ 
loaded, they will pass directly through into the lower portion of 
the alimentary canal. The presence of hydrochloric acid in 
the stomach during normal digestion, or when the digestive 
organs are in a perfectly healthy state, will destroy bacteria and 
their spores. For the above reason many persons are supposed 
to be immune from disease, when the digestion is perfectly nor¬ 
mal, that would be affected when the digestion is weakened 
by disease. 


494 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Bacteria are found in all surface water, such as lakes, ponds, 
pools, open wells, large and small streams, creeks, and rivers. 
Water of the streams carries bacteria from one point to another. 
The water of the drainage channels may carry infectious bacteria 
to a great distance, disseminating disease along its route, where 
water is used for culinary and drinking purposes. Fecal matter 
and other infectious material, that have been thrown into sewers, 
which empty into streams, or have been thrown into the streams 
themselves, are carried to larger streams, which furnish cities 
with their water supply. The pathogenic bacteria are there 
pumped into the water pipes, which carry the water and dis¬ 
tribute it to the different parts of the city, where it is used, thus 
disseminating disease. 

Nompathogenic bacteria are found in the earth near the sur¬ 
face and all places where vegetation exists. The pathogenic 
bacteria which cause bubonic plague, anthrax, tetanus, etc., are 
found frequently in the earth in the locality where the disease 
previously prevailed, especially in the countries of the torrid 
regions. These bacteria sometimes retain their vitality for a 
long time, and may be the means of developing the disease when 
the source is seemingly obscure. For this reason all excreta and 
the affected material from patients dying of infectious diseases, 
should be disposed of by being burned, deeply buried, or thor¬ 
oughly disinfected. 


CHAPTER XXXIX. 


INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 


An infectious disease is one that is caused by the invasion and 
multiplication within the body of pathogenic organisms derived 
from various sources, as from the air we breathe, the water we 
drink, the food we eat, and the clothes we wear. 

A contagious disease is an infectious disease that is communi¬ 
cable from one person to another, either directly or indirectly, as 
by contact, or through the air near by, etc. 

For an infectious disease to develop in the living organism, a 
disposition towards the disease must be present. For instance, 
if the tubercular bacilli come into contact with the lung tissue 
of one born of consumptive parents, consumption will develop ; 
while, with those born of parents in whom no consumption Taints 
exist, the tubercular bacilli will not grow, even when received 
into the lungs. Usually disease germs can afford opportunity, 
for the manifestation of this disposition, only when they come in 
contact with it. That is the broad meaning of the word infec¬ 
tion. From this viewpoint, accordingly, the condition of the 
general surroundings of life, such as air, water, soil, and kind of 
nourishment, may be of importance, by virtue of being the means 
by which the disease germ is first introduced into the body, and 
should be considered carefully. 

The various channels through which bacteria enter the body 
are the mouth, lungs, and skin. The organs affected in an infec¬ 
tious disease are sometimes at the place where the disease germ 
enters, and sometimes in tissues remote but more disposed 
toward the disease. From this standpoint, we classify only those 
diseases as contagious, which can be directly communicated by 

495 




496 


CHAMPION TEXT .BOOK ON EMBALMING 


mere contact with the sick ; and those as non-contagious which 
are not transmitted directly from the sick, but are caused by 
external agents. Both probabilities of communication exist in 
the great majority of infectious diseases; one or the other is the 
more usual merely. If this be the case, such infectious diseases 
as malaria, typhoid fever, cholera, etc., are not contagious, but 
smallpox, scarlatina, measles, etc., are always contagious. The 
word contagion is used in a much narrower sense than that 
of infection. It should be remembered that all contagious 
diseases are infectious, but all infectious diseases are not con¬ 
tagious. 

The embalmer should be very careful in the preparation of 
bodies dying from contagion, as disease can be disseminated very 
easily when persons are allowed to come in contact with a body 
that is not properly disinfected. All measures that he may be 
able to apply to prevent such a result should be employed. He 
should follow strictly the rules adopted by the health boards of 
his community and the shipping agents of the country. • Neither 
bribery nor influence of any kind should deter the embalmer from 
his duty, as a failure to prepare a body properly may result in 
the prevalence of an endemic or epidemic, which would menace 
the lives of many. 


CHANNELS OF INFECTION. 

The common mode of infection in tetanus, erysipelas, hospital 
gangrene, and all other traumatic infectious diseases, is through 
an open wound or abrasion of the skin. Infectious diseases that 
are not traumatic may also be transmitted in the same way. 
The possibility of infection occurring through the broken skin 
has been proved bv a number of bacteriologists. That tuber¬ 
culosis has been transmitted to man by accidental inoculation 
of an open wound has been demonstrated satisfactorily. This 
being the case, other infectious diseases may be transmitted in a 
similar manner. 





INFECTION AND CONTAGION 


497 


There is no doubt that infection may occur also through the 
mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, which is shown by 
the experiments of Buchner ; this has also been demonstrated by 
a number of bacteriologists. Buchner mixed dry anthrax spores 
with lycopodium powder, and caused mice and guinea pigs to 
respire an atmosphere containing this powder in suspension. 
In sixty-six experiments of which he noted the results, fifty died 
of anthrax, nine of pneumonia, and seven survived. It was 
proved, by comparative experiments, in which animals were fed 
with double the quantity of spores used in the inhalation, that 
infection did not occur through the mucous membrane of the ali¬ 
mentary canal. In his experiments on thirty-five animals fed in 

this wav, but a smaller number contracted anthrax. It was 
«/ ' 

demonstrated by the microscopic examination of sections, and by 
culture experiments, that the infection occurred through the 
lungs. These experiments showed that the lungs were exten¬ 
sively invaded, while, in many of the'cases, no bacilli were found 
in. the spleen. It seems to be well established that in man infec¬ 
tion of anthrax, may occur by way of the respiratory organs. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY AND IMMUNITY. 

In general biology, no questions are more interesting or more 
important, from a practical viewpoint, than those which relate 
to the susceptibility of certain species of bacteria, and those that 
relate to the natural or acquired immunity from such pathogenic 
action, which is possessed by other animals. That certain infec¬ 
tious diseases, now demonstrated to be caused by micro-organ¬ 
isms, prevail only or principally among animals of single species, 
has long been known. Typhoid fever, cholera, and relapsing 
fever are diseases of man ; the lower animals do not suffer from 
them when they are prevailing as an epidemic. Conversely, man 
has immunity from many diseases which are infectious among 
lower animals. Exceptional susceptibility and immunity may be 
due to family or race characteristics ; thus, the white race is more 


39 


498 


CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 




susceptible to yellow fever than the colored race. Again, this 
disease is not so fatal in its results among the Latin races of the 
tropics, as among the inhabitants of Northern Europe. Among 
negroes and dark-skinned people, smallpox is exceptionally fatal. 

A single attack commonly confers immunity from subsequent 
attacks in infectious diseases. This is true of eruptive fevers, 
yellow fever, mumps, whooping cough, and, to some extent at 
least, of typhoid fever and syphilis, but is not true of epidemic 
influenza, croupous pneumonia, and Asiatic cholera. In these 
latter diseases second attacks frequently occur. Diphtheria, 
erysipelas, and gonorrhea, are localized infectious diseases, and 
do not prevent subsequent attacks. 

There are two classes into which we are able to group infec¬ 
tious diseases. In one there is general infection followed by 
immunity; in the other, local infection without subsequent 
immunity. The immunity, following attacks of the eruptive 
fevers and specific, febrile, infectious diseases generally, is not 
absolute. Although a large majority of those who suffer an 
attack of smallpox, scarlet fever, or yellow fever have an immun¬ 
ity for life, second attacks do occur occasionally. 

It seems probable that a certain degree of immunity, of limited 
duration, is acquired in the diseases named in which one attack 
is not recognized generally as preventing future attacks. The 
invaded tissues in localized infection, as in gonorrhea and ery¬ 
sipelas, appear after a time to acquire a certain tolerance to the 
pathogenic action of the invading parasite, and no doubt recovery 
would occur from these diseases after a time without medical 
assistance. In some diseases, such as diphtheria, cholera, and 
epidemic influenza, a certain degree of immunity is afforded, as a 
second attack does not occur often during the same epidemic. It 
is reasonable to believe that recent mild, as well as severe, attacks 
will confer immunity, as is observed in cases of smallpox, scarlet 
fever, yellow fever, etc. In smallpox, vaccination is a simple 
method of conferring immunity. 





CHAPTER XL. 




DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS. 


Disinfection means the destruction of infectious material, and 
this can only be accomplished by the use of disinfectants. Disin¬ 
fectants must not be confounded with antiseptics and deodorants. 
A disinfectant kills both the disease-producing and the putre¬ 
factive organisms, and, therefore, necessarily, answers the purpose 
of an antiseptic, and also, to a certain extent, of a deodorant. An 
antiseptic arrests putrefaction or fermentation by the prevention 
of the growth of micro-organisms while it is present, but does not, 
of necessity, kill them ; for this reason, it can not take the place 
of a disinfectant. Deodorants are used only for the destruction 
of bad odors, not having any effect at all upon bacteria. It is 
true most of the disinfectants are deodorants—that is, they 
destroy odors as well as the bacteria that produce them. 

Strictly speaking, specific disinfection implies dealing with 
infection. In its popular and wider sense, however, it embraces 
purification in all its applications. The burning of volatile sub¬ 
stances, the libation of liquids, and the sprinkling of powdery 
compounds on a large scale, are but feeble or futile substitutes for 
physical or chemical means of destroying infection. In the 
process of cleansing and purification, all stable and unstable 
substances, whether they be of organic or inorganic character, 
are dealt with either by physical or chemical means. Physical 
means should be applied to all movable material without regard 
to their preservation. They should be disposed of, either by 
burial or fire, unless they can be disinfected thoroughly by such 
means as will be given hereinafter, depending always upon the 
proximity of dwellings, and other conditions. Under some cir- 

499 




500 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK OX EMBALMING 


cuinstances they might be deposited upon the surface at a 
distance from any residence, but this is not advisable. Objects 
that cannot be removed should be washed and scraped, and the 
resultant refuse should be removed or destroyed by burning. 

There are other methods, in addition to the above, that should 
be adopted, in preference to the more temporary methods, as by 
the use of chemicals, usually resorted to for treating organic, 
decomposing matter. It is the process of chemical treatment of 
decomposable refuse that popularly and fallaciously passes under 
the name of disinfection. The usual habit of styling many 
substances disinfectants, which are not, has fostered this idea. 

Putrefaction is due to the presence and growth of bacteria in 
their beneficent work of resolving organic substances into their 
innocuous elements. Malodorous gases are given off during 
putrefaction, and deodorants, whether by breaking up the gases 
or overpowering the odor, or absorbing it, produce little or no 
effect. The odors of decomposing substances themselves are the 
telbtales of filth, and overcoming them by the use of deodorants 
is a fallacious remedy. To prevent these odors, preservation 
against decomposition—thus preventing the odoriferous stage 
being reached — is effected by the use of antiseptics. The appli¬ 
cation of antiseptics, however, is limited to substances and places 
where removal or destruction, either temporary or permanent, 
cannot be accomplished. Moreover, antiseptics require careful 
and discriminate employment to be of real value in preventing 
the growth of micro-organisms in organic substances. 

Food is preserved by physical means, such as cold, exclusion 
or filtration of the air, and by chemical means, as smoking, salt¬ 
ing, and the use of other chemical substances. Interest in the 
preservation of food, in this connection, only lies in the fact that 
it shows that preservatives, in their effects on organic matter, are 
closely allied to antiseptics. 

The only antiseptics that should be used in the practice of 
disinfection, are those which, as germicides, not only prevent the 


DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS 


501 


growth of, but are directly fatal to, bacteria. In the treatment 
ol organic matter, destruction of the germs, rather than the 
prevention of their growth, would be much the safer practice. 
Therefore, disinfectants should always be used instead of anti¬ 
septics. It should be remembered, however, that disinfectants, 
when used in a very diluted or weakened state, become, or only 
act as, antiseptics. 

In a more restricted and accurate sense, disinfection implies 
the destruction of infection produced by the specific micro* 
organisms of disease, as distinguished from pollution by the 
ordinary or non-specific micro-organisms. It must be admitted 
that our knowledge as yet scarcely enables us to draw a sharp 
line of demarkation between pathogenic and non-pathogenic 
organisms, especially in reference to the cause of septic diseases ; 
yet, in the recognized infectious diseases, whether the specific 
organisms producing them have been discovered or not, disin¬ 
fection should be applied for the destruction of the specific in¬ 
fection. The only means of knowing positively that the specific 
infection in matter is destroyed absolutely, is by subjecting some 
of the infected material to actual experiment by cultivation of 
known micro-organisms. This can be done properly only by 
the practical bacteriologist. 

Thus restricted to the destruction of the specific infection, the 
process of disinfection admits of the application of various meas¬ 
ures by mechanical means and by physical and chemical agents. 
Some of the physical means in use are cleansing, exposure to 
light, burning, moist and dry heat, boiling in water, etc. Moist 
heat or steam is far more effective than dry heat, as the distribution 
of the latter is too unequal, and does not penetrate bulky, articles. 
With many substances, boiling in water is most efficacious. 

But few of the chemical agents, lauded as disinfectants, pos¬ 
sess any real germicidal power. Some are more or less anti¬ 
septic, while a large number are merely deodorant, and many 
are more or less inert. 


502 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 


The effects of a germicide depend upon the quantity in wlncli 
it is used, and the length of time during which it is allowed to 
act. Even the best disinfectant may be used in such small 
quantities, or the material to be disinfected may dilute it to such 
an extent, that its action may be rendered nil, or at most only 
that of an antiseptic. This is what occurs very frequently in 
actual practice. 

The extensive and valuable experiments of Koch upon anthrax 
spores, with a large number of chemical agents in solution, 
showed that these spores were killed within one day’s exposure 
only by clilorin, bromin (2 per cent.), iodin, chlorid of mercury 
(1 per cent.), permanganate of potash (5 per cent.), and osmic 
acid (1 per cent.) Pure oil of turpentine required five days’ 
exposure ; hydrochloric acid (2 per cent.), ten days ; chlorid of 
iron (5 per cent.), six days ; chlorid of lime (5 per cent.), five 
days ; formic acid, four days. The latter class is entirely out of 
the question, as, under ordinary conditions, disinfection must be 
completed in minutes rather than hours. Osmic acid is not fit 
for practical use, and the excessive quantity of permanganate of 
potash that would be required, removes this agent from the list. 
There remain, therefore, of the first class, only bichlorid of mercury 
and the halogens, that can be used to advantage in actual practice. 

Bichlorid of mercury in solution has been shown to be one of the 
most convenient and most powerful disinfectants. Koch demon¬ 
strated that, used in the proportion of 1 : 1,000,000, the growth of 
anthrax bacilli was checked; while 1 : 333,333 arrested the 
growth, and 1 : 1,000 killed the anthrax spores in ten minutes. 
The experiments of Klein were in the main confirmatory of those 
of Koch, but stronger solutions were required to produce the 
same results. Differences in results, in experiments witli disin¬ 
fectants, due usually to varying conditions, render it difficult to 
estimate their true value. 

The experiments of Koch with carbolic acid have lost that agent 
its hitherto high reputation as a disinfectant. He found that.it 





DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS 


503 


required a 1 per cent, solution more than a day to kill anthrax 
bacilli, and a 5 per cent, solution twenty Tour hours to destroy 
the infection in tuberculous sputum. 

Iodin, bromin, and chlorin, known as the halogens, are used 
in the form of gases, in a similar manner, to nitrous and sulphur¬ 
ous acid gases. But the use of these agents, on account of their 
destructive effects, have been practically discontinued since the 
introduction of formaldehyde gas. 

Formaldehyde gas is now recognized as the best agent, in the 
form of gas, lor the disinfection of rooms, their contents, cloth¬ 
ing, etc. Its use is not limited to the gaseous form, as it com¬ 
bines with water and alcohol in any strength, in which liquid 
form it may be applied to many uses. 

Abbott says : 

“In the destruction of bacteria by means of chemical sub¬ 
stances, there occurs most probably a definite chemical reaction ; 
that is to say, the character of both the bacteria and the agent 
employed in their destruction are lost in the production of a 
third body, the result of their combination. It is impossible to 
say with absolute certainty, as yet, that this is the case, but the 
evidence that is rapidly accruing from the more recent studies 
upon disinfectants and their mode of action, point strongly to 
the accuracy of this belief. This reaction, in which the typical 
structure of both bodies concerned is lost, takes place between 
the agent employed for disinfection and the protoplasma of 
bacteria. For example, in the reaction that is seen to take place 
between the salts of mercury and albuminous bodies, there 
results a third compound, which has neither the characteristics 
of mercury nor of albumin, but partakes of the peculiarities of 
botli ; it is a combination of albumin and mercury known by 
the indefinite term albuminate of mercury. Some such reaction 
as this occurs when the soluble salts of mercury are brought in 
contact with bacteria.” 

Corrosive sublimate is less effective as a germicide in alkalin 
fluids, containing much albuminous substances, than in watery 
solutions. In such fluids, precipitates of albuminates of mercury 


504 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


are formed, which are at first soluble, so that a part of the mer¬ 
curic salt really does not exert any action. If these albuminates 
of mercury are dissolved in an excess of blood or blood-serum, 
they become very effective. In alkalin solutions, such as blood, 
blood=serum, pus, tissueffiuids, etc., the soluble compounds of 
mercury are converted into oxids or hydro-oxids. The soluble 
compounds can remain in solution only when there are present 
sufficient quantities of certain bodies which render solution 
possible. Bodies of this sort are especially the alkalin chlorids, 
and iodids, and, above all, sodium chlorid, and ammonium 
chlorid. A very simple way of preventing precipitation of mer¬ 
cury, then, is to add a suitable quantity of chlorid of sodium to 
the corrosive sublimate. These compounds of mercury, which, 
like the cyanids, are not precipitated with the alkalis, because 
they at once form double salts, require no addition of salt. 
These facts were recognized several decades ago, and were made 
use of in medicine, but had altogether fallen into oblivion, until 
Liebrich, and later Behring, again brought them to light. The 
double salts of mercuric chlorid and sodium chlorid are precipi¬ 
tated by the earthy alkalis, and not by the alkalin carbonates, so 
that the solution should be prepared with distilled or soft water. 

The experiments of Abbott, Geppert, and other bacteriologists, 
have given a new impulse to the study of disinfectants, and have 
caused the modification of many previously formed ideas con¬ 
cerning the action of disinfectants. The fact has been empha¬ 
sized especially that we must use a sufficiently strong disinfectant, 
and enough of it, to destroy the bacteria in the material to be 
disinfected. It is questionable whether material, such as sputa, 
excreta, or blood, containing pathogenic organisms, can be disin¬ 
fected by means of corrosive sublimate, unless used in the 
presence of chlorid of ammonium or chlorid of sodium. If these 
are not present, the sublimate may be used up and rendered 
inactive as a disinfectant by the presence of albumin. We 
believe, however, that, if a strong enough solution of chlorid 






DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS 


505 


% 

of mercury, containing a suitable quantity of chloric! of sodium 
or clilorid of ammonium, be used in sufficient quanity, in con¬ 
tact with the bacteria, for a long enough time, it will insure 
their destruction. 


DEODORANTS — DEODORIZERS. 

A deodorant is a substance or agent that destroys offensive and 
noxious or unhealthful odors. Odors that are offensive and 
noxious, which come from decaying matter, very frequently con¬ 
tain sulphur in some state of combination. Deodorants usually 
produce the effect for which they are used, by causing a chemical 
change in the bodies to which they are applied, but sometimes 
their action destroys or counteracts their volatility by absorbing 
or condensing odorous substances. Charcoal possesses this latter 
property, but indirectly may produce chemical changes, by 
bringing the odorous substances into contact with oxygen in a 
condensed and active condition. 

Deodorants may be divided into volatile and nonvolatile 
classes. The action of volatile deodorants is exclusively chemical, 
being intended to act on bodies which are themselves volatile. 
They admit of more generally useful application than those 
which are nonvolatile. The most important members of this 
class are chlorin and its lower oxids ; sulphurous acid, nitrous 
acid, and other oxids of nitrogen, ozone, and peroxid of hydrogen. 

Volatile deodorants are of two kinds; those that destroy or 
remove noxious smells, and those which merely cover one smell 
with another. In the selection and use, then, of volatile deodor¬ 
ants, it is necessary to distinguish between them. Carbolic acid, 
for instance, is of little use as a deodorant, while it is very valu¬ 
able as a disinfectant. It acts as a deodorant by covering a 
weaker odor with its powerful odor, rendering it less objectionable 
or imperceptible. On the other hand, clilorid of lime possesses a 
strong and characteristic smell, and is capable of destroying other 
noxious odors, and is, therefore, an excellent deodorant. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The chemical action, by which odors are destroyed, is princi¬ 
pally one of oxidation, and, therefore, this class of deodorants are 
generally oxidizing agents. The natural deodorant contained 
in the atmosphere is ozone or active oxygen, which, no doubt, 
largely contributes to the destruction of noxious vapors in the 
air. Volatile oils, which emanate from flowers and other parts 
of plants, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, produce peroxid 
of hydrogen, and this, as an oxidizing agent, possesses deodor¬ 
izing, as well as disinfectant, properties. 

Charcoal, earth, lime, oxid of iron, sulphate of iron, chlorid of 
zinc, nitrate of lead, and permanganate of potash, are non-volatile 
deodorants. These are very efficient, when brought into contact 
with noxious gases, which emanate from decaying matter, 
although they are less generally useful than they would be 
otherwise on account of their non-volatile character. Charcoal 
owes much of its efficiency to the surface attraction and power 
of condensation, which it possesses as a deodorant, by virtue of 
which it brings noxious gases, such as sulpliureted hydrogen, 
into contact with oxygen in a condensed and active state, so that 
they are burned up and resolved into innoxious compounds, 
or compounds less noxious than those from which they are 
produced. 

Earth and oxid of iron, which, like charcoal, are used in the 
solid or dry, or nearly dry state, absorb and combine w 7 ith or 
promote the combination of noxious gases, forming innoxious 
products. Lime may be used either dry-or in a liquid state, as 
milk of lime. The other substances named above are used in 
the form of a watery solution. 


CHAPTER XLI. 


ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. 


All material containing the germs of infectious disease is 
infectious material, and it is disinfected by the application of 
agents which destroy the living disease^germs or pathogenic 
bacteria that give it its infecting power. Such agents are called 
disinfectants. The use of the term disinfectant is extended to 
germicides in general, that is, to those which kill noil-pathogenic, 
as well as those which destroy pathogenic, bacteria. All disin¬ 
fectants are also antiseptics, for agents which destroy the vitality 
of the bacteria of putrefaction, arrest the putrefactive process. 
Thus these agents, in less amount than is required to completely 
destroy vitality, arrest growth and act as antiseptics ; but not 
all antiseptics are germicides. 


ANTISEPTICS. 


The following agents in various strengths act as antiseptics, 
while in stronger solution they become effective disinfectants and 
‘germicides. They are antiseptic in the following proportions : — 


lodid of mercury, 1: 40000. 
Peroxid of hydrogen, 1: 20000. 
Bichlorid of mercury, 1: 14300. 
Osmic acid, 1: 1666. 

Chlorin, 1: 4000. 

Iodin, 1: 4000. 

Hydrocyanic acid, 1: 2500. 
Bromin, 1: 1666. 

Thymol, 1: 1340. 

Sulphate of copper, 1: 1111. 
Salicylic acid, 1: 1000. 

Cyanid of potassium, 1:909. 
Ammonia, 1: 714. 

Chlorid of zinc, 1:526. 

Carbolic acid, 1: 333. 

Permang: 


Alum, 1: 222. 

Tannin, 1: 207. 

Arsenious acid, 1: 166. 

Boric acid, 1: 143. 

Sulphate of strychnia, 1: 143. 
Arsenite of soda, 1: 111. 

Hydrate of chloral, 1: 107. 
Salicylate of soda, 1: 100. 

Sulphate of iron, 1: 90. 

Chlorid of lime, 1:25. 

Borate of soda, 1: 14. 

Alcohol, 1: 10. 

Chlorid of ammonium, 1: 9. 
Arsenite of potash, 1: 8. 

Chlorid of sodium (common salt), 
of potash, 1: 285. 


1 : 6 . 


507 




508 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


DISINFECTANTS. 

The following is a list of some of the practical disinfectant 
agents, giving their germicidal values : — 

Carbonate of ammonia, in solution 1 : 77, is a disinfectant suf¬ 
ficiently strong to kill the cholera spirillum in five hours. 

Fluosilicate of ammonium, in a 2 per cent, solution, will kill 
anthrax spores in from fifteen to forty^five minutes. 

Chlorid of lime in solution, containing 25 per cent, of available 
chlorin, is a very powerful germicidal agent and has great value 
as a practical disinfectant. It is effectual as a germicide when 
allowed to act for only a minute or two. It is very inexpensive, 
and can be used in large quantities at a very small cost. It can 
be procured in any drug-store, and should be used in solution of 
about six ounces to the gallon of water. 

Sulphate of copper, used in solution 1 : 3000, will kill the 
cholera spirillum in ten minutes. A solution 1 : 20 kills the 
typhoid bacillus in the same time. It is cheap, and can be used 
for disinfecting such material as waste, excreta, etc., but is very 
destructive to colors in fabrics, walls, etc. 

Sulphate of iron in solution has been recommended by some 
authors for the purpose of disinfecting excreta, cess=pools, etc., 
but its action is too weak for practical purposes. 

Protochlorid of manganese is a very valuable agent as an anti¬ 
septic and germicide for general disinfecting purposes. It .should 
be used in proportion of 1 : 500 to 1 : 1000. 

Cyanid of mercury is one of the strongest disinfectants, is very 
poisonous, and will kill all bacteria and their spores in a very 
short time, in solution of 1 :1000 to 1 : 2000. 

Iodid of mercury, in a solution of 1 : 40000, has antiseptic 
value, and, in a stronger solution, will destroy all kinds of 
bacteria. 

Arsenite of potassium is not a disinfectant of much value ; but, 
when used in strong solution for injecting purposes, it will pre¬ 
serve and harden tissue, and has been used from time to time in 



ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS 


509 


combination with other chemicals in the manufacture of embalm¬ 
ing fluids. 

Bichromate of potash is antiseptic in the proportion of 1 : 909, 
and, in a stronger solution, is a disinfectant and will kill bacteria 
and spores of all kinds. 

Bromid of potassium, in a 1 per cent, solution, will destroy 
the bacilli of typhoid fever and the cholera spirilla in five 
hours. 

Chlorid of mercury (mercuric chlorid or corrosive sublimate) 
is one of the strongest disinfectants and can be used in many 
ways. In simple solution, it is less effective as a germicide, in 
all alkalin fluids containing much albuminous substance, than 
in watery fluids. In such fluids, precipitates of albuminates 
of mercury are formed, which render the mercuric salt more or 
less inert; but the precipitated albuminate of mercury in due 
time will be redissolved, if an excess of albumin is present, when 
it will have its usual germicidal effect upon the material which 
is to be disinfected. To make it positively effective in albumin¬ 
ous substance, sodium or potassium chlorid should be added in 
the proportion of five parts of either of the latter, to one part 
of the sublimate in solution. The sodium or potassium will 
prevent the precipitation above mentioned ; it will also prevent 
the action of light from producing alterations in the mercuric 
chlorid. Chlorid of mercury should be used in solution 1 : 500 
or 1 : 1000. 

Calcium hydrate, in the form of milk of lime (freshly 
slaked lime, 1 part; water, 4 parts), applied bv whitewashing 
walls of apartments, outdiouses, pavements, walks, etc., is a 
very valuable disinfectant agent, but its more practical use is 
its application for the disinfection of excreta, especially that 
from typhoid and cholera patients. It should be mixed inti¬ 
mately with the discharges, until the mixture gives a strong 
alkalin reaction, using at least one quart to each stool. In 
this manner all excreta may be rendered perfectly harmless. 


510 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Carbolic acid, when used in a 5 to 10 per cent, solution, is very 
effective as a germicidal agent, but its use is limited in general 
practice on account of its somewhat disagreeable odor and its 
irritating effect, when coming in contact with the skin of those 
who handle it. Crude carbolic acid, to which has been added 
an equal volume of concentrated sulphuric acid, is very effective 
in the disinfection of excreta, etc. It should be kept artificially 
cold when being mixed. 

Nitrate of silver may be placed next to mercuric chlorid as an 
efficient germicide, and it is claimed by some to be even superior 
to that salt in albuminous fluids. It cannot be used upon fabrics, 
or even in embalming fluids, on account of its peculiar staining 
qualities. 

Chlorid of zinc is a disinfectant in strong solutions, but will 
prevent the growth of bacteria in about 1 : 200 or 1 : 300. Its 
principal use is in the manufacture of embalming fluids, on 
account of its great hardening qualities. 

Sulphate of zinc, in dry powder, is antiseptic, but its prin¬ 
cipal use is that of drying and hardening soft decomposing 
animal matter. It is used as the base of all dessicating or 
hardening compounds. 

The Committee on Disinfectants of the American Public 
Health Association made a very exhaustive investigation with 
reference to the germicidal value of various agents. Its report 
embodied some important conclusions, the substance of which 
is included in the following: — 

The most useful agents for the destruction of spore^containing 
infectious material are a complete destruction by fire ; exposure 
to steam under pressure 221° F. ; boiling water for half an hour 
to an hour ; the application of chlorid of lime 6 ounces to the 
gallon ; mercuric chlorid solution 1 : 500. 

For the destruction of infectious material which does not con¬ 
tain spores: Complete destruction by burning (fire); boiling 
in water for ten minutes ; exposure to dry heat 230° F. for two 



ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS 


511 


hours; the application of a 2 per cent, solution of chlorid of 
lime ; a 10 per cent, solution of chlorinated soda ; biclilorid of 
mercury 1 : 2000 ; a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid ; a 5 
per cent, solution of sulphate of copper ; a 10 per cent, solution 
of chlorid of zinc; sulphur dioxid (sulphur fumes) exposure 
for twelve hours in an air-tight compartment, moisture being 
present. 

We would add to the above formaldehyde gas, which can be 
used in place of moist or dry heat, it being one of the strongest 
germicides, and having no deleterious effects upon any fabric or 
surface with which it comes in contact. The best methods for 
using sulphur dioxid and formaldehyde gas will be given in the 
following chapter. 

The best agents for disinfecting excreta from the body, are : 
chlorid of lime in a 4 per cent, solution, and the combination of 
crude carbolic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid, as given 
above. 

The best disinfectant for privy vaults is chlorid of lime in 
powder or a 4 per cent, solution. 

Soiled underclothing, bed linen, and other washable material, 
if worn out or of little value, should be destroyed by fire ; if not 
worn out, or if of value, they should be boiled for at least a half 
hour or more. Bed clothing, wearing apparel, such as woolens 
and silks, and other fabrics, which would be injured by immersion 
in water, should be exposed with moisture to formaldehyde gas 
in an air-tight compartment. The mattresses and blankets, 
soiled by the discharges of the sick, should be destroyed by fire, 
or, after opening up, should be exposed to formaldehyde gas. 
Rooms with their contents, articles of furniture, etc., may be 
completely disinfected by subjecting them to the fumes of sul¬ 
phur or formaldehyde gas in the manner described in the follow¬ 
ing chapter. 

The hands and general surfaces of the body of those coming 
in contact with the sick or dead, should be washed with a solu- 


512 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


tion of chlorinated soda, 1 : 10, carbolic acid, 1 : 50, or mercuric 
chlorid, 1 : 1000. 

Permanganate of potash is an antiseptic, and, when combined 
with oxalic acid, and used in warm solution, makes an excellent 
wash for the hands, as it has no irritating properties. The hands 
should first be washed with a strong soap, the finger nails 
cleansed, and then washed with the solution. 

To prevent bacteria from passing out from the dead body that 
has not been sterilized, it should be enveloped in a sheet satu¬ 
rated with chlorid of lime in 4 per cent, solution, or mercuric 
chlorid 1 : 500, or carbolic acid in 5 per cent, solution. 

Only some of the most important disinfectants have been 
mentioned, and their strength and application given,- which, no 
doubt, will be changed from time to time, as a result of the 
numerous investigations that are being made by the students 
and practitioners of the science of sanitation. 


CHAPTER XLIL 


DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS. 


The recent methods practiced for the disinfection of rooms and 
their contents, on account of the destructive character of the 
agents usually employed, have been unpopular with the public 
for a long time, and needed reform before this. These methods 
have caused the concealment of many cases of infectious diseases. 
They were an incentive also for the removal of all manner of 
valuable furniture before being disinfected, where disinfection 
was ordered, greatly increasing the chances of dissemination of 
the disease. The persons whose business it was to attend to pub¬ 
lic disinfection, frequently found rooms almost empty when they 
were called upon to do their work, the furniture and other valu¬ 
able articles having been removed to other rooms, or even from 
the house, to prevent their destruction, in part at least, by the 
applications of the disinfectants that were used for the purpose of 
cleansing. This was not due alone to the injurious effect of the 
chemicals, but to a great extent to the carelessness of the disin¬ 
fectors themselves. 

The mechanical methods employed were not distinguishable 
by the general public from ordinary cleansing, which was much 
less harmful. The question of results, however, was much more 
important. Were the majority of the disease germs actually 
destroyed by the methods in use? In a partial sense only, could 
an affirmative answer be given. It is true, articles placed in a 
steam-oven were purified, but the rooms themselves were not dis¬ 
infected properly. Cracks and corners and out=of=way places 
were left unclean, while it was possible to cleanse large surfaces 
and treat them in such a manner that the disease germs were 


40 


513 




514 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


destroyed. But even then the action of the strongest disinfectants 
employed, usually did not last long enough to sterilize the sur¬ 
faces. Even corrosive sublimate 1 : 1000 solution requires about 
thirty minutes of undisturbed action to destroy with certainty 
manv of the various germs. Of course, it could not be admitted 
that they were inefficient, because w T e had nothing better; it 
would have caused such attacks upon the utility ot disinfection, 
that it would have resulted in disinfection being dispensed with 
entirely. 

We cannot expect, under any method, to destroy all germs 
within the sick-room. Some will remain in out-of-way corners 
and in localities outside of the sick-room, or on the clothing or 
person of those who have come into contact with the patient. We 
can only expect to destroy the main masses of disease-producing 
organisms. Flugge says: “When we can destroy over 00 per 
cent, of disease germs present in a room, the dangers of infection 
become almost nothing, and we can be satisfied with the disin¬ 
fection. This cannot, of course, be done with our previous 
methods, which does not, however, discredit them as partially 
successful and the best that could be employed. We are ready 
to give them up as soon as the search for a more suitable method 
is indubitably successful.” 

That which constitutes one of the chief means for the preven¬ 
tion of the dreaded disease, is a thorough disinfection of the 
room and contents which are infected with the diseaseqproducing 
organisms. The results of the methods which aim to accomplish 
this, must stand the test of a thorough laboratory trial. A trial 
or test of this kind mav be more severe- than those made in 
actual practice, but yet it constitutes the onty safe guide of wdiat 
a given agent is capable of doing. How much of the disinfectant 
is to be used, the length of time it is to act, the influence of the 
presence or absence of moisture, or how the contents of the room 
are to be arranged in order to secure disinfection, can alone be 
decided by the laboratory experiment. To pile bedding and 














DISINFECTION OF BOOMS AND T1IEIR CONTENTS 515 

clothing in heaps upon the floor, and burn three or more pounds 
ot sulphur, leaving the room closed for several hours, and then 
assume that everything is done that can be done, is not suf¬ 
ficient. the disinfection of a room is a very delicate experiment 
and the various conditions which are necessary to success should 
be well understood before being put into practice. The vari¬ 
ous organisms are not acted upon by chemical disinfectants in 
the same manner always, unless their environments and sur¬ 
roundings are exactly the same. Then, too, while under some 
conditions, the most resistent are destroyed easily, under other 
conditions they cannot be destroyed at all. Thus, while the 
anthrax spores in water suspension will be destroyed by cor¬ 
rosive sublimate very readily, if placed in a highly albumin¬ 
ous fluid, such as the blood, they may not be affected at all. 

These conditions are equally true for gaseous disinfectants. 
The very best gaseous disinfectant may fail simply because too 
much is expected of it. A gaseous disinfectant is not as pene¬ 
trating as is supposed by some. The most that we can expect 
from it is the destruction of the bacteria on the surface ; even if 
it is only a surface disinfectant it will accomplish all that is 
necessary, if properly applied. We cannot expect gas to pene¬ 
trate through several mattresses or large bundles of blankets ; and 
it is not necessary for it to do so, for it is possible to separate the 
blankets and hang them upon a line, and open up mattresses and 
allow the gas to come in direct contact with the germs that may 
be contained therein, so as to destroy them. 

Fumigation by the use of sulphur has been practiced for years, 
but its efficiency has been doubted largely, probably because too 
much was expected from it. Because sulphur fumes do not kill 
the anthrax spores and other resisting organisms, there is no 
good reason for us to conclude, at once, that it will fail to destroy 
the infection of scarlet fever, measles, or smallpox, for the simple 
reason that we do not know anything about the germs of the 
latter diseases. The organisms that produce these diseases pos- 


516 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


sibly may be destroyed as easily as those of cholera, diphtheria, 
and black plague. If that be the case, then the use of sulphur 
fumes as a disinfectant in those diseases would be perfectly satis¬ 
factory, as far as the destruction of these germs is concerned. 
There are other reasons why formaldehyde or some other gas 
would be better, but we do know, that, if fumigation by sulphur 
is properly carried out, it will prevent the dissemination or spread 
of certain of the infectious diseases. 

Recently formaldehyde gas has attracted much attention as a 
disinfectant. A number of different forms of apparatus have 
been devised for its generation and employment. Some of these 
are worthless, or at least unreliable, while others can be depended 
upon at all times. 

To disinfect a room with gases, it is necessary to make it as 
nearly air-tight as possible. The walls and windows should be 
examined carefully and all cracks closed. Cracks in the walls 
should be closed with plaster of Paris or putty ; those between 
the wash-boards and floors should be caulked with muslin pre¬ 
viously moistened with a 1 : 500 solution of mercuric clilorid ; 
also cracks around the windows and doors (except the one for 
exit) should be caulked in the same manner. Open grates, air= 
chambers, registers, and all other openings, should be closed. The 
throats of chimneys in grates can be closed with bundles of old 
clothes. The cracks around the door for exit can be closed on 
the outside. 

SULPHUR FUMES (SULPHUR DIOXID). 

• • 

If the room is to be fumigated by the use of sulphur it will 
require from three to six pounds to be burned for each 1000 
cubic feet of space. To make it effective it will be necessary to 
moisten the surface of the walls, fabrics, furniture, and other 
material contained therein. If sulphur is burned and every¬ 
thing allowed to remain dry, its destructiveness will be almost 
nil, but its efficiency as a disinfectant will be very limited. 
Moisture renders it very effective in the destruction of the germs, 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 517 

but at the same time it increases its destructive qualities to 
fabrics, polished metals, and surfaces, to such a degree that it 
is almost impossible to use it for the purpose of disinfecting 
rooms. Again, there are certain bacteria, especially their spores, 
that it will not destroy, whether moisture is present or not. 

Sulphur fumes are very destructive to the organisms that pro¬ 
duce scarlatina, diphtheria, black plague, etc, and will accomplish 
as much as any other method of disinfection. The sulphur 
should be placed in an iron vessel in the center of the room. A 
little alcohol should be added to aid its combustion. Sulphur 
is somewhat dangerous on account of fire; sometimes, while 
burning, some of the material may be thrown out on to the floor 
in sufficient quantity to set fire to the building. To prevent this 
a large pan with a little water in the bottom should be first 
placed on the floor or table and the iron vessel containing the 
sulphur placed therein. 

The door of exit should then be closed, and the cracks and 
keyhole filled from the outside with strips of muslin soaked in 
bichlorid solution, or by pasting paper over them. The room 
should remain closed for at least twelve hours. 

Prior to igniting the sulphur, the walls and contents of the 
room should be moistened by spraying with water ; or steam 
may be produced in the room by an apparatus for that purpose. 
Spraying with water is more simple and is usually efficient. At 
the end of twelve hours the windows of the room should be 
raised and air admitted very freely, when the sulphur fumes will 
soon disappear. 

By the burning of sulphur, sulphurous acid is evolved, which 
attacks organic matter, on account of its affinity for oxygen, with 
which it forms sulphuric acid, to which fact is really due the 
greater part of its destructive effect. As stated before, when 
moisture is present, the burning of sulphur is very effective, but 
metal surfaces are attacked and fabrics are destroyed thereby, 
which makes it very objectionable. This destructibility may be 


518 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


obviated to a very great degree, as to metal surfaces, by covering 
them with fresh lard. As the lard cannot he applied in this 
manner to fabrics, those with delicate colors should be removed 
and subjected to dry heat. 

FORMALDEHYDE GAS. 

Disinfection by the use of formaldehyde gas is much more sat¬ 
isfactory. By its use nothing is destroyed ; it has no effect what¬ 
ever upon metals or fabrics, walhpaper, or anything that may be 
contained in the room, and its power of destroying bacteria is less 
limited than that of sulphur. It will destroy all bacteria and 
their spores, even the most tenacious, if the} 7 are in a moist state. 
If moisture is not used with formaldehyde gas in sufficient quan¬ 
tity to dampen the dust, surfaces of walls, fabrics, and other con¬ 
tents that contain bacteria, it will not be nearly so efficacious as 
if moisture is present. 

As stated above, various methods have been invented for its 
production. The so-called formaldehyde gas lamps, which evolve 
the gas from wood-alcohol, are failures, especially on account of 
the small amount of gas produced by them, but there are other 
good reasons that we will not enumerate which would be suffi¬ 
cient to relegate them to the storehouses for plunder. 

The only efficient methods that as yet have been introduced, 
that are worthy of consideration, are those known as the Scher- 
ing method for the regeneration of formaldehyde gas from the 
heating of paraform pastiles, and the distillation of formalde¬ 
hyde gas from formalin. Paraform (polymerized formalin) re¬ 
sults from the simple evaporation or heating of formalin and 
appears as a white, indistinctly crystalline powder, which is 
stable under ordinary conditions, and is made into tablets and 
sold in that form for disinfection. These tablets are placed in a 
lamp made for the purpose and volatilized by heat. They are 
also soluble in hot water or in heated formalin. When dissolved 
in hot water they possess the characteristics of ordinary formalin, 




DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND TIIEIR CONTENTS 519 

while, ii placed in formalin and boiled lor a short time, they will 
increase greatly the quantity ol gas that is produced in a given 
time in formalin distillation. 

Formaldehyde gas was discovered in 1867 by Von Hoff¬ 
man. He produced it by passing the vapor of methyl alcohol 
mixed with air over platinum powder, heated to redness. It is 
now produced by the action of silent electric charges on a mix¬ 
ture of hydrogen and carbonic dioxid. Until 1888 the germi¬ 
cidal properties of formaldehyde gas were unknown. They were 
discovered in that year by Loew. Since that time its great 
efficiency as a disinfectant has been generally recognized. It is 
pronounced far superior to any other general disinfectant in use. 

Formaldehyde gas has the chemical property of uniting with 
sulpliureted or nitrogenous products of decayed fermentation and 
decomposition, forming true chemical compounds, which are 
odorous and sterile. It is from this property of combining chem¬ 
ically with the above substances that formaldehyde derives its 
germicidal power. Bacteria are not only albuminoid in char¬ 
acter, but their food is mainly albuminoid, and when formalde¬ 
hyde is present, it combines with both, thus destroying the 
bacteria as well as their food. 

Allan says'.— 

«/ 

"In this fact lies-the surpassing value of formaldehyde over 
such disinfectants as corrosive sublimate, carbolic acid, lysol, etc., 
for albuminous matter is at once coagulated by contact with 
these agents and resulting antisepsis is more or less superficial; 
while the food solution, being possessed with the chemical affinity 
for albuminoids, thoroughly impregnates and, consequently, ster¬ 
ilizes all such substances with which it comes in contact. Partly 
as a natural sequence, to this property is developed the power of 
hardening and preserving animal tissue, converting soft tissue to 
a hard, leathery mass, depending upon the strength of the solu¬ 
tion and its time of action. This effect is due, as before stated, 
to its penetrating action, whereby it readily reunites with the 
albuminoid substance of the protoplasma of the cells and checks 
all.the putrefactive changes permanently, in dead tissue.” 


I 


520 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

It must be remembered, as stated above, that its power of 
hardening tissues and reducing them to a leathery mass, is de¬ 
pendent upon the strength of the solution and its time of action. 
When formaldehyde gas is injected into the body by the em- 
balmer, for preserving and sterilizing purposes, if the tissues are 
dry, or have an amount of watery constituents in the body equal 
to or less than the normal, the tendency of a strong solution will be 
to harden the tissues before a sufficient amount can be injected to 
reach the capillaries in all parts of the body. The tissues, when 
thus hardened, will prevent the penetration of the gas, which, no 
doubt, occurs very frequently. The results of the injection of 
strong solutions of formaldehyde undoubtedly indicate this, as 
many bodies are not preserved in all their parts, as putrefaction 
takes place here and there in some bodies, while in others, 
decomposition follows as readily as if no disinfectant had been 
injected. For formaldehyde to penetrate, it must be diluted 
greatly with water when injected into what we commonly call a 
dry subject. But, if the case be one of dropsy, formaldehyde, 
having a great affinity for water, will penetrate every part of 
the body readily, if a sufficient quantity of the solution is used. 
The greatest objection to formaldehyde, when used in an embalm¬ 
ing fluid, is its effect upon the tissues, especially its tendency to 
produce an unnatural bluish or grayish color in the exposed sur¬ 
faces of the body. 

Formaldehyde is nompoisonous in any strength. Even para- 
form, which contains 100 per cent, of formaldehyde, if accidently 
swallowed, is perfectly harmless, because of its very slow conver¬ 
sion into the gaseous state at the temperature of the body. It 
does not act injuriously upon the alimentary canal. The 
effect upon the operator is not permanently deleterious. It 
produces a congestion of the mucous membranes of the eyes, 
mouth, nose, and fauces, when it comes in contact with them, 
which, however, will soon pass off, leaving no permanent dis¬ 
turbance. 












DISINFECTION OF DOOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 521 

TO DISINFECT WITH SCHERING’S PASTILLES. 

The room should be closed and made as nearly airtight as 
possible, in the manner directed above. The disinfector, which 
consists of a container, in which to place the pastilles, and a lamp 
with a reservoir, is very simple indeed. The disinfector should 
be placed on an uncovered table, the floor, or other firm support, 
in the center of the room to be disinfected. In addition to 
closing and rendering the room air-tight, the doors of cupboards 
and closets and all drawers should be opened wide, and all bed¬ 
ding and linen should be spread out or hung up. The container 
of the disinfector is now filled with a greater or less number of 
pastilles, that is about two or two and one-half pastilles to each 
cubic meter (35 cubic feet) of space, or 60 to 75 to each 1,000' 
cubic feet of space. To be absolutely certain, two and onedialf 
pastilles should be used for every 35 cubic feet. The latter is suf¬ 
ficient to kill the most resisting micro-organisms, including the 
anthrax spores. 

The reservoir of the lamp is then filled three-fourths full of 
alcohol, about twelve fluid ounces ; or, if wood-alcohol is used, it 
shpuld only be about half full. The wick should be even with 
the level of the tubes, or, at all events, should not project more 
than about one-twelfth of an inch above them, so that the flames 
will not be too high and the apparatus not get too hot. For 
complete disinfection of larger rooms and entire dwellings, two or 
more disinfectors should be employed. After all the wicks are 
lighted, the room should be left and the door tightly closed and 
caulked. If the formalin vapor, which is absolutely innocuous 
to both men and animals, becomes perceptible in the neighboring 
rooms, then their windows should be opened. After twelve to 
twenty-four hours, the windows of the disinfected room should be 
opened, and allowed to remain so for some time, when the 
formalin odor will disappear entirely. Sixty grams of paraform 
pastilles per 1,000 cubic feet of space, are sufficient to destroy, 
within twenty hours, all organisms, regardless of whether they are 


522 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


present as spores or vegetating forms, provided they are moist. 
The walls and floor of the room, and whatever articles are 
present, previously spread out as much as possible, should be 
sprayed with water before exposing to the formalin vaj)ors. 

There is but one objection to the above process of disinfecting 
rooms, and that is the expense. The expense of polymerization, 
which gives rise to paraform, is unnecessary, as formaldehyde 
gas can be distilled from formalin without any trouble or extra 
expense. 

FORMALIN DISTILLATION. 

Formalin is a saturated aqueous solution of formaldehyde gas, 
containing 40 per cent. It occurs as a neutral, colorless, volatile 
liquid of a pungent odor and sharp taste, missible in every pro¬ 
portion with water or alcohol. 

Novy says : “ The fear of polymerization of formalin on boil¬ 

ing, is not w T ell grounded. Certain it is that formalin can be 
distilled from its aqueous solution without polymerization, and 
that the results obtained are every way equal to those obtained 
with paraform, and are decidedly superior to the so-called formalin 
lamps.” 

For the distillation of formaldehyde gas from formalin, an 
apparatus similar to the one shown and described in the accom¬ 
panying cut, should be used. 

The room should be prepared as directed above ; bedsteads and 
other furniture should be moved away from the w^alls, and the 
doors of cupboards and all drawers opened wide; toys, books, 
etc., should be hung or stood up in such a manner as to give the 
gas every access to them. A clothes-horse or wash-line should 
be put in place ; blankets, spreads, rugs, and clothes should be 
hung over it, well separated, and fully unfolded. Mattresses 
should be hung up by means of cords that have been saturated 
in sublimate solution 1 : 500. All clothes, coats, shirts (the latter 
with sticks passed through the arm, coat-collars turned up and 
pockets turned inside out) should be hung on the clothesdine or 




DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONI ENTS 523 


NOVY’S FORMALDEHYDE GAS 
GENERATOR. 

This apparatus consists es¬ 
sentially of two parts, as 
follows: 

First, a copper container, 
having a capacity of about 
two liters (two quarts); a 
funnel tube extends from 
the top into the exterior of 
the container to within one; 
sixteenth of an inch of the 
bottom; it is eleven inches 
in length and five;sixteentli 
of an inch in diameter. An 
inclined tube, about fifteen 
inches in length and five; 
sixteenth of an inch in di¬ 
ameter, screws into the 
dome alongside the funnel. 
This is connected by a short 
piece of rubber tubing to 
another tube about four 
inches in length, which 
readily passes through an 
ordinary keyhole. The fun¬ 
nel tube serves the double 
purpose of introducing the 
formalin solution and to in¬ 
dicate the completion of dis¬ 
tillation, as the formalin 
vapors and steam will issue 
from the tube, when the 
liquid in the container lias 
evaporated down to the level 
of the bottom of the funnel 
tube. 

Second, a large brass, cen- 
tral=draft, kerosene lamp, 
placed in a tripod of the 
same metal, upon which 
rests the container 



Fig. 63.—Novy’s Formaldehyde Gas Generator. 


































524 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

ahorse. The walls, floors, carpets, and all other contents of the 
room, 'should be sprayed with water, sufficient to dampen them. 
Then the door of exit should he closed, and the cracks sealed 
with strips of muslin or putty, and the tube of the distilling 
apparatus inserted in the keyhole. 

To disinfect a room that contains 1000 cu. ft. of space, 150 
c. c. (5 oz.) of formalin should be poured into the apparatus. A 
Bunsen burner, or any other strong flame, should be placed 
underneath it to boil the contents as rapidly as possible. The 
ebullition should be sufficient to distill that amount of formalin 
in from ten to fifteen minutes, as it is necessary to generate the 
gas as rapidly as possible to secure the very best effect. If the 
room has more space, there should be a correspondingly increased 
amount of formalin added to the generator through the funnel. 
This should be added slowly so as not to cool the boiling con¬ 
tents too rapidly. The room should then be left closed for at 
least twelve hours. Then the doors and windows should be 
opened and the apartment ventilated thoroughly. The pungent 
odor of formalin is quite tenacious and will remain, ordinarily, 
for a considerable length of time. Small dishes of ammonium 
placed in various parts of the room will soon obliterate the re¬ 
maining evidences of the use of formaldehyde gas. 

At the close of a distillation it happens frequently that the 
formalin vapor present in the container, condenses and poly¬ 
merizes, producing a solid plug of paraform in the end of the 
funnel of the tube through which the gas escapes. This being 
the case, before the apparatus is used again, it should be ex¬ 
amined carefully, and, if the tubes are found closed, they should 
be opened with a wire, or by gently heating, which latter will 
readily volatilize the paraform. If polymerization should take 
place, a little borax can be added, which will aid in redissolving 
the paraform and prevent further polymerization. 

As will be seen from the illustration and description, the dis¬ 
tilling apparatus is simplicity itself. Any one can use it. Its 


DISINFECTION OF BOOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 525 


great advantages are that one apparatus is all that is needed, 
it matters not how large, or how many rooms are to be disin¬ 
fected. Also, that it can be used for almost any number of 
disinfections in the course of a day. The time required for the 
distillation of sufficient formaldehyde for an 
not be more than twenty or thirty minutes. Being very light 
and small, the apparatus is easily transferred from one point to 
another. It also is under the eye of the operator on the outside 
of the room during the distillation, so there is no danger of fire 
or explosion. The fuel and formalin are comparatively inex¬ 
pensive. 

Formaldehyde gas, whether procured from the volitization of 
paraform pastilles, or distilled from formalin, is undoubtedly the 
most convenient and most satisfactory disinfectant for rooms and 
their contents that is known. Its ultimate effects upon the 
bacteria in many diseases are no more certain than that of sul¬ 
phur, but in the use of sulphur the destruction of material, with 
which it comes in contact, is so great that its use cannot be 
recommended. 


ordinary room will 


CHAPTER XLIII. 


TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES. 





On the 18th and 19th of August, 1897, the National Confer¬ 
ence of the State Boards of Health, was held at Nashville, Tenn. 
A set of Rules for the Transportation of the Dead was reported 
by a committee, which had conferred with representatives of the 
Baggage Agents’ and Funeral Directors’ Associations at Cleve¬ 
land, Ohio, in June of the same year. It was taken up and dis¬ 
cussed section by section and a few slight verbal amendments 
made. As the subject had been very thoroughly studied and 
discussed by the members who represented the different bodies at 
Cleveland, the Conference seemed to be satisfied. After being 
adopted by the Conference of Health Boards, it remained for the 
General Baggage Agents’ Association to take final action, which 
was done at the meeting of their association in Denver, during 
the following October. The following resolutions w’ere adopted 
by the latter association in support of the Shipping Rules : — 

Resolved , That the rules for the transportation of dead bodies, 
as recommended by the joint conference of Health Officers, 
Funeral Directors, and General Baggage Agents, at Cleveland, 
Ohio, June 9, 1897, and corrected and approved by the National 
Conference of the State Boards of Health at Nashville, Tenn., 
August 19, 1897, be approved by this association, and that they 
be put into effect in every State and province, so soon as the 
necessary legislation is obtained or State or province supervision 
and licensing of embalmers and the other essential conditions for 
their enforcement can be arranged for. That members of the 
association cooperate with the State and Provincial Boards of 
Health in the several States and provinces and assist in obtain¬ 
ing the necessary legislation to enable the people to transport 
their dead in the manner and under the safeguards proposed. 

526 






TRANSPOB TA TION • 0/ 7 B ODIES 


527 


Resolved, That the secretary print 1,000 copies of the rules as 
approved, with sample of the transit permit suggested, and that 
copies be sent to the State and Provincial Health Boards and 
Health Officers of the larger cities and the officials of the prin¬ 
cipal railway and steamboat lines. 

Members of the association were appointed to confer with State 
and Provincial Health Officers and ascertain what measures were 
necessary in such States and provinces to give effect to the rules 
as approved. 

THE SHIPPING RULES. 

The following are the rules as adopted : — 

Rule 1 .—The transportation of bodies dead of smallpox, 
Asiatic cholera, yellow fever, typhus fever, or bubonic plague, 
is absolutely forbidden. 

Rule 2 .—The bodies of those who have died of diphtheria, 
(membraneous croup), scarlet fever (scarlatina, scarlet rash), 
glanders, anthrax, or leprosy, shall not be accepted for transpor¬ 
tation unless prepared for shipment by being thoroughly disin¬ 
fected by (a) arterial and cavity injection with an approved 
disinfectant fluid, (b) disinfecting and stopping of all orifices 
with absorbent cotton, and (c) washing the body with the disin¬ 
fectant, all of which must be done by an embalmer, holding a 
certificate as such, approved by the State Board of Health or 
other State Health Authority. After being disinfected as above, 
such body shall be enveloped in a layer of cotton not less than 
one inch thick, completely wrapped in a sheet and bandaged and 
incased in an air-tight zinc, tin, copper, or leaddined coffin, or 
iron casket, all joints and seams hermetically soldered, and all 
enclosed in a strong, tight, wooden box. Or, the body, being 
prepared for shipment by disinfecting and wrapping as above, 
may be placed in a strong coffin or casket, and said coffin or 
casket encased in an air-tight zinc, copper, or tin case, all joints 
and seams hermetically soldered and all enclosed in a strong 
outside wooden box. 


528 


CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK ON EMBALMING 


Rule 3 .—The bodies of those dead of typhoid fever, puerperal 
fever, erysipelas, tuberculosis, and measles, or other dangerous 
communicable diseases, other than those specified in Rules 1 and 
2, may be received for transportation when prepared for ship¬ 
ment by filling cavities with an approved disinfectant, washing 
the exterior of the body with the same, stopping all orifices with 
absorbent cotton, and enveloping the entire body with a layer of 
cotton not less than one inch thick, and all wrapped in a sheet 
and bandaged and encased in an air-tight coffin or casket, provided, 
that this shall apply to bodies only which can reach their destina¬ 
tion within forty-eight hours from the time of death. In all other 
cases such bodies shall be prepared for transportation in conformity 
with Rule 2. But when the body has been prepared for shipment 
by being thoroughly disinfected by an embalmer holding a cer¬ 
tificate as in Rule 2, the air-tight sealing may be dispensed with. 

Rule —The bodies of those dead of diseases that are not con¬ 
tagious, infectious, or communicable, may be received for trans¬ 
portation, when encased in a sound coffin or casket, and enclosed 
in a strong outside wooden box, provided they reach their desti¬ 
nation within thirty hours from time of death. If the body can 
not reach its destination within thirty hours from time of death, 
it must be prepared for shipment by filling the cavities with an 
approved disinfectant, washing the exterior of the body with the 
same, stopping all orifices with absorbent cotton and enveloping 
the entire body with a layer of cotton not less than one inch 
thick and all wrapped in a sheet and bandaged, and encased in 
an air-tight coffin or casket. But when the body has been pre¬ 
pared for shipment by being thoroughly disinfected by an 
embalmer holding a certificate as in Rule 2, the air=tight sealing 
may be dispensed w T ith. 

Rule 5.— In cases of contagious, infectious, or communicable 
diseases, the body must not be accompanied by persons or articles 
which have been exposed to the infection of the disease, unless 
certified by the health officer as having been properly disin- 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 


529 


fected ; and before selling passage tickets, agents shall carefully 
examine the transit permit and note the name of the passenger 
in charge, and of any others proposing to accompany the body, 
and see that all necessary precautions have been taken to prevent 
the spread of the disease. The transit permit in such cases 
shall specifically state who is authorized by the health authori¬ 
ties to accompany the remains. In all cases where bodies are 
forwarded under Rule 2, notice must be sent by telegraph to 
health officer at destination, advising the date and train on 
which the body may be expected. This notice must be sent by 
or in the name of the health officer at the initial point, and is to 
enable the health officer at destination to take all necessary pre¬ 
cautions at that point. 

Rule 6 .—Every dead body must be accompanied by a person 
in charge, who must be provided with a passage ticket and also 
present a full first-class ticket marked “ Corpse ” for the transpor¬ 
tation of the body, and a transit permit — showing physician’s or 
coroner’s certificate, health officer’s permit for removal, under¬ 
taker’s certificate, name of deceased, date and hour of death ; age, 
place of death, cause of death, and, if of a contagious, infectious or 
communicable nature, the point to which the body is to be 
shipped, and when death is caused by any of the diseases speci¬ 
fied in Rule 2, the names of those authorized by the health 
authorities to accompany the body. The transit permit must be 
made in duplicate, and the signatures of physician or coroner, 
health officer, and undertaker, must be on both the original and 
duplicate copies. The undertaker’s certificate and paster of the 
original shall be detached from the transit permit and pasted on 
the coffin box. The physician’s certificate and transit permit 
shall be handed to the passenger in charge of the corpse. The 
whole duplicate copy shall be sent to the official in charge of the 
baggage department of the initial line, and by him to the Secre¬ 
tary of State or Provincial Board of Health of the State or prov¬ 
ince from which said shipment was made. 


41 


530 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


Rule 7 .—When dead bodies are shipped by express the whole 
original transit permit shall be pasted upon the outside box and 
the duplicate forwarded *by the express agent to the Secretary of 
the State or Provincial Board of Health of the State or province 
from which said shipment was made. 

Rule 8 .—Every disinterred body, dead from any disease or 
cause, shall be treated as infectious or dangerous to the public 
health, and shall not be accepted for transportation unless said 
removal has been approved by the State or Provincial health 
authorities having jurisdiction where such body is disinterred, 
and the consent of the health authorities of the locality to which 
the corpse is consigned has first been obtained ; and all such dis¬ 
interred remains shall be enclosed in a hermetically sealed 
(soldered) zinc, tin, or copperdined coffin or box. Bodies de¬ 
posited in receiving vaults shall be treated and considered the 
same as buried bodies. 

COMMENTS UPON THE RULES. 

Under the first rule the transportation of bodies dead of small¬ 
pox; Asiatic cholera, yellow fever, typhus fever, or bubonic 
plague, is absolutely forbidden. It seems that the reasons for this 
are as follows : First, the lack of confidence in the ability of the 
embalmer with the means at hand, to succeed in sterilizing, or 
destroying the bacteria of infection within, the body ; second, the 
little knowledge attained by the members of these boards, up to 
the time of the adoption of these rules, in regard to the science of 
embalming. 

If a body can be sterilized that is dead of diphtheria or scarlet 
fever, undoubtedly those dead from the diseases enumerated 
under rule 1, can be sterilized also. The poisonous or infectious 
matter in a case of scarlatina, is certainly just as tenacious as 
that of cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, etc. Still, under these 
rules, the scarlatinal case can be shipped while that of small¬ 
pox cannot. 


TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 


531 


It can be stated with positive truth that a body can be ster¬ 
ilized, it matters not of what infectious or contagious disease it 
dies, if it is properly treated. The means that are necessary 
should be at hand, wherever the body is handled, that is dead 
of any infectious disease. Holding a certificate from the Board 
of Health does not afford these means ; neither does a little prac¬ 
tice upon the body, but by constant study and application only, 
can the means be obtained. 

The injection of fluid into the arteries and cavities does not 
suffice in all cases. In certain cases the arterial system may 
be abnormal; arteries may be closed ; post-mortem contraction 
may still exist; arteries may be burst, as is the case frequently 
in atheroma ; the blood may not have passed into the venous 
side, or clots may intervene at different points. Any one of 
these conditions will prevent the fluid from passing into the 
tissues. The tissues of the bodv must be filled, if entire ster- 
ilization results. Any one can see plainly, that if either one 
of these conditions exists, arterial embalming would be a 
failure. 

There are other means by which the tissues may be filled when 
the arterial circulation is destroyed. Fluid should be injected 
directly into the tissues. This can be done in many cases through 
the subcutaneous cellular tissue ; in others, a sufficient quantity 
cannot be injected in this manner. Therefore, in the latter cases, 
injection should be made also into the deeper tissues through an 
ordinary hollow-needle. Enough fluid can be injected in this 
manner to fill the tisssues, in cases where the arterial system is 
destroyed. The cavities, especially the serous sacs, the alimen¬ 
tary canal, and respiratory tract, should be filled full of fluid. 
A pint or two is not sufficient, generally, to fill them. As a rule, 
much more should be used. 

If a body is treated in the above manner, with a strong disin¬ 
fectant fluid, one that will destroy the spores as well as the active 
bacteria, there will be no doubt of its thorough sterilization. 


532 


CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


Iii addition to the application of the fluid, cotton batting, 
if properly applied, so as to cover every part of the body without 
rents, will prevent bacteria from passing out from the body. If 
a body is sterilized thoroughly and encased in cotton in this 
manner, it matters not what the disease was that produced death, 
it can be shipped with perfect safety to any part of the w T orld. 
There will be no more danger from the body than there would 
be from a shirt worn by the patient, after being placed in water 
containing strong disinfectants, and boiled for three or four hours. 

As stated above, the shipping authorities have not the confi¬ 
dence in the ability of embalmers in general to prepare bodies in 
a way to render them perfectly free from the danger of dissem¬ 
inating disease. The reason of that is a great majority of the 
profession are not students. They learn to raise an artery and 
inject a little fluid and stop at that point, thinking it is not 
necessary to know anything more about the business. If all were 
students and educated in their profession, then the authorities 
would have more confidence. A certificate from the Health 
Board does not make the student, nor does it make an embalmer 
out of the man who injects only a little fluid into the body. 
Many are in the business, but few are students. 

Under rule 2, bodies of those that have died of diphtheria, 
(membranous croup), scarlet fever, (scarlatina, scarlet rash), 
glanders, anthrax, or leprosy, will be accepted for transportation 
provided they are prepared in a certain manner ; that is, they 
shall be disinfected by arterial and cavity injection, with an 
approved disinfectant fluid. As stated above, it will be seen that 
frequently the circulation cannot be filled with fluid for reasons 
there given. If either of these conditions exist, then the tissues 
can be filled by the direct injection of fluid into them through 
the hollowmeedle. The body should then be washed with the 
disinfectant and the external openings should be injected and 
then closed with pledgets of absorbent cotton. After the body is 
disinfected, it should be enveloped in a layer of cotton, not less 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 


533 


than one inch thick, completely wrapped in a sheet and bandaged, 
and encased in an air-tight zinc, tin, copper, or lead-lined coffin 
or casket, all joints or seams hermetically soldered, and all en¬ 
closed in a tight wooden box ; or placed in an ordinary coffin 
after being prepared and then in a zinc-lined box, which should 
be hermetically soldered, then placed in a strong outside box. 

If you observe closely, you will notice that the rules say that 
the body shall be wrapped in cotton. They do not say what 
kind of cotton. A certain author, who has written a work on 
embalming, in giving the rules, has made a misstatement, which 
is misleading. lie states that the body shall be wrapped in 
absorbent cotton. As a matter of fact it makes but little differ¬ 
ence, if any, what kind of cotton is used, except in expense. 
Cotton batting, or raw cotton, is very cheap as compared with 
absorbent cotton. The latter has no advantage whatever over the 
former ; therefore, we would recommend the use of cotton batting. 

When the author first recommended the encasing of a body in 
cotton an inch thick, in a letter* to Mr. Joseph W. Laube, of 


* The letter referred to was as follows : 


JdR. Joseph Laube, Richmond, Virginia. 

Dear Sir :—In response to your request for information as to whether a body can 
be thoroughly disinfected by embalming so as to be perfectly safe for shipment, we 
would say: — 


TO DISINFECT A BODY FOR SHIPMENT. 


It should be thoroughly embalmed, using for the purpose the strongest disinfectant 
chemicals. An antiseptic is not necessarily a disinfectant,—indeed many are not dis¬ 
infectants at all—,but all disinfectants are positively antiseptic. 

The chemicals should reach the tissues, organs, viscera, canals, and cavities, that 
contain the infectious bacteria, in such quantities as are necessary to destroy the 
spores as well as the active bacteria. This can only be done by injecting large quan¬ 
tities of the solution of chemicals. 

Each infectious disease is produced by a specific bacterium ; that is, one that is 
always found in the disease, and is present in no other. 

These micro=organisms or bacteria are found in large numbers, in certain parts of 
the body, where the soil is in proper condition for their development —as in the 
throat, in diphtheria; in the alimentary canal, in typhoid fever; in the lungs, in 
consumption ; in the intestinal canal, in cholera, etc.,—but they may be distributed 
more or less to all parts of the body by the absorbent and blood=vessels. 

If anatomy, physiology, and morbid anatomy, and the infectious diseases are 
studied and understood by the embalmer, he can thoroughly disinfect any body dying 
from infectious or contagious disease. 

As stated above, the strongest disinfectant chemicals should be used (combined 
with other chemicals to hold them in solution) for the embalming fluid. The fluid 



534 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Richmond, Ya., during the spring of 1897, he stated that cotton 
batting (not absorbent cotton) should be used. 

The bacteriologist uses cotton batting to screen the air, that 
passes into the test-tube, of the bacteria that are floating in the 
air, as bacteria cannot pass through cotton batting. For that 
reason cotton batting was recommended for the encasement of 
bodies, to prevent the bacteria from passing out from the body. 
The cotton should be applied over the whole surface; it should 
be continuous, no rents or divisions in the encasement. 

The best and easiest method for applying it is as follows :— 

Spread upon the floor a sheet sufficiently long to reach at least 
a foot or a foot and a half above the head and below the feet; 
then spread layers of cotton, side by side, length-wise over the 
sheet, covering the whole surface ; then cross-wise, side by side, 
covering the whole surface ; then again length-wise as before, 
spreading the cotton in this manner alternately, until at least six 
thicknesses of the slieet-cotton or cotton batting is spread upon 


should be injected through the arteries into every tissue of the body, filling them 
thoroughly. Then fill all of the canals and cavities of the body —the respiratory 
canal, the alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus ; the serous cavities, etc.,— 
for the purpose of disinfecting their contents. Then wash the body with the duid. 
Fill the ears, nose, and mouth with the same. Lastly, envelop the ivhole body in cotton= 
batting, one inch or more thick, keeping the cotton in place with an ordinary bandage. The 
cotton should be at least an inch thick pn every part of the body after the bandage is applied. 

♦ v # ❖ * sj: jjt *;• 

If the above directions are followed in its preparation any infected corpse can be 
rendered perfectly safe, when placed in any common wood or cloth=covered coffin or 
casket, for shipment in any car or conveyance to any part of this country or of the 
world. 

After the embalmment of the body according to the above process it is possible that 
the fluid has not reached every point, so as to make it perfectly safe the application 
of the cotton=batting is made in the above manner to cover every portion. Not the 
least communication with the surrounding air is made with the body except through 
the cotton, which will positively screen the air, cleansing it thoroughly of the bac¬ 
teria. It is not possible for the bacteria of any description to pass through the cotton 
either outward or inward. It is known to every one acquainted with the methods of 
cultivating bacteria, that if cotton is placed within the test=tube cultures may be 
made within the tube. None others floating in the air external to the tube can pass 
inward through the cotton placed in the outer end of the tube ; hence, the encasement 
of the body with cotton=batting. 

sit :J; j|s a 

Yours very truly, 

E. Myers- 




TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 


535 


the sheet; then place the body in the center of the sheet; bring 
up the cotton from the ends, turning it over the head and feet, 
throwing the sheet back ; then on one side in the same manner, 
throwing the sheet back, leaving the cotton remain over the 
body ; then bring up the sheet from the other side ; it will be 
seen that in this manner the raw surfaces of the cotton will over¬ 
lap each other; then the sheet should be brought up from each 
end, and then from the sides, and stitched or pinned tightly 
together; then the whole should be wrapped with a roller band¬ 
age of about three or four inches in width. To make the appli¬ 
cation in this manner will require but one assistant, and the 
bandage can be applied without danger of tearing or slipping the 
cotton at any point. A sheet should then be moistened in a solu¬ 
tion of bichlorid of mercury 1 : 500, and laid across the coffin or 
casket and the body placed in the coffin and the sheet folded over 
it. The application of the moist sheet to the outer surface is for 
the purpose of destroying any bacteria that might be attached to 
the bandage that has been applied to protect the cotton. 

Under rule 3, bodies dying of typhoid fever, puerperal fever, 
* erysipelas, tuberculosis, measles, or other dangerous communi¬ 
cable diseases, other than those specified in rules 1 and 2, are 
received for transportation. If these bodies are embalmed as 
directed above, and wrapped with cotton in the same manner, by 
one who is authorized by the health board of one of the States, 
it can be shipped without placing in the hermetically sealed 
casket or box ; but if shipped by persons not holding such cer¬ 
tificate, it must be placed in an airtight box or casket. 

There is not much danger of disseminating some of the dis¬ 
eases enumerated, especially that of tuberculosis. There is 
scarcely a man, woman, or child in this country that is not 
exposed almost every day to the tubercular infection. There is 
a possibility of the disease being disseminated through the ship¬ 
ment of the body in the ordinary way, but that possibility is so 
remote that we can hardly consider it dangerous. There is far 


536 


CHAMPION TEXT- B O OK ON EMBALMING 


greater danger from the living subject than from the dead body. 
The patient that has consumption is allowed to travel over the 
country in both sleeping and day cars ; to use the floors and cus¬ 
pidors to deposit the sputum that is brought up from the lungs, 
which contain millions of the bacteria that produce the disease ; 
when he walks upon the streets he deposits the sputum upon the 
sidewalks or in the gutters or roadways ; or, when riding in the 
streebcar, he possibly deposits it upon the floor; he is allowed 
the same privileges to which the man without disease is entitled. 

To prevent the dissemination of consumption, the necessary 
methods should not commence with the embalmer ; they should 
begin with the beginning of the disease. It is an easy matter, at 
the present time, to determine whether or not the patient has 
consumption. A little of the sputum placed under the microscope 
by the physician is all that is necessary to make the diognois 
certain. If it is found that the patient has consumption, isolation 
should be enforced. He should not be allowed to travel our streets, 
to ride in our public conveyances, or to associate with those who 
are not affected with the disease. He should be sent by the 
health boards into a climate that will aid in destroying the bac¬ 
teria that are growing in his system. If this could be done in 
the beginning of the disease, there would be but few that would 
die of consumption. Hospitals should be constructed in proper 
altitudes and maintained by the government, and all patients 
sent to them, as soon as tubercular bacilli develop within the 
system. 

It is not necessary to condemn the methods adopted for the 
shipment of bodies that die of consumption. There can be no 
fault found with them. The only matter of complaint is that 
the health boards are not strict where strictness is necessary, in 
the application of sanitary measures for the prevention of dissem¬ 
ination of tuberculosis. 

The adoption and final enforcement of these rules will be a 
great convenience to those who will have charge of the shipment 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 


537 


of bodies in the future. There will be no special rules of the 
different corporations to conflict, which, heretofore, have made it 
necessary to ascertain the rules of the different roads before start¬ 
ing with the body. Under the rules, a body can be shipped 
from, to, and through any of the States and provinces in America 
without question. Restrictions that are imposed are not hard¬ 
ships, nor do they increase to an appreciable degree, the expenses 
over previous methods. They have the tendency to do away 
with the making of false statements in shipping permits, thereby 
subjecting the public to the dangers of disseminating infectious or 
contagious disease. They will stimulate the student and compel 
the ignoramus to enlighten himself. The rules are not perfect, 
but will be improved from time to time as necessity requires. 

Every embalmer should have in his place of business, a dress¬ 
ing-room, in which there is a tight closet, wash-stand, water, 
soap, and shelves on which to place necessary disinfectants for the 
purpose of disinfecting himself. lie should be provided with a 
rubber coat, which fits closely around the neck and is long enough 
to reach within one-half inch or an inch of the floor, a rubber or 
oiled-silk cap, and an old suit of clothes. These should hang in 
the closet ready for use in infectious cases, especially those that 
are communicable. The shelf should contain a bottle each of 
biclilorid of mercury, 1 :1000 and 1 : 500, a box of disinfectant 
salve, a nail brush, and a bar of good soap. When he is called 
to take care of an infectious case, he should change his usual suit 
for the old one ; then put on the rubber coat and rubber or oiled- 
silk cap ; cover the hands with the disinfectant salve or wear a 
pair of rubber gloves. Dressed in this manner he is ready to 
take care of the case. On returning from the case, he should 
remove the clothing, place them in the closet, and fumigate 
them. He should also wash his hands, face, and whiskers with 
soap and the bichlorid of mercury, 1 : 1000 solution ; he should 
then cleanse and brush the nails very thoroughly ; then dip 
them in the solution of the bichlorid of mercury 1 : 500. 


538 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


The instrument^case and instruments used in an infectious 
case should be fumigated and disinfected just as thoroughly as 
the clothing that is worn. Great care should be taken to prevent 
the dissemination of the disease. 





PART FIFTH 


GENERAL MISCELLANY 



INTRODUCTION TO PART FIFTH. 


In Part Fifth we have introduced some matter which does not appear to 
have a proper place in other parts of the work, but which is none the less 
valuable on that account. 

In Chapter XLIV. a number of hints are given to guide the young 
funeral director in the matter of approaching his clients and preparing the 
body for the final obsequies; also, on conducting a funeral from the house 
to the cemetery, including services at the house, church, and grave. 

A chapter on Resuscitation is given, as it often happens that the funeral 
director is the first one called in a case of supposed or apparent death. 
Therefore, he should be well acquainted with the best means of resuscita¬ 
tion, so as to be able to act promptly in the absence of the physician. 

Then follows a consideration of Post;Mortem Wounds, giving the best 
means of their prevention, and, when received, the proper treatment until 
a physician can be consulted. 

The directions for selection and care of instruments seem necessary to 
protect the embalmer in his purchases, and to aid him in keeping his outfit 
in such a condition that it may always appear new, and to reduce to the 
minimum the danger from handling his instruments. 


540 





CHAPTER XLIY. 


HINTS ON FUNERAL DIRECTING. 


The changes have been so great and ideas so advanced along 
this line in the past few years, that the conducting of a funeral of 
to'day, compared with the management of one twenty'five years 
ago, may be likened to the modern electricdighted train of to= 
day, traveling at fifty miles an hour, compared with the stage- 
coach of those days. The change to the present methods of con¬ 
ducting a funeral was a welcome one to the bereaved family, the 
minister, and laity. And funeral directors are not stopping at 
what they have attained, for each year brings greater advance¬ 
ment. 

When a call comes to him he should receive it with coolness 
and reserve. He should not rush to the house of mourning as 
though he were afraid his competitor might get there first. He 
should approach the family with dignity. The shock to them 
may be great, and he may not be able to learn all of their wishes 
at once. 

First, get their confidence and learn their desire regarding 
embalming. If the body is to be embalmed, prepare the body 
and raise the artery as directed in preceding chapters. Do the 
work neatly. The trocar should not be used when strangers are 
present. The prejudice against embalming, no doubt, should be 
laid largely to the indiscriminate use of the trocar. If the sub¬ 
ject is that of a female, a lady, a friend of the family if possible, 
should be invited in to see the operation. 

After the body has been embalmed, if a nice couch is in the 
room, use it. Dress the body completely, for no face application 
will be needed—there will be nothing to soil the clothing. 

541 




542 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Spread a drapery over the couch, or a sheet may be used. Stand 
a screen in front to break the view. If in winter ask for a little 
heat; never allow the body to freeze. A bunch of flowers may 
be laid near the body ; it has a pleasing effect: Place the body 
in an easy position, similar to the one occupied in bed. It may 
be difficult, at times, to place one hand under the head, owing to 
rigor mortis, but it is a pleasing position to the relatives. Should 
the subject be a child, use its little bed—if white, a pretty effect 
would be to trim with smilax and flowers ; or a settee can be 
very prettily draped, arranging over all a drapery of silk illusion. 

After having the body cared for, quietly withdraw, returning 
at a later period the same day, or the next, to learn the wishes of 
the family as to palbbearers, singers, minister, number of car¬ 
riages, flowers to be furnished, casket, etc. Give them the 
cost of everything. Do not lead them into any unnecessary ex¬ 
pense ; be reasonable in all charges. Ask regarding door crape ; 
some dislike any insignia, but, where used, a cycas palm leaf or 
two, tied with black or purple ribbon, is suitable for an aged 
person, and a wreath or bunch of flowers for a child. 

Always place the body in the casket the night before the 
funeral. It is more comforting to the family and gives them 
ample opportunity to take their leave prior to the service, which 
should be insisted upon, be the service at the house or at the 
church. If at the house, the funeral director should be there at 
least one hour before the service, and either have an assistant 
conduct to the casket all who attend, and seat them, or do it 
himself. 

Before the service, when ready for the family,—who should 
remain in privacy meanwhile,—close the casket, and have the 
friends come to the room reserved for them. In this manner he 
will get rid of that horrid custom of tramping past the open casket. 
Do this with the best trade, and, if he has the full confidence of 
the people, he will find others will fall into the custom readily. 
If the service is at a church, it may be impossible to adopt this 





HINTS ON FUNERAL DIRECTING 


543 


custom. Some seek and desire ostentation, which should be dis¬ 
couraged, especially among those who do not have the necessary 
means. If the funeral director stands in the community as he 
should, he will wield an influence far above any other, and can 
lead his clients into new ways and customs. 

At the house just a nod from the minister should indicate that 
the services are in the funeral director’s hands. Then nod to the 
palbbearers, conduct them to the front door, where two assistants, 
or two of the palbbearers, should deposit the casket. Have the 
friends remain seated until the casket is placed in the funeral car. 
Two assistants should stand at the carriages to seat the friends, as 
they are sent out, a previous list having been made out, of the 
manner in which they are to go. Make haste slowly, here of all 
places ; and after all is arranged, get into the buggy and lead 
the procession. 

If it be an Order funeral, place the Order at the head. 
Although they may have a marshal, the funeral director should 
be the man in command. lie should not forget this, for he 
belittles himself when he submits to any other authority. 

At the grave have chairs for the relatives. Place the Order on 
the outside in a circle. As the casket is being gently and sol¬ 
emnly lowered into its last resting place, by the bearers, or by one 
of the modern lowering devices, the ceremony can proceed. A 
very nice service, and one pleasing to the friends, should there 
be plenty of flowers, is to give to each one, at the house, a rose or 
carnation, which, as the last words are said, they should quietly 
drop on the casket and then retire to their carriages. 

There is no need of undue display of sympathy on the part of 
the funeral director,—it is not what he is called for. His tact 
and gentleness in handling a funeral will go farther to make 
friends than anything else. 

Charges should be moderate. Do not impoverish the living 
by lavishing upon the dead an expensive funeral. The tendency 
is, the more moderate the means, the greater the demands, and 


544 


CHAMPION TEXT,BOOK ON EMBALMING 


it will remain with the funeral director to solve the desire for a 
hundred-dollar funeral with a twenty-dollar capital back of his 
customer. Do the w T ork thoroughly and trust to the honesty of 
the customer for the pay. Encourage briefness of ceremony at 
the grave. Do what can he done to discourage Sunday funerals ; 
you should appreciate a day of rest and quiet, and be assured 
the minister will be with you. Ministers have duties enough 
for that day, and many will not allow anything to interfere w T ith 
their regular church services. 

After all is over there comes a business side to it all. If a 
custom of allowing a five per cent, discount, if paid in thirty 
days, were adopted, and the bill sent in, there are, no doubt, 
many w T ho would avail themselves of this discount. Do not 
allow bills to accumulate on the pages of the ledger through 
fear of asking for just dues. You should keep your ow T n bills 
paid and thereby preserve your credit—good credit may serve 
you at times better than capital. 

The paraphernalia that seems needful is -fast growing in magni¬ 
tude and becoming more burdensome each year. The funeral 
director should hail the time of more simplicity in funeral trap¬ 
pings. The adoption of many of them is the explanation or 
solution of so many in the business being impoverished, and, 
unless the funeral director enjoys a large clientage, he will find 
himself falling behind. lie should have pride enough to have 
a first-class outfit—one that will command the respect of his 
patrons,—but he should not entertain the idea that he must 
possess every new-fangled device presented to him. 

The funeral director should keep posted upon matters of his 

profession ; he should enlarge his library, from time to time, by 

purchasing practical works on embalming and collateral subjects ; 

and he should be a subscriber to and read as manv of the trade 

•/ 

journals as he can afford ; he should join the State Association, 
and attend its meetings ; and lend his help to the uplifting of 
his profession and thereby help his brother. 


CHAPTER XLY. 


RESUSCITATION. 


The definition of resuscitation (re, again ; suscito , I stir up) is 
the recovery from suspended animation or apparent death. In 
these conditions, of course, all signs of circulation and respiration 
have disappeared, but usually the failure of one function has pre¬ 
ceded that of the other. 

The methods for producing artificial respiration, and the treat¬ 
ment for the purpose of restoring the vital action of the different 
organs of the body, are not given in this work for the benefit of 
the embalmer only, but for all others who are likely to come in 
contact with the cases herein described. Some of the different 
methods and rules, that have the sanction of the leading physi¬ 
cians and surgeons in the different civilized countries, will be 
given. 

HOWARD’S METHOD OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. 

The first, known and described as Howards Method of Artificial 
Respiration, is as follows: Place the patient upon the back with 
the face upward ; a hard roll of clothing beneath the thorax, 
with the shoulders slightly declining over it. The head and 
neck should be bent back to the utmost; place the hands on top 
of the head ; strip the clothing from the waist and neck. The 
operator should then kneel astride of the patient’s hips, and 
place his hands upon the breast so that the ball of each thumb 
and little finger rests upon the inner margin of the free border of 
the costal cartilages, the tip of each finger near or upon the 
ensiform cartilage, the fingers dipping into the corresponding 
intercostal spaces. His elbows must be fixed firmly, making 
them one with the hips. 


42 


545 




546 


CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK ON EMBALMING 


Action of Operator. —He should press upward and inward 
toward the diaphragm, using his knees as a pivot, throwing his 
weight forward two or three seconds, until his face almost touches 
that of the patient, ending with a sharp push which helps to 
jerk him back to his erect, kneeling position. Rest three sec¬ 
onds, and then repeat the movement as before, continuing it 
at the rate of seven to ten times a minute ; taking the utmost 
care, or the occurrence of the natural gasp, gently to aid and 
deepen it into a longer breath, until respiration becomes natural. 

This method is said to keep the passage through the larynx 
free, without the aid of an assistant, or any contrivance for the 
purpose, and is recommended for that reason. Artificial respira¬ 
tion must precede the use of the stomach pump and be continued 
until either the pulse or natural respiration returns. Keep up 
the temperature of the body by hot blankets or hot bottles. 

RULES OF THE ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY. 

*The Royal Humane Society has recommended the Sylvester 
method of artificial respiration in the rules that it has pub¬ 
lished for directions for restoring the apparent dead. The rules 
ace as follows : — 

Rule I.—If from Drowning or Other Suffocation, or 
Narcotic Poisoning. —Send immediately for medical assistance, 
blankets, and dry clothing, but proceed to treat the patient in¬ 
stantly, securing as much fresh air as possible. 

The points to be aimed at are—first and immediately, the 
restoration of breathing; and, secondly, after breathing is 
restored, the promotion of warmth and circulation. 

The efforts to restore life must be persevered in until the 
arrival of medical assistance, or until the pulse has ceased for at 
least an hour. 

Treatment to Restore Natural Breathing. 

First.—To Maintain a Free Entrance of Air Into the 
Windpipe. —Cleanse the mouth and nostrils ; open the mouth ; 


RESUSCITATION 


547 


draw forward the patient’s tongue, and keep it forward — an 
elastic band over the tongue and under the chin will answer this 
purpose. Remove all tight clothing from about the neck and 
chest. 

Second.—To Adjust the Patient’s Position. —Place the 
patient on his back on a flat surface, inclined a little from the 
feet upward ; raise and support the head and shoulders on a 
small firm cushion or folded article of dress placed under the 
shoulder-blades. 

Third.—To Imitate the Movements of Breathing.— 

Grasp the patient’s arms just above the elbows, and draw the 
arms gently and steadily upward, until they meet above the 
head (this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs) ; and 
keep the arms in that position for two seconds. Then turn down 
the patient’s arms, and press them gently and firmly for two 
seconds against the sides of the chest (this is with the object of 
pressing air out of the lungs ; pressure upon the breastbone will 
aid this). 

Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and perse- 
veringly, fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to 
respire is perceived, immediately upon which cease to imitate the 
movements of breathing, and proceed to induce circulation and 
warmth. 

Should a w T arm bath be procurable, the body may be placed in 
it up to the neck, continuing to imitate the movements of 
breathing. Raise the body in twenty seconds to a sitting posi¬ 
tion, and dash cold water against the chest and face, and pass 
ammonia under the nose. The patient should not be kept in 
the warm bath longer than five or six minutes. 

Fourth.—To Excite Inspiration. —During the employment 
of the above method excite the nostrils with snuff or smell¬ 
ing-salts, or tickle the throat with a feather. Rub the chest 
and face briskly, and dash cold and hot water alternately on 
them. 


548 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Treatment After Natural Breathing Has Been Restored. 

Fifth.—To Induce Circulation and Warmth. —Wrap the 

patient in dry blankets, and commence rubbing the limbs 
upward firmly and energetically. Promote the warmth of the 
body by the application of hot flannels, bottles, or bladders of 
hot water, hot bricks, etc., to the pit of the stomach, armpits, 
between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. Warm clothing 
may generally be had from the bystanders. When swallowing 
has returned, a teaspoonful of warm water, small quantities of 
wine, warm brandy and water, or coffee should be given. Sleep 
should be encouraged. During the reaction, large mustard poul¬ 
tices to the chest will relieve the distressed breathing. 

Rule II.—If from Intense Cold. —Rub the body with 
snow, ice, or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees. It 
is dangerous to apply heat too early. 

Rule III.—If from Intoxication. —Lay the individual upon 
his side on the bed with his head raised. The patient should be 
induced to vomit. 

Rule IV.—If from Apoplexy or Sunstroke. —Cold should 

be applied to the head, which should be kept raised. Tight 
clothing should be removed, and stimulants cautiously used. 

Alcoholic stimulants should not be given until natural respira¬ 
tion has been induced, and, in cases of narcotic poisoning, not 
until consciousness has been restored. If, on the return of con¬ 
sciousness, the patient is in pain or faint, the inhalation of a few 
drops of ether or smelling ammonia is indicated. In their 
absence a few teaspoonfuls of brandy may be given. Hot tea 
and coffee should be the first refreshments swallowed ; it should 
not be pressed upon the patient, as vomiting is more exhausting 
than waiting a few hours for food. 


Syncope and Asphyxia. 

For the purpose of treatment you may regard those cases, 
where the lips and mucous membrane are found pale and blood- 


BESUSCITA TION 


549 


less, as syncope; and those where they are dark^colored, as 
asphyxia. 

Syncope may arise (1) from mental emotion, sudden pain, or 
shock ; (2) from drugs and poisons, including anesthetics, espe¬ 
cially chloroform; (3) from hemorrhage, or anything which 
reduces the due supply of blood to the heart; (4) from fatty 
degeneration or dilatation of the heart. 

Treatment. —Place the patient horizontally on his left side, 
with the pelvis and feet raised ; the windows of the room should 
be opened ; the face should be fanned ; and a little cold water 
may be sprinkled on the forehead. Smelling salts should be 
held to the nostrils. If natural breathing has not returned, 
begin one of the methods of artificial respiration, as given above, 
the temperature of the body being kept up by the application of 
hot blankets or hot bottles. After respiration has been fully 
established, a little brandy, hot water, wine, or other stimulants, 
should be given, with care that none of it enters the trachea. If 
swallowing is impractical, inject warm fluids into the rectum. 

Asphyxia from Breathing Noxious Gases. —The body 
should be carried into the fresh air. All clothing should be 
loosened around the neck and over the chest. Artificial respira¬ 
tion should be commenced at once, while an assistant should 
blow into the nostrils three or four times. Hot blankets and 
hot water bottles should be applied. 

Asphyxia from Mechanical Obstruction of the Air- 
passages. —The cause of obstruction must be removed, if 
possible, by placing the patient face downward, aiding the dis- 
lodgment by the use of the forceps, a buttomhook, or the handle 
of a tablespoon. 

Asphyxia from Advancing Coma or from Narcotics 
and Anesthetics. —In these cases, the breathing is stopped from 
the failure of the medulla and respiratory nerves to act Very 
often there is mechanical obstruction in the larynx, which 
should be considered. Artificial respiration induced by simply 


550 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


compressing tlie chest at intervals of five seconds, may suffice. 
If raising the chin and throwing the head back does not effect 
a free passage of air, one or the other of the methods of artificial 
respiration given should be commenced. 

Asphyxia from Drowning. —In asphyxia from immersion 
in water, there are two serious complications, viz. : first, the pres¬ 
ence of water and mud in the air=passages, and, secondly, the 
depressing effects of cold. With the view of more effectually 
removing the water from the air=tubes, Howard gives the follow¬ 
ing rules : — 

1. Position of Patient. —Face downward and hard roll of 
cloth beneath the epigastrium, making that the highest point 
and the mouth the lowest; the forehead resting on the forearm 
or wrist to keep the mouth from the ground. 

2. Position and Action of Operator. —Place the left hand 
well spread upon the base of the thorax to the left of the spine, 
the right hand upon the spine a little below the left and over the 
lower part of the stomach. Throw upon them w r itli a forward 
motion all the weight and force the age and sex of the patient 
will justify, ending this pressure of two or three seconds by a 
sharp push, which helps you back again into the upright posi¬ 
tion. Repeat this two or three times according to the duration 
of the immersion ; then apply one or the other of the methods 
of artificial respiration. 

3. Suspended Animation from Lightning Stroke or Elec¬ 
tricity. —In a stroke of lightning or electricity, the shock is not 
necessarily fatal, in spite of the popular notion to the contrary. 
The action of the vital organs is suspended, but the organs are 
rarely destroyed. In these cases, if respiration can be artificially 
maintained for a sufficient length of time, there is a fair chance 
that the heart will resume its suspended function and that the 
victim will finally recover. Consequently, a person struck by 
lightning, or having had a severe shock induced by the electric 
current, should never be pronounced dead until one of the 


RESUSCITA TION 


551 


methods of resuscitation, explained above, has been practiced 
upon the body for at least two or three hours. Dr. D’ Arsonval 
in France has practiced the Howard method with success and 
strenuously urges its adoption. Experience in this country also 
justifies the continued efforts for a long period of time to induce 
reanimation by one of the methods given above. This is a 
matter of great importance, for, although comparatively few 
people are killed by lightning, it seems quite probable that the 
number could be still further reduced by practicing artificial 
respiration, continuing it for hours instead of minutes. 

Recent reports show that cases of asphyxia, especially those 
from drowning and suffocation, caused by closure of the respira¬ 
tory tract, without injury to the body, can be reanimated after a 
period of several hours, by application of the treatment given 
above. If the patient has been drowned, and has lain in the 
water even for an hour or two, do not at once pronounce him 
dead, but apply the rules given above in a thorough, constant, 
and scientific manner. 


CHAPTER XLVI. 


POST-MORTEM WOUNDS. 


In the putrefaction of albuminous substances in bodies, many 
chemical combinations are formed, some of which, such as 
poisonous toxalbumins and certain alkaloids, to which the name 
ptomains, or cadaveric alkaloids, have been given, are extremely 
poisonous. That toxic elements exist in the products of decom¬ 
position, has long been known to the physician and scientist. 
The character of these substances was first recognized by Selma, 
who gave them the names of alkaloids or ptomains. General, 
fatal poisoning frequently results from the handling of cadavers, 
or other dead animal matter, by inoculation through the slightest 
wounds received by the operator. 

The poisoning from a corpse usually results from inoculation 
through a small wound or puncture, or where the skin has been 
abraded, the wound being sometimes so slight as not to be 
noticed. 

Embalmers are subjected more frequently to the dangers of 
blood-poisoning than any other class of men. Therefore, they 
should be made aware of the consequences that frequently re¬ 
sult from the careless manner in which bodies and instruments 
are handled. The slightest cut or scratch inflicted with one of 
the sharp-edged instruments, that are used in the operations upon 
the dead body, may not only cause the loss of a finger, a hand, 
or even a whole extremity, but may cause intense suffering for 
many days, finally resulting in death. 

Such wounds are called post-mortem wounds. The virus may 
be received also into the system by inoculation through abrasions 
or open wounds, previously existing upon the surface of the 









POST-MORTEM WOUNDS 


553 


hands or lingers of the operator. The poison is most virulent 
in fresh bodies, diminishing in intensity as decomposition ad¬ 
vances. It is most marked when inoculation occurs in hand¬ 
ling cases of septic peritonitis or pleurisy, pyemia, septicemia, 
puerperal fever, diffuse cellulitis, erysipelas, spreading gangrene, 
etc. The poison only acts by direct inoculation, usually occurring 
through a scratch or wound made accidentally while operating- 
on the body ; although any partly healed raw surface, or the 
cracks in chapped hands, or the little fissures at the margins of 
the nails, serve equally well as points of inoculation. 

Before operating upon the dead body the hands should be very 
carefully examined. If the cuticle be denuded at any point on 
the hands or fingers, use rubber gloves or finger-cots, or hand* 
protector, carbolated vaseline, or some similar preparation. The 
latter should be rubbed over the hands, under and around the 
nails very carefully, to prevent the absorption of the poison. It 
is a good practice to take this precaution even if the cuticle is 
supposed to be intact, as abrasions may be so slight as to escape 
notice. 

The embalmer, while operating, should be very careful not to 
wound himself with any of the instruments used in the oper¬ 
ations. All punctured wounds are extremely dangerous. If 
such an accident should occur, wash quickly and suck the wound 
thoroughly, or cause it to bleed freely ; then cauterize it, or wash 
out with fluid containing bichlorid of mercury 1 :1000, or car¬ 
bolic acid, 3 to 5 per cent., or embalming fluid, and cover with 
hand-protector, collodion, or plaster. II the wound is on the 
finger or hand, wear a finger^cot or rubber glove to protect further' 

the wounded part. 

If a wound is received and inoculation results, the point ol the 
inoculation, in from twelve to twenty-four hours, will become 
more or less red and irritated. It may remain in this state loi 
another day, when a brawny swelling of a dusky-red color will 
form around it, and extend rapidly in all directions, but piinci- 


554 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


pally along the line of the lymphatics. There is intense burning 
pain and severe constitutional disturbances, high temperature, 
and total loss of appetite, which may be followed by spreading 
gangrene ; or, the lymphatic glands may become swollen and 
painful, and abscesses may form at the elbow and axilla. Septi¬ 
cemia or pyemia may follow. 

If any of the above symptoms result, send for the family 
physician at once and be placed under proper treatment. 

When gas from a dead body is inhaled it does not cause blood- 
poisoning, but may cause a kind of septic fever. For this reason 
its inhalation should be avoided. 





CHAPTER XLVII. 


INSTRUMENTS: THEIR SELECTION AND CARE. 


With the growth and progress of embalming, especially within 
recent years, a diversified and extensive line of instruments and 
other paraphernalia has been brought into existence. Some are 
necessary and useful to the embalmer in his work of caring for 
the dead, while others are practically useless, having scarcely 
anything to commend them except their novelty. This admits 
of great latitude in the selection of an outfit, which should be 
carefully and judiciously made. The instruments should be of 
the best quality and, as far as possible, aseptic in their construc¬ 
tion. All knives, hooks, etc., should be solid in their entirety, 
without joints or rivets ; or, if they have joints, they should be 
made so as to be separated in order that they may be easily 
cleansed and sterilized after eacli operation. 

It usually follows that the lowest in price is the dearest in the 
long run ; but this is not always true, for sometimes a very high 
price is paid for an inferior article. The success ot an embalmer 
may be judged, as a rule, by the selection, quality, condition, and 
appearance of his instruments. It is necessary to keep all instru¬ 
ments clean. The importance of this cannot be overestimated, 
for, if not so kept, they may be the means of inoculating those 
who handle them with septic matter, causing septicemia or blood 
poison. Even if death does not follow septicemic inoculation a 
long siege of sickness may supervene, entailing a great loss ot 
time, money, and neglect of business. Many cases are on record 
where serious consequences have resulted fiom the caieless hand- 
lino- of filthy and unsterilized instruments. 

555 




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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Instruments should be cleansed carefully and sterilized thor¬ 
oughly after each operation. Non-aseptic instruments should 
not be selected, as the aseptic can always be had from any 
reliable supply house. Aseptic may be defined as “being free 
from the living germs of disease, and fermentation or putrefaction.’' 
Only those instruments are aseptic which are made without 
visible joints, or which can be taken apart and every portion 
cleansed. The embalmer should use every means that is possible 
to lessen the danger to the living, including his assistants and 
himself. 

The surgeon, physician, and dentist always have the finest and 
best instruments, for use in their work, that they are able to pro¬ 
cure. They keep them in perfect order, never allowing them to 
remain soiled for a moment longer than can possibly be helped 
thereby preventing the liability to rust or destruction by 
corrosion. The embalmer should be equally careful with his 
instruments. He should never throw his tools together into his 
satchel, to be cleansed by some one else, but should at once 
attend to that duty himself. It is ever a true saying, and one 
that should be cherished, “that a workman is known by his 
tools.” The progressive undertaker usually spends hundreds or 
thousands of dollars for his equipment of funeral cars, hearses, 
carriages, and horses, his show-room, its contents, etc. Often¬ 
times one thing needful is neglected ; the old worn-out cabinet, 
with its rusty set of tools, usually filthy and septic, is brought 
forth to do service, when, in fact, this part of his paraphernalia 
should be one in which, he should take pride and make it his 
duty to have as nearly perfect as possible. This is not only for 
the sake of appearances but that he may be able to do his work 
with safety and in a more scientific.and professional manner. 

Sterilizing Instruments. —To sterilize instruments is to 
render them free from living germs by heating or otherwise. 
The following methods lor sterilizing are simple and easy of 
application : — 



INSTRUMENTS: THEIR SELECTION AND CARE 557 


All steel instruments should be first cleansed, then boiled for 
half an hour or more in water to which bicarbonate of soda has 
been added ; then wiped perfectly dry with a clean, soft, woolen 
cloth or chamois. For the usual number of instruments about a 
quart of water, to which about a quarter of a pound of the 
bicarbonate of soda has been added, is required. A tin or iron 
vessel may be used. This process will positively free the instru¬ 
ments from all danger of inoculation with septic matter through 
wounds accidentally made while handling them. 

All hard=rubber instruments, such as arterial-tubes, hollow- 
needles, whether metaldined or not, pumps, etc., should be ster¬ 
ilized by flushing and washing, and immersion in a 5 per cent, 
solution of formalin for from a quarter to half an hour; then 
they should be washed and dried. Do not apply heat in any 
form. 

No heat should be applied to elastic gum and silk catheters, 
vein= and stomacliTubes, rubber tubing, etc. They should be 
sterilized by flushing and washing with a disinfectant solution, 
the solution being washed off immediately ; then wiped dry with 
a clean cloth. The most effective solution for sterilizing them is 
one of formalin of from 3 to 5 per cent, strength. 

All arteriahtubes should be examined, and, if found closed, 
should be opened by passing a small wire through them. Ex¬ 
amine all hollowmeedles and trocars, and, if found closed, open 
them with the plunger with which they are accompanied. The 
above means of cleansing and sterilizing should be used as soon 
as possible after each operation. 

Instruments should not only be kept clean and sterilized, but 
their edges should be sharp and keemcutting, that the incisions 
and other operations can be made as quickly and as neatly as 
possible to appear workmanlike and professional. 

Selecting Instruments— The quality and number of in¬ 
struments should be selected with a view to performing all 
necessary operations and the finest of work. The greater the 


558 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


number and variety, and the better the quality, other things 
being equal, the better equipped will be the embalmer for his 
professional duties. All manufacturers and jobbers of instru¬ 
ments have listed satchels and cases of instruments, some fancy, 
containing everything, at a very high price, some at a medium 
price, and others at a low price, to meet the size of the purse or 
ability to pay, of all who wish to purchase, the selection of in¬ 
struments being made according to the ideas of this, that, or the 
other embalmer, or simply for show. These satchels contain 
many instruments that are of little use, while they are lacking 
in others that are necessary in making the different operations. 
When selecting a satchel it is important to see that it contains 
the instruments that are needed in performing all of the usual 
operations in embalming. The following are recommended as a 
good selection for a practical outfit: — 

One or two scalpels of different sizes ; a curved, sharp*pointed 
bistoury; a grooved=director; forceps; scissors; aneurism* 
needle ; an assortment of arterial tubes of different sizes and 
lengths ; surgeon’s needles ; thread ; absorbent cotton ; lintine ; 
adhesive plaster; hand=protector; silk veimtubes of several 
sizes, from No. 8 to No. 12 ; several hollo w*needles, from the 
infant to the adult size, from six to fourteen inches in length, 
including a cardiac needle for withdrawing blood from the 
heart; a couple of sizes of inflexible steel nasabtubes ; and a 
good aspirator and injector. With these, all necessary operations 
may be performed, although there are other instruments and 
accessories that will be very handy at times, which can be added 
as the necessities of the operator demand. 


A COMPENDIUM 


CONSISTING OF PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



INTRODUCTION TO COMPENDIUM. 


The questions and answers given in the following pages constitute only 
a partial review of the more important parts of the body of this work, and 
will serve as a guide both to the student and teacher. We believe a careful 
study of them by the student will prove very beneficial and fix important 
truths in the mind in a way not possible by a simple perusal of the text. 

A systematic study of the questions and answers is especially recom¬ 
mended for all those who contemplate taking an examination before one 
of the State boards. We do not claim that these questions are the same as 
those asked by the examiners, but w^e do believe an ability to answer them 
correctly will qualify one to give appropriate replies to the questions usually 
propounded by such boards. 

We would caution members of examining boards against the use of 
what are known as “catch questions” in conducting examinations. Such 
questions do not do justice to those taking the examination. Only such 
questions should be selected as can be answered after practical training and 
a reasonable study of the subject. The object aimed at will be best attained 
by careful and conscientious attention to this matter. 


560 






I—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


BONES, MUSCLES, ETC. 

1. What is osteology? 

It is the science of the structure and function of bones. 

2. Into how many parts is the body divided ? 

Five: head, neck, trunk, and upper and lower extremities. 

3. How many classified bones are there in the body? 

There are two hundred. 

4. Into what classes are they divided ? 

Long, short, flat, and irregular. 

5. Where are the long bones found? 

In the upper and lower extremities. 

6. Name the long bones. 

Humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, 
metatarsals, phalanges, and clavicle. 

7. Where are the short bones found ? 

. The carpals in the wrist and tarsals in the foot. 

8. Where are the flat bones found ? % 

In the cranium and trunk. 

9. Name some flat bones. 

Occipital, frontal, scapula, innominate, sternum, ribs, etc. 

10. Where are irregular bones found ? 

Principally in the face and spinal column. 

11. Name some irregular bones in the head. 

Temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, malar, superior and inferior 
maxillary, etc. 

12. Give the number and names of the bones of the spinal column. 

There are 26 in the adult—24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and the 
coccyx ; in youth, the sacrum consists of five and the coccyx of 
four vertebrae, which finally coalesce into a single bone each. 

13. How are the vertebrae divided? 

Into the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar. 

14. How many of each? 

Seven cervical, twelve dorsal, and five lumbar. 


43 


561 



562 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


15. What are the atlas and axis? 

They are the upper two cervical vertebrae, the axis articulating 
with the occipital bone on either side of the foramen magnum. 

16. Of what are the skull=bones composed? 

In general, of two compact plates, outer and inner, with a 
spongy layer, known as the diploe, between ; the outer plates are 
joined by notched edges or sutures. 

17. What are sesamoid bones? 

Small osseous masses developed in tendons near certain joints. 

18. Name the largest sesamoid bone In the body. 

The patella or knee-cap. 

19. What are ligaments? 

They are strong bands of a smooth, compact, fibrous tissue, 
which bind together the bones at their joints. 

20. Locate Poupart’s ligament. 

It is attached to the upper anterior point of the hip-bone and 
extends to the center of the pubic arch ; it forms the upper 
boundary of Scarpa’s triangle, and the division between the 
abdomen and thigh. 

21. Describe the muscular tissue. 

Muscular tissue is the red tissue that is seen on cutting down 
into the body ; it is composed of fibrils, which contract and 
relax ; muscles are of different shapes, and are attached to the 
parts by tendons. 

22. There are how many kinds of muscular tissue? 

Tw t o : voluntary and involuntary. 

23. What are voluntary muscles? 

They are those under the control of the will, as the muscles 
of locomotion and of prehension and tact. 

24. Where are voluntary muscles usually found? 

On the outer side of the skeleton. 

25. What are involuntary muscles? 

Those not under control of the will, as the diaphragm, heart, etc. 

26. Where are the involuntary muscles found? 

On the inside of the-skeleton, as iii the organs of the cavities. 

27. What is the origin and insertion of a muscle? 

The origin is fhe attachment that is not movable, or least 
movable ; the insertion is the attachment that is movable, or 
most movable. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


563 


28. Give the origin and insertion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. 

It lias its origin from the half of the upper end of the sternum 
and the inner third of the clavicle ; and is directed upward and 
backward along the front and side of the neck, to be inserted into 
the mastoid process of the temporal bone behind the ear. 

29. What is the anatomical guide to the common carotid artery? 

The front border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. 

30. What is the anatomical guide for the brachial artery? 

The inner border of the biceps muscle. 

31. What is the anatomical guide for the femoral artery? 

The inner border of the sartorius or tailor’s muscle. 

32. How many muscles are there in the body? 

Over five hundred. 

33. What are tendons? 

Tendons are white, shiny masses of hard, fibrous tissue, form¬ 
ing the terminations or connections of the fleshy portions of the 
muscles. 

34. Locate and describe Scarpa’s triangle. 

It is situated in the upper part of the thigh ; is of a triangu¬ 
lar shape with the base upward, bounded by Poupart’s ligament, 
and the apex downward ; the outer border is bounded by the 
sartorius muscle, and the inner by the adductor longus. 

35. Locate and describe the diaphragm. 

It is the great muscle of respiration, and is situated trans¬ 
versely across the trunk, between the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities, which it divides, forming the floor of the former and the 
roof of the latter. 

36. How many openings has it? 

Three: the aortic, esophageal, and caval (opening for the 
inferior vena cava); it is impervious to liquids contained in or 
injected into either cavity. 

37. Locate and describe the axillary space. 

The axilla, or axillary space, is the hollow beneath the 
juncture of the arm and shoulder, known as the armpit. 

38. Name the principal soft tissues on the outside of the skeleton. 

Skin, cellular (fat) or superficial fascia, deep fascia, muscular, etc. 

39. What are the subcutaneous tissues ? 

Those lying immediately beneath the skin, as the fat or 
cellular, etc. 



564 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


40. Describe the skin. 

The skin covers the entire surface of the body ; is elastic, and 
protects the tissues beneath ; it is an excretory organ, through 
which part of the waste is excreted. 

41. What are its layers? 

The skin consists of two distinct layers : the outer—epidermis, 
cuticle, or scarf-skin; the inner—cutis, dermis, or true skin. 

42. What is the rete mucosum? 

It is the inner layer of the cuticle, which attaches the latter 
to the true skin and contains the pigment or coloring matter 
which gives to the different races their complexion. 

43. Describe the fat or cellular tissue. 

The fat or cellular tissue is composed of white, areolar sub¬ 
stance (outer layers of the superficial fascia), which is very loose 
and is formed into cells ; fat is deposited within these cells to a 
greater or less extent in each individual. 

44. How are the fascise classified? 

Into superficial and deep. 

45. Describe the superficial fascia. 

It is composed of fibro-areolar tissue ; and is beneath and co¬ 
extensive with the skin, attaching the latter to the deeper tissues. 

46. Describe the deep fascia. 

The deep fascia is composed of an inelastic, dense, aponeurotic 
structure, which binds down the muscles, giving form and sym¬ 
metry to their bulk, protects the arteries, and forms sheaths for 
the muscles, vessels, nerves, and tendons. 

47. What are the lymphatic vessels ? 

The lymphatic vessels are distributed to every part of the 
body, and receive and take up the surplus of the nourishment 
that has been carried to the tissues by the blood, and conveys it 
back to the center of the body, where it enters the circulation 
through the thoracic duct on the left side and the lymphatic 
duct on the right side. 

48. What is the lymph? 

It is a transparent, colorless, alkalin fluid, closely resembling 
blood, with its red corpuscles absent, and diluted with water, 
which is carried through the lymphatic system. 

VISCERAL ANATOMY. 

49. How many large cavities are there in the body? 

Three : cranial, thoracic, and abdominal. 







PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


565 


60. Of what does visceral anatomy treat? 

It treats of the organs contained in these cavities, with their 
appendages and coverings. 

61. What are these organs and appendages called? 

Viscera, or visceral organs; and those of any cavity are 
called the viscera of that cavity. 

62. Name some visceral organs. 

The brain, lungs, heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, etc. 

63. Describe the thoracic cavity. 

It is a cone-shaped cavity, situated in the upper part of the 
trunk, with the apex at the neck and the base downward ; its 
floor is formed by the diaphragm, its side walls by the ribs, front 
by the breast-bone, and the back by the twelve dorsal vertebras. 

54. How is it divided? 

Into a right and left side, and a median space, the medi¬ 
astinum. 

55. How many ribs are in the thorax ? 

Twenty-four, twelve on each side, being numbered from above 
downward ; the anterior end of the first rib is located close to 
and beneath the collar-bone. 

56. How are the ribs classified ? 

On either side into seven true and five false, two of the latter 
being floating. 

57. What are the spaces between the ribs called ? 

They are called intercostal spaces, and are numbered from 
above downward, the first being between the first and second 
ribs, the second between the second and third ribs, etc. 

58. Describe the abdominal cavity. 

It is the largest cavity in the body and is situated between 
the thorax above and the pelvis below; it is bounded above by 
the diaphragm, below by the brim of the pelvis, at the back 
by the vertebral column and fasciae, in front and at the sides by 
the transversalis fascia, lower ribs, and iliac venter. 

59. Give the principal contents of the abdominal cavity. 

The stomach, large and small intestines, liver, gall-bladder, 
spleen, pancreas, kidneys, suprarenal capsules, abdominal aorta, 
inferior vena cava, peritoneum, etc. 

60. For convenience of description, how is the abdomen divided? 

It is divided into nine regions by two horizontal lines, one 
between the cartilages of the ninth ribs, another between the 


566 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


crests of the ilia, and two vertical lines from the cartilage of the 
eighth ribs on each side to the center of Poupart’s ligament. 

61. Name the regions. 

On the right side : In the middle : On the left side : 

Right hypochondriac. Epigastric. Left hyjjochondriac. 
Right lumbar. Umbilical. Left lumbar. 

Right iliac or inguinal. Hypogastric. Left iliac or inguinal. 

62. What are the contents of the right hypochondriac region? 

Right lobe of liver, gall-bladder, duodenum, hepatic flexure 
of colon, upper part of kidney, and right suprarenal capsule. 

63. Of the epigastric region ? 

Right two-thirds of the stomach, left lobe of liver, pancreas, 

solar plexus, etc. 

64. Of the left hypochondriac region? 

Splenic or cardiac end of stomach, spleen, upper half of left 
kidney, and left suprarenal capsule. 

65. Of the right lumhar region? 

Ascending colon, lower half of right kidney, and part of 
small intestine. 

66. Of the umbilical region? 

Transverse colon, transverse duodenum, and part of small 
intestine. 

67. Of the left lumhar region? 

Descending colon, lower half of kidney, and part of small 
intestine. 

68. Of the right iliac region? 

Right ureter, appendix vermiformis, cecum and spermatic 
vessels. 

69. Of the hypogastric region? 

Parts of the small intestine, bladder in children and when 
distended in adults, and uterus during pregnancy. 

70. Of the left iliac region? 

Sigmoid flexure, left ureter, and spermatic vessels. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

71. Of what does the nervous system consist? 

The brain, spinal cord, and the nerves ; it unites the various 
parts and organs of the body into one complete organic whole, 
and is the medium through which all impressions upon the mind 
are received and acted upon. 





PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


567 


72. Describe tbe cranial cavity. 

It is an egg-shaped cavity in the head ; its walls are formed 
by the frontal bone in front, occipital behind, parietal and tem¬ 
poral on either side, and ethmoid and sphenoid in the base. 

73. What is the cerebrospinal cavity? 

It consists of the cranial cavity and spinal canal. 

74. What does it contain. 

The brain and spinal cord with their coverings or meninges. 

75. What are those coverings? 

The dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid ; these membranes 
30 ver the brain and extend down through the foramen magnum, 
covering the spinal cord in the same manner. 

76. Describe tbe dura mater. 

It is a dense, tough, fibrous membrane, lining the interior of 
the cranial cavity and spinal canal, being the outer envelope of the 
brain and spinal cord. 

77. Describe tbe pia mater. 

The pia mater is a soft vascular membrane, which closely 
invests the brain and cord, and extends down between the con¬ 
volutions ; from it the arteries dip down toward the center of the 
brain and cord, distributing blood to every part. 

78. Describe tbe arachnoid. 

It is a double serous membrane, between the dura and pia 
mater, forming a closed sac, and secretes serum for the purpose of 
oiling the surfaces to prevent friction. 

79. What are nerves? 

They are white, glistening cords, made up of bundles of 
nerve-fibers, and penetrate every part of the body ; they are 
hard to the touch, solid, and can easily be distinguished from 
arteries or veins. 

80. What important organ does tbe cranial cavity contain? 

The brain. 

81 Of what is the brain composed? 

It is composed of a number of centers, which are connected 
with one another and with the motory and sensory nerves of the 
system, and consists of both white and gray matter. 

82. Into what parts is tbe brain divided ? 

It is divided into three portions : cerebrum, cerebellum, and 
medulla oblongata. 


568 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


83. Describe and locate the cerebrum. 

It occupies tlie front and upper back part of the cranial cavity,, 
comprising about seven-eighths of the entire weight of the brain ; 
it is divided into two lateral halves, right and left, which are 
connected by a transverse commissure, the corpus collosum. 

84. How is each hemisphere divided ? 

By fissures on the under surface into three lobes : anterior, 
middle, and posterior. 

85. Describe tbe cerebellum. 

It is situated beneath the posterior lobes of the cerebrum ; 
is divided into two hemispheres ; it is small, weighing only about 
five ounces, and is a center for the control of voluntary muscles, 
particularly those of locomotion. 

86. Describe tbe medulla oblongata. 

It is the upper and larger portion of the spinal cord, extend¬ 
ing from the atlas to the pons varolii; it connects the spinal 
cord with the cerebellum and cerebrum ; it is the part that has 
entire control over respiration ; if it is injured or destroyed, 
breathing ceases and death results. 

* 87. Describe tbe spinal cord. 

It is the cylindrical, elongated part of the cerebrospinal axis, 
which is contained in the spinal canal ; it is about 16 or 17 
inches in length in the adult; begins at the upper border of the 
axis and ends at the lower border of the first lumbar vertebra. 

88. How many pairs of nerves does it give off? 

It gives off 31 pairs: 8 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 5 
sacral, and one coccygeal. 

89. How many roots bas each nerve ? 

Two: an anterior (motory; and posterior (sensory); these 
unite into one sheath, preserving their special functions through¬ 
out their many subdivisions. 

90. Wbat is tbe cerebrospinal nervous system? 

It includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves given off from 
them ; it presides over sensation, special senses, voluntary motion, 
intellect, and all movements which characterize different indi¬ 
viduals. 

91. Wbat is tbe sympathetic nervous system? 

It consists of nerves and ganglions, of which there are about 
30 pairs. It supplies the involuntary muscular tissue, governs all 
acts of secretion, equalizes the circulation, and controls nutrition. 




PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


569 


RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

92. Give tlie contents of the thoracic cavity. 

The right and left lungs and right and left pleurae on the 
sides; the heart and pericardium, aorta, part of the ascending 
vena cava, descending vena cava, the trachea, and esophagus or 
gullet, in the middle space, or mediastinum. 

93. Of what do the organs of respiration consist? 

They consist of the respiratory tract, or air^passages, the lungs, 
and certain muscles which assist in the act of breathing. 

94. Of what does the respiratory tract consist ? 

Of the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. 

95. Where do the air=passages begin ? 

They begin with the mouth and nose; the proper passages 
for the air to enter in breathing are in the nose, though we can 
breath through the mouth. 

96 Describe the nasal passages. 

They extend from the outer openings of the nose to the 
pharynx ; are lined with a smooth, soft, mucous membrane, the 
surface of which is greatly increased by the projection into the 
nasal cavity of peculiarly shaped bones ; the lining membrane is 
constantly kept moist, thus catching particles of dust from the 
air, which is moistened and slightly warmed in its passage through. 

97. Describe and locate the pharynx. 

The pharynx, or throat, is a musculo-membraneous sac, coni¬ 
cal in form, 4J inches long, extending from the basilar process of 
the occipital bone to the lower border of the cricoid cartilage in 
front and the fifth cervical vertebra behind ; it lies back of the 
nose, mouth, and larynx. 

98. How many openings has it? 

Seven : two posterior nares from nose, two eustachian from 
ears, and one each from larynx, mouth, and esophagus. 

99. Describe and locate the larynx. 

It is a musculo-cartilaginous, triangulares]laped box, com¬ 
posed of a number of cartilages connected together by ligaments 
and moved by numerous muscles, situated between the tongue 
and trachea ; the projection in the front of the neck, known as 
Adam’s Apple, is formed .by the largest of these cartilages. 

100. What are the glottis and epiglottis ? 

The glottis is the opening from the throat into the larynx ; 
the epiglottis is a leafdike portion of fibro^cartilage, which closes 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BO OK ON EMBALMING 


over the glottis when food or drink is swallowed, preventing the 
entrance into the wind-pipe of any foreign matter; during the 
act of breathing it leaves the glottis unobstructed. 

101. Describe and locate the trachea. 

The trachea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical, membrano^carti- 
laginous tube, about 4J inches in length and 1 inch in diameter, 
extending from lower border of larynx, opposite fifth cervical ver¬ 
tebra, to third dorsal vertebra, where it divides into two branches. 

102. What are the bronchi ? 

They are the right and left divisions of the trachea, which 
enter the lungs, dividing and subdividing into many bronchial 
tubes, ramifying all parts of the lungs. 

103. What are the bronchioles ? 

They are the last and most minute subdivisions of the 
bronchial tubes. 

104. What are the air=cells ? 

There is an air=cell at the end of each bronchiole, in the 
walls of which the blood is purified in its passage through the 
pulmonary circulation. 

105. Describe the lungs. 

The lungs are two in number, right and left; one placed on 
the right and the other on the left side of the thoracic cavity ; 
they weigh together about 42 ounces ; are conical in shape ; the 
right lung is the larger and has three lobes, while the left lung 
is smaller and has but two lobes. 

106. What is the root of the lung ? 

The root of the lung is where the bronchial vessels and 
nerves, bound together by areolar tissue, enter the lung. 

107. What is the color of the lungs? 

The color of the lungs at birth is pinkisli-white, which be¬ 
comes mottled as age advances by slate-colored patches from de¬ 
posits of carbonaceous granules in the areolar tissue of the organ. 

108. What is the structure of the lungs? 

The lungs are invested with a serous coat, and a sub-serous, 
areolar tissue, investing the entire organ, extending inward 
between the lobules and the parenchyma, or true lung tissue, 
composed of lobules, each consisting of a number of air-cells, 
arranged around the termination of a bronchiole, and surrounded 
by plexuses of pulmonary and bronchial arteries and veins, 
lymphatics, and nerves. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


571 


109. How are the lungs nourished? 

The lungs are nourished by the bronchial arteries, which are 
derived from the thoracic aorta ; they ramify every part of the 
lungs to the capillaries, where the blood is taken up by the 
bronchial veins, which open on the right side into the vena 
azygos and on the left side into the superior intercostal vein. 

110. Describe the pleurae. 

The pleurse are two delicate, serous, shut sacs, one surround¬ 
ing each lung and reflected over the pericardium, diaphragm, 
and inner surface of the thorax. 

111. What are the pleural cavities? 

They are the spaces between the lungs and thoracic walls on 
either side within the two layers of the pleural sacs. 

112. What is the mediastinum or median space? 

It is the space between the two pleurae in the median line of 
the thorax, extending from the sternum to the vertebral column, 
and containing all of the viscera of the chest except the lungs 
and pleurae. 

ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 

113. Of what do the organs of digestion consist? 

They consist of the alimentary canal and accessory organs. 

114. What is digestion? 

It is a process which all food must undergo before it is in 
condition to afford nourishment to the tissues ; it is while passing 
through the digestive organs that digestion takes place. 

115. Describe the alimentary canal. 

It is a musculo-membranous tube, 25 to 30 feet in length, 
extending from the mouth to the anus. 

116. What kind of a membrane lines the alimentary canal? 

A mucous membrane, which secretes mucus. 

117. Name the divisions of the alimentary canal. 

The mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and large and 
small intestines. 

118. What are the accessory organs of digestion ? 

The tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, spleen, etc. 

119. Describe the mouth. 

It is an ovahshaped cavity, formed by the lips, cheeks, jaws, 
palate, and tongue ; contains the tongue, teeth, hard and soft 
palates, etc.; and opens posteriorly into the pharynx. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK OX EMBALMING 


120. Describe the esophagus. 

The esophagus, or gullet, is a musculonnembraneous canal, 
about nine inches long, extending along the front of the spine, 
from the larynx to the cardiac orifice of the stomach, opposite 
the ninth dorsal vertebra. 

121. Describe the stomach. 

It is the principal organ of digestion, large at one end and 
smaller at the other; is about 12 inches in length, and 4 inches 
in average diameter ; lies diagonally across the upper part of the 
abdomen ; and holds ordinarily from three to five pints. 

122. Of what are the walls of the stomach composed? 

They are composed of three coats, an outer, fibro=elastic con¬ 
nective tissue ; a middle, muscular ; and an inner, mucous. 

123. Describe the small intestine. 

It is a convoluted tube, about 20 feet in length, beginning at 
the pyloric end of the stomach and ending at the ileocecal open¬ 
ing in the right iliac region. 

124. Name and describe its divisions. 

The upper end is called the duodenum, about 12 finger 
breadths (10 inches) in length; the jejunum, so named from 
being usually found empty, includes about two-fifths of the 
remainder ; the ilium, so named from its twisted course, consti¬ 
tutes the balance. 

125. Describe the large intestine. 

It extends from the termination of the ilium at the ileocecal 
' valve to the anus ; is about five feet in length, much larger than 
the small intestine, more fixed in position, and is sacculated ; its 
chief office is the expulsion from the body of the undigested por¬ 
tion of food, known as feces. 

126. Name and describe its divisions. 

The cecum, the first part, is the blind pouch below ileocecal 
opening ; the colon constitutes the greater part of the large in¬ 
testine, extends from cecum to rectum, and is divided into ascend¬ 
ing, transverse, and descending portions, and sigmoid flexure ; 
the rectum is about six or eight inches long, ending at the anus. 

127. What is the vermiform appendix? 

It is a narrow, wormdike tube, about the size of a gooses 
quill, and from three to six inches in length ; it is attached to 
the cecum or beginning of the large intestine. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


573 


128. Describe and locate the liver. 

It is the largest glandular organ in the body, weighs 3 to 4 
pounds, measures transversely about 12 inches, from front to back 
about 6 or 7 inches, and in thickness about 3 inches ; is located 
on right side immediately beneath diaphragm in right hypochon- 
drium and extends across epigastrium to left liypochondrium. 

129. Into how many lobes is it divided? 

Five : right and left lobes, which form the bulk of the liver ; 
lobus quadratus, lobus Spigelii, and lobus caudatus. 

130. What is the function of the liver? 

It is intended mainly for the secretion of bile, hut also effects 
important changes in certain constituents of the blood in its 
passage through the gland. 

131. What is the bile? 

It is a bitter, viscid, yellowish, or greenish liquid secreted by 
the liver, and discharged into the duodenum, where it mixes with 
the chyme, aiding in digestion, chiefly acting on the fats. 

132. What is biliver din? 

It is the green pigment or coloring matter of the bile. 

133. What is the bilerubin? 

It is the yellow coloring matter of the bile. 

134. What are the biliary ducts? 

They are the hepatic and cystic ducts and the ductus com¬ 
munis choledochus, which convey the bile to the intestine. 

135. Describe and locate the gallbladder. 

It is a conical, pear-shaped sac, the reservoir of the bile, and 
lies on the under surface of the liver. 

136. Describe the spleen. 

The spleen possesses no excretory duct, is oblong and flattened, 
about the size of a fist, is very brittle, contains much blood of a 
bluish-red color, and is situated in the left hypocondriac region. 

137. What are the suprarenal capsules? 

Thev ^are two small crescentic-shaped ductless glands, situated 

one on each kidney. 

138. What is the pancreas? 

It is a racemose gland, about 7 inches in length, of a grayich- 
wliite color, and situated behind the stomach. 

139. Describe and locate the kidneys. 

They are the largest tubular glands of the body, located in 
the right and left lumbar regions, behind the peritoneum, and 


574 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


secrete the urine ; they are oblong and flattened, about 4 inches 
long, 2 inches broad, and.an inch thick, and weigh 4J to 6 ounces. 

140. What are the ureters ? 

They are cylindrical membranous tubes, 16 to 18 inches 
long, which convey the urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 

141. What is the peritoneum ? 

It is a seromiembranous shut sac, one layer of which covers 
the abdominal and pelvic viscera, while the other is reflected over 
and forms the lining of the anterior and lateral abdominal walls. 

142. What is the peritoneal cavity? 

It is the space between the intestines and abdominal wall 
within the peritoneal sac. 

143. What is the pelvis ? 

The pelvis is a basindike cavity, situated at the lower end of 
the trunk, and is the outlet of the abdominal cavitv ; it contains 

7 »v 7 

the bladder, internal organs of generation, and rectum. 

144. Describe the bladder. 

It is a musculo-membranous sac located in the adult in the 
pelvic cavity, and serves as a reservoir for the urine. 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

145. What Co you understand by the circulatory system ? 

It is a system of organs and vessels by which the blood 
circulates through and into every part of the body. 

146. What are the organs of circulation? 

They are the heart and blood-vessels. 

147. How are the blood-vessels divided? 

They are divided, according to the kind of work done, into 
three classes : arteries, capillaries, and veins. 

148. Describe and locate the heart. 

It is a hollow, muscular organ, placed between the lungs and 
enclosed in the cavity of the pericardium ; it rests obliquely across 
the chest, its base being directed upward and backward to the 
right and the apex, downward, forward and to the left, cor¬ 
responding to the interspaces between the cartilages of the 
fifth and sixth ribs, one inch to the inner side and two inches 
below the left nipple ; it projects about 3J inches into the left 
side and 1J inches into the right side. 

149. What are its functions ? 

It is the central organ of the bloodwascular system, and by 





PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


575 


its alternate contractions and dilatations propels the blood to all 
parts of the body. 

150. What is the size and weight of the heart? 

The adult heart is about 5 inches in length, 3J in width, and 
2J in thickness, being about the size of the fist; it weighs from 
10 to 12 ounces in the male and from 8 to 10 ounces in the 
female; it increases in size and weight as age advances, the 
increase being less marked in women than in men. 

151. How is the heart divided? 

It is divided by a thin, muscular septum, into two lateral 
halves, which, from their position, are named the right and left; 
each half is divided into two cavities by a constriction. 

152. What are the cavities called? 

The upper cavities are called auricles and the lower, ven¬ 
tricles ; there are, therefore, a right and left auricle and a right 
and left ventricle. 

153. Describe the right auricle. 

It is a little larger than the left, its walls are somewhat 
thinner, measuring about one line ; it consists of a principal 
cavity and an appendix auriculae, and has a capacity of about 
two fluid ounces. 

154. Describe the right ventricle. 

It is triangular in form, extends from the right auricle to 
near the apex of the heart; its upper surface is rounded and 
convex and forms the larger part of the front of the heart; its 
wall is only about onedialf the thickness of the left ventricle. 

155. Describe the left auricle. 

It is smaller than the right, but its walls are thicker, meas¬ 
uring about one and a half lines; it receives the arterialized 
blood from the lungs ; like the right, it has a principal cavity 
and an appendix auriculae. 

156. Describe the left ventricle. 

It is longer, thicker, and more conical than the right, pro¬ 
jecting toward the posterior aspect, forming the apex of the 
heart; its walls are about two or three times as thick as are 
those of the right ventricle, being about 6 to 8 lines in thickness. 

157. What is the endocardium? 

The endocardium is a transparent serous membrane which 
lines the cavities of the heart. 


576 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


158. What is the pericardium? 

The pericardium is a serous sac which envelops and contains 
the heart. 

159. Which cavities of the heart receive the blood ? 

The auricles ; the right auricle receives the impure blood 
from all parts of the body, while the left receives the purified 
blood from the lungs. 

160. To what cavities does the blood pass from the auricles? 

To the ventricles, which force it out into the arteries. 

161. What are the auriculo=ventricular openings ? 

The openings between the auricles and ventricles, two in 
number, right and left, the right being guarded by the tricuspid 
valve, and the left, by the bicuspid or mitral valve. . 

162. Where is the aortic opening? 

The aortic opening is in the left ventricle and is the beginning 
of the aorta. 

163. What is the pulmonary opening? 

The pulmonary opening is in the right ventricle and is the 
beginning of the pulmonary artery. 

164. By what valves are these openings guarded ? 

Bv the semi-lunar A^alves. 

«/ 

165. Where are the vena cava openings located ? 

In the right auricle. 

166. Into what cavity do the pulmonary veins open? 

Into the left auricle. 

167. Are these openings guarded by valves? 

They are not. 

168. What is the blood? 

It is the liquid by means of which the circulation is effected ; 
it permeates every part of the body, carrying nutrition to, and 
waste from, the tissues of the body. 

169. What is the composition of the blood? 

It is composed of a thin, colorless liquid, the plasma, and discs 
or cells ; these cells, or corpuscles, are of two different kinds, the red 
and the white ; there are about 666 red to one white corpuscle; 
the red corpuscles are about -oVir of an inch in diameter, and 
contain the red coloring matter of the blood, called hemoglobin. 

170. What is the amount of blood contained in the body? 

The amount of blood is equal to about ^ of the weight of 
the body ; therefore, in a body weighing 150 pounds, it amounts 
to about 15 pounds. 




PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


r* —rr-r 

Dl l 


171. What elements does the blood contain? 

Tlie plasma or liquor sanguinous is rich in mineral matter 
for the bones, and albumen for the muscles ; the red corpuscles 
contain oxygen, which is so essential to every operation in life ; it 
stimulates to action and tears down all that is worn out. 

172. Of what color is impure blood? 

It is a dark-blue. 

173. What color is pure blood? 

It is a bright-red. 

174. There are how many principal circulations? 

Two : the pulmonary or lesser, and systemic or greater. 

175. Of what vessels does the pulmonary circulation consist? 

The pulmonary arteries, the capillaries in the walls of the 
air-cells, and the pulmonary veins. 

176. Where does the pulmonary circulation begin, and where end? 

It begins in right ventricle of heart and ends in left auricle. 

177. Describe the course of, and the changes that take place in, the blood in the 

pulmonary circulation. 

The blood starts from the right ventricle and passes through 
the pulmonary artery to the capillaries in the walls of the air- 
cells, where the carbonic acid gas is given off and oxygen is 
taken on, thereby purifying or oxygenating the blood ; from the 
lungs it is carried through the pulmonary veins into the left 
auricle ; then it passes through the auriculo-ventricular opening 
into the left ventricle. 

17S. Of what vessels does the systemic circulation consist? 

It consists of the aorta and its branches, the capillaries, and 
the veins that enter the rig^it side of the heart. 

179. Where does it begin, and where does it end? 

It begins in the left ventricle, and ends in the right auricle. 

180. Describe the course of, and the changes that take place in, the blood in the 

systemic circulation. 

The blood passes from the left ventricle through the aorta 
and its branches to the capillaries in every part of the body, 
where nourishment is given to the tissues and waste is taken up ; it 
then passes through the veins into the right auricle ; from thence 
through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle. 

181. What kind of blood do the arteries of the systemic circulation contain? 

They contain bright-red or pure blood. 

182. What kind of blood do the veins contain? 

They contain dark-blue or impure blood. 


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CHAMPION TEXT* B O OK ON EMBALMING 


183. When is all the hlood in the body impure (venous) at death? 

Iii a case where death is caused by asphyxia. 

184. What kind of blood does the pulmonary artery contain ? 

Impure or venous blood. 

185. What kind of blood do the pulmonary veins contain? 

* 

Pure or arterial blood. 

186. Trace the blood from a given point through the entire circuit of the two cir¬ 

culations. 

Beginning at the left ventricle, it passes out through the 
aortic opening into and through the aorta and all of the 
branches, into and through the capillaries in the tissues ; thence, 
through the veins to the right auricle ; then through the auriculo* 
ventricular opening into the right ventricle ; then through the 
pulmonary opening into and through the pulmonary artery to 
the capillaries in the walls of the air-cells ; thence, through the 
pulmonary veins to left auricle ; then, through the left auriculo* 
ventricular opening to left ventricle, the place of beginning. 

187. What is the fetal circulation? 

It is the circulation between the mother and unborn child, 
through the placenta and umbilical cord, by which the fetus 
receives nourishment. 

188. How many coats have arteries and veins? 

Each has three: an internal, serous; a middle, muscular; 
and an external, fibro=connective. 

189. What is the collateral circulation ? 

The collateral circulation is a circulation at the side of the 
main vessels formed by the anastomoses of the smaller sub¬ 
divisions of the arterial branches ; these anastomoses are exten¬ 
sive throughout the body, so that blood may be carried from one 
part to another, after the main branch of the artery has been 
ligated, or destroyed by other means ; the anastomoses of the 
veins are much more extensive than of the arteries. 

190. How are arteries and veins usually named? 

From the regions through which they pass or the organs to 
or from which they carry blood. 

191. What is the difference between veins and arteries in the extremities? 

Veins in the extremities have valves and the blood will not 
flow backward—that is, towards the fingers and toes— ; veins in 
the trunk, headland neck have no valves; arteries have no 
valves throughout their course. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


579 


192. What are the smallest arteries and veins called ? 

The smallest arteries are called arterioles ; the smallest veins 
are called venules. 

193. Describe the capillaries. 

They are a minute network of vessels formed throughout the 
tissues of the body between the arterioles and venules ; they are 
from 3 ^oir to -g-oVo of an inch in diameter ; they lie so closely 
packed together that to prick the skin with a small needle will 
wound or injure many of them ; they inosculate freely and dis¬ 
tribute the blood to the tissues as necessity demands ; their walls 
have a single coat, a continuation of the serous or inner coat 
of the arteries and veins ; it is through these walls that nourish¬ 
ment is given off from the blood and the waste is taken up. 

ARTERIES. 

194. What is the main artery of the systemic circulation called? 

The aorta. 

195. Where does it begin and where does it end ? 

It begins at the aortic opening of the heart, passing upward ; 
thence, backward to the left side and the front of the backbone, 
forming an arch, passing downward to the fourth lumbar vertebra, 
where it divides into the right and left common iliacs. 

196. How is it divided? 

It is divided into an arch, thence a straight portion which 
descends to the diaphragm, called the thoracic aorta; then from 
the diaphragm to its division, called the abdominal aorta. 

197. What are the coronary arteries? 

The coronary arteries are small branches that are given off 
from the aorta, just outside of the semilunar valves at the aortic 
opening, to supply the substance of the heart with nutrient or 
arterial blood. 

198. What branches are given off from the aortic arch? 

First, the innominate, which divides behind the junction of 
the clavicle and sternum into the common carotid and subclavian ; 
second, the left common carotid ; third, the left subclavian. 

199. What branches are given off from the thoracic aorta? 

Pericardiac, bronchial, esophageal, and 20 intercostals. 

200. What branches are given off from the abdominal aorta? 

Two phrenic, celiac axis, which divides into the gastric, 
hepatic, and splenic, superior and inferior mesenteric, two 
suprarenals, two renals, and two common iliacs. 






580 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


201 Describe the common carotids. 

The common carotid oil the right side arises from the innomi¬ 
nate, while that on the left is longer and deeper and arises from 
the arch of the aorta ; they are separated only by the width ot the 
trachea and they are each contained in a sheath accompanied by 
the internal jugular vein and pneumogastric nerve ; they divide 
at the angles of the jaws into the external and internal carotids. 

202. Describe the external carotid. 

The external carotid ascends in front of the ear and divides 
into a number of branches which supply the tongue, face, 
pharynx, occipital region, temporal region, and the teeth ; the 
branches of one side anastomose freely with those on the other. 

203. Describe the internal carotid. 

It ascends in front of the transverse processes of the upper 
cervical vertebrae, follows the carotid canal in the temporal bone, 
and, after piercing the dura mater, divides into terminal branches, 
supplying all parts of the brain and its coverings. 

204. What are its principal branches ? 

They are the anterior cerebral, which is joined to its fellow 
by the anterior communicating branch, which is about two lines in 
length ; the middle cerebral, which divides into anterior, median, 
and posterior cerebral arteries ; the posterior communicating. 

205. Describe the circle of Willis. 

It is an anastomosis at the base of the brain between the 
branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, equalizing 
the cerebral circulation ; the two vertebral arteries join to form 
the basilar, which ends in the two posterior cerebral; these are 
connected with the internal carotid by the two posterior com¬ 
municating ; the circle is completed by the connection of the 
two anterior cerebral branches of the internal carotid through 
the short anterior communicating artery. 

206. Describe the subclavian. 

The right subclavian arises from the innominate at the 
junction of the collar- and breastbones ; the left from the arch 
of the aorta; they extend to the outer border of the first rib on 
either side, where they become the axillary arteries. 

207. What is the first branch given off from the subclavian? 

The first branch is the vertebral, which passes up the neck 
through the small foramina in the transverse processes of the six 
cervical vertebrae, and enters the skull through the foramen 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


581 


magnum, where it joins its fellow to form the basilar artery, giving 
oil branches that enter into the formation of the circle of Willis. 

208. Describe the internal mammary. 

The internal mammary is a branch which descends along 
the costal cartilages to the sixth interspace. 

209. Describe the axillary. 

The axillary artery is the continuation of the subclavian ; it 
extends from the outer border of the first rib to the lower margin 
of the axillary space, where it becomes the brachial. 

210. Describe the brachial. 

It is the continuation of the axillary from the lower border 
of the armpit to where it divides into the radial and ulnar, which 
is usually one-half inch below the bend of the elbow. 

211. Describe the radial. 

It is a division of the brachial, extending from the bifurca¬ 
tion to the deep palmar arch on the radial side of the forearm. 

212. Describe the ulnar. 

It is the other division of the brachial and extends along 
the ulnar side of the forearm to the superficial palmar arch. 

213. Describe the superficial palmar arch. 

It is that part of the ulnar artery in the palm of the hand 
which anastomoses with branches from the radial. 

214. Describe the deep palmar arch. 

It is that portion of the radial artery in the palm which 
anastomoses with a communicating branch of the ulnar. 

215. What arteries supply the fingers ? 

The digital branches given off from the superficial palmar 
arch and by the radialis indicis. 

216. What arteries supply the lungs with nutrient blood ? 

The bronchial arteries, which are branches of the thoracic 
aorta, and which vary in number and origin, being usually one 
on the right side and two on the left. 

217. Describe the intercostal arteries. 

They are branches of the thoracic aorta, usually ten in num¬ 
ber on each side ; they supply the upper intercostal spaces and 
the spinal cord and tissues of the back. 

218. Describe the phrenic arteries. 

They are branches of the abdominal aorta and supply the 
under surface of the diaphragm. 


582 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


219. Describe the celiac axis. 

It is about one-half inch in length, arises from the aorta just 
beneath the diaphragm, and divides into the gastric, hepatic, and 
splenic arteries. 

220. What parts does the gastric artery supply? 

The pyloric end of the stomach, duodenum, pancreas, a part 
of the liver, and gall-bladder. 

221. What organ does the hepatic supply? 

The liver. 

222. What organs does the splenic supply? 

The spleen, pancreas, and large or splenic end of the stomach. 

223. What does the superior mesenteric supply? 

The small intestine, cecum, and ascending and transverse colon. 

224. What does the inferior mesenteric supply ? 

The descending colon, sigmoid flexure, and most oi the rectum. 

225. What do the suprarenal arteries supply? 

The suprarenal capsules. 

226. What organs do the renals supply? 

The kidneys. 

227. What are the common iliacs? 

They are the bifurcating branches of the abdominal aorta, 
are about two inches long, and divide into the internal and 
external iliacs. 

228. What does the internal iliac supply? 

The walls and viscera of the pelvis and inner side of the thigh. 

229. Describe the external iliac. 

It extends to and beneath the center of Poupart’s ligament, 
where it enters the thigh and becomes the femoral artery ; its 
principal branch is the epigastric, which arises a short distance 
above Poupart’s ligament. 

230. Describe the femoral. 

It extends from Poupart’s ligament to the opening in the 
adductor magnus muscle, where it becomes the popliteal ; its 
course corresponds to a line drawn from the center of Poupart’s 
ligament to the inner side of the knee ; it lies in a strong, fibrous 
sheath, with the femoral vein on the inside and the anterior 
crural nerve on the outside in the upper part of Scarpa’s tri¬ 
angle ; it lies superficial in the upper third of the thigh ; it 
gives off a number of branches which anastomose freely in all 
parts of the thigh, forming a perfect collateral circulation. 


\ 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


583 


231. What is its largest branch ? 

Its largest branch is the profunda. 

232. Describe the popliteal. 

It is a continuation of the femoral and extends through the 
popliteal space behind the knee, at the lower border of which it 
divides into the anterior and posterior tibial, giving off branches 
to the knee in its course. 

233. Describe the anterior tibial. 

It extends from the division of the popliteal to the front of 
the ankle=joint, where it becomes the dorsalis pedis ; it is super¬ 
ficial in its lower third, lying on the anterior and outer surface 
of the tibia. 

234. Describe the dorsalis pedis. 

It extends from the front of the ankle to the first interosse¬ 
ous space, where it terminates in the dorsalis hallucis and the 
communicating ; it gives off branches to the front part of the 
foot and toes. 

235. Describe the posterior tibial. 

It extends from the division of the popliteal along the back 
of the tibia to the groove behind and below the internal ankle, 
where it divides into the internal and external plantar, giving 
off branches to the leg, heel, and sole of the foot. 

236. Describe the internal and external plantar. 

The internal plantar passes along the inner side of the foot 
and great toe; the external plantar passes obliquely, outward 
and forward, and at the base of the metatarsal bones inosculates 
with the communicating branches of the dorsalis pedis, forming 
the plantar arch ; it gives off branches to supply the muscles on 
the outer part of the foot and the interosseous tissues, and three 
or four digital branches of the toes. 

VEINS. 

237. What are veins? 

Veins are vessels that carry the blood from the capillaries to 
the auricles of the heart. 

# ■ 

238. Into how many classes are veins divided? 

They are divided into superficial and deep veins. 

239. Which are deep veins ? 

Those beneath the fascia ; they usually accompany the arteries. 

240. What are superficial veins? 

Those lvincr immediately beneath the skin in the areolar tissue. 

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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


241. What are venae comites? 

They are two small veins which accompany secondary 
arteries in the same sheath. 

242. What are the two largest veins caned? 

The superior or descending vena cava and the inferior or 
ascending vena cava. 

243. What vessels unite to form the superior vena cava? 

The right and left innominate veins. 

244. What vessels unite to form the inferior vena cava? 

The right and left common iliac veins, which unite at the 
fourth lumbar vertebra. 

245. What are sinuses? 

They are large veins within the cranium and other parts of 
the body ; in the brain their coats are formed by duplications 
of the dura mater. 

246. Through what large veins is the hlood carried from the cranial sinuses to 

the innominate veins? 

Through the internal jugulars. 

247. Through what large veins is the blood returned towards the heart from the 

external surfaces of the head and face ? 

Through the internal, external, posterior, and anterior 
jugular veins. 

248. What vein accompanies the common carotid artery? 

The internal jugular, which lies on the outer side of the 
artery within the sheath. 

249. Name the principal veins of the upper extremities. 

The veins of the forearm are, first, the deep—venae comites ; 
second, superficial—radial, ulnar, median, median cephalic, and 
median basilic (at the elbow); in the arm, deep—venae comites ; 
superficial—cephalic on the outside of the arm, basilic near the 
brachial artery, axillary accompanying the axillary artery, sub¬ 
clavian accompanying the subclavian artery. 

250. What are the principal veins of the lower part cf the trunk and lower 

extremities ? 

In the leg, deep—venae comites ; superficial—external or 
short saphenous and internal or long saphenous ; in the popliteal 
space, popliteal vein ; in the thigh, deep—femoral vein and 
profunda branch, superficial—internal or long saphenous, which 
joins the femoral in Scarpa’s triangle ; in the lower part of the 
trunk, external and internal iliacs accompanying the external 
and internal iliac arteries, and common iliacs, which accompany 
the common iliac arteries, and join to form the inferior vena cava. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


585 


251. What is the portal circulation? 

It is an appendage of the venous portion of the systemic cir¬ 
culation. 

252. What veins form the portal system? 

The inferior and superior mesenteric, splenic, and gastric 
veins form the portal vein, which carries the blood from the 
intestines, spleen, and stomach to the liver. 

II.—EMBALMING. 

253. What is embalming? 

Embalming is the filling of a body with a preservative and 
disinfectant fluid. 

254. What are the chief reasons for embalming? 

The chief reasons are those of preservation and disinfection. 

255. To preserve a body only, what kind of fluid should be injected? 

A fluid containing antiseptics is all that is necessary. 

256. To disinfect as well as preserve, what kind of fluid should be injected? 

A fluid containing strong disinfectants should be used. 

257. Why is preservation desired ? 

Preservation is desired only for the present, to keep the body 
in a natural condition and prevent the usual bad odors that 
accompany putrefaction, during the mourning period or until 
interment. • 

258. Why is disinfection desired? 

In all cases dying of contagious and infectious diseases, disin¬ 
fection is desired to prevent dissemination of the disease. 

259. How soon after death should the body be embalmed? 

As soon as possible after the arteries are empty. 

260. Why? 

If blood is to be removed it should be done before coagula¬ 
tion takes place ; the tissues can be filled much more readily 
when rigor mortis is absent, when they are flaccid. 

261. When is it necessary to withdraw blood from the heart or veins? 

In all fulhblooded bodies, and in all bodies during hot 
weather, it is a good practice ; while in septicemia and pyemia 
it is necessary because the blood is full of the putrefactive bac¬ 
teria and for the purpose of enlarging the space for the reception 
of a greater amount of fluid, in order to destroy the bacteria that 
are in the tissues of all parts of the body. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


262. What are the nutrient fluids of the body? 

They are the blood, lymph, and chyle ; but the blood is the 
most important to the embalmer. 

263. Why is the blood the most important fluid to the embalmer? 

Because it is the chief source of discolorations, and putre¬ 
factive changes take place in it very soon after death, especially 
in hot weather. 

204. How would you fill the body with fluid? 

As a rule, by raising an artery and filling the capillaries in all 
parts of the body through the systemic circulation ; also filling 
the cavities, especially the respiratory tract, alimentary canal, 
and serous sacs, through the hollow-needle. 

265. Why is it necessary to fill the cavities? 

To sterilize the contents. 

266. Is there a possibility of the circulation being destroyed in certain cases'? 

Yes ; in old people, on account of the presence of atheroma ; 
in cases of postmortem examination ; in railroad or other severe 
accidents ; and in some cases by the arteries not being emptied 
after death. 

267. If the circulation is destroyed, how would you fill the tissues? 

By tying the arteries or by injecting fluid through the 
hollowmeedle into the cellular and deeper tissues throughout 
the upper surfaces of the body. 

268. What is death? 

Death is the cessation of physical life. 

269. What are the modes of death? 

Cessation of the functions of the heart, cessation of the func¬ 
tions of the lungs, cessation of the functions of the brain ; the 
latter is an indirect mode as it ultimately affects either the heart 
or the lungs. 

270. What conditions simulate death? 

Syncope, asphyxia, and trance. 

271. Is there a single early sign of death ? 

No ; a number of signs should be taken together. 

272. Give tests to determine when the heart has ceased to act. 

First, place the ear or stethoscope over the heart to gather 
sounds ; second, apply a ligature around a finger or toe to see if 
the distal end will become swollen or discolored ; third, open a 
dependent artery to see if it contains blood. If no sounds are 
gathered, and no swelling or discolorations appear, and the artery 
is found empty, all are signs that the heart has ceased to act. 




PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


587 


273 Give tests to determine when respiration has ceased. 

The application of a cold mirror over the mouth will con¬ 
dense the moisture in the air when respiration is going on ; a 
flock of cotton applied to the mouth or nose will move to and 
fro if respiration continues ; the placing of a cup of water upon 
the chest will determine whether the chest is heaving or not. 

274. Name other signs of death. 

If the skin is stretched it wdll not readily resume its normal 
position ; if burned with a match or liot iron, it will not blister ; 
opaqueness of the cornea ; great pallor of the surface of the 
body ; if, in cutting or puncturing the tissues, the wound remains 
open ; reduction of occular tension ; the flattening of the surface 
when pressure is removed ; coldness of the surface ; the presence 
of post-mortem discolorations and staining, which come on 
usually in eight or ten hours after death ; and rigor mortis, all 
indicate the presence of death ; the last and only certain sign, 
putrefaction, which shows about the third day in an ordinary 
case in an average temperature. 

275. What change takes place in the hlood after death that prevents its removal ? 

Coagulation. 

276. How soon after death does coagulation usually take place ? 

As a rule, in from 12 to 24 hours ; it may occur sooner m 
some diseases, while it may be retarded to a much longer period 
in others. 

277. Can coagulated hlood he removed from the veins or heart? 

No ; it neither can be dissolved nor withdrawn irom me 
heart or veins. 

278. What portion of the entire weight of the body is hlood? 

About one-tenth. 

279 When coursing through the vessels, about how much of the blood is required 
to fill the arteries and capillaries? 

About one-half, the remainder being in the veins. 

280. When injecting the arteries, what vessels do we aim to fill? 

The arteries and capillaries, of the systemic circulation. 

281. That being the case, how much fluid should be injected into the arterial sys¬ 

tem to fill the tissues? 

A quantity equal to about one-half of the blood or about -dn 
of the weight of the body, or one pound to each twenty pounds 
weight of the body. 

282. In what condition are the arteries found after death? 

They are usually found empty. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-.BO OK ON EMBALMING 


283. What causes them to be empty? 

Post-mortem contraction of the heart and arteries, which 
begins at the heart and ends at the arterioles. 

284. When does this contraction take place ? 

It usually comes on and passes off within an hour or two 
after death, but, being a tonic contraction, it may last for a much 
longer period ; one case on record shows that it lasted 36 hours. 

285. Does this contraction ever interfere with the filling of the arteries? 
Sometimes the contraction will last for some hours after 

death, and, when the artery is raised, it is found so small that 
the tube will scarcely enter and only a very small amount of 
fluid can be injected. 

286. What should be done when the arteries are contracted? 

Wait until their walls relax, when they can be filled easily. 

287. Where is the blood usually found after death? 

After the arteries are emptied it is found in the deep and 
dependent veins. 

288. How should the body be placed while being injected? 

It should be placed on an incline with the lower extremities 
and lower part of the trunk lower than the head. 

289. In what order will the different parts of the body be filled? 

When the fluid is injected slowly, the lower extremities and 
lower part of the trunk will fill first; then the upper portion of 
the trunk, neck, head, and face last. 

290. If too little fluid is injected, what will be the result? 

If too little fluid is injected, the lower parts of the body 
receive it, while the neck, face, and head receive none ; there¬ 
fore, these parts are first discolored and the features changed in 
many cases. 

291. Does the fluid reach the cavities of the heart? 

Not unless the valves are diseased or injured. 

292. Does the fluid ever reach the right side of the heart? 

Not unless the fluid makes the whole circuit of the systemic 
circulation, in arterial injection, or by one of the needle processes 

293. Why are arteries injected instead of veins? 

Arteries are usually empty of blood, while veins are never 
empty ; arteries, if injected when empty, will not cause flushing, 
while veins, it injected, will cause flushing ; arteries have no 
valves, while veins in the extremities are full of valves which 
would prevent fluid from entering the extremities. 



PR A CTICAL Q UESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


589 


294. What tissues are cut through in raising an artery? 

1 lie skin, fat, and cellular, or superficial fascia and deep fascia. 

295. How do you raise an artery ? 

By making a cut through the skin on the guide line long 
enough to expose a sufficient length of the artery ; scrape away 
the fat; raise the fascia on the grovedffiirector and incise it 
with the curved, sharp^pointed bistoury ; raise the sheath upon 
the handle or shank of the aneurismmeedle ; open it with the 
scissors or scalpel, and separate the artery from the vein or veins 
and nerve ; pass a double thread underneath the artery ; incise 
the wall of the artery ; and insert and tie in the arterial tube. 

296. How would you incise the wall of an artery? 

Raise it out ot the wound and place it upon the shank or 
handle of the aneurismmeedle ; then make a cut in its long axis 
with the curved bistoury or scissors. 

297. Why make the cut in its long axis? 

Because it will not weaken the artery, while the transverse 
or diagonal cut impairs the walls and a little force is liable to 
tear the vessel in two. 

298. In what direction would you insert the arterial=tube ? 

With the nozzle toward the heart. 

299. Could fluid be injected with the nozzle directed from the heart ? 

Yes ; but too much fluid might be injected into the distal 
end of the extremity in which the artery is raised, causing dis¬ 
coloration and a distorted appearance. 

300. If the arteries are full of blood, what would you do? 

Wait until postmortem contraction takes place to empty 
them ; or raise the femoral artery and place the body well on 
the incline, tie in a drainage4ube and let the blood drain out, 
which frequently will stimulate the walls of the arteries to con¬ 
traction ; after the blood is drained out, inject the arteries. 

301. What effect would it have on the surface of the body to inject the arteries 

when fuH of blood ? 

If soon after death, the surface would be flushed red, as a 
rule, in all diseases, except asphyxia. 

302. Is the blood in the arteries always pure or arterial? 

No ; in case of asphyxia there is no arterial blood in the body, 
the blood in both the arteries and veins being impure or venous. 

303. In a case of death from asphyxia when the arteries are full, what color would 

the flushing of the surface be ? 

If the arteries were injected it would be of a darkffilue or 
venous color. 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


304. If you were by mistake to inject a vein for an artery, what effect would it 

have on the surface of the body ? 

It would flush it a darkffilue or venous color. 

305. Which arteries are usually raised for embalming purposes? 

Brachial, femoral, carotid, radial, and posterior tibial. 

306. Is one artery better than another ? 

No ; if an artery is large enough to receive the arteriabtube, 
it is as good as any other artery. 

307. If blood is to be withdrawn through the vein, which artery should be raised ? 

Either the brachial, which has the basilic vein near it; the 
femoral, which is accompanied by the femoral vein ; or the 
carotid, which is accompanied by the internal jugular. 

308. Is the carotid any better for injection than the brachial or femoral? 

No ; there is no reason why it should be raised in preference 
to either the brachial or femoral ; and there are no good reasons 
why either of them should be avoided. 

309. Where are the brachial aitery and basilic vein located? 

They are located on the inner side of the arm in the groove 
between the biceps and triceps muscles, the vein lying to the 
inner side of the artery and usually nearer the surface. 

310. Give the anatomical and linear guides to the brachial artery. 

The anatomical guide is the inner border of the biceps 
muscle ; the linear guide is the line drawn from the center of 
the armpit to the center of the elbow, when the palm of the hand 
is turned upward and the arm placed at right angles with body. 

311. What vessels and nerve accompany the brachial artery within the sheath ? 

The venae comites and median nerve, the artery always lying 

beneath the nerve, in the middle third of the arm. 

312. When you raise the brachial artery through what vein would you remove blood ? 
Through the basilic vein, using a tube that is of sufficient 

length to reach the right auricle of the heart, and is of a caliber 
that will readily pass through the vein. 

313. Does it make any difference which arm is used when blood is to be withdrawn 

through the basilic vein ? 

No ; as the tube can be passed through the vein of one arm 
as well as the other ; when the right is used, if the end of the 
tube is checked in the neck, a little pressure in the hollow above 
the inner end of the clavicle will start it down through the in¬ 
nominate vein. 

314. Why should the carotids be avoided ? 

Because they lie deep and the mutilation is extensive, espe¬ 
cially in fleshy persons, and is readily exposed ; blood can be 




PRACTICAL QUESTIONS ANL> ANSWERS 


591 


withdrawn directly from the heart or through either the basilic 
or femoral vein just as easily as through the internal jugular. 

315. When is it best to raise the radial or tibial artery? 

\\ hen the body is already dressed ; in this case, blood can be 
withdrawn, if necessary, from the heart by the direct operation. 

316. What do you find in the sheath with the artery ? 

Always one or two veins and sometimes a nerve. 

317. How do you discriminate between an artery, vein, and nerve? 

An artery is usually empty, cylindrical in form, of a creamy* 
white appearance and somewhat firm to the touch, owing to the 
heavier walls. A vein, if deep, usually contains blood ; if so, it 
has a bluish appearance ; it is collapsed and has a soft velvety 
feel, owing to its thinner walls ; if empty, its color is similar to 
that of an artery. The nerve is white, hard, dense in structure ; 
is never hollow. Arteries are contained in sheaths, always accom¬ 
panied by one or more veins ; when accompanied by two veins 
the veins are usually of small size ; superficial veins are never 
within a sheath, and lie near the surface. 

% 

318. Where are the femoral artery and vein located P 

In the thigh. 

319. What superficial vein lies to the inner side of the femoral artery ? 

The internal or long saphenous, which is often mistaken for 
the artery. 

320. Through what triangle does the artery pass in its descent through the thigh P 

Scarpa’s triangle ; it enters the triangle at center of the base, 
passing through to the apex, in which it lies nearest the surface. 

321. Give the anatomical and linear guides to the femoral artery. 

The anatomical guide is the inner border of the sartorius or 
tailor’s muscle ; the linear guide is a line drawn from the center 
of Poupart’s ligament to the inner side of the knee when the 
foot is turned out. 

322. How would you withdraw blood from the femoral vein? 

The vein should be raised and opened and a drainage*tube 
of sufficient length inserted to reach above the bifurcation of the 
common iliac vein, through which the blood will drain when 
the body is placed well on the incline. 

323. Give the anatomical and linear guides to the common carotid artery. 

The anatomical guide is the front border of the sterno¬ 
cleidomastoid muscle; the linear guide is the line drawn from 


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CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


the mastoid process downward and forward to the junction of 
the clavicle and sternum. 

324. Give the guide to the radial artery. 

The guide is the groove on the radial side of the arm between 
the first prominent tendon and the outer edge of the radius, 
where the doctor takes the pulse-rate. 

325. Give the guide to the anterior tibial. 

The guide to the anterior tibial is the outer side of the front 
border of the lower end of the tibia. 

326. What is the guide to the posterior tibial? 

The guide to the posterior tibial is the groove behind and 
beneath the internal malleolus (ankle). 

327. In what position would you place the body after embalming ? 

Upon a level, with the head but slightly elevated, so as to pre¬ 
vent the fluid from draining out of the upper portions of the body. 

328. What methods are used for withdrawing the blood? 

Either by the direct operation upon the heart or through 
one of the larger veins. 

329. In the direct method at what point should the needle be introduced? 

If blood is to be withdrawn from the right auricle by the 
direct method, the point of the needle should be inserted in the 
third intercostal space, close to the margin of the breast-bone on 
the right side, and directed straight back toward the right of the 
center of the back-bone, to avoid wounding the great aorta. 

330. Does the direct operation destroy the circulation? 

To puncture the right auricle does not destroy the circulation 
for the injection of the fluid ; when the circulation is destroyed 
it is usually the unfortunate wounding of the great aorta by 
directing the point of needle to left of the center of the back-bone. 

331. What effect does heat have on the blood? 

It coagulates it. 

332. What effect does freezing have on the blood? 

It prevents coagulation ; the blood will not coagulate as long 
as it remains frozen. 

333. How much blood can be withdrawn from the body? 

That depends, as a rule, upon the size of the body and the dis¬ 
ease ; in some cases only a few ounces can be removed, while in 
others the quantity is large, being as much as four quarts ; or¬ 
dinarily only one pint to two or three quarts can be withdrawn. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


593 


334 Why do we practice cavity embalming? 

r lo sterilize the contents of the different subdivisions of the 
abdominal and thoracic cavities, especially the contents of the 
alimentary canal and respiratory tract. 

335. What parts of the cavities should be filled in all cases ? 

The pleural and peritoneal sacs, the alimentary canal, and 
the respiratory tract. 

336. Can a body be preserved and disinfected thoroughly by cavity injection? 

No ; the fluid will only reach the cavities and sterilize the 
contents, or settling down through the tissues, will possibly ster¬ 
ilize the tissues of the back of the trunk. 

337. Will cavity injection alone preserve the body ? 

It will aid in preserving some bodies temporarily, as putre¬ 
faction will not take place to a great extent, for some days, in 
the outer soft tissues, especially while rigor mortis is present. 

338. Which is the best point to insert the hollow=needle for relieving the cavities of 

gases and filling them with fluid ? 

If only one point is selected, it should be in the epigastrium, 
as the needle can be directed through the diaphragm close to 
the ribs and over the lungs into the pleural sacs, and through 
the peritoneal sac to all parts of the abdominal cavity, always 
bearing in mind the location of the aorta and heart; these 
should not be punctured under any circumstances. 

339. In what organs are gases usually formed in the abdominal cavity ? 

When a large quantity of gas is present it is usually formed 
in the large intestine ; in certain diseases, as in peritonitis, it 
may be formed in the peritoneum ; there is always more or less 
gas in the small intestine. 

340. In opening the abdominal cavity, where should the incision be made? 

Through the linea alba (white line) in the center of the 
front wall, where there will be no danger of cutting through an 
artery. 

341. How do you inject fluid through the respiratory tract? 

By using an inelastic, steel nasal-tube, long enough, when 
introduced through the nose or mouth, to pass through the 
glottis ; the end of the tube can be felt through the front wall 
of the larynx, or Adam’s apple ; fluid should then be injected 
through the tube ; or a hollowmeedle may be inserted at a 
point immediately above the upper end of breastbone, through 
front wall of trachea, through which fluid can be injected. 


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342. Should fluid be injected into the left ventricle through the hollow=needle ? 

No ; because you will have no assurance that the needle has. 
entered the proper cavity of the heart; it will be like groping in 
the dark and the results are likely to be disastrous ; as a practical 
method, certainly no embalmer would recommend it. 

343. When and by whom was the needle process introduced ? 

It was introduced in 1884 by the late Dr. Benjamin Ward 
Richardson, of London, England; he injected through the 
cranial cavity by introducing the needle through the apex of 
the eye=socket into the spaces at the base of the brain. 

344. Do the needle processes take the place of arterial embalming? 

No ; as an auxiliary the needle processes are useful, but 
should not be depended upon alone as a method of injecting 
ordinary bodies. 

345. Which is the best method of introducing the needle into the cranial cavity ? 

Through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone at the 
root of nose ; the needle can be so introduced easily, and there 
will be no leakage after its removal. 

346. Should the right side of the heart be tapped if either of the needle processes 

is used? 

It should not; because there will be leakage into the medi¬ 
astinal space, on account of the principal part of the fluid pass¬ 
ing downward through the veins. 

347. What is putrefaction ? 

* 

Putrefaction is the separating of the constituent elements of 
the body, due to the presence and growth of bacteria. 

348. In what bodies does putrefaction progress most rapidly ? 

Those dead from drowning, septicemia, cliikLbirth, and 
dropsical cases. 

349. Under what conditions will putrefaction progress most rapidly ? 

In a warm temperature, from 80° to 100° F., when moisture 
is present. 

350. What will retard putrefaction ? 

A cold temperature, a high altitude, deep water, and earth. 

351. What will prevent putrefaction ? 

Freezing; a high, dry temperature; the presence of an 
antiseptic. 

352. Name the putrefactive gases of a body. 

Sulpliureted and carbureted hydrogen, carbonic acid, am¬ 
monium, etc. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


595 


353. How are gases generated in the body ? 

Gases are generated during putrefaction and are due to the 
presence and growth of bacteria. 

354. How prevent the generation of gases ? 

By destroying the bacteria or preventing their growth. 

355. What causes purging from the mouth and nose ? 

Putrefaction of the contents of the stomach or lungs, or of 
the lung^substance itself. 

356. How would you determine whether purging is from stomach or from lungs? 

The matter from the stomach is usually of a brownish, 
coffee-ground appearance, and lias a peculiar smell; that from 
the lungs is of a bloody, frothy character, and has essentially a 
putrefactive smell. 

357. How would you stop purging from the stomach? 

By tapping the stomach with a hollow-needle and relieving 
it of gases and injecting fluid before removing the trocar ; then 
puncturing the intestines, relieving them of gasses and injecting 
fluid before removing the instrument. 

358. How would you stop purging from the lungs ? 

In an ordinary case the body may be turned and all of the 
matter may be pressed out that is possible ; then inject fluid 
through the respiratory tract; if it is an obstinate case, the 
lungs should be mutilated, and fluid injected into the tissues 
direct through the hollow=needle ; the mutilation may be made 
with the hollow-needle or the scalpel, by cutting through the 
intercostal spaces over the front part of the chest. If the muti¬ 
lation is thorough and the lung-substance filled with fluid, it 
will stop the purging completely. 

359. Does the mutilation of tbe lungs interfere with arterial embalming? 

As it occurs some hours after the body is embalmed arter¬ 
ially it will not matter whether the circulation be destroyed or not. 

360. Should the respiratory tract be closed to prevent purging from the lungs ? 

No ; never close the throat or tie the trachea in obstinate cases, 
as putrefaction will continue and gases will be formed which will 
pass out through the tissues and swell the surface of the body. 

361. What is “skin=slip,” and what causes it? 

Skimslip is a slipping of the cuticle, due to the softening of 
the rete mucosum or pigment layer of the skin ; this occurs in 
putrefaction and also in cases in which there is a superabundance of 
water present in the tissues, as in heart, liver, and kidney diseases. 


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362. How may skin=slip be prevented ? 

In a case where putrefaction has progressed to any great 
degree or in one of dropsy—that is, where there is an increase 
of the normal quantity of water in the tissues—a little formalin 
(two to three ounces) should be added to each quart of fluid 
injected ; as formaldehyde gas has a great affinity for water, and 
is also a great hardener of tissues, it will reach the parts directly, 
hardening the tissues and preventing skin-slip. 

363. What is postmortem discoloration ? 

It is the settling of the blood into the dependent portions of 
body, as seen along back of trunk eight to ten hours after death. 

364. What is postmortem staining ? 

In post-mortem staining there has been a reduction of the 
red corpuscles and the hemoglobin or coloring matter has been 
eliminated from them, passing out through the walls of the vessels 
into the tissues, leaving a permanent stain of a bright-pink color. 

365. Can postmortem staining be removed by bleachers ? 

No; it cannot be removed by the application of bleachers 
in any manner. 

366. Can postmortem discoloration be removed ? 

Yes; as the discoloration is due to the presence of blood in 
the vessels near the surface, by changing the position of the 
body, the blood will gravitate to other parts. 

367. Can discoloration be removed by the application of bleachers to the surface 

when applied in the usual manner ? 

No; if bleachers are applied they should be covered with 
rubber or oiled-silk, so that the air will not absorb the moisture; 
if applied in this manner, good results may be obtained. 

368. If the blood is coagulated can the dark discoloration be removed from the face 

and upper portions of the body ? 

If it is only coagulated in the larger vessels, and not firmly 
in the capillaries, it can be removed by the application of ice 
and salt, or by rubbing and pressure ; but, if firmly coagulated 
in the capillaries, nothing will remove it; bleachers placed on 
the outside are of no avail under any circumstances. 

369. What discolorations appear on the surface as a result of death ? 

Congestion of the face and capillaries, post-mortem discolora¬ 
tion, post-mortem staining, greenish discoloration of putrefaction, 
and brownish or grayish spots. 

370. What other discolorations m^.y be present at death? 

Discolorations resulting from the various diseases—as in 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


597 


cancer, Bright’s disease, etc.,—jaundice, ecchymotic spots, as a 
result ol purpura, Addison’s and other diseases, bruises, etc. 

371. How can small greenish, brownish, or grayish spots be removed ? 

By the injection hypodermically of the following solution : 
bichlorid of mercury, 10 grains; pure alcohol, 4 ounces ; mix ; 
inject a few drops underneath the skin of the part involved. 

372. How should a bleacher be applied externally to make it effective ? 

It should be applied by moistening a folded cloth, lintine, or 
absorbent cotton, which should be placed over the part to be 
bleached, and covered with a piece of rubber or oiled^silk to 
prevent air from absorbing the moisture. 

373. Can the discoloration known as jaundice be removed ? 

No ; it can be modified by filling the tissues through the 
arterial system with a good fluid. 

374. What causes the surface of a body to be dark in a drowned case? 

Death is due to asphyxia, and, therefore, the blood is all 
venous, of a darkdolue color; it is slow to coagulate in cold 
water, and should be removed at once by the direct operation 
upon the heart or through a vein. 

375. How would you treat a floater ? 

If the cuticle is shredded, thoroughly wash the surface, rub¬ 
bing away the cuticle; then raise the femoral or some other 
artery and inject a large quantity of fluid ; then fill the cavities 
and inject through the hollowmeedle over the upper surfaces of 
the body in the cellular and deep tissues. A large amount of 
fluid (at least three or four gallons) should be injected into a 
body of medium weight. 

376. In what kind of a room should a jaundiced body be placed and how prepared? 

It should be placed in a dark room and artificial light should 
be reflected upon the parts exposed, as the face, neck, and hands ; 
this will give the body a very natural appearance. 

377. What is the color of all of the blood in a body when death is caused by illumina¬ 

ting gas ? 

It is of a very dark=bluish color. 

378. What is the color of the blood when death is caused by charcoal gas (carbonic 

oxid) ? 

It is of a bright'cherry*red color. 

379. What is the first thing necessary to do in a case of asphyxia? 

The body should be placed high on the incline, and blood 
should be withdrawn as quickly as possible to relieve the periph- 


598 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


eral veins and capillaries of congestion, which causes discoloration 
of the surface. 

380. What is always necessary in the treatment of a case of consumption? 

To fill 'the lungs through the respiratory tract, and the 
mediastinal space and pleural cavities; otherwise the body 
should be treated in the usual manner. 

381. How would you inject the pleural cavities in tuberculosis ? 

If the lungs are not adhered to the front wall of the chest, 
introduce the hollowmeedle from the hypogastrium ; if they are 
adhered, the needle should be introduced between the second 
and third ribs on either side at a point about four or five inches 
from the breastbone ; then aspirate as much of the contents as 
is possible, and fill the lungs with fluid, which will sterilize the 
remaining contents. 

382. In a case of general dropsy, how remove the water ? 

Remove it from the peritoneum, either by introducing the 
needle in the hypogastrium or at a point in the middle of the 
body just above the pubic arch and aspirate it; insert the needle 
in the pleural cavities in the usual manner and aspirate ; to 
remove from the upper and lower extremities incise or puncture 
the skin underneath in many places, and apply a strong rubber 
bandage made of rubber webbing, known as Esmarch’s bandage. 

383. How would you treat a case in which an autopsy has been held ? 

If the autopsy has included the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities only, the arteries leading to the extremities, as w T ell as 
those leading to the head and neck, should be tied and fluid 
injected into the upper extremities, head, and neck, by raising 
the brachial artery and tying the tube into it,' or tying the tube 
into one of the severed ends, such as the innominate, left com¬ 
mon carotid, or left subclavian. In the lower extremities tie the 
'tube into the iliacs and* inject toward the feet; then cleanse the 
cavities, wiping them dry ; sprinkle hardening compound freely 
over the inside and cover each of the organs as it is replaced ; 
finally, cover freely with the powder and stitch the edges of the 
incision together; then inject fluid directly into the tissues of 
the trunk through the hollowmeedle. 

384. How would you treat a body with the calvarium (skullcap) removed ? 

Place the body in a sitting posture.; raise an artery at some 
point and inject very slowly until all parts of the body, including 
the neck and base of the skull, are filled ; then replace the con- 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


599 


tents, covering the same with dessicating or hardening com¬ 
pound ; then replace the skullcap and stitch the scalp, and in¬ 
ject fluid into the tissues of the scalp through the liollowmeedle. 

385. What is the color of the hlood in a body dead from sunstroke? 

Death is caused by coma, which ultimately stops respiration 
while the heart is still performing its function, resulting in 
asphyxia ; the blood is all venous, which gives a dark color to 
the tissues of the body. 

386. How would you treat a case of death from sunstroke? 

Place the body on a high incline so that all the blood that 
is possible can be withdrawn ; then fill the tissues and cavities 
thoroughly with fluid, using a larger amount than in an ordi¬ 
nary case, as there is a tendency to rapid putrefaction. 

387. What is the color and condition of the blood in a body dying of pneumonia in 

the early stages ? 

It is of a dark color, due to the interference with respiration 
which results in only partial oxygenation of the blood ; in some 
cases respiration will entirely cease while the heart continues to 
beat for a short period, which sends the blood through the lungs 
without aeration ; it coagulates sooner than in an ordinary case. 

388. ^7hat is the color and condition of the blood in a body dying of pneumonia in the 

later stages ? 

It is not necessarily of a dark color, as aeration may be suffi¬ 
cient to relieve the blood of the waste, or carbonic acid gas, and 
it will be found much thinner and less prone to coagulation than 
if death had occurred in the early stages. 

389. What should be done in a case of consumption or other diseases of the lungs 

should there be leakage of the fluid from the mouth and nose? 

Close the pharynx with a tampon or pledgets of cotton and 
continue the injection of fluid until all of the tissues are filled ; 
the leakage is caused by rupture of the bronchial arteries in the 
cavities within the lungs. 

390. How would you embalm a body dead of gun=shot wounds ? 

It depends on the parts involved ; if the ball lias penetrated 
the head, the hole or holes in the skull may be firmly closed by 
the use of plaster of Paris, putty, or some other similar sub¬ 
stance, and the injection proceed as in any other case. If the 
aorta and other large vessels are mutilated, they should be tied 
and the injection follow ; then the blood and other liquid sub¬ 
stances should be removed and a good dessicating or hardening 
compound should be used freely. 


600 


CHAMPION TEXT-.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


391. How would you treat a case witli the throat cut ? 

If both carotids are cut, by tying three of the free ends, and 
inserting and tying the tube in the fourth free end with the 
nozzle toward the heart; then attach the pump and inject as in 
any other case. 

392. Will fluid reach the head and neck by injecting in this manner? 

Yes ; it will reach the head and neck through the vertebral 
arteries, which, with the carotids, form the circle of Willis, by an¬ 
astomoses, from which vessels reach every part above the wound. 

393. In what diseases is the operator in great danger of blood=poisoning? 
Erysipelas, septicemia, syphilis, diphtheria, and bodies re¬ 
cently dead of many other diseases. 

394. Is it very dangerous to handle a body in which putrefaction has taken place 

extensively ? 

No; it is less dangerous than in a fresh one. 

395. How would you treat a wound received while operating on a body? 

Make it bleed freely and cauterize with carbolic acid or 
some other cauterizer. 

396. If you have abrasions, hangnails, or cracks on the hands, how would you pro¬ 

tect yourself while operating ? 

By the use of rubber gloves or finger=cots, or covering the 
hands with “hand protector” or carbolized vaseline. 

397. What is an anomaly ? 

An anomaly is a deviation from the rule, type, or form ; 
irregularity ; anything abnormal or contrary to analogy. 

398. What is an anomalous condition of an artery ? 

It is an artery that is irregular in its form, division, or 
course, as is found often in the brachial artery. 

399. What is an abnormal condition ? 

A deviation from the natural structure, division, or course ; 
unnatural; irregular, as an abnormal development of an organ. 

400. What is a malformation ? 

It is any congenital irregularity in the formation or develop¬ 
ment of parts in an organism. 

401. How can blood be removed from the cranial cavity ? 

If the blood is within the vessels and not coagulated, the 
body should be placed high on the incline in order to gravitate 
the blood to the trunk. 

402. If it is coagulated in the cranial cavity can it be removed ? 

No ; not by any process known unless the skullcap were 
removed, which is not practical. 


PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


601 


403. Is it ever necessary to remove blood from the brain cavity? 

It is scarcely necessary unless the operator wishes to remove 
the pressure upon the vessels. 

404. Are either of the needle processes practical for this purpose ? 

No ; if there is hemorrhage in the subarachnoid spaces, an 
extremely small amount may be withdrawn in this way, but not 
sufficient to amount to anything. 

405. Can blood be removed from a drowned case having been in the water for some 

lengm of time? • 

Yes, if not coagulated ; if coagulated, it cannot be removed. 

406. What effect does the water have upon the blood in a drowned case ? 

Unless mixed with the blood, it retards coagulation. 

407. What is the mode of death in a case of drowning ? 

Death through the lungs, or asphyxia. 

408. As a rule, what effect has asphyxia upon coagulation ? 

It retards coagulation. 

III.—SANITATION AND DISINFECTION. 

409. What are bacteria? 

They are the lowest forms of plant or vegetable life. 

410. Where are bacteria found? 

Everywhere, except in mid=ocean and in the highest alti¬ 
tudes, where no moisture is present. 

411. There are how many general forms of bacteria ? 

Three: micrococci (cocci), sphericahshaped; bacilli, rod- 
shaped ; spirilla, spiral-shaped. 

412. What bacteria interest the embalmer most? 

Those of putrefaction and those of infection. 

413. What kind of bacteria cause disease ? 

Infectious or pathogenic bacteria. 

414. What kind cause decomposition of the body? 

Putrefactive or nonpathogenic bacteria. 

415. Between what degrees of temperature will bacteria grow ? 

Between 32° and 120° to 130° F. 

416. At what temperature will they grow most rapidly? 

About the normal heat ol the body. 

417. What agents prevent their growth ? 

Antiseptics. 

418. What agents destroy them ? 

Disinfectants. 


i) 02 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 




419. Define an antiseptic. 

An antiseptic is an agent or body that will prevent the 
growth of bacteria when present, without of necessity killing 
them ; it is only a preservative. 

420. Define a disinfectant. 

A disinfectant is an agent or body that will kill bacteria ; 
it is also a preservative. 

421. Name some disinfectants. 

Bichlorid of mercury, 1 :1000 or 1 : 500 ; carbolic acid, 5 
to 10 per cent. ; chlorid of lime, six ounces to the gallon ; 
sulphur fumes ; formaldehyde gas ; lire ; moist and dry heat 
(230° F.) ; and boiling water. 

422. What is a deodorizer? 

A deodorizer is an agent or body that destroys odor either 
by absorption or covering it with a stronger odor. 

423. Name some good deodorizers. 

Bichlorid of mercury, chlorid of lime, etc. 

424. What should a good fluid contain ? 

Disinfectants sufficiently strong to destroy all bacteria in the 
body, especially those producing the disease which caused death ; 
the fluid should not destroy the appearance of the body, if used 
in a case where a private or public funeral is to be held, or 
which is to be exposed to view in any manner. 

425. What is infection? 

It is a poisonous matter that contains infectious or patho¬ 
genic bacteria. 

426. When is a disease said to be infectious only? 

When the infection is taken into the body by inoculation, or 
through the food we eat, or the water we drink, or the air we 
breathe,—as bacteria, when dry, may be carried in the air. 

427. Name some diseases which are infectious only. 

Pneumonia, grip, malaria, cholera, etc. 

428. What is contagion ? 

It is poisonous matter containing infectious bacteria, which 
can be communicated bv contact from the sick to the well. 

423. When is a disease said to be contagious ? 

When it is communicable from one person to another, by 
direct contact or through the surrounding air at no great distance. 

430. What kind of diseases are smallpox, scarlatina, whooping=cough, and measles? 

They are both contagious and infectious. 




PRACTICAL questions and answers 


003 


431. What is the object in embalming a contagious or infectious disease ? 

To prevent the dissemination of the disease. 

432. Should a public funeral be held in a contagious case? 

No. 

433. What rules should govern the funeral director in handling a contagious case? 

The rules adopted by the State and local health boards 
under whose jurisdiction he is doing business. 

434. Should bodies be embalmed that are dead of contagious or infectious diseases 

that are to be buried at once? 

For preservation merely it is not necessary, but as a sanitary 
measure all should be embalmed. 

435. What is formaldehyde gas ? 

It is a product ol wood=alcohol produced by heating ; it is 
not a commercial product in the form of gas ; it is freighted and 
sold only in the form of a solid, called paraform, which is of 100 
per cent, strength, or in liquid form having a strength of 40 per 
cent., called formalin, formol, or formaldehyde ; the gas is pro¬ 
duced for use by dissolving the paraform by heat or by the 
distillation of the gas from formalin. 

436. How would you disinfect a room and its contents? 

By closing the cracks in the room as tightly as possible, 
separating hangings upon the walls, hanging up bed'clothing 
and other material upon lines stretched across the room, opening 
wide all drawers and doors of closets, hanging up their contents, 
separating the clothing, and everything as much as possible ; 
then spraying the walls and contents with water sufficient to 
dampen them ; leave the room and fasten the cracks of the door 
of exit by pasting or caulking with strips of cotton soaked in 
bichlorid of mercury 1 : 500 ; then distill five ounces of formalin 
for each thousand cubic feet of space, directing the formaldehyde 
gas through the keydiole and keeping the room closed for from 
ten to twelve hours. 

437. In the absence of formaldehyde gas what would you use to disinfect a room? 

Sulphur fumes ; burning at least three pounds of sulphur 
for each 1000 cubic feet of space ; all surfaces and contents 
should be moistened with water sprayed, or steam, preparing the 
room as when formaldehyde gas is used and leaving it closed 
for at least twelve hours. 

438. For what reason is formaldehyde gas preferred to sulphur ? 

There is no danger of fire, as distillation takes place outside 



604 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the room ; neither will it destroy colors of the wall paper or 
fabrics, nor tarnish polished metallic surfaces, while, when sul¬ 
phur is used, there is danger of tire, of the destruction of certain 
colors in wall paper and other fabrics, and of the tarnishing of 
all polished metallic surfaces. 

439. What is meant by bichlorid of mercury 1:1000 ? 

It means one grain of bichlorid of mercury to 1000 grains 
of water, or seven grains to one pint of water (an avoirdupois 
pint weighing 7000 grains). 

440. What does 1:500 mean? 

Two grains to 1000, or fourteen grains to one pint. 

441. How would you disinfect soiled, washable material, such as wearing apparel 

and bed clothing? 

If not worn much, by boiling in water from one to two 
hours ; if nearly or entirely worn out, by burning them. 

442. How would you treat soiled, unwashable material, such as silks, woolens, bed¬ 

ding, and mattresses ? 

Moisten them by spraying, and expose them to formaldehyde 
gas, in a tight compartment, for from ten to twelve hours. 

443. How would you dress and prepare yourself when called to take charge of a case 

of contagious disease ? 

Dress in a suit of old clothes, covering the whole with a 
rubber coat buttoned closely about the neck and around the 
body, and reaching to the shoes ; cover the hair with an oiled- 
silk or rubber cap. 

444. How would you care for yourself after the work is done? 

After the body is taken care of and the room disinfected, 
the coat, hat, and old suit of clothes should be fumigated, and 
the hands, face, beard, and hair should be washed with soap 
and w r ater and a solution of bichlorid of mercury T: 1000. 

445. How would you prepare a case of diphtheria for burial ? 

Place the body upon the board, then w r ash it with a strong 
bichlorid solution ; inject a strong disinfectant fluid into the 
mouth and nose ; raise an artery at some point and fill the 
arteries and capillaries thoroughly ; then fill the cavities ; inject 
more fluid into the mouth and nose and other openings of the 
body ; then, if sufficient time intervenes before the funeral, dis¬ 
infect the room, including the body, with formaldehyde gas ; if 
sufficient time does not intervene, the body can then be carried 
to the coffin, which should be placed in an outer room ; pre¬ 
viously to removing the body, it should be wrapped in a sheet 





PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 


G05 


wrung out ol a strong disinfectant; after removing from the 
room, it can be dressed and placed in the coffin or casket; if the 
body has been disinfected in the room, the coffin can be carried 
into the apartment and the body dressed and placed therein ; 
it disinfection ol the room amounts to anything at all, it will 
have destroyed the bacteria in the room. 

446. If the body is to be shipped, how should it be prepared further? 

The openings of the body should be filled with pledgets of 
absorbent cotton soaked in fluid, the body wrapped in cotton 
batting at least one inch thick, and still further prepared accord¬ 
ing to the rules adopted by the General Baggage Agents’ Associa¬ 
tion for transportation. 

447. How is typhoid fever usually communicated ? 

By drinking water or eating cold food in which there are 
typhoid bacilli. 

448. Have the germs of all contagious and infectious diseases been determined? 

No; the bacteria that produce scarlet fever, smallpox, 
measles, etc., are not known. 

449. What kind of a disease is diphtheria? 

It is an acute, infectious and contagious disease, produced 
by the diphtheretic bacilli. 

460. In what parts of the body are bacilli developed in diphtheria? 

In the false membranes of the throat, nares, and sometimes 
in the larynx. 

451. Does the blood contain the diptheretic bacilli in diphtheria? 

It does not; the blood, however, is very poisonous; it is, 
therefore, very dangerous to cut or wound yourself while hand¬ 
ling a case of diphtheria. 

452. In preparing a body for shipment, is absorbent cotton better than cotton bat¬ 

ting for the purpose of encasing the body ? 

No ; it has no advantage over cotton batting ; cotton batting 
answers every purpose, and has an advantage over absorbent 
cotton by not being so expensive ; twenty or thirty cents will 
buy enough cotton batting to encase a body, while absorbent 
cotton will cost much more. 

453. What is the best and easiest method of applying the cotton ? 

Spread a bed sheet upon the floor, cover the surface of the 
sheet lengthwise with a layer of cotton, then crosswise with a 
layer, and so on alternately until it is covered by at least six 
layers; then the body should be laid in the center of the sheet; 



606 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


bring the cotton up over the feet and head first; then from one 
side and then from the other, pinning or stitching the sheet over 
the whole; then for.further protection, apply a roller bandage. 
454. What persons are susceptible to contagious diseases ? 

All those who have never had a previous attack, and in 
smallpox those who have not been vaccinated. 

455 What persons are immune ? 

With few exceptions all persons who have had a previous 
attack, and in smallpox those who have been vaccinated. 

A56. What is an immune ? / 

One who is protected from an infectious or contagious dis¬ 
ease by a previous attack, vaccinating, or by reason of race or 
acclimatization. 

457. Name some of the chemicals used in embalming fluids. 

Arsenic; mercuric clilorid; chlorid of zinc, ammonium, 
sodium, and potassium ; arsenite of potassium and sodium ; sul¬ 
phate of zinc and potassium ; etc. 

458. What gases are used in combination with chemicals in the manufacture of em¬ 

balming fluids ? 

Sulphurous acid gas and formaldehyde gas. 


A PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


OF SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL TERMS 






INTRODUCTION. 


Readers and students of this work will find in the Practical Dictionary 
brief and concise definitions of the medical, scientific, and technical words 
and terms used in the TexFBook, which were thought to need defining. 
With these are included some words of the same character frequently met 
with in the literature of the profession. 

The Standard Dictionary and Gould’s Medical Dictionary have been 
consulted jointly as authorities on definitions. For spelling, compounding 
and forming of words,,division of sylables, and accentuation, the former 
authority has generally been followed. 

In spelling, some deviation from the style observed in our former edi¬ 
tions has been found necessary to conform to the latest and most approved 
methods. Among such changes may be noted the substitution of “e” for 
the diphthong^ “ye” and “oe,” as “fetus” instead of “foetus,” and the 
dropping of the final “e” in such chemical terms as “bromin,” “chlorid,” 
“morphin,” etc. 

The German double hyphen is used to join compound words and 
ph rases, not only in the dictionary, but in the body of the work, to avoid 
confusion which would arise were a simple hyphen used. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY. 


A 

ab-do'men. The large cavity in the trunk 
between the thorax and pelvis; the belly, 
ab-dom'i-nal. Pertaining to the abdo¬ 
men. — a. aorta. Aorta below the dia¬ 
phragm. —a. cavity. The cavity within the 
walls of abdomen, —a. regions. The clin¬ 
ical regions of the abdomen, —a. viscera. 
Organs of the abdomen. [of body, 

ab-duct'. To draw away from median line 
ab-duc'tion. Movement from median line, 
ab-duct'or. A muscle that draws the ex¬ 
tremity from the median line, 
ab-er-ra'tion. Deviation from the normal, 
ab nor'mal Contrary to customary order, 
ab-o-li'tion. Complete suspension, as of a 
function. [velopment of disease, 

a-bort'. To miscarry; to prevent the de- 
a-bra'sion. An excoriation of the skin, 
ab'scess. A circumscribed cavity contain¬ 
ing pus. [wormwood and aromatics, 
ab'sinthe. A cordial containing oil of 
ab-sorb'. To take up; to imbibe, 
ab-sorb'ent. Taking up by suction; imbib¬ 
ing. --a. cotton. Cotton freed from impu- 
ac-ces'so-ry. Auxiliary; assisting, [rities. 
ac-cli-ma'tion. Becoming inured to a cli- 
ac-crete'. Grown together. [mate, 

ac-cre'tion. Accumulation; adherence of 
a-ceph'a-lus. Headless. [parts, 

a-ce-tab'u-lum. A cup=shaped cavity that 
receives head of femur, 
a-cet'ic acid. The acid of vinegar. 
A-chil'les, tendon of. Large tendon of heel, 
a-cic'u-la. A slender needle=like process, 
ac'ne. Inflammation of sebaceous glands, 
—a. ro-sa'ce-a. Chronic congestion of skin 
ac'rid. An irritant poison. [of face, 

ac-ro'mi-on. Process at summit of scapula, 
ac'tion. Performance of a function or pro¬ 
cess. —reflex a. An involuntary action 
of one part of the body, due to an impres¬ 
sion on some afferent nerve end=organ; 
involuntary action of one part of body, 
active. Energetic; the reverse of passive. 

46 


a-cute'. Rapid; severe; sharp. 

Ad'am’s apple. A prominence in front of 
neck made by thyroid cartilage of larynx. 
Ad'di-son’s disease. A disease involving 
the suprarenal capsules. [line, 

ad-duc'tion. Movement toward median 
ad-duc'tor. A muscle that drawrs an organ 
or part towards the axis, 
a'den. A gland; a bubo, 
a-de'ni-a. Hodgkin’s disease, 
ad-en-i'tis. Inflammation of a gland, 
ad'en-oid. Form resembling a gland; 
glandular, —a. gland. Prostate gland, 
ad-en-o'ma. A glandular tumor, 
ad-he'sion. Union of two surfaces or parts, 
ad'i-po-cere. Grave=wax; a waxy sub¬ 
stance of decomposition in moist soils, 
adl-pose. Relating to fat; fatty. —a. tissue. 
Fat cells united by connective tissue.[tion. 
ad-i-po'sis. Corpulency; fatty degenera- 
ad-o-les'cence. The period between pu¬ 
berty and maturity. [sels. 

ad-ven-ti'ti-a. External coat of blood=ves- 
ad-ven-ti'tious. Accidental, foreign, or 
acquired. [power, 

ad-y-na'mi-a. Deficiency or loss of vital 
ad-y-nam'ic. Asthenic; physically weak; 
pertaining to adynamia, —a. fevers. Ac¬ 
companied by great asthenia. [air. 

a-er-a'tion. Mixture or impregnation with 
a-e'ri-al. Pertaining to air; atmospheric, 
a-e-ro'bi-a. Bacteria requiring free oxygen, 
a-e-ro'bic. Unable to live without oxygen, 
—a. bacteria. Bacteria that are unable to 
live without air or oxygen, 
af-fec'tion. A synonym of disease, as an 
affection of the lungs. [center, 

af'fer-ent. Conducting inward, toward the 
afflux. Flow of blood or liquid to a part, 
af-fu'sion. A pouring upon, as water upon 
the body. 

aft'er-birth. The placenta and fetal mem¬ 
branes expelled after a birth, 
a'gar-a-gar (or a-gar.) A gelatinous sub¬ 
stance from algse, used by bacteriologists 
as a nutrient solution. 


609 






610 


CHAMPION TEXTBOOK ON EMBALMING 


ag-glom'or-ate. Massed together; aggre¬ 
gated. [of wounded edges, 

ag-glu-ti-na'tion. A joining together, as 
ag'mi-nate. Arranged in clusters; grouped, 
—a. glands. Pyer’s patches. [fering. 

ag'O-ny. The death struggle; intense suf- 
a'gue. Malarial or intermittent fever, 
air. The atmosphere. — a.=cells. An air 
vesicle. — a=passages. The nares, mouth, 
larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes. 
—a.=pump. An instrument for producing a 
al-bu'men. The white of an egg. [vacuum, 
al-bu'min. A proteid substance, the chief 
constituent of white of an egg. [bumen. 
al-bu'min-ate. A basic compound of al- 
al-bu-mi-nu'ri-a. The presence of albu¬ 
min in the urine. [of hydrogen, 

al'de-hyde. Alcohol deprived of two atoms 
a-leu-ce' (or ke) mi-a. A deficiency of 
white corpuscles in the blood, 
al'i-ment. Nourishment; food, 
al'ka-li. An electropositive substance, com¬ 
bining with an acid to form a neutral salt, 
—fixed a. Potassium and sodium hydrate, 
al'ka-line. Having the properties of an 
al'ka-loid. Resembling alkali. [alkali, 
al-lan'to-ic. Relating to the allantois. — a. 
circulation. The fetal circulation through 
the cord and umbilical vessels. [fetus, 
al-lan'to-is. Membrane enveloping the 
a-lu'mi-num. A whitish metal, with a 
low specific gravity. 

a-mal-ga-ma'tion. The art or process of 
forming an amalgam, 
am-mo'ni-a. Same as ammonium, —a. 
water. A watery solution of ammonium, 
am-mo'ni-um. Hypothetic base of am- 
am-ne'si-a. Loss of memory. [monia. 
am'ni-on. Inner embryonic membrane, 
am-ni-ot'ic fluid. The liquor amnii. [crystal, 
a-mor'phous. Formless; structureless; non= 
am-phi-ar-tliro'sis. Articulation by fi¬ 
brous tissue or strong ligaments, permit¬ 
ting slight motion, [pertaining to starch, 
am-y-la'ce-ous (or am'y-loid ). Starch=like; 
am'y-loid. Starch=like. [sugar, 

am-y-lo-lyt'ic. . Converting starch into 
am'y-lum. Starch. 

an-a-e-rob'ic. Living without air. —a. 
bacteria (or an-a-e-roTn-a). Bacteria 
which flourish without air. 
a'nal. Pertaining to the anus, 
a-nal'o-gous. Conforming or answering 
to; bearing analogy or resemblance, 
an-a-sar'ca. General dropsy. 


a-nas-to-mo'sis. Union or interlacing of ar¬ 
teries, veins, or other vessels; inosculation. 
a-nas-to-mot'ic.Pei’taining to anastomosis, 
an-a-tom'ic. Pertaining to anatomy, 
an-a-tom'i-cal. Pertaining to anatomy, 
—a. guide. A muscular or tendinous guide 
to a vessel. 

! a-nat'o-my. The science of organic struc¬ 
ture. —human a. Anatomy of the human 
body, —morbid a. Study of diseased 
structure, —visceral a. Study of the 
viscera, —regional a. Study of the cor¬ 
related regions of the body, [corpuscles, 
an-e'mi-a. Deficiency of blood and red 
a-nem'ic. Pertaining to anemia; bloodless, 
an-es-the'si-a. A state of insensibility, 
an-es-thet'ic. A substance producing anes- 
an-eu'ri-a. Lack of nervous power, [thesia. 
an'eu-rism. Dilatation of an artery, 
an-hy'drous. Destitute of water. [notic. 

an'i-lin. A powerful antiseptic and hyp- 
an-i-mal'cule. A microscopic organism, 
an-i-mal'cu-lum (pi. -la). Same as animal- 
an'kle. Joint between foot and leg. [cule. 
an-ky-lo'sis. Knitting together of two 
bones or parts of bones; stiffness of a 
an-ky'roid. Hoop=shaped. [ joint, 

an'nu-lar. Formed like a ring; ring=like. 
a-nom'a-lous. Deviatingfromtheordinary. 
a-nom'a-ly. That which is anomalous, 
an-o-rex'i-a. Absence or loss of appetite, 
an-ox-e'mi-a. Lack of oxygen in blood, 
an-te-flex'ion. A bending forward, 
an-te-ver'sion. A turning forward, 
an'thrax. A carbuncle; the disease pro¬ 
duced by the anthrax bacilli. — a. spores. 
Spores of the anthrax bacilli, 
an-ti'cus. Anterior; in front of. 
an'ti-dote. An agent that counteracts ac¬ 
tion of a poison. [lie element, 

an'ti-mo-ny. A silver=white, hard, metal- 
an-ti-sep'sis. The prevention of sepsis, 
an-ti-sep'tic. An agent that prevents the 
growth of bacteria, 
an-ti-tox'ic. Opposed to poisoning, 
an-ti-tox'in. A substance formed in the 
body that counteracts poison, 
an-ti-zy-mot'ic. Preventive of fermenta¬ 
tion or contagion. 

a-nu'ri-a. Absence or deficiency of urine, 
a'nus. External opening of the rectum, 
a-or'ta. The main arterial trunk, 
a-or'tic. Pertaining to the aorta, 
ap'er-ture. An opening or orifice, 
a'pex. Summit or extremity of anything. 




PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


611 


ap-ne'a. Breathlessness; difficult respira- 
^ ou * La tendon, 

ap-o-neu-ro'sis. A fibrinous expansion of 
ap-o-neu-rot'ic. Pertaining to aponeurosis. 

— a. fascia. A deep fascia, 
ap'o-plex-y. Paralysis from rupture of a 

cerebral vessel. [organ as a part of it. 
ap-pen'dage. That which is attached to an 
ap-pen-di-ci'tis. Inflammation of the ap¬ 
pendix vermiformis. 

ap-pen'dix. An appendage; a prolonga¬ 
tion. — a vermiformis. The worm=like 
attachment to the cecum, 
ap-po-si'tion. The act of fitting together, 
ap-prox'i-mate. To cause to approach, 
a'qua. Water. [duct, 

aq'ue-duct. A canal, —a. of Sylvius. Tear= 
a'que-ous. Pertaining to water; watery. 

— a. humor. A watery substance in the 
anterior of the eye. 

a-rach'noid. Resembling a web; arachnoid 
membrane, —a. membrane. Middle mem¬ 
brane of the brain and spinal cord. 
ar'bor=vi't3e (tree of life). Tree=like figure 
in a section of cerebellum, 
arch. Term applied to various curved por¬ 
tions of body. —a. of aorta. Curved part 
extending from heart to third dorsal ver- 
ar'cus. A bow, arch, or ring. [tebra. 

a're-a. Any space with boundaries. [sue. 
a-re'o-lse. The interstices in connective tis- 
a-re'o-lar. Full of interstices, —a. tissue. 
Connective of cellular tissue, 
ar-e-om'e-ter. An instrument for meas¬ 
uring specific gravity of fluids. [cine, 
ar-gen'tum. Silver, a metal used in medi- 
arm. Upper limb from shoulder to elbow, 
arm'pit. Cavity underarm; axillary space, 
ar'se-nic. A chemical element of grayish= 
white color, —a. acid. A colorless white 
crystalline compound, 
ar-se'ni-ous ac'id. White arsenic, 
ar-te'ri-al. Pertaining to an artery, —a 
blood. Blood after aeration in lungs, 
ar-te-ri-al-i-za'tion. Oxygenation of blood, 
ar-te'ri-al-ize. To oxygenate the blood, 
ar-te'ri-ole. A small artery, 
ar-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of an artery, 
ar'ter-y. Vessel carrying blood from heart, 
ar-thro'di-a. Joint wi th gliding movement, 
ar-thro'sis. An articulation; a suture, 
ar-tic'u-lar. Pertaining to a joint, —a. 
la-mel'la. Articulation of thin scales or 
plates of bone. 

ar-tic-u-la'tion. A joint or an arthrosis. 


ar-y-te'noid.Cup= or ladle=shaped. —a. car¬ 
tilage. Certain cartilage of the larynx, 
as-ci'tes. Dropsy of the abdomen, 
a-sep'sis. An absence of septic matter or 
blood=poisoning. [ease germs, 

a-sep'tic. Free from septic matter or dis- 
as-phyx'i-a. A condition caused by non¬ 
oxygenation of the blood, 
as-phyx'i-ate. To bring into asphyxia, 
as'pi-rate. To pump out, as blood or effu¬ 
sions from the body. [pumping out. 

as-pi-ra'tion. The act of aspirating or 
as'pi-ra-tor. An instrument for extracting 
fluid from the cavities of the body, 
as-sim-i-la'tion. The act of absorbing nu¬ 
triment. [debility; weakness, 

as-the'ni-a. A loss of strength ; general 
as-then'ic. Feeble; without strength, 
asth'ma. Paroxysmal dyspnea with oppres- 
asth-mat'ic. Affected with asthma, [sion. 
as-trag'a-lus. The ankle=bone. 
as-trin'gent. An agent producing contract¬ 
ing of organic tissues, 
a-tax'i-a. Irregularity in functions of or¬ 
gans; incoordination of muscular action, 
ath-e-ro'ma. (1) A soft encysted tumor. 
(2) Degeneration of arterial walls, 
ath-e-ro'ma-tous. Affected with atheroma, 
at'las. The uppermost vertebra, 
at-mos-pher'ic. Pertaining to the atmos- 
sphere. —a. pressure. The pressure of 
15 lbs. per sq. in. exerted at sea=level in 
all directions by the atmosphere, 
at'om. The ultimate unit of an element, 
at'ro-phy. A wasting of a part from lack 
of nutrition. [tened; a band or tie. 

at-tach'ment. That which is held or fas- 
at-ten'u-a-ted. Wasted; thinned, [together, 
at-trac'tion Tendency of particles to draw 
au'di-to-ry. Pertaining to the organs of 
hearing, —a. canal. Canal of the ear. 
—a. nerves. Nerves of the ear. 
au'ral. Pertaining to the ear. 
au'ri-cle. (1) The external ear. (2) An up¬ 
per chamber of the heart, 
au-ric'u-lar. Pertaining to the ear. —a. 
appendix. The anterior prolongation of 
the auricle of the heart, 
au-ricli-lo-ven-tric'u-lar. Pertaining to 
both the auricle and ventricle, —a. open¬ 
ing. Opening between auricle and ven¬ 
tricle. —a. valve. Valve guarding the; 
auriculoventricular opening, 
au'ris. The external ear. 
aus-cult'. To examine by auscultation. 






612 


CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK ON EMBALMING 


aus-cul-ta'tion. A method of determining 
the conditions of an organ by listening to 
the sounds produced by it, as the lungs or 
heart. [by volition; spontaneous, 

au-to-mat'ic. Not affected or controlled 
au-ton'o-mous. Independent; self-govern- 
au'top-sy. Postmortem examination, [ing. 
aux-il'i-a-ry. Giving aid or support; sub¬ 
sidiary; accessory. 

av-oir-du-pois'. Common English system 
of weight in which 16 ozs. equal a pound. 
ax-il'la. The armpit. 

ax'il-la-ry. Pertaining to the axilla. — a. 
glands. Lymphatic glands of the axilla, 
—a. plexus. The plexus of nerves in the 
axilla, —a. space. The armpit, 
ax'is. (1) The second vertebra. (2) An im¬ 
aginary line through center of body, 
az'y-gos. Without a fellow, as a muscle or 
vein. [and veins, 

az'y-gous. Not paired, as certain muscles 


bac'il-lar. Resembling little rods or bacilli. 
ba-cil'lus(pZ. -li). A rod=shaped bacterium; 
one of the three general forms of bacteria. 
—comma b. (of Koch). A comma=shaped 
bacterium; the cholera bacillus, 
bac-te-ri-ol-o'gist. One versed in bacteri¬ 
ology. [organisms, 

bac-te'ri-ol'o-cy. The science of micro= 
bac-te'ri-um(i)^. -ri-a). Lowest known form 
of plant life; micro-organism; microbe, 
band'age. A narrow strip of muslin or 
other material for binding wounds, frac¬ 
tures, etc. —rubber b. A narrow strip of 
rubber made into a roll for pressing the 
liquids out of the subcutaneous tissues or 
vessels of a part. — roller b. Same as band¬ 
age. — Emarck’s b. A rubber webbing used 
for same purpose as the rubber, 
ba-rom'e-ter. An instrument for measur¬ 
ing pressure of the atmosphere, 
base. (1) The lower part. (2) Chief substance 
of a mixture. [beneath the epithelium, 
base'ment mem'brane. Delicate membrane 
ba'sic. (1) Of a nature of a base. (2) Having 
properties opposed to acid, 
bas'i-lar. Pertaining to base, especially of 
skull. —b. artery. Artery at base of brain, 
ba-sil'ic. Any important structure or drug. 
—b. vein. The largest vein on the inner 
side of the arm. [jars or galvanic cells, 
bat'ter-y. A series of connected Leyden 
belly. Colloquial term for abdomen. 


be-nign'. Not malignant; mild. — b. tumor. 
One that does not recur after removal, 
be-nig'nant. Same as benign, 
ber'i-ber-i. An East Indian infectious dis¬ 
ease. [especially the flexor muscle of arm. 
bi'ceps. Muscle with two heads or origins; 
bi-chlo'rid. A chlorid with twice as much 
chlorin as a protochlorid. — b. of mer¬ 
cury. Mercuric chlorid; corrosive subli- 
bi-con'cave. Hollowonbothsurfaces.[mate. 
bi-con'vex. Rounded on both surfaces, 
bi-cus'pid. Having two cusps or points. 
—b. teeth. Teeth having two cusps. — b. 
valve. Valve guarding the auriculoven- 
tricular opening on left side of heart, 
bi-fur'cate. Divided into two branches, 
bi-fur-ca'tion. A dividing into two parts, 
bi-gas'ter. Having two bellies. [sides, 
bi-lat'er-al. Two-sided; pertaining to two 
bile. The yellow bitter liquid secreted by 
the liver. — L.=cyst. The gall-bladder. 
—b. duct. See biliary duct. — b.=pigment. 
Coloring-matter of the bile. —b.-stone. 
A calcareous concretion in the gall-blad¬ 
der and its ducts. 

bil'i-a-ry. Pertaining to the bile. — b. duct. 
A duct communicating with the liver. —b. 
calculus. A bile or gall-stone, 
bil-i-ru'bin. The orange pigment of bile, 
bil-i-ver'din. The green pigment of bile, 
bi-lo'bate. Having two lobes, 
bi'na-ry. Compounded of two elements, 
bi-ol'o-gist. One versed in biology, [things, 
bi-ol'o-gy. The science of life and living 
bi'ped. Having tw^o feet, 
bi-pen'ni-form. Having a resemblance to a 
quill pen, as a muscle. [the urine, 

blad'der. The membranous receptacle of 
bleach'er. A mixture supposed to restore 
the normal color,when applied to the sur¬ 
face of a dead body, .[chlorinated lime, 
bleaching pow'der. Disinfectant mixture; 
bleb. See Bulla. 

blood. The nutrient fluid which circulates 
in arteries and veins. — b.=cell. A blood- 
corpuscle. — b.=clot. Acoagulum. — b.-cor- 
puscle. Cellular elements of blood; blood- 
cells. — b.=crystals. Crystals of hematoi- 
din. — b.=disk. A red blood-corpuscle. — b.= 
fibrin. The nitrogenous proteids which 
coagulate in exposed blood. — b.=plasma. 
Fluid portion of blood. — b.=poisoning. 
The absorption of toxins into the blood. 
—b.=serum. Fluid constituent of blood. 
—b.=vessels. Vessels which carry blood. 





PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


613 


blow'pipe. A short tube used to direct a 
pencil of flame. [work of the body, 

bone. The hard tissue forming the frame- 
bo'rax. Sodium diborate; used as an anti- 
bow'el. The intestine. [septic, 

brach'i-al. Pertaining to the arm. — b. 
artery. A continuation of the axillary 
artery. — b. glands. Lymphatics of the 
arm. — b. veins. Those that accompany 
the brachial artery within its sheath.[bow. 
brach'i-um. The arm from shoulder to el- 
brain. Contents of cranium, especially the 
cerebrum. — b. fever. Inflammation of 
the brain or its membranes; meningitis, 
breast. The upper anterior part of the 
trunk. — b.=bone. The sternum, 
brim. An edge or margin. — b. of pelvis. 

Boundary of superior strait of pelvis. 
Bright’s disease. Disease of the kidneys 
first described by Dr. Bright, of London, 
bro'mate. A salt of bromic acid, 
bro'mid. A basic salt of bromin. 
bro'min. A reddish=brown liquid, very 
poisonous escharotic, giving off a suflo- 
cating vapor. 

bron'chi-a. The bronchial tubes that di¬ 
vide and subdivide in the lungs, 
bron'chi-al. Pertaining to the bronchi. — b. 
tube. A bronchus. [tubes, 

bron'chi-ole. The most minute bronchial 
bron-ehi'tis. Inflammation of the bron¬ 
chial tubes. 

bron'cho-cele. Morbid enlargement of the 
thyroid gland; goiter. [of trachae. 

bron'chus (pi. -chi). One of main branches 
bu'bo. An inflammatory swelling of a lym¬ 
phatic gland, due to infection, 
bu-bon'ic. Pertaining to bubo. — b. plague. 
A contagious, epidemic disease with fe¬ 
ver, delirium, and buboes. [mouth 

buc'ca. The hollow part of the cheek; the 
buc'cal cavity. Cavity of the mouth, 
buc'cin-a-tor. A thin, flat muscle of the 
cheek. [oblongata and pons, 

bulb. An expansion of a canal or vessel; the 
bulla. A large bleb or blister; inflated por¬ 
tion of bony external meatus of ear. 
burn. To cauterize; to decompose by fire; 
to become inflamed, [force a way through, 
bur'row. To make a hole or furrow; to 
bur'sa. A pouch or sac; a small sac inter¬ 
posed between movable parts. — b. mu-co'- 
sa. A membranous sac secreting synovial 
bur'sal. Pertaining to a bursa. [fluid, 

but'tocks. The nates; rumps. 


c 

ca-chec'tic. Characterized by cachexia, 
ca-chex'i-a. A depraved condition of nu¬ 
trition; malnutrition, 
ca-da'ver The dead body; corpse, —c. ri¬ 
gidity. Rigidity after death; rigor mortis, 
ca-dav'er-ous. Resembling a dead body, 
cal-ca're-a. Lime. 

cal-ca're-ous. Having the nature of lime. 
— c. degeneration. A deposit of lime=salts 
cal-cif'ic. Forming lime. [in a part, 

cal-ci-fi-ca'tion. The deposition of lime= 
salts in the tissues. 

cal'ci-um. A metal, the basis of lime. — c. 
phosphate. The phosphate of lime, 
cal'cu-lus. A stone=like concretion formed 
in the body. —arthritic c. A gouty concre¬ 
tion. —biliary c. A gall=stone. —nephritic 
c. A stone formed in the kidney, —uri¬ 
nary C. A stone=like concretion in urine, 
cal'i-ber. The*internal diameter of a tube, 
cal-lo'sum. The corpus callosum, 
callous. Hard; indurate. 
caTo-mel. A mercuric chlorid or mild chlo- 
rid of mercury; a purgative, 
ca-lor'ic. Pertaining to heat or its principle, 
cal-va'ri-um. The skullcap, 
calx. (1) The heel. (2) Lime or chalk, 
camp fever. A synonym of typhus fever, 
cam'phor-a-ted. (1) To impregnate with 
camphor. (2) A salt of camphoric acid, 
ca-nal'. A tube for carrying fluids of the 
body, —alimentary c. The whole digest¬ 
ive tube from the mouth to the anus. 
—Ha-ver'sian c. One of the numerous 
channels for capillary blood=vessels in 
bone substance. —Hunter’s c. The sheath 
of the femoral vessels behind Poupart’s 
ligament. — nasal c. A canal in the 
nasal bone for the transmission of the 
nasal nerves, —spinal c. A canal formed 
by the vertebrae for the transmission of 
the spinal cord. [in a bone, 

can-a-lic'u-lus. A small canal or tube, as 
can-cel'li. The divisions of the interior of 
bone. [duction of epithelial cells, 

can'cer. A malignant tumor, with the pro- 
can'cer-ous. Of the nature of a cancer, 
can'ker. Any ulcerous sore with a tendency 
to gangrene. 

can'tha-ris (pi. -i-des). Spanish fly; dried 
and powdered beetle (Cantharis vesicatorici). 
cap'il-la-ry. A minute blood=vessel, like 
a hair. — c. attraction. The force that 



614 


CHAMPION TEXT.BOOK ON EMBALMING 


causes fluids to rise in fine tubes or inter¬ 
stices. — c. circulation. Circulation of 
blood through the capillaries. — c. repul¬ 
sion. Repelling the blood from the capil- 
cap'su-lar. Pertaining to a capsule, [laries. 
cap'su-late. To enclose in a capsule, 
cap'sule. A membranous sac enclosing a 
part. — Mal-pi'ghi-an c. A membrane en¬ 
closing the Malpighian bodies, —supra¬ 
renal C. A small, flat body on the upper 
cap'ut. The head. [side of the kidney, 
car-bo-hy'drate. A compound of carbon 
with hydrogen and oxygen, 
car'bo-la-ted. Carbolized. 
car-bol'ic ac'id. Phenol from coal=tar. 
car'bon. A non=metallic substance, occur¬ 
ring in the forms of diamond graphite and 
charcoal. — c. dioxid. Carbonic acid gas. 
car-bo-na'ceous. Pertaining to or yielding 
carbon. [and a base, 

car'bon-ate. A compound of carbonic acid 
car-bon'ic. Pertaining to or obtained from 
carbon. — c. acid. Carbon dioxid, or the 
gaseous impurity in venous blood. —c. 
oxid. A poisonous gas formed by the com¬ 
bustion of charcoal. [closed in a box. 
car'boy. A large globular glass bottle en- 
car-ci-no'ma. A cancer, which see. 
car'di-ac. Pertaining to the heart, 
car-di'tis. Inflammation of the heart, 
ca'ri-es. Ulceration and decay of a bone. 
—c. of the spine. Inflammation of the 
spinal column. 

ca-rot'id. Principal artery of neck, 
car'pal. Pertaining to the carpus or wrist, 
car'pus. The wrist; the wrist=joint. 
car'ti-lage. Gristle; a non=vascular, elas¬ 
tic tissue, softer than bone, —articular c. 
That lining the articular surface of bones, 
car-ti-lag'i-nous. Of the nature of carti¬ 
lage. [for mummies, 

car'ton-nage. The material used as casing 
car-touche'. An oblong figure, with 
rounded ends, containing the name of a 
king, queen, or deity, 
ca'se-in. The clotted proteid of milk, 
cast. A mass of plastic matter having form 
of the cavity in which it has been molded, 
cat'a-lep-sy. Nervous condition associated 
with loss of will and muscular rigidity, 
ca-tarrh'. Inflammation of a mucous mem¬ 
brane. —epidemic c. Influenza, 
ca-thar'tic. A purgative medicine, 
cath'e-ter. A slender tube for introduction 
into canals or passages. 


cau'da. A tail, or tai 1=1 ike appendage. — c. 
equina. The fibrous termination of the 
spinal cord. [like process of the liver, 
cau'date. Having a tail. — c. lobe. The tail= 
cau'dex cer'e-bri. The crura cerebri, 
caus'tic. An escharotic.[drug or heated iron, 
cau'ter-ize. To burn or sear with a caustic 
ca'va. One of the large veins of the body, 
ca'val. Hollow; pertaining to a cave. - c. 
opening. The opening in the diaphragm 
for the inferior vena cava, 
cav'ern-ous. Having hollow places, [thing, 
cav'i-ty. A hollow space within a body or 
ce'cal. Pertaining to the cecum, [testine. 
ce'cum. Blind pouch at head of large in- 
ce'li-ac. Pertaining to the abdomen. — c. 
artery. An artery of the belly. — c. axis. 
A branch of the abdominal aorta, 
ce-li'tis. Inflammation of abdominal or- 
cell. A small protoplasmic mass. [gan-s. 
cel'lu-lar. Composed of cells. — c.»tissue. 
Areolar or connective tissue. [sue. 

cel-lu-li'tis. Inflammation of cellular tis- 
cellu-lose. The predominating element of 
plant=tissue. [root and neck of a tooth, 
ce-ment'. The bony substance covering the 
cen'ti-grade. Having 100 degrees. — c. ther- 
mom'e-ter. A thermometer with 100 de¬ 
grees as the boiling=point of water and 
zero as the freezing=point. 
cen'ti-gram. Hundredth part of a gram, 
cen'ti-li-ter. Hundredth part of a liter, 
cen'ti-me-ter. Hundredth part of a meter, 
cen-trifu-gal. Receding from center, 
cen-trip'e-tal. Tending toward center, 
cen'trum. Center or middle part. — c. ten- 
dinosum. With the tendon in the center 
ce'ra. Wax. [or the middle part, 

ce-ra'ceous. Of the nature of wax; waxy, 
cer-e-bel'lar. Pertaining to the cerebellum, 
cer-e-bel'lum. The principal organ of the 
central nervous system; the inferior and 
posterior part of the brain, 
cer'e-bral. Relating to the cerebrum or 
brain. — c. softening. Softening of brain, 
cer-e-bro-spi'nal. Relating to the brain and 
spinal cord. — c. axis. The brain and cord. 
—c. fever, —c. meningitis. Inflammation 
of the membranes of brain and cord; spot¬ 
ted fever. — c. system. The nervous sys¬ 
tem, including brain and spinal cord, and 
nerve=branches given out from them, 
cer'e-brum. The upper and anterior part 
of the brain, constituting its chief por¬ 
tion; the seat of thought and will. 





PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


615 


cere'cloth. A cloth coated or saturated with 
wax or cerate, used as a wrapping orwind- 
ing=sheet for the dead, 
ce-ru'men. The ear=wax. 
cer'vi-cal. Pertaining to the neck, 
cer'vix. The neck, especially the back part, 
chalk. Carbonate of lime, 
cham'ber. A hollow or cavity. [ulcer, 
chan'cre. The primary or hard syphilitic 
chan'nel. A furrow or groove, 
chem'is-try. The science of molecular and 
atomic structures of bodies, 
chem'ic-al. Pertaining to chemistry. — c. 
elements. That form of matter which can¬ 
not be decomposed by any means known 
to science. — c. analysis. The resolution of 
a compound into its parts or elements, in¬ 
cluding quantitative as well as qualita- 
Chemlst. One versed ill chemistry, [tive. 
Chest. The thorax; upper portion of trunk, 
chi'asm. Acrossing; the optic commissure. 
Chlo'ral. A colorless crystalline solid. — c. 
hydrate. A hydrochlorate. [radical, 
chlo'rid. A compound of chlorin and a 
chlo'rin. A non=metallic gaseous element, 
chlo'ro-form. A heavy, colorless, volatile 
liquid compound, used as an anesthetic, 
chol'e-doch. Carrying bile. — c. duct. The 
bile duct that opens into the duodenum, 
chol'er-a. An infectious disease caused by 
the presence of the Spirillum choler* Asi¬ 
atic*. —Asiatic C. A malignant form of 
cholera; epidemic cholera. — c. infantum. 
Summer complaint. — c. morbus. Sporadic 
cholera. 

cho'ri-on. The outer envelop of the fetus, 
cho'roid. The second or vascular tunic of 
the eye. — c. coat or membrane. The 
choroid. — c. plex'us. Fold of membrane 
near lateral ventricles of brain. [acute. 
Chron'ic. Long continued; the reverse of 
chyle. The nutritive, milky fluid of intes¬ 
tinal digestion. 

chy-lifer-ous. Transmitting chyle, [food, 
chy-li-fi-ca'tion. Chyle=formation from 
chy-lo-poi-et'ic. Chyle=producing. — c. or¬ 
gans. Chyle=producing organs, 
chyme. Food that has undergone gastric 
but not intestinal digestion. [cicatrix, 
cic-a-tri'cial. Resembling or forming a 
cic'a-trix(j^. -tri-ces). A scar or mark of a 
cic-a-tri-za'tion. Process of healing.[wound 
cic'a-trize. To heal, to promote healing, as 
of a wound or ulcer. 

cil'i-a (pi . of cil'i-um). The eyelashes; hair= 


like processes of certain cells, 
cil'i-a-ry. Pertaining to the cilia. — c. body. 
The ciliary muscles and processes. —c. 
ganglion. The ganglion of the apex of the 
orbit. — c. muscle. The muscle of accom¬ 
modation of the eye. — c. process. Cir¬ 
cularly arranged folds of the choroid, con¬ 
tinuous with the iris in front, 
cir'cle of Willis. An arterial anastomo¬ 
sis at base of brain, between terminal 
branches of carotid and basilar arteries, 
cir-cu-la'tion. Passage of blood through 
the body, —collateral c. Passage of blood 
through secondai’y channels after closing 
of the principal route. — fetal c. That of 
the fetus, —portal C. Passage of blood 
from the digestive organs into and 
through the liver and its exit by the 
hepatic veins, —placental c. Same as 
fetal, c. —pulmonary c. Passage of blood 
through the lungs for purification, —sys¬ 
temic c. Passage of blood through all the 
tissues of the body for their nourishment. 
— vi-tel'line c. That of carrying oxygen 
and nutriment to the embryo, 
cir'cu-la-to-ry. Pertaining to the circula¬ 
tion. — c. system. The system of vessels 
through which the blood circulates, 
cir-cum-duc'tion. Continuous circular 
movement of an extremity, 
cir'cum-flex. Surrounding, as a vessel or 
nerve; winding. [ing, or winding, 

cir-cum-flex'ion. The act of bending, curv- 
cir-cum-scribed'. Clearly defined, as an ab¬ 
scess. [tissue of an organ, 

cir-rho'sis. Thickening of the connective 
clav'i-cle. The collar=bone. 
cla-vic'u-lar. Pertaining to the clavicle, 
clei-do-cos'tal. Pertaining to the ribs and 
clavicle. [and mastoid process, 

clei-do-mas'toid. Pertaining to the clavicle 
clo'sure. A closing or shutting up. 
clot. See Coagulum. 

co-ag-u-la-bil'i-ty. Producing coagulation, 
co-ag'u-late. To change a liquid, as blood 
or milk, into a clot or jelly. [ting, 

co-ag-u-la'tion. A clotting; the act of clot- 
co-ag'u-lum. A clot or mass of thickened 
co-a-lesce'. Grow or come together, [blood, 
co-a-les'cence. Union of two or more parts, 
co-ap-ta'tion. Adjustment of the edges of 
fractures or of parts. 

coc'cus (pi. -ci). A spherical bacterium; 
synonym of micrococcus, 
coc-cyg'e-al. Pertaining to the coccyx. 



616 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


coc'cyx {pi.- cy-ges). Last bone of the spi¬ 
nal column. * [ternal ear. 

coch'le-a. One of the passages of the in- 
CO-he'sion. Act or condition of cohering; 
co-li'tis. Inflammation of colon. [union, 
col-lapse'. Failure of the vital powers. 
col'lar=bone. The clavicle, 
col-lat'er-al. Accompany! ng;aiding.--c.cir- 
culation. See Circulation, Collatkral. 
col-lo'di-on. A dressing for wounds, made 
by dissolving guncotton in ether. 

CO'lon. Principal part of the large intestine, 
col'or. A pigment. — c. matter. That which 
col'umn. A rod or pillar. [imparts color, 
co'ma. An abnormally deep sleep; stupor, 
co'ma-tose. In a condition of coma. [tion. 
com-bus'tion. Process of burning or oxida- 
com'ma ba-cillus. A bacillus shaped like a 
comma, found in cholera patients. 
comTnis-sure. Abridge=like structure unit¬ 
ing two contiguous similar parts, 
com-plex'ion. Color or hue and appearance 
of skin. [ditions. 

com-pli-ca*tion. Interaction of morbid con- 
com-po-si'tion. Constituents of a mixture, 
com'press. Folded cloths for local pressure, 
con'cave. Presenting a hollow incurvation. 
Con'cha.The outer ear; the turbinated bone, 
con-cre'tion. A calculus; an osseous de¬ 
posit; abnormal union of adjacent parts, 
con'dyle. An enlarged and prominent end 
of a bone, as the femur, 
con-fine'ment. The period of parturition, 
con'flu-ent. Running together, as small= 
pox pustules. 

con-gen'i-tal. Existing from birth; innate, 
con-gest'ed. Hyperemia; morbidly en¬ 
gorged with blood, 
con-ges'tion. Hyperemia of a part. 
con-glom'er-ate.Massedtogether,asglands. 
con'i-cal. Cone=shaped. 
con-junc-ti'va. Mucous membrane of eye. 
CO'noid. Conic; of form of a cone, 
con-stit'u-ent. Forming a necessary part. 
—c. element. One of the elements of which 
the body is composed, 
con-sti-tu'tion-al diseases. Inherited dis¬ 
eases; thosethat pervadet he whole system, 
con-strict'. To draw together in one part, 
con-ta'gion. Communication of disease 
from person to person by direct or indi¬ 
rect contact. [(2) Transmitting disease, 
con-ta'gious. (1) Transmissible by contact, 
con-ta'gi-um. Septic matter by which con¬ 
tagious disease is communicated. 


con-tort'ed. Twisted. [contagion, 

con-tract'. Todraw together; to acquire by 
con-tract'ile. Having the power to contract, 
con-trac'tion. Act of contracting or state 
of being contracted 

con-tuse'. To bruise. [blunt body, 

con-tu'sion. A bruise from a blow by a 
con-va-les'cence. Period of recovery after 
disease, [gether toward a common focus, 
con-ver'gence. An approaching near to- 
con-ver'gent. Tending to a point, as lines, 
con'vo-lu-ted. Folded together; intricate, 
con-vo-lu'tion. A folding upon itself of any 
any organ. [traction; a spasm or fit. 

con-vul'sion. A violent involuntary con- 
co-or'di-nate. Harmonious action, as of 
cop'per. A reddish brown metal, [muscles, 
cop'per-as. Sulphate of iron; green vitriol, 
cor'a-coid. Shaped like a crow’s beak. — c. 
process. A process of the scapula, 
cor'date. Heart=shaped. 
cord, um-bil'i-cal. The navel cord. [ma. 
CO'ri-um. Deep layer of the cutis; the der- 
cor'ne-a. Transparent front part of eyeball, 
cor-nic'u-la lar-yn'gis. Small cartilagin¬ 
ous nodules of the larynx, 
cor'nu. A horn=shaped process, 
cor'o-na-ry. Encircling, as a vessel or nerve. 
—c. arteries. Those supplying the heart 
substancfi. — c. sinus. A passage for blood 
into right auricle. — c. valve. Valve guard¬ 
ing opening of coronary sinus, 
cor'o-noid. Beak=like. 
cor'por-a. Plural of Corpus. 
corpse. A cadaver; a dead body, 
cor'pu-len-cy. Obesity, 
cor'pus. A body; the human body; main 
or chief portion of an organ. — c. cal-lo'- 
sum. A hard body uniting the cerebral 
hemispheres. — c. fim-bri-a'tum. The lat¬ 
eral thin edge of the taenia hippocampi, 
cor'pus-cle. A minute body; a cell, 
cor-re-la'tion. Reciprocal relation, 
cor-rode'. To eat away gradually, [degrees, 
cor-ro'sion. Eating away of a part by slow 
cor-ro'sive. Having the power of corrod¬ 
ing. —c. alkali. Alkaline chemicals that 
eat away a part. — c. poison. One that 
eats away the mucous membrane when 
taken internally. — c. sublimate. Bi- 
chlorid of mercury, 
cor-ro'sives. Agents that corrode, 
cor'tex. Outer layer of an organ, as cortex 
cos'tal. Pertaining to the ribs. [of brain. 
Cor'ti-an fibers. Those discovered by Corti. 




PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


617 


cor'ti-cal. Pertaining to a cortex. — c. sub¬ 
stance. Outer or investing layer of organ, 
cor-y'za. Catarrhal inflammation of the 
cos'ta. Rib or rib=like structure. [nose, 
cos'tal. Pertaining to the ribs. —c. spaces. 
Spaces between the ribs, [and vertebrae, 
cos-to-ver'te-bral. Pertaining to the ribs 
cot'y-loid. Cup=shaped. 
cra'ni-al. Pertaining to the cranium, 
cra'ni-um. The skull! 
cras-sa-men'tum. A clot, as of blood, [cle. 
cre-a'tin. Nitrogenous constituent of mus- 
cre-ma'tion. Burning of the dead body, 
cre'o-sote. An oily liquid obtained from 
the distillation of wood=tar. 
cres-cen'tic. Moon=shaped. 
crest Upper part of an organ. — c. of the 
ilium. Expanded upper border of ilium, 
crib'ri-form. Shaped like a sieve. — c. 
plate. Perforated plate of ethmoid bone, 
cri'coid. Ring=like. —c. cartilage. Ring= 
like cartilage of larynx, 
croup. Inflammation of the trachea, with 
membranous deposits, [bar pneumonia, 
croup ous pneu-mo'ni-a. Same as acute lo- 
cru'ra. Plural of crus. [Poupart’s ligament, 
cru'ral. Pertaining to the crura. — c. arch, 
crus. The leg; a leg=like structure. — c. 
cerebelli. Peduncles of cerebellum. — c. 
cerebri. Peduncles of cerebrum, 
crypt. A small sac or follicle in skin or 
mucous membrane. — c. of Lie'ber-kuhn. 
Those in small intestine, 
crys'tal-line. Like a crystal; transparent. 
— c. lens or humor. Transparent lens of eye. 
cul=de=sac'. A sac=like cavity or passage 
without an outlet. —Douglas’s c. A pro¬ 
longation of peritoneum into pelvis, 
cul'ture. Propagation of germs in suitable 
fluids or other media. — c. media. Sub¬ 
stance for cultivating bacteria, 
cu'ne-i-form. Wedge=shaped. 
cu-ta'ne-ous. Pertaining to the skin, 
cu'ti-cle. The epidermis or scarf=skin. 
cu'tis. The derma or true skin. — c. vera. 
cusp. Pointed crown of a tooth.[The corium. 
cy'a-nosed. Affected with cyanosis, 
cy-a-no'sis. Blue discoloration of the skin, 
cy-lin'dric-al. Pertaining to or in form of 
cyr-to'sis. Curvature of spine, [a cylinder, 
cyst. Any membranous sac or vesicle; 
any abnormal sac containing fluid, 
cyst'ic. (1) Pertaining to a cyst; encysted. 
(2) Relating to urinary bladder or gall= 
bladder. — c. duct. Duct of gall=bladder. 


D 

dac'tyl. A digit of the hand or foot, 
death. Cessation of life. — molecular d. 
Death of individual cells. — d.=rate. The 
annual mortality per 1000. — d.=rattle. The 
gurgling sound in the throat of dying per¬ 
sons. — somatic d. Death of the whole 
dec'a-gram. Ten grams. [organism, 

dec'a-li-ter. Ten liters, equal 10.567 quarts, 
dec'a-me-ter. Ten meters, 
de-cay'. Putrefactive change, 
de-ceased'.' Dead. [the fetus in utero. 
de-cid'u-a. The membraneous envelop of 
de-cid'u-ous. Shedding; falling off. [grains, 
dec'i-gram. One=tenth of a gram; 1.54 Troy, 
dec'i-li-ter. One=tenth of a liter; 3.38 fluid 
dec'i-met-er. One=tenthoLameter.[ounces. 
de-cline'. Gradual decrease or wasting a- 
de-col-or-a'tion. Removing of color, [way. 
de-com-pose'. To separate into constituent 
parts or elements. 

de-com-po-si'tion. The act of separating 
the constituent elements of a body, 
def-e-ca'tion. Evacuation of the bowels, 
de-fect'. An imperfection; absence of a part 
de-fi'bri-nate. To free from fibrin.[or organ, 
de-fi-bri-na'tion. The removal of fibrin 
from the blood or lymph. [course, 

de-flect'. To turn or bend from a straight 
de-gen'er-ate. To decline in character; be¬ 
come worse or inferior, 
de-gen-er-a'tion. Deterioration in struc¬ 
ture of a tissue or organ, —amyloid d. 
Starchy infiltration of tissues, —calcare¬ 
ous d. Deposit of lime in a part, —col¬ 
loid d. Jelly=like disorganization, —fatty 
d. Conversion of a tissue or organ into fat. 
deg-lu-ti'tion. Act or power of swallowing, 
de-hy-dra'tion. The removal of constitu¬ 
tional water from a salt. [ments. 

de-jec'ta. Discharges from bowels; excre- 
de-jec'tion. (1) Despondency. (2) A dis¬ 
charge of fecal matter; excrement, 
del-i-ga'tion. Application of a ligature, 
de-lir'i-um. Mental aberration due to dis¬ 
ease. — d. tremens. Mental aberration due 
to alcohol poisoning, 
de-liv'e-ry. Parturition; child=birth. 
del'toid. Delta=shaped; the deltoid muscle.. 
de-men'ti-a. Profound mental incapacity, 
den'tate. Toothed; notched. [teeth, 

den-tic'u-late. Furnished with minute 
den'tin. Bony structure of teeth, 
den'toid. Shaped like a tooth. 



■618 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


de-nude'. To lay bare. [offensive odors, 
de-o'dor-ant. An agent that will destroy 
de-o'dor-ize. To free from odor, 
de-ox'y-gen-ate. To deprive of oxygen, 
de-pend'ent. Hanging down; pendent, 
de-ple'tion. Diminishing the fluid of body, 
de-pos'it. A sediment. [process, 

dep-u-ra'tion. Purification; a cleansing 
der'ma (or derm). The true skin, 
der'ma-toid. Like the skin, 
der'mis. Same as derma. 
des'ic-cant. Drying; a drying agent, 
des-ic-ca'tion. The process of drying, 
des-qua-ma'tion. Scaling of cuticle, [sever, 
de-tach'. To separate from another; to 
de-tri'tion. Wearing or wasting of a part, 
de-vel'op-ment. Progression toward ma¬ 
turity. [normal, 

de-vi-a'tion. A turning aside from the 
dex'ter. Right; on the right side, 
dex'trin. A soluble gummy substance ob¬ 
tained from starch. 

dex'trose. A sugar of the glucose group, 
di-a-be'tes. A disease characterized by an 
excessive flow of urine, 
di-ag-nose'. To make a diagnosis, 
di-ag-no'sis. Recognition or determination 
of a disease from its symptoms, [an object, 
di'a-gram. A figure giving the outlines of 
di-al'y-sis. The separation of parts, 
di-am'e-ter. A straight line passing through 
the center of a body or figure, 
di'a-phragm. Muscular wall between tho¬ 
rax and abdomen. [of bowels, 

di-ar-rhe'a. Morbidly frequent evacuation 
di-ar-rhe'al. Of the nature of diarrhea, 
di-ar-thro'sis. A freely movable articula¬ 
tion. [dilatation of the heart, 

di-as'to-le. Period of regular expansion or 
di-ath'e-sis. Constitutional predisposition 
di-e-tet'ic. Pertaining to diet, [to disease, 
dif-fer-en-ti-a'tion. A specialization of tis¬ 
sues, organs, or functions, 
dif-fuse'. Scattered or spread about. — d. 
inflammation. Inflammation throughout 
all tissues of an organ, 
di-gas'tric. Having two bellies, [or chyle, 
di-ges'tion. Conversion of food into chyme 
di-gest'ive. Pertaining to or aiding diges¬ 
tion.— d. organs. Organs in which digestion 
dig'it. A finger or toe. [is accomplished, 
dig'i-tal. Pertaining to the fingers or toes, 
di-la-ta'tion. Expansion of a vessel or organ, 
dil'u-ent. An agent increasing fluidity. 
4i-lute\ To weaken. 


di-lu'tion. A weakening with waterorsome 
dim-in'ish. To lessen, to reduce, [other fluid, 
dim-i-nu'tion. Act of diminishing, 
diph-the'ri-a. An acute infectious disease 
caused by the diphtheretic bacillus, 
dip-lo-coc'cus. A micrococcus whose spher¬ 
ules are joined two and two. [nial tables, 
dip'lo-e. Cellular bony tissue between cra- 
di-plo'ic. Pertaining to the diploe. 
dip-so-ma'ni-a. An uncontrollable desire 
for spiritous liquors. [a knife or trocar, 
di-rect'or. A grooved instrument to direct 
dis-charge'. A morbid secretion, 
dis'coid. Shaped like a disc, 
dis-col-or-a'tion. A stain; a discolored spot 
or part. — postmortem d. A dark or bluish 
color of the back after death, 
dis-ease'. A morbid condition of the body, 
—acute d. Marked by rapid onset and 
course, —constitutional d. One that affects 
a system of organs or the whole body, 
—chronic d. One that is slow in its course, 
—contagious d. One that is communicated 
by contact, —idiopathic d. Spontaneous; 
one that is not dependent on another, 
—infectious d. One that is produced by 
pathogenic germs, —organic d. One due to 
structural changes in the organ affected, 
—septic d. One due to pyogenic or putre¬ 
factive germs within the body, —specific 
d. One due to a specific virus or poison 
within the body. — wool=sorters’d. An¬ 
thrax. —zymotic d. A term for the whole 
class of germ diseases, 
dis-in-fect'. To free from infection, 
dis-in-fect'ant. An agent that will destroy 
germs. [matter, 

dis-in-fec'tion Purification from infectious 
dis-in-fec'tor. An apparatus for disinfect¬ 
ing; one who disinfects. [ponent parts, 
dis-in-te-gra'tion. Act of reducing to com- 
dis-in-ter'. Exhume; disentomb, 
dis-lo-ca'tion A displacement of organs 
or articular surfaces. [ganic structure, 
dis-or-gan-i-za'tion. A destruction of or- 
dis-sect'. To separate the parts, 
dis-sec'tion. A separating by cutting of 
parts of the body. — d. wound. A wound 
received by instruments while dissecting, 
dis-sem'i-nate. To scatter. [ease germ, 
dis-sem-i-na'tion. A scattering, as of dis- 
dis-so-lu'tion. Death; process of dissolving, 
dis-solv'ent. A solvent; resolvent, 
dis'tal. Peripheral; from the center. — d. 
end. Farthest from center. 




PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


619 




dis-tend'. To expand; lengthen, 
dis-til-la'tion Vaporization of liquid with 
subsequent con den sation. 
di-vi'sion. To divide; divided into parts, 
dor'mant. Torpid; resembling sleep, 
dor'sal. Pertaining to the back, 
dor'sum. The back; posterior part. — d. of 
the tongue. Back part of tongue. 
Doug-las’s cul=de=sac'. See cul=de=sac. 
drachm (or dram). Aweightof sixty grains, 
drain'age. Gradual removal of liquid from 
a cavity by gravitation through a tube, 
drop'si-cal. Pertaining to dropsy, 
drop'sy. Effusion of fluid into the tissues 
or cavities of body. 

drown'ing. Suffocation in water or other 
drum (of the ear). The tympanum, [liquids, 
duct. A tube to convey a liquid, —bile d. 
See bile duct. — cystic d. Excretory duct 
of gall=bladder. — hepatic d. One receiving 
bile from liver, —lachrymal d. Conveys 
tears to lachrymal sac. —lymphatic d. 
Conveys lymph to right subclavian vein, 
—nasal d. Conveys tears from lachrymal 
sac. —salivary d. Conveys saliva from 
salivary glands. — Stenson’sd. Conveyssa- 
liva secretion of parotid gland to mouth. 
— thoracic d. Conveys chyle to left sub¬ 
clavian vein. [sublingual gland, 

ducts of Ri-vi'ni-us. Salivary ducts from 
duc'tus. A canal or duct. — d. arteriosis. 
Continuation of pulmonary artery in 
fetus. — d communis choledochus. See 
choledoch duct. — d. venosus. A fetal 
blood=vessel that the joins umbilical vein 
to the ascending vena cava, 
du-o-de'nal. Pertaining to duodenum, 
du-o-de'num. First part of small intestine, 
du'pli-ca-ture. A doubling, 
du'ral. Relating to the dura. [the brain, 
du'ra ma'ter. The dense hard covering of 
dy-nam'ic. Pertaining to motion as the re¬ 
sult of force, [colon with bloody discharges* 
dys'en-ter-y. Inflammation of rectum and 
dys-pep'si-a. Impaired digestion, 
dys-pne'a. Diflicult or labored breathing. 


ear. Organ of hearing. — e.=drum. See 
tympanum. — e.=wax. See cerumen. 
eb-ul-li'tion. Boiling. [travasated blood, 
ec-chy-mo'ma. A skin tumor caused byex- 
ec-chy-mo'sis. Extravasation of blood into 
areolar tissue. 


ec-chy-mot'ic. Pertaining to ecchymosis. 
ec'to-blast. Outside membrane of a cell, 
ec-to-zo'a. External parasites. [ease, 

ec-trot'ic. Preventing development of dis- 
ec-ze'ma. Inflammation of skin with ex¬ 
halation of lymph. [lar tissue, 

e-de'ma. Accumulation of serum in cellu- 
e-dem'a-tous. Relating to edema, 
ef-fete'. Worn-out; sterile; barren, [nerve, 
ef'fer-ent. Conveying from the center, as a 
ef-flo-res'cence. Redness of skin; rash, 
ef-fu'sion. Extravasation of blood into tis¬ 
sues or cavities. [bowels, 

e-ges'ta. Excreta; discharges from the 
e-las'tic. Having elasticity. — e. tissue. 
That which stretches. [retracting, 

e-las-tic'i-ty. Property of stretching and 
el'bow. Articulation of arm and forearm, 
el'e-ments. The ultimate constituents, 
el-e-men'ta-ry. Pertaining to element, 
el'e-va-tor. A muscle lifting a part, 
e-lim'i-nate. To remove; cast out. [tion. 
e-lim-i-na'tion. Act of casting out; excre- 
e-ma-ci-a'tion. A loss of flesh; leanness, 
em'a-nate. That which proceeds from a 
body; to give out, diffuse, shed, 
em-balm'er. One who embalms the dead, 
em-balm'ing. Filling of a body with a pre¬ 
servative and disinfectant fluid, —arte¬ 
rial e. Filling of all the tissues in which 
there are capillaries with fluid. — cavity e. 
Filling of cavities with fluid, —cranial e. 
Filling of tissues by injecting into the cra¬ 
nial cavity. — e. fluid. Fluid composed of 
antiseptics and disinfectants. — e.=needle. 
A hollow=needle used to penetrate the 
walls of cavities for cavity embalming, 
em-balm'ment. The act of embalming, 
em'bo-le (or em'bo-lus). A blood=clot ob¬ 
structing a vessel. 

em'bo-lism. Obstruction of a blood=vessel 
by an embolus, —miliary e. A state in 
which many small blood=vessels are the 
seats of embolism. [month, 

em'bry-o. A fecundated germ up to fourth 
em'i-nence. A protuberance or process, 
e-mis'sion. A sending forth, 
em-py-e'ma. Pus in the pleural cavity, 
e-mul-si-fl-ca'tion. The process of forming 
an emulsion; last stage of fatty degenera¬ 
tion. [pending oil in water, 

e-mul'sion. A milky fluid obtained by sus- 
en-am'el. Hard substance envelopi ng crown 
en-ceph'a-lon. The brain tissue, [of tooth, 
en-cyst'ed. Enclosed in a sac or cyst. 



620 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


en-do-ar-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of intima 
of an artery. 

en-dem'ic. Peculiar to or prevailing in or 
among some countries or people; circum¬ 
scribed. — e. disease. Not epidemic, [heart, 
en-do-car-di'tis. Inflammation of lining of 
en-do-car'di-um. The endothelial lining 
membrane of the heart, 
en-do-cra'ni-um. The dura mater, 
en'do-derm. Inner germ=layer of embryo, 
en-dos'te-um. The lining membrane of the 
medullary cavities of the bones, 
en-do-the'li-al. Pertaining to endothelium, 
en-do-the'li-um. Lining membrane of vas¬ 
cular and serous cavities, 
en'er-gy. Power or force of organism, 
en-gorge'. To fill with blood, 
en-gorge'ment. Vascular congestion, 
en-sheathed'. Within asheath.[phoid fever, 
en-ter'ic fever. Inflammation of bowels; ty- 
en-ter-i'tis. Inflammation of intestines, 
en-ter-o-co-li'tis. Inflammation of small 
and large intestines, 
en'ter-o-litli. A stone in intestines, 
en'trails. The intestines, 
en-vel'op. To enclose. [envelops, 

en-vel'op-ment. A covering; that which 
ep-i-dem'ic. A prevailing disease not con¬ 
fined locally. 

ep-i-der'mis. Outer layer of skin; cuticle, 
ep-i-gas'tric. Pertaining to epigastrium. 
—e. region. The epigastrium, 
ep-i-gas'tri-um. Region over stomach, 
ep-i-glot'tis. A thin cartilaginous plate 
over the larynx. 

ep'i-lep-sy. A nervous disease with loss of 
consciousness and tonic and clonic con- 
ep-i-lep'tic. Relating to epilepsy, [vulsions. 
ep-i-the'li-al. Pertaining to the epitheli¬ 
um. — e. cells. Cells in the epithelium. 
—e. tissue. Same as epithelium, 
ep-i-the'li-um. External layer of skin and 
minute layer lining alimentary canal, 
e-ro'sion. An eating away by corrosive 
agents or ulceration. [ease, 

e-rup'tion. A breaking out, as in skin dis- 
e-rup'tive fevers. Fevers characterized by 
an eruption. [by infection, 

er-y-sip'e-las. A disease of skin produced 
e-ry-the'ma. A superficial flush or redness 
of the skin. — e. no-do'sum. An inflamma¬ 
tory form marked by elevated nodules, 
es'char. A dry slough or crust of dead tissue, 
es-cha-rot'ic. Producing an eschar, 
e-soph-ag'e-al. Pertaining to esophagus. 


e-soph'a-gus. Tube leading from pharynx 
to stomach, through which food is taken, 
es-sen'tial oil. Volatile or distilled oil from 
odoriferous vegetable substances, 
e'ther. Subtle fluid filling all space, 
eth'moid. Like a sieve; sieve=bone. 
e-ti-o-log'i-cal. Pertaining to etiology, 
et-i-ol'o-gy. Science of causes of disease. 
Eu-sta'chi-an. Pertaining to Eustachian 
tube or valve. — E. canal. A passage in 
temporal bone for Eustachian tube. — E. 
tube. Passage from middle ear to pharynx. 
—E. valve. A fold of membrane in the 
right auricle of heart in fetus. [bowels, 
e-vac-u-a'tion. Defecation; emptying the 
e-ver'sion. A turning backward or inside 
e-vis'cer-ate. The act of evisceration, [out. 
e-vis-cer-a'tion. Removal of the viscera, 
ev-o-lu'tion. Process of developing from a 
simple to a complex, specialized, perfect 
form. [ing away of a part, 

e-vul'sion. A plucking out; forcible tear- 
ex-ac-er-ba'tions. Increased severity of 
symptoms. 

ex-co-ri-a'tion. Abrasion of epidermis, 
ex'ere-ment. The feces, 
ex-cre-men-ti'tious. Pertaining to or pro¬ 
ducing excrement or feces. [body, 

ex-cres'cence. An abnormal outgrowth of 
ex-cre'ta. Natural discharges of body, 
ex-crete'. To throw off effete material, 
ex-cre'tion. (1) A discharge of waste pro¬ 
ducts of body. (2) Matter so discharged, 
ex'ere-to-ry. Pertaining to excretion. — e. 
organs. Organs by which excretion is car¬ 
ried on, as skin, lungs, and kidneys, 
ex-ha-la'tion. Vapor given off by the body, 
ex-haus'tion. Tending to exhaust, 
ex-hu-ma'tion. Disinterment of the body, 
ex-hume'. To disinter, 
ex-pec'to-rant. An agent promoting a se¬ 
cretion of bronchial mucus, 
ex-pec'to-rate. To spit forth, [from chest, 
ex-pec-to-ra'tion. Expulsion of secretions 
ex-pel'. To force out. [lungs; death, 

ex-pi-ra'tion. Act of expelling air from 
ex-pul'sion. The act of expelling, 
ex-san'guine. Without blood. [in blood, 
ex-san'gui-nat-ed. Deprived of or deficient 
ex-ten'sion. Act or process of extending; a 
reaching or stretching out; enlargement; 
increase of dimensions, 
ex-tir-pa'tion. Total removal of an organ 
or growth by surgical means, 
ex-trav'a-sate. Act of extravasation. 




PDA CTICAL DICTIONAR Y 


621 


ex-trav-a-sa'tion. Effusion of fluid into 
tissues. [tion. 

ex-trem'i-ty. A limb; an end or a termina- 
ex-u'date. Product of exudation, 
ex-u-da'tion. A morbid oozing out of fluids, 
ex-u'ded fi'brin. Fibrin that has passed out 
from the blood. 

eye. Organ of vision. — e.=ball. Globe of the 
eye. — e.=brow. Hair, skin, and tissue of 
the eye. — e.=lash. Hair of the eyes. — e.= 
lid. Protective covering of the eye. — e.= 
needle. A small hollow needle used for 
cranial embalming. — e.=process. Insert¬ 
ing of a needle through eye=socket into 
cranial cavity. — e.=sigbt. Power or sense 
of sight. — e.=teetb. Canine teeth of upper 
jaw. 

F' 

fac'et. A small, plain articulating surface, 
fa'cial. Pertaining to the face. — f. nerves. 

erves that supply face, [acquired power, 
fac'ul-ta-tive. Pertaining to functional or 
Fah'ren-heit’s thermometer. One in which 
the interval between freezing and boiling 
is divided into 180 equal parts or degrees, 
zero being 32° below the freezing of water. 
Fal-lo'-pi-an. Pertaining to following: — F. 
canal. Same as Fallopian tubes. — F. liga¬ 
ment. The round ligament of uterus. — F. 
tubes. Two passages leading from ovaries 
to the womb. [sternum by cartilages, 
false ribs. Ribs that do not connect to the 
falx. Sickle=shaped. — f. cerebelli. A sickle= 
like process between the cerebellar lobes. 
—f. cerebri. That between cerebral lobes, 
far-i-na'ceous. Having the nature of far¬ 
ina; containing or yielding starch, 
fas'ci-a. Fibrous membrane covering mus¬ 
cles, arteries, and other tissues, —deep f. 
Strong fibi’ous layer which lies beneath 
the superficial fascia. — f. lata. The dense 
fibrous aponeurosis surrounding thigh, 
—superficial f. The layer beneath the skin 
extending over the whole body. — trans- 
versalis f. The layer beneath the trans- 
versalis muscle and peritoneum, 
fas'ci-cle. Small bundles of fibers, [fibers, 
fas-cic'u-lus. A bundle, especially of nerve= 
fat. Yellowish oily substance of adipose 
tissue. — f. cells. Cells containing oil in 
connective tissues. 

fat'ty. The nature of fat. — f. degeneration. 

See Degeneration. —f. tissue. Tissue that 
fau'cal. Pertaining to fauces, [contains fat. 
fau'ces. Throat from mouth to pharynx. 


feb'rile. Pertaining to fever, 
fe'cal. Pertaining to feces, 
fe'ces. Excrement; dung. [lific. 

fec'un-date. To impregnate; render pro- 
fem'o-ral. Pertaining to femur. — f. artery. 
The artery in femoral region. — f. canal. 
See Hunter’s canal. — f. ring. Abdom¬ 
inal end of femoral canal. — f. vein. The 
vein accompanying femoral artery, 
fe'mur. The thigh=bone. 
fer'ment. A body exciting chemical changes 
in other matters when brought in contact, 
fer-men-ta'tion. Such changes as are ef¬ 
fected exclusively by the vital action of 
fer'rum. Iron. [ferments, 

fer'tile. Prolific. [Peculiar to the fetus, 
fe'tal. Pertaining to fetus. — f. circulation, 
fet'id. Having an offensive smell, as putrid 
fe'tor. Stench. [matter, 

fe'tus. Products of conception after fourth 
month of gestation, [sociated symptoms, 
fe'ver. A rise of body temperature with as- 
fi'ber. Filamentary organ or structure, 
fi'bril. A small fiber or filament, 
fi'brin. A nitrogenous proteid coagulating 
in exposed blood.. 

fi'brin-o-gen. The precursor of fibrin. 
fi-bro=a-re'o-lar. Composed of fibrous and 
areolar tissue. [cartilaginous tissue. 

fi-bro=car ti-lage. A mixture of fibrous and 
fi'broifl. Having a fibrous structure. — f. 
infiltration. Filling in or transforming 
tissue into fiber=like material. [fibers, 
fi'brous. Consisting of or pertaining to 
fil'a-ment. A thread=like structure, 
fil'i-form. Like filament, thread=like. 
fil'let. A loop=shaped bandage, 
film. A thin membrane or skin, 
fil-tra'tion. Process of straining or filtering, 
fis'sion. Reproduction by splitting into two 
or more equal parts. 

fis'sure. A groove or cleft. — f. of Sylvius. 

The cleft between anterior and middle 
lobes on under surface of brain, 
fis'tu-la (or fis'tule). An abnormal tube= 
like passage in the body giving vent to 
pus or other secretions, 
flac'cid. Soft; flabby. [a large cilium. 

fla-gel'lum (pi. -la). Alash=like appendage; 
flake. A small flat fragment, 
flesh tints. Colors to tint the skin; to cover 
flex. To bend. [spots or discoloration, 

flexed. Bent or curved, 
flex-i-bil'i-ty. Being flexible, 
flex'ion. Process of bending. 



622 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


flex'or. Muscle that bends or flexes a part, 
flex'ure. The act of bending; a bent part. 
— sigmoid f. The bend i n lower end of colon, 
float'er. A dead body which floats on the 
surface of water. 

float'ing. Free to move about. — f. ribs. The 
fx-ee ribs; the two lower pail’s. — f. kidney. 
A movable or misplaced kidney, [lation. 
fluc-tu-a'tion. A wave=like motion; oscil- 
flu'id. A substance whose molecules move 
fx-eely upon one another. — amnioticf. See 
liquor amnii. — cerebrospinal f Fluid be¬ 
tween the arachnoid membrane and pia 
mater, -f. dram. Equals 56.96 grains of dis¬ 
tilled water; eighth part of a fluid ounce, 
—embalming f. See embalming fluid. 
—f. ounce. Eight fluid drams, 
flu-id'i-ty. State of being fluid, 
flu'o-rid. A binary compound of fluorin. 
flu'o-rin. A gaseous element resembling 
chlorin in chemical properties, 
flushing. Act of coloring the surface. — f. 
of the face. Causing sui’face of face to be 
colored red or blue while injecting artei’ies. 
fo'cus. Principal seat of a disease; meeting 
point of reflected rays, 
fol'li-cle. A small secretory sac or tube, 
fol'li-cles of Lie'ber-kuhn. Mucous follicles 
in small intestine, 
fol-lic'u-lar. Containing follicles, 
fo'mes (pZ.fom'i-tes).Any porous substance 
food. Aliment. [absorbing contagion, 
foot. The organ at the extremity of the leg. 
fo-ra'men (pZ. -mi-na).Apassageoran open¬ 
ing. — f. ovale. Opening between right and 
left auricles in fetus. — f. magnum. Large 
opening in base of skull, 
fore'arm. Arm between wrist and elbow, 
for'eign body. An irritant substance in a 
wound or cavity. 

for'mal. An anesthetic and hypnotic, 
for-mal'de-hyde. See Formic Aldehyde. 
for'ma-lin. A 40# aqueous solution of for¬ 
mic aldehyde, [ful disinfectant properties, 
for'mic al'de-hyde. A gas possessing power- 
fos'sa. A depression, furrow, or sinus. 
Fow'ler’s solution. A solution of arsenic, 
frac'ture. Breaking of a bone, 
fre'num. A fold of membrane acting as a 
check. — f. of the tongue. Fold of mem¬ 
brane underneath tongue, 
fri'a-ble. Easily broken down, 
fric'tion. The act of rubbing; attrition, 
fron'tal. Bone of forehead. [liver turns, 
ful'crum. Point or pivot about which the 


fu'mi-gate. Act of exposing to disinfectant 
vapors. [vapors, 

fu-mi-ga'tion. Exposure to disinfectant 
fu'mi-ga-tor. One who or an apparatus that 
fu'ming. Emitting fumes. [fumigates, 
func'tion. Normal or special action of a 
fun'da-ment. The base; the anus. [part, 
fun'dus. Rounded end or base of an organ, 
fu'si-ble, That which can be easily fused 
fu'si-form. Spindle=shaped. [or melted, 
fu'sion. Liquefying a solid by heat. 

G 

gall. The bile. — g.=bladder. A pear=shaped 
sac in light lobe of liver, reservoir for the 
bile. — g.=cyst. The gallbladder.- g.=ducts. 
The ducts conveying bile. — g.=stones. Cal- 
careous concretions in gall=bladder and 
its ducts. [quarts, 

gallon. A standard liquid measure; four 
gam-boge'. Gum=resin*obtained fi'om Gctr- 
cinia hanburii. [center, 

gan'gli-on. A semi=independent nervous 
gan'grene. Mortification or death of soft 
tissue, —senile g. Gangrene of the ex¬ 
tremities in the aged, 
gas. An aeriform substance, 
gas'e-ous. Of the nature of gas. 
gas'tric. Pertaining to stomach. — g. ca¬ 
tarrh. A flow produced by irritation of 
gastric mucous membrane. — g. juice. 
Normal secretion of stomach, 
gas-tri'tis. Inflammation of stomach. 
gas-tro=en-ter'ic. Pei'tainingtoboth stom¬ 
ach and intestines. [ach and bowels. 

gas-tro=en-ter-i'tis. Inflammation of stom- 
gas-tro=ep-i-plo'ic. Pertaining to both 
stomach and omentum. 
gas-tro=in-tes'ti-nal. Pertaining to stom¬ 
ach and omenta. — g. catarrh. Inflam¬ 
mation of mucous membrane of stomach 
gath'er-ing. An abscess. [and intestines, 
gel'a-tin. A nitrogenous pi’inciple obtained 
by boiling certain animal tissues. — g. cul¬ 
ture. Micro=organisms grown in gelatin 
solution. [like, 

gel-at'i-nous. Resembling gelatin; jelly= 
gen'er-ate. To beget; to produce, 
gen-er-a'tion. The begetting of offspring, 
gen'i-tal. Pertaining to organs of genera¬ 
tion. [a spore, 

germ. A microbe or bacterium; an ovum; 
germ'i-cide. Agent which destroys germs, 
ger'mi-nal. Pertaining to a germ, [or germ, 
ger-mi-na'tion. The development of a seed. 




PR A CTICAL DICTIONAR I 


623 


gland. A secretory organ; a lymphatic gan¬ 
glion. — agminate g. In the small intes¬ 
tine; Peyer’s patches. — axillary g. Lym¬ 
phatics in the armpit. - blood g. See 
ductless. — ductless g. Without ducts, 
—parotid g. A large salivary gland in 
front and below the ear. —racemose g. 
Arranged in clusters like grapes, —seba¬ 
ceous g. In the skin, - solitary g. An iso¬ 
lated gland of the intestines, — sublingual 
g. Salivary glands in floor of mouth. 
— submaxillary g. Salivary glands in 
floor of mouth, —thymus g. Situated at 
root ot neck in front; disappears before 
maturity, —thyroid g. A blood=gland sit¬ 
uated in neck over upper end of trachea, 
glan'du-lar. Pertaining to glands, 
gle'noid. A hollow, shallow pit. — g. cav¬ 
ity. In the scapula for articulation with 
glob'u-lar. Shaped like a globe, [humerus, 
glob'ule, or glo'bus. A small spherical body, 
glob'u-lin. Albuminous constituent of 
glos'sa. The tongue. [blood=corpuscles. 
glos'sal. Pertaining to tongue, 
glos-so-ep-i-glot'tic. Pertaining to tongue 
and epiglottis. [and pharynx. 

glos-so-pha-ryn'ge-al.Pertainingto tongue 
glu'cose. Grape=sugar. 

glu-te'al. Pertaining to buttocks. — g. re¬ 
gion. Region of or around buttocks, 
glu'ten. Nitrogenous element of wheat, 
glu'ti-nous. Viscid; glue=like. [and fats, 
glyc'er-in. The sweetish principle of oils 
gly'CO-gen. Animal starch; found in blood 
and liver. 

goi'ter. An enlargement of thyroid gland, 
gon-or-rhe'a. A contagious inflammation 
with a purulent discharge from genitals, 
gon-or-rhe'al. Pertaining to gonorrhea, 
gout. Disease associated with joint inflam¬ 
mation, swelling, uric acid m blood, etc. 
gout'y. Pertaining to or of nature of gout. 
—g. habit. The peculiar state of body pre¬ 
disposing gout. 

grac'i-lis. Rectus interims femoris muscle, 
gram. Unit of measure of metric system; 
15.43 Troy grains. 

gran'u-lar. Composed of grains or granula¬ 
tions. — g. tissue. Form of epithelial tissue, 
gran'ule. A spore, -g. layer. One of the 
retinal layers; subcortical layer of cere¬ 
bellum. [granule, 

gran'u-lose. A soluble portion of starch= 
grav-i-ta'tion. Force with which bodies are 
drawn to earth’s center. 


grav'i-ty. Property of possessing weight, 
gray mat'ter. Cortical substance of brain, 
grip. See influenza. 
gris'tle. Cartilage. 

gris'tly. Cartilage=like. [trunk, 

groin. A depression between thigh and 
gullet. The esophagus. [ilis. 

gum'ma. A soft gummy tumor due to syph- 
gum'ma-tous. Resembling a gumma, 
gut'tur-al. Pertaining to the throat. 

H 

hair. Hirsute appendage of the skin. — h.= 
bulb. Expanded portion at lower end of 
hair=root.—h. follicle. A recess lodging the 
hair'y. Characterized by hair.[root of a hair, 
hallux. The great toe. 
hal'o-gens. The electronegative elements, 
chlorin, bromin, iodin, and fluorin. 
hal'oid. Any salts of the halogens, 
ham'strings. Posterior muscles of thigh, 
hand. Wrist, palm, and lingers together of 
upper extremity. — h. protector. An anti¬ 
septic ointment for applying to the bands 
when operating. [ing at root of nail, 

hang'nail. A fragment of epidermis hang- 
hard'en-ing compound. A desiccating mix- 
head. Upper part of body. [ture. 

heart. Hollow muscular organ, center of 
circulatory system. — h. clot. Coagulation 
of blood in cardiac cavities. 
heat=stroke. Sunstroke, 
hec'tic. Pertaining to phthisis. — h. flush. 
Reddening of cheeks in tuberculosis, 
iiec'to-gram. One hundred grams, 
hec'to-li-ter. One hundred liters, 
hec'to-me-ter. One hundred meters, [calcis. 
heel. Hinder part of foot. — h.=bone. The os 
he'mal. Pertaining to blood or the vascular 
he-mat'ic. Bloody. [system, 

hem'a-tin. A brown pigment from hemo¬ 
globin. [found in blood, 

hem'a-to-blast. A minute colorless disk 
hem'a-to-cele. A blood tumor, 
hem'a-to-cyst. A blood=cyst. 
hem'a-toid. Blood=like. 
hem-a-toid'in. Same as Bilirubin. 
hem-a-tol'o-gy. The science of the blood, 
hem-a-to'ma. Sam^ as Hematocele. 
hem-a-to'sis. Blood formation, 
hem-a-tu'ri-a. Blood in the urine, [body, 
hem-i-ple'gi-a. Paralysis of one side of 
hem'is-phere. A half of a sphere, 
hem-o-glo'bin. Coloring=matter of red cor- 
hem-op'ty-sis. Spitting of blood, [puscles. 







624 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


hem'or-rhage. A flow of blood from vessels, 
bem'or-rhoids. Small blood tumors in the 
anal orifice; piles. [rhoids. 

hem-or-rhoid'al. Pertaining to hemor- 
lie-pat'ic. Pertaining to liver. — h. artery. 
One that supplies the liver. — h. cancer. 
Cancer of liver. — b. duct. See duct, he¬ 
patic. — b. lobes. Anatomical division of 
liver. — b. veins. Three veins running 
from liver to the inferior vena cava, 
bep-a-ti'tis. Inflammation of the liver, 
bep-a-ti-za'tion. A conversion into a liver= 
like substance. 

be-red'i-ta-ry. Acquired by inheritance, 
be-red'i-ty. The influence of parents upon 
offsprings. [sealed, 

ber-met'ic. Impervious to air and fluids; 
ber'ni-a. Protrusion of a viscus from its 
normal position; rupture. [nature, 

het-er-o-ge'ne-ous. Differing in kind or 
bi-a'tus. Gap, opening, or chasm, 
hi-ber-na'tion. A sleeping through winter, 
bi'lum of tbe kid'ney. Depression in center 
hinge=joint. See Di arthrosis, [of kidney, 
bip. Upper part of thigh. — b.=bone. The 
femur. — h.=joint. Articulation of femur 
and innominate bone, 
hir-sute'. Covered with hair; hairy. 
Ms-tol'o-gy. Study of intimate structure of 
tissues. [projections; from atrophy. 

b.ob'nail liver. One marked with nail=like 
hoTlow=needle. An embalming=needle. 
bo-mo-ge'ne-ous. Having the same nature, 
hu'me-rus. Large bone of the arm. 
bu'mor. Any fluid of the body. 

Hun'ter’s ca-nal'. See Canal, Hunter’s. 
hy'a-loid. Transparent; resembling glass. 
—b. membrane. Transparent membrane 
enclosing vitreous humor, 
hy'dra-ted. Combined with water, 
hy-dre'mi-a. Excess of water in tbe blood, 
hy-dro-cepb'a-lus. A collection of water in 
head; dropsy of brain, 
by-dro-chlo'ric. Containing chlorin in 
combination with hydrogen. — h. acid. A 
colorless corrosive compound, exceeding¬ 
ly soluble in water, being an effective ger¬ 
micide; muriatic acid, 
hy'dro-gen. A light gaseous element; a 
constituent of water. Ah. peroxid. A color¬ 
less oily fluid used as a disinfectant, —car¬ 
bureted h. A compound of hydrogen with 
hy-dro-tho'rax.Dropsy of chest.[carbon,etc. 
hy'gi-ene. The science of health, 
by-gi-en'ic. Pertaining to health. 


hy'oid. Having the form of the Greek letter 
Upsilon. — b. bone. A U=shaped bone at 
the base of the tongue, 
hy-os-cy'a-mus. Henbane, [blood in a part, 
hy-per-e'mi-a. Abnormal accumulation of 
by-per-pla'si-a. A hypertrophy of tissue, 
hy-per-py-rex'i-a. Excessive high temper¬ 
ature. [of a part or organ, 

by-per'tro-phy. Abnormal increase in size 
hyp'no-tism. State of artificial somnambu- 
hy-po-car'di-um. Below the heart, [lence. 
hyp-o-chon'dri-um. Beneath the cartilage; 
regions of the abdomen at each side of the 
epigastrium. 

hyp-o-der'mic. Subcutaneous. — b. injec¬ 
tion. Injecting beneath the skin, 
byp-o-gas'tric. Pertaining to the hypogas- 
trium. — b. space. Center space in lower 
part of abdomen. [inal region, 

hyp-o-gas'tri-um. Lower anterior abdom- 
by-pos'ta-sis. Blood settled into dependent 
parts; sediment. 

by-po-stat'ic. Pertaining to hypostasis. — b. 
congestion. Settling of blood into a part. 

I 

ic-terlc. Pertaining to jaundice, 
ic'ter-us. Jaundice, 
ic'tus. A stroke. — i. so'lis. Sunstroke, 
il'e-ac. Pertaining to ileum, 
il-e-o-ce'cal. Pertaining to ileum and ce¬ 
cum. — i. valve. Valve between ileum and 
cecum. [and colon, 

il-e-o-co-li'tis. Inflammation of ileum 
il-e-o-colic. Pertaining to ileum and 
il'e-um. Lower | of small intestine, [colon, 
il'i-ac. Pertaining to os ilium or region of 
ilium. — i. crest. High broadened edge of 
ilium. — i. venter. Iliac region of belly. 
—i. region. Outer and lower part of ab- 
il'i-um. Hip=bone. [domen. 

im-bi-bi'tion. Absorption of fluids; process 
im'bri-ca-ted. Overlapped, [of imbibing, 
im-mo-bil'i-ty. State of being fixed, 
im-mer'sion. Plunging of body into liquid, 
im-mune'. Safe from attack of disease, 
im-mu'ni-ty. Freed from risk of infection, 
—active i. That conveyed by recovery 
from infectious disease, —congenital i. 
That with which the individual is born, 
—moderate i. Those partially immune, 
—passive i. That conferred by introduc¬ 
tion of antitoxins or vaccines, 
im-pact'ed. Wedged in. [wedged in. 

im-pac'-tion. Concussion; state of being 





PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


625 


im-pede'. To place obstacles In the way. 
im-per'vi-ous. Not permitting a passage, 
im'pli-cate. That which is necessarily in¬ 
volved or implied, 
im-preg-na'tion. Fecundation, 
im-pres'sion. A hollow or depression, 
im-pure'. Containing some foreign sub- 
im-pu'ri-ty. Opposite of purity, [stance, 
im-pu-tres'ci-ble. Not liable to putrefac- 
in-an'i-mate. Not animate; dead. [tion. 
in-a-ni'tion. Emptiness; exhaustion from 
starvation. 

in-ar-tic'u-late. Not jointed or articulated, 
in-can-des'cent. Luminous from heat, 
in-cin'er-ate. Act of rendering to ashes, 
in-cin-er-a'tion. Cremation; reducing to 
in-cip'i-ent. Beginning. [ashes, 

in-cised'. Cut. — i. wound. A cleanly cut 
in-ci'sion. Act of cutting into. [wound, 
in-ci'sor. One of the four front teeth in 
in-ci'sure. A slit or notch. [each jaw. 
in-com-bus'ti-ble. Incapable of burning, 
in-com-pat'i-ble. Not being capable of com¬ 
bining in solution. 

in-com'pe-tence. Not capable of perform¬ 
ing the natural functions, [neous mass, 
in-cor-po-ra'tion. Making into a homoge- 
in'cre-ment. Increase or growth, 
in-cu-ba'tion. The period between the in¬ 
ception of a contagion and the appearance 
of a disease. [finger of the hand, 

in'cus. Middle bone of ear; index; the first 
in-dent'. A shallow depression. [sion. 

in-den-ta'tion. A notch, dent, or depres- 
in'di-ca-tor. The index finger, 
in-dig'e-nous. Native to a place, 
in-di-ges'tion. See Dyspepsia. 
in-dis-po-si'tion. Any slight ailment, 
in'dol. Decomposition product of pancreas, 
in'du-rate. Hardened. [part, 

in-du-ra'tion. Hardening of a tissue or 
in-ert'. Slow in motion; possession of in- 
in-er'tia. Sluggishness; inactivity, [ertia. 
in-e-las'tic. Not elastic; incapable of 
changing shape. 

in-farct'. An obstruction or plug. [bolus, 
in-farc'tion. Plugging of vessel by an em- 
in-fect'. To communicate disease germs, 
in-fec'tion. Communication of a disease= 
germ; matter containing disease germs, 
in-fec'tious. Of the nature of infection; 
contagious. 

in-fe-cun'di-ty. Sterility; barrenness, 
in-fe'ri-or. Lower. 

in-fil'trate. To ooze into interstitial spaces. 


in-fil-tra'tion. A fluid eff usion into an organ 
or tissue. — cal-ca're-ousi. Deposit of lime 
within a tissue. — cellular i. An infiltra¬ 
tion of tissues with round cells, —fatty i. 
A deposit of fat or oil in the tissues, —pig¬ 
mentary i. Deposit of pigments in tissues, 
—waxy i. A deposit of a waxy substance, 
in'fin-ite. Immeasurable, 
in-fin-i-tes'i-mal. Infinitely small, 
in-firm'. Weak; feeble, 
in-flame'. To undergo inflammation, 
in-flam-ma'tion. A morbid condition with 
hyperemia, pain, heat, swelling, and dis¬ 
ordered function. —i. of the bowels. That 
affecting walls of intestines. — i. of the 
kidneys. Acute nephritis, 
in-fla'tion. Distension with air. 
in-flu-en'za. See Grip. 
in-frac'tion. Incomplete fracture of a bone. 
in-fra=or'bit-al. Below the orbit, 
in-fun-dib'u-lum. Funnel=shaped. —i. of 
the brain. A mass of gray matter attached 
to pituitary gland. — i. of the kidney. One 
of primary divisions of pelvis of a kidney. 
—i. of the lung. Any of the ultimate ex¬ 
pansions of a bronchiole, 
in-fu'sion. Slow injection of fluid into a 
vein; that which is infused, 
in-fu-so'ri-a. A class of protozoa, [as food, 
in-ges'ta. Substances introduced into body 
in-ges'tion. Act of introducing food into 
body, as by eating. 

in-gre'di-ent. Any part of a compound, 
in'guen. The groin. 

in'gui-nal. Pertaining to groin. — i. canal. 
A passage from internal to external ab¬ 
dominal rings. [vapors, 

in-ha-la'tion. Inbreathing of air or other 
in-hale'. To inspire or draw air into lungs, 
in-hib'it. To check or restrain, 
in-hi-bi'tion. Restraint of oi’ganic activity 
from nerve=actions. 

in-hume'. To place in the ground, as a body, 
in-im'i-cal. Adverse; incompatible, 
in-ject'. Act of injecting, 
in-jec'tion. Forcing of a liquid into a ves¬ 
sel or cavity of body. [fluid, 

in-ject'or. An instrument for injection of 
in'let of pelvis. Upper orifice of true pelvis, 
in-ner-va'tion. A discharge of nervous 
force; function of the nervous system, 
in'no-cent. Benign; not harmful, 
in-noc'u-ous. See Innoxious. 
in-nom'i-nate. Nameless. —i. artery. Larg¬ 
est branch of aorta at arch. — i. vein. The 


47 



626 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


branches formed by junction of internal 
jugulars and subclavian veins, 
in-nom-i-na'tum. The hip=bone. 
in-nox'ious Not harmful; innocent, 
in-oc-u-la'tion. Introduction of specific 
virus into system, 
in-o'dor-ous. W ithout odor, 
in-or-gan'ic. Devoid of organized structure, 
in-os'cu-lat-ing. Directly joining, [tomosis. 
in-os-cu-la'tion.U nion of two vessels. Anas- 
in'quest. A judicial inquiry. [insects, 

in-sec'ti-cide. Preparation for destroying 
in-sen'si-ble. Without sense of feeling, 
in-ser'tion. Attachment, as of a muscle. 
—i. of a muscle. The more movable attach- 
in-sid'i-ous. Not manifest; hidden, [ment. 
in-si'tu. In a given or natural position, 
in-sol'u-ble. Incapable of solution, 
in-som'ni-a. Inability to sleep, 
in-spi-ra'tion. Inhalation of air into the 
lungs, —respiratory i. Pertaining to res- 
in'step. Arch of the foot. [piration. 

in'stru-ment. A mechanical tool, —em¬ 
balming i. A mechanical tool used in em- 
in'su-lar. Isolated in condition, [balming. 
in'su-late. To isolate. [of susceptibility, 
in-sus-cep-ti-bil'i-ty. Immunity; a want 
in-tact'. Left complete or unimpaired, 
in-teg'u-ment. The skin. [tivity. 

in-ten'si-ty. High degree of power or ac- 
in-ter'. To place in a grave or tomb, 
in-ter-ar-tic'u-lar. Situated between 
joints. — i. cartilage. Cartilage between 
in-ter-celTu-lar. Between cells. [joints, 
in-ter-cos'tal. Between the ribs. — i. spaces. 
Space between ribs.[or intervening within, 
in-ter-cur'rent. Occurring between; added 
in-ter-me'di-ate. Being in amiddle position, 
in-ter-mit'tent. Occurring at intervals. — 
i. fever. A fever with period of apyrexia. 
in-ter-mus'cu-lar. Between muscles, [rinth. 
in-ter'nal. On the inside. — i. ear. The laby- 
in-ter-os'se-ous. Between the bones. — i. 
tissue. Tissues between the bones, 
in-ter-scap'u-lar. Between the shoulder= 
in-ter-space'. Spaces between. [blades, 
in'ter-sti-ces. Spaces; intervals. [tance. 
in'ter-val. A space or lapse of time or dis- 
in-tes'ti-nal. Pertaining to intestine. — i. 
canal. Tube leading from mouth to anus, 
in-tes'tine. Digestive tube from stomach to 
in'ti-ma. Innermost coat of a vessel, [anus, 
in-tra-ab-dom'i-nal. Within the abdomen, 
in-tra-ar-te'ri-al. Within the artery, 
in-tra-va-sa'tion. Passage of morbid mat¬ 


ter into the vessels.[intestine into another, 
in-tus-sus-cep'tion. Slipping of one part of 
in-va'sion. Onset of a disease, 
in-ver'sion. Turning inside out. 
in-vest'. To surround or enclose, 
in-volve'. Implicate. 

in-voTun-ta-ry. Independent of will. — i. 
muscle. One not under control of will, 
i'o-did. A compound of iodin. [element. 
i'O-din. One of the halogens; a non=metallic 
i-od'o-form. A yellow antiseptic compound 
with a strong peculiar odor, formed by the 
action of iodin on alcohol in an alkaline 
solution. [iodin and ozone, 

i-od'o-zone. An antiseptic compound of 
i'ris. Colored membrane of anterior part of 
i-ri'tis. Inflammation of the iris, [the eyes, 
ir'ri-ta-ble. Easily inflamed or irritated, 
ir-ri-ta-bil'i-ty. Susceptible to excitement, 
ir'ri-tant. An agent producing irritation. 
—i. poison. A poison that causes iri’itation 
of the mucous membrane, 
ir-ri-ta'tion. Excitement; stimulation, 
is'chi-ac, is'chi-al. Pertaining to ischium, 
is'chi-um. Seat=bone; inferior part of hip= 
bone. [bladders of the sturgeon, 

i'sin-glass. A gelatin made from the air= 
i-so-ther'mal. Of equal temperature. 

-i'tis. A suffix meaning inflammation. 

J 

jaun'dice. A yellow color of skin, due to 
obstructed excretion of bile, 
jaw. Either of two maxillary bones, 
je-ju'num. Upper § of portion of small in¬ 
testine that succeeds the duodenum, 
joint. An articulation, 
ju'gu-lar. Pertaining to throat. — j. veins. 

Certain veins of neck, 
juice. Any of secretions of the body. — gas¬ 
tric j. That of the stomach, —intestinal j. 
That of intestinal walls, —pancreatic j. 
That of the pancreas, 
junc'tion. Joining together, 
jux-ta-po-si'tion. In close relationship. 

K 

ker'a-tin. A nitrogenous compound form¬ 
ing essential ingredients of bony tissue, 
kid'ney. Organ secreting urine, 
kid'neys, Bright’s disease of. Certain dis¬ 
eases described by Dr. Bright, 
kil'o-grani. One thousand grams, 
kil'o-li-ter. One thousand liters. 
kiTo-me-ter. One thousand meters. 






PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


627 


knee. Joint between thigh and leg. — k.=cap. 
The patella. — k =pan. See Knee=cap. 
knuckles The joints of the phalanges. 


la'bial. Pertaining to lips, 
la'bi-um (pi. -bi-a). The lip. [work, 

lab'o-ra-to-ry. A place for experimental 
lab'y-rinth. The internal ear. 
lac'er-ate. To tear, 
lac-er-a'tion. Mechanical rupture, 
lach'ry-mal. Pertaining to tears. — 1. duct 
or canal. Passage that carries tears from 
eyes to nose. —1. gland. Organ that secretes 
the tears. —1. sac. Upper rounded ex¬ 
tremity of the lachrymal duct, 
lach'ry-mose. Shedding tears. [milk. 
lac-to=al-bu'min. Albumin as found in 
lac-to=glob'u-lin.Globulin as found in milk, 
lac'tose. Sugar of milk. [tarrhal fever, 
la grippe (grip). Contagious, epidemic ca- 
la-mel'la. A thin plate or scale. —1. of bone. 
Rings around the Haversian canals, 
lam'el-lar. Disposed in lamellas. 
lam'i-na. A thin layer or scale, 
lar-yn-ge'al. Pertaining to larynx, 
lar-yn-gi'tis. Inflammation of larynx, 
lar'ynx. Upper part of windpipe, 
la'tent. Concealed; not manifest. — 1. 
period. Time required for incubation of 
lat'er-al. Pertaining to the side, [disease, 
lay'er. A mass of nearly uniform thick¬ 
ness spread over an area, 
lead. A bluish=white metal, 
leak'age. Act or process of leaking, 
lec'i-thin. A phosphorized substance found 
widely in the body, 
leg. From knee to ankle=joint. 
lens. A transparent disc refracting light, 
—crystalline 1. See Crystalline. 
lep'ro-sy An endemic chronic malignant 
disease. [ j ury or disease, 

le'sion. Structural tissue change from in- 
leu'co-cyte. A white blood=corpuscle. 
leu-co-cy-the'mi-a. An abnormal increase 
of the white blood=corpuscles. [cocytes. 
leu-co-cy-to'ma. A tumor containing leu- 
leu-co'sis. Any disease of lymphatics; ab¬ 
normal pallor of skin. 
leu-ke'(orce)mi-a. Fatal blood disease with 
a great increase of white blood=corpuscles. 
le-va'tor. A muscle that elevates a part, 
lev'u-lose. Natural sugar of fruits. 
Lie'ber-kiihn’s crypts. See Glands. 
life. Power by which an organism exists 


and exercises its function, 
lig'a-ment A band of fibrous tissue bind¬ 
ing parts together. [hip=joint. 

lig-a-men'tum te'res. Round ligament in 
li-ga'tion. Operation of tying, as of an ar- 
lig'a-ture. Material used for tying, [tery. 
lime. Calcium oxid. 
lim'pid. Crystal; clear; transparent, 
line. Unit of length; twelfth of an inch, 
lin'e-a. A line or band. —1. alba. White 
line in middle of abdomen, 
lin'e-ar. Pertaining to linea or a line, 
lin'gual. Shaped like the tongue, 
lin'gu-la. A small lobe of the brain, 
lint'in. Trade=name for compressed ab¬ 
sorbent cotton. 

lip. One of the two fleshy folds surrounding 
orifice of the mouth; border of a wound, 
lip-o'ma. A fatty tumor, 
liq-ue-fac'tion. To render into liquid, 
liq'uid. A substance that flows, 
liq'uor. A liquid solution.— 1. am'ni-i. Fluid 
surrounding the fetus. —1. san'guin-is. 
Blood=plasm. [equal to 1.056 U. S. quarts, 
li'ter. .Unit of capacity in metric system, 
liv'er. Largest glandular organ of body, 
secreting bile. — fatty 1. One marked with 
fatty degeneration and infiltration. — 
floating 1. Movable liver. — hobnail 1. See 
Hobnaie Liver. [ashey hue. 

liv'id. Discolored from congestion, of an 
lo'bate. Having lobes, 
lobe. A rounded division of an organ, 
lob'u-lar. Like a lobe, 
lob'u-la-ted. Composed of lobes, 
lob'ule. A small lobe, 
lo'bus. Lobe. —1. cau-da'tus, -l.quad-ra'- 
tus, -1. Spi-ge'li-i. Small lobes of the liver, 
lo'cal-ized. Confined to a certain area, 
lock'jaw. Spasm of muscles of mastication, 
lo-co-mo'tor. Relating to locomotion. —1. 
a-tax'i-a. An incoordination of muscles 
of locomotion. 

lu'bri-cate. To cause to slip or glide easy, 
lu'bri-ca-tor. Making smooth or slippery, 
lum-ba'go. Rheumatic pain in loins. 
lunTbar. Pertaining to loins. [gan. 

lu'men (pi. -mi-na). Cavity of a tubular or- 
lung. One of two organs of respiration. 
—1. fever. Croupous pneumonia. —1. tissue. 
Tissue of the lungs. 

lu'nu-la. Semilunar area at root of nails, 
lymph. A colorless alkaline fluid of lym¬ 
phatics. — l.=cell. A lymph leucocyte, 
lym-phat'ic. Pertaining to lymph or lym- 



628 


CHAMPION TEXT;BOOK ON EMBALMING 


phatics. —1. circulation. That of the lym¬ 
phatics. — 1. duct. See Duct. -1. gland. 
See Gland. -1. system. System of lacteals 
and vessels which carry lymph.— 1 . vessel. 
A tube for collecting lymph, 
lym-phat'ics. Capillary tubes pervading 
the body and carrying lymph, 
lym'phoid. Having character of lymph, 
ly'sol. A disinfectant from cresol, a product 
of coal=tar* 

JW 

mac'er-ate. To reduce to a soft mass by 
soaking or digestion. [organism, 

mac-ro-coc'cus. A large unicellular micro= 
mac-ro-scop'ic. Invisible to the naked eye. 
mac'u-la. A spot or small patch, 
mac'u-lar. Pertaining to macula, 
mac'u-la-ted. Spotted. [ism. 

mag-net'ic. Possessing power of magnet- 
mag'net-ism. Power of a magnet to attract 
or repel other masses, 
mal'a-dy. An illness or disease, 
malar. Pertaining to clieek=bone. 
ma-la'ri-al. Pertaining to malaria. — m. 
fever. Periodic fever of malaria, 
ma-lig'nant. Virulent; fatal. — m. cholera. 
Asiatic cholera. — m. edema. Edematous 
anthrax. — m. pustule. A small circum¬ 
scribed, inflamed elevation of cuticle; pus¬ 
tular anthrax. — m. vesicle. See Anthrax. 
mal-le'o-lar. Pertaining to malleolus. 
mal-le'O-lus. A hammer=head=shaped pro¬ 
cess of bone one on either side of the 
ankle=joint. [tion. 

mal-nu-tri'tion. Poor or abnormal nutri- 
mal-o'dor-ous. Having a disagreeable 
smell; obnoxious. [stase in barley, 

malt'ose. Sugar derived from action of dia- 
mam'ma. The breast. 

mam'mal. An animal, the female of which 
has mammas. 

mam-mali-a. Animals that nourish their 
young by milk=secreting glands, 
tnam'ma-ry. Pertaining to mammas. — m. 
gland. The milk=secreting gland, 
mam-mil'la. A nipple. 
mam'mil-la-ted.Furnishedwithround=like 
protuberances or wart=like projections, 
man'di-ble. The lower jaw. 
man-dib'u-la. Pertaining to lower jaw. 
ma'ni-a. Delirium or madness. — m. a po'tu. 
See Delirium Tremens. [part, 

man'i-kin. A model of a human being or a 
ma-nu'bri-um First bone of sternum, 
ma'nus. The hand. 


ma-ras'mus. A wasting or emaciation, 
mar'gin-al. Pertaining to or at border of. 
mar'row. Fatty substance in cavity of long 
bones. [mastication, 

mas-se'ter. A strong facial muscle aiding 
mas-ti-ca'tion. Process of chewing, 
mas'toid. Shaped like a nipple. — m. pro¬ 
cess. At lower part of mastoid portion of 
ma-te'ri-al. See Matter, [temporal bone, 
ma-te'ri-es mor'bi. Specific causes of dis- 
ma-ter'nal. Pertaining to a mother, [eases, 
mat'ter. Physical substance; pus. 
ma-ture'. Ripe; fully developed, 
max-ilia. Bone of either jaw. 
max'il-la-ry. Pertaining to jaws, 
max'i-mum. The largest quantity, 
may'ol. A preservative compound, 
mea'sles. A contagious disease of children; 
rubeola. [tory or urethral meatus, 

me-a'tus. A passage; an opening, as audi- 
me-chan'ic-al. Pertaining to mechanics, 
me'di-an, me'di-al. Middle or mesial. — m. 
line. Middle line of body. — m. nerve. A 
branch of brachial plexus. [num. 

me-di-as-ti'nal. Pertaining to mediasti- 
me-di-as-ti'nmn. Septum of thoracic cav- 
me'di-ate. Indirect. [ity. 

me'di-um. That in which anything lives; 
surrounding conditions, 
me-dulla. Fatty substance or marrow in 
various cavities. — m. oblongata. En¬ 
larged portion of spinal cord in cranium, 
med'ul-la-ry. Pertaining to the medulla. 
—m. canal. Hollow interior of long bones. 
—m. membrane. The endostium. [eyelids. 
Mei-bo'mi-an glands. Glands in margins of 
mel-a-no'sis. An abnormal deposit of black 
matter in various parts of the body, 
mel-a-not'ic. About melanosis. [urine, 
mel-a-nu'ri-a. Presence of dark pigment in 
mel-as'ma. Any discoloration of skin. — m. 
suprarenalis. Ecchymosis of Addison’s 
mem'ber. Any limb of the body, [disease, 
mem-bra'na. A membrane. — m. tym'pa-na. 
The ear=drum. 

mem'brane. A thin enveloping or lining 
substance, —choroid m. Middle coat of 
eye. —arachnoid m. Middle covering of 
brain and cord, —false m. An unnatural 
membrane. — medullary m. That which 
lines cavities of long bones; endostium. 
—mucous m. That which lines the canals 
that have external openings, —sclerotic 
m. Outer coat of eye. —serous m. That 
which lines vessels and serous sacs. 







PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


629 


menTbra-nous. Like a membrane. —m. 
croup. Diphtheria. 

me-nin'ges. Covering of brain and cord, 
men-in-gi'tis. Inflammation of meninges, 
men'stru-um. A solvent, 
men'tal. Pertaining to mind, 
men'tum. The chin; under=jaw. 
mer-cu'ric. Pertaining to or containing 
mercury as a bivalent. — m. chlorid. Bi- 
chlorid of mercury; corrosive sublimate, 
mer'cu-ry. Hydrargyrum; a white, heavy 
liquid metal. 

mes-en-ter'ic. Pertaining to mesenteries, 
mes-en-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of mesen¬ 
teries. [small intestine, 

mes'en-ter-y. Peritoneal attachment of 
mes'o-blast. The mesoderm, which see. 
mes-o-ce'cum. Process of peritoneum at¬ 
tached to cecum. 

mes-o-co'lon. Mesentery of the colon, 
mes'o-derm. Middle germ=layer of the em¬ 
bryo. [tached to rectum, 

mes-o-rec'tum. Process of peritoneum at- 
met-ab'o-lism. Change in the intimate con¬ 
dition of cells, constructive or destructive, 
met-a-car'pal. Pertaining to metacarpus, 
met-a-car'pus. Bones of palm of hand, 
met-allic ir'rl-tants. Metals that produce 
irritation. — m. poisons. Metals that pro¬ 
duce poisonous effects. 

met-a-mor'pho-sis. A passing from one 
form or shape to another, 
met-a-tar'sal. Pertaining to metatarsus. 
me t-a-tar'sus. Bones of arch of foot, 
me'ter. Unit of measure of metric system, 
39.37 inches. 

meth'yl al'co-hol. Carbonal or wood spirit; 
colorless liquid distilled from wood, 
met'ric sys'tem. A system of weights and 
measures having the meter as its base, 
mi-as'ma. A noxious, morbific exhalation 
from putrescent matter; malaria, 
mi-as-mat'ic. Pertaining to miasma, 
mi'erobe. A microscopic organism; espe¬ 
cially a bacteria; a micro=organism. 
mi-cro'bic. Pertaining to microbe, 
mi-cro-coc'cus. Spherical micro=organism. 
mi'eron. One-millionth part of a meter. 
mi-cro=or'gan-ism. A minute living body, 
as a microbe or bacterium, 
mi'cro-scope. An instrument for examin¬ 
ing minute objects. [scope, 

mi-cro-scop'ic. Pertaining to the micro- 
mid'riff. The diaphragm, 
mi'gra-to-ry. Moving from one place to 


another. — m. cells. Cells that move from 
place to place. 

mil'i-a-ry. Like millet seed.— m. aneurism. 

Very small aneurism in arteries. — m. dis¬ 
ease. Disease of sweat=glands. — m. glands. 
Sweat=glands. 

milk. Secretion of mammary gland. — m. 
sugar. Sweet principle of milk; lactose. 
—m. teeth. Temporary or first teeth, 
milli-gram One=thousandthpartof agram. 
mil'li-li-ter. One=tliousandth part of a liter, 
mirii-me-ter. One=thousandth part of a 
meter. [pound found in nature, 

min'er-al. Any inorganic homogenous com- 
mis-car'riage. The expulsion of fetus be¬ 
fore natural time of delivery, 
mis'ci-ble. Capable of being mixed, 
mis'tu-ra. A liquid mixture; a potion, 
mi'tral. Miter=like. — m. valve. Left auric- 
ulo=ventricular valve of heart, 
mo'bile. Movable. 

mo-bil'i-ty . Property of being easily moved, 
mo'dus op-er-an'di. Mode of operating, 
molar. Pertaining to a mole or mass. — m. 
teeth. Back grinding teeth, [turn to dust, 
mold'er, mould'er. To decay gradually and 
mo-lec'u-lar. Pertaining to molecules. — m. 
death. Disintegration of a part. — m. vi¬ 
brations. The smaller vibrations, 
mol'e-cule. Smallest quantity of a sub¬ 
stance that may exist and preserve the 
characteristic qualities. [vis. 

mons Ven'er-is. Eminence on female pel- 
mor'bid. Pertaining to disease. — m. anat¬ 
omy. See Anatomy. 
mor-bific. Causing disease, 
mor'bus. A disease, as cholera morbus, 
morgue. A dead=house. 
mor'i-bund. Dying; in a dying state, fum. 
mor'phin.Principal narcotic alkaloid of opi- 
mor-phol'o-gy. Science of organic forms, 
mors. Death. 

mor'tal. Liable to death; deadly, [mortal, 
mor-tal'i-ty. Death=rate; state of being 
mor'tu-a-ry. Relating to the dead; morgue, 
mo'tile. Capable of spontaneous motion, 
mo'tor. Applied to muscles and nerves 
moving apart. — m. fiber. The fiber of 
motor nerves. — m. nerves. Those that 
move apart. — m. oculi. Third cranial 
nerve which supplies most of the muscles 
mo'to-ry. Pertaining to motor, [of the eye. 
mouth. Cavity at entrance of alimentary 
canal; an orifice, 
move'ments. Motion or action. 




630 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


mu'ein. An albuminoid constituent of mu¬ 
cus. [rimal sac. 

mu'co-cele. A mucus tumor; enlarged lac- 
mu'coid. Resembling mucus or mucous 
tissue. [cus and membrane, 

mu-co-mem'bra-nous. Composed of mu- 
mu-co'sa. A mucous membrane, 
mu'cous. Having nature of mucus. — m.= 
membrane. See Membrane, [membrane, 
mu'cus. Viscid liquid secretion of mucous 
mum-mi-fi-ca'tion. Desiccation of a tissue 
so that it resembles a mummy in color and 
mum'mi-fy. To make a m ummy of .[textu re. 
mum'my. The desiccated body; anciently 
embalmed body. — m.=cloth. The linen or 
cloth in which the mummy is enwrapped, 
mumps. An acute infectious disease of the 
mu'ral. Pertaining to wall, [parotid gland, 
mu-ri-at'ic acid. A mineral acid, 
mjir'mur, re-spir'a-to-ry. A low sound 
heard in auscultation of lungs. 
mus'Cle. Organic contractile tissue, the 
means of animal motion. — m.=corpuscles. 
Those in plasma. — m.^plasma. Liquid ex¬ 
pressed from fresh muscle, —striated m. 
Striped; under control of the will, 
mus'cu-lar. Pertaining to muscle. — m. coat. 
Middle coat of walls of arteries and veins. 
—m. fibers. Fibers comprising muscle. — 
m. sense. Sensation that accompanies 
muscular action. [cles and skin. 

mus-cu-lo-cu-ta'ne-ous.Pertainingtomus- 
mus-cu-lo-phren'ic. Pertaining to dia¬ 
phragm. [muscle and membrane, 

mus-cu-lo-mem'bra-nous. Composed of 
mus'cu-lus. A muscle, 
my-co'sis. Presence of parasitic fungi in 
body, as well as disease caused by them, 
my'el-in. Medullary sheath of a nerve, 
my-el-i'tis. Inflammation of spinal cord, 
my'el-oid. Marrow=like; medullary, 
my-i'tis. Inflammation of a muscle, 
my-o-car'di-um. Muscle mass of heart, 
my-o-de'mi-a. Fatty degeneration of mus- 
cle=tissue. [cle=fibers; sarcolemma. 

my-o-lem'ma.Thin membrane around mus- 
my'oid. Resembling muscular tissue, 
my'on. A hypothetical muscular unit; a 
my-on'o-sus. A disease of muscles, [muscle, 
my-op'a-thy. Any disease of a muscle, 
my-o-si'tis. Inflammation of muscle tissue, 
my'o-spasm. Spasmodic contraction of 
muscles. 

IN 

nail. Horny lamina at end of finger or toe. 


nape. Back part of neck, 
naph'tha. Crude petroleum, 
nar-cot'ic. A hypnotic allaying pain, 
na'res. Openings into nose, 
na'sal. Pertaining to nose. — n. duct. Tear= 
duct. — n. fossae. Nasal passages. — n.tube. 
A tube for injecting the respiratory tract, 
na'tal. Relating to the nates, 
na'tes. The buttocks; gluteal region of body, 
na'tri-um Sodium(fromwhichsymbolNa.). 
na'tron. Native sodium carbonate, 
nau'se-a. Sickness at stomach, 
nau'se-ous. Producing nausea; disgusting, 
na'vel. Depression or scar on abdomen 
where umbilical cord was attached; um¬ 
bilicus. 

na-vic'u-lar. Bone on upper row of carpus, 
neck. Part of body between head and trunk, 
nec-ro-bi-o'sis Molecular death of a part, 
nec'ro-sco-py. Scientific examination of a 
dead body; autopsy, [tification; gangrene, 
nec-ro'sis. Death of part of the body; mor- 
nec-rot'ic. Pertaining to necrosis, 
nee'dle. Pointed instrument for punctur¬ 
ing. — cardiac=n. Needle for pumping out 
blood from heart. — embalming=n. Needle 
for aspirating and injecting cavities. — 
n.=forceps. Forceps for pulling the needle 
in sewing. — hollow=n. See Embalming= 
Needle. —n. process. An operation for 
injecting fluid direct into cranial cavity, 
neph'ri-a. Bright’s disease, 
neph-ri'tis. Inflammation of kidneys, 
neph'roid. Kidney=like. 
nerve. A bundle of nerve=fibers outside the 
nervous system. — n.=cell. An irregular 
nucleated cell in nerve=matter. — n.=cen- 
ter. A group of nerve=cells. — n.=current. 
Current that passes through nerves that 
make impressions on brain. — n.=fiber. 
One of essential thread=like units com¬ 
posing a nerve. -n.=fibril. An extremely 
fine nerve=fiber. — n.=impulse. Impulse 
propagated along a stimulated nerve. — 
motor=n. One containing chiefly motor= 
fibers. — n. plexus. A group of nerves. — 
sympathetic n. One of system distributed 
to blood=vessels and viscera, —vasomotor 
n. A nerve controlling caliber of blood= 
vessels. 

nerv'ous. Pertaining to or full of nerves. 
— n. system. Nerves of the body taken to- 
neu'ral. Pertaining to nerves. [gether. 
neu-ri'tis. Inflammation of a nerve, 
neu-ral'gi-a. Pain in nerve. 






PR A CTICAL DICTIONAR 3 


631 


neu'tral. Possessing neither acid nor basic 
properties. [tive. 

neu'tral-ize. To render inactive or nega- 
ne'vus. A birth=mark. 
ni'dus. A nest; a cluster, 
nid'u-lus. Deep origin of a nerve, 
nip'ple. Conic elevation in center of mam* 
mary gland. 

ni'ter. Saltpeter; nitrate of potash, 
ni'tric acid. A mineral acid, 
ni'trate. A salt of nitric acid, 
ni'trite. A salt of nitrous acid, 
ni'tro-gen. A colorless, non=metallic, gas¬ 
eous element; a main constituent of air. 
ni-trog'e-nous. Containing nitrogen, 
node. A hard swelling on a tendon or bone* 
nod'ule. A small knob or excrescence. 
non=med'ul-la-ted. Notmedullated; unpro¬ 
vided with medullary sheath. 
non=stri'a-tsd. Not stri ped. [ease=producing. 
non=path-o-gen'ic. Not pathogenic; notdis- 
non=vas'cu-lar. Not vascular. — n. tissue. 
Tissue without blood=vessels. 
nor'mal. According to rule or type, 
nose. The organ of smell, 
nos-ol'o-gy. The science of disease, 
nos'tril. A naris. 
nos-tal'gi-a. Home=sickness. 
notch. An indention; a hollow. — in-ter- 
ver'te-bral n. Any one of depressions of 
vertebral pedicles, 
noxious. Harmful; poisonous, 
noz'zle. Projecting spout for discharging, 
nu'cle-ate. Having nuclei, 
nu'cle-a-ted cells. Cells with nuclei, 
nu'cle-in. Nitrogenous constituent of cell= 
nuclei. [nucleus, 

nu-cle'o-lus. A small granule in interior of 
nu'cle-us (pi.- cle-i). Essential part of atyp¬ 
ical cell and controlling center of its acti- 
nu-tri'tious. Yielding nourishment, [vity. 
nu'tri-ent. A nutritious substance. — n. ves¬ 
sels. Those that carry nutrition, 
nu'tri-ment. Anything that nourishes, 
nu-tri'tion. Process of assimilating food. 

O 

ob-cor'date. Heart-shaped, 
ob-duc'tion. A post-mortem examination, 
o-bese'. Extremely fat; corpulent, 
o-bes'i-ty. Fatness; corpulency, 
o-bit'u-a-ry. Pertaining to death, 
ob-lique'. Slanting, as a muscle, 
ob-lit-er-a'tion. Extinction; blotting out. 
ob-lon-ga'ta. The medulla oblongata. 


ob-stet/rics. Science of care of women dur¬ 
ing pregnancy and child=birth. 
ob-struct'. To close up or interfere. [ing. 
ob-struc'tion. Blocking of a canal or open- 
ob'tu-ra-tor. Thatwhich obstructs a cavity. 
OC-cip'i-tal. Pertaining to the occiput. 
OC'ci-put. Lower back part of the head, 
oc-clude'. To block up or close, 
oc-clu'sion. Blocking up of an opening or 
canal, as of a vessel, 
oc-cult'. Hidden; secret. 

OC'u-lar. Pertaining to the eyes. [ments. 
oc-u-lo-mo'tion. Pertaining to eye=move- 
oc'u-lus. The eye. 

o-don'toid. Resembling a tooth. — o. proc¬ 
ess. Tooth=like process of axis, 
o'dor. A scent, smell, or perfume, 
o'dor-ant. Odorous, 
o-dor-ifer-ous. Yielding an odor, 
o'dor-less. Without odor, 
oil. A greasy liquid not miscible with water, 
composed of glyceryl and fatty acid. —o. 
of cedar. A volatile oil from the leaves of 
Juniperus Virginiana used as an antisep¬ 
tic. —o. of lavender. Volatile oil from 
lavender flowers. — o. of turpentine. Spir¬ 
its of turpentine; a volatile oil from the 
concrete oleorism of pinus palustris and 
other species. — o. of vitriol. Sulphuric 
acid. [boiled oil. 

oiled silk. Silk made water=proof with 
oils, es-sen'tial. Volatile oils distilled from 
different odoriferous vegetable substances, 
o-le-ag'i-nous. Having nature of oil. [base, 
o'le-ate. A compound of oleic acid and a 
o-le-cra'non. Large process forming head 
of ulna. [illuminating gas. 

o-le'fl-ant gas. Ethylene; a constituent of 
o'le-in. A colorless, oily compound, the 
chief constituent of fatty oils, 
o'le-um. See Oil. 
ol-fac'tion. The sense of smell, 
ol-fac'to-ry. Pertaining to olfaction. — o. 
bulb. Bulbous section of olfactory nerve, 
—o. center. Brain=center governing sense 
of smell, —o. nerve. Nerve of smell. 
O-li'va. Olivary body of brain, 
ol'iv-a-ry body. The oliva, situated behind 
anterior pyramid of the oblongata, 
o-men'tal. Pertaining to the omentum, 
o -men-ti'tis. Inflammation of omentum. 
0 -men'tum. A fold of peritoneum connect¬ 
ing abdominal viscera with stomach. — 
great o. Fold falling from great curvature 
of stomach over intestines and returning 




632 


CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK ON EMBALMING 


to be attached to transverse colon, —les¬ 
ser 0. Double fold passing from lesser curv¬ 
ature of stomach to transverse fissure of 
ooze. To transude. [liver. 

O-paque'. Not transparent; impervious to 
light. [tion. 

op'er-a-tor. One that performs an opera- 
oph-thalTni-a. Inflammation of conjunc- 
oph-thal'mic. Pertaining to the eye. Ltiva. 
o'pi-ate. Pertaining to opium; an opium 
preparation. 

o'pi-fim. Inspissated juice of poppy, 
op-o-bal'sam. Balsam of Mecca, 
op'tic. Pertaining to vision or its organs, 
op'ti-cal. Pertaining to optics, 
or-bic'u-lar. Circular; spheric, 
or'bit. Bony cavity for eyeball, [function, 
or'gan. Any part of body having a special 
or-gan'ic. Pertaining to or having organs, 
or'gan-ism. A living organized being, 
o-ri-en-ta'tion. The location of one’s posi¬ 
tion in a given environment, 
or'i-gin. The beginning or source. — 0. of a 
muscle. The beginning or source; the fixed 
attachment of a muscle. [combined, 

o-ro-phar'ynx. The mouth and pharynx 
os (pi. o'ra). A mouth, 
os (pi. os'sa). A bone. — o. calcis. The heel= 
bone, calcaneum. —o. innominatum. The 
hip=bone. —o. hyoides. The ischium. — o. 
pubis. The pubis. [branes. 

os'mose. Diffusion of fluids through mem- 
os-mot'ic. Pertaining to osmosis, 
os'sa. Plural of os. 
os'se-ous. Bony; resembling bone. 
OS'si-cles. The small bones of the ear. 
OS-sif'iC. Generating bone, 
os-si-fi-ca'tion. The formation of bone, 
os'si-fy. To change into bone, 
os-tal'gi-a. Pain in bone, 
os'te-in. The gelatinous principle of bone, 
os-te-i'tis. Inflammation of the bone, 
os-te-og'e-ny. Development and formation 
os'te-on. Bone. [of bone, 

os-te-o-ne-cro'sis. Necrosis of bone, 
os-te-ot'o-my. Incision of bone, 
os'ti-um. Mouth of a tubular passage, 
o'to-liths. Ear=stones. 
o-tos'te-on. An ear=stone; otolith, 
ounce. Twelfth part of troy and sixteenth 
of avoirdupois pounds, 
o-va'ri-an. Pertaining to ovaries. — o. drop¬ 
sy. Dropsy of ovary. —o. tumor. A tumor 
of ovary. [producing the ova. 

o'va-ry. Organ of generation in female 


ov'en. An apparatus for sterilization, 
o'vi-ducts. Small tube on each side of 
o'void. Egg=shaped. [utero. 

o'vule. The unimpregnated ovum, 
o'vum (pi. o'va). Egg. [ous compound, 
ox-al'ic acid. A white, crystalline, poison- 
ox'id. Any binary combination of oxygen, 
ox-i-da'tion. Conversion into an oxygen, 
ox'y-gen. One of the gaseous elements. 
ox _y.gen-a'tion. Saturation with oxygen, 
o'zone. An allatropie form of oxygen used 
as an antiseptic and oxidizing agent. 

P 

pab'u-lum. Food; anything nutritious, 
pach-e'mi-a. Thickening of the blood, 
pal'ate. Roof of the mouth and floor of 
nose. — p. bone. Bone helping form outer 
wall of nose, roof of mouth, and floor of 
orbits, —hard p. Bony palate adjacent to 
gums, —soft p. Soft posterior part of 
pale. Wanting in color; pallid. [palate, 
pal'li-ate. To mitigate; to relieve. 

1 pallid. Paleness; lacking color, 
palm. Inner side of hand, 
pal'mar. Pertaining to palm. — p. arch. Ar¬ 
terial arch in palm. [stance of fat. 

pal'mit-in. The solid, crystallizable sub- 
pal'pa-ble. That which may be perceived 
by palpitation. 

pal'pate. To explore with the hand, 
pal-pa'tion. Exploration with the hand, 
pal-pi-ta'tion. Violent pulsation, as of 
heart. [sation. 

pal'sy. Paralysis; weakening or loss of sen- 
pan'cre-as. A racemose gland in abdomen; 
sweetbread. 

pan-cre-at'ic. Pertaining to the pancreas. 
— p juice. Fluid secreted by pancreas. — p. 
duct. The canal that conveys the pancre¬ 
atic juice to the intestines, [pieor pustule, 
pa-pil'la. A small conic eminence; a pim- 
pap'il-la-ry. Pertaining to tongue; having 
papillas. — p. layer. External layer of true 
pap'u-la. Small elevation of the skin. [skin, 
par'af-fin. A white waxy crystalline sub¬ 
stance. [tary motion, 

par-al'y-sis. Loss of sensation or volun- 
par-a-ple'gi-a. Paralysis of lower half of 
body. [other organism, 

par'a-site. An organism that inhabits an- 
par-a-sit'ic. Having nature of a parasite, 
par-en'chy-ma. Soft cellular tissue; con¬ 
nective tissue. [but not sensation, 

par'e-sis. Partial paralysis affecting motion 


















PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


633*. 


par-es-the'si-a. Same as Paresis. 
pa-ri'e-tal. Pertaining to a wall. [ity. 
pa-ri'e-tes (pi. of pa'ri-es). Walls of a cav- 
par-ot'id. Near the ear. -p. gland. Sali¬ 
vary gland in front of ear. [mumps, 

par-o-ti'tis. Inflammation of parotidgland; 
par'ox-ysm. Period of increase or crisis of 
a disease. 

par-tu-ri'tion. Actof giving birth to young, 
pas'sage. A channel; act of passing from 
one place to another, 
pas'sive. Not active; submissive, 
pas'til, pas-tille'. Tablet or lozenge; having 
a round, oblong,square,or triangular form, 
patch. An irregular spot or area, 
pa-tel'la. The knee=cap. 
path'o-gene. A bacterium or microscopic 
organism found in infectious disease, 
which is supposed to cause it. 
path-o-gen'ic. Causing disease. — p. bac¬ 
teria. One that causes disease, 
path-o-log'i-cal. Pertaining to pathology, 
pa-thol'o-gy. The science of disease, 
pa'tient. Sick person; one under treatment, 
pec-ti-ne'al. Pertaining to pubic bones, 
pec'to-ral. Pertaining to the breast, 
ped'al. Pertaining to the feet, 
ped'i-cle. Stalk or attachment of a tumor, 
ped-un'cle. The supporting part, 
pel'vic. Pertaining to pelvis. — p. cavity. 
Basin=like cavity at lower end of trunk, 
pel'vis. Bony basin of the trunk, 
pen'du-lous. Hanging or dropping, 
pen'e-trate. To enter beyond the surface, 
pen'ni-form. Shaped like a feather, 
pep'sin. Digestive principle of gastric j nice, 
pep'tic. Pertaining to or promotive of di¬ 
gestion. — p. gland. Gland that secretes 
gastric juice. 

pep'tone. An albuminoid produced by ac¬ 
tion of pepsin. 

per'co-late. (1) To filter; strain. (2) That 
which has percolated, 
per-co-la'tion. The process of filtration, 
per'co-la-tor. A filterer. 
per'fo-rans. Penetrating;perforating; deep 
flex or muscles of the fingers, 
per'fo-rate. To pierce with holes. 
perTo-ra-ting. Making an opening or pene¬ 
tration. — p. arteries. Those passing 
through interosseous spaces or muscles, 
per-fo-ra'tion. An opening or penetration, 
per-i-ar-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of outer 
sheath of arteries. [nucleus, 

per'i-blast. Protoplasm around the cell 


per-i-car'di-al (or ac). Pertaining to peri¬ 
cardium. — p. sac. Sac enclosing heart, 
per-i-car-di'tis. Inflammation of pericar¬ 
dium. [ing heart, 

per-i-car'di-um. Serous membrane enclos- 
per-i-chon'dri-um.Membrane around carti- 
per-i-cra'ni-um. Periosteum of skull, [lage. 
per-i-mys'i-uin. Membranous sheath of 
muscles. Tan us to genitals, 

per-i-ne'um. Space between thighs from 
pe'ri-od. An interval of time. [um. 

per-i-os-ti'tis. Inflammation of perioste- 
per-i-os'te-um. Fibrovascular membrane 
that covers and nourishes bone, 
per-i-o'tlc. Surrounding the inner ear. 
per-iph'er-al. Pertaining to periphery. —p. 
circulation. Circulation in outer surface 
of body. [line, 

per-iph'er-y. Circumference or boundary 
per-i-phle-bi'tis. Inflammation of outer 
coat of a vein. 

per'i-plast. Matrix of a part or organ, 
per-i-stal'sis. Worm=like motion of boweis. 
per-i-stal'tic. Pertaining to peristalsis. — p. 
movement. Same as peristalsis, 
per-is-tro'ma. Villous coat of intestines, 
per-i-sys'to-le. Interval between systole 
and diastole. 

per-i-to-ne'al. Pertaining to peritoneum. 
—p. cavity. Cavity within peritoneum. 
—p. sac. Serous sac in abdominal cavity, 
per-i-to-ne'um. Serous membrane lining 
the abdomen. . [neum. 

per-i-to-ni'tis. Inflammation of perito- 
per-i-vas'cu-lar. Around the vessels, 
per-o-ne'al. Pertaining to fibula, 
per-o-ne'um. The fibula. [oxygen, 

per-ox'id. Anoxid with highest amount of 
per-spi-ra'tion. (1) Secretion and excre¬ 
tion of liquid from skin; sweating. (2). 
The liquid fluid so secreted; sweat, 
pe-tech'i-ae. Small spots of ecchymosis be¬ 
neath the epidermis. 

pet'rous. Resembling bone. — p. bone. 
Lower portion of temporal bone, 
pha-lan'ges (pi. of pha'lanx). Bones of fin¬ 
gers and toes. [the mouth. 

phaPynx. Musculomembranous sac behind 
phe'nol. Carbonic acid, 
phe-nom'en-on. (1) Uncommon occurrence. 
(2) A symptom. [a vein, 

phleb-i'tis Inflammation of inner coat of 
phlegm. (1) Watery humor. (2) Mucus, 
from bronchi. 

phos'phate. A salt of phosphoric acid. 



634 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


phos'pho-rus. A non=metal, one of the ele¬ 
ments in bone and. nerve=tissue. 
phthi'sis. Pulmonary tuberculosis, [purge, 
phys'ic Science of medicine; medicine; a 
phys'ic-al. Pertaining to physics or the 

body. [ ol °gy- 

phys-i-o-log'i-cal. Pertaining to physi- 
phys-i-ol'o-gy . The science of the functions 
of the body, [ing the brain and spinal cord, 
pi'ama'ter. Innermost membrane invest- 
pic'ro-mel. A bitter substance in the bile, 
pig'ment. An organic coloring=matter. 
pig'men-ta-ry. Pertaining to pigment, 
pi'la-ry. Pertaining to the hair, 
pillar of the fau'ces. One of the mucous 
folds on each side of the throat. [randi. 
pi-lo-car'pin. Active principal in jabo- 
pi'lose (or pilous). Hairy; covered with 
pilus. A hair. [soft hairs, 

pim'ple. A small pustule or blotch, 
pin'e-al. Shaped like a pine=cone. — p. 
body or gland. The small, reddish, vascu¬ 
lar body in back part of the third ven- 
pi'ni-form. Conical. [tricle. 

pint. Eighth part of a gallon; weight, 7,000 
grains. [carpus, 

pi'si-form bone. A small circular bone of 
pit of the stom'ach. The part of the abdo¬ 
men just below the sternum, 
pit'u-i-ta-ry. Secreting mucus; pertaining 
to phlegm, -p. body or gland. A small 
reddish body in sella turcica, 
pla-cen'ta. The flat-round, spongy body 
forming organ of intuition for fetus; after- 
pla-cen'tal. Pertaining to placenta, [birth, 
plague. A contagious malignant epidemic 
plan'ta. The sole of the foot. [disease, 
plan'tar. Pertaining to sole of foot. — p. 
arch. Arterial arch in sole of foot, 
plas'ma. Fluid part of blood and lymph, 
pledg'et. A small wad of cotton or lymph, 
pleth'o-ra. Abnormal fullness of blood= 
vessels. [the lungs, 

pleu'ra. A serous membrane enveloping 
pleu'ral. Pertaining to pleura. —p. sacs. 
Pleurae. — p. cavities. Cavities of pleurae, 
pleu'ri-sy, pleu-ri'tis. Inflammation of the 
pleu-rit'ic. Pertaining to pleurisy, [pleura, 
plex'us. A network of nerves and veins, 
pneu-mauic. Pertaining to gaseous fluids, 
pneu-mo-gas'tric. Pertaining to lungs and 
stomach. 

pneu-mo'ni-a. Inflammation of lungs, 
pneu-mo-per-i-car-di'tis. Inflammation of 
pericardium attended with gas. 


pneu-mo-per-i-car'di-um. An effusion of 

gas into pericardial sac. 

pneu-mo-tho'rax. Gas or air in pleural sac. 
pock. A small pustule of smallpox. — p. 
marked. Marked with pits or scars of 
smallpox. 

poi'son. A venomous or toxic agent, 
pol'lex (pi. -li-ces . The thumb or great toe. 
pol-lu'tion. Defilement; uncleanness, 
pol-y-he'mi-a. Abnormal increase of blood, 
po'mum Ad-a'mi. A prominence in front of 
neck, due to thyroid cartilage; Adam’s 
apple. 

pons. A process or bridge of tissue connect¬ 
ing two parts. —p. va-ro'li-i. Connecting 
brain with spinal cord. 

pop-li-te'al. Pertaining to the ham. — p. 
space. Space behind knee=joint. [joint, 
pop-li-te'us. Ham or hinder=part of knee= 
pore. A small opening in skin, 
por'ta. A gate; the hilus of an organ, 
por'tal. Pertaining to portal vein. — p. cir¬ 
culation. See page 188 body of book. — p. 
vein. Vein carrying blood from liver, 
pos-te'ri-or. Behind. — p. nares. Opening 
of nose into larynx. 

post=mor'tem. After death. —p. contrac¬ 
tion. Contraction of arteries after death. 
—p. discoloration. The color resulting 
from settling of blood into dependent 
parts. — p. examination. Examination of 
body after death; autopsy. - p. rigidity. 
Rigor mortis. — p. staining. Staining due 
to transuded hemoglobin near surface or 
in skin. 

pot'ash. A white solid deliquescent com¬ 
pound having a strong alkaline reaction 
and actively caustic. [ment. 

po-tas'si-um. A bluish=white metallic ele- 
po-to-ma'ni-a. Same as Dipsomania. 
pouch. A sac=like part, 
pound. A variable unit of weight or mass. 
Pou'part’s ligament. A thickened band of 
fascia that extends from upper anterior 
part of hip=bone over the vessel of thigh 
to pubis. 

pre-cip'i-tant. Any agent, as a reagent, 
that when added to a solution causes a 
precipitation of one or more constituents, 
pre-cip'i-tate. A substance separated by 
precipitation. 

pre-cor'di-a. Epigastric region, including 
the thoracic organs in front of the heart, 
pre-cor'di-al. Pertaining to the precordia. 
I pre-dis-po-si'tion. A natural tendency. 















PR A CTTCAL DICTIONARY 


635 


preg'nan-cy. Condition of being with child, 
pre-hen'sile. Fitted for grasping, 
pre-hen'sion. The act of grasping, 
pre-ma-ture'. Occurring before the proper 
time. - p. burial. Burial before life is ex¬ 
tinct. [being preserved, 

pres-er-va'tion. Act of preserving; state of 
pre-serv'a-tive. Tending to keep from de¬ 
cay. — p. solution. A solution for preser- 
pre-vent'ive. Warding off. [vation. 

pri'ma-ry. First in origin. — p. arteries. 
The larger or first in their course, 
prin'ceps. A main artery. [anything, 

prin'ci-ple. Essence or primary quality of 
proc'ess. A prolongation or prominence of 
a part, —coracoid p. A beak=shaped proc¬ 
ess of the scapula. 

pro-cre-a'tion. Reproduction; generation, 
pro-fun'da. A deep=seated artery, 
prog-no'sis. Prediction of course and end 
of disease. [part, 

pro-lapse', pro-lap'sus. A falling down of a 
pro-lif-er-a'tion.Cell=generation; reproduc- 
prop-a-ga'tion. Act of multiplying, [tion. 
proper soil. A soil that will produce, 
pro-phy-lac'tic. Pertaining to prophylaxis, 
pro-phy-lax'is. Prevention of disease, 
pros'tate gland. A gland at neck of bladder 
in the male. [an organ, 

pro'te-id. An albuminoid constituent of 
pro'te-in. A compound obtained from pro- 
teids. [proteids. 

pro-te-o-lyt'ic. Causing the splitting up of 
pro'to-plasm, pro-to-plas'ma. The viscid, 
contractile, semi=liquid substance, form¬ 
ing principle portion of animal and veg¬ 
etable cells; germinal matter.[protoplasm. 
pro-to-plas'mic. Of or pertaining to or like 
pro'to-plast. Embryonic cell; protoplasm, 
pro-trude'. To push out or extend forth, 
pro-tu'ber-ance. A projecting part; prom¬ 
inence. 

prox'i-mate (or prox'i-mal). Nearest. — p. 
principle. An ultimate element of a com¬ 
pound substance. [juice. 

prune=juice spu'tum. The color of prune 
prus'sic acid. Hydrocyanic acid, 
pso'as. Loins; a muscle of the loins, 
pter'y-goid. Resembling a wing. -p. proc¬ 
ess. Wing=like process on each side of 
sphenoid bone. 1 

pter-y-go-pal'a-tine. Pertaining to ptery¬ 
goid process and palate bone, 
pto'ma-in. A putrefactive animal alkaloid, 
pty'a-lin. An amylolitic ferment of saliva. 


pty'a-lism. Excessive secretion of saliva, 
pu'ber-ty. Age of capability of reproduc¬ 
tion. [bone, 

pu'bes. Anterior portion of innominate 
pu'bic. Pertaining to pubes. — p. arch. 
Arch formed by junction of pubic bones, 
pu'bis. A pubic bone, 
pu'dic. Pertaining to the genitals, 
pu-er'per-al. Pertaining to child=bearing. 
—p. fever. Child=bed fever, 
pul'mo-na-ry. Pertaining to the lungs. — 
p. circulation. Purifying circulation of 
blood. — p. tuberculosis. Consumption of 
pul-mon'ic. Pertaining to lungs. [lungs, 
pul-mo-ni'tis. Inflammation of lungs.[tion. 
pul-sa'tion. A beating or throbbing sensa- 
pulse. Expansive impulse of arteries. — p. 
beat. Same as Pulse. — p. rate. Number 
of beats per minute. [strument. 

punc'ture. A wound made by a pointed in- 
pun'gent. Acrid; penetrating, 
pu'pil Round aperture in the iris, 
purge. To purify or cleanse by carrying 
off through external opening of body, 
purg'ing. Act of purifying or cleansing, 
pu'ri-form. Having the nature of pus. 
pur'pu-ra. Hemorrhages in true skin, 
pu'ru-lent- Having the character of pus. 
pus. Fluid product of suppuration, 
pus'tu-lant. Causing pustules; an irritant 
that causes pustules, 
pus'tule. A small purulent papule, 
pu-tre-fac'tion. Act or process of putrefy¬ 
ing; decomposition of animal or vegetable 
matter. 

pu-tre-fac'tive. Of or pertaining to putre¬ 
faction; liable to decay; production of 
putrefaction. — p. bacteria. The miero= 
organisms which cause putrefaction, 
pu'tre-fy. To cause to decompose or decay 
with fetid odor, render putrid; to become 
fetid from decay; rot. [to decay, 

pu-tres'cent. Becoming putrid; beginning 
pu-tres'ci-ble. Liable to decay, 
pu'trid. Showing putrefaction; rotten; be¬ 
ing in a state of putrefaction, 
pu-trid'i-ty. That which has become pu¬ 
trid; corruption. 

py-e'mi-a Poisonous infection of the blood, 
due to absorption of vitiated pus or putrid 
animal secretions into the circulation; 
blood=poisoning. 

py-lor'ic. Pertaining to pylorus. — p. ori¬ 
fice. The pylorus. — p. valve. Valve closing 
pyloric opening. 



636 


CHAMPION TEXPBOOK ON EMBALMING 


py-lo'rus. Opening between stomach and 
small intestine; adjoining portion of 
stomach. [tained in pus. 

py-o-cy'a-nin. Blue or violet pigment con- 
py'oid. Resembling pus. 
py-o'sis. Suppuration. [gan. 

pyr'a-mid. Any conical eminence of an or- 
py-ret'ic. Affected with or relating to fever, 
py-rex'i-a. Abnormal condition of high 
bodily temperature; fever or feverishness; 
a paroxysm of fever, 
pyr'i-form. Pear=shaped. 
py-ro'sis. Chronic catarrh of the stomach, 
py-u'ri-a. Passing of urine containing pus. 

Q 

quack. One who practices quackery, 
quack'er-y. Medical charlatanism, 
quad'rate. Square. — q. lobule. A small 

lobe of liver. 

quad-ra'tus. Square or four=sided. 
quad'ri-ceps muscle. A large muscle of the 
quart. Fourth part of a gallon. [thigh. 

R 

rabid. Affected with rabies or hydrophobia, 
rac'e-mose. Resembling a bunch of grapes. 
—r. glands. Glands resembling bunches of 
grapes in structure, 
ra'di-al. Pertaining to the radius, 
ra'di-a-ting. Diverging from the center, 
ra-di-a'tion. Condition of diverging from a 
rad'i-cal. Belonging to the root. [center, 
rad'i-cle. Primary root or stem; initial 
fibril of a nerve; beginning of a vein, 
ra'di-us. Small bone of arm. 
ra'dix. Root or root=lilce part, 
rag sort'ers’ disease. Anthrax. [a part, 
ram-i-fi-ca'tion. Branching of an organ or 
ram'i-fy. Branch=shaped; to divide and 
subdivide into branches or subdivisions, 
ra'mose. Having many branches; branch- 
ra'mus. A branch of an organ. [ing. 

ran'cid. Fetid or sour, as fat. 
rash. An eruption of the skin. [acid, 

rats'bane. Common name for arsenious 
re-ac'tion. Responsive action; the action 
of a reagent. 

re-a'gent. Anything producing a reaction, 
re-cep-tac'u-lum. A receiving vesicle or 
cavity. — r. chyli. Inferior expanded por¬ 
tion of chyle duct. [R. Take, 

rec'i-pe. The caption of a prescription, 
rec'tal. Pertaining to the rectum, 
rec'tum. Lower part of the large intestine. 


rec'tus. In a straight line; name of certain 
muscles. — r. muscle. A muscle that ele¬ 
vates or turns a part. 

re-cum'bent. Reclining. [to health, 

re-cu-per-a'tion. Convalescence; returning 
re-cur'rence. A return, 
te-cur'rent. Returning at intervals, 
re-duce'. To decompose. [tion. 

re-duclion. Restoration to a normal situa- 
re-du'pli-cate. To repeat again and again; 
re-fine'. To make fine or pure, [to multiply, 
re'flex. Turned or thrown back; pertaining 
to or produced by reflex action. — r. action. 
An involuntary action from nerve=stimu- 
re'flux. Flowing back; returning. [lus. 
reins. The kidney or region of kidney, 
re'gion. A certain part or division of body, 
re'gions of the ab-do'men. See Text. 
re'gion-al. Pertaining to a region. — r. anat¬ 
omy. Study of correlated regions of body, 
re-gur'gi-tate. To throw or pour back; 
cause to surge back. [slacken, 

re-lax'. To make loose; to become loose; 
re-lax-a'tion. Morbid looseness of an organ 
or part. [disease, 

rem'e-dy. An agent used in treatment of 
re'nal. Pertaining to the kidneys, 
ren'i-form. Shaped like a kidney, 
ren'in. A substance found in the kidney, 
ren'net. An infusion of the inner coat of a 
calf’s stomach. 

ren'nin. A gastric ferment curdling milk, 
ren'o-vate. To make as good as new; to 
make thoroughly clean; purify, 
re-ple'tion. Condition of being full, 
re-pro-duce'. To bring forth offspring, 
res'er-voir. A receptacle for liquids. — r. of 
the thymus. A receptacle in thymus gland, 
res-pi-ra'tion. Inspiration and expiration 
of air by the lungs. 

re-spir'a-to-ry. Pertaining to respiration. 
—r. organs. The lungs and certain mus¬ 
cles: — r. tract. The passage from mouth 
and nose to air=cells. 
res'ti-form. Rope=like; twisted, 
re-stor'a-tive. A remedy restoring health 
and strength. [phyxiated person, 

re-sus-ci-ta'tion. Bringing to life of an as- 
retch. To strain at vomiting. [growth, 
re-tar-da'tion. Delay in development or 
re'te. A network or decussation. — r. mu- 
cosum. A thin layer on under side of epi¬ 
dermis containing coloring=matter. 
re-tic'u-lar. In the form of network; full 
of interstices. — r. tissue. Adenoid tissue. 










PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


637 


re-tic'u-late. Network=like. 
re'ti-form. Net=shaped. [optic nerve, 

retl-na. Internal coat of eye; expansion of 
ret-i-nac'u-lum. Band holding back a part, 
ret'i-nal. Pertaining to retina. [ward, 
re-tract'ile. Capable of being drawn back- 
re-trac'tion. Shortening; drawing back¬ 
ward. 

re'tro-. A prefix meaning backward or be¬ 
hind. [ward, 

re-tro-flec'tion. A bending or flexing back- 
ret'ro-grade. Receding or going backward, 
rham'nose. A carbohydrate from various 
glucosids. 

rhi'nal. Pertaining to or belonging to nose, 
rib. One of the bones enclosing the chest, 
—false r. One of the five lower ribs not 
attached directly to sternum, —floating r. 
One of last two ribs, —true r. One of the 
seven upper ribs attached to sternum. 
rice=wat'er e-vac-u-a'tions. Stools having 
the appearance of rice=water. 
rigid. Stiff ; immobile, 
ri-gid'i-ty. Stiffness; immobility, 
rig'or. Coldness; stiffness; rigidity. — r. 
mortis. The rigidity after death, 
ring. A circular opening. 
rod=bac-te'ri-a. Bacteria shaped like rods, 
rods. Rod=like bodies of the retina. 
Roent'genrays. A recently discovered form 
of radiant energy that is sent out when 
the cathode rays of a Crooke’s tube strike 
upon the opposite walls of the tube or 
upon any object in the tube; discovered 
by Prof. Roentgen, of Wurzburg, 
roller band'age. A long muslin or flannel 
strip for bandaging. 

root. Base of an organ or its place of origin, 
ros'trum. A projection or ridge, 
rot. Decay; decomposition, 
ro'ta-ry. Turning, 
ro-ta'tion. Turning on the axis, 
ro-ta'tor. A muscle turning a part, 
round lig-a-ment. See Ligament. 
ru-be'o-la. Measles. 

ru-di-men'ta-ry. Undeveloped; not formed, 
rump. End of backbone; the buttocks. 


sab'u-lous. Gritty, li ke sand, said especially 
of particles found in pineal body and ad¬ 
jacent regions of the brain; sandy, said of 
an abnormal sediment in urine, 
sa-bur'ra. Foul uses of the stomach, 
sa-bur'ral. Pertaining to saburra. 


sac. A membranous pouch. [pouch, 

sac'cate. Sac=shaped; having a sac, bag, or 
sac'cha-roid. Resembling sugar, 
sac'cha-rose. Cane sugar, 
sac'cu-la-ted. Formed into a series of sac= 
like expansions; dilated and restricted al¬ 
ternately; encysted. [sacrum, 

sa'cral. Pertaining to or situated near the 
sa'cra me'di-a. Middle sacral artery, 
sa'crum. Large triangular bone above the 
coccyx. [saw=like seam, 

sag'it-tal. Arrow=shaped. — s. suture. A 
sal. Balt. 

sal'ic-yl-ate. A salt of salicylic acid, 
saline. Salty; containing salt, 
sa-li'va. Secretion of salivary glands, 
sail-va-ry. Pertaining to saliva. — s. glands. 
Glands that secrete saliva. — s. ducts. Ca¬ 
nals that convey saliva to mouth, 
sal-i-va'tion. An excessive flow of saliva, 
salt. (1) Any union of a base with an acid; 
(2) Chlorid of sodium, 
salt-pe'ter. Potassium nitrate; nitre, 
salve. An ointment. [from chyle, 

san-gui-fi-ca'tion. Formation of blood 
san'guine. Bloody; hopeful; cheerful, 
sanl-ta-ry. Pertaining to health. — s. sci¬ 
ence. Science of cleansing and making 
healthy. 

san-i-ta'tion. Act of making healthy 
sa-phe'na. A name given to two large veins 
of the leg. 

sa-phe'nous. Pertaining to saphena. 
sa-pon-i-fi-Ca'tion. A conversion into soap, 
sap-ro-gen'ic. Pus=forming. [ter. 

sap-rog'e-nous. Arising in decaying mat- 
sap'ro-pliyte. A plant deriving its sub¬ 
stance from dead organic matter, 
sap-ro-phyt'ic. Pertaining to a saprophyte, 
sar-co-lem'ma. A delicate membrane sur¬ 
rounding muscle fiber, [connective tissue, 
sar-co'ma. A tumor of modified embryonic 
sar-to'ri-us. The longest muscle in body; 
tailor’s muscle that aids in flexing knee, 
sat'el-lite Vein accompanying an artery, 
sat'u-rate. To fill to excess, 
sat-u-ra'tion. Condition of holding in solu¬ 
tion of a solid capable of being contained, 
scab. Crust formed over a wound or ulcer, 
sca'bi-es. The itch; a contagious, parasitic 
skin=disease. 

scale. A small lamina of detached cuticle 
or bone. 

sca-le'nus. A muscle of the neck, 
scalp. Integument covering cranium. 



638 


CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 


scaph'oid. Boat=shaped; hollowed out. — 
s. bone. A bone of carpus and tarsus. 
scap'U-la. A large flat triangular bone of 
shoulder. [ease with scarlet eruption, 
scar-la-ti'na. An epidemic contagious dis- 
scar'let fever. Same as Scarlatina. 
Scar'pa’s triangle. A triangular space in 
upper front part of thigh, 
sci-at'ic, Pertaining to ischium or hip=bone. 
scir'rhus. A hard form of carcinoma, 
scle'ra. Outer membrane of eyeball, 
scle'ral- Pertaining to tl\e sclera, 
scle-ri'tis. Inflammation of the sclera, 
scle-ro'sis. Morbid thickening of a tissue, 
scle-rot'ic. Hard; indurated, 
scrof'u-la. Tubercular disease of lymphat¬ 
ics; chronic adenitis, 
scro'tal. Pertaining to scrotum, 
scro'tum. Sac containing testes, [weight, 
scru'ple. Twenty grains apothecaries 
scurf. Exfoliated cuticle of scalp, 
scu'ti-form. Having form of a shield, 
seam. A suture. 

se-ba'ceous. Pertaining to or appearing like 
fat. — s. glands. Glands in the corium of 
the skin secreting sebum, [baceous glands, 
se'bum. Fatty matter secreted by the se- 
se-cre'ta. Substance secreted by a gland, 
se-cre'tion. Functions of glands and fol¬ 
licles; substance secreted, 
se-cre'to-ry. Performing secretion, 
sec'tion. A division by cutting, 
sed'a-tive. Soothing, 
sed'en-ta-ry. Occupied in sitting, 
sed'i-ment. Matter settled from a liquid, 
seg'ment. A small piece; section; lobe, 
seg'ment-al. Pertainiug to segment, 
sel'la. A saddle=shaped body. — s. turcica. 
The pituitary fossa, 
se'men. Fecundating fluid of male, 
sem'i. Half. 

sem-i-lu'nar. Crescent=shaped. — s. valves. 

Valves at pulmonary and aortic openings, 
sem-i-mem'bra-nous. Partially membran¬ 
ous; a muscle of the thigh, 
sem'i-nal. Pertaining to the semen, 
se'nile. Aged; pertaining to senility. — s. 
gangrene. A gangrene of extremities in 
the aged. [becility. 

se-nil'i-ty. Weakening of old age or im- 
sen-sa'tion. Corporeal feeling, 
sen'si-tive. Capable of feeling; easily af¬ 
fected by outside influences, 
sense. The perceptive faculty. 
sens'or=gran-ules. Sensorium; a common 


center of sensation. 

sen-so'ri-al. Pertaining to the sensorium. 
sen-so'ri-um. A common center of sensa- 
sen'sor-y. Pertaining to sensation, [tion. 
sep'sis. Putrefaction; septicemia, 
sep'tic. Relating to putrefaction, 
sep-tic-e'mi-a, sept-e'mi-a. A morbid con¬ 
dition from absorption of septic products, 
sep-to-py-e'mi-a. Combined septicemia 
and pyemia. 

sep-to-py-e'mic. Pertaining to septopye- 
sep'tum. Dividing membrane or wall. [mia. 
se'quel, se-que'la. A supervening disease, 
ser-al-bu'min. Albumin of the blood, 
se'ries. An order or arrangement of one 
after another according to some law or rule, 
se-ro-fi'brin-ous. Composed of serum and 
fibrin. — s. membrane. A membrane com¬ 
posed of serum and fibrin, 
se'rous. Having nature of serum. — blood=s. 
Whey; serum of milk. — s. albumin. (Same 
as Seralbumin. — s. globulin. Same as Fi- 
brinoplastin. — s. cavities. Cavities of 
the serous sacs. — s. membrane. That which 
secretes serous fluids. — s. sacs. The serous 
membranes. 

ser'ra-ted. Notched like a saw. 
se'rum. Fluid constituent of blood, 
ses'a-moid. Resembling a grain, — s. bones. 
Small bones developed in tendons, 
sex. The state or condition of being either 
sex'u-al. Pertaining to sex. [maleor female, 
shaft. A long and cylindrical body or part, 
shank. Popular name for the tibia or shin, 
sheath. Covering; an investing substance, 
shin. The anterior edge of the tibia. 
shin=bone. The tibia. 
ship=fever. Typhus fever, 
shock. A sudden or violent sensation; a 
stroke; prostration of bodily functions, 
shoul'der. Part of trunk between neck and 
free portion of arm. — -s.=blade, s.=bone. 
The scapula. 

shred. A small, irregular or jagged strip 
torn or cut off; fragment or particle, 
shred'dy. Consisting of or characterized by 
sigh. A long, deep inspiration. [shreds, 
sight. The faculty of vision, 
sig'moid. Shaped like Greek letter S. -s. 
flexure. Lower part of colon, 
sil'i-ca. Silicon dioxid. 
sil'i-con. Non=metallic element.[substance. 
sim'ple. Not compound; consisting of one 
sim-u-la'tion. Counterfeiting disease, 
sin'ci-put. Anterior and upper partof head. 












PR A CTICA L DICTIONAR Y 


639 


sin'is-ter. Pertaining to the left; left, 
sin'u-ous. Wavy; winding, 
si'nus. A hollow, cavity, recess, or pocket; 
a large channel containing venous blood; 
a cavity within a bone. — s. venosus. A dil¬ 
atation of the termination of venous chan¬ 
nels, forming a separate chamber, 
skel'e-ton. The frame=work of the body, 
composed of bone and cartilage, 
skin. The membranous external invest¬ 
ment of an animal; the integument. — 
true s. Cutis or derma. -s.=slip. Slipping 
of the cuticle. 

skull. Bony frame=work of head; cranium, 
skull'cap. The sinciput; calvarium, 
slough. To cast off, as dead from living 
tissue; shed; to separate or fall away; 
dead tissue separated and thrown off from 
the living parts; a scab, 
small'pox. An acute, specific, infectious 
disease, resulting from a specific morbid 
poison. [perceived; the olfactory sense, 
smell. Sense by means of which odors are 
sneezing. An explosive expulsion of air 
through the nasal passages and mouth, 
snoring. Breathing through the nose and 
open mouth with a hoarse rough noise, 
sock'et. The concavity of an articulation, 
so'da. A white alkaline compound; sodium 
carbonate; sal soda. 

so'di-um. A silver=white alkaline metallic 
element. — s. chlorid. Common salt, 
soft. Not bony or cartilaginous. — s. palate. 
Soft posterior portion of the mouth, 
sof'ten-ing. Making or becoming soft; mor¬ 
bid degeneration or softening of a part, 
so'lar plex'us. A large plexus of nervous 
system found in front of spine, 
sole. Bottom surface of foot, [tending foot, 
so-le'us. A muscle of calf that assists in ex- 
sol'i-ta-ry. Not in a cluster; single; sepa¬ 
rate. — s. glands. Scattered lymphoid fol¬ 
licles in walls of small intestines, 
sol-u-bil'i-ty. State of being soluble, 
sol'u-ble. Capable of being dissolved; dis¬ 
soluble. 

so-lu'tion. Diffusion of a solid in a liquid, 
sol'vent. Having power of dissolving; a 
liquid capable of dissolving substances. 
SO-mat'ic. Pertaining to body; physical; 
corporeal. —s. death. Death of entirebody. 
SO-por-if'iC. Medicine that produces deep 
sleep. 

sore. An ulcer, chafe, or wound; painful, 
sound. Sensation produced through organ 


of hearing; having all organs or faculties 
intact. [tart, 

sour. Opposite of sweet to the taste; acid; 
space. Inclosed or partially inclosed part 
spas-mod'ic. Pertaining tospasm. [of body, 
spe-cif'ic. Distinctly or plainly set forth; 
specific; having some distinct medicinal 
or pathological property. —s. gravity. 
The weight of a substance compared with 
water. [Suspensory cord of testis, 

sper-mat'ic. Pertaining to semen. — s. cord, 
sphe'noid. (1) Cuneiform; wedge=shaped. 
(2) One of the small cranial bones at an- 
sphere. A globe. [terior base of skull, 
spher'i-cal. Like a sphere, 
sphe'roid. A solid resembling a sphere, 
sphinc'ter. A muscle constricting an ori¬ 
fice. s. ani. Muscle constricting the anus, 
spic'u-la. A small spike=shaped fragment 
of bone. [ments of bone, 

spic'u-la-ted. Full of spike=shaped frag- 
Spi-ge'li-an lobe. A lobe of the liver pro¬ 
jecting backwai'd. 

spi'nal. Pertaining to spine. — s. canal. 
Hollow within vertebral column. — s. 
column. Back=bone. — s. marrow. Spinal 
cord. -s. nerves. Nerves given off from 
spine. The vertebral column, [spinal cord, 
spi'ral. In the form of a corkscrew. 
Spi-rillum {pi. spi-ril'la). A spiral=formed 
bacterium. — s. cholerse Asiatic®. Bacteri¬ 
um that causes cholera. [substance, 

spirit. An alcoholic solution of volatile 
splanch'non. The viscera; the entrails, 
splanch'nic. Pertaining to the viscera, 
spleen. Largest ductless gland in body, 
splen'ic. Pertaining to the spleen, 
splen-i-za'tion. Becoming like the spleen, 
splint. A support for ends of a fractured 
spon'gi-form. Similar to a sponge, [bone, 
spon'gy. Porous; like a sponge, 
spore. Reproductive organ of a cryptogam; 
any germ or reproductive element less 
organized than a true cell, 
spon-ta'ne-ous. Taking place without aid 
or volition. 

spo-rad'ic. Scattered; occurring in isolated 
cases, -s. cholera. Cholera morbus, 
spo-ro-gen'ic, spo-rog'e-nous. Producing 
spores; producing by means of spores, 
spot'ted fever. Cerebrospinal meningitis, 
sprain. A violent straining of ligaments, 
spray. Liquor vaporized by a strong air 
spu'tum. Expectorated matter, [current, 
squa'ma. A scale or lamina. 



640 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


squa'mous. Scaly, 
sta'bi-le. Not moving; permanent, 
stage. A period of disease, 
stag'nate. To cease motion, 
stag-na'tion. Cessation of motion, 
stain. A dye; a discoloration, 
stanch. To check or stop a flow, 
stand'ard. An established rule or model, 
starch. Amylum. 

sta'sis. Stagnation of the blood current, 
ste-ap'sin. An unorganized ferment con¬ 
tained in pancreatic juice. 

Ste'ar-in. A compound of stearic acid and 
glyceryl found in the harder animal fats. 
Stench. An ill=smell; an offensive odor, 
sten-osed'. Narrowed; contracted, 
sten-o'sis. A narrowing or constriction. 
Sten'son’s duct. See Duct. 
sterile. Barren^ not fertile, 
ster-il-i-za'tion. Destruction of germs by 
heat or a disinfectant. [tive. 

ster'il-ize. To render sterile or unproduc- 
ster'il-i-zer. Instrument for sterilization, 
ster'nal. Pertaining to the sternum, 
steth'o-scope. A tube for conveying sounds 
in auscultation. [activity. 

■Stim'u-lantJ*An agent increasing functional 
stim'u-lus. Anything exciting an organ, 
stitch. A sharp laminating pain; to sew. 
stD'ma. The mouth. 

.sto-ma-ti'tis. Inflammation of the mouth, 
stom'ach. Chief digestive organ of body, 
stool. Evacuation of the bowels. 
stran£u-la-ted. Constricted to such degree 
as to have its circulation cut off. — s. her¬ 
nia. Irreducible hernia. 

Stran-gu-la'tion. Act of strangulating; the 
state of being strangulated, 
strat'i-fied. Arranged in layers. 
Strat'i-form. Formed into layers, 
stra'tum. A sheet or layer of tissue char¬ 
acterized by some special form or arrange¬ 
ment of structure. — s. corneum. Outer 
epidermic layer. — s. granulosum. Gran¬ 
ular layer of the retina, 
strep-to-coc'cus. A curved or twisted chain 
of micrococci. 

stri'ate. Marked with furrows, 
stric'ture. A contraction of a duct or tube, 
stroke. A popular name for apoplexy, 
stro'ma. Foundation tissue of an organ, 
structure. An organ; composition of an 
stru'ma. Scrofula. [organ, 

strych'ni-a. An alkaloid of mix vomica. 
sty'li-form. Resembling stylus. 


sub-a-rach'noid. Beneath arachnoid coat 
of brain. —s. space. Space beneath arach¬ 
noid coat of brain. 

sub-cla'vi-an. Under the collar=bone. 
sub-cu-ta'ne-ous. Beneath the skin, 
sub-di-vi'sion. After the first division, 
sub-ja'cent. Next to. 

sub'ject. A body for dissection. [self, 

sub-jec'tive. Internal; pertaining to one’s 
sub-lin'gual. Beneath the tongue. — s. 
gland. Gland beneath tongue, 
sub-max'il-la-ry. Beneath the lower jaw. 
sub-mer'sion. State of being submerged, 
sub-mu'cous. Beneath mucous membrane, 
sub-per-i-to-ne'al. Beneath peritoneum, 
sub-serv'i-ent. Acting in interest of an- 
su'dor. Sweat; perspiration. [other, 

su-dor-if'er-ous. Producing sweat. — s. 
glands. Sweat=glands. 
suf-fo-ca'tion. A stoppage of respiration, 
sul'ca-ted. Grooved; furrowed, [volutions, 
sul'ci of brain. Depressions between con- 
sul'phate. A salt of sulphuric acid. — . of 
aluminum. Aluminum and sulphuric 
acid combined. [an element, 

sulphid. A combination of sulphur with 
sul'phur. Brimstone. 

■sul'phu-ret-ed hy'dro-gen. Sulphur and 

hydrogen combined; a.gas. 
sul-phu'ric. Combined with sulphur. — s. 
acid. One of the mineral acids, 
su'per-. A prefix denoting upon or above, 
su-per-fi'cial. Near or confined to the sur¬ 
face. — s. fascia. A fibro=areolar tissue just 
su-pe'ri-or. The upper, [beneath the skin, 
su'pi-na-ted. Turned upon the back, 
su-pi-na'tion. A turning of the palm up¬ 
ward; the attitude of lying upon the bed. 
su'pi-na-tor. A muscle that supinates. 
sup-ple-men'tal air. Air remaining in 
lungs after a normal expiration, 
sup-pres'sion. Concealment; retention, 
sun'stroke. A sudden cerebral disturbance 
due to excessive heat, usually of the sun. 
sum'mer complaint. The cholera of infants, 
sup-pu-ra'tion. The formation of pus. 
su'pra-. A prefix, above, beyond, or upon, 
su-pra-or'bit-al. Above orbit of the eye. 
su-pra-re'nal. Above the kidney. — s. body 
or capsule. A gland=like organ of un¬ 
known function situated upon the kidney, 
su'ral. Pertaining to calf of leg. 
sur'face. Exterior or face of body, [fluenced. 
sus-cep-ti-bil'i-ty. State of being easily in- 
sus-cep'ti-ble. Sensitive to an influence. 














PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


641 


sus-pend'ed an-i-ma'tion. Temporary ces¬ 
sation of vital functions, 
su'ture. Junction of cranial bones; seam, 
sweat. Secretion of sweat-glands. - s. ducts. 
Canals leading from sweat=glands to pores. 
s.=glands. Sudoriferous glands, 
sweet'bread. The pancreas, 
swelling. Tumefaction; enlarging. 
Syl'vi-us, fissure of. Fissure between an¬ 
terior and middle lobes of cerebrum, 
sym-pa-thet'ic system. Series of ganglions 
and nerves dominating the viscera and in¬ 
voluntary muscles. 

sym'phy-sis. A junction of bones. - s. pu¬ 
bis. A junction of pubic bones, 
syn-ar-thro'sis. Immovable articulation, 
syn-chon-dro'sis. Union by intervening 
syn'co-pe. Swooningor fainting, [cartilage, 
syn-o'vi-a. Lubricating fluid of a synovial 
membrane. 

syn-o'vi-al. Pertaining to synovia. — s. 
membrane. Sac containing synovia within 
a joint. [uniting elements, 

syn che-sis. A formation of a compound by 
syn-thet'ic. Pertaining to systhesis. [ease, 
syph'i-lis. A specific i nfectious venereal dis- 
syr'inge. Instrument for injecting fluids, 
sys'tem. Methodic arrangement of parts; 
sys-te-mat'ic. Methodic, [animal economy, 
sys-tem'ic. Pertaining to a system. —s. cir¬ 
culation. Entire circulation of body, 
sys'to-le. Contraction of heart and arteries. 

T 

ta'ble. A layer or plate of bone. — t. of the 
skull. Internal and external plates of the 
tache. A spot or coloration. [bone, 

tac'tile. Pertaining to sense of touch, 
tail. The caudal extremity, 
tam'pon. A plug of lint or cotton, 
tap'ping. Removing water or other fluid 
tar'sal. Pertaining to tarsus, [from cavities, 
tar'sus. The instep. [rymal Gland. 

tear=duct. See Duct. — t.=gland. See Lach- 
tears. The secretion of the lachrymal gland, 
teeth. Organs of mastication, 
teg'u-ment. Relating to the skin, 
tem'per-a-ture. Degree of intensity of heat, 
—normal t. Temperature of a body in a 
state of health. 

tem-po-ro-max'il-la-ry. Pertaining to tem¬ 
poral and inferior maxillary bones, 
ten'di-nous. Pertaining to a tendon, 
ten'do, ten'don. A white, fibrous tissue, the 
attachment of muscles. — t. of A-chll'lcs. 


Large tendon of heel, 
ten'sion. Act of stretching, 
ten'sor. A muscle making a part tense, 
tep'id. Warm; about blood heat, 
te'res. A round muscle. — t. lig'a-ment. 

Round ligament of hip=joint. 
tes'tes. Glandular bodies in scrotum, 
tet'a-nus A disease produced by bacillus 
tetani; lockjaw. — t. ne-o-na-to'ri-um. 
A spasmodic disease of infants, 
tet-ra-coc'cus. A micrococcus occurring in 
clusters forming groups of four, 
ther-mom'e-ter. An instrument for meas¬ 
uring intensity of heat. — cen'ti-grade t. 
See Centigrade. —Fah'ren-heit t. One in 
which the interval between freezing and 
boiling points is divided into 180 degrees, 
the zero point being 32 degrees below freez¬ 
ing of water. 

thigh. Upper part of lower extremity. —1.= 
bone. Bone of the thigh; femur, 
tho-rac'ic. Pert aining to thorax. — t. aorta. 
Descending aorta within chest. — t. vis¬ 
cera. Viscera within thorax, 
throat. Anterior part of neck, 
throm-bo'sis. Formation of a thrombus, 
throm'bus. A blood=clot in a vessel at point 
of obstruction. 

thumb. The inner digit of hand or foot, 
thy 'mils. Gland u lar organ at base o f tongue, 
thy'roid. Scutiform or shield=shaped. — t. 
body. A ductless glandular body at upper 
part of trachea. — t. cartilage. Largest 
laryngeal cartilage. 

tib'i-a. Inner and larger bone of the leg. 
tinc'ture. Alcoholic solution of medicinal 
substance. 

tis'sue. An aggregation of similar cells and 
fibers forming adistinctstructure. — a-re'- 
0-lar t. A form of connective tissue made 
up of cells and delicate elastic fibers in¬ 
terlacing. — ad'i-pose t. Connective tissue 
with flat cells lodged in the meshes. — car- 
ti-lag'i-nous t. Cartilage, —connective t. 
General name for all tissues of body that 
support essential elements or parenchy¬ 
ma. — ep-i-the'li-al t. Epithelium. —fi- 
l:ro-a-re'o-lar t. Tissue made up of fibrous 
and areolar tissue. — mus'cu-lar t. Muscle. 
— ner-voust. See Nerve. —os'se-oust. See 
toe. A digit of the foot. [Bone. 

tongue. Organ of taste and speech, 
ton'ic. Relating to tone. — t. contraction. 
A continuous contraction. [fauces, 

ton'sil. A glandular organ on each side of 



642 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


tor'cu-lar He-roph'i-li. A cavity before in¬ 
ternal occipital protuberance for venous 
sinuses. [inactive, 

tor'pid. Affected with torpor; benumbed; 
tor'sion. A twisting, 
tor'tu-ous. Crooked, 
touch. The tactile sense; palpation, 
tox-e'mi-a. A poisoned state of blood, 
tox'ic. Poisonous, 
tox-i-co-gen'ic. Producing poison, 
tox-ifer-ous. Carrying poison, 
tox'in. Any toxic ptomain. 
tra'che-a. The windpipe, 
tract. A disti net more or less defined region 
usually much longer than broad; a course, 
—alimentary t. Alimentary canal extend¬ 
ing from mouth to anus, —digestive t. 
See Alimentary Tract. 
trac'tion. A drawing or pulling, [syncope, 
trance. A form of catalepsy; protracted 
trans-fu'sion. A transfer of blood into the 
transient. Temporary. [veins, 

trans-lu'cent. Partly transparent, 
trans-mi-gra'tion. Passage of cells through 
a membranous septum, 
trans-mis'sion. Transfer of a disease, 
tran-spi-ra'tion. Act of passing fluid, va¬ 
por, or gas, through a membrane, 
tran-su-da'tion. Anoozingof fluid through 
skin and other tissues, 
tran-sude'. To ooze through, 
trans-ver-sa'lis. A structure that 1 ies across 
another. — t. fascia Fascia that passes 
across abdomen beneath the muscles, 
t. colli. Muscle of back part of neck, 
trans-verse'. Lying across. [row. 

tra-pe'zi-um. First bone of second carpal 
trau'ma. A wound; an injury, 
trau-mat'ic. Pertaining to a wound, 
trau'ma-tism. Condition of one suffering 
from injury, [sides and with three angles, 
tri'an-gle. Space bounded by three lines or 
tri'ceps. Three=lieaded muscle of the arm. 
tri-chi'na. A genus of nematode worms, 
tri-cus'pid. Three pointed. — t. valve Valve 
between right auricle and ventricle, 
troch'le-a. A pulley=like process. [ities. 
trunk. Body except head, neck, and extrem- 
tryp'sin. A proteolytic ferment contained 
in pancreatic juice. 

tryp-sin'o-gen. A granular substance con¬ 
tained in cells of pancreas, 
tube. A pipe=like structure or instrument. 
—air t. The bronchial tube, 
tu'ber-cle. A small eminence; a small nod¬ 


ule of granular cells constituting the con¬ 
dition called tuberculosis, 
tu-ber'cu-lar. Pertaining to or containing 
tubercule. — t. bacilli. The bacilli that 
cause tuberculosis. — t. men-in-gi'tis. Men¬ 
ingitis caused by tubercular bacilli, 
tu-ber-cu-lo'sis. Infectious disease due to 
presence of tubercular bacilli; consump- 
tu'bule. A minute tube. [tion. 

tu-me-fac'tion. A swelling of a part, 
tu'mor. A swelling; abnormal enlargement. 
— benign t. One that is not malignant, 
—cystic t. One made up of cysts. — en¬ 
cysted t. Having cysts, —fibroid t. A 
fibroma. - malignant t. One that even¬ 
tually destroys life. - ovarian t. A tumor 
connected with the ovary, 
tu'ni -ca. An enveloping or lining mem¬ 
brane. — t. ad-ven-ti'ti-a. Outer coat of an 
artery. — t. in'ti-ma. Inner coat of an ar¬ 
tery. — t. me'di-a. Middle coat of an artery, 
tur'bi-nal. Turbinated bones, 
tur'bi-na-ted. Top=shaped. [of an organ, 
tur-ges'cence. A swelling or enlargement 
tur'gid. Unnaturally distended, as by con- 
tym-pan'ic. Drum=like.[tainedairor liquid, 
tym'pa-num. Themiddle=ear cavity, [form, 
type. A representative or characteristic 
ty'phoid. Resembling typhus; an infectious 
fever marked by great prostration, 
ty'phus fever. An epidemic contagious 
typ'i-cal. Characteristic. [fever. 

LJ 

ul'cer. Suppuration upon a free surface; 

an open sore. 

ul-cer-a'tion. Process of ulcer=formation. 
ul'na. Large bone of forearm, 
ul nar. Relating to the ulna, 
ul'ti-mate. Farthest or most remote, 
um-bil'ic-al. Pertaining to umbilicus. — u. 
arteries. Arteries of umbilical cord. — u. 
cord. See Cord, Umbilical. —u. region. 
Region around umbilicus. —u. vein. Vein 
of umbilical cord. 

um-bi-li'cus. The navel. [sensibility, 

un-con'scious-ness. State of being without 
unc'tion. Act of anointing; anointment. 
unc'tu-ous. Greasy, 
un'guent. An ointment, 
u-ni-cel'lu-lar. Having but one cell, 
u-ni-lat'er-al. Affecting but one side, 
un-stri'a-ted. Not stripfed. — u. muscular 
fiber. Involuntary muscular fiber. 




PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 


643 


up'per ex-trem’i-ties. Organs of tact and 
prehension; arms. [umbilicus, 

u'ra-chus. A fibrous cord from bladder to 
u're-a. Chief solid constituent of urine, 
ur-e'mi-a. Toxic condition of blood from 
accumulation of urea, 
ur-e'mic. Due to or marked by uremia, 
u-re'ter. Tube carrying urine from kidney 
to bladder. 

u-re'thra. Excretory canal of bladder, 
u'ric. Pertaining to urine. —u. acid. White, 
tasteless, almost insoluble compound 
found in urine and elsewhere, 
u'ri-na-ry. Pertaining to urine. — u. canal. 
Canal including ureter, bladder, and ure- 
u'rine. Excretion of the kidneys. [thra. 
u-ri-nif'e-rous. Carrying urine. — u. tu¬ 
bules. Minute canals in renal substance, 
u'ter-ine. Pertaining to the uterus, 
u'te-rus. The womb. [palate, 

u'vu-la. Pendent fleshy portion of the soft 

\I 

vac-ci-na'tion. Inoculation with vaccine 
virus to protect against smallpox, 
vac'cine. Lymph from a cowpox vesicle, 
vac-cin'i-a. Cowpox. 
vac'u-um. A space exhausted of air. 
va-gi'na. Canal from vulva to uterus, 
vag'i-nal. Pertaining to vagina, 
valve. A fold across a canal or opening ob¬ 
structing passage in one direction, 
val'vu-lse con-ni-vent'es. Folds of mucous 
membrane in the small intestine, 
valv'u-lar. Pertaining to a valve, 
va'por. Gaseous form of a substance, 
var'i-cose. Swollen; knotted. — v. veins. 

Knotted veins usually in lower extremi- 
va-ri'o-la. Smallpox. [ties, 

va'ri-o-loid. Slight form of smallpox modi¬ 
fied by vaccination, 
vas C pl- va'sa). A vessel or duct, 
va'sa brev'i-a. Short vessels. — v. va-so'- 
rum. Vessels of a vessel; minute blood= 
vessels that supply coats of other vessels, 
vas'cu-lar. Pertaining to vessels or ducts, 
—v. system. Entire arrangement of ves¬ 
sels for the circulation of fluids of body, 
vas-cu-lar'i-ty. Quality of being vascular, 
vas-o-mo'tor. Producing movement in the 
walls of vessels. [growth, 

veg-e-ta'tion. Morbid; having fungous 
vein. A vessel returning blood to heart, 
ve'lum. A veil or veiLlike structure. 


ve'na. A vein. — v. portae. Portal vein. — v. 
cava. Oneof the largest veins (superior and 
inferior) that enter the right auricle, 
ve'nse com'i-tes. Two veins accompanying 
an artery. 

ve'nous. Pertaining to a vein. — v. conges¬ 
tion. An excessive amount of venous 
blood in small vessels of surface. —v. 
valves. Valves in veins of extremities that 
prevent blood from flowing backward, 
ven'ter. The abdomen or belly. — v. of the 
ilium. The iliac region. [Region of belly, 
ven'tral. Pertaining to belly. — v. region, 
ven'tri-cle. (1) A small belly=like cavity. 
(2) Upper right and left cavities of heart, 
ven'ules. Little veins, 
ver'mi-form. Worm=like. — v. appendix. 
A worm=shaped tube opening into cecum, 
ver'te-bra (pl. -brae). A bony segment of 
spinal column. 

ver'te-bral. Pertaining to a vertebra. — v. 
column. Spinal column; back=bone. 
ver'tex. Crown or top of head, 
ver'ti-cal. In a perpendicular line, 
ve-si'ca. The bladder. [der. 

ves'i-cal. Pertaining to or supplying blad- 
ves-i-ca'tion. Production of a blister, 
ve-sic'u-lar. Pertaining to vesicals. 
ves'sel. A tube conveying fluids of body, 
vi'-a-ble. Capable of maintaining life, 
vi-bra'tion. A swinging back and forth, 
vi-ca'ri-ous. Taking place of another; as¬ 
sumption of function of an organ by an¬ 
other. 

villus ( pl . -li). One of numerous minute 
vascular projections from mucous mem¬ 
brane of intestines, 
vir'u-lence. Noxiousness; malignity, 
vir'u-lent. Having nature of a poison, 
vi'rus. A morbid product; a pathogenic mi¬ 
crobe. 

vis'ce-ra. Contents of cavities of body, 
vis'cer-al. Pertaining to viscera. — v. anat¬ 
omy. Anatomy of the viscera, 
vis-cid. A gummy substance produced in 
viscous fermentation, 
vis'cus (pl . vis'ce-ra). Any organ enclosed 
within one of the great cavities of body, 
vi'sion. Sight. 

vis'u-al. Pertaining to vision, 
vi'ta. Life. 

vi'tal. Pertaining to life. — v. functions. 
Those upon which life depends. — v. or¬ 
gans. Throat, lungs, brain, and all other 
essential organs to life. 




644 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


vi-tal'i-ty. Vital principle of life, 
vi'tals. Organs essential to life, 
vi-tel'lus. Protoplasmic contents of ovum 
that feed developing embryo, 
vit're-ous. Glass=like. v. humor. A trans¬ 
parent jelly=like tissue filling ball of eye. 
vo'cal. Pertaining to voice. — v. cords. Small 
cords at glottis. [vocal cords, 

voice. Sound produced by vibration of the 
vol'a-tile. Readily evaporating, 
vo-li'tion. The power of willing. 
voTun-ta-ry. Under control of the will. — 
V. muscle. A muscle under control of will, 
vol'vu-lus. A twisting of an intestine, 
vo'mer. Thin plate of bone between nostrils, 
vom'it. To eject from stomach through 
mouth. [organs, 

vul'va. External opening of female genital 

1A 1 

waist. Narrow portion of trunk above hips, 
walls. Sides of any cavity or vesicle, 
waste material. Excretions of the body, 
white of the eye. The conjunctiva. 

Willis, circle Of. Circle formed by arteries 
at base of brain to equalize pressure, 
wind'pipe. Tube leading from pharynx to 
the air=cells; trachea, 
womb. See Uterus. [sutures. 

Wor'mi-an bones. Small bones in cranial 


wound. Break in continuity of soft parts, 
wrist. The carpus. — w.=joint. Joint of the 
carpus and forearm. 

X 

xan-thic. Yellow. 

xan'thin. A white crystalline compound 
contained in blood, urine, and other secre¬ 
tions. [the skin, 

xan-tho-der'ma. A morbid yellowness of 
xiph'oid. Sword=like. — x. appendix. Third 
and last piece of sternum. 

X-rays. Popular name for Roentgen rays. 

Y 

yawn-ing. Deep inspiration; gaping, 
yel-low fe'ver. An epidemic disease of hot 

moist regions. 

y=lig'a-ment. Ileofemoral ligament. 

Z 

zyg-o-mat'ic. Pertaining to cheek=bone. 
zy-mot'ic. Relating to fermentation. — z. 
diseases. Any epidemic, endemic, or con¬ 
tagious disease, produced by some morbific 
principle acting on system like a ferment, 
zy'mo-gen. A substance that develops by 
internal changes, without apparent de¬ 
composition, into a chemical ferment or 
enzyme. 


ADDENDA. 


al-bu'mose. A first product of the splitting 

of proteids by enzymes, 
a-me'ba. A genus of rhizopods. [ba. 

am-e'boid. Having movements of an ame- 
am'id. A compound derived from ammo¬ 
nia by substitution of an acid radicle for 
hydrogen. 

am-pho-ter'ic. Having power of altering 
both red and blue test=paper. 
am'yl-um. Starch; a valuable nutrient, 
ben'zene, ben'zol. A liquid hydrocarbon 
car-bam'id. Urea. [from coal=tar. 

cho-les'ter-in. A monatomic alcohol, found 
in blood, nerve=tissue, and bile, 
del-i-ques'cent. Diquefying from absorp¬ 
tion of atmospheric moisture, 
di'as-tase. A nitrogenous ferment of malt, 
e-las'tin. Main constituent of yellow elas¬ 
tic tissue. 


en'zym. An unorganized, hydrolytic fer- 
eth'yi-ene- Bicarbureted hydrogen, [ment. 
fi-bro'ma. A tumor of fibrous tissue, 
fi-brin-o-plas'tin. See Paraglobulin. 
glu'co-side. A body containing glucose 
with some organic principle, 
hy-dra'tion. Impregnating a substance 
with water. [water, 

hy-dro-lyt'ic. Producing decomposition of 
ke'tone. A compound of carbonic oxid with 
two univalent hydrocarbons, 
malt'ose. A sugar derived from action of 
diastase on barley. 

nu-cle-o=aI-bu'min. A nuclein from cell= 

protoplasm. 

nu-cle-o=pro'te-id. A nuclein having a 
relatively large amount of albumin, 
par-a-glob'u-lin. A native proteid from 

blood=serum. 






I 


GENERAL INDEX. 


/A 

Abbott, observations of, 503, 504. 

Abdomen, 00. 

Contents of, 43. 

Regions of the, 109. 

Epigastric (or epigastrium), 109, 110. 
Hypochondriac (or hypochondrium), 
left, 109, 110. 

Right, 109. 

Hypogastric, 109, 111. 

Inguinal, left, 109, 111. 

Right, 111. 

Lumbar, left, 109, 111. 

Right, 109, 110. 

Umbilical, 109, 110. 

Abdominal cavity, the, 92, 303. 

Contents, position of, 305. 

Openings, 109. 

Organs requiring special treatment, 306. 
Regions, its,.303. 

To inject the, 306. 

Viscera, 109. 

Absorbents, the, 61. 

Skin, the, 61. 

Lymphatic system, the, 67. 

Acetabulum, the, 26. 

Adam’s apple, 83. 

Adipocere, 270, 272. 

Air=passages, asphyxia from mechanical 
obstructions of, 549. 

Albumin, 210. 

Albuminoids, 210. 

Alimentary canal, the, 89. 

Allan on formaldehyde, 519. 

American Public Health Association, ex¬ 
periments by committee on disinfectants 
of, 510. 

Ammonia, 216. 

Amylopsin, 212. 

Anatomy, morbid, 335. 

Visceral, 70. 

Ancient and modern embalming, 217. 
Ancient embalming, 220. 

Anthrax spores, Koch’s experiments upon, 
502. 

Antiseptics, 507. 

Antiseptics and disinfectants, 507. 

Apnoea, asphyxia, 257. 

Apoplectic habit, the, 431. 

Appendix auriculae, 126. 

Vermiformis, 109, 111. 

Arachnoid, the, 77. 

Arbor vitae, the, 80. 

Arsenic, poisoning by, 460. 

Arterial anastimoses, 133. 

Embalming, 281. 

Artery or arteries, 132. 

Anastomotica inagna, 159. 

Aorta, 110, 11, 38, 12, 99. 

Abdominal, 109, 138, 160. 

Arch, 138. 


Artery or arteries— Continued. 
Aorta— Continued. 

Thoracic, 138, 160. 

Arteriae receptaculi, 157. 
Auricular, posterior, 140. 
Axillary, 158. 

Basilar, 157. 

Brachial, 159, 287. 

Bronchial, 86, 87, 60. 

Carotid, common, 139, 290. 
External, 140. 

Internal, 140. 

Celiac axis, 110, 160. 

Cerebral, anterior, 140, 157. 
Middle, 140, 157. 

Posterior, 157. 

Choroid, anterior, 157. 

Circle of Willis, 158. 
Circumflex, external, 173. 

Internal, 173. 

Coats, their, 133. 
Communicating, posterior, 157. 
Coronary, 138. 

Dorsalis pedis, 174. 

Epigastric, deep, 164. 

Superficial, 164. 

Esophageal, 92, 160. 

Facial, 140. 

Femoral, 164, 288. 

Gastric, 112, 160. 

Gastroepiploic, left, 112. 

Right, 112. 

Gluteal, 163. 

Hemorrhoidal, middle, 163. . 
Hepatic, 116, 160. 

Iliac, 56. 

Circumflex, deep, 164. 
Common, 162. 

External, 163. 

Internal, 162. 

Anterior trunk, 162. 
Posterior trunk, 163. 
Superficial, 63,164. 
Iliolumbar, 163. 

Innominate, 139. 

Intercostals, 160. 

Large trunks, the, 132. 

Lingual, 145. 

Lumbar, 162. 

Mammary, internal, 158. 
Maxillary, internal, 140. 
Mediastinal, posterior, 160. 
Meningeal, anterior, 157. 
Mesenteric, inferior, 162. 
Superior, 162. 

Muscular branches, 173. 
Obturator, 163. 

Occipital, 140. 

Opthalmic, 157. 

Ovarian, 162. 

Palmar arch, deep, 159. 
Superficial, 159. 


645 





646 


CHAMPION TEXTtBQQK ON EMBALMING 


Artery or arteries— Continuad. 
Pancreatico=duodenal, inferior, 118. 

Superior, 78. 

Perforating, 173. 

Pericardiac, 160. 

Pharyngeal, ascending, 140. 

Phrenic, 160. 

Inferior, 119. 

Plantar, external, 174. 

Internal, 174. 

Popliteal, 173. 

Profunda femoris, 173. 

Pudic, deep external, 173. 

Internal, 163. 

Superficial external, 173. 

Pulmonary, 87,186. 

Pyloric, 112. 

Radial, 159, 292. 

Renal, 119,162. 

Sacral, 162. 

Lateral, 163. 

Sacra media, 56, 62. 

Sciatic, 163. 

Spermatics, 162. 

Splenic, 160. 

Subclavian, 157. 

Left, 157. 

Right, 157. 

Suprarenal, 119,162. 

Suprascapular, 158. 

Temporal, 140. 

Thyroid axis, 158. 

Inferior, 158. 

Superior, 140. 

Tibial, anterior, 174, 295. 

Posterior, 174, 294. 

Transversalis colli, 158. 

Tympanic, 157. 

Ulnar, 159. 

Umbilical or hypogastric, 195. 

Uterine, 163. 

Vaginal, 163. 

Vesical, inferior, 163. 

Middle, 163. 

Superior, 162. 

Vertebral, 157. 

Artificial respiration, Howard’s method 
of, 545. 

Asphyxia, 257. 

Asphyxia from— 

Advancing coma, 549. 

Breathing noxious gases, 549. 

Drowning, 550. 

Lightning stroke or electricity, 550. 
Mechanical obstruction of the air=pas- 
sages, 549. 

Poisons or anesthetics, 549. 

Assyrians, embalming among the, 234. 
Auditory canal, or meatus, 202. 

Author, portrait of, frontispiece. 

Axillary space, the, 60. 

Aztecs, methods of the, 235. 

B 

Babylonians, methods of the, 97. 

Bacillus, bacilli, 488. 

Anthrax, 377, 490. 

Cadaveris, 372, 491. 

Comma, 368. 

Diptheria, 384. 

Pestis, bubonicse, —. 

Tetani, 375. 


Baci llu s— Continued. 

Tubercular, 495. 

Tuberculosis, 358, 490. 

Typhi abdominalis, 492. 

Typhoid, 351. 

Bacteria, their forms and growth, 486. 

In air, water, and earth, 492. 
Non=pathogenic, 491, 494. 

Pathogenic, 491, 494. 

Bacteriology, history of, 481. 

Barlow on Asiatic cholera, 368. 

Behring, experiments of Dr., 504. 

Bile, 113. 

Bilirubin, 213. 

Biliverdin, 213. 

Discoloration caused by, 327. 

Bladder, 119, 111, 122. 

Blood, 124,129, 213. 

Arterial, 275. 

Cause of the arteries being empty after 
death, 279. 

Characteristics and changes, its, 275, 
Circulation of, 130, 276. 

Circulation not destroyed by tapping the 
heart, 322. 

Coagulation of, 214, 276. 

Composition of, 129, 275. 

Corpuscles, 129. 

Crystals, 130. 

Plasma, the, 54. 

Serum, 124. 

Removal of the, 315. 

Basilic vein, through the, 320. 

Femoral vein, through the, 320. 

Heart direct, from the, 315. 

Jugular vein, through the, 321. 
Methods, the, 315, 319. 

Reasons for its removal, 315. 

Venous, 275. 

Blood=vessels, the, 132. 

Bodies, transportation of, 526. 

Body, its composition and chemistry, 206. 
Chemical constituents, the, 206. 

Chief chemical compounds, 207. 

Weight of the different parts, 206. 

Bone or bones, —. 

Ankle=joint, the, 26. 

Articulations, 27. 

Atlas, 8. 

Axis, 25. 

Carpus, the, 26. 

Classification of, 5. 

Clavicle, 26. 

Coccyx, 25. 

Composition of the, 6. 

Cranial cavity, the, 8. 

Development of, 7. 

Distribution of the, 4. 

Elbow, the, 26. 

Extremities, the, 25. 

Femur, the, 26. 

Flat, the, 5. 

Foot, the, 27. 

Fresh or living, 6. 

General description of the, 4. 

Hand, the, 26. 

Haversian canals, 7. 

Head, of the, 8. 

Cranial cavity, the, 8. 

Skull and face, of the, 8. 

Skull=bones, the, 8. 

Hip=bones, 25. 

Humerus, 26. 











GENERAL INDEX 


647 


Bone or bones— Continued. 

Ilinm, 59. 

Injury and repair of, 7. 

Innominata, t he, 25. 

Irregular, the, 5. 

Joints, the, 27. 

Structures, 27. 

Articular lamella, 27. 

Cartilage, 28. 

Fibro=cartilage, 28. 

Synovial membrane, 28. 

Ligaments, the, 28. 

Kneecap, 26. 

Kneejoint, the, 26. 

Lacunae, the, 7. 

Ligaments, 27. 

Long, the, 5. 

Lower extremities, of the, 25. 

Metacarpal, 26. 

Metatarsus, the, 27. 

Number of, 4. 

Patella, 26. 

Phalanges, 26, 27. 

Pubic arch, 25. 

Radius, 26. 

Ribs, the, 25. 

Sacrum, 25. 

Scapula, the, 26. 

Sesamoid, 27. 

Short, the, 5. 

Shoulder, the, 26. 

Shoulder=blade, 26. 

Shoulder=joint, the, 26. 

Skull, the, 8. 

Skull and face, 8. 

Spinal column, the, 8. 

Sternum, 25. 

Structure of the, 6. 

Sutures, cranial, 27. 

Tarsus, the, 27. 

Thigh=bone, 26. 

Tibia, the, 21. 

Trunk, the, 8. 

Ulna, 26. 

Upper extremities, of the, 26. 

Wormian, 27. 

Wrist=joint, 26. 

Brachial artery and basilic vein, the, 287. 
Brain, the, 77, 78. 

Arbor=vitae, the, 76. 

Cerebellum, the, 79. 

Cerebrum, the, 79. 

Corpus collosum, the, 75. 

Falx cerebelli, the, 76. 

Medulla oblongata, the, 80. 

Pons variolii, the, 80. 

Weight of, 29. 

Bristowe, case of obstinate constipation re¬ 
ported by, 414. 

Bronchi, the, 86. 

Bronchioles, 86. 

Bronchocele, 119. 

Buchner, experiments of, 497. 

C 

Capillaries, the, 132,133, 137. 

Pulmonary, 187. 

Capsules, suprarenal, the, 109, 110, 119. 
Carbohydrates, 208. 

Carbonic acid, poisoning by, 464. 

Oxid, poisoning by, 465. 

Cartilage or cartilages, 28. 


Cartonnage, the, 227. 

Casein, 215. 

Cauda equina, the, 76. 

Cavity embalming, 296. 

Cecum, 114. 

Cerebellum, the, 75. 

Cerebro spinal system, 77. 

Cerebrum, the, 75. 

Changes of death, 264. 

Channels of infection, 496. 

Cheeks, 89, 92. 

Chelins, case of obstinate constipation re¬ 
ported by, 414. 

Chemical compounds of the body, chief, 
207. ’ 

Bile, 213. 

Blood, 213. 

Carbohydrates, 208. 

Fats, 207. 

Gastric juice, 211. 

Milk, 214. 

Pancreatic juice, 212. 

Proteins, 209. 

Saliva, 210. 

Urea, 214. 

Chemical constituents, the, 206. 

Chest, the, 84. 

Cholera spirillum, 368. 

Chyle, 69. 

Chyme, 113. 

Circulation of blood, 130. 

Arteries of the systemic, 138. 

Fetal, the, 193. 

Organs of, 123. 

Placental, 196. 

Pulmonary or lesser, 186, 276. 

Systemic, the, 123. 

Veins of the systemic, 175. 

Circulatory system, the, 123. 

Coal gas, poisoning by, 466. 

Cocci or microcci, 488. 

Colon, the, 110, 111, 115. 

Coma, 260. 

Coma bacillus, 368. 

Compendium of practical questions and 
answers, 559. 

Consumption, to prevent the dissemination 
of, 536. 

Contagion, infection and, 495. 

Contents, table of, V. 

Coracoid process, the, 58. 

Cornea, the, 199. 

Corpus collossum, the, 75. 

Corrosive poisons, 455. 

Sublimate, 503. 

Cranial cavity, the, 73. 

Nerves, the, 81. 

Cranium, the, 74. 

Cricoid cartilage, 92. 

Crural rings, 109. 

Crypts of Lieberkuhn, 113 
Cuticle, 61. 

Cutis, vera, 62. 

■ D 

Davaine, discoveries of, 484. 

Septicemia, on, 383. 

Death: its modes, signs, and changes, 256. 
Apnea, 257. 

Asphyxia, 257. 

Cessation of respiration, 262. 

Cessation of the heart’s action, 261. 



648 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Death: its modes, signs, and changes— 
Continued. 

Changes of, 264. 

Coma, 260. 

Cooling of the body, 264. 

Hypostasis, or postmortem discolora¬ 
tion, 264. 

Loss of vitality, 263. 

Postmortem discoloration, 264, 326. 

Staining, 265. 

Rigor mortis, 265. 

Signs of, 261. 

Summary of the signs of, 267. 

Syncope, 257. 

Deodorants, 499, 505. 

Derma, 62. 

Dextrin, 209. 

Diaphragm, the, 59. 

Dictionary of scientific and medical terms, 
a practical, 607. 

Digestion, 91. 

Fluids of, 90. 

Digestive organs, the, 89. 

Discolorations and their removal, 323. 
Bleachers and fluids not effective, 327. 
Brownish or greenish spots, 326. 

Bruises or ecchymoses, 320. 

Caused by biliverdin, 327. 

Ecchymoses, 326. 

Flushing of the face, 325. 

Greenish spots, 326. 

Hypostasis, 264, 325. 

Ice=mixture, the, 328. 

Post=mortem discoloration, 264, 326. 
Staining, 325. 

Venous congestion, to remove, 323. 
Disinfectants, 508. 

Diseases, morbid anatomy and treatment 
of special, 335. 

Accidental causes, death from, 442. 
Accidents, railroad and other, 448. 

Air passages and chest, diseases of, 398. 

Other diseases of, 410. 

Alcoholism, acute, 469. 

Chronic, 468. 

Alimentary canal, other diseases of, 421. 
Anemia of the lungs, 408. 

Anthrax, splenic fever, 376. 

Apoplexy, cerebral hemorrhage, 429. 
Appendicitis, 411. 

Appendix vermiformis, inflammation of 
the, 411. 

Asiatic cholera, 368. 

Asphyxia, 451. 

Bladder, diseases of, 426. 

Blood, diseases affecting the, 383. 

Blood poison, 383. 

Bright’s disease, 422. 

Acute, 422. 

Cirrhotic, 423. 

Waxy, 422. 

Bronchitis, 410. 

Bubonic plague, 373. 

Camp fever, 355. 

Cancer, 432. 

Cancer of the stomach, 432. 

Of the liver, 434. 

Cancerous and constitutional diseases, 
432. ’ 

Catarrh, intestinal, 418. 

Cerebral hemorrhage, 429. 

Cerebrospinal meningitis, 363. 

Child bed or puerperal fever, 394. 


Diseases, morbid anatomy and treatment 
of special— Continued. 

Cholera, Asiatic, 368. 

Infantum, 416. 

Morbus, 420. 

Sporadic, 420. 

Colitis, 421. 

Constipation, obstinate, 413. 
Consumption, tuberculosis, 358, 495. 
Contagious, infectious and, 345, 366. 
Delirium tremens, 475. 

Diabetes, sugar in the urine, 425. 
Diphtheria, 348. 

Dropsy, 437. 

Drowned cases, 445. 

“ Floater,” 446. 

Dysentery, flux, 414. 

Electricity, lightning and, 447. 

Enteritis, 421. 

Entero=colitis, 421. 

Erysipelas, 387. 

Flux, dysentery, 414. 

Freezing, death by, 452. 

Gangrene, mortification, 476. 

Gangrene of the lungs, 401. 

Gastritis, 44. 

Gunshot wounds, 450. 

Heart, valvular diseases of, 343. 

Heai’t and blood=vessels, of the, 340. 
Hernia or rupture, 416. 

Hospital fever, 355. 

Hypostatic congestion of the lungs, 407. 
Inflammation of the— 

Appendix vermiformis, 441. 

Bowels, 421. 

Kidneys, 425. 

Pericardium, 404. 

Peritoneum, 369. 

Pleura, 402. 

Infectious and contagious, 366. 

Intestinal catarrh, 418. 

Jail fever, 355. 

Jaundice, 416. 

Of the new born, 471. 

Kidney and bladder, diseases of, 422. 

Inflammation of the, 425. 

Laryngitis, 410. 

Leukemia, 391. 

Lightning and electricity, 447 
Lockjaw (tetanus), 375. 

Lungs, anemia of the, 408. 

Gangrene of, 401. 

Hypostatic congestion of, 407. 

Syphilitic diseases of, 380. 

Lung fever, 398. 

Measles, 357. 

Meningitis, cerebrospinal, 363. 
Miscellaneous, 468. 

Morphin or opium poisoning, 458. 
Mortification, 476. 

Mother and fetus in utero, death of, 
473. 

Mutilation, cases of, 448. 

Nephritis—inflammation of kidney, 425. 
Nerves, diseases of the, 427. 

Obstinate constipation, 413. 

Opium or morphin poisoning, 458. 
Paralysis, 427. 

Pericarditis, 404. 

Peritonitis, 396. 

Pleurisy—pleuritis, 402. 

Pneumonia—lung fever, 398. 

Acute or croupous, 398. 






GENERAL INDEX 


649 


Diseases, morbid anatomy and treatment 
of special— Continued. 

Pneumonia—1 ung fever— Continued. 

Hypostatic, 407. 

Poison, death from, 454. 

Arsenic, 460. 

Carbonic acid, 464. 

Oxid, 465. 

Coal gas, 466. 

Corrosive, 455. 

Irritant, 456. 

Mercury, 461. 

Acute, 461. 

Chronic, 463. 

Neurotic, 457. 

Opium and morphin, 458. 

Postmortem cases, 442. 

Puerperal or child=bed fever, 394. 
Purpura, 389. 

Pyemia, 385. 

Rag=sorters’ disease, 376. 

Railroad and other accidents, 448. 
Rheumatism, 440. 

Rupture, or hernia, 416. 

Scarlatina—scarlet fever, 345. 

Scrofula, 362. 

Septicemia, or septemia, 383. 

Ship fever, 355. 

Smallpox, 366. 

Senile gangrene, 476. 

Senility or old age, 474. 

Splenic fever, 376. 

Splenization, 407. 

Sporadic cholera, 420. 

Spotted fever, 363. 

Stomach, cancer of the, 432. 

Sunstroke, 477. 

Syphilis, 379. 

Syphilitic disease of the lungs, 380. 

Sugar in the urine, 425. 

Tuberculosis—consumption, 358. 
Tumors—malignant—cancers, 432. 

Benign, 436. 

Typhoid fever, 351. 

Typhus fever, 355. 

Tetanus—lockjaw, 375. 

Neonatorum, 375. 

Urine, sugar in the, 425. 

Valvular diseases of the heart, 342. 
Wool=sorters’ disease, 376. 

Yellow fever, 351. 

Diodorus on Egyptian methods, 224, 225, 
227. 

Disinfection and its effects, 499. 

Of rooms and their contents, 513. 

Of the embalmer, 537. 

Disinfectants, 499, 508. 

Duct or ducts— 

Arteriosus, 71. 

Biliary, 117. 

Cystic, 117. 

Hepatic, 117. 

Lymphatic, 69. 

Pancreatic, 114,118. 

Rivinus, of, 89. 

Stenson’s, 89. 

Thoracic, 69,109, 110. 

Wharton’s, 89. 

Ductus arteriosus, 196. 

Venosus, 196. 

Ductus communis choledochus, 114,117,118. 
Duodenum, 39. 

Dura mater, the, 73. 


•E 

Ear, the, 202. 

External, 202. 

Internal, 203. 

Middle, 203. 

Eichhorst, Asiatic cholera case reported 
by, 369. 

Embalming, ancient and modern, 218. 
Ancient methods, 220. 

Early Christians, among, 236. 

Egyptian methods, 221. 

Cartonnage, the. 227. 

Classes of embalming, 230. 

Costs of, 227, 231. 

Incising the body, 225. 

Ingredients used, 226. 

Intestines, 229. 

Medical fraternity, embalmersof the, 
223. 

Mummy wrappings, the, 22/. 
Paraschistes, the, 225. 

Reasons for embalming, 222. 
Removing the brain, 224. 

Sarcophagi, the, 229. 

Scribe, the, 225. 

Selecting the pattern, 223. 

Stranger, found dead, 231. 

Treatment of the viscera, 226. 

Jewish methods, 231. 

Embalming the poor, 233. 

In the time of Christ, 233. 

Like those of Egypt, 232. 

Romans and other nations, of the, 234. 
Assyrians, the, 234. 

Babylonians, the, 234. 

Ethiopians, the, 234. 

Greeks, the, 234. 

Guanches, the, 234. 

Persians, the, 234. 

Scythians, the, 234. 

Western hemisphere, on the, 235. 
Aztecs, the, 235. 

Indians, North American, 235. 
Peruvians, among early, 235. 

Royal Incas, 98. 

Arterial, 281. 

Brachial artery and basilic vein, the, 
287. 

Common carotid artery and internal 
jugular vein, the, 290. 

Distinguish the artery, to, 282. 

Femoral artery and vein, the, 288. 
Injection of fluid, the, 284. 

Radial artery, the, 292. 

Second injection, a, 285. 

Selection of the artery, 281. 

Tibial arteries, the posterior and ante¬ 
rior, 294. 

Cavity, 296. 

Necessity for, 296. 

Sterilizing effete matter, 296. 
Abdominal cavity, the, 303. 

Contents, position of its, 305. 

Organs, requiring special treatment, 
306. 

Regions, its, 303. 

Thoracic cavity, the, 294. 

Gases in the pleune and pericardium, 
303. 

Inject the pleural sacs, to, 300. 

Fluid into the lung cavities, to, 302. 
Location and contents, its, 298. 



€50 


CHAMPION TEXT*BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Embalming* ancient afld modern— ConVd. 
Cavity— Continued. 

Stomach, the, 308. 

Contraction, its, 309. 

Dilitation, its, 308. 

Cranial, 310. 

Barnes process, the, 311. 

Operation, the, 310. 

Embalmment through soft tissues on 
outside of skeleton, 313. 

Operation, the, 313. 

Eye process, the, 310. 

Operation, the, 310. 

Nasal process, the, 312. 

Operation, the, 312. 

Fluid, circulation of, 279. 

Instruments, their use and care, 129. 
.Modern, 257. 

Bailie. Dr. Mathew, 239. 

Boudet process, M., 240. 

Brooks, Joshua, 239. 

Brunetti, 244. 

Chaussier’s method. Dr., 243. 

England, but little practised in, 247. 
Falcony, M., 242. 

Florentine process, the, 246. 

Franchini’s process, M., 240. 

Franciola’s method, 243. 

Gannal, Jean Nicholas, 240. 

Gannel, Dr., 241. 

German process, 246. 

Hunter, Dr. William, 238. 

Hunterian method, the, 239. 

Hunter, John, 239. 

Marini, Dr. Efisio, 246. 

Ruysch, Dr. Frederic, 237. 

Sheldon, Dr., 239. 

Sucquen, M., 242. 

Tscheirnoff’s method, Dr., 245. 
Hp-to-date, 250. 

Holmes, Dr. Thomas, “father of em¬ 
balming,” 251. 

McCurdy, Prof. Chas. W., quotation 
from, 250. 

Preservation as a reason, 251. 

Sanitation as a reason, 251. 

Thorough embalmment, necessity for, 
253. 

Appearance after thorough embalm¬ 
ment, 255. 

Condition, appearance, and disease, 
254. 

Enamel, 91. 

Endocardium, the, 125. 

Endosteum, 7. 

Endothelium, the, 64, 137. 

Epidermis, 61. 

Epiglottis, 84. 

Epithelium, 137. 

Esophagus, the, 89, 92. 

Eustachian tubes, 203. 

Valve, 126, 195. 

Eye, 198. 

• Chambers of, 206. 

Choroid, the, 199. 

Chrystalline lens, 201. 

Cornea, the, 199. 

Eyeball, the, 198. 

Eyelashes, the, 202. 

Eyelids, the, 201. 

Humor, aqueous, 200. 

Vitreous, 200. 

Iris, the, 199. 


Eye— Continued. 

Lachrymal apparatus, the, 201. 

Gland, the, 201. 

Membranes, the, 199. 

Retina, the, 200. 

Sclerotic, the, 199. 

Tunics, the, 199. 

Eye process, the, 310. 

F' 

Falk cerebri, the, 75, 76. 

Fasciae, 40. 

Deep, 57. 

Superficial, 40, 65. 

Transversalis, 92. 

Fasciculi, 37, 39. 

Fats, 207. 

Fauces, pillars of the, 89. 

Fermentation, 491. 

Fetal circulation, 193. 

Fibers of Cortf, 204. 

Fibrils (filaments), 37. 

Fibro=areolar tissue, 40, 64. 

Fibro=cartilage, 28. 

Fibrous membranes, 40. 

“Floater,” 446. 

Flugge on disinfection, 514. 

Fluid, circulation of, 279. 

Follicles of Lieberkuhn, 113. 

Foramen magnum, to inject through the, 
311. 

Foramen ovale, 195. 

Formaldehyde gas, 503, 516, 518. 

Allan on, 519. 

Formalin distillation, 522. 

Frenum of the tongue, 91. 

Fumigation, 505. 

Fundus, the, 112. 

Funeral directing, hints on, 541. 

G 

Gallbladder, 109, 118. 

Ganglions, 71, 75. 

Gases: their production and elimination, 
329. 

How eliminated, 330. 

Pleura and pericardium, 303. 

What they are, 329. 

Where found, 329. 

General Baggage Agents’ Association, ac¬ 
tion of, 526. 

General Index, 645. 

General Miscellany, 539. 

Geppert, experiments of, 504. 

Gland or Glands— 

Brunner’s, 113. 

Ductless, 118. 

Duodenal, 113. 

Gastric, the, 113. 

Lachrymal, 2ul. 

Liver, 89, 109, 110, 115. 

Lymphatic, 69. 

Mammary, 215. 

Meibomian, 202. 

Peptic, the, 113. 

Salivary, the, 89. 

Parotid, 89. 

Sublingual, 89. 

Submaxillary, 89. 

Sebaceous, 66. 

Solitary, 113. 

















GENERAL INDEX 


651 


Gland or glands— Continued. 

Sudoriferous, 63. 

Sweat, 63. 

Thymus, the, 119. 

Thyroid, 85, 119. 

Globulin, 210. 

Glosso=epiglothic ligament, 91. 

Glottis, 84. 

Glycogen, 209. 

Gryphius on ancient embalming, 224. 
Gullet, 92, 300. 

H 

Hair, the, 65. 

Follicles, 68. 

Papilla, 66. 

Haversian canals, 7. 

Health boards, 400. 

Heart and blood, the, 124. 

Heart and veins, valves of the, 147. 

Heart, the, 124, 299. 

Auricle, left, 125, 127. 

Right, 125, 126. 

Capacity, its, 129. 

Cavities, its, 125. 

Circulation not destroyed bv tapping the, 
322. 

Description and location, 50. 

Direct from the, 315. 

Endocardium, the, 125. 

Movements and sounds, its, 128. 
Pericardium, the, 125. 

Ventricle, left, 124, 125,127. 

Right, 124, 125, 126. 

Weight and size, 125. 

Hemoglobin, 210. 

Henle on bacteria, 486. 

Hepatic lobules. 117. 

Herodotus on Egyptian methods, 222, 223, 
227. 

Hints on funeral directing, 541. 

History of bacteriology, 481.- 
Hoffman, demonstrations of, 405. 

Holmes, Dr. Thomas, 251. 

Howard’s method of artificial respiration, 
545. 

Human body, the, 206. 

Hydrochloric acid, 211. 

Hypostasis, 264. 

I 

Ice mixture, 328. 

Iliac fossa, 114, 115. 

Venter, 92. 

Illustrations, list of, xxv. 

Immunity, susceptibility and, 497. 

Incising the body, 225. 

Index, general, 645. 

Infection and contagion, 495. 

Channels of, 496. 

Susceptibility and immunity, 497. 

Inject fluid into the lung cavities, to, 302. 

Pleural sacs, the, 300. 

Injecting arteries, 281. 

Injection, arterial, 281. 

Cavity, 296. 

Of fluids, the, 284. 

Second, a, 285. 

Instruments, their selection and care, 555. 
Selecting, 557. 

Sterilizing, 556. 


Intestinal juice, 113. 

Intestines— 

Large, 89, 109, 115. 

Appendix vermiformis, 109,115. 

Cecum, 111, 114. 

Colon, 110, 115. 

Rectum, 115. 

Sigmoid flexure, 115. 

Small, 89, 109, 110, 111, 113. 

Duodenum, 109, 113. 

Ileum, 110, 113, 114. 

Jejunum, 110, 113, 114. 

Treatment of the, 229. 

J 

Jaws, 89, 91. 

Jejunum, 110, 113, 114. 

K. 

Kidney or kidneys, 109, 110, 119, 215. 

Kifcher, Athanasius, theory of, 241. 
Kitasato on antiseptics, 374. 

Klein, experiments of, 502. 

Koch, researches of concerning Asiatic 
cholera, 368. 

Experiments upon anthrax spores, 502. 

L 

Labyrinth, the, 203. 

Lacteals, the, 68. 

Lactose, 209, 215. 

Lacunae, the, 7. 

Lange, Christian, on bacteria, 481. 

Larynx, the, 83. 

Leeuwenhoeck, Antony Van, discoveries 
of, 481. 

Lens, crystalline, 201. 

Leucocytes, 214, 275. 

Ligaments, the, 28. 

Ligamentum teres, 116. 

Glosso=epiglottis, 91. 

Pou part’s, 28. 

Liebrich, experiments of, 504. 

Lips, 89, 92. 

Liver, the, 89, 109, 110,115. 

Lock=jaw, or tetanus, 315. 

Loen, discoveries of, 519. 

Lungs, the, 86, 187. 

Structure of, 87. 

Cavities, to inject fluid into the, 302. 
Lunula, the, 67. 

Lymphatics, the, 67, 68. 

Lymphatic system, the, 67. 

Ducts, the, 67. 

Glands, the, 67. 

Lymph, the, 69. 

m 

Maltose, 209. 

Mastication, 91. 

Matrix, the, 67. 

McCurdy, Chas. W., quotation from, 250. 
Mediastinum, the, 88. 

Medulla oblongata, the, 80. 

Medullary canal, 5. 

Menenges, the, 73. 

Membrane, mucous, 64. 

Mercury, poisoning by, 461. 

Mesentery or mesenteries, 109,121. 



652 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Micrococcus or micrococci, 488. 

Pneumoniae crouposae, 398. 
Micro=organisms, 483. 

Milk. 2J5. 

Miscellaneous diseases, 468. 

Miscellany, general, 539. 

Modes of death, 256. 

Morbid anatomy and treatment of special 
diseases (see also diseases), 335. 
Accidental causes, death from, 442. 
Air=passages and chest, diseases of the, 
398. 

Blood, diseases affecting the, 383. 

' Digestive system, diseases of the, 411. 
Infectious and contagious diseases, 345, 
366. 

Kidneys and bladder, diseases of, 422. 
Miscellaneous diseases, 468. 

Nerves, diseases of the, 427. 

Poison, death from, 454. 

Vascular system, diseases affecting the, 
337. 

Morphin or opium poisoning, 458. 

Mouth, 82, 89. 

Mucus, 64, 86. 

Mummy wrappings, the, 227. 

Muscle or muscles, 37. 

Adductor Longus, the, 59. 

Aponeurosis, 40. 

Arrangement of, 36. 

Attachment of, 39. 

Insertion, 39. 

Origin, 39. 

Biceps, the, 58. 

Classification, 39. 

Composition, 37. 

Contractility, 38. 

Development of the, 57. 

Diaphragm, the, 59. 

Fasciae, 48. 

Deep, 57. 

Superficial, 40. 

Kinds of, 38. 

Involuntary, 38. 

Voluntary, 38. 

Modification of, 37. 

Muscular.sense, 57. 

Number of, 58. 

Plasma, 38. 

Psoas, 92. 

Quadratus, 92. 

Scarpa’s triangle, 60. 

Sartorius, the, 59. 

Sternocleidomastoid, the, 58. 

Tendons, the, 39. 

Wonders of the, 57. 

Myers, Dr., letter on disinfecting a body 
for shipment, 533. 


N 

Nails, the, 66. 

Lunula, the, 67. 

Matrix, the. 66. 

Narcotic poisoning, rules for restoring 
from, 546. 

National conference of the State Boards of 
Health, action of, 526. 

Natural breathing, to restore, 546. 

Necrosis, 195. 

Needham’s doctrine of spontaneous gener¬ 
ation, 484. 


Needle processes, so=called, 310. 

Barnes process, the, 311. 

Eye process, the, 310. 

Foramen magnum, to inject through, 31L 
Nasal process, the, 312. 

Nerve=current, 72. 

Sensations, 22. 

Nerves, the, 71. 

Cardiac, the, 76. 

Cranial, the, 81. 

Vasomotor, the, 73, 76. 

Nervous system, the, 71. 

Ganglions, the, 74. 

Tissue, 71. 

Nose, 82, 204. 

Novy on formalin distillation, 522. 

Novy’s Formaldehyde gas generator, 523. 

O 

Odontoid process, 25. 

Omentum or omenta, the, 109, 111, 121. 
Organs of special senses, 198. 

Hearing, 202. 

Sight, 198. 

Smelling, 204. 

Taste and touch, 204. 

Osier on cerebro spinal meningitis, 363. 

On apoplexy, 429. 

Opium or morphin poisoning, 458. 
Osteology, 4. 

Otoliths, 204. 

Oxanam on bacteriology, 483. 

IP 

Palate, hard and soft, 89. 

Pancreas, 89, 109, 111, 121. 

Pancreatic juice, 113, 118,212. 

Papilla or papillae, 66, 91. 

Parasites, 490. 

Parenchyma, the, 83. 

Pasteur, discoveries of, 484. 

Peacock, case of obstinate constipation re¬ 
ported by, 414. 

Pelvic cavity, the, 121, 306. 

Pepton, 210, 214. 

Perimysium, internal, 37. 

External, 37. 

Pericardium, 125, 299. 

Periosteum, 6. 

Peritoneal sacs, 121. 

Peritoneum, 120. 

Peyer’s patches, 113. 

Pharynx, the, 83, 89, 92. 

Pia mater, the, 77. 

Placenta, 194. 

Placental circulation, 194. 

Plasma, 214. 

Plenciz, observation of, 483. 

Pleurae and pericardium, gases in the, 303. 
Pleurae, the, 88, 299. 

Plural sacs, to inject the, 300. 

Plutarch on Egyptian methods, 229. 
Poison, death from, 454. 

Pollender, discoveries of, 484. 

Pons Variolii, the, 75, 76. 

Popliteal space, the, 60. 

Porphyry on Egyptian methods, 229. 

Portal system of veins, 188. 

Vein, 188. 

Postmortem cases, 442 
Wounds, 552. 











GENERAL INDEX 


653 


Poupart’s ligament, 109. 

Preface to revised edition, iii. 

To first edition, v. 

Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru,” from,235. 
Preservation as a reason for embalming, 
251. 

Proteids, 210. 

Proteins, 209. 

Pubic arch, 25. 

Pulmonary circulation, 180. 

Arteries, the, 180. 

Capillaries, the, 187. 

Veins, the, 186. 

Pulse=beat, 129. 

Purging and its treatment, 331. 

Stomach, from the, 331. 

Treatment, 332. 

Lungs, from the, 332. 

Treatment, 333. 

Putrefaction, 267, 269, 500. 

Its modifications and peculiarities, 209. 
Pyloric orifice, 112. 

Pylorus, the, 112. 

Q 

Questions and Answers, A Compendium 
of Practical, 559. 

Anatomy and physiology, 501. 

Arteries, 579. 

Bones, muscles, etc., 561. 

Circulatory system, the, 574. 

Digestion, organs of, 571. 

Nervous system, 566. 

Respiratory organs, 569. 

Veins, 583. 

Visceral anatomy, 564. 

Embalming, 585. 

Sanitation and disinfection, 601. 

re 

Raising and injecting arteries, 281. 

Brachial artery and basilic vein, the, 287. 
Common carotid artery and internal 
jugular vein, 290. 

Femoral artery and vein, the, 288. 

Radial artery, the, 292. 

Posterior and anterior tibial arteries, the 
294. 

Receptaculum chyli, 109, 110. 

Rectum, the, 115. 

Respiration, the organs of, 82. 

Howard’s method of art ificial, 545. 
Restore natural breathing, treatment to, 
540. 

To imitate the movements of breathing, 
547. 

To adjust the patient’s position, 547. 

To excite inspiration, 547. 

To maintain a free entrance of air into 
the windpipe, 546. 

Resuscitation, 545. 

Apparently dead, directions for restoring 
the, 546. 

Artificial respiration, Howard’s method 
of, 545. 

Asphyxia from advancing coma or from 
narcotics and anesthetics, 549. 
Breathing noxious gases, 549. 

Drowning, from, 550. 

Howard’s method of artificial respira¬ 
tion, 545. 


Res uc i tat i o n —Con tinued. 

Mechanical obstruction of the air=pas- 
sages, from, 549. 

Narcotics or anesthetics, 546. 
Lightningstrokeorelectricity, suspended 
animation from, 550. 

Natural breathing has been restored, 
treatment after, 548. 

Drowning or other suffocation or nar¬ 
cotic poisoning, treatment to restore 
from, 546. 

If from apoplexy or sunstroke, 548. 
Intense cold, 548. 

Intoxication, 548. 

To induce circulation and warmth, 548. 
Rules of the Royal Humane Society, 546. 
Syncope, treatment for, 549. 

Rete mucosum, 63. 

Retina, the, 200. 

Richardson, Dr. B. W., quotation from, 247. 
Rules of the Royal Humane Society, 546. 


Saliva, the, 90, 210. 

Samazurier, case of obstinate constipation 
reported by, 414. 

Sanitation and disinfection, 479. 

As a reason for embalming, 252. 
Saprophytes, 499. 

Scarpa’s triangle, 28, 60. 

Schroeder, experiments of, 485. 

Schulze, investigations of, 485. 

Schwann, experiments of, 485. 

Sebaceous glands, 66. 

Selina on alkaloids, 552. 

Sinus or sinuses, 136. 

Base of the skull, of the, 177 
Cavernous, 177. 

Circular, 177. 

Dura Mater, of the, 176. 

Lateral, 177. 

Longitudinal, inferior, 177. 

Superior, 176. 

Occipital, 177. 

Petrosal, inferior, 177. 

Superior, 177. 

Straight, 177. 

Transverse, 177. 

Schering’s pastilles, to disinfect with, 521. 
Shipping rules, the, 527. 

Comments upon the, 530. 

Sigmoid flexure, 115. 

Signs of death, 261. 

Summary of the, 257. 

Skin, the, 61, 205. 

Corium, derma, cutis vera, 62. 

Cuticle, epidermis, scarf=skin, 61. 

Cutis vera, 62. 

Derma, 62. 

Epidermis, 61. 

Hair, 60. 

Nails, 66. 

Rete mucosum, 63. 

Scarf=skin, 61. 

“Skin slip,” 63, 273. 

Its cause, 273. 

Its prevention. 274. 

Solar plexus, 109, 110. 

Spallanzani, experiments of, 484. 

Special diseases, treatment of, 335. 

Special senses, organs of, 198. 

Spermatic vessels, 109, 111. 




654 


CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 


Sphincter ani, 115. 

Spinal cord, 8, 125. 

Spirillum or spirilla, 868. 

Cholerse Asiaticse, 868. 

Spleen, the, 109,110, 118. 

Spores, 487. 

Starch, 209. 

Sterilizing instruments, 556. 

Effete matter, 296. 

Stilla on Asiatic cholera, 370. 

Stomach, the, 89, 109, 110, 111, 112, 308. 
Contraction, its, 309. 

Dilitation, its, 308. 

Stumpell on tuburcular meningitis, 360. 
Sudoriferous glands, 639. 

Sulphur fumes (sulphur dioxid>, 516. 
Sunnyside, quotation from, 247. 
Suprarenal capsules, the, 109. 
Susceptibility and immunity, 497. 

Sweat glands, 63. 

Sylvester, method of respiration, 546. 
Sympathetic system, 77. 

Symphisis pubis, 25. 

Syncope, 257, 549. 

Synovia, 28. 

Synovial membrade, 28. 

T 

Teeth, the, 89, 91. 

Tendons, the, 37. 

Tetanus or lockjaw, 375. 

Neonatorum, 375. 

Thoracic cavity, the, 288. 

To remove gases from the, 160. 

Thorax, 25, 59. 

Thoracic duct, 69, 109, 110. 

Thymus, 119. 

Thyroid, gland, the, 85, 119. 

Tissue or tissues, 40. 

Adipose or fatty, 65. 

Areolar, 37, 65. 

Fibro=areolar, 40, 64. 

Cellular, 37, 64. 

Connective, 64, 65. 

Subcutaneous, 64. 

Tongue, the, 89, 91, 92, 204. 

Touch, 204, 205. 

Trachea, or windpipe, the, 84, 300. 
Transportation of bodies, 528. 

Trypsin, 212. 

Transversalis fascia, 92. 

Tonsils, 84. 

Tympanum, the, 202. 

Tyndal, Prof., investigations of, 485. 

U 

Umbilical cord, 196. 

Urea, 215. 

Ureter or ureters, 109, 111, 120. 

Urine, the, 120, 215. 

Uterus, 109, 111. 

Uvula, 89. 

\/ 

Van Leeuwenhoeck, Antony, discoveries 
of, 481. 

Valves of the heart, 127. 

Van Dusch, experiments of, 485. 

Vasa Vasorum, 133. 

Vena Portee, 193. 


Vein or veins, 135. 

Auricular, posterior, 176. 
Axillary, 181. 

Azygos, 110, 182. 

Left lower (minor), 182. 

Left upper (minimus), 182. 
Right (major), 182. 

Basilic, 180, 280. 

Median, 188. 

Bronchial, 85, 182. 

Cardiac, 185. 

Cephalic, median, 180. 

Cerebral, 176. 

Superficial, 186. 

Deep, 136, 176. 

Digital, 180. 

Diploe, of the, 176. 

External, of the, 175. 

Facial, 175. 

Femoral, 184. 

Gastrics, 193. 

Head and neck, of the, 175. 
Hepatic, 185. 

Iliac, common, 184. 

External, 184. 

Internal, 184. 

Innominate, 181. 

Intercostal, superior, 182. 
Jugular, anterior, 179. 

External, 178. 

Internal, 179, 290. 

Posterior, 178. 

Kinds of, 136. 

Lower extremity, of the, 182. 

Deep, 184. 

Lumbar, 185. 

Mammary, internal, 182. 
Maxillaiy, external, 175. 

Median, 180. 

Mediastinal, 182. 

Mesenteric, 42. 

Inferior, 188. 

Superior, 193. 

Neck, of the, 178. 

Occipital, 176. 

Palmar, deep, 181. 

Phrenic, 185. 

Plan tars, 184. 

Popliteal, 184. 

Portal, 188. 

Portal system, 188. 

Pulmonary, 186. 

Radial, 180. 

Renal, left, 119, 185. 

Saphenus, external, 183. 

Internal, 183. 

Spermatic, 185. 

Spinal, 182. 

Splenic, 193. 

Subclavian, 181. 

Superficial or peripheral, 136, 179. 
Suprarenal 119.185. 

Systemic, the, 175. 

Temporal, 175. 

Thorax, of the, 182. 

Thyroid, inferior, 182. 

Tibials, anterior, 184. 

Posterior, 184. 
Temporo=maxillary, 175. 

Ulnar, anterior, 179. 

Common, 179. 

Posterior. 179. 

Umbilical* 196. 





GENERAL INDEX 


655 


Vein or veins— Continued. 

Upper extremities, of the, 179. 

Deep, 180. 

Vena cava, inferior, 109,110,185, 300. 

Superior, 181, 300. 

Vertebral, 179. 

Vena azygos, the, 87. 

minor, 92. 

Venae comites, 136. 

Venous valves, 135. 

Anastimosis, 135. 

Coats, 135. 

Vermiform appendix, 115w 


Vertebrae, 8. 

Villus or villi, the, 68, 113. 

Visceral anatomy, 70. 

Vocal cords, 84. 

Viscera, treatment of, 226. 

Von Dusch, experiments of, 485. 

Von Hoffman, discovery of formaldehyde^. 
519. 

1A/ 

Watson on septicemia. 383. 

Windpipe, the, 84.