{"1": {"fulltext": "3r\\nAmmmmmiammmm^mm immmimm^\\n{0-", "height": "4639", "width": "3070", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nChap. Copyright No.\\n8helt:_ t^__V 5\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "NEW CENTURY SERIES\\nOF\\nANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nBY\\nHENRY F. HEWES, A.B., M.D. (Harvard)\\nTeacher in Physiological and Clinical Chemistry,\\nHarvard University Medical Scliool, Boston.\\nWINFIELD S. HALL, PH.D., M.D. (Leipsic)\\nProfessor of Physiology,\\nNorthwestern University Medical School, Chicago.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "NEW CENTURY SERIES\\nOF ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\n1. Oral Lesson Book in Hygiene.\\nFor Primary Teachers.\\n2. The New Century Primer of Hygiene.\\nFirst Book for Pupils Use\\n3. Intermediate Physiology and Hygiene.\\nFor Fifth- and Sixth-Year Pupils, or Corresponding Classes in\\nUngraded Schools.\\n4. Elementary Anatomy Physiology and Hygiene*\\nFor Higher Grammar Grades.\\n6. Anatomy Physiology and Hygiene,\\nFor High Schools.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "NEW CENTURY SERIES\\nOF ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nELEME^^TARY ANATOMY\\nPHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nFOR\\nHIGHER GRAMMAR GRADES\\nBY\\nWINFIELD S. HALL, Ph.D., M.D. (leipsic)\\nPROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL\\nSCHOOL, CHICAGO\\nliabrary oi Congress\\npwo Copies Received\\nm^ 6 1900\\nCopyright entry\\nSECOND COPY.\\nDelivered to\\nORDtR DIVISION,\\nNOV 17 19QQ\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI -CHICAGO\\nAMERICAN BOOK COMPANY\\n1--", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "7141G\\nINDORSEMENT\\nWe, the undersigned, have carefully exammed the school text-book\\nentitled\\nELEMENTARY ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE FOR\\nHIGHER GRAMMAR GRADES\\nby Professor Wixfield S. Hall, M.D., with reference to the following\\npoints\\n1. Eullness and accuracy of subject-matter relating to the nature and\\neffects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics upon the human system.\\n2. Amount of matter on general hygiene.\\n3. Presentation of matter with regard to its adaptability to the class\\nof students for which it is designed.\\nWe are satisfied that on all of these points, as well as in the regular\\nanatomy and physiology, the treatment is as complete as is required\\nfor a book of this grade, and fully in harmony with the results of the\\nlatest investigations. We therefore heartily indorse the book for Higher\\nGrammar grades or pupils.\\nA. H. Plumb, D.D. Mrs. Mary H. Hunt,\\nRev. Joseph Cook, LL.D. World s and National Superin-\\nDaniel Dorchester, D.D. tendent of Scientific Tempeimnce\\nWilliam A. Mo^vry, Ph.D. Instruction for the Woman s\\nL. D. Mason M.D. Christian Temperance Union,\\nT. D. Crothers, M.D.\\nChas. H. Shepard, M.D.\\nText-hook Committee of the Ad-\\nvisory Board.\\nCopyright, 1900, by\\nAmerican Book Company.\\nHALL EL. PHYS.\\nw. p. I", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nNo field of school instruction has in recent years under-\\ngone a more radical change in the method of presenta-\\ntion than that of the natural sciences. This change has\\nbeen a progressive one, and each year has recorded some\\nadvance. In all nature work in the grades as well as in\\nall natural science work in the secondary schools and\\ncolleges the pupil is brought into contact with the material\\nstudied. This is effected either through demonstrations\\nbefore the class or through laboratory or field work in\\nwhich the individual pupil, under the direction and inspi-\\nration of the teacher, observes or experiments with the\\nmaterial.\\nPhysiology is a most important branch of the biological\\ndivision of the natural sciences. Besides making a large\\npart of both botany and zoology, it is set apart as a science\\nby itself, devoted to the discussion of the functions of\\nliving matter. The nature work of the lower school\\ngrades leads naturally and logically to physiology, for\\nwhich it forms a necessary basis.\\nThe subject of human physiology is the most important\\npart of the nature study of the schools. It introduces\\nthe pupil to the physical house in which he must abide\\nwhile he lives in this world and, with hygiene, to the\\nessential conditions of highest attainment.\\nWith these principles in view, the subject of human\\nphysiology has been introduced with a brief treatment,\\n5", "height": "4323", "width": "2752", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "6 PREFACE\\nlargely experimental and practical, of the phj^siology of\\na growing plant. Through this means one can best show\\nthe interdependence of plant and animal kingdoms, and\\nthe unity and harmony of nature.\\nAttention is called to the experiments suggested and\\ndescribed in the text. The appliances and material sug-\\ngested are readily procurable; and the experiments de-\\nscribed may easily be performed by any bright and\\nenergetic teacher. Taught in this way physiology be-\\ncomes a living and intensely interesting science. The\\nproblems given for solution by the pupils will tend to fix\\nindelibly the hygienic principles involved in them.\\nEspecial attention is called to the lessons on Domestic\\nEconoiny, This work has never failed to arouse the\\ninterest not only of the pupils, but of parents also, their\\nfeeling being that the school work in physiology is being\\nmade practical as life itself is and must be. This chapter\\nand that on plant physiology is the work of Mrs. Winfield\\nS. Hall.\\nThe author is indebted to Professor Wilson of Colum-\\nbia University, to Professor Piersol of the University\\nof Pennsylvania, and to Professor Williams of the Uni-\\nversit)^ of Buffalo for several valuable figures. Acknowl-\\nedgment is due also to Messrs. Lea Brothers, Philadelphia,\\nfor permission to reproduce several figures from the\\nauthor s Text-hook of Physiology^ of which they are the\\npublishers.\\nWINFIELD S. HALL.\\nChicago, June, 1900.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nGENERAL PHYSIOLOGY\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nI. Plant Physiology How the Plant lives and grows 11\\nII. The Cells, Tissues, and Organs of the Body 27\\nIII. The Nervous System How the Different Organs are\\nmade to work in Harmony 46\\nIV. Narcotics Their Nature, their Classes, and their Gen-\\neral Action upon the System 58\\nSPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY\\ny. Nutrition How the Body is nourished\\nVI. Circulation How the Nourishment is distributed\\nVII. Respiration How the Blood is purified\\nVIII. How the Food is used in the Body\\nIX. How the Waste Materials are thrown out of the Body\\n76\\n126\\n164\\n196\\n206\\nX. The Skin How it is made and what it does how to\\ntake care of it 211\\nXI. The Special Senses How one knows what is going on\\nabout him 225\\n7", "height": "4323", "width": "2752", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "8 CONTENTS\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nXII. The Nervous System The Brain, the Spinal Cord, and\\nthe Nerves 237\\nXIII. The Muscles How the Body moves 251\\nXIV. The Skeleton The Framework of the Body 263\\nIndex .271", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE\\nPhysiology is one of the Natural Sciences. It tells how\\nplants and animals live. It tells just what each part of\\nthe living being does, and how all of the parts work\\ntogether. For example, it tells how the stomach digests\\nthe food we eat how the food is absorbed and dis-\\ntributed to all parts of the body by the heart and blood\\nvessels, and how each part of the body is nourished by\\nthe food tlius brought.\\nHygiene tells how to take care of the body. Every\\none wishes to have a healthy body. There are many\\nthings that injure the body, and many other things that\\nmake the body grow large and strong and healthy.\\nHygiene tells first, what is proper for the body, and\\nsecond, what will injure it, and what should therefore be\\navoided.\\nPhysiology treats not only of man, but of all other\\nanimals, as well as of plants. Animals could not live\\nupon the earth if the plants did not prepare food for\\nthem. One might think that man could live upon milk\\nand eggs and meat if there were no plants to furnish\\nvegetable food but a second thought makes it plain that\\nthe animals which furnish us w4th milk, eggs, and meat\\nlive upon vegetable foods, such as grass and grain. Thus\\nwe are all dependent finally upon plants.\\nIf one understands something of how plants live, that\\nis, of Plant Physiology^ it is much easier to understand\\nAnimal Physiology and Human Physiology, We shall\\n9", "height": "4323", "width": "2752", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "10 PHYSIOLOGY\\nbegin our study of physiology by the study of how a\\nplant lives and grows; then we shall study how the cells\\nand tissues, of which the human body is built, live and\\ngrow, and the part which they play in bodies. This part\\nof the general science of physiology is called Greneral\\nPhysiology,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY\\nCHAPTER I.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY\u00e2\u0080\u0094 HOW THE\\nPLANT LIVES AND GROWS\\n1. THE PLANT AND ITS NEEDS\\nHere is a kernel of corn that is dry and hard, and here\\nis another which has been in water for a few days. No-\\ntice what a change has taken place in those few days.\\nThe little dried-up kernel has become large, full, and soft.\\nFig. 1. a, a dry kernel of corn, h, a soaked kernel, c, soaked kernel from\\nwhich a thin slice has been cut. cZ, soaked kernel cut through along the line\\nah, (6). e, soaked kernel cut through along the line cd, (5). The skin of\\nthe kernel is peeled up and one can see the plantlet lying in its little bed\\nof food.\\nInside the change is still greater. If one opens a dry\\nkernel, he will see in the midst of the white part a softer,\\nyellow part which, in the soaked kernel, has become much\\nlarger and is plainly a little plant (Fig. 1).\\nHere is still another seed that has been in the wet earth\\nin a warm place for five or six days, and in this we see the\\n11", "height": "4323", "width": "2752", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "12\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nperfect little plant partly within and partly without the\\nkernel (Fig. 2, a). What suddenly started this little\\nplant to growing after lying asleep all winter What\\nwaked it up\\nIt could not have been the water alone, for the kernels\\nwhich Avere put in damp soil or water and set in a cold\\nplace showed no sign of life. Nor could it have been\\nFig. 2. The corn plant growing from the kernel, a shows the size of the\\nplant at one week, h shows the size at ten days, and c at two weeks.\\nheat alone, for those that were put in a warm window\\nwithout water still slept on. But when we gave them\\nboth heat and moisture, they awoke and began to grow.\\nThe growth, however, would soon stop if the plant had\\nno food, so nature has put the food where the plant can\\nget it most easily.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 13\\nThe white part and the yellow part of the kernel are all\\nthe food which the plant needs until it is old enough and\\nstrong enough to earn its own living. But even with all\\nthe moisture and heat and food which it needs, a plant\\ncannot be healthy without one thing more.\\nYou have seen a potato growing in a dark cellar, and\\nhave noticed its sickly, yellow color and long, weak\\nshoots perhaps, too, you have seen a spot on the grass\\nwhere a board has lain for several days and which Avhen\\nremoved showed the grass with yellow blades instead of\\ngreen ones.\\nWithout light there could be no green color in the\\nleaves nor strength and vigor in the plant without food\\nthe plant could not grow, and after living for a time upon\\nits own tissue, it would die without moisture the plant\\nwould wither and dry up without warmth, the light,\\nfood, and moisture could not do their work.\\nAfter the plant has started to grow, it grows in two\\ndirections, one part pointing up and becoming the stem,\\nand the other pointing down and becoming the root, and\\nwhichever way the seed is planted, the stem will turn\\nupward even if it has to make a complete turn to get\\nstarted in the right direction.\\nIf we look at the seed after the plant has been growing\\nfor two weeks, we shall find there is little of the seed left\\nwithin the shell, for the plant has eaten all the stored-up\\nfood (Fig. 2, 0.\\n2. THE PLANT AIN D ITS NEEDS {continued)\\nWe have seen that a plant needs food and drink, heat\\nand light, but we have said nothing about another need\\nthat is quite as great that is, the need of the oxygen of\\nthe air.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "14 PHYSIOLOGY\\nA plant not only eats and drinks, but it breathes. All\\nplants breathe oxygen by day and by niglit. In plants\\nthat have leaves, the leaf is the organ of breathing in\\nother plants the breathing is done by means of the body\\nof the plant.\\nBefore we can understand the use of the oxygen we\\nmust know something further of the food and the work\\nof the plant. A plant cannot eat solid food. It must\\ntake its food either as a liquid or as a gas. The liquid\\nfood is taken from the earth through the roots, and the\\ngases are taken from the air through the leaves. At least\\nhalf of the solid part of a plant body is carbon, and the plant\\nmust have a continuous supply of carbon to satisfy this need.\\nThere are several forms of solid carbon, such as coal or\\nplumbago, but plants cannot eat solid foods, so that these\\nforms cannot be used. The plant must take carbon in the\\nform of gas, and this gas is called carbon dioxide. The\\nplant can absorb this through the leaves and use it as a\\nfood. The most important food of a plant is carbon diox-\\nide, which is absorbed from the air by the leaves.\\nCarbon dioxide is composed of carbon and oxygen.\\nCarbon when alone is a solid like coal, or coke, or plum-\\nbago. Oxj^gen when alone is a gas. The air is composed\\nof a mixture of gases, of which oxygen comprises about one\\nfifth of the whole amount. When oxygen and carbon are\\njoined together they make a gas which is called carbon\\ndioxide gas. Carbon dioxide forms a very small part of\\nthe air. The leaves absorb the carbon dioxide, and if the\\nplant is in the sunlight, the green coloring matter in the\\nleaf separates the carbon from the oxygen. The carbon\\nremains in the plant as a part of the plant, while the\\noxygen escapes from the leaves as a gas. All of this\\nwonderful process is a part of the plant s eating.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 15\\nTo understand the way in which a plant breathes, we\\nmust study the subject of oxidation. Have you noticed\\nthat a fire which has been given plenty of coal will stop\\nburning if we close the draught? If the draught is not\\nperfectly closed, the fire will burn slowly but if quite\\nclosed, the fire will go out. It is plain that the fire needed\\nsomething which it did not get. It had no oxygen. The\\ncoal cannot burn without the help of oxygen. This\\nburning we call Oxidation,\\nYou have seen copper become tarnished and iron be-\\ncome rusted when exposed to the air. In both cases they\\nhave become oxidized. When the coal became oxidized,\\nit was a quick process which we call rapid oxidation, but\\nwhen the iron became oxidized it was by slow oxidation.\\nOxidation always produces heat. Rapid oxidation takes\\nplace in a short time with a great heat, while slow oxida-\\ntion gives little heat during a long time.\\nHeat may be used for warming houses, for cooking, or\\nfor producing power to move machinery.\\nIn the plant oxidation is used principally for power to\\ndo the work of the plant. The plant work is to push\\nitself upward and to carry food from the ground to the\\nhighest point, and later to form the seed. It is the union\\nof carbon and oxygen that gives the plant power to grow\\nand to feed itself, and to make a ncAV plant.\\nAs the leaf is the organ for inhaling, it is also the organ\\nfor exhaling. This is done by means of the cells in the\\nsurface of the leaves. Let us remember, then, that every\\nplant has work to do that to get the power to do this\\nwork it must oxidize its own substance with the oxygen\\nof the air. Remember that oxidation of the substance of\\na living plant or animal is hreathing. All living things\\nbreathe in oxygen, which combines with the carbon and", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "16 PHYSIOLOGY\\nother substances to form carbon dioxide and other com-\\nbinations, such as water. After the carbon dioxide is\\nformed it is ahvays thrown out of the animal body, but\\nthe plant leaves can use it for food when the sun shines.\\n3. THE PARTS OF A PLANT\\nWe found the first need of a plant to be warmth and\\nmoisture, and found, too, that for days the plant could\\nlive upon nothing more than the food in the seed, with\\nthe water which it took in through the roots and the\\noxygen absorbed by the leaves from the air.\\nWe can easily understand from this that a large part\\nof a young plant and some part of all plants is fluid.\\nThe fluid is in every part of the plant, and Avhen it\\nis mixed with the food it becomes the sap. If you have\\ntasted maple sap, you will remember that it was not like\\nwater, but was thicker and tasted sweet. That is because\\nit has taken up the food of the plant, which it must carry\\nto every part.\\nBesides the liquid part the plant has another part, and\\nthis part we call the tissue, just as we call the substance\\nof your dress or coat, the material, the fabric, or the\\ntissue. As tlie tissues have different uses, we call them\\nby different names. Those that are active and do the\\nwork of the plant, we call active tissues; those that sup-\\nport the active tissues we call supporting tissues^ and those\\nthat cover and protect we call protecting tissues. Let us\\nsee if by thinking a little we can find which tissues belong\\nto each division.\\nWe know that the work of this plant is done by the\\nleaves, the root, and the stem.\\nIn all of these organs we find the living substance of", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 17\\nthe plant, which is called protoplasm. In the leaves it is\\ngreen protoplasm, and in the stem and roots it is white\\nprotoplasm. All of the active tissues of the plant con-\\ntain protoplasm, and are in the leaves, in the stem, and in\\nthe root. Most of the leaf is active tissue, but only a\\nsmall portion of the stem and root is active tissue. The\\ndelicate root hairs contain protoplasm and represent active\\ntissue.\\nIf you hold a leaf up and look through it toward\\nthe light, you will see the branching veins of the leaf.\\nThese veins serve a double purpose in the leaf (1) they\\nsupport the active tissue of the leaf (2) they serve as a\\ncirculatory system along which the sap of the plant flows.\\nThe stem is made up almost wholly of supporting tissue,\\nthe only active tissue being the inner bark in the case of\\ntrees and shrubs. What is true of a stem of a tree is\\nalso true of a root.\\nProtecting tissue is found upon every plant. The\\ndelicate, transparent skin which covers the little corn\\nplant is its protecting tissue. The thick bark which\\ncovers the trunk and branches of trees and shrubs is their\\nprotecting tissue. Seeds have protecting tissue. The\\ntransparent skin so easily peeled off from a soaked kernel\\nof corn is its protecting tissue. A nut has a hard, woody\\nshell outside and a delicate brown skin inside, to protect\\nit as it lies upon the ground all winter, waiting for the\\nwarm spring sunshine to wake it up.\\n4. THE pla:n^t organs\\nThe tissues are but the materials of which the working\\npart of the plants is made, and these working parts we\\ncall Organs,\\nhall s phys. 2", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "18 rHYSIOLOGY\\nWe have already spoken of the leaf as the organ of\\nbreathing. On its surface both above and below are cells\\nthrough wliich the oxygen passes. The leaf is formed of\\nthe three kinds of tissue. Inside is the living part or\\nprotoplasm, kept in place by the supporting tissues, the\\nveins, and the whole leaf covered by the protecting tissue\\nor skin.\\nThe work of feeding is shared by two organs, the leaf\\nAvliich gets the gaseous food from the air, and the root,\\nwhich gets the liquid food from the ground. This organ\\nis composed of all three tissues. In large plants the main\\npart of the root is supporting tissue, whose work is to\\nhold it upright and firmly fixed in the ground but each\\nlarge branch of tlie root has a thin coat of active tissue\\nunder its bark. In small plants like the little corn plant,\\nthe main part of the root is active tissue, composed of\\nfine rootlets and root hairs, all filled with protoplasm and\\nsap, and held in form and made strong by the cellulose,\\nand covered and protected by the skin.\\nThe stem with its branches is the organ of form, and\\ngives to the plant its shape. Without this part the plant\\ncould not grow tall, nor send out arms, nor have any of\\nthe beautiful forms which plants now take. It would lie\\nflat and formless.\\nThe little corn plant which we have been studying has\\nno other organs than the root, stem, and leaf, but in a\\nmature plant there is still anotlier organ, the flower, to\\nwdiich is given the highest work of the plant. The\\nflower often adds beauty, color, and fragrance, but these\\nthings are not its real work. Its work is the making of\\na new plant of the same kind as the parent plant, and this\\nis the crowning work of the whole plant. During the\\nentire summer the leaves breathe in oxygen, the roots", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 19\\ntake in food, the veins carry it all over the plant body, all\\nto give the plant strength to form the seed, which holds\\nthe sleeping plant for the following year. This work of\\nmaking the seed and storing up within it the food for the\\nyoung plant is so hard that it requires the help of the\\nwhole plant. But, as upon the seed depends the future\\ngood of the plant family, so each plant gives its work for\\nthe family good.\\nIt is so important that the plant prepare this seed and\\nripen it that if it cannot get the proper food and drink\\nfor growth and seed making, instead of using what it\\ndoes get for its own growth, it sacrifices its growth and\\nhastens to form the flower, which in turn will produce the\\nseed and insure the next year s plant.\\n5. THE SEED AND WHAT IT CONTAINS\\nWe have talked about the young plant and its needs;\\nthe growing plant and its needs the material from which\\nthe plant is made and the organs of the plant and their\\nwork. The most important organ we found to be the\\nflower, and its most important work the making of the\\nseed. Now we will talk about the seed and its material.\\nLet us look first at the outside. Here is a seed that has\\nbeen in water for three or four days (Fig. 1, page 11). If\\nyou use a penknife or a pin, you can loosen the outside\\npart or skin. Look at it and see how tough it is. When\\nit was on the kernel, it looked yellow, but when it is taken\\noff, it looks colorless, and we now know that the color\\nshowed through and that the skin itself is transparent.\\nDid you notice where the skin stopped? If you look\\ncarefully enough, you will see that the point of the seed is\\nnot covered. This is where the kernel is fastened to the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "20 PHYSIOLOGY\\ncob. The skin is entire over the seed except over this\\npoint.\\nNow we have taken off the skin and can see the body of\\nthe kerneh Look at the soaked kernel in which the parts\\nhave become swollen and are more easily seen. Now the\\nlittle plant or germ can be loosened from the other part\\nwhich is the plant food. In this seed that has been in the\\nwarm earth for five or six days the parts of the germ can\\nbe seen the point which grows upward called the jjlum-\\nule, and the point which grows down called the radicle.\\nNotice that what was a groove in the dry seed has filled\\nout in this soaked seed, and in the seed that has been\\ngrowing for a week we can see the root growing down-\\nAvard from the pointed end of the seed, and the plumule\\ngrowing upward from the middle of the side of the kernel\\nin which the germ lay. Notice that on one side of the\\nkernel there is a little bed of soft yellowish substance, in\\nthe midst of which the germ lies. This soft yellowish\\nsubstance forms the first food of the little plant when\\nit wakes up or sprouts in the spring.\\nIt will be interesting to find of what the seed and the\\ngerm are composed.\\nThe germ itself is composed largeh^ of protoplasm\\nwithin thin cellulose walls and covered with a thin skin.\\nAround this tender germ is a layer that is nearlj^ all pro-\\ntoplasm or proteid, and around that layer is the main part\\nof the seed, which is starch. On each side of the ker-\\nnel is a yellow part which contains the oil mixed with\\nstarch, and besides these materials are some minerals,\\nsuch as salt and lime.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 21\\nEXPERIMENTS\\nGet five cents worth of iodine from the drug store.\\nDilute a part of this with water to a light brown color.\\nMake a thin paste of laundry starch boiled with water.\\n1. Put some of this paste in a drinking glass. Pour\\ninto the starch a little of the dilute iodine, and notice that\\nthe starch instantly tnrns to a beautiful blue color. This\\nis called the iodine test for stai^ch.\\n2. Put a little piece of lean meat in some of the strong\\niodine and notice that the meat turns brown. This is the\\niodijie test for proteid (see page 85).\\n3. Cut some thin slices across a soaked grain of corn\\nput them into any little shallow dish like a watch crystal\\nor a butter dish, and notice that the white part of the\\nkernel turns blue, showing the presence of starch and\\nthat the yellow part around the germ turns brown, show-\\ning the presence of proteid there. The germ itself turns\\nbrown becanse its protoplasm is one kind of proteid.\\n4. Remember that the kernel contains the first food\\nof the plant that this food is composed of starch, of\\nproteid, and of oil that iodine turns starch blue and\\nproteid brown.\\n6. PLANT DIGESTION\\nWe know that as plants eat thej^ must have food, and\\nthat it must be in a form in which the plants can use it.\\nAs they can take no solid food, they must take all of their\\nnourishment in the form either of gas or of liquid, and as\\nmany foods are not soluble in water, there must be some\\nother process which changes them to a liquid form. This\\nchange is called digestion.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "22 PHYSIOLOGY\\nPlant digestion is of two kinds, the digestion of the\\nseed food^ which takes phice within the seed when the\\ngerm first wakes up and is feeding upon the food stored\\nfor it by the parent plant and the digestion of the soil\\nfood^ which the roots take up from the ground.\\nIt often hapjjens that both kinds of digestion are going\\non at the same time for example, when the wakened\\ngerm is living mainly upon the seed food, but has sent out\\none or two roots which bring in new material from the\\nground. As the roots can take only liquid food and the\\nleaves only gaseous food, all changes in the food or\\ndigestion must take place outside of the plant body.\\nTherefore the plant has and needs no digestive organs,\\nbut it does have digestive fluids, which it sends out to\\ndissolve mineral matter or to change it into a liquid that\\ncan be taken up.\\nWe found a large part of the kernel of corn to be\\nstarch but if you were to examine the plant itself, j^ou\\nwould find no starch at all, and yet the germ plant lives\\nupon that stored-up starch. It is evident then that\\nsome change must have taken place in the food.\\nThe foods that are found in seeds are either sugar,\\nstarch, oil, proteid, or cellulose, and all of these excepting\\nthe sugar must be digested before they can be used by the\\ngrowing germ, and must be digested by some ferment.\\nDo you know what is meant by a ferment? If you put\\ncorn or beans to soak in water for several days, 3^ou will\\nfind that the water becomes cloudy and has tiny bubbles\\non top that shows the work of a ferment. The same\\nferment will not digest all the kinds of food which seeds\\ncontain, but it requires one kind of ferment for oil, one\\nkind for proteid, and another for starch and cellulose.\\nKnowing that the food cannot be digested without a", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 23\\nferment, we naturally want to know where this ferment\\ncomes from and what it does.\\nLet us go back to our first lessons, and we shall find that\\nthe plant germ sleeps in the seed until it is wakened by\\nthe action of the heat and moisture working together. If\\nthe germ has only water or only heat, it sleeps on, but\\nwhen it has both in the right amount, it wakens.\\nBears and some other animals sleep during the winter\\nin some warmly covered, dark place, neither eating nor\\ndrinking, and breathing but slightly. In the spring they\\nwaken and are so hungry that when we wish to express\\ngreat hunger we say as hungry as a bear.\\nThe germ within the seed also sleeps during the winter\\nand wakens in the spring as hungry as a bear. The\\nmother plant had prepared for this hunger, and right at\\nhand the wakening germ finds food. When the proto-\\nplasm is wakened, it forms a ferment out of its own sub-\\nstance, and this ferment digests the different foods. One\\nkind of ferment digests the starch and cellulose, another\\nkind digests the oils, and still another the proteid matter.\\nAfter the food has been acted upon by the ferment it is\\nready for the plant to use in building up new parts.\\nAll the seed foods are digested in this way; but when\\nthe plant becomes old enough and strong enough to put\\nout roots and to produce root hairs, then the plant uses\\nanother kind of digestion. The young plant carries on\\nfirst the ferment digestion and then both kinds of digestion\\nat once until the seed food is all used up.\\nFrom the soil the plant takes up mineral food, of which\\nit could get very little from the seed.\\nA plant must have mineral matter to make it strong\\nenough to stand upright.\\nThe minerals of the soil are solid, and are not soluble", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "24 PHYSIOLOGY\\nin water. If they were, the rains would wash them away,\\nas they have washed the soluble salt, into the sea.\\nBefore minerals can be used as plant food they must be\\ndissolved, and water will not do it. A way has been pro-\\nvided by means of the root hairs. These root hairs make\\nan acid whicli dissolves the grains of mineral matter which\\nare held close to the root by the close-growing root hairs.\\nAs soon as the mineral is dissolved it is taken up by the\\nroot hairs, forms a part of the sap, and thence is carried\\nall over the plant, where it is built up into the growing\\ntissues, giving it that firmness which only mineral food\\ncan give. Some of the minerals used are quite common\\nto us, as the lime and salt, but others quite as useful to\\nthe plant are not so well known to us. Some plants\\nrequire more of one mineral, and others more of another\\nkind, and this is one reason why different plants require\\ndifferent soils, and why it is better not to grow one kind\\nof grain on a field year after year, but to change each\\nyear, thus having a rotation of crops.\\nREVIEW OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY\\nThe Plant Needs:\\nWater\\nHeat\\nLight\\nGaseous, Carbon dioxide\\nj\\nOxygen\\nThe Plant Substance f Of leaves\\n-r* X 1 J Of stem\\nActive Protoplasm i\\n1 Of roots\\nOf root hairs\\nSupporting] J^^ j^^^\\nProtecting Skin\\nFluid: Sap\\nTissues", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "PLANT PHYSIOLOGY\\n25\\nGerm\\nThe Seed\\nDigested by ferments secreted by plant germ.\\nThe Plant Organs\\nLeaf organ for breathing and eating gas.\\nStem organ for form.\\nRoot organ for eating.\\nFloAver organ for producing a new plant.\\nf Skin\\nPlumule\\nRadicle\\nSugar\\nStarch\\nFood Oil\\nI Proteid\\nCellulose\\nThe Plant Digestion:\\nOf Seed Food:\\nSugar\\nStarch\\nCellulose\\nProteid\\nOil\\nOf Soil Foods: Mineral matter digested by and absorbed by the\\nroot hairs.\\nThe Plant Economy\\nIn Food stored for future use\\nRoot\\nUnderground\\nAerial\\nSeed\\nIn Sleep during the Winter:\\nGerm plant sleeps in seed.\\nAdult plant sleeps.\\nIn eating Carbon dioxide.\\nIn breathing oxygen^ to get the energy which the plant needs to do\\nits work.\\nIn changing mineral matter to vegetable tissue which is built up\\ninto the plant.\\nStem", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "26 PHYSIOLOGY\\nTHE RELATION OF PLANTS TO ANIMALS\\nPlants can digest minerals and change them to a form\\nwhich the animal may use.\\nPlants can eat carbon dioxide and water, and from\\nthese two substances can make sugar, starch, and oil, all\\nof which are used by animals for food.\\nCarbon dioxide is harmful to animals. As the plants\\nconsume it they make the atmosphere more healthful for\\nthe animals. Thus animals owe a great debt to the plants.\\nPlants could not do these wonderful things if it were\\nnot for the sunshine. Thus we see that all nature is\\nbound together into one great harmonious whole.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II. -THE CELLS, TISSUES AND\\nORGANS OF THE BODY\\n1. THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY\\nIx our study of the plant we found that its body is com-\\nposed of organs; namely, the root, stem, leaves, and flowers.\\nWe found that each one of these parts of the plant body\\ndid a special part of the work which the plant has to do.\\nIn a similar way the body of every animal is composed of\\norgans, and each organ has a particular work to do. The\\nstomach is an organ whose work is to digest food the heart\\nis an organ whose work is to pump the blood through the\\narteries and veins to the various parts of the body. The\\nskin is an organ whose principal work is to protect the\\nsensitive organs which it covers.\\nThe skin is a coat which the body always wears. In\\nour cool and changeable climate the skin does not furnish\\nenough protection, so that animals are furnished by Mother\\nNature with thick, warm coats of fur. But man is endowed\\nwith higher faculties than are the lower animals and, left\\nupon his own resources, he makes for himself a thick, warm\\ngarment. He uses various materials, weaves them into\\nfabrics, and then combines the fabrics into a garment.\\nThis garment, which we will suppose is a coat, is an organ,\\nperfectly adapted to do a special kind of service for the\\nman.\\nLet us study this artificial organ, this coat, to see how\\nit is constructed. It has a thicker outside and a thinner\\n27", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "28 PHYSIOLOGY\\nlining. It may also have a middle layer to make it warmer\\nthat is, better adapted for its work. These layers of which\\nthe coat is composed are of fabrics that is, they are tissues.\\nAny piece of cloth is a fabric or tissue. But how are\\nthese fabrics constructed If you examine a piece of\\ncloth, you will find that it is made of threads woven\\ntogether. If you examine a thread, you will find that\\nit is composed of fibers. So that this artificial organ,\\na man s coat, is composed of fabrics or tissues the tissues\\nare composed of fibers or bundles of fibers.\\nIn a similar way organs of the body are composed of\\nvarious layers of tissues, and these in turn are composed of\\nfibers, and bundles of fibers woven together. Some tissues\\nare composed not of a woven layer of fibers, but of tiny\\nglobular, cylindrical, or rectangular bodies set side by side\\nlike the bricks or blocks in a pavement. These little\\nbodies are called cells.\\nSo we may remember that the body is composed of\\norgans, the organs are composed of tissues, and the tissues\\nare composed of fibers or cells.\\n2. THE CELL\u00e2\u0080\u0094 WHAT IT IS AND WHAT IT DOES\\nIf one looks very closely at a slice of watermelon, he\\nwill be able to see that it is composed of tiny spherical\\nglobules lying side by side. They are almost too small\\nto see without the help of a magnifying glass, and yet\\nthere are few plants which have larger cells, and most\\nplants have smaller ones, too small, in fact, to be seen\\nwithout a magnifying glass or a large microscope.\\nThe compound microscope was invented by a Hollander\\nabout three hundred years ago, but little practical use was\\nmade of it until a century later, when it began to be used", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGxVNS\\n29\\nfor the study of plant and animal tissues. It was very\\nsoon discovered that plant tissues are composed of little\\nchambers which are spherical, cylindrical, cubical, pris-\\nmatic, spindle-shaped, or irregular in form. The early\\nworkers with the microscope chose the name cell for these\\nlittle chambers. When it was discovered that the cells\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Jtn\\nv^\\nv*fs\\nFig. 3. Diagram of a cell. [After Wilson.] Notice in this diagram of a\\ntypical cell the cell protoplasm, composed of cell plasm and cell lymph, and\\ncontaining cell foods (C/.) and cell sap (C.8.). The large spherical nucleus\\nhas a true nucleolus {t.n.) a false nucleolus (/m.) a nuclear network (W.n.)\\nand nuclear lymph {N.L). c is the centrosome.\\nwere usually filled with a liquid, it was not known how\\nimportant this liquid is.\\nIt was found out later that the liquid inside the little\\nchambers is alive and is of far more consequence than the\\nhouse in which it lives. The living substance is called\\nprotoplasm. Each little globule of protoplasm builds a\\nwall around itself. At first this wall was called a cell.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "30\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\ni\\\\^-\\nt.n.\\nNow we use the Avord cell for the globule of living proto-\\nplasm together with its wall,\\nProtophism is not a clear liquid like water, but is com-\\nposed of a network Avhose meshes are filled with a clear\\nwatery fluid which is called cell lymph. The network is\\ncomposed of threads or strands of a grayish, sticky sub-\\nstance called cell plasm. The cell plasm is filled with\\nminute grains. If the\\nreader makes a care-\\nful study of Figure 3,\\nhe will find all of\\nthe parts mentioned\\nabove and in addi-\\ntion to these he will\\nfind the spherical\\nnucleus in the middle\\nof the cell. The\\nnucleus has a wall,\\na network whose\\nmeshes are filled with\\nlymph, and holds two\\nsmall spherical bod-\\nies, the true and the\\nfalse nucleoli.\\nIf the reader now\\nstudies Figure 4, he\\nwill see practically\\nthe same parts in a different combination. This cell is\\na plant cell, and the cell sap is much more abundant in\\nproportion to the protoplasm than is the case in the animal\\ncell. All plant cells have walls. Sometimes the walls\\nof a plant cell are very thick.\\nAnimal cells differ from plant cells in two very impor-\\np c/.\\n~v-- pr.\\nFig. 4. A typical i^lant cell. [Bastin.]\\nPr. shows the protoplasm, with its granules,\\nbut the network is not shown. The cell sap\\n{c.s.) occupies a very large part of the cell.\\nThe cell food (c./.) makes a prominent addi-\\ntion to the figures. N, the nucleus, contains\\nthe true nucleus {t.n.). This cell had seven\\nboundary cells.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n31\\ntant ways (1) they have a very thin membranous wall\\nor perhaps no wall at all (2) they have one or two small\\ncollections of cell sap, or more frequently no sap at all.\\nStudy Figures 5 and 6 and compare them carefully with\\n4.\\nc.\\nD.\\nE.\\nF.\\nFig. 5. Typical cells of animals and plants.\\nA cell such as found in the lining of the windpipe. The little hairs on the\\ntop keep moving quickly in one direction and slowly in the other, and\\nthus carry dust and mucus up to the throat from the lungs.\\nA cell from the windpipe, or nose, or intestine. This kind of cell is called\\na goblet cell. It is full of clear mucus. From time to time the cell\\nempties out its mucus.\\nA cell from the stomach. This kind of a cell helps the stomach to digest\\nthe food. Its part of the work is to help make the gastric juice.\\nOne of the blood cells.\\nA plant cell. Notice the numerous vacuoles filled with cell sap (C.s.) the\\ncell protoplasm (C.p.) filled with innumerable tiny granules; the little\\nmasses of cell food ((7./ the large nucleus with its nucleoli and network.\\nThe cell has a heavy wall, and one can see where seven other cells join it.\\nA typical animal cell [Wilson]. C.p., cell plasm C.I., cell lymph; C/.,\\ncell food C.s., cell sap W., nucleus n., nucleolus.\\nFigures 3 and 4. Remember that the important part of a\\ncell is the living protoplasm^ and that the protoplasm is\\ncomposed of a network of cell plasm^ whose meshes are\\nfilled with cell lymph; that the cell contains the nucleus^\\nwhich has a network and nuclear lymph and contains one,", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "32\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\ntwo, or three nucleoli; that there maj^ be little masses of\\ncell food and small globules of cell sap and, finally, that\\nthe plant cell nearly always lias a\\nthick cell wall while the animal\\ncell usually has a very delicate\\nmembranous wall.\\nTHE CELL, AND WHAT IT\\nDOES (continued).\\nFkom the preceding lesson we\\nhave learned something about the\\nparts of a cell. It seems wonder-\\nful that all these parts can be\\nfound within an object too small\\nto be seen without a microscope.\\nWhen we learn of the work which\\nthe cell is doing and the part which\\nit plays in the world, it will all\\nseem like a fairy story, but all\\nFig. 6. A typical animal cell, of the facts to be givcii here have\\nNotice that in this cell all the t i-\\nparts except the cell sap may been observed many times by men\\nbe found. [Verworn.] ^yiio devote their livcs to the study\\nof these problems.\\nEvery one has noticed the green powder which collects\\nupon the tree trunks, fence posts, and stones or bricks\\nwhich are in damp places out of doors. If one were to\\nput a few grains of this green dust in a drop of water\\nupon a glass and look at it with a strong microscope, he\\nwould find each grain to be spherical in shape, to have a\\ntransparent cell wall, and to be filled with a grayish mass\\nin which may be seen many tiny green granules. These\\nlittle spherical bodies are cells. Each one is a complete", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n33\\nplant (Fig. 7). Its green granules are the same as those\\nwhich make the corn, wheat, grass, and trees green in\\nFig. 7. Protococcus, a dustlike, one-celled green plant, seen as a powder\\nupon the trunks of trees, upon fences, stones, etc. In 6, c, and d is shown\\nthe way in which the mother cell divides up into two, three, or more daughter\\ncells. After division the cells may remain together in a colony, as in h or c,\\nor they may separate, as shown in d.\\ncolor. If one examines under a microscope a drop of\\nwater from a pool or pond that has been standing stag-\\nnant for several weeks\\nduring the summer, he\\nis sure to find little\\ngreen bodies similar\\nto the ones we have\\njust studied. These\\nare cells also. Some\\nof them have little\\nmoving hairs whose\\nwhiplike motions pro-\\npel the cells through\\nthe water (Fig. 8).\\nEach of these one-\\ncelled plants leads an\\nindependent life. Each\\nreceives the light and\\nwarmth of the sun in\\nits green granules.\\nEach eats carbon dioxide gas and water each makes\\nsugar, and starch, and protoplasm. Each begins as a\\nhall s phts. 3\\na h c\\nFig. 8. One-celled water plants. One of them\\nhas a little whiplike tail whose rapid\\nmovements propel the plant through the\\nwater something like the swimming of a\\ntadpole. But they are so small that hun-\\ndreds of them would have plenty of room\\nin a drop of water, h and c are Desmids,\\nchiefly noticeable for their beauty.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "34\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nvery small cell and grows larger and larger until it\\nbecomes a grown up or adult cell. Each one raises\\na family of daughter cells, as they are called. Finally\\neach one gets old and dies.\\nIf one examines under a microscope a drop of water\\nwhich he has taken, with a glass tube, from the slimy\\nbottom of a stagnant pool, he is likelj^ to see little glob-\\nular or irregular grayish bodies, which keep changing\\nFig. 9. An Amoeba, a shows the animal in a resting stage or asleep, b shows\\nit as it starts out for something to eat. c and d show it coming in contact\\nwith a diatome and swallowing it through a mouth made for the occasion.\\nshape and creeping across the glass on which the water\\nlies. These curious objects are living creatures which\\nbelong to the animal kingdom.\\nThese little animals are called Amoehce, When an\\namoeba sleeps or rests, or when it is afraid, it draws\\nup into a ball (Fig. 9, a). When an amoeba gets hungry,\\nit projects feet right out of its side anywhere. With\\nthese false feet, as they are called, it creeps over the\\nsurface on which it rests until it comes to some object\\nwhich it can eat, when it opens a mouth anywhere and\\ntakes the object in. The figure (Fig. 9, 6?) shows the\\namoeba in the act of swallowing a little one-celled plant.\\nThe amoeba grows larger as it grows older. After a", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n35\\nwhile it becomes an adult mother amoeba then it di-\\nvides into two daughter amoebae. This process of raising\\na family is shown in Figure 10.\\nMention has already been made of the movements made\\nby the plant (Fig. 8) and by the hungry amoeba. If one\\nbreaks off a slimy spray of a fine water plant and looks at\\nFig. 10. An adult amoeba dividing into two daughter amoebse. Notice that\\neach daughter has a share of the parent nucleus, as well as a share of the\\nparent protoplasm. [Hall.]\\nit under a microscope, he is likely to find some interesting\\nlittle animals like those shoAvn in Figure 11. The most\\nnoticeable feature of these one-celled animals is that when\\neverything is quiet they extend the stem to its full length\\nand open their bells as wide as possible. Each of these\\nanimals has a row of hairlike arms or tentacles called\\ncilia around the bell. When anything disturbs, startles,\\nor irritates them, they instantly fold the bells in, draw the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "36\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\ncilia together, and contract the stem until they occupy\\nthe smallest possible space. This all shows that they\\nare sensitive^ and that\\nthey can respond to a\\nstimulus.\\nRemember that all\\ncells begin as small\\nyoung cells and grow\\nup to adult life by eat-\\ning; that all cells have\\nto work for their living;\\nthat all cells breathe in\\noxygen and breathe out\\ncarbon dioxide gas that\\nall cells are sensitive to\\nthings or conditions out-\\nFiG. 11. A Stentor {a, b) and a Voi^ticella -i i\\n(c, c7). a and c show these little one-celled SlCle 01 tliemselves and\\nanimals relaxed, with the bell open, and that many cells have the\\nthe little hairs around the mouth of the\\nbell waving the particles of food into the pOWer 01 motlOll.\\nopen mouth of the bell, h and c show\\nboth animals contracted after something i i\\nhas startled them. [Verworn.] plants and animals con-\\nsist of only one cell.\\nRemember that many\\n4. TISSUES HOW THEY ARE MADE AND WHAT\\nTHEY DO\\nIf you will turn back to Figure 7 and Figure 10, jovl\\nwill see that full-grown plant cells and full-grown animal\\ncells divide into two or more young cells which begin life\\nas small, restless, hungry cells which forage for food, eat\\nravenously, and grow rapidly into adult cells. In the\\namoeba the daughter cells separate, and each one goes off\\nby itself where it must fight its own battles single handed.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n37\\nThere are man) little water animals larger and stronger\\nthan the anKpba, which hunt for it, and when they find it\\ndevour it as a tender\\nand nourishing mor-\\nsel. The little green\\nplant, Protococcus,\\nshows us something\\nnew. Notice that in\\nh and c (Fig. T) the\\ndaughter cells do not\\nseparate, as do those\\nin 6?, but remain to-\\ngether in a little\\nfamily or colony.\\nFigure 12 shows a\\nplant of a higher\\norder than the pro-\\ntococcus. It is placed\\nin a higher rank be-\\ncause it is better fitted for the varying conditions of life.\\nHow is it better fitted Just as a colony of men is better\\nfitted than one person to meet the dangers of a pioneer\\nlife, so is a colony of cells better fitted to meet the dangers\\nwhich exist in the pond or on the tree trunk. In union\\nis strength. The enemy strong enough to overcome an\\nindividual easily does not dare to attack a colony, and\\nthus the dangers are lessened. There is another great\\nadvantage in colonial life. Notice that both the colonial\\nanimal and the colonial plant have two kinds of cells.\\nThe outer cells of the little plant in Figure 12 are pro-\\nvided with delicate whiplike arms. With these arms the\\nouter cells move the whole colony through the water or\\nalong the bottom of the pond or aquarium. The outer\\nFig. 12. A little water plant composed of a\\ncolony of cells held together by a mass of\\ngelatinous substance. [Verworn.]", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "38 PHYSIOLOGY\\ncells of the little sponge are similarly provided with whip-\\nlike arms, whicli have little cups into which they may\\nwithdraw for protection (Fig. 13).\\nIn a similar way the individuals in a colony of men do\\nnot all perform the same kind of work, but some will be\\nbuilders, others will groAv grain and vegetables, and so\\non, each being especially fitted for his own work.\\nFig. 13. A little animal, a kind of sponge, composed of a colony of cells held\\ntogether by a mass of gelatinous substance. [Verworn.]\\nNature has used this principle of the colony and has\\nproduced all the higher plants and animals in harmony\\nwith the principles which govern a colony or community.\\nThe largest animal or plant is only a great colony of cells,\\neach cell having its special work to perform. In a large\\ncolony or community of people, there will be a great\\nmany who devote their Avhole energy to producing the\\nthings which serve for nourishment or nutrition others\\nwill devote themselves to transportation, carrying nour-\\nishment and building material from one place to another\\nothers will be builders others will be the protectors and", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n39\\nserve in the army or on tlie police force. In a similar\\nAvay the cells of the digestive system of an animal are\\nengaged in preparing food the cells of the circulatory\\nsystem are engaged in transporting this food to all parts\\nof the body where it is needed the cells of the cuticle,\\nhair, nails, are engaged in j)i otecting the body.\\nAny group of similar cells engaged in a similar work\\nmakes a tissue. Tissues may be composed of cells alone\\nFig. 14. A thin slice of cartilage or gristle. Slice a shows the clear, brittle\\ncartilage which is found at the ends of bones. Slice h shows the yellowish,\\ntough cartilage which forms the cushions between the vertebrae. [From\\nMiller s Histology.\\nor of cells together with substances which the cells have\\nformed and which they use in their work. A transporta-\\ntion system consists not only of the men directing it, but\\nof their railroads, trains, and so forth. So a tissue may\\nconsist of more than the simple cell bodies. Figures 12\\nand 13 show between the cells a gelatinous substance\\nmade by the cells for the purpose of holding the cells\\ntogether in a colony. This gelatinous substance together\\nwith the cells makes a tissue. The little plant and animal\\nshown above (Figs. 12 and 13) are really tissues, but\\nmore complex plants and animals may be composed of\\nmany tissues.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "40 PHYSIOLOGY\\nFigure 14 sIioays a thin slice of cartilage or gristle as it\\nwould look under a high-power microscope. Cartilage is\\na tissue of the human body used princij)ally in the joints.\\nFigure 15 sliows connective tissue fibers woven into a\\nnetwork. In both the cartilage and the connective tissue\\nthe cells are of much less importance than tlie substance,\\nFig. 15. Connective or supporting tissue taken from beneath the skin.\\nNotice that there is a loose network of wavy bundles of fibers, also a net-\\nwork of threadlike fibers. All of these fibers were formed by the cells which\\nyou see lying in the meshes. [Schaefer.]\\nmatrix, or fibers, which they have formed. In fact, the\\nwork of the connective tissue cells is done Avhen they\\nhave made the connective tissue fibers. The fibers do\\nthe work of the connective tissue.\\n5. ORGANS HOW FORMED AND HOW GROUPED\\nIx a previous lesson the coat was likened to an organ,\\nand its various fabrics (outside, lining, and padding) to\\nthe various tissues which compose an organ. The stom-\\nach is an organ. It is composed (1) of a smooth, shiny\\nouter layer (2) of a muscular layer (3) of a layer of\\nloose connective tissue, like that shown in Figure 15\\nand (4) of a layer of cells set close together like the", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n41\\nblocks or bricks in a pavement. The work of the stomacli\\nis to help digest the food. To do this work of the stom-\\nach, the inner layer of\\ncells is needed to make\\nthe digestive fluid.\\nThe connective tissue\\nis a supporting tissue.\\nThe muscle tissue\\ncauses the churning\\nmovements which the\\nstomach makes when\\nit is digesting food\\nand the outside, Fig. 16. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Diagram of a slice of the wall of the\\nsmooth, shiny layer stomach mucous membrane; Sub-\\nmucosa; (7, muscular coat D fibrous coat\\nis supporting tissue E, internal circular layer of muscular fiber\\nwhich mves form to external, oblique, and longitudinal mus-\\ncular layers.\\nthe stomach and cov-\\ners the muscles to protect them. So we see that the\\nstomach is an organ with a general work to do, and that\\nit is composed of tissues, each of which has a special part\\nof the work. Now each one of the tissues is composed of\\ncells which are practically all alike. For example, all of\\nthe cells of the muscular coat are alike and all work to-\\ngether doing the same kind of Avork. All of the cells\\nwhich make up the inner lining of the stomach are alike\\nand work together to make the fluid which digests the\\nfood in the stomach. Figure 16 shows how a piece of\\nthe wall of the stomach would look under a microscope.\\nThe intestine is an organ. Its general work is to assist\\nin the digestion of food. It is composed of four layers of\\ntissue quite like the stomach.\\nThe pancreas (^pan kre-as) is an organ. Its work is to\\nmake a fluid which is sent through a little tube into the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "42\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nintestine, Avliere it helps to digest the food. The pancreas\\nis a glandular organ. Glandular organs are composed of\\nmany tubes lying close together. Each tube is surrounded\\nby cells set together like blocks\\nin a pavement. Figure 17\\nshows a very simple gland.\\nThe pancreas is composed of\\nmany hundreds of crooked\\ntubes, all lined with cells which\\nmake the digestive fluid.\\nSYSTEMS OF ORGA^^S\\nFig. 17. Diagram illustrating\\nthe plan of a gland. A, cells\\nwhich line the gland B, blood-\\nvessels; C, connective tissue.\\n[From Miller s Histology.]\\nWe have been studying or-\\ngans. We found that the stom-\\nacli is a digestive organ the\\nintestine is a digestive organ,\\nand the pancreas also. There\\nare other organs which assist in digestion the mouth,\\nwith its teeth, tongue, and salivary glands, prepares the\\nfood for swallowing the esophagus Qe-sof^a-gus^ is the\\ntube which carries the food to the stomach. Then\\nthe stomach and intestine hold the food while it is being\\ndigested by the fluids made in the stomach, intestine, and\\npancreas. All of these organs work together in the prep-\\naration and digestion of food, and we call them collectively\\nthe Digestive System,\\nIn a similar way there are numerous organs which all worli\\ntogether to carry the blood all over the body. All of these\\norgans taken together are called the Circulatory System^,\\nTlie organs which work together to bring oxygen into\\nthe body and carry the carbon dioxide out of the body\\nmake the Respiratory System,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "REVIEW OF CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS 43\\nRemember that the Qreneral kinds of work the sfen-\\neral functions of the body are performed by systems\\ncomprising several different organs that each organ has\\na particular part of a general function to perform that\\nevery organ is composed of tissues and that each tissue\\nassists the organ to do its work.\\nHYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF THE CELLS\\nIn every normal cell is to be found matter in three con-\\nditions the matter that is actually living, that which has\\nlived, and that which is about to live. To maintain these\\nthree states there must be constant activity, a constant\\nmerging of the first state into the second, and the second\\ninto the third. Anything that interferes with this activ-\\nity interferes wdth the health of the cells, with the Avork\\nthey have to do, and with the vitality of the tissues which\\nthey compose.\\nThe cells cannot work actively if deprived of a sufficient\\namount of the oxygen of the air. Whoever sits or sleeps\\nin close, unventilated rooms decreases the healthful activ-\\nity of the cells. Whoever takes an insufficient amount of\\nexercise does the same thing, because this leads to a slug-\\ngish flow of the blood which brings oxygen to the cells.\\nSome substances, when brought into contact with the\\nliving matter of the cells, stimulate or increase their ac-\\ntivity, other substances check this, and others stop it\\naltogether. The checking, if continued, results in the\\ndeath of the cell. A few cells may die without causing\\nthe death of the tissue.\\nThe effect of various substances upon the living cell\\nmay be watched under a microscope. If bathed with a\\nproper food substance, the cell may be seen to expand and\\ngrow and move more actively. If bathed in an astringent", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "44 PHYSIOLOGY\\nsubstance like tea, it shrinks up into a ball, and ceases its\\nmovements until restored. If bathed with a liquid con-\\ntaining a very small proportion of alcohol, its activity will\\ncease, and, unless the proportion is very small, it cannot\\nbe again revived.\\nPlant protoplasm is so much like animal protoplasm as\\nto render it likely that what will injure the one will injure\\nthe other also. Alcohol, in even small proportions, does\\ninjure plant protoplasm.\\nThe London Lancet for June 16, 1900, quotes Dr. J.\\nJ. Ridge as saying that healthy cell life, both of plants\\nand of animals, is impossible in the presence of minute\\nquantities of alcohol. This is because the cells cannot\\nthen take in enough oxygen, and cannot cast out the\\nwaste matter from their bodies.\\nEven in extremely minute proportions, alcohol pre-\\nvents or retards the sprouting of seeds, and kills or stunts\\nthe growth of the seedlings that are developed. As small\\na proportion as one of alcohol in eight hundred of water\\nwill have a powerfully poisonous effect. The moderate\\ndrinker of alcohol dissolves in his blood, and by means of\\nthe blood conveys to the living active cells of his brain,\\nliver, kidneys, and other organs, a much greater propor-\\ntion than one in eight hundred, at least once and often\\nseveral times each day.\\nAlcohol exerts an exceedingly harmful action on rap-\\nidly growing tissues, interfering with their nutrition, and\\npreventing the development of their proper action. In\\nold age, when the tissues are on the down grade, and are\\nsubject to various degenerations, alcohol, in most cases,\\nmerely accelerates the process of decay.\\n1 Professor William Carter, M.D.\\n2 Professor G. Sims Woodliead, Cambridge, England.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "REVIEW OF CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS 45\\nTobacco injures the cells of the body by making them\\nless active.\\nWhen we review what has been said about what alco-\\nhol does to living cells, we find\\n(1) The living matter in the cells of plants requires the\\nsame things for its healthy action as does the living\\nmatter in the cells of animals.\\n(2) What will injure growing plant cells will usually\\ninjure growing animal cells.\\n(3) Alcohol as found in whisky, rum, wine, brandy, or\\nbeer, even when very much diluted, will stop all healthy\\nactivity, and growth of sprouting plants.\\n(4) In the same way, alcohol in its various forms, and\\nmuch diluted, will stop, or at least injure, the healthy\\nactivity of the cells of a young person.\\n(5) Alcohol is injurious to healthy cells, tissues, and\\norgans of both plants and animals, old or young.\\nREVIEW OF CELLS, TISSUES, AND ORGANS\\n1. Plants and animals are composed of tiny particles of living sub-\\nstance. These particles are of various shapes and sizes, and are called\\nCells. Some cells are spherical, some are cylindrical, some are thin\\nand flat, some are threadlike.\\n2. Cells are composed of Protoplasm which is made up of a network\\nof living, moving Cell plasm, whose meshes are filled with the watery\\nCell lymph.\\n3. The Cell must have food to eat and air to breathe it can feel\\nand it can move. The cell is small when young it grows, and ivorks,\\nand finally dies.\\n4. Cells are grouped together in Tissues. Some stand side by side\\nlike the blocks in a pavement some overlap like the shingles upon a\\nroof, and some are woven together like the threads in a fabric.\\n5. Tissues form Organs. Each Organ has a special work to per-\\nform and the tissues assist in doing the work.\\n6. Organs are grouped into Systems of Organs.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM HOW\\nTHE DIFFERENT ORGANS ARE MADE TO\\nWORK IN HARMONY\\n1. THE NEED OF HARMONY IN THE WORKING OF\\nTHE ORGANS\\nWe have found that the plant or animal body is a\\ncolony of cells. We have found that, like a colony of\\nmen, some of the individuals (cells) have one kind of\\nwork and some another. Another very important point\\nof resemblance between the two colonies is the need for\\nharmony of action between the different individuals (cells)\\nof the colony.\\nWhen there are only a few hundred individuals in a\\nliuman colony, there is always some central controlling\\nagency. It may be a patriarch, a chief, a sheik, a king, a\\nczar, or a president, but in every case there is a controlling\\nhead to make decisions as to what to do next. This princi-\\npal controlling agency is always supplemented by a body\\nof individuals whose work is to assist in making decisions,\\nor to announce the decrees or decisions to remote parts of\\nthe colony.\\nIf a community of people were without these most\\nimportant functionaries, there would be no harmony of\\naction in time of need or of danger. Who has not seen\\nan excited company gathered at the burning of a neighbor s\\nhouse everybody giving orders which nobody obeys\\neverybody bus}^ but little or nothing accomplished.\\n46", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 47\\nPresently a captain of police or head of a fire company\\nappears upon the scene; he is experienced in the control\\nof fires and of men. He begins to command everybody\\ngives heed and obeys. There is unity of action, tliere is\\nharmony in the means used, both in the time of doing a\\nparticular thing and in the extent, to which any particular\\nwork shall be done.\\nThink how impossible it would be to accomplisli the\\nwork of a great railroad company, if there were not a\\ncentral office in which plans are laid, decisions made, and\\ncommands issued. Through immediate and explicit obe-\\ndience to these commands every individual, and every\\ngroup of individuals employed by the company work\\ntogether harmoniouslj^ for the accomplishment of the\\nimportant work which they are undertaking.\\nIn a strikingly similar way the great number of cells\\n(individuals) which make up the human body must be\\ncontrolled by some central power, or they will work at\\ncross purposes.\\nSuppose the stomach should make the digestive fluid at\\na time when there was no food in the stomach, and suppose\\nthe glands of the mouth which make the saliva should not\\nwork when the mouth was chewing the food. Then sup-\\npose after the chewed food started down the esophagus,\\nthat tube should stop contracting the dry food would\\nstick in the esophagus and have to be washed down with\\nwater. But the stomach, having already made its fluid,\\nand passed it on into the intestines, would be dry, so that\\nthe food would be moistened only by the water which\\ncame into the stomach with it. Then the food would not\\ndigest, but would ferment in the stomach and would make\\nthe person sick.\\nSo we see the. absolute necessity of having some con-", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "48 PHYSIOLOGY\\ntrivance for controlling the action of all of the organs,\\nsystems of organs, tissues, and cells. When this control\\nis perfect, the body remains in good health but when\\nsome portion of the body, even if it be ever so small a\\nportion, fails to obey the commands issued by the central\\ngoverning organ, the whole system is likely to become\\nderanged and the body become sick.\\nThe central governing organ of the human (or other\\nanimal) body is the brain. The brain is assisted by the\\nspinal cord which lies within the backbone, and by vari-\\nous organs which collect news for the brain and carry the\\nmessages for it. The brain with the spinal cord and the\\nnerves makes the general nervous system,\\n2. THE GE:N^ERAL STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS\\nSYSTEM\\nIn bringing harmony of action among those who work\\nfor a great railroad corporation, a great army, or other\\nlarge community of individuals having common interests,\\ntwo things are necessary (1) a central controlling power;\\nand (2) communication from the center to all of the dis-\\ntant parts of the company, armj^, or community.\\nIn controlling the movements of trains upon a railroad\\nsystem, messages are sent along telegraph wires to con-\\nductors hundreds of miles away, directing them what to\\ndo in order that there may be no accident. If something\\nunexpected happens in some part of the system, a message\\nis sent to the controlling center, where action is taken to\\nadapt the movements of trains to the new conditions.\\nIn a strikingly similar way the animal body possesses a\\ncentral controlling power in the brain. The brain is in\\nconstant communication with all parts of the body. Mes-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 49\\nsages are continually being sent to all parts of the system.\\nTelegraphic messages are sent over wires the brain sends\\nand receives its messages over fibers which are as fine as\\nas those of a spider s web.\\nThe telegraph wire is not a part of the telegraph opera-\\ntor, but the nerve fiber is a part of tlie operator whose\\nstation is in the brain or spinal cord. This operator is a\\nnerve cell. The brain and spinal cord are composed of\\nnerve cells with their fibers. Every nerve cell has long\\nfibers over which it sends messages away to other nerve\\ncells, and every nerve cell has at least one nerve fiber\\nor arm (most have several) through which it receives\\nmessages.\\nWhen several telegraph wires are to go side by side for\\na long distance, they are frequently bound together into a\\ncahle. In a similar way the nerve fibers which leave any\\none part of the brain or cord to go to the same general\\nregion of the body are bound together into a cable or, as\\nit is called, a nerve trunk. Nerve trunks contain, not sev-\\neral only, but many hundreds of the fine nerve fibers.\\nAlong the course of the nerve trunk branches are given\\noff, which distribute the nerve fibers to different muscles\\nand organs or to different parts of the skin along the\\ncourse of the main trunk.\\nFigure 18 shows the general form and distribution of\\nthe nervous system. The brain, within the skull, is the\\ncontrolling center. The spinal cord, which passes down an\\narched-over canal in the vertebral column, consists mostly\\nof nerve fibers wliich carry messages to and from the nerve\\ncells of the brain. There are relay stations all along the\\nspinal cord where messages are received and sent out on\\ntheir way to and from the brain.\\nAll of the white lines branching off from the spinal cord\\nhall s phys. 4", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "50\\nPHYSIOLOGr\\nFig. 18. The nervous system. .4 cerebrum 5, cerebellum; (7, the sciatic\\nnerve trunk, giving off branches as it passes down the leg.", "height": "4323", "width": "2997", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n51\\nrepresent trunks of\\nnerves which lie be-\\ntween the muscles or\\nunder the skin of the\\nbocl}^ and limbs. But\\nthere are also nerve\\ntrunks which pass from\\nthe spinal cord inward\\nto the body cavity, to\\nthe thorax and abdo-\\nmen. There is a double\\nline of ganglia along the\\nback side of the body\\ncavity. A ganglion is\\na relay station made\\nup of numerous nerve\\ncells. These ganglia\\nare about as large as a\\npea or bean. Each of\\nthe ganglia in the dou-\\nble row, mentioned\\nabove, receives a bun-\\ndle of fibers from the\\nspinal cord. Some of\\nthese fibers bring mes-\\nsages to the ganglia\\nfrom the brain or spinal\\ncord, while some of\\nthem carry messages\\nfrom the ganglion to the\\nbrain or cord.\\nEach ganglion in the\\nchain sends out nerve\\nYO^^oU^\\nFig. 19. The sympathetic nervous system.\\nNote the branches (I, II, III, etc.) from\\nthe spinal cord to the row of little globular\\nmasses or ganglia. A corresponding row\\non the right side sends branches to the\\nlarge central ganglia of the abdomen, the\\nsplanchnic {s) and the mesenteric (m).", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "52 PHYSIOLOGY\\ntrunks to organs of the thorax or abdomen, or to large\\nganglia in the midst of the abdomen. These large central\\nganglia serve a purpose similar to that of the central\\nexchange of a telephone system. They serve to put the\\norgans into either direct or indirect communication with\\neach other. Through this direct or indirect communication\\nthe activity of one organ is responded to by a correspond-\\ning activity of another. For example, the presence of\\nfood in the stomach stimulates the stomach to begin to\\nmake the churning movements, and to form the digestive\\nfluid. This activity of the stomach causes the pancreatic\\ngland to begin its work of making digestive fluid for the\\nintestine to use in its digestive work. This nervous\\ncommunication between the different organs of the body\\nenables them to work together toward common ends har-\\nmoniously. Because of this sympathetic communication\\nbetween the internal organs which these nerves and\\nganglia make they are together called the sympathetic\\nnervous system. Remember, however, that the sympa-\\nthetic nervous system is simply a part of the general\\nnervous system.\\nThrough the influence of the sympathetic nervous sys-\\ntem, the derangement or disease of one organ may cause\\nthe derangement or disease of other organs.\\n3. REFLEX ACTION AND HABIT\\nIn the previous lesson we learned that there are relay\\nstations along the spinal cord. A message sent from the\\nbrain to the muscles of the arm starts from a nerve cell\\nin the brain and follows its fibers down the spinal cord\\nto a place opposite the shoulders, where the fiber ends in a\\nlittle tuft of branches which lie among the short branches", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 53\\nof a nerve cell in the cord. The message is communicated\\nfrom, the branches of the fiber from the brain to the short\\nbranches of the nerve cell in the cord, and this cell sends\\nthe message along its fiber to the muscles. If the message\\ntells the muscle on the front of the forearm to contract,\\nthe fist will double up. When one s brain sends such a\\nmessage as that, one is conscious of it. Furthermore, one\\nknows it before the brain sends out the message so that\\none can send it or not just as he chooses.\\nThis kind of action is called Voluntary Action^ because\\none may do it or not just as one wills.\\nWhy does one will to make a certain motion Suppose\\none were hungry and had before him a piece of food.\\nThe eyes, and perhaps also the nose, would send messages\\nto the brain that is, one would see and smell the food.\\nThese sensations in the brain would arouse a desire for\\nthe food. Messages would be sent to and fro from one\\ncell to another in the brain that is, one would begin to\\nthink about the food and his need for it, and finally, per-\\nhaps in a very few moments, one would decide to take the\\nfood. Messages would be sent to various muscles the\\narm would be extended, the food grasped, the arm flexed,\\nand the food carried to the mouth, which would be opened\\nto receive it. This is a very brief and imperfect descrip-\\ntion of all that takes place in the nervous system under\\nsuch conditions. To describe it accurately and completely\\nwould require many pages. Before one stops to think\\nabout it, however, it seems to be the simplest thing in the\\nworld so simple, in fact, that a little baby too small to\\ntalk or to walk will perform every portion of the series of\\nmotions with faultless accuracy and grace.\\nLet us take another example. Suppose that one takes\\nhold of a very warm iron poker, one end of which is in", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "54 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe fire. There are nerves of sense in the skin of the\\nhand messages are sent along the fibers to nerve cells\\nwhich lie just outside of the spinal cord. From the cell a\\nfiber carries tlie message into the cord and communicates\\nit to another cell whicli carries it to the brain. When\\nthe message reaches the brain, one becomes conscious of\\nthe heat of the poker. Let us suppose that the heat is\\nsufficient to make one uncomfortable, and fear that the\\nhand may be burned if the hand is not removed. Mes-\\nsages will be sent down the cord to the proper muscles,\\nand the hand withdrawn. There we have another ex-\\nample of voluntary motion following sensation.\\nNow when the message of sensation enters the cord on\\nits way to the brain, it follows a branching fiber, only one\\nportion of which goes to the brain. The other portion\\npasses across the cord, directly or indirectly, and com-\\nmunicates with the nerve cells which control the muscles\\nof the arm and hand.\\nSuppose one touches a very hot object, the message\\nwhich is sent to the cord on its way to the brain is\\ninstantly communicated across the cord, and the nerve\\ncell of motion, without waiting to hear from the brain,\\nsends the message back to the arm, causing it to contract\\nand remove the hand from danger. This saves time and\\nfrequently decreases the danger done to a part of the\\nbody.\\nAn instant later the brain is fully conscious of all that\\nhas happened. One knows that the hand has been burned,\\nand that it was jerked away before the brain was con-\\nsulted but one always approves of the action.\\nThis intervention of the cells of the spinal cord in cases\\nof emergency is called reflex action. But the term has a\\nsomewhat wider application than simply to cases of", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 55\\nemergency. When one is learning to perform a new\\nmovement or series of movements, such as walking, skat-\\ning, riding a bicycle, writing, and playing a musical\\ninstrument, each movement is a voluntary one.^ The\\nAvhole attention is required to direct the movements of\\nthe body and its different parts. Each movement is likely\\nto be very slow and awkward. After the movement has\\nbeen made hundreds of times it requires less attention,\\nand the motions are more graceful and accurate. Finally,\\none may make long series of motions without giving them\\nany attention whatever. Walking, skating, cycling,\\nwriting, or playing a piano or violin, eventually become\\nquite automatic or mechanical.\\n4. REFLEX ACTION AND HABIT (continued)\\nLet us understand exactly what automatic motion is.\\nThe will and the thought are usually involved in auto-\\nmatic movements, but in quite a different way from that\\nwhich is observed in the beginner who must study the\\ndetails of every movement made. The practiced musi-\\ncian reads a measure or phrase of his score and wills to\\nexecute it as a whole, while the fingers fall into place\\nmore or less automatically to correspond with the thought\\nin the mind of the player. In a similar way, the writer\\nthinks words, leaving the making of each word largely to\\nthe fingers. This is especially true of the shorter and\\nmore frequently used words. The less familiar and\\nlonger words require some attention. Writing with a\\ntypewriter becomes automatic in the same way and to the\\nsame degree so also the use of the telegraph instrument.\\n1 Of course the one who finds himself on skates or on a bicycle for the first\\ntime is likely to make a good many involuntary motions, hut they are extra\\nand not necessary, though they may be a usual part of the beginner s exercise.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "56 PHYSIOLOGY\\nWhat is the difference between the first labored efforts\\nand the final automatic regularity, speed, grace, and accu-\\nracy? Practice has made one movement suggest the\\nnext, and once the combination of movements is willed\\nand the series of movements begun, all of the details of\\nthe series become reflex and are performed by the cells of\\nthe spinal cord.\\nThere is no one property of our systems of greater value\\nto us than the reflex action. If it were not for this, we\\nshould have to give every step our whole attention. In\\nfact, one could never learn to do anything gracefullj^,\\naccurately, and rapidly. One would always be like an\\nawkward, halting beginner.\\nVery much like this automatic action of the muscles,\\ndepending upon reflex action, is a certain property of the\\nnervous system which we call habit.\\nWebster defines habit as the involuntary tendency to\\nperform certain actions, which is acquired by their fre-\\nquent repetition. Further, Habit is an internal princi-\\nple which leads us to do easily, naturally, and with grow-\\ning certainty, what we do often.\\nA study of this definition of habit must make it clear\\nthat it cannot be very different from automatic action.\\nBoth are acquired gradually both make it certain that a\\nparticular series of acts will follow a particular act or\\nthought, unless the will power of the brain is used to\\nstop it.\\nHabit has a wider meaning than automatic action, and\\nincludes thoughts as well as muscular acts. One may cul-\\ntivate a habit of generosity, and a habit of erect carriage\\nwhile walking. One may cultivate habits of industry and\\nhabits of courtesy; habits of honesty and habits of gen-\\ntleness.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 57\\nEvery important function of the body and mind may be\\ndiverted from the course for which it was intended by\\nnature it then becomes as great a curse as it was a bless-\\ning Avhen rightly used. So it is with hahit. One may\\nget a habit of stinginess, and a habit of slouchy carriage\\nwhile walking. One may get habits of laziness and habits\\nof impoliteness habits of dishonesty and habits of cruelty.\\nFor every good habit there is a corresponding bad one.\\nDuring youth one is always acquiring good habits or bad\\nones. One must do one or the other he has no choice in\\nthe matter. Good habits are a safeguard during all sub-\\nsequent life bad habits are persistent enemies. It re-\\nquires years of constant effort to root them out after they\\nare once established but it is very easy to keep them out\\nin the first place.\\nHOW THE ORGANS ARE CONTROLLED REVIEW\\n1. The body is a colony or community of individual cells. Every\\ncolony or community must be controlled, or the individuals will not\\nwork in hai mony, and little will be accomplished.\\n2. The Brain is the central controlling powder of the body. Like\\na telegraph station it has operators and conductors (wires). The\\noperators are Nerve Cells, and the conductors are Nerve Fibers.\\n3. The Brain receives news from various parts of the body, the eyes,\\nthe ears, and the skin. The Brain sends messages to all parts of the\\nbody, to the muscles, the stomach, and the heart.\\n4. If one wishes to do something and then does it, w^e call the\\naction a Voluntary Action.\\n5. If the spinal cord answers a message from the skin, causing\\nmuscles to move before the brain knows what has happened, we call\\nthe action a Reflex Action.\\n6. If one performs an act many times, it becomes automatic or\\nhabitual. Automatic and habitual acts are likely to be done without\\nthinking. Habits are formed in this way.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV. NARCOTICS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THEIR NATURE,\\nTHEIR CLASSES, AND THEIR GENERAL\\nACTION UPON THE SYSTEM\\nWhen we come to study the different systems of\\norgans, as the digestive system or the circulatory system,\\nwe shall study not only the way in which the organs act\\nwhen properly cared for, but also the various things which\\ninjure the organs. Among the things which injure tlie\\nbody, one of the most important is the use of narcotics.\\nLet us devote a few lessons to the study of these sub-\\nstances.\\n1. NARCOTIC DRINKS\\nNarcotic drinks are those that dull the senses, and\\nweaken and unsteady the muscles.\\nAll alcoholic drinks come under this head. They are\\nusually called stimulating drinks, because their first effect\\nis an apparent stimulation. But they are more often\\ntaken for the dulling of the sensibilities which follows\\nand lasts longer. It is the narcotic property which dulls\\nthe senses and produces this after-effect.\\nIt lias recentl}^ been discovered that what has always\\nbeen taken for the stimulating effect of alcoholic drinks,\\nis really caused by the narcotic effect upon the self-\\nrestraint. Alcohol is not a stimulant.\\nIn the growth of the race from barbarism to civilization\\nthere has gradually come to be a restraint upon the\\n58", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "NARCOTICS\\n59\\nmeaner traits, those which cause one to be boisterous,\\nuncouth, and passionate. This restraint, being the last\\ntrait acquired, is the weakest and most easily attacked.\\nThe first effect of an alcoholic drink is to dull the power\\nof restraint, and a person feels excited, which in reality\\nmeans that he cares less what he does the next effect is\\nto dull the senses.\\nNo one training for feats of skill requiring strength\\nand accuracy is allowed the use of narcotics.\\nAlcohol is a clear liquid which looks like water, but\\nwhich burns with a blue flame, giving great heat and\\nlittle light.\\nFig. 20. The yeast plant, strongly magnified (from Landois and Stirling).\\n1, isolated yeast plants; 2, 3, gemmation; 4, formation of endogonidia or\\nspores 5, budding of spores.\\nAlcohol is the result of fermentation. If one adds\\nyeast to a dilute solution of sugar, the yeast will change\\nthe sugar to carbon dioxide and alcohol.\\nThe yeast which produces alcoholic fermentation is a\\nminute plant which grows especially well in sugar water.\\nIf one were to look at yeast plants through a microscope,\\nhe would find that they are spherical and live either\\nsingly or joined together in chains called colonies (Fig.\\n20). The principal food of this plant is sugar, which\\nthe plant breaks up in order to obtain the energy it con-\\ntains. This breaking up of the sugar produces carbon", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "60 PHYSIOLOGY\\ndioxide and alcohol, which the yeast throws off as waste\\nproducts. If we watch the mixture of sugar, yeast, and\\nwarm water, we can see the bubbles of carbon dioxide\\nescaping. The alcohol remains in the mixture.\\nIn bread making we have a similar process. The\\nstarch of the flour or the free sugar which is added to\\nit is attacked by the yeast and changed into carbon\\ndioxide, which, in escaping from the sponge or the\\ndough, causes the bread to bubble and become light.\\nThe alcohol remains in the mixture until it is baked,\\nwhen the heat drives it off. If the bread is not suf-\\nficiently baked to kill the yeast, the growth goes on- and\\nthe bread becomes sour.\\nWhen water is heated to the boiling point (212\u00c2\u00b0 Fah-\\nrenheit), it rapidly changes to steam or water vapor,\\nwhich collects in little bubbles on the bottom of the kettle\\nor other receptacle. The bubbles rise to the top of the\\nwater, escape into the air, and float away in a little misty\\ncloud. When alcohol is heated, a similar change takes\\nplace, but it does not need to be heated nearly so hot\\nbefore the escape of alcohol vapor begins. When alcohol\\nand water are mixed together, as would be the case if the\\nalcohol has been made through fermentation of sugar\\nwater, or fruit juice, the alcohol may be driven off by\\nheating the mixture hot enough to vaporize the alcohol\\nwithout vaporizing the water.\\nBy thus heating the mixture of alcohol and water hot\\nenough to boil or vaporize the alcohol, but not hot enough\\nto vaporize the water, the alcohol vapor will leave the\\nwater. If this vapor is caught and conducted through\\npipes which are kept cold by cold water, the alcohol\\nvapor will condense again into the liquid form, and can be\\ncaught as it runs from the end of the pipe or tube.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "NARCOTICS 61\\nHow similar this process is to sometliing you have\\nstudied in your geographies The sun warms the sur-\\nface of the ocean, of lakes, and of other collections of\\nwater exposed on the earth s surface the water is vapor-\\nized, and rising, floats away in the form of fleecy clouds.\\nPresently these clouds pass over a range of snow-capped\\nmountains, or pass a current of cold air. The vapor is\\ncondensed and falls as rain upon the surface of the earth.\\nIn this way the water is separated from the briny solu-\\ntion of the sea in a similar Avay men separate one liquid\\nfrom another when the two liquids vaporize at a different\\ntemperature.\\nThe process of separating one liquid from another by\\nvaporizing with heat and condensing the vapor with cold\\nis called distillation.\\nMen distill water from an impure or briny mixture in\\norder to obtain perfectly pure Avater for use in the chemi-\\ncal laboratory or for use in manufacturing. Men distill\\nalcohol from a mixture of various substances dissolved in\\nwater in order to get pure alcohol for use in various\\nlaboratories, for use in manufacturing, or for use by\\ndruggists in the preparation of medicines.\\nMany of the alcoholic drinks are prepared by distilla-\\ntion. They contain a much larger proportion of alcohol\\nthan the original fermenting mixture. Whisky, brandy,\\nand rum are all distilled liquors, and contain 40 per cent\\nor more of alcohol.\\n2. FERMENTATION AND DISTILLATION\\nAll the alcoholic drinks are first fermented, and many\\nof them go no further than this process. Among those\\nwhich are made by simple fermentation are beer, wine,\\nand cider.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "62 PHYSIOLOGY\\nIn the beer making process, corn, or more commonly\\nbarley, is put into a damp, warm place and allowed to\\nstay until it sprouts. We remember that in our study\\nof the corn plant we found that, when the seed began to\\ngrow, the starch of the kernel was changed to sugar.\\nAs soon as part of the starch has been changed to sugar\\nand dissolved out with water, hops and yeast are added,\\nand fermentation takes place. In this condition it is\\nbottled if it is to be used as beer, but if at this point it is\\nput into a still and the alcohol driven off and caught, it\\nmakes whisky. If to the whisky certain flavors are added\\na drink called gin is made.\\nWhen sugar cane is fermented and distilled, the dis-\\ntilled product is called ru7n, and when wine is distilled,\\nthe product is called hrandy.\\nWhisky, gin, rum, and brandy are called ardent spirits,\\nand are as much as one half alcohol.\\nPure wine contains from five to sixteen parts of alcohol\\nin a hundred, but the wine that is obtained in the market\\noften contains as much as one fourth (25 per cent)\\nalcohol.\\nBeer and cider contain from four to fourteen parts of\\nalcohol in a hundred.\\nAlcohol is the same wherever it is found, and the main\\ndifference in the effect of different alcoholic drinks upon\\nthe system is due to the difference in the amount of alco-\\nhol which each contains. Three glasses of some cider\\ncontain as much alcohol as one glass of strong wine or\\nthe same glass filled with one quarter whisky and three\\nquarters water, and an alcoholic habit can be acquired\\nfrom cider drinking or wine drinking as well as from beer\\nor spirit drinking.\\nThe great transformation which takes place in the juice", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "NARCOTICS 63\\nof grapes as a result of fermentation is thus strikingly\\nsummed by Professor Gaule, of the University of Zurich,\\nSwitzerland Between the sweet juice of the grape which\\ndoes not intoxicate and the intoxicating wine which the\\ndrinker loves, a foreign element has enteved^ fermentation\\nthat is, the life process of a little fungus yeast which\\nfeeds upon the juice of the grape and rejects the wine.\\nThat which we drink as wine has no more to do with\\ngrape juice than, for instance, the arrowroot (starch) of\\nthe plant has with the carbonic acid of the air on which it\\nlives. The one as well as the other is a product of a\\nchemical change which is brought about by the life pro-\\ncess of an organism, though, to be sure, in quite the oppo-\\nsite sense, for the green plant cell glorifies that which it\\nconsumes, in that it forms from dead substances, carbon\\ndioxide and water, a great source of power (sugar), while\\nthe yeast cell does exactly the opposite, consuming sugar\\nand robbing it of most of its power, and casting out as\\nwaste substances carbon dioxide and alcohol.\\nFALLACIES CONCERNING BEER\\nBeer has been called liquid bread from the idea that\\nbecause it is made from grain, as is bread, it is therefore\\nnourishing. In Germany this idea has found expression in\\nthe saying that where the brewery is, no bakery is needed.\\nA saloon keeper in England once advertised his beer as\\nliquid bread. A member of the British Parliament\\nhad a chemist examine it. Two per cent was really food.\\nFive per cent was alcohol, and the remaining ninety-three\\nper cent was water.\\nLet us look into this claim a little more closely. Ac-\\ncording to standard analyses, lager beer contains:", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "64 PHYSIOLOGY\\n89.75 water, .15 carbonic acid,\\n5.10 alcohol, 5.00 malt extract.\\nThe malt extract, which is the only part that could be\\nsaid to have nutritive value, consists of malt, sugar, dex-\\ntrin, a very slight quantity of albuminous matter which\\nhas escaped the processes designed for separating it out,\\nand some bitter principles and volatile oils. All that is\\nnourishing in this could be purchased in bread for one\\ntenth what it costs in beer.\\nThe healthy grown person requires daily from four hun-\\ndred and fifty to five hundred grammes of the kind of food\\nthat is represented in this extract in the beer. To get\\nthis amount one would have to drink eight quarts of beer,\\nwhich would contain about nine ounces of alcohol. The\\npoisonous effect of this amount of alcohol would very\\nquickly show itself.\\nProfessor Rosenthal of Erlanger says, Beer is not a\\nfood, but a luxury. Let a man drink much beer, enough\\nto make the amount of nourishment in it of value, and the\\nother influences produced by such a quantity will become\\nmanifest to such a degree as to cast the factor of nourish-\\nment in the background. If he drinks little beer, the\\nfood value is not appreciable.\\nThe claim is also made that the food substances in beer\\nare pre-digested, because they are in soluble form ready\\nto be absorbed. Supposing there were enough of this\\npre-digested food in beer to be of sufficient importance\\nfor consideration, whatever advantages to digestion there\\nmight be in its being pre-digested are offset by the fact\\nthat beer retards the digestive process.\\nTo say that substances like beer or alcohol do not need\\nto be digested because they are already pre-digested is", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "NARCOTICS 65\\nonly saying that they are in a condition to pass through\\nthe walls of the alimentary canal into the blood. This is\\nno recommendation if it is their nature, when they reach\\nthe blood, to do harm, as is the case with beer and other\\nalcoholic liquors.\\nAlthough certain light beers may contain only a\\nsmall quantity of alcohol, they are by no means harmless\\ntemperance drinks, as is sometimes urged. The London\\nLancet of April 1, 1899, asked, Does the consumption of\\nmore beer really mean the consumption of less spirit\\nand answered the question by saying, in substance Few\\nphysicians will admit such an opinion. AVe certainly\\nknow of no instance in which a spirit drinker was saved\\nby the drinking of more beer. The remedy, if not worse\\nthan the disease, is but one shade better. Beer drinkers\\nare by no means free from the vice of spirit drinking, and\\nare certainly not seldom the victims of the same diseases\\nof the kidneys and liver as those which are likely to\\nafflict the drinkers of ardent spirits.\\n3. THE GENERAL EFFECT OF NARCOTIC DRINKS UPON\\nTHE systp:m\\nAlcoholic drinks seem to be at first stimulating, and\\nlater to have a dulling effect.\\nThis stimulation is, however, not real, but only seeming,\\nand is caused by the dulling of the power of self-restraint.\\nA civilized man restrains himself; he does not allow\\nhimself to say certain things, or to do certain things he\\ndoes not hoot and howl, he does not laugh immoderately\\nnor weep at trifles, because he restrains himself. The dull-\\ning effect of a narcotic first acts upon this self-restraint,\\nand a person becomes boisterous, loud, and rude. He talks\\nhall s phys. 5", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "66 PHYSIOLOGY\\ntoo much, and is not considerate in his treatment of others.\\nAs this dulling goes on, it affects his senses and other\\nmental powers, so that he is not clear in his thoughts, and\\nlater it affects his muscles, causing him to reel and stagger.\\nThe thing about wine and cider which is hard for young\\npeople to understand is, why there is harm in anything\\nmade from grapes and apples, AYhich are both healthful\\nfruits. But since we have seen how quickly sugar can be\\nchanged to other substances by the yeast plant, it will not\\nbe so hard to understand. If one puts a few spoonfuls\\nof grape jelly or of marlnalade into a pint fruit jar, fills it\\nwith warm water, and adds a little yeast, he will find in a\\nfew hours that it is fermenting. The sugar is being\\nchanged to carbon dioxide and alcohol. In three or four\\ndays the liquid will have changed into wine or cider, and\\nif it is put into a still, alcohol pure enough to burn at the\\nend of the tube may be distilled off from the liquid.\\nThe juice of apples as it is pressed from the fruit is\\nharmless and refreshing, but it remains so only for a few\\nhours, after which it contains a little alcohol, which in-\\ncreases day by day, so that cider w^hich at first was harm-\\nless comes very soon to Jbe a little harmful, and in a few\\nweeks to be intoxicating, as it then contains almost if not\\nquite as much alcohol as beer contains.\\nSome think that there is no harm in drinking cider and\\nbeer. Professor Meyer, of the University of Gottenburg,\\nsays Naturally the lighter alcoholic drinks, such as\\ncider, beer, and light wines, cultivate a taste for the\\nstronger liquors and ardent spirits. Those who make\\nstatements to conflict with the undoubted facts of statis-\\ntics must either be ignorant of these facts, or else they\\nattempt to pervert them in order to apologize for their\\nown drinking habits.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "NAKCOTICS 67\\nSome people think that alcoholic drinks may be indulged\\nin moderately. Let us hear what medical men of this\\ncountry and of other countries have to say about mod-\\nerate drinking. Every drunkard was once a moderate\\ndrinker, and every man who, by his example, leads other\\nmen to moderate drinking, also leads a part of them to\\nimmoderate drinking. He starts a stone rolling which it\\nis no longer in his power to arrest.\\nAfter openiiig the floodgate not one man in a thousand\\ncan stay the progress of a besetting vice, and of all beset-\\nting vices the alcohol habit is the most inevitably progres-\\nsive. An unnatural appetite has no natural limits.\\nExperience has proved that recovery from drunken-\\nness is possible only by complete abstinence from alcohol.\\nModeration does not help, for the taking of a small\\nquantity of liquor causes an inordinate thirst for\\nmore.\\nAlcoholic indulgence extinguishes control. How\\nmany a pathetic story could I tell of even great and\\ngood men, the intellectual, high minded, and moral,\\nwho, confident in their power of knowing when to stop,\\nhave at last helplessly succumbed and been disgraced.\\nThe effect of alcohol upon a grown up person is\\nbad enough but it is even worse upon a developing\\nperson. The effect upon children is worse, because the\\nbody and brain of the child are in the process of growth.\\nEven in the years of early manhood, alcohol is very harm-\\nful to the proper development of body and mind. Dr.\\n1 Professor G. von Bunge, Professor of Physiological Chemistry, University\\nof Basel, Switzerland.\\n2 Felix Oswald, M.D.\\n3 r/ie Lancet, London, June 8, 1895, p. 1468.\\n4 Charles R. Francis, in The Medical Pioneer.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "68 PHYSIOLOGY\\nG. H. McMichael says During the years of adoles-\\ncence, while the brain is only partially developed, the\\nnervous organization is not in the stable condition which\\nmarks the full vigor of normal, adult manhood. This\\nbeing so, the desire for alcoholic drinks is much more\\neasily acquired between the ages of seventeen and\\ntwenty-five than in later life.\\n4. THE GENERAL EFFECT OF NARCOTIC DRINKS,\\nESPECIALLY ALCOHOLIC DRINKS, UPON\\nTHE Sl^STEM\\nI. ALCOHOL A POISON\\nBefore we can properly study alcohol as a poison, we\\nmust know what a poison is. A poison is any substance\\nwhich, absorbed into the blood, is capable of injuring the\\nbody, either by causing damage to the tissues or by\\nproducing functional disturbances. From this definition\\nwe see that a poison may disturb the mode of action of\\nthe tissues or organs without causing permanent damage\\nto these structures, or a poison may injure the system by\\nchanging the structure of the tissues. AUbut s System\\nof Medicine says, alcohol acts directly on the nerves\\nas a functional poison, and Professor Woodhead says\\nAlcohol exerts an exceedingly deleterious action on\\nrapidly growing tissues, interfering with their nutri-\\ntion, and preventing the development of their proper\\nfunction. In old age, when the tissues are on the down\\ngrade and are subject to various degenerations, alcohol in\\nmost cases merely accelerates the process of decay.\\nProfessor Pick, of the University of Wurzburg, in Ger-\\nmany, defines a poison as any substance which, being mixed\\nwith the blood, causes a disturbance in the functions of", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "NARCOTICS 69\\nany organ, and adds, that alcohol is such a substance\\ncannot be doubted. He calls the attention of his\\ncountrymen to the fact that the English language\\nappropriately calls the disturbance caused by alcoholic\\ndrinks intoxication^ which by derivation me diis poisoning,\\nProfessor Forel, of the University of Zurich, Switzer-\\nland, says Alcohol, even when diluted, as in wine, beer,\\nand cider, is a poison which changes the active tissues of\\nthe body, causing them to become fatty, either by having\\nfat deposited in them or by the changing of the tissues\\nthemselves to fat. Even in such small amounts as a glass\\nof wine or a pint of beer taken with meals, it is injurious\\nbecause it injures the brain by dulling its activity and\\nderanging its functions. This has been clearly demon-\\nstrated by the experiments of numerous investigators.^\\nThe most moderate drinking of alcoholic beverages is\\nqu-ite useless for anybody, and by means of the example\\nproduces very great injury to the people in general,\\nbecause many will be led to drink who would not other-\\nwise have done so, and of the many who begin as moderate\\ndrinkers, few will remain moderate drinkers.*\\nII. INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BODY\\nFrance presents a splendid illustration of a country\\nwhose inhabitants made free use of alcoholic drinks, begin-\\nning usually with light wines. And as a result, this great\\ncountry, with its beautiful climate, its fertile soil, and other\\nmaterial advantages, equal to the most favored portion of\\nthe earth, at the present time actually depends upon immi-\\ngration to keep up the numbers of its population. The\\nleading men of France are seriously studying the ques-\\n1 Such investigators as Kraepelin, Smith, Fiirer, Aschaffenburg, and others.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "70 PHYSIOLOGY\\ntion, How to prevent the depopulation of France The\\nFrench nation, descended from a race of gigantic Gauls,\\nwho struck terror to the hearts of their enemies by the\\nvery magnificence of their presence, has declined to such\\na degree from the stunting influence of alcoholic and simi-\\nlar drinks upon their growth, that the average height of\\nthe people at the present time is actually less than that\\nof other civilized nations. The facts witnessed in wine\\ngrowing districts and in wine growing countries certainly\\ndo not commend the universal use of wine as a remedy for\\nintemperance a use for which it has been suggested.\\nAccording to Dr. Brunon, the population in Brittany is\\nbeing rapidly decreased through the use of alcohol. Alco-\\nhol has become a part of the regular table supply of the\\nhome. Coffee and beer, or some other alcoholic drink,\\nform the basis of the dinner and if one of these must be\\nomitted, it is the coffee. The most distressing feature of\\nthe case is the serious effect that this use of alcohol has on\\nthe young. The death rate of young children is very great,\\nsuch as is met with nowhere else.^\\nThe Consular Reports of 1895 quote a writer inX^ Havre\\nas saying,\\nAlcoholism is the great misfortune of the present day,\\nand if the evil is not corrected, France will be changed\\ninto a nation of brutes by this ignoble vice. The peril is\\nevident, and it is high time to check it. I know that the\\ninfamous vice is not peculiar to our country, but I see that\\nits ravages are greater here than elsewhere.\\nThe workingmen, women, and children of our coun-\\ntry absorb, in its various forms, a poison which filters\\n1 J. H. Kellogg, M.D., Jouimal of Medical Temperance Association, Octo-\\nber, 1897, p. 126.\\n2 From the JSformandie Medicale, quoted in Medical and Surgical Reporter,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "NARCOTICS 71\\nthrough their bodies, which, even in small closes, daily re-\\npeated, breaks the strength, paralyzes the nervous system,\\ndestroys the intelligence, and makes the drinker grow\\nprematurely old. It makes in a few years, sometimes\\neven in a few months, of an individual once robust, active,\\nand a valuable member of society, a being abject, degraded,\\nand infirm. This poison is alcohol.\\nBy strict persistence in total abstinence and hygienic\\nliving the children of drinking parents may overcome the\\ntendency to defective conditions of body and mind, to\\nwhich they are especially liable. A weak will with which\\nto resist temptation is frequently part of the inheritance\\nwhich children receive from alcoholic parents. But even\\nsucli a will may resist the first glass, and in this way gain\\nstrength for continued resistance of temptation as well as\\nuprightness of character in all directions.\\n5. OTHER NARCOTICS\\nI. TOBACCO\\nCigars, cigarettes, smoking tobacco, chewing tobacco,\\nand snuff are all made from the dried leaf of the tobacco\\nplant.\\nTobacco contains a sharp-tasting liquid called nicotine,\\nwhich is a quick-acting and deadly poison. Because of\\nthis poison, the juice of the tobacco is never purposely\\nswallowed but in chewing, the saliva dissolves the nico-\\ntine, and a part of it is absorbed into the system while in\\nsmoking, the nicotine in the smoke and vapor is absorbed\\n1 A. Motet, M.D., of Paris, Member of the French Academy of Medicine, in\\nail address before the VI International Congress against the Use of Alcoholic\\nLiquors. Report of Proceedings.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "72 PHYSIOLOGY\\nby the saliva and the moist membranes of the mouth and\\nnose, and taken into the system, where it exerts all of its\\nharmful effects, among which is an irritation of all the mem-\\nbranes with which it conies in contact. After a time, the\\nnarcotic effect dulls the sense of feeling, so that the irrita-\\ntion, while it still exists, is not felt. This poison in the\\nsystem makes one less able to throw off disease, and some\\nof the best insurance companies are refusing to insure\\ntobacco smokers.\\nThe cigarette, being a cheap preparation, tempts boys\\nto indulge more in this than in any other form of tobacco.\\nWhile tobacco is injurious to every one, it is far more\\nharmful to those who are growing. All physicians agree\\nin saying that a boy who uses tobacco can never be so\\nlarge or well-developed a man as he could have been with-\\nout it. He can never have the strength of body nor the\\nvigor of mind that he would have had except for the use\\nof tobacco.\\nAll physicians agree in saying that no one should begin\\nthe use of tobacco before the age of eighteen or twenty\\nyears. If a boy waits to that age before beginning its use,\\nthe chances are his judgment will be sufficiently matured\\nto keep him from it.\\nII. OPIUM\\nThere are other narcotics that have a medicinal value,\\nthat have also the power of creating a desire for the drug,\\nwhich in its increasing use is fatal. Such drugs are\\nopium, the dried juice of the white poppy morphine, a\\nwhite powder made from opium and laudanum, a solu-\\ntion of parts of the opium in alcohol. A habit of using\\nany of these narcotics is almost impossible to break, and\\nits effects are very serious.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "OPIUM 73\\nParegoric is a weak form of opium in alcohol, and\\nshould be taken only by prescription from a physician.\\nSoothing syrups also contain opium, and should not be\\ngiven to children, as they do not cure but simply stupefy\\nthe child.\\nWhat has been said in the preceding lessons about the\\ninfluence of alcohol upon the will power, applies with\\nequal truth to such narcotics as tobacco and opium. The\\nenslaving influence of opium is even greater than that of\\ntobacco or alcohol.\\nThe secret of the power of these things over a person\\nwho has become addicted to them is that they rob the\\nperson of a part of the will power, and will power is\\nthe very thing that is required in order to enable the\\nvictim to break the habit.\\nIn the chapter on the nervous system, we found that a\\nhabit is a blessing^ if a good one^ and a curse^ if a bad one^\\nbecause the habit is made possible only through a change\\nin the nervous system. When the habit has once been\\nformed, it requires many months, perhaps years, to break\\nit. It requires the constant exercise of the will power.\\nHow is one to fight a habit on equal terms, if through\\nthe habit he has been robbed of a part of his fighting\\nequipment\\nYoung men who are in training for athletic contests\\nwhere strength, alertness, skill, and accuracy are required,\\nare positively forbidden by the managers of the teams to\\nuse tobacco or any other narcotic, and boys and young\\nmen entering the employ of a great business house or a\\ncorporation where their success depends upon strength,\\nalertness, skill, and accuracy, as well as integrity and\\nindustry, would surely reach a much higher success if\\nthey abstained totally from all narcotics.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "74 PHYSIOLOGY\\nREVIEW OF NARCOTICS\\n1. Narcotics are substances which dull the senses and the sensibili-\\nties. The most common narcotics are the Alcoliolic Drinks, Tobacco,\\nand Opium.\\n2. Alcoholic drinks are made by Fermenting sugar with yeast. The\\nyeast eats the sugar and throws out carbonic acid gas and alcohol as waste\\nmatter.\\n3. Drinks which are prepared by the fermentation of fruit juices\\nor of grain sugars are called Fermented Drinks examples are, wine,\\ncider, and beer.\\n4. Drinks which are prepared by the distillation of the fermented\\nliquors are called Ardent Spirits; examples are, whisky, brandy, gin,\\nand rum.\\n5. Alcoholic drinks seem to stimulate at first because they dull the\\nbrain control and the self-restraint.\\n6. Alcoholic drinks dull all of the senses and all of the sensibilities,\\nweaken the will power, and create a thirst for more alcohol.\\n7. The moderate use of alcohol is very likely to lead to the im-\\nmoderate use of it.\\n8. The immoderate use of alcohol causes disease, degradation,\\nmisery, and crime.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY\\nUnder General Physiology and Hygiene we have\\nstudied briefly the physiology of a plant we have\\nstudied the cells and tissues of which the organs and\\nsystems of organs are built up we have studied the\\nmeans by which the organs are controlled and made to\\nwork together harmoniously and we have studied some\\nof the more important things which harm the body through\\ninjury to the tissues or through derangement of the func-\\ntions.\\nWe are now prepared to enter upon a detailed study of\\neach system of organs of the human body. This part\\nof physiology is called Special Human Physiology,\\n75", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER v.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 NUTRITION HOW THE BODY\\nIS NOURISHED\\nTh^ term Nutrition is used in physiology to include all\\nof the work that tissues and organs do in the Prepai^ation\\nof Food for absorption, which includes Mastication^ Swal-\\nlowing^ and Digestion^ the Absorption of food and the\\nAssimilation of food, under which head one studies how\\nfood material is built up into the living active tissues of\\nthe body, as well as the oxidation of food material and\\nof tissue material. One may, under the head of Nutri-\\ntion, study Foods^ as well as those parts of domestic econ-\\nomy which deal with the choice and preparation of food,\\n1. WHY WE EAT\\nIf you have ever watched a locomotive in motion, you\\nmust have seen the fireman putting fuel into the firebox.\\nYou know just as well as the fireman does that if he should\\nstop putting coal on the fire the engine would stop going.\\nHe knows something which you do not know, and that is,\\nhow much coal to put on to make the engine go a given\\ndistance.\\nMany railroad companies and many large factories\\nanalyze coal from different companies before they buy, in\\norder to know which coal will give the most heat and\\nmotion per ton or per dollar s worth.\\nThe amount of heat and motion Avhich a fuel produces\\ncan be exactly measured. The coal which is used in the\\nlocomotive becomes oxidized and changed into carbon\\n76", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 77\\ndioxide and water, with smoke and ashes left over. The\\noxidation of the carbon of the coal causes the heat to be\\ngiven off. The heat under the boiler produces from the\\nwater steam, whose pressure in the cylinder moves the\\npiston and turns the wheels. The engine itself is not\\nbuilt up by the fuel which it consumes, and it gradually\\nwears out.\\nWe take food into our bodies to supply heat and motion,\\nand if the food be tested we can tell exactly how much\\nheat and motion it will give. In the experimental station\\nat Washington and in many laboratories, men are at work\\nfinding how much energy can be obtained from different\\nfoods when prepared in different ways.\\nFood Avill give the same amount of heat and motion\\nwhen burned in a furnace as when consumed in the\\nbody.\\nIf the government wished to move an army of men\\nfrom one city to another, it could either feed the men on\\nnourishing food and give them a long time in which to\\nwalk there, or it could use the same food in an engine,\\nwhich would carry the men on a train in much less time. In\\nthis case some extra food must be given the men to keep\\nthem warm, as the heat which would be enough to do this\\nis lost from the engine. Bread is, however, too bulky to\\ncarry and too expensive to burn, so instead of bread we\\nuse in a locomotive a fuel like coal, which takes up less\\nroom and costs less.\\nA loaf of bread burned in a furnace and one consumed\\nin the body give out exactly the same amount of heat and\\nmotion. The food which we consume is changed into\\nfluid form, and then goes to build up tissues just as it\\ndoes in the plants.\\nIn selecting coal, the buyer chooses that which gives the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "78 PHYSIOLOGY\\nmost power for the money, without regard to the looks of\\nthe coal or the color of the flame.\\nIn choosing food to supply our bodies with heat and\\nmotion, what should we think of first Should it not be\\nthe amount of power it contains In other words, food\\nshould ^be chosen to give the most nourishment for the\\nleast money, provided it can be made to look well enough\\nto be appetizing and taste well enough to be palatable.\\nHere comes in the work of the cook, who can choose and\\nprepare the food, and add the seasoning and the decoration.\\nWe should think an engineer very wasteful if he used\\nmore coal than is necessary to make his engine do the\\nwork he needs. Is it not equally wasteful for us to eat\\nmore than we need for our work simply because it tastes\\ngood and we enjoy it\\nThat which is harmful should not be eaten, although we\\nmay like it. That which is nourishing should often be\\ntaken, even though we do not like it. If one thinks of\\nthe good which a wholesome and nourishing food will do\\nthe body, instead of thinking whether the taste is most\\npleasing to him, he may readily cultivate a real liking\\nfor a food which might at first seem distasteful.\\n2. WHAT WE EAT FOODS\\nI. EGGS AND MILK\\nWe have decided that food shall be chosen first for the\\nenergy it contains, and to do that best we must know of\\nwhat different foods are composed.\\nLet us look first at the egg^ for in this we have what is\\nto the animal world just what the seed is to the plant\\nworld. If we examine an egg carefully, we find an outside\\nshell that corresponds to the shell of a nut. Underneath", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 79\\nthe shell we find a tough skin like the skin that covers all\\nseeds inside the skin a white fluid and a yellow fluid\\nwhich are the food, and just under the very thin skin\\nof the yellow part or yolk we see a white spot with a\\nring around it, which is the germ or young chick. The\\nyoung chick is surrounded by the food which it will need\\nwhen it wakens to life, just as the young plant is. Both\\nthe plant germ and the chick germ are sleeping proto-\\nplasm. They sleep until the heat wakens them to life.\\nThe seed needs also moisture to soften the food, but the\\negg is already supplied w^ith Avater enough.\\nThe yolk of the egg is so balanced that the germ spot is\\nalways up whichever way the egg is turned. In this Avay\\nthe germ is kept next to the heat which the mother hen\\nsupplies from her body when she sits on the eggs. The\\nyolk of the egg is proteid and oil, with some mineral\\nmatter. The oil gives it the yellow color. The white of\\nthe egg is pure albumen, or proteid with mineral matter\\nand water.\\nFrom these materials are built up the bones, muscles,\\nblood, nerves, and feathers of the chicken.\\nThe egg is nature s food for young birds. Is it a good\\nfood for us We need bones, muscles, blood, nerves, and\\nhair, and if the egg will build up these tissues in a bird, it\\nwill also build them up in us. It is, however, such con-\\ndensed food that it cannot be used alone for the food of\\nan adult, and not at all, or at most sparingly, for a child\\nunder one year old. When the egg is raw, it is easily\\ndigested, but when cooked, it becomes hardened and is\\nmore difficult to digest.\\nNature has supplied in milk a food for the young of\\nhigher animals. This food exactly fills the need of the\\nyoung child, and contains everything that a child requires", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "80 PHYSIOLOGY\\nfor its first year s growth. Let us see what materials milk\\ncontains. The part that makes it liquid is water, the\\nsweetness comes from sugar, the cream which rises to\\nthe top is oil, and the rest is proteid and mineral matter.\\nYou can see that milk alone would sustain life for a long\\ntime.\\nII. EXPERIMENTS\\nYou still have a supply of iodine obtained for the experi-\\nments in plant phj^siology. Some of the iodine has its\\noriginal strength, w^hile some is diluted.\\nGet from the druggist or from a physician a few ounces\\nof Fehling s Solution (composed of a mixture of copper\\nsulphate, or blue vitriol, and potash).\\nGet also a few four inch or six inch test tubes. They are\\nmade of thin annealed glass, and maj^ be heated in a flame\\nwithout danger of breaking. If there are no Bunsen gas\\nburners in the school building, a common kerosene lamp\\ncan be used with good results.\\n1. Take a few drops of albumen or white of egg in a\\ntest tube, dilute it with a spoonful of water, and heat it\\nover a flame. It will soon begin to turn white and to\\nthicken, or coagulate, as it is called.\\n2. Take a spoonful of milk and heat it in a similar way.\\nIt will not coagulate.\\n3. To a spoonful of milk add a few drops of lemon\\njuice or. any other acid. The milk will coagulate.\\nThe small masses which separate out from the milk are\\ncalled coagula, and consist of casein^ the principal proteid\\nof the milk. When milk is heated, one may notice a thin,\\nwrinkled membrane collecting upon its surface. This\\nmembrane consists of albumin (milk albumen), which is\\nthe other proteid of the milk.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 81\\nThe yellowish part of the milk which can be drained\\naway from the casein coagula is the whey. Whey consists\\nof water, milk sugar, and mineral matter, with perhaps\\nsome cream or fat. Most of the fat stays with the casein\\nwhen it separates out in coagula.\\n4. Put into a test tube as much grape sugar (dextrose)\\nas will stay on the tip of a penknife blade, add a spoonful\\nof water to dissolve it, add an equal amount of Fehling s\\nSolution, bring the mixture to a boil over a flame, and\\nnotice the orange or brick-red, heavy precipitate which\\nfirst clouds the mixture, then settles to the bottom of the\\ntube. This is copper oxide, which separates out of Fehl-\\ning s Solution when that is heated with a solution of\\ndextrose, or of milk sugar (lactose), or of malt sugar\\n(maltose).\\n5. Put a spoonful of Avhey into a tube, and add an equal\\namount of Fehling s Solution. Heat it over a flame, and\\nnote the separation of the copper oxide, again showing the\\npresence of dextrose, or lactose, or maltose. In this case\\nit was lactose, or milk sugar. So milk contains proteid,\\nsugar, and fat.\\n3. WHAT WE EAT\\nI. CEREALS\\nGrains which are used for food are called cereals. They\\nbelong to the grass family, and form an important part of\\nour food.\\nCorn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, and rice are cereals, and\\nfrom these we get corn meal, cornstarch, wheat flour,\\ngraham flour, oatmeal, barley, rye flour, rice flour, and\\nvarious other meals, flours, and prepared breakfast\\nfoods.\\nhall s phys. 6", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "82 PHYSIOLOGY\\nIf we look at a grain of each of the cereals, we find they\\nall have a skin covering the grain. The oats, barley, and\\nrice have a tough, chafflike skin, which is always removed\\nbefore it is put on the market for food. Barley and rice\\nare so seldom seen with the skin on that we think of them\\nalways as white grains.\\nUnder the skin of the wheat and rye, oats and barley,\\nis a brownish or yellowish coat that is very rich in proteid\\nand mineral matter, while the inner part of the seed is\\nstarch containing some proteid and mineral matter. At\\nthe end of the kernel and on the opposite side from the\\nlong groove we find the germ, which is of protoplasm and\\nvery nourishing.\\nMost of the proteid part of these small grains, especially\\nwheat, is a sticky substance called gluten, and it is this\\ngluten which makes many of the wheat breakfast foods\\nseem sticky when cooked. In white wheat flour we have\\nthe starch with some gluten and mineral matter. In\\nwhole wheat or entire wheat Ave get the starch and\\nall the gluten and mineral matter from the brown coat, as\\nit is not bolted and in graham flour we get all the con-\\ntents of the grain and the skin as well. There is no\\nnourishment in this skin, but it makes the flour coarse,\\nand thus excites or stimulates the formation of digestive\\nfluids, as well as the movements of the stomach and intes-\\ntine.\\nIt is sometimes said that white bread is not nourishing\\nthat you can see is not the fact, but you can see equally\\nwell that the whole wheat and graham flour is much more\\nnourishing to the whole body, and especially to the bones\\nand teeth, as the greater part of the mineral matter lies\\nin the brown coat which is bolted out of the white flour.\\nGrowing boys and girls need much of the bone making", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 83\\nmaterial to be found in whole wheat and graham flour,\\nin the cereal breakfast foods and in corn meal.\\nGreat care should be taken in the preparation of cereal\\nfoods, for unless they are well cooked they are hard to\\ndigest, and some of the nourishment is lost. Some of\\nthese cereals are said to need two minutes or fifteen\\nminutes cooking, but in every case the food is much im-\\nproved in wholesomeness by at least thirty to forty minutes\\ncooking.\\nII. EXPERIMENTS\\nSoak some grains of corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, and\\nrice in warm water for two or three days.\\n1. With a penknife and a strong needle dissect off the\\nthick, husky, outside shell of a kernel of oats and barley.\\n2. Dissect off the thin, transparent skin of corn, of\\nwheat, and of rye. Find the germ of each kernel. Make\\nsome thin slices across each kernel, and draw a figure\\nshowing the location of the germ, and the food material\\nwhich the parent plant stored for the sleeping young\\nplant.\\n3. Place a slice from each grain into a few drops of the\\ndilute iodine in a watch crystal, and notice the blue color,\\nshowing both the presence of starch and its location in\\nthe kernel. Notice that the germ and that part of the\\nkernel in its immediate vicinity do not turn blue, and,\\ntherefore, contain no starch.\\n4. Put slices of each grain into strong iodine, and after\\nthey have been acted upon for several minutes, rinse off\\nthe iodine. Notice that the starch is turned to a very dark\\nblue and the germ and its surrounding food material to a\\nbrownish yellow. Strong iodine turns proteid matter this\\ncolor. The oil is mixed in with the starch and proteid,", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "84 PHYSIOLOGY\\nand is not so easily shown by a simple experiment. If a\\nkernel of grain be burned, a small amount of ashes remain-\\ning will represent the mineral matter.\\nRemember that cereals contain starch, proteid, oil, and\\nmineral matter.\\n4. WHAT WE EAT (continued)\\nI. VEGETABLES\\nIx our study of the cereal foods we found that they\\ncontain all the kinds of nourishment. They alone can\\nsustain life. There is another class of foods which we call\\nlegumes. These are the beans, peas, and lentils. These\\nalso are rich in proteid and starch, and have some oil,\\nmineral matter, and cellulose, and like the cereals form a\\nperfect food, but in such condensed form as to need some-\\nthing else to help them through the digestive tract.\\nThere is still another class of foods which gives nour-\\nishment in a much less condensed form and provides the\\nvariety which we need to give relish to our food. This\\nclass includes the vegetables.\\nLet us taste a bit of beet, turnip, parsnip, carrot, and\\nof onion, and in all of them we shall notice a sweet taste.\\nThese vegetables we eat for the sugar they contain, and\\nfor the mineral salts, which we cannot detect by taste.\\nThey contain also a large amount of cellulose, which has\\nno nourishment, but which, by stimulating the digestive\\norgans, helps them in their work. If we taste a piece\\nof white or sweet potato, we shall notice that it is rough\\nto the tongue and has a raw taste. This is due to the\\npresence of starch. The sweet potato has some sugar in\\naddition to the starch.\\nAll of these vegetables which contain starch or sugar are", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 8e5\\nvery nourishing, but cannot be used alone as food, as tliey\\nhave ahnost no proteid and oil. Because of this lack of\\nthese substances, many vegetables are prepared with milk\\nand butter in the cooking, and are in this way supplied\\nwith oil and proteid.\\nSuch vegetables as cabbage, lettuce, celery, spinach, and\\nother greens are used largely as a relish, and contain\\nalmost no nourishment^ They are, however, very impor-\\ntant as a relish, and some of them have other uses. Let-\\ntuce and celery have a juice that is soothing to the nerves,\\nwhile spinach and other greens contain more iron than do\\nother vegetables.\\nBesides these vegetables, there are some vegetable prod-\\nucts that are very valuable as food stuffs. Among these\\nare potato starch, cornstarch, arrowroot, sago, and tapioca,\\nwhich are almost pure starch. The first is the extracted\\nstarch of the potato, the second of the corn kernel, while\\narrowroot and tapioca are from the underground stem of\\ntropical plants. Sago is from starch deposited in the\\ntrunk of the sago palm.\\nThe vegetable products that are pure sugar are beet\\nsugar, cane sugar, grape sugar, maple sugar, molasses,\\nand syrups. All sugars and syrups, with molasses and\\nhoney, are very nourishing and for most people very\\nwholesome.\\nAs potatoes contain principally starch, we usually add a\\nlittle butter and milk to them or eat them with meat and\\ngravy. Milk and butter are also often added to beans,\\npeas, parsnips, carrots, cabbage, celery, and onions.\\nMacaroni, which is made from flour and water and con-\\ntains as much proteid as wheat supplies, is still largely\\nstarch, but when cooked with milk, butter, and cheese\\ncontains all the elements of food.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "86 PHYSIOLOGY\\nII. EXPERIMENTS\\n1. Make a careful dissection of a soaked bean, and of a\\npea, making a drawing to show the thin skin and the two\\nhalves of the kernel, which represent the seed leaves.\\nFind the tiny stem and rootlet of the germ plant.\\n2. Make thin slices of the soaked kernels and treat\\nthem with dilute and with strong iodine, and note the\\nresults.\\n3. Make thin slices of turnip, parsnip, carrot, and\\nonion, and test one kind of vegetable at a time by put-\\nting a slice into a test tube with a spoonful of water and\\nof Fehling s Solution. Heat to boiling over a flame, and\\nnotice that the slice turns a brick-dust red or orange,\\nshowing the presence of sugar (dextrose).\\n4. Test the same vegetables with dilute and strong\\niodine, and notice that there is no starch and no proteid,\\nexcept perhaps, a little proteid just under the skin.\\n5. Test slices of white and sweet potato for sugar and\\nfor starch and proteid. Note results.\\n5. WHAT AVE EAT {continued)\\nI. FRUIT\\nAll the foods we have talked about, with the exception\\nof milk and eggs, have been vegetable products, and the\\nfruits also belong here. Among the many fruits, we find\\nsome much sweeter than others. These are eaten largely\\nfor the sugar they contain and their healthful effect upon\\nthe digestion. Such fruits are apricots, peaches, pears,\\nplums, cherries, grapes, and some apples. Bananas are\\nrich in sugar, but lack the refreshing juices of the other\\nfruits.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 87\\nOranges, many apples, quinces, and crab apples are\\nchiefly valuable for their acid, although they also contain\\nsugar.\\nThe lemon and lime have no sugar, but are very\\nimportant foods because of the acid and salts which they\\ncontain.\\nFruit is especially needed in the summer weather and\\nin warm climates, wdiile fats are needed in cold weather\\nand in cold climates.\\nII. MEAT\\nAs yet nothing has been said of animal food, and we\\nhave already seen that life could be sustained without any\\nanimal food, for it contains no new material. It does,\\nhowever, contain the most nourishing kind of food in a\\ncondition easy to use. Meat is composed of proteid matter\\nand fat, held together by connective tissue, such as bone,\\ngristle, and so forth. We are likely to think that porter-\\nhouse steak at twenty-five cents a pound is more nourish-\\ning than other cuts of meat at six or ten cents per pound.\\nIf both are broiled, it is true the porterhouse steak will\\nyield more nourishment, but the cheaper meats by long\\ncooking become equally nourishing, because the cooking\\nchanges the connective tissue to gelatine, which is proteid\\nfood.\\nHave you not noticed when the water in which a soup\\nbone has been cooked becomes cold it looks like jelly?\\nThat comes from the changed connective tissues of the\\nbone, gristle, etc. Let us make some menus that will\\ncontain a healthful variety and yet give all the elements\\nof food at a low price.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "88\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nMENU NO. 1\\nBreakfast.\\nCereal food.\\nOmelet.\\nMilk.\\nLUXCHEOX.\\nCreamed potatoes.\\nBrown bread. Apple sauce.\\nPotatoes.\\nDinner.\\nBeefsteak.\\nGrapes.\\nSpinach.\\nMENU NO. 2\\nBreakfast.\\nSoft boiled eggs. Bread and butter.\\nCereal coffee.\\nLuncheon.\\nMade dish of rice and meat.\\nPrunes. Bread and butter.\\nDinner.\\nPork and beans. Tomato sauce.\\nPotatoes.\\nSliced oranges.\\nMENU NO. 3\\nBreakfast.\\nLuncheon.\\nGraham bread.\\nDinner.\\nBoiled beef.\\nBaked apples with cream.\\nMilk toast.\\nCold meat.\\nCarrots.\\nCereal coffee.\\nSliced potatoes.\\nPotatoes.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "REVIEW OF FOODS 89\\nREVIEW OF FOODS\\nj Nature s food for the young of higher animals is milk.\\n2. Nature s food for little chickens or other birds before they are\\nhatched is e^gg. Eggs and milk contain all that the body needs for\\nits growth and development.\\n3. Milk and Egg contain Albumen, or Proteid, and Fat, and Water,\\nand Mineral Matter. Milk also contains Sugar.\\n4. The Grains or Cereals contain Starch, Fats, Proteid or Albumen,\\nand Mineral Matter.\\n5. Peas and Beans contain starch, oil, mineral matter, and are very\\nrich in proteid. People who eat no meat use milk, eggs, and peas or\\nbeans freely in order to get enough proteid.\\n6. Some fruits are full of sugar and are, therefore, very nourishing\\ngrapes, peaches, plums, cherries, etc.\\n7. Some fruits are acid and are refreshing and wholesome in sum-\\nmer lemons, oranges, apples, etc.\\n8. Meats are usually eaten freely though they are not necessary,\\nbecause the vegetable foods with milk, eggs, butter, and cheese make\\na sufficient and perfectly wholesome diet. Meats are rich in proteids,\\nfat, and mineral matter. The expensive meats are not more nourish-\\ning than the cheaper cuts.\\n6. THE STRUCTURE OR AXATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE\\nSYSTEM\\nThe Digestive System consists of the Alimentary Canal.,\\nwith certain glands whose ducts or tubes open into the\\ncanal. The alimentary canal consists of a series of hollow\\nor tubular organs through which the food passes during\\nthe process of digestion and absorption. Beginning with\\nthe mouth the food passes down the esophagus into the\\nstomach. (Make a careful study of Fig. 21 while reading\\nthis description). After it leaves the stomach it passes\\nthrough the coiled small intestine^ which is subdivided\\ninto duodenum., jejunum^ and ileum. Passing from the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "90\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nSI Sm.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nileum into the large intestine through a small opening\\nit comes into the ccecum^ then passes upward, across, and\\ndownward through the colon into the rectum, (Compare\\nFig. 22 with Fig. 21),\\nThe glands of the\\ndigestive system are\\nthe three pairs of soli-\\nvary glands (i\\\\\\\\Q paro-\\ntids^ the sublinguals^\\nand the submaxil-\\nlaries the pancreas^\\nand the liver. The\\nliver, however, has\\nlittle to do with di-\\ngestion, and much to\\ndo with assimilation\\nand excretion. Let\\nus now look carefully\\nat each of these or-\\ngans of digestion, and\\nsee how each is made\\nand Avhat part of the\\nwork of digestion\\neach performs. The\\nmoutli cavity is\\nformed by the cheeks,\\nthe lips, the tongue,\\nand the palate the\\nlatter has an upper\\npart hard and bony,\\nwhich extends back into a softer part from which the\\nuvula hangs down. Between the cheeks are the teeth,\\nwhose office it is to masticate the food and mix it with\\nFig. 21. A diagram of digestive system.\\nPar., SI. Sm., parotid, sublingual, and\\nsubmaxillary glands; Ph., pharynx; Us.,\\nesophagus; V.C, vena cava vein receiving\\nchyle through thoracic duct (Th.d.) from\\nlacteals (Lc.) Lv., liver; P., pancreas;\\nS., stomach; D., duodenum; C, caecum;\\nV.Ap., vermiform appendix.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION\\n91\\nthe saliva. There are two sets of the teeth, the tempo-\\nrary set of twenty teeth, which is lost at about six years,\\nand the permanent set of thirty-two teeth (Fig. 23).\\nThere are three parts to be distinguished in a tooth\\ntlie crown or part seen\\nin the mouth, the root\\nor part which projects\\ninto tlie gums, and the\\nline between which is\\ncalled the neck.\\nThe teeth are com-\\nposed of a hard, shiny,\\noutside layer called the\\nenamel, which acts as\\na protection to the\\nteeth, the middle bony\\npart or dentine, and\\nthe inner soft part\\nor pulp, largely com-\\nposed of blood vessels\\nand nerves (Fig. 24).\\nBeginning in the\\nmiddle of the jaw, one\\nfinds on each side of\\neach jaw two cutting\\nteeth or incisors^ one\\ntearing tooth or canine^\\ntwo semigrinding teeth\\ncalled bicuspids^ and three grinders or molars. Most of\\nthe teeth have a single root, but the molars have tAvo and\\nsometimes three roots or fangs. The saliva, which mixes\\nwith the food during the mastication by the teeth, comes\\nfrom three pairs of salivary glands the parotid gland^\\nFig. 22. Picture of the organs of digestion.\\na, duodenum, leading out of the pylorus;\\nh, liver; c, esophagus; d, pancreas; e,\\nstomach spleen g, i,j, k, m, n, parts of\\nlarge intestine h, I, small intestine. [From\\nJohownot and Bonton.]", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "92\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nsitviated in front of the ear the submaxillary^ sitnatecl\\nnnder the jaw; and the suhlingual^ under each side of the\\ntongue. These glands make or secrete the saliva and\\ngive it out when stimulated by tlie presence of food in the\\nmouth, or eA^en by the thought of food. The pharynx is\\nsupplied with two\\ndoors which prevent\\nthe food from getting\\ninto the wrong pas-\\nsages. In order that\\nthe food may not go\\ninto the nasal passage\\nthe uvula and soft\\npalate turn back dur-\\ning the process of\\nswallowing and cover\\nthe opening and\\nthat it may not go\\ninto the air tube, a\\nlittle guard, the epi-\\nglottis, protects the\\nopening of the air\\npassage. This is done\\n_ very quickly, for dur-\\nFiG. 23. ihe jaws and the teeth 1, 2, mcisors\\n3, cauine; 4, 5, bicuspids; 6, 7, 8, molars ing the prOCCSS of\\na, vein; 6, artery; c, nerve cZ, vein, artery, g^yallowing OUC can-\\nand nerve. [From Johownot and Bonton.]\\nnot take breath. One\\ndoes occasionally try to breathe and swallow at the same\\ntime, with the result of getting food into the windpipe,\\n.causing violent coughing until it is expelled. The\\nesophagus is a long tube which has a soft mucous lining\\nand a muscular coat of circular bands. In forcing, the\\nfood along the esophagus the muscular bands do not con-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION\\n93\\ntract all at once, but in succession,\\npharynx. The first contracts and makes\\nsmaller, and thus pushes\\nthe food on to be con-\\ntracted upon by the next\\nband. This motion is\\ncalled peristaltic action.\\nThe same kind of motion\\ncarries the food along the\\nwhole extent of the ali-\\nmentary canal.\\nbeginning\\nat the\\ntlie passage\\n7.\\nOF THE\\nSYSTEM\\nANATOMY\\nDIGESTIVE\\n(continued)\\nThe Stomach is a pouch\\nwhich holds about a quart\\nor three pints the open-\\ning between it and the\\nesophagus, being near the\\nheart, is called the cardia^\\nand the one from the\\nstomach into the intes-\\ntines is the pylorus. Both\\nof these gateways are\\nsupplied with circular\\nmuscles which by con-\\ntracting close the open-\\ning. The cardiac end of\\nthe stomach is the storage part, and the gastric juice\\nsecreted by this end is somewhat different from the\\ngastric juice secreted by the pyloric end, which does the\\nwork of churning and digesting the proteids (Fig. 25).\\nFig. 24. Diagram of the structure and\\nsetting of a normal incisor tooth.\\n[Bodecker.] L, cuticle of enamel;\\nE, enamel D, dentine with canaliculi\\nlayer between enamel and dentine\\nB, border-line between enamel and\\ncementum of neck S, cementum of\\nneck Ce, cementum of root Z, layer\\nbetween dentine and cementum; P,\\npericementum; A, arteriole of pulp,\\nbranching into capillaries F, vein of\\npulp taking up capillaries N, medul-\\nlated nerve-fibres of pulp Eg, epithe-\\nlium of gum; Pe, periosteum; Ca,\\nbone tissue of alveolus; Pg, papillary\\nlayer of gum Co, cortical bone of\\nalveolus or socket M, spaces of bone.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "94\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nThe stomach has four coats an outside smooth coat,\\na second muscular coat which enables the stomach to con-\\ntract and expand, an inner much-folded coat of mucous\\nmembrane, and one between this and the muscular coat.\\nFig. 25. Inside of the stomach, front view, showing the folds (or rugae) of\\nthe mucous membrane.\\nwhich is called the suh mucosa. In the muscular coat the\\nmuscles run both lengthwise and crosswise, and by con-\\ntracting first one set and then another of these muscular\\ncoats give the stomach a churning motion.\\nThe inner mucous coat is thrown up in folds when the", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION\\n95\\nstomach is empty, but these are flattened out when the\\nstomach is full.\\nThe gastric glands are situated in the mucous lining\\nand pour out the gastric juice when food enters the\\nstomach, or when it is in the habit of\\nreceiving food (Fig. 26).\\nThe pancreas is a long spongy organ\\nwhich secretes the pancreatic juice and\\nempties it into the duodenum near its\\nunion with the stomach. The small in-\\ntestine has, like the stomach, four coats,\\nbut the inner one, in addition to folds\\nsimilar to those which we noticed in the\\nstomach lining, is also pushed up into\\nlittle fingerlike projections called villi\\nwhich very much increase the inner sur-\\nface of the intestine. The food gets\\ninto the hollows between the villi and\\nis in this way kept from passing so\\nquickly through meanwhile the villi can\\nabsorb the digested material.\\nThe other intestinal juices are secreted\\nby the intestinal glands which lie be-\\ntween the bases of the villi, and as the\\nfood is forced along by the peristaltic\\naction of the intestine, it becomes di-\\ngested and is absorbed by the villi (study\\nFigure 27).\\nThe large intestine is about five feet in length. There\\nis little nourishment left in the food when it reaches the\\nlarge intestine, so that it consists of refuse and water.\\nThis latter is absorbed as it passes along, and the refuse\\nis carried away.\\nFig. 26. A peptic\\ngland, from cardiac\\nend of stomach.\\nVery much magni-\\nfied. A, central or\\nchief cells, which\\nmake pepsin; B,\\nborder or parietal\\ncells, which make\\nacid. [From Mil-\\nler s Histology.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "96\\nFig. 27. A very much magnified picture of a slice through the small intes-\\ntine. [Benda.] Notice the outer strong coat of connective tissue {a), the\\nmuscular coat (d lengthwise, and e circular), the submucous coat of con-\\nnective tissue The mucous membrane (h) with two very large folds\\n(A and B) which run crosswise around the inside of the intestine. (See\\nduodenum, Fig. 25.) Notice the fingerlike projections {k) which cover th\u00c2\u00ab\\nwhole surface of the mucous membrane, and are so fine and delicate that\\nthe surface of the membrane looks and feels like velvet. Between the\\nfingerlike projections or villi there are little glands dipping down into the\\nmucous membrane. These intestinal glands are similar to the stomach\\nglands except that they have no border cells. (See Fig. 26.)\\n8. REVIEW OF ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM\\n1. Name the parts of the alimentary canal, beginning\\nwith the mouth.\\n2. Name the glands which form a part of the digest-\\nive system.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 97\\n3. Draw a diagram of the digestive system.\\n4. How many teeth have you? How many, if any,\\nbelong to the temporary set How many teeth will be\\nrequired to complete your permanent set, and when ought\\nthey to appear\\n5. What provision is made to guide the food on its\\npassage through the pharynx\\n6. How can one swallow water when the head is lower\\nthan the stomach\\n7. How many kinds of tissue in the wall of the\\nstomach What is the work of each\\n8. What is the advantage of the stomach having a\\nlining larger than the outside wall, thus causing the\\nlining to be thrown into folds\\n9. What is the advantage of the crosswise folds of the\\nmucous membrane lining the small intestine\\n10. What are the villi? What are the intestinal glands?\\n11. Of what use is the vermiform appendix How\\ndid man come to have such an organ How large is the\\nrabbit s vermiform appendix Is this organ useful to the\\nrabbit? Could man live without it?\\n9. DTGESTIOX BY SALIVA\\nWe called j)lant digestion the process of changing food\\nfrom a form in which it cannot be used to a form in which\\nit can be used, and the same definition will do for animal\\ndigestion.\\nPlant digestion is, however, carried on outside of the\\nplant body, while animal digestion goes on within the\\nanimal body. The process of animal digestion is so\\nthoroughly understood that it can be imitated outside of\\nthe body, and the process watched.\\nhall s phys. 7", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "98 PHYSIOLOGY\\nWe found that plants cannot use starch until it has been\\nchanged b) a ferment. The same is true for animals\\nand as the process goes on within the body, the mouth is\\nsupplied with a juice called saliva, which produces this\\nchange. Starch can be acted upon by the saliva much\\nmore readily after it is cooked, so that all cereal foods,\\npotatoes, and other starchy vegetables, are always cooked\\nbefore being eaten.\\nWhen the food has been prepared, it is taken into the\\nmouth and masticated. This process of mastication has\\ntwo purposes first, to grind it into small particles that\\ncan be reached by the saliva and second, to moisten it\\nthorouglily, so that it may be more easily swallowed, and\\nso that it will have enough of the saliva to make the\\nchange.\\nIt is interesting to watch the process of digestion, and\\nto find out just what the change is. Suppose we put into a\\nglass tube a little cooked starch, some saliva, a little water,\\nand then, after shaking it up, hold it in the warm hand\\nfor a few minutes. Now, if we put a few drops of iodine\\nin the tube, we shall find no blue color, which proves there\\nis no starch, but a purple color, which iodine always shows\\nin the presence of dextrine, or half digested starch. We\\ncould go on and show that there is actually sugar present,\\nafter five minutes of warmth upon the saliva and starch.\\nSaliva, then, is a juice whose work is to change starch to\\nsugar.\\nEXPERIMEI^TS\\n1. Prepare starch paste by rubbing starch in water to a\\nthin creamy consistency, and boiling until it is clear.\\n2. Put into a test tube one fourth teaspoonful of starch\\npaste, a little saliva, and an equal amount of water shake", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 99\\nup the mixture, and hold it in the hand for a few minutes\\nto keep it warm. Add iodine, and instead of the blue\\ncolor of the starch, we get a reddish blue color, showing\\nthat the starch has been changed (to dextrine).\\n3. Mix in a test tube, as before, starch paste, saliva, and\\nwater. Keep warm five minutes. Add an equal volume\\nof Fehling s Solution, and heat to boiling. The precipita-\\ntion of copper proves that sugar is present (maltose).\\n4. Try these experiments with raw starch, and show\\nthat saliva digests cooked starch much more readily than\\nit digests raw starch.\\n10. DIGESTION BY THE GASTRIC JUICE\\nWe found the saliva of the mouth to act upon the\\nstarchy foods, changing them to sugar. But as saliva\\nhas no effect upon proteid foods, nature has supplied\\nanother juice in the stomach to do this work.\\nThe food, when it is swallowed, takes down into the\\nstomach a quantity of saliva which carries on the starch\\ndigestion. The gastric juice of the stomach does not be-\\ngin to flow until after the stomach is stimulated by the\\npresence of food and, as it collects slowly, it gives the\\nsaliva time to go on with its work on the starchy foods.\\nIf we test the saliva, we find it alkaline, that is, like\\nsoda but if we test gastric juice, we find it acid. You\\nknow when we put sour milk and soda together, one coun-\\nteracts the other. This is true of any alkali and acid.\\nAfter enough of the acid gastric juice has collected to\\nneutralize the alkaline saliva, the latter can no longer do\\nany work. Then the gastric juice begins its work upon\\nthe proteids.\\nDuring the half or three quarters of an hour in which\\nthe saliva can work before the gastric juice has made the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "100 PHYSIOLOGY\\nstomach too acid, only a small portion of the starchy foods\\nhas been digested the rest passes on into the intestines.\\nIf the food has been well cooked and thoroughly masti-\\ncated, so that the gastric juice can get at every particle,\\nthe work goes on faster, and with greater ease.\\nWhen we eat sugar, we are relieving the saliva of its\\nwork by eating food already changed and when we eat\\npeptonized foods, digested proteid food, or peptone, we are\\nrelieving the gastric juice of its labor.\\nThe gastric juice is secreted by the gastric glands (Fig.\\n26). These are in the mucous membrane of the stomach.\\nThose at the cardiac end of the stomach differ from those\\nin the pyloric end in having border cells which secrete\\nacid. The gastric juice contains both acid and pepsin.\\nEXPERIMENTS\\nGet a pig s stomach from the stockyards, or from the\\nvillage slaughterhouse. The stomach of a pig is very\\nsimilar in size and structure to that of a man. Cut it\\nopen, rinse it off, and make a careful study of the coats,\\nand of the mucous membrane. Draw figures, and make\\na full description in your notebook.\\n2. With an old table knife or a strong spoon scrape\\nthe mucous membrane of the stomach, saving the slimy\\nscrapings in a pint jar. Add water enough nearly to\\nfill the jar, stir or shake vigorously for several minutes,\\nadd the juice of a lemon to take the place of the acid which\\nthe gastric glands of the stomach usually secrete. Label\\nthis Gastric Secretion,\\n3. Buy five cents worth of pepsin from the druggist,\\nput it into a pint jar, add the juice of a lemon, and fill the\\njar with water shake thoroughly, and label Artificial\\nGrastric Juice,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 101\\n4. Cut or tear off some fine stringlike shreds from a\\npiece of raw steak. Put two or three of these into a\\ntest tube with the artificial gastric juice and keep warm\\nfor fifteen minutes, noting very carefully all changes.\\nRepeat with gastric secretion.\\n5. Digest very soft-boiled egg with the two different\\npreparations of gastric juice.\\n6. Try starch paste and a piece of fat to see if gastric\\njuice will digest either.\\n11. DIGESTION BY THE PANCREATIC JUICE\\nPerhaps you have wondered what became of all the\\nstarch which the saliva did not digest, and when you\\nknow that gastric juice digests only a part of the pro-\\nteid, and that as yet there has been no effect upon the\\nfats, you will see clearly the need for another digestive\\nfluid.\\nWhen the food leaves the stomach it consists of the still\\nundigested starch, the still undigested proteid, the fats,\\nsuch sugar as we may have eaten, mineral matter, and\\nwater, besides the dextrine and sugar and peptone which\\nhave been formed by the saliva and the gastric juice.\\nThese all mixed together make a grayish, soupy mixture,\\nwhich we call chyme. The chyme leaves the stomach and\\nenters the duodenum, the upmost section of the intestine.\\nJust at the entrance of the intestine is a tube from which\\nthe pancreatic juice enters the duodenum, and this juice,\\nwith the help of the intestinal juice and the bile, con-\\ntinues the process of digestion.\\nThe pancreatic juice has three kinds of ferments, each\\nof which has its own particular work. One ferment acts\\nupon starch, changing it to sugar one acts upon proteid.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "102 PHYSIOLOGY\\nchanging it to peptone and one changes fat into an emul-\\nsion, or into soap, which may readily be absorbed from\\nthe intestine.\\nThe intestinal juice is secreted by the little intestinal\\nglands that are located in the mucous membrane of the\\nsmall intestine, between the bases of the villi. This juice\\ncontains one ferment which has the power of changing\\nsuch sugars as maltose, lactose, and cane sugar to grape\\nsugar, or dextrose.\\nThe bile is secreted hj the liver, and assists the pan-\\ncreatic juice in making an emulsion of the fats and oils.\\nThe bile contains no ferment. The mucus which it\\ncontains in abundance lubricates the wall of the intes-\\ntine, and so helps the food to slide along through the\\nnarrow canal.\\nThe combined effect of these digestive juices is quickly\\nnoticed on the still undigested food, which is soon in a\\ncondition to be used in the body as nourishment. In\\nother words, the food is now digested.\\nEXPERIMENTS\\n1. Buy from the druggist five cents worth of Pan-\\ncreatin put it into a pint jar add one quarter tea-\\nspoonful of baking soda (bicarbonate of soda). nearly\\nfill the jar with water and shake vigorously. Label\\nArtificial Pancreatic Juice,\\n2. Put into a test tube a few shreds of raw steak or\\na bit of soft-boiled egg,, add a half tube of the pancreatic\\njuice, and see if it will digest either of these in fifteen\\nto thirty minutes.\\n3. Put into a test tube a little starch paste, add half\\na tube of pancreatic juice, shake thoroughly, and keep", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 103\\nwarm fifteen minutes, (a) Take out half of the mixture\\nand test with iodine to see if the starch has been partly or\\nwholly changed to dextrine. (6) Take the other half of\\nthe mixture add an equal volume of Fehling s Solution\\nshake to mix heat to a boiling temperature and note if\\nany of the starch has been changed to sugar (maltose).\\n4. Add to a spoonful of olive oil an equal volume of\\nArtificial Pancreatic Juice shake vigorously two min-\\nutes note that the oil is changed to a white, milky\\nliquid, an emulsion containing some soap.\\nNote that some preparations of pancreatin will digest\\nproteid and fat some will digest starch and fat while\\na perfect preparation digests proteid, fat^ and starch.\\n12. REVIEW OF THE AVHOLE PROCESS OF DIGESTION\\n1. How many digestive juices are there? Where are\\nthey made or secreted In what part of the alimentary\\ncanal do they do their part of the digestion\\n2. How many different kinds of food do we eat\\nWhere is each kind digested\\n3. What is chyme, and of what does it consist\\n4. How many ferments are at work in the small intes-\\ntine What is the work of each ferment Into what\\nfinal form is starch changed Proteid Fat Cane\\nsugar and milk sugar\\n5. Why do the contents of the small intestine look like\\nmilk?\\n6. What is the test for starch For dextrine\\n7. What is the test for sugar (dextrose, maltose, lac-\\ntose) What is the reddish substance which separates\\nout in the test\\n8. What is the name of the ferment of the stomach", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "104 PHYSIOLOGY\\n13. THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION\\nNow that we know the elements of food, and what\\nvalue each has in the building up of the tissues, we are\\nready to decide the best method of preparing foods, the\\nbest time for eating them, and some other points regard-\\ning food and health.\\nIn tasting a raw potato or raw rice, we noticed the\\ngranular feeling of the starch and the unpleasant taste.\\nIf Ave were to try to digest raw starch in a little saliva\\nwe should find it still undigested after fifteen or twenty\\nminutes, while the cooked starch and saliva show dex-\\ntrine after one minute. The cooking breaks up the starch\\ngrains and allows the saliva and pancreatic juice to reach\\nthe starch itself and digest it.\\nTherefore, all starchy foods should he thoroughly cooked.\\nIt does not follow that all other kinds of food should be\\nmuch cooked. For example, raw Qgg digests very\\nquickly, while eg^ that has been cooked becomes hard\\nand so compact that the gastric and pancreatic juices\\ncannot readily penetrate them to digest them.\\nMeat ivhich contains much connective tissue must be cooked\\nfor a long time at a temperature just below boiling^ that the\\nconnective tissue may be rendered in part digestible but\\nas a rule, lean meat should be cooked only enough to make\\nit palatable.\\nThere is much talk about the use of meat, and per-\\nhaps it will be well to say that the people who have done\\nthe most toward the advancement of civilization have\\nbeen the meat and vegetable eating people and not the\\nvegetarians. Although the proteids can be obtained from\\nvegetables, there seems to be something else which meat\\nalone can give. The fault then is not in eating meat at", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 105\\nall, but in eating it too often and in too great quantities.\\nOne needs more meat in winter than in summer. Eng-\\nlish and American people eat too much meat. A proper\\namount of meat makes one active, ^yllile too much makes\\none nervous. People engaged in severe bodily exercise\\ncan eat much more meat without affecting the nerves\\nthan can be eaten by students or people engaged in less\\nactive labor.\\nWe have seen that starch is an important part of our diet\\nand that before we can use it in building up tissue it must\\nbecome sugar. The question naturally follows, why do\\npeople often say we should not eat sugar nor candy Per-\\nhaps it wdll help us to find out if we remember how many\\nof the foods we eat contain starch, which will, of course,\\nmake sugar and if we also remember that sugar is not\\na muscle making, but a heat making food. Sugar and\\ncandy are nourishing, but if we eat much of them we add\\ntoo much sugar to our diet and make our stomachs liable\\nto fermentation.\\nThen again, such things would do little if any harm to\\nthe average person if eaten at the end of a meal, and\\nthus taken at a proper eating time. But they are seldom\\ntaken then, and one of the most injurious things we can\\ndo is to eat at irregular hours. Why Because if we\\nare regular in our meal times, the digestive juices become\\nregular in the time that they appear in the stomach and\\nintestine, and at the usual time for eating they will flow\\nfreely to do their work.\\nIf between the meals we take any kind of food, it stim-\\nulates the juices to flow, and then when we need them for\\nthe regular meal, which is heavier and needs more of\\nthe juices, they do not flow readily, and the food is not\\nwell digested.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "106 PHYSIOLOGY\\n14. THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION (continued)\\nHaving now properly chosen our food and cooked it in\\nthe best manner, we are ready to decide when it should be\\neaten. Certain people tell us to eat no breakfast, others\\nto eat no lunch and still others to eat nothing just before\\nsleeping; but all of these things do not touch upon the\\nfundamental rule of eating, which is Uat only so much as\\nis needed for nourishmejit^ and eat only at regular hours.\\nOne of the most frequent causes of overeating is the\\npractice of serving too many things at one meal. In\\norder to eat a little of each thing presented, more is eaten\\nthan otherwise would be. This is only one of the draw-\\nbacks of the practice of serving a great variety at one\\nmeal. When so many things are served at one meal the\\npossible number of things is much sooner used up, and one\\nbecomes tired of his food, or, as we say, he loses his\\nappetite. There is also the added expense in money, time,\\nand labor entailed by the addition of unnecessary things.\\nMeat is one of the most common articles of diet and we\\nhave found that it is rich in proteid.. It has been found\\nthat the nations which use meat are the best thinkers and\\nthe most progressive people. It has also been learned\\nthat the people who eat the most meat, the English and\\nAmericans, are most subject to such diseases as gout,\\nneuralgia, and rheumatism. Meat gives no food material\\nwhich cannot be obtained from vegetables, and yet the\\neating of meat seems to give an activity and agility that\\nvegetable food does not impart. When meat is eaten in\\nlarge quantities this activity increases until the person\\nbecomes nervous, restless, and irritable.\\nThose who are doing heavy manual labor can eat much\\nmore meat without receiving harm than can be eaten", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 107\\nby less active people. Those who have rheumatic tenden-\\ncies should avoid the use of lean meat except in small\\nquantities.\\nRich pies, cakes, and puddings you Avill perhaps think\\nare useful because they contain sugar, eggs, milk, fat, and\\nflour, all of which are nourishing, but unfortunately they\\nare so put together as to make them very hard to digest,\\nand this makes the time required for digestion longer.\\nThe main thought in the hygiene of digestion is Eat\\nthose things wJiieh are for our bodily good^ although they may\\nnot he the most pleasing to the taste and avoid those things\\nwhich do us harm^ although they are most to our liking. Eat\\nTO LIVE, not LIVE TO EAT.\\n15. THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION AYATER\\nIn the little corn plant that grew from the seed because\\nof the warmth and moisture it had, we found nine parts\\nout of ten to be water. In all plants, from the least to\\nthe greatest, we find a large quantity of water.\\nWater is nature s drink, intended for all life. It exists\\nin the greatest abundance, and all living things are able\\nto procure it. Rivers, lakes, and springs are nature s\\nreservoirs for storing pure water. Wells and cisterns are\\nman s reservoirs.\\nThe purest water is that taken from nature s reservoirs\\nwhere they are not near large cities. When the city refuse\\nempties into a body of water it leaves many impurities\\nand germs of disease. The water must then be taken\\nfrom far beyond the reach of the impurity or it must be\\nboiled to kill the germs. Rain water is the purest form\\nof water aside from those just mentioned, provided it has\\nnot become impure after falling.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "108 PHYSIOLOGY\\nThe artesian well is the most artificial plan of procuring\\nwater, and water from such wells is often heavily charged\\nAvith mineral salts that are not the best for our use. The\\nsystem is unable to take up and use lime and magnesium\\nsalts in this form. They therefore tend to clog the\\nsystem, causing a tendency to constipation, or if absorbed\\nentail very hard work upon the kidneys to throw them\\nout of the system. This water is more healthful if\\nboiled or better yet if distilled.\\nSugar and salt must have water to dissolve and dilute\\nthem before they can be absorbed by the body, hence the\\ndesire for drink after eating them.\\nAll processes of digestion require water to complete\\nthem. It is, however, not a good practice to wash food\\ndown with water. Let the saliva moisten the food, and\\nlet the water be taken, a little at a time, when the mouth\\nis empty.\\nIt is beneficial to take water with the meals and after the\\nmeals, but it is not so well to drink it just before the meal.\\nIf ice water is used it should not be taken by the half\\nglass but should be sipped^ that it may be warmed before\\nreaching the stomach.\\nAfter what has been said of the harmfulness of the\\nlime and magnesium minerals in the water, the question\\nwould naturally follow, why then do we use mineral water?\\nThese mineral waters which are used as beverages contain\\nother minerals than lime and magnesium, and have a\\nspecial medicinal value. Effervescent mineral waters con-\\ntain carbon dioxide under pressure. When the pressure\\nis removed the gas begins to expand and escape, causing\\nthe bubbling. The salts of most mineral waters stimu-\\nlate the excretory organs, and are usually taken for this\\npurpose.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 109\\n16. THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION\u00e2\u0080\u0094 DRINKS\\nI. REFRESHING DRINKS\\nUnder this heading we may mention first lemonade and\\nother fruit acid drinks^ which are so pleasing to the taste in\\nthe summer, and really aid in the digestion if taken at the\\nright time. The gastric juice of the stomach is acid, and\\nwill flow freely upon the entrance of food into the stomach.\\nBut if just before the food is taken we introduce an acid\\ninto the stomach, the gastric juice will not flow so freely,\\nand the food is hindered in its digestion. If the fruit\\nacid comes in during the latter part of the meal, after the\\ngastric juice has already flowed, it assists in the digestion.\\nFruit acid drinks are then better not taken just before\\nor during the early part of the meal.\\nFruit Juices^ such as apple juice or grape juice or rasp-\\nberry juice, may be extracted, mixed with a little sugar,\\nboiled to kill all germs, and then bottled to prevent\\nfermentation. These with the addition of a little water\\nalso make refreshing drinks.\\nFruit Sirups are fruit juices cooked with enough sugar\\nto keep them from fermenting without sealing. These\\nmust be used with a great deal of water, in order to make\\nrefreshing drinks. They are more often used as flavor-\\nings for other drinks.\\nSoda water^ without flavoring, is simply water and car-\\nbon dioxide, and derives its name from the soda which\\nwas originally used in making the carbon dioxide. In\\nthis form it may be classed with refreshing drinks when\\nice cream, milk, or eggs are added, it should rather be\\nclassed with the next group. Soda water is usually fla-\\nvored with a fruit syrup.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "110 PHYSIOLOGY\\nII. NOURISHING DRINKS\\nNourishing drinks^ including milk, cocoa, chocolate, and\\nthe cereal drinks, such as postum cereal and grano,\\npossess a food value in themselves, and when they are\\nserved with cream and sugar become still more nourishing.\\nAll of these drinks are best taken with the meals, or\\nwhen food is required, as they demand the work of all the\\ndigestive juices to digest them.\\nIII. STIMULATING DRINKS\\nThe stimulating drinks^ which have no other important\\nproperties, are coffee and tea.\\nTea contains tannin, which gives the dark color to the\\ntea, and hinders the digestion. Neither tea nor coffee pos-\\nsesses any nourishing properties, except for the sugar and\\ncream that are taken with them.\\n17. THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION ALCOHOLIC DRINKS\\nI. IS ALCOHOL A FOOD?\\nExperiments have recently been made by Professor\\nAtwater, of the government Department of Agriculture,\\nin which new proof of the oxidation of alcohol in the\\nbody was collected. This has opened again the old ques-\\ntion as to whether, because of its oxidation in the body,\\nalcohol may be classified as a food.\\nWe know that foods yield their energy by oxidation,\\neither after having been built up into living protoplasm\\nor after having been absorbed by the living protoplasm\\nand taken into the cells, though the food is not necessarily", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 111\\nbuilt up into living protoplasm before the oxidation can\\ntake place.\\nWhen it was found out, a good many years ago, that\\nalcohol is nearly all oxidized in the body, the question was\\nat once asked, Is not alcohol then a food?\\nInvestigations were made, and the question was debated\\nwith the result that alcohol continued to be classified with\\nthe poisons, and not with the foods.\\nThe question has been opened several times during the\\nlast fifty years, but always with the same result. Sci-\\nentific men, generally, continue to classify alcohol as a\\npoison, and not as a food.\\nMorphine is oxidized in the body, and yields its energy\\nto the body, yet every one recognizes morphine as a dan-\\ngerous poison, though it is often given by physicians with\\nbenefit in cases of illness.\\nSo we see that a substance cannot safely be used as a\\nfood simply because it is oxidized in the body.\\nA food is a substance whose nature it is, luhen absorbed\\ninto the bloody to nourish the body without injuring it.\\nWhen we say that beef is a food, everybody under-\\nstands that we mean beef that has been cared for in the\\nusual way. If lean meat is exposed to a warm atmos-\\nphere for a number of days, a change takes place, caused\\nby the growth, within the meat, of millions of bacteria.\\nThe bacteria themselves would not hurt one if they were\\nkilled by cooking, but some of the waste matter (pto-\\nmaines) thrown out by the bacteria would not be made\\nharmless by cooking, and might seriously poison any one\\neating the meat. This process of decomposition of meat is\\na fermentation, or putrefaction, and the bacteria are called\\norganized or living ferments.\\nIn a similar way sugar, in a dilute solution in water, if", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "112 PHYSIOLOGY\\nexposed to a warm atmosphere, will undergo a fermenta-\\ntion, caused by the growth, within the solution, of millions\\nof yeast plants, which are organized or living ferments.\\nThe yeast plants themselves would not hurt one, but\\nsome of the waste matter thrown out by the plant would\\nnot be made harmless by heating, and if kept from pass-\\ning off by evaporation might seriously poison any one\\ndrinking the solution.\\nIt is the nature of meat and sugar, when absorbed into\\nthe blood, to nourish the body without injuring it but if\\nptomaines are formed in the meat, or if alcohol is formed\\nin the sugar solution, the previously wholesome foods be-\\ncome poisonous, owing to the presence of the ptomaines\\nor alcohol.\\nWhen we use the word poison, we are likely to think\\nof a substance, such as strychnine or arsenic, that causes\\nor may cause death in a very short time. But there are\\nmany poisons that work very slowly, sometimes requiring\\nmany years to cause death or a serious disabling of the\\nsystem. Painters are sometimes affected with lead poison-\\ning^ due to small quantities of lead absorbed day by day\\nfor years. If a man were to take a considerable quantity\\nof the poison at once, it might cause death in a few hours\\nor days. Arsenic may be taken in very small doses day\\nafter day for many years without causing death, but it is\\nno less a poison because it does its damage slowly.\\nWhen alcohol is taken in small quantities, it is oxidized\\nin the system, and gives up its heat energy to the body.\\nThis heat will be given off to the body, just the same as\\nheat caused by the oxidation of sugar or bread. But\\nthe condition of the body, after it has oxidized alcohol,\\nis quite different from its condition after it has oxidized\\nsugar or bread.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 113\\nBenzine is very easily oxidized. If it were poured upon\\nthe fire of a locomotive, it would make a furious blaze,\\nwhich would make the water in the boiler heat rapidly,\\nand that, in turn, make the wheels turn more rapidly.\\nBut the benzine would burn so rapidly as almost to make\\nan explosion, and a very large part of the heat caused by\\nthe oxidation would be lost. The locomotive needs a\\nslow-burning fuel, whose heat can all be utilized. So the\\nbody needs such slow-oxidizing substances as sugar, bread,\\nstarch, and fat, rather than such a rapidly burning sub-\\nstance as alcohol. The energy of the alcohol is rapidly\\nexpended, because the alcohol causes the blood to come to\\nthe surface of the body, and the blood cools so rapidly\\nthat more heat energy is lost from the body than that\\ncontained in the alcohol, thus leaving the temperature of\\nthe body lower than it was before the alcohol was taken.\\nLet us now listen to some of the leading medical men\\nas to whether alcohol may be considered a food.\\nAlthough the relation, just alluded to, between the\\nburning of alcohol and the burning of the nutritious sub-\\nstances in the animal organism, has not been fully ex-\\nplained physiologically, this much is true, that alcohol,\\ntaken however moderately, is not to be classed among the\\nnutritious substances.\\nDr. McConachie, of Baltimore, says Alcohol exerts\\na pernicious influence on the development and function of\\nthe muscular and nervous systems, the special senses and\\nmental activity of those who use it. This is not the role\\nplayed by a true food.\\nDr. A. Forel^ says: Alcohol, or ethyl-alcohol, is a\\n1 Adolph Fick, Late Professor of Physiology, University of Wurzburg^\\nGermany.\\n2 Professor of Nervous Diseases in Zurich, Switzerland.\\nhall s phys. 8", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "114 PHYSIOLOGY\\npoisonous matter, both for the human and animal organ-\\nism its venomousness increases with the amount and\\nfrequency of the doses. But even when partaken of in\\nthe most temperate way, it plainly interferes with the\\nfunctions of the various organs it cannot be regarded as\\nbeing either nourishing or strengthening and therefore\\nit is of no use whatever in a normal diet, and cannot be\\ncounted as a factor of the same.\\nA physicist could experiment with gunpowder and\\nprove that it is easily oxidized and gives rise to a large\\namount of heat and energy. From this it might be\\nargued that gunpowder is a most useful kind of fuel for\\ncooking-stoves. Such a conclusion would be hardly less\\nlogical than the conclusions that have been drawn from\\nthese experiments with alcohol, and which regard it as a\\nuseful food for the body.\\nGunpowder is a more unsafe fuel because of its sec-\\nondary effects, and in the same way the food value of\\nalcohol cannot be determined by its power of being oxi-\\ndized, but must include the consideration of its secondary\\neffects as well.\\nIn order to be a food it is not sufficient that a sub-\\nstance be decomposed (or oxidized) in the tissues. Under\\nthese conditions many harmful substances would be con-\\nsidered foods. Ether is decomposed in part, chloroform\\nis partially destroyed. But do we consider these sub-\\nstances foods Certainly not. Other things than oxida-\\ntion are necessary to nutrition. It is necessary that\\nthe decomposition be made in a way that will not injure\\nthe vitality of the cells. A part of the alcohol that is\\ndestroyed on the body undergoes this decomposition in a\\nway that is injurious. Observe that whereas true foods,\\n1 Professor H. W. Conn, of Wesleyan University.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 115\\nsuch as sugar and fat, are destroyed slowly, easily, without\\nprovoking too lively a combustion, alcohol is burnt too\\nrapidly, provoking a veritable explosion. Suppose that a\\nlocomotive has to run a certain number of kilometers in\\norder to do this it must be given food. This is the coal,\\nwhich it burns slowly and methodically. If in the place\\nof coal we throw naphtha on the fire, the combustion of\\nthis may furnish as much heat as the coal, but it is burnt\\ninstantaneously, in the form of an explosion. The heat\\nthus produced is not utilized in the machine. What\\nnaphtha is for the locomotive, alcohol is to our bodies it\\nis an explosive but not a food.\\nWhen put to a practical test on a large scale, as when\\ngiven to soldiers in severe army work, alcohol fails as a\\nfood most conspicuously. It has been shown over and\\nover again that those who endure the greatest fatigue and\\nexposure are the men who do not drink.\\nII. THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON DIGESTION\\nProfessor Kochlakoff, of St. Petersburg, has experi-\\nmented on five healthy persons, aged from twenty to\\ntwenty-four years, with reference to the effects of alcohol\\nupon digestion. Ten minutes before each meal, each\\nperson was given three ounces of alcoholic liquor, con-\\ntaining from five to fifty per cent of alcohol, which is\\nabout the proportion found in ordinary liquors. The\\nfollowing results were obtained\\nUnder the influence of alcohol, the acidity of the gas-\\ntric juice and the quantity of hydrochloric acid, as well\\n1 Doctor Bienfait, of Liege.\\n2 William B. Rochester, Brigadier General, U.S.A. (Retired)", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "116\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nas the digestive power of the gastric juice, was dimin-\\nished. This enfeebling of the digestion is especially pro-\\nnounced in persons unaccustomed to the use of alcohol.\\nProfessor Chittenden and his associates of Yale Uni-\\nversity have made extensive experiments upon dogs, and\\nhave found that, though the presence of alcohol or an\\nalcoholic beverage in the stomach causes a greater amount\\nof gastric juice to be secreted, still the presence of alcohol\\nin the stomach retarded digestion.\\nThe results which Professor Chittenden gives as\\nstrictly comparable, because they were carried out\\nin succession on the same day, are as follows\\nNumbei\\nof Experiment.\\nx^o lb. meat with water.\\nxVlb. meat with dihite alcohol.\\nXVII\\na 9:15 A.M.\\nDigested in 3 hours.\\nXVII\\n3 00 P.M.\\nDigested in 3 15 hours.\\nXVIII\\na 8:30 a.m.\\nDigested in 2 30 hours.\\nXVIII\\n2 10 P.M.\\nDigested in 3 00 hours.\\nXIX\\na 9:00 a.m.\\nDigested in 2 30 hours.\\nXIX\\n2 30 P.M.\\nDigested in 3 00 hours.\\nXX\\na 9 15 a.m.\\nDigested in 2:45 hours.\\nXX\\n^2:30 P.M.\\nDigested in 2 15 hours.\\nVI\\na 9:15 A.M.\\nDigested in 3 45 hours.\\nVI\\n1 00 P.M.\\nDigested in 3 :15 hours.\\nA\\nrerage\\n2:42 hours.\\n3 09 hours.\\nFrom this table of results that may be compared, we\\nsee that with alcohol present in the stomach the digestion\\nwas retarded twenty-seven minutes in the average result.^\\nNothing could be further removed from the truth than\\n1 American Journal of Physiology, Vol. I, 202-203.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 117\\nthe popular notion that alcohol, at least in the form of\\ncertain wines, is helpful to digestion. Roberts showed,\\nyears ago, that alcohol, even in small doses, diminished\\nthe activity of the stomach in the digestion of proteids.\\nGluzinski showed, ten years ago, that alcohol causes an\\narrest in the secretion of pepsin, and also in its action\\nupon food. Wolff showed that the habitual use of alcohol\\nproduces disorder of the stomach to such a degree as to\\nrender it incapable of responding to the normal excitation\\nof the food. Hugounence found that all wines, without\\nexception, prevent the action of pepsin upon proteids.\\nThe most harmful are those which contain large quan-\\ntities of alcohol, cream of tartar, or coloring matter.\\nWines often contain coloring matters which at once com-\\npletely arrest digestion, such as methylin blue and\\nfuchsin.^\\nBlumenau says, On the whole, alcohol manifests a\\ndecidedly unfavorable influence on the course of normal\\ndigestion even when taken in small quantities, and injures\\nthe normal digestive functions.\\nREVIEW OF THE HYGIENE OF DIGESTION\\n1. Cereals, vegetables, and fruit, with eggs and the dairy products,\\nmake a complete and perfect diet, though meat in moderate quantities\\nmay be added with advantage.\\n2. Meat contains, besides proteids and fats, which may be fur-\\nnished by a vegetable and dairy diet, some substance which seems to\\nstimulate men to higher endeavors. For this reason a moderate\\namount of meat is desirable.\\n3. If meat is eaten in too large quantities it makes people nervous\\nand irritable, and more likely to su:ffer from neuralgia, rheumatism,\\nor gout.\\n1 J. H. Kellogg, M.D. 2 g. F. Mather, M.D.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "118 PHYSIOLOGY\\n4. One may be intemperate in eating. One should eat only as\\nmuch as is needed for nourishment, and eat at regular hours only.\\nA very good rule to follow is to eat slowly and to stop eating as soon\\nas one is satisfied.\\n5. Eat to live, hut do not live to eat.\\nG. Pure water is nature s drink for plants and all animals, includ-\\ning man.\\n7. In the warm weather of spring and summer one may drink\\nfreely of such refreshing drinks as lemonade and other fruit-acid\\ndrinks.\\n8. Nourishing drinks, such as milk, cocoa, chocolate, and the\\ncereal coft ees, are liquid foods, and should be taken only at meal\\ntimes.\\n9. Stimulating drinks, such as tea and coffee, are injurious to chil-\\ndren and young people, and if taken in more than moderate quantities,\\nare injurious to grown up people. There is much intemperance in\\nthe use of tea and coft ee.\\n10. Some people have claimed that alcohol is a food but the lead-\\ning scientists do not say that it is a food.\\n11. Alcohol appears to stimulate at first, but it really lessens the\\nbrain control, the self-restraint, and the will power, besides dulling\\nthe senses and the sensibilities. Thus Alcohol is a true narcotic even\\nin small doses.\\n12. Scientists classify alcohol as a narcotic poison. It may take\\nyears for it to seem to injure the system. The only perfectly safe way\\nto do is to abstain from alcoholic drinks altogether.\\n18. DOMESTIC ECON^OMY\\nBefore we can decide what to buy for our tables, we\\nmust decide how much money we have to spend. In\\nmechanical lines of work men earn from 11.50 to $4 or\\n$5 a day, but in the cases where the higher wages are\\nreceived there is usually a time in the year when work\\nstops, so that an average pay would be about $2 a day\\nthroughout the year, or about $50 a month. Men in mer-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 119\\ncantile or professional lines receive salaries varying from\\n8500 to 18000 or 110,000 but a large proportion of men\\nin these lines of work receive about $1200 per year, so we\\nwill consider $100 a month a fair income.\\nWhat are the items of expense for which every one\\nmust allow? Rent, clothes, food, and fuel one thinks of\\nat once, but there are other equally important items to\\nconsider, such as insurance, savings, benevolence, house\\nfurnishings, and incidentals, which includes books, school\\nexpenses, and recreations.\\nLet us suppose these families to consist of three grown\\npeople and two children, or two grown people and four\\nchildren, or four grown people. What proportion of this\\nmoney shall be given to each item of expense\\nDo you think a man can afford to give one fifth of his\\nincome for a house in which to live He certainly can-\\nnot afford to pay any more than that and right here is\\nthe mistake most often made the mistake of allowing\\ntoo much for rent because increasing the size of the\\nhouse increases the amount necessary for help, for fuel,\\nfor lighting, and for furnishing, and at once places one in\\nthe predicament of living beyond his means. Having\\nthen allowed what you think best for this item, it will be\\nwell to consider the item of food which must necessarily\\nbe a heavy expense, and will consume not far from a\\nfourth of the income in the cases given. Must a man\\ninsure his life and must he save for the future Cer-\\ntainly, he must provide for his family in case of his death,\\nand for himself and family in case he lives beyond his\\nworking days. However small the income, this last item\\nshould receive something, if possible, and the best way to\\nprovide for this is to decide first how much must be saved,\\nand then apportion the rest among the necessary expenses.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "120 PHYSIOLOGY\\nThe car fares, daily papers, magazines, school expenses,\\nbooks, and recreations must come under the incidental\\naccount something must be allowed for replenishing the\\nhousehold furnishings, and there must be a fund from\\nwhich Ave can draw to help others, to pay our obligations\\nto church and society.\\nPROBLEMS\\n1. Let each pupil make out a budget of expenses on a\\nbasis of $100 a month or $1200 per year. Here are some\\nof the questions which must arise for solution Taking\\nsuch a family as that described above, (a) How much\\nper month shall I pay for rent (5) How much per\\nmonth for kitchen and dining room expenses (c?) How\\nmuch for fuel and lighting (d^ How much for cloth-\\ning How much for books, periodicals, and educa-\\ntion How much for works of charity How\\nmuch for the church (Ji) How much for insurance\\n(i) How much to be put into the savings bank\\n2. How much would your savings account amount to\\nin thirty years at three per cent simple interest\\n3. If each $1000 were withdrawn from the savings\\nbank as soon as so much had accumulated, and put at six\\nper cent interest, to how much would the total savings of\\nthirty years amount\\n4. If you were unable to work after the thirty years\\nwere passed, what would your annual income be at six\\nper cent on savings, and three per cent dividends on\\ninsurance\\n5. Make out a budget of expenses for a family of three\\nto come within the limits of income. If the interest and\\ndividends are insufficient, what will you do", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 121\\n19. DOMESTIC ECONOMY (continued)\\nHaving disposed so easily of |100 a month, let us turn\\nto half that sum, which is the average workingman s\\nincome, and see how much can be done with that. The\\nfamily is the same in size, the members of the family are\\njust as hungry, and indeed the father who works with his\\nhands needs more food than does the one who works with\\nhis head.\\nWe have decided that the first item to be provided for\\nis hotv much f 07* savings That should be not less than\\none fifth of the earnings and as much more as the health\\nand self-denial of the family will permit. Then he must\\ncarry $1000 insurance for the benefit of his family. He\\nwill then have not more than 138 to be divided among\\nthe other items. As this family cannot have so much\\nmoney as the one on ilOO per month to spend for food,\\nand must at the same time have as much if not more\\nnourishment, the question is reduced to one of food\\nvalues from what foods can the most energy and nour-\\nishment be obtained for the least money.\\nLet us see if a family of five persons can live upon $10\\na month for food and still be well nourished. For how\\nmuch can this family be warmly and comfortably clad\\nIn the selection of clothing on this salary, attention must\\nbe given to good wearing qualities and colors that will\\nnot fade and look shabby in a short time. Moreover, if\\nthe material has good wear in it, when it can no longer\\nbe used for the one who first owned it, it will make a\\nwarm garment for a smaller member. The ability of the\\nmother to do her sewing in a neat manner, the careful\\nsaving of buttons to serve upon one garment after having\\nfirst served upon another; the careful cutting over of", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "122 PHYSIOLOGY\\ngarments for smaller members, in brief, the prevention of\\nzvaste will make the difference here between comfort and\\ndiscomfort, if but $10 are allowed each month for clothes.\\nNow let me ask how much do you think you can spare\\nfor cigars and tobacco and for alcoholic drinks? You\\nhave already laid out all of your money in necessary\\nthings from which account will you cut off to allow\\nyourselves the indulgence of this appetite which gives you\\nnothing in return? For the man with $100 a month let\\nus allow three cigars a day at five cents each or one a day\\nat fifteen cents, which is as little as most men who use\\ntobacco indulge in, and Ave have $4.50 a month for to-\\nbacco. If added to that ten or twenty cents a day be\\ntaken off for alcoholic drinks, we must take off from $3\\nto $6 more. Shall we reduce our rent $4.50 a month and\\nour food from $3 to $6, or must we wear less comfortable\\nclothing If we do not take it from these items, it will\\nreduce our savings to an alarming extent. Besides, if\\nthe father of the family takes from $4.50 to $7 a month\\nfor the gratification of his particular taste, has not the\\nfamily at large a right to an equal amount If they are\\nallowed another $4.50 or $7 for candy, nuts, soda water,\\nice cream, and so forth, to be eaten between meals, we\\nmust either give up all idea of saving for the future, or\\nwe must cut our living expenses down another notch.\\nWhen we have but $50 a month and have stretched every\\ndollar to its utmost, where shall we cut off ten cents a\\nday for beer and five cents a day for tobacco, neither of\\nwhich will add anything to the general comfort, but all of\\nwhich will take from the general supply\\nFrom an economic standpoint alone, then, we are forced\\nto the conclusion that the use of tobacco or alcoholic\\ndrinks by one or tAVO members of a family is a most", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 123\\nfoolish and wasteful proceeding. Furthermore, it works\\na very grave injustice upon the other members of the\\nfamily.\\nPROBLEMS\\n1. Make out an annual budget on the basis of |50 per\\nmonth.\\n2. How much can you save annually\\n3. To how much will the savings amount in thirty\\nyears\\n4. What will the income be after the thirty years are\\nended and all money earning stops\\n5. How much would a man pay out for tobacco in\\nthirty years at fifteen cents per day\\n6. HoAV much would a man pay out for drinks in thirty\\nyears at fifteen cents per day\\n7. Knowing that drinkers are almost universally smok-\\ners, how much would the man in problem 6 spend in\\nthirty years for drink and tobacco at thirty cents per day\\n8. To how much would these expenditures amount (in\\n5, 6, and 7) if each accumulated flOOO were put at interest\\nat six per cent and left to accumulate until the end of\\nthe thirty year period\\n20. domp:stic economy\\nThirty dollars a month will provide nourishing, attrac-\\ntive food, with some delicacies, for a family of five persons\\nwhose income is a hundred dollars a month.\\nFifteen dollars a month will provide nourishing, attrac-\\ntive food for a family of five persons whose income is fifty\\ndollars a month.\\nFood should be chosen with reference to its nourish-\\nment, digestibility, cost, and variety.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "124 PHTSTOLOGY\\nMeat is the most expensive article of diet, and is usually\\neaten too freely.\\nSoups are inexpensive, and with the addition of vege-\\ntables or cereals can be made very nourishing.\\nA variety of vegetables is advisable.\\nCorn, as sweet corn, hominy, corn meal (which latter\\ncan be used in muffins, brown bread, pancakes, mush,\\npuddings, and so forth), is a cheap and nourishing food.\\nFried foods should form a very small part of one s diet.\\nThe secret of good living at low rates is to buy food\\nwhich is nourishing and in form easy to digest to buy\\neach thing in its season, and to make good use of what is\\nleft over.\\nI. TYPICAL ME:^rus\\nMenu on ^30.00 per month basis.\\nOne of the first things to be determined in arranging a\\nmenu which must come within a certain monthly limit is\\nto apportion the weekly allowance ($7.00 on above basis)\\nand then determine how much of the weekly allowance\\nmust be expended for such general supplies as butter,\\nflour, milk, sugar, potatoes, lard, coffee, fuel, and so forth.\\nOn a 17.00 per week basis one must allow about $3.00\\nper week for these general supplies, something as follows\\nbutter, 1.50; flour, $.25; milk, $1.00, sugar, $.25 pota-\\ntoes, $.15; lard, $.05; coffee, $.10; fuel, $.60; inci-\\ndentals, $.10.\\nTYPICAL MENU FOR OXE DAY\\nBreakfast Oatmeal ($.02), sugar and cream, waffles,\\nmaple sirup, cereal coffee.\\nLuncheon Omelet ($.10), bread and butter, milk.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "NUTRITION 125\\nDinner Pork and beans ($.12), tomatoes ($.05),\\nbaked potatoes, brown bread and butter (f.05), baked\\napples and cream ($.05).\\nOn a $50.00 per month income, not more than $15.00\\nper montli should be allowed for board. That brings one\\ndown to $3.50 per week for a family of five. Of this\\nabout $2.00 per week will be expended for such general\\nsupplies as milk, $.50; flour, $.35; sugar, $.25; butter,\\n$.35; lard, $.10; cereal coffee, $.10; potatoes, $.25; sirup,\\n$.10; incidentals, $.10.\\nTYPICAL ME:^U for ONE DAY\\nBreakfast Bacon ($.05), potatoes, bread and butter,\\ncoffee.\\nDinner Beefsteak (round, $.12), potatoes, bread and\\nbutter.\\nSupper Cream of onion soup ($.01), bread and butter.\\nII. PROBLEMS\\n1. Get a list of market prices for various staple articles,\\nsuch as those mentioned under general supplies, also vari-\\nous vegetables, meats, cereal foods, and so forth.\\n2. Find out from home or from the teacher the amount\\nof the various supplies needed for a meal for five persons.\\n3. Find the most economical way to choose the various\\ncuts of meat. For example, some cuts, if large enough,\\nwill be sufficient for several days if used in made-up\\ndishes like stews and meat pies for the last one or two\\nmeals.\\n4. Make out a complete menu for a week on the basis\\nof $7.00.\\n5. Make out a complete menu for a week on the basis\\nof $3.50.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VL CIRCULATION HOW THE\\nNOURISHMENT IS DISTRIBUTED\\n1. THE NEED FOR A CIRCULATORY SYSTEM\\nNearly all of our study of physiology up to the\\npresent time has been devoted to the study of foods and\\ntheir preparation, and to the process of the mastication\\nand digestion of foods.\\nAfter the food is digested, it is absorbed into the system\\nfrom the alimentary canal and forms a part of the blood\\nand lymph of the body. This blood and lymph is tissue\\nand cell food. Every cell of the body requires food in\\norder to enable it to do its work, and it requires a particu-\\nlar kind of food. The cells of the body are working for\\ntheir board and room, that is, for their nourishment and\\nprotection. Their protection is accomplished by their\\nbeing colonized together in the body their nourishment\\nis provided in a common stock of nutriment carried by\\nthe blood. The cells are constantly drawing their supply\\nfrom this common stock, and the blood is just as con-\\nstantly being replenished by absorption from the digested\\nfoods of the alimentary canal.\\nThe problems which we have to solve in this chapter\\nare, first, what is the composition of the blood, and\\nsecond, how is the blood distributed to the different cells\\nand tissues.\\nLet us now consider the general character of the dis-\\ntributing system. Most of you are familiar with the\\n126", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 127\\nmethod which cities and many towns use in distributing\\nwater to the different houses. You know that large\\nmains, as they are called, or large tubes run from a\\ncentral pumping station along the main thoroughfares of\\na city, giving off from time to time branches which pass\\nalong side streets and supply portions of the city not\\nreached by the main channel finally, every house has its\\nwater pipes, and, after entering the house, the pipes sub-\\ndivide, each branch finally going to a faucet or other\\nterminal fixture. When the faucet is turned, the water\\nwill flow with more or less force, and may be utilized for\\nvarious household purposes, after which it is carried off\\nfirst in small pipes that converge to one of considerable\\nsize, which leaves the building and passes to the street,\\nwhere it empties into a still larger one.\\nIn a similar way the drainage or sew^erage of a whole\\ncity is collected in pipes of ever increasing size, and finally\\ncarried away from the eitj in large mains, to be emptied\\ninto some lake or river, and finally to the sea. From the\\nsea the water is vaporized, carried in the form of clouds\\nby the wind out over the land, where it falls as rain, and\\nmay be again used by a city, perhaps by the same city that\\nused it at first, though it is not likely that any consider-\\nable amount of the water so purified ever does actually\\ncome back to the same city which once used it and for\\nthis reason the water sewerage of a city cannot be called\\na circulatory system.\\nIn the animal body we have a striking analogy to a\\ngreat city first, in the need of individual cells for liquid\\nand solid; second, in the actual distribution of this\\nthrough a system of tubes third, in the collection of\\nrefuse matter or sewage of the system into another system\\nof tubes fourth, the purification of the sewage. If the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "128 PHYSIOLOGY\\npurified sewage of a city were returned and pumped\\nthrough the same channels for the water supply, the\\nanalogy would be perfect, because in the animal body the\\npurified blood passes into the pumping station and is at\\nonce sent out again through the system of supply tubes.\\nThis fact of the blood making the circulation of the body\\nrepeatedly, at one time carrying fresh liquid and food,\\nand another time carrying refuse, has caused the whole\\nsj stem of tubes to be called a circidatorij system.\\nAs the stream of pure blood in its blood vessel, bring-\\ning both water and nourishment, enters a tissue, it at once\\ndivides into minute tubes called capillaries, which dis-\\ntribute the blood to each part of the tissues. The blood\\ndoes not actually empty out into the tissues, as is the case\\nin a water tube that empties out from a faucet into a wash\\nbowl, but the wall of the tube being thinner than tissue\\npaper, there is a ready exchange between the pure blood\\nwithin the capillary and the impure plasma outside, so that\\nby the time the capillary has passed through the tissue, it\\nhas given to the tissue much that was pure and has taken\\nup from the tissue much that was impure joining with\\nmany other capillaries, the stream passes out of the tissue\\ncharged with the impurities of tissue waste and tissue\\noxidation.\\n2. THE BLOOD\\nFkom what we have learned, it must be clear that the\\nblood is a very complex liquid, because it contains food for\\nevery tissue and cell of the body. Some tissues require\\nproteid food, some fats and carbohydrates, while others\\nrequire mineral food. The blood must also contain all\\nthe waste materials. The blood carries not only liquid", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION\\n129\\nfood, but gaseous food, the gas being dissolved in the\\nliquid, and not being in the form of bubbles.\\nYou have all seen blood flowing from a cut or from a\\nbleeding nose, and know that it is red. Not all animals\\nhave red blood the oyster and the lobster have white\\nblood; the common earthworm or angleworm has red blood,\\nand all animals that have a backbone have red blood.\\nThere is a very great difference between the blood of\\nthe angleworm, however, and the blood of a frog. In the\\nangleworm, the red color of the blood is due to a red\\npigment which is dissolved in the blood, as the red pig-\\nment of raspberries or currants is dissolved in a sirup,\\ngiving the sirup its red color.\\nBut the blood of vertebrates owes its red color to\\ninnumerable red bodies floating in the blood. These red\\nbodies are called corpus-\\ncles. A thin film of blood\\nspread upon a glass and\\nlooked at under a high\\npower microscope would\\nlook like Figure 28. In\\nstudying this figure you\\nwill notice first that there\\nare two kinds of bodies\\nfloating in the liquid, one\\na smooth, discoidal body,\\nand the other a granular,\\nspherical body. The\\nsmaller discoidal bodies\\nare the ones which contain the red pigment, and because\\nof their color they are called red corpuscles. The granu-\\nlar, spherical corpuscles are perfect cells composed of\\nprotoplasm, and containing one or more nuclei. This\\nFig. 28. Blood corpuscles as they appear\\nunder the microscope: B, C, I), E, red\\ncorpuscles seen in different positions\\nF, G, white corpuscles. Notice that at\\nB, D, the red corpuscles have gathered\\nin rouleaux like coins when shaken\\ntogether.\\nHALL S PHYS.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "130 PHYSIOLOGY\\nform of protoplasm generally has the power of contract-\\ning, and so these cells have the power of changing shape,\\nlike the amoeba of which we studied under General Physi-\\nology and because of this power to change their shape\\nthey can creep through little pores or openings in the\\nwall of the capillary, and when once free from the capil-\\nlary they can creep through the pores between the cells\\nof the tissue. These creeping, granular corpuscles are\\ncalled white blood corpuscles.\\nThe red corpuscles are derived from nucleated cells,\\nand may themselves be called modified cells, but they\\nhave not the power to change their shape, and all that\\nthey do is done passively and not actively that is, they\\nare acted upon rather than active.\\nBlood, then, is composed of a nearly colorless fluid\\ncalled plasma, in which two kinds of cells are floating,\\nthe white cells and the red cells, or, as they are more\\nfrequently called, the white corpuscles and the red corpus-\\ncles. The fluid part of the blood, the plasma, carries the\\nliquid nutriment from the alimentary canal to the tissues.\\nFrom this we should expect the plasma to contain pro-\\nteids, carbohydrates, and fats, and so it does. The\\ncarbohydrate is the grape sugar, or dextrose, absorbed\\nfrom the alimentary canal the fat is in the form of\\nminute globules, while the proteid is in the form of\\nalbumen, similar to egg albumen, but much diluted with\\nwater. Besides these foods already named, there are water\\nand mineral substances in solution. The minerals are, for\\nthe most part, those which are utilized in the building up\\nof tissues. The plasma also contains many waste sub-\\nstances, which are constantly being added to by the\\ntissues and just as constantly being carried away by the\\nexcretory organs.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 131\\nIn a similar way the foodstuffs are being added to the\\nplasma by absorption from the alimentary canal, and con-\\nstantly being taken away from the plasma by the tissues,\\nso that there are in constant progress two additions to the\\nplasma and two subtractions from it still, the wonderful\\nadaptation of the system and the delicate control by the\\nnervous system result in keeping the plasma in nearly the\\nsame condition, varying more in tlie relative amount of\\nwater than in any other constituent.\\nThe work of the red blood corpuscles is to carry oxygen\\nfrom the lungs to the tissues the work of the white\\nblood corpuscles will be described later.\\n3. HOW THE BODY IS PROTECTED AGAIXST EXCES-\\nSIVE BLEEDING\\nEvery schoolboy knows that if he cuts his finger deeply\\nthe blood will come streaming out he knows, too, that\\nthe blood will flow only a short time and then stop he\\nknows, too, that if the blood is allowed to collect upon the\\nfinger, not being rubbed off or rinsed off with water, that\\nin two or three minutes it will form into a jellylike mass\\nupon the finger, and if this jellylike mass is brushed away\\nafter the bleeding stops, he will find that the cut is filled\\nwith blood which seems to be in the same condition as\\nthat which he brushed away.\\nThis is nature s method of stopping the bleeding. The\\njellylike mass, which forms whenever the blood is exposed\\nto the air after being shed, is called a ed-ctg u-lum^ and the\\nprocess of its formation is called coagulation.\\nYou will remember that in describing milk, when we\\nwere studying about foods, the milk separated into small,\\nflakelike coagula on the addition of acid. Each little", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "132 PHYSIOLOGY\\nmass of the milk would be called a coagulum. You know\\nthat if milk is exposed to the warm air for a few hours\\non a summer s day it will turn into a jelly like mass simi-\\nlar in consistency to the coagulum of the blood. The\\nprocess which takes place in the milk is similar to the\\nprocess which takes place in the blood during coagulation.\\nSweet milk contains a proteid called caseinogen. When\\nthe milk is exposed to the air, a ferment which floats in\\nthe air gets into it and causes a fermentation of the milk\\nsugar, which results in the formation of milk acid, and\\nthat causes the caseinogen to be separated out in the form\\nof casein.\\nThe blood contains several liquid proteids similar to\\nthe white of egg- One of these is called fibrinogen.\\nWhen the blood is shed, and comes into contact with the\\nair, or any foreign substance, a ferment Avhich is always in\\nthe blood, but which does not act when the blood is cir-\\nculating within the vessels, begins to act upon the fibrino-\\ngen, causing it to separate out into stringy fibers. These\\nfibers form a network in whose meshes the red blood\\ncorpuscles and the fluid part of the blood are caught.\\nIn some animals the blood coagulates very quickly, and\\nin some animals very slowly. The blood of insects and\\nsmall birds coagulates almost instantly human blood\\ncoagulates in two to five minutes or more, according to\\nvarious circumstances. The blood of horses coagulates\\nin not less than five minutes. The coagulation is hastened\\nwhen the blood comes in contact with foreign matter of\\nany kind, and especially with air or with foreign matter at\\na temperature considerably higher than that of the body.\\nIf a deep wound is bleeding so freely as to endanger life\\nfrom loss of blood, the coagulation can be hastened by\\nbinding over the wound absorbent cotton or linen.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 133\\nIf a boy were to lose a tablespoonful of blood he might\\nbe quite frightened, thinking that he was bleeding to\\ndeath, bnt it has been found out by experiment that about\\none thirteenth of the weight of the body is blood, so that\\nany person weighing ninety-one pounds would have nearlj^\\na gallon of blood, and at least one third of this or more\\nthan a quart could be lost without in any way endanger-\\ning the life of the person.\\nIf a large blood vessel were cut, the blood might flow\\ntoo rapidly to be stopped by coagulation alone, so that\\nunless some prompt measures be taken a person might bleed\\nto death in a few minutes. Just what to do in such an\\nemergency will be described later, after we have described\\nthe blood vessels.\\n4. THE ORGANS WHICH CAUSE THE BLOOD TO CIR-\\nCULATE\\nTHE HEART\\nMany of you have visited the village or city water-\\nworks, and have seen the great engine pumping the water\\nthrough the system of tubes described in a previous lesson.\\nWhen the pump stops, the water ceases to flow. In a\\nsimilar way the blood is forced through the system of\\nblood vessels by a pumping organ, the heart. When\\nthe heart pumps rapidly the blood flows rapidly, and when\\nthe heart pumps slowly the blood flows slowly. If this\\ncentral pump were to stop its work, the blood would stop\\nflowing. The cells all over the body would be deprived\\nof their proper nourishment and oxygen, and would have\\nto stop working. So we see how important an organ the\\nheart is.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "134\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nFigure 29 gives the outside view of the heart this\\nshows the heart as it would look if we could look into\\nthe chest of another, and see\\nthe heart lying there so that\\nwhat is on the right side in\\nthe picture (Fig. 29) would\\nrepresent the left side in the\\nbody.\\nNotice that the upper left-\\nhand portion of the heart is\\na little earlike appendage\\nthis is called the left auricle\\n(left ear). There is a much\\nlarger chamber at the upper\\nright-hand part of the heart\\nwhich is called the right\\nauricle.\\nThese auricles are filling\\nchambers for the heart, which\\nhold the blood while the\\nchambers of the\\nforcing the blood\\narteries. These\\npumping chambers are two\\nThey make up\\nthe main body of the heart/\\nOne of the chambers is di-\\nrectly under the left auricle,\\nand is called the left ventricle,\\nwhile the chamber under the right auricle is called the\\nright ventricle.\\nThe general relation of these chambers of the heart\\ncan best be shown by a diagram (see Fig. 30).\\npumping\\nFig. 29.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The heart and large blood heart are\\nvessels, in front. 1, right ventricle into the\\n2, left ventricle; 3, pulmonary ar-\\ntery, cut short; 4, 4 4 aorta, or\\nchief artery 5, 6, parts of the right in number,\\nand left auricle 7, 7, veins uniting\\nto form the superior (upper) vena\\ncava 8, inferior vena cava 9, vein\\nfrom liver arteries nourishing\\nthe heart.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION\\n135\\nNotice that the blood enters the left auricle through\\nvessels from the lungs (pulmonary veins) that it passes\\nfrom the left auricle into the left ventricle through the\\nbicuspid valve when the left ventricle contracts and\\nforces the blood back against the bicuspid valve, the\\nvalve closes, and the blood cannot get back into the auri-\\ncle, but it can pass out into the aorta, and from the aorta,\\nwhich is the largest artery of the body, the blood is dis-\\ntributed all over the body,\\ncoming back to the heart\\nfrom the veins, and enter-\\ning the right auricle.\\nFrom the right auricle it\\ncan pass through the tri-\\ncuspid valve into the right\\nventricle, and wlien this\\nventricle contracts, the\\ncusps of the tricuspid\\nvalve are forced together\\nand closed, while the valve\\ninto the pulmonary artery\\nis forced open.\\nThe impure blood passes\\nout to the lungs to be puri-\\nfied, and after purification\\nit returns through the pulmonary veins already referred\\nto into the left auricle.\\nThe left side of the heart has to force the blood all over\\nthe system, while the right side of the heart has only to\\nforce the blood into the lungs which lie all about the\\nheart in the thorax. For this reason the left side of the\\nheart has a very heavy muscular wall, while the right\\nside of the heart has a much thinner one.\\nFjg. 30. Diagram illustrating the course\\nof the blood through the heart. [Tracy.]", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "136 PHYiSIOLOGY\\n5. THE ORGANS WHICH CAUSE THE BLOOD TO\\nCIRCULATE (continued)\\nTHE ARTERIES\\nThe tubes which conduct the water from the pump-\\ning system of the city to the various houses are composed\\nof either stoneware or iron. The smaller subdivisions\\nwithin the house which go to the different faucets are\\nmetal.\\nThe system of tubes which conduct the blood over the\\nbody begins at the heart with a large, thick-walled tube,\\na little larger than one s thumb. This tube is called the\\naorta.\\nAll of the tubes which carry blood away from the heart\\nare called arteries. The aorta is the main trunk of this\\nsystem of tubes. The accompanying plate (page 137)\\nshows the aorta passing upward from the base of the\\nheart, curving around at the base of the neck, and then\\npassing downw^ard along the spinal column. Notice that\\nit gives off branches as it passes downward and therefore\\nbecomes smaller and smaller, and divides into two main\\nbranches, one passing to each leg.\\nThe larger divisions of the aorta are those which pass\\nto the legs and arms, next in size being those which pass\\nto the kidneys (page 137). These large branches sub-\\ndivide into numerous smaller branches and twigs, the\\nsubdivisions passing outward in every direction, and\\ncarrying the blood stream to every portion of every tissue\\nin the body.\\nWhen the blood reaches the tissues which it is to\\nnourish, the arterj^ subdivides into branches not larger\\nthan a needle. These little arteries are called arterioles.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4515", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "138\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nThe arterioles finally subdivide into a network of minute\\nhairlike branches called capillaries. Many of the capil-\\nlaries are so fine that there is room for only one corpuscle\\nto pass along at a time. These capillaries have walls so\\nthin that the blood plasma can ooze through as the blood\\nfilters through the tissues.\\nSeveral venules coming together form a vein, and one\\nvein emptying into another will form a large venous\\ntrunk. Eefer to page 137^ and notice the venous trunk\\ngetting larger and larger as it passes toward the heart,\\nreceiving branches from either side. The large vein\\nwhich passes up through the abdomen to\\nthe right auricle of the heart is the inferior\\nvena cava; the one which comes down from\\nthe head and arms, emptying into the right\\nauricle, is the superior vena cava.\\nIt has been mentioned above that the\\nwall of the aorta is very thick and strong.\\nIt is composed mostly of very dense,\\nstrong, elastic fibers of connective tissue,\\nbut there are some muscular fibers in the\\nouter portion of the wall of the aorta, and\\nthe wall is lined with a very thin mem-\\nbrane, thinner than tissue paper, composed\\nof little platelike cells lying side by side,\\nas shown in Figure 31.\\nFig. 31. Lining of The Smaller arteries have a much thinner\\nan artery or vein, ^y.j]^^ which is composcd largely of mus-\\ncular tissue with only a little of the\\nelastic connective tissue the lining is the same as that\\nof the aorta.\\nAs we pass to the finer twigs of the arterial system, we\\nfind the muscular coat and the elastic coat becoming", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION\\n139\\nthinner and thinner finally in the capillaries only tlie\\ninner coat remains, and, as has been stated above, this\\ncoat is so thin and delicate that the blood plasma can\\nooze through it as the blood\\nis forced by the heart through\\nthe capillary network. (Study\\nFigure 32.)\\nThe walls of the veins, al-\\nthough they are much thinner\\nthan those of the arteries, are\\nmade in the same way. That\\nis, they are made of elastic\\nconnective tissue, muscular\\ntissue, and the thin inside lin-\\ning. The veins have some-\\nthing .which the arteries do\\nnot have, and do not need\\nthe veins have valves. These Fig. 32. -Capillary network show-\\nmg now the walls are made of thm\\nvalves are so arranged that plate-cells. [Schaefer.]\\nthey open toward the heart.\\nThus they allow the blood to flow toward the heart,\\nbut do not allow it to flow back. If anything presses\\nupon a vein, the blood may be hindered from continuing\\nits flow toward the heart, but it cannot be pushed back\\ninto the cax)illaries.\\nThere are none of these valves in the veins of the neck\\nand face, because they are not needed there in the usual\\npositions of the body.\\nWhen the body is inverted, as when one hangs wdth his\\nhead downward, the blood backs up or flows back into the\\nvenules and capillaries of the face and neck, making the\\nskin flushed and almost purplish, if one keeps the position\\nfor some time.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "140\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\n6. THE CIRCULATION OF\\nTHE BLOOD\\nThe blood cannot circulate\\nby any force of its own, but\\nit is forced tlirougli the arterial\\nsystem, the capillaries, and the\\nveins by the pumping of the\\nheart. If you will refer to\\nFigure 33 you will find a dia-\\ngram of the circulation the\\nlighter portion represents the\\narterial system, the darker por-\\ntion the venous system.\\nThis diagram represents\\nwhat are called the greater\\nand lesser circulations. The\\ngreater circulation is that\\nwhich supplies the whole body\\nwith blood, beginning with\\nthe aorta Avith its numerous\\nbranches distributed through-\\nout the system, and ending\\nwith the vense cavse which\\nbring the blood back to the\\nright auricle.\\nNotice in the diagram that\\nfrom the right ventricle the\\ndark stream passes upward to\\nFig. 33.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Diagram of the circulation.\\n1, heart 2, lungs 3, head and upper\\nextremities 4, spleen 5, intestine 6,\\nkidneys 1, lower extremities 8, liver.\\n[Dalton.]", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 141\\nthe lungs. This stream is the puhiionary artery, carrying\\nimpure blood ivoni the heart to the lungs, where it is\\noxygenated, after which it passes back to the left auricle\\nthrough the pulmonary veins. This portion of the general\\ncirculation which carries the blood to and from the lungs\\nis called the lesser circulation, or the lung circulation.\\nLet us now follow the circulation in detail, beginning\\nwith the left auricle. Turn back to Figure 30 and notice\\nthat the blood flows into the left auricle from four pul-\\nmonary veins from the left auricle it passes through the\\nbicuspid valve into the left ventricle. It passes into the\\nleft ventricle because the muscular walls of the left auricle\\ncontract and force it into the left ventricle. It does not\\nrequire much force at first, because the left ventricle is\\nempty all the force required is enough to swell out its\\nwalls. After the auricle has emptied itself into the left\\nventricle, the ventricle begins to contract. Its contrac-\\ntion presses the blood up toward the base of the heart.\\nThis forces the valve together, thus closing the opening\\ninto the left auricle, so that no blood can get back that\\nway. The ventricle keeps on contracting until the pres-\\nsure against the valves into the aorta is sufficient to push\\nthem open and force the blood that was in the left ventri-\\ncle out into the aorta. After the ventricle has emptied\\nitself into the aorta and relaxes, the valves of the aorta\\nclap together and hold the blood in the aorta while the\\nventricle is being filled again from the auricle. The\\ncontraction of the ventricle which throws the blood into\\nthe aorta is called the systole.\\nNow turn to Figure 33 follow the blood from the left\\nauricle into the left ventricle (marked 1) and from the\\nleft ventricle around the curve of the aorta. The diagram\\nshows a large branch turning upward to the head and", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "142 PHYSIOLOGY\\narms. This branch in the diagram really represents sev-\\neral different arteries, so that the diagram is intended to\\nrepresent only the general features of the circulation.\\nAfter giving off blood for the head and arms, the aorta\\nturns downward through the thorax and abdomen, giving\\noff many small branches that run between the ribs and a\\nlarge one to the spleen (Fig. 33, 4), then there are large\\nbranches to the stomach and intestines (Fig. 33, 5), then\\nbranches to the kidneys (Fig. 33, 6), and, finally, branches\\nto the legs (Fig. 33, 7).\\nIn all of these different organs to which the blood is\\nsupplied, it filters slowly through the capillary network\\nand collects in venous branches corresponding to the\\narterial branches. Notice that the blood from the spleen,\\nstomach, and intestines collects into a large venous trunk\\n(marked by the white arrow), and passes to the liver\\n(Fig. 33, 8). This is the portal vein. All the venous\\nblood finally collects in the right auricle, whence it passes\\ninto the right ventricle (see also Fig. 30) the right\\nventricle contracts at the same time that the left ventricle\\ndoes, and sends the blood through the pulmonary artery\\nto the lungs (Fig. 33, 2), where it is oxygenated, after\\nwhich it. passes to the left auricle, thus completing the\\ncirculation.\\nThe blood flows very rapidly in the aorta and the large\\narteries, but as it reaches the tissues and passes into the\\ninnumerable small branches the flow becomes very slow,\\nthus giving a good chance for an exchange to occur between\\nthe blood circulating in the capillaries and the cells which\\nborder the capillaries. As the blood collects again in\\nthe venules and veins it begins to flow faster, and con-\\ntinues to increase in its rate of flow until it reaches the\\nheart.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 143\\n6. THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD (continued)\\nI. THE PULSE\\nIf you put the tips of the fingers upon the wrist near\\nthe base of the thumb, you will feel a little throbbing.\\nThis throbbing is called the pulse. All the arteries throb\\nor pulsate, but the pulsation of only those larger arteries\\nwhich are located near the surface can be felt. If one\\nputs the tips of his fingers just in front of his ear, he can\\nfeel the pulsation of an artery. A pulsation may also be\\nfelt on the side of the neck.\\nWhat causes the pulse When the heart contracts, it\\nthrows about half a tumbler full of blood into the aorta\\nthis forces the elastic walls of the aorta to quickly stretch,\\nand it starts a wave down the arterial system, a wave\\nwhich follows all the branches of the arterial system clear\\nto the farthest branches of the arterioles. This wave is\\ncalled the pulse.\\nWhen the physician presses his fingers upon one of\\nthese arteries, he can tell by the way it throbs whether\\nthe heart is beating rapidly or slowly, whether it is strong\\nor feeble, and whether the smaller arteries are congested\\nor relaxed. So much depends upon the condition of the\\nheart and the circulatory system in general, that it has\\nbecome customary for the physician to feel the pulse as\\none of his preliminary tests.\\nII. PROTECTION AGAINST BLEEDING\\nThe reason that we do not feel the pulse at almost any\\npart of the surface of the body is because most of the\\nlarger arteries are located far beneath the skin. These\\narteries are in the safest portion of the system; if they", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "144\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nwere nearer the surface they might easily become wounded\\nin some of the various injuries which the body suffers,\\nsuch as a cut with a knife, and then the blood would flow\\nso rapidly as to endanger the\\nlife of the person. Even with\\nthis protection large arteries or\\nveins are sometimes cut.\\nIt is very important for every\\none to know what it is best to\\ndo when that happens. If the\\nvessel is an artery, the blood will\\ncome in spurts because of the\\npulsations. To stop the bleed-\\ning of an arter}^ it is necessary to\\npress against the trunk of the\\nartery. This pressure must be\\nbetween the bleeding end of the\\nc ^j.. artery and the heart.\\nThe best method for making\\nFig. 34. Manner of compress- this pressure is to take a hand-\\ning an artery with a ban dke^ kerchief by its corners, make it\\nchief and stick. [Tracy.]\\ninto a roll, and tie a single knot\\nin the middle pass the handkerchief around the limb\\nwith the knot above the wound, and tie the ends so that\\nthe knot is not tightly drawn; put a stick through (a ruler\\nor a lead pencil might serve the purpose) and then twist\\nthe handkerchief tightly enough to stop the bleeding\\n(Figure 34 represents the handkerchief so applied).\\nIII. HOW THE BLOOD ^OURISHES THE TISSUES\\nWhen the blood reaches the tissues and is slowly filter-\\ning through the fine capillaries, some very important", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION\\n145\\nthings happen, in fact, the very things for wliich the\\nwhole circulatory system exists.\\nThe plasma of the blood oozes out througli the line\\npores between the cells of the capillary wall, carrying to\\nthe hungry cells which make up the tissue the food which\\nthey most need. Some of the fresh plasma passes into\\nthe tissue some of the plasma which was in the tissue\\nFig. 35. Showing how white corxDUScles get through the walls of the\\ncapillaries. [Hall.]\\nbefore, and from which a portion of the nourishment has\\nbeen taken up by the cells, will pass out of the tissue\\nthrough the lymph vessels, and, after passing through\\nthe lymph circulation, will finally pass back into the\\nblood circulation.\\nBut this is not all that happens while the blood is pass-\\ning through the capillaries. Figure 35 shows under A\\nthe way in Avhich the blood corpuscles usually float\\nthrough a large capillary; under B the figure shows what\\nhappens when there is something wrong in the cells wliich", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "146 PHYSIOLOGY\\nborder the capillaries. The white corpuscles leave the\\ncenter of the stream, pass to the capillary wall, put out a\\nlittle arm such as shown in cells marked 2 (Fig. 35),\\nforce this arm tlirough a little opening in the capillary\\nAvail, then gradually creep through the wall as sliown in\\nthe cells marked 3 (Fig. 35).\\nWhen once they are free and in the cells of the tissue\\n(see cells marked 4 in Figure 35), they put out little arms\\nand creep about repairing any damages which the cells\\nmay have suffered.\\nIf a sliver has been thrust into the tissue, thej^ will\\ngather about the sliver in such great numbers as to\\nmake a soft covering, thus protecting the tissue from\\nfurther damage by the intruder. If microbes have got\\nin, the white corpuscles will eat up the microbes, thus\\nin most cases protecting the rest of the tissue from the\\naction of these parasites. Sometimes, however, there are\\ntoo many microbes or bacteria to be thus disposed of,\\nwhen they will accumulate in the system and cause a\\nfever or some disease.\\nlY. W^HERE THE BLOOD LOSES ITS OXY^GEN\\nWe have mentioned how the blood becomes oxygenated\\nin the lungs. It leaves the lungs in a bright scarlet\\nstream it retains this appearance until it comes to the\\ncapillaries, where it gives up its oxygen to the hungry\\ntissues.\\nAs soon as it loses its oxj^gen, it loses its bright scarlet\\ncolor, becoming dark purplish red, which color it retains\\nthroughout its course through the venous system back to\\nthe heart (Fig. 36).", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 147\\n7. THE LY.MPH AXD ITS CIRCULATION\\nAt the end of the previous lesson we were studying the\\nchanges which take phice in the blood during its passage\\nthrough the capillaries. We found that blood plasma,\\nladen with food for the cells, passes through the pores in\\nthe capillaries and oozes through tlie tissue, through the\\nspaces between the cells.\\nWe found also that the white blood corpuscles pass out\\nCapillary Neticoric\\nFig, 36. Capillary network showing change from arterial to venous blood.\\nthrough these little pores in the capillary walls. They\\npass out in large numbers only when there is some con-\\ndition in the tissues which they can correct.\\nBut they are continually on the lookout for danger, and\\nan occasional white blood corpuscle may pass through the\\ncapillary at any time, so that there are always some white\\nblood corpuscles in the tissue spaces.\\nThe plasma and white corpuscles make up what is\\ncalled tissue lymph. The tissue lymph soon becomes\\nchanged by the addition of substances thrown out through", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "148\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nthe cells of the tissue, so that tissue lymph does not retain\\nthe same composition that the blood plasma had. As the\\nplasma keeps coming into the\\ntissues from the capillaries, it\\nforces the plasma on and keeps it\\nmoving. After oozing through\\nthe tissue into which it first passed,\\nit soon finds its way into little\\nvessels which are like veins, except\\nthat they contain only lymph\\n(Fig. 37).\\nOnce the lymph enters a vessel\\ncalled a lymphatic, it may be called\\ncirculatory lymph it does not\\nagain enter the tissue, but con-\\ntinues to move through lymphatics\\ntoward the heart in a way quite\\nsimilar to that in which the venous\\nblood moves toward the heart\\nfrom the tissues. Small lym^Dhat-\\nics come together and make larger\\nones, until finally a very large\\nlymphatic vessel passing up\\nthrough the abdomen and thorax\\nreceives the lymph from the other\\nlymphatics, and finally ]30tirs it\\ninto the venous system.\\nIn Figure 37, notice the little\\nlymphatic glands which lie in the\\ncourse of the lymphatics at 2.\\nThese glands are made up of a\\nfine network of fibers, in the meshes of which there are\\ninnumerable little cells. As the lymph filters through\\nFig. 37. Lymphatic vessels\\nof the surface of the arm.\\n1, ducts; 2, glands.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 149\\none of these glands, some of the white corpuscles which\\nhave become old and sluggish in their movements, get\\nentangled in the network and die.\\nBut the lymph which leaves the gland has more white\\ncorpuscles than that which enters the gland, because\\nyoung corpuscles are being constantly formed in the\\ngland, so that a lymph gland is at the same time the\\ngrave of old white corpuscles and the birthplace of young\\nwhite corpuscles.\\nLooking again at Figure 37, you will notice that the\\nlarger lymphatics seem to have little joints, or nodes.\\nThe nodes show where the valves are located. What is\\nthe use of the valves The pressure of new blood plasma\\nfiltering into the tissue is sufficient to keep the tissue\\nplasma moving, but it is not always sufficient to make the\\nlymph pass up through the lymphatics to the heart. These\\nvalves are open toward the heart, allowing the lymph to\\nflow easily in that direction, but they close as soon as the\\nlymph is pressed back, and do not allow it to flow away\\nfrom the heart.\\nNow in the movements of the body^ especially of the\\narms and legs, the lymphatics are pressed uj)on by the\\ncontracting muscles. This pressure forces the lymph out\\nof the lymphatics toward the heart because it cannot go in\\nthe opposite direction, thus leaving the lymphatics empty\\nand ready to fill very easilj^ from behind as soon as the\\npressure is relieved.\\nFrom this it must be clear that muscular movements of\\nthe legs, arms, and body assist the lymph circulation (it\\nmay be added here that it assists also the circulation in\\nthe veins), and in that way assists the nutrition of the\\ntissues. In fact, the secret of the influence of muscular\\nexercise upon the general health lies more in its action\\nhall s phys. 10", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "150\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nupon the lymphatic and venous circulations than in any-\\nthing else.\\nAn important part of the lymphatic system is that\\nwhich collects the tis-\\nsue fluid from the in-\\n1^^^ testine, carrying it to\\nthe thoracic duct (Fig.\\n38). This portion of\\nthe lymphatic system\\ndiffers from the rest\\ni //w^ in carrying absorbed\\nfoods from the intes-\\n,C /pt tines to the circula-\\nrWMf tory system.\\nr MMli^ j^^I^il^^^ veins of the in-\\ntestine carry part of\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0ifij^^^^^^^^^^^^B the food, but the lym-\\n/\u00e2\u0080\u00a2MSP^^^^^^^^^^ft^ phatics carry all of\\nJS^^^^^^^^^^^^K the absorbed fat. This\\n^.v i^^^^^^^::^^^!^^ ^j^^ form of\\nan emulsion something\\nlike cream, and makes\\nthe lymphatics of the\\nintestine look white, as\\nthough they were filled\\nwith milk. For this\\nFig. 38. Lacteals, thoracic duct, etc. a, in-\\ntestine; b, vena cava inferior; c, c, right rcaSOn tiiese particular\\nand left subclavian veins d, point of open- lymphatics have been\\ning of thoracic duct into left subclavian. t\\n[Daiton.] called lacteals (from\\nthe Latin lac^ milk).\\nThis white lymph is sufficiently different from the rest\\nof the lymph of the body to have a separate name it is\\ncalled eJiyle,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 151\\n8. THE CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION\\nCONTROL OF THE HEART\\nPut your finger upon your pulse and count the number\\nof times it beats in a minute. Count it again and see if\\nyou can make it beat faster this time than before. You\\nwill probably find, if you have been sitting still during\\nyour counting, that it beats just about the same from\\nminute to minute, and that you cannot of your own will\\nmake it beat faster or slower. Now if you will lie down\\nupon a bench or couch, and breathe very deeply and very\\nslowly for five or ten minutes, and let some one else count\\nyour pulse, you will find that it is slower than it was\\nat your first observation.\\nIf you take some brisk and vigorous exercise, like run-\\nning up and down a flight of stairs two or three times, or\\nrunning around the schoolhouse two or three times, you\\nwill find that the heart is beating very much more rapidly\\nand strongly than at your first observation.\\nThis experiment teaches us two things. First, that we\\ncannot directly control the heart by the will, and, second,\\nthat there is something in the body that does control the\\nheart. If we wish to make the heart beat faster, we can\\ndo so by making the other muscles of the body exercise,\\nor if we wish the heart to go more slowly, we can accom-\\nplish it by decreasing the work which it has to do for the\\nsystem, which was done in the experiment above when\\nyou lay down in absolute rest and in a position which\\nreduced the work of the heart.\\nThe heart, like the stomach, is controlled by the nervous\\nsystem. There are two sets of nerves which go to the\\nheart from the central nervous system. One of these sets", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "152 PHYSIOLOGY\\nof nerves comes from the sympathetic nervous sj^stem,\\nand the other comes direct from the brain through the\\nvagus nerve, which passes down the side of the neck,\\nthrough the thorax into the abdomen. As the vagi\\nnerves pass the heart, they give off branches to it. The\\nnerves which come from the sympathetic nervous system\\npass to the heart from the upper ganglia of that system,\\nas shown in the diagram of the sympathetic system (Fig.\\n19, p. 51). e\\nThe nerves which influence the heart are shown in that\\nfigure to come from the first dorsal ganglion of the sym-\\npathetic system of both the right and left side, and also\\nfrom the right and left vagus. From these various\\nsources, the nerve fibers form a network near the base\\nof the heart, called the cardiac plexis, or heart network.\\nThe nerve fibers from the sympathetic system cause the\\nheart to go faster, while the nerve fibers from the brain\\nmake the heart go more slowly. These two sets of fibers\\nare similar to the lines and whip which the driver uses in\\ndriving his horse, the whip making the horse go faster,\\nand the lines holding him back. If the whip is lost, the\\nhorse may go very slowly, and the driver has no way of\\nmaking him go faster. Similarly, if the sympathetic\\nnerves leading to the heart are cut, the heart will go very\\nslowly, and any urgent need of the system for more blood\\nwill not be responded to by the heart, because the only\\nimpulse which it can receive from the central nervous\\nsystem will only make it go more slowly instead of more\\nrapidly.\\nOn the other hand^ if the nerves which the heart re-\\nceives from the vagus should be cut, the heart would begin\\nto beat very rapidly, and the system would have no means\\nthrough which to control it and like a horse whose lines", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "CmCULATION 153\\nare cut, it will go faster and faster until a disaster occurs.\\nBut .when these nerves are all in order, the heart will beat\\nslowly when the tissues of the body need little blood, and\\nwill beat rapidly when the tissues of the body need more\\nfood or more oxygen.\\n9. THE CONTROL OF THE CIRCULATION {continued)\\nCONTROL OF TISSUE SUPPLY\\nIn the preceding lesson it was explained how the heart\\nis made to beat more rapidly and strongly when more\\nblood is needed in the tissues, but no mention was made\\nof the very important fact that not all of the tissues need\\nan extra supply of blood at the same time. When one is\\ntaking vigorous muscular exercise, he is not likely to be\\ndoing much thinking, nor is he likely to be digesting a\\nmeal, so it is the muscular system alone that needs an\\nextra supply of food and of oxygen. When the stomach\\nis digesting a meal, it needs an extra supply of blood. It\\ncan do its work to better advantage if it can for a time,\\nsay for an hour at least, monopolize in a measure the blood\\nflow, not having to divide Avith muscles or brain. In order\\nto accomplish this, the system has a very remarkable appa-\\nratus, which consists of muscles and nerves. The mus-\\ncles are those located in the walls of the arteries, especially\\nin the smaller branches of the arteries, and the nerves are\\nfine fibers from the sympathetic nervous system, which\\npass to these muscles in the walls of the arteries, and\\neither cause them to constrict the arteries, allowing less\\nblood to pass, or causing them to dilate widely.\\nLet us call the nerves which cause them to contract,", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "154 PHYSIOLOGY\\nvessel constrictors^ and those which cause the arteries to\\ndilate, vessel dilators.\\nWhen the stomach and intestines receive food which\\nthey have to digest, the dilators of the arteries supplying\\nthese organs cause the muscles of the arteries to relax, and\\nthe supply of blood will be increased in those organs only,\\nwhile the amount of blood which passes to other organs\\nin the system will be somewhat diminished.\\nAs another example, when one begins to perform vigor-\\nous exercise, or do hard work, the dilators of the muscular\\narteries will cause these arteries to dilate, thus increasing\\nthe flow of blood to the muscles.\\nThe muscles make up so much of the tissues of the\\nbody that a dilation of the muscular arteries would cause\\na considerable fall in the pressure of the blood, if the cen-\\ntral pump, namely, the heart, did not increase the rate\\nand force of its pumping. Thus it occurs that muscular\\nexercise leads always to an increase in the rate and force\\nof the beating of the heart.\\nThe heart is less modified in its beating by the work\\nwhich the glandular organs or the brain may have to do,\\nbut that is because the glandular organs and brain make\\nup so small a portion of the whole body.\\nThe influence of these constrictors and dilators upon\\nthe arteries may be very readily observed by noticing the\\nskin. When one goes from a warm room into cold atmos-\\nphere, the skin becomes white, and one feels chilly. That\\nis because the little arteries of the skin have all been con-\\ntracted by the constrictors, thus not allowing the blood to\\nflow into the skin, but keeping it in the deeper organs and\\ntissues. This is nature s method of keeping the blood\\nwarm. One s natural impulse, under such conditions, is\\nto hurry, to move briskly. This brisk movement can", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 155\\nbe carried on only through an oxidation of food materials\\nwithin the muscle cells. But this oxidation causes heat\\nto be given off to the blood. In a few minutes, if the\\nsystem is in a perfectly healthy condition, the dilators to\\nthe arterioles of the skin will act, and the now heated\\nblood will go into the skin and make it red and warm.\\nIf, for any reason, the blood remains in the skin at first\\nwithout being withdrawn to the muscles and internal\\norgans, it will be rapidly cooled down before the muscles\\nhave had a chance to heat it up through oxidation, as\\nabove described, and the temperature of the body will be\\nlowered.\\nThe nerves which assist in the control of the arteries\\ncome from the sympathetic nervous system and are much\\ninfluenced by the emotions. You have all noticed how\\nthe face flushes when one is embarrassed this is due to\\nthe action of the dilator nerves. Various emotions may\\ncause the flushing or blushing, for example, anger and\\nshame. Certain emotions, such as fear or extreme rage,\\nmay cause the constrictors to act, making the face white.\\n10. THE HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY FLUIDS AND\\nORGANS\\nI. EXERCISE\\nWhen the muscle tissue is at perfect rest the blood\\nstream is comparatively slower, and the pressure of the\\nblood in the capillaries is not sufficient to cause a large\\namount of plasma to filter through the capillary walls.\\nThere is, therefore, a smaller amount of tissue plasma\\nor tissue lymph circulating between the cells. As a\\nfurther result, the stream of lymph which leaves the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "156 PHYSIOLOGY\\nmuscle tissue by way of the lymphatics is also much\\ndecreased during inactivity. And the lymph which\\nmakes its way into the lymphatics, having little pressure\\nfrom the tissue and little or no pressure upon the lym-\\nphatic vessels from muscular contraction, moves only very\\nsluggishly toward the heart. This sluggish flow of lymph\\nduring rest permits waste matter to collect in the tissue\\nplasma.\\nOne or two periods of vigorous muscular exercise each\\nday will, by increasing the flow of blood and lymph through\\nthe muscles, cause all this waste material to be carried\\nout of the muscles to the organs of excretion, where it\\nwill be thrown out of the body.\\nWe see from this how important it is for one to take\\nexercise. The increased strength and rate of the heart-\\nbeat during exercise will cause an increa^sed flow of blood\\nin other tissues of the body as well as the muscle tissues,\\nthus insuring the thorough sweeping away of waste\\nmaterial as well as a thorough distribution of the nourish-\\nment and oxygen contained in the blood.\\nMost people who live in cities and towns do not exer-\\ncise enough, and some people exercise too much. Some\\npeople wish to exercise, but there may be reasons why\\nthey cannot do so.\\nII. MASSAGE\\nSuch people may substitute massage for exercise. The\\nmovement of the muscles of an arm or leg, or pressure\\nupon the tissues of arm or leg or body, will cause an\\nincreased flow in the lymphatics and veins, even when\\nsome one else takes hold of the arm or leg and moves it\\nfor one.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 157\\nThis passive exercise is called massage, and is an im-\\nportant means of insuring nutrition and an elimination of\\nwaste materials in inactive tissues.\\nThe most efficient kind of massage is kneading of the\\ntissues and rubbing. If a boj^ has so-called growing\\npains, which is really rheumatism from some exposure\\nto wet or cold, his pains will be much relieved if the\\naching part is thoroughl} rubbed or pressed, always\\nbeginning at the most distant part and working toward\\nthe heart.\\nThis will gradually work out the lymph and venous\\nblood from the tissues and cause fresh blood to circulate\\nthrough the tissues, carrying away from them those waste\\nmaterials which are irritating the nerves and causing\\nthe pain.\\nIII. TIME FOR REST AND TIME FOR WORK\\nWe found that vigorous exercise takes most of the\\nblood to the muscles. The digestion of a heavy meal\\ntakes most of the blood to the digestive system, while\\nheavy brain work takes a large portion of the blood to the\\nbrain.\\nEvery onel^nows that it is impossible to do hard think-\\ning and hard muscular work at the same time. The\\nreason is, that the muscles take the blood and leave the\\nbrain without sufficient supply of nutriment or oxygen to\\ncarry on its work vigorously.\\nWhenever the muscular system is working hard at the\\nsame time that some other system of organs is attempting\\nto do its work, the muscular system gets the blood, and\\nthe other system is robbed of the supply necessary to do\\nits work properly.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "158 PHYSIOLOGY\\nIf one attempts to do heavy work after a heavy meal,\\nhe may do the work, but the meal either will lie undi-\\ngested or will digest very slowly. Oft repeated attempts\\nof this kind will so derange the digestive system that it\\nrefuses to do its work properly, and we say the person\\nhas indigestion or dyspepsia. A very light meal of very\\neasily digested food may be followed almost at once by\\nvigorous exercise, without causing serious injury to the\\ndigestive organs. A heavy meal should be followed by\\nat least an hour of rest, or at most very little exercise\\nin the open air.\\nIV. THE CONDITION OF THE BLOOD\\nYou see how important it is for the health and strength\\nof the body that the blood should always contain suffi-\\ncient nutriment for the tissues, sufficient oxygen for tissue\\noxidation, and should be kept free from accumulated waste\\nmaterials.\\nOne of the most frequent diseases of the blood is called\\nanaemia, and consists of a decrease in the number or in\\nthe quality of the red blood corpuscles. The red blood\\ncorpuscles carry oxygen to the tissues; if these are de-\\ncreased in number the tissues will suffer for want of\\nsufficient oxygen.\\nThe best way to avoid ansemia, or the best way to\\nrecover from it, is to eat plenty of nourishing food. It\\nis understood, of course, that the digestive system is in\\ngood condition, otherwise the plenty of nourishing food\\ncould not be properly utilized by the system. f oods\\nwhich are rich in iron should form an important part\\nof the dietary such foods are eggs, the cereal foods,\\nbeans, peas, spinach, and so forth.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 159\\n11. THE INFLUENCE OF NARCOTICS UPON THE CIRCU-\\nLATORY FLUIDS AND ORGANS\\nI. THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BLOOD\\nAlcohol is absorbed from the alimentary canal un-\\nchanged by the processes of digestion. It passes into the\\nblood vessels in the walls of the stomach and intestines,\\nand is distributed by the blood throughout the system.\\nDr. Woodhead, Professor of Pathology, Cambridge Uni-\\nversity, England, believes from the Avork of various\\nmedical men, whose authority he quotes, that the white\\nblood corpuscles are injured by the presence of alcohol in\\nthe blood, and made less active in their work of defend-\\ning the system against the germs of disease, therefore leav-\\ning the system more exposed to various germ diseases.\\nII. THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL UPON THE HEART\\nThe occasional and moderate use of alcoholic drinks\\ninfluences the action of the heart. Wherever a distinct\\neffect is made upon the system by alcohol, this is always\\nindicated by the pulse. The action of the heart is quick-\\nened for a time, afterward becoming enfeebled until\\nanother dose of poison is taken to revive it. In time, this\\nbecomes the ordinary condition, and is accompanied by\\ngeneral changes in the action of the whole circulatory\\nsystem. These changes in the action of the heart and\\narterioles lead to changes in the structure of the heart\\nand blood vessels.\\nProfessor Destree Influence of Alcohol on the Muscu-\\niGeo. H. McMichael, M.D., Buffalo, N.Y., in the Dietetic and Hygienic\\nGazette, May, 1897, p. 278.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "160 PHYSIOLOGY\\nlar System believes that the increased action of the heart\\nunder the influence of alcohol is only apparently a stimu-\\nlation, resulting partly from the paralysis of the muscular\\nAvails of the arterioles, thus allowing them to dilate and\\nreducing blood pressure, which the heart tries to correct\\nby beating more rapidly, and resulting partly from irri-\\ntation of the mucous membrane of the stomach by the\\nalcohol. This irritation affects the heart through the\\nsympathetic nervous system.\\nBut the heart is not only modified in its action by the\\ninfluence of alcohol, it is also modified in its structure.\\nThe heart, from continued overaction, becomes dilated,\\nand its valves are relaxed. The membranes which en-\\nvelop the organ are thickened, rendered cartilaginous,\\nand occasionally calcareous. The valves, which consist of\\nfolds of membrane, lose their suppleness and become\\ndiseased and weakened. The muscular fiber of the heart\\nis replaced by fatty cells, so that the power of contraction\\nis greatly reduced. These derangements are liable to\\ncause death from sudden failure of the heart itself, from\\nrupture of the blood vessels, from oozing of the blood in\\nthe brain, producing apoplexy. There is always\\ndanger of the heart failing to do its work, for alcohol has\\nmade it inefficient.\\nin. THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BLOOD VESSELS\\nFrom what has been said in a previous lesson about the\\nmuscular walls of the arteries and arterioles, it is plain\\nthat it is very important to the system that the arteries\\nretain their power to respond quickly to the needs of the\\nsystem, now expanding, and now contracting. But under\\niG. H. McMichael, M.D., Journal of Inebriety July, 1897, p. 258.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "CIRCULATION 161\\nthe influence of alcohol, even when used in moderate\\nquantities for a long period of years, the walls of the\\nblood vessels become changed, especially the arteries and\\narterioles. The connective tissue of the arteriole Avail\\nbecomes much increased, thus making the wall thick and\\ninelastic. Frequently lime salts are deposited in this\\nconnective tissue, making the wall of the artery brittle\\nand liable to burst when there is any unusual strain put\\nupon it. Now this weakening of the walls of the blood\\nvessels is especially frequent in the arteries of the brain.\\nUpon the occurrence of anything which causes a sudden\\nincrease in the heart s action, thus forcibly distending the\\narteries, rupture is likelj^ to occur, thus causing hemor-\\nrhage of the brain, taking the form either of apoplexy or\\nparalysis.\\nIV. THE EFFECT OF TOBACCO ON THE HEART\\nDr. J. W. Seaver, a professor in Yale University, in\\nan article on The Effects of Nicotine, calls attention to\\nthe fact that the heart action is increased when tobacco\\nis being used, that the increase is due, not to stimulation\\nof the heart, but to partial paralysis of the vagi nerves.\\nFrom previous lessons you know that the vagi nerves hold\\nthe heart in check, causing it to reserve its power as much\\nas possible for legitimate emergencies; now if the vagi\\nnerves are paralyzed, the heart beats rapidly, thus unneces-\\nsarily wearing itself out. With this information we can\\neasily understand how in the beginning of the habit of\\nsmoking, the influence of the nicotine causes so much\\ndisturbance to the circulation, for the vagus is the great\\ncontrolling nerve of the heart, and that organ is the first\\nto respond to the poison.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "162 PHYSIOLOGY\\nREVIEW OF THE CIRCULATION\\n1. The body needs a system of tubes through which the liquids of\\nthe body can circulate, just as much as a city needs a system of tubes\\nand pipes through which the water can circulate and the drainage\\nand sewage be carried away.\\n2. The blood and lymph are the liquids which circulate through the\\nbod}^ The blood is composed of plasma in which float red and white\\ncells or corpuscles. The lymph is composed of plasma in which float\\nwhite cells or corpuscles,\\n3. The Uood and lymph carry food to the working cells, tissues, and\\norgans of the body.\\n4. The blood and lymph carry waste matter from the working cells,\\ntissues, and organs of the body to the place where this matter is to be\\nthrown out of the body.\\n5. If a blood vessel is cut, the blood clots or coagulates and stops the\\nwound unless a large artery or vein is cut.\\n6. The blood is carried to different parts of the body in arteries\\nand brought back in veins. It oozes through fine capillaries as it\\npasses through the different tissues.\\n7. The heart pumps the blood through the arteries, capillaries, and\\nveins. Each contraction of the heart each heart beat sends blood\\ninto the arteries. Valves at the entrance of the aorta keep the blood\\nfrom flowing back into the heart while the heart is being filled with\\nthe blood from the veins.\\n8. When the heart forces blood into the arteries, it starts a little\\nwave along all the arteries. One can feel this wave wherever the\\narteries com*e near to the skin. This wave is called the Pulse. Where\\nmay pulses be* felt\\n9. The blood carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and car-\\nbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.\\n10. The heart is controlled by two sets of nerves one set (sympathetic)\\nmakes it beat faster and stronger, while the other (vagus) makes it\\nbeat more slowly. If the vagus be stimulated, the heart will beat\\nmore slowly; if the sympathetic nerve be stimulated, the heart will\\nbeat more rapidly. If the vagus be cut or narcotized, the heart will\\nbeat faster; if the sympathetic be narcotized, the heart will beat\\nmore slowly.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "REVIEW OF THE CIRCULATION 163\\n11. The arteries are controlled hy two sets of nerves. The Constrictors\\nmake the arteries smaller and allow less blood to flow into the tissues.\\nThe Dilators make the arteries larger and allow more blood to flow\\ninto the tissues.\\n1*2. When one exercises his muscles, the vessel dilators allow more\\nblood to flow to the muscles. The heart also works harder and sends\\na faster current of blood over the body. One should not exercise\\nseverely just before or just after a meal. Every one needs exercise in\\nthe open air.\\n13. Nourishing food and out-ofdoor exercise, with ic ell-ventilated homes\\nand schoolrooms, will keep the blood pure and the body healthy.\\n14. People who use alcohol are more subject to disease than are those\\nwho do not because the body, especially the blood, is less resistant to\\nthe germs of disease.\\n15. Alcohol makes the heart beat faster because it narcotizes or dulls\\nthe influence of the vagus nerve. Explain how this can be.\\n16. Alcohol makes the blood vessels of the skin dilate, and so the skin\\nlooks red and the person feels warm; but the blood gives up its\\nwarmth to the air, and the temperature of the body falls= Alcohol\\nalso causes the walls of the blood vessels to become weak.\\n17. Tobacco causes the heart to beat faster than usual because the\\nvao us nerve is narcotized.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VII. RESPIRATION HOW THE\\nBLOOD IS PURIFIED\\n1. THE NEED FOR A RESPIRATORY SYSTEM\\nIn our study of the plant we found that oxygen is\\nnecessary for its life processes that the energy required\\nby the little germinating plant to push aside the little\\nparticles of soil and appear above the surface of the\\nground, can be obtained only by oxidation of some of the\\nplant material.\\nThe oxygen which enters into the oxidation comes from\\nthe atmosphere the material oxidized is part of the plant\\nbody, and the result of the oxidation is liberated energy\\nand waste products, comprising in the plant especially\\nwater and carbon dioxide.\\nIn a one-celled animal such as the amoeba, we found\\nthe same general principles to be true, and that every\\nmotion of the amoeba required an oxidation of a portion\\nof the substance of the little animal, the oxygen coming\\nfrom the surrounding medium, the oxidation resulting in\\nthe formation of waste products, among which carbon\\ndioxide and water take a prominent part.\\nEvery active cell in our bodies requires oxygen in order\\nto enable it to do its appointed work. If it is a muscle\\ncell, the energy of heat and motion which it must generate\\nfor the body can only come from the oxidation of muscle\\ncell protoplasm or muscle cell sap. If the cell is a gland\\ncell, it cannot doits work of forming new substances with-\\nout the presence of ox)^gen, which takes part in the changes\\n164", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 165\\nthat the cell makes in the substances which it absorbs\\nfrom the blood. If it is a brain cell, oxygen is just as\\nnecessary, though perhaps used in somewhat smaller quan-\\ntities than would be the case in a muscle cell.\\nRespiration is the process of furnishing oxygen to the\\nactive cells of the body. The one-celled plants and ani-\\nmals need no apparatus to carry the oxygen to the differ-\\nent parts of their system, because their minute bodies are\\nsurrounded either by the atmosphere, which is one fifth\\noxygen, or by water, in which oxygen from the atmosphere\\nis freely dissolved. But in all animals except the simplest\\nones, large portions of the body are so far removed from\\ncontact with the atmosphere or water that these animals\\nrequire a special apparatus or system of organs devoted\\nto this work of supplying the inside tissues of the body\\nwith oxygen. This function is called respiration, and the\\nsystem of organs which performs this function is called\\nthe respiratory system.\\nAnimals that live in the water breathe by means of gills\\nanimals that live on land breathe by means of lungs.\\nSome animals live in the water Avhen they are young, and\\nchange and turn into land animals when they reach ma-\\nturity. Such an animal is the frog the tadpole breathes\\nwith gills, but the frog breathes with lungs. Some ani-\\nmals which live in the water do not remain under water\\nlong at a time. The turtle and the crocodile are water\\nreptiles which breathe by means of lungs. The whale,\\nthe seal, and the walrus are water mammals that breathe\\nwith lungs none of these animals can stay under water\\nfor a long period.\\nEvery one has seen the gills of a fish, and will remem-\\nber that they are composed of delicate, velvety branches\\nwhich are protected behind a scalelike shield on the side\\nhall s phys. 11", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "166 PHYSIOLOGY\\nof the fish s head. The fish draws water into the mouth,\\nand closes the mouth, but instead of swallowing the water,\\npresses it out the sides of the pharynx so that it passes\\nover the gills which absorb the oxygen held by the water\\nin solution.\\nThe lungs are elastic air sacs, which are made of very\\ndelicate tissue and lodged within the body cavity. The\\nanimal draws the air into the lungs, where it remains for a\\nshort time giving up its oxygen to the blood which is cir-\\nculating within the capillary branches of the pulmonarj^\\nartery. The drawing in of the air is called Inspiration^\\nand the throAving of the air out of the lungs is called\\nExpiration,\\nThat part of respiration which includes the inspiration\\nof the air, the absorption of the oxygen, and the expiration\\nof the air laden with carbon dioxide, is called external res-\\npiration^ while that part of the respiration which includes\\nthe distribution of the oxygen to the tissues by the blood\\nand the absorption of the oxygen from the blood by the\\ntissues, also the giving up of carbon dioxide to the blood\\nby the tissues and the transportation of this carbon\\ndioxide gas by the blood to the lungs, is called internal\\nrespiration,\\n2. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION\\nThe lungs have already been mentioned as organs of\\nrespiration, and they are the most important organs of the\\nrespiratory system. Figure 39 shows the lungs within the\\nchest or thorax. Notice from the figure that there are\\ntwo lungs, one on either side of the heart. These lungs\\nare hollowed out to make a space for the heart.\\nThe pulmonary artery (i branches under the arch of\\nthe aorta, sending part of the blood to each lung. The", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 167\\nheart is not in the middle of the thorax, but just a little\\nmore on tlie lef t side than on the right, so that the left lung\\nis a little smaller than the right lung. The two lungs and\\nthe heart rest upon the muscular partition which separates\\nthe thorax from the abdomen. This muscular partition is\\nFig. 39. The cavity of the chest, showing the positions of the heart and the\\nlungs. A, left lung; B, heart; D, pulmonary artery; E, trachea, or wind-\\npipe. [Tracy.]\\ncalled the diaphragm. Notice from the picture that the\\ndiaphragm is higher in the middle than at the edges; in\\nother words, it is arched upward. As the diaphragm is\\nthe principal muscle for drawing air into the lungs, w^e\\nmust name it among the respiratory organs. The air is\\ncarried to the lungs through a large tube in the neck\\ncalled the windinpe^ or trachea. The upper part of the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "168 PHYSIOLOGY\\ntrachea is the larynx^ or Adam s apple which one can feel\\nin the throat.\\nThe air in passing into the trachea must pass through\\nthe pharynx^ and to get into the pharynx it must pass\\nthrough eitlier the mouth or nose. Nature intended that\\nthe nose should be the air passage, but many people\\nbreathe through the mouth because of some temporary\\nor permanent obstruction in the nose. The nose is made\\nespecially for breathing it is provided with a moist\\nmucous membrane for catching the dust it is full of\\nblood vessels for warming the air. To assist in catching\\nthe dust, there are, near the opening of the nose, hairs\\nkept moist by secretions. The passage through the nose\\nis not simply a cylindrical canal, but very irregular, w4th\\nfolds which increase the surface, and not only aid in\\nwarming the air and removing the dust, but also aid\\nthe sense of smell by increasing the amount of surface\\nexposed to odors.\\nThe larynx contains the vocal cords^ and is the organ\\nfor producing the voice, and so is sometimes called the\\nvoice box. One can feel the little point of his larynx,\\nand by passing the fingers along the throat below the\\nlarynx he can feel the large, stiff tube whose walls con-\\ntain little rings of cartilage. The object of these rings is\\nto keep the trachea open. If it were not for these the\\ntrachea would collapse, and the breath would be shut off.\\nNotice that down in the thorax between the two lungs\\nthe trachea branches into two parts, each looking quite\\nlike the trachea, only smaller (Fig. 40). These two\\nparts are hronchi. Each bronchus subdivides within the\\nlung into a series of treelike branches, until finally every\\nportion of the lung substance is reached by minute ter-\\nminal twigs of this system of branches. The divisions of", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION\\n169\\nthe bronchi are called bronchial tubes. The bronchial\\ntubes end in clusters of air cells^ which are similar to\\nbunches of grapes. In the figure only a few of these\\nclusters are shown, but the lung is made up largely of\\ninnumerable clusters lying side by side.\\nThe air passages consist, then, of nose, pharynx, larynx,\\ntrachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and air cells. All of the air\\npassages are lined ivith mucous membrane. The mucous\\nmembrane of trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is provided\\nwith ciliated cells. These cilia are always moving with an\\nFig. 40. Air passages in the human lungs, a, larynx; 6, trachea;\\nc, d, hronchi e, bronchial tubes cluster of air cells.\\nupward, whiplike motion, which carries particles of dust\\nand mucus up the trachea until it reaches the larynx,\\nwhere it causes a tickling sensation and is coughed up.\\nThe branches of the pulmonary artery pass into the\\nlungs by the side of the bronchi, and subdivide wherever\\nthe bronchi subdivide, being finally distributed in small\\nbranches to each cluster of air cells. The end branches\\nof the pulmonary artery send to each cluster one or more", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "170 PHYSIOLOGY\\narterioles, which break up into a network of capillaries\\nsimilar to that shown in Figure 35, so that each air cell is\\nsurrounded by a network of capillaries.\\nWe must not forget that the pulmonary artery carries\\nimpure blood to the lungs for purification, so that the\\narrows in Figure 36 will need to be reversed, the impure\\nblood passing in from the arterioles and becoming purified\\nas it passes through the capillary system, and then, pass-\\ning out into the pulmonary veins, finally collects into four\\npulmonary veins which empty into the left auricle.\\nThe blood which circulates in the lung capillaries is\\nseparated from the air by the delicate mucous membrane\\nof the air cell, the capillary wall, and a film of plasma\\nyet we shall find that there is ample opportunity for the\\nblood to be purified.\\n3. THE MOVEMENTS OF RESPIRATION\\nThe diaphragm has already been mentioned as the\\nmost important muscle of the respiratory system. Refer-\\nence to Figure 39 will show the diaphragm arching upward,\\nfilling the space in the middle of the thorax and passing\\nup to the heart. The lower lobes of the lungs fill the\\nspace between the high dome of the diaphragm and\\nthe wall of the thorax. Just below the diaphragm lie the\\nstomach and liver, not shown in the figure.\\nThe muscular fibers of the diaphragm radiate outward\\nfrom its center and are attached around the thoracic wall.\\nThe contraction of the diaphragm is brought about by\\nall these fibers contracting at the same time. It must be\\neasily seen that when the diaphragm contracts its dome\\nwill be flattened. Now the diaphragm is the partition\\nwall between the thorax and the abdomen. The flatten-\\ning of the diaphragm is really a moving of all the dia-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 171\\nphragm except its margins from the thorax toward the\\nabdomen. That would tend to make more room in the\\nthorax, and also to push the stomach and liver doAvnward\\nfurther into the abdominal cavity.\\nWhat would happen in the abdominal cavity is very\\neasily understood. The stomach and liver push upon the\\nintestine and all of these organs are pressed outward in\\nevery direction, and so distend the walls of the abdomen.\\nIt may not be so easy to understand just what takes\\nplace within the thorax. We know that when we draw\\nup the piston of a syringe the air or water will rush\\nthrough the nozzle of the syringe and fill up the space\\nthat would be left, so that there is really no vacant space\\nin the syringe, that is, no vacuum.\\nIn a similar way, when the diaphragm pulls dow^nward\\ntoward the abdominal cavity it would tend to leave a\\nvacuum around the lungs and heart, but the air rushes\\nin at the nose and through the air passages, filling the\\nlungs and allowing them to expand and fill up all of the\\nspace made by the contraction of the diaphragm.\\nThe diaphragm is not the only muscle of respiration\\nthe diaphragm makes only one wall of the thorax, a\\npartition wall between the thorax and another body\\ncavity. The outside walls of the thorax are also mov-\\nable, though in a much smaller degree than is the case\\nwith the diaphragm. The curving ribs slant downward\\nand forward from the backbone, and are so attached to\\nthe backbone that when the front ends are raised, the\\nfront wall of the chest, as well as the side walls, will be\\nthrown out, thus increasing the space within the thorax,\\nwhich the lungs swell out and fill (Fig. 41). The mus-\\ncles which do this are the muscles which pass from the\\nbackbone to the collar bone and upper ribs, also the inter-", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "172 PHYSIOLOGY\\ncostal muscles, which attach each rib to the next rib\\nbelow it.\\nThe filling of the lungs is called inspiration. The lungs\\nare alternately filled and emptied. The emptying of the\\nlungs is called exjnration. When the lungs are to be\\nFig. 41. Diagram illustratiDg the increase in the diameter of the thorax\\nwhen the ribs are raised.\\nemptied the diaphragm relaxes, and the muscles which\\nhave raised the ribs relax, the chest walls fall back to\\ntheir position of rest; the abdominal walls, which have\\nbeen distended by the pressure of the organs within come\\nback to their position of rest, which pushes the diaphragm\\nup into the thorax again, thus restoring to its position\\nof rest all the muscles of respiration, and the ribs as well as\\nthe lungs.* As the walls of the thorax pass inward toward\\nthe lungs, they contract, and the air flows out of the nose.\\n4. THE MOVEMENTS OF RESPIKATION {continued)\\nI. FORCED BREATHING\\nThe breathing described in the preceding lesson is\\nwhat is called quiet breathing. This is the way one\\nbreathes when he is sitting quietly or when asleep. The\\nair which flows out and in the lungs in quiet breathing is\\ncalled tidal air^ and amounts to about 30 cubic inches,\\nor a little over a pint, for the average-sized adult man.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 173\\nIf one will observe his respiration when he is breathing\\nquietly he will get a good idea of how much air flows\\nout of and into the lungs, and how much movement of\\nthe chest and abdomen there is in quiet breathing. At\\nthe end of a quiet inspiration one is able to continue to\\ndraw air into the lungs. He can go on expanding his\\nchest and abdomen until he reaches the limit of his\\ncapacity, drawing in about 100 cubic inches more of\\nair. This extra air which one is able to draw into the\\nlungs in a forced inspiration is called complemental air.\\nIn forced inspiration, all of the muscles of quiet inspira-\\ntion are in use, contracting much more strongly than in\\nquiet breathing, and besides these, muscles of the back\\nand shoulders assist in raising the ribs and sternum.\\nIf, at the end of a forced inspiration, one begins to let\\nthe air flow out of the lungs, the 100 cubic inches of com-\\nplemental air will flow oat first, followed by the 30 cubic\\ninches of tidal air. After these 130 cubic inches have es-\\ncaped from the air passages and the muscles of respiration\\nare in position of perfect rest, one may still force air out\\nof the lungs. This is called /or c^(i exphation^ and is ac-\\ncomplished mostly by the contraction of the walls of the\\nabdomen. This forces the intestines, stomach, and liver\\nbackward and upward against the diaphragm, thus forc-\\ning the diaphragm farther up into the chest cavity and\\nforcing air out of the lungs. This air of the forced ex-\\npiration is called reserve air^ and amounts to about 100\\ncubic inches, but there is still remaining in the lungs air\\nwhich one cannot force out voluntarily. This air that\\nalways remains in the lungs is called residual air,, and\\namounts to about 100 cubic inches. Though this residual\\nair cannot be voluntarily forced out, it is sometimes forced\\nout accidentally. If one falls upon his shoulders, or if", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "174\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\ncu, m.\\nthrough any accident the chest is suddenly compressed at\\nthe end of an expiration, a portion of the residual air may\\nbe forced out. In sucli a case one feels distressed and\\nhas difficulty in regaining the breath.\\nFigure 42 shows the relative amounts of tidal, com-\\nplemental, reserve, and residual\\nair. It will be seen from the\\ndiagram that the amount of air\\nwhich one can expel from the lungs\\nafter forced inspiration would\\nequal about 230 cubic inches. This\\nis called the lung capacity and is\\nthe average amount for an adult\\nman 5 feet 8 inches in height.\\nFor each added inch in height\\nthe lung capacity would increase\\nabout 9 cubic inches and for\\npersons shorter than the average\\nthe lung capacity would decrease\\n9 cubic inches for each inch of\\nheight below the average. The\\naverage boy of fourteen would\\nhave a lung capacit}^ of about 120\\ncubic inches the girl of four-\\nteen should have about the same\\nlung capacity as a boy of that\\nage, but the average woman has\\na smaller lung capacity than the\\naverage man.\\nFig. 42. Diagram showing\\nthe relative amounts of\\ntidal, complemental, reserve,\\nand residual air. Note that\\nthe brace shows the average\\nlung capacity for the adult\\nman.\\nII. CHEST AND ABDOMINAL BREATHING\\nIt is frequently said that w^omen breathe differently\\nfrom men, the chest movement being more pronounced in", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 175\\na woman and the abdominal movement in a man. The best\\nauthorities agree now that there should be no difference\\nin the breathing of men and women if there is a differ-\\nence it is because of the unhygienic clothing so frequently\\nworn by women.\\n5. BREATHING AND THE VOICE\\nI. HOW THE BREATHING IS CONTROLLED\\nThe movements of the diaphragm are controlled by\\nthe phrenic nerves^ which can be traced upward from the\\nthorax and the deep muscles of the neck into^ the spinal\\ncord and up to the medulla oblongata, situated at the base\\nof the brain.\\nThe intercostal muscles are controlled by the inter-\\ncostal nerves, each one of which passes directly into the\\nspinal cord and upward to the medulla. These are the\\nnerves which control the muscles of inspiration. The\\nlower intercostal muscles which control the muscles of\\nthe abdominal walls are expiration nerves.\\nThe sensory nerves of the nose and those branches of\\nthe vagus nerve which supply the larynx and the mu-\\ncous membrane of the lungs, are the sensory nerves of\\nrespiration.\\nII. MODIFICATIONS OF BREATHING\\nIf mucus or any foreign body gets into the larynx it\\nirritates the sensory nerves, a message is sent to the\\nbreathing center in the medulla, from which a message is\\nsent to the abdominal muscles, Avhich contract quickly,\\ncausing a coughing^ which dislodges and throws out the\\noffending substance.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "176 PHYSIOLOGY\\nWhen the membrane of the nose is irritated in any way,\\na similar explosion of the air through the nose will gen-\\nerally remove the irritating matter. This act is called\\nsneezing.\\nYawning is a deep inspiration in which the lungs are\\nwell filled and inflated, furnishing an extra supply of\\noxygen for the system.\\nHiccoughing consists of a sudden contraction of the dia-\\nphragm, which causes a spasmodic inspiration this is\\nblocked by the sudden closure of the larynx, causing a\\nhiccough.\\nSighing is similar to yawning but is caused by such\\nemotions as grief or sorrow.\\nCrying and Laughing, These are combined modifica-\\ntions of breathing and the voice. They are caused by the\\nemotions, and consist of a deep inspiration, usually fol-\\nlowed by a series of spasmodic expirations which are\\nvocalized or in which the voice is acting.\\nSohhing is a convulsive inspiration, also emotional, and\\nusually follows prolonged crying.\\nIII. THE VOICE\\nIn describing the organs of respiration the larynx or\\nvoice box was mentioned. In the upper part of the\\nlarynx two membranes pass out from the sides toward the\\nmiddle. The edges of these membranes are rounded\\ncords which are so attached to the walls of the larynx\\nthat they may be brought close together and stretched\\ntightly through the contraction of the muscles in the walls\\nof the larynx. These cords are the vocal cords. When\\nthe vocal cords are tightened and brought near together,\\nthe air passing over them sets them to vibrating. This", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "RESPIKATION 177\\nvibration causes a sound which we call the voice, INIost of\\nthe higher animals have a voice. Animals that have a\\nvoice use it in the expression of their emotions and desires\\nfirst of all. A child first uses its voice for this purpose.\\nWhen it begins to talk it expresses other ideas.\\nMan has cultivated his voice along with his mind, so\\nthat he is able to express, not only the emotions and\\ndesires, but a continuous train of thought in a succes-\\nsion of sounds which we call speech. These sounds are\\ngrouped into syllables and words; each syllable contains\\nat least one vocal or vowel sound which is made by the\\nlarynx and which is more or less modified by the organs\\nof articulation. These modifications of the vocal sounds\\nare termed consonants, and they are produced by the vari-\\nous positions of the lips, tongue, teeth, and palate during\\nthe formation of the sound by the larynx.\\nIn the word or syllable hat^ the larynx makes the vocal\\nor vowel sound a, and this vowel sound is introduced by\\nthe lip consonant (labial) 5, and foUow^ed by the tongue-\\npalate consonant (palato-lingual) t.\\nThe vowels of the English language are a, g, 2, o, and u^\\nwhich may be modified in quality by the vocal organs to\\nmake about seventeen different sounds.\\n*The consonants, about twenty-one in number, are sub-\\ndivided into the labial or lip consonants, 5, tv the\\nlabio-dental or lip-teeth sounds, v the linguo-dental or\\ntongue-teeth sounds, th the nasals, m, ti, ng and the\\npalato-linguals or palate-tongue sounds.\\nPeople of culture and refinement usually possess voices\\nwhich are under perfect control under all circumstances,\\nnever pitched too high or too low when they speak\\ntheir voices are well modulated and their words are dis-\\ntinctly enunciated.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "178 PHYSIOLOGY\\n6. IIOAY THE AIR IS CHANGED IN THE LUNGS\\nI. THE COMPOSITION OF THE AIR\\nAir is a mixture of gases. The mixture is composed\\nchiefly of nitrogen (about four fifths), oxygen (about one\\nfifth), with a very small amount of carhon dioxide. ThSre\\nare minute portians of other gases, because other gases\\nthan those mentioned above are escaping into the atmos-\\nphere as the result of various natural phenomena; some sul-\\nphurous and other gases may escape from volcanoes, and\\nwhat is called marsh gas escapes from decaying vegetable\\nmatter in swamps. There escape into the atmosphere\\nwhich is over great cities and manufacturing centers, large\\nquantities of various gases, among them illuminating gas,\\nand sulphurous gases from the combustion of low grades\\nof coal, also quantities of carbon monoxide gas and of\\nammonia gas. But when one remembers that the atmos-\\nphere is at least forty miles deep over the whole earth, and\\nthat it is being constantly stirred up by the winds, and\\nthat the noxious gases are gradually dissolved in the sur-\\nface waters of the earth, and that the carbon dioxide gas\\nis being consumed by the plants for food, it must be clearly\\nseen that the proportion of these noxious gases in the\\ngeneral atmosphere is too slight to take into consideration.\\nBesides all of the gases which go to make up the atmos-\\nphere, there is the water of the atmosphere, which is a\\nmost important constituent, but which is not usually in-\\ncluded among its gases. Most of the water of the atmos-\\nphere is in the form of an invisible vapor which the\\natmosphere takes up from the surface water of the earth.\\nWarm air takes up more than cold air. In your physical\\ngeography you will learn that when warm air which is", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 179\\nsaturated with invisible moisture is cooled, tlie moisture\\ncollects in minute drops which gather in a visible cloud.\\nWhen one breathes into the cold winter air he can see\\nthe cloud of vapor passing from his nostrils. This vapor\\nis invisible while it is in the air passages, and becomes visi-\\nble only when it passes out into the cold air, where the\\nmoisture is collected into drops. The clouds that float\\nthrough the air are masses of visible vapor. The moisture\\nof the atmosphere is very important to consider in the\\nhygiene of the lungs.\\nThe nitrogen of the atmosphere is colorless, tasteless,\\nodorless, and is one of the most inactive gases known to\\nchemists the oxygen of the air is also colorless, odorless,\\nand tasteless, but is the most active gas known to chemists,\\nand is the most universal in its combination with other\\nelements, so that it enters into the composition of the\\nw^ater which covers so large a part of the earth s surface\\nand, practically, every rock in the earth s crust, and forms\\na large part of every plant and animal living upon the\\nearth. Our studies in the physiology of plant and animal\\nnutrition teach us that it is through the combination of\\noxygen with the tissue elements that all plant and animal\\nenergy is liberated or generated.\\nII. THE CHANGES WHICH THE ATMOSPHERE UNDERGOES\\nIN THE LUNGS\\nWe take air into the lupgs for its oxygen. When air\\nis drawn into the lungs but once and exhaled in a normal\\nway, it loses about one fourth of its oxygen. If the air\\nlost the same amount when rebreathed, all of the oxygen\\nwould be consumed if the same air were breathed four\\ntimes. But when the air is rebreathed, only one fourth of", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "180 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe remaining oxygen is absorbed thus less and less is taken\\nat each rebreathing of the air. And if one were shut into\\na very small space, he would take out one fourth of the\\noxygen in breathing the air the first time, and about one\\nfourth of the remainder the second time, and so on, always\\ntaking one fourth of the remainder at each successive\\nrebreathing of the air, until finally nearly all the oxygen\\nwould be exhausted. The death of the individual would\\nsoon follow, of course.\\nBesides the change in the oxygen, carbon dioxide is\\nadded to the air. A little smaller quantity of the carbon\\ndioxide is added than enough to make up for the oxygen\\nwhich is taken away, so that the air exhaled is a little\\nless in quantity than the air inhaled when measured\\nunder the same conditions.\\nIf the inspired air is dry it will take up moisture from the\\nair passages and so carry away a certain amount of water\\nfrom the sj^stem. It will always carry away water from\\nthe system unless it has the same temperature as the air\\npassages, and is saturated wdth water at that temperature.\\nBesides the subtraction of oxygen and the addition of\\ncarbon dioxide and water, there is a change of tempera-\\nture, the exhaled air being warmed to nearly the tempera-\\nture of the blood, and there is also an addition of a small\\namount of organic matter carried away from the air\\npassages.\\n7. HOW THE BLOOD IS CHANGED IX THE LUXGS\\nI. HOW THE BLOOD IS OXYGENATED\\nIt has been stated in a previous lesson that the work of\\nthe red blood corpuscles was to carry oxygen from the\\nlungs to the tissues. The first question which arises is,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION\\n181\\nhow does the oxygen get from the air cells of the lungs to\\nthe red blood corpuscles When a gas is in contact with\\nthe surface of a liquid, directly or through a moist mem-\\nbrane, the gas will pass into the liquid direct or through\\nthe membrane, j^apidly at first, and more slowly later,\\nuntil there is no more absorption of the gas, when we say\\nthe liquid is saturated. If the liquid is flowing past the\\nmembrane, the process of absorption of the gas will go on\\n:at the same rate, because the liquid is continually renewed.\\nBetween the air in the air cell and the red blood cor-\\npuscles in the capillaries of the lungs there intervene\\n(1) the thin membranous wall of the air cell, (2) a thin\\nsubmucous coat whose\\nspaces are filled with\\nlymph, (3) the wall of\\n!~the capillary, (4) the\\n.plasma within the capil-\\nlary. Then comes the red\\nblood corpuscle (Fig.\\n43, a).\\nEvery space between\\nfibers and cells is filled\\nwith plasma or lymph\\n:and the cells themselves\\nBronchiole\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2are composed largely of fig. 43. -Diagram of two air cells, show-\\nwater, so that the OXyg-en capillary network which covers\\nthem, and at a the structures which\\nreadily passes through intervene hetween the air and the blood\\nthe membranes and flu- indicated: l, mucous membrane of\\nthe air cell 2, submucous meshwork\\nids just mentioned, and 3, wall of capillary; 4, plasma in capil-\\nfinally reaches the red lary; 5, red blood corpuscle,\\nblood corpuscle which is floating along in the capillary.\\nNow red blood corpuscles have a strong affinity or\\nappetite for oxygen, and immediately take up from the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "182 PHYSIOLOGY\\nplasma the oxygen which comes in, and pass on, leaving\\nthe plasma as poor in oxj gen as it was to start with so\\nthat more oxygen readily passes into the capillary, and\\nfinds the plasma and corpuscles ready to take it up at\\nonce and carry it off to the tissues.\\nII. HO\\\\V THE BLOOD IS FREED OF CAKBOX DIOXIDE\\nThe blood leaves the tissue with a heavj^ load of carbon\\ndioxide, which is carried away from the tissues to be\\nthrown out of the system. This carbon dioxide is carried\\npartly by the red blood corpuscles and partly by the\\nplasma of the blood.\\nIf a pint of venous blood were to be put under an air\\npump, and a vacuum made over it, carbon dioxide would\\npass off from it, and if this were measured at standard\\natmospheric pressure and at zero degrees, there would be\\nforty-five or forty-six per cent as great volume of gas as\\nthere was volume of blood.\\nIf arterial blood were tried in the same wa} a volume\\nof carbon dioxide equal to about fortj^ per cent of the\\nvolume of the blood could be drawn off.\\nFrom this it seems that the blood always has carbon\\ndioxide in it, carrying a big load from the tissues to the\\nlungs and a somewhat smaller load from the lungs back\\nto the tissues, so that it gives up only about one ninth of\\nthis load in the lungs.\\nWhether this carbon dioxide gas is given up from the\\ncorpuscles or from the plasma is not known, and part is\\nprobably given from each. The reason the carbon dioxide\\ngas leaves the blood and passes into the air cells of the lungs\\nis because there is very little carbon dioxide gas in the air\\ncells of the lungs and a great deal in the blood, and so it", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 183\\nnaturally diffuses toward the lungs and during the time\\nthe venous blood is passing through the capillaries, one\\nninth of the carbon dioxide will have time to diffuse into\\nthe air cells, while the red blood corpuscles are taking\\ntheir load of oxygen for the tissues.\\n8. TISSUE RESPIRATION AND BODY HEAT\\nThe real object of the w^hole process of respiration is to\\nfurnish oxygen to the tissues and to carry away from the\\ntissues the carbon dioxide. Each cell is neither able to\\nbuild up its own protoplasm nor to do its special work with-\\nout oxygen. When the supply of oxygen stops, all work\\nstof)s. The active tissues always want oxygen, though\\nthey may want more oxygen at one time than at another.\\nThe harder they work, the more oxygen they want; when\\none is doing hard, muscular work, or exercising vigorously,\\nthe muscles all over the body call for more oxygen. They\\nmake this call through the help of the sympathetic ner-\\nvous system. This causes the respiratory muscles to act\\nmore vigorously, so that the breathing is deeper and more\\nrapid, more oxygen is brought into the lungs, more is\\ntaken up by the blood.\\nAt the same time that the lungs are working harder,\\nthe heart is working harder, thus making a more rapid\\nstream of blood through the lungs, and this takes up the\\noxygen more rapidly, so that the amount of oxygen\\ncarried in any particular quantity of blood during exercise\\nneed not be greater than that carried by the same quantity\\nof blood during rest.\\nThe affinity or appetite of the tissues for oxygen is\\nalways stronger than that of the red corpuscles, so that\\nwhen a corpuscle comes to the capillaries and moves\\nhall s PHYS. 12", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "184 PHYSIOLOGY\\nslowly along them between active tissue cells on either\\nside which are calling for its load of oxygen, it has to\\npart Avitli tliis load and return by way of the veins to the\\nlungs for another load of oxygen. Active muscle, gland,\\nand nerve cells are constantly giving off carbon dioxide\\ninto the tissue plasma which surrounds the cells. The\\nblood in the capillaries has less carbon dioxide than that\\noutside of the capillaries in the tissue, so that carbon\\ndioxide diffuses from the tissue plasma into the blood\\nplasma, and thus loads the blood with carbon dioxide,\\nwhich is carried by way of the veins to the lungs, and\\ntliere given up in the way described above.\\nI. BODY HEAT\\nAristotle believed that the heat of the body was made\\nwithin the heart by a combination of the vital spirits\\nw^th the blood. For over two thousand years it was be-\\nlieved that the heat of the body was generated in the blood.\\nLavoisier, who discovered oxygen and the principles of\\noxidation, believed that heat was generated in the blood\\nof the lungs where the oxygen first entered it. After his\\ntime, and until recently, the heat was believed to be\\ngenerated within the capillaries of the active tissues but\\nsince the importance of the cell has become understood, it\\nis generally believed that nearly all, if not quite all, of\\nthe oxidation of the substances of the body takes place\\nwithin the living cells, so that the active tissue cells,\\nwhose substance is being oxidized, are the heat generators.\\nThe muscle tissue comprises four fifths of the active\\ntissue of the body. Muscle tissue is always generating\\nheat energy, and some of the time it is generating both\\nheat and motion. As the blood circulates through the", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 185\\nmuscles it becomes heated, and then flowing to other\\nparts of the body it distributes this heat so that all parts\\nof the body are kept warm, the deeper tissues of the\\nbody being kept warmer than those near the surface.\\nThe temperature of the body is regulated partly by the\\nregulation of the rate of heat generation and partly by the\\nregulation of heat radiation from the body. The body is\\ngiving up heat to the cooler atmosphere all the while. As\\nmuch as three fourths of all the energy of our food is re-\\nquired to keep the body warm the rest is devoted to\\nbody building and to the movements and other activi-\\nties. If one goes out into the cold winter air, the blood\\nat first withdraws to the deeper tissues, then is sent to the\\nmuscles, where an extra supply of heat is being generated,\\nand after being warmed in the muscles, passes to the skin\\nto warm the surface of the body. If the body becomes\\ntoo warm, the blood will go to the skin, and the sweat\\nglands of the skin will pour out perspiration upon the\\nsurface, and so the body will be quickly cooled.\\nThus we see that these two things working together,\\nheat generation and heat radiation, keep the body contin-\\nually at nearly the same temperature.\\nII. FEVERS\\nIf the heat generation goes on too rapidly, or if the\\nheat radiation goes on too slowly, as it would if the skin\\nwere too dry, the temperature of the body will rise, and\\nwe say the person has a fever. In the treatment of fevers\\nthe physician usually tries either to decrease the heat\\ngeneration in the body, or to increase the heat radiation,\\nand thus reduce the temperature of the body to the\\nnormal one.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "186 PHYSIOLOGY\\n9. HYGIENE OF RESPIRATION\\nI. RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS\\nThe clothing of the chest and abdomen should be loose\\nenough to enable free movements in respiration. It is\\nprobable that one of the most frequent causes of ill liealth\\nin women is the improper oxidation of tissue as a result\\n(1) of shallow breathing due to impro23er clothing, and\\n(2) of living much within doors in ill-ventilated houses.\\nNo one should allow a day to pass without filhng the lungs\\nseveral times to their greatest capacity. The advantage\\nof these deep inspirations is increased if the lungs are filled\\nwith pure, out-of-door air. It is still further increased if\\nthe respirations are deep as a result of vigorous exercise out\\nof doors. If one must be confined to the house for most\\nof the time, it is advisable to devote a few minutes two or\\nthree times each day to vigorous calisthenics, accompanied\\nby deep breathing, preferably in front of an open window.\\nThe air should always pass through the nose, as that is\\nnature s respiratory passage, and is so constructed as to\\nfree the air from dust and to Avarm it before it goes into\\nthe air passages.\\nII. IMPURE AIR\\nThe principal impurity of the air in buildings is carbon\\ndioxide given off from the lungs of the people in the build-\\ning. It is also given off in large quantities by lamps and\\ngas stoves, and may be given off in small quantities from\\ncoal stoves. Another impurity is the dust always found\\nin buildings. Occasionally there may be noxious gases\\ngiven off from furnaces, or escaping from gas fixtures or\\nfrom the plumbing. The latter is called sewer gas.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 187\\nThe greatest care should be taken by those who have\\nbuildings in charge to insure their absolute freedom from\\nall of these harmful, and sometimes fatal, impurities of\\nthe air. Decaying vegetables and stagnant water in\\ncellars are frequently causes of disease, contaminating\\nespecially the atmosphere of the building. No such\\nknown cause of disease should be tolerated in a building.\\nIII. ventilatio:n^\\nVentilation is a term used to designate the change of\\nair in a building. Every properly constructed building is\\nplanned to have an air space for each occupant so large\\nthat the air will not have to be rapidly changed in order\\nto be sufficiently pure.\\nThe amount of space allowed for each person occupying\\na schoolroom during only a few hours in a day is 250 cubic\\nfeet. In a room in a dwelling used all day or all night,\\n300 cubic feet should be allowed, while in a ward in a\\nhospital it is usual to allow 1000 cubic feet for each\\noccupant.\\nWhen a room is properly ventilated, the air should\\nseem odorless to one coming in from out of doors. A\\nproper system of ventilation provides for a constant\\nchange of air without noticeable drafts. An occasional\\nthrowing open of doors and windows for a general rush-\\ning in of out-of-door air, and a cooling of the air down\\nseveral degrees, is an exceedingly clumsy way of venti-\\nlating a room. The opening of one window of a room\\nmay not permit a sufficient exchange of the air within\\nwith that outside, and it is difficult at best to ventilate\\na house through the windows alone without causing\\ndrafts.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "188 PHYSIOLOGY\\nPublic buildings are usually ventilated through flues\\nin the walls, flues opening near the floor and near the\\nceiling in each room. An important feature of the ven-\\ntilation of a dwelling house is the fireplace, with its flue.\\nWhen the fireplace is open, as it should always be, the\\ndropping of several windows, upstairs and down, an inch\\nat the top will usually afford ample ventilation, without\\nany noticeable drafts.\\nThe presence of illuminating gas, or other gas having a\\ndistinct odor, may be at once detected the most danger-\\nous gas in a building is sewer gas, which has no odor. If\\nsewer gas is present, it is usually suspected by the family\\nphysician from the general health of the members of\\nthe household, and if an expert examination reveals its\\npresence, the plumbing of the house must be repaired.\\nFortunately, the escape of sewer gas into a house is not a\\nvery frequent occurrence.\\nThe gas that is always present, and always injurious\\nwhen present in an amount to exceed eight parts in ten\\nthousand, is carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide is odor-\\nless, it is necessary to have some simple test to show when\\nit is present in excess of this proportion named above.\\nKeep on hand a bottle of clear limewater. To test the\\nair in any room to see if it is sufficiently free from carbon\\ndioxide to be wholesome, go into the room, provided with\\na pint fruit jar full of water, with the bottle of limewater,\\nand with a teaspoon. Pour out the water from the fruit\\njar, and its place will be taken by the air of the room.\\nThen pour into the fruit jar six teaspoonfuls of the lime-\\nwater, fasten on the cover of the fruit jar tightly, and\\nshake it vigorously. If there are more than eight parts\\nin ten thousand of carbonic acid present in the room, the\\nlimewater will show it by turning a milky color. If there", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 189\\nis a smaller proportion than that, the limewater will not\\nbe noticeably affected.\\n10. EXPERIMENTS\\nGet about a pound of unslacked lime from a mason or\\nplasterer. Put half of it into a quart fruit jar and fill the\\njar with water. The lime will slack in the jar, and a por-\\ntion of the lime will combine with the water to make\\ncalcium hydrate, or limeivater. After one or two days\\nthe lime w411 have settled to the bottom and there will be\\nclear water on top. Pour the clear portion off carefully\\ninto another jar or bottle and label it Calcium Hydrate or\\nLimewater.\\n1. Fill a drinking glass half full of limewater, then\\ntake a glass or rubber tube or lemonade straw and blow\\ngently through the tube into the limewater, completely\\nemptying the lungs of air, thus making the air which was\\nin the lungs bubble up through the limewater. Notice\\nthe white cloud which gathers in the previously clear\\nlimewater.\\nThis white cloud is a precipitate of calcium carbonate\\nwhich was formed by the carbon dioxide of the breath\\ncombining with the calcium of the limewater. This cal-\\ncium carbonate is the same material of which your chalk\\ncrayons are made, and the same material of which marble\\nis composed.\\n2. Put a piece of candle about an inch long into an\\nempty drinking glass and light it. The flame is at first\\nfed by the oxygen in the glass, but as soon as the oxygen\\nis used up the flame dies. Take out the candle, relight\\nit, and lower it into the glass it will go out as soon as it\\ngets below the surface of the carbon dioxide which now", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "190 PHYSIOLOGY\\nfills the glass. Put a sheet of wet paper over the glass to\\nkeep the carbon dioxide from mixing with the air. Into\\nanother glass of the same size put two tablespoonfuls of\\nlimewater. Invert the glass containing the carbon dioxide\\nover the glass containing the limewater; draw out the\\nsheet of paper from between the glasses, and vigorously\\nshake the two glasses, holding them together at the rim.\\nThe carbon dioxide has mixed with the limewater and\\nformed the turbid cloud of calcium carbonate.\\nFrom these two experiments we find, first, that by the\\noxidation of a candle, as well as by the oxidation of the\\ntissues of the body, carbon dioxide is formed. Second,\\nwe find that the flame of a candle Avill be extinguished in\\nan atmosphere of carbon dioxide. It is also true that the\\nflame of life will be extinguished in a similar atmos-\\nphere.\\n3. Test the air in your schoolroom with a fruit jar as\\ndirected above in the text, to see if the ventilation is\\nsufficient. If it is not sufficient, try to devise some means\\nby which the ventilation can be improved without causing\\ndirect drafts upon the occupants of the room.\\nPROBLEMS\\n1. How many pupils should be seated in a schoolroom\\n30 feet wide, 40 feet long, and 15 feet high\\n2. If a schoolroom is 20 feet wide and 30 feet long,\\nhow high should the ceiling be to accommodate 30\\npupils\\n3. How many individuals may occupy a sleeping room\\n10 by 15 feet, 8 feet high?\\n4. How high should a hospital ward be which is 20\\nfeet wide, 40 feet long, to accommodate 10 patients", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 191\\n11. THE EFFECTS OF NARCOTICS UPON RESPIRATION\\nI. EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE RED BLOOD COR-\\nPUSCLES\\nAlcohol acts upon the red blood corpuscles, lessening\\ntheir power to take oxygen from the air cells of the lungs\\nand carry it to the tissues of the body.^\\nThe direct effect of the above upon the tissues is,\\naccording to Dr. Parker of Chicago, the diminishing of\\nthe functional activity of the secreting and excreting\\nstructures, causing the blood to accumulate and retain\\nthe waste material.\\nn. RELATION OF ALCOHOL TO ANIMAL HEAT\\nDr. Bodlander proved several years ago that about ninety\\nper cent of alcohol taken into the stomach is oxidized,\\nforming carbon dioxide gas and water, and generating\\nheat. He believed that the injury done by alcohol con-\\nsists in part of the robbing of the other cells of the body\\nof their supply of oxygen, and the rapid formation of\\ncarbon dioxide, which acts as a poison until thrown out\\nof the system.\\nFor the heating of the body it seems that only certain\\nkinds of carbonaceous substances are suitable. Tlie action\\nof alcohol upon the cells tends to cause their degeneration,\\nchanging them to fat, and, as it were, makes the cells of\\nthe various organs grow prematurely old. Alcohol is,\\nit seems, a most unsuitable substance with which to pro-\\nduce warmth. 2\\n1 AHbutt s Sijstem of Medicine, Vol. Ill, p. 839.\\nMedical Pioneer, October, 1896, p. 204, quoting from Pfluger s Archives,\\nVol. XXXII, p. 399.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "192 PHYSIOLOGY\\nMen who use ardent spirits often say that they do so\\nin winter to keep their bodies Avarm. No one could\\nmake a greater mistake than to suppose that the effect of\\nalcoholic drinks is to warm the body. Many and often\\nrepeated experiments upon this question prove that when\\nthe liquor is taken in sufficient quantity to make the\\nperson feel warm he is really losing body heat through\\nthe skin, and the temperature of the body is falling. If a\\nperson is exposed to extreme cold for several hours, the\\ntemperature of the body may fall so low as to endanger\\nlife.i\\nWe learn from this that the body is not always warm\\nwhen it feels warm. In the case above mentioned the\\nperson feels warm because the skin is kept warm by the\\nblood flowing to it in unusual amounts.\\nIII. RELATION OF ALCOHOL TO LUNG DISEASES\\nA recent article in the Medical Times^ quoting from\\nthe Hospital G-azette^ states that the use of alcohol makes\\na person more liable to pneumonia.\\nDr. Delearde says that pneumonia is much more severe\\nin those addicted to the use of alcoholic drinks than in\\nothers that it runs a longer course that it is often ac-\\ncompanied by violent delirium, followed by prostration,\\n1 Professor Brunton, St. Bartholomew Hospital, London. Lectures on the\\nAction of Medicine, p. 128. A party of engineers were surveying in the\\nSierra Nevadas. They camped at a great height above the sea level, where\\nthe air was very cold and they were chilled and uncomfortable. Some of them\\ndrank a little whisky and felt less uncomfortable some of them drank a lot\\nof whisky and went to bed feeling very jolly and comfortable indeed. But in\\nthe morning the men who had not taken any whisky got up in good condition\\nthose who had taken a little whisky got up feeling very miserable the men\\nwho had taken a lot of whisky did not get up at all they were simply frozen\\nto death. They had warmed the surface of their bodies at the expense of their\\ninternal organs.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 193\\nor even unconsciousness, and that in those who recover at\\nall, there frequently occur abscesses in the liver or in other\\norgans.\\nDr. Legendre, a Paris physician, has recently published,\\nfor public distribution, a leaflet in which he says Alco-\\nhol is a frequent cause of consumption by its power of\\nweakening the lungs. Every year we see patients who\\nattend the hospital for alcoholism come back after a\\nperiod to be treated for consumption.\\nAn American medical writer points out the reason why\\nthe use of alcohol makes one liable to consumption. He\\nmentions the use of alcohol among various other things\\nwhich cause the natural vital resistance of the healthy\\nbody to be impaired. Among those other things men-\\ntioned with alcohol, which produce this impairment of\\nvital resistance, are Living in overcrowded, ill- ven-\\ntilated houses, on damp soils, or insufficient clothing and\\noutdoor exercise.\\nIV. INFLUENCE OF TOBACCO UPON THE RESPIRATORY\\nSYSTEM\\nNicotine stimulates secretion in general, as is illus-\\ntrated by its influence upon the mucous glands of the\\nmouth. This overstimulation of the mucous membrane\\nwould naturally lead to the development of catarrhal\\naffections.\\nREVIEW OF THE RESPIRATION\\n1. Every living thing, both plant and animal, needs oxygen. The\\nprocess of furnishing oxygen for the tissues of a plant or animal is\\ncalled respiration.\\n1 London Lancet.\\n2 See Journal of American Medical Association, October 23, 1897, p. 847.\\n3 Dr. J. W. Seaver, Yale University, in Journal of Inebriety.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "194 PHYSIOLOGY\\n2. The Inspiration and Expiration oi air to and from the lungs are\\ntogether called External Respiration while the exchange of oxygen\\nfor carbon dioxide in the tissues is called Internal Respiration.\\n3. The .4 Ir passages are the nasal passage, the pharynx, the larynx,\\nthe loindpipej the bronchi, the bronchioles, and the air cells.\\n4. The Air passages, below the larynx, are lined luith ciliated cells.\\nThe cilia carry the mucus and particles of dust that may enter the\\nlungs with the air up to the larynx, where it gives one a tickling sensa-\\ntion and is coughed up.\\n5. The Diaphragm is the principal muscle of respiration. The inter-\\ncostal muscles and the abdominal muscles assist.\\n6. The movements of the chest and abdomen should not be interfered\\nwith by clothing that fits too tightly.\\n7. Describe Coughing, sneezing, yawning, hiccoughing, sighing,\\ncrying, laughing, and sobbing.\\n8. How many vowels has the English language? How are these\\nvowel sounds produced and how modified? How many consonant\\nsounds in English? How are consonants classified and how are they\\nproduced?\\n9. What are the characteristics of a cultured and refined voice?\\nAll people may cultivate refinement in the voice. One is judged more\\nby the voice and the language than by anything else w^hen he first\\nmeets a stranger. First impressions are very valuable when favorable,\\nand very damaging and difl[icult to remove when unfavorable.\\n40. The air is composed chiefly of Nitrogen and Oxygen, with a\\nlittle Carbon dioxide gas and Water vapor.\\n14 In the lungs the air gives up about one fourth of its oxygen, receives\\ncarbon dioxide in almost an equal quantity, and receives water vapor,\\nand also a small amount of organic matter.\\n42. Oxygen is carried by the red blood cells, while carbon dioxide is\\ncarried mostly by the plasma.\\n43. The heat of the body is produced by the oxidation of its tissues.\\n44. The heat of the body is regulated partly by changes in the rate of\\noxidation and partly by changes in the rate of the giving up of heat\\nby the skin. In a similar way one changes the temperature of a\\nhouse by changing the rate at which the fire in the furnace burns, or\\nby opening or closing windows. Both of these methods of regulating\\nmay be changed at the same time.\\n15. One should often breathe deeply to expand and develop the", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "RESPIRATION 195\\nlungs. One should breathe pure ah either out of doors or in well-\\nventilated rooms.\\n16. Alcohol, though oxidized in the bodi/, lowers the temperature, be-\\ncause more heat is lost from the skin than is produced by the oxida-\\ntion of the alcohol. Explain this.\\n17. The use of alcohol weakens the lungs and makes one more liable to\\nlung diseases than he tcould he if he abstained from it.\\n18. The use of tobacco is likely to cause or to increase the tendency\\nto catarrh.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIII. HOW THE FOOD IS USED IN\\nTHE BODY\\nThe chapter on nutrition described foods, and told how\\nthey were digested in the alimentary canal, but did not\\ntell how the foods were used by the body after they were\\ndigested.\\nThe object of this chapter is to show first, how the\\ndigested food is absorbed from the alimentary canal and\\nsecond, how it is built up into living tissue in the body\\nand third, under what conditions it is oxidized, and what\\nis formed as a result of the oxidation. Before beginning\\nthese subjects, let us review the chapter on nutrition by\\nanswering the following questions\\n1. How many and what kinds of food are there, or how\\nmany kinds of food stuffs\\n2. What is the name of the digestive fluid secreted into\\nthe mouth?\\n3. On what class of foods does this fluid act, and what\\nchanges does it produce\\n4. What digestive fluid is secreted into the stomach\\n5. On what kind of food does it act\\n6. What change does it produce upon this food\\n7. What digestive fluids are secreted into the small\\nintestine\\n8. What kinds of food are digested in the small intes-\\ntine\\n9. What name is given to the partly digested food that\\npasses through the stomach into the small intestine\\n196", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "HOW THE FOOD IS USED IN THE BODY 197\\n10. To what form are all the starches and sugars finally\\nreduced by the digestive process\\n11. To what form are all proteid foods reduced by the\\ndigestive process\\n12. To what forms are the fats reduced by the digestive\\nprocess\\n1. HOW THE DIGESTED FOOD IS ABSORBED FROM\\nTHE ALIMENTARY CANAL\\nAfter the digestive process has changed the starches\\nand sugars to dextrose, the proteids to peptones, and the\\nfats to soap and emulsion, the food is still no part of the\\nbody. It is inside of the body, but in a closed tube, and\\nuntil it gets through the walls of the tube it is not part\\nof the body.\\nThe interior lining of the intestines is thrown up in folds\\nwhich, when magnified, look like fingers projecting into\\nthe intestines (Fig. 44). These are the villi which absorb\\nthe food into the system. If we magnify the villus very\\nmuch, we see the whole surface is covered with absorb-\\ning cells. They are not open, but the chyme, or digested\\nfood, passes through the thin cell walls. If we cut a thin\\nslice across the villus (Fig. 45), we see the absorbing cells\\nleading toward the interior, where there are many blood\\nvessels, and beyond which, in the very center of the\\nvillus, is a tube called a lacteal, which you know is an\\nintestinal lymphatic.\\nSome of the nourishment absorbed bj^ the cell is taken\\nup by the blood vessels, and some goes into the lacteal\\nwdiich carries it to a large duct, called the thoracic duct,\\nwhich goes up the left side of the center of the body to\\nthe neck, where it empties into the jugular vein (Fig. 38,", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "198\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\np. 150). The lacteals take up the fats and part of the\\npeptones.\\nThe rest of the nourishment, the sugars and a part of\\nthe peptones, is taken up by the blood vessels which unite\\nto form the portal vein,\\nand is carried by the\\nblood to the liver.\\nWhen the foods are\\npassing through the\\nabsorbing cells of the\\nvillus, a change is\\nmade in some of them\\nby the absorbing cells.\\nThe peptone absorbed\\nfrom the alimentary\\ncanal is sent into the\\nblood vessels, not as\\npeptone, but as blood\\nalbumen, in which form\\nit accumulates until it\\nis taken up from the\\ncapillaries by the liv-\\ning tissues. The fats\\nare taken up from the\\nalimentary canal by\\nthe absorbing cells,\\nand turned into the\\nlacteals in minute glob-\\nules. These globules\\nfloating in the lymph\\nplasma give it the milky appearance. The sugar absorbed\\nis turned into the blood vessels unchanged, and so passes\\nto the liver as sugar.\\nFig. 44. Showing the villi or fingerlike pro-\\njections of the mucous membrane of the\\nsmall intestine. In the third one from the\\nright and second from left notice the central\\nlacteal {i). The intestinal glands are shown\\nat (A). The heavy black lines are blood\\nvessels. [PiersoL]", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "HOW THE FOOD IS USED IN THE BODY\\n199\\n2. HOW DIGESTED FOOD IS BUILT UP INTO LIVING\\nTISSUE IN THE BODY\\nIn the previous lesson we traced the absorbed food\\nstuffs directly into the blood of the portal vein or indi-\\nrectly into the veins by way of the lacteals and the\\nthoracic duct, so that the absorbed food at once becomes\\nFig. 45. Showing a cross slice of a villus. Note the central lacteal {c.L),\\nthe blood capillaries (c), the absorbing cells all around the villus, the\\nmucus-forming cells at (g). [Schaefer.]\\na part of the circulating fluids of the body but it does\\nnot become living tissue until it is absorbed into the liv-\\ning cells of the tissue.\\nLet us first trace the dextrose. Sooner or later all the\\ndextrose absorbed circulates through the liver. Figure\\n46 shows the general shape of the liver as it looks from\\nbeloAV. You will notice that the portal vein divided, send-\\ning a branch to each lobe of the liver. Notice the liver\\nartery which brings oxygenated blood from the lungs, so\\nthat there are two streams of blood passing to the liver,\\none from the intestines, and one from the lungs, while\\nhall s phys. 13", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "200 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthere is one stream of blood going away from the liver by\\nAvay of the vena cava.\\nThe gall bladder serves as a reservoir to collect a por-\\ntion of tlie bile which is from time to time sent out through\\nthe bile duct into the intestines. Now if a very thin\\nslice were made through the liver, and this slice examined\\nunder a high power microscope, one would find it divided\\nFig. 46. Under surface of the liver. [Tracy.]\\ninto little five-sided or six-sided areas called lobules\\n(Fig. 47).\\nThe blood of the portal vein passes through a network\\nof veins marked p in the figure, forming a network of\\nvenules between the lobules. From this network of\\nvenules, innumerable fine capillaries pass toward the\\ncenter of each lobule, gathering there into a venous trunk,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "HOW THE FOOD IS USED IN THE BODY\\n201\\nwhich passes out of the lobule and joins others on the\\nway to the vena cava.\\nWhile the blood is passing through the capillaries, an\\nopportunity is given for the active gland cells of the\\nliver (which are shown in two places in the lobules only,\\nthough really they fill all the space) to absorb the dextrose\\nfrom the blood. What these cells do with the dextrose\\nFig. 47. Diagram of two liver lobules. Note the branches of the portal vein\\n(marked p) from which a system of capillaries pass in to the middle of the\\nlobules. In the lobule at the right is shown how the blood gets oat of\\nthe lobule and joins a branch of the liver vein on its way to the vena cava.\\nNote the liver cells between the capillaries. The liver cells do the work of\\nthe liver. [Landois.]\\nis one of the most wonderful processes they change it hack\\nto starchy so that food that was taken in the form of starch\\nis changed to sugar, and then back to starch in the body.\\nThis liver starch is called animal starch.\\nThe liver acts as a storehouse for this kind of food, so\\nthat after a meal where considerable starch or sugar has\\nbeen eaten, the liver will be filled with starch, which is\\nthus stored away to be given out a little at a time until", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "202 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe next meal. When this food is needed by the system,\\nwhich will probably occur within two hours after it is\\nstored in the liver, the liver changes the starch back to\\nsugar, and the liver cells throw this sugar out into the\\ncapillaries again, and from the capillaries it passes into\\nthe liver vein, and from the liver vein into the vena cava,\\nwhich carries it to the right side of the heart, whence it\\ngoes to the lungs, and is sent to the left ventricle. The\\nleft ventricle sends it through the arterial system to the\\ntissues, where, as a part of the plasma, it oozes through the\\ncapillaries and around the cells of the tissues.\\nNow these cells use more sugar than anything else.\\nAll the living cells of our body use sugar so the sugar is\\nabsorbed from the plasma and taken into the living cells,\\nwhere it becomes a part of their protoplasm, that is, it is\\nassimilated, but here it is soon oxidized to generate the\\nenergy which the cells must use in their work.\\nThe fat which was thrown into the venous system in\\nthe form of minute globules, floats along in the veins into\\nthe heart, through the lungs, and then by the way of the\\nventricle into the arteries and capillaries, where it comes\\nin contact with the living cells of the various tissues.\\nIt is taken up from the plasma by these cells and either\\nbuilt into living protoplasm or oxidized within the proto-\\nplasm to yield energy, or it may be deposited within the\\nprotoplasm in the form of fat globules.\\nIf one eats more starch and fats than are required for\\nthe energy of heat and motion, this material is usually\\ndeposited in the savings bank of the system, because the\\nsystem is very economical, never wasting any food that it\\nhas taken the trouble to digest. The savings bank of the\\nsystem is located in the connective tissue, and the sav-\\nings are deposited in the form of fat. If there is much", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "HOW THE FOOD IS USED IN THE BODY 203\\nsaved, the individual may become quite fleshy, as we\\nsay.\\nThe proteid matter absorbed as peptone and changed to\\nblood proteid, continues to accumulate in the blood until\\nit is absorbed by the living cells and either built up into\\nliving protoplasm or oxidized within the cell protoplasm\\nto yield energy.\\nRemember (1) Food taken into the alimentary canal\\nmust usually be digested before it is absorbed. Such sub-\\nstances as water, salt, and certain kinds of sugar do not\\nneed digestion, but are absorbed in the form in which\\nthey are eaten. (2) Absorption is the taking up of sub-\\nstances by the body for example, oil may be absorbed\\nby the skin, oxygen by the lungs, and sugar, fats, water,\\npeptones, salts, etc., by the lining of the intestine. (3) As-\\nsimilation is building up of absorbed food into the living\\ntissue of the body. (4) Foods do not yield their energy\\nto the body until they are oxidized. Oxidation is the\\nreverse of assimilation. Assimilation is a building-up\\nprocess, while oxidation is a puUing-down process. As-\\nsimilation requires energy to bring it about, while oxida-\\ntion yields energy. Motion, heat, and light are kinds of\\nenergy.\\n3. THE GENERATION OF LIFE ENERGY\\nThe first lesson in nutrition tells why we eat. You\\nremember that we eat food for the energy that it contains,\\nand the whole processes of digestion, and circulation, and\\nrespiration all lead up to the generation of this energy, to\\nobtain which the food was taken. We traced the food,\\nwhich is the fuel of the body, into the living cells we\\nhave traced the oxygen into the living cells. The next", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "204 PHYSIOLOGY\\nstep is the oxidation of this body fuel and the generation\\nof life energy.\\nMuscle tissues are by far the larger part of the active\\ntissues, so that we are prepared to expect that most of the\\nenergy liberated by the body will be muscular energy.\\nOne usually thinks of muscular energy as energy of\\nmotion, because we use our muscles in our movements;\\nbut the energy of motion is not more important than the\\nheat energy which the muscles generate. The muscles\\ngenerate motion during only a small part of the time, but\\nthey generate the energy of heat continually, never stop-\\nping from the day of birth to the day of death, nor any\\nsingle hour between these days.\\nThe glands of the body work only a part of the time,\\nand some of the work which the glands do generates heat,\\nwhile other parts of their work require energy from other\\nsources.\\nThe nervous system generates a kind of energy peculiar\\nto itself, which seems to be similar in many respects to\\nelectricity. There is some heat, also, generated in the\\nnervous system.\\nWhere fuel is being oxidized, or burned, we usually find\\nsmoke, ashes, and gases. The smoke is composed of\\nunburned carbon and water the ashes represent the\\nmineral matter of the fuel while the gases are repre-\\nsented, for the most part, by carbon dioxide. The\\noxidation in the body is similar to the oxidation in a\\nlocomotive in many respects, and there are waste matters\\nresulting from body oxidation, as there are waste matters\\nresulting from fuel oxidation. Water is formed; carbon\\ndioxide is formed and there are certain substances which\\nmay represent the ashes, substances which contain nitro-\\ngen. These substances are as poisonous to the flame of", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "HOW THE FOOD IS USED IN THE BODY 205\\nlife, if they are allowed to collect in the body, as the\\ncarbon dioxide which collects in the drinking glass is\\npoisonous to the candle flame.\\nIf the unoxidized nitrogenous substances are not thrown\\nout of the system, they will clog it up and destroy its\\nproper action, just as surely as the cinders and ashes of\\nthe locomotive would put out the fire if they were not\\nraked out.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX. HOW THE WASTE MATERIALS\\nARE THROWN OUT OF THE BODY\\nIx the previous lesson we learned that active cells\\nare constantly forming products of oxidation which are\\npoisonous to the system, and which, if not thrown out,\\nwould very soon destroy the life. These products can\\nbe grouped into three classes (1) carbon dioxide (2)\\nwater; (8) nitrogenous substances and mineral salts.\\nThe carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs b}^ the blood,\\nand thrown out of the system in the way described under\\nRespiration. The water that is formed in the system, to-\\ngether with large portions of that which is taken in as drink,\\nis given off from the system in two different Avays, besides\\nthat which leaves by way of the lungs and intestines.\\nFirst, it is given off by the skin in the form of perspira-\\ntion. There are innumerable fine pores, those lining the\\npalm of the hand being large enough to be seen with a\\ncommon magnifying glass. These pores, which cover the\\nwhole surface of the body, are the openings of minute\\nglands which lie in the skin, and whose work it is to form\\nthe sweat or perspiration. These glands are called the\\nsweat glands.\\nWhen we were studying about animal heat, we found\\nthat the temperature of the body was controlled in part\\nby the rate at which water was poured out on the skin in\\nthe form of perspiration. The work which these sweat\\nglands do in helping to regulate temperature is very\\nmuch more important than the work which they do in\\n206", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "HOW THE WASTE MATERIALS ARE THROWN OUT 207\\nthrowing out the water of the system, because the water\\ncan go out of the lungs, intestines, and kidneys, but there\\nis no tissue or organ that can, in man, take the place of\\nthe skin in the regulation of the temperature.\\nLet us, then, remember that of two kinds of work which\\nthe skin does, the heat-regulation part is very much more\\nimportant than the work which it does in ridding the\\nsystem of a part of the water.\\nBut the most important organs for throwing out waste\\nmaterials are the kidneys.\\n1, EXCRETION BY THE KIDNEYS\\nThe process of throwing out waste material from the\\nbody is called excretion. We have seen, from what has\\njust been said, that the lungs, and skin, and intestines are\\nall organs of excretion, or excretory organs. The kidneys\\ndiffer from other excretory organs in the fact that they\\nhave no other function, but devote their whole time and\\nenergy to the work of separating out from the blood\\nwaste substances which, if retained in the body, would\\nsoon cause convulsions and death.\\nThe kidneys are two in number, and about long enough\\nto reach across the palm of the hand. They are located\\nin the back part of the abdominal cavity, back of the thin\\nmembrane which lines the cavity, and which holds them\\nin place. They are located about opposite the small of\\nthe back, one on either side of the spinal column. Each\\nreceives a large branch from the abdominal aorta, and\\neach gives off a large branch w^hich passes to the inferior\\nvena cava (Fig. 48). From each kidney a tube passes\\ndown to the bladder, which is located in the lower part of\\nthe abdominal cavity, in front.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "208\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nThe kidney is a glandular organ, and the arterial blood,\\nafter passing into the kidney, is distributed in fine arteri-\\noles to an innumerable num-\\nber of little capillary tufts,\\nwhere the excess of water\\nof the blood is filtered out,\\nand passes along a little\\nglandular tube, which is\\nsurrounded by a network of\\ncapillaries. The cells of\\nthis glandular tube take\\nout from the blood in the\\ncapillaries all of the nitro-\\ngenous waste matter and\\npour it into the canal of\\nthe tube, where it is washed\\nalong b}^ the water into a\\ncommon receptacle in that\\npart of the kidneys where\\nthe blood vessels enter, and\\nfrom this common receptacle\\nFig. 48. The kidneys and bladder as i t i\\nthey would look if viewed from it llows down the little\\nbehind, a, kidneys; 6, abdominal drainage tube to the blad-\\naorta; c, vena cava; d, ureters, t\\ntubes to carry urine to the bladder der, where it collects, and\\ne, bladder. from which it is from time\\nto time given off.\\n2. THE HYGIENE OF THE LIVER AND KIDNEYS\\nI. HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE LIVER\\nIt is not easy for a person to tell the condition of his\\nliver. One of the functions of the liver is to form bile.\\nWhen the liver is in a condition to form bile pro23erly, it", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "HOW THE WASTE MATERIALS ARE THROWN OUT 209\\nis usually in a condition to do the rest of its work.\\nWhen the bile is improperly formed, or formed in too\\nsmall quantities, a person becomes constipated, and that\\nwhich passes the bowels is too light in color. To guard\\nagainst this condition, which is a very serious one, and\\nwhich always leads to the derangement of other functions\\nof the body, one should avoid overeating and should\\ntake plenty of exercise in the open air. If, through care-\\nlessness, the system gets in the condition above mentioned,\\none should consult a physician for more extended advice\\nthan can be given in this brief book.\\nII. HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE KIDXEYS\\nThe urine should be a light yellow color, and perfectly\\nclear, and no sediment should collect if it stands in a\\nreceptacle for twenty-four hours. The kidneys are in-\\njured by overwork; and, as the principal work of the\\nkidneys is to excrete nitrogenous waste matter, it is easy to\\nsee that the eating of too much nitrogenous food, or pro-\\nteid food, will result in the kidneys being overworked.\\nThe best rule to follow, if one wishes to keep these\\norgans in healthy condition, is to eat sparingly of meat,\\nand drink plenty of water. Most people drink too little\\nwater few people drink too much water.\\nIf the. urine becomes unusually dark in color, or if there\\nshould be a reddish sediment when it stands in a recep-\\ntacle, one should drink all the water he can for a few\\ndays. Lemonade is wholesome for these organs which\\neliminate the waste materials from the body. The lemon-\\nade should be taken with little sugar, and not too strong,\\nand may be taken in large quantities, especially in\\nsummer.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "210 PHYSIOLOGY\\nIII. THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE LIVER AKD\\nKIDNEYS\\nDr. Wilkins says that the coloring matter of the bile\\ncannot be properly oxidized in the presence of alcohol,\\nand that the work of the liver must be deranged while\\nalcohol is passing into the system through that organ.\\nDr. McMichael says, Alcohol produces disease of\\nthe liver and of the kidneys because these glands are most\\nconcerned in the throwing out of any poison, and are\\nalways, until they are deranged in structure, engaged in\\nremoving it from the body. He says that the disease\\nalmost universally caused in the liver by alcohol, is one\\nin which the connective tissue framework of the liver in-\\ncreases, taking the place of the liver cells, until the liver\\nis no longer able to perform its function.\\nThe kidneys may undergo a change similar to that of\\nthe liver when alcohol is used, even in moderate amounts,\\nfor a long period.\\nSuch profound changes in organs whose work is so\\nimportant to the system, are naturally accompanied by\\nderangements of the general health, and at last are fre-\\nquent causes of death.\\n1 New York Medical Journal, September 22, 1894.\\n2 Dietetic and Hygienic Gazette^ May, 1897, p. 279.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X. THE SKIN HOW IT IS MADE,\\nAND WHAT IT DOES HOW TO TAKE CARE\\nOF IT\\nThe skin has been mentioned several times in the pre-\\nceding lessons. We have found that it is a most impor-\\ntant organ for the regulation of the temperature, and that\\nit takes a part in the throwing out of waste materials\\nfrom the body but its most important work has not yet\\nbeen mentioned. You remember that the little plant,\\ndescribed in the first lessons of this book, was provided\\nwith a thin, transparent skin you remember that the\\nbark of a tree was called its skin, and you know that\\nthe bark of a tree protects from injury the sensitive\\ntissues which lie beneath it.\\nIn a similar way, the skin of animals is an organ of pro-\\ntection and although this organ may perform, or assist in\\nperforming, several other functions, this one is the most\\nimportant of all. The skin is made in such a way as to\\nadapt it especially for its principal function, protection.\\n1. HOW thp: skin is made\\nThe skin is composed of two layers one of these is\\ncomposed of living tissues, and the other of nonliving tis-\\nsues. Figure 49 shows the living layer of skin at Dm,\\nThis layer, which is called the dermis, or true skin, is\\ncomposed of a network of fibers of connective tissue,\\nwithin which lie the hlood vessels and lymphatics^ which\\n211", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "212\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nbring the nourishment to the tissues the nerves^ which\\nmake the skin sensitive to touch and to changes of temper-\\nature the oil glands^ which pour their oil out on the sur-\\n\\\\Dm\\nFig. 49. Vertical section of the skin, magnified: a, scarf skin h, pigment\\ncells; c, papillae; Dm, true skin; e,f, fat cells; g, sweat glands; A, outlets\\nof sweat glands i, their openings on the surface of the skin k, hair follicle\\nhairs projecting from the skin m, hair papilla n, hair bulb o, root of\\nhair p, openings of oil glands Ep, epidermis Sh, subcutaneous connective\\ntissue.\\nface of the skin the hair follicles and the ducts of the siveat\\nglands.\\nThis living part of the skin is very elastic, adapting\\nitself perfectly to the curves of the body and the bending\\nof the joints. Notice in the figure that the hairs have\\ntheir roots in this true skin. Each hair grows from a\\npapilla (Fig. 49, r/z); this papilla is provided with a nerve", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN 213\\nfiber and a tuft of capillaries. From the surface of this\\npapilla the hair grows, thus pushing the hair out of the\\nfollicle, so that the hair becomes longer and longer as it\\ngrows at the papilla.\\nThe oil glands are located on either side of the hair\\nfollicle, and pour their secretion into the follicles beside\\nthe hair. This passes along through the epidermis, and\\npours out upon its surface around the hair. Notice that\\nthe surface of the true skin is rough, the prominences\\nreminding one of a mountain range. These prominences\\nare called papillae. Within every papilla there are either\\nnerve endings or tufts of capillaries. The nerve endings\\nmake the surface of the skin sensitive, and the capillaries,\\nbesides bringing nourishment, bring the blood very near\\nto the surface, where it may be cooled or where it may\\nwarm the surface.\\nThe papillae of the true skin are not exposed to the\\nair, but are covered with a deep protective layer^ called\\nthe cuticle, or the epidermis. The cuticle is formed by\\nthe true skin the cells of the cuticle which lie next to the\\ntrue skin are living cells. They draw their nourishment\\nfrom the true skin, and keep dividing and forming new\\ncells. These new cells are pushed out from the true\\nskin until they get so far from the blood and lymph of\\nthe true skin that they can no longer get nourishment,\\nand so they die. The dark line between a and b in the\\nfigure shows where this change takes place.\\nThat portion of the cuticle that is darker in the figure\\nrepresents the dead scarfskin. Now as these cells are\\nconstantly forming on the surface of the true skin, the\\nscarfskin would become enormously thick if its surface\\nlayers were not rubbed off by friction, such as that of the\\nclothing. The cuticle is the protective tissue of the", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "214 PHYSIOLOGY\\nwhole body the dead cells of its surface are not sen-\\nsitive. Pressure upon its surface is felt because it\\npresses through the epidermis upon the sensitive papillae\\nbeneath.\\nThe cuticle alone is not sufficient protection for the\\nbody, so most surfaces of the bodies of the mammals are\\nprovided with hair. Notice the back of your arm, and\\nyou will see great numbers of fine hairs growing these\\nhairs protect the surface of the skin. They are especially\\nthick upon the head, and when man lived in a savage\\nstate the matted hair was usually the only protection for\\nthe head.\\nThe tips of the fingers and toes are protected with nails.\\nThe papilla through which the hair grows corresponds to\\na papilla at the surface of the true skin, and a hair which\\ngrows from the surface of the hair papilla corresponds to\\nthe cuticle growing from the surface of the papilla of the\\ntrue skin, so that we can see that the hair is modified\\ncuticle. In a similar way the nails represent modified\\ncuticle, and grow from the surface of the modified papillae.\\nThe teeth grow from modified papillae, and also represent\\nmodified cuticle. The same thing is true of the feathers\\nof birds, the scales of fishes and reptiles, and the hoofs,\\nhorns, and claws of the lower mammals. If you think of\\nthe use to which these animals put these structures, you\\nwill see that they are all used for protection except the\\nteeth, which, although used somewhat for defense, may\\nalso be used for other purposes.\\nThe work of the skin is first of all protection. In most\\nmammals the protection against extreme changes of tem-\\nperature is provided for by a thick coat of hair or fur.\\nIn birds the coat of feathers performs a similar service.\\nAt first it may seem that the horse s coat could not be", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN\\n215\\nquickly changed from a thin one to a thick one, but that\\nhe must wait for the spring shedding of his thick winter\\ncoat in order to have a summer coat, which is thickened\\nup by a new growth of hair in the fall for winter; but the\\nhorse may change the thickness of his coat in a few min-\\nutes. If you will look at the hairs on the back of your\\narm you will see that they do not come straight out of the\\nskin, but they come out obliquelj^ and all that are near\\ntogether lie in the same direction. Each hair has a little\\nmuscle attached to the end of its follicle, as shown in\\nFig. 50. Diagram showing at A the hairs lying down and the muscles at\\nrest. At B the muscles have contracted, pulling the hairs up straight, thus\\nmaking the coat much thicker and warmer.\\nFigure 50. When the skin is warm, the hair lies down as\\nshown in position A, that makes the whole coat of hair\\ncompact. When the cold strikes the skin, the muscle of\\neach hair contracts and draws it up so that it stands per-\\npendicular to the skin. This makes the coat of hair very\\nmuch thicker than it was before and keeps the animal\\ncorrespondingly warmer. In man the hair which covers\\nthe general surface of the body is so thin and short that it\\ncannot keep the body warm, but the muscles contract just\\nthe same and pull the hairs up, pushing up a little point\\nHALL S PHYS.\\n-14", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "216 PHYSIOLOGY\\nof skin about each hair. This appearance of the skin is\\ncalled goose flesh.\\nThe cuticle protects the delicate dermis from friction\\nand pressure. If the friction and pressure are severe, the\\ncuticle becomes thicker and more dense than it is over\\nthe general surface of the bodj^ Look at the palms of\\nyour hands and see if you have not little calluses. The\\ncuticle on the bottom of the foot is much thicker than\\non the top of the foot. If the shoe does not fit perfectly,\\na thickened callus may form where it presses or rubs the\\nfoot. If this thickened callus becomes hard it may make\\nthe dermis beneath sensitive and sore. We call this\\ncondition a corn.\\nNext to the function of 2^^*otectio7i^ the most important\\nwork of the skin is the regulation of temperature mentioned\\nabove, and next is the part which the nerves of the skin,\\ntogether with modified portions of the skin, play in warn-\\ning the system of danger or of changes. This function\\nof the nerves of the skin is called sensation. Another\\nbut comparatively unimportant function of the skin is\\nexcretion,\\n2. THE HYGIENE OF THE SKIX\\nI. CLEANLINESS\\nThe oil which is poured out upon the surface of the skin\\nis perfectly clean, but it very readily collects dust and\\nother impurities of the air. The scarfskin is continually\\nbeing shed in minute scales composed of a few thin cells.\\nIf these were not removed from the surface they would\\nsoon collect in sufficient quantities to be visible as minute\\nscales. The most important source of uncleanness of the\\nskin is the perspiration which is constantly being poured\\nout upon the surface of the skin.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN 217\\nFigure 49 shows the little coiled sweat gland in the loose\\ntissue below the true skin. This sweat gland takes up\\nwater and various other substances from the blood, and\\npours them out upon the surface of the skin.\\nSometimes we are not conscious of the perspiration\\nbecause it does not make the surface wet, that is, because\\nit escapes in the form of vapor from the pores that kind\\nis called insensible perspiration^ but when it comes in large\\nenough quantities to be condensed, and make the skin\\nmoist, then we call it sensible perspiration. The water of\\nthe perspiration evaporates to cool the body, but the salt\\nand other solids remain upon the surface of the skin.\\nThis, mixed with the oil, the little scales of scarfskin, and\\nthe dust collected from the atmosphere, will in a very\\nshort time make the surface of the body unclean.\\nA general bath^ in which use is made of soft water and\\nsoap, followed by thorough rubbing with a coarse towel,\\nis a most efficient method for insuring the cleanliness of\\nthe skin. For persons in the ordinary occupations a\\ngeneral bath such as that described is not necessary oftener\\nthan once or twice a week if soap is used oftener, it is\\nlikely to make the skin dry and rough if a warm bath is\\ntaken oftener, it is likely to relax the skin and make the\\nperson take cold easily. A general rule for the use of\\nsoap and water for cleansing the body is use it just as\\nfreely and just as frequently as is necessary to keep the\\nbody clean the hands may need it several times a day\\nother portions of the body may not need it oftener than\\nonce a week.\\nII. THE MOKNING BATH\\nThe warm water cleansing bath, because of its relaxing\\neffect, may best be taken in the evening, especially during", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "218 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe cooler seasons of the year, but the cold water tonic bath\\nmay best be taken in the morning. A tonic bath may be\\ntaken either as a plunge bath, as a shower bath, or as a\\nsponge bath. In any case the surface of the body should\\nbe wet only for a few moments in water of varying tempera-\\nture from tepid to cold, and the wetting should be fol-\\nlowed by a vigorous rubbing with a coarse towel, and the\\nrubbing continued until the whole surface of the body is\\nred and glowing. Instead of making one take cold more\\neasily, this treatment fortifies one against the feeling of\\ncold or taking cold. It takes a very strong constitution\\nto stand a cold plunge bath even a cold shower, lasting\\nbut a moment, is not advisable for a weak constitution\\nunless the glow comes quickly. The safest tonic bath\\nfor a person not in vigorous health is a cold sponge bath\\non one portion of the body at a time each portion in turn\\nbeing exposed, sponged, and rubbed until aglow.\\nIII. CLOTHING\\nLife in the changeable climate of the temperate zone\\nmakes it necessary for man to have some other protection\\nthan that which Nature provides him. Besides this prime\\nnecessity^ there is the inclination on the part of all civilized\\nhuman beings to wear clothing. Primitive man dressed\\nin the skins of animals in the colder climates the over-\\ncoat made from the pelts of animals is the best protection\\nagainst the low temperature.\\nClothing is made mostly from wool, cotton, silk, linen,\\nleather, and fur. A fundamental rule for the clothing\\nof the body is, clothe the body so as to make it comfort-\\nable. To be comfortable the clothing must fit the body\\nclosely enough to conform readily to all of its move-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN 219\\nments. Among these body movements must be mentioned\\nfirst, the resi^iratory movements no person should wear\\nclothing so close about the waist as to hinder in any way\\nthe freest movements of respiration. The movements of\\nthe arms should be perfectly free and unhampered by the\\nclothing.\\nThe shoes should not be so tight that one cannot move\\nhis toes if this rule is not observed the toes will become\\ndistorted and covered with corns. Because of the per-\\nspiration which is constantly going on and the shedding\\nof the scarfskin, garments that are worn next to the skin\\nin the daytime should be removed at night.\\nIV. THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL UPON THE SKIN\\nAs already stated in a previous lesson, alcohol dilates\\nthe arterioles and capillaries of the skin. If alcohol be\\nused in comparatively small amounts for a long period of\\ntime, the capillaries of the skin become permanently di-\\nlated, thus giving the skin, especially of the face, a very\\nred appearance, and the little dilated capillaries may be\\nseen running their crooked course just beneath the surface\\nof the skin. When the skin becomes thus changed, it\\ncannot properly perform its portion of the work of\\nexcretion, and so the kidneys have to do a portion of\\nthe work which the skin ought to do, and thus they\\nbecome overworked.\\n3. THE SKIN AS AN ORGAN OF GENERAL\\nSENSATION\\nThe nerves of the skin have been mentioned. Most\\nof the nerve endings are sensory nerves, whose work it is\\nto bring to the brain messages announcing the condition", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "220 PHYSIOLOGY\\nof the skin or the condition about the skin. Figure 51\\nshows a thin slice of the true skin, with four papillae on\\nits surface two of these paj)ill?e have capillary loops, and\\nare therefore called vascular papilloe^ while two of them\\nhave curious little bulb-shaped nerve endings, which are\\norgans of the feeling, or tactile corpuscles, and so the\\npapillae which have these corpuscles are called tactile\\npapillcB.\\nThere are other kinds of nerve endings in the skin.\\nSome nerves end in fine fibrils, which pass up into the\\nlower layer of the cuticle, but all these nerves bring\\nsensation to the brain, and are therefore called sensory\\nnerves. All parts of the skin are sensitive to touch and\\nto changes of temperature, though some parts of it are\\nmore sensitive than others. The finger tips and the lips\\nand tongue are more sensitive to touch than any other\\nparts of the skin. The reason why these portions of the\\nbody are more sensitive to touch is because they have\\nbeen most used, and, therefore, most developed. Because\\nthe senses of touch and of temperature are possessed by\\nall parts of the skin, these senses are called general senses.\\nA special sense is one which possesses a special organ.\\nTaste, smell, hearing, and sight, possessing special\\norgans in the tongue, nose, ears, and eyes, are called\\nspecial senses while touch, temperature sense, and the\\nsense of position of the body, are general senses. There\\nare^ therefore^ four special senses and three general senses.\\nT. THE TACTILE SENSE\\nHow lightly can you touch the tip of one of the hairs\\non the back of your hand or arm without feeling it\\nHow small a piece of match stick can you drop upon", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN\\n221\\nFig. 51. a, nerve fiber; b, tactile papillae,\\ncontaining a tactile corpuscle c, vascular\\npapillae. [After Beuda.]\\nthe back of the hand, from the distance of two inches\\nabove the back of the hand and feel it? If you have a\\npair of draughtsman s\\ncompasses, or dividers, c\\nor a pair of sharp-\\npointed scissors, see\\nhow close together you\\ncan hold the points and\\nfeel them as tAVO points\\nwhen they touch the\\nskin. At the finger\\ntips, one can feel them\\nas two points at a dis-\\ntance of less than an\\neighth of an inch.\\nHow far apart must they be to feel them as two points on\\nthe back of the hand, on the palm of the hand, on the lips,\\non the cheek, on the throat, on the back of the neck, on\\nthe forehead When blindfolded, hoAV much can you tell,\\nby feeling alone, about an object which may be handed\\nto you\\nII. THE TEMPERATURE SENSE\\nTake a lead pencil which has been cooled in water or in\\ncold air, and move the lead lightly over the back of the\\nhand. Sometimes it will feel cold, and sometimes you have\\nno temperature feeling at all. You will merely feel the\\nlead moving over the hand. If you were to warm the\\nlead by dipping the pencil into warm water, and move it\\nsimilarly over the back of tlie hand, you Avould find that\\nsometimes it would feel warm, and that sometimes you\\nwould have no sensation of temperature from this warm\\nlead. From this we learn that the skin is divided into", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "222 PHYSIOLOGY\\nlittle areas, some of which are sensitive to cold, and some\\nof which are sensitive to heat, while there are still other\\nareas sensitive to neither cold nor heat. By cold and\\nheat as used here, we mean, of course, substances colder\\nthan the skin or warmer than the skin because any-\\nthing that is colder than the skin will feel cold, while\\nanything warmer than the skin will feel warm. A thing\\nwhich may feel cool sometimes may feel warm at other\\ntimes, though at the same temperature. For example, if\\none has three dishes of water standing upon a table, the\\none at the right hand having cold water, the one at the\\nleft, warm water, and the one between the two, tepid\\nwater if he holds the right hand in the cold water,\\nand the left hand in the warm water, for one or two\\nminutes, and then takes the hands out and places them\\nboth in the tepid water, it will feel cold to the left hand\\nand warm to the right hand.\\nThe temperature sense warns the animal of the changes\\nof temperature in the air or water surrounding it, so that\\nhe may adapt himself to the change. A part of the adap-\\ntation which the animal makes is an unconscious one,\\nmade through the sympathetic nervous system, and con-\\nsists of the withdrawal of the blood from the surface\\nwhen cold air first strikes the body, and a raising of the\\nhair on end, as described above.\\nIII. THE SENSE OF POSITION\\nIf one were blindfolded and laid upon a table, he could\\neasily tell if the table were lifted or tipped a little in one\\ndirection or another he could easily tell the direction,\\nand he might even tell the amount, unless the movements\\nwere very, very slow. One can walk with the eyes shut,\\nor blindfolded, and maintain the erect position when rid-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "THE SKIN 223\\ning a bicycle. Though we do all these with the greatest\\nease, it is really a most difficult thing to do, if one were to\\nstop to think about it, and something that takes a little\\nchild nearly as long to learn as to learn to read.\\nSensations are carried to the brain from the various\\nparts of the skin. If one is standing or walking, pressure\\non the soles of the feet will tell in which direction the\\nbody is swinging. On whatever part of the body one\\nrests, the skin from that part sends messages to the brain,\\nwhich enables one to tell the position of the body, or\\nchanges in the position. The most important organ for\\nsending messages to the brain regarding the position of\\nthe body is located within the internal ear. Through the\\naid of this organ, the brain knows of all movements of the\\nhead, whether from side to side, or forward and back, as\\nwell as all movements of the whole body through space,\\nor the turning of the body.\\nREVIEW OF THE SKIN AXD THE GENERAL SENSES\\n1. The skin is composed of the dead cuticle and the living dermis.\\nThe dermis contains blood vessels, nerves, oil glands, hair follicles, and its\\nsurface is covered with mnumerable fine projections cslled papillce.\\n2. The cuticle not having life is also without feeling. Its work is\\nto protect the sensitive tissues which lie beneath it. The oil from the\\noil glands keeps the skin soft and protects it against the absorption of\\nwater. The hair, or the feathers, scales, oy plates, are modified cuticle\\nand serve for protection. Nails, horns, and hoofs are also modified\\ncuticle and serve for protection.\\n3. The skin helps to regulate the temperature of the body by the\\nperspiration.\\n4. Because of the secretion of oil and of perspiration by the skin,\\nthis organ becomes soiled and must be cleansed with w^arm water\\nand soap.\\n5. A tonic morning bath with cool or even cold w^ater followed by", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "224 PHYSIOLOGY\\nbrisk rubbing until the surface of the body is red and warm, is an\\nexcellent hygienic custom.\\n6. Clothe the body in such a manner as to make it comfortable.\\n7. If alcohol is used in moderate quantities for a long period of\\ntime, the capillaries become permanently dilated, thus giving the skin\\na permanent red color.\\n8. There are three general senses and four special senses. The\\ngeneral senses are Touch, or the tactile sense, the temperature sense,\\nand the sense of position of the body,\\n9. How may one test the tactile sense Where is this sense most\\nacute? Is it more acute in some persons than in others?\\n10. How may one test the temperature sense Why are animals\\nprovided with this sense? How does the horse adapt himself to a\\nsudden change m the temperature from warm to cold? How does\\nman adapt himself under similar conditions\\n11. How is the brain made conscious of the position of the body\\nwhen one is standing, sitting, or lying Of what use is this sense", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL \u00e2\u0080\u0094THE SPECIAL SENSES HOW\\nONE KNOWS WHAT IS GOING ON ABOUT\\nHIM\\nThe preceding lesson described the general senses, which\\nare so called because they do not possess a special organ.\\nThe special senses, on the other hand, are so called because\\nthe sensation is received by a special organ, which has no\\nother function, and which is specially fitted for that par-\\nticular function.\\n1. TASTE AND SMELL\\nI. THE SENSE OF TASTE\\nThe special organ of taste is the taste bud, of which there\\nare many hundreds, perhaps thousands, located on the sur-\\nface of the tongue, and perhaps sparingly on the palate\\nand sides of the pharynx. If you examine the surface of\\nthe tongue in the looking-glass, you will notice little red\\ndots all over it. These dots are little funguslike papillae.\\nIf you can see the tongue very far back, you may see sev-\\neral very much larger papillae. All around the sides of\\nthe large papilhe at the base of the tongue and the small\\nfunguslike papillae, there are little spherical bodies, com-\\nposed of many spindle-shaped cells, between which lie the\\nfine hairlike endings of the nerves of taste.\\nWhen a fluid substance, or a solid substance dissolved\\nin the fluid, or one which ma)^ be dissolved by the saliva,\\nis taken into the mouth, it comes into contact with these\\n225", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "226 PHYSIOLOGY\\nminute taste buds, passes in between the spindle-shaped\\ncells which form the taste buds, and stimulates the end-\\nings of the nerves of taste. This nerve sends the message\\nto tlie brain, and one becomes conscious of the taste of\\nthe substance. Many of the sensations which we call\\ntaste are quite as much smell as taste the flavor of coffee\\nand of roast meat is a sensation largely due to the sense\\nof smell rather than to that of taste. Sensations which\\nare combinations of taste and smell should be called\\nflavors.\\nThere are only four different kinds of taste, salt^ sour^\\nbitter^ sweet. Most of the sensations which come to us\\nwhile we are chewing our food, and especially most of the\\nagreeable sensations, are really flavors, and not taste at\\nall. When one has a cold in the head, and both nostrils\\nare completely stopped up, so that he can breathe only\\nthrough the mouth, the food tastes flat and flavorless.\\nThis is sufficient proof that the flavors depend upon a\\ncombined sensation of taste and smell.\\nNot all parts of the tongue are equally sensitive to these\\ndifferent tastes. The back part of the tongue, in the neigh-\\nborhood of the large papillae, is especially sensitive to bit-\\nter the sides of the tongue are especially sensitive to acid\\nthe middle of the tongue is especially sensitive to salt\\nand the tip of the tongue, to sweet.\\nII. THE SENSE OF SMELL\\nThe specialized organ for smell is the upper part of the\\nnose. The lower part, from the nostrils directly back-\\nward, is one of the air passages and part of the respiratory\\nsystem, but all the upper part of the nose out of the\\ndirect line of breathing is devoted exclusively to the sense\\nof smell, and there are nerve cells in the nose which stand", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 227\\nin the mucous membrane among the cells which pave the\\nmembrane.\\nOdorous substances, in the form of gas or of minute\\nparticles, may pass in with the inspired air or may pass\\nup from the pharynx with the expired air, as is the case\\nwhen one is chewing food. These odorous substances\\nbecome dissolved in the moisture which covers the mem-\\nbrane in the upper passages of the nose. They then come\\nin contact with the nerve cells of smell in the membrane,\\nand these nerve cells send a message to the brain, and one\\nbecomes conscious of the smell; i.e. he receives the sen-\\nsation of the smell.\\nThe different kinds of taste we found to be limited to\\nfour, but the different kinds of smell are innumerable.\\nNature provides animals with these senses for a purpose.\\nIt seems to be Nature s plan that animals should use these\\nsenses in the choice of their foods. In the case of beasts\\nof prey, the sense of smell may be used in tracing their\\nprey. These senses guide herbivorous animals in the\\nchoice of herbage. A poisonous iveed is rarely mistaken hy\\nthem for a wholesome one.\\nMan can be guided by his sense of smell as to the\\nwholesomeness of the air which he is breathing, and his\\ntaste will serve in part as a guide to the choice of food.\\nAn odor is remembered longer than any other sensa-\\ntion. This sensation calls up more quickly and forcibly\\nsome past experience than does any other sense im-\\npression.\\nTo smell things simply because they produce a pleasing\\nsensation, and to taste and eat or drink things simply\\nbecause the taste or flavor is a pleasing sensation, is a\\nperversion of Nature s laws which may be observed in\\nman only, of all animals.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "228\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\n2. HEARING\\nThe ear is the special organ of the sense of hearing.\\nThat part of the ear which we can see on the outside of\\nthe head is only a sort of funnel for catching the sound\\nand conducting it into the part of the ear where the sound\\nis heard. The outer ear, together with the passage to\\nthe ear drum, is called the external ear. The middle ear^\\nor eardrum^ is a little cavity in the solid bone of the side\\nof the head. Still deeper in the bone is the internal ear^\\ncomposed of a vestibule^\\nfrom which open a\\ncoiled chamber similar\\nto a snail shell, called\\nthe cochlea^ and three\\nsemicircular canals.\\nThe middle ear is\\ncalled the tympanum^ or\\neardrum, because of its\\nresemblance to a drum.\\nAs you know, a drum\\nhas at least one drum-\\nhead, which is a vibrat-\\nFiG. 52. Section of the ear, showing the ing membrane. Every\\nrelative positions of the external, middle, r|i m;Q Jc T3rovided with a\\nand internal ear. [Tracy.]\\nside opening. If this\\nside opening were not provided, the membrane would not\\nvibrate freely, and the drum would have a dead, muffled\\nsound. The side opening into the tympanum is provided\\nby the Eustachian tube^ a small canal which passes from\\nthe pharynx up to the middle ear.\\nThese parts which have been described are shown in\\nFigure 52. Study carefully this figure. Notice that the", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 229\\nmiddle ear, or tympanum, is divided from the canal which\\npasses in from the external ear by the drum membrane^ and\\nthat it is divided from the vestibule by a little membrane\\nacross wliat is called the oval windoiv. Between the drum\\nmembrane and the oval window is a chain of three hones.\\nThe one which is attached to the drum membrane is called\\nthe hammer^ the one which is attached to the membrane\\nof the oval window is called the stirrup, and the one\\nbetween, fastened to the hammer at one end and to the\\nstirrup at the other, is called the anvil.\\nWhen the sound which passes in through the canal of\\nthe external ear makes the drum membrane vibrate back\\nand forth, the hammer vibrates with it, and passes the\\nvibration on through the anvil and stirrup to the mem-\\nbrane of the oval window. So the sound vibrations\\nreceived by the ear are thus carried direct to the mem-\\nbrane of the oval window. The vestibule, cochlea, and\\ncanals of the internal ear are filled with liquid the\\nvibrations of the mem_brane of the oval window set the\\nliquid into vibration.\\nThere is stretched across the cochlea, from its center to\\nits circumference, a membrane composed of thousands of\\nlittle fibers lying side by side, some long and some short,\\nthose at the upper end being about twelve times as long\\nas those at the lower end, reminding one of a harp with its\\nlong and short strings. The vibrations of the liquid set\\nthese fibers to vibrating. Upon the fibers stand cells,\\nabout which are the fibers of the auditory or hearing\\nnerve. The vibrations of the fibers stimulate the nerves,\\nand we become conscious of the sound.\\nThe sense of hearing is one of the most useful to man\\nand to other animals, because it may warn man of\\napproaching dangers when they are still at a considerable", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "230 PHYSIOLOGY\\ndistance. It enables him to hear at a great distance a\\ncall for help or a shout of warning. It enables him\\nthrough conversation to communicate his ideas to others.\\nThrough the ears we are made conscious of the joys and\\nsorrows of our comrades we hear their laughter as well\\nas their sobs.\\nIt is a part of Nature s plan for the sense of hearing to\\nbe cultivated and gratified for simple pleasure. It may\\nbe observed even in the habits of the lower animals. The\\nsummer night concert of the frogs and crickets, and the\\nsummer morning concert of birds, are sufficient evidence\\nthat the voice and the hearing are to be cultivated\\ntogether for the entertainment and the pleasure of one s\\nself and others. Music is elevating and enriching in its\\ninfluence.\\nThe most important thing to remember in the care of\\nthe ears is that no hard or irritating substance or instru-\\nment should be put into the canal of the ear, because there\\nis danger of injuring the delicate drum membrane. If\\nwax collects in the ear canal it may be gently removed\\nwith the little finger, covered with a handkerchief or\\nwash-cloth. If the wax hardens in the ear, which fre-\\nquently happens, causing some pain, it may be softened\\nwith one or two drops of sweet oil, or of fluid cosmoline,\\nafter which it can be easily removed with an ear spoon.\\n3. THE SENSE OF SEEING\\nThe eye is the special organ of this special sense. The\\neye is one of the most complex organs of the body,\\nand the sense of sight is the most important of the\\nspecial senses. Figure 53 shows what you could see in a\\ncomrade s eye if you were to look at it very carefully,", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES\\n231\\nFig. 53. The eyelashes and the tear\\nglands G, tear gland D, island around\\nwhich the tears collect (7, tear canals\\n)S, tear sac; B, nasal duct through which\\nthe tears drain off into the nose.\\nusing, perhaps, a reading glass to magnify the parts some-\\nwhat. The eyeball is movable under the lids, and has a\\ndense coat which shows\\nin the corners of the\\neyes, but directly in\\nfront you see the black\\npupil of the eye, sur-\\nrounded by the colored\\ndisk, brown in some eyes\\nand blue or gray in\\nothers.\\nThe eyeball is so deli-\\ncate in its construction\\nthat^it must be very\\nthoroughly protected\\nfrom dust and all other\\ninjurious things. These\\nprotective parts, including the lashes, the brow, and tear\\napparatus, are called the appendages of the eye. The eye-\\nlids are the most important protection of the eye, keeping\\nits transparent central portion moist and free from dust.\\nNotice that the margins of the lids are supplied with long,\\nstiff hairs. These are the eyelashes, and they assist in\\nprotecting the eye from dust. On the edges of the lids,\\nnotice the little dots. These mark the openings of minute\\noil glands within the lids. These oil the edges of the lid,\\nto keep the tears from overflowing.\\nAbove the outer corner of the eye and under the brow\\nis a gland about as large as the last joint on your little\\nfinger. This is the tear gland, and its secretion, mostly\\nwater, with a little salt and mucus in it, pours through\\nthe little ducts under the upper lid. When one winks\\nthe eye, the upper lid spreads the tears over the surface,\\nhall s phys. 15", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "232 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthus washing off the dust and making the surface fresh\\nand bright. The tears are constantly evaporating from\\ntlie surface of tlie eyeball, but there are always some left\\nover, and these gradually collect down at the inner corner\\nof the eye around a little island, which is marked D in\\nthe picture. On either side of this little island are two\\nminute pores, leading into the tear canals, marked G in\\nthe picture. The two canals come together in what is\\ncalled the tear sac, from Avhich a large duct, called the\\nnasal duct conducts the tears into the nasal passage.\\nIf the tears flow rapidly, as when one is crying, they may\\ncome too fast to flow off through the little canals, and so\\nmay overflow upon the face; in that case they will also\\nflow freely from the nose.\\nAmong the appendages of the eye are the muscles\\nwhich move the eye. These are six in number. One\\nmuscle turns the eye inward toward the nose, while the\\none opposite to it turns it outward. Then there are\\nmuscles which turn it upward or downward or obliquely.\\nSometimes one of these muscles is permanently contracted,\\nthus keeping the eye turned in then we say the person\\nis cross-eyed, or has a squint. A specialist is usually\\nable, by a simple operation, to loosen the muscles enough\\nto straighten the eye.\\nThe eyeball is nearly spherical, and has a dense outer\\ncoat called the sclerotic coat. The front part of this\\ncoat is curved outward and transparent, reminding one of\\na watch crystal. This is called the cornea, and through\\nthis the rays of light pass into the ej^e (Fig. 54).\\nJust within the sclerotic coat is the choroid, which is a\\nloose-meshed tissue, full of blood vessels and nerves.\\nThis coat contains an important muscular body called\\nthe ciliary muscle, and it is this coat which makes the", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES\\n233\\nlittle colored curtain called the iris. This little curtain,\\nthe iris, is like the diaphragm of a camera, and through it\\nthere is a circular opening called the pupil. The mus-\\ncles which it contains may dilate or contract the pupil\\naccording to the amount of light, or according to whether\\nthe object looked at is near or far away, contracting to\\nsee near objects and dilating to see distant objects. The\\nFig. 54. Horizontal section of the eyeball: d, sclerotic coat; c, cornea; e,\\nchoroid coat; i, iris; Aq, aqueous humor; a, crystalline lens; /i, vitreous\\nhumor; h, retina; 0, optic nerve; cm, ciliary muscle; R, place where\\nmuscles were attached.\\nlight which enters the eye through the cornea, passing\\nthrough the pupil of the eye, must be focused upon the\\nsensitive portion of the eye, the retina. The focusing is\\ndone by the crystalline lens. The crystalline lens is held\\nin place by little ligaments, which pass out from the\\nciliary muscle. The contraction of this muscle will cause\\nthe lens to become more convex, thus focusing the light\\nfrom near objects upon the retina.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "234 PHYSIOLOGY\\nThe retina is composed of two coats, the outer coat\\nconsisting of a sepia-bhick pigment which absorbs the\\nlight, Avhile tlie inner coat (shown white in the figure)\\nconsists of the nerve cells of sight. The eye nerve or\\noptic nerve passes from the base of the brain direct to the\\nball of the eye, and enters it at (9, Figure 54, the fibers\\nspreading out to pass to the nerve cells of the retina.\\nThe most sensitive part of the retina is just at the outside\\nof the optic nerve, and is marked m,l, in the figure.\\nThat part of the eyeball in front of the crystalline lens,\\nand back of the cornea, is filled with a limpid, transpar-\\nent fluid called the aqueous humor while that part back\\nof the crystalline lens and comprising most of the ball is\\nfilled with a viscid liqaid of much greater consistency\\nthan the aqueous humor, which is called the vitreous\\nhumor.\\nThese general rules may be given for the care of the\\neyes\\nI. Never read by a dim light.\\nII. Never read by a flickering or rapidly changing light.\\nIII. Never read in too bright a light, for example, when\\nthe sun is shining full upon the page.\\nIV. Let the light shine upon the page and not upon the\\neyes. The light should fall upon the page from the side\\nor from behind.\\nWhen the eye is at rest, distant objects are focused\\nupon the retina to see near objects it is necessary for\\nthe muscle which controls the lens to contract to look\\nconstantly at near objects requires a constant contraction\\nof this muscle. We know how hard it is to keep a muscle\\ncontracted for a long time, and we can see that it would\\nstrain the eyes to look for a long time continuously at\\na close object, so we can appreciate the next rule.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE SPECIAL SENSES 235\\nV. When reading a book or studying any close object,\\neither close the eyes or look off at a distant object every\\nfew minutes to rest the eyes. If one has used the eyes\\ntoo long and has tired them, bathing them in cold Avater\\nis to be advised. If one cannot see clearly distant objects,\\nor if one lias headaches that cannot be definitely traced to\\nsome other cause, he should consult a physician to see if\\nthe eyes need the assistance of glasses. The free use of\\neither alcohol or tobacco may cause a very serious injury\\nto the sight.\\nDuring the last few years railroad managers have observed the\\ninjurious effect of alcohol upon their workmen when occupying posi-\\ntions that require delicacy of touch, keenness of vision, and acuteness\\nof hearing, ^ot long since a large railroad corporation investigated\\nthe conditions surrounding every accident that had occurred on its\\nlines during the preceding five years. It was found that forty per cent\\nof all accidents were due entirely or in part to drinking men. In\\neighteen per cent it was strongly suspected that the drinking habits of\\nemployees was the cause of the accidents. The company in a single\\nyear lost property to the amount of one million dollars through the\\nincompetency of beer-drinking engineers and switchmen.\\nMichigan has passed a law which imposes a heavy penalty upon those\\nrailroad companies which employ men who are in the habit of using\\nalcoholic intoxicants. Railroad managers, as practical business men,\\nare recognizing the utility of employing total abstainers as a measure\\ncalculated to reduce financial losses on account of accidents.\\nSome railroad companies prohibit their employees from drinking\\nany kind of intoxicants or entering a drinking saloon during working-\\nhours, while other railroad companies demand from their employees\\nthe signing of a total abstinence pledge which shall hold good for\\nevery hour of every day.\\nThis action of railroad managers shows their axDpreciation of the\\ndoctrine that even small quantities of alcohol impair the organs of\\nspecial sense, and that in order to do the best work in railroad busi-\\nness the workmen must have eyes, ears, and hands perfectly free\\nfrom the poisonous influence of alcohol. J. W. Grosvenor, M.D.,\\nJournal of American Medical Association, June, 1896, p. 126.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "236 PHYSIOLOGY\\nREVIEW OF THE SPECIAL SENSES\\n1. How many different kinds of taste are there? Name several\\npleasing flavoi-s. What is the special organ of the sense of taste?\\n2. What is the special organ of the sense of smell? Name several\\nodors or perfumes which are pleasing.\\n3. What seems to be Nature s plan for the use of the senses of\\nsmell and taste\\n4. Describe the special organ of hearing its three divisions and\\nthe way each division is made and the work it does.\\n5. What reason have we for believing that it is in harmony with\\nNature s plan that we cultivate the taste for music\\n6. How should the ear be cared for?\\n7. Draw a picture of the eye, showing all of the principal structures.\\nDescribe the drawing, and tell what is the work of each one of the\\nstructures.\\n8. Give the five rules for the care of the eyes.\\n9. Why cannot railroad engineers do their work so well if they\\nhave been indulging in moderate drinks of alcoholic beverages?", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\nTHE BRAIN, THE SPINAL CORD, AND THE\\nNERVES\\nThe subject of this chapter is not a new one. The\\nreader will remember that in Chapter III of General\\nPhysiology, under the heading, How the Different Organs\\nare made to work in Harmony, the nervous system was\\nstudied at considerable length. This chapter will not be\\na repetition of what was given there, but an extension of\\nit. In order to understand what is to follow in this\\nchapter it will be necessary to review again carefully the\\nchapter just referred to. To that end you may look up\\nagain the answers to the following questions.\\nI. In what respects is the animal body similar to a large\\ncolony\\nII. How are the different individuals of a colony made\\nto work in harmony\\nIII. How is a railroad company able to send over its\\nlines a large number of trains without having numerous\\ncollisions\\nIV. Why is it necessary that the work of the stomach\\nbe done at any particular time Why cannot the stomach\\nsecrete its juice at any time\\nV. What would happen if the change of rate of the\\nheart beat or if the change of rate and depth of respiration\\nshould take place at any time without reference to what\\nthe muscles were doing\\nVI. What two things are necessary in bringing harmony\\n237", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "238 PHYSIOLOGY\\nof action among those who work for a great railroad\\ncompany? (For example, see beginning of Lesson 2,\\nChapter III.)\\nVII. What is a nerve trunk? a nerve fiber? a nerve cell?\\nVIII. What is the sympathetic nervous system\\nIX. How does the sjanpathetic system perform its work\\nX. What is the relation between the sympathetic sys-\\ntem and the spinal cord\\nXI. How is a message sent from the brain to the\\nmuscles of the arm? (See Lesson 3, Chapter III.)\\nXII. What is voluntary action?\\nXIIL In how many directions must messages be sent\\nwhen one sees something which he desires, and reaches\\nfor it?\\nXIV. What is reflex action?\\nXV. Does the brain receive any sensation in the case\\nof a reflex action If so, when is this sensation received,\\nbefore or after the act occurs?\\nXVI. What is the relation betAveen voluntary action\\nand automatic motion?\\nXVII. What is hahit^ and what is its relation to\\nautomatic action\\n1. THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE BRAIN\\nI. NERVE CELLS\\nNerve cells are the most remarkable cells in the animal\\nbody, for their variety in shape, as well as for their size.\\nFigure 55 shows a typical nerve cell. This cell came\\nfrom the spinal cord. Some of the cell bodies in the\\nspinal cord are so large that they may be seen with the\\nunaided ej- e, and have branches reaching from the cord to\\nthe hand or foot.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n239\\nNotice in this cell in Figure 55 how irregular the\\noutline of the cell body is. Each little projection of\\nthe cell body passes out into a treelike branch, and because\\nof their resemblance to a tree they are called dendrites.\\nThe nerve cell,, like other\\ncells, is composed of proto-\\nplasm. These cells have very\\nlarge nuclei^ and one or more\\nnucleoli. The protoplasm of\\nthe nerve cells is granular.\\nThere is usually a collection\\nof pigment (Fig. 55, P) in\\neach cell. The dendrites are\\nprx)toplasmic branches of the\\ncell. The dendrites bring\\nmessages to the cell. Through\\nthe dendrites the cell body\\nmay be in communication with\\nnumerous other cells. Though\\na cell receives messages from\\nvarious sources, it can send a\\nmessage in only one direction.\\nOne of the extensions of the\\ncell is called a neurite. It is\\nthe neurite which carries the\\nmessage away, and under no\\ncircumstances can the neurite\\nbring messages to the cell,\\nlong dendrite which may bring a message from a long\\ndistance those nerve cells also have a neurite. The sen-\\nsory nerves, which carry messages from the skin to the\\nbrain, are long dendrites the cell body is located near\\nthe spinal cord, and the neurite passes into the cord.\\nPig. 55. A nerve cell from the\\nanterior horn of the spinal cord.\\nThe Dendrites carry messages to\\nthe nerve cell and the Neurite\\ncarries messages away from the\\nnerve cell. Neuroglia {N) is\\nthe supporting tissue. Insulat-\\ning material {S), pigment (P).\\nSome nerve cells have a", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "240 PHYSIOLOGY\\nII. KERYE SUBSTANCE\\nThe substance of the central nervous system, that is,\\nthe spinal cord and brain, comprises two tissues, nerve\\ntissue and supporting tissue. The supporting tissue is a\\nvery fine-meshed connective tissue called neuroglia (see\\nFig. 55, N), Only a small amount is shown in that figure,\\nin order not to obscure the details of the nerve cell, but\\nthe neuroglia tissue fills all the space between the cells and\\nnerves, serving really as a packing to hold the cells in place,\\nas we use excelsior for packing. It is the nerve tissue, made\\nup of nerve cells, which does the work of the system.\\nIII. NERVE CENTERS AND NERVE TRUNKS\\nThe cell bodies are not scattered promiscuously through\\nthe nervous system, but are gathered into groups. This\\nseems to afford easier communication from one cell to\\nanother through their short-branched dendrites. Such a\\ngroup of cells is called a nerve center^ and in its action on\\nthe nervous system is similar to the central office of a tele-\\nphone system. To such a center there are fibers coming\\nfrom a distance bringing messages, and from the center\\nthe message may be forwarded to one of the distant\\nparts of the system.\\nThe nerve fibers which pass from the cell bodies or from\\nnerve centers are insulated one from another through the\\nmeans of a white substance which makes a sheath about\\neach fiber. A bundle of these fibers is called a nerve\\ntract while it is still within the spinal cord or brain, but\\nwhen it emerges from these organs and passes out as a\\nrounded nerve cord, we call it a nerve trunk. Because of\\nthe insulating material which surrounds the fibers, nerve\\ntrunks and nerve tracts are white in color, and because", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n241\\nof the protoplasm of which nerve cells are made, the\\nnerve centers have a grayish color. This led the anat-\\nomists and pliysiologists in times past to classify nerve\\nsubstance as gray matter and white matter.\\n2. THE SPIXAL CORD AXD BRAIX\\nI. THE SPIXAL CORD\\nFigure 56 gives a\\nview of the whole central\\nnervous system, with the\\n-spinal cord as seen from\\nbehind. The nervous\\nsystem may be said to\\ncomprise two organs\\nfirst, the brain second,\\nthe spinal cord. The\\nspinal cord represents a\\nseries of important nerve\\ncenters, around which are\\ngrouped bundles of nerve\\ntracts (Fig. 67). The\\ngrayish outline of the\\ncenters makes a figure\\nsomething like the letter\\nH when the cord is cut\\nacross and all the sub-\\nstance outside of the H\\nrepresents tracts or bun-\\ndles of fibers which are\\npassing upward toward\\nXerves to\\nfront of\\nright leg.\\nN erves to\\nback of\\nright leg.\\nFig. 56. Brain and spinal cord, with the\\nthirty-one pairs of spinal nerves.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "242\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nthe brain or downward from the brain. Thiey are simply\\ncut-off fibers in this picture (Fig. 57).\\nThe centers for motion in this spinal cord are in the\\nfront horns of the H. Reflex action has been described\\nin Chapter III. If we make a careful study of Figure 57,\\nwe can see how this reflex action is brouglit about. Sup-\\npose something irritates tlie skin. A message is carried\\nalong tlie long dendrite reaching from the skin to tlie\\nFig. 57. A diagram of a slice of the spinal cord as seen from behind, to show\\nhow the sensation is conveyed to the ganglia of the posterior root through\\nthe long dendrite D, thence to the cord through the neurite N. Arrived\\nin the cord it may go to the brain as at or i^ But instead of j^assing\\nto the brain it may pass to the cells of the anterior gray horn, and cause a\\nreflex act.\\nnerve cell (the ganglion on the posterior root), and from\\nthis cell body a message is forwarded along the neurite\\ninto the posterior gray liorn of the spinal cord, whence it\\nis communicated to the brain, as well as to the center of\\nmotion in the anterior gra}^ horn. Without waiting for a\\nreply from the brain, the cells of motion in the anterior\\ngray horn may send a message to the muscle through the\\nanterior root along the motor nerve, as shown in the\\nfigure, and the muscle may contract, drawing the skin\\naway from the irritating object before even the brain\\nknows what is taking place.", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 243\\nII. THE BRAIN\\nFigure 56 shows the posterior view of the brain, com-\\nposed of the great cerebrum, subdivided by the fissure into\\ntwo hemispheres, below which is the much smaller cerebel-\\nlum. Figure 58 shows more clearly the relative sizes of the\\ncerebrum and cerebellum, and shows the brain from a side\\nFig. 58. Side view of brain, showing the large cerebrum with its surface in\\nfolds and fissures, the small cerebellum below the back part of the cere-\\nbrum, and the medulla passing downward from the base of the brain. The\\nword Leg shows where the brain is at work when it sends messages to\\nthe leg similarly for head, arm, face, and for the organs of speech. Hear-\\ning and Vision show where the brain receives the sensations of hearing\\nand sight.\\nview. The surface of the brain is thrown into a series\\nof very irregular folds, called convolutions. The pur-\\npose of these convolutions seems to be to increase the\\nsurface of the brain. It is upon the surface of the\\nbrain that the cells composing the nerve centers are\\nlocated, while the internal portion of the brain is made", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "244 PHYSIOLOGY\\nup largely of white fibers connecting different brain cen-\\nters. By increasing the surface of the brain, the possible\\nnumber of cell bodies is increased, thus increasing the\\nbrain activity. Highly civilized and educated races of\\nmen have brains which have more and deeper convolu-\\ntions than do the half-civilized and ignorant savages. The\\nsavages, on the other hand, have more convolutions in\\ntheir brains than does the monkey or the dog, and these,\\nin turn, more than animals which stand still lower in the\\nscale.\\nThe brain, then, represents a number of nerve centers\\ngrouped into a compact mass. Different brain centers\\npreside over different functions of the body (Fig. 58, Leg,\\nArm, etc.). As there are nerve trunks passing from the\\nspinal cord out to muscles and organs of sense, so from\\nthe brain there are nerve trunks passing out to muscles\\nand nerve endings. Twelve pairs of these nerves extend\\nfrom the brain and from the medulla to various structures\\nof the head, face, throat, and thorax.\\nThe cerebrum contains the centers which preside over,\\nor which are the seat of, consciousness of sensations, such\\nas of sight, sounds, odors, and feelings, as well as the cen-\\nters of various emotions, such as fear, anger, love, hate.\\nIt is the seat of all thought, of reason, and of the will\\npower.\\nThe cerebellum is the center which presides over the\\nmovements of the body and limbs, making these move-\\nments smooth and graceful. It helps to keep the body\\nbalanced in walking, standing, or riding.\\nIn the medulla oblongata, shown in Figure 58, there are\\nnumerous centers which preside over the movements of the\\nheart, the respiratory organs, and the various organs of\\nthe digestive tract and which also preside over the con-", "height": "4323", "width": "2770", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 245\\nstrictors and dilators of the arteries, changing the amount\\nof blood which is to flow to a particular organ at a par-\\nticular time.\\nIII. EDUCATIOK OF CORD AND BRAIN\\nAs the muscles can be developed by systematic exer-\\ncise, so the nervous system may be cultivated and edu-\\ncated. Any particular act may be very hard to perform\\nat first, and may require the whole attention to perform\\nit even clumsily when it is first done, but, if often re-\\npeated, it may finally be done with perfect grace and pre-\\ncision, wdiile one is thinking of something else. It thus\\nbecomes an automatic action. Methods of thought, and\\ncertain lines of thought, may become habitual in a meas-\\nTir^, just as combinations of motions may become habitual\\nand automatic. This makes it a matter of very great\\nimportance for all young people to cultivate correct habits\\nof action and of thought.\\n3. THE HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\nI. EXERCISE AND REST\\nLike all other tissues of the body, nerve tissue requires\\na certain amount of exercise and a certain amount of rest,\\nif it is to be vigorous and healthy. As all of the knowledge\\nwhich we possess comes to us through sensation, it is very\\nimportant that the acateness of sensation be cultivated.\\nThis can be done only by close attention to things which\\none is observing. One should train himself to give his\\nundivided attention to anything which he is observing\\nwith his senses. If he is studying the color and texture\\nof an object through his senses of sight and touch, he", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "246 PHYSIOLOGY\\nshould give bis undivided attention to the study. If he\\nis listening to a lecture or a concert, he should give his\\nundivided attention to that, thus not only cultivating a\\nhabit of concentration, but also cultivating the acuteness\\nof the senses. At least one or two hours of intense men-\\ntal activity is required each day, if the mind of a j^oung\\nperson is to develop a power of close application and\\ncorrect, logical thinking.\\nBut tissues that work hard must also rest perfectly.\\nPerfect rest of the brain can be gotten only during sleep.\\nEvery person should have from seven to eight hours of\\nsound sleep out of every twenty-four if he is to continue\\nin vigorous health throughout his allotted years.\\nII. THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL\\nAlcohol acts primarily on the nerve cells, changing\\ntheir granular matter, breaking up their nutrition, and\\nchanging their dynamic force. This action is followed by\\ncontraction of the dendrites, swelling and atrophy of these\\nfibers, also shrinking of cell walls, as in fatigue, and\\ncoalescing and disappearance of the granular matter of\\nprotoplasm. 1\\nAlcohol does not affect all the spinal cells equally, and\\nin the early stages the changes are rather indefinite, a\\ngreater sharpness of contour being the most obvious. In\\nthe cerebrum the cells appear as mere shadows, both sub-\\nstances disappearing, whilst the nuclei are also altered.\\nJust why the alcohol should select a set of nerves on\\nwhich to act at one time and a different set at another\\ndoes not at once appear, but it is a well-authenticated fact\\n1 Journal of the American Medical Association, November, 1898.\\n2 London Lancet, October 31, 1896, p. 1245.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 247\\nthat it has a selective power. Most likely the explanation\\nlies in the chemical or electrical condition of the white\\nsubstance at the time of action, or it may be attributable\\nto the different chemical constituents of the liquor used.\\nProfessor Kraepelin of Heidelberg tried a number\\nof experiments on individuals, with the object of seeiiig\\nwliether a small quantity of alcohol hindered the nervous\\ntransmission of intelligence to the brain. Flags were\\nraised at a given distance, and the exact time was noted\\nwhen the various men experimented upon observed the\\nraising of the flag. The result proved that the watchers\\nwho had been given a small quantity of alcohol, though\\nthey felt that they had seen the flag rise sooner than those\\nwho had received no alcohol, actually took longer.\\nProfessor AVoodheacl says, After careful examination\\nof the whole question, physiologists and among physi-\\nologists I include those who maintain alcohol may be\\nuseful, as well as those who hold that it is harmful\\nhave come to the conclusion that the principal action of\\nalcohol is to blunt sensation, and to remove what we may\\ncall the power of inhibition by blunting the higher centers\\nof the brain.\\nProfessor David Starr Jordan in the Popular Science\\nMonthly^ February, 1898, said The healthy mind stands\\nin clear and normal relations with Nature. It feels pain\\nas pain. It feels action as pleasure. The drug which\\nconceals pain or gives false pleasure Avhen pleasure does\\nnot exist forces a lie upon the nervous system. The\\ndrug which disposes to reverie rather than to work, which\\nmakes us feel well when we are not well, destroys the san-\\nity of life. All stimulants, narcotics, tonics, which affect\\nthe nervous system in whatever way, reduce the truthful-\\n1 Dr. Wilkins, in the New York Medical Journal, September 22, 1894.\\nhall s phys. 16", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "248 PHYSIOLOGY\\nness of sensation, thought, and action. Toward insanity\\nall such influences lead and their effect, slight though\\nit be, is of the same nature as mania. The man who\\nwould see clearly, think truthfully, and act effectively\\nmust avoid them all. Emergency aside, he cannot safely\\nforce upon his nervous system even the smallest false-\\nhood.\\nDr. Hammond said The more purely intellectual quali-\\nties of the mind rarely escape being involved in the general\\ndisturbance [caused by alcohol]. The power of applica-\\ntion, of appreciating the bearing of facts, of drawing dis-\\ntinctions, of exercising the judgment aright, and even of\\ncomprehension, are all more or less impaired. The mem-\\nory is among the first faculties to suffer. The will\\nis always lessened in force and activity. The ability to\\ndetermine between two or more alternatives, to resolve\\nto act when action is necessary, no longer exists in full\\npower, and the individual becomes vacillating, uncertain,\\nthe prey to his various passions, and to the influence of\\nvicious counsels.\\nHelmholtz told us in his autobiography that if he took\\nwine while occupied with a mathematical or scientific\\nproblem, his thinking powers were interfered Avith, and he\\nhad to wait for the alcoholic effects to work off before his\\ninspiration returned.\\nFinally we have still to declare that alcohol hinders\\nthe action of the highest mental faculties. A remark\\nmade by Helmholtz at the celebration of his seventieth\\nbirthday is very interesting in this connection. He spoke\\nof the ideas flashing up from the depths of the unknown\\nsoul, that lies at the foundation of every truly creative\\nintellectual production, and closed his account of their\\n1 Dr. Adolph Rupp, J^ew York Medical Journal, July 9, 1898.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 249\\norigin with these words The smallest quantity of an\\nalcoholic beverage seemed to frighten these ideas away.\\nW. Boyd Dawkins says: I cannot drink beer when\\nI am using my brain, and do not take it when I have\\nanything to think about.\\nSome people imagine that after the use of alcohol they\\ncan do things more quickly, that they are brisker and\\nsharper, but exact measurement shows that they are slower\\nand less accurate. Men believe that they are wiser and\\nbrighter, but their sayings are more automatic and apt\\nto be profane. To quote Dr. Lauder Brunton, of Oxford\\nUniversity, England, It pi^oduces progressive, paralysis of\\nthe judgment^ and this begins w^ith the first glass. Men\\nsay and do, even after a single glass of drink, what they\\n-^would not say or do without it, and therefore it clearly\\naffects the brain and diminishes self-control.\\nProfessor von Bunge,^ of Switzerland, says that, The\\nstimulating action which alcohol appears to exert on the\\nbrain functions is only a paralytic action. The cerebral\\nfunctions which are first interfered with are the poiuer of\\nclear judgment and reason. No man ever became witty\\nby aid of spirituous drinks. The lively gesticulations and\\nuseless exertions of intoxicated people are due to paralysis,\\nthe restraining influences, which prevent a sober man\\nfrom uselessly expending his strength, being removed.\\nThe capital argument against alcohol, that which must\\neventually condemn its use, is this, that it tahes away all\\n1 Adolph Fick, Professor of Physiology, Wurzburg, Germauy.\\n2 Quoted by Dr. M. L. Holbrook, Journal Medical Teniperaiice Associa-\\ntion, January, 1898, p. 21.\\n3 Dr. G. Sims Woodhead, Professor of Pathology, Cambridge University,\\nEngland.\\n4 G. Yon Bunge, Professor of Physiological Chemistry, University of Basel,\\nin Text-book of Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "250 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe reserved control^ the poiver of mastership, and therefore\\noffends against the splendid pride in himself or herself which\\nis fundamental in every man or woman worth anything.\\nIII. THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO UPOX BRAIN WORK\\nI have been a teacher in Connecticut twenty years.\\nIn boys addicted to this (tobacco) habit I find a\\nnervous irritability, and inability to do the work that\\nproperly belongs to boys of their age. Where the habit\\nhas been abandoned, I have found a marked improvement,\\nboth mentally and physically.\\nKEYIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM\\n1. Before going on with this review be sure that you can answer\\nthe seventeen questions at the beginning of this chapter.\\n2. Draw a figure of a nerve cell draw and describe the dendrites.\\nWhat is the neurite\\n3. How many kinds of tissue are there in the nervous system\\n4. What are nerve centers?\\n5. Why was nervous tissue formerly classified as white and\\ngray matter\\n6. Draw a figure representing a section of the spinal cord.\\n7. Of how many main divisions is the brain composed\\n8. Of what importance are the convolutions of the brain? What\\nis the principal work of the Cerebrum? Of the Cerebellum? Of\\nthe Medulla Oblongata?\\n9. How may the brain be improved? Why does the brain need rest?\\n10. AVhat is the effect of alcohol upon the brain?\\n11. What is the effect of tobacco upon the brains of young and\\ngrowing persons?\\n1 Dr. John Johnson, quoting Walt Whitman.\\n2 Maria F. Starr, Principal High Street School, New London, Conn.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIII. \u00e2\u0080\u0094THE MUSCLES HOW THE\\nBODY MOVES\\n1. THE MUSCLES: HOW THEY ARE MADE, HOW THEY\\nARE ARRANGED, AND HOW THEY WORK\\nFigure 59 shows how the body would look if the skm,\\nand the layer of connective tissue and fat beneath the\\nskin, were all removed, leaving the muscles bare and\\nopen to view. Though a great number of muscles are\\n..,-^^^^^^-shown in the figure, those shown are only a small propor-\\ntion of all the muscles in the body the figure shows only\\nthe outside muscles.\\nThere are about five hundred voluntary muscles. The\\nvoluntary muscles are those that are under the control of\\nthe will the muscles of the legs, arms, body, neck, and\\nface are all voluntary muscles. These voluntary muscles\\nare, most of them, much larger than the involuntary, such\\nas those in the walls of the stomach and intestines, and\\nusually contract with a quicker and stronger action than\\ndo the involuntary muscles.\\nBy studying the limbs in the figure, especially the arm\\nat the right, you will notice that the upper or middle\\nportions of these muscles are large and full, and that from\\nthe largest part of the muscle it tapers down to a small\\ncord at the wrist or ankle. This small cord at the\\nend of the muscle is not composed of muscular tissue,\\nbut of very dense and inelastic connective tissue. If the\\nfull, round muscle extended down over the wrists and\\n251", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "252\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nFig. 59. The muscular system. [Tracy.]", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES 253\\nankles, it would make these as large around as the fore-\\narm or calf, and that would make the wrist and ankle\\nvery clumsy and awkward.\\nThese glistening white cords spread out into a fan\\nshape at the end where the muscle attaches to it. This\\nglistening white cord passes over the wrist or ankle, down\\nto the hand or foot, where it is attached to the bone, and\\nthrough this tendon the muscle can move the hands and\\nfeet, with their fingers and toes. Muscles are generally\\nattached to the bones at each end, and use the bones as\\naids to accomplish their work. The bones serve as levers.\\nFig. 60. The arrangement of bones and muscles by which the arm is bent\\n^,the radius; B, the elbow; (7, biceps; E, ulna; i^, triceps; G^, shoulder\\njoint.\\nFigure 60 shows the bones of the arm, together with\\nthe two most important muscles. In the position in which\\nthe arm is shown, the biceps muscle supports the weight\\nwhich is resting in the hand. The bones of the forearm,\\nthat is, the radius and ulna, act as a lever. This lever is\\nfastened at the elbow joint, that is, the elbow is the ful-\\ncrum of the lever. The biceps muscle represents the\\npower which pulls upon the lever between the fulcrum\\nand the weight resting in the hand. When the fulcrum,", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "254\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nthe power, and the weight are arranged in this way, the\\nlever is said to be one of the third order. It is easy to see\\nthat a slight contraction of the biceps muscle will move the\\nweight a greater distance than tlie actual contraction of\\nthe muscle. In all levers of the third order, the weight\\nmoves through a greater distance than the power, that is,\\nthere is a gain in the distance moved by the weight, but a\\nloss in power.\\nFigure 61 shows the three orders of levers. In the\\nlever of the first order, notice that the fulcrum is between\\nthe power and the weight. In the lever of the second\\nV\\nw\\nFirst order.\\nWT\\nSecond order.\\nThird order.\\nFig. 61. The three orders of levers.\\norder, the weight is between the fulcrum and the power,\\nwhile in the third order, the power is between the fulcrum\\nand the weight. In the lever of the first order, the power\\nwill move through a greater distance than the weight, as\\nlong as the fulcrum is nearer to the weight than to the\\npower, but when the fulcrum gets nearer to the power\\nthan to the weight, then the weight will move through a\\ngreater distance than the power. In a lever of the second\\norder, the weight is always nearer to the fulcrum than\\nthe power is, and will, therefore, always be greater than\\nthe power, and will always move through a smaller dis-\\ntance than the power. In the third order, the power is\\nalways nearer to the fulcrum than the weight is, and will,", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES 255\\ntherefore, always be greater than the weight, and will\\nmove through a shorter distance than the weight.\\nEXPERIMENTS AND PROBLEMS\\n1. The leg of a chicken, including the toes and as much\\nof the drumstick as possible, may be obtained from a\\nbutcher or from the kitchen. Remove the skin, and\\nseparate out the muscles and tendons. Notice the effect\\nupon the movements of the toes when the different mus-\\ncles or tendons are pulled.\\n2. Refer to Figure 61. What order of lever is the\\nfoot when one lifts his weight upon the toes by a con-\\ntraction of the muscles on the back of the calf What\\nkind of lever does the foot make when one, without\\nputting the heel upon the floor, lifts a weight which\\nrests upon the toes\\n3. What kind of a lever is the low^er jaw during the\\nprocess of chewing? What lever is the foot when one\\nrests the weight of the body upon the heel\\n4. What order of lever does one make of one s arm, if\\none takes a weight in the right hand and holds the right\\narm in such a way that the forearm will be horizontal and\\nabove the head then, holding the upper arm still,\\nstraightens the arm, thus lifting the weight up? Per-\\nhaps this problem could be understood better if you\\nshould turn Figure 60 upside down.\\n2. THE HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES\\nFrom what has been said in previous lessons, you know\\nthat the work of the muscles consists in generating the\\nheat which keeps the body warm, and also in producing", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "256 PHYSIOLOGY\\nthe motions of the body. They produce these motions by\\nshortening and thus pulling up their tendons, and moving\\nthe bones. The stronger the muscles, the more work\\nthey are able to perform, both in warming the body and\\nin bodily movements.\\nThe first thing required by the muscles is nourishing\\nfood, and plenty of it. No part of the body is so sensi-\\ntive to changes in the food as is the muscular system.\\nI. EXERCISE AKD REST\\nThe muscles, like the brain and other organs, are devel-\\noped by exercise. Nearly all young animals play. Play\\nis Nature s method for exercising the muscles, brain, and\\nsenses. One should choose for exercise those move-\\nments which require quickness and accuracy, rather than\\nthose which require great strength. To most people,\\ncalisthenics and individual gymnastics are uninteresting.\\nIt has been shown by years of observation on the part of\\nmen who have made a life study of the development of\\nthe nerves and muscles, that the most wholesome exercise\\nis that obtained in games of skill and agility in which\\nseveral individuals are contesting. Engaged in such a\\ngame, one loses all thoughts of himself and of the object\\nof his exercise in his endeavors to win points in the game.\\nAmong the best games for the all-around development of\\nthe body are tennis, basket ball, hand ball, baseball, cricket,\\nfootball, la crosse, and golf.\\nOne should not exercise severely within half an hour\\nbefore a meal, or within half an hour after a light meal or\\none hour after a heavy meal. Fatigue or weariness is\\nNature s notice to take a rest. It has been stated in a\\nprevious lesson that when the brain and the muscles both", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES 257\\ncall at the same time upon the circulatory system for more\\nblood, the muscles will get it, and the brain will go with-\\nout. For this reason, one should do his studying first,\\nand his playing or work afterward. Some have not a\\nchoice in the matter, and are obliged to study after their\\nwork, if they study at all but if one has a choice of the\\norder in which he will perform his tasks, he will be wise\\nto do his brain work first, while the muscles are at perfect\\nrest then if he goes out in the latter part of the day and\\ntakes vigorous muscular exercise, or does his muscular\\nwork, he will withdraw the excess of blood from the\\nbrain, thus making it easier for the brain to rest at night\\nin a dreamless, restful sleep.\\nII. THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE MUSCLES\\nThe use of alcoholic beverages decreases the muscular\\npower, as is shown by the following incident, quoted from\\nthe Weekly Telegraphy London, 1897: An English con-\\ntractor, while erecting a large bridge in Scotland, was\\nsurprised at the apparent muscular power of the High-\\nlanders whom he engaged. Having contracted for exca-\\nvating a canal in England, he engaged about twenty\\nHighlanders to accompany him southward. Several\\ndisputes occurred between these northerners and the\\nEnglishmen with whom they worked upon the canal, and\\nthe Highlanders were made the butt of many a jeer\\nrelative to the simple bread and milk fare on which they\\nwere contented to exist, thus saving the greater part of\\ntheir wages to bring back to their friends and families.\\nTo settle these disputes, a wager was made that twelve\\nHighlanders could not excavate a certain number of yards\\nin the same time as an equal number of the better fed", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "258 PHYSIOLOGY\\nEnglishmen. Everything being fixed, a table was laid\\nout with meat and ale for the Englishmen, while the\\nScotch had, besides their bread and milk, no other prepa-\\nration for refreshment except what a can of fresh water\\nafforded. But the point in dispute was, after a fatiguing\\nday s work, decided in favor of the Highlanders, and\\nwhile the Englishmen were totall}^ exhausted by their\\nexercise, the Highlanders still had a good reserve of\\nstrength and, in their enthusiasm at their success, danced\\ntheir national Strathspey in token of their victory.\\nDr. DeVaucleroy, Professor of Hygiene in the Military\\nSchool of Belgium, says: The influence of alcohol upon\\nmuscular work has been established permanently. It has\\nbeen demonstrated that man works better when he does\\nnot use these pretended stimulants. The physiological\\nexperiments of Destree have established that alcohol is a\\nparalyzer of muscular work. It excites at first, but this\\nexcitation is altogether transient, and is followed imme-\\ndiately by depression.\\nEnglish and American athletes have long recognized\\nthe very great importance on the part of those who are to\\nenter contests, of total* abstinence during the period of\\ntraining as well as during the period of contest. Nearly\\nten years ago this began to be recognized among the\\nGerman university students, and one club after another\\nabandoned the morning drinking bout in order to better\\nfit themselves for athletic contests in wliich their members\\nwished to take part.\\nDr. Charles Stewart says* that, In a number of experi-\\nments carried out with the idea of ascertaining the effect\\nof alcohol upon muscular force, it was found that in every\\ncase where alcohol was taken, muscular force was dimin-\\nished, even when so small an amount as one half dram", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES 259\\n(one half a teaspoonful) of alcohol was used. In these\\nexperiments it was found that nonabstainers were affected\\nas well as abstainers. The deceptive nature of alcohol\\nwas manifested in every case, each individual feeling sure\\nthat he could accomplish more than he could before\\ntaking the alcohol.\\nMany hundreds of similar experiments might be cited,\\nbut they all demonstrate the same thing^ namely^ that the\\nuse of alcohol decreases the force and efficiency of the\\nmuscular system.\\nALCOHOL AS AN ARMY RATION\\nThe uselessness, if not the harmfulness, of even moder--\\nate doses of alcohol rests on better evidence than scientific\\ndeduction and experiments. In connection with the sani-\\ntation of armies, thousands of experiments upon large\\nbodies of men have been made, and have led to the result\\nthat, in peace and war, in every climate, in heat, cold, and\\nrain, soldiers are better able to endure the fatigues of the\\nmost exhausting marches when they are not allowed any\\nalcohol. A similar result is observed in the case of the\\nnavies and on thousands of commercial vessels belonging to\\nEngland and America, which put to sea without a drop of\\nalcohol. Most whalers are manned by total abstainers.\\nIn a paper entitled War s Aftermath, in the May\\nForum^ 1899, Mr. W. K. Rose, Renter s correspondent in\\nthe Soudan campaign, said Alcoholic drinks are, how-\\never, now eschewed by the best commanders. Havelock s\\nsaints performed their heroic feat in marching and fight-\\ning in the Indian mutiny on coffee alone as a beverage.\\n1 Journal of the Medical Temperance Association, January, 1897, p. 54.\\n2 Professor Bunge.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "260 PHYSIOLOGY\\nIn the Red River expedition of 1870, under General\\nWolseley, no spirit ration was issued and certainly, says\\nthe Medical Report^ no men could have enjoyed better\\nhealth than did the troops without it. Out of the seven\\nhundred and ten men engaged only five were invalided.\\nThe old-fashioned rum ration was not issued in the Ashan-\\ntee War of 1873, which was also under the command of\\nGeneral Wolseley, though a small amount was given\\nto individuals when especially prescribed by the medical\\nofficers. The result was that, in the pestilential climate\\nof the hinterland of the Gold Coast, the total mortality\\nfrom all causes was only 3.14 per cent of the whole\\nstrength of the British troops. In the Kaffir War of\\n1877-1878 rum as a ration was strictly prohibited; and\\nthe good health of the troops was attributed to enforced\\nabstinence from spirituous liquors.\\nColonel Geary, in a paper before the Sanitary Con-\\ngress at Stafford, stated that during the Abyssinian cam-\\npaign, for six weeks advancing upon and retiring from\\nMagdala, there was no alcohol, no crime, and the per-\\ncentage of sick was less than in any part of the British\\narmy at home or abroad, while the troops performed\\narduous marches on scanty food and often with bad water.\\nLord Roberts, the commander in the Boer campaign,\\nsays that the effective strength of an army is always\\nproportionately greater according to the number of total\\nabstainers in the ranks.\\nTo-day it is a great feather in the headgear of the\\nadvocates of military total abstinence that Lord Kitch-\\nener s recent victory was won for him by an army of tee-\\ntotalers, who made phenomenal forced marches through\\nthe desert, under a burning sun, and in a climate famed\\nfor its power to kill or prematurely age the unacclimated.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE MUSCLES 261\\nIndeed, it is said that never has there been a British cam-\\npaign occasioning so little sickness and profiting by so\\nmuch endurance.\\nALCOHOL A CAUSE OF MENTAL DISORDERS\\nIf you look round and try to find out the primary\\ncauses of disease and poverty and crime and misery, you\\nare over and over again thrown back on the use of\\nalcohol. One cannot read the newspapers and reports\\nof judges without seeing that alcohol accounts for a very\\nlarge proportion of what is evil in our daily life. It is\\nsapping the foundation of our national life, and if we\\ncould do away with all the disease and poverty and crime\\ncaused by alcohol, the questions which confront us would\\nbe solved very easily.\\nTHE INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL UPON THE MORALS\\nThe most highly specialized characteristics are first\\nimpaired, and thus the spiritual faculty, if I may so term\\nit, first becomes blunted by the use of alcohol. Follow-\\ning this in rapid succession there is blunting of the moral\\nsense a slight, though distinctly perceptible, interference\\nwith the intellectual faculties, which leads to what we\\nmight call blurring of the reasoning poAver then follows\\na distinct diminution in the power of rapidity and accuracy\\nof perception. At none of these stages would a man admit\\nthat he was under the influence of alcohol but these\\npowers are just as assuredly under its influence as are the\\nmuscles which can no longer act coordinately to enable a\\nman to walk straight.\\nWashington Star. Professor G. Simms Woodhead.\\n3 Professor Woodhead.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "262 PHYSIOLOGY\\n^Tlie nervous system cannot escape injury from the\\ningestion of alcoholic drinks. It fails to receive correct\\nimpressions it fails to send out correct orders it fails\\nto receive proper rest. The continued use of alcohol\\ncauses the nervous centers to undergo degeneration, and\\nthe most serious diseases known to medical science ensue.\\n1 George H. McMichael, M.D., Buffalo, N.Y.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XIV. THE SKELETON THE\\nFRAxMEWORK OF THE BODY\\nThe earthworm has no framework he cannot hold his\\nbody erect, all of his movements must be slow and grovel-\\ning. Tlie butterfly has a framework. Portions of this\\nframework support the delicate, membranous wings, whose\\nframework is articulated to the body. Through the aid\\nof muscles which pass from the body to the framework of\\nthe wings, these may be moved, and enable the butterfly\\nto fly out into the sunshine.\\nMan s body has a framework, the bony skeleton, the\\nparts of w^hich lie deeply buried in the muscles. Without\\nthis framework man could not stand erect. The skeleton\\nof man is very much like the skeleton of other vertebrate\\nanimals. All vertebrate animals possess a vertebral col-\\numn^ tvhich is called the axis of the body.\\nWhen the dog or cat is standing on all fours, his verte-\\nbral column is horizontal, and his four legs pass dowmward\\nto the ground as supports. The four legs of the dog or eat^\\ntogether with the large flat bones which fasten them to the\\nvertebral column, are called the appendages of the body\\naxis, or the appendicular system. The axis of the body\\ncomprises not only the vertebral column, but the skull,\\nas well as the ribs and sternum. The axis, or vertebral\\ncolumn, of the cat or dog is extended backw^ard beyond\\nthe body, the bones getting smaller and smaller clear to\\nthe tip of the tail. In the case of man and of the higher\\napes, the axis, or vertebral column, does not extend be-\\nhall s phys. 17 263", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "264\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nyond the body, but the last few bones of the vertebral\\ncolumn are grown together into what appears, at first, to\\nbe one large, strong bone, called the sacrum, beyond which\\nis a little bone called the coccyx.\\nFigure 62 gives a side view of\\nthe vertebral column, and shows\\nthe curved sacrum at the bottom,\\ncomposed of live vertebrae joined\\ntogether. At the end of the\\nsacrum there is the little coccyx\\nof four buttonlike bones, usually\\ngrown together.\\nPROBLEMS\\n1. To what part of your body\\ndoes the paw of a cat correspond\\n2. Find upon a cat s body the\\npart which corresponds to your\\nelbow.\\n3. Find the part which corre-\\nsponds to your knee.\\n4. Find the part which corre-\\nsponds to your heel.\\n5. Find upon a horse s body\\nthe part which corresponds to\\nyour elbow.\\n6. To what part of your body\\ndoes what we call the horse s\\nknee correspond\\n7. To what part of your body does the horse s hoof\\ncorrespond\\n8. To Avhat part of the horse s body does your heel\\ncorrespond", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON 265\\n9. Observe a dressed chicken, and find upon the\\nchicken the part which corresponds to your knee the\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0part which corresponds to your heel.\\n10. Find the part which corresponds to your elbow to\\nyour wrist to your fingers.\\n1. THE HUMAN SKELETON\\nI. HOW THE BONES ARE GROUPED\\nFigure 63 gives a front view of the human skeleton.\\nNotice that the first, or upper, joint of the arms has one\\nbone, the humerus and that the corresponding joint of the\\nlegs has one bone, the femur. Notice, further, that the\\nsecond joint of the arm corresponds to the second joint of\\nthe leg in having two bones. The third joint, or third\\nportion of the anterior limb, comprises the wrist and five\\ndigits while in the leg, the corresponding portion com-\\nprises the ankle and five digits. Notice that the arms are\\nheld in place by two large flat bones back of the ribs,\\ncalled the shoulder blades^ and that the shoulder joint is\\nbraced in front by the coUa? hones^ which pass from the\\nshoulder blade to tho sternum. The humerus is joined to\\nthe scapula with a hall and socket joint., the ball on the\\nend of the humerus fitting into a spherical socket in the\\nshoulder blade. In a similar way, the legs are attached\\nto the axial skeleton through two large, flat, irregular\\nbones called the innominate hones. The innominate bones\\nare firmly joined to the sacrum behind, and firmly united\\ntogether in front. This makes a strong basinlike founda-\\ntion for the whole body, called the pelvis. The leg bones\\nare joined to the pelvis by a ball and socket joint the\\nother joints of the limbs are hinge joints.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "Fig. 63. The skeleton.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON 267\\nCount up the bones of the skeleton, and see how many\\nyou can find. Not counting the teeth and the six little\\near bones, the skeleton is composed of two hundred bones.\\nTurning again to Figure 62, notice that the spinal column\\nshown there was sawed through the middle. This shows\\nthe canal which passes up through the spinal column, and\\nwithin wliich the spinal cord lies. The cord is thus\\nthoroughly protected from harmful pressure or injury.\\nSimilarly the brain is always thoroughly protected within\\nthe bony cranium which rests upon the top of the spinal\\ncolumn.\\nIn Figure 62 there seems to be space between the ver-\\ntebrae. These spaces are filled in the living body with a\\nfirm, elastic cartilage^ which gives sufficient opportunity\\nfor the bending of the spine, and serves a most important\\npurpose as a series of cushions, which protect the brain\\nfrom the jarring it would otherwise suffer when one\\nwalked or jumped on hard ground.\\nII. HOW^ THE BOXES ARE MADE\\nFigure 64: shows the femur as it appears when sawed in\\ntwo, lengthwise. Notice that the two ends of the bone\\nare larger than the shafts and that they seem to be made\\ndifferently inside. At the two ends of the bone we find\\nwhat is called cancellous tissue. It is made of little,\\nthin, bony plates so joined together as to make a very\\ngreat number of little compartments with thin, bony\\nwalls. The little spaces within these boiiy cells are filled\\nwith blood vessels and a tissue which is something like\\ngland tissue. This portion of the bones and similar tissue\\nwherever found in the body, especially within the ribs\\nand in the heads of the long bones, is called red marrow", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "268\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nand is the place where red blood corpuscles are formed.\\nThe shaft of the bone is occupied by a very few blood\\nvessels, all the rest of the space\\nbeing filled with a deposit of\\nfat, giving the cut bone a yellow\\nappearance. This portion of the\\nbone marrow is called the yellow\\nmarrow.\\nIn infancy the bones are very lim-\\nber and may be easily bent, because\\nthey are composed mostly of cartilage\\nor gristle. As the child advances\\nin age, the bones get stronger and\\nstronger owing to a deposit of lime\\nwathin the bone tissue. If one takes\\na chicken bone and soaks it in acid,\\nespecially diluted hydrochloric acid,\\nhe will find that the bone will grad-\\nually get softer and softer until it is\\nlimber enough to tie into a knot.\\nThis change in the bone is due to\\nthe mineral matter of the bone being\\ndissolved out.\\nOn the other hand, if one puts a\\nbone into a fire and burns it until it\\nbouy fibers at the upper ig white, thus burning out all of the\\nend, its peculiarity be- i -ri j i. i.\\nanimal matter, he Avill iina when he\\nFig. 64. The right femur,\\nor thigh bone, sawed in\\ntwo lengthwise. Notice\\nthe arrangement of the\\ning somewhat exagger-\\nated so as to make it\\nmore plain. [Tracy.]\\ntakes it out of the fire that it is\\nbrittle and can be crushed in the\\nfingers. These two experiments teach us that a bone gets\\nits stiffness and hardness from the mineral matter and its\\ntoughness and flexibility from the animal matter which it\\ncontains.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "THE SKELETON\\n269\\nIII. HYGIENE OF THE BONES\\nFrom what has been said above it is evident that the\\nbones of growing children need mineral matter, and it is\\nfurther evident that this mineral matter must come through\\nthe food. Nature s food for infants (milk) contains the\\nFig. 65. A represents the normal appearance of the ribs. B represents part\\nof a photograph of the skeleton of a young woman of twenty-three years,\\nshowing the distortion of the ribs produced by tight lacing. [Tracy.]\\nmineral matter in sufficient quantity and in proper propor-\\ntions. After the young child stops making milk its only\\ndiet, its food must be chosen with some care in order to\\nprovide it with plenty of bone-making material. The\\ncereal foods and the vegetables are the best for this pur-\\npose.\\nThe bones of young people and children are very easily", "height": "4331", "width": "2816", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "270 PHYSIOLOGY\\ndistorted or bent out of their proper shape because they\\nhave not yet become stiff and hard through the mineral\\nmatter, so it is important that little children in schools or\\nat home should not sit on high seats where the weight of\\nthe lower legs and feet hangs from the end of the femur,\\nwhich rests upon the edge of the seat. Such treatment of\\nthe femur would bend it out of its natural shape.\\nChildren and young people should take great care to\\nhold their bodies erect when sitting, standing, walking, or\\nriding. This requires some effort and attention, but if it\\nis done faithfully, one not only gets a habit of erect car-\\nriage, but one s bones and muscles later naturally assume\\nthese positions, thus giving a person a much more dignified\\nand stately bearing than would otherwise be possible.\\nFigure 65 should be a striking object lesson for those who\\nare inclined to wear clothing too tight to give perfectly\\nfree movements for the thorax. In the figure at the\\nright, the vital organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach,\\nliver, spleen, and pancreas, are all crowded into much nar-\\nrower space than they are intended by Nature to occupy.\\nThis hinders them from doing their best work, and as\\nthey are the organs which provide for the general nutri-\\ntion of the whole system and all the vital processes, it\\nmust be evident that the health of an individual whose\\nchest is thus permanently deformed will sooner or later\\nbe very seriously interfered with.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\nAbsorption of food, 197.\\nAdam s apple, 168.\\nAir, changes in lungs, 179; comple-\\nmental, 173 composition of, 178\\nimpure, 186; reserve, 173; residual,\\n173; tidal, 172.\\nAlcohol, effects of, upon blood, 159;\\nblood corpuscles, 191; on digestion,\\n115; on heart, 159; on liver and\\nkidneys, 210; on muscles, 257; in-\\nfluence of, general, 69; on nervous\\nsystem, 246; on skin, 219; how\\nformed 59 not a food, 110 relation\\nto animal heat, 191 relation to lung\\ndiseases, 192.\\nAlimentary canal, 89.\\nAmoeba, one-celled animal, 34.\\nApples, acid fruits, 87.\\nArteries, 136, 138.\\nAutomatic action, 55.\\nBarley, a cereal, 81.\\nBathing, 217.\\nBicuspid teeth, 91.\\nBleeding, protection of body against,\\n131, 143.\\nBlood, 128; changed in lungs, 180;\\ncoagulation of, 131 condition of, 158\\nfreed of carbon dioxide, 182 figured\\nand described, 129; nourishes tis-\\nsues, 144 oxygenated, 180 gives up\\noxygen, 146.\\nBody heat, 184.\\nBones, 263, 265, 267.\\nBrain, 238, 241, 243; education of 245;\\ninfluenced by tobacco, 250.\\nBreathing, chest and abdominal, 174;\\nforced, 172.\\nBronchi, 168.\\nCaecum (se^cum) 90.\\nCanine teeth, 91.\\nCapillaries, 139, 147.\\nCardia of stomach, 93.\\nCartilage, figure and description, 39.\\nCell, described, 30; diagram of, 29;\\nlymph, 30; of plant, 30; plasm, 30;\\nvrork of, 28.\\nCells, review of, 45 of body, 27.\\nCereals, defined and described, 81;\\nexperiments with, 83.\\nChyle, 150.\\nCirculation, control of, 151; diagram\\nof, 140 review of, 162.\\nCirculatory system, 42.\\nClothing, 218; effect of, on skeleton,\\n270.\\nCoagulation of blood, 131.\\nColon, 90.\\nColony animal, 38; plant, 37.\\nComplemental air, 173.\\nConstrictors of blood vessels, 154.\\nCorn, plants, 12 a cereal, 81 kernels,\\n11.\\nCoughing, 175.\\nCrying, 176.\\nCuticle, 213.\\nDesmids, one-celled water plants,\\n33.\\nDiaphragm, 167.\\nDigestion by gastric juice, 99 hygiene\\nof, 104 by pancreatic juice, 101 by\\nplants, 21 by saliva, 97 review,\\n103.\\nDigestive system, 42 figure of, 90, 91\\nreview of, 96 structure of, 89.\\nDilators of blood vessels, 154.\\nDistillation, described, 61.\\nDomestic Economy, 118.\\nDrinks, alcoholic, 110 hygiene of, 107\\nnarcotic, 58 nourishing, 110 re-\\nfreshing, 109; stimulating, 110.\\nDuodenum {du-o-de -num) 89, 95.\\n271", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "272\\nPHYSIOLOGY\\nEar, description of, 22S; hygiene of,\\n230.\\nEconomy, domestic, 118.\\nEggs, 78.\\nEnergy of life, generation of, 203.\\nEpidermis, 212, 213.\\nEsophagus, 89.\\nExcretion by kidneys, 207.\\nExercise, 155 and rest, 256.\\nExperiments, in plant physiology, 21\\nin respiration, 189; on cereals, 83;\\non foods, 80 on vegetables, 8G with\\ngastric juice, 100; with pancreatic\\njuice, 102; with saliva, 98.\\nExpiration, 1G(3, 172, 173.\\nEye, description of, 233; hygiene of,\\n231.\\nFerment, defined, 22.\\nFermentation, 61, 63.\\nFevers, 185.\\nFood, how used in body, 196; absorp-\\ntion of, 197.\\nFoods, 78; experiments on, 80, 83, 86;\\nreview of, 89.\\nFruit, 86: juices and sirups, 109.\\nGastric juice, digestion by, 99.\\nGerm of plant, 20.\\nGland, described, 42.\\nHabit, 55, 57.\\nHair, 212.\\nHarmony of work, nervous system, 46.\\nHearing, sense of, 228.\\nHeart, 133, 131, 139.\\nHeat of body, 183.\\nHiccoughing, 176.\\nHygiene, defined, 9; of bones, 269; of\\ncirculation, 155 of digestion, 104 of\\near, 230; of eye, 234; of kidneys,\\n208; of liver, 208; of muscles, 255;\\nof respiration, 186; of skin, 216.\\nIleum {iVe-um), 89.\\nIncisor teeth, 91.\\nInspiration, 166, 172.\\nIntestines, 89, 95, 96.\\nIodine, test for proteid, 21; test for\\nstarch, 21.\\nJejunum (Je-jw nwm), 89.\\nKidneys, description of, 207, 208.\\nLacteals, 150.\\nLarynx, 168.\\nLaughing, 176.\\nLegumes as food, 84.\\nLemonade, 109.\\nLemons, acid fruits, 87.\\nLevers, 253.\\nLiver, 90; description of, 200; hygiene\\nof, 208.\\nLung capacity, 174.\\nLungs, 167, 169.\\nLymph and lymphatics, 147, 148.\\nMassage, 156.\\nMeat, as food, 87.\\nMenus, typical, plain, 88 typical, with\\nprice, 124.\\nMilk, 78.\\nMolar teeth, 91.\\nMuscles, 251, 252; experiments, 255;\\nhygiene of, 255.\\nNarcotic drinks, general effect of, 65.\\nNarcotics, 58; effect of on respiration,\\n191 review of 74.\\nNerve, cells, 238, 239; centers, 240;\\ntrunks, 240.\\nNervous system, 46, 48, 50, 57, 237;\\nhygiene of, 245; influenced by alco-\\nhol, 246 review, 250.\\nNucleolus of cell, 30.\\nNutrition, defined, 76.\\nOats, a cereal, 81.\\nOpium, 72.\\nOranges, acid fruits, 87.\\nOrgans, defined and described, 40 of\\nbody, 27 of plant, 17 systems of,\\n42, 43.\\nOxidation, defined, 15.\\nPancreas {pdn kre-ds) 90, 95.\\nPancreatic juice, digestion by, 101.\\nPapilla, of skin, 212; tactile, 220;\\nvascular, 220.\\nParotids {pa-rot lds) 90.\\nPharynx, 168.\\nPhysiology, defined, 9, 10 general, 11\\nspecial, begins, 75.", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "INDEX\\n273\\nPlant, needs of, 11 parts of, IG physi-\\nology, 1), 11.\\nPlants, relation of, to animals, 26.\\nPlumule of plant, 20.\\nProblems in domestic economy, 123,\\n125 in respiration, 190 on skeleton,\\n204.\\nProteid, iodine test for, 21.\\nProtococcus, green dust plant, 33.\\nProtoplasm of plant, 17.\\nPulse, 143.\\nPylorus of stomach, 93.\\nRadicle of plant, 20.\\nRectum, 90.\\nReflex action, 52.\\nResidual air, 173.\\nRespiration, defined, 164, 165; exter-\\nnal, 166; hygiene of, 186; internal,\\n166 organs of, 166, 167 movements\\nof, 170 review, 193.\\nRespiratory system, 42.\\nRest and exercise, 256 time for, 157.\\nRice, a cereal, 81.\\nRye, a cereal, 81.\\nSaliva, digestion by, 97.\\nSalivary glands, 90.\\nSeeing, sense of, 230.\\nSensation, function of skin, 216.\\nSensations, described, 54.\\nSense, of hearing, 228 of position, 222\\nof seeing, 230 of smell, 226 of taste,\\n225; of temperature, 221; of touch,\\n220.\\nSenses, general and special, 220; re-\\nview of special, 236.\\nSighing, 176.\\nSkeleton, 263, 266 affected by tight\\nclothing, 270 problems on, 264.\\nSkin, description of, 212; hygiene of,\\n216 organ of sensation, 219 review\\nof, 223.\\nSmell, sense of, 226.\\nSneezing, 176.\\nSobbing, 176.\\nSoda water, 109.\\nSpeech, 177.\\nSpinal cord, 241, 242.\\nSpirits, ardent, 62.\\nStarch, iodine test for, 21.\\nStentor, one-celled animal, 36.\\nStomach, 89, 90, 93, 94.\\nSublinguals {suh-lin gwdls) 90.\\nSubmaxillaries (sub-mdx il-ld-ries)\\n90.\\nSweat glands, 212.\\nSympathetic nervous system, 51.\\nSystem, circulatory, 42; digestive, 42\\nrespiratory, 42.\\nTaste, sense o|, 225.\\nTeeth, 91, 92.\\nTemperature, sense of, 221.\\nTidal air, 172.\\nTissue, defined, 39.\\nTissues, active, 16 of body, 27 review\\nof, 45; supporting, 16.\\nTobacco, 71 effects of, on heart, 161\\non brain work, 250 influence of, on\\nrespiration, 193.\\nTouch, sense of, 220.\\nTrachea, 167.\\nValves of veins, 139.\\nVegetables, as food, 84; experiments\\nwith, 86.\\nVeins, 139.\\nVena cava, 140.\\nVentilation, 187.\\nVertebral column, 263, 264.\\nVilli of intestine, 95.\\nVillus, organ of absorption, 199.\\nVocal cords, 168.\\nVoice, 175, 176.\\nVoluntary action, 52.\\nVorticella, one-celled animal, 36.\\nWaste matter how thrown out of body,\\n206.\\nWater, as drink, 107.\\nWheat, a cereal, 81.\\nWindpipe, 167.\\nYawning, 176.\\nYeast plant, described, 59,\\nTypography by J. S. Gushing Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "Text- Books in Physical Training\\nBLAIKIE S SOUND BODIES FOR OUR BOYS AND GIRLS\\nBy William Blaikie, author of How to Get Strong and\\nHow to Stay So. Cloth, i6mo 40 cents\\nA manual of simple, practical exercises for the training and develop-\\nment of the body so as to leave no muscle undeveloped. Numerous\\nillustrations are given to make the directions for the various exercises\\nclear and practical. The exercises are free from risk and can be easily\\nlearned. They can be practiced in the schoolroom in the brief intervals\\nbetween the recitations under the eye and direction of the teacher without\\nany loss of time. While the pupils are making progress in their studies\\nthey are at the same time building and strengthening their bodies and\\nby so doing secure both bodily vigor and sound health.\\nMORRIS S PHYSICAL EDUCATION\\nBy R. Anna Morris. Cloth, 8vo $1.00\\nA system of exercises including the Delsartean principles of execu-\\ntion and expression, for use in schools. Each exercise and drill\\nprescribed can be practiced in any school, and the few pieces of appa-\\nratus suggested are simple and inexpensive. Part I describes general\\npositions and drills, and furnishes graded instruction for the development\\nfor each part of the body. Part II treats of the subject of expression\\nas applied to reading, articulation, and declamation. Musical selections\\nare given to accompany the physical exercises, and appropriate illustra-\\ntions are added to indicate the movements and positions described.\\nSMART S MANUAL OF SCHOOL GYMNASTICS\\nBy James H. Smart. Revised and Enlarged 30 cents\\nConsisting of free gymnastics, dumb-bell exercises, and aesthetic\\nexhibition exercises, so planned as to develop every part of the\\nbody. Movements are provided for standing positions, sitting positions,\\nbreathing and vocal exercises, dumb-bell exercises, military movements,\\nand exhibition figures. The book is fully illustrated, and includes a\\nnumber of musical selections to accompany the gymnastic exercises.\\nCopies of any of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address\\non receipt of the price by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(153)", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "STORER AND LINDSAY S\\nElementary Manual of Chemistry\\nBy F. H. STORER, S.B., A.M., and W. B. LINDSAY, A.B., B.S.\\nCloth, 12mo, 453 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.20\\nThis work is the Hneal descendant of the Manual of\\nInorganic Chemistry of Eliot and Storer, and the Ele-\\nmentary Manual of Chemistry of Eliot, Storer and Nichols.\\nIt is in fact the last named book thoroughly revised,\\nrewritten and enlarged to represent the present condition\\nof chemical knowledge and to meet the demands of American\\nteachers for a class book on Chemistry, at once scientific\\nin statement and clear in method.\\nThe purpose of the book is to facilitate the study and\\nteaching of Chemistry by the experimental and inductive\\nmethod. It presents the leading facts and theories of the\\nscience in such simple and concise manner that they can\\nbe readily understood and applied by the student. The\\nbook is equally valuable in the classroom and the laboratory.\\nThe instructor will find in it the essentials of chemical\\nscience developed in easy and appropriate sequence, its\\nfacts and generalizations expressed accurately and scientifi-\\ncally as well as clearly, forcibly and elegantly.\\nIt is safe to say that no text-book\\nhas exerted so wide an influence\\non the study of chemistry in this\\ncountry as this work, originally\\nwritten by Eliot and Storer. Its\\ndistinguished authors were leaders\\nin teaching Chemistry as a means\\nof mental training in general edu-\\ncation, and in organizing and per-\\nfecting a system of instructing\\nstudents in large classes by the\\nexperimental method. As revised\\nand improved by Professor Nichols,\\nit continued to give the highest\\nsatisfaction in our best schools and\\ncolleges. After the death of Pro-\\nfessor Nichols, when it became\\nnecessary to revise the work again.\\nProfessor Lindsay, of Dickinson\\nCollege, was selected to assist Dr.\\nStorer in the- work. The present\\nedition has been entirely rewritten\\nby them, following throughout the\\nsame plan and arrangement of the\\nprevious editions, which have been\\nso highly approved by a generation\\nof scholars and teachers.\\nIf a book, like an individual,\\nhas a history, certainly the record\\nof this one, covering a period of\\nnearly thirty years, is of the highest\\nand most honorable character.\\nFrom The American Journal of\\nScience.\\nCopies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address^ on receipt o/ the price^\\nby the Publishers\\nNew York\\n(i6i)\\nAmerican Book Company\\nCincinnati\\nChicago", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "Burnet s Zoology\\nFOR\\nHIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES\\nBY\\nMARGARETTA BURNET\\nTeacher of Zoology, Woodward High School, Cincinnati, O,\\nCloth, 12mo, 216 pages. Illustrated. Price, 75 cents\\nThis new text-book on Zoology is intended for classes\\nin High Schools, Academies, and other Secondary Schools.\\nWhile sufficiently elementary for beginners in the study it is\\nfull and comprehensive enough for students pursuing a\\nregular course in the Natural Sciences. It has been prepared\\nby a practical teacher, and is the direct result of school-room\\nexperience, field observation and laboratory practice.\\nThe design of the book is to give a good general knowl-\\nedge of the subject of Zoology, to cultivate an interest in\\nnature study, and to encourage the pupil to observe and to\\ncompare for himself and then to arrange and classify his\\nknowledge. Only typical or principal forms are described,\\nand in their description only such technical terms are used\\nas are necessary, and these are carefully defined.\\nEach subject is fully illustrated, the illustrations being\\nselected and arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the\\nstructure of each form.\\nCopies of Burnet s School Zoology will be sent prepaid to any address^\\non receipt of the price by the Publishers:\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(165)", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "Biology and Zoology\\nDODGE S INTRODUCTION TO ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL\\nBIOLOGY\\nA Laboratory Guide for High School and College Students.\\nBy Charles Wright Dodge, M.S., Professor of Biology\\nin the University of Rochester $1 80\\nThis is a manual for laboratory work rather than a\\ntext-book of instruction. It is intended to develop in the\\nstudent the power of independent investigation and to\\nteach him to observe correctly, to draw proper conclusions\\nfrom the facts observed, to express in writing or by means\\nof drawings the results obtained. The work consists\\nessentially of a series of questions and experiments on\\nthe structure and physiology of common animals and\\nplants typical of their kind questions which can be\\nanswered only by actual investigation or by experiment.\\nDirections are given for the collection of specimens, for\\ntheir preservation, and for preparing them for examination;\\nalso for performing simple physiological experiments.\\nORTON S COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, STRUCTURAL AND\\nSYSTEMATIC\\nBy James Orton, A.M., Ph.D., late Professor of Natural\\nHistory in Vassar College. New Edition revised by\\nCharles Wright Dodge, M.S., Professor of Biology in\\nthe University of Rochester $1.80\\nThis work is designed primarily as a manual of\\ninstruction for use in higher schools and colleges. It\\naims to present clearly the latest established facts and\\nprinciples of the science. Its distinctive character con-\\nsists in the treatment of the whole animal kingdom as a\\nunit and in the comparative study of the development and\\nvariations of the different species, their organs, functions,\\netc. The book has been thoroughly revised in the light\\nof the most recent phases of the science, and adapted to\\nthe laboratory as well as to the literary method of teaching.\\nCopies of either of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address\\non receipt of the price.\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNew York Cincinnati Chicago\\n(167)", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "Gray s Series of Botanies\\nBy the late Asa Gray, LL.D., of Harvard University\\nFOR ELEMENTARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOLS\\nGray s How Plants Grow. With a Popular Flora $0 80\\nA simple introduction to the study of Botany.\\nGray s How Plants Behave. A Botany for Young People .54\\nA primary book showing how plants move, climb, act, etc.\\nFOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS\\nGray s Lessons in Botany. Revised edition .94\\nGray s Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. New edition,\\ncontaining Flora only 1.44\\nGray s School and Fie d Book of Botany. Comprising the\\nLessons and P ield, Forest, and Garden Botany/ 1.80\\nA complete book for school use.\\nFOR COLLEGES AND ADVANCED STUDENTS\\nGray s Manual of Botany. Revised, containing Flora only.\\nFor the Northern United States, east of the Missisippi, 1.62\\nThe Sanne. Tourist s edition. Thin paper, flexible leather, 2.00\\nGray s Lessons and Manual of Botany, One volume. Revised,\\ncomprising the Lessons in Botany and the Manual, 2.16\\nGray s Botanical Text-Book\\nI. Gray s Structural Botany 2 00\\nIL Goodale s Physiological Botany 2.00\\nFOR WESTERN STUDENTS\\nCoulter s Manual of the Botany of the Rocky Mountains 1.62\\nGray and Coulter s Text-Book of Western Botany. Com-\\nprising Gray s Lessons and Coulter s Manual of\\nthe Rocky Mountains ,2.16\\nCopies of any of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to a7iy add7 ess\\non receipt of the pHce by the Publishers\\nAmerican Book Company\\nNEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO\\n(171)", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "NOV. 6 1900", "height": "4323", "width": "2746", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4323", "width": "2722", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS\\n005 526 647", "height": "4536", "width": "2952", "jp2-path": "elementaryanatom00hall_0288.jp2"}}